THE LIBRARY 
 
 ■'■: OF 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 Willia^a Popper 
 ^:^.-^:- '4''' 
 
 W 1
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY.
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY 
 
 ITS PRINCIPLES METHODS AND HISTORY 
 
 TOGETHER WITH A 
 
 CATALOGUE OF BOOKS OF REFERENCE 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS D.D. 
 
 DAVENPORT PROFESSOR OF HEBREW AND THE COGNATE LANGUAGES IN THE 
 UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY NEW YORK CITY 
 
 THIRD EDITION 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 
 1891
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1883, BT 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS. 
 
 EDWARD O, JENKINS, 
 
 Printer and Siereotyper, 
 to North William St., New York.
 
 $5 
 
 TO 
 
 ROSWELL D. HITCHCOCK, D.D., LL.D., 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, NEW YORK, AND 
 WASHBURN PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY IN THE SAME, 
 
 AND TO 
 
 ISAAC A. DORNER, D.D., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN : 
 THE SURVIVORS OF TWO NOBLE FACULTIES, 
 
 TO WHOM THE AUTHOR OWES HIS THEOLOGICAL 
 TRAINING, 
 
 IS DEDICATED AS A TOKEN OF GRATITUDE AND AFFECTION. 
 
 9efi57?^
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 This work is the product of the author's experience 
 as a student of the Bible, and a teacher of theological 
 students in Biblical Study. From time to time, during 
 the past fourteen years, he has been called upon to give 
 special attention to particular themes in public addresses 
 and review articles. In this way the ground of Biblical 
 Study has been quite well covered. This scattered ma- 
 terial has been gathered, and worked over into an or- 
 j>'anic system. 
 
 The following articles and addresses have been freely 
 tised wherever the material contained in them seemed 
 appropriate: (i) Two articles on Biblical Theology in 
 the American Presbyterian Review ^ i^/o. PP- 105 seq., 
 793, seq. (2) An inaugural address on Exegetical The- 
 ology on the author's induction into the chair of He- 
 brew and Cognate Languages in the Union Theological 
 Seminary, New York, October, 1876; published in the 
 Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review, 1877, p. 5, 
 seq. (3) An address before the Sunday-school Teach- 
 ers' Association of New York on the Languages of the 
 Bible, in the autumn of 1876, which v/as published in 
 the volume Gocfs Word Man'^s Light and Gtiide, New 
 York, 1877, P- 37' ^^^- (4) Aj^ article in the Presbyte- 
 rian Reviezv, 1881, p. 551, seq., on the Right, Duty, 
 and Limits of Biblical Criticism. (5) Two articles in the 
 Homiletical Quarterly, London, 188 1, pp. 398, seq., and 
 535, seq., on Ilebrezv Poetry. (6) An article in the Pres- 
 
 (vii)
 
 yiii PREFACE. 
 
 byierian Revieiv, 1882, p. 503, seq., on Biblical Theology, 
 ij) An article in the Hcbreio Student, 1882, p. 65, seq.y 
 on the Literary Study of the Bible. (8) An article in the 
 Presbyterian Review, 1883, P- 69, seq., on the Critical 
 Study of the HigJier Criticism, with special reference to 
 the Pentateuch. (9) An address upon the Scriptures as 
 a Means of Grace, delivered before the Sunday-school 
 Convention of the Presbytery of New York in the 
 winter of 1882, and then enlarged and delivered before 
 the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church, at 
 Lancaster, Pa., in May, 1883. (10) An address before 
 the Union Theological Seminar>% New York, at the 
 opening of the term, September 20, 1883, on the Inter- 
 pretation of Scripture. This material has been used by 
 the author when it suited his purpose, but it will be 
 found that the additional matter is far greater than 
 that already given to the public in these scattered 
 pieces, and that the book is a complete and symmetrical 
 whole. 
 
 The author has aimed to present a guide to Bib- 
 lical Study for the intelligent layman, as well as the 
 theological student and minister of the Gospel. It is 
 his conviction that the scientific study of the Word of 
 God .should be combined with a devout use of it. Piety 
 and scholarship must be wedded in order to the best 
 results. It is a misfortune that they should ever be 
 divorced. 
 
 A great re»^aval of Biblical Study is now in progres^s 
 in Great Britain and America. It is all-important that 
 this revival should be guided in the right direction. 
 Scholasticism and Rationalism are alike perilous. 
 Scholasticism is largely responsible for the neglect of a 
 scholarly study of the Scriptures for a century in Eng- 
 lish-speaking lands. (See pp. 123, seq., 145, seq., 149,
 
 PREFACE, Jx 
 
 scq., 206, seq., 209, scq., 345-346, 373, seq>) It is chieHy 
 responsible for the reaction into the other extreme of 
 RationaHsm. As Scholasticism is the chief prov^ocative 
 to Rationalism, it can never by any possibility overcome 
 it. The evangelical spirit of the Biblical authors, the vital 
 and experimental religion of the Reformers and Puritan 
 fathers is the only force that will be at all effective. It 
 is necessary that we should react to their principles and 
 methods, and build upon them. True progress in the- 
 ology is to be found in the working out of the principles 
 of the Reformation and of Puritanism, in carrying them 
 on to higher and grander results. These principles 
 have been neglected by British and American theo- 
 logians of the past century. It has been a constant aim 
 in this book to call attention to these principles and to 
 the methods of Biblical Study based upon them, and to 
 explain the doctrine of the Bible in the chief Puritan 
 symbol, the Westminster Confession, by citations from 
 its authors and their forerunners. (See pp. 114, scq., 167, 
 
 seq-^ 33 5 » -^'V-j Zl^^ seq.) 
 
 At the same time a sketch of the entire history of 
 each department of Biblical Study has been given, the 
 stages of its development are traced, the normal is 
 discriminated from the abnormal, and the whole is 
 rooted in the methods of Christ and His apostles. 
 
 The Literature of Biblical Study has been considered 
 in its appropriate places in the system. But it has been 
 deemed best to present a catalogue of a reference libra- 
 ry for Biblical Study by itself at the end of the work. 
 The labor that has been expended upon this part of the 
 book will be appreciated by those who have had ex- 
 perience in Bibliography. These will be ready to excuse 
 any defects or errors that may iiave arisen from inadver- 
 tence or lack of material.
 
 jf PREFACE. 
 
 The ground of Biblical Study has been covered, with 
 the exception of Biblical History. This department has 
 been included in the Reference Library because it 
 seemed necessary for completeness. It has been omit- 
 ted from the discussions because it is usual to classify 
 Biblical History with Historical Theology. The author 
 did not care to determine this disputed question in a 
 work already sufficiently extensive. 
 
 In the use of Scripture the freedom which charac- 
 terizes the Biblical authors, the fathers, the reformers, 
 and the Puritan sires has been followed. The A. V. 
 and R. V. have been quoted, or modified, or a new trans- 
 lation from the originals has been given, just as it suited 
 the author's purpose at the time. He has been con- 
 cerned chiefly to give the sense of the originals of divine 
 revelation. 
 
 The three indexes have been prepared by the author's 
 pupil and friend. Rev. Charles R. Gillett, A.M., the 
 librarian of the Union Theological Seminary, New York, 
 to whom he would express his thanks for the great 
 pains taken in the work. 
 
 With an implicit faith in the God of the Bible, and 
 the power of grace contained in the holy Word ; and 
 with an unwavering recognition of the supreme excel- 
 lence of the written Word, as the mirror of the eter- 
 nal Logos ; and with an entire submission to its author- 
 ity as supreme over all doctrines of men and ecclesi- 
 astical decisions, this Biblical Study is submitted to the 
 judgment of the intelligent reader.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Advantages of Biblical Study, p. i. 
 
 Biblical Study the most important, p. i ; the most extensive, p. i ; 
 the most profound, p. 2; the most attractive, p, 3, of all studies. 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY, p. ID. 
 
 Exegetical Theology the most general term for Biblical Study, p. 10. 
 
 I. Biblical Literature, p. 17 : (i) Biblical Canonics, p. 21 ; (2) 
 Textual Criticism, p. 22 ; (3) The Higher Criticism, p. 24. II. 
 Biblical Exegesis, p. 27. III. Biblical Theology, p. 37. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Languages of the Bible, p. 42. 
 
 The languages of the Bible the most suitable for declaring the divine 
 revelation to mankind, p. 42. I. The Hebrew Language, p. 46. 
 
 II. The Aramaic Langttage, p. 59, III. The Greek Language, 
 p. 63. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Bible and Crimcism, p. 75. 
 
 The necessity of criticism to determine the true canon, text, and char- 
 acter of the various writings of the Bible, p. 75. I. What ii 
 Criticism % p. 78. II. Principles of Criticism, p. 82 ; derived 
 (i) from General Criticism, p. 82 ; (2) from Historical Criticism, 
 P' 83 ; (3) fror" Criticism of the text, p. 85 ; (4) from Higher 
 Criticism, p. 86; questions to be determined by Higher Criti- 
 cism, p. 87 ; principles of Higher Criiicism, p. 88; illustrations, 
 
 (xi>
 
 Xii CONTENTS. 
 
 p. 92. III. Criticism of the Bible, p. 94; confronted by tradi 
 tional views, p. 95 ; based on the principles of the Reformation, 
 
 p. lOI. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Cakon of Scripture, p. 105. 
 
 No official determination of the Canon in the ancient Church, p. 105. 
 
 I. The Canon of the Reformers, p. 106. The Reformation prin- 
 ciple of determining the Canon, p. 107 ; its abandonment by the 
 scholastics, p. 113. II. The Puritan Canon, p. 114 : The Puri- 
 tan principle discriminated from the Anglican, p. 114 ; the Puri- 
 tan mystic, p. 119; abandonment of the Puritan principle, p. 
 124. III. Criticism of the Cation, p. 125. The LXX and the 
 Canon of the O. T., p. 126. The men of the great synagogue, p. 
 127. Evidence from Philo and Josephus, p. 128; The N. T. 
 determination of the O. T. Canon, p. 131 ; The N. T. Canon in 
 the early church, p. 132. The Protestant Canon, p. 133. The 
 principles for determining the Canon, p. 136. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 The Text of the Bible, p. 139. 
 
 I. Textual Criticism in the Sixteenth Cetitury, p. 140 ; of the Re- 
 formers, p. 140; of the Scholastics, p. 141. II. Textual Criti- 
 cism in the Seventeenth Century,'^. 142: Cappellus and Bux- 
 torf, p. 143 ; Walton and Owen, p. 144. III. Textual Criticism 
 in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, p. 148 : New Test. 
 Criticism, p. 148 ; Old Test. Criticism, p. 149. IV. The Text oj 
 the Old Testament, p. 151 •. The Vowel points and accents, p. 1 5 1 ; 
 the letters, p. 153; the versions, p. 153. V. Textual Cri.icis/n 
 and Inspiration, p. 156: Verbal inspiration rejected, p. 156; 
 the external word instrumental, p. 158; the internal word 
 inspired, p. 161. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 The Higher Criticism, p. 164. 
 
 I. The Higher Criticism in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centu- 
 ries, p. 165 : The freedom of the Reformers and Puritans, p. 165. 
 The new questions opened in the Eighteenth Century, p. 169. 
 
 II. Criticism of the Traditional Theories, p. 171 : The true
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 method and its defence, p. 171. III. The Rabbinical Theories, p. 
 173. IV. Hellenistic and Christian Theories, p. 180. V. Thi 
 Netu Testament View of the Old Testament Literature,'!^. 184. 
 V^I. The Rise of the Higher Criticism, p, 196: Spinoza and 
 Simon, p. 197 ; Astruc, Lowth, and Herder, p. 202 ; Eichhorn 
 p. 203. VII. The Higher Criticism in the Nineteenth Cent' 
 ury, p. 207. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Literary Study of the Bible, p. 214. 
 
 I. The Integrity of the Scriptures,"^. 2\(i. II. The Authenticity of 
 the Scriptures, p. 220 : (l) Anonymes, p. 222 ; (2) Pseudonymes, 
 p. 223 ; (3) Compilations, p. 226. III. Literary forms of the 
 Scriptures, p. 228 : (i) History, p. 230; (2) the Oration, p. 234; 
 (3) the Epistle, p. 237 ; (4) Fiction, p. 238. IV. Credibility of 
 the Scriptures, p. 240 : Inerrancy not a Protestant doctrine, p. 
 241. Higher Criticism strengthens the credibility of Scripture, 
 p. 244. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Hebrew Poetry, p. 248. 
 
 The Hebrews a remarkably poetic people, p. 248. I. CharacteriS' 
 tics of Hebrew Poetry, p. 250. 11. Forms of Hebrew Poetry, p. 
 255. III. Parallelism of members, p. 272. IV, l^he Strophe, 
 p. 272. V. Measurement by Words or Accents, p. 279. VI. 
 Poetic Laiigiiage, p. 283. VII. Kinds of Hebrew Poetry, p. 
 284: (i) Lyric, p. 284; (2) Gnomic, p. 285; (3) Composite, p. 
 288. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Interpretation of Scripture, p. 296. 
 
 The Word of God at first oral, p. 296 ; the interpretation of writings, 
 p. 297. I. Rabbinical interpretation, p. 299: Rules of the Ha- 
 laclia and Haggada, p. 301 ; the Sodh, p. 302 ; the Peshat, p. 
 303. II. Hellenistic Interpretation, p. 305: Rules of allegory, 
 p. 306. III. Interpretation of Scripture in the Neiv Testa- 
 ment, p. 307 ; Jesus' use of the Rabbinical and Hellenistic meth- 
 ods, p. 309 ; the distinguishing features of Jesus' method, p. 31 1 ; 
 the apostolic u?e of flaggada, Halacha, and Ailegory, p. 315 ; 
 the distinguishing features of apostolic interpretation, p. 319.
 
 Xiv CONTENTS. 
 
 IV. Interpretation of the Fathers and Schoolmen, p. 320 : The 
 churchly tendency, p. 321 ; the allegorical tendency, p. 322 ; the 
 Antiochan school, p. 325 ; the traditional interpretation of the 
 middle age, p. 328. V. Tke Interpretation of the Reformers ana 
 their Successors, p. 331 : The Humanists, p. 331 ; the reforma- 
 tion principle of interpreting Scripture by Scripture, p. 332 ; the 
 scholastic rule of faith, p. 333. VI. The Interpretation of the 
 Puritans and Arminians, p, 335 : The Puritan principle of the 
 Holy Spirit in Scripture, p. 336 ; Puritan practical interpreta- 
 tion, p. 340 ; Puritan doctrine of the Covenants, p. 342 ; the 
 Federalists and Pietists, p. 343 ; the Arminian historical inter- 
 pretation, p. 345. VII. Biblical Interpretation of Modern 
 Times, p. 346: The grammatico-historical method of Ernesti, 
 Semler, and Keil, p. 347 ; the older Tubingen school, p. 348 ; 
 the organic method of the school of Schleiermacher, p. 349 ; 
 the interpretation of the history of redemption, p. 351. VIII. 
 Method of Biblical Interpretation, p. 351 : (i) Grammatical, p. 
 352 ; (2) Logical and Rhetorical, p. 353 ; (3) Historical, p. 357 ; 
 (4) Comparative, p. 358; (5) Use of the literature of interpreta- 
 tion, p. 360; (6) Doctrinal interpretation, p. 361 ; (7) Practical, 
 
 P- 363. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Biblical Theology, p. 367. 
 I. The Four types of Theology, p. 367 : The mystic, p. 368 ; scho- 
 lastic, p. 369; speculative, p. 369; evangelical, p. 370 ; their his- 
 toric struggles, p. 371. II. The Rise of Biblical Theology, p. 
 374: Zachariah and Ammon, p. 374; Gabler, p. 375; DeWette 
 and V^on Coin, p. 376. III. Development of Biblical Theology, 
 p. 377 : The Tiibingen school and the school of Neander, p. 
 377; Reuss, Kuenen, and Wellhausen, p. 386; the present 
 problems, p. 389. IV. Position and importance of Biblicai 
 Theology, p. 390 : d) The idea of Biblical Theology, p. 390 ; (2) 
 Place of Biblical Theology, p. 397 ; (3) Method, p. 399; (4) Sys- 
 tem and Divisions, p. 401 ; Unity and variety of the Bible, p. 404. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 The Scriptures as a Means of Gracf, p. 406. 
 The principles of the Reformation, p. 406. I. The Gospel in the 
 Scriptures, p. 407. II. The Grace of God in the Scriptures,
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 p. 410: (1) They contain the power of God unto salvation, p. 
 411 ; (2) The grace of redemption from sin to holiness, p. 412: 
 (a) The grace of regeneration, p. 413; (d) The grace of sancti- 
 fication, p. 414. III. 7V:i' efficacy oj the Scriptures, p. 416, IV. 
 The appropriatiott of the grace of the Scriptures, p. 417: (i) 
 By prayerful attention, p. 418; (2) by appropriating faith, p. 
 423; (3) by practicing faith, p. 426. 
 
 A CATALOGUE 
 
 OF BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY, p. 429. 
 
 L Biblical Study in General, p. 429. 11. The Languages of the 
 Bible and Cognates, p, 430 ; Hebrew, p. 430; Aramaic, p. 432 ; 
 Arabic and .^Ethiopic, p. 433 ; Phoenician and Samaritan, p. 
 434; Assyrian and Babylonian, p. 435 ; Greek, p. 435; \\\ 
 Canon of Scripture, p. 437. IV. Text of Scripture, p. 438 ; 
 Originals and Versions, p. 438 ; Concordances, p. 441 ; Textual 
 Criticism of the Old Testament, p. 442 ; Textual Criticism o< 
 the New Testament, p. 448. V. The Higher Criticism, p. 444 , 
 of the Old Testament, p. 444 ; of the New Testament, p. 446, 
 VI. Interpretation of Scri/' ' . ;■>. 447; (i) Hermeneutics, p. 
 447; (2) Comnieritarits on ;',.>_■ wliole Bible, p. 449; on tiivi 
 Old Testament, p. 433 ; on the New Testament, p. 460. VIl. 
 Biblical History, p. 468 ; Biblical Geography and Natural His- 
 tory, p. 468 ; Old Testament History, p. 470 ; History of tlie 
 Jews and their surroundings during the Greek and Roman pe- 
 riods, p. 474; New Testament History, p. 476. YMl. Biblical 
 Theology, p. 480 : of the whole Bible, p. 480 ; of the Old 
 Testament, p. 481 : Theology of the Jews during the Greek and 
 Roman periods, p. 484 ; New Testament Theology, p. 486, 
 
 INDEXES. 
 
 f. Texts of Scripture, p. 489. II. Topics, p. 493. Ill Books and 
 Authors, p. 499,
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Biblical study is the most important of all studies, 
 for it is a study of the. Word of God, which contains a 
 divine revelation of redemption to the world. Nowhere 
 else can such a redemption be found save where it has 
 been derived from this fountain source or from those 
 sacred persons, institutions, and events presented to us 
 in the Bible. The Bible is the chief source of the Chris- 
 tian religion, Christian theology, and Christian life. 
 While other secondary and subsidiary sources may be 
 used to advantage in connection with this principal 
 5'ource, they cannot dispense with it. For the Bible 
 contains the revelation of redemption ; the Messiah and 
 His kingdom are the central theme ; its varying contents 
 lead by myriads of paths in converging lines to the 
 throne of the God of grace. The Bible is the sure way 
 of life, wisdom, and blessedness. 
 
 Biblical study is the most extensive of all studies, 
 for its themes are the central themes which arc inextri- 
 cably entwirted in all knowledge. Into its channels every 
 other study pours its supply as all the brooks and rivers 
 flow into the ocean. The study of the Bible is a study 
 for men of every class and occupation in life, for all the 
 world. No profound scholar in any department of in- 
 vestigation can avoid the Bible. Sooner or later his
 
 2 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 special studies will lead him thithei. The Bible is an 
 ocean of heavenly wisdom. The little child may sport 
 upon its shores and derive instruction and delight. The 
 most accomplished scholar finds its vast extent and mys- 
 terious depths beyond his grasp. 
 
 We open the Bible and on its earliest pages are con- 
 fronted with the origin of the world, the creation of 
 man, the problem of evil. Its histories present, in brief 
 yet impressive outlines, the struggle of good and evil, 
 the strife of tribes and nations, and, above all, the inter- 
 play of divine and human forces, showing that a divine 
 plan of the world is unfolding. The springs of human 
 action, the secrets of human experience and motive are 
 disclosed in the measures of psalm and proverb. The 
 character, attributes, and purposes of God are unveiled 
 in the strains of holy prophets. The union of God and 
 man in redemption is more and more displayed in the 
 progress of its literature. Two great covenants divide 
 the plan of redemption into two stages, the old cove- 
 nant and the new. The former presents us instructions 
 which are a marvel of righteousness, holiness, and grace ; 
 institutions that are symmetrical and grand, combining, 
 as nowhere else, the real and the ideal, — the light and 
 guide to Israel bearing on to the new covenant. In the 
 latter the Messiah presents His achievements of redemp- 
 tion in which are stored up the forces which have shaped 
 the Christian centuries, and the secrets of the everlasting 
 future. All the sciences and arts, all the literatures, 
 histories, and religions of the world gather about the 
 Bible to contribute to its study and derive help from its 
 revelations. 
 
 Biblical study is the most profound of all studies, for 
 :t has to do with the secrets of life and death, of God 
 and man, of this world and other worlds. Its chief con-
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 3 
 
 tents art divine revelations. These were revealed be- 
 cause man could not attain them otherwise. Even those 
 contents of the Bible that are not revealed are colored 
 and shaped by the revelations with which they are con- 
 nected. All study which goes beyond the surface soon 
 reaches the mysterious. There are many mysteries that 
 patient and persistent investigation has solved, is solv- 
 ing, or may be able to solve. But the mysteries revealed 
 in the Bible are those which man has not been able to 
 attain by inductive and deductive investigation. When 
 the study of the other departments of human learning 
 has reached their uttermost limits, there still remains a 
 gulf between those limits and the contents of divine 
 revelation. Divine revelation is to the other depart- 
 rrtents of human knowledge what heaven is to earth. It 
 is above them, it encircles them — it envelops them on 
 every side. Like heaven, it discloses vast heights. 
 Those things which are revealed lift the student of the 
 Bible to regions of knowledge that reach forth to the in- 
 finite. And yet profound as the divine revelation is, it is 
 simple. It is like the sunlight bearing its own evidence 
 in itself. It is like the blue vault of heaven clear and 
 bright. It is a revelation for babes as well as men, for 
 the simple as well as the learned. The most profound 
 study cannot master it. Any attentive study of it is 
 rewarded with precious knowledge. 
 
 Biblical study is the most attractive of all studies. 
 The variety of ttpic, richness of material, beauty of 
 form, wealth of illustration, the vast importance of its 
 themes, the unity in which the amazing variety of au- 
 thor, age, and topic is bound together — all make the Bible 
 the most interesting and absorbing study for peasant and 
 prince, for child and sage, for all the world. 
 
 If this is not the actual experience of all mankind, it
 
 4 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 is not the fault of the Bib.e, but of the religious teachers 
 who have obtruded their traditions and theories upon 
 the Bible as the Pharisees did in the time of our Lord 
 Jesus (Matt. xv. 6 ; Col. ii. 8). The people and learned 
 men have been too often driven from the Bible by Prot- 
 estant ministers as well as Roman Catholic priests. 
 
 The Bible has been hedged about with awe as if the 
 use of it, except in solemn circumstances and with de- 
 votional feelings, was a sin against the Holy Spirit. 
 Men have been kept from the Bible as from the sacra- 
 ments by dread of the serious consequences involved in 
 their use. The Bible has been made an unnatural and 
 unreal book, by attaching it exclusively to hours of de- 
 votion and detaching it from the experiences of ordinary 
 life. The study of the Bible will inevitably lead to holy 
 and devout thoughts, will bring the student to the pres- 
 ence of God and His Christ — but it is a sad mistake to 
 suppose that the Bible can be approached only in spe- 
 cial frames of mind and with peculiar preparation. It 
 is not to be covered as with a funereal pall and laid away 
 for hours of sorrow and affliction. It is not to be re- 
 garded with feelings of bibliolatry, which are as perni- 
 cious as the adoration of the sacrament. It is not to 
 be used as a book of magic, as if it had the mysterious 
 power of determining all questions at the opening of the 
 book. It is not to be used as an astrologer's horoscope 
 to determine from its words and letters, the structure of 
 its sentences, and its wondrous symbolism, through seem- 
 ing coincidences, the fulfilment of biblical prophecy in 
 the events transpiring round about us or impending over 
 us. The Bible is no such book as this — it is a book of 
 life, a real book, a people's book. It is a blessed means of 
 grace when used in devotional hours, — it has also holy 
 lessons and beauties of thought and sentiment for hours
 
 TILE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 5 
 
 of leisure and recreation. It appeals to the JEsthetic 
 and intellectual as well as moral and spiritual faculties, 
 the whole man in his whole life. Familiarity with the 
 Bible is to be encouraged. It will not decrease, but 
 rather enhance the reverence with which we ought to 
 approach the Holy God in His Word. The Bible 
 takes its place among the masterpieces of the world's 
 literature. The use of it as such no more interferes 
 with devotion than the beauty and grandeur of archi- 
 tecture and music prevent the adoration of God in the 
 worship of a cathedral. Rather the varied forms of 
 beauty, truth, and goodness displayed in the Bible will 
 conspire to bring us to Him who is the centre and in- 
 spiration of them all. 
 
 Another sin against the Bible is often committed by 
 the indiscriminate use of proof texts in dogmatic asser 
 tion and debate. They are hurled against one another 
 in controversy with such difference of interpretation 
 that it has become a proverb that anything can be proved 
 from the Bible. The Bible has been too often used as 
 if it were a text-book of abstract definitions giving ab- 
 solute truth. On the contrary, the Bible was not made 
 for ecclesiastical lawyers, but for the people of God. It 
 gives the concrete in the forms and methods of general 
 literature. Its statements are ordinarily relative ; they 
 depend upon the context in which they are imbedded, 
 the scope of the author's argument, his peculiar point of 
 view, his type of thought, his literary style, his position 
 in the unfolding of divine revelation. There are occa- 
 sional passages so pregnant with meaning that they seem 
 to present, as it were, the quintessence of the whole 
 Bible. Such texts were called by Luther little bibles. 
 But ordinarily, the texts can be properly understood only 
 in their context. To detach them from their place and
 
 6 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 use them as if they stood alone, and deduce from 
 them all that the words and sentences may be con- 
 strained to give, as absolute statements, is an abuse of 
 logic and the Bible. Such a use of other books would 
 be open to the charge of misrepresentation. Such a use 
 of the Bible is an adding unto the Word of God new 
 meanings and taking away from it the true meaning. 
 Against this we are warned by the Bible itself (Rev. xxii. 
 18-19). Deduction, inference, and application may be 
 used within due bounds, but they must always be based 
 upon a correct apprehension of the text and context of 
 the passage. These processes should be conducted with 
 great caution, lest in transferring the thought to new con- 
 ditions and circumstances, there be an insensible assimi- 
 lation first of its form and then of its content to these 
 conditions and circumstances, and it become so trans- 
 formed as to lose its biblical character and become a 
 tradition of man.* It is a melancholy feature of bibli- 
 cal study that so much attention must be given to the 
 removal of the rubbish of tradition that has been heaped 
 upon the Word of God now as in the times of Jesus. 
 The Bible is like an oasis in a desert. Eternal vigilance 
 and unceasing activity are necessary to prevent the sands 
 from encroaching upon it and overwhelming its fertile 
 soil and springs of water. 
 
 The Bible is given to us in the forms of the world's 
 literature, and its meaning is to be determined by the 
 reader as he determines the meaning of other literature 
 by the same principles of exegesis. It is a Protestant 
 principle that the Word of God should be given to the 
 people in their own familiar tongue with the right of 
 private judgment in its interpretation. It is a corollary 
 
 * Westm. Confession of Faith, I. 6.
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 7 
 
 of this principle that they be taught that it is to be under, 
 stood in a natural sense, as other writings are understood. 
 Any unnatural and artificial interpretation bears its own 
 condemnation in itself. The saving truths of Scripture 
 can be " savingly understood " only through the illumi- 
 nation of the Spirit of God,* but this is not for the reason 
 that they are not sufficiently plain and intelligible, or 
 that some special principles of interpretation are needed 
 of a scholastic or cabalistic sort — but owing to the fact 
 that in order to salvation they must be applied to the 
 soul of man by a divine agent, and appropriated by the 
 faith of the heart and the practice of the life. 
 
 We must call attention to a still more serious mistake 
 in the use of the Bible. There are those who think that 
 f hey alone have the truth of God, that the highest wis- 
 dom has already been attained, and that they are the 
 guardians of orthodoxy. They presume to oppose the 
 discoveries in science or philosophy, the improvements 
 in theology and methods of church work, and even the 
 deeper study of the Word of God itself, by isolated 
 texts and traditional interpretations. Scarcely a pro- 
 found thinker, since the days of Socrates, who has not 
 been obliged to pause in his work and defend himself, 
 like the apostle Paul, against these "dogs" and "evil 
 workers " (Phil. iii. 2). Galileo was silenced by the 
 quoting of the Bible against the Copernican theory of 
 the revolution of the earth around the sun. Descartes 
 had to defend his orthodoxy. The enemies of the Crit- 
 ical philosophy of Kant charged that no critic who fol- 
 lowed out the consequences of his positions could be a 
 good man, a good citizen, or a good Christian. f 
 
 * Westminster Confession, L, 6. 
 
 + These points are discussecJ by Krug-, Ueber das Verhdltniss der Kritischen 
 riiilosofhie zur moraUs^h'n, folitischen und religiosen Kultur der Menschen, 
 Jena, 1798.
 
 g BIBLICAL STUDf. 
 
 The results of Geology have been opposed by those 
 who insist that the world was made in six days of twen- 
 ty-four hours. Biology has to fight its way against those 
 who affirm that the doctrine of development is against 
 the Scriptures. Such use of the Bible has too often the 
 effect of driving scholars away from it, and especially 
 from the Old Testament, the most abused part of it. 
 
 As Dr. C. A. Row says : 
 
 " The fact is therefore indisputable, that theologians have handled 
 Scripture on such faulty principles, that they have laid down as truths 
 indisputably divine, a number of dogmas which have brought reve- 
 lation into direct collision with some of the greatest discoveries of 
 modern science, and that after having, on their first enunciation, de- 
 nounced them as inconsistent with the belief that Scripture contains 
 the record of a divine revelation, they have been compelled to accept 
 them as unquestionable verities. Moreover, the general distrust 
 arising from failures of this kind has been intensified by the pertinac- 
 ity with which theologians have clung to various unsound positions 
 which they have only abandoned when further resistance had be 
 come impossible. The history of the conflict between Science and 
 Revelation is full of such instances, and the consequences have been 
 disastrous in the extreme." * 
 
 Such theologians as those here described have brought 
 disgrace upon the Church and especially upon the Old 
 Testament Scriptures. Other and better theologians 
 have taken the side of truth and science, and through 
 their help progress has been made. 
 
 It is ever necessary for the friends of truth, and of 
 progress in the Church to oppose and to overcome ob- 
 structionists. It is the duty of all lovers of the Bible to 
 break up the superstitions that cluster about it, to ex- 
 pose the false dogmatic and polemic use of its texts, 
 and to show that it favors all truth and every form of 
 
 • Revelation and Modern Theology Contrasted. London, 18S3. p. 7.
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. g 
 
 scholarly investigation. The Bible is an honest book in 
 all its parts, — it is the Word of God, and every sincere 
 disciple of wisdom will find in its pages not only the 
 real and the highest truth, but will be stimulated and 
 encouraged to press forward under the guidance of the 
 Holy Spirit unto all truth (John xvi. 13). 
 
 The design of this book is to set forth the principles, 
 methods, and branches of Biblical study, and to give 
 sketches of their history. It is proposed, first of all, to 
 survey the whole field, and then to examine the several 
 departments. We shall aim to explain the true uses of 
 the Bible and show throughout that Biblical study is, 
 as we have claimed, the most important, extensive, pro- 
 found, and attractive of all studies. 
 1*
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 The most general term for the various departments 
 of Biblical study is Exegetical Theology. Exegetical 
 Theology is one of the four grand divisions of Theolog- 
 ical Science. It is related to the other divisions, his- 
 torical, systematic, and practical, as the primary and 
 fundamental discipline upon which the others depend, 
 and from which they derive their chief materials. Exe- 
 getical Theology has to do especially with the sacred 
 Scriptures, their origin, history, character, exposition, 
 doctrines, and rules of life. It is true that the other 
 branches of theology have likewise to do with the sacred 
 writings, in that their chief material is derived therefrom, 
 but they differ from Exegetical Theology, not only in 
 their methods of using this material, but likewise in the 
 fact, that they do not themselves search out and gather 
 this material directly from the holy writings, but depend 
 upon Exegetical Theology therefor ; while their energies 
 are directed, in Historical Theology in tracing the de- 
 velopment of that material as the determining element 
 in the history of the people of God ; in Systematic 
 Theology, in arranging that material in the form most 
 appropriate for systematic study, for attack and defence, 
 in accordance with the needs of the age ; in Practical 
 Theology, in directing that material to the conversion 
 (10)
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. lj[ 
 
 of souls, and training them in the holy life. Thus the 
 whole of theology depends upon the study of the 
 Scriptures, and unless this department be thoroughly 
 wrought out and established, the whole structure of 
 theological truth will be weak and frail, and it will be 
 found, in the critical hour, resting on the shifting sands 
 of human opinion and practice, rather than on the rock 
 of infallible divine truth. 
 
 The work of Exegetical Theology is all the more im- 
 portant, that each age has its" own peculiar phase or 
 department of truth to elaborate in the theological con- 
 ception and in the life. Unless, therefore, theology 
 freshen its life by ever-repeated draughts from the Holy 
 Scriptures, it will be unequal to the tasks imposed upon 
 it. It will not solve the problems of the thoughtful, 
 <lissolve the doubts of the cautious, or disarm the ob- 
 jections of the enemies of the truth. History will not, 
 with her experience, unless she grasp the torch of divine 
 revelation, which alone can illuminate the future and 
 clear up the dark places of the present and the past. 
 Systematic Theology will not satisfy the demands of the 
 age if she appear in the worn-out armor or antiquated 
 costume of former generations. She must beat out for 
 herself a new suit of armor from biblical material which 
 is ever new ; she must weave to herself a fresh and 
 sacred costume of doctrine from the Scriptures which 
 never disappoint the requirements of mankind ; and 
 thus armed and equipped with the weapons of the Liv- 
 ing One, she will prove them quick and powerful, con- 
 vincing and invincible, in her training of the disciple, 
 and her conflicts with the infidel and heretic. And so 
 Practical Theology will never be able to convert the 
 world to Christ, and sanctify the Church, without ever 
 renewing its life from the Bible fountain. The pure,
 
 X2 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 noble, and soul-satisfying truths of God's Word must 
 so pervade our liturgy, hymnology, catechetical instruc- 
 tion, pastoral work and preaching, as to supply the ne- 
 cessities of the age, for " man shall not live by bread 
 alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the 
 mouth of God " (Matt. iv. 4; Deut. viii. 3). 
 
 The history of the Church, and Christian experience, 
 have shown that in so far as the other branches of the- 
 ology have separated themselves from this fundamental 
 discipline, and in proportion to the neglect of Exegetical 
 Theology, the Church has fallen into a dead orthodoxy 
 of scholasticism, has lost its hold upon the masses of 
 mankind, so that with its foundations undermined, it 
 has yielded but feeble resistance to the onsets of in- 
 fidelity. And it has ever been that the reformation or 
 revival has come through the resort to the sacred oracles, 
 and the organization of a freshly-stated body of doctrine, 
 and fresh methods of evangelization derived therefrom 
 We thus have reason to thank God that heresy and un^ 
 belief so often drive us to our citadel, the sacred Script- 
 ures, and force us back to the impregnable fortress of 
 divine truth, in order that, depending no longer merely 
 upon human weapons and defences, we may use rather 
 the divine. Thus we reconquer all that may have been 
 lost through the slackness and incompetence of those 
 who have been more anxious for the old ways than for 
 strength of position and solid truth, and by new enter- 
 prises we advance a stage onward in our victorious progress 
 toward the end. Our adversaries may overthrow our 
 systems of theology, our confessions and catechisms, our 
 church organizations and methods of work, for these are, 
 after all, human productions, the hastily thrown up out- 
 works of the truth ; but they can never contend success- 
 fully against the Word of God that liveth and abideth
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. Ig 
 
 forever (i Peter i. 23), which, though the heavens fall 
 and the earth pass away, will not fail in one jot or tittle 
 from the most complete fulfilment (Matt. v. 18), which 
 will shine in new beauty and glory as its parts are one 
 by one searchingly examined, and which will prove itself 
 not only invincible, but all-conquering, as point after 
 point is most hotly contested. We are assured that at 
 last it will claim universal obedience as the pure and 
 faultless mirror of Him who is Himself the brightness of 
 the Father's glory and the express image of His person 
 (2 Cor. iii. 18 ; Heb. i. 3). 
 
 It is an important characteristic of the Reformed 
 churches that they give the sacred Scriptures such a 
 fundamental position in their confessions and cate- 
 chisms, and lay so much stress upon the so-called 
 formal principle of the Protestant Reformation. Thus 
 in both Helvetic confessions and in the Westminster they 
 constitute the first article,* while in the Heidelberg and 
 Westminster catechisms they are placed at the founda- 
 tion — in the former as the source of our knowledge of 
 sin and misery and of salvation ; f in the latter, as divid 
 ing the catechism into two parts, teaching " what man 
 is to believe concerning God, and what duty God re- 
 quires of man "; % and the authority of the Word of God 
 as " the only rule of faith and obedience,"§ has ever been 
 maintained in our churches. 
 
 Exegetical Theology being thus, according to its idea, 
 the fundamental theological discipline, and all-important 
 as the fruitful source of theology, it must be thoroughly 
 elaborated in all its parts according to exact and well 
 
 * Niemeyer, Collect io Confess., pp. 115, 467. SchafT, Creeds of Christendom^ 
 1877, iii., pp. 211, 237. 
 \ Quest, iii. xix. 
 
 X Larger Catechism, Quest, v. ; Shorter Catechism, Quest, iii. 
 § Larger Catechism, Ques. v.
 
 14 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 defined scientific metliods. The methods proper to 
 Exegetical Theology are the synthetic and the histor- 
 ical, the relative importance of which has been con- 
 tested. The importance of the historical method is 
 so great that not a few have regarded the discipline, as 
 a whole, as at once a primary division of Historical The- 
 ology. The examination of the Bible sources, the 
 sacred writings, being of the same essential character as 
 the examination of other historical documents, they 
 should be considered simply as the sources of biblical 
 history, and thus the writings themselves would be 
 most appropriately treated under a history of biblical 
 literature (Hupfeld, Reuss, Fuerst, et al.), and the doc- 
 trines under a history of biblical doctrine (the school of 
 Baur).* But the sacred writings are not merely sources of 
 historical information ; they are the sources of the faith to 
 be believed and the morals to be practiced by all the world ; 
 they are of everlasting value as the sum total of sacred 
 doctrine and law for mankind, being not only for the 
 past, but for the present and the future, as God's Holy 
 Word to the human race, so that their value as historical 
 documents becomes entirely subordinate to their value 
 as a canon of holy Scripture, the norm and rule of faith 
 and life. Hence the synthetic method must predomi- 
 nate over the historical, as the proper exegetical method, 
 and induction rule in all departments of the work ; for 
 it is the office of Exegetical Theology to gather from 
 these sacred writings, as the storehouse of divine truth, 
 the holy material, in order to arrange it by a process c 
 induction and generalization into the generic forms that 
 may best express the conceptions of the sacred Script- 
 ures themselves. 
 
 * Compare the author's articles on Bibh'cal Theology, Anteriran Presbyterian 
 Review, 1870, p. 122, seq., and Presbyterian Review, July, 1SS2, p. 503, seq. 
 and chap. xi. of this volume.
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 15 
 
 From this point of view it is clear that the analytic 
 method can have but a veiy subordinate place in our 
 branch of theology. It may be necessary in the work 
 of separating the material in the work of gathering 
 it, but this is only in order to the synthetic process, 
 which must ever prevail. It is owing to the improper 
 application of the analytic method to exegesis, that 
 such sad mistakes have been made in interpreting the 
 Word of God, making exegesis the slave of dogmatics 
 and tradition, when she can only thrive as the free- 
 born daughter of truth. Her word does not yield to 
 dogmatics, but before her voice tradition must ever 
 give way. For exegesis cannot go to the text with pre- 
 conceived opinions and dogmatic views that will con- 
 strain the text to accord with them, but rather with a 
 living faith in the perspicuity and power of the Word 
 of God alone, of itself, to persuade and convince ; and 
 with reverential fear of the voice of Him v/ho speaks 
 through it, which involves assurance of the truth, and 
 submission and prompt obedience to His will. Thus, 
 exegesis does not start from the unity to investigate the 
 variety, but from the variety to find the unity. It does 
 not seek the author's view and the divine doctrine 
 through an analysis of the writing, the chapter, the 
 verse, down to the word ; but, inversely, it starts with 
 the word and the clause, pursuing its way through the 
 verse, paragraph, section, chapter, writing, collection of 
 writings, the entire Bible, until the whole Word of God 
 is displayed before the mind from the summit that has 
 been attained after a long and arduous climbing. 
 
 Thus Exegetical Theology is a science, whose pre- 
 mises and materials are no less clear and tangible than 
 those with which any other science has to do, and whose 
 results are vastly more important than all other sciences
 
 IQ BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 combined, as they concern our salvation and everlasting 
 welfare ; and if, furthermore, this material, with which 
 we have to do, be what it claims to be — the very word 
 of God to man, — it is clear that here alone we have a 
 science that deals with immutable facts and infallible 
 truths, so that our science may take its place in the cir- 
 cle of sciences, as the royal, yes, the divine science. But 
 let it be remembered that this position will be accorded 
 it by the sciences only in so far as theology as a whole 
 is true to the spirit and character of its fundamental dis- 
 cipline, is open-eyed for all truth, courts investigation 
 and criticism of its own materials and methods, and 
 does not assume a false position of dogmatism and tn - 
 ditional prejudice, or attempt to tyrannize over the other 
 sciences in their earnest researches after the truth. 
 
 Exegetical Theology being thus fundamental and im- 
 portant, having such thorough-going scientific methods , 
 it must have manifold divisions and subdivisions of its 
 work. These, in their order and mutual relation, arc 
 determined by a proper adjustment of its methods an(( 
 the subordination of the historical to the inductive proc. 
 ess. Thus at the outset there are imposed upon those 
 who would enter upon the study of the sacred Script- 
 ures certain primary and fundamental questions respect- 
 ing the holy writings, such as : Which are the sacred 
 writings ? why do we call them sacred ? whence did they 
 originate? under what historical circumstances? who 
 were their authors? to whom were they addressed? 
 what was their design ? are the writings that have come 
 down to us genuine? is the text reliable? and the like. 
 These questions may be referred to the general depart- 
 ment of Biblical Literature. Then the Scriptures are to 
 be interpreted according to correct principles and meth- 
 ods, with all the light that the study of centuries may
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 17 
 
 throw upon them. This \s Biblical Exegesis, Finally, the 
 results of this exegetical process are to be gathered into 
 one organic whole. This is Biblical Theology. These 
 then are the three grand divisions into which Exegeti- 
 cal Theology naturally divides itself, each in turn having 
 its appropriate subordinate departments. 
 
 I. Biblical Literature has as its work to deter- 
 mine all those introductory questions that may arise re- 
 specting the sacred writings, preliminary to the work 
 of exegesis. These questions are various, yet may be 
 grouped in accordance with a general principle. But it 
 is, first of all, necessary to limit the bounds of our de- 
 partment and exclude from it all that does not properly 
 come within its sphere. Thus Hagenbach* brings into 
 consideration here certain questions which he assigns tc; 
 the auxiliary disciplines of Sacred Philology, Sacred 
 Archeology, and Sacred Canonics. But it is difificult to 
 see why, if these are in any essential relation to our de 
 partment, they should not be logically incorporated , 
 while if they do not stand in such close relations, why 
 they should not be referred to their own proper depart- 
 ments of study. Thus Sacred Canonics clearly belongs 
 to our discipline, whilst Sacred Archaeology no less cer- 
 tainly belongs to the historical department ; and as for 
 Sacred Philology, it should not be classed with theology 
 at all, for the languages of the Bible are not sacred from 
 any inherent virtue in them, but only for the reason 
 that they have been selected as the vehicle of divine 
 revelation, and thus their connection with the Script- 
 ures is providential rather than necessary. And still 
 further, all departments of theology are in mutual rela- 
 tion to one another, and in a higher scale all the depart- 
 ments of learning act and react upon one another — such 
 
 Encyklopadie^ gte Auf., p, 40.
 
 18 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 as theology, philosophy, philology, and history. Hence, 
 that one department of study is related to another does 
 not imply that it should be made auxiliary thereto. 
 Thus the languages of Scripture are to be studied pre- 
 cisely as the other languages, as a part of General Phi- 
 lology. The Hellenistic Greek is a dialect of the Greek 
 language, which is itself a prominent member of the 
 Indo-Germanic family, while the Hebrew and Chaldee 
 are sisters with the Assyrian and Syriac, the Arabic and 
 Ethiopic, the Phoenician and Samaritan, of the Shemitic 
 family. The study of these languages, as languages, 
 properly belongs to the college or university course, and 
 has no appropriate place in the theological seminary. 
 Valuable time is consumed in these studies that is taken 
 from Exegetical Theology itself and never compensated 
 for. The Shemitic languages are constantly rising into 
 prominence, over against the Indo-Germanic family, and 
 demand their appropriate place in the curriculum of a 
 liberal education.* The time has fully come when ph'- 
 lologists and theologians should unitedly insist that a 
 place should be found for them in the college course ; 
 and that this valuable department of knowledge, upon 
 the pursuit of which so much depends for the history of 
 the Orient, the origin of civilization and mankind, as 
 well as the whole subject of the three great religions of 
 the world, should not give way to the physical sciences, 
 which, while properly of subordinate importance as deal- 
 ing mainly with material things, have already assumed 
 an undue prominence in our institutions of learning 
 over against philology, history, and philosophy, that 
 deal with higher and nobler problems.f 
 
 ■ ■* See'^ Pica for a more tJwrough study of t lie Semitic languages in America. 
 By Prof. S. I. Curtiss, Jr., Chicago, 1879. 
 
 + Gerraan theology has a great advantage, in that the theological student is 
 already prepared in the gymnasium for the unirenity with a knowledge of He-
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 19 
 
 Still further it is to be noticed, that there can hence- 
 forth be no thorough mastery of the Hebrew tongue by 
 clinging reverently to the skirts of the Jew. We might 
 as well expect to master the classic Latin from the lan- 
 guage of the monks, or acquire evangelical doctrine 
 from Rome. The cognate languages are indispensable. 
 And it is just here that a rich treasure, prepared by 
 divine Providence for these times, is pouring into our 
 laps, if we will only use it. The Assyrian alone, as re- 
 cently brought to light, and established in her position 
 as one of the older sisters, is of inestimable value, 
 not to speak of the Arabic and Syriac, the Ethiopic, 
 Phoenician, Samaritan, and the lesser languages and 
 dialects that the monuments are constantly revealing. 
 Immense material is now at hand, and is still being 
 gathered from these sources, that will considerably 
 modify our views of the Hebrew language, and of the 
 history and religion of the Hebrews in relation to the 
 other peoples of the Orient. We are only beginning to 
 learn that the Hebrew language has such a thing as a 
 syntax, and that it is a highly organized and wonder- 
 fully flexible and beautiful tongue, the result of centu- 
 ries of development. As the bands of Massoretic tra- 
 dition are one after another falling off, the inner spirit 
 and life of the language are disclosing themselves, 
 the dry bones are clothing themselves with lles'i, 
 
 brew relatively equivalent to his Greek. The Presbyterians of Scotland have 
 aJvanced beyond us in this resfject, by requiring an elementary knowlcdg;e of 
 Hebrew, in order to entrance upon the iheolog^ical course, at the same time pro- 
 viding such elementary training during the summer vacation. This is a step in 
 vliich we might readily follow them. We cannot afford to wait until all the 
 colleges follow the noble lead of the University of Virginia, Lafayette, and 
 others, in giving the>r students the option of Hebrew instruction ; but must use 
 all our influence to constrain them to fulfil their duty of preparing students foi 
 the study of theology, as well as of the other professions.
 
 20 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 and rich, warm blood is animating the frame, giving 
 to the features nobility and beauty.* If the Church 
 is to be renowned for its mastery of the Bible, if the 
 symbols and the life of the Church are to harmon- 
 ize, we must advance and occupy this rich and fruitful 
 field for the Lord, and not wait for unbelievers to oc- 
 cupy it before us, and then be compelled to contend at 
 a disadvantage, they having the prestige of knowledge 
 and success. 
 
 While, therefore, we exclude the study of the Hebrew 
 and cognate languages from the range of Exegetical 
 Theology, we magnify their importance, not only to the 
 theological student, but also to the entire field of schol- 
 arship. Other scholars may do without them, but for 
 the theologian these studies are indispensable, and we 
 must at the very beginning strain all our energies to the 
 mastery of the Hebrew tongue. If it has not been done 
 before entering the seminaries, it must be done in the 
 seminaries, and those who have no seminary or college 
 advantages must use the best helps they can find.f 
 
 Having excluded Sacred Philology from Exegetical 
 Theology and from Biblical Literature, we now have to 
 define more closely the proper field of Biblical Litera- 
 ture. Biblical literature has to do with all questions 
 
 * It is exceedingly gratifying that our American students are eagerly entering 
 upon these studies. The large classes in the cognate langfuages, in our seminaries 
 promise great things for the future in this regard. The classes in the Cognates 
 Ln Union Theological Seminary, New York, in 1882-3, were, in Arabic, 10 ; in 
 Assyrian, Junior and Senior, 10 ; in Chaldee, 23 ; in Syriac, 9. The Cognates 
 are taught in many seminaries, such as Andover, Yale, Lane, Princeton, Auburn, 
 Western, Northwestern. 
 
 t Favorable opportunities are now afforded for the study of Hebrew by Prof. 
 William R. Harper, Ph.D., of the Theological Seminarj- at Morgan Park, Chi. 
 cago. He conducts with ability, enthusiasm, and success a Hebrew Correspond- 
 ence school of several classes and also a Hebrew Summer school. Several hun« 
 dred ministers and laymen have already been trained in them.
 
 exegetical theology. 21 
 
 respecting the sacred Scriptures that may be necessary 
 to prepare the way of Biblical Exegesis. Looking at 
 the sacred Scriptures as the sources to be investigated, 
 we see three fields of inquiry presenting themselves : 
 the collection or canon, the text, and the individual 
 writings ; or, in more detail, the three groups of ques- 
 tions : I. As to the idea, extent, character, and author- 
 ity of the canon, collected as the sacred Scriptures of 
 the church. 2. As to the text of which the canon is 
 composed, the MSS. in which it is preserved, the trans- 
 lations of it, and citations from it. 3. As to the origin, 
 authorship, time of composition, character, design, and 
 direction of the individual writings that claim, or are 
 claimed, to belong to the sacred Scriptures. These sub- 
 ordinate branches of Biblical Literature may be called 
 Biblical Canonics, the Lower or Textual Criticism, and 
 the Higher Criticism. 
 
 I. Biblical Canonics cow^iders the canon of sacred Script- 
 ure as to its idea, its historical formation, its extent, 
 character, authority, and historical influence. These in- 
 quiries are to be made in accordance with the historical 
 and synthetic methods. We are not to start with pre- 
 conceived dogmatic views as to the idea of the canon, 
 but derive this idea by induction from the sacred writ- 
 ings themselves ; and in the same manner decide all 
 other questions that may arise. Thus the extent of the 
 canon is not to be determined by the consensus of the 
 churches,* or by the citation and reverent use of them 
 in the fathers, and their recognition by the earliest 
 standard authorities,t for these historical evidences, so 
 
 * Indeed, they do not ag^ee with reference to its extent whether it includes the 
 Apocryphal books or not, and, still further, they differ in the matter of distin- 
 guishing within the canon, between writings of primary and secondaiy authority. 
 
 t These, indeed, are not entirely agreed, and if they were, could only give us 
 a human and fallible authority.
 
 22 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 important in Historical Theology, have no value in Ex 
 egetical Theology, as they had no influence in the for- 
 mation of the canon itself ; nor, indeed, by their accord 
 with orthodoxy or the rule of faith,* for it is not only 
 too broad, in that other writings than sacred are ortho- 
 dox, but again too narrow, in that the standard is the 
 shifting one of subjective opinion, or external human 
 authority, which, indeed, presupposes the canon itself as 
 an object of criticism ; and all these external reasons, 
 historical and dogmatic, after all, can have but a provis- 
 ional and temporary authority — but the only authorita- 
 tive and final decision of these questions is from the in- 
 ternal marks and characteristics of the Scriptures, their 
 recognition of one another, their harmony with the idea, 
 character, and development of a divine revelation, as it 
 is derived from the Scriptures themselves, as well as 
 their own well-tested and critically-examined claims to 
 inspiration and authority, and, above all, the divine au- 
 thority speaking by and with them. These reasons, and 
 these alone, gave them their historical position and au- 
 thority as a canon. And it is only on this basis that 
 the historical and dogmatic questions may be properly 
 considered, with respect to their recognition by Jew 
 and Christian, and their authority in the church. The 
 writings having thus been considered collectively, we are 
 prepared for the second step, the examination of the 
 text itself. 
 
 2. Textual Criticism considers the text of the sacred 
 Scriptures both as a whole and in detail. The sacred 
 writings have shared the fate of all human productions 
 in their transmission from hand to hand, and in the 
 
 * It was in accordance with this subjective standard that Luther rejected the 
 epistle of James, and Esther. Comp. Domer, Gesch. der Protest. Theologie, 
 1868, p. 234, seq.
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 23 
 
 multiplication of copies. Hence, through the mistakes 
 of copyists, the intentional corruption of the heretic, 
 and supposed improvement of the over-anxious ortho- 
 dox, the MSS. that have been preserved betray differ- 
 ences of reading. This department has a wide field of 
 investigation. First of all, the peculiarities of the Bible 
 language must be studied, and the idiomatic itidividual- 
 ities of the respective authors. Then the age of the 
 various MSS. must be determined, their peculiarities, 
 and relative importance. The ancient versions now 
 come into the field, especially the Septuagint, the Chal- 
 dee and Samaritan Targums, the Syriac Peshitto, and 
 the Vulgate, which again, each in turn, has to go through 
 the same sifting as to the critical value of its own text. 
 Here, especially in the Old Testament, we go back of 
 any MSS. and are brought face to face with differences 
 that can be accounted for only on the supposition of 
 original MSS., whose peculiarities have been lost. To 
 these may be added the citations of the original text in 
 the Talmud and Christian scholars. Then we have th«; 
 still more difficult comparison of parallel passages, where 
 differences of text show a difference in MSS. reaching 
 far back of any historical MSS., or even version.'* Text- 
 ual Criticism has to meet all these difficulties and 
 answer all these questions, and harmonize and adjust all 
 these differences, in order that, so far as possible, the 
 genuine, original, pure, and uncorrupted text of the 
 Word of God may be gained, as it proceeded directly 
 from the original authors to the original readers. This 
 
 * Comp. Psalm xiv. with Psalm liii. ; Psalm xviii. with 2 Samuel xxii., and 
 the books of Samuel and Kings on one hand, with the books of the Chroniclo5 
 on the other, and, indeed, throughout. Compare also the Canonical books ol 
 Ezra, Nehemiah, and Daniel, with the Apocryphal additions and supplements in 
 the Septuagint version, and finally the citation of earlier writings in the latei 
 ones, especially in the New Testament.
 
 24 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 department of study is all the more difficult for the Old 
 Testament, that the field is so immense, the writings so 
 numerous, various, and ancient, the languages so little 
 understood in their historical peculiarities, and, still fur- 
 ther, in that we have to overcome the prejudices of the 
 Massoretic system, which, while faithful and reliable so 
 far as the knowledge of the times went, yet, as resting 
 simply on tradition, without critical or historical investi- 
 gation, and without any proper conception of the gen- 
 eral principles of grammar and comparative philology, 
 tannot be accepted as final ; for the time has long since 
 passed when the vowel points and accents can be deemed 
 Taspired. We have to go back of them, to the unpointed 
 text, for all purposes of criticism, 
 
 3. The Higher Criticism is distinguished from the 
 Lower or Textual Criticism by presupposing the text and 
 dealing with individual writings and groups of writings. 
 The parts of writings should be first investigated, the 
 individual writings before the collected ones. With ref- 
 erence to each writing, or, it may be, part of a writing, 
 we have to determine the historical origin and author- 
 r^hip, the original readers, the design and character of the 
 composition, and its relation to other writings of its 
 group. These questions must be settled partly by ^;r- 
 ternal historical evidence, but chiefly by interna/ evidence, 
 such as the language, style of composition, archaeolog- 
 ical and historical traces, the conceptions of the author 
 respecting the various subjects of human thought, and 
 the like. Now with reference to such questions as these, 
 we have little to do with traditional views or dogmatic 
 opinions. Whatever may have been the prevailing views 
 in the church with reference to the Pentateuch, Psalter, 
 or any other book of Scripture, they will not deter the 
 conscientious cxegete from accepting and teaching the re-
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 25 
 
 suits of a historical and critical study of the writings 
 themselves. 
 
 It is just here that Christian theologians have greatly 
 injured the cause of the truth and the Bible by dogma- 
 tizing in a department where it is least of all appropri- 
 ate, and, indeed, to the highest degree improper, as if 
 our faith depended at all upon these human opinions re- 
 specting the Word of God ; as if the Scriptures could be 
 benefited by defending the indefensible, whereas by fre- 
 quent and shameful defeats and routs traditionalists bring 
 disgrace and alarm even into the impregnable fortress it- 
 self, and prejudice the sincere inquirer against the Script- 
 ures, as if these were questions of orthodoxy or piety, 
 or of allegiance to the Word of God or the symbols of 
 the church. The Westminster standards teach that 
 " the word of God is the only rule of faith and obedi- 
 ence," ^ and that " the authority of the Holy Scripture 
 for which it ought to be believed and obeyed, depend 
 eth not upon the testimony of any man or church, but 
 wholly upon God, the author thereof." f The other Prot- 
 estant symbols are in accord with them. How unortho- 
 dox it is, therefore, to set up another rule of prevalent 
 opinion as a stumbling-block to those who would accept 
 the authority of the Word of God alone. So long as the 
 Word of God is honored, and its decisions regarded as 
 final, what matters it if a certain book be detached from 
 the name of one holy man and ascribed to another, or 
 classed among those with unknown authors ? Are the 
 laws of the Pentateuch any less divine, if it should be 
 proved that they are the product of the experience of 
 God's people from Moses to Josiah?:}: Is the Psalter to 
 
 * Larger Catechism^ Quest, iii. f Con/ess. of Faith, Chap. i. 4. 
 
 X British and Foreign Evang. Review, July, 1S68, Art. " The Progress 0/ 
 Old Teitntnent Studies." 
 2
 
 26 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 be esteemed any the less precious that the psalms should 
 be regarded as the product of many poets singing through 
 many centuries the sacred melodies of God-fearing souls, 
 responding from their hearts, as from a thousand-stringed 
 lyre, to the touch of the Holy One of Israel? Is the 
 book of Job less majestic and sublime, as, the noblest 
 monument of sacred poetry, it stands before us in its 
 solitariness, with unknown author, unknown birthplace, 
 and from an unknown period of history ? Are the ethi- 
 cal teachings of the Proverbs, the Song of Songs, and 
 Ecclesiastes, any the less solemn and weighty, that they 
 may not be the product of Solomon's wisdom alone, but 
 of the reflection of many holy wise men of different 
 epochs, gathered about Solomon as their head? Is the 
 epistle to the Hebrews any less valuable for its clear pre 
 sentation of the fulfilment of the Old Testament priest- 
 hood and sacrifice in the work of Christ, that it must be 
 detached from the name of Paul ? Let us not be so pre- 
 sumptuous, so irreverent to the Word of God, so unbe- 
 lieving with reference to its inherent power of convinc- 
 ing and assuring the seekers for the truth, as to condemn 
 any sincere and candid inquirer as a heretic or a ration- 
 alist, because he may differ from us on such questions 
 as these ! The internal evidence must be decisive in all 
 questions of Biblical Criticism, and the truth, whatever 
 it may be, will be most in accordance with God's Word 
 and for the glory of God and the interest of the church.* 
 Thus Biblical Literature gives us all that can be learned 
 respecting the canon of Holy Scripture, its text and the 
 
 * Tbe whole of this parag;raph was written and delivered before the outbreak 
 of the Robertson Smith controversy in Scotland and the discussions respecting 
 the Higher Criticism in the United States. These controversies emphasize the im- 
 portance and the correctness of the principles we then stated. We shall come 
 upon them again in Chapter VII., which is devoted to the subject.
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. Q'^ 
 
 various writings ; and presents the sacred Scriptures as 
 the holy Word of God, all the errors and improvements 
 of men having been eliminated, in a text, so far as pos- 
 sible, as it came from holy men who "spake as they 
 were moved by the Holy Ghost " (2 Peter i. 21); so that 
 we are brought into the closest possible relations with 
 the living God through His Word, having in our hands 
 the very form that contains the very substance of divine 
 revelation ; so that with reverence and submission to 
 His will we may enter upon the work of interpretation, 
 confidently expecting to be assured of the truth in the 
 work of Biblical Exegesis. 
 
 n. Biblical Exegesis. And now first of all we have 
 to lay down certain general principles derived from the 
 study of the Word of God, upon which this exegesis it- 
 self is to be conducted. These principles must accord 
 with the proper methods of Exegetical Theology and the 
 nature of the work to be done. The work of establish- 
 ing these principles belongs to the introductory depart- 
 ment of Biblical Hermeneutics. The Scriptures are 
 human productions, and yet truly divine. They must 
 be interpreted as other human writings, and yet their 
 peculiarities and differences from other human writings 
 must be recognized,* especially the supreme determining 
 difference of their inspiration by the Spirit of God, in 
 accordance with which they require not only a sympathy 
 with the human element in the sound judgment and 
 practical sense of the grammarian, the critical investiga- 
 tion of the historian, and the aesthetic taste of the man 
 of letters ; but also a sympathy with the divine element, 
 an inquiring, reverent spirit to be enlightened by the 
 Spirit of God, without which no exposition of the Script. 
 
 * Comp. Immer, Hermen^utik der N. T., p p.
 
 28 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 ures as sacred, inspired writings is possible. It is this 
 feature that distinguishes the discipHne from the other 
 corresponding ones, as Sacred Hermeneutics. Thus we 
 have to take into the account the inspiration of the 
 Scriptures, their harmony, their unity in variety, their 
 sweet simpHcity, and their sublime mystery ; and all 
 this not to override the principles of grammar, logic, and 
 rhetoric, but to supplement them ; yes, rather, infuse 
 into them a new life and vigor, making them sacred 
 grammar, sacred logic, and sacred rhetoric. And just 
 here it is highly important that the history of exegesis 
 should come into the field of study in order to show us 
 the abuses of false principles of interpretation as a warn- 
 ing ; and the advantages of correct principles as an en- 
 couragement.* 
 
 After this preliminary labor, the exegete is prepared 
 for his work in detail. The immensity of these details 
 is at once overpowering and discouraging. The extent, 
 the richness, the variety of the sacred writings, poetry, 
 history, and prophecy, extending through so many cent- 
 uries, and from such a great number of authors, known 
 and unknown, the inherent difficulty of interpreting the 
 sacred mysteries, the things of God — who is sufficient 
 for these things? who would venture upon this holy 
 ground without a quick sense of his incapacity to grasp 
 the divine ideas, and an absolute dependence upon the 
 Holy Spirit to show them unto him? (John xvi. 15). 
 Truly, here is a work for multitudes, for ages, for the 
 most profound and devout study of all mankind, for 
 here we have to do with the whole word of God to man. 
 The exegete is like the miner. He must free himself as 
 
 * Compare especially Dieslel, Gesch. d. A. T. in der Christ. Kircfie. Jena, 
 1869.
 
 EXEOETICAL THEOLOGY. 29 
 
 far as possible from all traditionalism and dogmatic prej- 
 udice, must leave the haunts of human opinion, and bury 
 himself in the Word of God. He must descend beneath 
 the surface of the Word into its depths. The letter must 
 be broken through to get at the precious idea. The dry 
 rubbish of misconception must be thrown out, and a 
 shaft forced through every obstacle to get at the truth. 
 And while faithful in the employment of all these powers 
 of the human intellect and will, the true exegete fears 
 the Lord, and only thereby hopes through his intimacy 
 with Him for the revelation of wisdom.* 
 
 I. The exegete begins his work with Grammatical 
 Exegesis. Here he has to do with \}i\Q form, the dress of 
 the revelation, which is not to be disregarded or under- 
 valued, for it is the form in which God has chosen to 
 convey His truth, the dress in which alone we can ap- 
 proach her and know her. Hebrew grammar must 
 therefore be mastered in its etymology and syntax, or 
 grammatical exegesis will be impossible. Here patience, 
 exactness, sound judgment, and keen discernment are 
 required, for every word is to be examined by itself, ety- 
 mologically and historically, not etymologically alone, 
 for Greek and Hebrew roots have not infrequently been 
 made to teach veiy false doctrines. It has been forgot- 
 ten that a word is a living thing, and has, besides its 
 root, the still more important stem, branches, and prod- 
 ucts — indeed, a history of meanings. The word is then 
 to be considered in its syntactical relations in the clause, 
 and thus step by step \)[iQ grammatical sense is to be as- 
 certained, the false interpretations eliminated, and the 
 various possible meanings correctly presented and classi- 
 fied. Without this patient study of words and clauses 
 
 * Job xxviii. 28 ; Ps. xxv. 14 ; Prov. viii. 17, seq.
 
 30 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 no accurate translation is possible, no trustworthy expo- 
 sition can be made.^ It is true that grammatical exe« 
 gesis leaves us in doubt between many possible con- 
 structions of the sense, but these doubts will be solved 
 as the work of exegesis goes on, and then, on the other 
 hand, it eliminates many views as ungrammatical which 
 have been hastily formed, and effectually prevents that 
 jumping at conclusions to which the indolent and im- 
 petuous are alike inclined. 
 
 2. The second step in exegesis is Logical and Rhetor- 
 ical Exegesis. The words and clauses must be inter- 
 preted in accordance with the context, the development 
 of the author's thought and purpose ; and also in ac- 
 cordance with the principles of rhetoric, discriminating 
 plain language from figurative, poetry from prose, history 
 from prophecy, and the various kinds of history, poetry, 
 and prophecy from each other. This is to be done not 
 after an arbitrary manner, but in accordance with the 
 general laws of logic and rhetoric that apply to all writ- 
 ings whatever. While the use of figurative language 
 has led the mystic and the dogmatist to employ the 
 most arbitrary and senseless exegesis, yet the laws of 
 logic and rhetoric, correctly applied to the text, will clip 
 the wings of the fanciful, and destroy the assumptions of 
 the dogmatist, and, still further, will serve to determine 
 many questions that grammar alone cannot decide, and, 
 hence, more narrowly define the meaning of the text. 
 
 3. The third step in exegesis is Historical Exegesis. 
 The author must be interpreted in accordance with his 
 
 * Yes, we may say that no translation can be thoroughly understood after the 
 generation in which it was made, without this resort to the original text, which 
 alone can determine in many cases the meaning of the translators themselves, 
 when we come upon obsolete terms, or words whose meanings have become 
 modiljed or lost.
 
 EXEGETiCAL THEOLOGY. 3] 
 
 historical surroundings. We must appiy to the text the 
 knowledge of the author's times, derived from archaeol- 
 ogy, geography, chronology, and general history. Thus 
 only will we be able to enter upon the scenery of the 
 text. It is not necessary to resort to the history of 
 exegesis ; one's own observation is sufficient to show 
 the absurdities and the outrageous errors into which a 
 neglect of this principle leads many earnest but ignorant 
 men. No one can present the Bible narrative in the 
 dress of modern every-day life without making the story 
 ridiculous. And it must be so from the very nature of 
 the case. Historical circumstances are essential to the 
 truthfulness and vividness of the narrative. Instead of 
 our transporting Scripture events to our scenery, we 
 must transport ourselves to their scenery, if we would 
 correctly understand them and realize them. If we wish 
 to apply Scripture truth we may, after having correctly 
 apprehended it, eliminate it from its historical circum- 
 stances, and then give it a new and appropriate form for 
 practical purposes ; but we can never interpret Scripture 
 without historical exegesis ; for it serves to more nar- 
 rowly define the meaning of the text, and to eliminate 
 the unhistorical materials from the results thus far at- 
 tained in the exegetical process. 
 
 4. The fourth step in exegesis is Comparative Exegesis. 
 The results already gained with reference to any partic- 
 ular passage are to be compared with the results attained 
 in a like manner in other similar passages of the same 
 author, or other authors of the period, and in some cases 
 from other periods of divine revelation. Thus, by a 
 comparison of scripture with scripture, additional light 
 will be thrown upon the passage, the true conception 
 will be distinguished from the false, and the results at- 
 tained adequately supported.
 
 32 BIBLICAL bTUDY. 
 
 5. The fifth step in exegesis is one of vast importance 
 which, for lack of a better name, may be called Literary 
 Exegesis. Great light is thrown upon the text by the 
 study of the views of those who, through the centuiies, 
 in many lands, and from the various points of view, 
 have studied the Scriptures. Here on tliis battle- 
 ground of interpretation we see almost every view 
 assailed and defended. Multitudes of opinions have 
 been overthrown, never to reappear ; others are weak 
 and tottering — comparatively few still maintain the 
 field. It is among these latter that we must in the 
 main find the true interpretation. This is the furnace 
 into which the results thus far attained by the exegete 
 must be thrown, that its fires may separate the dross 
 and leave the pure gold thoroughly refined. Christian 
 divines, Jewish rabbins, and even unbelieving writers 
 have not studied the Word of God for so many centuries 
 in vain. No true scholar can be so presumptuous as to 
 neglect their labors. No interpreter can rightly clainj 
 originality or freshness of conception who has not famil 
 iarized himself with this mass of material that otheni 
 have wrought out. On the other hand, it is the best; 
 check to presumption, to know that every view that is 
 worth anything must pass through the furnace. Any 
 exegete who would accomplish anything should know 
 that he is to expose himself to the fire that centres 
 upon any combatant that will enter upon this hotly- 
 contested field. From the study of the Scriptures he 
 will come into contact with human views, traditional 
 opinions, and dogmatic prejudices. On the one side 
 these will severely criticize and overthrow many of his 
 results ; on the other his faithful study of the Word of 
 God will be a fresh test of the correctness of those hu- 
 man views that have hitherto prevailed. Thus, from the
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 33 
 
 acting and /eacting influences of this conflict, the truth 
 of. God will maintain itself, and it alone will prevail. 
 
 We have thus far described these various steps of 
 exegesis, in order that a clear and definite conception 
 may be formed of its field of work — not that they are 
 ever to be represented by themselves in any commen- 
 tary, or even carried on independently by the exegete 
 himself, but they should be regarded as the component 
 parts of any thorough exegetical process ; and although, 
 as a rule, naught but the results are to be presented to 
 the public, yet these results imply that no part of the 
 process has been neglected, but that all have harmonized 
 in them, if they are reliable results. 
 
 In advancing now to the higher processes of exe- 
 gesis, we observe a marked difference from the pre- 
 vious ones, in that they have had to do with the en- 
 tire text, these with only select portions of it. And 
 still further we would remark, that while in these proc- 
 esses the results are to be attained which will be most 
 profitable to the great masses of mankind, we must 
 severely criticize those who, without having gone 
 through them themselves, either use the labors of 
 the faithful exegete without acknowledgment, or else, 
 accepting traditional views without examination, build 
 on an unknown foundation ; for the world does not need 
 theological castles in the air, ov theories of Christian 
 life, but a solid structure of divine truth as the home of 
 the soul, and an infallible guide for living and dying. 
 
 6. The sixth step in exegesis is Doctrinal Exegesis, 
 which considers the material thus far gathered in order 
 to derive therefrom the ideas of the author respecting 
 religion, faith, and morals. These ideas are then to be 
 considered in their relation to each other in the section 
 and chapter. Thus we get the doctrine that the author 
 2*
 
 34 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 would teach, and are prepared for a comparison of it 
 with the doctrines of other passages and authors. Here 
 we have to contend with a false method of searching for 
 the so-called spiritual sense, as if the doctrine could be 
 independent of the form in which it is rev^ealed, or, in- 
 deed, so loosely attached to it, that the grammar and 
 logic should teach one thing, and the spiritual sense 
 another. There can be no spiritual sense that does 
 not accord with the results thus far attained in the exe- 
 getical process. The true spiritual sense comes before 
 the inquiring soul as the product of the true exegetical 
 methods that have been described. As the differences 
 of material become manifest in the handling of it, the 
 doctrine stands forth as divine and infallible in its own 
 light. Any other spiritual sense is false to the Word of 
 God, whether it be the conceit of Jewish cabalists or 
 Christian mystics. 
 
 7. The seventh and iinal effort of exegesis is Practical 
 Exegesis, the application of the text to the faith and life 
 of the present. And here we must eliminate not only the 
 temporal bearings from the eternal, but also those ele- 
 ments that apply to other persons and circumstances than 
 those in hand. Everything depends upon the character 
 of the work, whether it be catechetical, homiletical, evan- 
 gelistic, or pastoral. All Scripture may be said to be prac- 
 tical for some purpose, but not every Scripture for every 
 purpose. Hence, practical exegesis must not only give 
 the true meaning of the text, but also the true applica- 
 tion of the text to the matter in hand. Here we have 
 to deal with a false method of seeking edification 
 and deriving pious reflections from every passage, thus 
 constraining the text to meanings that it cannot bear, 
 doing violence to the Word of God, which is not only 
 not to be added to or taken from as a whole, but also as
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 35 
 
 to all its parts. This spirit of interpretation, while nom- 
 inally most reverential, is really very irreverential. It 
 originates from a lack of knowledge of the Scriptures, 
 and the neglect to use the proper methods of exegesis, 
 as if the Holy Spirit would reveal the sacred mysteries 
 to the indolent, even if they should be pious ; for while 
 He may hide the truth from the irreverent critic, He 
 cannot be expected to reveal it except to those who not 
 only have piety, but also search for it as for hidden treas- 
 ures. This indolence and presumptuous reliance upon 
 the Holy Spirit, which too often proves to be a depend- 
 ence upon one's own conceits and fancies, has brought 
 disgrace upon the Word of God, as if it could be mani- 
 fold in sense, or were able to prove anything that might 
 be asked of it. Nay, still worse, it leads the preacher 
 to burden his discourse with material which, however 
 good it may be in itself, not only has no connection with 
 the text, but no practical application to the circumstances 
 of the hour, or the needs of the congregation. Over 
 against this abuse of the Scriptures, the exegete learns 
 to use it properly, and while he cannot find everywhere 
 what he needs, yet he can find by searching for it, far 
 more and better than he needs ; yes, he will learn, as he 
 studies the Word, that it needs no forcing, but aptly 
 and exactly satisfies with appropriate material every 
 phase of Christian experience, gently clears away every 
 shadow of difficulty that may disturb the inquiring spir- 
 it, proving itself sufficient for each and every one, and 
 ample for all mankind. 
 
 We have endeavored to consider the various proc- 
 esses of exegesis by which results are attained of 'es- 
 sential importance to all the other departments of the- 
 ology. The work of the exegete is foundation work. 
 It is the work of the study, and not of the pulpit, or
 
 36 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 the platform. It brings forth treasures new and old 
 from the Word of God, to enrich the more prominent 
 and public branches of theology. It finds the nugget 
 of gold that they are to coin into the current concep- 
 tions of the times. It brings forth ore that they are to 
 work into the vessels or ornaments, that may minister 
 comfort to the household and adorn the home and the 
 person. It gains the precious gems that are to be set 
 by these jewelers, in order that their lustre and beauty 
 may become manifest and admired of all. Some think 
 it strange that the Word of God does not at once reveal 
 a system of theology, or give us a confession of faith, or 
 catechism. But Archbishop Whately correctly explains 
 it when he says that, 
 
 " Since no one of the first promulgators of Christianity did that 
 which they must, some of them at least, have been naturally led 
 to do, it follows that they must have been supernaturally withheM 
 from it." . . . . " Each Church, therefore, was left through the wis: 
 foresight of Him who alone ' knew what is in man,' to provide {o( 
 its own wants as they should arise ; — to steer its own course by tbi 
 chart and compass which His holy word supplies, regulating fo/ 
 itself the sails and rudder according to the winds and currents \t 
 may meet with." * 
 
 Indeed experience shows us that no body of divinity 
 can answer more than its generation. Every catechism 
 and confession of faith will in time become obsolete and 
 powerless, remaining as historical monuments and sym- 
 bols, as the worn and tattered banners that our veterans 
 or honored sires have carried victoriously through the 
 campaigns of the past — but not suited entirely for their 
 descendants. Each age has its own peculiar work and 
 needs, and it is not too much to say, that not even the 
 
 * Essays on some of the Peculiarities of the Christian Religion. Fifth edi- 
 tion, London, 1846. Essay vi., pp. 34^ 355.
 
 EXEGETICAL TIIEOLOGr. 37 
 
 Bible could devote itself to the entire satisfaction of the 
 wants of any particular age, without thereby sacrificing 
 its value as the book of all ages. It is sufficient that 
 the Bible gives us the 7naterial for all ages, and leaves 
 to man the noble task of shaping that material so as to 
 suit the wants of his own time. The word of God is 
 given to us in the Bible, as His truth is displayed in 
 physical nature — in an immense and varied storehouse 
 of material. We must search the Bible in order to find 
 what we require for our soul's food, not expecting to 
 employ the whole, but recognizing that as there is 
 enough for us, so there is sufficient for all mankind and 
 for all ages. Its diversities are appropriate to the vari 
 ous types of human character, the various phases of 
 human experience, and no race, no generation, no man, 
 woman, or child, need fail in finding in the Scriptures 
 the true soul-food, for it has material of abounding 
 wealth, surpassing all the powers of human thought and 
 all the requirements of human life. 
 
 III. The work of Exegetical Theology does not end 
 however, with the work of Biblical Exegesis, but advances 
 to its conclusion in Biblical Theology. Exegetica! 
 Theology not only, in the department of Biblical Exege- 
 sis, produces the material to be used in the other depart- 
 ment of theology, but it has as its own highest problem, 
 the tliorough arrangement of that material in accord- 
 ance with its own synthetic method. As there is a his- 
 tory in the Bible, an unfolding of divine revelation, a 
 unity, and a wonderful variety, so Exegetical Theology 
 cannot stop until it has arranged the biblical material 
 in accordance with its historical position, and its relative 
 value in the one structure of divine revelation. And 
 here, first, we see the culmination of the exegetical proc-
 
 38 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 ess, as all its departments pour their treasures into this 
 basin, where they flow together and become compacted 
 into one organic whole — for Biblical Theology rises from 
 the exegesis of verses, sections, and chapters, to the 
 higher exegesis of writings, authors, periods, and of the 
 Old and New Testaments as wholes, until the Bible is 
 discerned as an organism, complete and symmetrical, 
 one as God is one, and yet as various as mankind is vari- 
 ous, and thus only divine-human as the complete reve- 
 lation of the God-man. 
 
 In this respect Biblical Theology demands its place in 
 theological study as the highest attainment of exegesis. 
 It is true that it has been claimed that the history of 
 Biblical Doctrine, as a subordinate branch of Historical 
 Theology, fully answers its purpose ; and again, that 
 Biblical Dogmatics, as the fundamental part of System- 
 atic Theology, covers its ground. These branches of the 
 sister grand divisions of theology deal with many of its 
 questions and handle much of its material, for the reason 
 that Biblical Theology is the highest point of exegesis 
 where the most suitable transition is made to the other 
 departments ; but it does not, it cannot, belong to either 
 of them. As Biblical Theology was not the product of 
 Historical or Systematic Theology, but was born in the 
 throes of the exegetical process of the last centurj% so 
 it is the child of exegesis, and can flourish only in its 
 own home. The idea, methods, aims, and, indeed, re- 
 sults, are entirely different from those presented in the 
 above-mentioned parts of Historical and Systematic 
 Theology. It does not give us a history of doctrine, al- 
 though it uses the historical method in the unfolding of 
 the doctrine. It does not seek the history of the doc- 
 trine, but the formation, the organization of the doctrine
 
 EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 39 
 
 in history. It does not aim to present the systematic 
 theology of the Bible, and thus arrange biblical doc- 
 trine in the form that Systematic Theology must assume 
 for the purposes of the day; but in accordance with its 
 synthetic method of seeking the unity in the variety, 
 it endeavors to show the biblical system of doctrine, the 
 form assumed by theology in the Bible itself, the organ- 
 ization of the doctrines of faith and morals in the his- 
 torical divine revelation. It thus considers the doctrine 
 at its first historical appearance, examines its formation 
 and its relation to others in the structure, then traces 
 its unfolding in history, sees it evolving by its own in- 
 herent vitality, as well as receiving constant accretions, 
 ever assuming fuller, richer, grander proportions, until 
 in the revelation of the New Testament the organiza- 
 tion has become complete and finished. It thus not 
 only distinguishes a theology of periods, but a theology 
 of authors and writings, and shows how they harmonize 
 in the one complete revelation of God." It is only from 
 this elevated point of view that many important ques- 
 tions can be settled, such as the Relatioti of the Old Tes- 
 tament to the New Testament — ri fundamental question 
 for all departments of theology. It is only when we 
 recognize the New Testament as not only the historical 
 fulfilment of the Old Testament, but also as its exe- 
 getical completion, that the unity and the harmony, all 
 the grander for the variety and the diversity of the 
 Scriptures, become evident. It is only from this point 
 of view that the apparently contradictory views, as, for 
 instance, of Paul and James, in the article of justifica- 
 
 * See author's juticles on Biblical Theology, in American Presbyterian Re- 
 view, 1870, and in the Presbyterian Review^ 1882, and Chapter XI. of this 
 volume.
 
 iO BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 tion,. may be reconciled in their difference of types. It 
 is only here that a true doctrine of inspiration can be 
 given, properly distinguishing the divine and human 
 elements, and yet recognizing them in their union. It 
 is only thereby that the weight of authority of the 
 Scripture can be fully felt, and the consistency of the 
 infallible canon invincibly maintained. It is only in 
 this culminating work that the preliminary processes of 
 exegesis are delivered from all the imperfections and 
 errors that still cling to the most faithful work of the 
 exegete. It is only from these hands that Historical 
 Theology receives its true keys, Systematic Theology 
 its indestructible pillars, and Practical Theology its all- 
 conquering weapons. 
 
 Thus Exegetical Theology is a theological discipline, 
 which, in its various departments, presents an inexhaust- 
 ible field of labor, where the most ambitious may work 
 with a sure prospect of success, and where the faithful 
 disciple of the Lord may rejoice in the most intimate 
 fellowship with the Master, divine truths being received 
 immediately from the divine hand, old truths being il- 
 luminated with fresh meaning, new truths filling the soul 
 with indescribable delight. The Bible is not a field 
 whose treasures have been exhausted, for they are inex- 
 haustible. As in the past, holy men have found among 
 these treasures jewels of priceless value ; as Athanasius, 
 Augustine, Anselm, Luther, and Calvin, have derived 
 therefrom nciu doctrines that have given shape not only 
 to the church, but to the world ; so it is not too muc 
 to expect that even greater saints than these may yet 
 :.(o forth from their retirement, where they have been 
 alone in communion with God through His Word, hold- 
 ing up before the world some new doctrine, freshly de-
 
 EXEGETICAX. THEOLOGY. 42 
 
 rived from the ancient writings, which, although hith- 
 erto overlooked, will prove to be the necessary comple- 
 ment of all the previous knowledge of the church, no 
 less essential to its life, growth, and progress than the 
 Athanasian doctrine of the Trinity, the Augustinian doc- 
 trine of sin, and the Prctestant doctrine of justification 
 through faith.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 The languages of the Bible were prepared by Divine 
 Providence as the most suitable ones for declaring the 
 divine revelation to mankind. Belonging, as they do, to 
 the two great families of speech, the Shemiticand the In- 
 do-Germanic, which have been the bearers of civilization, 
 culture, and the noblest products of human thought and 
 emotion, they are themselves the highest and most per- 
 fect developments of those families ; presenting, it is 
 true, their contrasted features, but yet combining in a 
 higher unity, in order to give us the complete divine 
 revelation. Having accomplished this their highest 
 purpose, they soon afterward became stereotyped in 
 form, or, as they are commonly called, dead languages ; 
 so that henceforth all successive generations, and indeed 
 all the families of earth, might resort to them and find 
 the common, divine revelation in the same fixed and un- 
 alterable forms. 
 
 Language is the product of the human soul, as 
 are thought and emotion, and, therefore, depends upon 
 the constitution of that soul, the historical experiences 
 of the family or race speaking it, especially the stage of 
 development in civilization, morals, and religion. 71ie 
 connection between language and thought is not loose, 
 but an essential connection. Language is not merely a 
 (42)
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 43 
 
 dress that thought may put on or off at its pleasure ; it 
 is the body of which thought is the soul ; it is the flesh 
 and rounded form of which thought is the life and en- 
 ergy. Hence it is that language is moulded by thought 
 and emotion, by experience and culture ; it is, as it were, 
 the speaking face of the race employing it, and it be- 
 comes the historical monument of the experience of that 
 race ; so that in many nations that have perished, and 
 whose early history is lost in primeval darkness, their 
 language gives us the key to their history and experi- 
 ence as truly as the Parthenon tells us of the Greek 
 mind, and the Pyramids of the Egyptian. 
 
 It is not a matter of indifference, therefore, as to the 
 languages that were to bear the divine revelation ; for, 
 although the divine revelation was designed for all races, 
 and may be conveyed in all the languages of earth, yet, 
 inasmuch as it was delivered in advancing historical de- 
 velopment, certain particular languages must be em- 
 ployed as most suitable for the purpose, and indeed 
 those which could best become the fountains for en- 
 riching the various languages of the earth. Hence it is 
 that we can confidently claim that there are no lan- 
 guages — not even the English and the German, which 
 have drunk deepest from the classic springs of the He- 
 brew and the Greek — that there are no languages that 
 could so adequately convey the divine revelation in its 
 simplicity, grandeur, fulness, variety, power and impres- 
 siveness, as those selected by Divine Providence for the 
 purpose. 
 
 Hence it is that no translation can ever take the place 
 of the original Scriptures ; for a translation is, at the 
 best, the work of uninspired men, who, though holy 
 and faithful, and guided by the Spirit of God, are yet 
 unable to do more than give us their own interpretation
 
 44 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of the sacred oracles. They must enter into the very 
 spirit and atmosphere of the original text ; they must 
 think and feel with the original authors ; their hearts 
 must throb with the same emotion ; their minds must 
 move in the same lines of thinking ; they must adapt 
 themselves to the numerous types of character coming 
 from various and widely different periods of divine rev- 
 elation, in order to correctly apprehend the thought 
 and make it their own, and then reproduce it in a foreign 
 tongue. A mere external, grammatical, and lexico- 
 graphical translation is worthless. Unless the spirit of 
 the original has been not only apprehended, but con- 
 veyed, it is no real translation. Hence it is requisite 
 that all-sided men should be chosen for this work, or at 
 least a body of men representing the various types and 
 phases of human experience and character. But even 
 then the translation can only express the theological, 
 ethical, and practical conceptions of the holiest and 
 most learned men of the particular age ; and, inasmuch 
 as the divine revelation was given through holy mei* 
 who spake not only from their own time and for thei/ 
 own time, but from and for the timeless Spirit, the eter- 
 nal ideas for all time ; the advancing generations will 
 ever need to understand the Word of God better than 
 their fathers, and must, if they are faithful, continually 
 improve in their knowledge of the original Scriptures, 
 in their power of apprehending them, of appropriating 
 them, and of reproducing them in speech and life. 
 
 How important it is, therefore, if the church is to 
 maintain a living connection with the sacred Scriptures, 
 and enter ever deeper into their spirit and mysterious 
 life, that it should encourage a considerable portion of 
 its youth to pursue these studies, and at all events in- 
 sist that its ministry, who are to train it in the things
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 4.5 
 
 of God, should have not merely a superficial knowledge 
 of the Bible, such as any layman may readily attain, but 
 a deep and thorough acquaintance with the original per- 
 ennial fountains of truth ; otherwise, as history has al 
 ready sufficiently shown, these uninspired versions will 
 assume the place of the original inspired Word ; and the 
 interpretations of a particular generation will become 
 the stereotyped dogmas of many generations, and the 
 life of a Christian people will be cut off from its only 
 source of spiritual growth, and a barren scholasticism, 
 with its stereotyped dogmas, mechanical institutions, 
 and opera operata, will assume the place and importance 
 of the divine word and living communion with God. 
 
 The languages of the Bible being the only adequate 
 means of conveying and perpetuating the divine revela- 
 tion, it is important that we should learn them not mere- 
 ly from the outside, with grammar and lexicon, but also 
 from the inside, from a proper conception of the genius 
 and life of these tongues as employed by the ancient 
 saints, and especially of the historical genius of the lan- 
 guages as the sacred channels of the Spirit's thought 
 and life. For language is a living thing, and has its 
 birth, its growth, its maturity, its decline, and its death. 
 Language is born, not as a system of roots or detached 
 words, that gradually come together by natural selection 
 into sentences. As plants may grow from roots after 
 they have been cut down, but do not have their birth in 
 roots, but in the seed-germs which contain the plants in 
 embiyo ; so language, although it may be analyzed into 
 roots, yet was not born in roots and never existed in 
 roots, but came into being as sentences,* as thought is 
 ever a sentence, and not a word. Then as the mind de- 
 
 * Sayce, Principles 0/ Comp. Philology, p. 136, seq., 2d ed., London, 187.S.
 
 ^ BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 velops, thought is developed with its body, languagt 
 and thus the language grows with the culture of a pec 
 pie. All languages that have literary documents can be 
 traced in their historical development. Especially is 
 this the case with the languages of the Bible ; they have 
 a long history back of them ; centuries of literary devel- 
 opment were required to produce them. 
 
 I. THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 
 
 The Hebrew language was long supposed to be the 
 original language of mankind ; but this view can no lon- 
 ger be held by any philologist, for the Hebrew language, 
 as it appears to us in its earliest forms in the sacred 
 Scriptures, bears upon its face the traces of a long-pre- 
 vious literary development.* This is confirmed by com- 
 paring it with the other languages of the same family. 
 Thus the Shemitic family may be divided into four 
 groups: I. The Southern group — Arabic, Ethiopic, and 
 Himjaric. 2. The Aramaic group — Syriac, Chaldee, 
 Samaritan, and Mandaic. 3. The Hebrew group — the 
 Phoenician and Hebrew, 4. The Assyrian and Babylo- 
 nian. Now these languages are more closely related to 
 one another than those of the Indo-Germanic family, 
 the people speaking them having been confined to com- 
 paratively narrow limits, crowded on the north by the 
 Jndo-Germanic tongues, and on the south by the Tu- 
 ranian. These languages are grouped in sisterhoods. 
 They all go back upon an original mother-tongue of 
 which all traces have been lost. In general the Arabic 
 or Southern group present the older and fuller forms of 
 etymology and syntax, the Aramaic or Northern group 
 
 * Ewald, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, 3te Ausg. ; Gott., 1864, s. 78, seq.; Ewald 
 4us/. Lehrb. des Heb. Spraciie, fic Ausg ; Gott., 1863, s. 23.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 47 
 
 the later and simpler forms. The Hebrew and Assyrian 
 groups lie in the midst of this linguistic development, 
 where the Assyrian is nearer to the Southern group 
 and the Hebrew to the Northern group.* The differ- 
 ences in stage of linguistic growth from the common 
 stock depend not so much upon the period or distance 
 of separation as upon literary culture. The literary use 
 of a language has the tendency to reduce the complex 
 elements to order, and to simplify and wear away the 
 superfluous and unnecessary forms of speech and syn- 
 tactical construction. These languages have, for the 
 most part, given us a considerable literature ; they were 
 spoken by cultivated nations of the ancient world, me- 
 diating between the great centres of primitive Turanian 
 culture — the Euphrates and the Nile. Everything seems 
 to indicate that they all emigrated from a common cen- 
 tre in the desert on the south of Babylonia,t the Arabic 
 group separating first, next the Aramaic, then the He- 
 brew, while the Babylonian gained ultimately the mas- 
 tery of the original Akkadian of Babylonia, and the As 
 Syrian founded the great empire on the Tigris. The 
 book of Genesis (xi. 31) represents Abram as going forth 
 from this central seat of Ur of the Chaldees, at first 
 northward into Mesopotamia, and then emigrating to 
 Canaan, just as we learn from other sources the Canaan 
 ites had done before him. The monuments of Ur reveal 
 that about this time, 2000 B.C., it was the scat of a 
 great literary development.:}: The father of the faith- 
 
 * See Gescnius, //ed. und Chald. FTandwdrterbuch, Qte Aufl. neu bearbeltel 
 ron Mulau und Volck, Leipzig, 1883. VoJi den Quellen, p. xx., sq. 
 
 t Vide Schrader, Die Ahstammung dcr Chaldder und die Ursitze dcr Semu 
 ten, Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. M, G., 1873. 
 
 \ Geo. Smith, The Chaldean Account 0/ Genesis, etc., p. 29, seq. New York, 
 1876.
 
 4-8 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 ful, whose origin ;^as in that primitive seat of cuUure, 
 and who Hved as a chieftain of miHtary prowess (Gen. 
 xiv.) and exalted religious and moral character among 
 the cultivated nations of Canaan, and who was received at 
 the court of Pharaoh (xii. 14) — that other great centre of 
 primitive culture — on friendly terms, to some extetit at 
 least, made himself acquainted with their literature and 
 culture. Whether Abraham adopted the language of 
 the Canaanites, or brought the Hebrew with him from 
 the East, is unimportant, for the ancient Assyrian and 
 Babylonian are nearer to the Hebrew and Phoenician 
 than they are to the other Shemitic families,* so that if 
 the languages, as now presented to us, differ less than 
 the Romance languages — the daughters of the Latin — 
 in their earlier stages in the time of Abraham, their dif- 
 ference could scarcely have been more than dialectic. 
 The ancient Phoenician, the nearest akin to the Hebrew, 
 was the language of commerce and intercourse between 
 the nations in primitive times, as the Aramaic after the 
 fall of Tyre, and the Greek after the conquest of Alex- 
 ander, Thus the Hebrew language, as a dialect of the 
 Canaanite and closely related to the Babylonian, had 
 already a considerable literary development prior to 
 the entrance of Abram into the Holy Land. The old 
 dea that Egypt was the mother of Hebrew civilization 
 and culture has been disproved ; for, though the Hebrews 
 remained a long period in Egyptian bondage, they re- 
 tained their Eastern civilization, culture, and language, 
 so that at the Exodus they shook off at once all connec- 
 tion with the Egyptian civilization and culture as alien 
 and antagonistic to their own. For the very peculiari- 
 ties of the Hebrew language, literature, and civilization 
 
 * Sayce, Assyrian Grammar , p. r, seq. London, 1872.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 49 
 
 are those of the Babylonian. The biblical traditions of 
 the Creation, of the Deluge, of the Tower of Babel, are 
 those of the Assyrians and Babylonians. The sacred 
 rest-day, with the significance of the number seven, the 
 months, seasons, and years, the weights and measures, 
 coins — all are of the same origin. Still further, that 
 most striking feature of Hebrew poetry — the parallelism 
 of members — is already in the oldest Akkadian hymns. 
 Yes, the very temptations of the Hebrews to the worship 
 Kif Ashtoreth and Baal, of Chemosh and Moloch, are 
 those that have ruined the other branches of their com- 
 mon race.* How shall we account for these things un- 
 less we suppose that they were brought with him by 
 Abram in his emigration to Canaan ? Fixing our atten- 
 tion upon the single feature of the parallelism of mem- 
 bers, how could the Hebrews have retained it as the es- 
 sential feature of their poetry, if they had no poetic 
 treasures preserved among them, and the poetic spirit 
 had remained undeveloped with them ? Without ven- 
 turing upon an opinion with reference to the amount 
 of literature to be attributed to these early times, but 
 taking the Pentateuch as it is, we see therein a language 
 admirably adapted for its purpose, the product of pre- 
 vious literary development. Whether Moses wrote the 
 entire Pentateuch or not, most scholars will admit a con- 
 siderable Mosaic nucleus. This being true, the princi- 
 ples of language seem to require either that the ancient 
 records have been improved by later editors, or that 
 there must have been a body of sacred literature to give 
 the language that stable character that marks it throuLTh- 
 out the entire sacred Scriptures; for while there is cer- 
 tainly a development in the Hebrew language of the 
 
 * Vide Schrader, Semitismus und Bahylonismus . Jahrb. v. Prot. Theol.^ 
 «875. 
 
 3
 
 50 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Bible, and three periods may be readily distinguished, 
 yet the differences between the earlier and the classic 
 period are but slight, the chief distinguishing features 
 being in the later writings of the Chronicler, Ecclesi- 
 astes, and Daniel, all showing a decline from the classic 
 models and an approximation to the Aramaic, in ety- 
 mology and syntax. Sacred books give languages a 
 permanence such as no other literature can give them. 
 This is evident not only from the German Bible of Luther, 
 and King James' English version, which have kept these 
 great languages comparatively stationary, but also from 
 the Koran, which has kept the Arabic so fixed to its 
 classic style that it has taken a thousand years for the 
 vulgar Arabic to reach that stage of linguistic develop 
 ment presented in the earliest Hebrew of the Bible. 
 Hence unless the language of the writings of Moses has 
 been changed by later editors, at least a considerable 
 portion of the Pentateuch must be assigned to his times. 
 Moses is the father of the Hebrew language and litera- 
 ture, as Luther is of the German. He moulded its fun- 
 damental types, and started it in those directions that it 
 has ever since maintained. As Abraham had gone forth 
 from the culture of Babylonia to enter upon the pilgrim 
 life of believing communion with El Shaddai, so Moses 
 went forth from the culture of Egypt to become the 
 representative of Jahveh, and organize a kingdom of 
 priests, a holy nation, a theocracy the vital principles of 
 which became reverential fear and worship of the per- 
 sonal God of the covenant. 
 
 Thus the Hebrew language became, in its essential 
 spirit and genius, a religious language, the holy tongue 
 of the holy people of God, and Moses laid its founda« 
 tions in a literature of sacred history, poetry, and proph- 
 ecy. The histories contained in the Pentateuch ar-e the
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 51 
 
 fountain of all subsequent history. The grand hymn 
 (Exod. XV.), the prayer (Ps. xc), the prophetic didactic 
 poem (Deut. xxxii.), are the great boughs of lyric poetry 
 upon which the Psalter subsequently burst forth in all 
 its glory ; and the prophetic discourses in Deuteronomy 
 are the sources, as they give the key to all subsequent 
 prophecy. 
 
 Looking now at the language as religious according 
 to its genius, and considering it in its fundamental types 
 and their historical development, we observe the follow- 
 ing as some of its most prominent characteristics : 
 
 I. It is remarkahly stmp/e and natural. This is indeed 
 a common feature of the Shemitic family. As compared 
 with the Indo-Germanic, they represent an earlier stage 
 in the development of mankind, the childhood of the 
 race. Theirs is an age of perception, contemplation, and 
 observation, not of conception, reflection, and reasoning. 
 Things are apprehended according to their appearance 
 as phenomena, and not according to their internal char- 
 acter as noumena. The form, the features, the expres- 
 sions of things are seen and most nicely distinguished, 
 but not their inward being ; the effects are observed, but 
 these are not traced through a series of causes, but only 
 either to the immediate cause or else by a leap to the 
 ultimate cause. Hence the language that expresses such 
 thought is simple and natural. We see this in its sounds, 
 which are simple and manifold, disliking diphthongs and 
 compound letters ; in its roots, uniformly of three con- 
 sonants, generally accompanied by a vowel ; in its iiv 
 flections, mainly by internal modifications ; in its simple 
 arrangement of clauses in the sentence, with a limited 
 number of conjunctions. Thus tlie conjunction vav 
 plays a more important part in the language than all 
 conjunctions combined, distinguishing by a shnple mod
 
 52 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 ification of vocalization, accentuation, or position, be 
 tween clauses coordinate, circumstantial, or subordinate, 
 and in the latter between those indicating purpose, or 
 result. This is the most remarkable feature of the lan- 
 guage, without a parallel in any other tongue. And so 
 the poetry is constructed on the simple principle of the 
 parallelism of members, these being synthetic, antithetic, 
 or progressive ; and in the latter case advancing, like the 
 waves of the sea, in the most beautiful and varied forms. 
 Hence it is that the Hebrew language is the easiest to 
 render into a foreign tongue, and that Hebrew poetry 
 can readily be made the common property of mankind. 
 
 2. We observe a striking correspondence of the lan- 
 guage to the thought. This rests upon a radical difference 
 between the Shemitic and Indo-Germanic family in their 
 relative appreciation of the material and the form of lan- 
 guage.* The form, the artistic expression, is to the 
 Hebrew a very small affair. The idea, the thought, and 
 emotion flow forth freely and embody themselves with- 
 out any external restraint in the speech. This is clear 
 from the method of inflection, which is mostly by inter- 
 nal changes in the root, expressing the passive by chang- 
 ing the clear vowel into the dull vowel, the intensivv,- by 
 doubling the second radical, the pure idea of the root by 
 the extreme shortness of the infinitive and the segholate, 
 the causative and the reflexive by lengthening the stem 
 from without, and, so far as cases and moods exist, ex- 
 pressing them harmoniously by the three radical short 
 vowels. 
 
 How beautiful in form, as well as sense, is the abstract 
 plural of intensity by which Elohim expresses the fulness 
 
 * Vid. Grill, uhcr d. Verhaltniss d. indogerm. u. d. semit. Sprachwury-th 
 In the Zeitscltrift D. M. G. 1873.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 53 
 
 of the idea of God conceived as the one to be revered ; 
 by which chayyim expresses the fulness of Hfe, and 
 which is employed in such passages as Eccles. v. 8, 
 where the exaltation of God over all earthly judges 
 would be represented, 
 
 " For high over high watcheth 
 The Highest over them." 
 
 So in the dependence of the construct relation, and the 
 use of the suffixes. But perhaps this feature is most 
 striking in Hebrew poetry where the absence of an ar 
 tistic form is more apparent. We see that, with a gen- 
 eral harmony of lines and strophes, the proportion in 
 length and number is frequently broken through. And 
 though the Hebrew poet uses the refrain, yet he likes 
 to modify it, as in the lament of David over Jonathan, 
 2 Sam. i. 19-27, the 80th Psalm, and the magnificent 
 prophecy, Isaiah 40-66. Again, though the Hebrew 
 poet uses the alphabet to give his lines or strophes a 
 sort of regularity in order, using it as so many stairs up 
 which to climb in praise, in pleading, in lamentation, 
 and in advancing instruction, yet he by no means binds 
 himself to an equal number of lines, or even measure of 
 length ; and, apparently without necessity at times, 
 breaks through his alphabet itself. Free as the ocean is 
 the poet's emotion, rising like the waves in majestic 
 strivings, heaving as an agitated sea, ebbing and flowing 
 like the tide in solemn and measured antitheses, sporting 
 like the wavelets upon a sandy beach. 
 
 3. The Hebrew language has a wonderful majesty and 
 sublimity. This arises partly from its original religious 
 genius, but chiefly from the sublime materials of its 
 thought. ' God, the only true God, Jahveh, the Holy 
 Redeemer of His people, is the central theme of the
 
 54 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Hebrew language and literature, a God not apart from 
 nature, and not involved in nature, no Pantheistic God, 
 no mere Deistic God, but a God who enters into sym- 
 pathetic relations with His creatures, who is recognized 
 and praised, as well as ministered unto by the material 
 creation. Hence there is a realism in the Hebrew lan- 
 cruacfe that can nowhere else be found to the same ex- 
 tent. The Hebrew people were as realistic as the Greek 
 were idealistic. Their God is not a God thought out, 
 reasoned out as an ultimate cause, or chief of a Pan- 
 theon, but a personal God, known by them in His asso- 
 ciation with them by a proper name, JAHVEH. Hence 
 the so-called anthropomorphisms and anthropopathisms 
 of the Old Testament, so alien to the Indo-Germanic 
 mind that an Occidental theology must explain them 
 away, from an incapacity to enter into that bold and 
 sublime realism of the Hebrews. Thus, again, man is 
 presented to us in all his naked reality, in his weakness 
 and sins, in his depravity and wretchedness, as well as 
 in his bravery and beauty, his holiness and wisdom. In 
 the Hebrew heroes we see men of like passions with 
 ourselves, and feel that their experience is the key to 
 the joys and sorrows of our life. So also in their con- 
 ception of nature. Nature is to the Hebrew poet all 
 aglow with the glory of God, and intimately associated 
 with man in his origin, history, and destiny. There is 
 no such thing as science ; that was for the Indo-Germanic 
 mind ; but they give us that which science never gives, 
 that which science is from its nature unable to present 
 us : namely, those concrete relations, those expressive 
 features of nature that declare to man their Master's 
 mind and character, and claim human sympathy and 
 protection as they yearn with man for the Messianic fut- 
 ure. Now the Hebrew language manifests this realism
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 55 
 
 on its very face. Its richness in synonyms is remarka- 
 ble. It fs said that the Hebrew language has, relatively 
 to the English, ten times as many roots and ten times 
 fewer words ; * and that while the Greek language has 
 1,800 roots to 100,000 words, the Hebrew has 2,000 roots 
 to 10,000 words.f This wealth in synonyms is appal- 
 ling to the Indo-Germanic scholar who comes to the 
 Hebrew from the Latin and the Greek, where the syno- 
 nyms are more or less accurately defined. But nothing 
 of the kind has yet been done by any Shemitic scholar, 
 so far as we know. What will you do with a language 
 that has fifty-five words for destroy, sixty for break, and 
 seventy-four for take "i % It is exceedingly doubtful 
 whether this richness of synonyms can be reduced to a 
 .system and the terms sharply and clearly defined ; the 
 differences are like those of the peculiar gutturals of the 
 Shemitic tongues, so delicate and subtle that they can 
 hardly be mastered by the Western tongue or ear. So 
 these synonyms can hardly be apprehended and con- 
 veyed into languages so poor when compared with such 
 wealth. 
 
 This wealth of synonym is connected with a corre- 
 sponding richness of expression in the synonymous 
 clauses that play such an important part in Hebrew po- 
 etry, and indeed are the reason of its wonderful richness 
 and majesty of thought. Thus the sacred poet or 
 prophet plays upon his theme as upon a many-stringed 
 in-strument, bringing out a great variety of tone and 
 melody, advancing in graceful steppings or stately march- 
 higs to the climax, or dwelling upon the theme v/ith an 
 
 * Grill, in /. c. 
 
 \ Bottcher, Ausf. Lehrbuch d. Hcb. Spracfic, I , p. 8. Leipzig, 1866. 
 
 X Girdlestone, Synonyms 0/ the Old Test., p. 15. London, 1871.
 
 56 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 inexhaustible variety of expression and coloring. The 
 Hebrew language is like the rich and glorious verdure of 
 Lebanon, or as the lovely face of the Shulamite, dark as 
 the tents of Kedar, yet rich in color as the curtains of 
 Solomon, or her graceful form, which is so rapturously 
 described as she discloses its beauties in the dance of the 
 hosts.* It is true that Hebrew literature is not as exten- 
 sive as the Greek ; it is confined to history, poetry, proph- 
 ecy, and possibly romance ;f but in these departments it 
 presents the grandest productions of the human soul. Its 
 history gives us the origin and destiny of our race, un- 
 folds the story of redemption, dealing now with the in- 
 dividual, then with the family and nation, and at times 
 widening so as to take into its field of representation the 
 most distant nations of earth ; it is a history in which 
 God is the great actor, in which sin and holiness are the 
 chief factors. Its poetry stirs the heart of mankind with 
 hymns and prayers, with sentences of wisdom ; and in 
 the heroic struggles of a Job and the conquering virtue 
 of a Shulamite, there is imparted strength to the soul 
 and vigor to the character of man and woman transcend- 
 ing the influence of the godlike Achilles or the chaste 
 Lucretia ; while the second half of Isaiah presents the 
 sublimest aspirations of man. Where shall we find such 
 images of beauty, such wealth of illustration, such grand- 
 eur of delineation, such majestic representations? It 
 seems as if the prophet grasped in his tremendous soul 
 the movements of the ages, and saw the very future 
 mirrored in the mind of God. 
 
 4. The Hebrew language is remarkable for its life and 
 fervor. This is owing to the emotional and hearty char- 
 acter of the people. There is an artlessness, self-aban. 
 
 Song of Songs, i. 5 ; vii, 1-7. t See Chapters VIII. and IX.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE, 57 
 
 donment, and earnestness in the Hebrew tongue ; it is 
 transparent as a glass, so that we see through it as into 
 the very souls of the people. There is none of that re- 
 serve, that cool and calm deliberation, that self-conscious- 
 ness that characterize the Greek.* The Hebrew language 
 is distinguished by the strength of its consonants and the 
 weakness of its vowels ; so that the consonants give the 
 word a stability of form in which the vowels have the 
 greatest freedom of movement. The vowels circulate 
 in the speech as the blood of the language. Hence the 
 freedom in the varying expressions of the same root and 
 the fervor of its full-toned forms. And if we can frust 
 the Massoretic system of accentuation and vocalization, 
 the inflection of the language depends upon the dislike of 
 the recurrence of two vowelless consonants, and the law 
 of the vocal sheva and the half-open syllable ; and on the 
 power of the accent over the vocalization not only of the 
 accented syllable, but also of the entire word, and the law 
 of the pretonic Qdntetz. This gives the language a won- 
 derful flexibility and elasticity. In the Hebrew tongue 
 the emotions overpower the thoughts and carry them on 
 in the rushing stream to the expression. Hence the lit- 
 erature has a power over the souls of mankind. The 
 language is as expressive of emotion as the face of a 
 modest and untutored child, and the literature is but the 
 speaking face of the heart of the Hebrew people. The 
 Psalms of David touch a chord in every soul, and inter- 
 pret the experience of all the world. The sentences 
 of Solomon come to us as the home-truths, as the social 
 and political maxims that sway our minds and direct our 
 lives. The prophets present to us the objective omnipo- 
 
 * Ewald, in /. c, p. 33 ; Bottcher, in /. c, p. 9. Bertheau, in Herzog, Reai^ 
 Encyclopadie, L, Aufl. Ed. v., p. 613. 
 
 3*
 
 gg BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 tent truth, which, according to the beautiful story of 
 Zerubbabel,* is the mightiest of all, flashing conviction 
 like the sun and cutting to the heart as by a sharp two- 
 edged sword. So with the history ; it presents to us the 
 simple facts of the lives of individuals and of nations in 
 the light of the Divine countenance, speaking to our 
 hearts and photographing upon us pictures of real life. 
 
 These are some of the most striking features of the 
 Hebrew language, which have made it the most suitable 
 of all to give to mankind the elementary religious truths 
 and facts of divine revelation. The great body of the 
 Bible, four-fifths of the sum total of God's Word, is in 
 this tongue. It is no credit to a Christian people that 
 the Hebrew language has no place at all in the most of 
 our colleges and universities ; that its study has been 
 confined, for the most part, to theological seminaries 
 and the students for the ministry. It is not strange 
 that the Old Testament has been neglected in the pul- 
 pit, the Sabbath-school, and the family, so that many 
 minds, even of the ministry, have doubted whether it 
 was any longer to be regarded as the Word of God. It 
 is not strange that Christian scholars, prejudiced by 
 their training in the languages and literatures of Greece 
 and Rome, should be unable to enter into the spirit, and 
 appreciate the peculiar features of the Hebrew language 
 and literature, and so fail to understand the elements of 
 a divine revelation. Separating the New Testament 
 and the words and work of Jesus and His apostles from 
 their foundation and their historical preparation, stu- 
 dents have not caught the true spirit of the Gospel, nor 
 apprehended it in its unity and variety as the fulfilment 
 of the law and the prophets. But this is not all, foi 
 
 * L Esdras iv. 33-41.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 59 
 
 we shall now attempt to show that the other languages 
 of the Bible, the Aramaic and the Greek, have been 
 moulded and transformed by the theological concep- 
 tions and moral ideas that had been developing in the 
 Hebrew Scriptures, and which, having been ripened 
 under the potent influence of the Divine Spirit, were 
 about to burst forth into bloom and eternal fruitfulness 
 in these tongues prepared by Divine Providence for the 
 purpose. The Hebrew language is, as we have seen, the 
 language of religion, and moulded entirely by religious 
 and moral ideas and emotions. The Greek and the 
 Aramaic are of an entirely different character ; they were 
 not, as the Hebrew, cradled and nursed, trained from 
 infancy to childhood, armed and equipped in their 
 Jieroic youth with divine revelation, but- they were 
 moulded outside of the realm of divine revelation, and 
 only subsequently adapted for the declaration of sacred 
 truth. And first this was the case with the Aramaic. 
 
 II. THE ARAMAIC LANGUAGE 
 
 goes back in its history to the most primitive times. 
 It is the farthest developed of the Shemitic family, 
 showing a decline, a decrepitude, in its poverty of forms 
 and vocalization, in its brevity and abruptness, in its ple- 
 onasm, and in its incorporation of a multitude of foreign 
 words. It was the language of those races of Syria and 
 Mesopotamia that warred with the Egyptians and Assyr- 
 ians, and possibly, as Gladstone suggests, took part in 
 the Trojan war,* who, according to Sayce,f used the 
 earliest system of writing, and were the agents through 
 whom both the Hebrew and the Greek alphabets were 
 
 * Gladstone's Homeric Synchronising N. Y., 1876, p. 173. 
 + The Hamathite Inscriptions, Trans. Society of Bib. Archcsology, London, 
 1870, p. 30.
 
 30 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 conveyed to those peoples. At all events the Aramaic 
 became the language of commerce and intercourse be 
 tween the nations during the Persian period,* taking the 
 place of the Phoenician, as it was in turn supplanted by 
 the Greek. The children of Judah having been carried 
 into captivity and violently separated from their sacred 
 places and the scenes of their history, gradually acquired 
 this commercial and common language of intercourse, 
 so that ere long it became the language of the Hebrew 
 people, the knowledge of the ancient Hebrew being con- 
 fined to the learned and the higher ranks of society. 
 Hence, even in the books of Ezra and Daniel, consider- 
 able portions were written in Aramaic. This Aramaic is 
 called the Biblical Chaldee, to distinguish it from the 
 Chaldee of the Targums, but really gives us an older 
 type of the language. 
 
 The Aramaic continued to be the language of the Jews 
 during the Persian, Greek, and Roman periods, and was 
 the common speech of Palestine in the times of our 
 Lord,t although it had long ceased to be the language of 
 commerce and intercourse, the Greek having taken its 
 place, which gradually penetrated from the commercial 
 and official circles even to the lowest ranks of society. 
 Thus there was a mingling of a Greek population with 
 the Shemitic races, not only in the Greek colonies of 
 the Decapolis and the cities of the sea-coast of Palestine, 
 but also in the great centres of Tiberias, Samaria, and 
 even in Jerusalem itself. Greek manners and customs 
 were, under the influence of the Herodians and the Sad- 
 ducees, pressing upon the older Aramaic and Hebrew, 
 
 * If must also have been widely spoken in the Assyrian period, as we see from 
 II. King;s xviii. ii ; see also Fried. Delitzsch, fFi? Lag das Parodies. Leipzig, 
 i88i, p. 258. 
 
 t Schurer, Neutestament, Zeitgesch., p. 372, Leipzig, 1874.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. ^1 
 
 not without the stout resistance of the Pharisees. The 
 language of our Saviour, however, in which He delivered 
 His discourses and instructions, was undoubtedly the 
 Aramaic, although we could hardly deny Him the 
 knowledge and use of the Greek. For not only do the 
 Aramaic terms that He used, which are retained at 
 times by the evangelists, and the proper names of His 
 disciples, but also the very structure and style of His 
 discourses, show the Aramaic characteristics. For our 
 Saviour's methods of delivery and style of instruction 
 were essentially the same as those of the rabbins of 
 His time. Hence we should not think it strange, that 
 from this Aramaic literature alone we can bring forward 
 parallels to the wise sentences and moral maxims of the 
 Sermon on the Mount, the rich and beautiful parables, 
 by which He illustrated His discourses, and the fiery 
 zeal of His denunciation of hypocrisy, together vv^ith the 
 profound depths of His esoteric instruction. Our Saviour 
 used the Aramaic language and methods, in order there 
 by to reach the people of His times, and place in the 
 prepared Aramaic soil the precious seeds of heavenly 
 truth. It is the providential significance of the Ara 
 maic language that it thus prepared the body for the 
 thought of our Saviour. It is a language admirably 
 adapted by its simplicity, perspicuity, precision, and 
 definiteness, with all its awkwardness, for the associa- 
 tions of every-day life. It is the language for the lawyer 
 and the scribe, the pedagogue and the pupil ; indeed, the 
 English language of the Shemitic family.* Thus the 
 earlier Aramaic of the Bible gives us only official docu- 
 ments, letters, and decrees, or else simple narrative. 
 As moulded by the Jewish people after the return from 
 
 * Volck in Herzog's Real Ertcyklopxdie, IL Aufl. i, p. 603.
 
 62 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 exile, it was through the giving of the sense of the 
 original Hebrew Scriptures (Neh. viii. 8). The whole 
 life of the Jewish people, subsequent to the exile, was 
 in this giving the sense of the Hebrew Scriptures, both 
 in th&Halacha of the rabbinical schools, and the Haggada 
 of the synagogue and the social circle. It is true that 
 the Halacha was developed in the rival schools of Sham- 
 mai and Hillel into the most subtle questions of casu- 
 istry, and our Saviour often severely reproved the Phar- 
 isaic spirit for its subtlety and scholasticism ; yet not 
 infrequently He employed their methods to the discom- 
 fiture of His opponents,* as in Matt. xxii. 15-46, although 
 His own spirit was rather that of the old prophets than 
 of the scribes. The Haggada was developed by the rab- 
 bins into a great variety of forms of ethical wisdom and 
 legend. This we see already in the apocryphal books 
 of Wisdom, in the stories of Zerubbabel, of Judith, of 
 Susanna, and of Tobit.f This latter method was the 
 favorite one of our Saviour, as calculated for the com- 
 mon people, and to it we may attribute the parables, and 
 the sweet sentences of the Sermon on the Mount, which, 
 though after the manner of the scribes,J have yet a 
 clearness and transparency as the atmosphere of the 
 Holy Land itself, a richness and simplicity as the scarlet 
 flower of the fields He loved so well, a calm majesty 
 and profound mystery as the great deep, for He was the 
 
 * Weizsacker, Untersuchungen uber die cv. GescMchte, p. 35S, seq.^ Gotha, 
 1864. 
 
 ■f- Zunz, Gottesdienstlichen Vorlrage der Juden, Berlin 1832, pp. 42, 100, 
 120 ; Etheridge, Introduction to Hebrew Literature, London, 1S56, p. 102, 
 tpq. Those who are intereited in this subject may find a large collection of this 
 Haggadistic literature in the Eililiotlieca RabHnica, Eine Smnvdung Alter Mid' 
 raschim ins Deutsche ilbertragen von Aug. Wunsche, 20 Lief. Leipzig, 1880 
 B4. 
 
 X Hausrath, Die Zeit Jesus, Heidelberg, 1868, p. 90.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. g3 
 
 expositor of the Divine mind, heart, and being to man- 
 kind (John i. 1 8). 
 
 The office of the Aramaic language was still further 
 to mediate between the old world and the new — the 
 Hebrew and the Greek ; for the Greek language was the 
 chosen one to set forth the divine revelation in its com- 
 pletion. 
 
 III. THE GREEK LANGUAGE 
 
 was bom and grew to full maturity outside of the 
 sphere of the divine revelation, and yet was predestined 
 " as the most beautiful, rich, and harmonious language 
 ever spoken or written " " to form the pictures of silver 
 in which the golden apple of the Gospel should be pre- 
 served for all generations." * 
 
 For, as Alexander the Great broke in pieces the Ori- 
 ental world-monarchies that fettered the kingdom of 
 God, and prepared a theatre for its world-wide expan- 
 sion, so did the Greek language and literature that his 
 veterans carried with them prove more potent weapons 
 than their swords and spears for transforming the civili- 
 zation of the East and preparing a language for the uni- 
 versal Gospel. The Greek language is the beautiful 
 flower, the elegant jewel, the most finished masterpiece 
 of Indo-Germanic thought. In its early beginning we 
 see a number of dialects spoken by a brave and warlike 
 people, struggling with one another, as well as with ex- 
 ternal foes, maintaining themselves successfully against 
 the Oriental and African civilizations, while at the same 
 time they appropriated those elements of culture which 
 they could incorporate into their own original thought 
 and life ; a race of heroes such as the earth has nowhere 
 
 * SchalT, Hist, cf the Apostolic Church, p. i^jj. New York, 1859. See also 
 Schall, History 0/ the Christian Church, L, p. 78. New York, i88a.
 
 g4 bIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 else produced, fighting their way upward into light and 
 culture until they attained the towering summits of an 
 art, a literature, and a philosophy, that has ever been 
 the admiration and wonder of mankind. As Pallas 
 sprang forth in full heroic stature from the head of her 
 father Zeus, so Greek literature sprang into historical 
 existence in the matchless Iliad. Its classic period was 
 constituted by the heroism and genius of the Athenian 
 republic, which worked even more mightily in language, 
 literature, and art, than in the fields of politics and war, 
 producing the histories of Thucydides and Xenophon, 
 the tragedies of an ^schylus and Sophocles, the philos- 
 ophy of a Socrates and Plato, the oratory of a Demos- 
 thenes and i^schines. Looking at the Greek language 
 before it became the world-language, and so the lan- 
 guage of a divine revelation, we observe that its charac- 
 teristic features are in strong contrast with those of the 
 Hebrew tongue. 
 
 I. The Greek language is complex and artistic. As 
 the Hebrew mind perceives and contemplates, the 
 Greek conceives and reflects. Hence the Greek ety- 
 mology is elaborate in its development of forms from a 
 few roots, in the declensions and cases of nouns, in the 
 conjugations, tenses, and moods of the verb, giving the 
 idea a great variety of modifications. Hence the syntax 
 is exceedingly complex in the varied use of the conjunc- 
 tions and particles, the intricate arrangement of the sen- 
 tences as they may be combined into grand periods, 
 which require the closest attention of a practiced mine 
 to follow, in their nice discriminations and adjustments 
 of the thought.* Hence the complex and delicate rules 
 
 * Curtius, Griech. Gcsch., Berlin, 1865, 2d AuQ., I., pp. 19, 20; History 0/ 
 Greece, New York, 1875, vol. i., pp. 30, 32.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. g5 
 
 of prosody, with the great variety of metres and 
 rhythms. The Greek mind would wrestle with the ex- 
 ternal world, would search out and explore the reason 
 of things, not being satisfied with the phenome7ia, but 
 grasping for the noumena. Thus a rich and varied litera- 
 ture was developed, complex in character, the epos, the 
 drama, the philosophical treatise, and scientific discus- 
 sion, which are purely Greek, and could have little place 
 among the Hebrews.* 
 
 2. The Greek language is characterized by its atten- 
 tion to the form or style of its speech, ao\. to limit thr. 
 freedom of the movement of thought a..id emotion, but 
 to direct them in the channels of clear, definite, logica I 
 sentences, and beautiful, elegant, and artistic rhetorical 
 figures. The Greek was a thorough artist ; and as th-? 
 palaces of his princes, the temples of his gods, the irr 
 ages of his worship, his clothing and his armor, mus J 
 be perfect in form and exquisite in finished decora 
 tion, so the language, as the palace, the dress of hi j 
 thought, must be symmetrical and elegant.f Henc". 
 there is no language that has such laws of euphony, in 
 volving changes in vocalization, and the transpositior 
 and mutation of letters ; for their words must be musi- 
 cal, their clauses harmonious, their sentences and periods 
 symmetrical. And so they are combined in the most 
 exquisite taste in the dialogues of the philosophc^r, the 
 measures of the poet, the stately periods of the histo 
 rian and the orator. The sentences " are intricate, com- 
 plex, involved like an ivory cabinet, till the discovery 
 of its nominative gives you the key for unlocking the 
 
 * Donaldson, The New Cratylus, 3d ed., p. 153. 
 
 t Curtius, Griech. Gesc/t., 1., pp. 20, 21 ; History 0/ Greece, New York, 1875 
 L, pp. 32-34.
 
 ^ BIBLICAL 8TUDT. 
 
 mechanism and admiring the ingenuity and beauty oi 
 its rhetoric." * 
 
 3. The Greek language is thus beautiful and fi?nshed. 
 The Greek mind was essentially ideal, not accepting the 
 external world as its own, but transforming it to suit its 
 genius and its taste. This was owing to its original hu- 
 manizing genius and its central theme, man as the he- 
 roic, man as the ideally perfect.f As the language and 
 literature of the Hebrews were inspired to describe " the 
 righteous acts of Jahveh's dominion in Israel and the 
 victories of his holy arm" (Judges v. 11 ; Psa. xcviii. i), 
 and thus were majestic and sublime ; so the language and 
 literature of the Greeks were to sing the exploits of the 
 godlike Achilles, the crafty Ulysses, and the all-conquer- 
 ing Hercules ; to paint the heroic struggles of the tribes 
 at Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platea, to conceive a 
 model republic and an ideal human world, and thus 
 were beautiful, stately, and charming. The gods are ideal- 
 ized virtues and vices and powers of nature, and con- 
 ceived after the fashion of heroic men and women, ar- 
 ranged in a mythology which is a marvel of taste and 
 genius. Nature is idealized, and every plant and tree 
 and fountain becomes a living being. Indeed, eveiy- 
 thing that the Greek mind touched it clothed with its 
 own ideals of beauty. Hence the drama is the most ap- 
 propriate literature for such a people, and the dialogue 
 the proper method of its philosophy.:}: 
 
 4. The Greek language has remarkable strength and 
 
 * W. Adams, Charge on occasion of the induction of Dr. Shedd as Pro' 
 /cssor of Bih. Literature, New York, 1864, p. 10. 
 
 t Schaff, yl/ostolic Church, New York, p. T45 ; Zezschwitz, Profangracital 
 itnd hihlischer Sprachgehraitch, Leipzig, 1S69, p. 13. 
 
 X Curtius, Cricch. Gesc/i., III., p. 508; History of Greece, New York, 1875, 
 rol. v., pp. 16;), 170.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 67 
 
 vigor. Its stems have been compressed, vowel and con- 
 sonant compacted together. Its words are complete in 
 themselves, ending only in vowels and the consonants 
 n, r, and s ; they have a singular independence, as the 
 Greek citizen and warrior, and are protected from muti* 
 lation and change.* It is true it has a limited numbef 
 of roots, yet it is capable of developing therefrom an in- 
 definite variety of words ; f so that although it cannot 
 approach the wealth of synonym of the Hebrew, yet its 
 words are trained as the athlete, and capable of a great 
 variety of movements and striking effects. Its syntax 
 is organized on the most perfect system, all its parts 
 compacted into a solid mass, in which the individual is 
 not lost, but gives his strength to impart to the whole 
 the weight and invincible push of ih& phalanx. Hence 
 the Greek language is peculiarly the language of ora- 
 tory that would sway the mind and conquer with invin- 
 cible argument. It is the language of a Demosthenes, 
 the model orator for the world. It wrestles with the 
 mind, it parries and thrusts, it conquers as an armed 
 host. 
 
 Such was the language with which Alexander went 
 forth to subdue the world, and which he made the com- 
 mon speech of the nations for many generations. It is 
 true that the Greek was required to forfeit somewhat of 
 its elegance and refinement in its collision with so many 
 barbarous tongues, but it lost none of its essential char- 
 acteristics when it was adopted by the Egyptian, the 
 Syrian, and the Jew. The Jews were scattered widely 
 in the earth, engaged in commercial pursuits that re- 
 
 * Curtius, Griech. Gesch., L, p. i8 ; Hist, of Greece, New York, 1875, vol. I, 
 p. 29. 
 t Jelfs, Greek Gram., 4th. ed., Oxford, 1864, p. 330.
 
 68 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 quired them, above all others, to master the common 
 speech of the nations. Hence those of Europe, Asia 
 Minor, and Africa, easily adopted the Greek as their 
 vernacular, and it gradually became more and more the 
 language of Syria and Palestine. This was furthered by 
 the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into the Greek 
 at Alexandria, the centre of the Greek culture of the 
 times, a translation which shows upon its face the diffi- 
 culties of rendering for the first time foreign conceptions 
 into a strange tongue,* but which nevertheless became 
 of incalculable importance in preparing the way for the 
 New Testament writers. The original productions of 
 the Jews of Alexandria and Palestine, many of which 
 are preserved in the apocryphal books of the Old Testa- 
 ment, combined to produce the same result. Gradually 
 the Jewish mind was modified by the Greek thought 
 and culture, and the Greek language was, on the other 
 hand, adapted to the expression of Hebrew and Ara- 
 maic conceptions. The apostles of our Lord, if they 
 were to carry on a work and exert an influence, world- 
 wide and enduring, were required, from the very circum 
 stances of the times, to use the Greek; for the Aramaic 
 would have had but a narrow and ever-diminishing in- 
 fluence, even if their labors had been confined to the 
 synagogues of the dispersed Jews. Hence we are not 
 surprised that, without an exception, so far as we know, 
 the New Testament writers composed their works in 
 Greek, yes, even gave us the Aramaic discourses of our 
 Saviour in the Greek tongue. Nor was this without its 
 [)ro\idential purpose ; for though our Saviour delivered 
 His discourses in Aramaic, yet they were not taken 
 
 * Rcuss, Ilellenistisches Idiom, in Herzog, Realencyklopadic, I. Aufl., pk 
 709, II., AuH. p. 745.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BlbLE. 69 
 
 down by the evangelists as they heard them in that 
 tongue, but were subsequently recalled to their minds 
 by the Holy Spirit, who, in accordance with the promise 
 of our Lord, brought all things to their remembrance 
 (John xiv. 26) ; so that they recalled the ideas, rather than 
 the language, and gave the ideas, therefore, the Greek 
 embodiment ; and so we have no translation of the words 
 of Jesus, but the words of Jesus as they passed through 
 the Hellenistic conception of the evangelists, colored by 
 their minds and human characteristics ; * for it was evi- 
 dently the design of God that the Saviour's words, as 
 well as acts and His glorious person, should be presented 
 to the world through those four typical evangelists, who 
 ;iLppropriately represent the four chief phases of human 
 character and experience. 
 
 The New Testament writers used the common Greek 
 of their time, yet as men who had been trained in the 
 Hebrew Scriptures and in the Aramaic methods of ex- 
 position, but above all as holy men who spake as they 
 were moved by the Holy Spirit. Hence, as the Greek 
 language had now to perform a work for which it had 
 providentially been preparing, and yet one which it had 
 never yet attempted, namely, to convey the divine rev- 
 elation to mankind, so it must be remoulded and shaped 
 by the mind of the Spirit to express ideas that were new 
 both to the Greek and the Jew, but which had been de- 
 veloping in the languages and literatures of both nations, 
 for each in its way prepared for the Gospel of Christ. f 
 Hence we are not surprised that the biblical Greek 
 should be distinguished not only from the classic 
 
 * Winer, New Test. Gram., Thayer's edit., Andover, 1^72, p. 27; Bleek's 
 Einleit. in d. N. T., 2d Aufl., Berlin, 1866, p. 76; Edin., 1869, p. 72, seq. 
 
 t Schaff, Apostolic Church, p. 146 ; also Sdiaff, History qf the Christian 
 Church, I., p. 76, seq.
 
 i^Q BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 models, but also from the literary Greek of the time 
 although when compared with the Greek of the Septua. 
 gint and the Apocrypha, it approximates more to the 
 literary Greek, being " not the slavish idiom of a trans- 
 lation, but a free, language-creating idiom, without, how- 
 ever, denying its cradle," * It is true that much of its 
 elegance and artistic finish has been lost, and the nicely- 
 rounded sentences and elaborate periods, with their deli- 
 cately-shaded conceptions, have disappeared, yet its dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics, especially its strength and 
 beauty, its perspicuity, and its logical and rhetorical 
 power, have been preserved, while to these have been 
 added the simplicity and richness, the ardor and glow 
 of the Aramaic style ; but over and above all these, the 
 language has been employed by the Spirit of God, and 
 transformed and transfigured, yes, glorified, with a light 
 and sacredness that the classic literature never possessed. 
 It is true that the writings of the New Testament are 
 not all on the same level of style and language.f The 
 gospels of Matthew and Mark, and the epistles of Peter 
 and James, together with the Apocalypse, have stronger 
 Aramaic coloring, which disturbs the Greek lines of 
 beauty, the Greek form being overpowered by the life 
 and glow of the Aramaic emotion ; yet in the writings 
 of Luke and John, but especially of Paul and the Epis- 
 tle to the Hebrews, the strength and excellence of the 
 Greek unite with the peculiarities of the Aramaic and 
 the Hebrew in striving, under the potent influence of 
 the Holy Spirit, to convey the new religion in the most 
 adequate and appropriate language and style. 
 
 * Reuss, Hellenistisches Idiom, in Herzog, I. Aud., V., p. 710; II. Aufl., 
 v., p. 747 ; Winer, New Test. Grain., p. 39. 
 
 t Immer, Ilermeneutik des Neuen Testaments, Wiltemberg, 1S73, p. 106, scq. , 
 Anier. ed., Aiulovcr, 1877, p. 132 ; Rju,-;, in /. c, p. 747.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 7| 
 
 Here the humanizing and idealistic tendencies of the 
 Greek combine with the theological and realistic tenden- 
 cies of the Hebrew and the Aramaic ; for to these New 
 Testament writers the person of Christ assumes the 
 central and determining position and influence, as yaJu 
 veh the one God did to the Old Testament writers. 
 Christ became the emperor of the Scriptures, to use 
 Luther's expression, and His person irradiated its lan- 
 guage and literature with His own light and glory. Thus 
 when the mind now strove to conceive no longer the 
 simple idea of the one God Jahveh, but the complex 
 idea of the person of Christ and the Trinity therein in- 
 volved, the Hebrew language was entirely inadequate; 
 and the Greek, as the most capable, must be strained 
 and tried to the utmost to convey the idea of the Logos, 
 who was in the beginning, was with God, and was God, 
 and yet became the Word incarnate, the God-man, the 
 interpreter in complete humanity of the fulness of the 
 Deity dwelling in Him (John i. 1-14) ; for notwithstand* 
 ing the historical preparation for this conception in the 
 theophanies of the Hebrews, the nous of Plato, the logos 
 of Philo, and the wisdom of Solomon and Sirach, it was 
 yet an entirely new conception, which, notwithstanding 
 the preparation of the Hebrew and the Greek, the world 
 could not appropriate without the transforming and en- 
 lightening influence of the Spirit of God.* So in an- 
 thropology the apostle Paul combines the Hebrew and 
 Greek conceptions in order to produce a new and perfect 
 conception. Taking the psychology of the Greek as a 
 system he gave the central place to the Hebrew ruach or 
 
 * Domer, Entivicklungsgeschichte der Lehre von der Person CJirisU 
 Stuttgart, 1845, I, p. 64 ; Edin., T. & T. Clark, 1861, pp. 44, 45 ; Schaflf, u 
 Lang^, Com. on jfo/tn, N. Y., p. 55.
 
 72 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 spirit, finding, to use the words of Zezschwitz, its " un 
 disturbed centralization in living union with the Spirit of 
 God."* He then brings out the strife of the flesh (aap^) 
 with the spirit {Ttvevjua), and the false position of the 
 psychical nature {fpvxi}) over against the spirit. So also 
 for the first he gives to the world the true conception 
 of the conscience (ffweldrfffig) as " the remnant of the 
 spirit in the psychical man," '' the divine voice," the 
 consciousness of which Socrates felt as the " summit of 
 the knowledge of the true wisdom by the Greek spirit." f 
 Jlence the development of the doctrine of sin with its 
 technical terms, and of holiness with its new ideas and 
 Jcinguage. How infinitely deeper and higher than the 
 (jreek are these conceptions of the New Testament 
 language, as the person of Christ, presented by the 
 omnipotent Spirit, convinces the world of sin, of right- 
 eousness, and of judgment (John xvi. 8). Jesus, as " the 
 only-begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth " 
 (John i. 14), assumes the place not only of the heroic ideal 
 man of the Greeks, but even of the unapproachable holy 
 Jahveh of the Hebrews. Hence the elevation of the graces 
 of meekness, patience, long-suffering, self-sacrifice ; and the 
 dethronement of the Greek virtues of strength, beauty, 
 bravery, manhood. And so in all departments of Chris- 
 tian thought, there was a corresponding elevation and 
 degradation of terms and conceptions. We need only 
 mention regeneration, redemption, reconciliation, justifi- 
 cation, sanctification, life and death, heaven and hell, 
 the church, the kingdom of God, repentance, faith, 
 Christian love, baptism, the Lord's supper, the Lord's 
 day, the advent, the judgment, the new Jerusalem, ever- 
 
 * Zezschwitz, Pro/an gracii at, etc., p. 36, seq. 
 \ Zezschwitz, in /. f., p>p. 35-57.
 
 THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 73 
 
 lasting glory.* Truly a new world was disclosed by the 
 Greek language, and the literature of the New Testa- 
 ment, as the Hebrew and the Aramaic and the Greek 
 combined their energies and capacities in the grasp of 
 the Divine creating and shaping Spirit, who transformed 
 the Greek language and created a new and holy Greek 
 literature, as the earth heaves and subsides into new 
 forms and shapes under the energy of the great forces 
 of its advancing epochs. 
 
 The especial literary development of the New Testa- 
 ment is in the sermon and the theological tract. We 
 trace these from the first beginning on the day of Pen- 
 tecost through the discourses of the book of Acts, and 
 parallel therewith the epistles of Peter and Paul and 
 John. Looking at the sermons we observe that they 
 are no longer on the Aramaic model as are the dis- 
 courses of our Lord, but we see the Greek orator as 
 well as the Aramaic rabbin. So with the epistles, espe- 
 cially of Paul, although he reminds us of the rabbinical 
 schools in his use of the halacha and haggada methods, t 
 yet they exhibit rather the dialectic methods of the 
 Greek philosopher. Thus the Greek orator and phi- 
 losopher prepared the language and style of Paul the 
 preacher and theologian no less than the Hebrew 
 prophet and wise man gave him the fundamental prin- 
 ciples of his wisdom and experience. And although 
 the Greek literature of the New Testament has no De- 
 mosthenes' " On the crown," or Plato's Republic, as it has 
 no Iliad or Prometheus ; yet it lays the foundation of 
 the sermon and the tract, which have been the literary 
 
 * Bleek, Einleitung, p. 71 ; Immer, Nermeneufik, p. 105 ; Am. ed., Ando- 
 ver, 1877, pp. 129-131; Cremer, Bib. Theol. IVorterbuch der Neu-Tcstament, 
 Gradtat and Trench, Nexu Testament Synonyms under the respective words. 
 
 t Gal. iv. 22, seq. ; Rom. iii. i, seq., etc. 
 
 4
 
 Y4 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 means of a world-transforming power, as, from the pulpit 
 and the chair, Christian ministers have stirred the hearts 
 and minds of mankind, and lead the van of progress of 
 the Christian world — for the sermon combines the pro- 
 phetic message of the Hebrew with the oratorical force 
 of the Greek, as it not only fires the heart, but strives 
 in the council-chamber of the intellect and pleads at 
 the bar of the conscience; while the epistle combines 
 the sententious wisdom of the Hebrew with the dia- 
 lectic philosophy of the Greek, in order to mould and 
 fashion the souls of men and of nations, by great vital 
 and comprehensive principles that constitute the invin- 
 cible forces of Christian history.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 
 
 The Bible is composed of a great variety of writings 
 of holy men under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, 
 in a long series extending through many centuries, pre- 
 served to us in three different original languages, the 
 Hebrew, the Chaldee, and the Greek, besides numerous 
 versions. These languages were themselves the prod- 
 ucts of three different civilizations, which having accom- 
 j)lished their purpose passed away, the languages no 
 longer being used as living speech, but preserved only in 
 written documents. They present to us a great variety 
 of literature, as the various literary styles and the various 
 literary forms of these three languages have combined 
 in this one sacred book of the Christian church, making 
 it as remarkable for its literary variety as for its religious 
 unity. 
 
 The Bible is the sacred canon of the church of Christ, 
 the infallible authority in all matters of worship, faith, 
 and practice. From this point of view it has been stud- 
 ied for centuries by Jew and Christian. Principles of in- 
 terpretation have been established and employed in 
 building up systems of religion, doctrine, and morals. 
 The divine element, which is ever the principal thing, has 
 been justly emphasized ; and the doctrine of inspiration 
 has been extended by many dogmatic divines so as to 
 
 (75)
 
 re 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 cover the external letter, the literary form and style, in 
 the theory of verbal inspiration. The fact has been too 
 often overlooked, that it has not seemed best to God to 
 create a holy language for the exclusive vehicle of His 
 Word, or to constitute peculiar literary forms and styles 
 for the expression of His revelation, or to commit the 
 keeping of the text of this Word to infallible guar- 
 dians. But on the other hand, as He employed men 
 rather than angels as the channels of His revelation, so 
 He used three human languages with all the varieties of 
 literature that had been developed in the various nations, 
 using these languages in order that He might approach 
 mankind in a more familiar way in the huma?i forms with 
 which they were acquainted and which they could readily 
 understand, and He permitted the sacred text to depend 
 for its accuracy upon the attention and care of the suc- 
 cessive generations of His people. Hence the necessity 
 of biblical criticism to determine the true canon, the 
 correct text, and the position and character of the vari- 
 ous writings. 
 
 These sacred writings might be studied from the histor- 
 ical point of view under the title. History of Biblical Lit- 
 erature, or from the dogmatic point of view as Biblical 
 Introduction ; but both of these methods of treating 
 biblical literature, unless they depend entirely upon 
 traditional opinions, presuppose the work of criticism. 
 The dogmatic method of Biblical Introduction is con- 
 trary to the genius -of biblical study. The Biblical In- 
 troductions constructed on this plan have gathered a 
 vast amount of material in a dry, scholastic, pedantic, 
 and ill-adjusted mass, so as to prejudice the student 
 against the Scriptures when he should be introduced by 
 the best methods into the sacred halls of its literature. 
 The addition of the attributes *' historical," and " histori-
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. ^7 
 
 co-critical," to " introduction " has been accompanied by 
 a corresponding internal irriprovement through the in- 
 troduction of the critical arid the historical methods, 
 but they have been kept in too subordinate a place even 
 in the works most characterized by freedorh of criticism. 
 Through the influence of Reiiss and Hupfeld the his- 
 torical method came into use as the dominant one.^ 
 But such a history of biblical literature can be con- 
 structed only after criticism has accohipHshed its work 
 of destruction and of construction, and it will be shaped 
 and controlled by criticism. Hermann Strack f thinks 
 that such a history is at present impossible on account 
 of the great diversity of opinion among critics. It is 
 true that any such history will represent the subjective 
 opinions of the historian and his school. The works of 
 Fiirst and Reuss are built upon theoretical considera- 
 tions rather than established facts. But a history of 
 biblical literature might be constructed which would 
 distinguish between facts and theories, and though it 
 might be imperfect and not altogether satisfactory, it 
 might prepare the way for something better, and it would 
 certainly present the material in a most attractive form. 
 But the dominant method in all biblical studies should 
 be the inductive and not the historical. The construc- 
 tion of a history of biblical literature would not dis- 
 pense with a system of biblical literature as a part of 
 Exegetical Theology. In the construction of this sys- 
 tem criticism will prove the most important method. 
 
 * Reuss, (fte Gesch. d. heil. Schriften N. T., 1842, 5te Aufl., 1874; Hupfeld, 
 Begriff und Metfwd d. so^enan. Hb. Einleii., 1844 ; Furst, Gesch. d. bib. LiU 
 eratur historisch uiid krtttsch behattdelt, 1867-70 ; Zahn, Euileitung in dat 
 fV. T., in Ilerzog-, Real Encyk. ii. Aufl. iv., p. 147, 1879; Reuss, Gesch. d. heil, 
 Schriften Alien Test. 1881. 
 
 t Zockler, Handbuch der theologischen Wissentcha/ten, I., 1882, p. 122.
 
 ifg BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 It seems best, therefore, to distinguish the three depart, 
 merits of Biblical Literature as, Biblical Canonics, Text' 
 ual Criticism, and Higher Criticism. 
 
 The distinction between the lower and the higher 
 criticism has long been known to scholars. These terms 
 have been more widely used than any others to discrim- 
 inate between the criticism of the text and the criticism 
 of the literary forms and contents. They are not al- 
 together satisfactory, but we shall retain them as the 
 best terms that have been suggested and in accordance 
 with the established technics of criticism. Hagenbach * 
 proposes to substitute internal and external criticism for 
 higher and lower criticism, but we have yet to learn that 
 any critic has adopted his proposition. 
 
 We propose to give in this chapter a general discus- 
 sion of criticism itself, its idea, divisions, principles, and 
 methods, and the propriety of its application to th(; 
 Bible ; in the three following chapters to treat the three 
 departments of biblical criticism separately, and in the 
 two subsequent chapters to present biblical literature in 
 its two great literary forms, as prose and poetry. 
 
 I. WHAT IS CRITICISM? 
 
 Biblical criticism is one of the departments of his- 
 torical criticism, as historical criticism is one of the 
 divisions of general criticism. Criticism is a method 
 of knowledge, and, wherever there is anything to be 
 known, the critical method has its place. Knowl- 
 edge is gained by the faculties of the human mind 
 through sense-perception, the intuitions, and the rea- 
 soning powers. If these were infallible in their work- 
 ing, and their results were always reliable, there would 
 
 * Encyklopddie,gi& Aufl., 1874, p. 164.
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 79 
 
 be no need of criticism ; but, in fact, these faculties are 
 used by fallible men who do not know how to use them, 
 or employ them in various degrees of imperfection, 
 so that human knowledge is ever a mixture of the 
 true and false, the reliable and the unreliable ; and errors 
 of individuals are perpetuated and enhanced by trans- 
 mission from man to man and from generation to gen- 
 eration. Criticism is the test of the certainty of knowl- 
 edge, the method of its verification. It examines the 
 products of human thinking and working and tests them 
 by the laws of thought and of history. It eliminates the 
 false, the uncertain, the unsubstantial from the true, the 
 certain, and the substantial. 
 
 •The unthinking rely upon their own crude knowledge 
 which they have received from their fathers and friends 
 or acquired by their narrow experience, without reflect- 
 ing upon the uncertainty necessarily attached to it. 
 But the reflecting mind which has experienced the un- 
 certainty of its own acquisitions and of those things that 
 have been transmitted to it, cannot rely upon anything 
 as really known until it has been tested and found reli- 
 able by criticism. For criticism reviews the processes 
 of thought and the arguments and evidences by which 
 its results have been acquired. It studies these prod- 
 ucts in their genesis, examines them carefully in the or- 
 der of their production, verifies and corrects them, im- 
 proves upon them where improvement is possible, 
 strengthens them where strength is needed, but also 
 destroys them when they are found to be worthless, 
 misleading, or false, as mere conceits, illusions, or fraudu- 
 lent inventions. Criticism is thus on the one side de- 
 structive, for its ofifice is to detect the false, eliminate it, 
 and destroy it. This is not infrequently a painful process 
 to the critic himsel' and to those who have allowed
 
 go BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 themselves to be deceived, and have been relying 
 upon the unreliable ; but it is indispensable to the 
 knowledge of the truth ; it is the path of safety for the 
 intellect and the morals ; it removes the obstructions to 
 progress in knowledge. The destruction of an error 
 opens up a vision of the truth, as a mote removed from 
 the eye or frost brushed from the window. For criti- 
 cism is also constructive. It tests and finds the truth 
 It rearranges truths and facts in their proper order and 
 harmony. In accordance with the strictness of its 
 methods, and the thoroughness of their application will be 
 the certainty of the results. But criticism itself, as a 
 human method of knowledge, is also defective and needs 
 self-criticism for its own rectification, security, and prog- 
 ress. It must again and again verify its methods and 
 correct its processes. Eternal vigilance is the price of 
 truth as well as of liberty. It improves its methods with 
 the advancement of human learning. In the infancy or 
 growth of a nation, or of an individual, or of the world, 
 •we do not find criticism. It belongs to the manhood 
 and maturity of a nation and the world's civilization. 
 
 Criticism requires for its exercise careful training. 
 Only those who have learned how to use its tools and 
 have employed them with the best masters, and have 
 attained a mastery of the departments of knowledge to 
 be criticised, are prepared for the delicate and difficult 
 work of criticism ; for knowledge must be attained ere 
 it can be tested. Criticism refines the crude oil of 
 knowledge. It cleanses and polishes the rough diamond 
 of thought. It removes the dross from the gold of 
 wisdom. Criticism searches all departments of knowl- 
 edge as a torch of fire consuming the hay, straw, and 
 stubble, that the truth of God may shine forth iu its 
 majesty and certainty as the imperishable and eternal
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 81 
 
 No one need fear criticism, save those who are uncer- 
 tain in their knowledge, for criticism leads to certitude. 
 It dissipates doubt. Fiat Lux is its watchword. 
 
 We are not surprised that criticism has thus far been 
 largely destructive, for there were many errors that had 
 grown up and become venerable with age, and were so 
 interwoven and embedded in systems of philosophy, of 
 theology, of law, medicine, and science, as well as the 
 manners and customs of men, that a long conflict was 
 necessary to destroy them. Mankind in general are more 
 concerned with the maintenance of established positions 
 and systems and vested interests than they are interested 
 in the truth of God and of nature. Scholars, when they 
 see the venerable errors, hesitate to destroy them for fear 
 of damaging their own interests or those of their friends, 
 and sometimes out of anxiety for the truth, with which 
 the error is entangled. But in the providence of God, 
 some great doubter like Voltaire, Hume or Strauss, or 
 some great reformer like Luther or Zwingli, arises to lay 
 violent hands upon the systems in which truth and error 
 are combined, raze them to the ground and trample them 
 in the dust, that from the ruins the imperishable truth 
 may be gathered up and arranged in its proper order 
 and harmony. 
 
 The modern world since the Reformation has become 
 more and more critical, until the climax has been reached 
 in our day. The destruction of error has been the chief 
 duty of criticism, but its constructive work has not 
 been neglected, and this will more and more rise into 
 importance in the progress of knowledge. It is not with- 
 out significance that the age of the world most charac- 
 terized by the spirit of criticism has been the age of the 
 most wonderful progress in all departments of human 
 knowledge. 
 4*
 
 32 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Criticism divides itself into various branches in accord 
 ance with the departments of knowledge: (i) Philosoph- 
 ical Criticism ; (2) Historical Criticism ; and (3) Scientific 
 Criticism. Limiting ourselves to historical criticism 
 we distinguish it from other criticism, in that it has to 
 do with the materials of the past, the sources of the his- 
 tory of mankind ; as philosophical criticism has to do 
 with the facts of human consciousness, and scientific 
 criticism with the facts of external nature. Historical 
 criticism deals with the various sources of history ; liter- 
 ary documents, monuments, laws, customs, institutions, 
 traditions, legends, and myths. The great importance 
 of the literary sources justifies their separation in the 
 distinct branch of literary criticism. Biblical criticism 
 is one of the sections of literary criticism, as it has tc 
 do with the sacred literature of the Christian Church. 
 
 II. THE PRINCIPLES OF CRITICISM. 
 
 The principles and methods of Biblical Criticism will 
 thus embrace (i) those of Criticism in general, (2) of His- 
 torical Criticism, (3) of Literary Criticism, and (4) of Bibli- 
 cal Criticism. Biblical Criticism has thus the advantage 
 of all this preliminary work in other fields to guide and 
 illustrate its own peculiar work. 
 
 I. From General Criticism it derives the fundamental 
 laws of thought, which must not be violated, such as the 
 laws of identity, of contradiction, of exclusion, and of 
 sufficient reason ; * also the laws of probation, which must 
 be applied to all reasoning : There must be no begging 
 of the question at issue, no reasoning backward and for- 
 ward or in a circle, no jumping at conclusions, no set- 
 
 * Sir \Vm. Hamilton, Logic, Boston, i860, p. 57 ; also McCosh, Laws of 
 Disatnive Thought^ N. Y., 1871, p. 195, seq.
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 83 
 
 ting out to prove one thing and then insensibly sub- 
 stituting another thing in its place.* These laws of 
 probation are the sharp tools of the critic with which he 
 tests all the acquisitions of the human mind and all the 
 reasonings of scholars in all departments of knowledge.f 
 
 2. From Historical Criticism Biblical Criticism derives 
 the principles of historic genesis. The evidences of history 
 belong to the past. They are oral, written, or monu- 
 mental. They have passed through several stages before 
 they reached us. They must be traced back to their 
 origin in order to determine whether they are genuine ; 
 or whether they have been invented as interesting sto- 
 ries for hours of idleness and recreation, or as forgeries 
 with the intent to deceive ; or whether there is a min- 
 gling of these various elements that need to be separated 
 and distinguished.:}: 
 
 The order and processes of the development of the 
 material must be considered in order to determine its 
 integrity, or how far it has been modified by external 
 influences or the struggle of internal inconsistencies, and 
 how far the earlier and the later elements may be distin- 
 guished and the excrescences removed from the original. 
 
 The character of the material must be studied in order 
 to determine how far it is reliable and trustworthy ; 
 whether it is in accordance with the experience of man- 
 kind, and so natural ; or contrary to that experience, and 
 so unnatural or supernatural ; whether it is in harmony 
 with itself and consistent with its own conditions and 
 
 * Sir Wm. Hamilton, Logic, p. 369 ; McCosh, Laws of Discursive Thought, 
 p. 183, seq. 
 
 t An excellent application of these principles to Piblical Criticism is found in 
 th; article of Willis J. Beecher on the Logical Methods of Professor Kuenen^ in 
 the Presbyterian Review, 1882, III., p. 701, seq. 
 
 X Gieseler, Text-Book of Church History. N. Y., 1857, 1., p. 23.
 
 g4 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 circumstances ; whether there are disturbing influences 
 that determine the material so as to warp or color it 
 and how far these influences extend.* 
 
 The value of the materials of history depends upon 
 such considerations as these; also upon the nearness or 
 remoteness of the material to the matters concerning 
 which they render testimony ; upon the extent and vari- 
 ety of evidence, if that extent and variety are primitive 
 and not derived from an original source upon which 
 they all depend. The consistency and persistence of 
 materials are also evidences of vitality and inherent 
 strength of evidence. 
 
 The sources of history that cannot bear this criticism 
 are not reliable sources. The application of these sim- 
 j)le tests removes from the pages of history numberless 
 legends, fables, and myths, and determines the residuum 
 of truth and fact that underlies them. It is distressing 
 to part with the sweet stories which have been told us 
 in our early life, and which have been handed down by 
 the romancers from the childhood and youth of our 
 race. We may still use them as stories, as products of 
 the imagination, but we dare not build on them as his- 
 toric verities. As men we must know the truth. We 
 cannot afford to deceive ourselves or others. 
 
 Many of these legends and traditions have strongly 
 intrenched themselves and lie like solid rocks in the 
 path of historic investigation. They must be exploded 
 to get at the truth, and this cannot be done without 
 noise and confusion ; and outcries of alarm from the 
 weak and timid, and those who are interested in the 
 maintenance of error and court popularity by an ap- 
 peal to prejudices. Sometimes these traditions may be 
 
 ■'^ See Droysen, Grundriss der Hisiorik. Leipzig, 1868. pp. 16-17.
 
 THE BIBLE Al^D ORlTlCTSM. 85 
 
 overcome by positive evidence obtained by careful re- 
 search in ancient documents, and by parallel lines of evi- 
 dence. But it is not always possible to obtain sufficient 
 external positive evidence. Sometimes we have to rely 
 upon a long-continued and unbroken silence, and some- 
 times we have to challenge the tradition and reject it 
 from sheer lack of evidence and the suspicious circum- 
 stances of its origin and growth. 
 
 3. From Literary Criticism Biblical Criticism derives its 
 chief principles and methods. As literature it must first 
 be considered as text. The MSS., versions, and cita- 
 tions are studied in order to attain, as far as possible, the 
 ')riginals.* The laws of the transmission of books are 
 I0 be determined. The sources of error in the text are 
 the carelessness, ignorance, or inadvertence of the copy- 
 ists. We have to consider the mistakes which they were 
 liable to make, such as in words of similar sound, in 
 letters of like form, in the repetition of words in passing 
 from line to line, in the omission or insertion of words 
 or clauses by slips of the eye, in the transfer of explana- 
 tory notes from the margin to the text. The errors in 
 translation arise from lack of knowledge of the original, 
 or inability to give adequate expression to the idea of 
 the original, save by paraphrase, and in defective judg- 
 ment as to the best way of rendering it. Errors in cita- 
 tion arise from slips of the memory and the desire to 
 use a part and not the whole of the passage, or the 
 adaptation of it to circumstances beyond the scope of 
 the original. There are also errors in the text because of 
 the wear and tear of time in the destruction of MSS., ren- 
 
 * A statement of the principles of Textual Criticism in relation to the New 
 Testament may be found in the article of Prof. B. B. Warfield on The C-reeh 
 Testament of Westeott and Hort. Presbyterian Review, III., 1S82, p. 334, 
 uq.
 
 gg BIBLICAL 8TUDT. 
 
 dering them illegible, indistinct, or mutilated, and through 
 the efforts to restore them.''^ The value of the MSS. 
 must first be considered, their interrelation and antiq- 
 uity and history. They must be arranged in families 
 or groups that their relative authority may be estab- 
 lished.f The value of the MSS. having been deter- 
 mined, we are prepared to examine the relative value of 
 the readings. The principles on which this is done are : 
 (i) The reading which lies at the root of all the varia- 
 tions and best explains them is to be preferred. (2) The 
 most difficult reading is more likely to be correct from 
 the natural tendency of the scribe to make his text as 
 easy and intelligible as possible, and the natural process 
 of simplification in transmission.:}: (3) The reading most 
 in accordance with the context, and especially with the 
 style and usage of the author and his times, is to be 
 preferred. This is on the principle of consistency and 
 " intrinsic probability." § 
 
 4. Having secured the best text of the writings, criti- 
 cism devotes itself to the higher task of considering 
 them as to integrity, authenticity, literary form, and re- 
 liability. This is appropriately called Higher Criticism. 
 This branch of criticism has established its principles 
 
 * See Cappellus, Criiica Sacra, 1650, Lib. I. ; Scrivener, Introduction to the 
 Criticism of the New Testament, 1874, p. 7, seq. ; Isaac Taylor, History of 
 the Transmission of Ancient Books to Modern Times, new edition. Liver- 
 pool, 1879, p. 22 ; also Westcott and Hort, New Testament in the Origifiat 
 Greek, Vol. II., Introduction, N. Y., 1882, p. 5, seq. 
 
 t See Scrivener in /. c, p. 404, seq. Westcott and Hort deserve great credit 
 lor their elaboration of this principle in /. c, p. 39, seq. 
 
 X These two principles are combined by Westcott and Hort in /. c, p. 22, seq., 
 under the term " transcriptional probability." 
 
 § See Westcott and Hort in /. c, p. 20, seq. Scrivener expands these prina- 
 ples to seven in number in /. c, p. 436, seq. ; Davidson, Treatise of Biblical 
 Criticism, Boston, 1853, p. 386, seq., gives principles of Textual Criticism for 
 the Old Testament.
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. QY 
 
 and methods of work. Thus the learned Roman Cath. 
 olic, Du Pin, in the introduction to his magnificent 
 work on ecclesiastical writers, gives an admirable state- 
 ment of them with reference to those ecclesiastical writ- 
 ers before the higher criticism of the Scriptures had 
 fairly begun. We shall build largely upon him in the 
 statement of principles.* 
 
 The questions to be determined by higher criticism are : 
 (i) As to the integrity of the writings. Is the writing 
 the work of a single author or is it a collection of writ- 
 ings of different authors ? Is it in its original condition, 
 or has it been edited or interpolated by later writers ? 
 Can the parts be discriminated, the original form of the 
 writing determined, and the different steps in interpola- 
 tion and editing traced ? 
 
 (2) As to the authenticity of the writings. Is the writ 
 ing anonymous, pseudonymous, or does it bear the au 
 thor's name ? If the author's name is given, is the title 
 genuine or is it a forgery ? What reliance can be placed 
 upon tradition with regard to the authorship of anony- 
 mous writings ? 
 
 (3) As to literary features. What is the style of the 
 author, his method of composition ? What literary 
 form does he assume, poetry or prose, and what variety 
 of these general forms ? 
 
 (4) As to the credibility of the writings. Is the writ- 
 ing reliable ? Do its statements accord with the truth, 
 or are they colored and warped by prejudice, supersti- 
 tion, or reliance upon insufficient or unworthy testimony ? 
 What character does the author bear as to prudence, 
 good judgment, fairness, integrity, and critical sagacity? 
 
 * Nouvelle Bibliotheque des Auteurs Hcclesiastiques, Paris, 1694 ; New His* 
 tjry 0/ Ecclesiastical Writers, London, 1696.
 
 gg BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 These questions of the higher criticism are to be de 
 termined by the following principles : * 
 
 (i) The writing must be in accordance with its sup- 
 posed historic position as to time and place and circum- 
 stances. 
 
 " Time is one of the most certain proofs ; for nothing more evi- 
 dently shows that a book cannot belong to that time wherein it is 
 pretended to have been written, than when we find in it some marks 
 of a later date. These marks, in the first place, are false dates ; for 
 'tis an ordinary- thing for impostors, that are generally ignorant, to 
 date a book after the death of the author to whom they ascribe it, 
 or of the person to whom they ascribe it, or of the person to whom 
 it is dedicated, or written ; and even when they do fix the time right, 
 yet they often mistake in the names of the consuls, or in some other 
 ( ircumstances : All which are invincible proofs that he that dated 
 Miis book did not live at that time. Secondly, impostors very often 
 speak of men that lived long after the death of those persons to 
 whom they attribute those spurious discourses, or they relate the his- 
 tory of some passages that happened afterwards, or they speak of 
 cities and people that were unknown at the time, when those authors 
 wrote " t 
 
 (2) Differences of style imply differences of expe- 
 rience and age of the same author, or, when sufBciently 
 great, differences of author and of period of composition. 
 
 " In short, stile is a sort of touchstone, that discovers the truth 
 or falsehood of books; because it is impossible to imitate the stile 
 of any author so perfectly as that there will not be a great deal of dif- 
 ference. By the stile, we are not only to understand the bare words 
 and terms, which are easily imitated ; but also the turn of the dis- 
 course, the manner of writing, the elocution, the figures, and the 
 
 * A brief statement of these principles is presented in relation to Biblical Critr« 
 tism by Prof. Henry P. Smith, in his article on the Critical Theories 0/ Juliui 
 IVe/l/iattsett, Presbyterian Review^ 1882, III., p. 370. 
 
 + Du Pin, New History of Ecclesiastical Writers. 3d edition, corrected. 
 London, 1696, p. vii. seq.
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 89 
 
 method : All which particulars, it is a difficult matter so to counter- 
 feit as to prevent a discovery. There are, for instance, certain au- 
 thors, whose stile is easily known, and which it is impossible to im- 
 itate : We ought not, however, always to reject a book upon a sligh 
 difference of stile, without any other proofs ; because it often hap- 
 pens that authors write differently, in different times : Neither ought 
 we immediately to receive a book as genuine, upon the bare resem- 
 blance of stile, when there are other proofs of its being spurious ; 
 because it may so happen, that an ingenious man may sometimes 
 counterfeit the stile of an author, especially in discourses which are 
 not very long. But the difference and resemblance of stile may be 
 so remarkable sometimes, as to be a convincing proof, either of truth 
 or falsehood " (in /. c, p. viii.). 
 
 (3) Differences of opinion and conception imply dif- 
 ferences of author when these are sufficiently great, and 
 also differences of period of composition. 
 
 " The opinions or things contained in a book, do likewise discover 
 the forgery of it: (i) When we find some opinions there, that were 
 not maintained till a long time after the author, whose name it bears. 
 (2) When we find some terms made use of, to explain these doc- 
 trines, which were not customary till after his death. (3) When the 
 author opposes errors, as extant in his own time, that did not spring 
 up till afterwards. (4) When he describes ceremonies, rites and 
 customs that were not in use in his time. (5) When we find some 
 opinions in these spurious discourses, that are contrary to those that 
 are to be found in other books, which unquestionably belong to that 
 author. (6) When he treats Of matters that were never spoken of 
 in the time when the real author was alive. (7) When he relates 
 histories that are manifestly fabulous " (in /. c, p. viii.). 
 
 (4) Citations show the dependence of the author upon 
 the author or authors cited, where these are definite and 
 the identity of the author cited can be clearly estab-^ 
 lished. In cases of doubt as to which author uses the' 
 other, or whether two or more authors may not depend 
 upon an earlier author; this doubt can be resolved only 
 by the careful determination of the exact interrelation
 
 90 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of the passages and the genesis of the one out of the 
 other. This is the most difficult principle of the highet 
 criticism in its application, Du Pin simply attaches it 
 to No. (i), "or lastly, they cite authors that wrote and 
 lived after those whom they make to mention them." 
 
 These four principles are embraced under the mternal 
 evidence. To them we must now add two principles of 
 external evidence. 
 
 (5) Positive testimony as to the writing in other writ- 
 ings of acknowledged authority. 
 
 (6) The silence of authorities as to the writing in ques- 
 tion. These are combined by Du Pin : 
 
 " The external proofs are, in the first place, taken from ancient 
 manuscripts ; in which either we do not find the name of an author : 
 or else we find that of another : The more ancient or correct they 
 are, the more we ought to value them. Secondly, from the testimony 
 or silence of ancient authors ; from their testimony, I say, when they 
 formally reject a writing as spurious, or when they attribute it t(> 
 some other author ; or from their silence when they do not speak oi 
 it, though they have occasion to mention it : This argument, which 
 is commonly called a negative one, is oftentimes of very great 
 weight. When, for example, we find, that several entire books which 
 are attributed to one of the ancients, are unknown to all antiquity : 
 When all those persons that have spoken of the works of an author, 
 and besides, have made catalogues of them, never mention such a 
 particular discourse : When a book that would have been sei"vice- 
 able to the Catholics has never been cited by them, who both might 
 and ought to have cited it, as having a fair occasion to do it, 'tis ex- 
 treamly probable that it is supposititious. It is very certain that this 
 is enough to make any book doubtful, if it was never cited by any 
 of the ancients ; and in that case it must have very authentik char- 
 acters of antiquity, before it ought to be received without contradic- 
 t'on. And on the other hand, if there should be never so few con- 
 jectures of its not being genuine, yet these, together with the silence 
 of the ancients, will be sufficient to oblige us to believe it to be a 
 forgery " (in /. c, p. viii.).
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 91 
 
 The argument from silence has risen to so much 
 greater importance than it was in the seventeenth cent- 
 ury that we shall venture to define it more narrowly. 
 
 {a) Silence is a lack of evidence, when it is clear that 
 the matter in question did not come within the scope of 
 the author's argument. 
 
 {b) It is an evidence that it had certain characteristics 
 that excluded it from the author's argument. 
 
 {c) The matter in question lies fairly within the au- 
 thor's scope, and was omitted for good and sufficient 
 reasons that may be ascertained. The omission was in- 
 tentional. 
 
 {d) The silence of the author as to that which was 
 within the scope of his argument was unconscious and 
 implies ignorance of the matter. 
 
 {e) When the silence extends over a variety of writings 
 of different authors, of different classes of writings and 
 different periods of composition, it implies either somt; 
 strong and overpowering external restraint such as divine 
 interposition, or ecclesiastical or civil power, or it im- 
 plies a general and wide-spread public ignorance whiclx 
 presents a strong presumptive evidence in favor of the 
 non-existence of the matter in question.* 
 
 The internal evidence must be used with great caution 
 and sound judgment, for an able and learned forger 
 might imitate so as to deceive the most expert, and the 
 author of a pseudepigraph might intentionally place his 
 writing in an earlier age of the world and in circum- 
 stances best suited to carry out his idea. But sooner or 
 later a faithful and persistent application of the critical 
 
 * For an elaboration and explanation of these principles we must refer to the 
 author's paper on the argument e silentio, read before the Socie'y of Biblical 
 Literature and Exegesis in June, 1883, and published in their Journal, for 
 1883.
 
 92 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 tests will determine the forgeries and the pseudepigraphs 
 and assign them their real literary position. As to the 
 relative value of the internal artd external evidence we 
 cannot do better than use the judicious words of Sir 
 VVm. Hamilton : " But if our criticism from the internal 
 grounds alone be, on the one hand, impotent to estab- 
 lish, it is, on the other hand, omnipotent to disprove." * 
 The importance of this higher criticism is so well 
 stated by Du Pin, that we will again quote him : 
 
 " Criticism is a kind of torch, that lights and conducts us in the 
 obscure tracts of antiquity, by making us to distinguish truth from 
 falsehood, history from fable, and antiquity from novelty. 'Tis by 
 this means, that in our times we have disengaged ourselves from an 
 infinite number of very common errors, into which our fathers fell 
 for want of examining things by the rules of true criticism. For 'tis 
 a surprising thing to consider how many spurious books we find in 
 antiquity ; nay, even in the first ages of the Church " (in /. c, p. vii.). 
 
 In order to illustrate these principles of the higher 
 criticism, we shall present a few specimens of their appli- 
 cation. 
 
 The first illustration that we shall give is with refer- 
 ence to the question of integrity. The so-caKed Apos- 
 tles' Creed is the most sacred writing exterior to the 
 canon of Scripture. 
 
 " Till the middle of the seventeenth century it was thr. cn^ rent be- 
 lief of Roman Catholic and Protestant Christendom that the Apos- 
 tles' Creed was ' tne?nbratu7n articulatmnqtie,' composed t>y the apos- 
 tles in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, or before their separation ; 
 to secure unity of teaching, each contributing an article (hence the 
 somewhat arbitrary division into twelve articles)." 
 
 The arguments adduced by Dr. Schaff to prov<; that 
 this tradition is false, are: (i) The intrinsic im^iroba 
 
 * Lo£:c, p. 471.
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. ^^ 
 
 hility of such a mechanical composition. (2) The silence 
 of Scripture. (3) The silence of the apostolic fathers and 
 all the Ante-Nicene and Nicene fathers and synods. (4) 
 The variety in form of the creed down to the eighth 
 century. (5) The fact that the Apostles' Creed never 
 had any currency in the East where the Nicene creed 
 occupies its place.* 
 
 Lumby goes into the matter of the structure of the 
 creed more fully, and shows the process of its formation 
 and all the changes through which it passed, until it 
 gradually, in 750 A.D., assumed its present stereotyped 
 form.f 
 
 The best illustration of the higher criticism with 
 reference to the question of authenticity, is afforded 
 by Bentley in his celebrated work on the epistles of 
 Phalaris.:}: Bentley proves these epistles to be forgeries 
 (•f a sophist: I. By internal evidence, (i) They do not 
 accord with their presumed age, but with other ages. 
 They mention {a) Aloesa, a city which was not built till 
 140 years after the latest year of Phalaris ; ip) Theridean 
 cups, which were not known until 120 years after the 
 death of Phalaris ; [c) Messana, as a different city from 
 Zaude, whereas it was a later name for the same city, 
 and not changed till -60 years after the death of Pha- 
 laris ; {(V) Taurominium, 140 years before it was ever 
 thought of. 
 
 (2) Differences of style : {a) the use of the Attic dialect 
 instead of the Doric, the speech of Phalaris, and indeed 
 not the old Attic, but the new Attic that was not used 
 till centuries after Phalaris' time. 
 
 * Schaff, Creeds 0/ Christendom, New York, 1877, I., p. 19. 
 + Lumby, History 0/ the Creeds, Cambridge, 1873, p. 169, seq. 
 % A Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris, London, 1659, a new edition 
 edited by Wilhelm Wagner, London, 1883.
 
 04 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 (3) Differences of thought : {a) reference to tragedy be- 
 fore tragedy came into existence ; {b) use of Attic and 
 not Sicilian talents in speaking of money : {c) use of the 
 word Ttpovoia for Divine Providence, which was not 
 used before Plato, and noaj^o^ for the universe, which 
 was not so used before Pythagoras ; id) inconsistencies 
 between the ideas and matter of the epistle, which are 
 those of a sophist, and the historical character of 
 Phalaris as a politician and tyrant. 
 
 (4) Relation to other writers. He uses Herodotus, 
 Demosthenes, Euripides. 
 
 n. The external evidences are : (5) testimony. Atossa 
 is said to have been the first inventor of epistles. 
 Hence those that carry the name oi Phalaris two gener- 
 ations earlier must be impostures. 
 
 (6) Silence. There is a thousand years of silence as 
 to these epistles. " For had our letter been used or 
 transcribed during that thousand years, somebody would 
 have spoken of it, especially since so many of the an- 
 cients had occasion to do so ; so that their silence is a 
 direct argument that they never had heard of them."* 
 We have dwelt at some length upon the principles and 
 methods of the higher criticism, because of their great 
 importance in our day with reference to the Scriptures 
 and the lack of information concerning them that pre- 
 vails to an astonishing degree among men who make 
 some pretensions to scholarship. 
 
 III. THE CRITICISM OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 Thus far Biblical Criticism has derived from other 
 branches of criticism the principles and methods of its 
 work. Has it not, however, some peculiar features of 
 
 * New edition, 1883, p. 481.
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 95 
 
 its own, as it has to do with the sacred canon of the 
 Christian Church? Does the fact that the canon of 
 sacred Scripture is holy, inspired, and of divine author- 
 ity, hft it above criticism, or does it give additional 
 features of criticism that enable us to test the genuine- 
 ness of these claims respecting it? We hold that the 
 latter is the true and only safe position, and that it 
 should be our effort to determine these principles and 
 methods. We reserve this question for our following 
 chapter. In the meanwhile we have to meet on the 
 threshold of our work the a priori objections that would 
 obstruct our progress in the application of the principles 
 and methods of criticism to the Bible. 
 
 Biblical Criticism is confronted by traditional views of 
 the Bible that do not wish to be disturbed, and by dog- 
 matic statements respecting the Bible which decline 
 reinvestigation and revision. The claim is put forth 
 that these traditional views and dogmatic statements are 
 in accordance with the Scriptures and the symbols of 
 the Church, and that the orthodox faith is put in peril 
 by criticism. 
 
 It should be distinctly recognized at the outset that 
 such claims as these can only influence the adherents of 
 the church, and, at the utmost, debar them from the 
 exercise of criticism. They cannot be more than amus- 
 ing to the unbelieving and the sceptical, who care but 
 little for the church and still less for theologians and 
 their orthodoxy. They will use the tests of criticism 
 without restraint. We cannot prevent them. The 
 question is whether Christian scholars also shall be 
 enti led to use them in defence of the Scriptures, or 
 whether that defence is to be left in the hands of dog- 
 matic theologians and scholastics. A still further re- 
 mark is necessary just here in the mterests of truth
 
 90 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 and honesty. Wh) should the Scriptures fear the most 
 searching investigation ? If they are truly the Word of 
 God they will maintain themselves and vindicate them- 
 selves in the battle of criticism. If we are sure of this, 
 let us rejoice in the conflict that will lead to victory ; 
 if we are in doubt of it, it is best that our doubts 
 should be removed as soon as possible. Then let the 
 tests be applied, and let us know in whom and what we 
 believe.* 
 
 It is pretended that the Church doctrine of inspira- 
 tion is in peril, and that the authority of the Scriptures 
 is thereby undermined. If there were one clearly de- 
 fined orthodox doctrine of inspiration to which all 
 evangelical men agreed, as supported by Scripture and 
 the Protestant confessions, our task would be easier. 
 But, in fact, there are various theories of inspiration, 
 and several ways of stating the doctrine of inspiration 
 that are without support in Scripture or symbol. It is 
 necessary, therefore, to discriminate, in order to deter- 
 mine exactly what is in peril, whether inspiration itself 
 and the authority of the Scriptures, or some particular 
 and false theor>' of inspiration and the authority of some 
 theologian or school of theology. 
 
 The doctrine of inspiration may be constructed (i) 
 by a careful, painstaking study of the sacred Scriptures 
 themselves, gathering together their testimony as to 
 their own origin, character, design, value, and authority. 
 This gives us the biblical doctrine of the Scriptures and 
 the doctrine of inspiration as a part of Biblical Theology. 
 (2) The doctrine of inspiration may be constructed from 
 a study of the symbolical books of the Church, which 
 express the faith of the Church as attained in the great 
 
 * Robert Rainy, Bible and Criticism^ London, 1878, p. 33.
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 9^ 
 
 crises of its history, in the study of the Scriptures, in the 
 experiences and life of men. This gives us the symbol- 
 ical, or orthodox, or Church doctrine of inspiration. (3) 
 The doctrine of inspiration may be constructed by a 
 study of Scripture and symbol, and the logical unfold- 
 ing of the results of a more extended study of the 
 whole subject in accordance with the dominant philo- 
 sophical and theological principles of the times. This 
 gives us the dogmatic, or school, or traditional doctrine 
 %A inspiration as it has been established in particular 
 hchools of theology, and has become traditional in the 
 long-continued teaching of the Church and the pulpit, in 
 the various particular theories of inspiration that have 
 been formulated. 
 
 As we rise in the doctrinal process from the sim- 
 ple biblical statements, unformulated as they lie in the 
 sacred writings or formulated in Biblical Theology, to 
 the more complex and abstract statements of the sym- 
 bols expressing the formulated consensus of the leaders 
 of the Church in the formative periods of history, and 
 then to the more theoretical and scholastic statements 
 of the doctrinal treatises of the theologians, while the 
 doctrine becomes more and more complex, massive, con- 
 sistent, and imposing, and seems, therefore, to become 
 more authoritative and binding ; in reality the authority 
 diminishes in this relative advance in systematization, so 
 that what is gained in extension is lost in intension ; for 
 the construction is a construction of sacred materials by 
 human and fallible minds, with defective logic, failing 
 sometimes to justify premises, and leaping to conclu- 
 sions that cannot always be defended, and in a line and 
 direction determined by the temporary and provisional 
 conditions and necessities of the times, neglecting modi- 
 fying circumstances and conditions. The concrete that 
 5
 
 1)8 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 the Bible gives us is for all time, as it is the living and 
 eternal substance ; though changeable, it reproduces and 
 so perpetuates itself in a wonderful variety of forms of 
 beauty, yet all blending and harmonizing as the colors 
 of the clouds and skies under the painting of the sun- 
 beams ; but the abstract is the formal and the perish- 
 able, as it is broken through and shattered by the pulsa- 
 tions and struggles of the living and developing truth of 
 God, ever striving for expression and adaptation to 
 every different condition of mankind, in the different 
 epochs and among the various races of the world. 
 
 The course of religious history has clearly established 
 the principle that there is a constant tendency in all re- 
 ligions, and especially in the Christian religion, in the 
 systematic or dogmatic statement to constrain the sym- 
 bol as well as the Scriptures into the requirements oi 
 the particular formative principle and the needs of the 
 particular epoch. The dogmatic scheme is too often 
 the mould into which the gold of the Scriptures and the 
 silver of the creed are poured to coin a series of defini- 
 tions, and fashion a system of theology which not only 
 breaks up the concrete and harmonious whole of tlie 
 Scriptures into fragments, stamping them with the im- 
 print of the particular conception of the theologian in 
 order to their reconstruction ; but not infrequently the 
 constructed system becomes an idol of the theologian 
 and his pupils, as if it were the orthodox, the divine 
 truth, while a mass of valuable scriptural and symboli- 
 cal material is cast aside in the process, and lies neg- 
 lected in the workshop. In course of time the symbols 
 as well as the Scriptures are overlaid with glosses and 
 perplexing explanations, so that they become either 
 dark, obscure, and uncertain to the ordinary reader, or 
 else have their meanings deflected and perverted, until
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. ^ 
 
 they are once more grasped by a living, energetical faith 
 in a revived state of the Church, and burst forth from 
 their scholastic fetters, that Scripture, creed, and life 
 may once more correspond. While traditionalism and 
 scholasticism have not prevailed in the Protestant 
 Church to the same extent as in the Greek and Roman 
 churches, for the right of private judgment and the uni- 
 versal priesthood of believers have maintained their 
 ground with increasing vigor in Western Europe and 
 America since the Reformation ; yet it is no less true 
 that the principle of traditionalism is ever at work in 
 the chairs of theology and in the pulpits of the Church ; 
 so that in seeking for truth and in estimating what is 
 binding on faith and conscience, even Protestants must 
 distinctly separate the three things : Bible, symbol, and 
 tradition ; the Bible, the sole infallible norm ; the sym- 
 bol, binding those who hold to the body of which it is 
 the banner ; while tradition demands at the most our re- 
 spect, and reverence, and careful consideration, and the 
 presumption in its favor; but must be tried and criti- 
 cised by every thinking man, and every living, energetic 
 Christian. 
 
 It is of vast importance that we should make these 
 distinctions on the threshold of the study of the critical 
 theories ; for there is no field in which tradition has 
 been more hasty in its conclusions, more busy in their 
 formation, more dogmatic and sensitive to criticism 
 more reluctant and stubborn to give way to the truth, 
 than in the sacred fields of the Divine Word. Thus 
 criticism is confronted at the outset now as ever with 
 two a priori objections. 
 
 1st. There are those who maintain that their tradi- 
 tional views of the sacred Scriptures are inseparably 
 bound up with the church doctrine of inspiration, so
 
 IQQ BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 that even if they should be in some respects doubtful 
 or erroneous, they must be left alone for fear of the de- 
 struction of the doctrine of inspiration itself. This is 
 true of those traditional theories of inspiration which in 
 some quarters have expanded so as to cover a large part 
 of the ground of Exegetical Theology, and commit them- 
 selves to theories of text and author, date, style, and in- 
 tegrity of writings, in accordance with a common, but, 
 in our judgment, an injudicious method of discussing 
 the whole Bible under the head of bibliology in the pro- 
 legomena of the dogmatic system ; but this is not true of 
 the symbolical doctrine of inspiration, still less of the 
 scriptural doctrine. The most that this objection can 
 require of the critics is, that they should be careful and 
 cautious of giving offence, or of needlessly shocking prej- 
 udices ; that they should be respectful and reverent of 
 the faith of the people and of revered theologians ; but 
 it is not to be supposed that it will make them recreant 
 to their trust of seeking earnestly, patiently, persist- 
 ently, and prayerfully for the truth of God. It may be 
 found that the school doctrines of inspiration have ob- 
 truded themselves in place of the symbolical and script- 
 ural doctrine, and it may be necessary to destroy these 
 school doctrines in order to the safety of the biblical 
 and symbolical doctrine. However distressing this may 
 be to certain dogmatic divines and their adherents, it 
 may afford gratification to all sincere lovers of the truth 
 of God. 
 
 2d. There are those who claim that their traditional 
 theory is the logical unfolding of the doctrine of the 
 Symbols and the Scriptures. But this is begging the 
 very question at issue which will not be yielded. Why 
 should dogmatic theologians claim exemption from criti- 
 cism and the testing of the grounds of their systems?
 
 THE BIBLE AND CKITICISM. 101 
 
 Such an arbitrary claim for deductions and conse- 
 quences is one that no true critic or historian ought to 
 concede ; for, by so doing, he abandons at once the 
 right and ground of criticism, and the inductive meth- 
 ods of historical and scientific investigation, and sacri- 
 fices his material to the dogmatist and scholastic, sur- 
 rendering the concrete for the abstract. The very sensi- 
 tiveness to criticism displayed in some quarters justifies 
 the critics in their suspicion that the theories are weak 
 and will not sustain investigation. 
 
 Traditional theories cannot overcome critical theories 
 with either of these a priori objections of apprehended 
 peril to faith or logical inconsistencies, but must submit 
 to the test of the symbol and the Scriptures to which 
 the critics appeal as the arbiters against tradition. The 
 characteristic principle of Puritanism is that : 
 
 " God alone is Lord of the conscience, and hath left it free from 
 the doctrines and commandments of men, which are in anything 
 contrary to His Word or beside it in matters of faith and worship ; 
 so that, to believe such doctrine, or to obey such commandments 
 out of conscience, is to betray true liberty of conscience ; and the 
 requiring an implicit faith, and an absolute and blind obedience, is 
 to destroy liberty of conscience and reason also."* 
 
 Biblical criticism bases its historic right on the princi- 
 ples of the Reformation and of Puritanism over against 
 the Roman Catholic principle of the supremacy of tradi- 
 tion and dogma. On this basis the Protestant symbols 
 have been accepted and subscribed by honest and faith- 
 ful men for iht'w face value for all that is fairly contained 
 therein, and not for certain unknown and undiscovered 
 consequences which may have a chance majority or the 
 most authoritative teachers. Symbols of faith are the ex- 
 
 * Westminster Con/, of Faith, xx. 2 ; see also A. F. Mitchell, The Westminf 
 tter Assembly : its History and Standards, London, 1883, pp. 8, seq., 465.
 
 IQ2 BreLICAL STUDY. 
 
 pression of the faith of those who constructed them, and 
 of those who subsequently adopted them, so far as they 
 give expression to Christian doctrine ; but, with regard 
 to those questions not covered by their statements, 
 which they may have held in abeyance, or purposely 
 omitted on account of disagreement, and in order to lib- 
 erty, or because they were not suited for a national con- 
 fession or a child's catechism, or because they had not 
 yet arisen in the field of controversy, — to bring these in 
 by the plea of logical deduction, is to elaborate and en- 
 large the creed against the judgment of those who 
 framed it, is to usurp the constitutional methods of 
 revision, is to dogmatize and obstruct those active, ener- 
 getic scholars, who, having accepted them for their face 
 value as a genuine expression of their faith, push forth 
 into the unexplored fields of the Bible and theology, in 
 order, by the inductive method and the generalization 
 of facts, rather than by deductions from symbolic or 
 scholastic statements, to win new triumphs for their 
 Divine Master. 
 
 These preliminary observations are necessary, in order 
 to clear the ground and make the distinction evident 
 between the symbolical, the truly orthodox doctrine of 
 inspiration from which true criticism has nothing to fear, 
 and any traditional, scholastic, or professedly orthodox 
 doctrine of inspiration, such as those that have waged 
 war with criticism so often since the Reformation. 
 
 Recent critical theories arise and work as did their pred- 
 ecessors, in the various departments of exegetical the- 
 ology. Here is their strength, that they antagonize 
 scholastic dogma with the Bible itself, and appeal from 
 ^t"/^*?^/ theology to biblical theology. Unless traditional 
 theories of inspiration can vindicate themselves on Bible 
 grounds, meet the critics, and overcome them in fair
 
 THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. JOS 
 
 conflict, in the sacred fields of the Divine Word, sooner 
 or later traditional theories will be driven from the field. 
 It will not do to antagonize critical theories of the Bible 
 with traditional theories of the Bible, for the critic ap- 
 peals to history against tradition, to an array of facts 
 against so-called inferences, to the laws of probation 
 against dogmatic assertion, to the Divine Spirit speaking 
 in the Scriptures against external authority. History, 
 facts, truth, the laws of thought, are all divine prod- 
 ucts, and most consistent with the Divine Word, and 
 they will surely prevail. 
 
 It is significant that the great majority of professional 
 biblical scholars in the various universities and theologi- 
 cal halls of the world, embracing those of the greatest 
 learning, industry, and piety, demand a revision of tradi- 
 tional theories of the Bible, on account of a large induc- 
 tion of new facts from the Bible and history. These 
 critics must be met with argument and candid reasoning 
 as to these facts and their interpretation, and cannot be 
 overcome by mere cries of alarm for the Church and the 
 Bible which, in their last analysis, usually amount to 
 nothing more than peril to certain favorite views. What 
 peril can come to the Scriptures from a more profound 
 critical study of them ? The peril is to scholastic dog- 
 mas and to tradition. But what then are we contending 
 for as evangelical men, for the faith of the Scriptures, the 
 faith of Wittenberg, of Geneva, and of Westminster, or 
 for the faith of the Reformed scholastics, and the faith of 
 certain schools of theology and their chiefs? We must 
 recognize in order to meet this issue, upon which every- 
 thing depends, that biblical critics cannot afford to carry 
 the load of the school theology into the conflicts of tiie 
 nineteenth century, but must strip to the symbols for a 
 conflict with rationalism and materialism ; and we should
 
 104 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 not fear as evangelical biblical scholars to accept the 
 challenge of our adversaries and go forth from the breast- 
 works of our symbols to meet them in fair and honor- 
 able warfare in open field with the biblical material itself 
 on the principles of induction."^ The sword of the 
 Spirit alone will conquer in this warfare. Are Christian 
 men afraid to put it to the test ? For this is a conflict 
 after all between true criticism and false criticism ; be- 
 tween the criticism which is the product of the evangel- 
 ical spirit of the Reformation, and critical principles 
 that are the product of deism and rationalism. Evan- 
 gelical criticism has been marching from conquest to 
 conquest, though far too often at a sad disadvantage, like 
 a storming party who have sallied forth from their breast- 
 works to attack the trenches of the enemy, finding in 
 the hot encounter that the severest fire and gravest peril 
 are from the misdirected batteries of their own line. Shall 
 evangelical criticism in searching the Scriptures be per- 
 mitted to struggle unhindered with rationalistic criticism, 
 or must it protect itself also from scholastic dogmatism ? 
 We do not deny the right of dogmatism and the a priori 
 method, nor the worth of tradition, within their proper 
 spheres ; but we maintain the equal right of criticism and 
 the inductive method, and their far greater importance 
 in the acquisition of true and reliable knowledge. If 
 criticism and dogmatism are harnessed together, a span 
 of twin steeds, they will draw the car of theology rap- 
 idly toward its highest ideal ; but pulling in opposite di- 
 rections, especially in the present crisis, they will tear 
 it to pieces. 
 
 * See author's article on the Right, Duty, and Limits of Biblical Criticism, 
 Presbyterian Review, II., p. 557, seq.; Willis J. Beecher, art. Logical Mcth- 
 vds 0/ Prof. Kiienen, Presbyterian Review, III., p. 703; Francis L. Palton; 
 art. Pentateuchal Criticism, Presbyterian Review, IV., p. 356, seq.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 Biblical Criticism in its larger sense, embracing 
 the several departments of biblical literature after its 
 early activity in the Christian schools of Alexandria and 
 Syria, and in the rabbinical schools of Tiberias and 
 Babylon, in the study of the canon and the text of 
 Scripture, gave place to a long supremacy of dogma 
 and tradition. The Septuagint version became the in- 
 spired text to the Greek church, the Massoretic text of 
 the Hebrew Scriptures to the Jews, and the Vulgate 
 version to the Roman church. The canon of the Old 
 Testament having been determined by the assembly at 
 Jamnia toward the close of the first Christian century 
 by rabbinical authority, became limited in the Talmud 
 to the 24 books. These are mentioned in the order: 
 (i) The five books of the law; (2) eight books of the 
 prophets — Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah, 
 Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the twelve minor prophets ; (3) 
 eleven other books — Ruth, Psalms, Job, Prowirbs, Eccle- 
 siastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, 
 Ezra, and Chronicles.'^ 
 
 The Christian church made no official cktcrmination 
 of the canon of Scripture save in provincial sy lods, such 
 as the Council of Laodicea and the synod of Carthage, 
 
 • Talm. Bdbliy Baba BatJira, p. 14 a. 
 
 5* (105i
 
 106 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 both in the fourth century, whose decisions express the 
 differences of opinion which have always been in the 
 church. In part the theologians have followed the 
 stricter Hieronymian canon which corresponds with the 
 Talmudic with reference to the Old Testament, but 
 chiefly the fuller Hellenistic and Augustinian canon 
 including the apocryphal books of the Old Testament. 
 In the New Testament, by general consent, the four 
 gospels, the book of Acts, the thirteen epistles of Paul, 
 the epistle to the Hebrews, the first epistle of Peter, 
 and first epistle of John were recognized, while the 
 doubts of the early church as to the epistles of James, 
 Jude, 2d Peter, 2d and 3d John, and the Apocalypse 
 became more and more feeble and infrequent.* These 
 sacred books were interpreted by the body of tradition 
 that had become solidified in the Talmud among the 
 Jews, and in the fathers and schoolmen in the various 
 Christian churches. 
 
 I. THE CANON OF THE REFORMERS. 
 
 The Protestant Reformation was a great critical 
 revival, due largely to the new birth of learning in 
 Western Europe. The emigration of the fugitive 
 Greeks from Constantinople after its capture by the 
 Turks, had planted a young Greek culture. A stream 
 of thought burst forth, and poured like a quicken- 
 ing flood strong and deep over Europe. Cardinal 
 Ximenes, with the aid of a number of Christian and 
 Jewish scholars, such as Alphonso de Zamora, Demetrius 
 Ducas, and Alphonso de Alcala, issued the world-re- 
 nowned Complutensian Polyglot, 1513-17. The Greek 
 
 * Reuss, Ilistoire du Canon des Saintes Ecritures IL Idition, Strasbourg, 
 1864, pp. 191 seq., 218 scq., ■2Q.\ scq., ■214, seq. ; Charteris, The New Testa- 
 ment Scriptures, N. Y., 18S2, p. 163, seq.
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTUKE. 107 
 
 New Testament was studied with avidity by a series of 
 scholars, among whom Erasmus was pre-eminent. He 
 pubHshed the first Greek Testament in 1516. Elias 
 Levita and Jacob ben Chajim, in whom Jewish learning 
 culminated, introduced Christians into a knowledge of 
 the Hebrew Scriptures. Reuchlin laid the foundation 
 for Hebrew scholarship among Christians, by publish- 
 ing the first Hebrew grammar and lexicon combined in 
 1506.* This return to the original text of the Old and 
 New Testaments aroused the suspicions of the scholas- 
 tics and monks, and the new learning was assailed with 
 bitterness. Even Levita had to defend himself against 
 ihe charge of heterodoxy for teaching Christians the 
 Hebrew language, the law of Moses, and the Talmud.f 
 But the reformers took their stand as one man for the 
 critical study of the sacred Scriptures, and investigated 
 the original texts under the lead of Erasmus, Elias 
 Levita, and Reuchlin, and laid down what must be 
 regarded as the fundamental principle of Biblical Criti- 
 cism for the determination of the canon. Thus Luther 
 in his controversy with Eck said, " The Church cannot 
 give any more authority or power than it has of itself. 
 A council cannot make that to be of Scripture which is 
 not by nature of Scripture.":]: Calvin says: 
 
 " But there has very generally prevailed a most pernicious error 
 that the Scriptures have only so much weight as is conceded to 
 them by the suffrages of the Church, as though the eternal and in- 
 violable truth of God depended on the arbitrary will of men." .... 
 " For, as God alone is a sufficient witness of Himself in His own 
 
 * Gesenius, GescJi. d, hehr. S/>rach., p. 106, seq. 
 
 t See his Massoreth JIa-Massoretft, edited by Ginsburg, London, 1867, p. 97, 
 seq. 
 
 X Disputatio excel. D. theolog. Joh. F.ccii. et Lut/ieri, hist. III., 129, seq, 
 Berger, La Bible au Siezihnie Siicle, Paris, 1879, p. 86,
 
 108 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Word, so also the Word will never gain credit in the hearts of men 
 till it be confirmed by the internal testimony of the Spirit. It is 
 necessary, therefore, that the same Spirit, who spake by the mouths 
 of the prophets, should penetrate into our hearts, to convince us 
 that they faithfully delivered the oracles which were divinely in- 
 trusted to them."* 
 
 This principle is well expressed in the 2d Helvetic 
 Confession, the most honored in the Reformed church : 
 
 "We believe and confess the canonical Scriptures of the holy 
 prophets to be the very true Word of God and to have sufficient 
 authority of themselves, not of men " (Chap. I.). " Therefore in 
 controversies of religion or matters of faith we cannot admit any 
 other judge than God Himself, pronouncing by the holy Scriptures 
 what is true and what is false ; what is to be followed, or what is to 
 be avoided " (Chap. II.). 
 
 The Gallican Confession gives a similar statement : 
 
 " We know these books to be canonical, and the sure rule of our 
 faith, not so much by the common accord and consent of the Church, 
 as by the testimony and inward persuasion of the Holy Spirit, which 
 enables us to distinguish them from other ecclesiastical books ' 
 (IV. Art.).t 
 
 Thus while other testimony is valuable and important, 
 yet, the evangelical test of the canonicity and interpre- 
 tation of the Scriptures was, God Himself speaking in 
 and through them to His people. This alone gave the 
 fides divina. This was the so-called formal principle of 
 the Reformation, no less important than the so-called 
 material principle of justification by faith.;}: 
 
 The reformers applied this critical test to the tradi- 
 
 * Institutes, I. 7. + See also the Belgian Confession, Article V. 
 
 X Doraer, Gesch. Prot. Theo., p. 234, seq., 379, seq. Julius MuUer, Das 
 Verfialtttiss zwischen der Wirksamkeit des heil. Geistes und dem Gnaden- 
 mittel des gottlichen Wortes, in his Dogmat. Abhandlungen, 1871, p. 139, seq, 
 Reuss, Histoire du Canon, p. 308, seq.
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. -^00 
 
 tional theories of the Bible, and eliminated the apocry- 
 phal books from the canon. They also revived the an- 
 cient doubts as to Esther, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, 
 Epistle of James, 2d Peter, Jude, and the Apocalypse. 
 The Reformed symbols elaborated the formal principle 
 further than the Lutheran, and ordinarily specified the 
 books that they regarded as canonical. In this they re- 
 jected the traditions of the early Christian church which 
 followed the Hellenistic rather than the Palestinian Jews, 
 and, in its use of the Septuagint version, used also the 
 apocryphal writings, and did not sharply separate them 
 from the canonical ; indeed, with the* exception of a few 
 critics, such as Origen and Jerome, it cited without 
 discrimination the many Jewish apocalypses and Sibyl- 
 line oracles which sprang up in the first and second cent- 
 uries of our era, as well as in the first and second centu- 
 ries B.C.* The church of Rome, in accordance with its 
 reliance upon the support of tradition, determined the 
 apocryphal books to be canonical at the Council of 
 Trent. That the reformers accepted only the present 
 canon of our symbols, excluding the apocryphal books, 
 was not due to the Jewish tradition, which they did 
 not hesitate to dispute, as they did that of the church 
 itself. It is doubtless truef that the reformers fell 
 back on the authority of Jerome in their determination 
 of the canon, as they did largely upon Augustine for the 
 doctrine of grace ; but this was in both cases for support 
 against Rome in authority \\hich Rome recognized, 
 rather than as a basis on which to rest their faith and 
 criticism. They went further back than Jerom'=» to 
 
 * Sanday, Value of tJie Patristic Writings for the Criticisin and ExegetU «f 
 the Bible. Expositor, Feb., 1880. Davidson, Canon, p. loi, seq. 
 f Robertson Smith, Old Testament in the fevaish Church, 1881, p. 41.
 
 IIQ BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 the evangelical Christian and genuine Hebrew principle, 
 of the common consent of the believing children of God, 
 which in course of time eliminated the sacred canonical 
 books from those of a merely national and temporary 
 character, because they approved themselves to their 
 souls as the very word of God. As Dr. Charteris says : 
 
 " The Council of Trent had formally thrown down a challenge. 
 It recognized the canon because of the traditions of the Church, and 
 on the same ground of tradition accepted the unwritten ideas about 
 Christ and His apostles, of which the Church had been made the 
 custodian. The reformers believed Scripture to be higher than the 
 Church. But on what tould they rest their acceptance of the canon 
 of Scripture ? How did they know these books to be Holy Script- 
 ures, the only and ultimate divine revelation ? They answered that 
 Ihe divine authority of Scripture is self-evidencing, that the regener- 
 ate man needs no othA* evidence, and that only the regenerate can 
 :}ppreciate the evidence. It follows from this, if he do not feel the 
 evidence of their contents, any man may reject books claiming to be 
 Holy Scripture." * 
 
 It is true this evangelical critical test did not solve all 
 questions. It left in doubt several writings which had 
 been regarded as doubtful for centuries. But uncer- 
 tainty as to these does not weaken the authority of 
 those that are recognized as divine ; it only affects the 
 extent of the canon, and not the authority of those writ- 
 ings regarded as canonical. 
 
 "Suppose we were not able to give positive proof of the divine in- 
 spiration of every particular Book that is contained in the Sacred 
 Records, it does not therefore follow that it was not inspired ; and 
 yet much less does it follow that our religion is without foundation. 
 Which I therefore add, because it is well known there are some par- 
 ticular Books in our Bil)le that have at some times been doubted of 
 in the church, whether they were inspired or no. But I cannot con- 
 
 * The New Testament Scriptures ; their Claims, History, and Authority. 
 Croall Lectures, i832. N. Y., 1883, p. 203.
 
 THE CANON OF SCRI^URE. ;{|| 
 
 ceive that doubt concerning such Books, where persons have sus^ 
 pended their assent, without casting any unbecoming reflections, 
 have been a hindrance to their salvation, while what they have 
 owned and acknowledged for truly divine, has had sanctifying effect 
 upon their hearts and lives." * 
 
 This is the true Protestant position. For unless 
 these books have given us their own testimony that 
 they are divine and therefore canonical, we do not re- 
 ceive them with our hearts ; we do not rest our faith 
 and life upon them as the very Word of God ; we give 
 mere intellectual assent ; we receive them on authority, 
 tacitly and without opposition, and possibly with the 
 dogmatism which not unfrequently accompanies incipi- 
 ent doubt, but also without true interest and true faith 
 and assurance of their divine contents. We believe that 
 the canon of Scripture established by the Reformed 
 .symbols can be successfully vindicated on Protestant 
 critical principles. We are convinced that the church 
 has not been deceived with regard to its inspiration. 
 Esther, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Songs, and the Apoc- 
 alypse will more and more establish themselves in the 
 hearts of those who study them. But we claim that it 
 is illegitimate to first attempt to prove their canonicity 
 and then their inspiration, or to rely upon Jewish rab- 
 binical tradition any more than Roman Catholic tradi- 
 tion, or to anathematize all who doubt some of them in 
 the spirit of Rabbi Akiba and the Council of Trent. 
 The only legitimate method is that of our fathers, the 
 Reformers and Puritans: first prove their inspiration 
 from their own internal divine testimony, and then ac- 
 cept them as canonical because our souls rest upon them 
 as the veritable divine word. " For he that believes that 
 
 ♦ Ed. Calamy, Inspiration of the Holy Writings, Lond., 1710, p. 42.
 
 1^12 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 God saith, without evidence that God saith it ; doth not 
 believe God, while he believes the thing that is from 
 God, et eadem ratione, si contiguisset Alcorano Turcica ere 
 didisset." * 
 
 The same critical principle was applied by the re- 
 formers to the text of Scripture. They rejected 
 the inspiration of the ancient versions, the Greek and 
 the Vulgate, and against the Greek and Roman 
 churches resorted to the original text. They bat- 
 tled against the Vulgate version, in behalf of versions 
 for the people, and for a simple grammatical exegesis 
 against traditional authority and the manifold sense. 
 They laid down the hermeneutical. rule that the Spirit 
 of God, speaking in His Word, alone could decide the 
 meaning of the text ; and that difficult passages must be 
 interpreted by plain ones. In the various departments 
 of exegesis they went diligently to work. Hebrew and 
 Greek grammars, lexicons, texts, versions, and commen- 
 taries poured from the press. If the reformers were 
 great dogmatic theologians, they were greater biblical 
 scholars, and their theology was fresh, warm, and vigor- 
 ous, because derived from a critical study of Scripture. 
 The greatest dogmatic writer of the Reformation, John 
 Calvin, was also its greatest exegete.f 
 
 So long as the controversy with Rome was active and 
 energetic, and ere the counter-reformation set in, the 
 Protestant critical principle maintained itself; but as 
 the internal conflicts of Protestant churches began to 
 absorb more and more attention, and the polemic with 
 
 "• Wliichcote, Eight Letters of Dr. A. Tuckney and Benj. Whichcote, 1753, 
 p. III. 
 
 t Tholuck {Ver7i!isch'e L'chrt/ten^ II., 341) correctly describes him as distin- 
 guished ahke for dogmatic impartiality, exegetical tact, many-sided scholarship, 
 and deep Christian spirit.
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 113 
 
 Rome became less and less vigorous, the polemic against 
 brethren more and more violent, the Reformed system 
 of faith was built up by a series of scholastics over 
 against Lutheranism, and Calvinistic orthodoxy over 
 against Arminianism. The elaboration of the Protest- 
 ant Reformed system by a priori deduction carried with 
 it the pushing of the peculiar principles of Protestantism 
 more and more into the background. The authority of 
 the Reformed faith and tradition assumed the place of a 
 Roman faith and tradition, and the biblical scholarship of 
 Protestant churches, cut off from the line of Roman tra- 
 dition, worked its way along the line of Jewish rabbini- 
 cal tradition, and began to establish a Protestant ortho- 
 doxy — in the Swiss schools under the influence of Bux . 
 torf, Heidegger and Francis Turretine; and in the Dutch 
 schools under the influence of Voetius. 
 
 Lutheran theology had the same essential develop, 
 ment through internal struggles. The school of Calix 
 tus at Helmstadt had struggled with the scholasti( 
 spirit, until the latter had sharpened itself into th( 
 most radical antagonism to the Reformed church and 
 the Melancthon type of Lutheran theology. Carlov 
 stated the doctrine of verbal inspiration in the same es- 
 sential terms as the Swiss scholastics, and was followed 
 therein by the Lutheran scholastics generally. 
 
 " It treated Holy Scripture as the revelation itself, instead of as 
 the memorial of the originally revealed, ideal, actual truth ; the con- 
 sequence being that Holy Scripture was transformed into God's ex- 
 clusive work, the human element was explained away, and the orig- 
 inal hving power thrust away behind the writing contained in let- 
 ters. Faith ever draws its strength and decisive certainty from the( 
 original eternally living power to which Scripture is designed to lead. 
 But when Scripture was regarded as the goal, and attestation was 
 sought elsewhere than in the experience of faith through the pres- 
 ence of truth in the Spirit, then the Reformation standpoint was
 
 X14 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 abandoned, its so-called material principle violated, and it became 
 easy for Rationalism to expose the contradictions in which the in- 
 quirers had thus involved themselves." * 
 
 II. THE PURITAN CANON. 
 
 The Thirty-nine Articles take an intermediate position 
 between the reformers and the Roman Catholic church 
 in their doctrine of the canon : 
 
 " In the name of holy Scripture, we do understand those Canon- 
 ical books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority was 
 never any doubt in the Church." The 24 books of the Hieronymian 
 canon of the Old Testament are then mentioned. It then continues : 
 " And the other books (as Hierome saith) the Church doth read for 
 example of life and instruction of manners : but yet doth it not ap- 
 ply them to establish any doctrine." It then names 14 apocryphal 
 l)ooks, and concludes : " All the books of the New Testament, as 
 they are commonly received, we do receive and account them for 
 Canonical." (Art. VI.). 
 
 The Thirty-nine Articles thus base themselves on the 
 Hieronymian tradition as the Roman Catholic church 
 did on the stronger Augustinian tradition. 
 
 The Scotch Confession of 1560, however, maintains 
 the position of the reformers : 
 
 "As we beleeve and confesse the Scriptures of God sufficient to 
 instruct and make the man of God perfite, so do we affirme and 
 avow the authoritie of the same to be of God, and nether to depend 
 on men nor angelis. We affirme, therefore, that sik as allege the 
 Scripture to have na uther authoritie bot that quhilk it hes re- 
 ceived from the Kirk, to be blasphemous against God, and injurious 
 to the trew Kirk, quhilk alwaies heares and obeyis the voice of her 
 awin spouse and Pastor ; bot takis not upon her to be maistres 
 over the samin." (Art. XIX.). 
 
 Thos. Cartwright, the chief of the English PuritanSj 
 takes the same view : 
 
 ♦ Domer, System 0/ Christian Doctrine, Vol. II., p. 186.
 
 THE CANON OF SGRtPTURE. 115 
 
 ** Q. How may these bookes be discerned to bee the word of God ? 
 
 " A. By these considerations following : 
 
 " First, they are perfectly holy in themselves, and by themselves : 
 whereas all other writings are prophane, further then they draw 
 holinesse from these ; which yet is never such, but that their holi- 
 nesse is imperfect and defective. 
 
 " Secondly, they are perfectly profitable in themselves, to instruct 
 to salvation, and all other are utterly unprofitable thereunto, any 
 further then they draw from them. 
 
 " Thirdly, there is a perfect concord and harmonie in all these 
 Bookes, notwithstanding the diversity of persons by whom, places 
 where, and time when, and matters whereof, they have been written. 
 
 " Fourthly, there is an admirable force in them, to incline men's 
 hearts from vice to vertue. 
 
 " Fifthly, in great plainenesse and easinesse of stile, there shineth 
 a great Majesty and authority. 
 
 " Sixthly, there is such a gracious simplicity in the writers of these 
 IJookes, that they neither spare their friends, nor themselves, but 
 most freely, and impartially, set downe their owne fauits and infirmi- 
 ties as well as others. 
 
 " Lastly, God's owne Spirit working in the harts of his children 
 doth assure them, that these Scriptures are the word of God." * 
 
 The Westminster Confession gives expression to the 
 mature Puritan faith respecting the Scriptures : 
 
 § 2. " Under the name of Holy Scripture, or the word of God 
 written, are now contained all the books of the Old and New Testa- 
 ment, which are these" (mentioning the 66 books commonly re- 
 ceived). " All which are given by inspiration of God to be the rule 
 of faith and hfe." 
 
 § 3. " The books commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine 
 inspiration, are no part of the canon of the Scripture ; and therefore 
 are of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be any otherwise 
 approved, or made use of, than other human writings." 
 
 § 4. " The Authority of the Holy Scripture, for which it ought to 
 be believed and obeyed, dependeth not upon the testimony of any 
 man or church, but wholly upon God, (who is truth itself,) the au- 
 
 * Thos. Cartwright, Treatise 0/ the Christian Religion. London, 1616.
 
 llg BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 thor thereof ; and therefore it i» to be received, because it is the 
 word of God." 
 
 § 5. " We may be moved and induced by the testimony of the 
 church to an high and reverent esteem for the Holy Scripture ; and 
 the heavenliness of the matter, the efficacy of the doctrine, the maj- 
 esty of the style, the consent of all the parts, the scope of the whole, 
 (which is to give all glory to God,) the full discovery it makes of the 
 only way of man's salvation, the many other incomparable excel- 
 lencies, and the entire perfection thereof, are arguments whereby it 
 doth abundantly evidence itself to be the word of God ; yet, not- 
 withstanding, our full persuasion and assurance of the infallible 
 truth, and divine authority thereof, is from the inward work of the 
 Holy Spirit, bearing witness by and with the word in our hearts." 
 (I.. § 2-5). 
 
 The Westminster Confession distinguishes in its state- 
 ments (i) the external evidence, the testimony of the 
 church ; (2) the internal evidence of the Scriptures 
 themselves; {'^) the fides divina. Here is an ascending 
 series of evidences for the authority of the Scriptures. 
 The fides humana belongs strictly only to the first class 
 of evidences. This testimony of the church is placed 
 first in the Confession because it is weakest. The sec 
 ond class not only gives fides hiimana, but also divina, 
 owing to the complex character of the Scriptures them- 
 selves ; but the third class as the highest gives purely 
 fides divma. The Confession carefully discriminates the 
 wcigJit of these evidences. The authority of the church 
 only induces " an high and reverent esteem for the 
 Holy Scripture." The internal evidence of the " excel- 
 lencies and entire perfection thereof are arguments 
 whereby it doth abundantly evidence itself to be the 
 word of God "; but our " full persuasion and assurance 
 of the infallible truth and divine authority thereof " 
 come only from the hi;:(l est evidence, " the inward work 
 of the Holy Spirit, bearing witness by and with the word
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 117 
 
 in our hearts." In accordance with this, " The authority 
 of the Holy Scripture dependeth wholly upon God " 
 (§ 4). On this principle, then, the canon is determined. 
 The books of the canon are named (§ 2), and then it is 
 said, "All which are given by inspiration of God to be 
 the rule of faith and life." The apocryphal books are 
 no part of the canon of Scripture because they are not 
 of divine inspiration (§ 3). It is, therefore, the authority 
 of God himself, speaking through the Holy Spirit, by and 
 with the word to the heart, that determines that the 
 writings are infallible as the inspired Word of God, and 
 it is their inspiration that determines their canonicity. 
 
 Thus the Westminster divines maintained the Refor- 
 mation point of view. They were not as a body scho- 
 lastics, though there were scholastics among them ; but 
 were preachers, catechists, and expositors of the Script- 
 ures, with a true evangelical spirit. They were called 
 from the active work of the ministry, and from stubborn 
 resistance to dogmatic authority, to the active work of 
 reforming the church of England into closer conformity 
 with the Reformed churches of the continent. Among 
 the doctrines to be reformed was the doctrine respecting 
 the Scriptures. There was a difference between the 
 Puritans and Prelatists on this subject, as we have seen, 
 in placing the XXXIX Articles alongside of theScottish 
 Confession and the statement of Thos. Cartwright. This 
 difference was still further developed. The Prelatical 
 view is stated by Bishop Cosin :* 
 
 "For though there be masv^ Internal Testimonies belonging to 
 the Holy Scriptures, whereby we may be sufficiently assured, that 
 they are the true and lively oracles of God, .... yet for the par- 
 ticular and just number of such books, whether they be more or less, 
 
 • Scholastic History of the Canon. London, 1657, p. 4, seq.
 
 u$ 
 
 BIBLJEGAL STU1>I 
 
 then either wme private perspKS, or some one particular church ^ 
 late, have been pleased to make them, we have no better nor other 
 external rule or testimony herein to guide us, then the constant 
 voice of the catholic and universal church, as it hath been delivered 
 to us upon record from one generation to another." 
 
 The Puritans in the Westminster Assembly in revis- 
 ing Article VI. of the XXXIX Articles, erased the state- 
 ments upon which the Prelatists built : " Of whose au- 
 thority was never any doubt in the church "; " And the 
 other books (as Hierome saith) the church doth read for 
 example of life and instruction of manners ; but yet 
 doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine." And 
 they changed the statement : " All the books of the 
 New Testament, as they are commonly received, we do 
 receive and account them for canonical "; so as to ex- 
 press the Puritan doctrine : " All which books, as they 
 are commonly received, we do receive and acknowledge 
 them to be given by the inspiration of God ; and in 
 that regard, to be of the most certain credit, and high- 
 est authority." 
 
 Chas. Herle, the Prolocutor, admirably states the 
 Protestant position over against the Romish : 
 
 " They (the Papists) being asked, why they believe the Scripture 
 to be the Word of Godf Answer, because the Church says 'tis so ; 
 and being asked againe, why they beleeve the Church ? They an- 
 swer, because the Scripture sales it shall be guided into truth ; and 
 being asked againe, why they beleeve that very Scripture that says 
 so ? They answer, because the Church says 'tis Scripture, and so 
 (with those in the Psalm xii. 8), they walk in a circle or on every 
 side. They charge the like on us (but wrongfully) that we beleeve 
 the Word, because it sayes it self that it is so ; but we do not so re- 
 solve our Faith ; we believe unto salvation, not the Word barely, 
 because it witnesses to itself, but because the Spirit speaking in it 
 to our consciences witnesses to them that it is the Word indeed ; we 
 resolve not our Faith barely either into the Word, or Spirit as its
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. XIQ 
 
 single ultiipate principle, but iijto the testimony of the Spirit speak- 
 ing to our consciences in the Word." * 
 
 It has been objected by a recent writer: 
 
 " It does not tend in the slightest degree to reconcile us to these 
 opinions to say that the reformers entertained them. It would not 
 be strange if in their opposition to the claims of the church of Rome, 
 they went to the opposite extreme and were in danger of falling into 
 the errors of the mystics." f 
 
 It is true that in this matter the reformers and Pu- 
 ritans were in radical opposition to Rome. This was 
 the so-called formal principle, one of the essential prin- 
 ciples of Protestantism. If they had not taken this po- 
 sition they would have been powerless against the Roman 
 claim of tradition. 
 
 As Reuss well says : 
 
 " Nothing was more foreign to the spirit of Luther, of Calvin, an»l 
 their illustrious fellow-laborers, nothing was more radically contrary 
 to their principles, than to base the authority of the sacred scripture* 
 upon that of the Church and its tradition, to go in effect, to mount 
 guard over the fathers, and range their catalogues in line, cause theii 
 obscurities to disappear by forced interpretalions and their contra- 
 dictions by doing violence to them, as is the custom of our day. They 
 very well knew that this would have been the highest inconsistency, 
 indeed the ruin of their system, to attribute to the church the right 
 of making the Bible after they had contested that of making the doc- 
 trine ; for that which can do the greater can do the less." \ 
 
 It is true that the mystic element was strong among 
 the reformers and the Puritans. This is indeed the chiel 
 feature which distinguishes them from the Swiss, Dutch, 
 and Lutheran scholastics and their modern followers 
 
 * Deitir Sapienti, pp. 152-3. London, 1655. 
 
 + I'Yancis L. Patton, article, Pentateuchal Criticism, Presbyterian Review 
 IV., p. 346. 
 X Reuss, Histoire du Canon, p. 313.
 
 120 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 But their mystic was not mysticism. There never have 
 been times in the history of the church when mys- 
 ticism prevailed in such a variety of forms and persist- 
 ence of energy as in the times of the Reformation and 
 of the Westminster divines. They had to guard their 
 doctrines at every point against mysticism. It is 
 strange reading of history to represent either the re- 
 formers or the Puritans as going too far in the direction 
 of mysticism. 
 
 The statements of the Westminster divines were made 
 111 the face of the strongest force of mysticism that has 
 ever manifested itself. Thus, in 1647, the London min- 
 isters (many of whom were members of the Westminster 
 Assembly) issued their testimony against this false mys- 
 ticism and the heresies of their time. They mention as 
 
 '■ Errors against the Divine Authority of the Holy Scripture, That 
 fie Scripture, whether true Manuscript or no, whether Hebrew, 
 (Vreek, or English, it is but human ; so not able to discover a divine 
 (»od. Then where is your command to make that your rule or disci- 
 fJine, that cannot reveal you God, nor give you power to walk with 
 (jod? That, it is no foundation of Christian Religion, to believe 
 that the English Scriptures, or that book, or rather volume of books 
 called the Bible, translated out of the originall Hebrew and Greek 
 c;opies, into the English tongue are the Word of God. That, ques- 
 tionless no writing whatsoever, whether translations or originalis, 
 are the foundation of Christian Religion." * 
 
 Wm. Lyford, an esteemed Presbyterian divine, invited 
 to sit in the Westminster Assembly, but preferring his 
 pastoral work, wrote a commentary on this testimony of 
 the London ministers.f 
 
 * A Testimony to the Truth of Jesus Christ and to our solemn League and 
 Covenant. Subscribed by the ministers of Christ within the Province of Lon- 
 don, Dec. 14, 1647. London, 1648. 
 
 t The Plain man's sense exercised to discern good and evil, or A Discover)
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 121 
 
 In his chapter on the Divine Authority of Scripture, 
 he says : 
 
 " I shall not trouble you with the Popish controversies concerning 
 the Scripture, but apply myself to the errors of the present age." 
 He then quotes the language from the Testimony given above. He 
 then goes on to give the properties of Scripture, and after brief men- 
 tion of the error of making " the Church the judge over Scriptures ' 
 (p. 7), he says : " But the error I am now to deale with, is that of 
 the blasphemous Anti-Scripturist, under which name I comprehend 
 all such as either deny them to be divinely inspired and given of God, 
 cr else allowing their divine authority, yet refuse to submit to Script- 
 ure as the supreme and all-sufficient Judge, pretending to other divine 
 revelations, besides and beyond the written word, unto which upon 
 all occasions they appeal, as if the Scriptures were not able to ac- 
 quaint the soul with the highest discoveries of God's truth and mind. 
 If they be urged with any proof out of the Old Testament, they re- 
 ject it, as if the Old Testament were antiquated, and out of date : 
 If they be pressed with a place in the New Testament, then they 
 say, that is not the meaning, which we produce because (say they) 
 you have not the spirit, the spirit teacheth us otherwise. And thus 
 under pretence of Inspirations of the Holy Ghost, and improvements 
 beyond and above all Scripture, they striice at the root, and blow up 
 the very foundations of all faith and religion, of all our hopes and 
 comforts ; these are the devill's engineers — ."(p. 17). 
 
 Our author knows how to steer between the Scylla of 
 Romanism and the Charybdis of mysticism. The re- 
 formers and Puritans knew their work better than some 
 of our modern theologians. 
 
 " It is one thing to say the Spirit teacheth us by Scripture, and 
 another thing to pretend the Spirit's teaching besides or beyond, or 
 contrary to the Scripture ; the one is a divine truth, the other is vile 
 tnontam'sme" (p. 20). 
 
 After controverting the " foure fold error: (i) of them 
 
 0/ the Errors, Heresies, and Blasphemies of these Times, and the Toleration 
 0/ them, as they are collected and testified against by the ministers of London, 
 in tlw.ir Testimony to the Truth of fesrus Christ. London, 1655. 
 (J
 
 122 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 that would place this authority (of scripture) in the 
 Church ; (2) of them who appeale from scripture to the 
 spirit ; (3) of them that make reason the supreme Judge ; 
 (4) of them that expound scripture according to Provi- 
 dences," he goes on to expound the position of our 
 Protestant symbols : 
 
 "The authority and truth of God speaking in the Scripture, is that 
 upon which our faith is built, and doth finally stay itselfe : The min- 
 istry of the Church, the illumination of the Spirit, the right use of 
 reason are the choicest helps, by which we believe, by which we see 
 the law and will of God ; but they are not the law itself; the divine 
 truth and authority of God's word, is that which doth secure our 
 
 consciences If you ask what it is that I believe ? I answer, I 
 
 believe the blessed doctrines of salvation by Jesus Christ ; if you 
 ask, why I believe all this, and why I will venture my soul to all eter- 
 nity on that doctrine ? I answer, because it is the revealed will 0/ 
 God concerning us. If you ask further. How I know that God hath 
 revealed them ? I answer, by a two-fold certainty ; one of faith, the 
 other of experience ; (i) I do infallibly by faith believe the Revela- 
 tion, not upon the credit of any other Revelation, but for itselfe, the 
 Lord giving testimony thereunto, not only by the constant Testimony 
 of the Church, which cannot universally deceive, nor only by miracles 
 from heaven, bearing witness to the Apostle's doctrine, but chiefly 
 by its own proper divine light, which shines therein. The truth 
 contained in Scripture is a light, and is discerned by the sons of 
 light : It doth by its own light, persuade us, and in all cases, doubts, 
 and questions, it doth clearly testifie with us or against us ; which 
 light is of that nature, that it giveth Testimony to itself, and receiv- 
 eth authority from no other, as the Sun is not seene by any light but 
 
 his own, and we discerne sweet from soure by its own taste 
 
 (2) Whereunto add, that other certainty of experience, which is a 
 certainty in respect of the Affections and of the spiritual man. This 
 is the Spirit's seal set to God's truth (namely), the light of the word ; 
 v;hcn it is thurs shewncn unto us, it doth work such strange and su- 
 jjf.vnaiural effects uj)on the soul ; . . . .It persuades us of the truth 
 ar,d goodness of the will of God ; and of the things revealed; and 
 all this by way of spiritual taste and feeling, so that the things ajv- 
 prehended by us in di\ ine knowledge, are more certainly discerned
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 123 
 
 in the certainty of experience, than anything is discerned in the light 
 of natural! understanding " (p. 39). 
 
 " They tliat are thus taught, doe know assuredly that they have 
 heard God himselfe : In the former way, the light of Divine Rea- 
 son causeth approbation of the things they believe. In the later, 
 the Purity and power of Divine Knowledge, causeth a taste and feel- 
 ing of the things they heare And they that are thus established in 
 the Faith, doe so plainly see God present with them in his Word, 
 that if all the world should be turned into Miracles, it could not re- 
 move them from the certainty of their perswasion ; you cannot un- 
 p>erswade a Christian of the truth of his Religion, you cannot make 
 him thinke meanly of Christ, nor the Doctrine of Redemption, noi 
 of duties of Sanctification, his heart is fixed trusting in the Lord. 
 So then we conclude, that the true reason of our Faith, and ground, 
 on which it finally stayeth itself, is the Authority of God himself, 
 whom we doe most certainly discerne, and feele to speake in the 
 word of faith, which is preached unto us " (p. 39.) 
 
 This is the true doctrine of the Reformation and of 
 the Westminster divines, in which they know no antago- 
 nism between the human reason, the religious feeling, 
 and the Divine Spirit in the Word of God. It is a mer- 
 ciful Providence that they were guided to this position, 
 for, if they had gone with the Swiss scholastics in basing 
 themselves on rabbinical tradition as to the Old Testa- 
 ment, they would have committed the churches of the 
 Reformation to errors that have long since been ex- 
 ploded by scholars. This is the true Puritan mystic in 
 conflict with mysticism and its best antidote. It is the 
 mystic element that needs above all things to be revived 
 in the British and American churches. It brings the 
 people face to face with the Bible and with the Divine 
 Spirit working in and with it, so that they need no mediat- 
 ing priesthood of theologians, no help of apologetics or of 
 polemics to convince them of the authority of the Bible 
 and enable them to maintain it against all cavilling. 
 
 It is also objected that this resting upon the fides divina
 
 124 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 for the proof of the inspiration and canonicity of the Script 
 ure implies that " every Christian makes his own Bible."^ 
 True, but this right of private judgment is the Protestant 
 position. Are we prepared to abandon it ? Shall it be 
 maintained with reference to other doctrines and aban- 
 doned with reference to the source oi these doctrines ? This 
 would be a fatal inconsistency to Protestantism. The 
 right of private judgment must apply to the authority, in- 
 spiration, and canonicity of Scripture, as well as to the doc- 
 trines of atonement, justification by faith, and original 
 sin. It is no more difficult of application in the one 
 case than the others. It may be an unfamiliar practice 
 to those who rest on the authority of the church for the 
 authority of Scripture, But it is no more unfamiliar to 
 them than the right of private judgment itself is unfa- 
 miliar to those who rest upon the authority of an infal- 
 lible church for all doctrines. The right of private 
 judgment with reference to the authority of a book of 
 Scripture no more prevents the consensus of individuals 
 in a confession of faith on this subject than on any 
 other. It is important that the individual Christian 
 should have his own convictions on all of these sub- 
 jects. The consensus of such Christians who know 
 what they believe is much stronger than the consensus 
 of those who rest merely upon the external authority 
 of the testimony of the church. We accept the doc- 
 trine of the Westminster Confession with reference to 
 the Bible, because it coincides with our convictions and 
 experience with reference to the Bible. We would not 
 subscribe to it otherwise. Our faith in divine things 
 rests upon divine and not on human authority. 
 
 It is still fi rther objected that, " If, however, canon* 
 
 • F. L. Patton ii '. c, p. 350.
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 125 
 
 icity be, as we believe it is, a purely historical question, 
 it is only in a very limited way that subjective tests 
 can be employed in determining it." * If canonicity 
 be a purely historical question, then the reformers and 
 the Westminster Confession and the other reformed 
 creeds were in error when they made it purely a 
 question of inspiration and of the internal divine au- 
 thority of the Scriptures themselves. To abandon this 
 position is to accept essentially the Roman Catholic 
 position. The difference then amounts to this : At what 
 historic point shall we stand, or on what historic names 
 shall we base our faith in the canon ? Shall we go with 
 Rome and base the canon on the authority of the living 
 church as the heir of Catholic tradition, or shall we go 
 with the XXXIX Articles and rely on the authority 
 of Jerome and the Jewish assembly at Jamnia, or shall 
 we accept the consensus of the Ante-Nicene church and 
 share their doubts as well as their certainties ? Which- 
 ever of these positions we may take, we still build on 
 uncertain and fallible authority, and dishonor the suffi- 
 ciency and authority of the Scriptures themselves. We 
 violate one of the Reformation principles upon which 
 our Protestantism depends, and the most consistent 
 course would be to follow Cardinal Newman in His path- 
 way to Rome. 
 
 III. CRITICISM OF THE CANON. 
 
 It is all the more necessary to apply to the canon the 
 critical test established by the reformers, now that we are 
 much better informed as to the relation of the Jews to 
 the canon than they were. The New Testament writers 
 and the fathers generally depended upon the Septuagint 
 
 • F. L. Patton in /. c, p. 349.
 
 J26 B.6LICAL STUDY. 
 
 version of the Old Testament. The story of its tiansla* 
 tion by means of seventy-two accomplished scholars 
 chosen from the twelve tribes of Israel, with the co-oper- 
 ation of Ptolemaeus Philadelphus, king of Egypt, and the 
 Jewish high-priest of Jerusalem, and inspired to do their 
 work by the Divine Spirit, — which prevailed for many 
 centuries in the Eastern and Western churches, — has 
 been traced to its simpler form in Josephus* and 
 PhilOjf and from these to the original letter of Aris- 
 teas, and that has been proved to be a forgery ;}: and its 
 statements wide of the truth. For an internal examina- 
 tion of the translation itself proves it to have been made 
 by different men on different principles and at different 
 times. 
 
 Frankel is followed by a large number of scholars in 
 the opinion that it was a sort of Greek Targum which 
 grew up gradually at first from the needs of the syna- 
 gogue worship, and then from the desire of the Hellen- 
 istic Jews to collect together the religious literature of 
 their nation, as the Palestinian and Babylonian Targums 
 were subsequently made for the Jews speaking Aramaic.§ 
 
 Some of the sacred books — such as Daniel, Esther, and 
 Jeremiah — have additional matter not found in the 
 Hebrew Massoretic text. The apocryphal writings are 
 mingled with those taken into the Hebrew canon with- 
 out discrimination. As Deane | says : 
 
 " If we judge from the MSS. that have come down to us, it woukl 
 be impossible for any one, looking merely to the Septuagint version and 
 
 * Antiq. XII. 2. t Vita Mosis, II., § 5-7. 
 
 X Tlie orifjinal text of the letter is best given in Merx., Archiv filr HYssi/i- 
 *chajtlicJie Er/orschung des Alten Testaments, I., p. 242, seq. Halle, 1S70. 
 
 % Frankel, Vorstudien z. d. Sepiuagmta, Leipzig, 1841 ; Scholtz, Alexand. 
 Uebersetz. d. Buck lesaias, 1880, p. 7, seq. 
 
 I Book 0/ Wisdom, Oxford, 1S81, p. 37, seq.
 
 THE CANON OF SCUIPTUKE. 127 
 
 its allied works, to distinguish any ol" tiie books in the collection as ol 
 less authority than others. Thtre is nothing whatever to mark off 
 the canonical writings tVom wh<-)f have been called the deuterocanon- 
 ical. They are all presented as f equal standing and authority, and, 
 if we must make distinctions between them, and place some on a 
 higher platform than others, this separation must be made on 
 grounds which are not afforded by the arrangement of the various 
 documents themselves." 
 
 The scholastics depend upon the tradition that 
 the Old Testament canon was determined by the so- 
 called men of the great synagogue. They rely for this 
 upon Elias Levita* and the long Jewish tradition that 
 goes, back to a slender support in the Misnaic tract, 
 Aboth (I. i-2).t But back of this there is no historical 
 evidence whatever. The silence of all the writings from 
 the first century A.D. backwards is absolute. They could 
 not have omitted to mention such a body as this if it 
 ever had an existence, and determined the canon and 
 everything else upon which the Jewish religion depended. 
 The Apocryphal Literature, in its wide and varied 
 extent, knows of no such body. The numerous pseu- 
 depigraphical writers are also silent. Philo and Josephus 
 know of nothing of the kind. The New Testament 
 writers do not recognize it. On the other hand, the 
 apocalypse of Ezra, from the first century A.D., repre- 
 sents the whole canon as determined by Ezra, who com- 
 mitted the whole to writing by divine inspiration.:}: 
 How could it do so in the face of the great synagogue? 
 There are well-established disputes as to the canon 
 among the Jews in the first Christian century which 
 
 '■'■ ^fasso7-eth Ila-Massoref/t, edited by Ginsburg, 1S67, p. 112, seq'. 
 t Strack, Die Sf'ri'ichcr der Vdtcr ; Fin ethischar Mischna- Ti aktat, Karlsi 
 ruhe, 1882. Taylor, Sayings 0/ tlic. Jewish Falhers, Ca;nbrid{;e, 1877. 
 \ XIV. 19, seq.
 
 128 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 could not have taken place if a venerable body like the 
 supposed men of the great synagogue had determined 
 everything. This tradition must go with the letter of 
 Aristeas out of the field of history into the realm of 
 shadowy and unsupported legends. 
 
 Another evidence for the fixture of the Old Testament 
 canon has been found in a supposed writing of Philo of 
 the first Christian century.* This work speaks of the law, 
 the prophets, hymns, and other writings, making either 
 three or four classes, but without specification of partic- 
 ular books. But this writing has recently been proved 
 to have been written in the third century A.D., and wrongly 
 attributed to Philo.f The position has been accepted 
 by scholars,:}: and is invincibly established. The testi- 
 mony of Philo is therefore reduced to the books that he 
 quotes, as of divine authority. He omits to mention Nehe- 
 miah, Ruth, Esther, Chronicles, Ezekiel, Lamentations, 
 Daniel, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs. § He uses 
 Proverbs and Job. This we would expect from Philo'5 
 type of thought and the subject-matter of his writings. 
 But his omission of Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songa 
 is surprising. These writings belong to the same clas!» 
 of wisdom-literature as Job and Proverbs. They would 
 have given him the very best field for his peculiar 
 method of allegory. The omission in this case weighs 
 against them, Ezekiel and Daniel, the symbolical proph- 
 ets, we would expect him to make use of. Josephus | 
 mentions 22 books as making up his canon — 5 of the law, 
 13 of the prophets, and 4 of poems and precepts, but 
 
 * De Vita Contemfi., s. III. 
 
 t Lucius, Die Therapeuten und ihre Stellung in der Askese^ Strassburg, i88ak 
 
 X Strack, art. Kanon in Herzog, II. Aufl., vii., p. 425. 
 
 § Eichhom, Einleitung, 3te, Ausgabe, 1803, L, p. 98. 
 
 I Co7ttra Afion, I., 8.
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 129 
 
 does not define which they are. He uses all of the 
 Talmudic canon except Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of 
 Songs, and Job.* The silence of Josephus as to these 
 cannot be pressed, because they did not clearly come 
 within his scope. Various efforts have been made to 
 determine his books, but without conclusive results. 
 The lists of subsequent w^riters have been used. Here, 
 if on the one hand the lists of Origen and Jerome 
 favor the Talmudic, the list of Junilius Africanus 
 favors the exclusion of Chronicles, Ezra, Job, Song of 
 Songs, and Esther.f Graetzij: seems to us to come 
 nearer the mark in excluding the Song of Songs and 
 Ecclesiastes from the list of Josephus. He falls, then, 
 by his 22, just these two short of the Talmudic list 
 of 24. We are left by Josephus in uncertainty as to 
 certain Old Testament books. Moreover, the state- 
 ments of Josephus do not carry with them our confi. 
 dence as to the views of the men of his time ; for we. 
 know that several books were in dispute among the 
 Pharisees, such as Ezekiel, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, 
 and Esther. They were generally, but not unanimously 
 acknowledged. The Sadducees are said by some of the 
 fathers to have agreed with the Samaritans in rejecting 
 all but the Pentateuch. This must be a mistake. But 
 we can hardly believe that they accepted Ezekiel and 
 Daniel in view of their denial of angels and the resurrec- 
 tion. The Essenes and the Zelots agreed in extending 
 the canon to esoteric writings. The apocalypse of Ezra 
 mentions 70 of these as given to Ezra to interpret the 
 24, and so of even greater authority. These parties 
 
 * Eichhom in /. r., I., p. 123. 
 
 t See Prof. Kihn, Theodore von Mopsuestia und Julius A/ricanus ah 
 Exegeten Frei., 1880, p. 86. 
 X Gesck. d. Juden, III., p. 501, Leipsig, 1863. 
 6*
 
 130 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 differ from the Pharisees only in that they committed 
 the esoteric wisdom to writing, whereas the Pharisees 
 handed it down as an infallible tradition, and prohibited 
 the committing it to writing, until at last it found em- 
 bodiment in the Misnayoth and the Talmuds. 
 
 The eminent Jewish scholar, Zunz, is correct in his 
 statement : " Neither Philo nor Josephus impart to us 
 an authentic list of the sacred writings." * It seems 
 clear that the Jewish canon was not definitely settled 
 until the assembly at Jamnia, during the Jewish war 
 with Titus (about 70 A.D.), and the decisions were car- 
 ried through by a majority of votes, accompanied with 
 acts of violence toward the dissenting parties.f We 
 iloubt not that the canon of the Palestinian Jews re- 
 ceived its latest addition by common consent not later 
 than the time of Judas Maccabeus,;}: and no books 
 of later composition were added afterward ; yet the 
 schools of the Pharisees continued the debate with 
 reference to some of these writings until the assembly 
 at Jamnia, and the Hellenistic Jews had a wider and 
 freer conception of the canon. § We cannot rely upon 
 the determination of the canon of the Old Testament 
 by the authority of the Pharisees, who, after the rejec- 
 tion of the true Messiah, brought on the ruin of their 
 nation in the Jewish war. We cannot yield to the 
 authority of Rabbi Akiba, the supporter of Bar Khokba, 
 the false messiah, and his coadjutors, any more on this 
 
 * Gottesdtenst lichen Vortrage dcr yuden, 1S32, p. 18. 
 
 + Graetz, Gesch. d. jfudeti, 1863, III., p. 496, seg. ; Robertson Smith, Tht 
 Old Testament in the ye7vish Church, N. Y., 18S1, p. 172, scq., and 412 seq. \ 
 S. Ives Curtiss in Current Disciissictis in Theology, p. 63 ; see also Ihe Misnaic 
 tract, y ad aim. III. S- 
 
 X Strach, Herzogf, Real Encyk., II. Aud., vii., p. 426; Ewald, Z^A;-tf </. Bibe, 
 von Gott, I., p. 363. 
 
 § F.-.vaUl in /. c, p. 364.
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 131 
 
 subject of the canon than we can accept their dicta with 
 regard to Jesus Christ, the observance of the Sabbath, 
 or the faith of ancient Israel. 
 
 Nor does the New Testament determine the canon of 
 the Old. Jesus gives His authority to the law, the proph- 
 ets, and the psalms (Luke xxiv. 44), which alone were 
 used in the synagogue in His times ; but the psalms only 
 of the Hagiographa are mentioned. There are no suffi- 
 cient reasons for concluding that by the psalms Jesus 
 meant all the other books besides law and prophets. 
 
 The New Testament uses for the Old Testament the 
 following general terms : (i) the term scriptures for the 
 whole (Acts xvii. 2 ; xvii. 1 1 ; xviii. 24 ; xviii. 28) ; or sacred 
 ivritings (2 Tim. iii. 15) ; (2) law (John x. 34 referring to 
 ^he Psalter ; xii. 34 referring to several passages of the 
 prophets; xv. 25 to the Psalter; i Cor. xiv. 21 to Isa- 
 iah) ; {■^prophets (Luke xxiv. 25 ; Acts xiii. 27) ; (4) laza 
 and prophets (Matt. v. 17; Acts xiii. 15), Moses and 
 prophets (Luke xvi. 29, 31; xxiv. 27; Acts xxvi. 22); 
 law of Moses and the prophets (Acts xxviii. 23); (5) 
 law of Moses and prophets and psalms (Luke xxiv. 44). 
 This fluctuation shows that in the minds of the writers 
 of the New Testament there was no definite division 
 known as law, prophets, and other writings.* Indeed 
 the New Testament carefully abstains from using the 
 writings disputed among the Jews. It does not use at 
 all Ecclesiastcs, Song of Songs, Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah ; 
 
 * The statement of the prologue of Fcclcsiastictis or the Wisdom of Sirach 
 as to the three classes : " Law, Prophets, and other books of our fathers," does 
 not prove that the last was a teclinical term of a special class. Ilow could Jose- 
 phus have given such a different arranp;cment of the writing's from that found 
 anjrwhere else, if that had been the case ? How could he have given up the 
 technical "other writings," and used Ityttuis, etc. ? The term, other writinps, to 
 Sirach means nothing more than an indefinite number which did not belong to 
 the classes law and prophets.
 
 _£32 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 and only incidentally Ezekiel and Chronicles in the same 
 way as apocryphal books and the pseudepigraphical are 
 used. Was this silence discretionary, in order to build 
 only on books recognized by all, or does it rule from the 
 canon those books so ignored ? * 
 Prof. Charterisf says: 
 
 " It may be a mere coincidence, but it is at least noteworthy, that 
 the only books of the Old Testament not quoted in the New are the 
 three books of the writings of Solomon, Esther and Ezra and Nehe- 
 miah. Ezra and Nehemiah are historical books, which there was 
 probably no occasion to quote : but the other four unquoted books — 
 Esther, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles — are those books which 
 were not accepted by all at the time of our Lord." 
 
 We shall confine ourselves to the same competent au- 
 thority for a summary as to the canon of the New Tes- 
 tament : 1^. 
 
 " We see that there were other books accepted by most, but not 
 with the same heartiness by all ; and the notes we have made on ear • 
 lier lists have prepared us to learn what these books were. The/ 
 are James and Jude, 2d Peter, and 2d and 3d John. Some add the" 
 Apocalypse of John. All these books, save James, were wanting iji 
 the New Testament of the Syriac Church, which being the earliest 
 collection of Christian Scriptures for the East, had great influence 
 on the views of all the Oriental Churches for which Eusebius was 
 specially qualified to speak. When we turn to the Western or Latin 
 Church, we find that James was probably omitted in the old Italic 
 collection current in Africa, and that 2d Peter certainly was. What 
 Eusebius, therefore, tells us with his usual candid trustfulness, is 
 what we should have known from those other sources ; and it may 
 be regarded as established beyond dispute." 
 
 The criticism of the canon has thus determined a gen- 
 
 * Eichhom in /. f., I., p. 104. 
 
 t TAe New Testament Scriptures : Their Claims, History, and Authority. 
 Croall Lectures for 1882. New York, 1882, p. 88. 
 X In /. c, p. 169.
 
 THE CANON OF SCRiPTURK 133 
 
 eral consent to the most of the books defined as canon- 
 ical in the Reformed creeds, and that with regard to 
 those others about which there has always been dispute, 
 the preponderance of testimony is in their favor. The 
 books of primary and secondary authority have kept the 
 same relative position. Those doubted among the Jews 
 were doubted by Christians. Those doubted in the early 
 church were doubted by the reformers, and are doubted 
 by some critics now. In giving our testimony to the 
 canonicity of all the books specified in the Reformed 
 creeds, we do it on the principles of criticism laid down 
 by the reformers and tested by the fires of modern in- 
 vestigation. But we recognize that the evidence for 
 some is less than for others. 
 
 The conflicts of conformists and non-conformists, and 
 the struggle between evangelical faith and deism in 
 Great Britain, and of scholasticism with pietism on the 
 continent, caused the scholastics to antagonize more 
 and more the human element in the Scriptures, and to 
 assert the external authority of traditional opinions and 
 Protestant orthodoxy, over the reason, the conscience, 
 and the religious feeling ; while the apologists, following 
 the deists into the field of the external arguments for 
 and against the religion and doctrines of the Bible, built 
 up a series of external evidences which are strong and 
 powerful, and which did, in fact, overcome the deists 
 intellectually, or rather drive them into atheism and 
 pantheism ; but at the expense of vital piety in the 
 Church — the true Puritan inheritance ; for the stronger 
 internal evidence was neglected. The dogmatists for- 
 got the caution of Calvin : " Those persons betray great 
 folly who wish it to be demonstrated to infidels, that the 
 Scripture is the Word of God, which canr.ot be known
 
 134 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 without faith " * and exposed the church to the severe 
 criticism of Dodwell : 
 
 " To give all men Liberty to judge for themselves and to expect at 
 the same time that they shall be of the preacher's mind, is such a 
 scheme for unanimity as one would scarce imagine any one would 
 be weak enough to devise in speculation, and much less that any 
 could ever prove hardy enough to avow and propose to practice," t 
 
 and led some to the conclusion that there was an " ir- 
 reconcilable repugnance in their natures betwixt reason 
 and belief.":}: 
 
 The efforts of the more evangelical type of thought 
 which passed over from the Puritans into the Cambridge 
 men, and the Presbyterians of the type of Baxter and 
 Calamy, to construct an evangelical doctrine of the rea- 
 son and the religious feeling in accordance with Protestant 
 principles, failed for the time, and the movement died 
 away, or passed over into the merely liberal and compre- 
 hensive scheme, or assumed an attitude of indifference 
 between the contending parties. The Protestant rule of 
 faith was sharpened more and more, especially among 
 the Independents, and the separating Presbyterian 
 churches of Scotland, after the fashion of John Owen, 
 rather than of the Westminster divines ; whilst the apolo- 
 gists pressed more and more the dogmatic method of 
 demonstration over against criticism. § 
 
 The Reformed faith and evangelical religion were about 
 to be extinguished when, in the Providence of God, the 
 Puritan vital and experimental religion was revived in 
 Methodism which devoted itself to Christian life, and so 
 proved the saving element in modern British and Amer- 
 ican Christianity. The churches of the continent of 
 
 * Institutes, Vin., 13. + Religion not /cunded on Argument, p. 90, seq, 
 X In /. r., p. 80. § Lechler, Gesch. d. Dcistnus, 1S41, p. 411, seq.
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 135 
 
 Europe were allowed, in the Providence of God, to meet 
 the full force of rationalism and pay the penalty of the 
 criminal blunders of the scholastics. Schleiermacher 
 was raised up to be the father of modern evangelical 
 German theology. He began to recover the lost ground 
 and to build the structure of modern theology in the 
 true mystic spirit on the religious feeling apprehending 
 Jesus Christ as Saviour. A series of intellectual giants 
 have carried on his work, such as Neander, Tholuck, 
 Rothe, Miiller, and Dorner. 
 
 It is not safe to follow these foreign divines in all their 
 methods and statements. These depend upon the cent- 
 ury of conflict which lies back of them and through which 
 we have not passed. British and American theology 
 lias its own peculiar principles, methods, and work to 
 perform. It is rapidly approaching the crisis of its his- 
 tor)% the same essentially that German theology had to 
 meet at the close of the eighteenth century. The tide 
 of thought has ebbed and flowed between Great Britain 
 and the continent several times since the Reformation. 
 The tide has set strongly now in our direction. It is 
 perilous to follow the blind guides of British and Amer- 
 ican scholasticism, and fall in the ditch that lies in their 
 path (Matt. xv. 14). It is wise to learn from the expe- 
 rience of those who have passed through the conflict and 
 achieved the victory. It is prudent to do all that is pos- 
 sible to prevent the ruin to American Christianity that 
 is sure to come if we commit the old blunders over again. 
 It is our conviction that the revival of true evangelical 
 religion, and the successful progress of the theology of 
 our Reformed churches, in the working out of the princi- 
 ples inherited from the Reformation, depend upon a 
 speedy reaction from the scholastic theology of the Zu« 
 rich Consensus and the Puritanism of John Owen, and
 
 136 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 an immediate renewal of the evangelical life and unfet. 
 tered thought of the Reformation and the Puritans of 
 the first half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 It has become more and more evident since Semler* 
 reopened the question of the canon of Scripture, that 
 the only safe position for evangelical men is to build on 
 the rock of the Reformation principle of the Scriptures. 
 This principle has been enriched in two directions — first 
 by the study of the unity and harmony of the Scriptures 
 as an organic whole, and second by the apprehension of 
 the relation of the faith of the individual to the consen- 
 sus of the churches. The principles on which the canon 
 of Scripture is to be determined are, therefore, these : 
 (i) The testimony of the church, going back by tradition 
 and written documents to primitive times, presents prob- 
 able evidence to all men that the Scriptures, recognized 
 as of divine authority and canonical by such general con • 
 sent, are indeed what they are claimed to be. 
 
 (2) The Scriptures themselves, in their pure and holy 
 character, satisfying the conscience ; their beauty, har- 
 mony, and majesty satisfying the aesthetic taste ; their 
 simplicity and fidelity to truth, together with their ex- 
 alted conceptions of man, of God, and of history, satis- 
 fying the reason and the intellect ; their piety and devo- 
 tion to the one God, and their revelation of redemption, 
 satisfying the religious feelings and deepest needs of 
 mankind — all conspire to more and more convince that 
 they are indeed sacred and divine books. 
 
 (3) The Spirit of God bears witness by and with the 
 particular writing, or part of writing, in the heart of (he 
 believer, removing every doubt and assuring the soui of 
 its possession of the truth of God, the rule and guide of 
 the life. 
 
 * Abhandlung von freifr Untersucltung des Kanon. 4 Bde., 1771-1775,
 
 THE CANON OF SCRIPTUHE. 187 
 
 (4) The Spirit of God bears witness by and with the 
 several writings in such a manner as to assure the be- 
 liever in the study of them that they are the several 
 parts of one complete divine revelation, each writing 
 having its own appropriate and indispensable place and 
 importance in the organism of the canon. 
 
 (5) The Spirit of God bears witness to the church as 
 an organized body of such believers, through their free 
 consent in various communities and countries and cent- 
 uries, to this unity and variety of the Scriptures as the 
 one complete and perfect canon of the divine word to 
 the church. 
 
 And thus the human testimony, the external evidence, 
 attains its furthest possible limit as probable evidence, 
 bringing the inquirer to the Scriptures with a high 
 and reverent esteem of them, when the internal evi- 
 dence exerts its powerful influence upon his soul, and 
 at length the divine testimony lays hold of his entin.* 
 nature and convinces and assures him of the truth of 
 God and causes him to share in the consensus of the 
 Christian church. 
 
 " Thus the Canon explains and judges itself; it needs no foreign 
 standard. Just so the Holy Spirit evokes in believers a judgment, or 
 criticism, which is not subjective, but in which freedom and fidelity 
 are combined. The criticism and interpretation, which faith exercises, 
 see its object not from without, as foreign, or as traditional, or as in 
 bondage, but from within, and abiding in its native element becomes 
 more and more at home while it ascribes to every product of apostolic 
 men its place and proper canonical worth." " True faith sees in the 
 letter of the documents of Revelation the religious content brought to 
 an immutable objectivity which is able to attest itself as truth by the 
 divine Spirit, which can at once warm and quicken the letter in ordei 
 to place the living God-man before the eyes of the believer." * 
 
 * Domer, System der Christlichm Clauhenslel.rc, Berlin, 1879, I., pp. 667 
 teq. ; System 0/ Christian Doctrine, Kdin., 1S81, II., p. 229, seq.
 
 138 BIBLICAL STU1»Y. 
 
 The reason, the conscience, and the religious feeling, 
 all of which have arisen during these discussions of the 
 last century into a light and vigor unknown and unantic- 
 ipated at the Reformation, should not be antagonized the 
 one with the other, or with the Spirit of God, but will 
 all be included in that act and habit of faith by which 
 we apprehend the Word of God. These cannot be satis- 
 fied with the external authority of scholars or schools, 
 of Church or State, of tradition or human testimony, 
 however extensive, but only by a divine authority on 
 which they can rest with certainty. Men will recognize 
 the canonical writings as their Bible, only in so far as 
 they may be able to rise through them as external media 
 to the presence of their divine Master, who reigns in and 
 by the Word, which is holy and divine, in so far and to 
 that extent that it evidently sets Him forth.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 Biblical Criticism suffered an eclipse in the 17th 
 century among the reformed scholastics of Switzerland 
 and Holland, but maintained itself in France and among 
 the Puritans of Great Britain, where the conflict with 
 Rome continued as a life and death struggle. The re- 
 formed scholastics and the Lutheran scholastics alike 
 fell back upon Jewish rabbinical tradition and formu- 
 lated that tradition in Protestant forms of scholasticism 
 and with hair-splitting results. The reformers had given 
 their chief attention to the criticism of the canon, the 
 establishment of the sole authority of the Scripture, and 
 to its proper interpretation, but they had not overlooked 
 the criticism of the text. With reference to the Old 
 Testament, they had been chiefly influenced by two Jew- 
 ish scholars, the one Elias Levita, who lived and died in 
 the Jewish faith, the other Jacob ben Chajim, who be- 
 came a Christian. Chajim edited the second edition of 
 Bomberg's Rabbinical Bible and issued an elaborate in- 
 troduction to it. He also edited, for the first time, the 
 Massora. It was a common opinion among the Jews 
 that the vowel points and accents of the Hebrew Script- 
 ures came down from Ezra, and even Moses and Adam. 
 Levita explodes these traditions by the following simple 
 line of argument : 
 
 (139)
 
 140 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 " The vowel points and the accents did not exist either before 
 Ezra or in the time of Ezra or after Ezra till the close of the Talmud. 
 And I shall prove this with clear and conclusive evidence (i) In all 
 the writings of our Rabbins of blessed memory, whether the Talmud, 
 or the Hagadah, or the Midrash, there is not to be found any men- 
 tion whatever of. or any allusion to the vowel points or accents." 
 (2) and (3) The Talmud in its use of the Bible discusses how the 
 words should be read and how divided. This is inconsistent with 
 an accented official text. (4) " Almost all the names of both the 
 vowel points and the accents are not Hebrew, but Aramean and 
 Babylonian." * 
 
 I. TEXTUAL CRITICISM IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The reformers rejected the inspiration of the Mas- 
 soretic traditional pointing and only accepted the un- 
 pointed text. Luther does not hesitate to speak of the 
 points as new human inventions about which he does 
 not trouble himself, and says, " I often utter words 
 which strongly oppose these points," and " they are most 
 assuredly not to be preferred to the simple, correct, and 
 grammatical sense." f He goes to work with the best 
 text he can find to give the Word of God to the people. 
 So Calvin :}: acknowledged that they were the result of 
 great diligence and sound tradition, yet to be used with 
 care and selection. Zwingli gave great value to the 
 LXX and the version of Jerome, and disputed the 
 Massoretic signs.§ Though searching for the nearest 
 grammatical and logical sense, they were not anxious as 
 to the inspiration of the grammar or the logic of the au- 
 thors. Luther does not hesitate to dispute the validity 
 of Paul's argument in Galatians iv. 22, seq. ; Calvin does 
 
 * Levita, Massoreth Ha-Massoreth, edited by Ginsburg, p. 127, seq. London, 
 
 1867. 
 
 t Com. on Gen. xlvii. 31 ; on Isaiah vs.. 6. 
 
 \ Com. on Zech. xi. 7. § Opera ed. Schult., V., p. 556, seq.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BEBLK 143 
 
 not meet the objection that Paul violently and inaptly 
 wrested the wovds of Moses and David, by showing that 
 he gives the meaning, syllable by syllable, but represents 
 the apostle as polishing and embellishing and applying 
 the words to his own purposes.* He is not anxious 
 about the error of Matthew xxvii. 9, in the citation 
 of Jeremiah instead of Zechariah. So Luther points 
 out two errors or slips of memory in the discourse of 
 Stephen, Acts vii. The reformers laid down no theory 
 of inspiration, such as would cover accent and letter, 
 word, logic, and grammar. They regarded the external 
 word as the instrument ; they sought the sense, the infal- 
 lible Divine Word contained in the Scriptures, applied 
 by the Holy Spirit to their souls.f 
 
 It is astonishing how far the Swiss Protestant divines 
 had allowed themselves to drift away from this position 
 of liberty, and how greatly they had entangled them- 
 selves once more in the bonds of traditionalism. This 
 was chiefly due to another Jewish scholar, Azzariah de 
 Rossi,:}: who claims, to use the concise statement of Dr. 
 Ginsburg : § 
 
 " That as to the origin and development of the vowels their force 
 and virtue were invented by, or communicated to, Adam, in Para- 
 dise ; transmitted to and by Moses ; that they had been partially 
 forgotten, and their pronunciation vitiated during the Babylonian 
 captivity ; that they had been restored by Ezra, but that they had 
 been forgotten again in the wars and struggles during and after the 
 destruction of the second temple ; and that the Massorites, after the 
 close of the Talmud, revised the system, and permanently fixed the 
 pronunciation by the contrivance of the present signs. This accounts 
 
 • Com. on Rom. x. 6 ; I/e5. iv. 4. 
 
 t Compare Tholuck, art. Inspiration in Herzog Ency., 1. Aufl., VI., 696, seg. 
 X The Light 0/ the Eyes, tl'^T'S inJS^^a HI. 59,1574-5. 
 § Li/e of Elias Levita, in connection with his edition of Levita's Massorelh 
 fIa-Mas3oreth, London, 1867, p. 53.
 
 1 42 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 for the fact that the present vowel points are not mentioned in the 
 Talmud, The reason why Moses did not punctuate the copy of the 
 law which he wrote, is that its import should not be understood 
 without oral tradition. Besides, as the law has seventy different 
 meanings, the writing of it, without points, greatly aids to obtain 
 these various interpretations ; whereas the affixing of the vowel 
 signs would preclude all permutations and transpositions, and 
 greatly restrict the sense by fixing the pronunciation." 
 
 His principal reliance was upon some passages of the 
 book ZoJiar and other cabalistic writings, which he 
 claimed to be older than the Mishna, but which have 
 since been shown to be greatly interpolated and of ques- 
 tionable antiquity.* 
 
 Relying upon these the elder Buxtorf with his great 
 authority misled a large number of the most prominent 
 of the Reformed divines of the continent to maintain the 
 opinion of the divine origin and authority of the Ma.s- 
 soretic vowel points and accents.f In England, Fulke,]: 
 Broughton,§ and Lightfoot | adopted the same opinion, 
 These rabbinical scholars exerted, in this respect, a dis- 
 astrous influence upon the study of the Old Testament. 
 
 II. TEXTUAL CRITICISM IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The Protestant critical principle reasserted itself 
 mightily through Ludwig Cappellus, of the French 
 school of Saumur, where a freer type of theology had 
 maintained itself. A new' impulse to Hebrew scholar- 
 ship had been given by Amira, Gabriel Sionita, and 
 
 * Ginsburg in /. c, p. 52 ; Wog;ue, Histoire de la Bible, Paris, 1881, p. 121. 
 
 t Tiherius sive Comniejitarius Afasorei Incus, Basle, 1620. 
 
 *. A dr/ence 0/ the sincere and true translations of the Holy Scriptures intt 
 the Iinglish Tongue, etc., 1583 ; Parker Society edition, 1843, pp. 55 and 578. 
 
 S Daniel : his Chaldee visions and his Hebrew, London, 1597, on chap. ix. 261 
 
 \ Chorographical Century, c. 81 ; Works, Pitman's edition, 1S23 Vol. IXj 
 p. 130, seq.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 143 
 
 other Maronites who brought a wealth of Oriental 
 learning to the attention of Christian scholars. Po- 
 cock journeyed to the East, and returned with rich 
 spoils of Arabic literature. France, Holland, and Eng- 
 land vied with one another in their use of these literary 
 treasures, and pushed them for the study of the Hebrew 
 Scriptures over against the rabbinical tradition. Erpen- 
 ius in Holland, the great Arabist, was the teacher of 
 Cappellus, and first introduced his work to the public. 
 Cappellus fell back on the views of Elias Levita, the 
 teacher of the reformers, and the reformers themselves, 
 and denied the inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points 
 and accents, and the common Massoretic text, and in- 
 sisted upon its revision, through the comparison of 
 MSS. and ancient versions.* Cappellus was sustained 
 by the French theologians generally, even by Rivetus, 
 also by Cocceius, the father of the Federal school in 
 Holland, who first gave the author's name to the pub- 
 lic, and the body of English critics.f 
 
 In this connection a series of great Polyglots ap 
 peared, beginning with the Antwerp of the Jesuit 
 Arias Montanus, assisted by And. Masius, Fabricus 
 Boderianus, and Franz Rapheleng ; :{: followed by the 
 Paris Polyglot of Michael de Jay,§ edited by Morinus 
 and Gabriel Sionita ; and culminating in the London 
 Polyglot of Brian Walton, in which he was aided by 
 Ed. Castle, Ed. Pococke, Thos. Hyde, and others I — 
 the greatest critical achievement of the 17th century, 
 
 * Ilis work was published anonymously in 162^ at Leyden under the title Ar- 
 canum p'utictuationis revelatum, though completed in 1621. 
 
 t Conip. Schnedcrmann, Die Controverse des Lud. Cappellus mil den Bux* 
 tor/euy Leipzig, 1879. 
 
 X Bitlia Regia, 8 vols, folio, 1569-72. § 1629-45, 10 vols, folio. 
 
 I 6 vols, folio, 1657.
 
 144 BIBLICAL STUDr. 
 
 which remains as the classic basis for the comparative 
 study of versions until the present day. 
 
 The work of Cappellus remained unanswered, and 
 worked powerfully until 1648. In the meantime the 
 Roman Catholic Frenchman, Morinus, taking the same 
 position as Cappellus, pressed it in order to show 
 the need of Church authority and tradition.* This 
 greatly complicated the discussion by making the view 
 a basis for an attack on the Protestant position. The 
 younger Buxtorf was stirred up to maintain the scho- 
 lastic position against Cappellus.f The three universities 
 f)f Sedan, Geneva, and Leyden were so aroused against 
 C'appellus that they refused to allow the publication of 
 his great work, Critica Sacra, which, however, appeared 
 in 1650; the first of a series of corresponding produc- 
 tions.:]: Heidegger and Turretine rallied the universities 
 of Zurich, Geneva, and Basle to the Zurich Consensus, 
 v/hich was adopted in 1675, against all the distinguish- 
 ing doctrines of the school of Saumur, and the more 
 i'beral type of Calvinism, asserting for the first and only 
 Hme in the symbols of the church the doctrine of verbal 
 inspiration, together with the inspiration of accents and 
 points. 
 
 Thus the formal principle of Protestantism was strait- 
 ened, and its vital power destroyed by the erection of 
 dogmatic barriers against biblical criticism. " They for- 
 got that they by this standpoint again made Christian 
 faith entirely dependent on church tradition : yes, with 
 respect to the Old Testament, on the synagogue." § 
 
 The controversy between Brian Walton and John 
 
 * Exercitationes biblica, 1633. 
 
 t Tract, de punct. vocal, et accent, in libr. V., T., heb. origine antiq., 1648. 
 
 X See Tholuck, Akadem. Leben, II., p. 332. 
 § Domer, Gesch. Prof. Theologie, p. 451.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. I45 
 
 Owen IS instructive just here. John Owen had pre- 
 pared a tract,* in which he takes the scholastic ground, 
 " Nor is it enough to satisfy us that the doctrines men- 
 tioned are preserved entire ; every tittle and iota in the 
 Word of God must come under our consideration, as be- 
 ing as such from God." f 
 
 Before the tract was issued he was confronted by the 
 Prolegomena to Walton's Biblia Polyglotta^ which, he 
 perceived, undermined his theory of inspiration, and, 
 therefore, added an appendix,:}: in which he maintains 
 that : 
 
 " The Scriptures of the Old and New Testament were immedi- 
 ately and entirely given out by God himself, His mind being in them 
 represented unto us without the least interveniency of such mediums 
 and ways as were capable of giving change or alteration to the least 
 l')ta or syllable." 
 
 Brian Walton admirably replies to him : 
 
 " For when at the beginning of the Reformation, divers questions 
 arose about the Scriptures and the Church ; the Romanists observ- 
 ing that the punctuation of the Hebrew text was an invention of the 
 Masorites, they thereupon inferred that the text without the points 
 might be taken in divers senses, and that none was tyed to the read- 
 ing of the Rabbins, and therefore concluded that the Scripture is 
 ambiguous and doubtful without the interpretation and testimony 
 of the Church, so that all must flee to the authority of the Church 
 and depend upon her for the true sense and meaning of the Script- 
 ures. On the other side, some Protestants, fearing that some ad- 
 vantage might be given to the Romanists by this concession, and not 
 considering how the certainty of the Scriptures might well be main- 
 tained though the Text were unpointed, instead of denying the con- 
 
 * The Divine Original^ Authority y and Self-evidencing Light and Purity 0/ 
 the Scriptures. 
 
 I JVorhs, xvi. p. 303. 
 
 X 0/ the integrity and purity 0/ the Hebrew Text of th^ Scriptures, with 
 considerations of the Prolegomena and Appendix to tJie late ^^ Biblia Poly' 
 glotta," Oxford, 1659, 
 7
 
 146 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 sequence, which they might well have done, thought fit rather to 
 deny the assumption, and to maintain that the points were of Z>/- 
 vine original, whereby they involved themselves in extreme laby- 
 rinths, engaging themselves in defence of that which might be easily 
 proved to be false, and thereby wronged the cause which they 
 seemed to defend. Others, therefore, of more learning and judg- 
 ment knowing that this position of the divine original o{ th^ points 
 could not be made good ; and that the truth needed not the patron- 
 age of an untruth, would not engage themselves therein, but granted 
 it to be true, that the faints were invented by the Rabbins, yet de- 
 nied the consequence, maintaining, notwithstanding, that the reading 
 and sense of the text might be certain without punctuation, and that 
 therefore the Scriptures did not at all depend upon the authority of 
 the Church : and of this judgment were the chief Protestant Di- 
 vines, and greatest linguists that then were, or have been since in 
 the Christian world, such as I named before; Luther, Zwinglius, 
 Calvin, Beza, Musculus, Brentius, Pellicane, Oecolampadius, Mercer 
 Piscator, P. Phagius, Drusius, Schindler, Martinius, Scaliger, De 
 Dieu, Casaubon, Erpenius, Sixt. Amana, Jac. and Ludov. Capellus, 
 Grotius, etc. — among ourselves. Archbishop Ussher, Bishop Pri- 
 deaux, Mr. Mead, Mr. Selden, and innumerable others, whom I for- 
 bear to name, who conceived it would nothing disadvantage the 
 cause, to yield that proposition, for that they could still make it 
 good, that the Scripture was in itself a sufficient and certain rule 
 for faith and life, not depending upon any human authority to sup- 
 port it."* 
 
 We have quoted this extract at length for the light it 
 casts upon the struggle of criticism at the time. John 
 Owen, honored as a preacher and dogmatic writer, but 
 certainly no exegete, had spun a theory of inspiration 
 after the a priori scholastic method, and with it did bat- 
 tle against the great Polyglot. It was a Quixotic at- 
 tempt, and resulted in ridiculous failure. His dogma is 
 crushed as a shell in the grasp of a giant. The indigna- 
 tion of Walton burns hot against this wanton and un- 
 reasoning attack. But he consoles himself with the 
 
 The Considerator Considered, London, 1659, p. 220, seg.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 147 
 
 opening reflection that Origen's Hexapla ; Jerome'a 
 Vulgate ; the Complutensian Polyglot ; Erasmus' Greek 
 Testament ; the Antwerp and Paris Polyglots have all 
 in turn been assailed by those whose theories and dog- 
 mas have been threatened or overturned by a scholarly 
 induction of facts. 
 
 The theory of the scholastics prevailed but for a brief 
 period in Switzerland, where it was overthrown by the 
 reaction under the leadership of the younger Turretine. 
 The theory of John Owen did not influence the West- 
 minster men : 
 
 •' In fact, it was not till several years after the Confession was 
 completed, and the star of Owen was in the ascendant, that under 
 the spell of a genius and learning only second to Calvin, English 
 Puritanism so generally identified itself with what is termed his less 
 liberal view." * 
 
 Owen's scholastic type of theology worked in the doc- 
 trine of inspiration, as well as in other dogmas, to the 
 detriment of the simpler and more evangelical West- 
 minster theology ; and in the latter part of the seven- 
 teenth century gave Puritan theology a scholastic type 
 which it did not possess before. But it did not prevent 
 such representative Presbyterians as Matthew Poole, 
 Edmund Calamy, and the Cambridge men, with Baxter, 
 from taking the more evangelical Westminster position. 
 The critics of the Reformed church produced master- 
 pieces of biblical learning, which have been the pride 
 and boast of the churches to the present. Like Cappel- 
 lus, they delighted in the name critical, and were not 
 afraid of it. The Critici Sacri of John Pearson, Anton 
 Scattergood, Henry Gouldman, and Rich. Pearson, fol- 
 lowed up Walton's Polyglot in 1660 (9 vols, folio), and 
 
 * Mitchell, Minutes 0/ Westminsftr Assembly, p. xx.
 
 14:8 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 this was succeeded by Matthew Poole's Synopsis Criti 
 corum in 1669 (5 vols, folio). 
 
 Ill TEXTUAL CRITICISM IN THE EIGHTEENTH AND 
 NINETEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 Biblical criticism continued in England till the midst 
 of the eighteenth century. Mill issued his critical New 
 Testament in 1707, the fruit of great industry, and was 
 assailed by unthinking men who preferred pious igno- 
 rance to a correct New Testament.* But Richard Bent-» 
 ley espoused the cause of his friend with invincible 
 arguments, and he himself spent many years in the 
 collection of manuscripts, but died leaving his magnifi- 
 cent work incomplete, and his plans to be carried out 
 by foreign scholars. 
 
 For " now original research in the science of Biblical Criticism, 
 so far as the New Testament is concerned, seems to have left the 
 shores of England to return no more for upwards of a century ; and 
 we must look to Germany if we wish to trace the further progress of 
 investigations which our countrymen had so auspiciously begun." t 
 
 Bishop Lowth did for the Old Testament what Bent- 
 ley did for the New. In his works % he called the atten- 
 tion of scholars to the necessity of emendation of the 
 Massoretic text, and encouraged Kennicott to collate 
 the manuscripts of the Old Testament, which he did and 
 published the result in a monumental work in 1776- 
 i78o.§ This was preceded by an introductory work in 
 1753-59-11 
 
 * Scrivener, Introduction to the Criticism of the N. T., ad edit. 1874, p. 400. 
 
 t Scrivener in /.£■., p 402. 
 
 X De Sacra Poesi Nebraeorum, 1753, and Isaiah : A New Translation, tvitk 
 9 fyenminary Dissertation and Notes, 1778, 2d edition, 1779. 
 
 I Vettis Test. Heb. cum var. lectionibus, 2 torn., Oxford. 
 
 I The state of the printed Hebrew Text of the Oli Testament considered^ 
 % vols., Svo. Oxford.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLK 149 
 
 After this splendid beginning, Old Testament criti- 
 cism followed its New Testament sister to the conti- 
 nent of Europe and remained absent until our own day. 
 
 On the continent the work of Mill was carried 
 on by J. A. Bengel * J. C. Wetstein,f J. J. Gries- 
 bach,:j: J. M. A. Scholz,§ C. Lachmanii,! culminating in 
 Const. Tischendorf, who edited the chief uncial authori- 
 ties, discovered and edited the Codex Sinaiticus^^ and 
 issued numerous editions of the New Testament, the 
 earliest in 1841. He crowned his work with the eighth 
 critical edition of the New Testament, which he lived 
 to complete, but had to leave the Prolegomena to 
 another.** Tischendorf is the greatest textual critic the 
 world has yet produced. 
 
 In the Old Testament, De Rossi carried on the 
 work of Kennicott.f f Little has been done since his day 
 until recent times, when Baer united with Delitzsch in 
 issuing in parts a revised Massoretic text, 1869-1882; 
 Hermann Strack examined the recently-discovered Ori- 
 ental manuscripts, the chief of which is the St. Petersburg 
 codex of the Prophets of the year ^\6K.Xi,%\ and Frens- 
 dorf undertook the production of the Massora Magna.^ 
 
 * Prodromus, JV. T. Gr., 1725. Novtttn Test., 1734. 
 
 t New Test. Gr. cum lectionibus variantibus Codicum, etc. Amst. 1751-2. 
 
 X Symbolae Criticae, II. torn., 1785-93. 
 
 § Bib. krit. Reise I^pzig, 1823 ; N. T. Graece, 2 Bde. Leipzig, 1830-36. 
 
 I Novum Test. Graece et Latine, 2 Bde., Berlin, 1842-50. 
 
 1 Bihlioriim Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus, St. Petersburg-, 1862 ; Dit 
 Sinaibibel, Ihre Entdeckung, Herausgabe und Erwerbung, Leipzig, 1871. 
 
 ** Novum Test amentum Graece. Editio octava: Critica Major, Lipsiae, 
 1869-72. The Prolegomena is in the hjinds of an Americafl scholar, Dr. C. R. 
 Gregory. 
 
 ft Variae lectiottes Vet. Test., 4 torn., Parnl., 1784-1788. 
 
 XX Prophetarum Posferiorum Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus, Pfctropoli, 
 1876, 
 
 §§ Die Massora Magna; Erster Theil, Massoretisches Worterboch, Hanovet 
 und Leipzig, 1876.
 
 150 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Within recent times textual criticism has taken strong 
 hold again in England. S. P. Tregelles,* F. H. Scrivener,f 
 B. F. Westcott, and F. J. A. Hort :{: have advanced the 
 textual criticism of the New Testament beyond the 
 mark reached by continental scholars. In Old Testa- 
 ment criticism England is advancing to the front rank 
 The work of Ginsburg on the Massora § is the greatest 
 achievement since the unpublished work of Elias Levita. 
 But the Massoretic text is only the beginning toward a 
 correct text of the Old Testament. 
 
 The Textual Criticism of the Old Testament is at 
 least half a century behind the New Testament. I| And 
 the reason of it is, that scholars have hesitated to go 
 back of the Massoretic text. Few have given their at- 
 tention to the literary features of the Bible and espec- 
 ially its poetic structure. But it is just here that the 
 eyes of the student are opened to the necessity of emen- 
 dation of the text where we can receive no help from 
 the Massorites, who seem to have been profoundly igno- 
 rant of the structure of Hebrew poetry. Prof. Gratz, 
 the Jewish scholar, has recently said that we ought not 
 to speak of a Massoretic text that has been made sure 
 to us, but rather of different schools of Massorites, and 
 follow their example and remove impossible readings 
 from the text.^f 
 
 * The Greek New Testament edited from ancient authorities, etc., 4to, 1857- 
 1872, pp. 1017. 
 
 + Plain Introductien to the Criticism of the Neva Testament, j^ edition, 1883. 
 
 X The New Testament in the Original Greek. Vol. 11. Introduction and 
 Appendix. N. Y,, 1882. 
 
 § The Massorah cotnpiled from Manuscripts Alphabetically and Lexically 
 arranged, Vol. Land II. Aleph — Tav, London, 1880-83. 
 
 I Davidson, Treatise 0/ B.blical C>-.ticism, Boston, 1853, 1., p. I6^, seq. 
 
 'i Krit. Com. zu den Psalmen nebst Text und Uebersetzung, Breslau, L, 
 1882, p. 118, seq.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 151 
 
 Bishop Lowth, with his fine aesthetic sense and in- 
 sight into the principles of Hebrew poetry, saw and 
 stated the truth : 
 
 " If it be asked, what then is the real condition of the present He- 
 brew Text ; and of what sort, and in what number, are the mistakes 
 which we must acknowledge to be found in it : it is answered, that 
 the condition of the Hebrew Text is such, as from the nature of the 
 thing, the antiquity of the writings themselves, the want of due care, 
 or critical skill (in which latter at least the Jews have been exceed- 
 ingly deficient), might in all reason have been expected, that the mis- 
 takes are frequent, and of various kinds ; of letters, words, and sen- 
 tences ; by variation, omission, transposition ; such as often injure 
 the beauty and elegance, embarrass the construction, alter or obscure 
 the sense, and sometimes render it quite unintelligible. If it be ob- 
 jected, that a concession, so large as this is, tends to invalidate the 
 authority of Scripture; that it g^ves up in effect the certainty and 
 authenticity of the doctrines contained in it, and exposes our religion 
 naked and defenceless to the assaults of its enemies: this, I think, is 
 a vain and groundless apprehension Important and funda- 
 mental doctrines do not wholly depend on single passages ; and uni- 
 versal harmony runs through the Holy Scriptures ; the parts mutually 
 support each other, and supply one another's deficiencies and obscu- 
 rities. Superficial damages and partial defects may greatly diminish 
 the beauty of the edifice, without injuring its strength, and bringing 
 on utter ruin and destruction." * 
 
 The views of the critics prevailed over those of the 
 scholastics, and no one would now venture to dispute 
 their conclusions. 
 
 IV. THE TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 It has become more and more evident that the He- 
 brew vowel points and accents were not attached to 
 the original MSS. of their authors, but that they have 
 been the product of a long historical development. 
 The Arabic Koran gives us doubtless the simplest sys. 
 
 • Lo%vth, Isaiak, 2d ed., London, 779, pp. lix., Ix.
 
 J 53 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 tern. The Syriac gives us a double system, the Greek and 
 the Syrian proper, standing between the Arabic and the 
 Hebrew. The Hebrew has also two systems, the Pales* 
 tinian and the Babylonian, the latter preserved in the 
 Codex PetripoL, 916 A.D., which was unknown until re- 
 cent times. These two evidently developed side by side 
 and go back on an earlier, simpler system, somewhat 
 like the Arabic, which has been lost.* The origin of the 
 system of pointing the Shemitic languages was proba- 
 bly in the Syrian school at Edessa, and from thence it 
 passed over from the Syriac text at first to the Arabic 
 and afterward to the Hebrew texts. The movement be- 
 gan with diacritical signs to distinguish certain letters 
 and forms, such as we find in the Syriac. This gav(; 
 place to a system of vowel points. Among the Hebrews 
 the Babylonian is the earlier, and is characterized by 
 placing the vowel pjoints above the letters ; the Tiberiaii 
 js the later and more perfect system, and has therefore 
 prevailed. The system did not reach its present condi 
 tion until the seventh century at Babylon and the mid- 
 dle of the eighth century of our era, in Palestine,f al- 
 though Ginsburg attributes the origin of the Babylonian 
 system to Acha, about 550, and the Tiberian to Mocha, 
 about S7^'X It was the work of the Massoretic Jewish 
 critics. The accents went through a similar course of 
 development. They serve for a guide in the cantillation 
 of the synagogues even more than for division of the 
 sentences and the determination of the tone. These also 
 were modelled after the musical notation of the Syrian 
 Church.§ Hence the double tradition as to the place of 
 
 * Gesenhis, Hebr. Gram., ed. Rodiger and Kantzsch, 22 iufl., p. 31. 
 •f- TiWlTaaxxvi, Bibeltext. A. T., in Herzog', Ency. II., pp. 394-6. 
 X Life 0/ Elias Levita, in /. c, p. 61, seg. 
 
 § Wickes, Treatise on the Accentuation of the Three so-called Poetic Booh, 
 9/ the Old Testament. Oxford, 1881.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 153 
 
 the accent, the German and Polish Jews placing it aftef 
 the Aramaic on the penult, whereas the Spanish and 
 Italian Jews followed by Christians place it on the ulti- 
 mate. Bickell has recently decided against the present 
 accepted method.* 
 
 Still further the square Aramaic characters used in 
 our Bible were exchanged for earlier Hebrew letters, 
 such as we see upon ancient coins, in the Samaritan MS. 
 of the Pentateuch, the Siloam Inscription,t and on the 
 Mesha stone. This change was made not earlier than 
 the fourth century B.G.,X sind Upon it the Massoretic 
 pointing depends. It is true that the present consonant 
 text was fixed before the Talmudic era by the Jewish 
 school of Tiberias, and the differences in reading since 
 that time are few and comparatively unimportant in the 
 MSS. thus far collated,§ but the ancient Syriac version^ 
 and especially the LXX, and the Samaritan copy, go back 
 of the labors of the Massoretic period and the work of 
 the schools of Tiberias and Babylon, and give testimony 
 to an earlier text than that presented to us in the pres,'^ 
 ent Hebrew text. 
 
 It is characteristic of scholastics that they underrate 
 these versions. Even Keil, in his anxiety to maintain 
 the present Massoretic text, charges the LXX version 
 with the carelessness and caprice of transcribers and an 
 uncritical and wanton passion for emendation. But this 
 is in the face of the fact that the LXX version was the 
 authorized text of the ancient church, that the New 
 Testament citations are generally supposed to be large- 
 
 • Cartnina Veteris Testamenti Metrtce, Oeniponte, 1882, p, 219, seg. 
 t See author's article on the Siloam Inscription in Presbyterian Review III, 
 p. 401, seq. 
 X Dillmann, Biheltext. d. A. T. Herzog, II., p. 384. 
 S Strack, Proleg. Critica, Leip., 1873, p 66/. 
 
 7*
 
 J 
 
 154. BIBLICAL isTUDY. 
 
 \y from it, and that its testimony is centuries earlief 
 than that of the Jewish school of Tiberias. The Phar 
 isaical authority was directed to destroy the confidence 
 of the Hellenistic Jews in it, and the version of Aquila 
 was made to supplant it and rally the Jews of the world 
 around an official and universally received text.''^ But 
 whether a deliberate attempt was made to suppress and 
 destroy all varying copies, as W. Robertson Smith fol- 
 lowing Noeldeke supposes,f is questionable. We doubt 
 not that those zealots, who under the lead of Rabbi 
 Akiba brought about the destruction of their country 
 and the universal hatred of their race, were capable of 
 this wickedness, but we have not learned that there is 
 sufficient historical evidence to sustain this opinion. 
 
 There can be no doubt, moreover, as Robertson Smith 
 states ; " It has gradually become clear to the vast ma- 
 jority of conscientious students that the Septuagint is 
 really of the greatest value as a witness to the early 
 state of the text.":]; Bishop Lowth already § calls the 
 Massoretic text 
 
 " The Jews' interpretation of the Old Testament." " We do not 
 deny the usefulness of this interpretation, nor would we be thought 
 to detract from its merits by setting it in this light ; it is perhaps, 
 upon the whole, preferable to any one of the ancient versions ; it has 
 probably the great advantage of having been formed upon a tradi- 
 tionary explanation of the text and of being generally agreeable to 
 that sense of Scripture which passed current and was commonly re- 
 ceived by the Jewish nation in ancient times : and it has certainly 
 been of great service to the moderns in leading them into the knowl- 
 edge of the Hebrew tongue. But they would have made a much 
 
 * Graetz, Gesck. der Juden, 1866, IV., p. 437 ; Joel, Blicke in die Religiom 
 geschichte zum Anfang des zweiten Christ lichen Jahrhunderts, I., 1880, p. 
 
 ♦3. sei- 
 t Old Test, in Jewish Church, p. 74. J In /. c, p. 86. 
 
 § In hb Preliminary Dissert, to Isaiah, 2d edit,, London, 1779, p. Iv.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 153 
 
 better use of it, and a greater progress in the explication of the 
 Scriptures of the Old Testament, had they consulted it, without ab- 
 solutely submitting to its authority ; had they considered it as an as- 
 sistant, not as an infallible guide." 
 
 Probably few scholars would go so far as this, yet there 
 is a strong tendency in that direction. It is a most sig- 
 nificant fact that the New Testament does not base its 
 citations upon the original Hebrew text in literal quota- 
 tion, but uses ordinarily the LXX and sometimes the 
 Hebrew and possibly ancient Aramaic Targums with 
 the utmost freedom. This question of citation has ever 
 given trouble to the apologist. Richard Baxter meets 
 it in this way : 
 
 " But one instance I more doubt of myself, which is, when Christ 
 and his apostles do oft use the Septuagint in their citations out of 
 the Old Testament, whether it be alwaies their meaning to justifie 
 each translation and particle of sense, as the Word of God and 
 rightly done ; or only to use that as tolerable and containing the 
 main truth intended which was then in use among the Jews, and 
 therefore understood by them ; and so best to the auditors. And 
 also whether every citation of number or genealogies from the Sep- 
 tuagint, intended an approbation of it in the very points it differeth 
 from the Hebrew copies." * 
 
 Professor Bohl, of Vienna, has recently advanced the 
 theory that these citations are all from a Targum used 
 in the synagogues of Palestine in the first Christian cent- 
 ury, which has been lost.f The book of Jubilees of the 
 first Christian century and other pseudepigraphs of the 
 time testify with the Samaritan text and Targum to 
 differences of text not represented in the Massoretic 
 system.:]: 
 
 * More Reasons, 1672, p. 49 ; see also p. 45. 
 
 \ Forschungen nach einerVolksbihel zur Zeit Jcsu, Wien, 1873 ; Alttestament* 
 lichen Citate in Neuen Test., Wien, 1878. 
 
 X Noldeke, Alttestamentliche Literatur, 1868, p. 241 ; Dillmann, Beitr&gt 
 »us dent Buck der Jubilaen aur Kritik des Pentateuch Textes, 1883.
 
 J5^ BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 But we must go still further back than the versions 
 and citations to the parallel passages and duplicate 
 psalms, prophecies, and narratives of the Old Testament 
 in our study of the original text. No one can study at- 
 tentively the texts of Pss. xiv. and Hii., Ps. xviii. and i 
 Chron. xvi., Micah iv. and Isa. ii., not to speak of the 
 many other parallel passages, without being impressed 
 with the liberty that has been taken, in the most ancient 
 times, in making intentional changes, showing : 
 
 "With what freedom later authors worked over ancient docu* 
 ments, and also that they were not accustomed to regard the preser- 
 vation of every word and letter as necessary." * 
 
 V. TEXTUAL CRITICISM AND INSPIRATION. 
 
 So far as the Old Testament is concerned, the the* 
 ory of Buxtorf, Heidegger, Turretine, Voetius, Owen, 
 and the Zurich Consensus, as to vowel points and ac- 
 cents, has been so utterly disproved that no biblical 
 scholar of the present day would venture to defend 
 them. But can their theory of Verbal Inspiration 
 stand without these supports? Looking at the doc- 
 trine of inspiration from the point of view of textual 
 criticism, we see at once that there can be no inspira- 
 tion of the written letters or uttered sounds of our pres- 
 ent Hebrew text, for these are transliterations of the 
 originals which have been lost, and the sounds are uncer- 
 tain, and while there is a general correspondence of 
 these letters and sounds so that they give us essentially 
 the original, they do not give us exactly the original. 
 The inspiration must therefore lie back of the written 
 letters and the uttered sounds and be sought in that 
 which is common to the old characters and the new 
 
 » Dillmann, Biheltext. A. T"., Herzog, II. Aufl., II., p. 383.
 
 THE TEXT OF THfi BIBLE. 15Y 
 
 the utterance of the voice and the constructions of the 
 pen, namely, in the concepts, the sense and meaning 
 that they convey : 
 
 " All language or writing- is but the vessel, the symbol, or declara- 
 tion of the rule, not the rule itself. It is a certain form or means by 
 which the divine truth cometh unto us, as things are contained in 
 words, and because the doctrine and matter of the text is not made 
 unto one but by words and a language which I understand ; there- 
 fore I say, the Scripture in English is the rule and ground of my 
 faith, and whereupon I relying have not a humane, but a divine 
 authority for my faith."* 
 
 For the divine Word was not meant for the Hebrew 
 and Greek nations alone, or for Hebrew and Greeic 
 scholars, but for all nations and the people of Goc^. 
 It is given to the world in a great variety of languages 
 with a great variety of letters and sounds, so that the 
 sacred truth approaches each one in his native tongu<; 
 in an appropriate relation to his understanding, just a^s 
 at Pentecost the same Divine Spirit distributed Himself 
 in cloven tongues of fire upon a large number of differ- 
 ent persons. Thus every faithful translation as an in- 
 strument conveys the divine Word to those who read 
 or hear it : 
 
 " For it is not the shell of the words, but the kernel of the matter 
 which commends itself to the consciences of men, and that is the 
 same in all langTiages. The Scriptures in English, no less than in 
 Hebrew or Greek, display its lustre and exert its power and discover 
 the character of its divine original." t 
 
 This is shown by the process of translation itselt 
 The translator does not transliterate the letters and syl- 
 lables, transmute sounds, give word for word, transfer 
 
 * Lyfurd, Plain Man's Sense Exercised, etc., p. 49. 
 
 t Matthew Poole, Blow at the Root, London, 1679, p. 33^
 
 158 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 foreign words and idioms, but he ascertains the sense 
 the idea, and then gives expression to the idea, the sensC; 
 in the most appropriate way. It is admitted that close, 
 literal translations are bad, misleading, worse than para^ 
 phrases. The Midrash method of Ezra is far preferable, 
 to give the sense to the people without the pedantry 
 and subtilties of scholarship. As another Puritan says : 
 
 " Now, what shall a poor unlearned Christian do, if he hath noth- 
 ing to rest his poore soul on ? The originals he understands not ; if 
 he did, the first copies are not to be had ; he cannot tell whether the 
 Hebrew or Greek copies be the right Hebrew or tiie right Greek, or 
 that which is said to be the meaning of the Hebrew or Greek, but 
 as men tell us, who are not prophets and may mistake. Besides, the 
 transcribers were men and might err. These considerations let in 
 Atheisme like a flood." * 
 
 It is a merciful providence that divine inspiration is 
 not confined to particular words and phrases and gram- 
 matical, logical, or rhetorical constructions ; and that 
 the same divine truth may be presented in a variety of 
 synonymous words and phrases and sentences. It is 
 the method of divine revelation to give the same laws, 
 doctrines, narratives, expressions of emotion, and proph- 
 ecies in great variety of forms, none of which are ade- 
 quate to convey the divine idea, but in their combination 
 it is presented from all those varied points of view that 
 a rich, natural language affords, in order that the mind 
 and heart may grasp the idea itself, appropriate and 
 reproduce it in other forms of language, and in the 
 motives, principles, and habits of every-day life. The 
 external word, written or spoken, is purely instrumejital, 
 conveying divine truth to the soul of man, as the eye 
 and the ear are instrumental senses for its appropriation 
 
 * Rich. Capel, Remains, London, 1658.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 159 
 
 by the soul. It does not work ex opere operato by any 
 mechanical or magical power. 
 
 As the Lutherans tend to lay the stress upon the 
 sacraments, in their external operation, and the Angli- 
 cans upon the external organization of the church, so 
 the Reformed church has ever been in peril of laying 
 the stress on the letter, the external operation of the 
 Word of God. The Protestant principle struggles 
 against this confounding of the means of grace with 
 the divine grace itself, this identification of the instru- 
 ment and the divine agent, in order therefore to their 
 proper discrimination. This is the problem left unsolved 
 by the Reformation, in which the separate churches of 
 Protestantism have been working, and which demands 
 a solution from the church of the nineteenth century. 
 Here the most radical question is, that of the divine 
 Word and its relation to the work of the Holy Spirit. 
 This solved, all the other questions will be solved. 
 Herein the churches of the Reformation may be har- 
 monized. The Reformed churches have a peculiar call 
 to grapple bravely with the problem. Its solution can 
 come only from a further working out of the critical 
 principles of the Reformation and Puritanism, not by 
 logical deduction from the creeds and scholastic dogmas 
 alone, but by a careful induction of the facts from the 
 Scriptures themselves, a comparison of these results with 
 those obtained by the dogmatic process, in order that 
 the dogmatic and critical methods may act and react 
 upon one another, to that most desired conclusion. But 
 both must maintain the fundamental distinction be- 
 tween the external and the internal word, so well stated 
 by John Wallis, one of the clerks of the Westminster 
 Assembly : 
 
 " The Scriptures in themselves are a Lanthom rather than a Light ;
 
 J0^ BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 they shine* indeed, but it is alieno lumtne ; it is ndt their own, but a 
 borrowed light. It is God which is the true light that shines to us 
 in the Scriptures ; and they have no other light in them, but as they 
 represent to us somewhat of God, and as they exhibit and hold forth 
 God to us, who is the true light that ' enlighteneth every man that 
 comes into the world.' It is a light, then, as it represents God unto 
 us, who is the original light. It transmits some rays ; some beams 
 of the divine nature ; but they are refracted, or else we should not 
 be able to behold them. They lose much of their original lustre by 
 passing through this medium, and appear not so glorious to us as 
 they are in themselves. They represent God's simplicity obliquated 
 and refracted, by reason of many inadequate conceptions ; God con- 
 descending to the weakness of our capacity to speak to us in our 
 own dialect."* 
 
 The Scriptures are lamps, vessels of the most holy 
 character, but no less vessels of the divine grace than 
 were the apostles and prophets who spake and wrote 
 them. As vessels they have come into material contact 
 with the forces of this world, with human weakness, ig- 
 norance, prejudice, and folly ; their forms have been 
 modified in the course of the generations, but theii 
 divine contents remain unchanged. We will never be 
 able to attain the sacred writings in the original letters 
 and sounds and forms in which they gladdened the eyes 
 of those who first saw them, and rejoiced the hearts of 
 those who first heard them. If the external words of 
 these originals were inspired, it does not profit us. We 
 are cut off from them forever. Interposed between us 
 and them is the tradition of centuries and even millen- 
 niums. Doubtless by God's " singular care and provi- 
 dence they have been kept pure in all ages, and are 
 therefore authentical." f Doubtless throughout the 
 whole work of the authors " the Holy Spirit was pres. 
 ent, causing His energies to flow into the spontaneous 
 
 * Sermons, Lond., 1791, pp. 127-8. t Con/. 0/ Faith, I., viii.
 
 THE TKrr OF THE BIBLE. X^l 
 
 exercises of the writers' faculties, elevating and directing 
 where need be, and everywhere securing the errorless 
 expression in language of the thought designed by 
 God "; * but we cannot in the symbolical or historical use 
 of the term call this providential care of His Word of 
 superintendence over its external production— inspira- 
 tion. Such providential care and superintendence is not 
 different in kind with regard to the Word of God, the 
 visible church of God, or the forms of the sacraments. 
 Inspiration lies back of the external letter — it is that 
 which gives the word its efficacy, it is the divine afflatus 
 which enlightened and guided holy men to apprehend 
 the truth of God in its appropriate forms ; assured 
 them of their possession of it ; and called and enabled 
 them to make it known to the church by voice and pen. 
 This made their persons holy, their utterances holy, 
 their writings holy, but only as the instruments, not as 
 the holy thing itself. The divine Logos — that is ths 
 sum and substance of the Scripture, the holy of holiej^ 
 whence the Spirit of God goes forth through the hob' 
 place of the circumstantial sense of type and symbol, 
 and literary representation, into the outer court of th<! 
 words and sentences, through them to enter by the ear 
 and eye into the hearts of men with enlightening, sanc- 
 tifying, and saving power : 
 
 " Inspiration is more than superintending guidance, for that ex 
 presses but an external relation between the Spirit and writer. But 
 Inspiration is an influence within the soul, divine and supernatural, 
 working through all the writers in one organizing method, making 
 of the many one, by all one book, the Book of God, the Book for 
 man, divine and human in all its parts ; having the same relation to 
 all other books that the Person of the Son of God has to all othef 
 
 • A. A. Hodge and B. B. Waxfield, art. Inspiration^ Presbyterian Review^ 
 11,231.
 
 162 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 men. and that the church of the living God has to all other institu- 
 tions." ♦ 
 
 True criticism never disregards the letter, but rever- 
 ently and tenderly handles every letter and syllable of 
 the Word of God, striving to purify it from all dross, 
 brushing away the dust of tradition and guarding it from 
 the ignorant and profane. But it is with no supersti- 
 tious dread of magical virtue or virus in it, or anxious 
 fears lest it should dissolve in the hands, but with an 
 assured trust that it is the tabernacle of God, through 
 whose external courts there is an approach to the Lord 
 Jesus himself. " Bibliolatry clings to the letter ; spirit- 
 uality in the letter finds the spirit and does not disown 
 the letter which guided to the spirit." f 
 
 Such criticism has accomplished great things for the 
 New Testament text. It will do even more for the Old 
 Testament so soon as the old superstitious reverence for 
 Massoretic tradition and servitude to the Jews has been 
 laid aside by Christian scholars. Critical theories first 
 come into conflict with the church doctrine of inspira- 
 tion when they deny the inspiration of the truth and 
 facts of Scripture ; when they superadd another author- 
 itative and predominant test, whether as the reason, the 
 conscience, or the religious feeling. But this is to go 
 beyond the sphere of evangelical criticism and enter into 
 the fields of rationalistic, ethical, or mystical criticism. 
 Evangelical criticism conflicts only with false views of 
 inspiration. It disturbs the inspiration of versions, the 
 inspiration of the Massoretic text, the inspiration of 
 particular letters, syllables, and external words and ex- 
 pressions ; and truly all those who rest upon these exter- 
 nal things ought to be disturbed and driven from the 
 
 * H. B. Smith, Sermon on Inspiration^ 1855, p. 27. \ In /. c, p. 36.
 
 THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. Ig3 
 
 letter to the spirit, from clinging to the outer walls, to 
 seek Him who is the sum and substance, the Master and 
 the King of the Scriptures. 
 
 Here the people and critics are agreed, who can doubt 
 it? 
 
 " As if the vast multitude of Christian souls who really used it did 
 not believe in a Bible, which in its parts is vital and saving as well 
 as in the whole, which is superior in its central lessons to all the 
 errors of editors and translators, and which can even convey eternal 
 life by its reproduction in sermons, however weak, that are faithful 
 to its spirit, though they do not literally give back one of its sen- 
 tences." * 
 
 As Tyndale, our great English reformer, says : 
 
 " The Scriptures spring out of God and flow unto Christ, and 
 were gfiven to lead us to Christ. Thou must therefore go along by 
 the Scripture, as by a line, until thou come to Christ who is the 
 >vays end and resting-place." t " For though the Scripture be an 
 outward instrument and the preacher also to move men to believe. 
 Yet the chief and principal cause why a man believeth, or believeth 
 not, is within ; that is, the Spirit of God leadeth His children to 
 believe." J 
 
 * Prin. Cairns, Unbelief in 18/A Century, p. 152. 
 
 t Works y Parker Series, I., p. 317. % JVoris, III., p. 139,
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 
 
 We have shown in our previous chapters that the Ref. 
 ormation was a great critical revival ; that evangelical 
 biblical criticism was based on the formal principle of 
 Protestantism, the divine authority of the Scriptures 
 over against ecclesiastical tradition ; that the voice of 
 God Himself, speaking to His people through His Word, 
 is the great evangelical critical test ; that the reformers 
 applied this test to the traditional theory of the canon 
 and eliminated the apocryphal books therefrom ; that 
 they applied it to the received versions, and, rejecting 
 the inspiration and authority of the Septuagint and Vul- 
 gate versions, resorted to the original Greek and Hebrew 
 texts ; that they applied it to the Massoretic traditional 
 pointing of the Hebrew Scriptures, and, rejecting it as 
 uninspired, resorted to the divine original unpointed 
 text ; that they applied it to the traditional manifold 
 sense and allegorical method of interpretation, and, re- 
 jecting these, followed the plain grammatical sense, in- 
 terpreting difficult and obscure passages by the mind of 
 the Spirit in passages that are plain and undisputed. 
 
 We have also described the second critical revival undei 
 the lead of Cappellus and Walton, and their conflict with 
 the Protestant scholastics who had reacted from the crit- 
 ical principles of the Reformation into a reliance upon 
 (104)
 
 THE giGOER CRITICISM. 165 
 
 f9.bbiuical tradition. We have shown that the Puritan 
 olivines still held the position of the reformers, and were 
 not in accord with the scholastics. We have now to 
 trace a third critical revival which began toward the 
 close of the eighteenth century in the investigations of 
 the poetic and literary features of the Old Testament by 
 Bishop Lowth in England and the poet Herder in Ger- 
 many, and of the structure of Genesis by the Roman 
 Catholic physician Astruc. The first critical revival had 
 been mainly devoted to the canon of Scripture, its au« 
 thority and interpretation. The second criticjU revival 
 had been chiefly with regard to the original texts and 
 versions. The third critical revival now gave attention 
 to the investigation of the sacred Scriptures as literature. 
 
 I. THE HIGHER CRITICISM IN THE SIXTEENTH AND 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 Little attention had been given to the literary features 
 of the Bible in the sixteenth century. How the reformers 
 v/ould have met these questions we may infer from their 
 freedom with regard to traditional views in the few cases 
 in which they expressed themselves. Luther denied the 
 Apocalypse to John and Ecclesiastes to Solomon. He 
 maintained that the epistle of James was not an apostolic 
 writing. He regarded Jude as an extract from 2d Peter, 
 and said, What matters it if Moses should not himself 
 have written the Pentateuch?* He thought the epistle 
 to the Hebrews was written by a disciple of the apostle 
 Paul, who was a learned man, and made the epistle as a 
 sort of a composite piece in which there are some things 
 hard to be reconciled with the Gospel. Calvin denied the 
 
 * See Diestel, Gesck. des Alten Test, in der christlichen Kirche^ 1869, p. 250, 
 teq,; and Vorreden in W*lcb edit, of I-uther's Werken, XIV., pp. 35, 146-153 
 Tixhreden, I., p. 28.
 
 l(^Q BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Pauline authorship of the epistle to the Hebrews and 
 doubted the Petrine authorship of 2d Peter. He taught 
 that Ezra or some one else edited the Psalter and made 
 the first Psalm an introduction to the collection, not hes- 
 itating to oppose the traditional view that David was 
 the author or editor of the entire Psalter. He also re- 
 garded Ezra as the author of the prophecy of Malachi 
 — Malachi being his surname. He furthermore con- 
 structed, after the model of a harmony of the gospels, a 
 harmony of the pentateuchal legislation about the Ten 
 Commandments as a centre, holding that all the rest of 
 the commandments were mere ** appendages, which add 
 not the smallest completeness to the Law." * 
 
 Zwingli, CEcolampadius, and other reformers took 
 similar positions. These questions of authorship and 
 date troubled the reformers but little ; they had to bat- 
 tle against the Vulgate for the original text and popular 
 versions, and for a simple grammatical exegesis over 
 against traditional authority and the manifold sense. 
 Hence it is that on these literary questions the symbola 
 of the Reformation take no position whatever, except to 
 lay stress upon the sublimity of the style, the unity and 
 harmony of Scripture, and the internal evidence of its 
 inspiration and authority. Calvin sets the example in 
 
 *" Therefore, God protests that He never enjoined anything with respect to 
 sacrifices ; and He pronounces all external rites but vain and trifling if the very 
 least value be assigned to them apart from the Ten Commandments. Whence 
 we more certainly arrive at the conclusion to which I have adverted, viz. : that 
 they are not, to sp)eak correctly, of the substance of the law, nor avail of them- 
 selves in the worship of God, nor are required by the Lawgiver himself as nec- 
 essary, or even as useful, unless they sink into this inferior position. In fine, 
 they are appendages which add not the smallest completeness tc the Law, but 
 whose object is to retain the pious in the spiritual worship of God, wliich con- 
 sists of Faith and Repentance, of Praises whereby their gratitude is proclaimed, 
 and even of the endurance of the cross " \Preface to Harmony of the Four Last 
 Books of the Pentateuch).
 
 THE HIGHEK CRITICISM. 167 
 
 this particular in his Institutes, and is followed by 
 Thomas Cartwright, Archbishop Usher, and other Cal- 
 vinists. 
 
 The Westminster Confession is in entire accord with 
 the other Reformed confessions and the faith of the 
 Reformation. It expresses a devout admiration and 
 profound reverence for the holy majestic character and 
 style of the Divine Word, but does not define the human 
 authors and dates of the various writings. As Prof. A. 
 F. Mitchell, of St. Andrew's, well states : 
 
 " Any one who will take the trouble to compare their list of the 
 canonical books with that given in the Belgian Confession or the 
 Irish articles, may satisfy himself that they held with Dr. Jameson 
 that the authority of these books does not depend on the fact whether 
 this prophet or that wrote a particular book or parts of a book 
 whether a certain portion was derived from the Elohist or the Jeho- 
 vist, whether Moses wrote the close of Deuteronomy, Solomon wa« 
 the author of Ecclesiastes, or Paul of the Epistle to the Hebrews 
 but in the fact that a prophet, an inspired man, wrote them, and thai 
 they bear the stamp and impress of a divine origin." * 
 
 And Matthew Poole, the great Presbyterian critic ol 
 the seventeenth century, quotes with approval the fol- 
 lowing from Melchior Canus : 
 
 " It is not much material to the Catholick Faith that any book was 
 written by this or that author, so long as the Spirit of God is be- 
 lieved to be the author of it ; which Gregory delivers and explains : 
 For it matters not with what pen the King writes his letter, if it be 
 true that he writ it." t 
 
 Andrew Rivetus, one of the chief Reformed divines 
 
 * Minutes of the Sessions of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, Nor, 
 1644— Mch., 1649, edited by A. F. Mitchell and J. Struthers. Edin., 1874, p 
 xlix. 
 
 t Blow at the Root, 4th ed., 1671, p. 228.
 
 168 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of the continent,* after discussing the various views of 
 the authorship of the Psalms, says : 
 
 " This only is to be held as certain, whether David or Moses or any 
 other composed the psalms, they themselves were as pens, but the 
 Holy Spirit wrote through them : But it is not necessary to trouble 
 ourselves about the pen when the true author is established." 
 
 In his Introduction to the sacred Scriptures,f he en- 
 ters into no discussion of the literary questions. This 
 omission makes it clear that these questions did not 
 concern the men of his times. Until toward the close 
 of the seventeenth century, those who, in the brief pre- 
 liminary words to their commentaries on the different 
 books of Scripture, took the trouble to mention the au- 
 thors and dates of writings, either followed the tradition- 
 al views without criticism or deviated from them in en- 
 tire unconsciousness of giving offence to the orthodox 
 faith. This faith was firmly fixed on the divine author 
 of Scripture, and they felt little concern for the human 
 authors employed. One looks in vain in the commen- 
 taries of this period for a critical discussion of literary 
 questions.:]: 
 
 * In his Prolog, to his Com, on the Psalms. 
 
 t Isagoge seu Introductio generalis ad scripturam sacram, 1627. 
 
 X As ^leciniens we would present the following from the Assemhl/s Annota- 
 tions, (i) Francis Taylor on yob : " Though most excellent and glorious 
 things be contained in it, yet they seem to partake the same portion with their 
 subject ; being (as his prosperity was) clouded often with much darkness and ob- 
 scurity, and that not only in those things which are of lesse moment and edifica- 
 tion (viz. : the Time and Place and Penman, etc.), but in jxjints of higher doc- 
 trine and concernment. The Book is observed to be a sort of holy poem, but 
 yet not a Fable ; and, though we cannot expressly conclude when or by whom it 
 was written, though our maps cannot show us what Uz was, or where situate, 
 yet cannot this Scripture of Job be rejected until Atheisme grow as desperate aa 
 his wife wa3, and resolve with her to curse God and dye." The traditional 
 view that Moses wrote Job is simply abandoned and the authorship left unknown. 
 (a) Casaubon, Pre/ace to the Psalms : '• The author of this book (the immedi-
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 1^9 
 
 The literary questions opened by Lowth, Herder, and 
 Astruc were essentially new questions. The revived at- 
 tention to classical and oriental history and literature 
 carried with it a fresh study of Hebrew history and 
 literature. The battle of the books waged between 
 Bentley and Boyle, which was decided in the interests 
 of literary criticism by the masterpiece of Bentley,* was 
 the prelude of a struggle over all the literary monu- 
 ments of antiquity, in which the spurious was to be sep- 
 arated from the genuine. It was indispensable that the 
 whole Greek and Latin and Hebrew literatures should 
 pass through the fires of this literary and historical crit- 
 icism, which soon received the name of Higher Criticism. 
 As Eichhorn says : 
 
 ate and secondary, we mean, besides the original and general of all true Script- 
 ure, the Holy Ghost ....), though named in some other places of Scripture 
 David, as Luke xx. 42, and elsewhere, is not here in the title of the book ex- 
 pressed. The truth is, they are not all David's Psalms, some having been made 
 l)ef ore and some long after him, as shall be shown in due place." The tradi- 
 tional view as to the Davidic authorship of the Psalter is abandoned without hes- 
 itation or apology. (3) Francis Taylor, Preface to the Proverbs : " That Solo- 
 mon is the author of this book of Proverbs in general is generally acknowledged ; 
 hut the author, as David of the Psalms, not because all made by him, but be- 
 cause either the maker of a good part, or collector and approver of the rest. It 
 is not to be doubted but that many of these Proverbs and sentences were known 
 
 and used long before Solomon Of them that were collected by others as 
 
 Solomon's, but long since his death, from chap, xxv.-xxx., and then of those that 
 
 bear Ag^r's name, xxx., and Lemuel's xxxi If not all Solomon's, then, 
 
 but partly his and partly collected by him and partly by others at several times, 
 no wonder if diverse things, with little or no alteration, be often repeated." 
 
 Joseph Mede {Works, II., pp. 963, 1022, London, 1664), Henry Hammond 
 i^Paraphrase and Annotations upon the New Testament, London, 1871, p. 135), 
 Kidder (Demonstration of the Messias, London, 1726, II., p. 76), and others 
 denied the integrity of Zechariah, and, on the ground of Matthew xxvii. 9, as- 
 cribed the last six chapters to Jeremiah. The Mosaic authorship of the Penta- 
 teuch was questioned by Carlstadt {De Script. Canon, 1521, § 85), who left the 
 author undetermined. The Roman Catholic scholar, Masius {Com. in Jos/:., 
 1574, Praef, p. 2, and chap. x. 13 ; xix. 47 ; Critica Sacr., 11., p. 1892, London, 
 i^Gc) and the British philosopher, llobbes {Leviathan, 1651 ; yiart iii., c. xxxiii.), 
 distinguished between Mosaic originals euid our present Pentateuch. 
 
 * Epistles of IVia/aris and Fables of AIsop, 1699 ; see Chap. IV., p. 93. 
 
 8
 
 lYO BJBT.TCAL STtJDT. 
 
 " Already long ago scholars have sought to deterfrrine the age of 
 anonymous Greek and Roman writings now frOm theh contents, 
 and then since these are often insufficient for an invcstigat on of this 
 kind, from their language. They have also by the same means sep- 
 arated from ancient works pieces of later origin, which, by accidental 
 circumstances, have become mingled with the ancient pieces. And 
 not until the writings of the Old Testament have been subjected to 
 the same test can any one assert with confidence that the sections 
 of a book all belong in reality to the author whose name is prefixed." ♦ 
 
 II. CRITICISM OF THE TRADITIONAL THEORIES. 
 
 The traditional views of the Old Testament literature, 
 as fixed in the Talmud and stated in the Christian 
 fathers, came down as a body of lore to be investigated 
 and tested by the principles of this Higher Criticism. 
 There were fdur ways of meeting the issue : (i) By at- 
 tacking the traditional theories with the weapons of the 
 higher criticism and testing them at all points, dealing 
 with the Scriptures as with all other writings of antiqui- 
 ty. (2) By defending the traditional theories as the es- 
 tablished faith of the Church on the ground of the au- 
 thority of tradition, as Buxtorf and Owen had defended 
 the inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points against Cap- 
 pellus and Walton. (3) By ignoring these questions as 
 matters of scholarship and not of faith, and resting on 
 the divine authority of the writings themselves. In 
 point of fact, these three methods were pursued, and 
 three parties ranged themselves in line to meet the 
 issues; the deistic or rationalistic, the traditional or 
 scholastic, the pietistic or mystical, and the battle of the 
 ages between these tendencies was renewed on this line. 
 There was a fourth and better way which few pursued. 
 The evangelical spirit would work in the line of the 
 
 * Einleit^ iii., p. (fy.
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICiJsM. JfJ 
 
 Reformation and apply the critical test established by 
 the reformers and (i) inquire what the Scriptures teach 
 about themselves, and separate this divine authority 
 from all other authority ; (2) apply the principles of the 
 higher criticism to decide questions not decided by divine 
 authority ; (3) use tradition^ in order to determine as far 
 as possible questions not settled by the previous methods. 
 We are not surprised that this method of criticism ^ 
 has been objected to from the three points of view indi- 
 cated above. We shall notice only the objection that 
 it " begs the whole question." — " It is the divine author^ 
 ity of Scripture that constitutes the question in de- 
 bate."t This objection arises from a misapprehension 
 of the real state of the question. The questions of 
 the higher criticism are questions of integrity, au- 
 thenticity, credibility, and literary form of the vari- 
 ous writings that constitute the Bible. The inspira- 
 tion and authority of Scripture may be concerned with 
 the results of the higher criticism, but they are ques. 
 tions with which higher criticism itself has nothing to 
 do. The authority and inspiration of the Scriptures 
 are properly considered in connection with biblical ca* 
 nonics, where they were discussed by the reformers and 
 have been discussed by us.ij: If the higher criticism 
 should result in showing that any of the sacred books 
 have characteristics that are inconsistent with the doc- 
 trine of the inspiration and authority of the Scriptures, 
 we should have to inquire first whether the conflict is 
 with certain theories of inspiration or the biblical and 
 
 * See author's article A Critical Study of the History of the Higher Criti- 
 (ism, with Special Reference to the Pentateuch, In Presbyterian Review, IV., p. 
 74, seq. 
 
 + F. L. Patton, article Pentateuchal Criticism, in Presbyterian Review^ IV. 
 p. 353. seq. 
 
 \ In Chap. V
 
 172 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 symbolical doctrines of inspiration. We have found 
 that the results of the textual criticism are in conflict 
 with verbal inspiration,* but not with the symbolical 
 doctrine of inspiration. If it should be found that the 
 results of the higher criticism are in conflict with other 
 school doctrines of inspiration, it is important that these 
 doctrines should be changed as soon as possible to accord 
 with these results. If it should be found that they are in 
 conflict with the biblical or symbolical doctrine, it would 
 place the critic in an embarrassing situation, where he 
 would be obliged either to reject the authority of the 
 Scriptures or his critical results. Rationalistic critics 
 have chosen the former alternative. This has been due, 
 in our judgment, to the rationalism with which they 
 began and carried on their criticism and not to the re- 
 sults of criticism itself. The critic, as, indeed, every 
 thinker, must confront this dread alternative. It is one 
 of the perils of scholarship. We can only express our 
 own convictions that while the traditional teachings of 
 the schools will have to be modified to a considerable 
 extent in the several departments of biblical study, there 
 has nothing been established by modern critical work 
 that will at all disturb the statements of the symbols of 
 the Reformation with reference to the authority of the 
 Word of God. 
 
 The method we have given is a method of evangelical 
 criticism and not a method of proving inspiration. 
 When, therefore, we state that the evangelical critic must 
 first " inquire what the Scriptures teach about them- 
 selves and separate this divine authority from all other 
 authority," we might omit the adjectives " divine " and 
 *' evangelical " and then the statement would apply 
 
 • Chap. VI., p 156, seq.
 
 THE HIGHER GR.TICISM. 173 
 
 equally well to all critics. They set out by finding what 
 the biblical writings have to say about themselves. Evan- 
 gelical critics are satisfied with this. Rationalistic critics 
 are not. Here, after ascertaining what the Scriptures 
 teach, the critics divide in accordance with their precon- 
 ceptions. In the conflict of opinion, evangelical critics 
 will waive their opinions as to the divine authority of 
 this testimony, but in their own convictions, critical 
 work, and teachings they will not waive them. The 
 second step of the evangelical critic is to " apply the 
 principles of the higher criticism to determine questions 
 not decided by divine authority." As an evangelical 
 critic this will be his method. In conflict with the ra- 
 tionalistic critics he will not hesitate to test the state- 
 ments of the Scripture about themselves, but in doing 
 this it is not necessary, nor is it possible for him to di- 
 vest himself of the conviction that they are statements 
 carrying with them divine authority. 
 
 III. THE RABBINICAL THEORIES. 
 
 In order to present the subject in its historical order 
 we shall state the traditional views as they came down 
 to the critics at the close of the 17th century. 
 
 The orthodox rabbinical theory of the Old Testament 
 literature is contained in the tract Baba Bat lira of the 
 Talmud. This tract is of the ordtr Nezikin ; and is found 
 in part in both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds. 
 These Talmuds differ from one another in the particular 
 tracts that they contain and in the matter in the tracts, 
 so that the Babylonian Talmud is four times greater 
 than that of Jerusalem. Both Talmuds in the treatises 
 and tracts are composed of various elements or layers 
 which are discriminated from one another by certain 
 formulas of citation. The best known of these is the
 
 1Y4 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Mishna of Rabbi Jehuda.* But there are also B^ 
 raitha and Toseptha and Gemara in the Talmud. If the 
 Talmud be divided into Mishna and Gemara, it is more 
 proper technically to attach the Beraitha and Toseptha 
 to th€ Mishna section, for the Gemara is a commentary 
 «ot on the Mishna of Rabbi Jehuda alone, but also on 
 the Beraithoth, which it cites.f 
 
 The relation of the Beraitha and the Toseptha to the 
 Mishna of the Rabbi Jehuda is not of inferior authority 
 ©r of more recent origin. Some of them represent a 
 more ancient tradition of the school of R. Akiba. They 
 are all Mishnayoth. But the collection of Rabbi Jehuda 
 is the Mishna, by eminence as the first collection, and 
 the Beraithoth give other Mishnayoth not embraced in 
 his collection, but collected by others, such as R. Jan- 
 Viidk, R. Chija, Bar Cappara, etc.:}: The Mishna has re- 
 
 * This has been published apart in various editions, e. g., i v. folio, Naples, 
 I 492 ; Surenhusius, 6 v. folio, Amsterdam, 1698-1703 ; yost, 6 thle, Berlin, 
 . 832-34 ; Sittenfeld, 6 thle, Berlin, 1863, and others. 
 
 t To disting^uish between the Mishna of Rabbi Jehuda and all the other ele- 
 ments as Gemara, 4s incorrect and misleading unless we use these terms in a purely 
 formal sense, and distinguish in the Gemara the Mishnaic elements from the 
 commentary of the Gemara upon them. Thus Emanuel Deutsch in his Liter- 
 ary Remains (p. 40): "Jehuda the 'Redactor' had excluded all but the best 
 authenticated traditions as well as all discussion and exegesis, unless where par- 
 ticularly necessary. The vast mass of these materials was now also collected as 
 a sort of Apocryphal oral code. We have dating a few generations after the 
 Redaction of the official Mishna, a so-called external Mishna {Beraitha) ; further 
 the discussions and additions belongfing by rights to the Mishna called Toseptha 
 (Supplement) ; and finally, the exegesis and methodology of the HalacJia (JSi/ri, 
 Si/ra, Mec/rilta), iiuch of which was afterwards introduced into the Talmud." 
 So Levy in his Imu Hebraisches und Chaldaisches Worterbuck (1. 260), defines : 
 ** i^rr^"!!! 'IS properly that which is outside of the Canon (we must supply 
 Jj^rr^iri^ to iitT'~Ln), that is, every Mishna (or Halacha, doctrine) which 
 was not taken up into the collection of the Mishna by R. Jehuda Hanasi, and 
 many of which collected separately by his later contemporaries are contained in 
 different compendiums. " 
 
 X See Gratz, Geschichte der Juden, iv. 2^/. ; Wogue, Histoire de '■''Exiglst 
 Biblique, 1881, p. 185.
 
 THE HIGHEB CfilTlCISM. ^75 
 
 mained fixed and definite since the immediate disciples 
 of Rabbi Jeliuda completed it, although it was probably 
 not committed to writing until the middle of the sixth 
 century as Luzzato and GrStz show,* when the entire 
 Talmuds were written out together. The Toseptha gives 
 other Mishnayoth added as an appendix. The Gemara 
 is then a commentary on these Mishnayoth.\ In th^ 
 passage on the books of the Old Testament of the 
 Babylonian Talmud we have only to distinguish the 
 Beraitlia from the Gemara. The Beraitha is introduced 
 regularly by " Our rabbins teach," " It is taught.";}: 
 We present in translation a sectipn of the tract Baba 
 Bathra, fol. 14 a., containing the most important refer- 
 ences to the Old Testament writings. 
 
 Beraitha. — The Rabbins have taught that the classification of 
 the Prophets is, Joshua and Judges, Samuel and Kings, Jeremiah 
 and Ezekiel, Isaiah and the twelve (minor prophets). 
 
 GzyiASiPi..— {Question) : How is it? Hosea i? first because it is 
 written, " In the beginning the Lord spake to Hosea." But how 
 did he speak in the beginning v.ith Hosea? Have there not been 
 so many prophets from Moses unto Hosea ? Rabbi Johanan said 
 that he was the first pf the four prophets who prophesied in the 
 
 * Grate, Gesch. d. Juden, iv., p. 494. 
 
 + ChiariiH, Le Talmud de Babylone^ 1831, p. ig, gfo so far as to say : " Les 
 Mekil t-ili, ies Tosapholh et les Beraitoth ont aussi porti le litre de t*lVDl2J?0 
 OM.de jTllZ'l^ im'^D125'2« p<i'>'ce qu'elles jouissarent de la menie auctorile 
 que la Mischna de Juda le Saint ^ et qu'elles iiaient plus reputies encore que 
 cette dernier e des cSte de fordre et de la clarti." But they are regarded as 
 apocryphal Mishnayoth by some. But this does not decide their intrinsic 
 value. See also Pressel, in Herzog Real Ency., x Aufl., xv., p. 661 ; Gelbhaus, 
 Rabbi Jehuda /lanassi, Wien, 1876, p. 92. Schurer, LeJirb. d. N. T. Zeitge^ 
 schichie^ p. 42 ; Zunz, Gattesdienstlichen Vortrage der yuden, Berlin, 1832, 
 p. 49, seq. 
 
 % We follow the editio princeps, 12 vols, folio, Venitia, Bomberg', 1520, but 
 have also consulted the edition published at Berlin and Frankfort-on-t^ie-Oder by 
 Jablonsky, 1736, which follows the Basle edition in expurgating the anti-Chris- 
 tian passages. Both of these are in the libiaiy of tlie Union Thtjol. Seal., N. Y,
 
 176 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 same period, and these are: Hosea, Isaiah, An b, and Micah, 
 Should then Hosea be placed before at the head ? {Reply) : No , 
 since his prophecies had been written alongside of Haggai, Zecha- 
 riah, and Malachi, and Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi were the 
 last of the prophets, it was counted with them. {Question) : Ought 
 it to have been written apart and ought it to have been placed be- 
 fore ? {Reply) : No ; since it was little and might be easily lost. 
 {Questz&n) : How is it ? Isaiah was before Jeremiah and Ezekiel, 
 Ought Isaiah to be placed before at the head ? {Reply) : Since the 
 book of Kings ends in ruin and Jeremiah is, all of it, ruin, and 
 Ezekiel has its beginning ruin and its end comfort, and Isaiah is all 
 of it comfort ; we join ruin to ruin and comfort to comfort. 
 
 Beraitha. — The classification of the Hagiographa, is Ruth and 
 the book of Psalms, and Job, and Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of 
 Songs and Lamentations, Daniel and the roll of Esther, Ezra and 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Gemara. — {Question) : But according to the Tanaite who said 
 Job was in the days of Moses, ought Job to be placed before at the 
 head } {Reply) : We begin not with afflictions. {Question) : Ruth 
 has also afflictions ? {Reply) : But afflictions which have an end. 
 As Rabbi Johanan says. Why was her name called Ruth ? Because 
 David went forth from her who refreshed the Holy One, blessed be 
 He ! with songs and praises. 
 
 Beraitha. — And who wrote them 7 Moses wrote his book, the 
 chapter of Balaam and Job; Joshua wrote his book and the eight 
 verses of the law ; Samuel wrote his book and Judges and Ruth ; 
 David wrote the book of Psalms with the aid of the ten ancients, 
 with the aid of Adam the first, Melchizedek, Abraham, Moses, 
 Heman, Jeduthun, Asaph, the three sons of Korah ; Jeremiah wrote 
 his book, the books of Kings and Lamentations ; Hezekiah and his 
 company wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes, 
 whose sign is pl^j^i ; the men of the great synagogue wrote Ezekiel 
 and the twelve (minor prophets), Daniel and the roll of Esther, 
 whose sign is ^~5p J Ezra wrote his book and the genealogy of 
 Chronicles until himself. 
 
 Gemara. — This will support Rab, for Rab Jehuda told that Rab 
 said : Ezra went not up from Babylon until he had registered his 
 own genealogy, then he went up. {Question) : And who finished it 
 (his book) ? {Reply) : Nehemiah, son of Hachaliah. The author
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 177 
 
 (of the Beraitha) said Joshua wrote his book and the eight rerses of 
 the law ; this is taught according to him who says of he eight 
 verses of the law, Joshua wrote them. For it is taught : And Moses 
 the servant of the Lord died there. How is it possible that Moses 
 died and wrote : and Moses died there ? It is only unto this pas- 
 sage Moses wrote, afterwards Joshua wrote the rest. These are 
 the words of Rabbi Jehuda, others say of Rabbi Nehemiah, but 
 Rabbi Simeon said to him : Is it possible that the book of the law 
 could lack one letter, since it is written : Take this book of the law ? 
 It ia only unto this the Holy One, blessed be He ! said, and Moses 
 said and wrote. From this place and onwards the Holy One, 
 
 blessed be He, said and Moses wrote with weeping 
 
 {Question) : Joshua wrote his book .'' But it is written there : And 
 Joshua died. {Reply) : Eleazar finished it. {Question) : But yet it is 
 written there : And Eleazar the son of Aaron died. {Reply) : Phineas 
 finished it. {Question) : Samuel wrote his book ? But it is written 
 there : And Samuel died, and they buried him in Rama. {Reply) : 
 Gad the seer and Nathan the Prophet finished it. 
 
 We have to distinguish the view of the Tanaim in th(* 
 Beraitha and the view of the Amoraim in the Gemara. 
 The Tanaim do not go beyond the scope of giving (i) 
 the order of the sacred writings, (2) their editors. 
 
 (i) In the order of the ivritings we observe severa' 
 singular features, which lead us to ask whether the ordei 
 is topical, chronological, liturgical, or accidental. The 
 Amoraim explain the order generally as topical, although 
 other explanations are given, but their reasons are in- 
 consistent and unsatisfactory. Is there a chronological 
 reason at the bottom ? Thjs is clear in the order of the 
 three classes — law, prophets, and other writings. But 
 will it apply to the order of the books in the classes ? 
 There seems to be a general observance of the chrono- 
 logical order if we consider the subject matter as the 
 determining factor, and not the time of composition. 
 In the order of the prophets Jeremiah precedes Eze- 
 kiel properly. But why does Isaiah follow ? Is it out 
 8*
 
 lYS BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of a consciousness that Isaiah was a collection of severa. 
 writings besides those of the great Isaiah,* or from the 
 feeHng that Isaiah's prophecies had more to do with the 
 restoration than the exile, and so naturally followed Eze- 
 kiel ? The minor prophets are arranged in three groups, 
 and these groups are chronological in order. Hosea 
 was placed first out of a mistaken interpretation of his 
 introductory words. Malachi appropriately comes last. 
 But this order of the prophets in the Beraitha is aban- 
 doned by the Massorites, who arrange Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
 Ezekiel. In the other writings there is a sort of chrono- 
 logical order if we consider the subject matter, but the 
 Massoretic text differs from the Beraitha entirely, and 
 indeed the Spanish and German manuscripts from one 
 another. We cannot escape the conviction that there 
 was a liturgical reason at the basis of the arrangement ; 
 which has not yet been determined. At all events, 
 its authority has little weight for purposes of higher 
 criticism. 
 
 (2) As to their editorship. The verb katkabh=--=*^ vjrotQ," 
 cannot imply composition in the sense of authorship in 
 several cases of its use ; but must be used in the sense 
 of editorship or redaction. Thus it is said that the men 
 of the great synagogue wrote Ezekiel, the minor proph- 
 ets, Daniel, and the roll of Esther. This cannot mean 
 that they were the original authors, but that they were 
 editors of these books. It is not stated whether they 
 edited them by copy from originals or from oral tradi- 
 tion. Rashi takes the latter alternative, and thinks that 
 holy books could not be written outside of Palestine.f 
 An insuperable objection to this editing of Daniel and 
 
 • Strack in Herzog, Real Eneyk., vii., p. 43. 
 
 + Strack iu Herzog, Real Encyk.^ vii., p, 418 ; Wright, Kohehth, p. 454, seq.\ 
 VVogue, Hist oi re de la Bible ^ p. ig, scq.
 
 tii:e higher criticism. ^79 
 
 Esther at the same time as Ezekiel and the twelve, 
 is their exclusion from the order of the prophets, where 
 they would have naturally gone if introduced into the 
 canon at that time; Esther with the prophetic histories, 
 and Daniel with Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah. 
 
 Again, when it is said Hezekiah and his company 
 wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, 
 this can only mean editorship, and not authorship. The 
 Tosaphoth on the Beraitha says : " Hezekiah and his 
 college -wrote Isaiah ; because Hezekiah caused them tp 
 busy themselves with the law, the matter was called 
 after his name. But he (Hezekiah) did not write it him- 
 self, because he died before Isaiah, since Manasseh, his 
 ftuccessor, killed Isaiah." The redaction of Proverbs, 
 rSong of Songs and Ecclesiastes by Hezekiah's company, is 
 probably a conjecture based upon Proverbs xxv. i. But 
 the whole story is incredible. It carries with it a canon 
 of Hezekiah, and would be inconsistent with the subse- 
 quent positions of these books in the canon. 
 
 David is represented as editing the Psalter with the 
 aid of ten ancients^ — that is, he used the psalms of the 
 ten worthies and united them with his own in the collec- 
 tion. Moses is represented as writing his book, the chap- 
 ter of Balaam and Job. The chapter of Balaam is distin- 
 guished probably as edited and not composed by Moses. 
 Jn view of the usage of the rest of this Beraitha, we 
 cannot be sure whether it means that Moses edited the 
 law and Job, or whether here "wrote" means author- 
 ship. The same uncertainty hangs over the references 
 to Joshua, Samuel, Jeremiah, and Ezra. 
 
 The statements of the Beraitha, therefore, seem rather 
 to concern official editorship than authorship, and it dis- 
 tinguishes no less than eight stages of redaction of the 
 Old Testament Scriptures: (i) By Moses, (2) Joshua,
 
 180 BIBLICAL STUDr. 
 
 (3) Samuel, (4) David, (5) Hezekiah and his college, (6) 
 Jeremiah, (7) the men of the great synagogue, (8) Ezra. 
 The Gemara in its commentary upon this passage en- 
 larges this work of redaction so as to give a number of 
 additional prophets a hand in it. Joshua, completes the 
 work of Moses, Eleazar the work of Joshua, and Phineas 
 his work ; Gad and Nathan finish the work of Samuel, 
 then come David, Hezekiah, Jeremiah, the men of the 
 great synagogue ; and Nehemiah finishes the work of 
 Ezra. It is easy to see that all this is pure conjecture, 
 and of little value for purposes of criticism. 
 
 IV. HELLENISTIC AND CHRISTIAN THEORIES. 
 
 Having considered the Rabbinical Tradition, we are 
 now prepared to examine that of the Jewish historian, 
 Josephus. His general statement is : 
 
 " We have not myriads of books among us disagreeing and con 
 tradicting one another, but only twenty-two, comprising the histor,' 
 of all past time, justly worthy of belief. And five of them are thos«; 
 of Moses, which comprise the law and the tradition of the genera 
 lion of mankind until his death. This time extends to a little less 
 than three thousand years. From the death of Moses until Arta- 
 xerxes, the king of the Persians after Xerxes, the prophets after 
 Moses composed that which transpired in their times in thirteen 
 books. The other four books present hymns to God and rules of 
 life for men."* 
 
 " And now David, being freed from wars and dangers, and enjoy- 
 ing a profound peace, composed songs and hymns to God of several 
 sorts of metre : some of those which he made were trimeters, and 
 some were pentameters." t 
 
 Josephus' views as to Hebrew literature vary some, 
 what from the Talmud. He strives to exalt the Hebrew 
 Scriptures in every way as to style, antiquity, and variety 
 
 ♦ Contra Apion., i., § 8. \ Antiq., vii. 12,
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 181 
 
 above the classic literature of Greece. He represents 
 Moses as the author of the Pentateuch, even the last 
 eight verses describing his own death.* We do not 
 hesitate to reject his views of the number and arrange- 
 ment of the books in the canon, or his statements as to 
 the metres of Hebrew poetry ; we certainly cannot ac- 
 cept his authority, without criticism, in questions of 
 authorship. Philo agrees with Josephus in making 
 Moses the author of the narrative of his own death,f 
 but has little to say about matters that concern the 
 higher criticism. 
 
 A still more ancient and higher authority in some 
 respects than the Talmud or Josephus is the apocalypse 
 of Ezra, from the first Christian century, printed among 
 the apocryphal books in the English Bible, and pre- 
 served in five versions, and used not infrequently by 
 the fathers as if it were inspired Scripture. This tradi- 
 tion represents that the law and all the holy books were 
 burned at the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar and lost ; that Ezra under divine inspiration 
 restored them all, and also composed seventy others to 
 be delivered to the wise as the esoteric wisdom for the 
 interpretation of the twenty-four.:|: 
 
 * Antig., iv. 8, 48. + Lt/e 0/ Moses, III. 39, 
 
 X Ezra saith : " For thy law is burnt, therefore no man knoweth the things 
 
 that are done of thee, or the works that shall beg^in. But if I have found gTa.ce 
 
 before thee, send the Holy Ghost unto me, and I shall write all that hath been 
 
 done in the world since the beginning which were written in thy law, that men 
 
 may find thy path," etc " Come hither, (saith God), and I shall light a 
 
 candle of understanding in thine heart which shall not be put out till the things 
 be performed which thou shalt begin to write. And when thon hast done, some 
 things shalt thou publish, and some tilings shalt thou show secretly to the wise. 
 .... The first that thou hast written publish openly, that the worthy an^the 
 unworthy may read it ; but keep the seventy last, that thou mayest deliver them 
 only to such as be wise among the people, for in them is the spring of under- 
 standing, the fountain of wisdom and the stream of knowledge" (xiv. 19-46).
 
 182 BIBLK AL STUDY 
 
 Tlxis view of the restoration of the Old Testament 
 writings by Ezra was advocated by some of the fathers. 
 Qeraent of Alexandria * says : 
 
 " Since the Scriptures perished in the captivtty of Nebuchadnezzar, 
 Esdras the Levite, the priest, in the time of Artaxerxes, king of the 
 Persiarns, having become inspired, in the exercise of prophecy re- 
 stored again the whole of the ancient Scriptures." 
 
 So, also, Tertullian,f Chrysostom,:{: an ancient writing 
 attributed to Augustine,§ the heretical Clementine hom- 
 ilies. J Another common opinion of the fathers is repre- 
 sented by Irenaeus : ^ 
 
 " During the captivity of the people under Nebuchadnezzar, the 
 Scriptures had been corrupted, and when, after seventy years, the 
 Jews had returned to their own land, then in the time of Artaxerxes, 
 King of the Persians, [God] inspired Esdras the priest, of the tribe 
 of Levi, to recast all the words of former prophets, and to re-estab- 
 lish with the people the Mosaic legislation." 
 
 So, also, Theodoret** and Basil.ff Jerome ;{::{: says 
 with reference to this tradition : " Whether you wish to say 
 that Moses is the author of the Pentateuch, or that Ezra 
 I'estored it, is indifferent to me." Bellarmin§§ is of the 
 opinion that the books of the Jews were not entirely 
 lost, but that Ezra corrected those that had become cor- 
 rupted, and improved the copies he restored. 
 
 Jerome, in the fourth century, relied largely upon 
 
 * Stromata^ i. 22. t De cultu foeminarum, c. 3. 
 
 X Horn, viii., in Epist. Hebraeos^ Migne's edition, xvii. p. 74. 
 
 § De mirahilibus sacrae scripturae, II. 33, printed with Augustine's works, but 
 not genuine. 
 
 I Horn. iii. c. 47. IT Adv. Hcereses, iii. 21, 2. 
 
 ** Praef. in Psaltnos. 
 
 •H Epist. ad Chilonetn, Migne's edition, IV., p. 358. See Simon, Hist. Crit. 
 de Vieux Test., Amsterd. 1685, and Fabricius, Codex Pseudepigraph. Ham- 
 burg, 1722, p. 1 156, seq. 
 
 \\ Adv. Helvidium. §§ De verba Dei.y lib. 2.
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. ^g3 
 
 Jewish rabbinical authority, and gave his great influence 
 toward bringing the fluctuating traditions in the church 
 into more accordance with the rabbinical traditions, but 
 iie could not entirely succeed. He held that the orphan 
 Psalms belonged as a rule to the previous ones, and in 
 general followed the rabbins in associating the sacred 
 ■writings with the familiar names — Moses, IDavid, Solo- 
 mon, Jeremiah, Ezra, and so on. There is, however, no 
 consensus of the fathers on these topics. 
 
 Junilius, in the midst of the sixth century, author of 
 the first extant Introduction,* a reproduction of a lost 
 work of his instructor, Paul of Nisibis, of the Antiochian 
 school of Exegesis, presents a view which may be re- 
 garded as representing very largely the Oriental and 
 Western churches. He divides the Scriptures of the 
 Old and New Testaments into 17 histories, 17 prophe- 
 cies, 2 proverbial, and 17 doctrinal writings. Under 
 authorship, he makes the wise discrimination between 
 those having their authors indicated in their titles and 
 introductions, and those whose authorship rested purely 
 on tradition, including in the latter the Pentateuch and 
 Joshua.f 
 
 This work of Junilius held its own as an authority in 
 the Western church until the Reformation. It would 
 
 ♦ Institutio regularis Divinae Legis. 
 
 ■\ " Scriptores divinorum librorum qua ratione cognosdmus ? Tribus modis : 
 aut ex titulis et proemiis ut propheticos libros et apostoli epistolas, aut ex titulis 
 tantum ut evangelistas, aut ex traditione veterum ut Moyses traditur scripsisse 
 quinque primes libros historic, cum non dicat hoc titulus nee ipse referat ' dixit 
 dominus ad me,' sed quasi de alio 'dixit, dominus ad Moysen.' Similiter et 
 Jesu Nave liber ab eo quo nuncupatur traditur scriptus, et primum regum librum 
 Samuel scripsisse perhibetur. Sciendum praeterea quod quorundam librorum 
 penitus ig:norantur auctores ut Judicum et Ruth et Regum iii. ultimi et cetera 
 similia, quod ideo credendum est divinitus dispensatum, ut alii quoque divini 
 libri non auctorum merito, sed sancti spiritus gratia tantum culmen auctoritatis 
 obtinuisse noscantur." (§ viii. 2 ; see Kihn, Theodorvon Mopsuestia und jfuH- 
 ilius African us als Ex e get en, pp. 319-330).
 
 184 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 be difficult to define a consensus of the first Christian 
 century or of the fathers in regard to the authorship of 
 the historical books of the Old Testament or other ques- 
 tions of the higher criticism. The variant traditions, 
 unfixed and fluctuating, came down to the men of the 
 eighteenth century to be tested by the Scriptures, and 
 by the principles of the higher criticism, and they found 
 no consensus patrum and no orthodox sytnbolical doctrines 
 in their way. 
 
 V. THE NEW TESTAMENT VIEW OF OLD TESTAMENT 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 It is claimed, however, that Jesus and His apostles 
 have determined these questions for us, and that their 
 divine authority relieves us of any obligation to investi- 
 gate further, as their testimony is final. This does not 
 seem to have been the view of Junilius or the fathers. 
 So far as we can ascertain, this argument was first urged 
 in opposition to Peyrerius by Maresius,* and pressed by 
 Heidegger, the Swiss scholastic, who sided with Buxtorf 
 and Owen against Cappellus and Walton. But the argu- 
 ment having been advanced by these divines, and forti- 
 fied by the Lutheran scholastic Carpzov, and maintained 
 by Hengstenberg, Keil, and Home, and by a large num- 
 ber of scholars who lean on these authorities, it is neces- 
 sary for us to test it. Clericus went too far when he 
 said that Jesus Christ and His apostles did not come 
 into the world to preach criticism to the Jews.f The 
 
 * Maresius, Refutatio FabiclcB Preadamitce, 1656 ; Heidegger, Exercit. Bib- 
 iicce, 1700 ; Dissert, ix., p. 250, seq. 
 
 \ In Sentimens de quelques Theologiens de Holland sur V Histoire Critique, 
 p. 126, Amst., 1685, Clericus says: "Jesus Christ et ses Apotres n'etant pas 
 renus au monde, pour ensegner la Critique au Juifs, il ne faut pas s'etonner, 
 i'ils parlent selon I'opimon commune."
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 185 
 
 response of Hermann Witsius, that Jesus came to teach 
 the truth, and could not be imposed upon by common 
 ignorance, or be induced to favor vulgar errors, is just.* 
 And yet we cannot altogether deny the principle of 
 accommodation in the life and teachings of Jesus. The 
 principle of accommodation is a part of the wonderful 
 condescension of the divine grace to human weakness, 
 ignorance, and sinfulness. Jesus teaches that Moses, 
 because of the hardness of their hearts, suffered ancient 
 Israel to divorce their wives for reasons which the 
 higher dispensation will not admit as valid (Matt. 
 xix. 8). The divine revelation is a training-school for 
 the disciple, ever reserving from him what he is unable 
 to bear, and holding forth the promise of greater light to 
 those using the light they have. 
 
 "It is not required in a religious or inspired teacher, nor indeei! 
 would it be prudent or right, to shock the prejudices of his unin- 
 formed hearers, by inculcating truths which they are unprepared tit 
 receive. If he would reap a harvest, he must prepare the groun. I 
 before he attempts to sow the seed. Neither is it required of sucl 
 an one to persist in inculcating religious instruction after such evi- 
 dence of its rejection as is sufficient to prove incurable obstinacy. 
 Now it must be granted that in most of these cases there is accom- 
 modation. The teacher omits, either altogether or in part, certain 
 religious truths, and, perhaps, truths of great importance, in accom- 
 modation to the incompetency and weakness of those whom he has 
 
 to instruct It appears, then, that accommodation may be 
 
 allowed in matters which have no connection with religion, and in 
 these, too, so far as regards the degree and the form of instruction. 
 
 * " Enim vero non fuere Christus et Apostoli Critices doctores, quales se 
 naberi postulant, qui hodie sibi reg^num litterarum in quavis vindicant scientia ; 
 fuerunt tamen doctores veritatis, neque passi sunt sibi p>er communem ignoran- 
 tiam aut procerum astum imponi. Non certe in mundum venere ut vulgares 
 errores foverunt, suaque auctoritate munirent, nee per J udajos solum sed et popu- 
 los unice, a se jjendentes longe lateque spargerent.' — Affsc. Sacra, I., p. 117.
 
 186 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 But positive accommodation to religfious error is not to be found in 
 
 Scripture, neither is it justifiable in moral principle." * 
 
 Jesus withheld from the twelve apostles many things 
 of vast importance which they could not know then, but 
 should know hereafter (John xiii. 7). Jesus did not enter 
 into any further conflict with the errors of His time than 
 was necessary for His purposes of grace in the Gospel. 
 He exercised a wise prudence and a majestic reserve in 
 matters of indifference and minor importance, and was 
 never premature in declaring Himself and the principles 
 of His Gospel. There were no sufficient reasons why He 
 should correct the prevailing views as to the Old Testa- 
 ment books, and by His authority determine these liter- 
 ary questions. He could not teach error, but he could 
 and did constantly forbear with reference to errors. 
 Polygamy and slavery have been defended from the 
 New Testament because Jesus and His apostles did not 
 declare against them. If all the views of the men of 
 the time of Christ are to be pronounced valid which 
 He did not pronounce against, we shall be involved in 
 a labyrinth of difficulties. 
 
 The authority of Jesus Christ, to all who know Him 
 to be their divine Saviour, outweighs all other authority 
 whatever. A Christian man must follow His teachings 
 in all things as the guide into all truth. The authority 
 of Jesus Christ is involved in that of the apostles. 
 What, then, do Jesus and His apostles teach as to the 
 questions of higher criticism ? If they used the lan- 
 guage of the day in speaking of the Old Testament 
 books, it does not follow that they adopted any of the 
 various views of authorship and editorship that went 
 
 * Dr. S. H. Turner, in his edition of Plaick's Introduction to Sacred Philol' 
 •gy. Edin., 1834, pp. 275-277. New York, 1834, p. 280, itq.
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. I37 
 
 with these terms in the Talmud, or in Josephus, or in 
 the apocalypse of Ezra, for we are not to interpret their 
 words on this or on any other subject by Josephus, or 
 the Mishna, or the apocalypse of Ezra, or any such ex- 
 ternal authorities, but by the plain grammatical and 
 contextual sense of their words themselves. . From the 
 various New Testament passages we present the follow- 
 ing summary of what is taught on these subjects : 
 
 I. Of the Hagiographa the only ones used in the 
 New Testament in connection with names of persons are 
 the Psalter and Daniel. With reference to Chronicles, 
 Ezra, Nehemiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, 
 Esther, and Ruth, the New Testament gives no evi- 
 dence whatever in questions of the higher criticism.* 
 (i) With reference to the Psalter, citations are made 
 from Ps. Ixix. 26; cix. 8 (in Acts i. 16-20); ii. i, seq. 
 (in Acts iv. 25) ; as " by the mouth of David "; from 
 xxxii. I, seq. (in Rom. iv. 6); Ixix. 23 (in Rom. xi. 9); 
 xvi. 8-1 1 (in Acts ii. 25-29) ; ex. i (in Acts ii. 34), as 
 " David saith "; and ex. i (in Matt. xxii. 43-45 ; Mark 
 xii. 36, 37; Luke xx. 42-44); under various terms in 
 the parallel passages as, '* David in the Spirit calls him 
 Lord "; " David himself said in the Holy Spirit "; " Da- 
 vid himself saith in the book of Psalms." The maxi- 
 mum of evidence here is as to the Davidic authorship 
 of Pss. ii., xvi., xxxii., Ixix., cix., and ex., in all six 
 psalms out of the 150 contained in the Psalter. As to 
 the rest, there is no use of them in connection with the 
 name of an author. There is, however, a passage upon 
 which the Davidic authorship of the entire Psalter has 
 
 * For a fuller discussion of this subject, we would refer to the exhaustive paper 
 of Prof. Francis Brown, The New Testament Witness to the Authorship of 
 Old Testament Books in the Journal of the Society qf Biblical Literature and 
 Exegesis, 1882, p. 95, seq.
 
 183 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 been based, e. g., Heb. iv. 7 ; * where a citation from Pa 
 
 * Thus, William Gouge, one of the most honored Puritan divines, in his 
 Commentary on Hebrews, in discussing this j>assage, says : 
 
 " From the mention of David in reference to the Psalm, we may probably con- 
 clude that David was the penman of the whole Book of Psalms, especially from 
 this phrase, ' David himself saith in the Book of Psalms' (Luke xx. 42). Some 
 exceptions are .made against this conclusion, but such as may readily be an- 
 swered. 
 
 " Objection i. — Sundry psalms have not the title of David prefixed before 
 them ; they have no title at all, as the first, second, and others. Ans. — If they have 
 no title, why should they not be ascribed to David, rather then to any other, con- 
 sidering that the Book of Psalms is indefinitely attributed to him (as we heard 
 out of the forementioned place, Luke xx. 42), which is the title prefixed before 
 aU the Psalms, as comprising them all under it ? Besides, such testimonies as 
 are taken out of Psalms that have no title are applied to David, as Acts iv. 25, 
 and this testimony that is here taken out of Psalm xcv. 7. 
 
 ^^ Objection 2. — Some titles are ascribed to other authors; as Psalms Ixxii., 
 cxxvii. to Solomon. Ans. — The Hebrew servile lamed is variously taken and 
 translated ; as sometimes, of, Psalm iii. i, ' A Psalm of David.' Then it signi- 
 fieth the author : Thus it is used in most titles, especially when they are applied 
 to David. Other time this is translated /or, as Psalm bcxii. i and cxxvii. In 
 these it implieth that the Psalm was penned _/<?r Solomon's use or for his in- 
 struction. It may also be thus translated, concerning Solomon. That the Ixxii. 
 Psalm was penned by David is evident by the close thereof, in these words ; 
 ' The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended.' 
 
 " Objection 3. — Some titles ascribe the Psalm to this or that Levite, as Psalm 
 Ixxxviii. to Heman, and bcxxix. to Ethan. Yea, twelve Psalms to Asaph and eleven 
 to the sons of Korah. Ans. — All these were very skillful, not only in singing, 
 but also in setting tunes to Psalms. They were musick masters. Therefore, Da- 
 vid, having penned the Psalms, committed them to the foresaid Levites to be 
 fitly tuned. ... It will not follow that any of them were enditers of any of the 
 Psalms, because their name is set in the title of some of them. 
 
 '■^ Objection ^. — The xcth Psalm carrieth this title: 'A Prayer of Moses the 
 Man of God.' Ans. — It is said to be the prayer of Moses in regard of the sub- 
 stance and general matter of it ; but, as a Psalm, it was jjenned by David. He 
 brought it into that form. David, as a prophet, knew that Moses had uttered 
 such a prayer in the substance of it ; therefore, he prefixeth that title before it. 
 
 " Objection 5. — The cxxxviith Psalm doth set down the disposition and car- 
 riage of the Israelites in the Babylonish Captivity, which was sis hundred 
 fourty years after David's time, and the cxxvith Psalm sets out their return from 
 that Captivity. Ans. — To grant these to be so, yet might David pen those 
 Psalms ; for, by a prophetical spirit, he might foresee what would fall out and 
 answerably f)en Psalms fit thereunto. Moses did the like (Deut. xxix. 22, etc., 
 and xxxi. 21, 22, etc.). A man of God expressly set down distinct acts of Jo- 
 siah 330 years before they fell out (1 Kings xiii. 2). Isaiah did the like of Cyrut 
 (Is. xHv. 38 ; xlv. i), which was about two hundred years beforehand."
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. JgQ 
 
 xcv. 7-8 is given " as the Holy Spirit saith in David, 
 fV ^avslS." This only means that David was the name 
 of the Psalter and this title was used interchangeably 
 with the book of Psalms, or Psalms. The question of 
 integrity is raised by the citation of our Psalm ii. as 
 Psalm i., according to the best manuscripts in Acts xiii. 
 33.* Were these two Psalms combined in one at the 
 time, or was the first Psalm regarded as introductory 
 and not counted ? Both views are supported by MSS. 
 and citations. 
 
 (2) Daniel xi. 31 or xii. 11. is used in Matt. xxiv. 15 
 under the formula, " that which was spoken by Daniel 
 the prophet." With reference to this, we will simply 
 quote the judicious words of Prof. Brown : 
 
 " It will be remembered that the passage cited in Matt. xxiv. 1 5 is 
 ttom the second division of the book, a division which, with the ex- 
 ception of certain brief introductory notes, contains prophecies exclu- 
 »ively, and that this division is distinctly marked off from the pre- 
 ceding by the nature of its contents, and by the brief introduction, 
 Dan. vii. i. Now, suppose evidence were to be presented from othei 
 quarters to show that while the book as a whole was not written by 
 Daniel, the last six chapters contained prophecies of Daniel, which 
 the later author had incorporated in his book. On that supposition. 
 the words of Jesus taken in their most rigid, literal meaning would 
 be perfectly satisfied. We may go yet further. If other evidence 
 should be adduced tending to show that 'Daniel, the prophet,' was 
 a pseudonym, still there would be nothing in Jesus' use of the ex- 
 pression to commit Him to any other view. For the words were 
 certainly written, and written in the form of a prophecy, and were a 
 prophecy, and the book containing them was an inspired, canonical, 
 and authoritative book ; the citation was, therefore, suitable and 
 forcible for Jesus' purposes, whoever the author may have been, 
 and the use of a current pseudonym to designate the author no 
 more committed Jesus to a declaration that that was the author's 
 real name, than our use of the expression 'Junius says ' would com- 
 
 • So Tischendorf, Critica Major, Editio Octava.
 
 190 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 mit us to a declaration that the ' Letters of Junius ' were composed 
 by a person of that name ; or than, on the supposition already dis- 
 cussed, that 'Enoch' was regarded as a pseudonym, Jude 14 
 would indicate the belief of the author that Enoch himself actually 
 uttered the words which he quotes." * 
 
 II. The Prophets, (i) The only one of the prophetic 
 historical books mentioned in connection with a name is 
 Samuel, in Acts iii. 24 : " All the prophets from Samuel 
 and them that followed after, as many as have spoken, 
 they also told of these days." The reference here is to 
 the book of Samuel, for the reason that there is no Mes- 
 sianic prophecy ascribed to Samuel in the Old Testa- 
 ment. The context forces us to think of such an one. 
 We find it in the prophecy of Nathan in the book of 
 Samuel. These historical books then bore the name of 
 Samuel, and their contents are referred to as Samuel's. 
 As to Joshua, Judges, and Kings we have no use of 
 them in such a way as to raise questions of higher criti- 
 cism. 
 
 (2) Of the prophetic writings in particular the New 
 Testament refers only to Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea, and 
 Joel in connection with names. Ezekiel and ten of the 
 minor prophets are not used in such a way as to raise ques- 
 tions of higher criticism except Jonah, who is referred 
 to as a prophet in connection with his preaching to the 
 Ninevites and to his abode in the belly of the great fish 
 (Matt. xii. 39-41), but no reference as such is made to 
 the book that bears his name in connection with his 
 name. The question whether Jonah is history or fiction 
 is not decided by Jesus' use of it — for as a parable it 
 answered His purpose no less than if it were history. 
 
 (3) Hosea i. 10; ii. 23 are quoted Rom. ix, 25, as "in 
 
 * In /, £•., pp. 106, 107.
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 191 
 
 ITosea." This is probably nothing more than the name 
 d1" the writing used. Joel ii. 28-32 is quoted in Acts ii. 
 16 as, " This is that which was said through the prophet 
 Joel." 
 
 (4) Jeremiah is cited in Matt. ii. 17 ; xxvii. 9, under the 
 formula, " that which was spoken through Jeremiah the 
 prophet saying." The former citation is from Jeremiah 
 (xxxi. 15), the latter from Zechariah (xi. 12-13). This 
 raises the question of the integrity of Zechariah. On the 
 basis of this passage chaps, ix.-xi. of Zechariah were as- 
 cribed to Jeremiah by Mede, Hammond, and Kidder 
 (see p. 169). But it is now generally conceded that the 
 evangelist has made a mistake, and this raises the ques- 
 tion how far errors of this character affect the credibility 
 of a writing. 
 
 (5) Isaiah is frequently used in the formula, " through 
 Isaiah the prophet saying": Is. xl. 3 (in Matt. iii. 3) ; Is. 
 ix. I seq. (Matt. iv. I4) ; Is. liii. 4 (in Matt. viii. 17) ; Is 
 xlii. 1-4 (in Matt. xii. 17) ; Is. vi. 9 seq. (Acts xxviii. 
 25) ; so with the formula " Isaiah said," Is. xl. 3 (John 
 i. 23); Is. vi. 9 seq.{\Vi John xii. 39-41); Is. liii. i (in 
 Rom. X. 16) ; Is. Ixv. i seq. (Rom. x. 20) ; Is. xi. 10 
 (Rom. XV. 12); "the book of the prophet Isaiah," Is. 
 xl. 3-5 (Luke iii. 4) ; Is. Ixi. 1-2 (Luke iv. 17) ; " word of 
 Isaiah the prophet," Is. liii. i (John xii. 38); "reading 
 the prophet Isaiah," Is. liii. 7 (Acts viii. 28-30) ; " Isaiah 
 cries out," Is. x. 22 seq. (Rom. ix. 27) ; " Isaiah foretold," 
 Is. i. 9 (Rom. ix. 29) ; " the prophecy of Isaiah," Is. vi. 
 9 (Matt. xiii. 14); "Isaiah prophesied," Is. xxix. 13 
 (Matt. XV. 7); Is. xxix. 13 (Mark vii. 6). Besides these 
 there is a passage of more difificulty in Mark i. 2, 
 where, with the formula, " written in Isaiah the proph- 
 et," are cited Mai. iii. i and Is. xl. 3. This seems to 
 be a clear case in which the evangelist has overlooked
 
 192 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 the fact that one of his citations is from Malachi. This 
 raises the question how far a slip Hke this is consist- 
 ent with credibility. The various formulas of citation 
 seem on the surface to imply the authorship of our 
 book of Isaiah by the prophet Isaiah, and also its essen- 
 tial integrity, inasmuch as the citations are from all parts 
 of the book. But we have found that Samuel is repre- 
 sented as prophesying, when the prophecy is by Nathan 
 in the book that bore the name of Samuel. How can 
 we be sure that this is not the case with Isaiah, likewise 
 In the phrases, " through Isaiah the prophet, saying," 
 ** Isaiah said," " words of Isaiah the prophet," " Isaiah 
 cries out," " Isaiah foretold," " Isaiah prophesied " ? The 
 phrases, " book of the prophet Isaiah," " reading the 
 prophet Isaiah," " prophecy of Isaiah," certainly imply 
 nothing more than naming the book. The presumption 
 o{ the New Testament is in favor of the authorship of 
 Tsaiah, but, in the face of other decisive evidence to the 
 j;ontrary, does not force us to any other conclusion than 
 ihat the book as a whole bore the name of Isaiah. 
 
 III. Of the Pentateuch, (i) Jesus speaks of the law 
 of Moses (John vii. 23) and the book of Moses (Mark 
 xii. 26). The evangelist uses Moses for the Pentateuch 
 (Luke xxiv. 27). So the apostles refer to the law of 
 Moses (Acts xxviii. 23), and use Moses for the Penta- 
 teuch (Acts XV. 21 ; 2 Cor. iii. 15). These are all cases 
 of naming books cited. They have as their parallel 
 David as the name of the Psalter in Heb. iv. 7 ; Acts 
 iv. 25 ; Samuel, also of the book of Samuel, Acts iii. 24. 
 It is certainly reasonable to interpret Moses in these 
 passages in the same way as the name of the work con- 
 taining his legislation, and the history in which he is 
 the central figure. 
 
 (2) Jesus represents Moses as a lawgiver, giving the
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 193 
 
 Ten Commandments (Mark vii. lo), the law of the lepers* 
 offering (Mark i. 44, etc.), the law of divorce (Matt. xix. 
 7), the law in general (John vii. 19). The epistle to the 
 Hebrews represents Moses as giving the law of priest- 
 hood (Heb. vii. 14), and as a lawgiver whose law when is- 
 sued at the time could not be disobeyed with impunity 
 (Heb. X. 28). These passages all represent Moses to be 
 the lawgiver that he appears to be in the narratives of 
 the Pentateuch, but do not, by any means, imply the 
 authorship of those narratives that contain these laws, 
 any more than the reference in i Cor. ix. 14, to the com- 
 mand of Christ in Luke x. 7, and the institution of the 
 Lord's supper by Jesus (i Cor, xi. 23 seq^, imply that 
 Jesus was the author of the gospels containing His 
 words. 
 
 (3) Jesus represents Moses as a prophet who wrote of 
 Him (John v. 46, 47) ; so Philip (John i. 45) ; Peter (Acts 
 iii. 22-24) ; Stephen (Acts vii. 37) ; Paul (Acts xxvi. 22), 
 and in Rom. x. 5, 19 the apostle refers to the address in 
 Deut. XXX. and the song Deut. xxxii. These passages 
 maintain that certain prophecies came from Moses, but 
 do not maintain that the Pentateuch, as a whole, or the 
 narratives in which these prophecies occur, were written 
 by Moses. 
 
 (4) Certain historical events narrated in the Penta- 
 teuch in which Moses takes the lead, are mentioned (in 
 Heb. viii. 5, ix. 19, xii. 21, etc.), but these simply teach 
 the historical character of the transactions, not the ex- 
 clusive Mosaic authorship of the writings containing 
 these historical incidents. 
 
 (5) In the passage, Acts iii. 22, " For Moses truly said 
 unto the fathers, A prophet shall the Lord God raise up 
 
 unto you, etc Yea, and all the prophets from 
 
 Samuel, and those that follow after, as many as have 
 
 9
 
 194 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 spoken, have likewise foretold of these days," it is nec« 
 essary to interpret " Samuel " of the book of Samuel, and 
 think of the prophecy of Nathan ; and if this be so, is 
 it not most natural to interpret " Moses" here as also re- 
 ferring to the book of Deuteronomy rather than the 
 person of Moses ? If that be true in this case, it may 
 also be true of other cases classed under (2) and (3). 
 Samuel cannot, it is now generally admitted, be regarded 
 as the author of the book that bears his name ; why, 
 then, are we forced to conclude from these passages that 
 Moses is the author of the books that bear his name ? 
 
 It has been objected that this method of determining 
 what the words of Jesus and His apostles 7nay mean in 
 detail does not show what they must mean when taken 
 together. It has, however, been forgotten by the ob- 
 jectors that the proper exegetical method is inductive 
 and that the path of exegesis is to rise from the partic- 
 ulars to the general. The dogmatic method is in the 
 habit of saying a passage must mean thus and so from 
 dogmatic presuppositions. The exegete prefers the may 
 until he is forced to the must. He has learned to place 
 little confidence in the " must mean " of tradition and 
 dogmatism ; for he has so often been obliged to lay it 
 aside as impossible from exegetical considerations. Who, 
 then, is to say must in the interpretation of the New 
 Testament exterior to itself ? Is the Talmud to say 
 must to the words of our Lord Jesus ? Is the traitor 
 Josephus, or the pseudepigraph IV. Ezra to say must in 
 an interpretation of the apostles? Nay. We let them 
 speak for themselves, and if we are to choose between a 
 variety of possible interpretations of their words we 
 prefer to let higher criticism decide. For higher criti- 
 cism is exact and thorough in its methods and prefers 
 the internal evidence of the Old Testament books them^
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 195 
 
 selves to any external evidence. This may bring Jesus 
 into conflict with Josephus and the rabbins and with 
 traditional theories; but it is more likely to bring Him 
 into harmony with Moses and the prophets. Prof. B. 
 Weiss has well said in another connection : 
 
 " However certainly, therefore, the religious ideas of later Judaism, 
 as well as the doctrines of Jewish Theology, had an influence upon 
 the forming of the religious consciousness as it is exhibited in the 
 writings of the New Testament, our knowledge of the extent in 
 which these ideas and doctrines lay within the field of vision of the 
 writers of the New Testament is far from being precise enough to 
 permit us to start from them in ascertaining that religious conscious- 
 ness. It is only in the rarest cases that biblical theology will be 
 able to make use. of them with certainty for the purpose of eluci^ 
 dation." * 
 
 No one could emphasize the importance of historical 
 exegesis more than we are disposed to do ; but we can- 
 not allow traditionalists — who are the last to use this 
 method except when, for the time being, it serves theii 
 purposes — by the improper use of it, to force upon crit- 
 icism interpretations that are possible but not necessary, 
 and which are excluded by other and higher considera- 
 tions presented by the word of God as contained in the 
 Scriptures of the Old Testament. 
 
 It has been a common literary usage for centuries to 
 represent a book as speaking by the name by which it is 
 known, whether that be a pseudonyme, or indicate the 
 subject matter or the author. To insist that it must al- 
 ways in the New Testament indicate authorship is to go 
 in the face of the literary usage of the world, and against 
 the usage of the New Testament itself, certainly in the 
 cases of Samuel and David and, therefore, possibly in 
 other cases also, such as Moses and Isaiah. 
 
 * Biblical Theology of the New Testament, T. & T. Clark's edition. Edin. 
 1882, I., p. 14.
 
 1% BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 We have shown that the questions of higher criticism 
 have not been determined for us by the ecclesiastical au- 
 thority of creeds or the consensus of tradition. And it 
 is a merciful Providence that this has not been the case. 
 For it would have committed the church and Christians 
 to many errors which have been exposed by a century 
 of progress in the higher criticism. Those who still insist 
 upon opposing higher criticism with traditional views and 
 with the supposed authority of Jesus Christ and His apos- 
 tles, do not realize the perils of the situation. Are they 
 ready to risk the divinity of Christ, the authority of 
 the Bible, and the existence of the church, upon their in- 
 terpretation of the words of Jesus and His apostles? 
 Do they not see that they throw up a wall that will pre- 
 vent any critic who is an unbeliever from ever becoming 
 a believer in Christ and the Bible ? They would force 
 evangelical critics to choose between truth and scholarly 
 research on the one side, and Christ and tradition on 
 the other. The issue is plain, the result is not doubtful 
 — the obstructionists will give way in this matter as 
 they have already in so many other matters. The Bible 
 will vindicate itself against those who, like the friends of 
 Job, have not spoken right concerning God (Job xlii. 7), 
 in presuming to defend Him. 
 
 VI. THE RISE OF HIGHER CRITICISM. 
 
 The current critical theories are the resultants of forces 
 at work in the church since the Reformation. These 
 forces have advanced steadily and constantly. In each 
 successive epoch scholars have investigated afresh the 
 sacred records and brought forth treasures new as well 
 as old. Various theories have been proposed from time 
 to time to account for the new facts that have been 
 brought to light. Biblical science has shared the fortune
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. j[9Y 
 
 of the entire circle of the sciences. The theories have 
 been modified or discarded under the influence of addi- 
 tional investigations and the discovery of new facts for 
 which they could not account. The facts have remained 
 in every case as a permanent acquisition of biblical criti- 
 cism, and these facts have gradually accumulated in mass 
 and importance until they now command the services of 
 a large body of enthusiastic investigators. They have 
 gained the ear of the literary world and enlist the inter- 
 est of all intelligent persons. The questions of biblical 
 criticism have arisen to a position among the great issues 
 of our time, and no one can any longer ignore them. 
 
 All great movements of human thought have their 
 preliminary and initial stages, and are preceded by spas- 
 modic efforts. Even the enemies of the true faith not in- 
 frequently become the providential agents for calling the 
 church to a fresh investigation of the sacred oracles. 
 Thus Spinoza, the apostate Jew and pantheistic philos- 
 opher, applied historical criticism to the Old Testament 
 books,* and concluded that Moses could not have written 
 the Pentateuch, and that the historical books from Gen 
 esis through the books of Kings constitute one great 
 historical work, a conglomeration of many different orig- 
 inals by one editor, probably Ezra, who does not suc- 
 ceed in a reconciliation of differences, and a complete 
 and harmonious arrangement. The books of Chronicles 
 he places in the Maccabean period. The Psalms were 
 collected and divided into five books in the time of the 
 second temple. The book of Proverbs was collected at the 
 earliest in the time of Josiah. The prophetical books are 
 collections of different fragments without regard to their 
 original order. Daniel, Ezra, Esther, and Nehemiah are 
 
 * Tract. Theo. Polit., 1670, c. 8.
 
 198 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 from the same author, who would continue the great hi* 
 torical work of Israel from the captivity onwards, writ- 
 ten in the Maccabean period. Job was probably, as 
 Aben Ezra conjectured, translated into Hebrew from a 
 foreign tongue.* This criticism was shrewd, but chiefly 
 conjectural. It paved the way for future systematic in- 
 vestigations. 
 
 Soon after Spinoza, Richard Simon,f a Roman Cath- 
 olic, began to apply historical criticism in a systematic 
 manner to the study of the books of the Old Testament. 
 He represented the historical books as made up of the 
 ancient writings of the prophets, who were public scribes, 
 and wrote down the history in official documents on the 
 spot, from the time of Moses onward, so that the Penta- 
 teuch in its present shape is not by Moses. Simon dis- 
 tinguished in the Pentateuch between that which was 
 written by Moses, e. g., the commands and ordinances ; 
 and that written by the prophetical scribes, the greater 
 part of the history. As the books of Kings and Chron- 
 icles were made up by abridgments and summaries of 
 the ancient acts preserved in the archives of the nation, 
 so was the Pentateuch (p. 17, seq^. The later prophets 
 edited the works of the earlier prophets and added ex- 
 planatory statements. Simon presents as evidences that 
 Moses did not write the Pentateuch : (i) The double ac- 
 count of the deluge. (2) The lack of order in the ar- 
 rangement of the narratives and laws. (3) The diversity 
 of the style. The Roman Catholic scholar goes deeper 
 into the subject than the Pantheist Spinoza has gone. 
 He presents another class of evidences. These three 
 lines were not sufficiently worked by Simon. He fell 
 
 * See Siegfried, Spinoza als Kritiker und Ausleger des Alien Testament, 
 Berlin, 1867. 
 + Histoire Critique du Vieux Testatnent, 1678.
 
 THE HIGHER CPdTIC'ISM. I99 
 
 into the easy temptation of expending his strength on 
 the elaboration and justification of his theory. The 
 facts he discovered have proved of permanent value, and 
 have been worked as a rich mine by later scholars, but 
 his theory was at once attacked and destroyed. The 
 Arminian Clericus, in an anonymous work,* assailed Si- 
 mon for his abuse of Protestant writers, but really went 
 to greater lengths than Simon. He distinguishes in the 
 Pentateuclf three classes of facts, those before Moses, 
 those during his time, and those subsequent to his death ; 
 and represents the Pentateuch in its present form as 
 composed by the priest sent from Babylon to instruct 
 the inhabitants of Samaria in the religion of the land, 
 2 Kings xvii.f Afterward he gave up this wild theory 
 and took the more tenable ground:}: of interpolations 
 by a later editor. Anton Van Dale§ distinguishes be- 
 tween the Mosaic code and the Pentateuch, which latter 
 Ezra composed from other writings, historical and pro- 
 phetical, inserting the Mosaic code as a whole in his work. 
 This is also essentially the view of Semler.| 
 
 These various writers brought to light a most valuable 
 collection of facts that demanded the attention of bibli- 
 cal scholars of all creeds and phases of thought. They 
 all made the mistake of proposing untenable theories of 
 various kinds to account for the facts, instead of working 
 upon the facts and rising from them by induction and 
 generalization to permanent results. Some of them. 
 
 * Sentimens de quelques theologiens de Holland sur PHistotre Critique, 
 Amst., 1685. 
 
 t In /. c, pp. 107, 129. 
 
 X Com. on Genesis, introd. de Scrip/ore Pent., § 11. Simon replied to Cler- 
 (cus in Reponse au Livre intitule Sentimens, etc. Par Le Prieur de Polleville, 
 Rotterdam, 16S6. 
 
 § De ori_qine ct progressu idol., 1696, p. 71, and epi:,t. ad Aforin., p. 686. 
 
 I Apparatus ad liberalem Vet. Test. Interp., 1773, p. 67.
 
 200 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 like Spinoza, were animated by a spirit more or less hos. 
 tile to the evangelical faith. Others, like Clericus, were 
 heterodox in other matters. The most important inves- 
 tigations were those of the Roman Catholics. 
 
 Over against these critical attacks on the traditional 
 theories, we note the scholastic defence of them by Huet, 
 a Jesuit ; * Heidegger,f and Carpzov.J These scholastic 
 divines, instead of seeking to account for the facts 
 brought to light by the critics, proceeded to defend tra- 
 ditional views and explain away the facts. 
 
 There were, however, other divines who looked the facts 
 in the face and took a better way. Thus Du Pin § Wit- 
 sius,| Spanheim,^ Prideaux,** Vitringa,f f and Calmet,:}:^ 
 sought to explain the passages objected to either as im- 
 properly interpreted or as interpolations, recognizing the 
 use of several documents and a later editorship by 
 Ezra and others. They laid the foundations for evan- 
 gelical criticism, which was about to begin and run a 
 long and successful course. 
 
 It is instructive just here to pause by Du Pin, who 
 lays down such admirable rules of literary criticism §§ 
 with reference to ecclesiastical books. When Simon 
 raises the question why he does not apply these rules to 
 the Pentateuch, he replies by saying : 
 
 *' A man may say, that all these rules which I have laid down, are 
 convincing and probable in different degrees, but that the sovereign 
 
 * In his Demonstratio Evangelica, 1679, IV., cap. xiv. 
 t Exercitiones Bibltcae, 1700, Dissert, ix. 7. 
 
 X Introduction ad Litres Canonicos Bib. Vet. Test. Edit, ii., Lipsioe, 1731. 
 % Dessert, prelim. Bib. des auteurs eccl., Paris, 1688. A new History of Ec- 
 %Usiastical Writers, 3d edition, London, 1696, p. i, seg. 
 \Misc. Sacra, 1692, p. 103. T[ Historia ecclesiast. V. T., L, p. 26a 
 
 ** Old and New Testaments connected, 1716-18, I., 5 (3). 
 t+ Observa. Sacra., c. IV., 2, 1722. XX Com. litter ale, 1722, I., p. xiii. 
 
 §§ See Chap. IV., p. 88 seq., of this book.
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. ^(Q 
 
 and principal rule is the judgment of equity and prudence, which in- 
 structs us to bailance the reasons of this and t'other side, in distinct- 
 ly considering the conjectures that are made of both sides. Now 
 this is the general rule of Rational Criticism, and we abuse all the 
 rest if we don't chiefly make use of this " (in I.e., p. i8). 
 
 In this way the difference between Simon and himself 
 was easily reduced to good sense and nonsense. This 
 method of settling difficult questions certainly stops de- 
 bate between the parties for the moment, but is far from 
 convincing. 
 
 Before passing over to the higher criticism of the 
 Scriptures we shall present the views of this master of 
 the literary criticism of his time, respecting the biblical 
 books : 
 
 " Moses was the author of the first five books of the Pentateuch " 
 
 (except sundry interpolations) " We can't so certainly tell 
 
 who are the authors of the other books of the Bible: some of 'em 
 we only know by conjecture, and others there are of which we have 
 no manner of knowledge." . . , . " The time wherein Job lived, is 
 yet more difficult to discover ; and the author of the book, who has 
 compiled his history, is no less unknown." . . . . " Though the 
 Psalms are commonly called the Psalms of David, or rather the 
 Book of the Psalms of David, yet 'tis certain, as St. Jerom has ob- 
 served in many places, that they are not all of 'em his, and that there 
 are some of them written long after his death. 'Tis therefore a col- 
 lection of songs that was made by Ezrah." . . . . " The Proverbs o/ 
 Parables belong to Solomon, whose name is written in the beginning 
 
 of that book We ought therefore to conclude, .... that the 
 
 24 first chapters are Solomon's originally, that the five following ones 
 are extracts or collections of his proverbs, and that the two last 
 
 chapters were added afterwards The book of Ecclesiastes is 
 
 ascribed to Solomon by all antiquity : And yet the Talmudists 
 have made Hezekiah the author of the book, and Grotius, upon some 
 slight conjectures, pretends it was composed by Zerubabel. It be- 
 gins with these words. The Words of the Preicher, the Son of Da- 
 vid, King of Jerusalem ; which may be applied to Hezekiah as well 
 as to Solomon : .... we ought rather to understand it of Solomon. 
 9*
 
 202 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 .... The Song of Songs is allowed to be Solomon's by the 
 
 consent of the synagogue and the church. The Talmudists attribute 
 it to Ezrah, but without grounds. The books of the Prophets carry 
 the names of their authors undisputed" (in /. c, pp. 1-5). 
 
 About the same time several Roman Catholic divines, 
 as well as Vitringa, took ground independently in favor 
 of the theory of the use of written documents by Moses 
 in the composition of Genesis. So Abb6 Fleury,* and 
 Abb6 Laurent Francois ; f but it was chiefly Astruc, a 
 R. C. physician, who in 1753 X made it evident that 
 Genesis was composed of several documents. He pre- 
 sented to the learned world, with some hesitation and 
 timidity, his discovery that the use of the divine names, 
 Elohim ^.nd Jehovah, divided the book of Genesis into two 
 great memoirs and nine lesser ones. 
 
 This was a real discovery, which, after a hundred years 
 of debate, has at last won the consent of the vast major- 
 ity of biblical scholars. His analysis is in some respects 
 too mechanical, and, in not a few instances, is defective 
 and needed rectification, but as a whole it has been main- 
 tained. He relies also too much upon the different use 
 of the divine names, and too little upon variations in 
 style, language, and narrative. The attention of Ger- 
 man scholars was called to this discovery by Jerusalem.§ 
 Eichhorn was independently led to the same conclu- 
 sion.! But still more important than the work of As- 
 
 * Moeurs des Israelites, p. 6, Bruxelles, 1701. This was translated into Eng- 
 lish and enlarged by Adam Clarke, 3d edition, 1809. 
 
 + Preuves de la Religion de Jesus Christ, contra les Spinosisfes et les De- 
 isles, 1751, I. 2, c, 3, art. 7. 
 
 X In his Conjectures sur les Memoires originaux c'o9tt il paroit que Moyst 
 icst servi pour le livre de la Genisc. 
 
 % In his Brie/e ilber d. Mosaischen Schri/ten, ^i(y2, 3te Aufl., 1783, p. 104, 
 %eq. 
 
 I Urgeschichte in the Repertorium, T. iv., 1779, especially T. v., 1779.
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. . £03 
 
 true Avas that of Bishop Lowth,* who unfolded the prin- 
 ciples of parallelism in Hebrew poetry, and made it pos. 
 sible to study the Old Testament as literature, discrim- 
 inating poetry from prose, and showing that the greater 
 part of prophecy is poetical. His work on Hebrew po- 
 etry was issued in Germany by Michaelis, and his trans- 
 lation of Isaiah by Koppe, who took the position that 
 this prophetical book was made up of a number of docu- 
 ments loosely put together from different authors and 
 different periods.f Lowth himself did not realize the 
 importance of this discovery for the literary criticism 
 of the Scriptures, but thought that it would prove of 
 great service to textual criticism in the suggesting of 
 «jmendations of the text in accordance with the parallel- 
 ism of members. 
 
 The poet Herder:]: first caught the Oriental spirit and 
 life and brought to the attention of the learned the va- 
 ried literary beauties of the Bible,§ and " reconquered, so 
 to say, the Old Testament for German literature." || 
 
 But these writers were all preparatory to the work of 
 J. G. Eichhorn, in 1780.^ Eichhorn combined in one 
 
 * In De Sacra Poesi HehrcEorum, 1753, and 1779 in Prelhn. Diss, and Traits- 
 iaiion 0/ the Prophecies of Isaiah. 
 
 \ Koppe, Robert Lowth' s Je^aias nett ilbersctzt nebst einer Einleitung .... 
 mit Zusatze und Anmerkungen, 4 Bde., Leipzig, 1779-80. 
 
 X In 1780 he published his Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie, and in 
 1782 his Geist der Heb. Poesie. 
 
 § Herder in his ist Brief sdcys : " Richard Simon is the Father of the Criticism 
 of the Old and New Testaments in recent times." — "A Critical Introduction tc 
 the Old Testament, as it ought to be, we have not yet." 1780. In 2d Auf., 
 1785. It is said on the margin, " We have it now in Eichhorn's valuable Ein- 
 leit.insAlt. Test., 1780-83." 
 
 I Dorner in Johnson's Encyclopcedia, II., p. 528. 
 
 1i EtJileit. ins Alt. Test. As Bertheau remarks in Herzog's Real Ency., I. 
 Aufl., iv., 115 : "In Eichhorn's writings the aprilogetic interest is everywhere 
 manifest, to explain, as he expresses it, the Bible according to the ideas and 
 methods of thought of the ancient world, and to defend it against the scorn of 
 the enemies of the Bible. He recognized the exact problem of his times clearei
 
 g(^ BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 the results of Simon and Astruc, Lowth and Herder, 
 embracing the various elements in an organic method 
 which he called the HigJier Criticism. In the preface to 
 his second edition, 1787, he says : 
 
 " I am obliged to give the most pains to a hitherto entirely un- 
 worked field, the investigation of the internal condition of the par- 
 ticular writings of the Old Testament by help of the Higher Criti- 
 cism (a new name to no Humanist). Let any one think what they 
 will of these efforts, my own consciousness tells me that they are the 
 result of very careful investigation, although no one can be less wrapt 
 up in them than I their author. The powers of one man hardly suf- 
 fice to complete such investigations so entirely at once. They de- 
 mand a healthful and ever-cheerful spirit, and how long can any one 
 maintain it in such toilsome investigations ? They demand the keen- 
 est insight into the internal condition of every book ; and who will 
 not be dulled after a while ? " 
 
 He begins his investigation of the books of Mose}< 
 with the wise statement : 
 
 " Whether early or late ? That can be learned only from the writ 
 ings themselves. And if they are not by their own contents or otha 
 internal characteristic traces put down into a later century than the) 
 ascribe to themselves or Tradition assigns them, then a critical in- 
 vestigator must not presume to doubt their own testimony — else he 
 is a contemptible Rasonneur, a doubter in the camp, and no longer 
 an historical investigator. According to this plan I shall test the 
 most ancient Hebrew writings, not troubling myself what the result 
 of this investigation maybe. And if therewith learning, shrewdness, 
 4nd other qualifications which I desire for this work should fail me, 
 yet, certainly no one will find lacking love of the truth and strict in- 
 vestigation." 
 
 than most of his contemporaries ; he worked with unwearied diligence over th« 
 whole field of Biblical literature with his own indef)endent powers ; he paved 
 the way to difficult investigations ; he undertook many enterprises with good 
 success, and conducted not a few of them to safe results. With Herder in 
 common he has the credit of having awakened in wide circles love to the Bible, 
 and especially the Old Testament writings, and excited enthusiasm carefully to 
 Inrestigate them."
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 20$ 
 
 These are the principles and methods of a true and 
 manly scholar, the father of higher criticism. It is a sad 
 reflection that they have been so greatly and generally 
 ignored on the scholastic and rationalistic sides. Eich- 
 horn separates the Elohistic and Jehovistic documents 
 in Genesis with great pains, and with such success that 
 his analysis has been the basis of all critical investiga- 
 tion since his day. Its great advantages are admirably 
 stated : 
 
 
 
 " For this discovety of the internal condition of the first books ot 
 Moses, party spirit will perhaps for a pair of decennials snort at the 
 Higher Criticism instead of rewarding it with the full thanks that are 
 due it, for (i^ the credibility of the book gains by such a use of more 
 ancient documents. (2) The harmony of the two narratives at the 
 same time with their slight deviations proves their independence and 
 mutual reliability. (3) Interpreters will be relieved of difficulty by 
 this Higher Criticism which separates document from document. 
 (4) Finally the gain of Criticism is also great. If the Higher Criti- 
 cism has now for the first distinguished author from author, and in 
 general characterized each according to his own ways, diction, fav- 
 orite expressions, and other peculiarities, then her lower sister who 
 busies herself only with words, and spies out false readings, has 
 rules and principles by which she must test particular readings." * 
 
 Eichhorn carried his methods of higher criticism into 
 the entire Old Testament with the hand of a master, 
 and laid the foundation of views that have been main- 
 tained ever since with increasing determination. He 
 did not always grasp the truth. He sometimes chased 
 shadows, and framed visionary theories both in relation 
 
 * In /. c, II., p. 329; see also Urgeschiclite in Repertorium, 1770, V., p. 
 i?7. We cannot help calling attention to the fine literary sense of Eichhorn as 
 manifest in the following extract : " Read it (Genesis) as two historical works of 
 antiquity, and breathe thereby the atmosphere of its age and country. Forget 
 then the century in which thou livest and the knowledge it affords thee ; and if 
 thou canst not do this, dream not that thou wilt be able to enjoy the book in 
 the spirit of its origin."
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 to the Old and New Testaments, like others who have 
 preceded him and followed him. He could not tran- 
 scend the limits of his age, and adapt himself to future 
 discoveries. The labors of a large number of scholars, 
 and the work of a century and more, were still needed, 
 as Eichhorn modestly anticipated. 
 
 These discussions produced little impression upon 
 Great Britain. The conflict with deism had forced the 
 majority of her divines into a false position. If they 
 had maintained the fides divina and the critical position 
 of the reformers and Westminster divines, they would 
 not have hesitated to look the facts in the face, and 
 strive to account for them ; they would not have com- 
 mitted the grave mistakes by which biblical learning 
 was almost paralyzed in Great Britain for half a century.* 
 Eager for the defence of traditional views, they, for the 
 most part, fell back again on Jewish rabbinical authority 
 and external evidence, contending with painful anxiety 
 for authors and dates, and so antagonized higher criti- 
 cism itself as deistic criticism and rationalistic criticism, 
 not discriminating between those who were attacking 
 the Scriptures in order to destroy them, and those who 
 were searching the Scriptures in order to defend them. 
 It is true that the humanist and the purely literary in- 
 terest prevailed in Eichhorn and his school ; they failed 
 to apply the fides divina of the reformers, but this was 
 lacking to the scholastics also, and so unhappily tradi- 
 tional dogmatism and rationalistic criticism combined to 
 crush evangelical criticism. 
 
 * Mozley in his Reminiscences, 1882, Am. edit., Vol. II., p. 41, says : " There 
 was hardly such a thing as Biblical CriticJEm in this country at the beginning of 
 this century. Poole's Synopsis contained all that an ordinary clergyman could 
 wish to know. Arnold is described as in all his glory at Rugby, with Poole's 
 Synopsis on one side, and Facciolati on the other."
 
 THE HIGHER ClilTICISM. 207 
 
 Vll. fHE HIGHER CRITICISM OF THE NINETEENTH 
 CENTURY. 
 
 There is a notable exception to the absence of the 
 critical spirit in Great Britain, and that exception proves 
 the rule. In 1792 Dr. Alexander Geddes, a Roman 
 Catholic divine, proposed what has been called the frag- 
 mentary hypothesis to account for the structure of the 
 Pentateuch and Joshua.* But this radical theory found 
 no hospitality in Great Britain. It passed over into 
 Germany through Vater,f and there entered into conflict 
 with the documentary hypothesis of the school of Eich- 
 }iorn. Koppe had proposed the fragmentary hypothesis 
 to account for the literary features of the book of Isaiah 
 (see p. 203), and so it was extended to other books of the 
 Bible. Eichhorn had applied the documentary hypoth- 
 esis to the gospels, Isaiah, and other parts of Scripture. 
 The first stadium of the higher criticism is characterized 
 by the conflict of the documentary and fragmentary hy- 
 potheses along the whole line. The result of this dis- 
 cussion was that the great variety of the elements that 
 constitute our Bible became more and more manifest, 
 and the problem was forced upon the critics to account 
 for their combination. 
 
 De Wette ^ introduced the second stadium of the 
 higher criticism by calling the attention of the critics to 
 
 * T/ie Holy Bible ; or, the books accounted sacred by yews and Christians^ 
 etc. London, I., p. xviii., seq. 
 
 + Commentar uber den Pentateuch mit Einleitungen zu den einzelnen Ab- 
 schnitten der eingeschalteten von Dr. Alex. Geddes'' merkwitrdigeren kritischen 
 und excgetischen An?nerku?tgen, etc. Halle, 1805. 
 
 X Kritik der israelitischen Geschichte, Halle, 1807 ; Beitrage zur Einleit. 
 1806-7 ; Lehrb. d. hist. krit. Einleit. in d. Bibel Allen und Neuen Testaments 
 Berlin, 1817-26.
 
 308 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 the genesis of the documents.* Gesenius supported 
 him,f and sharply opposed the fragmentary hypothesis 
 of Koppe, and strove to account for the genesis of the 
 documents of Isaiah and their combination. Other crit- 
 ics in great numbers worked in the same direction, such 
 as Bleek, Ewald, Knobel, Hupfeld, and produced a great 
 mass of historical and critical work upon all parts of the 
 Old Testament. The same problems were discussed in 
 the New Testament, especially with reference to the 
 gospels, the order of their production, and their inter- 
 relation.:}: A great number of different theories were 
 advanced to account for the genesis of the different 
 books of the Bible. The result of the conflict has been 
 the conviction on the part of most critics that the unity 
 of the writings in the midst of the variety of docu- 
 ments, has been accomplished by careful and skilful 
 editing at different periods of biblical history. 
 
 It became more and more evident that the problems 
 were assuming larger dimensions and that they could not 
 be solved until the several edited writings were compared 
 with one another and considered in their relation to the 
 development of the biblical religion. The higher critic 
 cism thus entered upon a third stadium of its history. 
 This stadium was opened for the New Testament by the 
 Tubingen school, and for the Old Testament by the 
 school of Reuss. These entered into conflict with the 
 older views and soon showed their insufficiency to ac- 
 count for the larger problems. They reconstructed the 
 biblical writings upon purely naturalistic principles, so 
 
 * See author's article A Critical Study of the History of the Higher Criti- 
 fism, ivith special reference to the Pentateuch^ Presbyterian Reveiiu, IV., p. 94, 
 teq. 
 
 t Com. a. d. fesaia, Leipzig, 1821. 
 
 X See Weiss, Leben Jesu, I., p. 30, seq.
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. Q(fy 
 
 emphasizing differences as to make them irreconcilable, 
 and explaining the development in biblical history and 
 religion and literature, by the theory of antagonistic 
 forces struggling for the mastery. These critics were 
 successfully opposed by the schools of Neander, Hof- 
 niann, and Ewald, and have been overcome in the New 
 Testament by the principle of diversity of views com- 
 bining in a higher unity. The same principle will over- 
 come them in the Old Testament likewise, so soon as 
 evangelical critics learn to apply it.* 
 
 The higher criticism during the first and second 
 stadia of its development in Germany made little impres- 
 sion upon Great Britain and America. In 1818 T. Hart, 
 well Home issued his Introduction to the Critical Study 
 and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures,^ which has been 
 highly esteemed for its many excellent qualities b;/ 
 several generations of students. His statement in 
 the preface to the second edition of his work shows 
 how far Great Britain was behind the continent at that 
 time : " It (the work) originated in the author's own 
 wants many years since .... when he stood in need 
 
 of a guide to the reading of the Holy Scriptures 
 
 At this time the author had no friend to assist his 
 studies, — or remove his doubts, — nor any means of pro- 
 curing critical works. At length a list of the more emi- 
 nent foreign Biblical critics fell into his hands, and di- 
 rected him to some of the sources of information which 
 he was seeking ; he then resolved to procure such of 
 them as his limited means would permit, with the design 
 in the first instance of satisfying his own mind on those 
 
 * See author's article Critical Study of the Higher Criticism, etc., Preshy- 
 lerian Review, IV., p. 106, seq. ; also Chap. VIII., p. 225 ; Chap. XI., p. 387 of 
 this book. 
 
 ■t It passed through many editions, 4th, 1823 ; loth, 1856.
 
 210 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 topics which had perplexed him, and ultimately of laying 
 before the Public the results of his inquiries, should no 
 treatise appear that might supersede such a publication." 
 This dependence of Great Britain and America on the 
 biblical scholarship of the continent continued until the 
 second half of our century. Most students of the Bible 
 contented themselves with more or less modified forms 
 of traditional theories. Some few scholars made occa- 
 sional and cautious use of German criticism. Moses 
 Stuart, Edward Robinson, S. H. Turner, Addison Alex- 
 ander, Samuel Davidson, and others depended chiefly 
 upon German works which they translated or reproduced. 
 At last the Anglo-Saxon world was roused from its un- 
 critical condition by the attacks of Bishop Colenso, on 
 the historical character of the Pentateuch and book of 
 Joshua, and by a number of scholars representing free 
 thought in the " Essays and Reviews." * These writers 
 fell back on the older deistic objections to the Pentateuch 
 as history, and as containing a siipernatural religion, and 
 mingled therewith a reproduction of German thought, 
 chiefly through Bunsen. They magnified the discrep 
 ancies in the narratives and legislation, and attacked the 
 supernatural element, but added nothing to the sober 
 higher criticism of the Scriptures. So far as they took 
 position on this subject they fell into line with the more 
 radical element of the school of De Wette. They called 
 the attention of British and American scholars away 
 from the literary study of the Bible and the true work of 
 the higher criticism, to a defence of the supernatural, 
 and the inspiration of the Bible. They were successfully 
 attacked by several divines in Great Britain and Amer- 
 
 * The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua critically examined. Part i.-vii., 1862- 
 79; Recent htquiries in Theology by eynitient Englii,h Churchmen^ being Essayl 
 and Reviews, 4th Am. edition from 2d London, 1862.
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 211 
 
 ica.* The work of Colenso had little suppcit in Great 
 Britain or America at the time, but it made a great im- 
 pression upon the Dutch scholar, Kuenen, who had al- 
 ready advanced to the most radical positions. Through 
 Kuenen's influence it has, however, again come into no- 
 tice.f 
 
 It is only within a few years that any general interest 
 in matters of the higher criticism has been shown in 
 Great Britain or America. This has been due chiefly in 
 Great Britain to the influence of Bishop Lightfoot :{: and 
 Dr. W. Robertson Smith,§ and in the United States to 
 the discussions of the higher criticism in the Presbyterian 
 Review, Bibliotheca Sacra, Journal of the Society of Bib' 
 lical Literature and Exegesis, and other periodicals. 
 The ground had, in part, been prepared for these discus- 
 sions by the translation of many of the most important 
 foreign works of criticism, and their publication, especial- 
 ly by T. & T. Clark, of Edinburgh, the Foreign Transla- 
 tion Fund Society, and others. Starting in the churches 
 of England and France, the higher criticism was not de- 
 veloped in the lands of its birth, but passed over into 
 Lutheran Germany and Reformed Switzerland to the 
 headwaters of the Reformation, to attach itself to the 
 
 * Among these we may mention the authors of Aids to Faith, being a reply 
 to " Bssays and Reviews" American edition, 1862 ; W, H. Green, The Pcnta- 
 teuch vindicated from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso, N. Y., 1S63. 
 
 t Godsdienst van Israel, 1869-70, the English edition, Religion of Israel, 
 1874 ; De vijf Boeken van Mazes, 1872 ; Ce Profeten en deprofetieon der Israel, 
 1875, translated into English, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, 1877, and 
 numerous articles in Theologisch. Tijdschrift since that time, and last of all, 
 Hibbert Lectures, National Religions and Universal Religions, 1883. Kuen- 
 en's views are presented in a popular form in the Bible for Learners, 3 vols., 
 1880. 
 
 X Articles in the Contemporary Review, against the author of Supernaturai 
 Religion, xxv. and xxvi. 
 
 § The Old Testament in the Jevoish Church, 1881 ; The Prophets of Israel 
 1882.
 
 212 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 principles of the Reformation after a hard and long 
 struggle with rationalism, atheism, and pantheism. 
 
 In its historic unfolding in Germany and Switzerland 
 in the nineteenth century, we observe that biblical crit- 
 icism is represented by three antagonistic parties : scho- 
 lastic critics, evangelical critics, and rationalistic critics. 
 That the discussion has until recently been chiefly con- 
 fined to the continent of Europe and foreign tongues, 
 may account for the prejudice against it in Great Brit- 
 ain and America during the long neglect of biblical studies 
 and the almost exclusive attention to the discussion of 
 dogmas and the practical work of the church. But the 
 renewed attention to biblical studies in Great Britain 
 and America has brought us face to face with the critical 
 theories of Germany, Holland,, and Switzerland, and the 
 question arises how to meet them. Shall it be with dog- 
 matic opposition to criticism altogether? This would 
 be unreasonable, unhistoric, and unprotestant. Or shall 
 we not rather take our stand with the evangelical critics 
 of Europe against the rationalistic critics, and conquer 
 the latter by a more profound critical interpretation of 
 the literature, the history, and the religion of the Bible ? 
 
 We should not allow ourselves to be influenced by the 
 circumstance that the majority of the scholars who have 
 been engaged in these researches have been rationalistic 
 or semi-rationalistic in their religious opinions ; and that 
 they have employed the methods and styles peculiar to 
 the German scholarship of our century. Whatever may 
 have been the motives and influences that led to these 
 investigations, the questions we have to determine are: 
 (ij what are the facts of the case? and (2) do the theo- 
 ries account for the facts? 
 
 We have thus far been, at the best, spectators of the 
 battle that has raged on the continent of Europe over
 
 THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 213 
 
 the biblical books. The Providence of God now calls us 
 to take part in the conflict. Our Anglo-American schol- 
 ars are but poorly equipped for the struggle. We should 
 prepare ourselves at once. We should give our imme- 
 diate attention to the history of this great movement, 
 the stadia through which it has passed, and the present 
 state of the question, in order that as soon as possible 
 our scholars may attain the highest marks reached by 
 our foreign brethren and advance to still greater achieve- 
 ments.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 The sacred Scriptures are composed of a great variety 
 <)f literary products, the results of the thinking, feeling, 
 and acting of God's people in many generations. Though 
 guided by the Divine Spirit so as to give one divine rev- 
 elation in continuous historical development, they yet, 
 as literary productions, assume various literary styles in 
 accordance with the culture, taste, and capacity of their 
 authors in the different periods of their composition. 
 Especially is this true of the Old Testament, which 
 contains the sacred literature of the Hebrews through a 
 long period of literary development. For their proper 
 interpretation, therefore, we need not only the relig- 
 ious spirit that can enter into sympathetic relations with 
 the authors, and through vital union with the Divine 
 Spirit interpret them from their inmost soul ; we need 
 not only training in grammar and logic to understand 
 the true contents of their language and the drift of their 
 discourse ; we need not only a knowledge of the archae- 
 ology, geography, and history of the people, that we 
 may enter into the atmosphere and scenery of their life 
 and its expression ; we need not only a knowledge of the 
 laws, doctrines, and institutions in which the authors 
 were reared, and which constituted the necessary grooves 
 of their religious culture- but in addition to all these 
 C214)
 
 UTERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 215 
 
 we need also a literary training, an cBsthetic culture, in 
 order that by a true literary sense, and a sensitive and 
 refined aesthetic taste, we may discriminate poetry from 
 prose, fact from fiction, the bare truth from its artistic 
 dress and decoration, the fruit of reasoning from the 
 products of the imagination and fancy. 
 
 Every race and nation has its peculiarities of literary 
 culture and style, so that while the study of the best lit- 
 erary models of the Greeks and Romans, and modern 
 European languages, may be necessary to develop the 
 best literary taste ; yet in entering upon the study of 
 Hebrew literature we come into a field that was not in- 
 fluenced at all by any of these, — to the literature of a 
 race radically different from all the families of the Indo- 
 Germanic race — one which declines to be judged by the 
 standards of strangers and foreigners, but requires an 
 independent study in connection with the literature of 
 its own sisters, especially the Arabic, Syriac, and Assyr- 
 ian. A special training in these literatures is, therefore, 
 necessary in order to the proper estimation of the He- 
 brew literature ; and criticism from the point of view of 
 our ordinary classic literary culture alone is unfair and 
 misleading. And it is safe to say that no one can thor- 
 oughly understand the Greek New Testament who has 
 not made himself familiar with the Old Testament liter- 
 ature, upon which it is based. The student must enter 
 into sympathetic relations with the spirit and life of the 
 Orient that pervades it. 
 
 The literary study of the Bible is essentially the higher 
 criticism of the Bible. A reader may enjoy the literary 
 features of Shakespeare, Milton, and Homer without him- 
 self taking part in critical work, but consciously or un- 
 consciously he is dependent upon the literary criticism 
 of experts, who have given him the results of their la
 
 216 BIBLieAL STUDY. 
 
 bors upon these authors. So is it with the Bible : the 
 ordinary reader may enjoy it as literature without being 
 a critic — but the labors of critics are necessary in order 
 that the Bible may be presented to him in its proper 
 literary character and forms. Biblical literature has the 
 same problems to solve, and the same methods and prin- 
 ciples for their solution, as have been employed in other 
 departments of the world's literature (p. 87 seg.) It has 
 to determine the integrity, authenticity, literary form, 
 and credibility of the writings. 
 
 T. THE INTEGRITY OF THE SCRIPTURES^ 
 
 The first questions with reference to a writing are • 
 ?•} it the product of one mind as an organic whole 
 or composed of several pieces of the same author ; or 
 fs it a collection of writings by different authors? Has 
 it retained its original integrity or has it been interpola- 
 ted ? May the interpolations be discriminated from the 
 original ? * 
 
 The twelve minor prophets are regarded as one book 
 in most of the ancient Jewish and Christian catalogues. 
 The Baba Bathra represents them as edited by the men 
 of the great synagogue after the exile (p. 176). This is 
 a conjecture without historical evidence. These proph- 
 ets in modern times have ordinarily been treated sepa- 
 rately and their original combination to a great extent 
 forgotten. Each one of them may be tested as to its 
 integrity. The only one about which there has been any 
 general questioning, is Zechariah. The earlier doubts 
 were based upon Matt, xxvii. 9, which ascribes Zech. xi. 
 
 * For general statements of the problems of higher criticism in our time, see 
 Hermann Strack and L. Schulze, in Zockler, Handbuch d. theologisclien Wis- 
 senschaften, I., 1882, pp. 135, seq., 382 seq. ; also, S. I. Curtissand H. M. Scott, 
 in Current Discussions in Theology^ Chicago, 1883, p. 26 seq.
 
 LITERAKT STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 217 
 
 12-13 to Jeremiah (p. 169). If that passage be free from 
 error, the section of Zechariah in which the citation is 
 contained must be separated from that prophet and at- 
 tached to the prophecies of Jeremiah. It is now gener- 
 ally conceded that this cannot be done, and that the 
 evangelist has made a slip of memory in citation. 
 
 The integrity of Zechariah has been disputed in recent 
 times from literary grounds. Many scholars of the 
 present day attribute the second half to one or more 
 pre-exilic prophets. Others, as Wright* and Delitzsch,f 
 still maintain the integrity of the book. The book of 
 Proverbs is represented by the Baba Bathra (p. 176) as 
 edited by the college of Hezekiah. This is based upon 
 a conjecture founded on Proverbs xxv. i. It has also 
 been held that it was edited by Solomon himself, and, 
 indeed, that Solomon was the author of the whole. It 
 is now generally agreed that the book is made up of 
 several collections, and that it has passed through the 
 hands of a number of editors at different times.ij: The 
 Psalter is composed of 150 Psalms in 5 Books. The 
 Baba Bathra (p. 176) makes David the editor, and states 
 that he used with his own Psalms those of ten ancient 
 worthies. It has been held by some that David wrote 
 all the Psalms (p. 188). Calvin, Du Pin, and others make 
 Ezra the editor (p. 201). It is now generally agreed that 
 the psalm-book is made up of a number of collections, 
 and, like the book of Proverbs, has passed through a 
 number of editings. Some have thought it to be the 
 psalm-book of the first temple. Others, and indeed most 
 
 * Zechariah and his Prophecies^ considered in relation to Modern Criticism, 
 Bampton Lectures, 1878, London, 1879, p. xxxv. 
 
 + Messianic Prophecies, translated by S. L Curtiss, Edinburgh, i88r. 
 
 J Delitzsch, Bib. Com. on the Proverbs, T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, 1874; 
 ZSckler in Lange, Eiblework, Com. on the Proverbs, N. Y., 1870. 
 
 10
 
 218 BIBLICAL STUDr. 
 
 moderns, think that it was edited in its present fc rm fof 
 the second temple.* Gratz thinks that the Psalter was 
 finally edited for the worship of the synagogue.f Isaiah 
 is represented by the Baba Bathra as edited by the col- 
 lege of Hezekiah (p. 176). Its integrity was disputed by 
 Koppe (p. 203), who maintained that it was a collection 
 of pieces of various prophets loosely associated. It is 
 generally held by foreign scholars that the first half of 
 Isaiah is composed of groups of prophecies gathered 
 about those of Isaiah as a nucleus, and that the second 
 half (xl.-lxvi.) is by an unknown prophet of the exile.;}: 
 The integrity of Isaiah has recently been defended by 
 W. H. Cobb.§ 
 
 There are interpolations in the Septuagint version in 
 connection with Jeremiah, Daniel, and Esther. They 
 are also found in the New Testament by the general 
 consent of scholars — in Mark xvi. 9-20 ; || in the gospel 
 of John viii. i-ii ;^ in the famous passage of the heav- 
 enly witnesses, the first epistle of John v. 7, and elsewhere. 
 We have seen that many scholars of the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth centuries found such interpolations in 
 the Pentateuch (p, 200). They are found by scholars in 
 other books of the Bible. It will be sufficient to give 
 the judicious remarks of Perowne on the Psalter : 
 
 * Perowne, Book of Psalms, 2d edition, London, 1870, p. 78 ; 3d edition, 
 Andover, 1876, p. 63 ; Murray, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of the 
 Psalms, N, Y., 1880. 
 
 •f Com. zu. d. Psahnen, I., p. 62, seq. 
 
 X Ewald, Die Protheten, Gottingen, 1868, 2te Ausg., III., p. 20, seq.\ De- 
 litzsch, Messiafiic Prophecies, 1881, p. 84 ; Clieyne, Prophecies of Isaiah, 1881, 
 II., p. 201 iegr. ; Cross, Introductory Hints to English Readers of the Old Testa- 
 niejit, London, 18S2, p. 238. 
 
 § Several articles in the Bihliotheca Sacra, April and October, 1881, Jan. and 
 July, 1882. 
 
 I See the marginal note of the revisers in the Revised Version of 1881. 
 
 ^ Bracketed in the Revised Version of 1881.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 219 
 
 " It is plain that these ancient Hebrew song^ and hymi s must 
 have suffered a variety of changes in the course of time, similar to 
 those which may be traced in the older religious poetr)' of the Chris- 
 tian Church, where this has been adapted by any means to the object 
 of some later compiler. Thus, hymns once intended for private use 
 became adapted to public. Words and expressions applicable to 
 the original circumstances of the writer, but not applicable to the 
 new purpose to which the hymn wjis to be put, were omitted or 
 altered. It is only in a critical age that any anxiety is manifested 
 to ascertain the original form in which a poem appeared. The 
 practical use of hymns in the Christian Church, and of the Psalms 
 in the Jewish, far outweighed all considerations of a critical kind, 
 or rather these last never occurred. Hence it has become a more 
 difficult task than it otherwise would have been to ascertain the 
 historical circumstances under which certain Psalms were written. 
 Some traces we find leading us to one period of Jewish history ; 
 others which lead to another. Often there is a want of cohesion 
 between the parts of a Psalm ; often an abruptness of transition 
 which we can hardly account for, except on the hypothesis that we 
 no longer read the Psalm in its original form."* 
 
 All these questions are to be determined by the prin- 
 ciples of the higher criticism. The authority of the 
 Bible does not depend upon the integrity of particular 
 writings. If the editing and interpolating were done 
 under the influence of the Divine Spirit, this carries with 
 it the same authority as the original document. If the 
 interpolations are of a different character, such as are 
 found to be the case in the apocryphal additions to 
 Daniel and Esther, they should be removed from the 
 Bible. If the authority of the Bible depended upon 
 our first finding who wrote these interpolations and who 
 edited the books, and whether these interpolators and 
 editors were inspired men, we could never reach convic- 
 tion as to many of them. But inasmuch as the author- 
 ity of the Bible depends not upon this literary question 
 
 * In /. c, p. 82.
 
 220 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of integrity of writing, but upon the Word of God 
 recognized in the writing ; and we prove the inspiration 
 of the authors from the authority of the writings rather 
 than the authority of the writings from the inspiration 
 of the authors ; the authority of the Bible is not dis- 
 turbed by any changes in traditional opinion as to these 
 writings. The only question of integrity with which 
 inspiration has to do is the integrity of the canon, 
 whether the interpolations, the separate parts, the 
 writings as a whole are real and necessary parts of the 
 system of divine revelation — whether they contain the 
 Divine Word. This can never be determined by the 
 higher criticism, which has to do only with literary in- 
 tegrity and not with canonical integrity. We doubt 
 not the canonicity of Mark xvi. 9-20, although it seems 
 necessary to separate it from the original gospel of 
 Mark. 
 
 II. THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 Several questions arise under this head. Is the 
 author's name given in connection with the writing? 
 Is it anonymous? Can it be pseudonymous? Is it a 
 compilation ? All these are ordinary features of the 
 world's literature. Is there any sound reason why they 
 should not all be found in the Bible ? There has ever 
 been a tendency in the synagogue and the church to 
 ascribe the biblical books to certain well-known holy 
 men and prophets. Tradition has been busy here. 
 There is no book of the Bible that has not one or more 
 traditional authors. And so in all departments of liter- 
 ature there is scarcely a great name which has not been 
 compelled to father writings that do not belong to it. 
 The genuine writings of Athanasius, Jerome, Augustine
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 221 
 
 and Ambrose have to be separated by careful criticism 
 from the spurious ; for example : 
 
 " Of the thirty to a hundred so-called Ambrosian hymns, however, 
 only twelve in the view of the Benedictine editor of his works are 
 genuine, the rest being more or less successful imitations by un- 
 known authors. Neale reduces the number of the genuine Am- 
 brosian hymns to ten." * 
 
 It is well known that Shakespeare's genuine plays 
 have to be discriminated from the large number of 
 others that have been attributed to him. Shakespearian 
 criticism is of so great importance as to constitute a 
 literature of its own.f Sometimes the writings of a well- 
 known author have been, in the process of time, attrib- 
 uted to another. We have an example of this in the 
 Paradoxes of Herbert Palmer, which have been regarded 
 as Lord Bacon's.:}: 
 
 To question the traditional opinion as to authorship 
 of a writing is not to contest the authenticity of the 
 writing. Authenticity has properly to do only with the 
 claims of the writing itself, and not with the claims of 
 traditional theories. The Baba Bathra does not dis- 
 criminate between editorship and authorship (p. 178). It 
 is evident that to the Tanaim of the second century the 
 principal thing was official committing to writing and 
 not the original production of the writing. The Tal- 
 mudic statements as to authorship are many of them 
 absurd conjectures. Josephus and Philo, when they 
 make Moses the author of the narrative of his own 
 death, go beyond the Baba Bathra and indulge in folly. 
 
 The titles found in connection with the biblical books 
 
 * StJiaff, History of the Christian Church, III., 1868, p. 591. 
 t Knight's Shakespeare, Supplemental Volume. 
 
 X See Grosart, Lord Bacon not the author of the " Chistian Paradoxes.^^ 
 Printed for private circulation, 1S65.
 
 222 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 cannot always be relied upon, for the reason that we 
 have first to determine whether they came from the 
 original authors, or have been appended by inspired 
 editors, or have been attached in the rabbinical or Chris- 
 tian schools. Thus the difference in the titles of the 
 several psalms between the Septuagint version and the 
 Massoretic text are so great as to force the conclusion 
 that many of the titles are of late and uncertain origin, 
 and that most, if not all, are of doubtful authority.* 
 
 In considering the question of authenticity, we have 
 first to examine the writing itself. If the writing claims 
 to be by a certain author, to doubt it is to doubt the 
 credibility and authority of the writing. If these claims 
 are found to be unreliable, the credibility of the writing 
 is gone, and its inspiration is involved. But if the credi- 
 bility of the writing is not impeached, its inspiration 
 has nothing to do with the question of its human author- 
 ship. 
 
 The higher criticism has been compelled by Deism 
 and Rationalism to meet this question of forgery of 
 biblical writings. This phase of the subject has now 
 been settled so far that no reputable critics venture to 
 write of any of our canonical writings as forgeries. 
 
 (i) There are large numbers of the biblical books that 
 are anonymons : e.g., the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, 
 Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, 
 Job, Jonah, Ruth, many of the Psalms, Lamentations, 
 and the epistle to the Hebrews. 
 
 Tradition has assigned authors for all of these. It is 
 also maintained that the internal statements of some of 
 these books point to their authorship by certain persons. 
 
 * Murray, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of the Psalms, 1880, p. 79^ 
 ieg, ; Perowne in /. <:., p. 94, seq.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 223 
 
 These latter are questions of interpretation. The vast 
 weight of the biblical scholarship of the present day is, 
 however, with reference to the books mentioned above, 
 against any such interpretation of them as discovers 
 authorship in their statements. Such interpretation is 
 forced, and is regarded as based on preconceptions and 
 dogmatic considerations. 
 
 (2) Are there pseudonymous books in the Bible ? This 
 is a well-known and universally recognized literary style 
 which no one should think of identifying with /(?r^<?r;/ 
 or deceit of any kind. Ancient and modern literature 
 is full of pseudonymes as well as anonymes. One need 
 only look over the bibliographical works devoted to this 
 subject,* or have a little familiarity with the history of 
 literature, or examine any public library, to settle thi«? 
 question. There is great variety in the use of the pseu 
 donyme. Sometimes the author uses a surname rather 
 than his own proper name, either by it to conceal him- 
 self from the public or to introduce himself by a title ot 
 honor. Thus Calvin follows the opinion of some of the 
 ancients that the prophecy of Malachi was written by 
 Ezra, who assumed the surname Malachi in connection 
 with it. Then again some descriptive term is used as 
 by 'the authors of the celebrated Martin Marprelate 
 tracts. Then a fictitious name is constructed as in the 
 title of the famous tracts vindicating Presbyterianism 
 against Episcopacy ; the authors Stephen Marshall, Ed- 
 mund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcommen, 
 and William Spurstow coined the name Smectymnuus 
 from the initial letters of their names. Among the 
 ancients it was more common to assume the names of 
 
 * Barbier, Dictionnaire des Ouvrages anonymes et pseudonymes, 4 torn., Paris,, 
 1872-78; Halkett and Y^rm^y Dictionary of t/ie Anonymous and Pseudonymous 
 Literature of Great Britain, 1882, seij., Vol. I., A-E, II. F-N.
 
 224 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 ancient worthies. There is an enormous number of 
 these pseudonymes in the Puritan literature of the i6th 
 and 17th centuries. The descendants of the Puritans 
 are the last ones who should think of any dishonesty or 
 impropriety connected with their use. 
 
 Why should the pseudonyme be banished from the 
 Bible? Among the Greeks and Romans they existed 
 in great numbers. Among the Jews we have a long 
 list in extra canonical books, e. g. : The apocalypses 
 of Enoch, Baruch, Ezra, Assumption of Moses, Ascen- 
 sion of Isaiah, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the 
 Psalter of Solomon, covering several kinds of literature. 
 Why should there not be some of these in the Old Tes- 
 tament ? It is now conceded by most scholars, even 
 Keil and Delitzsch, that Ecclesiastes is such a pseudo. 
 nyme, using Solomon's name.* It is claimed by some 
 that Daniel f and Deuteronomy ^ are also pseudonymes. 
 If no a priori objection can be taken to the pseudonyme 
 
 * This is invincibly established by Wright, Book of Koheleth, London, 1883, 
 p. 79, seq. : " Solomon is introduced as the speaker throughout the work in the 
 same way as Cicero in his treatise on ' Old Age,' and on ' Friendship,' selects 
 Cato the elder as the exponent of his views, or as Plato in his Dialogues brings 
 forward Socrates." See Presbyterian Review^ IV., p. 649, seq. 
 
 t See Strack in /. c, p. 164, seq., and p. i8g of this vol. 
 
 X So Riehm, Gesetzgebung Mast's im Lande Moab, 1854, p. 112, represents 
 the Deuteronomic code as a literary fiction. The author lets Moses appear as a 
 prophetic popular orator, and as the first priestly reader of the law. It is a liter- 
 ary fiction as Ecclesiastes is a literary fiction. The latter uses the person of Solo- 
 mon as the mcister of wisdom to set forth the lessons of wisdom. The former 
 uses Moses as the great lawgiver, to promulgate divine laws. This is also the 
 view of Noldeke, Alttest. Literaiur, 1868, p. 30 ; and W. Robertson Smith, 
 The Old Testament in the Jewish Church., N. Y., 1881, p. 384, seq., who uses 
 the term legal fiction as a variety of literary fiction. We cannot go with those 
 who regard this as an absurdity, or as involving literary dishonesty. Drs. Riehm 
 and Smith, and others who hold this view, repudiate such a thought with 
 fibhorrence. The style of literary fiction was a familiar and favorite one of the 
 later Jews. And there can be no a priori reason why they should not hava 
 ssed it in Bible times.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. £25 
 
 as inconsistent with divine revelation, — if ont pseudony me, 
 e. g., Ecclesiastes, be admitted in the Bible, then the 
 question whether Daniel and Deuteronomy are pseudo- 
 nymes must be determined by the higher criticism, and 
 it does not touch the question of their inspiration or 
 authority as a part of the Scriptures at all. All would 
 admit that no forger or forgery could be inspired. But 
 that every one who writes a pseudonyme is a deceiver or 
 forger is absurd. The usage of literature ancient and 
 modern has established its propriety. If it claims to be 
 by a particular author, and is said by a critic to be a 
 pseudonyme, then its credibility is attacked, and the 
 question of its inspiration is raised. In the New Tes- 
 tament the gospel of John is thought by some to be a 
 pseudonyme of the second Christian century. The gos- 
 pel of John has been the centre of the conflict of the 
 higher criticism in the New Testament. Here the lines 
 of battle were sharply drawn by the schools of Baur and 
 Neander. The vindication of the Johanaic authorship 
 is the grandest critical achievement of our century, for 
 which all men ought to be grateful to the principles and 
 methods of the higher criticism. Traditionalists have 
 contributed nothing of value to this discussion, but have 
 only impeded the evangelical critics in their struggles 
 with the rationalistic critics.* We shall give an extract 
 from Weiss as it not only bears on the authenticity of 
 John, but also on the general question of the pseu- 
 donyme : 
 
 "There was certainly in antiquity a pseudonymous literature, 
 A^hich cannot be criticized from the standpoint of the liter?xy cus- 
 
 *SeeGodet, Co7n. on the Gospel of John, T. & T. Clark, Edin., 1876, I., 
 3. 8, seq. Luthardt, St. yohn's Gospel, T. & T. Clark, Edin., 1876, I., pp. 211, 
 icq. \ Ezra Abbot, Authorship 0/ the Fourth Gospel^ Boston, 1880 ; Weiss, 
 Leben Jesu, 1882, I., p. 88, seq. 
 10*
 
 226 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 toms of our day, or judged as forgery. For it is just the narveti 
 witii which the author strives to find a higher authority for his words 
 by laying them in the mouth of one of the celebrated men of the 
 past, in whose spirit he desires to speak, which justifies this literary 
 form. Quite otherwise is it in this case ; the author mentions no 
 name ; he only gives it to be understood that it is the unnamed dis- 
 ciple so repeatedly introduced who is writing here from his own per- 
 sonal knowledge ; he leaves it to be inferred from the comparison 
 of one passage with another that this eye-witness cannot be any one 
 but John. It was Renan, who in the face of modem criticism, 
 said that it was not a case of pseudonymous authorship such as was 
 known to antiquity, it was either truth or refined forgery — plain de- 
 ception," * 
 
 The authenticity of the Pauline epistles of the im- 
 prisonment, and the pastoral epistles has been contested 
 in a similar way. The higher criticism has shown that 
 the differences in the Pauline epistles represent three 
 stages of growth in the experiences and doctrinal teach- 
 ing of the apostle Paul himself. And it is not neces- 
 sary to think of his disciples as their authors, or to de- 
 scend into the second century.f The Apocalypse has 
 been disputed from ancient times. It has been assigned 
 by some of the ancients to a presbyter John. Recent 
 criticism is more and more decided in favor of the au- 
 thorship of the apostle John and against placing it with 
 the pseudonymous apocalypses of Peter and Paul. The 
 differences, which are recognized to be very great in 
 language and style, and in doctrine, are best explained 
 by regarding the Apocalypse as an earlier writing, and 
 the gospel as the most mature writing of the apostle.:}: 
 
 (3) Compilations. The historical books of Kings and 
 
 * Weiss, Life of Jesus, T. & T. Clark, Edin., 1883, L, p. 94, 
 t See Schaff, History 0/ the Christian Church, 1882, p. 784, scq. ; Weiss, Bib' 
 tical Theology 0/ /lie New Testament, Edmburgb, 1882, I., p. 285. 
 
 X Schaff, History 0/ the Christian Church, N. Y,, 1SS3, pp. 716, seq. ; 834.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 227 
 
 Chronicles,* and the gospel of Luke (i. 1-4) represent 
 themselves as compilations. They use older documents 
 which are sometimes mentioned by name. The ques- 
 tion then is, how far this compilation has extended, 
 and whether it has been once for all, or has passed 
 through a number of stages. Thus the books of Kings 
 refer to books of Chronicles which are not our books 
 of Chronicles, and our books of Chronicles refer to books 
 of Kings which are not our books of Kings. Both of 
 these historical writers seem to depend upon an an- 
 cient book of Chronicles — only our book of Chronicles 
 has used it in its citation in another book of Kings 
 than the one presented to us in the canon, for it 
 gives material not found therein.f The question 
 arises whether the other historical books are not also 
 compilations. In the New Testament the chief dis- 
 putes have been as to Matthew and Mark ; :{: in the 
 Old Testament as to the Pentateuch. It is now con- 
 ceded by most critics that the Pentateuch is composed 
 of four separate historical narratives, each with its code 
 of legislation, and that these have been compacted into 
 their present form by one or more editors. The Baba 
 Bathra makes Moses the editor or author of the Penta- 
 teuch. If the inspiration of the Pentateuch depends 
 upon the sole Mosaic authorship, then criticism has come 
 into irreconcilable conflict with its inspiration. But 
 this is only a presumption of tradition. The inspiration 
 and authority of the Pentateuch are as safe, yes, safer, 
 
 • 1 Kings xi. 41 ; xiv. 19, 29 ; xvi. 5 ; 2 King;s i. 18 ; viii. 23 ; xx. 20 ; i Chroiu 
 xxix. 29 ; 2 Chron. Lx. 29 ; xii. 15 ; xiii. 22 ; xvi. 11 ; xxiv. 27 ; xxvi. 22, etc, ; 
 xxxiii. 18, ig ; xxxv. 27 ; Neh. xi. 23. 
 
 t Noldeke, Alttest. Literatur, Leipzig, 1868, p. 57, seq. 
 
 X Weiss, Leben Jesu, I. , 1882, p. ^4, seg., gives the latest and best statement of 
 this discussion and its results.
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 with the view that these books were compiled, as were 
 the other historical books of the Old Testament.* The 
 question as to the authenticity of the Bible is whether 
 God is its author ; whether it is inspired. This cannot 
 be determined by the higher criticism in any way, for 
 the higher criticism has only to do with human author- 
 ship, and has nothing to do with the divine authorship, 
 which is determined on different principles, as we have 
 seen in our study of the canon (Chapter V.). 
 
 III. THE LITERARY FORMS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 The literary forms have not shared to any great extent 
 in the revival of biblical studies. And yet these are ex- 
 actly the things that most need consideration in our 
 day, when biblical literature is compared with the litera- 
 tures of the other religions of the ancient world, and the 
 question is so often raised why we should recognize the 
 Bible as the inspired word of God rather than the sacred 
 books of other religions; and when the higher criticism 
 is becoming the most important factor in biblical studies 
 of our day. 
 
 Bishop Lowth in England, and the poet Herder in 
 Germany, toward the close of the last century called 
 the attention of the learned world to this neglected 
 theme, and invited it to the study of the Scriptures as 
 sacred literature; but little advance has been made since 
 that day, owing, doubtless, to the fact that the conflict 
 between the churches and rationalism has been raging 
 about the history, the religion, and the doctrines ; the 
 original text, and the higher criticism in questions of 
 authenticity, integrity, and credibility of writings ; but 
 
 • See Critical Study of the History of the Higher Criticism, Presbyterian 
 Review, IV., pp. 105, 129, seg.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 229 
 
 the finer literary features have not entered into the con- 
 troversies to any extent until quite recent times. De 
 Wette, Ewald, and especially Reuss, have made valuable 
 contributions to this subject, but even these masters of 
 exegetical theology have given their strength to other 
 topics. There lies open to the student of our day one 
 of the most interesting and inviting fields for research, 
 whence he may derive rich spoil for himself and the 
 church. 
 
 The most obvious divisions of literature are poetry 
 and prose. These are distinguished on the surface by 
 different modes of writing, and to the ear by different 
 modes of reading ; but underneath all this is a difference 
 of rhythmical movement. It is indeed difficult to draw 
 the line scientifically between poetry and prose even 
 here, for as Lanier says : " Prose has its rhythms, its 
 tunes and its tone-colors, like verse ; and, while the ex 
 treme forms of prose and verse are sufficiently unlike 
 each other, there are such near grades of intermediate 
 forms, that they may be said to run into each other, 
 and any line claiming to be distinctive must necessarily 
 be more or less arbitrary." * Hence rhetorical prose and 
 works of the imagination in all languages approximate 
 closely to poetry. The poetry of the Bible is written in 
 the MSS., and is printed in the Hebrew and Greek texts, 
 as well as the versions with few exceptions exactly as if 
 it were prose ; and the Hebrew scribes who divided the 
 Old Testament Scriptures and pointed them with vowels 
 and accents dealt with them as if they were prose and even 
 obscured the poetic form by their ignorant and careless 
 divisions of verse and sections, so that the poetic form 
 in many cases can be restored only by a careful study of 
 
 * Science of English Verse, N. Y., 18F0, p. 57.
 
 230 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 the unpointed text and a neglect of the Massoretic 
 sections. 
 
 We reserve the subject of Hebrew Poetry for our 
 next chapter, limiting ourselves in this chapter to the 
 Prose Literature of the Bible. This is found in rich 
 variety. 
 
 / (i) History constitutes a large portion of the Old and 
 J New Testaments. In the Old Testament there are two 
 distinct kinds of history : the priestly and the prophetic. 
 The priestly is represented by Chronicles, Ezra, and Ne- 
 hemiah, and extends backward into the Elohistic section 
 of the Pentateuch. It is characterized by the annalistic 
 style, using older sources, such as genealogical tables, 
 letters, official documents, and entering into the minute 
 rletails of the Levitical system, and the organization of 
 ^ f.he State, but destitute of imagination and of the artistic 
 sense. The prophetic is represented by the books of 
 Samuel and Kings and extends backward into the Jeho- 
 vistic sections of the Pentateuch. It is characterized by 
 the descriptive style, using ancient stories, traditions, 
 poetic extracts, and entire poems. It is graphic in de- 
 lineation, using the imagination freely, and with fine 
 artistic tact.* 
 
 In the New Testament we have four biographical 
 sketches of the noblest and most exalted person who 
 has ever appeared in history, the God-Man, Jesus Christ, 
 in their variety giving us memoirs in four distinct types, 
 the highest in the gospel of John, where the person of 
 Jesus is set in the halo of religious philosophical reflec- 
 tion from the point of view of the Christophanies of 
 Fatmos.f The book of Acts presents the history of 
 
 * Dillmann, Genesis, 4te. Aufl., Leipzig, 1882, p xi. seq. ; Noldeke, Alttest 
 Liieratur, Leipzig, 1868, p. 15, seq. 
 t Weiss, Z^ben Jesu, Berlin, 1882, I., p. 103
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 231 
 
 the planting and training of the Christian church, using 
 various sources and personal reminiscences. 
 
 All these forms of history and biography use the 
 same variety of sources as histories in other ancient 
 literature. Their historical material was not revealed 
 to the authors by the Divine Spirit, but gathered by 
 their own industry as historians from existing material 
 and sources of information. The most that we can 
 claim for them while distinguishing inspiration from 
 revelation, is that they were inspired by God in their 
 work so that they were guided into truth and thereby 
 preserved from error — certainly as to all matters of relig- 
 ion, faith, and morals ; but to what extent further in the 
 f'.etails and external matters of their composition is still 
 in dispute among evangelical men. It is also disputed 
 to what extent their use of sources was limited by in- 
 spiration, or, in other words, what kinds of sources were 
 unworthy of the use of inspired historians. There are 
 those who would exclude the legend and the myth which 
 are found in all other ancient history. If the legend in it- 
 self implies what is false, it would certainly be unworthy 
 of divine inspiration to use it ; but if it is the poetical em- 
 bellishment of bare facts, one does not readily see why 
 it should be excluded from the sacred historians' sources 
 any more than snatches of poetry, bare genealogical ta- 
 bles, and records often fragmentary and incomplete, such 
 as are certainly found in the historical books. If the 
 myth necessarily implies in itself polytheism or panthe- 
 ism, or any of the elements of false religions it would be 
 unworthy of divine inspiration. It is true that the classic 
 myths which lie at the basis of the history of Greece and 
 Rome, with which all students are familiar, are essential- 
 ly polytheistic ; but not more so than the religions of 
 these peoples and all their literature. It is also true
 
 232 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 that the myths of Assyria and Babylon as recorded on 
 their monuments are essentially polytheistic. Many 
 scholars have found such myths in the Pentateuch. But 
 over against this there is the striking fact that stands 
 out in the comparison of the biblical narratives of the 
 creation and the flood, with the Assyrian and Babylo- 
 nian ; namely, that the biblical are monotheistic, the 
 Assyrian polytheistic. But is there not a monotheistic 
 myth as well as a polytheistic ? In other words, may 
 not the poetic form of the myth be appropriate to mo- 
 notheistic as well as to polytheistic conceptions ? May 
 it not be an appropriate literary form for the true bibli- 
 cal religion as well as the other ancient religions of the 
 world ? * 
 
 However we may answer this question a priori, it is 
 safe to say that the term myth at least has become so 
 associated with polytheism in later usage and in the 
 common mind, that it is unwise, if not altogether im 
 proper, to use it in connection with the pure monothe. 
 ism and supernatural revelation of the Bible, if for no 
 other reason — at least for this — to avoid misconception, 
 and in order to make the necessary discriminations. For 
 the discrimination of the religion of the Bible from the 
 other religions must ever be more important than their 
 comparison and features of resemblance. There is no 
 such objection to the term legend,f which in its earliest 
 and still prevalent use, has a prevailing religious sense, 
 and can cover without difficulty all those elements in the 
 biblical history which we are now considering. There 
 is certainly a resemblance to the myth of other nations 
 
 * Lenormant, Beginnings of History, N. Y., 1882, p. 187. 
 
 t George P. Marsh, article Legend, in Jolinson's New Univei-sal Cyclopcedia, 
 1876, II., p. 1714, and the Legenda Aurea, or Historia Lombardica, of Jacobus 
 de Voragine, of the 13th century.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 233 
 
 in the close and familiar association of the one God with 
 the ancestors of our race, and the patriarchs of Israel, 
 however we may explain it. Whatever names we may ' 
 give to these beautiful and sacred traditions which were | 
 transmitted in the families of God's people from genera- \ 
 tion to generation, and finally used by the sacred histo- 
 rians in their holy books ; whatever names we may give 
 them in distinction from the legends and myths of other 
 nations, none can fail to see that poetic embellishment 
 natural and exquisitely beautiful, artless and yet most 
 artistic, which comes from the imagination of the com- 
 mon people of the most intelligent nations, in these 
 sources that were used by divine inspiration in giving 
 us ancient history in its most attractive form. Indeed ' 
 the imagination is in greater use in Hebrew history than 
 in any other history, with all the oriental wealth of color 
 in the prophetic historians. 
 
 The dialogues and discourses of the ancient worthies 
 are simple, natural, and profound. They are not to be 
 regarded as exact reproductions of the words originally 
 spoken, whether preserved in the memory of the people 
 and transmitted in stereotyped form or electrotyped on 
 the mind of the historian, or in his writing by divine in- 
 spiration ; but they are rather reproductions of the situ- 
 ation in a graphic and rhetorical manner, differing from 
 the like usage in Livy and Thucydides, Herodotus and 
 Xenophon only in that the latter used their reflection 
 and imagination merely ; the former used the same fac- 
 ulties guided by divine inspiration into the truth and 
 restrained from error. 
 
 In biblical history there is a wealth of beauty and re- 
 ligious instruction for those students who approach it 
 not only as a work of divine revelation from which the 
 maximum of dogma, or of examples and maxims of prac-
 
 234 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 tical ethics are to be derived; but with the higher 
 appreciation and insight of those who are trained to 
 the historian's art of representation, and who learn from 
 the art of history, and the styles and methods of his- 
 tory', the true interpretation of historical books, where 
 the soul enters into the enjoyment of the concrete, 
 and is unwilling to break up the ideal of beauty, or 
 destroy the living reality, for the sake of the analytic 
 process, and the abstract resultant, however important 
 these may be in other respects, and under other circum- 
 stances. 
 
 ; (2) Advancing from historical prose, we come to the 
 1 Oration. The Bible is as rich in this form of literature 
 ias in its history and poetry. Indeed, the three run in- 
 'Kensibly into one another in Hebrew prophecy. Rare 
 ;' models of eloquence are found in the historical books, 
 such as the plea of Judah (Gen. xliv. 18-34) I the charge 
 of Joshua (Jos. xxiv.) ; the indignant outburst of Jotham 
 (Judges ix.) ; the sentence pronounced upon Saul by 
 Samuel (i Sam. xv.) ; the challenge of Elijah (i Kings 
 xviii.). The three great discourses of Moses in Deuter- 
 onomy are elaborate orations, combining great variety 
 of motives and rhetorical forms, especially in the last 
 discourse, to impress upon Israel the doctrines of God, 
 and the blessings and curses, the life and death, involved 
 therein. 
 
 The prophetical books present us collections of in- 
 spired eloquence, which for unction, fervor, impressive- 
 ness, grandeur, sublimity, and power, surpass all the elo- 
 quence of the world, as they grasp the historical past 
 and the ideal future, and entwine them with the living 
 present, for the comfort and warning, the guidance and 
 the restraint of God's people. Nowhere else do we find 
 such depths of passion, such heights of ecstasy, such
 
 LITEEIART STUDY OF THE BIBLE. £35 
 
 dreadful imprecations, such solemn warnings, such im« 
 pressivt exhortations, and such sublime promises. 
 
 Each prophet has his own peculiarities and excel-' 
 lences. "Joel's discourse is like a rapid, sprightly' 
 stream flowing into a delightful plain. Hosea's is like a 
 waterfall plunging down over rocks and ridges ; Isaiah 
 as a mass of water rolling heavily along." * Micah has 
 no superior in simplicity and originality of thought, 
 spirituality and sublimity of conception, clearness and 
 precision of prophetic vision. " Isaiah is not the espec- 
 ially lyrical prophet, or the especially elegiacal prophet, 
 or the especially oratorical or hortatory prophet, as we 
 would describe a Joel, a Hosea, or Micah, with whom 
 there is a greater prevalence of some particular colors ; 
 l)ut just as the subject requires, he has readily at com- 
 mand every different kind of style, and every different 
 change of delineation ; and it is precisely this, that, in 
 point of language, establishes his greatness, as well as, 
 in general, forms one of his most towering points of ex- 
 cellence. His only fundamental peculiarity is the lofty, 
 majestic calmness of his style, proceeding out of the 
 perfect command which he feels that he has over his 
 matter." f Jeremiah is the prophet of sorrow, and his 
 style is heavy and monotonous, as the same story of 
 woe must be repeated again and again in varied s:rains. 
 Ezekiel was, as Hengstenberg represents, of a gigan- 
 tic appearance, well adapted to struggle effectively with 
 the spirit of the times of the Babylonian captivity — a 
 spiritual Samson, who, with powerful hand, grasped the 
 pillars of the temple of idolatry and dashed it to the 
 earth, standing alone, yet worth a hundred prophetic 
 schools, and, during his entire appearance, a powerful 
 
 * Wunsche, Weissagungen des Prophten Joel, Leipzig, 1872, p. 38. 
 t Ewald, Die Propheten, Gottingen, 1867, L, p. 279.
 
 236 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 proof that the Lord was still among His people, although 
 His visible temple was ground to powder.* Malachi 
 closes the line, " Although like a late evening closing 
 a long day, he is yet at the same time the gray of dawn, 
 bearing a noble day in its bosom." f 
 
 In the New Testament the three great discourses of 
 Jesus and His parabolic teaching present us oratory of 
 the Aramaic type ; simple, quiet, transparent, yet reach- 
 ing to unfathomable depths, and as the very blue of 
 heaven, — every word a diamond, every sentence alto- 
 gether spirit and life, illuminating with their pure, 
 searching light, quickening with their warm, pulsating, 
 throbbing love.:}: 
 
 The discourse of Peter at Pentecost will vie with Cicero 
 against Catiline in its conviction of the rulers of Israel, 
 and in its piercing the hearts of the people. The dis- 
 courses of Paul on Mars' Hill, and before the Jews in Je- 
 rusalem, and the magnates of Rome at Caesarea, are not 
 surpassed by Demosthenes on the Crown. We see the 
 philosophers of Athens confounded, some mocking, and 
 others convinced unto salvation. We see the Jewish 
 mob at first silenced, and then bursting forth into a 
 frantic yell for his blood. We see the Roman governor 
 trembling before his prisoner's reasonings of justice and 
 judgment to come. We do not compare the orations 
 of Peter and Paul with those of Cicero and Demos- 
 thenes for completeness, symmetry, and artistic finish ; 
 this would be impossible, for the sermons of Peter and 
 Paul are only preserved to us in outline ; but, taking 
 them as outlines, we maintain that for skilful u^e of 
 
 * Hengstenberg:, Christology, T. *. T. Clark, Edin., 1864, Vol. II., p. 3. 
 + Nasjelsbach, article Malearhi, in Herzog, i Aufl., viii., p. 756. 
 \ See A. B. Bruce, Parabolic Teaching 0/ Christ, London, 1882, for a fine 
 appreciation of the 'iterajv fonns of the parables.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 237 
 
 circumstance, for adaptation to the occasion, for rhetor- 
 ical organization of the theme, for rapid display of argu- 
 ment, in their grand march to the climax, and above all 
 in the effects that they produced, the orations of Peter 
 ind Paul are pre-eminent. 
 
 Nowhere else save in the Bible have the oratorical 
 types of three distinct languages and civilizations com- 
 bined for unity and variety of effect. These biblical 
 models ought to enrich and fortify the sermon of our 
 day. If we should study them as literary forms, as much 
 as we study Cicero and Demosthenes as models of sa- 
 cred eloquence, the pulpit would rise to new grandeur 
 and sublimer heights and more tremendous power over 
 the masses of mankind. 
 
 (3) The Epistle may be regarded as the third form of 
 I>rose literature. This is the contribution of the Ara- 
 tnaic language to the Old Testament in the letters con- 
 tained in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. But it is 
 in the New Testament that the epistle receives its mag- 
 Piificent development in the letters of James, Peter, Paul, 
 Jude, and John — some familiar, some dogmatic, some 
 ecclesiastical, some pastoral, some speculative and pre- 
 dictive, and in the epistle to the Hebrews we have an 
 elaborate essay. 
 
 How charming the letters of Cicero to his several fa- 
 miliar friends ! What a loss to the world to be de- 
 prived of them ! But who among us would exchange for 
 them the epistles of the apostles? And yet it is to be 
 feared that we have studied them not too much as doc- 
 trinal treatises, perhaps, but too little as familiar letters 
 to friends and to beloved churches, and still less as lit- 
 erary models for the letter and the essay. It might re- 
 fresh and exalt our theological and ethical treatises, if 
 their authors would study awhile with Paul in his style
 
 238 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 and methoJ. They might form a juster conception of 
 his doctrines and principles. They certainly would un- 
 derstand better how to use his doctrines, and how to 
 apply his principles. 
 
 (4) Fiction is represented in the New Testament in 
 ^the parables of Jesus. It is also represented in the apoc- 
 ryphal books of Tobit and Susanna, and in the 4th 
 book of Maccabees in the story about the seven heroic 
 Maccabee sons, and, in i Esdras iv., in the legend about 
 Zerubbabel and Truth. It is true these are not canonical, 
 but they illustrate the part that fiction played in the lit- 
 erature of the Hebrews of the centuries between the 
 Testaments. We might also bring into consideration 
 the fiction of the Haggada of the Jews in the various 
 niidrashim!^ 
 
 I Many divines have thought that the books of Esther 
 .'and Jonah should be classed as fiction.f Any a prion 
 ' objection to fiction as unworthy of inspiration is de- 
 barred by the parables of Jesus. With reference to these 
 books it must, therefore, be entirely a question of induc- 
 tion of facts. The beautiful story of Zerubbabel and 
 Truth, with its sublime lesson, " Truth is mighty, and 
 will prevail," loses nothing in its effect by being a story 
 and not history. The wonderful devotion and self-sac- 
 rifice of the Maccabee mother, and the patient endur- 
 ance of the most horrible tortures by her sons, which 
 have stirred and thrilled many a heart, and strengthened 
 many a pious martyr to the endurance of persecution, 
 are no less powerful as ideal than as real. So it would 
 be with Jonah and Esther if they could be proved to be 
 fiction. The model of patriotic devotion, the lesson of 
 
 * See the great collection in Wunsche, Bibliotheca Rabbinica, Leipzig^, 
 1880-84. 
 + Noldeke, Altlest. Literatur, 1868, p. 71, seq.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 239 
 
 the universality of divine providence and grace, would be 
 still as forcible, and the gain would be at least equal to 
 the loss, if they were to be regarded as inspired ideals 
 rather than inspired statements of the reed. The sign of 
 the prophet Jonah as a symbol of the resurrection of Je- 
 sus Christ is as forcible, if the symbol has an ideal basis, 
 as if it had an historical basis. Be this as it may, the \ 
 element of fiction is sufficiently well represented in the 
 Old Testament in the story of the Shulamite in the 
 Song of Songs, and in the elaboration of the historical 
 person and trials of Job into one of the grandest ideals 
 of the imagination, and in the soul struggles of Kohe- 
 leth. 
 
 These are then the most general forms of prose litera- 
 ture contained in the sacred Scriptures. They vie witlj 
 the literary models of the best nations of ancient and 
 modern times. They ought to receive the study of all 
 Christian men and women. They present the greatest 
 variety of form, the noblest themes, and the very best 
 models. Nowhere else can we find more admirable 
 aesthetic as well as moral and religious culture. Chris 
 tian people should urge that our schools and colleges 
 should attend to this literature, and not neglect it for 
 the sake of the Greek and Roman, which with all their 
 rare forms and extraordinary grace and beauty, yet lack 
 the oriental wealth of color, depths of passion, heights 
 of rapture, holy aspirations, transcendent hopes, and 
 transforming moral power. 
 
 Our college and university training and the drift of 
 modern thought lead us far away from oriental thought 
 and emotion, and the literature that expresses them. 
 Few there are who have entered into the spirit and life 
 of the Orient as it is presented to us in the sacred 
 Scriptures. It is not remarkable that the Old Testa-
 
 240 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 merit has been to many a dead book, exciting no livings 
 heartfelt interest. Here is a new and interesting field 
 for vhe student of our day. The young men are enter- 
 ing into it with enthusiasm. The church of Christ will 
 be greatly enriched by the fruits of their labors. 
 
 IV. THE CREDIBILITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 This is the most delicate and difificult question of the 
 higher criticism with reference to all literature, but es- 
 pecially with reference to biblical literature. That there 
 are errors in the present text of our Bible, and inconsist- 
 encies, it seems to us vain to deny. We have come 
 upon some of them in the course of our investigations 
 (pp. 191, 192). There are chronological, geographical, and 
 other circumstantial inconsistencies and errors which we 
 should not hesitate to acknowledge. These errors arise 
 in the department of exegesis more than in higher criti- 
 cism. It does not follow, however, that circumstantial, 
 incidental errors, such as might arise from the inadver- 
 fence or lack of information of an author, are any im- 
 peachment of his credibility. If we distinguish between 
 revelation and inspiration, and yet insist upon inerranc> 
 with reference to the latter as well as the former, we vir- 
 tually do away with the distinction ; for no mere man 
 can escape altogether human errors unless divine revela- 
 tion set even the most familiar things in a new and in- 
 fallible light, and also so control him that he cannot 
 make a slip of the eye or the hand, a fault in the imagi- 
 nation, in conception, in reasoning, in rhetorical figure, 
 or in grammatical expression ; and indeed so raise him 
 above his fellows that he shall see through all their 
 errors in science and philosophy as well as theology, 
 and anticipate the discoveries in all branches of knowl- 
 edge by thousands of years. Errors of inadvertence in
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 241 
 
 minor details, where the author's position and charac- 
 ter are well known, do not destroy his credibility as a 
 witness in any literature or any court of justice. It is 
 not to be presumed that divine inspiration lifted the 
 author above his age any more than was necessary to 
 convey the divine revelation and the divine instruction 
 with infallible certainty to mankind. We have to take 
 into account the extent of the author's human knowl- 
 edge, his point of view and type of thought, his meth- 
 ods of reasoning and illustration. The question of credi- 
 bility is to be distinguished from infallibility. The form 
 is credible, the substance alone is infallible. It is claimed 
 by some divines that the inerrancy * of Scripture is es- 
 sential to the inspiration of the Scriptures, and that " a 
 proved error in Scripture contradicts not only our doc- 
 trine, but the Scripture claims, and therefore its inspira- 
 tion in making those claims."t But inerraticy \s, neither 
 a scriptural nor a symbolical nor a historical term in 
 connection with the subject of Inspiration. These rep- 
 resentations of the doctrine of inspiration have no sup- 
 jiort in the symbols or faith of the Reformation, or in 
 the Westminster Confession, or in the Scriptures. We 
 hold with our revered instructor, the late Henry B. 
 Smith, to plenary inspiration rather than verbal. It may 
 be as it is stated. *' It (plenary inspiration) is in itself 
 indefinite, and its use contributes nothing, either to the 
 precision or the emphasis of the definition "; % but this 
 is as far as the Scriptures or the symbols of faith war- 
 rant us in going ; it is as far as it is at all safe in the 
 present juncture to advance in definition. Verbal inspi- 
 ration is doubtless a more precise and emphatic defini- 
 
 ♦ F. L. Patton, Pentateuchal Criticism, Presbyterian Review^ IV., p. 363. 
 ■f Drs. Hodge and Warfield, art. Inspiration, Presbyterian Review, H., p. 
 
 a45- 
 
 X Drs. Hodge and Warfield ia /. f ., p. 232. 
 
 11
 
 242 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 tion than pleTiary inspiration ; but this very emphasis 
 and precision imperil the doctrine of inspiration itself 
 by bringing it into conflict with a vast array of objec- 
 tions along the whole line of Scripture and history, 
 which must be met and overcome in incessant warfare, 
 where both sides may count on doubtful victories, but 
 where the weak, ignorant, and hesitating, stumble and 
 fall into divers temptations, and may make shipwreck of 
 their faith. From the point of view of biblical criticism, 
 we are not prepared to admit errors in the Scriptures in 
 the original autographs, until they shall be proven. 
 Very many of those alleged have already received suiifi- 
 cient or plausible explanation ; others are in dispute 
 between truth-seeking scholars, and satisfactory explana- 
 tions may hereafter be given. New difificulties are con- 
 stantly arising and being overcome. It is difficult on 
 the one side to demonstrate an error, as it is on the 
 other side to demonstrate that the Scriptures must be 
 absolutely errorless. It is a question of fact to which all 
 theories and doctrines must yield. It cannot be deter- 
 mined by a priori definitions and statements on either 
 side. Indeed the original autographs have been lost for 
 ages and can never be recovered. How can we deter- 
 mine whether they were absolutely errorless or not ? To 
 assume that it must be so, as a deduction from the theory 
 of verbal inspiration, is to beg the whole question. 
 
 In the meanwhile we confidently affirm that the doc- 
 trine of inspiration as stated in the symbols of faith will 
 maintain its integrity in spite of any circumstantial errors 
 that may be admitted or proved in the Scriptures, so 
 long as these errors do not directly or indirectly disturb 
 the infallibility of its matters of faith or of the historic 
 events and institutions with which they are inseparably 
 united.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 243 
 
 We are convinced that Richard Baxter more correctly 
 states the church doctrine when he says : 
 
 " And here I must tell you a great and needful truth, which .... 
 Christians fearing to confess, by overdoing tempt men to Infidelity. 
 The Scripture is like a man's body, where some parts are but for 
 the preser\'ation of the rest, and may be maimed without death : 
 The sense is the soul of the Scripture ; and the letters but the body, 
 or vehicle. The doctrine of the creed. Lord's Prayer and Decalogue, 
 Baptism and the Lord's Supper, is the vital part, and Christianity 
 itself. The Old Testament letter (written as we have it about Ezra's 
 time) is that vehicle which is as imperfect as the Revelation of these 
 times was : But as after Christ's incarnation and ascension, the 
 Spirit was more abundantly given, and the Revelation more perfect 
 and sealed, so the doctrine is more full and the vehicle or body, that 
 is, the words are less imperfect and more sure to us ; so that he that 
 doubteth of the truth of some words in the Old Testament, or o( 
 some circumstances in the New, hath no reason therefore to doubt 
 of the Christian religion, of which these writings are but the vehick 
 or body, sufficient to ascertain us of the truth of the History and 
 Doctrine." * 
 
 Higher criticism comes into conflict with the authority 
 of Scripture when it finds that its statements are not 
 authoritative and its revelations are not credible. If the 
 crcdibiHty of a book is impeached, its divine authority 
 and inspiration are also impeached. But to destroy his 
 credibiHty something more must be presented than 
 trivial matters and minute details that do not affect the 
 author's scope of argument or his religious instructions. 
 We hold that it is an unsafe position to assume, that v/e 
 must first prove the credibility, inerrancy, and infallibil- 
 ity of a book ere we accept its authority. If inquirers 
 waited until all the supposed errors in our canonical 
 books were satisfactorily explained they would never 
 accept the Bible as a divine revelation. To press the 
 
 The Catechizing of Families^ 1683, p. 36.
 
 244 ' BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 critics to this dilemma, inerrancy or uninspired, might 
 catch the critics on one of the horns if they were not 
 critical enough to detect the fallacy and escape, but it 
 would be more likely to catch the people, who know 
 nothing of criticism, and so undermine and destroy their 
 faith. 
 
 The higher criticism has already strengthened the 
 credibility of Scripture. It has studied the human feat- 
 ures of the Bible and learned the wondrous variety of 
 form and color assumed by the divine revelation. Many 
 of the supposed inconsistencies have been found to be 
 different modes of representing the same thing, comple- 
 mentary to one another and combining to give a fuller 
 representation than any one mode could ever have given, 
 as the two sides of the stereoscopic view give a represen- 
 tation superior to that of the ordinary photograph. The 
 imity of statement found in the midst of such wondrous 
 variety of detail in form and color is vastly more con- 
 vincing than a unity of mere coincidence such as the 
 older harmonists sought to obtain by stretching and 
 straining the Scriptures on the procrustean bed of their 
 hair-splitting scholasticism. Many of the supposed in- 
 consistencies have been found to arise from different 
 stages of divine revelation, in the earlier of which God 
 condescended to the weakness and the ignorance of men, 
 and gave to them the knowledge that they could appro- 
 priate, and held up to them ideals that they could under- 
 stand as to their essence if not in all their details. The 
 earlier are shadows and types, crude and imperfect rep- 
 resentations of better things to follow.* Many of the 
 supposed inconsistencies result from the popular and 
 unscientific language of the Bible, thus approaching the 
 
 • Hebrews viii. 5 ; x. i ; xi. 40 ; Col. ii. 17.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE, 245 
 
 people of God in different ages in concrete forms and 
 avoiding the abstract. The inconsistencies have resulted 
 from the scholastic abstractions of those who would use 
 the Bible as a text-book, but they do not exist in the 
 concrete of the Bible itself. Many of the supposed in- 
 consistencies arise from a different method of logic and 
 rhetoric in the Oriental writers and the attempt of mod- 
 ern scholars to measure them by Occidental methods. 
 Many of the inconsistencies result from the neglect to 
 appreciate the poetic and imaginative element in the 
 Bible and a lack of aesthetic sense on the part of its in- 
 terpreters. The higher criticism has already removed a 
 large number of difificulties and will remove many more 
 when it has become a more common study among 
 scholars. 
 
 " The Bible conveys to us its didactic lesson in a very occasional, 
 indirect, and indefinite way. Its method is literary, not dogmatic. 
 It teaches, as it were, without intending to teach ; relates a history, 
 and leaves us to infer the lesson ; indites a psalm expressive of the 
 sentiments awakened in the writer's mind by contemplation of the 
 manifestation which God has made of Himself, and leaves us to find 
 out by poetic sympathy the thought embodied. The Bible contains 
 all sorts of literature — histories, prophecies, poems lyric and dramat- 
 ic, proverbs, parables, epistles. All are profitable for doctrine, but 
 none are dogmatic ; all are excellent for religious edification, but dis- 
 appointing from the point of view of scholastic theology. Not even 
 the epistles of Paul can properly be characterised as dogmatic in the 
 scholastic sense. The four great epistles are full of doctrine of the 
 most important character, but it is conveyed in an occasional, ab- 
 rupt, vehement way, by a man engaged in a great controversy as to 
 the meaning of Christianity, — whose bosom is agitated by strong 
 emotion, and whose language is a faithful reflection of Iiis feelings — 
 eloquent, bufinexact; crowded with deep, grand thoughts, but with 
 thoughts that struggle for utterance, and are sometimes only half 
 uttered in broken sentences, in which grammar is shipwrecked on 
 the rock of heroic passion. The writing is noble. Divine, inspired 
 in every sense of the term, most profitable for doctrine ; but how dif-
 
 24:6 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 ferent Irotn the style of doginatic theology, with its careful defini- 
 tions, and minute distinctions, and cold, passionless, scientific dic- 
 tion ! " * 
 
 The literary study of the Bible is appropriately called 
 higher criticism to distinguish it from lower criticism 
 which devotes itself to the study of original texts and 
 versions. There are few who have the patience, the per- 
 sistence, the life-long industry in the examination of the 
 minute details that make up the field of the lower or 
 textual criticism. But the higher criticism is more at- 
 tractive. It has to do with literary forms and styles and 
 models. It appeals to the imagination and the aesthetic 
 taste as well as to the logical faculty. It kindles the en- 
 thusiasm of the young. It will more and more enlist 
 the attention of men of culture and the general pub- 
 lic. It is the most inviting and fruitful field of biblical 
 study in our day. Many who are engaged in it are ra- 
 tionalistic and unbelieving, and they are using it with 
 disastrous effect upon the Scriptures and the orthodox 
 faith. There is also a prejudice in some quarters against 
 these studies and an apprehension as to the results. 
 This prejudice is unreasonable. This apprehension is 
 to be deprecated. It is impossible to prevent discus- 
 sion. The church is challenged to meet the issue. It 
 is a call of Providence to conflict and to the triumph of 
 evangelical truth. The Divine Word will vindicate it- 
 self in all its parts. These are not the times for negli- 
 gent Elis or timorous and presumptuous Uzzahs. Brave 
 Samuels and ardent Davids who fear not to employ new 
 methods and engage in new enterprises and adapt them- 
 selves to altered situations, will overcome the Philistines 
 with their own weapons. The higher criticism has rent 
 
 A. B. Bruce, The Chief End of Revelation, London, 1881, p. 284, seq.
 
 LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 247 
 
 the crust, with which rabbinical tradition and Cliristian 
 scholasticism have encased the Old Testament, overlay- 
 ing the poetic and prophetic elements with the legal and 
 the ritual. Younger biblical scholars have caught glimpses 
 of the beauty and glory of biblical literature. The Old 
 Testament is studied as never before in the Christian 
 church. It is beginning to exert its charming influence 
 upon ministers and people. Christian theology and 
 Christian life will ere long be enriched by it. God's 
 blessing is in it to those who have the Christian wisdom 
 to recognize and the grace to receive and employ it.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 
 
 The Hebrews were from the most ancient times a re. 
 markably literary and poetic people. Poetry pervaded 
 and influenced their entire life and history. The Bible 
 has preserved to us a large amount of this poetry, but it 
 ' is almost exclusively religious poetry. And notwith- 
 standing that the most ancient poetry of Assyria, Baby- 
 lon, and Egypt is likewise religious, we yet have abun- 
 dant evidence from the poetic lines and strophes quoted 
 in the historical books, as well as statements with regard 
 to other poetry not included in the collections known to 
 us, — abundant evidence that a large proportion of the 
 poetic literature of the Hebrews, relating to the every- 
 day life of the people, and to those national, social, and 
 historical phases of experience that were not strictly re- 
 ligious, has been lost to us. For reference is made to 
 the book of the wars of Jahveh (Num. xxi. 14), and the 
 book of Yashar (Josh. x. 13 ; 2 Sam. i. 18), anthologies of 
 poetry earlier than any of the poetic collections in the 
 Hebrew Scriptures ; and also to a great number of songs 
 and poems of Solomon with reference to flowers, plants, 
 trees, and animals (i Kings iv. 32, 33). The mention of 
 Ethan, Heman, Chalcol and Darda, the sons of Mahol, 
 in connection with the wisdom and poems of Solomon,. 
 (248)
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 249 
 
 opens a wide field of conjecture with regard to the great 
 amount of their poetry which has been lost (i Kings 
 iv. 31). And if we consider that such a masterpiece as 
 the book of Job is the product of a sacred poet whose 
 name, or at least connection with the poem, has been 
 lost, how many more such great poems and lesser ones 
 may have disappeared from the memory of the Hebrew 
 people during their exile and prolonged afflictions. For 
 we cannot believe that such sublime odes as Exod. xv. 
 and Judges v. could exist alone. These masterpieces of 
 lyric poetry must have been the flower and fruit of a 
 long and varied poetical development. 
 
 Prof. Reuss admirably states the breadth of Hebrew 
 poetry : 
 
 " All that moved the souls of the multitude was expressed in song ; 
 it was indispensable to the sports of peace, it was a necessity for the 
 rest from the battle, it cheered the feast, and the marriage (Is. v. 12 ; 
 Amos. vi. 5; Judges xiv.), it lamented in the hopeless dirge for the 
 dead (2 Sam. iii. 33), it united the masses, it blessed the individual, 
 and was everywhere the lever of culture. Young men and maidens 
 vied with one another in learning beautiful songs, and cheered with 
 them the festival gatherings of the villages, and the still higher assem- 
 blies at the sanctuary of the tribes. The maidens at Shilo went yearly 
 with songs and dances into the vineyards (Judges xxi. 19), and those 
 of Gilead repeated the sad story of Jeptha's daughter (Judges xi. 40), 
 the boys learned David's lament over Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 18) ; shep • 
 herds and hunters at their evening rests by the springs of the wilder- 
 ness sang songs to the accompaniment of the flute (Judges v. 11). 
 The discovery of a fountain was the occasion of joy and song (Num. 
 xxi. 17). The smith boasted defiantly of the products of his labour 
 (Gen. iv. 23). Riddles and witty sayings enlivened the social meal 
 (Judges xiv. 12; I Kings x.). Even into the lowest spheres the spirit 
 of poetry wandered and ministered to the most ignoble pursuits ' 
 (Is. xxiii. 15 seg.).* 
 
 • Art. Heb. Poesie, Hertog Encyklopddie, ii. Aufl., V,, p. 672, ieq.
 
 ^50 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 L THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HEBREW POETRY. 
 
 In the Hebrew poetry preserved to us in the sacred 
 Scriptures we observe the following characteristics: 
 
 1. // is religions poetry. Indeed it was most suitable 
 that Hebrew poetry should have this as its fundamental 
 characteristic ; for the Hebrews had been selected by 
 God from all the nations to be His own choice possession, 
 His first-born among the nations of the earth (Exod. iv. 
 22; xix. 5); and therefore it was their distinctive inher- 
 itance that they should be a religious people above all 
 things else. And it is of the very nature of religion that 
 it should express itself in song; for religion lays hold of 
 the deepest emotions of the human soul, and causes the 
 heart-strings to vibrate with the most varied and power- 
 ful feelings of which man is capable, which can only find 
 expression through the voice and pen in those forms of 
 human language which alone by their varied movement 
 can express these varied emotions. From this point of 
 view Hebrew poetry has unfolded a rich and manifold 
 literature that not only surpasses in this regard the no- 
 blest products of the most cultivated Indo-Germanic 
 races, the Greek, the Roman, and the Hindu ; but also 
 lies at the root of the .religious poetry of the Jewish 
 synagogue and the church of Christ, as their fruitful 
 source, their perennial well-spring of life and growth. 
 No poetry has such power over the souls of men as He- 
 brew poetry. David's psalms, Solomon's sentences, Isa- 
 iah's predictions, the trials of Job, are as fresh and 
 potent in their influence as when first uttered by their 
 masterly authors. They are world-wide in their sway ; 
 they are everlasting in their sweep. The songs of Moses 
 and the Lamb are sung by heavenly choirs. 
 
 2. // is simple mid natural. Ewald states that " He-
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 251 
 
 brew poetrj- has a simplicity and transparency that can 
 scarcely be found anywhere else — a natural sublimity 
 that knows but little of fixed forms of art, and even 
 when art comes into play it ever remains unconscious 
 and careless of it. Compared with the poetry of other 
 ancient peoples, it appears as of a more simple and child- 
 like age of mankind, overflowing with an internal fulness 
 and grace that troubles itself but little with external or- 
 nament and nice artistic law."* Hence it is that the 
 distinction between poetry and rhetorical prose is so 
 slight in Hebrew literature. The Hebrew orator, espec- 
 ially if a prophet, inspired with the potent influences of 
 the prophetic spirit, and stirred to the depths of his soul 
 with the divine impulse, speaks naturally in an elevated 
 poetic style, and accordingly the greater part of prophecy 
 i-3 poetic. And so when the priest or king stands before 
 the people to bless them, or lead them in their devo- 
 tions, their benedictions and prayers assume the poetic 
 movement. Thus there is the closest correspondence 
 between the emotion and its expression, as the emotion 
 gives natural movement and harmonious undulations to 
 the expression by its own pulsations and vibrations. 
 These pulsations are expressed by the beat of the accent, 
 which, falling as a rule on the ultimate in Hebrew words, 
 strikes with peculiar power ; and the vibrations are ex- 
 pressed in accordance with the great variety of movement 
 of which they are capable in the parallelism of members. 
 As Robertson Smith correctly says : "Among the He- 
 brews all thought stands in immediate contact with liv- 
 ing impressions and feelings, and so if incapable of rising 
 to the abstnict is prevented from sinking to the unreal."! 
 This faithful mirroring of the concrete in the poetic ex. 
 
 • Die Dichter^ I., p. 15. t British Quarterly, January, 1877, P- S^.
 
 252 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 pression is the secret of its power over the masses of 
 mankind who are sensible of its immediate influence 
 upon them, although they may be incapable of giving a 
 logical analysis of it. 
 
 3. It is essentially subjective. The poet sings or writes 
 from the vibrating chords of his own soul's emotions, 
 presenting the varied phases of his own experience, in 
 sorrow and joy, in faith and hope, in love and adoration, 
 in conflict, agony, and despair, in ecstasy and transport, 
 in vindication of himself and imprecation upon his ene- 
 mies. Even when the external world is attentively re- 
 garded, it is not for itself alone, but on account of its 
 relation to the poet's own soul as he is brought into 
 contact and sympathy with it. This characteristic of 
 Hebrew poetry is so marked in the Psalter, Proverbs, 
 and book of Job, as to give their entire theology an an 
 thropological character. Man's inmost soul, and all the 
 vast variety of human experience, are presented in He- 
 brew poetry as the common experience of humanity of 
 all ages and of all lands. 
 
 4. // is sententious. The Hebrew poet expresses his 
 ethical and religious emotions in brief, terse, pregnant 
 sentences loosely related with one another, and often 
 without any essential connection, except through the 
 common unity of the central theme. They are uttered 
 as intuitions, that which is immediately seen and felt, 
 rather than as products of logical reflection, or careful 
 elaborations of a constructive imagination. The parts 
 of the poem, greater anti lesser, are distinct parts, the 
 distinction often being so sharp and abrupt that it is dif- 
 ficult to distinguish and separate the various sections of 
 the poem, owing to the very fact of the great variety of 
 possibility of division, in which it is a question simply of 
 more or less. The author's soul vibrates with the beat.
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 253 
 
 ings of the central theme, so that the movement of the 
 poem is sometimes from the same base to a more ad- 
 vanced thought, then from a corresponding base, or from 
 a contrasted one ; and at times, indeed, step by step • in 
 marching or climbing measures. As Aglen says, " He- 
 brew eloquence is a lively succession of vigorous and in- 
 cisive sentences, producing in literature the same effect 
 which the style called arabesque produces in architect- 
 ure. Hebrew wisdom finds its complete utterance in 
 the short, pithy proverb. Hebrew poetry wants no fur- 
 ther art than a rhythmical adaptation of the same sen- 
 tentious style." * Hence the complexity and confusion 
 of Hebrew poetry to minds which would find strict 
 logical relations between the various members of the 
 poem, and constrain them after occidental methods. 
 Hence the extravagance of Hebrew figures of speech, 
 which transgress all classic rules of style, heaping up and 
 mixing metaphors, presenting the theme in such a variety 
 of images, and with such exceeding richness of coloring, 
 that the western critic is perplexed, confused, and bewil. 
 dered in striving to harmonize them into a consistent 
 whole. Hebrew poetry appeals through numberless con- 
 crete images to the emotional and religious nature, and 
 can only be apprehended by entering into sympathetic 
 relations with its own poetic spirit, and by following the 
 guidance of its members to their central theme, to which 
 they are all in subjection as to a prince, while in com- 
 parative independence of one another. 
 
 5. It is realistic. Professor Shairp says: "Whenever 
 the soul comes into living contact with fact and truth, 
 whenever it realizes these with more than common viv- 
 idness, there arises a thrill of joy, a glow of emotion. 
 
 • Bible Educator^ Vol. 11., p. 340.
 
 254 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 And the expression of that thrill, that glow, is poetiy 
 The nobler the objects, the nobler will be the poetry they 
 awaken when they fall on the heart of a true poet." ^ 
 Now the Hebrew poets entered into deep and intimate 
 fellowship with external nature, the world of animal, veg- 
 etable, and material forces ; and by regarding them as in 
 immediate connection with God and man, dealt only 
 with the noblest themes. For to the Hebrew poet all 
 nature was animate with the influence of the Divine 
 Spirit, who was the agent in the creation, brooding over 
 the chaos, who conducts the whole universe in its devel- 
 opment toward the exaltation of the creature to closer 
 communion with God, so that it may attain its glory in 
 the divine glory. Hence all nature is aglow with the 
 glory of God, declaring Him in His being and attributes, 
 praising Him for His wisdom and goodness. His minis- 
 rers to do His pleasure, rejoicing at His advent and tak- 
 ing part in His theophanies. And so it is the represen- 
 tation of Hebrew poetry that all nature shares in the 
 destiny of man. In its origin it led by insensible grada- 
 tions to man, its crown and head, the masterpiece of the 
 divine workman. In his fall it shared with him in the 
 curse ; and to his redemption it ever looks forward, with 
 longing hope and throes of expectation, as the redemp- 
 tion of the entire creation. And so, there is no poetry 
 so sympathetic with nature, so realistic, so sensuous and 
 glowing in its representations of nature, as Hebrew poe- 
 try. This feature of the sacre \ writings, which has ex- 
 posed them to the attacks of unbelieving men of science, 
 presenting a wide and varied field of criticism, is really 
 one of their most striking features of excellence ; com- 
 mending itself to the believing student of nature in thatj 
 
 * Poetic Interpretation of Nature^ p. 15.
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 256 
 
 while it does not teach truths and facts of science in sci- 
 entific forms, yet it alone, of ancient poetry, has laid 
 hold of the eternal principles, the most essential facts 
 and forms of objects of nature, with a sense of truth and 
 beauty that none but sacred poets, enlightened by the 
 Spirit of God, have been enabled to do. Hence it is 
 that not even the sensuous romantic poetry of modern 
 times, enriched with the vast stores of research of mod- 
 ern science, can equal the poetry of the Bible in its 
 faithfulness to nature, its vividness and graphic power, 
 its true and intense admiration of the beauties of nature 
 and reverence of its sublimities. 
 
 II. THE FORMS OF HEBREW POETRY. 
 
 The leading characteristics of Hebrew poetry deter- 
 mine its forms of expression ; its internal spirit sways 
 and controls the form with absolute, yea, even capricious, 
 power. The Hebrew poets seem acquainted with those 
 various forms of artistic expression used by the poets of 
 other nations to adorn their poetry, measure its move- 
 ments, and mark its lines and strophes ; yet they do not 
 employ them as rules or principles of their art, constrain- 
 ing their thought and emotion into conformity with 
 them, but rather use them freely for particular purposes / 
 and momentary effects. Indeed Hebrew poetry attained . 
 its richest development at a period when these various 
 external beauties of form had not been elaborated into 
 a system, as was the case at a subsequent time in other 
 nations of the same family of languages. 
 
 I. The form of the verses. There are various ways em- 
 ployed in the poetry of the sister languages of measur- 
 ing and adorning the verses. Thus rhyme is of exceed- 
 ing importance in Arabic poetry, having its fixed rules* 
 
 ^Wright, Arabic Grammar, 2d edit., II., pp. 377-81.
 
 256 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 carefully elaborated. But no such rules can be found in 
 Hebrew poetry. Rhyme does exist, and is used at times 
 with great effect to give force to the variations in the 
 play of the emotion by bringing the variations to har- 
 monious conclusions ; but this seldom extends beyond 
 a couplet or triplet of verses. So also the Hebrew poet 
 delights in the play of words, using their varied and 
 contrasted meanings, changing the sense by a slight 
 change of a letter, or contrasting the sense all the more 
 forcibly in the use of words of similar form and vocali- 
 zation, and sometimes of two or three such in the paral- 
 lel verses. Alliteration and assonance are also freely 
 employed. All this is in order that the form may cor- 
 respond as closely as possible to the thought and emo- 
 tion in their variations, as synonymous, antithetical, and 
 progressive ; and that the coloring of the expression may 
 heighten its effect. The principle of rhyme, however, 
 remains entirely free. It is not developed into a system 
 and rules of art. 
 
 So also the measurement of the verses, or the princi- 
 ple of metres, is thoroughly developed in Arabic poetry, 
 where they are ordinarily reckoned as sixteen in number.''* 
 Repeated efforts have been made to find a system of me- 
 tres in Hebrew poetry. Thus Josephusf represents 
 Exod. XV. and Deut. xxxii. as written in hexameters, 
 and that the Psalms were written in several metres, such 
 as trimeters and pentameters. Eusebius \ says that 
 Deut. xxxii. and Ps. xviii. are in heroic metre of sixteen 
 syllables, and that trimeters and other metres were em- 
 ployed by the Hebrews. Jerome § compares Hebrew 
 poetry with that of the Greek poetry of Pindar, Alcaeus, 
 
 * Wright, Arabic Grammar^ 2d edit,, H., p. 387. 
 
 t Antiquities, ii. 16 ; iv. 8 ; vii. 12. 
 
 \ De Prcep. Evang., xi. 5. § Pre/ace to the book 0/ Job.
 
 HEBREW POETRT. 257 
 
 and Sappho, and represents the book of Job as composed 
 mainly of hexameters with the movement of dactyls and 
 spondees ; and * finds in the Psalter iambic trimeters, 
 and tetrameters. But these writers seem to have been 
 misled by their desire to assimilate Hebrew poetry to 
 the great productions of the classic nations with which 
 they were familiar. No such system of metres can be 
 found in connection with the accepted system of Hebrew 
 accentuation and vocalization. The Jews, who became 
 for many centuries the sole custodians of the Hebrew 
 text, did not accept any such system, but arranged the 
 system of poetic accentuation simply for cantillation in 
 the synagogues. 
 
 More recent attempts have been made to explain and 
 measure Hebrew verses after the methods of the Arabic 
 and Syriac. Thus William Jones f endeavored to apply 
 the rules of Arabic metres to Hebrew poetry ; E. J„ 
 Greve, also, in 1791 and 1810; but this involves the rev 
 olutionary proceeding of doing away with the Massoreti( • 
 system entirely, and in its results is far from satisfactory 
 The Arabic poetry may be profitably compared as tc 
 spirit, characteristics, figures of speech, and emotional 
 language, as Wenrich has so well done,:}: but not as re- 
 gards metres, for these, as the best Arabic scholars state, 
 are of a comparatively late period when compared with 
 Hebrew poetry, and were possibly preceded by an earlier 
 and freer poetic style. 
 
 Saalchiitzg endeavored to construct a system of He- 
 brew metres, retaining the Massoretic vocalization, but 
 
 * In his Epist. ad Paulam. 
 
 ■f Com. Poet. Asiat. curav., Eichhom, T777, p. 61, seq. 
 
 \ De Poeseos Heb. atque AraHc. orig. indole mutuuque consensu atque ats' 
 fn'tnt'/te, Lipsiae, 1843. 
 § Von der Form der Hebraischen Poesie, 1825.
 
 2S8 BIBLICM. STUDY. 
 
 contending that the accents do not determine the ac- 
 cented syllable, and so pronouncing the words in accord- 
 ance with the Aramaic, and the custom of Polish and 
 German Jews, on the penult instead of the ultimate. 
 More recently, Bickell* strives to explain Hebrew poetry 
 after the analogy of Syriac poetry. His theory is that 
 Hebrew poetry is essentially the same as Syriac, not 
 measuring syllables, but counting them in regular order. 
 There is a constant alternation of accented and unac- 
 cented syllables, a continued rise and fall, so that only 
 iambic and trochaic feet are possible. The Massoretic 
 accentuation and vocalization are rejected and the Ara- 
 maic put in its place. The grammatical and rhythmical 
 accents coincide. The accent is, like the Syriac, general- 
 ly on the penult. The parallelism of verses and thought 
 is strictly carried out. 
 
 Dr. Bickell, whose familiarity with Syriac literature 
 and Hebrew scholarship are well known, has, as must be 
 admitted, carried out his theory with a degree of mod- 
 eration and thoroughness which must command admira- 
 tion and respect. Not distinguishing between long and 
 short syllables, and discarding the terminology of classic 
 metres, he gives us specimens of metres of 5, 7, 12, 6, 8, 
 10 syllables, and a few of varying syllables. He has ap- 
 plied his theory to the whole of Hebrew poetry,t and 
 arranged the entire Psalter, Proverbs, Job, Lamentations, 
 Song of Songs, most of the poems of the historical 
 books, and much of the prophetic poetry in accordance 
 with these principles. He has also reproduced the effect 
 in a translation into German, with the same number of 
 
 * Metrices Bibltcce, 1S79 ; Carmina Veteris Testavtenti Afeirice, 1882. 
 t Zeitschrift d. D, M. G., 1880, p. 557 ; Carmina Veteris Testamentt Me- 
 trice ^ 1882.
 
 HEBREV/ POETRl. 259 
 
 Syllables and strophical arrangement.* The theory 13 
 attractive and deserves fuller consideration than can be 
 given to it here ; yet it must be rejected on the ground 
 that it does away with the difference between the He- 
 brew and the Aramaic families of the Shemitic lan- 
 guages ; and would virtually reduce the Hebrew to a 
 mere dialect of the Aramaic. It overthrows the tradi- 
 tional accentuation upon which Hebrew vocalization and 
 the explanation of Hebrew grammatical forms largely 
 depend. 
 
 Hebrew poetry, as Ewald has shown, may, on the Mas- 
 soretic system of accentuation and vocalization, be re- 
 garded as generally composed of verses of seven or eight 
 syllables, with sometimes a few more or a few less, for 
 reasons that can be assigned.f This is especially true 
 of the ancient hymns,:}: and those Psalms having certain 
 melodies indicated in their titles ; yet even here we 
 must regard Hebrew poetry as at an earlier stage of 
 poetic development than the Syriac. The poet is 
 not bound to a certain number of syllables. While in 
 the main making the length of the verses correspond 
 with the parallelism of the thought and emotion, he 
 does not constrain himself to uniformity as a principle 
 or law of his art ; but increases or diminishes the length 
 of his verses in perfect freedom in accordance with the 
 rhythmical movements of the thought and emotion them- 
 selves. The external form is entirely subordinated to the 
 internal emotion, which moves on with the utmost free- 
 dom, and assumes a poetic form merely as a thin veil 
 which does not so much clothe and adorn as shade and 
 color the native beauties of the idea. This movement 
 
 * Dichtungen der Hebrder. I. Geschichtlicheund Prophetische Lieder.II.Hiob, 
 III. Der Psalter. 
 t Dic/tter, I., p. 108, seq. J Exod. xv., Deut. xxxii., and Judges v.
 
 260 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of emotion gives rise to a general harmony of expres. 
 sion in the parallelism of structure in lines and strophes 
 — a parallelism which affords a great variety and 
 beauty of forms. Sometimes the movement is like the 
 wavelets of a river flowing steadily and smoothly on, 
 then like the ebbing and flowing of the tide in majestic 
 antitheses, and again like the madly-tossed ocean in a 
 storm, all uniformity and symmetry disappearing under 
 the passionate heaving of the deepest emotions of the 
 soul. 
 
 The first to clearly state and unfold the essential prin- 
 ciple of Hebrew verse was Bishop Lowth,* although 
 older writers, such as Rabbi Asarias, and especially 
 Schoettgen,f called attention to various forms of paral- 
 lelism. Lowth distinguishes three kinds. 
 [ 
 
 (i) Synonymous. 
 
 " O Jehovah, in Thy strength the king shall rejoice ; • 
 And in Thy salvation how greatly shall he exult ! 
 The desire of his heart Thou hast granted unto him. 
 And the request of his lips Thou hast not denied." 
 
 Ps. xxi. I, 2. 
 
 (2) Antithetical, 
 
 " A wise son rejoiceth his father ; 
 But a foolish son is the grief of his mother." 
 
 Prov. X. I. 
 
 (3) Synthetic. 
 
 " Praise ye Jehovah, ye of the earth ; 
 Ye sea monsters, and all deeps : 
 Fire and hail, snow and vapor, 
 Stormy wind, executing His command." 
 
 Ps. cxlviii. 7, 8. 
 
 * De Sacra Paesi Hebr. xix., 1753; also Preliminary Dissertation to his 
 work on Isaiah, 1778. 
 t IIorcB Heb., Diss, vi., De Exergasia Sacra.
 
 HEBREW POETKT. 261 
 
 Bishop Lowth's views have been generally accepted, 
 although open to various objections; for the majority 
 of the verses are synthetic, and these in such a great va- 
 riety that it seems still more important in many cases 
 to classify and distinguish them than to make the dis- 
 criminations proposed by Bishop Lowth. There is a 
 general mingling of the three kinds of parallelism in 
 Hebrew poetry, so that seldom do the synonymous 
 and antithetical extend beyond a couplet, triplet, or 
 quartette of verses. The poet is as free in his use of 
 the various kinds of parallelism as in the use of rhyme 
 or metre, and is only bound by the principle of parallel- 
 ism itself. Bishop J ebb * added a fourth kind, which he 
 called the introverted parallelism, where the first line 
 corresponds with the fourth, and the second with the 
 third, thus ; 
 
 " My son, if thine heart be wise, 
 My heart also shall rejoice ; 
 Yea, my reins shall rejoice, 
 When thy Hps speak right things." 
 
 Prov. xxiii. 15, 16. 
 
 But this is a difference in the structure of the strophe 
 and of the arrangement of the parallelism, rather than 
 of the parallelism itself, as Wright properly states.f 
 
 Other schemes have been proposed, but none have 
 been exhaustive and satisfactory, and none have found 
 acceptance generally among scholars. It is sufificieht 
 for us at present to recognize in Hebrew poetry the es- 
 sential principle of parallelism itself. This parallelism 
 of members was until recently thought to be a peculiar- 
 ity of Hebrew poetry, as a determining principle of po- 
 
 ♦ Sacred Literature, % iv., 1820. 
 
 t Art Hebrew Poetry in Smith's Diet, of the Bible
 
 262 BJBLICAL STUDT. 
 
 etic art, although it is used among other nations for cer 
 tain momentary effects in their poetry ; but recent dis- 
 coveries have proved that the ancient Assyrian, Baby 
 Ionian, and Akkadian hymns have the same dominant 
 feature in their poetry, so that the conjecture of Schra- 
 der,* that the Hebrews brought it with them in their 
 emigration from the vicinity of Babylon, is highly prob- 
 able. Indeed, it is but natural that we should go back 
 of the more modern Syriac and Arabic poetry to the 
 more ancient Assyrian and Babylonian poetry for illus- 
 trations of the poetry of the Hebrews, which was histor- 
 ically brought into connection with the latter and not 
 with the former. Taking these ancient Shemitic poe- 
 tries together, we observe that they have unfolded the 
 principle of parallelism into a most elaborate and or- 
 nate artistic system, which among other nations has 
 been known and used, but remained comparatively un- 
 developed, whilst other nations have developed the prin- 
 ciples of rhyme and metre which have been known and 
 used, but remain undeveloped by the Hebrews, Assyr- 
 ians, and Babylonians. 
 
 2. In addition to the principle of parallelism, others have 
 sought a principle of measurement of the verses of Hebrew 
 poetry by the accent. Thus Lautwein,t Ernst Meier,;}: and 
 more recently Julius Ley.§ The latter has elaborated 
 quite a thorough system, with a large number of examples. 
 He does not interfere with the Massoretic system, except 
 in the use of the maqqeph and metheg, and his theory of 
 a circumflex accentuation in monosyllables at the end of 
 
 ■"" Jahrh.f. Prot. Thco., i., 122. 
 
 + Versuch cincr richtigcn Theorie von d. hiblischen Verskunst, 1775. 
 X Die Form der Hcbr. Poesie, 1853. 
 
 § Gruiidzilge d. Rhythmus des Vers-und StropJienbaues in d. Hcbr. Poesie^ 
 1875-
 
 HEBREW POETRY; 2M53' 
 
 a verse ; but his arrangement of Hebrew poetry into 
 hexameters, octameters, decameters, etc., depends largely 
 upon his views of substitution and compensation, which 
 are to account for the irregularities of the verses ; and 
 upon the variety of the breaks or caesuras, as, for in- 
 stance, in the octameter, which may be composed of 4 
 + 4 tones, or 2 + 6, 3 + 5, or 5 + 3, His theory also re- 
 sults in producing longer verses than seem suited to the 
 principle of the parallelism, and the spirit of Hebrew po- 
 etry. At the same time it seems to us evident that the 
 accent has great power in Hebrew verse. The thought 
 is measured by the throbbings of the soul in its emotion, 
 and this is naturally expressed by the beat of the accent. 
 The accent has no unimportant part to play in English 
 verse, but in Hebrew, as the poetic accent always cor- 
 responds with the logical accent, and that is as a rul*- 
 on the ultimate, it falls with peculiar power. Even in 
 prose the accent controls the vocalization of the entir<; 
 word, and in pause has double strength. How much 
 more is this the case in poetry, where the emotion ex 
 pressed by homogeneous sounds causes it to beat with 
 exceeding power and wonderful delicacy of movement. 
 This can hardly be reproduced or felt to any great ex- 
 tent by those who approach the Hebrew as a dead lan- 
 guage. We can only approximate to it by frequent 
 practice in the utterance of its verses. The accent may 
 be used as a principle of measurement to a very large 
 extent in Hebrew poetry, but it is not an absolute law, 
 for whilst many poems and strophes are uniform in this 
 respect, the poet breaks away from it and increases or 
 diminishes the number of accents, as well as words, to 
 correspond with the movements of his thought and 
 emotion. 
 
 Upon these two principles of the parallelism of mem-
 
 264 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 bers and the play of the accent the form of Hebrew 
 verse depends. The ancient verse divisions have been 
 obscured and lost, even if they were ever distinctly 
 marked. We can recover them only by entering into 
 the spirit of the poetry, and allowing ourselves to be 
 carried on in the flow of emotion, marking its beats and 
 varied parallelism. These features of Hebrew poetry 
 make it a " universal poetry," for the parallelism can be 
 reproduced in the main in most languages into which 
 Hebrew poetry may be translated, and even the same 
 number of accents may be to a great extent preserved ; 
 only that the coloring of the words, and the varied 
 ihythm of their utterance, and the strong beating of the 
 accent, can only be experienced by a Hebrew scholar 
 in the careful and practiced reading of the Hebrew text. 
 
 III. THE PARALLELISM OF MEMBERS. 
 
 Having considered the characteristics of Hebrew 
 j>oetry and the forms of its verses in general, we have 
 now to examine more particularly the various kinds of 
 I)arallelism. 
 
 The simplest form of the parallelism of Hebrew 
 
 poetry is the distich, where two lines or verses balance 
 
 one another in thought and expression, as in the earliest 
 
 \ / specimen of poetry in the Bible (Gen. iv. 23, seq), called 
 
 the sword song of Lemekh : 
 
 " 'Adah and Zillah, hear my voice ; 
 Wives of Lemekh, oh, give ear to my song ; 
 Surely a man do I slay for wounding me, 
 And a boy for hurting me. 
 If sevenfold Cain be avenged, 
 Then Lemekh seventy and seven." 
 
 We have here six lines in three couplets. In the first
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 265 
 
 couplet the parallelism is completely synonymous ; 
 " wives of Lemekh " being synonymous with " 'Adah 
 and Zillah ;" and " give ear to my song " with " hear my 
 voice "; that is to say, the same essential idea is ex- 
 pressed in the two lines in language which varies only 
 as synonymous terms and expressions vary. In the 
 second couplet the terms are also synonymous, except 
 in one particular, where there is an emphatic progress 
 in the descent from " man " to " boy." In the third 
 couplet, whilst the thought is synonymous, there is yet 
 an emphasis in the changing of two terms, from " Cain " 
 to " Lemekh," and from ''sevenfold" to " seventy and 
 seven." 
 
 A beautiful example, resembling the last couplet, is 
 given in the chorus of the damsels in praise of the vic- 
 tories of David (i Sam. xviii. 7) : 
 
 " Saul smote his thousands, 
 And David his myriads." 
 
 Antithetical distichs are most numerous and varied in 
 the book of Proverbs, thus (Prov. x. 1-5) : 
 
 " I. A wise son maketh glad his father ; 
 
 But a foolish son is the grief of his mother. 
 •' 2. Treasures of wickedness profit not ; 
 
 But righteousness delivereth from death. 
 " 3. Jehovah will not let the desire of the righteous famish ; 
 
 But the craving of the wicked He disappointeth. 
 "4. He becometh poor that worketh with an idle hand ; 
 
 But the hand of the diligent maketh rich. 
 " 5. He that gathereth in fruit harvest is a wise son ; 
 
 But he that lies in deep sleep in grain harvest is a base son." 
 
 In the second of these couplets the antithesis is through- 
 out : "Righteousness" to "treasures of wickedness," 
 and " delivereth from death " to " profit not." Usually, 
 12
 
 266 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 however, there are one or more synonymous terms to 
 make the antithesis more emphatic. In the fourth 
 couplet " hand " is a common term, and the contrast 
 is of "idle" and "diligent," " becometh poor" and 
 " maketh rich." In the third couplet "Jehovah" is a 
 common term with " He," and " desire " synonymous 
 with " craving," in order to the antithesis of " righteous " 
 with " wicked," and " will not let famish " with " disap- 
 pointeth." In the first couplet " son " is a common 
 term ; " father " and " mother " are synonymous, in or- 
 der to the antithesis of " wise " and " foolish," " maketh 
 glad " and " grief." In the fifth couplet " son " is a com- 
 mon term, " fruit harvest " is synonymous with " grain 
 harvest," whereas "wise" has as its antithesis " base," 
 and " gathereth " " lies in deep sleep." 
 
 Sometimes the antithesis is limited to a single term, 
 as in Prov. xvi. 9 : 
 
 " Man's heart deviseth his way ; 
 But Jehovah directeth his steps." 
 
 Here the contrast is between " man's heart " and " Jeho- 
 vah," the remaining terms are synonymous. 
 
 The antithesis sometimes becomes more striking in 
 the antithetical position of the terms themselves, as in 
 Prov. xiii. 24 : 
 
 " He that spareth his rod, hateth his son ; 
 But he that loveth him seeketh him chastisement." 
 
 The common terms are "father" and "son," the anti- 
 thetical, "spareth his rod" with "seeketh him chastise- 
 ment," and "hateth" with " loveth "; but that which 
 closes the first line begins the second, and that which 
 begins the first closes the second. 
 
 Parallelism is ordinarily progressive in that great
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 2G7 
 
 variety of forms which such a rich and powerful language 
 as the Hebrew renders possible. 
 
 The blessing of Abram by Melchizedek (Gen. xiv. 19, 
 20) is composed of two progressive distichs : 
 
 " Blessed be Abram of God Most High, 
 Founder of heaven and earth ; 
 And blessed be God Most High, 
 Who hath delivered thy adversaries into thy hand." 
 
 In the first of these couplets the second line advances 
 from the idea of " God Most High " into that of " Found- 
 er of heaven and earth." In the second couplet, the 
 second line advances from " God Most High " into " who 
 hath delivered thy adversaries into thy hand." 
 
 The blessing of Rebekah by her brothers (Gen. xxiv. 
 60) is a progressive distich : 
 
 •" O thou our sister, become thousands of myriads, 
 And may thy seed inherit the gate of those that hate them." 
 
 The second line sums up the "thousands of myriads" 
 of the first, in order to give the climax of the wish, in 
 the inheritance of the gate of their enemies. 
 
 The words of Moses when the ark of the covenant set 
 forward and when it rested are couplets (Num. x. 35): 
 
 " Arise, Jehovah, and let Thine enemies be scattered ; 
 And let those who hate Thee flee from before Thee. 
 
 Return, Jehovah, 
 
 To the myriads of thousands of Israel." 
 
 The first of these couplets is synonymous throughout ; 
 the second is an example of an unfinished line, the pause 
 in the poetical movement is to give more emphasis to the 
 second line when its advanced idea is expressed. 
 
 The tristich is developed from the distich with the
 
 268 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 same variety of parallelisms. The song of Sarah (Gen. 
 xxi. 6, 7) gives us both a distich and tristich : 
 
 *' Laughter hath God made for me. 
 Whosoever heareth will laugh with me. 
 Who could have said to Abraham, 
 Sarah doth suckle children. 
 For I have borne a son for his old age." 
 
 The distich is synonymous in general, although there is 
 an advance in thought by bringing in " whosoever hear- 
 eth " to take part in the laughter of joy. The tristich 
 is progressive in that the second line gives the object of 
 the saying of the first, and the third the reason of it ; 
 while at the same time, the term " borne a son " is synon- 
 ymous with " suckle children " of the second line, and 
 the term " for his old age '* is synonymous with " Abra- 
 ham " of the first line. 
 
 The blessing of Noah (Gen. ix. 25-27) is comprised of 
 two distichs and a tristich. 
 
 " Cursed be Canaan. 
 A servant of servants shall he be to his brethren. 
 Blessed be Jehovah, God of Shem, 
 And let Canaan be their servant. 
 May God spread out Japhet, 
 And may He dwell in the tents of Shem, 
 And let Canaan be their servant." 
 
 In the first distich we have another example of an un- 
 finished line, the second progressive to it. In the sec- 
 ond distich we have a simple progression in the thought. 
 In the final tristich the progression runs on through the 
 three lines. It is also worthy of note that the last line 
 is in the three examples of the nature of a refrain. 
 There are two interesting specimens of the tristich in
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 269 
 
 the blessing of the sons of Joseph by Jacob (Gen. xlviii 
 
 15-20): 
 
 " The God before whom my fathers walked, Abraham and Isaac ; 
 The God who acted as my shepherd from the first even to this day j 
 The Malakh who redeemed me from every evil — bless the lads. 
 And let my name be named in them ; 
 And the name of my fathers, Abraham and Isaac, 
 And let them increase to a great multitude in the midst of the land." 
 
 The first tristich is in its three lines synonymous so far 
 as the first half of the lines, but in the second half there 
 is a steady march to the climax. The second tristich is 
 synonymous in its first and second lines, where the lead- 
 ing idea of the name is varied from Jacob himself to 
 Abraham and Isaac ; but the third line is an advance in 
 thought. 
 
 The priest's blessing (Num. vi. 23) is also an example 
 of a synonymous tristich : 
 
 '• Jehovah bless thee and keep thee ; 
 Jehovah let His face shine upon thee and be gracious to thee ; 
 Jehovah lift up His face upon thee and give thee peace." 
 
 The tetrastich is formed from the disticli, and consists 
 generally of pairs balanced over against one another, 
 but sometimes of three lines against one ; rarely there 
 is a steady march of thought to the end. 
 
 The oracle respecting Jacob and Ksau (G^n, xxv. 23) 
 's an example of balanced pairs : 
 
 " Two nations are in thy womb. 
 And two peoples will separate themselves* firom tht Ivrfels ; 
 And people will i)revail over people. 
 And the elder will serve the younger." 
 
 The pairs are synonymous within themselves, bu( pro« 
 gressive with reference to one another.
 
 270 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 The blessing of Ephraim by Jacob (Gen. xlviii. 1 9) is 
 an example of antithetical pairs : 
 
 " He also will become a people, 
 And he also will grow great ; 
 
 But yet his younger brother will become greater than he. 
 And his seed will become abundance of nations." 
 
 The song of the well (Num. xxi. 17-18) is an interest- 
 ing and beautiful example of a more involved kind of 
 parallelism, where the second and third lines constitute a 
 synonymous pair ; while at the same time, as a pair they 
 are progressive to the first line, and are followed by a 
 fourth line progressive to themselves : 
 
 " Spring- up well ! Sing to it ! 
 Well that princes have dug ; 
 The nobles of the people have bored, 
 With sceptre, with their staves." 
 
 The dirge of David over Abner (2 Sam. iii. 33-37) 
 presents a similar specimen, where, however, the first 
 and fourth lines are synonymous with one another, as 
 well as the second and third lines : 
 
 " Was Abner to die as a fool dieth ! 
 Thy hands were not bound, 
 And thy feet were not put in fetters ; 
 As one falling before the children of wickedness, thou did'st fall." 
 
 A fine example of a tetrastich, progressive throughout, 
 is found in the extract from an ancient ode (i Chron. 
 xii. 8), describing the Gadites who joined David's band : 
 
 " Heroes of valor, men, a host. 
 For battle, wielders of shield and spear ; 
 And their faces were faces of a lion, 
 And like roes upon the mountains for swiftness." 
 
 Th-Q pe7itastich is usually a combination of the distich
 
 HEBilEW POETRY. 271 
 
 and tristich. A beautiful specimen is given in Josh. x. 
 12, 13, probably a strophe of an ode of victory over the 
 Canaanites at Bethhoron, which has been lost ; 
 
 "Sun stand still in Gibeon, 
 And moon in the valley of Ajalon ; 
 And the sun stood still. 
 And the moon stood, 
 Until the people avenged themselves on their enemies." 
 
 The first and second lines are essentially synonymous, 
 and so the third and fourth ; but the second pair is pro- 
 gressive to the first, and the fifth line is progressive to 
 the second pair. 
 
 The oracle with which Amasai joined David's band 
 (i Chron. xii. 18) is an example of the same kind, save 
 that the fifth line is progressive to the previous four 
 
 lines: 
 
 " Thine are we, Da\'id, 
 And with thee, son of Jesse. 
 Peace, peace to thee. 
 And peace to thy helpers ; 
 For thy God dotli help thee." 
 
 The hexastich is a combination of two tristichs, or a 
 tetrastich and distich, and is often used in poems. The 
 blessmg of Jacob by Isaac (Gen. xxvii. 27 seq^ gives us 
 an example of a tetrastich and hexastich : 
 
 " See the smell of my son ! 
 It is like the smell of a field which Jehovah hath blessed. 
 And may God give thee of the dew of heaven, 
 And the fulness of earth, and abundance of corn and new wine.' 
 
 " May peoples bless thee, 
 
 And nations do thee homage, 
 
 Be thou lord of thy brethren, 
 
 And may the sons of thy mother do thee homage. 
 
 Blessed be those who bless thee, 
 
 And cursed be those who curse thee."
 
 272 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 The tetrastich has its first line unfinished ; its second 
 progressive thereto ; the third and fourth Hnes are also 
 progressive. The hexastich is composed of three coup- 
 lets, the first and second having their lines synonymous, 
 the third couplet antithetical, but the pairs are progres. 
 sive with reference to one another. 
 
 Isaac's blessing of Esau (Gen. xxvii. 39, 40) is also a 
 hexastich : 
 
 " Lo far from the fatness of the earth will thy dwelling-place be. 
 And far from the dew of heaven above, 
 And by thy sword wilt thou live ; 
 And thy brother wilt thou serve. 
 And it will come to pass when thou wilt rove about, 
 Thou wilt break off his yoke from upon thy neck." 
 
 Longer groupings of lines are found in poems of vari- 
 ous kinds : the description of the horse in Job xxxix. 
 19-25 has fourteen lines, the conclusion of the blessing 
 of Moses (Deut. xxxiii.) has seventeen lines. 
 
 IV. THE STROPHE. 
 
 The strophe is to the poem what the lines or verses 
 are in relation to one another in the system of parallel- 
 ism. They are composed of a greater or lesser number of 
 lines, sometimes equal, and sometimes unequal. Where 
 there is a uniform flow of the emotion the strophes will 
 be composed of the same number of lines, and will be as 
 regular in relation to one another as the lines of which 
 they are composed ; but where the emotion is agitated 
 by passion, or broken by figures of speech, or abrupt in 
 transitions, they will be irregular and uneven. The 
 strophes are subject to the same principles of parallelism 
 as the lines themselves, and are thus either synonymous 
 to one another, antithetical, or progressive, in those sev-
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 2^3 
 
 era! x arieties of parallelism already mentioned. A fa- 
 vorite arrangement is the balancing of one strophe with 
 another on the principle of the distich, then agam o 
 two with one as a tristich. Thus the song (Deut. xxxik) 
 has three parts of four strophes in each part, arranged 
 in double pairs of strophe and antistrophe, accordmg to 
 th^ scheme of 3 x 2 x 2. The song of Deborah (Judges 
 V ) is composed of three parts, with three strophes m 
 each part according to the scheme of 3 x 3- These divis- 
 ions are determined by the principles of parallelism, not 
 being indicated by any signs or marks in the Hebrew 
 text One of the earliest examples of strophes is in the 
 ode (Num. xxi. 27-30), composed of three strophes grad- 
 ually diminishing in accordance with its dirge-like char- 
 acter, a favorite conceit of Hebrew poets; thus of 6.5.4 
 lines.' The ode is abrupt in style, rapid in transitions, 
 full of rare forms and expressions, with frequent allitera- 
 tions, and of real beauty : 
 
 " Come to Hesbon ! 
 
 Built, yea established be the city of Sihon ; 
 
 For fire went forth from Hesbon, 
 
 Flame from the city of Sihon. 
 
 It consumed Ar of Moab, 
 
 The lords of the high places of Arnon. 
 
 " Woe to thee, Moab ! 
 
 Thou art lost, people of Chemosh ! 
 He hath given over his sons unto flight, 
 And his daughters unto captivity, 
 Unto the king of the Amorites, Sihon ! 
 
 " Then we shot at them.— He was lost,— 
 Hesbon unto Dibon. — 
 And we wasted them even to Nophah, 
 With fire unto Medebah." 
 
 12*
 
 gY4 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 The oracle of Balaam (Num. xxiv. 3-9) is composed 
 of five strophes, according to the scheme ; 5.6.4.5.4 lines 
 
 " Oracle of Balaam, son of Beor ; 
 
 Oracle of the man whose eye was shut ; 
 Oracle of one hearing the words of God, 
 Who was gazing at the vision of the Almighty, 
 Fallen down and with eyes uncovered. 
 
 " How excellent thy tents, Jacob I 
 Thy dwellings, Israel I 
 Like streams spread out. 
 Like gardens by a river, 
 Like aloes which Jehovah planted. 
 Like cedars by the water. 
 
 " Water flows from his backets. 
 And his seed are on many waters. 
 That his king may be higher than Agag, 
 And his kingdom exalt itself. 
 
 " God bringeth him forth from Egypt, 
 Like the swiftness of the yore-ox hath he ; 
 He devoureth nations, his adversaries, 
 And their bones he cruncheth. 
 And their arrows crusheth. 
 
 " He doth bow down, doth couch as a lion. 
 And as a lioness ; who would stir him up? 
 Blessed be those who bless thee. 
 But cursed be those who curse thee." 
 
 The last song of David (2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7) is composed 
 of five strophes of five lines each (the first strophe being 
 restored to its original form by elimination of title and 
 editorial comments) : 
 
 " Oracle of the man raised up on high. 
 The spirit of Jehovah speaks in me ; 
 And His word is upon my tongue, 
 The God of Israel doth say to me, 
 The Rock of Israel doth speak.
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 275 
 
 •* A ruler over men — righteous ; 
 A ruler in the fear of God. 
 
 Yea, he is like the morning light when the sun rises, 
 A morning without clouds. 
 From shining, fKDm rain, tender grass sprouts from the earth 
 
 " Is not thus my house with God ? 
 
 For an everlasting covenant hath He made with me. 
 Arranged in all things, and secured. 
 Yea, all my salvation and every delight 
 Will He not cause it to sprout ? 
 
 " But the worthless, like thorns all of them are thrust away. 
 For they cannot be taken with the hand. 
 The man touching them 
 
 Must be armed with iron, and the spear's staff. 
 And with fire they will be utterly consumed." 
 
 Further illustrations of the strophe will be given in 
 connection with the external marks of division now to 
 be considered. The simplest and most natural of these 
 IS the Refrain. A good example of the Refrain is given 
 in Pss. xlii. and xliii., which are really one : 
 
 ' As a hart which crieth out after the water brooks, 
 So my soul crieth out for Thee, O God ! 
 My soul doth thirst for God, for the God of life : 
 How long ere I shall come to appear before the face of God ? 
 My tears have been to me food day and night ; 
 While they say unto me all day, ' Where is thy God ? ' 
 These things would I remember, and would pour out my soul with- 
 in me : 
 How I used to pass along in the throng, used to lead them up to 
 
 the house of God, 
 With the sound of rejoicing and praise, a multitude keeping fes- 
 tival, 
 Why art thou bowed down, my soul ? and why art thou moan- 
 ing within me ? 
 Wait on God : for yet shall I praise Him, 
 The deliverance of my face, and my God.
 
 276 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 " Wherefore would I remember Thee from the land of Jordan, and 
 the Hermons, from the mount Mizar. 
 Deep unto deep is calling to the sound of Thy cataracts ; 
 All Thy breakers and Thy billows do pass over me : 
 By day Jehovah will appoint His mercy, 
 And by night His song will be with me, prayer to the God of my 
 
 life. 
 I must say to the God of my rock, Why dost Thou forget me ? 
 Why go I mourning because of the oppression of an enemy ? 
 As a breaking in my bones my adversaries do reproach me ; 
 While they say unto me all day, ' Where is thy God ? ' 
 
 Why art thou bowed down, my soul ? and why art thou moan- 
 ing within me ? 
 Wait on God : for yet shall I praise Him, 
 The deliverance of my face, and my God. 
 
 " Judge me, O God, and plead my cause against an unmerciful na- 
 tion ; 
 Against a man of deceit and wickedness, deliver me. 
 O Thou God, my fortress, why dost Thou cast me off.-* 
 Why must I go about mourning because of the oppression of an 
 
 enemy ? 
 Send Thy light and Thy truth : let them lead me ; 
 Let them bring me unto Thy holy mount, even to Thy dwellings. 
 That I may come to the altar of God, 
 To the God of the joy of my rejoicing, 
 That I may praise Thee with harp, O God, my God. 
 
 Why art thou bowed down, my soul.? and why art thou moan- 
 ing within me ? 
 Wait on God ; for yet shall I praise Him, 
 The deliverance of my face, and my God." 
 
 The strophes have each nine lines, the refrain three 
 lines. We are well aware that other arrangements of the 
 lines are usual, and that objection may be taken to our 
 elimination of ver. 7 a ; but it seems clearly established 
 that a copyist's mistake has caused the refrain of the 
 first strophe to be deprived of its closing word, which 
 begins this verse ; and the other three words are easiest
 
 HEBREW POETHY, 277 
 
 to explain as copyist's mistakes, also repeated from the 
 refrain. 
 
 Psalm viii. is a beautiful example of a hymn with a 
 refrain, having the peculiarity that the refrain begins the 
 first strophe and closes the second : 
 
 " Jehovah, our Lord, 
 
 How excellent is Thy name in all the earth 1 
 ' Thou whose glory doth extend over the heavens. 
 Out of the mouth of little children and sucklings 
 Thou dost establish strength because of Thine adversaries. 
 To silence enemy and avenger. 
 When I see Thy heavens, the work of Thy fingers. 
 Moon and stars which Thou hast prepared ; 
 What is frail man, that Thou shouldst be mindful of him ? 
 Or the son of man, that Thou visitest him ? 
 
 When Thou didst make him a little lower than the angels. 
 
 With glory and honor crowning him, 
 
 Thou mad'st him to have dominion over the works of Thy hands ; 
 
 All things Thou didst put under his feet : 
 
 Sheep and oxen, all of them ; 
 
 And also beasts of the field ; 
 
 Birds of heaven, and fishes of the sea ; 
 
 Those that pass through the paths of the seas. 
 
 Jehovah, our Lord, 
 
 How excellent is Thy name in all the earth ! " 
 
 But the refrain does not always divide the poem into 
 equal strophes. Thus the dirge (2 Sam. i. 19-27) is 
 composed of three parts, which melt away according to 
 the scheme of 18, 5, i. The refrain itself does not al- 
 ways correspond throughout. Thus in Ps. Ixxx. it in- 
 creases itself for emphasis in the heaping up of the 
 divine names in the successive strophes ; and where the 
 two middle strophes constitute a double strophe, giving 
 the allegory of the vine with a double refrain at the 
 close, massing together a series of imperatives. Ps. xlv.
 
 278 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 gives us a varying refrain and three gradually-increasing 
 parts. The refrain is also used for the division of larger 
 pieces of poetry, as in the Song of Songs, where it di- 
 vides the poem into five acts ; and in the prophet Isaiah, 
 xl.-lxvi., which it divides into three great divisions.* 
 
 Another means of marking the strophes is the alpha- 
 bet, whereby the line or strophe begins with successive 
 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. This seems to have 
 been designed as an aid to the memory, and to mark the 
 advance step by step. They constitute, as it were, lad- 
 ders up which the poet climbs in his prayers, exhortations, 
 and praises, and down which he climbs in his lamenta- 
 tions. Sometimes the alphabet in its order marks the 
 initial letters of the lines, as in Pss. xii. and cxi. ; some- 
 times of couplets, as in Pss. xxv., xxxiv., cxlv. ; and again 
 in strophes of four lines, as in Pss. ix., x., and xxxvii. ; and 
 in the long Ps. cxix. in greater strophes, in which every 
 couplet begins with the same letter, eight times repeated 
 in each strophe. The alphabetic structure reaches its 
 culmination in the book of Lamentations, which is com- 
 posed of five songs, four being alphabetical. In the first 
 and second the strophes are of three couplets, in the 
 third song also of three couplets ; but each of these be- 
 gins with the letter proper to the strophe, so that it is 
 repeated three times in each strophe. The fourth song 
 is composed of alphabetical strophes of two couplets. 
 
 The Selah in the Psalter is thought by some, notably 
 a recent scholar, Julius Ley, to always mark the divis- 
 ions of the strophe when it occurs; but in our judgment 
 it is rather a musical sign, and has no relation to the 
 poetic structure whatever. 
 
 * The author has recently discovered that Gen. i. is a poem of the Creation in 
 six strophes with a refrain. The lines are ordinarily five-toned. Strophes i. and 
 ii. liave seven lines each ; iii.-v. ten lines each ; vi. is a double strophe of twenty 
 lines with a double refrain. See the Old Testament Student^ Chicago, April, 
 T884.
 
 HEBBjEW POETRY. 279 
 
 V. THE MEASUREMENT BY WORDS OR ACCENTS. 
 
 The accent seems to measure the Hebrew verses, so 
 that in the main the lines will have the same number of 
 beats ; but the delight of Hebrew poetry in its freedom 
 prevents the carrying of the principle out into the forms 
 of metrical laws. The three-toned lines, which may, in 
 a restricted sense, be named trimeters, are favorites in 
 early poetry ; then come four-toned lines and five-toned. 
 Six-toned lines occur, but they are not so frequent. 
 There can be no doubt that the Maqqeph, as placed at 
 present, has reference to cantillation in the synagogue, 
 and not the original metrical movement. Yet there is 
 no reason to doubt that in the main it corresponds with 
 the old metrical arrangement. It must, however, be 
 rejected in some cases, and in others inserted, where 
 it is not found in the present text. The power of 
 the language to reduce the number of accented words, 
 by joining two or more together, must have been of 
 great service to the Hebrew poet. As a specimen, we 
 give from the first oracle of Balaam (Num. xxiii. 7, seq^ 
 the first strophe in Hebrew transliterated : 
 
 Min — 'ara'm | yanhe'ni | B414'q. 
 Me'lekh | Moa'b | mehar^re — q6dem. 
 L*khah | 'irih — li | ya'»q6bh 
 Ul'khS.h I z6''mah | yisVa-'el 
 Mih — 'eqqob | 16' — qabboh | 'el 
 Umih — 'ez'om | 16' — zi'am | Jahveh. 
 
 To show this as far as possible to the English reader 
 v\'e translate : 
 
 " From Aram | Balaq | brings me, 
 The king | of Moab | from the mountains of the East. 
 O come I curse for me | Jacob 
 And oh come | execrate | Israel.
 
 280 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 How can I denounce | what God | doth not denounce ? 
 And how can I execrate | what Jehovah | doth not execrate ? 
 
 " For from tlie top | of rocks | I see him, 
 And from hills | I spy him. 
 Lo a people | alone | will he dwell, 
 And among nations | he will not | be reckoned. 
 Who hath counted | the dust | of Jacob ? 
 And as to number | the fourth | of Israel ? 
 Let me myself die | the death | of the upright. 
 And let my last end | be | like his." 
 
 The closing distich is of the nature of a refrain. There 
 is but one exception to three-toned lines ; the second 
 line of the second strophe having but two tones. 
 
 The second prophecy of Balaam is the same in struct- 
 ure (Num. xxiii. 18-24) : two strophes of six lines each, 
 three-toned, with a refrain in four three-toned line*.. 
 The several prophecies of Jacob (Gen. xlix.) are three- 
 toned, also the songs of Moses (Deut. xxxii. and xxxiii.) 
 The ode (Exod. xv.) is four-toned. The refrain we givj. 
 in Hebrew : 
 
 Shiru I 1" Jahveh | khi — gha'oh j gha'ah 
 Sus I w" rokh^bho | rdmah | bayyam. 
 
 We translate the first strophe : 
 
 " My strength | and song is Jah | and He has become | my salvation. 
 The same is my God | that I may glorify Him | my Father's God | 
 
 that I may exalt Him. 
 Jehovah is | a warrior, | Jehovah is | His name. 
 Chariots of Pharaoh | and his host | He hath thrown | into the sea, 
 And the choicest | of his charioteers | are drowned | in the sea of 
 
 reeds. 
 The depths | cover them over, ] they descend | into the deep places 
 I like a stone." 
 
 The last line is lengthened to five tones for the climax. 
 Psalm iv. is an evening prayer of David, composed of
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 281 
 
 five strophes in the scheme of 3.4.34.3, and generally 
 four toned lines : 
 
 " When I call | answer me | God | of my righteousness. 
 In trouble | Thou didst enlarge | for me, 
 Be gracious to me | and hear | my prayer. 
 
 " Ye sons of man | how long | shall my glory | become shame ? 
 Will ye love | vanity | will ye seek | a lie ? 
 But know I that Jehovah | hath wonderfully selected | a pious man 
 
 for Himself. 
 Jehovah | heareth | when I call | unto Him. 
 
 " Be ye angry | but do not | sin, 
 Speak I in your heart | upon your bed | and be still. 
 Sacrifice | sacrifices of righteousness | and trust | unto Jehovah. 
 
 " Many ] are saying | who can show us | good ? 
 Let wave upon them | the light | of thy face | Jehovah. 
 Thou hast given | joy | in my heart. 
 
 More than at the time when | their corn | and their new wine ) 
 increased. 
 
 " In peace ] together | I will lie down | to sleep. 
 For Thou | Jehovah | alone, 
 In confidence | causeth me to dwell." 
 
 The first psalm is an example of two strophes, the one 
 of eight four-toned lines, the other of six three-toned 
 lines : 
 
 " O the blessedness | of the man | 
 
 Who does not | walk | in the counsel | of the wicked, 
 
 And in the way | of sinners | doth not | stand, 
 
 And in the seat | of scorners | doth not | sit ; 
 
 But on the contrary | in the doctrine | of Jehovah | is his delight, 
 . And in His doctrine | he meditateth | day | and night : 
 
 And so he is | like a tree | planted | by brooks of water. 
 
 Which yieldeth | its fruit | in its season, 
 
 And its leaf | withereth not | and ail which he doeth | he causetb 
 to prosper.
 
 288 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 " Not so I the wicked | 
 
 But on the contrary, like the chaff | which the wind | driveth away^ 
 Wherefore the wicked | shall not stand | in the judgment, 
 Nor sinners | in the congregation | of the righteous, 
 For Jehovah knoweth | the way | of the righteous ; 
 But the way | of the wicked | goeth to ruin." 
 
 The nineteenth psalm is an interesting example of 
 varied measurement. It is composed of two parts : the 
 first of two strophes of six and eight four-toned lines, 
 the last of eight and six five-toned lines. It is only nec- 
 essary to call attention to these five-toned lines as really 
 composed of 3 + 2, with a caesura-like pause. Thus, the 
 first strophe of the second part : 
 
 " The doctrine | of Jehovah ( is perfect, | restoring | the soul ; 
 The testimony ( of Jehovah | is reliable, || making wise | the simple; 
 The statutes | of Jehovah | are upright, 1| rejoicing | the heart ; 
 The command | of Jehovah | is pure, |i enlightening | the eyes ; 
 The fear | of Jehovah | is clear, I standing | for ever ; 
 The judgments | of Jehovah | are truth, | they are righteous | alto- 
 gether : 
 Those desirable | more than gold |1 or than fine | gold ; 
 Sweeter | than honey || and the drippings | of the comb." 
 
 The twenty-third psalm shows a beautiful progress 
 in the gradual lengthening of the lines in the three 
 strophes : 
 
 " Jehovah is | my shepherd | I cannot want. 
 In pastures | of green grass | He causeth me to lie down ; 
 Unto waters | of refreshment [ He leadeth me ; 
 Myself I He restoreth | 
 
 ' He guideth me | in paths | of righteousness | for His name's sake ; 
 Also I when I walk | in the valley | of dense darkness, 
 I fear not | evil, | for Thou art ( with me, 
 Thy rod | and Thy staff | they | comfort me.
 
 EUEBREW POETRY. 283 
 
 "* He prepareth ] before me | a table | in the presence | of my adver- 
 saries ; 
 Has he anointed | with oil | my head, | my cup | is abundance ; 
 Surely goodness | and mercy | pursue me | all the days | of my hfe, 
 And I shall return | to dwell in the house | of Jehovah [ for 
 length I of days." 
 
 Isaiah xxvL i-6 gives an example of six-toned lines : 
 
 " A city of strength | have we, 9 salvation | is put | for walls | and 
 rampart. 
 
 Open I the gates || that a righteous nation | keeping | faithfulness 
 I may enter. 
 
 One in purpose firm | Thou keepest | in peace ; | in peace, | for in 
 Thee | he trusteth. 
 
 Trust in Jehovah | for ever, i yea, in Jah | Jehovah | a rock ever- 
 lasting. 
 
 'Tis He doth bringdown ] dwellers | on high || a city | inaccessible ; 
 
 He bringeth it low, | he bringeth it low | unto earth, || razeth it | 
 to the dust ; 
 
 The foot I trampleth it, | feet | of the afflicted, | steps | of the 
 weak." 
 
 Examples might be multiplied indefinitely, but we 
 have given enough to illustrate the principle. 
 
 VI. POETIC LANGUAGE. 
 
 As in all other languages, so in the Hebrew the poetic 
 style is elevated, artistic, and cultivated, and hence above 
 the every-day talk of the houses and streets. For this 
 purpose it selects not the language of the schools, which 
 becomes technical, pedantic, and artificial, but the older 
 language, which, with its simplicity and strong vital 
 energy, is in accord with the poetic spirit. 
 
 Thus in the forms of the language there is (a) an 
 occasional use of the fuller sounding forms, as athaJi for 
 aJi^ of the fern, noun ; {p) the older endings of preposi- 
 tions in b^li for bal, minni for miny 'dli for V/, 'dli for 'al,
 
 284 BIBLICAL STDDr. 
 
 'ddhi for ^ad ; {c) the older case endings of nouns as 
 chay^tho for chayyath, and b^ni for ben; {d) the older 
 suffix forms in vio and ^mo for dm; {e) the fuller forms 
 of the inseparable prepositions l^inS for l^, ¥m6 for b^ ; 
 {/) the ?tun paragogic or archaic ending of 3 pf. of 
 verbs, ti7i for ii. 
 
 The style is more primitive, using many archaic ex- 
 pressions that have been lost to the classic language. 
 There are in the older books so-called Aramaisms. There 
 are, however, carefully to be distinguished, an earlier 
 and a later Aramaism. The monuments of Assyria and 
 Babylon show us that the earlier Hebrew language waij 
 historically in contact with the languages of Syria and 
 the Euphrates. The Assyrian and Babylonian shed great 
 light on these poetic archaisms. A later connection of 
 Hebrew with Aramaic is indicated in the later historical 
 writings of the Bible, which is of an altogether differer t 
 type. The poetic language is also remarkably rich i i 
 synonyms, exceedingly flexible and musical in structure 
 and thus the older forms are retained in these synonym t 
 for variety of representation, when they have lonj ; 
 passed from use in the prose literature. 
 
 VII. THE KINDS OF HEBREW POETRY. 
 
 Hebrew poetry may be divided into three general 
 classes, Lyric, Gnomic, and Composite. (i) Lyric 
 poetry is the earliest development of literature. We 
 find it scattered through the various historical and pro- 
 phetical books, and also in the great collection of Hebrew 
 lyric poetry, the Psalter. The three pieces ascribed to 
 Moses, Ex. XV., Psalm xc, and Deut. xxxii., subdivide 
 lyric poetry into the hymn, the prayer, and the song. 
 The hymn is found in rich variety — the evening hymn, 
 the morning hymn, the hymn in a storm, hymns of vie-
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 285 
 
 tor)' Of odes, as that of the victory over the Egyptians, 
 Ex. XV. ; over the Moabites, Num. xxi. ; the ode of the 
 battle of Beth Horon, Josh. x. ; the song of Deborah, 
 Judges V. ; the thanksgiving as in the song of Hannah, 
 and many pieces of Isaiah ; the grand oratorio, Ps. 
 xcii.-c, and the most of the fourth and fifth books of 
 the Psalter, containing the greater and lesser hallels, the 
 hallelujah psalms and doxologies. The prayers are 
 in rich variety — evening and morning prayers, a litany 
 ?)efore a battle, prayers for special and national deliver 
 ance ; psalms of lamentation, penitence, religious medi- 
 tation, of faith, and assurance — in all the rich variety of 
 devotion. These are most numerous in the psalms 
 ascribed to David, and may be regarded as especially 
 the Davidic type, although the xc. psalm ascribed to 
 Moses and Hab. iii. are among the most wonderful 
 specimens, as the one traverses the past and compares 
 the frailness of man with the everlasting God, and the 
 other marches into the future and bows with trembling 
 in the presence of the most sublime Theophany. A 
 special form of this class is the dirge, as the laments of 
 David over Jonathan and Abner, and in the exceed- 
 ingly elaborate and artistic book of Lamentations, and 
 not infrequently in the prophets. The songs are abun- 
 dant, and in every variety: the sword song of Lamech, 
 the birth song of Sarah, the blessings of the patriarchs 
 Noah, Abraham, Isaac, the priest Aaron, and the swan 
 song of David. In the Psalter we have songs of exhor- 
 tation, warning, encouragement, historical recollections, 
 prophetic anticipations, and the love song. The psahns 
 of Asaph arjs chiefly of this class. 
 
 (2) Gnomic poetry has but few specimens in the his- 
 torical books. We have a riddle of the ancient hero 
 Samson :
 
 286 BIBLICAL STUDr. 
 
 "From the eater | came forth | food, 
 And from the strong | came forth | sweetness"; 
 
 followed by a satire : 
 
 " If you I had not ploughed | with my heifer, 
 You would not | have found out | my riddle." 
 
 Judges xiv. 14-18. 
 
 Another witty saying of this hero is preserved : 
 
 " With the jaw-bone | of an ass | a heap | two heaps ; 
 With the jaw-bone | of an ass | have I smitten | a thousand men. 
 
 Judges xv. 16. 
 
 The Hebrews were fond of this species of poetry, but 
 we could hardly expect to find much of it in the Bible.^ 
 Its religious and ethical forms are preserved in a rich 
 collection in the Proverbs, consisting of fables, parables, 
 proverbs, riddles, moral and political maxims, satires, 
 philosophical and speculative sentences. There are up- 
 wards of five hundred distinct couplets, synonymous, 
 antithetical, parabolical, comparative, emblematical, be- 
 sides fifty larger pieces of three, four, five, six, seven, and 
 eight lines, with a few poems, such as the temperance 
 poem (xxiii. 29-35), the pastoral (xxvii. 22-27), the 
 pieces ascribed to the poets Aluqah, Agur, and Lemuel, 
 the alphabetical praise of the talented wife (xxxi. 10-31), 
 and the great admonition of Wisdom in fifteen advanc- 
 ing discourses (i.-ix.). 
 
 A few specimens of this kind of poetry will suffice to 
 illustrate it. 
 
 There are several riddles ascribed to Ahiqah in Prov. 
 XXX. : (i) The riddle of the insatiable things, xxx. 15- 
 
 16: 
 
 " Two daughters | (cry) : give ! | give ! 
 Three | are they | whicli cannot be satisfied ; 
 Four I say not ) enough." 
 
 * See Wunsche, Die Rdthsehueisheii bei d. llebracrn^ Leipzig, 1883.
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 2gY 
 
 The answer : 
 
 • Sheol, 1 and a barren | womb ; 
 Land | cannot be satisfied | with water ; 
 And fire | says not | enough." 
 
 (2) The riddle of the little wise people, xxx. 24-28 : 
 
 " Four 1 are | Httle ones of earth ; 
 But they [ are wise | exceedingly." 
 
 The answer : 
 
 " The ants [ are a people | not strong, 
 But they prepare | in summer | their food ; 
 Conies | are a people | not mighty, 
 But they make | in the rock | their home ; 
 A king I the locusts | have not. 
 But they march forth | in bands | — all of them ; 
 The spider | with the hands | thou mayest catch. 
 But she I dwells in the palaces | of kings," 
 
 A beautiful temperance piece is found in xxiii. 2g--^^, 
 composed of ten lines of five tones each : 
 
 " Who hath woe ? | who hath wretchedness ? J who hath | stripes t 
 I who hath murmuring ? 
 Who hath wounds | without cause ? [ who hath | dark flashing ] 
 
 eyes ? 
 Those tarr)'ing long | at the wine I : those going | to seek | spiced 
 
 wine. 
 Look I not I on wine | when it | sparkleth red ; 
 When it giveth | in the cup | its glance | ; floweth | smoothly : 
 Its end is | that as a serpent | it biteth, || and like an adder | it 
 
 stingeth. 
 Thine eyes | will see | strange things, || and thine heart utter j 
 
 perverse things ; 
 So that thou wilt become | like one lying down | in the heart of 
 
 the sea || ; and like one lying down | on the top of a mast. 
 They have smitten me | (thou wilt say), but I am not | hurt | 
 
 they have wounded me, | I feel it not : 
 How long I ere I shall arise | that I may seek it j yet | again ? "
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Another choice piece is the representation of the sluf. 
 gard, xxiv. 30-34, eleven lines of three tones each : 
 
 " By the field | of a slothful man | 1 passed, 
 And by the vineyard | of a man ( without understanding 
 And lo, its wall | was grown up | with thorns, 
 Its face I covered over | with nettles, 
 And its wall | of stones | was broken down ; 
 So that I gazed j to give it | attention ; 
 I saw I — I received | instruction. 
 A little sleep, | a little | of slumber 
 A little folding | of the hands | to lie down ; 
 And thy poverty | comes | walking on. 
 And thy want | as a man | armed with a shield." 
 
 (3) Composite poetry starts in part from a lyric base 
 as in prophecy, beginning with the blessings of Jacob 
 and Moses, and the poems of Balaam, and in lesser and 
 fjreater pieces in the prophetical writings, the Song of 
 5)ongs, and Lamentations ; in part from a gnomic base 
 as in the book of Job, and Ecclesiastes. 
 
 We shall present a few specimens. 
 
 The first Act of the Song of Songs will give an illus- 
 tration of the use of the dramatic element : 
 
 Scene I. 
 Solo. Let him kiss me with some kisses of his mouth, 
 For thy caresses are better than wine ; 
 For scent thine ointments are excellent ; 
 O thou sweet ointment, poured forth as to thy name I 
 Therefore the virgins love thee. 
 Solo. Oh ! Draw me ! 
 
 Chorus. After thee we will run ! 
 
 Solo. O that the king had brought me to his apartment I 
 Chorus, We will rejoice and we will be glad with thee. 
 We will celebrate thy caresses more than wine. 
 Rightly they love thee. 
 
 Scene II. 
 Shulamite. Dark am I — 
 Chorus. — but lovely —
 
 HEBREW POETRY. ggg 
 
 Shulamite. — daughters of Jerusalem, as the tents of Kedar. 
 
 Chorus. — as the curtains of Solomon. 
 
 Sh. Gaze not upon me because I am swarthy. 
 
 Because the sun scanned me : 
 
 My mother's sons were angry with me, 
 
 They set me as keeper of the vineyards ; 
 
 My vineyard, which is my own, have I not kept- 
 
 O tell me, thou whom my soul loveth : 
 
 Where feedest thou thy flock ? 
 
 Where dost thou let them couch at noon ? 
 
 Why should I be, as one straying 
 
 After the flocks of thy companions ? 
 Ch. If thou knowest not of thyself, thou fairest among women. 
 
 Go forth for thyself at the heels of the flock. 
 
 And feed thy kids at the tabernacles of the shepherds. 
 
 Scene III. 
 
 Solomon. To my mare in the choice chariot of Pharaoh I liken thee 
 my friend. 
 Lovely are thy cheeks in rows (of coin), thy neck in thy neck- 
 lace ! 
 Rows of gold we will make thee, with chains of silver. 
 Sh. While the king was in his divan my nard gave its scent. 
 
 A bundle of myrrh, is my beloved to me, that lodgeth between 
 
 my breasts ; 
 A cluster of henna, is my beloved to me, in the vineyards of 
 En Geddi. 
 Sol. Lo thou art lovely, my friend, 
 
 Lo thine eyes are doves. 
 Sk. Lo thou art lovely, my beloved. 
 
 Yea sweet, yea our arbour is green. 
 Sol. The timbers of our houses are cedar. 
 
 Our wainscoting cypress. 
 Sk. I am the flower of Sharon, 
 
 The anemone of the valleys. 
 Sol. As the anemone among the thorns, ' 
 
 So is my friend among the daughters. 
 Sh. As the apricot among the trees of the wood. 
 So is my beloved among the sons. 
 In its shadow I dclijjhted to sit, 
 13
 
 290 BIBLICAL SiTUDT. 
 
 And its fruit was sweet to my tiste. 
 
 that he had brought me to th« vineyard. 
 His banner over me being love- • 
 
 Sustain me with raisin-cakes, support me with apricots; 
 
 For I am love sick 
 
 His left hand would be under my head, 
 His right hand would embrace me 
 
 1 adjure you, daughters of Jerusalem, by the gazelles, 
 Or by the hinds of the field that ye »\ruuse not. 
 And that ye stir not up love till it picas'*- 
 
 The finest piece of ethics in the Old Testament is 
 found in Job xxxi. : 
 
 " (l) A covenant have I concluded with my eyiv \ 
 How then should I consider a maiden ? 
 Else what portion of Eloah from above. 
 Or inheritance of Shadday from on high ? 
 Is there not destruction for the evil doer • 
 And calamity for the worker of iniquity ? 
 Is He not seeing my ways ; 
 And all my steps counting ? 
 
 " (2) If I have walked with falsehood. 
 
 And my foot has made haste unto deceit 
 Let Him weigh me in righteous balances^ 
 That Eloah may know my integrity ! 
 If my step used to incline from fhe way, 
 And after my eyes my heart did walk, 
 And to my palms a spot did cle^^ve, 
 Let me sow and let another eat, 
 And as for my crops, let them be rioted out. 
 
 ' (3) If my heart hath been seduced unto a woman. 
 And at the door of my neighbour I have lurked 
 Let my wife grind the mill for another. 
 And over her let others bend ; 
 For that were infamy ; 
 And that were an iniquity for the judg'cs ; 
 For it is a fire that devoureth unto Ab^ddoi^ 
 And in all my increase it rooteth up.
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 291 
 
 " (4) If I used to refuse the right of my slave, 
 
 Or my maid servant, when they plead with me ; 
 
 What could I do when God should rise up, 
 
 And when He would investigate, what could I respond tc 
 
 Him? 
 Did not, in the womb, my maker make him. 
 And one being form us in the belly? 
 
 * (5) If I used to keep back the weak from his desire, 
 And caused the eye of the widow to fail. 
 And ate my portion alone. 
 
 And the orphan did not eat of it : 
 
 Nay — from my youth did he grow up unto me as a father ; 
 And from the womb of my mother I was accustomed to guide 
 her. 
 
 ' (6) If I could see a man ready to perish without clothing 
 
 And the poor having no covering 
 
 Surely his loins blessed me, 
 
 And from the fleece of my sheep he warmed himself. 
 
 If I lifted up my hand over the orphan, 
 
 When I saw my help in the gate 
 
 My shoulder — let it fall from its blade. 
 And my arm — let it be broken from its bone ! 
 For there was fear unto me of calamity from God, 
 And because of His majesty I could not. 
 
 (7) If I have made gold my confidence, 
 
 And unto fine gold said, thou art my tnist ; 
 
 If I used to rejoice that my wealth was great. 
 
 And that my hand had found vast resources ; 
 
 If I used to see the light that it was shining brightly. 
 
 And the moon moving in splendour. 
 
 So that my heart was enticed in secret, 
 
 And my hand kissed my mouth : — 
 
 This also were an iniquity for judges. 
 
 For I had denied El on high. 
 
 " (8) It I was accustomed to rejoice in the calamity of the one hat 
 ing me, 
 Or was excited with joy when evil overtook him ; •
 
 2^2 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Nay ! I did not give my palate to sinning, 
 
 In asking with a curse his life. 
 
 Verily the men of my tent say : 
 
 Who can shew us one not filled with his meat ? 
 
 Without the stranger used not to lodge, 
 
 My doors to the caravan I used to open. 
 
 " (9) If against me my land crieth, 
 And together its furrows weep ; 
 If its strength I have eaten without silver. 
 And the life of its lord I have caused to expire ; 
 Instead of wheat let thorns come forth, 
 And evil weeds instead of barley. 
 
 " (10) If I have covered as man my transgression. 
 Hiding in my bosom my iniquity ; 
 Because I feared the great multitude. 
 And the contempt of the clans made me afraid ; 
 And so was silent, would not go out to the gate : — 
 O that I had one to hear me — 
 Behold my mark ! — Let Shadday answer me ! 
 
 that I had the bill (of accusation) my adversary has written ! 
 Surely I would lift it up on my shoulder, 
 
 1 would bind it as a crown of glory upon me, 
 The number of my steps would I declare to him. 
 As a prince I would approach him." 
 
 We shall finally present a specimen of Prophetic Poe- 
 try, and indeed the most sublime piece in the Old Tes- 
 tament, as well as one of the most artistic (Is. Hi. 13- 
 liii.), consisting of five gradually increasing strophes : 
 
 " (i) Behold my servant shall prosper, 
 
 He shall be lifted up and be exalted and be very high. 
 
 According as many were astonished at thee — 
 
 So disfigured more than a man was his appearance. 
 
 And his form than the sons of men ; — 
 
 So shall he startle many nations ; 
 
 Because of him kings will stop their mouths ; 
 
 For what had not been told them they shall see. 
 
 And v/hat they had not heard they shall attentively consider,
 
 HEBREW POETRY. 293 
 
 (2) Who believed our message, 
 
 And the arm of Jehovah, unto whom was it revealed ? 
 
 When he grew up as a suckling plant before us. 
 
 And as a root out of a dry ground ; 
 
 He had no form and no majesty that we should see him, 
 
 And no appearance that we should take pleasure in him ; 
 
 Despised and forsaken of men ! 
 
 A man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief! 
 
 And as one before whom there is a hiding of the face ! 
 
 Despised, and we regarded him not ! 
 
 (3) Verily our griefs ^g bore 
 
 And our sorrows — ^<? carried them. 
 
 But we regarded him as stricken, 
 
 Smitten of God, and humbled. 
 
 But ^e was one pierced because of our transgressions. 
 
 Crushed because of our iniquities ; 
 
 The chastisement for our peace was upon him ; 
 
 And by his stripes there is healing for us. 
 
 We all like sheep strayed away ; 
 
 Each one turned to his own way. 
 
 While Jehovah caused to light on him the iniquity of us all. 
 
 (4) He was harassed while he was humbling himself 
 And he opens not his mouth ; 
 
 Like a sheep that is being led to the slaughter 
 
 And as an ewe that before her shearers is dumb • — 
 
 And he opens not his mouth. 
 
 From oppression and from judgment he was taiea -iway. 
 
 And among his cotemporaries who was considerio*^. 
 
 That he was cut off from the land of the living-. 
 
 Because of the transgression of my people, one smVV^n fof 
 
 them ? 
 With the wicked his grave was assigned, 
 But he was with the rich in his martyr death ; 
 Because that he had done no violence. 
 And ihcre was no deceit in Ins mouth. 
 
 ' (5) But Jehovah was pleased to crush him with grief! 
 When he himsolf offers a trespass offering.
 
 894 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 He shall see a seed, he shall prolong days ; 
 
 And the pleasure of Jehovah will prosper in his hands: 
 
 On account of his own travail he shall see ; 
 
 He shall be satisfied with his knowledge ; 
 
 My righteous servant shall justify many, 
 
 And their iniquities he shall cany. 
 
 Therefore will I give him a portion consisting of the many ; 
 
 And with the strong shall he divide spoil, 
 
 Because that he exposed himself to death. 
 
 And he was numbered with transgressors, 
 
 And he did bear the sin of many ; 
 
 And for transgressors was suffering infliction." 
 
 In such pieces as these we find the cHmax of He- 
 brew poetic art, where the dramatic and heroic ele- 
 ments combine to produce in a larger whole ethical 
 and religious results with wonderful power. While 
 these do not present us epic or dramatic or pastoral 
 poems in the classic sense, they yet use the epic, dra- 
 matic, and pastoral elements in perfect freedom, com- 
 bining them in a simple and comprehensive manner 
 for the highest* and grandest purposes of the prophet 
 and sage inspired of God, giving us productions of po- 
 etic art that are unique in the world's literature. The 
 dramatic, epic, and pastoral elements are ineans used 
 freely and fully, but not ends. These forms of beauty 
 and grace are simply forms which do not retard the im- 
 agination in admiration of themselves, but direct it to 
 the grandest themes and images of piety and devotion. 
 The wise men of Israel present us in the ideals of the 
 Shulamite, Job, and Koheleth, types of noble character, 
 moral heroism, and purity, that transcend the heroic 
 types of the Iliad or ^neid, wrestling as they do with 
 foes to their souls far more terrible than the spears and 
 javelins and warring gods of Greek or Trojan, advanc- 
 ing step by step, through scene after scene and act after
 
 HEBREW POETRY. £95 
 
 act to holy victory in the fear of God ; victories that 
 will serve for the support and comfort of the human 
 race in all time, which has ever to meet the same incon- 
 sistencies of evil, the same assaults on virtue, the same 
 struggle with doubt and error, therein so vividly and 
 faithfully portrayed to us. The prophets of Israel play 
 upon the great heart of the Hebrew people as upon a 
 thousand-stringed lyre, striking the tones with divinely- 
 guided touch, so that from the dirge of rapidly succeed- 
 ing disaster and ruin, they rise through penitence and 
 petition to faith, assurance, exultation, and hallelujah, 
 laying hold of the deep thoughts and everlasting faith- 
 fulness of God, binding the past and present as by a 
 chain of light to the impending Messianic future ; seeing 
 and rejoicing in the glory of God, which, though now 
 for a season shrouded behind the clouds of disaster, is 
 soon to burst forth in a unique day.* 
 
 * Zech. xiv. 6 seq.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE INTERPRETATION CF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 The word of God came to man at first orally, in con- 
 nection with theophanies. These theophanies are divine 
 manifestations in forms of time and space. From them, 
 as centres, went forth the supernatural influences in word 
 of revelation and deed of miracle. These theophanies 
 attained their culmination in Jesus Christ, the incarnate 
 God, the risen, ascended, and glorified Saviour ; and 
 the divine word reached its completion in His Gos- 
 pel. The word of God, issuing from these theophanic 
 centres, was appropriated more and more by holy men, 
 upon whom the divine Spirit came, taking possession 
 of them, influencing and directing them in the exercise 
 of prophetic ministry. An important part of this min- 
 istry was the oral delivery of the divine word to the 
 people of God in ascending stages of revelation. This 
 word was gradually committed to writing, and assumed 
 the literary forms that are presented to us in the canon 
 of Scripture. 
 
 " It pleased the Lord, at sundry times and in divers manners, to 
 reveal Himself, and to declare that His will unto His Church, and 
 afterward for the better preserving and propagating of the truth, and 
 for the more sure establishment and comfort of the Church against 
 the corruption of the flesh, and the malice of Satan and of the world ; 
 to commit the same wholly unto writing ; which maketh the Hoi} 
 (296)
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 297 
 
 Scripture to be most necessary; these former ways of God's reveal- 
 ing His will unto His people being now ceased." ( Westminster 
 Co/ifc'ssz'on, I, i). 
 
 The word of God, as written, is to be appropriated 
 by man through reading it, meditating upon it, and 
 putting it in practice. 
 
 Reading is an appropriation through the eye and ear 
 and sense perception, of letters, words, and sentences as 
 signs of thought. Meditation is the use of the faculties 
 of the mind in the apprehension of the substance of 
 thought and emotion contained in these signs, the asso- 
 ciation of it with other things, and the application of it 
 to other conditions and circumstances. This appropria- 
 tion must be in accordance with the laws of the appre- 
 hending human soul, with the principles of the compo- 
 sition of written documents, and also with the nature 
 of the things contained in and expressed by the sensible 
 signs. Biblical interpretation is a section of general in- 
 terpretation, and it differs from other special branches 
 in accordance with the internal character of the content;i 
 of the Bible. Interpretation is usually regarded as a sec 
 tion of applied logic* Schleiermacher defines it as the 
 art of correctly understanding an author.f Klausen,:}; 
 as " the scientific establishment and development of the 
 fundamental principles and rules for the understanding 
 of a given discourse." We are constrained to think that 
 this is too narrow a definition. We agree with most in- 
 terpreters in the opinion that it embraces not only the 
 irt of understanding an author, but also the art of ex- 
 
 * See Carpzov, Primae Lineae Herm., Helmstadii, 1790, p. 5 ; SirWm. Ham 
 iTton, Logic, p. 474 ; Klausen, Her7tieneutik des Neuen Testaments, Leipzig, 
 1841, p. 7. 
 
 t Hermeneutik und Kritik, Berlin, 1838, p. 3. 
 
 \ In /. c, p. I.
 
 298 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 position or explanation of an author to others.* We are 
 also compelled to go still further and include as a part 
 of interpretation, the practical application of the sub- 
 stance of the writing to other appropriate conditions 
 and circumstances. The older interpreters, especially 
 among the Puritans, regarded this latter as the chief 
 feature. The interpreter needs according to the older 
 writers, oratio, meditatio, et tentatio. This tentatio, ttial, 
 experience, is the most important of all. This was urged 
 by Jesus : " If any man willeth to do His will he shall 
 know of the teaching, whether it be of God, or whether 
 I speak from myself" (John vii. 17). Bernard says: 
 " He rightly reads Scripture who turns words into 
 deeds." Francis Roberts says : " The mightiest man 
 in practice, will in the end prove the mightiest man in 
 Scripture. Theory is the guide of practice, practice the 
 life of theory ; where Scripture contemplation and ex- 
 perience meet together in the same persons, true Script- 
 ure understanding must needs be heightened and 
 doubled.f 
 
 Biblical interpretation is the central department of 
 biblical study whence all other departments derive their 
 material. In this field the strifes and struggles of cent- 
 uries have taken place. There is no department of 
 study where there has been so many differences, and 
 where there still remains so much confusion. The Bi- 
 ble has human features and divine features. To under- 
 stand them in their harmonious combination is the se- 
 cret of interpretation. This secret is the philosopher's 
 
 * Y.rv\&'=X\, Instituti^ Tnterp. N. T., 1761, ^ 10 ; Pri7iriplcs 0/ Interpretation^ 
 ed. Moses Stuart, A.idover, 4th edition, 184;, p. 14, scq. ; Moms, Jlermeneiitica 
 N. T., ed. Eicbsliidt, Lips., 1797, L, p. 3, seg. ; Inimer, Hcrmeneutics^ Ando 
 ver edition, 1877, p. 10. 
 
 t Claris Bihlicrmn^ 4th edit., London, 1675, p. 11 ; see also Rambach, Insti' 
 tuti07ies Hcrmene2itirat\ Jena, 1723. Sth edit., 1764, p. 2, seq.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 299 
 
 Stone after which multitudes of interpreters have been 
 seeking through the Christian centuries. As Lange ap- 
 propriately says : * 
 
 " As Christ has overcome the world by his cross, as the blood of 
 the martyrs has become the seed of the Church, so also the miscon- 
 ceptions and abuse of the Bible have been obliged to more and more 
 redound to its glorification. The battle of Biblical criticism in the 
 first four centuries brought about the collection and establishment 
 of a purified canon ; the arbitrariness of copyists occasioned the col- 
 lection of codices and the criticism of the text ; the exegesis of the 
 allegorical method, called into life the vindication of the historical 
 sense of Scripture ; the fourfold enchaining of the Bible by exegeti- 
 cal tradition, hierarchical guardianship, ecclesiastical decisions, the 
 Latin language, raised the Bible in the Protestant world almost 
 ;).bove the dignity of a historical revelation of God ; the humanistic 
 f:xposition, as well as the naturalistic explanation of miracles, called 
 into life along with the New Testament Grammar, also the under- 
 standing of the New Testament idiom, over against its customary 
 depreciation in comparison with the classic models ; and finally the 
 pantheistic criticism occasioned the revival and rich unfolding of 
 evangelical history." 
 
 We shall first consider the history of Biblical interpre- 
 tation, then on the basis of its history state its princi- 
 ples and methods. 
 
 I. RABBINICAL INTERPRETATION. 
 
 The Jewish Rabbinical schools from the most ancient 
 times recognized alongside of the written Word of God, 
 another oral or traditional word of much greater extent 
 and authority delivered to the ancient teachers and 
 handed down from generation to generation in the eso- 
 teric teaching of the faithful scribes, as the official inter- 
 pretation of the written word. This was not only the 
 view of the Pharisees, who subsequently committed this 
 
 * Grundriss der hiblische7i Ilermeficutik, Heidelberg-, 1878, p. xxi.
 
 300 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 tradition to writing in the Mishnas and Talmuds,* but 
 also of the Zelots and Essenes (see p. i8i). It was 
 claimed that this oral divine word had been faithfully 
 handed down from Ezra, who received it by divine in- 
 spiration as esoteric wisdom for the initiated disciples. 
 Others claimed a still higher antiquity for it, going back 
 to Joshua and the elders, and even in part to the twelve 
 patriarchs, Enoch and Adam : hence the large number 
 of pseudepigraphs in which this wisdom is contained, as 
 well as in the Talmuds. 
 
 This traditional interpretation was of two kinds, Hala- 
 cha and Haggada. The Halacha was legal, containing 
 an immense number of casuistic distinctions, making 
 fences about the law in wider and wider sweep till the 
 law itself became for the people of God as inaccessible 
 as the temple of Ezekiel, into which none but the priests 
 of the line of Zadok might enter. The Haggada wa:5 
 illustrative and practical, embracing a wealth of legend 
 and allegory that so colored and enlarged Biblical his- 
 tory that it became as obscure as the New Testament 
 history upon the palimpsests under the legends of the 
 monks that were written over it. 
 
 From the older Halacha and Haggada methods of in- 
 terpretation, were subsequently separated the Peshat and 
 the Sodh. The Peshat is the determination of the 
 literal sense, and is really a branch of the Halacha. 
 The Sodh is the determination of the mystical or alle- 
 gorical sense and is a species of the Haggada.\ 
 
 The rules of Rabbinical interpretation gradually in- 
 creased in extent. Seven rules of the Halacha are as- 
 
 * Weber, System d. Altsynagogalen Palestinischen Tkeologie, 1880, Leip* 
 Wg, p. 93, seq. 
 t Wog:ue in /. c, pp. 134, 164, seq.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 30^. 
 
 cribed to Hillel in the Siphra.* These are enlarged in 
 the Beraitha of R. Ismael to thirteen.f 
 
 These rules are: (i) That which is true of the easier 
 or less is true of the greater or more difficult, and the 
 reverse ; (2) Two similar passages supplement one an- 
 other ; (3) That which is clearly established in one part 
 of Scripture is to be presumed in interpreting others ; 
 (4)-(ii) Eight rules with reference to the relation of the 
 genus to the species, by inclusion, exclusion, contrast, and 
 their relation to a third term, in the forms of Rabbinical 
 logic; (12) The word is determined by the context, and 
 the sentence by the scope of the passage; (13) When 
 two verses contradict, we must wait for a third to explain 
 them. Some of these rules are excellent, and so far as 
 the practical logic of the times went, cannot be disputed 
 The fault of Rabbinical exegesis was less in the rules than 
 in their application, although latent fallacies are not 
 difficult to discover in them, and they do not sufficiently 
 guard against slips of argument. 
 
 The Haggada method was elaborated by R. Eliezar 
 into thirty-two rules.:}: 
 
 The principles of the two methods are admirably 
 summed up by Wogue : 
 
 " These forty-five rules may all be reduced to two fundamental 
 considerations, (i) Nothing is fortuitous, arbitrary, or indifferent in 
 the Word of God. Pleonasm, ellipsis, grammatical anomaly, trans- 
 position of words or facts, everything is calculated, everything has 
 its end and would teach us something. The casual, the approxi- 
 
 * These are j^ven by Schurer, N. T. Zeitgesckichte^ 1874, p. 447, and Hausratb, 
 Zeit Jesu, Heidelberg, p. g6. 
 
 t Cl'.iarini in /. c.^ I., p. 66, seq. ; Weber in /. c, p. 106, scq. The best state- 
 ment of them, with ample illustrations, is given by Waehner, Atitiqtiitafes 
 Ebraeorwn, Gottingae, 1743, p. 422, scq. 
 
 X Selections of these are given by Chiariiii in /. c, I., p. 81. A full statement, 
 with ample illustration, is given by Waehner in /. c, I., p., 396, seq.
 
 302 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 mate, the insignificant and inconsequential flower of rhetoric, all 
 that belongs to the setting in human language, are strange tc *he 
 severe j^recision of Biblical language. (2) As the image of its au- 
 thor, who is one by Himself and manifold in His manifestations, the 
 Bible often conceals in a single word a crowd of thoughts ; many a 
 phrase, which appears to express a simple and single idea, is sus- 
 ceptible of diverse senses and numberless interpretations indepen- 
 dent of the fundamental difference between literal exegesis and free 
 exegesis, in short, as the Talmud says after the Bible itself, the 
 divine word is like fire which divides itself into a thousand sparks, 
 or a rock which breaks into numberless fragments under the ham- 
 mer that attacks it. These two points of view, I repeat, are the 
 soul of the Midrash in general ; the latter above all serves as the 
 common basis oi ihe Halacha and Haggada, and it explains, better 
 than any other theory, the long domination of the midrash exegesis 
 in the synagogue."* 
 
 This admirable statement shows the radical errors of 
 the Rabbinical idea of the Scriptures: (i) everything 
 must be interpreted in accordance with that severe pre- 
 cision, which alone is worthy of God ; (2) the Scriptures 
 are altogether divine and have the same attributes ot 
 unity and infinity that God Himself has. The human 
 features of the Bible are entirely ignored. 
 
 The Sodh was used in the most ancient times by the 
 Essenes and Zelots and found expression in the numer- 
 ous apocalypses and pseudepigraphs of the four centu- 
 ries in the midst of which the Messiah appeared. It at- 
 tained its culmination in the Cabalistic system of the 
 thirteenth century.f These mystics regarded every let- 
 ter of the Bible as so highly important that it contained 
 a secret sense for the initiated. The book of Sohar:}: 
 describes the system in the following parable : 
 
 " Like a beautiful woman, concealed in the interior of her palace, 
 
 * Wog^e in /. c. , p. 169. t Ginsburg, Kabbalah, London, 1865. 
 
 : II. QO.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 3Q3 
 
 who when her friend and beloved passes by, opens for a moa.ent a 
 secret window and is seen by him alone, and then withdraws herself 
 immediately and disappears for a long time, so the doctrine only 
 shows herself to the chosen, {i. e., to him who is devoted to her body 
 and soul) ; and even to him not always in the same manner. At 
 first she simply beckons at the passer-by with her hand, and it gen- 
 erally depends upon his understanding this gentle hint. This is the 
 interpretation known by the name t?2"l- Afterwards she approaches 
 him a little closer, lisps him a few words, but her form is still cov- 
 ered with a thick veil which his looks cannot penetrate. This is the 
 so-called "©"iTl. She then converses with him with her face cov- 
 ered by a thin veil ; this is the enigmatical language of m^H. 
 After having thus become accustomed to her society, she at last 
 shows herself face to face and entrusts him with the innermost se- 
 crets of her heart. This is the secret of the law T]|3,"* 
 
 There are three principles of Cabalistic interpretation : 
 (i) Notariqon — to reconstruct a word by using the ini- 
 tials of many, or a sentence by using all the letters of a 
 single word for initial letters of other words ; (2) Ghema- 
 tria — the use of the numerical values of the letters of a 
 word for purposes of comparison with other words which 
 yield the same or similar combinations of numbers ; (3) 
 Temura — the permutation of letters by the three Cabal- 
 istic alphabets, called 'Attack, 'Albam, and Athbash.\ 
 
 The Peshat, or literal interpretation, is used in the Tar- 
 gum of Onkelos, and the Greek version of Aquila, with 
 reference to the law — but found little expression among 
 the ancient Jews. The Qarites were the first to empha- 
 size it in th« eighth century. Before this time there is 
 no trace of Hebrew grammar, or Hebrew dictionary. 
 The Qarites threw off the yoke of Rabbinical Halacha, 
 and devoted themselves to the literal sense and became 
 
 * We {jive the translation of Ginsburg in /. c, p. i.p ; comp. Siegfried, Pliilc 
 von Alexandria als Ausleger des Alt. Test., 1875, Jena, p. 291. 
 
 + See Ginsburg, The Kabbalah, London, 1865, p. 131. ^eq. ; Wogus in /. <:., 
 p. 274, seq. ; Chiaiini in /. c, p. 95, seq. : Siegfried in /. c., p. 290, seg.
 
 304 BIBLi.3AL STUDY. 
 
 extreme Hteralists. Influenced by them Saadiu intro 
 duced the literal method into the Rabbinical schools, 
 and used it as the most potent weapon to overcome the 
 Qarites. He became the father of Jewish exegesis in 
 the middle ages, and was followed by a large number of 
 distinguished scholars who have left monuments of 
 Jewish learning.* Wogue attributes this rise of the lit- 
 eral method to the influence of Arabic learning at Bag- 
 dad, Bassora, and Cairo. But the Arabs and the Per- 
 sians received their impulses from the Nestorian schools 
 of Edessa and Nisibis, which mediated the transition of 
 Greek learning to the Orient, which also from the times 
 of Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Lucius of Samosata^ 
 had been chiefly characterized by their historic method 
 of exegesis (see p. 325). 
 
 Thus in Judaism there grew up three great parties 
 which struggled with one another during the middle 
 ages. The sacred Scriptures of the Old Testament were 
 buried under a mass of tradition that was heaped upon 
 them more and more for centuries until it became 
 necessary for the interpreter, who would understand the 
 holy word itself, to force his way through this mass, as 
 at the present day one who would find the ancient Jeru- 
 salem must dig through eighteen centuries of debris 
 under which it has been buried in the strifes of nations. 
 
 There is doubtless truth at the bottom of all these 
 systems. There is a certain propriety in distinguishing 
 the fourfold sense. The literal sense will not apply ex- 
 cept to the plainest matter-of-fact passages ; the Haggada 
 method is necessary in the rhetorical parts of Script- 
 ure. The Halacha method is necessary for the deter 
 mination of the principles embedded in the Scriptures. 
 
 * Wogue in /. c, p. 20S, seg.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OP SCRIPTURE 305 
 
 The Sodh method is necessary in the interpretation of 
 prophetic symbolism, and the esoteric instruction of the 
 Bible. If each of these four methods had been restricted 
 to its own appropriate sphere in the Bible, they would 
 have co-operated with great advantage — but where these 
 methods are applied at the same time to the same pas- 
 sages with the view that the Scripture has a manifold 
 sense ; where again these methods are applied arbitrarily 
 to all passages ; where they are used to remove difficul- 
 ties, and to maintain traditional opinions ; or where any 
 one method is made to usurp the functions of all ; — there 
 can only result — as there did result in fact — the utmost 
 arbitrariness and confusion. The Bible was no longer 
 interpreted — it was used as the slave of traditional sys- 
 tems and sectarian prejudices. 
 
 II. HELLENISTIC INTERPRETATION. 
 
 The Hellenistic Jews were largely under the influence 
 of the Platonic philosophy which they sought to recon- 
 cile with the Old Testament Scriptures. The chief of 
 the Hellenistic Jews is Philo of Alexandria. Philo was 
 not a Hebrew scholar, but was acquainted with the 
 Aramaic of Palestine, and probably also with the ancient 
 Hebrew.* He does not use the Plebrew text, but bases 
 himself entirely on the LXX, and uses tradition in its two 
 forms of Halacha and Haggada, but especially the latter, 
 which he elaborates in the direction of the Sodh or al- 
 legorical method. He distinguishes between the literal 
 sense and the allegorical as between the body and the 
 5oul,t the sense like a iluid pervades the letter. The al- 
 legory is a wise architect which builds on the ground of 
 the Scriptures an architectural structure.;!: 
 
 ♦Siegfried in /. c, p. 141, scq. t De migr. Abraham xvi. % De Somn. .i, -^
 
 300 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 The allegorical method of Philo is so well stated by 
 Siegfried, that we shall build upon him in detail, while 
 we pursue our own method in a more general arrange- 
 ment. There are three rules to determine when the 
 literal sense is excluded ; (l) when anything is said un- 
 worthy of God ; (2) when it presents an insoluble diffi- 
 culty ; (3) when the expression is allegorical. The last 
 rule alone is sound, the others are a priori, and result 
 in the imposition on the Scriptures of the preconcep- 
 tions and prejudices of the interpreter. The rules of 
 Philo's allegorical method given by Siegfried are twenty- 
 three in number.* We shall arrange them under four 
 heads in a somewhat different order. 
 
 I. Grammatical allegory. An allegory is indicated 
 In the use of certain particles ; in the modifications of 
 iv^ords by prefixes or affixes; in stress upon number of 
 noun and tense of verb ; in gender of words ; in the use 
 or absence of the article. Here grammatical exegesis is 
 insufficient ; there are mysterious hidden meanings to 
 be found in these grammatical peculiarities. 
 
 II. Rhetorical allegory is found: in the repetition of 
 words ; in redundancy of style ; in reiteration of state- 
 ment ; in changes of expression ; in synonyms ; in play 
 upon words ; in striking expressions ; in position of 
 words ; in unusual connections of verses ; in the omission 
 of what would be expected ; in the unexpected use of 
 terms. Here rhetorical exegesis is insufficient; there 
 must be a hidden sense in any departure from the plain 
 prosaic form. 
 
 III. Allegory by means of new combinations is gained : 
 by changing the punctuation ; by giving a word all its 
 possible meanings ; by internal modifications of the 
 
 * In /. c, p. 165, seq.
 
 IHE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 307 
 
 (vorJ ; by new combinations of words. This method 
 was more fully wrought out by the Cabalists (see p. 303), 
 and is the most abnormal of all the forms of allegory. 
 
 IV. Symbolism is of three kinds : of numbers, of things, 
 and of names. This method is the most appropriate 
 of the forms of allegory; its propriety is recognized by 
 modern exegesis when used within due bounds. 
 
 To Philo and his school the inner sense attained by 
 allegory was the real sense designed by God. The 
 method of Philo was doubtless used to a great extent 
 among the Essenes and the Zelots. There are traces of 
 it in the pseudepigraphs and apocryphal books that were 
 composed in the time of Philo. Josephus was also in- 
 fluenced by Philo, and was inclined to the use of alle- 
 gory; as we see from his treatment of the tabernacle.* 
 There is truth at the bottom of the allegorical method, 
 namely, that human language is inadequate to convey 
 the thoughts of God to man. At the best it can only be a 
 sign and external representation. We must go back of 
 the sign to the thing signified. The mistake of the alle- 
 gorical method is in extending it beyond its legitimate 
 bounds, and making every word and syllable and letter 
 of Scripture an allegory of some kind, and in using it to 
 escape difificulties of philosophy and theology, and in 
 order to maintain peculiar religious views. 
 
 III. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE IN THE NEW 
 TESTAMENT. 
 
 The writings of New Testament Scripture use and in- 
 terpret Old Testament Scripture. It is important for ua 
 to determine the nature and principles of this interpre- 
 
 • Antiq. iii. 7, 7 ; Siegfried in /. c, p. 278, seq.
 
 308 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 tation, and its relation to the Rabbinical and Hellenistic 
 methods. 
 
 In the Old Testament prior to the exile, the prophets 
 use earlier writings by way of citation rather than intei- 
 pretation. This use is in the nature of free reproduction 
 and application rather than an exposition of their sense. 
 During the periods of oral revelation and prophecy, 
 the interpretation of ancient Scripture was of little im- 
 portance. It was only when prophecy ceased, and oral 
 revelations were discontinued, that it was necessary to 
 ascertain the divine will by the interpretation of ancient 
 written documents. 
 
 After the exile, Ezra introduced the more systematic 
 study of the Scripture, and established the midrash 
 method, in seeking for the meaning of ancient Scriptures, 
 and their application to the present. The people were 
 assembled, and Ezra and the Levites " read in the book 
 in the law of God distinctly, and gave the sense, and 
 they understood in the reading " (Neh. viii. 8). Th(; 
 aim of Ezra and his associates was to make the law of 
 God so plain that the people generally could under 
 stand it. 
 
 The New Testament writers constantly use the Old 
 Testament. Do they employ the methods in use by 
 the Palestinian and Hellenistic Jews of their time ? 
 Different answers have been given to this question from 
 partisan points of view. It is important to ascertain the 
 real facts of the case. The most important use of the 
 Scripture is ever the last and the highest in the process 
 of interpretation, namely, practical interpretation, or ap- 
 plication ; for the divine revelation has in view, above 
 all, human conduct. This is most frequently employed 
 in the New Testament by Jesus and His apostles. The 
 most familiar example is in the temptation of Jesus
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 309 
 
 when He overcomes Satan by the application of the 
 words of the law : " Man shall not live by bread alone, 
 but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of 
 God "; " Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God "; 
 " Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and Him only 
 shalt thou serve " (Matt. iv. 4-10). These will suffice, 
 also, as specimens of the literal interpretation as used 
 by Jesus. 
 
 In conflict with the Pharisees He sometimes employs 
 the Halacha method as most appropriate to controversy 
 with them, defeating them with their own weapons. 
 Thus in John x. 34-36, He employs Ps. Ixxxii. 6, argu- 
 ing from the greater to the less. 
 
 " Is it not written in your law I said, ye are gods ? If He called 
 them gods, unto whom the word of God came (and the Scripture 
 cannot be broken), say ye of him, whom the Father sanctified and 
 sent into the world, Thou blasphemest ; because I said, I am the 
 Son of God "i " 
 
 In Matt, xxii, 43-45, He uses the Halacha method of 
 arguing from the inner contrast of general and particu- 
 lar in Ps. ex. I. 
 
 " How then doth David in the Spirit call him Lord, saying : The 
 Lord said unto my Lord, Sit thou on my right hand, till I put thine 
 enemies underneath thy feet ? If David then calleth him Lord, how 
 is he his son ? " 
 
 Again in Matt. xii. 3 seg., in the interpretation of the 
 Sabbath-law He quotes from i Sam. xxi. 1-7 ; Num. 
 xxviii. 9-10; Hos. vi. 6; on the principle that Scripture 
 passages may be used to supplement one another. 
 
 " Have ye not read what David did, when he was an hungcrec!. 
 and they that were with him ; how he entered into the house 01 
 God, and did eat the shew-bread which it was not lawful for him 
 CO eat, neither for them that were with him, but only for the priests ? 
 Or have ye not read in the law how that on the Sabbath day the
 
 310 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 priests in the temple profane the sabbath and are guiltless ? But I 
 say unto you, that one greater than the temple is here. But if ye 
 had known what this meaneth, I desire mercy and not sacrifice, yc 
 would not have condemned the guiltless." 
 
 In these and similar instances Jesus interprets Script- 
 ure, as a Jewish rabbin, after the Halacha method, with 
 which the Pharisees were familiar, and to which they 
 were accustomed in discussion and argument. 
 
 Jesus also employs the Haggada method. This in- 
 deed is His own favorite method of teaching, inasmuch 
 as His discourses were in the main addressed to the peo- 
 ple. His method of illustration and enforcement of 
 truth is perfect in its kind as only a divine master could 
 fashion it. If we take the series of parables in Luke xv. 
 as an example, what could be more simple, appropriate, 
 beautiful, and impressive ? They have been the gospel 
 of redemption to millions of our race. We shall 
 present some examples of this method of interpretation. 
 He replies to the bald literalism of the ruler of the syna- 
 gogue, Luke xiii. 14 seq. : 
 
 " There are six days in which men ought to work : on them come 
 and be healed, and not on the Sabbath "; " Ye hypocrites, doth not 
 each of you on the Sabbath loose his ox or his ass from the stall, 
 and lead him away to the watering ? And ought not this woman, 
 being a daughter of Abraham, whom Satan had bound, lo, eighteen 
 years, to have been loosed from this bond on the day of the Sab- 
 bath .? " 
 
 In the interpretation of prophecy and history Jesus 
 comes into connection with \\\(i allegorical v(\q.\.\\o^ of in- 
 terpretation, and it has been claimed that He applies it 
 with the freedom of a Hellenist. In His first discourse 
 in the synagogue of Nazareth (Luke iv. 16-22) He inter- 
 prcts the prophecy (Is. Ixi.) as applying to Himself 
 This prophecy is in its nature figurative, as it presents
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 3]] 
 
 the servant of Jehovah in his faithful preaching to the 
 people. Jesus correctly sees the inner sense of the pas- 
 sage and finds His own likeness depicted there. In Matt. 
 xxi. 42, Jesus interprets the corner-stone of Ps. cxviii. 
 22-23 '^s referring to Himself and His kingdom. This 
 is not a prophecy in the original passage, but a symboli- 
 cal representation of the re-establishment of the king- 
 dom of God. The work of Jesus was pre-eminently such 
 a work. Hence the inner sense affords the connection 
 that makes the use of the symbol appropriate. A touch- 
 ing example of the historical allegory is the caution of 
 Jesus (Luke xvii. 32): "Remember Lot's wife" (Gen. 
 xix. 26) in connection with his prediction of the judg- 
 ment upon Jerusalem and the nations. 
 
 We shall now examine some of the most striking pas- 
 sages, in which certain distinguishing features of oui 
 Saviour's interpretation appear. The Sadducecs cam<. 
 to Him (Matt. xxii. 23-32) with a difificult question un 
 der the law (Deut. xxv. 5) : 
 
 " If a man die, having no children, his brother shall marry his 
 wife and raise up seed unto his brother." The case is, " Now there 
 were with us seven brethren : and the first married and deceased, 
 and having no 'Seed, left his wife unto his brother ; in like manner the 
 second also, and the third, unto the seventh. And after them all 
 the woman died. In the resurrection therefore whose wife shall she 
 be of the seven .'' for they all had her." 
 
 Jesus does not determine this case by an appeal to the 
 Scripture, but on His own authority, delivers a doctrine 
 which settles it : " In the resurrection they neither marry, 
 nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels in 
 heaven." He takes occasion, however, to overcome the 
 Sadducean denial of a resurrection by an appeal to Ex. iii. 
 6: " Have ye not read that which was spoken unto you 
 by God, saying, ' I am the God of Abraliam, and the God
 
 312 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of Isaac, and the God of Jacob ' ? God is not the God 
 of the dead, bat of the hving." It is clear that our Sav- 
 iour takes the passage out of its context and gives it a 
 meaning which no one would ever have thought of on 
 any principles of exegesis. Where then is the justifica- 
 tion, and what is the method ? We observe that He de- 
 rives from the statement of the covenant relation be- 
 tween God and the patriarchs, the principle that God 
 being a living God, the relation is a vital relation, and 
 those who are in this relation are living ones as possess- 
 ors of the life they have received from God. This per- 
 petuity of life after death tends to the resurrection. 
 Jesus here interprets as the interpreter of the mind of 
 God, with the fulness of the Spirit (John i. i8). It is a 
 transfiguration of the Halacha method. No principle of 
 exegesis can be derived from His example in this case 
 that it will be safe for human exegesis to follow. 
 
 In the sermon on the mount (Matt. v. 21, seq.), in His 
 use of the laws of the tables, He contrasts His own in- 
 terpretation of them with the traditional. The latter 
 looked at the external letter and warped this into ac- 
 cordance with traditional theory and practice. He en- 
 ters into the internal spirit. He goes in His interpreta- 
 tion beyond any human propriety, and interprets them 
 from the point of view of the divine lawgiver Himself. 
 No human interpreter would be justified in following 
 the Master thither. It is His sovereign prerogative so 
 to interpret. 
 
 Jesus recognizes the principle of accommodation in 
 the use of the Old Testament (Matt. xix. 3, scq). The law 
 of divorce was granted by Moses, owing to the hardness 
 of the hearts of the people of his time. That law was, 
 however, inconsistent with the original divine ideal at 
 the creation. And here again Jesus interprets from the
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 3^3 
 
 mind of God in the Halacha method, the words of Gen. 
 ii. 24: " For this cause shall a man leave his father and 
 mother, and shall cleave to his wife ; and the twain shall 
 become one flesh." This He interprets by laying hold 
 of the great thought : " one fleshy " So that they are no 
 more twain, but one flesh. What therefore God hath 
 joined together, let not man put asunder." No one 
 would ever have thought of this interpretation but Jesus, 
 who interpreted the mind of God, the creator of man and 
 ihe author of marriage. 
 
 In Luke xxiv. 44 se^., Jesus said : 
 
 " These are my words which I spake unto you, while I was yet 
 with you, how that all things must needs be fulfilled, which are writ- 
 ten in the law of Moses, and the prophets, and the psalms concern- 
 ing me. Then opened he their mind, that they might understand 
 the Scriptures ; and he said unto them, Thus it is written, that the 
 Christ should suffer, and rise again from the dead the third day, and 
 that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name 
 unto all nations, beginning from Jerusalem." 
 
 Here our Saviour grasps the entire Old Testament 
 revelation in its unity, and represents Himself and His 
 kingdom as its central theme. The same is the case in 
 the institution of the Lord's supper where He represents 
 the feast as the new covenant feast over against the old 
 covenant sacrifice. 
 
 Jesus Christ in His method of interpretation thus laid 
 down the distinctive principles of scriptural interpreta- 
 tion which enabled His apostles to understand the Old 
 Testament, and delivered them from the perils of the 
 allegorical and legal methods of His times. He uses 
 the four kinds of biblical interpretation, in accordance 
 with the usage of the various classes of men in His times, 
 in those ways that were familiar to the rabbinical school, 
 the synagogue instruction, tlic popular audience, and the 
 esoteric training of the disciple. He uses all that was 
 14
 
 314 BIBLICAL STUDr. 
 
 appropriate in these methods ; but never employs any of 
 the casuistry or hair-sphtting Halacha of the scribes; or 
 any of the idle tales and absurd legends of the Hagga- 
 da ; or any of the strange combinations and fanciful re- 
 constructions of the Sodh of the Alexandrians. His use 
 of Scripture is simple, beautiful, profound, and sublime. 
 One sees through the Divine Master that the written 
 Word is the mirror of the mind of God ; and the eter- 
 nal Word interprets the former from the latter. The 
 rabbins interpreted the Scriptures to accord with the 
 traditions of the elders : Jesus interpreted them to ac- 
 cord with the mind of God their author. Hence the 
 characteristic authority with which He spake; the free- 
 dom with which He added to the ancient Scriptures, and 
 substituted a higher revelation for the lower wherever it 
 was found necessary. As Dorner appropriately says : 
 
 " This is the wondrous charm of His words, their unfathomable, 
 mysterious depth, despite all their simplicity, that they are ever ut- 
 tered, so to speak, from the heart of the question ; for the harmony 
 which binds tog-ether and comprehends in one view the opposite ends 
 of things, is lovingly and consciously present to Him, since ever)'thing 
 is related to His kingdom. Other words of men, this or that man 
 might have spoken ; nay, most that is spoken or done by us is merely 
 a continuation of others through us ; we are simply therein points of 
 transmission for tradition. But the words which He drew from 
 within — these precious gems, which attest the presence of the Son 
 of Man, who is the Son of God — have an originality of an unique 
 order ; they are His, because taken from that which is present in 
 llim. In this sense. His prophetic activity is simply manifestation. 
 Certainly, where in the accommodation of love He condescends to 
 men in ligurative speech, or in simple talk, intelligible even to chil- 
 dren, or avails Himself of ordinal^, especially O. T. ideas, He there 
 suppresses the rays of His originality. T5ut when He does this, it 
 is in order to till the O. T. husk or the types and forms taken frond 
 nature with the highest, the true contents." * 
 
 * Hystcni of Christian Doctrine, Vcl. III., p. 389.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 3] g 
 
 Jesus does not lay down any principles of interpreta- 
 tion. But we venture from the synthesis of His exegesis 
 to state the three following principles: (i) He recog- 
 nized that the words of Scripture are living words of 
 God to man, bearing upon human conduct. They are 
 to be interpreted by entering into living communion 
 with the living God and from internal personal relations 
 to their author ; and not by roundabout methods of tra- 
 ditional definitions and illustrative legends. (2) The di- 
 vine revelation was made on the principle of accommo- 
 dation to the weakness, ignorance, and sinfulness of man, 
 requiring no more than he was able to bear. The tem- 
 porary provisions are to be eliminated from the eternal 
 principles and the divine ideals. (3) The Scriptures are 
 an organic whole, the Gospel of the Messiah is the ful- 
 filment of the Old Testament, the Messiah and His king- 
 dom the key to the whole. These were fruitful princi- 
 ples and ought to have guided the Church in all time 
 and preserved it from manifold errors. 
 
 The apostles and their disciples in the New Testa- 
 ment use the methods of the Lord Jesus rather than 
 those of the men of their time. The New Testament 
 writers differ among themselves in the tendencies of their 
 thought. Peter, James, and Jude, Matthew and Mark 
 incline to use the Haggada method ; Stephen, Paul, 
 and Luke to the more learned Halacha method ; John 
 and the epistle to the Hebrews to the SodJi or allegorical 
 method ; but in them all, the methods of the Lord Jesus 
 prevail over the other methods and ennoble them. 
 
 (i) The Haggada is used by Peter when he cites Ps. 
 Ixix. 25 ; cix. 8 ; in Acts i. 20, with reference to the case 
 of Judas. The propriety is in the parallelism of the 
 cases of the doom of the traitor and persecutor. Matt., 
 in his gospel, ii. 13-18, makes a similar use of Hos. xi. i,
 
 316 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 and Jer. xxxi. 15, and applies them to the situation of 
 Jesus. There is here a parallelism of circumstances, in 
 which the ancient prophecies illustrate the descent o\ 
 Jesus into Egypt and the lamentation at Bethlehem, by 
 the descent of Israel into Egypt and the wars that deso- 
 lated Judea. There is no prediction in these prophecies, or 
 interpretation of them by the evangelist as prediction ; 
 but the association of the passages with Jesus has its pro- 
 priety in that He is conceived to be the Messiah, in 
 whom the fortunes of Israel are involved. " Here is 
 incorrectness of form with truth of thought." * 
 
 The epistle of James (ii. 21, seq^ uses by preference 
 what has been called the moral Haggada. To maintain 
 his proposition that faith without works is dead, he 
 cites the examples of Abraham and Rahab (Gen. xxii. ; 
 Josh. ii. 8, seq^. So he refers to the patience of Job 
 (v. 11) and the fervent prayers of Elijah (v. 17). Paul 
 also uses the Haggada in his citation of Ps. xix. 4, to il- 
 lustrate the going forth of the gospel to the ends of the 
 earth (Rom. x. 18), and of Deut. xxx. 11 seq., to illus- 
 trate the truth that the word of the gospel was nigh in 
 the preaching of the apostles, in the faith of the heart, and 
 in the confession of the mouth (Rom. x. 6-10). The epis- 
 tle to the Hebrews uses it especially in calling the roll 
 of the heroes of faith in chap. xi. There are also a few 
 examples in the New Testament of the use of legends 
 and fables (2 Pet. ii. 4 seq. ; Jude 9 seq. ; 2 Tim. iii. 8), 
 for purposes of illustration, which do not commit the au- 
 thors to their historical truthfulness, (see p. 232, scq^. 
 
 (2) The HalacJia method is used by Paul arguing from 
 the less to the greater (i Cor. ix. 9 seq. ; Deut. xxv. 4) ; 
 from analogy (2 Cor. iii. 7; Ex. xxiv. 17); from general 
 
 * Tholuck, AH. Test, in X. 7'., 6tc Aufl., Gotha, 1868, p. 44.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 317 
 
 to particular (Rom. iv. 3 scq., from Gen. xv. 6 ; Ps. xxxii. 
 I ; I Cor. xiv. 21 seq., from Is. xxviii. 11-12); from the 
 combination of passages to prove the corruption of sin 
 (Rom. iii. 9-18; from Pss. xiv. 1-3; v. 9; cxl. 3 ; x. 7 
 Is. lix. 7 ; Ps. xxxvi. 2). 
 
 The Halacha method is also used by James to prove 
 his point that whoso transgresseth one of the laws is 
 guilty of all (ii. 7-13) by citing the general law (Lev. xix. 
 18), and the special commands (Ex. xx. 13, 14), and the 
 principle of mercy and justice (Prov. iii. 34). 
 
 (3) The Allegorical method is used by Paul in Gal. iv. 
 24, where Hagar and Sara are taken to represent the 
 Pharisee and the Christian ; in i Cor. x. 4, where he uses 
 the water from the rock as an allegory of Christ. Here 
 the apostle sees a principle clothed in the history. He 
 uses it to illustrate and enforce an analogous case where 
 the principle applies. As Tholuck says, " The apostle 
 is like one who has seen a finished picture and then aft- 
 erwards sees in the sketch of it more than we do who 
 have only the sketch." * Is it not rather that with the 
 sun-light of an inspired prophetic insight he sees into the 
 essential features of the ancient histories, whereas to us 
 they are in the obscurities of mere candle-light? He 
 tells us more about them than we can see even with his 
 guidance. It is in the epistle to the Hebrews that the 
 allegorical method has its greatest display in the New 
 Testament. Paul uses it occasionally, the author of the 
 epistle to the Hebrews constantly. As Tholuck says, 
 *' The literary character of Paul is Talmudic and dialec- 
 tic, the epistle to the Hebrews is Hellenistic and rhetor- 
 ical.*' f Thus in Heb. iv. the Sabbath of the Old Tes- 
 tament is used to allegorize the Sabbath rest at the end 
 
 * In /. c, p. 37. t In /. c, p. 52.
 
 3 IS BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of the world. In Heb. vii. the person and office of 
 Melchizedek are used to allegorize the Messianic high- 
 priest, and there is an allegory in the etymology of the 
 names Salem and Melchizedek. Here, according to 
 Riehm,* the author " leaves out of consideration the his- 
 torical meaning of Old Testament passages, and only 
 sees the higher prophetic meaning which belongs to 
 them on account of their ideal contents." 
 
 The apostle John uses the allegorical method of sym- 
 bolism in the number of the beast, 666 (Rev. xiii. i8); 
 the sun-clad woman (xii. i seq^ ; the river Euphrates 
 (xvi. 12) ; the city of Babylon (xvii. 5 ; xviii. 2) ; the place 
 Harmageddon (xvi. 16) ; the prophetic numbers of Daniel 
 (xii. 6; xiii. 5), and the recombination (in xxi.-xxii.) of 
 the ancient prophecies of Ezek. xxxviii.-xxxix. ; Dan. 
 vii. 9 i-^^'. ; xii.; Isa. xxv. 8; Ixv. 17 seq., and the de- 
 scriptions of Paradise (Gen. ii. 8 seq^). 
 
 There are many who in our times seek to explain away 
 the allegorical interpretation as used in the New Testa- 
 ment as unbecoming to Jesus and His apostles. These 
 forget that it was just this allegorical method with all 
 its abuses that has been chiefly employed in the syna- 
 gogue and in the church for ages by the ablest and most 
 pious of her interpreters. We cannot do better than 
 quote the judicious reproof of such by Bishop Light- 
 foot : t 
 
 " We need not fear to allow that St. Paul's mode of teaching here 
 is colored by his early education in the rabbinical schools. It were 
 as unreasonable to stake the Apostle's inspiration on the turn of a 
 metaphor or the character of an illustration or the form of an arq-u- 
 nient, as on purity of diction. No one now thinVcs of maintainiiig 
 tliat the language of the inspired writers reaches the classical stand- 
 
 * Lekrb. Ilehrarrhrirfes, Neue Ausg'., 1S67, p. 204. 
 
 + St. Paul's r.pistlc to the Galatians. Andover, 1S70, p. 370.
 
 THE INTEEPRIiTATlUN OF SCRIPTURE. 319 
 
 ard of correctness and elejance, though at one time it was held al- 
 most a heresy to deny this. 'A treasure contained in earthen ves« 
 sels,' 'strength made perfect in weakness,' 'rudeness in speech, yet 
 not in knowledge,' such is the far nobler conception of inspired 
 teaching, winch we may gather from the apostle's own language. 
 And this language we should do well to bear in mind. But, on the 
 other hand, it were sheer dogmatism to set up the intellectual stand- 
 ard of our own age or country as an infallible rule. The power of 
 allegory has been differently felt in different ages, as it is differently 
 felt at any one time by diverse nations. Analogy, allegory, meta- 
 phor — by what boundaries are these separated, the one from the 
 other ? What is true or false, correct or incorrect, as an analogy^ or 
 an allegor)'? What argumentative force must be assigned to either.-* 
 We should at least be prepared with an answer to these questions, 
 before we venture to sit in judgment on any individual case." 
 
 (4) The apostles were taught by Jesus to consider the 
 old covenant as a whole ; to see it as a shadow, type, 
 and preparatory dispensation with reference to the new 
 covenant ; to regard the substance, and disregard the 
 form. Hence under the further guidance of the Holy 
 Spirit they eliminated the temporal, local, and circum- 
 stantial forms of the old covenant, and gained the uni- 
 versal, eternal, and essential substance ; and this they 
 applied to the circumstances of the new covenant, of 
 which they were called to be the expounders. They in- 
 terpreted in accordance with the mind of the Holy Spirit, 
 as Jesus had interpreted in accordance with the mind of 
 His heavenly Father. 
 
 Thus Peter on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 16 seq.) 
 grasps the situation and sees in the outpouring of the 
 Holy Spirit the inauguration of the new dispensation 
 described by the prophet Joel (iii.). In his epistle (i Pet. 
 ii. 9 scq.) he applies the Sinaitic covenant of Ex. xix. to 
 the new covenant relations of Jesus. This was from the 
 sen.se of the unity of both covenants in Christ, and the 
 fulfilment of the earlier in the latter. So the apostle
 
 320 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Paul goes back of the law of Sinai to the Abrahamic 
 covenant and finds that all believers are the true children 
 of Abraham (Rom. iv.). In Col. ii. 17 he represents the 
 ancient institutions as " a shadow of the things to come : 
 but the body is Christ's." And so the author of the 
 epistle to the Hebrews finds the entire system of Levitical 
 priesthood, purification and offerings fulfilled in Christ 
 and His ministry, so that the form is thrown off now 
 that the " very image " of these things has been made 
 manifest (Heb, x. i se^.). The author of the Apoca- 
 lypse gathers up the substance of unfulfilled prophecy 
 and attaches it to the second advent of Jesus Christ. 
 
 This organic living method of interpretation of Jesus 
 and His apostles is the true Christian method. The 
 errors in the history of exegesis have sprung up to the 
 right and the left of it. 
 
 IV. INTERPRETATION OF THE FATHERS AND SCHOOL- 
 MEN. 
 
 In the ancient church the methods of exegesis* of the 
 Palestinian and Hellenistic Jews, as well as those of 
 Jesus and His apostles, were reproduced. The strife of 
 the various elements that entered into the apostolic 
 church is clearly to be seen in the New Testam.ent itself 
 (Acts XV. ; I Cor. iii. ; Gal. ii. ; i Tim. i. ; James ii. ; 
 Rev. ii.). 
 
 The Palestinian methods were represented in the 
 Ebionites and the Jewish-Christian tendency that passed 
 over into the church. Thus Papias, in his naive way, 
 
 * For the History of Exegesis in the Christian Church see Rosenmuller, I/z's- 
 toria interpretationis librorum sacrorian in Ecclesia Christiana, 5 Tom. 
 Hildburghusae, 1795-1814, but especially KXsiUscn, Hermeneuiik dcs xXeuen Tes- 
 (atnettts, Leipzig, 1841, and Samuel Davidson, Sacred Hermeneutics, Edin. 
 1843.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 32^ 
 
 appeals to the elders, Aristion, the Presbyter John, and 
 others, rather than to the New Testament, to establish 
 his premillenarianism.* The Clementine pseudepigraph 
 represents the apostle Peter in conflict with Simon Ma- 
 gus, as the embodiment of church authority over against 
 Gnosticism. Peter, speaking of the prophetic writings, 
 is made to say : 
 
 •' Which things were indeed plainly spoken, but are not plainly 
 written ; so much so that when they are read they cannot be under- 
 stood without an expounder, on account of the sin which has grown 
 up with men."t 
 
 Tertullian also says : 
 
 " Our appeal, therefore, must not be made to the Scriptures ; nor 
 must controversy be admitted on points in which victory will either 
 be impossible, or uncertain, or not certain enough The nat- 
 ural order of things would require that this point should be first pro- 
 posed, which is now the only one which we must discuss : ' With 
 whom lies that very faith to which the Scriptures belong? From 
 what, and through whom, and when, and to whom, has been handed 
 down that rule, by which men become Christians ? ' For wherever 
 it shall be manifest that the true Christian rule and faith shall be, 
 there will likewise be the true Scriptures and expositions thereof, and 
 all the Christian traditions." J 
 
 Irenaeus § and Cyprian | lay stress upon the literal 
 method of exegesis and the authority of tradition, and 
 exercised an unfortunate influence upon the early Latin 
 church. 
 
 The Hellenistic methods found the greatest represen- 
 tation in the early church. The New Testament writers 
 employed the Greek language and the LXX version. It 
 is probable that the great majority of the earliest Chris- 
 tians were Hellenists. Naturally the influence of Philo 
 
 * Eusebius, Eccl. Hist., III., 39. + Recognitions, 1., c. 21, 
 
 X Adv. Haer., c. xix. § Adv. Haer., I., c. 9, 4 ; c. 10, i. ) fpist. 74, 
 
 14*
 
 322 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 and the allegorical method became very great. We see 
 that influence already in the epistle to the Hebrews and 
 the writings of John the apostle. We find it in the 
 epistles of Clement of Rome and Barnabas, of the apos- 
 tolic fathers ; in Justin and the apologists generally.* 
 Clement of Alexandria gave it more definite shape 
 when he distinguished between the body and soul of 
 Scripture and called attention to its fourfold use. He 
 compares it to engrafting: (i) The way in which we in- 
 struct plain people belonging to the Gentiles, who re- 
 ceive the word superficially ; (2) the instruction of those 
 who have studied philosophy, cutting through the Greek 
 dogmas and opening up the Hebrew Scriptures ; (3) over- 
 coming the rustics and heretics by the force of the truth ; 
 (4) the gnostic teaching which is capable of looking into 
 the things themselves.f He makes the wise remark : 
 
 "The truth is not to be found by changing the meanings, but in 
 the consideration of what perfectly belongs to and becomes the sov- 
 ereign God, and in establishing each one of the points demonstrated 
 in the Scriptures from similar Scriptures." J 
 
 Klausen well says : 
 
 " By the assertion and vindication of this principle of interpreta- 
 tion the Alexandrian teachers have been the preservers of the pure 
 Christian doctrine, when the crass literal interpretation in many 
 parts of the Latin church, especially the African provinces, worked 
 to justify from the sacred Scriptures the grossest ideas of the being 
 of God, the nature of the soul, and the future life."§ 
 
 Origen carried out the principles of interpretation 
 still further and became the father of the allegorical 
 method in the church. He distinguishes a threefold 
 sense : body, soul, and spirit.;! fie uses thirteen 01 
 
 * Klausen in /. c, p. 97, seq. \ Siromata, VI. 15. 
 
 J StroMtata, VII. , 16. § In /. c, p. 103. | Nam. V. in Lev.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 323 
 
 Philo's rules.* He lays stress on the allegory and often 
 uses it to get rid of anthropomorphisms ; and turns a 
 good deal of ancient Jewish history into allegory — but 
 he does not neglect the literal sense. He uses the three 
 senses, but ranges them in the order of ascent from low- 
 est to highest, and finds in the spiritual sense the one 
 chiefly desirable. 
 
 Eucherius of Lyons in the first half of the fifth cent- 
 ury f divides the mystical sense into two kinds, the alle- 
 gorical, what is to be believed in now ; the anagogical, 
 what is predicted.:}: In Hilary and Ambrose the alle- 
 gorical method became dominant in the Latin church. 
 Ambrose says : 
 
 " As the Church has two eyes with which it contemplates Christ ; 
 namely, a moral and a mystic, of which the former is sharper, the 
 ktter milder, so the entire divine Scripture is either natural, or moral 
 or mystic." § 
 
 Tychonius belonged to this school, and laid down seven 
 rules of interpretation : (i) Of the Lord and His body ; 
 (2) the twofold division of the Lord's body ; (3) prom- 
 ises and law ; (4) relation of species and genus ; (5) 
 the times ; (6) recapitulation ; (7) the devil and his body. 
 These rules have more to do with the doctrinal substance 
 of the Scriptures, the relation of the church to Christ, 
 the law to the gospel, and the like. They have been of 
 service in the history of the church and are mentioned 
 with approval by Augustine, although he shows their 
 insufficiency. |1 Augustine gave the allegorical method 
 
 * Siegfried in /. c, p. 353, sdj. 
 
 + Liber forimilarum sfiritiialis intclligeniiae. Mijjne edition, T. 50, p. 727. 
 Bee Reuss, Gesc/t. d. Hcil. Serif t. N. 2"., <)i.e Ausg., Braunschweig-, 1864, p. 543 
 
 X Kiiin, Theodor von Mopsuestia und Jicniliui A/ricauus ais Exegetcn^ 
 Freib., 1880, p. 30. 
 
 § Exposit. in Ps. cxviii., Hcrm. ii. n. 7, ibid. 36, Pracf. 
 
 I De doctrina, III. 30.
 
 324 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 a better shaping in the Latin church. He distinguishes 
 four kinds of exegesis : (i) historical, (2) etiological, (3) 
 analogical, (4) allegorical,* and lays down the principle 
 that whatever cannot be referred to good conduct or 
 truth of faith must be regarded as figurative.f Klausen 
 gives a careful summary of the exegetical principles of 
 Augustine. These are reproduced by Davidson, from 
 whom we quote :{: in a more condensed form : 
 
 " (i) The object of all interpretation is to express as accurately as 
 
 possible the thoughts and meaning of an author (2) In the 
 
 case of the Holy Scriptures, this is not attained by strictly insisting on 
 each single expression by itself. .... (3) On the contrary, we should 
 endeavor to clear up the obscurity of such passages, and to remove 
 their ambiguity — first, by close attention to the connexion before and 
 after ; next, by comparison with kindred places where the sense is 
 more clearly and definitely given ; and lastly, by a reference to the 
 essential contents of Christian doctrine. (4) The interpreter of Holy 
 Scripture must bring with him a Christian reverence for the divine 
 word, and an humble disposition which subordinates preconceived 
 opinions to whatever it perceives to be contained in the Word ol 
 God (5) Where the interpretation is insecure, notwithstand- 
 ing the preceding measures, it must be assumed, that the matter lies 
 beyond the circle of the essential truths belonging to the Christian 
 faith. (6) It is irrational and dangerous for any one, whilst trusting 
 in faith, and in the promises respecting the operations of the Holy 
 Spirit on the mind, to despise the guidance and aid of science in the 
 interpretation of Scripture." 
 
 The spirit that should actuate the interpreter is beau- 
 tifully stated by Augustine : 
 
 " The man who fears God seeks diligently in Holy Scripture for a 
 knowledge of His will. And when he has become meek through 
 piety, so as to have no love of strife, when furnished also with a 
 knowledge of language so as not to be stopped by unknown words 
 and forms of speech, and with the knowledge of certain necessary ol> 
 
 * Be util. cred.y c. 5. t De docfrtna, III. 15. 
 
 X Klausen in /. c, p. 162, seq. ; Davidbon in /. c, p. 133, seg.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 305 
 
 jects, so as not to be ignorant of the force and nature of those which 
 are used figuratively; and assisted, besides, l)v accuracy in the texts, 
 which has been secured by skill and care in the matter of correction ; 
 — when thus prepared, let him proceed to the examination and solu- 
 tion of the ambiguities of Scripture." * 
 
 We think that Klausen on the whole is justified, so far 
 as the Latin church is concerned, in his statement that : 
 
 " None of the rest of the fathers, earlier or later, came near Augus- 
 tine in the conception and statement of the essential character and 
 conditions of the interpretation of Scripture. The truths which the 
 Reformation in the sixteenth century again invoked into fruitful life, 
 namely, of the relation of the sacred Scriptures to Christian doctrine, 
 and of the scientific interpretation of the Scriptures, and which havt: 
 become subsequently the foundations for the erection of evangelical 
 dogmatics, may all be shown in the writings of Augustine, ev 
 pressed in his clear, strong language." t 
 
 This should, however, be qualified with the remark 
 that Augustine's practice did not altogether accord with 
 his precepts. He was dominated by the rule of faith :{: 
 and the authority of the church, as Irenaeus and Tcrtul- 
 lian had been ; and he did not apprehend the essential 
 Reformation principle of scriptural interpretation, name- 
 ly, the analogy of faith in the Scriptures themselves. 
 Augustine, in his practice, used too much of \\\^ allegory ; 
 and the Latin fathers followed his example rather than 
 his precepts, and more and more gave themselves up to 
 this method. Gregory the Great went to the greatest 
 lengths in allegory. 
 
 Toward the close of the third century Lucius of Sam- 
 osata established at Antioch a new cxegetical school, 
 which soon rose to a great power and influence, and pro- 
 
 * De doctrina, III. i. t In /. c, p. 165. 
 
 X Diestel, Ge^ch. d. Alt. Test, in d. Clirist. Kirclte, Jena, 1S69, p. 85 ; A. Dor- 
 ler, Augustinus sein theo/ogischcs i,y:>te>n, Berlin, 1873, p. 240, seq.
 
 826 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 duced the greatest exegetes of the ancient church. Its 
 fundamental principles are well stated by Kihn.* (i) 
 Every passage has its literal meaning and only one mean- 
 ing. We must, however, distinguish between plain and 
 figurative language, and interpret each passage in ac- 
 cordance with its nature. (2) Alongside of the literal 
 sense is the typical sense, which arises out of the rela- 
 tion of the old covenant to the new. It is based upon 
 the literal sense which it presupposes. These are sound 
 principles and are in accord with the usage of the New 
 Testament. 
 
 " The Antiochans mediated between the two contrasted positions: 
 a coarse, childish, literal sense, and an arbitrary allegorical interpre- 
 tation ; between the extremes of the Judaizers and Anthropomorphites 
 on the one hand, and the Hellenistic Gnostics and Origenists on the 
 other; and they paved the way for a sound biblical exegesis which 
 remained influential for all coming time, if indeed not always preva- 
 lent." t 
 
 The Antiochan school, like all others, produced schol- 
 ars of different tendencies. Some of them, like Theo- 
 dore of Mopsuestia, Diodorus of Tarsus, and Nestorius 
 pressed historical and grammatical exegesis too far, to 
 the neglect of the higher typical and mystical ; but in 
 Chrysostom, Theodoret, and Ephraim the Syrian, the 
 principles of the school find expression in the noblest 
 products of Christian exegesis, which served as the reser- 
 voir of supply for the feeble traditionalists of the middle 
 ages; and are valued more and more in our own times. :{: 
 
 With the decline of the school of Antioch, its princi- 
 ples were maintained at Edessa and Nisibis, and thence 
 gave an impulse to the Arabs and the Jewish exegesis 
 of the middle ages, and thus in a roundabout way again 
 
 * In /. c, p. 29. + Kihn in /. c, p. 2> X Diestel in /. c, pp. 135, 138.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 327 
 
 influenced the church of the West at the Reformation 
 But an earlier influence may be traced in the reproduc- 
 tion of the work of Paul of Nisibis by yunilius Africanus 
 in his Institutes.* The rules of Junilius are brief but 
 excellent : 
 
 " {Disciple). What are those things which we ought to guard in the 
 understanding of the sacred Scriptures ? {Master). That those things 
 which are said may agree with Him who says them ; that they should 
 not be discrepant with the reasons for which they were said ; that 
 they should accord with their times, places, order, and intention. 
 {Disciple). How may we learn the intention of the divine doctrine? 
 {Master). As the Lord Himself says, that we should love God with 
 all our hearts and with all our souls and our neighbors as ourselves. 
 But corruption of doctrine is, on the contrary, not to love God or the 
 neighbor."! 
 
 The school of Nisibis influenced the Occident also 
 through Cassiodorus, who wished to establish a corre- 
 sponding theological school at Rome, but failed on ac- 
 count of the warlike times.:}: If this had been accom- 
 plished, the history of the middle age might have been 
 very different. He introduced the methods of the school 
 of Nisibis in his Institutions. This was an impor- 
 tant text-book in the middle age and exerted a health- 
 ful influence. He urges to use the fathers as a Jacob's 
 ladder by which to rise to the Scriptures themselves. 
 He insists upon the comparison of Scripture with Script- 
 ures, and points out that frequent and intense medita- 
 tion is the way to a true understanding of them.§ 
 
 Jerome seems to have occupied an intermediate and 
 not altogether consistent position. He strives for his« 
 torical and grammatical exposition, yet it is easy to see 
 
 * Instituta Regularia Divinae Legts. \ Kihn in /. c, p. 526. 
 
 X Kihn in /. t., p. 210. 
 
 § Kihn in /. c, pp. 211-212; Praef. de Instit. dtv. litt., Migne, T. 70, p 
 1105, scq.
 
 328 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 that at the bottom he is more inclined to the allegorical 
 method. He lays down no principles of exegesis, but 
 scattered through his writings one finds numerous wise 
 remarks : 
 
 " The sacred Scripture cannot contradict itself." * " Whoever in- 
 terprets the gospel in a different spirit from that in which it was 
 written, confuses the faithful and distorts the gospel of Christ." t 
 " The gospel consists not in the words of Scripture but in the sense, 
 not in the surface but in the marrow, not in the leaves of the words 
 but in the roots of the thought." J 
 
 Thus there grew up in the ancient church three great 
 exegetical tendencies : the literal and traditional, the al- 
 legorical and mystical, the historical and ethical, and 
 these three struggled with one another and became more 
 and more interwoven, in the best of the fathers, but took 
 on all sorts of abnormal forms of exegesis in others. 
 
 In the middle age the vital Christian spirit was mor(; 
 and more suppressed, and ecclesiastical authority as 
 sumed the place of learning. The traditional principle 
 of exegesis became more and more dominant and along- 
 side of this the allegorical method was found to be the 
 most convenient for reconciling Scripture with tradition. 
 The literal and the historical sense was almost entirely 
 ignored. The fourfold sense became fixed, as expressed 
 in the saying: the literal sense teaches what has been 
 done, the allegorical what to believe, the moral what to 
 do, the anagogical whither we are tending.§ 
 
 In the middle age exegesis consisted chiefly in the re- 
 production of the expositions of the fathers, in collec- 
 tions and compilations, called epitomes, glosses, postilles, 
 chains. In the Oriental church the chief of these com 
 
 * Fpist. ad Marcellam. t Epist. ad Gal. i. 6. % Epist. ad Gal. i. ii. 
 
 ^ Litera gesta docet, quid credas allegorta, moralis quid agas, quo lendas 
 Anagogia.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 329 
 
 pilers were: Oecumenius (t999), Theophylact (f 1007), 
 and Euthymius Zigabenus (f ii 1 8). These contain chiefly 
 the exegesis of Chrysostom, Theodoret, and the Anti- 
 ochan school. In the Occidental church, there is more 
 independence and greater use of the allegory. The chief 
 Latin expositors of the middle age are, Beda(f 735), Al- 
 cuin (+ 804), Walafrid Strabo (f 849), Rhabanus Mauru? 
 (t 856), Peter Lombard (f 1164), Thomas Aquinas 
 (f 1274),* Hugo de St. Caro (f 1260). The only exegete 
 of the middle age who shows any acquaintance with the 
 Hebrew text of the Old Testament is the converted 
 Jew, Nicolaus de Lyra (f 1340). He seems to have appre- 
 hended better than any previous writer the proper exe- 
 getical method, but could only partly put it in practice. 
 He was doubtless influenced greatly by the grammatical 
 exegesis of the Jews of the middle age, from Saadia's 
 school, and especially by Raschi.f He wrote postille.s 
 on the entire Bible. He mentions the four senses of 
 Scripture and then says : 
 
 "All of them presuppose the literal sense as the foundation. Ai 
 a building, declining from the foundation, is likely to fall, so the mys- 
 tic exposition, which deviates from the literal sense, must be reck- 
 oned unbecoming and unsuitable." 
 
 And yet he adds : 
 
 " 1 protest, I intend to say nothing either in the way of assertion 
 or determination, except in relation to such things as have been 
 clearly settled by Holy Scripture on the authority of the church. All 
 besides must be taken as spoken scholastically and by way of exer- 
 
 * Ilis Catena Aurea on the Gospels have been translated by Pusey, Keb*,, 
 and Newman, 6 vols., Oxford, 1870 ; and may be consulted as the most accessibie 
 specimen of the interpretation of the middle age. 
 
 t See Siegfried, Raschi's Rinjluss an/ Nicolatis von Lira und Luther in det 
 Ansle^^un^ der Genesis, in Merx, Arc/uv, I., p. 428, scq. ; II., p. 39, seq.
 
 330 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 cise; for which reason, I submit all I have said, and aim to say, to 
 the correction of our holy mother the church." * 
 
 In such bondage to the infallable church, it is astonish- 
 ing that he accompHshcd so much. He exerted a health- 
 ful, reviving influence in biblical study and in a measure 
 prepared for the Reformation. There is truth in the 
 saying, " If Lyra had not piped, Luther would not have 
 danced." f Luther thought highly of Lyra, and yet 
 Luther really started from a principle entirely different 
 from the literal sense. For this he was rather prepared 
 by Wicklif and Huss. Wicklif was a contemporary of 
 Lyra, and opposed the abuse of the allegorical method 
 horn the spiritual side, and in contrast with Lyra recog- 
 nized the authority of the Scriptures as above the au- 
 thority of the church. He makes the all-important state- 
 ment which was not allowed to die, but became the Puri- 
 tan watchword in subsequent times: "The Holy Spirit 
 teaches us the sense of Scripture as Christ opened the 
 Scriptures to His apostles.":}: Huss and Jerome of 
 Prague followed Wicklif in this respect. § 
 
 With reference to the interpretation of the middle age 
 as a whole, the remarks of Immcr are appropriate : j| 
 
 " It lacks the most essential qualification to scriptural interpreta- 
 tion, linguistic knowledge, and historical perception This de- 
 fect inheres in th-; mediasval period in general. Hence there could 
 be no advance in interpretation. But what it could do it did : it col- 
 lected and preserved ; and what was thus preserved waited for new 
 fructifying elements, which were to be introduced in the second half 
 of the fifteenth century." 
 
 * Postillae perpetuae^ sen brevia commentaria in Univena Biblia, prnl. ii., 
 Davidson in I. c, p. 175. se(f. 
 
 •f Si Lyra non lyrassct, Littheriis non saltas.set. 
 
 X Lechler, Johann von Wiclif, Leipzig, 1873, L, p. 483, seg. ; Lorimer's edi- 
 tion, London, 1878, IL, p. 29, seq. 
 
 % Gillett, Life and Times 0/ Jo/in Huss, Boston, 1864, 2d ed., L, p. 295, seg, 
 
 \ In /. c, p. 37.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 33^ 
 
 The mediaeval exegesis reached its culmination at the 
 Council of Trent, where Roman Catholic interpretation 
 was chained forever in the fourfold fetters: that it must 
 be conformed to the rule of faith, the practice of the 
 church, the consent of the fathers, and the decisions of 
 the councils. But the seeds of a new exegesis had been 
 planted by Lyra and Wicklif which burst forth into 
 fruitful life in the Protestant Reformation. 
 
 V. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE REFORMERS AND 
 THEIR SUCCESSORS. 
 The Reformation was accompanied by a great revival 
 of Biblical Study in all directions, but especially in the 
 interpretation of the Scriptures. The Humanists were 
 influenced, by their studies of the Greek and Hebrew 
 languages and literatures, to apply this new learning to 
 the study of the Bible. Erasmus is tlie acknowledged 
 chief of interpreters of this class. He insisted that the 
 interpretation of the Scriptures should be in accordance 
 with the original Greek and Hebrev/ texts, and urged 
 the giving of the grammatical and literal sense over 
 against the allegorical sense, which had been the ally of 
 tradition.* The Humanists, however, did not go to the 
 root of the evil ; they were too deferential to the author- 
 ity of the Church, and sought to correct the errors in 
 exegesis by purely scholarly methods. The Reformers, 
 however, revived the principle of Wicklif and Huss, 
 strengthened it, and made it invincible. They urged 
 the one literal sense against the fourfold sense, but they 
 still more insisted that Scripture should be its own in- 
 terpreter, and that it was not to be interpreted by tra- 
 dition or external ecclesiastical authority. Thus, Luther 
 says: 
 
 * Klausen in /. c, p. 227.
 
 332 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 " Every word should be allowed to stand in its natural meaning 
 and that should not be abandoned unless faith forces us to it."* .... 
 " It is the attribute of Holy Scripture that it interprets itself by 
 passages and places which belong together, and can only be under- 
 stood by the rule of faith." f 
 
 Tyndale says : 
 
 "Thou shalt understand, therefore, that the Scripture hath but 
 one sense, which is the literal sense. And that literal sense is the 
 root and ground of all, and the anchor that never faileth, vvhereunto 
 if thou cleave, thou canst never err or go out of the way. And 
 if thou leave the literal sense, thou canst not but go out of the way. 
 Neverthelater, the Scripture useth proverbs, similitudes, riddles, or 
 allegories, as all other speeches do ; but that which the proverb, 
 similitude, riddle, or allegory signifieth, is ever the literal sense, 
 which thou must seek out diligently : as in the English we borrow 
 words and sentences of one thing, and apply them unto another, 
 and give them new significations." .... "Beyond all this, when 
 we have found out the literal sense of the Scripture by the process 
 of the text, or by a like text of another place, then go we ; and as 
 the Scripture borroweth similitudes of worldly things, even so we 
 again borrow similitudes or allegories of the Scripture, and apply 
 them to our purposes ; which allegories are no sense of the Script- 
 urt-, but free things besides the Scripture, and altogether in the liberty 
 ol' ihe Spirit." " Finally, all God's words are spiritual, if thou hav(; 
 eyes of God, to see the right meaning of the text, and whereunto 
 tiie Scripture pertaineth, and the final end and cause thereof." J 
 
 The view of the Reformed churches is expressed in 
 the 2d Helvetic Confession (ii. i) : 
 
 " We acknowledge that interpretation of Scripture for authentical 
 and proper, which being taken t'rom the Scriptures themselves (that 
 is, from the phrase of that tongue in which they were written, they 
 being also waved according to the circumstances and expounded 
 according to the proportion of places, either like or unlike, or of 
 
 * Walch, xix., p. 1601. t Walch, iii., p. 2042. 
 
 1 The Obedience 0/ a Christian Man, 1528 ; Parker edition, Doctrinal Treat- 
 
 rt'9, p. 307, seq.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 333 
 
 more and plainer), accordeth with the rule of faith and charity, and 
 maketh notably for God's glory and man's salvation." * 
 
 The Reformers produced masterpieces of exegesis by 
 these principles, and set the Bible in a new light before the 
 world. Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin especially were great 
 exegetes;f Bullinger(f 1575), Oecolampadius(tl 531), Me- 
 lancthon, Musculus (11563), were worthy to stand by their 
 side. Their immediate successors had somewhat of their 
 spirit, although the sectarian element already influences 
 them in the maintenance of the peculiarities of the dif- 
 ferent churches. The Hermeneutical principles of the 
 I^utherans are well stated by Matth. Flacius ; :}: those of 
 the Reformed by And. Rivetus.§ The weakness of the 
 Reformation principle was in the lack of clear definition 
 of what was meant by the analogy or rule of faith. It 
 is clear that the Reformers set the rule of faith in the 
 Scriptures themselves, — in the substance of doctrine ap- 
 prehended by faith. But when it came to define what 
 that substance was, there was difficulty. Hence, so 
 soon as the faith of the church was expressed in sym- 
 bols, these were at first unconsciously, and at last avow- 
 edly, identified with this Scripture rule of faith. The 
 Lutheran scholastic Gerhard says : 
 
 " From these plain passages of Scripture the rule of faith is col- 
 lected, which is the sum of the celestial doctrine collected from the 
 most evident passages of Scripture. Its parts are two — the former 
 concerning faith, whose chief precepts are expressed in the apostles' 
 creed ; the latter concerning love, the sum of which the decalogue 
 explains." || 
 
 * We give the English version of Hartnony of the Confessions, London, 1643, 
 on account of its historical relations. 
 
 t Klausen in /. c, p. 223 ; also, p. 112. 
 
 X Ciavis Serif turae Sacrae, Antwerp, 1567 ; Basileae, 1609. Best edition, ed 
 Musaeus, 1675. 
 
 ? Isagoge, 1627. J Gerhard, Loci, Tubingae, 1767, Tom. I., p. 53.
 
 334 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Hollazius* defines the analogy of faith: "the funda- 
 mental articles of faith, or the principal chapters of the 
 Christian faith collected from the clearest testimonies of 
 the Scriptures." Carpzovf makes it: "the system of 
 Scripture doctrine in its order and connection." 
 
 If this system of doctrine had been that found in the 
 Scriptures themselves, in accordance with the modern 
 discipline of Biblical Theology,:}: there would have been 
 some propriety in the definition ; but inasmuch as the 
 scholastic theologians proposed to express that system 
 of doctrine in their theological commonplaces, in other 
 methods and forms than those presented in the Script- 
 ures, practically the rule or analogy of faith became 
 these theological systems, and so an external rule was 
 substituted for the internal rule of the Scriptures them- 
 selves ; the Reformation principle was more and more 
 abandoned ; and the Jewish Halacha, and the mediaeval 
 scholastic re-entered, and took possession of Protestant 
 exegesis. § 
 
 The Reformed church was slower in attaining this 
 result than the Lutheran church, owing to the exegetical 
 spirit that had come down from Oecolampadius, Calvin, 
 and Zwingli ; but already Beza leads off in the wrong 
 direction ; and notwithstanding the great stress laid upon 
 literal and grammatical exegesis by Cappellus and the 
 school of Saumur in France; by Drusius, De Dieu, and 
 Dan. Heinsius in Holland ; the drift was in the scholastic 
 direction ; and when the Swiss churches arrayed them- 
 selves against the French excgetes ; and the churches of 
 Holland were divided by the Arminian controversy, and 
 the historical and literal exegesis came to characterize 
 
 * Exam. Tkeo/ogici Acroa7iiatict\ 1741, Holmiae, p. 1777- 
 
 t Primes Lineae IJcrm. Ilelmstad., 1790, p. 28. J See Chap. XI. 
 
 § Volck, in Zockler, Handb. Thcc. JVt'ss., p. 657 ; Klausen in /. c, p. 354.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 335 
 
 ir.ore and more the latter; the scholastic divines more 
 and more employed the dogmatic method, and urged to 
 interpret in accordance with the external rule of faith. 
 
 VI. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PURITANS, AND 
 THE ARMINIANS. 
 
 British Puritanism remained true to the Reformation 
 principle of interpretation till the close of the seventeenth 
 century. The views of Tyndale and the Puritans went 
 deeper into the essence of the matter than those of the 
 continental reformers. This was doubtless owing to the 
 fact of their conflict against ecclesiastical authority and 
 the prelatical party, and their protests against the obtru- 
 sion of Popish ceremonies on the Christians of England. 
 They urged more and more the principle of the Script 
 ures alone as the rule of the church, and made \hQJus 
 divimim the supreme appeal. Thus Thomas Cartwright : 
 
 " Scripture alone being able and sufficient to make us wise to 
 salvation, we need no unwritten verities, no traditions of men, no 
 canons of councels, or sentences of fathers, much less decrees of 
 popes, to supply any supposed defect of the written word, or to give 
 us a more perfect direction in the way of life, then is already set 
 down expressly in the canonicall Scriptures They are of di- 
 vine authority. They are the rule, the line, the squyre and light, 
 whereby to examine and trie all judgements and sayings of men, 
 and of angels, whether they be such as God approveth, yea or no ; 
 and they are not to be judged or sentenced by any." * 
 
 Especially noteworthy is the statement that no ex- 
 ternal rule is to be used to supply any supposed de- 
 fects of the written word, and that plain direction is 
 given by what is set down expressly in the Scripture, 
 
 ♦ Treatise of Christian Religion, 1616, p. yjj.
 
 336 BIBLICAL STUDY 
 
 John Ball * gives an admirable statement of the Puritan 
 position : 
 
 " The expounding of the Scriptures is commanded by God, and 
 practiced by the godly, profitable both for the unfolding of obscure 
 places, and applying of plaine texts. It stands in two things, (i) In 
 giving the right sense. (2) In a fit application of the same. Of one 
 place of Scripture, there is but one proper and naturall sense, though 
 sometimes things are so expressed, as that the things themselves 
 doe signifie other things, according to the Lord's ordinance : Gal. 
 iv. 22, 23, 24 ; Ex. xii. 46, with John xix. 36 ; Ps. ii. i, with Acts iv. 
 21, 25, 26, We are not tyed to the expositions of the Fathers or 
 councels for the finding out the sense of the Scripture, the Holy 
 Crhost speaking in the Scripture, is the only faithful interpreter of 
 the Scripture. The meanes to find out the true meaning of the 
 Scripture, are conference of one place of Scripture with another, 
 diligent consideration of the scope and circumstances of the place, 
 ai; the occasions, and coherence of that which went before, with that 
 which foUoweth after ; the matter whereof it doth intreat, and cir- 
 cumstances of persons, times and places, and consideration, whether 
 the words are spoken figuratively or simply ; for in figurative speeches, 
 not the outward shew of words, but the sense is to be taken, and 
 knov/Iedge of the arts and tongues wherein the Scriptures were 
 criginaliy written. But alwayes it is to bee observed, that obscure 
 places are not to bee expounded contrary to the rule of faith set 
 downe in plainer places of the Scripture." 
 
 The analogy or rule of faith is expressly defined by 
 him as " set downe in plainer places of the Scripture," 
 and it is maintained that " the Holy Ghost speaking in 
 the Scripture is the only faithful interpreter of Script- 
 ure." This improvement of the Protestant principle by 
 lifting it to the person of the Holy Spirit speaking in 
 the word to the believer, prevents any substitution of 
 an external symbol or system of theology for the rule ol 
 
 * Short T?-eatise containing al/ the prinripall Grounds 0/ Christian Religion 
 Tenth Impression. London, 1635. p. 39.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 337 
 
 faith of the Scriptures themselves. Archbishop Usher 
 takes the same position as Ball : * 
 
 " The Spirit of God alone is the certain interpreter of His word 
 written by His Spirit. For no man knoweth the things pertaining 
 to God, but the Spirit of God (I. Cor. ii. 11) The interpreta- 
 tion therefore must be of the same Spirit by which the Scripture was 
 written ; of which Spirit we have no certainty upon any man's 
 credit, but onely so far forth as his saying may be confirmed by the 
 
 Holy Scriptures How then is the Scripture to be interpreted 
 
 by Scripture? According to the analogy of faith (Rom. xii. 6), and 
 •^.he scope and circumstance of the present place, and conference of 
 other plain and evident places, by which all such as are obscure and 
 hard to be understood ought to be interpreted, for there is no matter 
 necessary to eternal life, which is not plainly, and sufficiently set 
 forth in many places of Scripture." 
 
 These extracts from the Puritan fathers, who chiefly 
 influenced the Westminster divines, will enable us to 
 understand the principles of interpretation laid down in 
 the Westminster Confession (I. 9-10^, which are in ad- 
 vance of all the symbols of the Reformation in this par- 
 ticular : 
 
 " The infallible rule of interpretation of Scripture is the Scripture 
 Itself; and therefore, when there is a question about the true and 
 full sense of any Scripture (which is not manifold, but one), it must 
 be searched and known by other places that speak more clearly " 
 
 (§9). 
 
 " The supreme judge, by which all controversies of religion are to 
 be determined and all decrees of councils, opinions of ancient writ- 
 ers, doctrines of men, and private spirits, are to be examined, and in 
 whose sentence we are to rest, can be no other but the Holy Spirit, 
 speaking in the Scripture " (§ 10). 
 
 These principles of interpretation give the death-blow 
 to the manifold sense, and also to any external analogy 
 of faith for the interpretation of Scripture. It has been 
 
 * Body 0/ Divtnitie, London, 1645. Fourth Edit., London, 1653, pp. 34, 25, 
 
 15
 
 338 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 made contra-confessional in those churches which adopt 
 the Westminster symbols to believe and teach any but 
 the one true and full sense of any Scripture, or to appeal 
 to " doctrines of men," or any external rule or analogy 
 of faith, or to make any other but the Holy Spirit Him- 
 self the supreme interpreter of Scripture to the believer 
 and the church. It was not without good and sufficient 
 reasons that the Westminster divines substituted the 
 " Holy Spirit speaking in the Scripture " for the analogy 
 of faith which had been so much abused, and which was 
 to be still more abused by the descendants of the Puri- 
 tans, after they had forgotten their Puritan fathers, and 
 resorted to the Swiss and Dutch scholastics for theolog- 
 ical instruction. 
 
 Edward Leigh (a lawyer and member of the Long 
 Parliament, and said to have been a lay member of the 
 Westminster Assembly,) clearly states the Puritan posi- 
 tion * in his chapter on the Interpretation of Scripture : 
 
 " The Holy Ghost is the judge, and the Scripture is the sentence 
 or definitive decree. We acknowledge no publick judge except the 
 Scripture, and the Holy Ghost teaching us in the Scripture, He that 
 made the law should interpret the same." . . . . " The Papist says, 
 that the Scripture ought to be expounded by the rule of faith, and 
 therefore not by Scripture only. But the rule of faith and Scripture 
 is all one. As the Scriptures are not of man, but of the Spirit, so 
 their interpretation is not by man, but of the Spirit likewise." + 
 
 We shall call attention to some other features of the 
 interpretation of the seventeenth century in England, 
 because it has been neglected by British and American 
 
 * Systeme, or Body of Divinity. London, 1654, pp. 107, iig. 
 
 + Thomas Watson, in his Body of Practical Divinity, in exposition of the 
 VVestniinstifr Shorter Catechism, London, 1692, p. 16, takes the same position : 
 " The Scripture is to be its own interpreter, or rather the Spirit speaking in it ; 
 nothin{^ can cut the diamond but the diamond ; nothing; can interpret Scripitvire 
 but Scripture ; the sun best discovers itself by its own beams-."
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 339 
 
 scholars, and consequently also by German critics and 
 historians, upon whom many of our modern Anglo-Saxon 
 interpreters depend, conservative and progressive alike. 
 Henry Ainsworth says : 
 
 " I have chiefly laboured in these annotations upon Moses, to ex- 
 plain his words and speech by conference with himself, and other 
 prophets and apostles, all which are commenters upon his lawes, 
 and do open unto us the mysteries which were covered under his 
 veile ; for by a true and sound literall explication, the spiritual mean- 
 ing may be the better discerned. And the exquisite scanning of 
 words and phrases, which to some may seeme needlesse, will be 
 found (as painful to the writer) profitable to the reader." * 
 
 Francis Taylor, a Westminster divine, a great Hebrew 
 scholar and Talmudist, author of many commentaries 
 and other practical and theological works, says :f 
 
 " The method used by me is new, and never formerly exactly fol- 
 lowed in every verse, by any writer, Protestant or Papist, that ever I 
 read, (i) Ye have the grammatical sense in the various significa- 
 tions of every Hebrew word used throughout the Old Testament, 
 which gives light to many other texts ; (2) Ye have the rhetorical 
 sense, in the tropes and figures ; (3) The logicall, in the several 
 arguments ; (4) The theological in divine observations." 
 
 This is an exact and admirable method which would 
 /)ave delighted Ernesti in the next century, if he had 
 known of it, with the exception of the last point in 
 which the Puritan practical interpretation comes in play. 
 Edward Leigh :}: also lays down excellent principles : 
 
 " The word is interpreted aright, by declaring (i) the order, (2) 
 the summe or scope, (3) the sense of the words, which is done by 
 framing a rhetorical and logical analysis of the text. In giving the 
 sense, three rules are of principal use and necessity to be observed. 
 
 * Pentateuch, Preface, 1626. 
 
 t Epist. dedicatory to the Exposition 0/ the Proverbs. London, 1655. 
 
 t In /. c, p. 119.
 
 340 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 (i) The literal and largest sense of any words in Scripture must no< 
 be embraced further when our cleaving thereto would breed some 
 disagreement and contrariety between the present Scripture, ano 
 some other text or place, else shall we change the Scripture into a 
 nose of wax. (2) In case of such appearing disagreement, the Holy 
 Ghost leads us by the hand to seek out some distinction, restriction, 
 limitation or signe for the reconcilement thereof, and one of these 
 will always fit the purpose ; for God's word must always bring per- 
 fect truth, it cannot fight against itself. (3) Such figurative sense, 
 limitation, restriction or distinction must be sought out, as the word 
 of God affordeth either in the present place or some other; and 
 chiefly those that seem to differ with the present text, being duly 
 compared together." 
 
 We do not know where a more careful statement, of 
 this delicate problem of harmonizing Scripture with 
 ►Scripture, can be found.* 
 
 The Puritan interpreters laid stress upon the practical 
 interpretation, or application of Scripture. The best 
 statement is found in the Key of the Bible, by Francis 
 Roberts, 4th edition, London, 1675, p. 5, seq. : 
 
 " That the Holy Scriptures may be more profitably and clearly un- 
 derstood, certain rules or directions are to be observed and followed : 
 
 "I. Some more special and peculiar, more particularly concerning 
 scholars. As (i) The competent understanding of the original lan- 
 
 * This same Edward Leigh was one of the best Biblical scholars of the seven- 
 teenth century. He published Annotations upon all the New Testament, phil- 
 logicall and Theolopcall wherein the emphasis and elegance of the Greeke is ob- 
 served, some imperfections in our translation are discovered, divers Jewish rites 
 and customes tending to illustrate the text are mentioned, many antilogies and 
 seeming contradictions reconciled, severall darke and obscure places opened, 
 sundry passages vindicated from the false glosses of Papists and Heretics. Lon- 
 don, 1650, folio. The title is descriptive of a sound method. He also published 
 Critica Sacra on the Hebrew 0/ the Old Testament, 4to, London, 1639. Crit- 
 ica Sacra on the Greek of the New Testament. 4to, London, 1646. These 
 were combined in a foho, 1662. They were translated into Latin by Henry Mid- 
 doch and published at Amsterdam, 1679, and then at Leipzig, 1696, with Pref- 
 ace by John Meyer, a Hebrew Professor there, and in this way exerted a grea- 
 influence on the continent until the close of the century.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. ^\ 
 
 guages. .... (2) The prudent use of Logiclo .... (3) The sub- 
 servient help of other arts, as Rhetoric, Natural Philosophy, etc, 
 .... (4) The benefit of humane histories to illustrate and clear the 
 theme. (5) The conferring of ancient translations with the origi- 
 nals (6) The prudent use of the most orthodox, learned, and 
 
 judicious Commentators. (7) Constant caution that all tongues, 
 arts, histories, translations, and comments be duly ranked in their 
 proper places in subserviency under, not in regency or predomi- 
 nancy over the Holy Scriptures which are to controle them all." 
 " II. Some more general and common directions, which may be 
 
 of use to all sorts of Christians learned and unlearned (i) 
 
 Beg wisdom of the onely wise God, who gives liberally and upbraids 
 
 not (2) Labour sincerely after a truly gracious spirit, then 
 
 thou shalt be peculiarly able to penetrate into the internal marrow 
 
 and mysteries of the holy Scriptures (3) Peruse the Scripture 
 
 with an humble self-denying heart (4) Familiarize the Script- 
 ure to thyself by constant and methodical exercise therein (5) 
 
 Understand Scripture according to the theological analogy, or cer- 
 tain rule of faith and love (6) Be well acquainted with the 
 
 order, titles, times, penman, occasion, scope, and principal parts of 
 the books, both of the Old and New Testament. (7) Heedfully and 
 judiciously observe the accurate concord and harmony of the Holy 
 Scriptures. (8) Learn the excellent art of explaining and under- 
 standing the Scriptures, by the Scriptures. (9) Endeavor sincerely 
 to practice Scripture, and you shall solidly understand Scripture." 
 
 We have given these rules at length, both on account 
 of their intrinsic excellence and also to call attention to 
 a work of great value which has been lost sight of for a 
 long time in the history of interpretation. 
 
 This same Francis Roberts, — who was a Presbyterian 
 minister of London during the Commonwealth period, and 
 at the restoration remained with the Established church, 
 — is the author of a massive work in two folio volumes, 
 which construct a system of theology on the doctrine of 
 the covenants.* 
 
 * The Mysterie and Marrow 0/ the Bible: viz., God^s Covenants voitk man, 
 W the first Adam, be/ore the Fall ; and in the last Adam, yesus Christ, after
 
 342 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 In his epistolary introduction he says : " I began my 
 weekly lectures, to treat of God's Covenants, on Sept. 
 2, 165 1, and have persisted therein till the very publica- 
 tion of this book, in May, 1657." 
 
 In the same introduction he describes his treatise as 
 
 " A Work of vast extent, comprising in it : all the methods of divine 
 dispensations to the Church in all ages ; all the conditions of the 
 Church under those dispensations ; all the greatest and precious 
 promises, of the life that now is, and of that which is to come ; all 
 sorts of blessings promised by God to man ; all sorts of duties re- 
 promised by man to God ; all the gradual discoveries of Jesus Christ, 
 the only Mediator and Saviour of sinners ; the whole mystery of all 
 true religion from the beginning to the end of the world ; and which 
 as a continued thred of gold runs through the whole series of all the 
 Holy Scriptures, .... because I have set my heart exceedingly to 
 the Covenants of my God, which (in my judgment) are an universal 
 basis or foundation of all true religion and happiness, I have shunned 
 no diligence, industry, or endeavor that to me seemed requisite for 
 the profitable unveiling of them." 
 
 Francis Roberts in this work carries out a plan de- 
 vised and partially executed by John Ball.* According 
 to Thomas Blake,t " his purpose was to speak on this 
 subject of the covenant, all that he had to say in all the 
 whole body of divinity. That which he hath left behind 
 gives us a taste of it." In this Ball anticipated Cocce- 
 ius and the Dutch Federal theology, as indeed his system 
 of the covenants is of a purer type, having all the ad- 
 vantages of the historical method of the Dutch Federal 
 school without its far-fetched typologies. Indeed the 
 
 the Fall; from the Beginning to the End of the World ; Unfolded and Illus' 
 trated in positive Aphorisms and their Explanations. 2 vols., London, 1657. 
 
 * Treatise of the Covenant of Grace, London, 1645, 410, published after his 
 death by his friend Simeon Ashe, and with commendatory notices by five other 
 Westminster divines. 
 
 + Treatise of the Covenant of God entered with mankinde in the severat 
 Undes and degrees of it. Preface, London, 1653,
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 343 
 
 theology of the covenants had been embedded in Puri- 
 tan theology since Thomas Cartvvright.* The covenant 
 principle is also in Usher's Body of Divinity, and the 
 Westminster symbols. In truth, the historical principle 
 that characterizes the covenant theology is better wrought 
 out by John Ball and Francis Roberts than by Cocceius. 
 It will be found that the doctrine of the covenants passed 
 over from England with the Puritan spirit into Holland, 
 into the Federal school, and thence into Spener and the 
 German Pietists. The essential mystic spirit is common 
 to these three great movements which were the historic 
 successors of one another in the order, England, Hol- 
 land, Germany, although each assumed a form adapted 
 to its peculiar circumstances and conditions.f 
 
 The Federal school in Holland was characterized by a 
 tendency to allegorize, which was foreign to the best 
 Puritan type, although Thomas Brightman, in his Com- 
 mentaries on Revelation, Song of Songs, and Daniel, 
 reintroduced the allegorical method into the Protestant 
 church and carried it to great lengths. He had not a 
 few followers in Great Britain, and on the continent 
 where his works were republished. 
 
 This element is united with the principle of the cove- 
 nant in the Federal theology, and proved its greatest 
 weakness. The Federal theology, however, exerted a 
 wholesome influence in preserving the mystic spirit of 
 interpretation over against the purely external historical 
 method of the Arminians ; and in maintaining the his- 
 toric method of divine revelation over against the exter- 
 
 * In his Treatise of Christian Religion, 1616, he treats first of the doctrine of 
 God and then of man ; next of the Word of God, and this he divides into two 
 p»arts : the doctrine of the Covenant of Works, called the law, the Covenant of 
 Grace, the gospel ; and treats of Christology and Soteriology under the latter. 
 
 t Cocceius w£is a pupil of Ames, the British Puritan. See Mitchell, Westmin 
 iter Assembly^ Ixjndon, 1883, p. 344, seq.
 
 344 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 nal and mechanical systematizing of the Dutch scholas. 
 tics. Spener and the German Pietists also represented 
 the mystic spirit of interpretation and adopted many of 
 the chief features of Puritanism. They laid stress upon 
 personal relations to God and experimental piety in or- 
 der to the interpretation of Scripture. This was accom- 
 panied among the best of them with true scholarship. 
 The Pietistic interpretation may be found stated by 
 Franke,* but especially by Rambach,t whose work was 
 fruitful for many generations and still retains its value. 
 The best exegete in this direction is the celebrated Ben- 
 gel, whose interpretation is a model of piety and accu- 
 racy.:|: His principle of interpretation is briefly stated : 
 *' It is the especial office of every interpretation to ex- 
 hibit adequately the force and significance of the words 
 which the text contains, so as to express everything 
 which the author intended, and to introduce nothing 
 which he did not intend " (xiv. Preface). 
 
 The principles of interpretation of the Puritans worked 
 mightily during the seventeenth century in Great Britain, 
 and produced exegetical works that ought to be the 
 pride of the Anglo-Saxon churches in all time. Thomas 
 Cartwright, Henry Ainsworth, John Reynolds, John 
 Fox, Nicholas Byfield, Paul Bayne, Hugh Broughton, 
 J. Davenant, Francis Taylor, William Gouge, John 
 Lightfoot, Edward Leigh, Wm. Attersol, Thos. Gataker, 
 Joseph Caryl, Samuel Clark, John Trapp, William Green- 
 hill, Francis Roberts, and numerous others have opened 
 up the meaning of the Word of God for all generations. 
 Among the last of the Puritan works on the more learned 
 
 * Manducatio ad lectionem, S.S. 1693; Praelectiones Hermeneut., 1717. 
 + Jnstitutiones Hermeneitticae, 1723, 8th edit., Jenae, 1764, ed. Buddeus. 
 X Gnomon^ N. T., Tubingen, 1742, English edition by T. Carlton Lewis and 
 Uarviu R. Vincent, Philadelphia, 1860-62.
 
 THE INTEllPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 345 
 
 side was the Synopsis Criticormn of Matthew Poole ; but 
 the more practical side of interpretation continued to 
 advance until it attained its highest mark in Matthew 
 Henry.* Other practical commentaries have been of 
 great service to the churches, such as those of Ph. Dod- 
 dridge t and Thomas Scott,:}: but the Puritan interpreta- 
 tion soon lost its strength by the neglect of theological 
 education. Excluded from the universities by their re- 
 ligious principles, the non-conformists were unable to 
 organize educational institutions of their own that were 
 at all adequate, and hence the ministry fell back upon 
 dogmatizing or spiritualizing, equally perilous, without 
 an exact knowledge of the Biblical text.§ 
 
 In the meanwhile, the Humanistic spirit had main- 
 tained itself in the Prelatical party in the church of Eng- 
 land and found expression among the Arminians of 
 Holland. The chief interpreter of the seventeenth cent- 
 ury, who revived the spirit of Erasmus, was Hugo Gro- 
 tius. He laid stress upon historical interpretation.! He 
 was followed by the Arminians generally, especially 
 Clericus. In Great Britain Henry Hammond had the 
 same spirit and methods-l^ Edward Pocock** also seeks 
 as the main thing " to settle the genuine and literal mean- 
 
 * Expositions of the Old and N'ew Testaments, London, 1704-6. 
 
 t Family Expositor. 6 vols. 4to, London, 1760-62. 
 
 X Family Bible , with notes. 4 vols. 4to, 1796. 
 
 § It is the merit of C. H. Spurgeon that he has recently called attention to the 
 neglected Puritan commentators and expressed his great obligations to them. 
 See his Commenting and Commentaries, N. Y., 1876, and also Treasury of 
 David, London, 6 vols., 1870, seq.^ which contains copious extracts from the Puri- 
 tan commentaries. 
 
 I Annotativnes in lib. evang., Amst., 1641 ; Annot. in Vet. Test., Paris, 1664. 
 
 \ Paraphrase and Annotations upon all the books of the New Testament, 
 1653, Svo, 3d edition, folio, London, 1671. In a Postscript concerning new 
 h"ght or divine illumination, over against the Quakers, he insisted up)on the 
 plain, literal, and historical sense. 
 
 ** Com. on Micah, 1677, Hosea, 1685, Joel, 1691. 
 
 15*
 
 346 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 ing of the text." Dan. Whitby* also represents this 
 tendency ; and still later Bishop Lowth (see p. 203) and 
 John Taylor of Norwich.f The latter says: 
 
 " To understand the sense of the Spirit in the New, 'tis essentially 
 necessary that we understand its sense in the Old Testament. But 
 the sense of the Spirit cannot be understood unless we understand 
 the language in which that sense is conveyed. P'or which purpose 
 the Hebrew Concordance is the best Expositor. For there you have 
 in one view presented all the places of the sacred code where any 
 words are used ; and by carefully collating those places, may judge 
 what sense it will, or will not bear, which being once settled there 
 lies no appeal to any other writing in the world : because there are 
 no other books in all the world in the pure original Hebrew, but the 
 books of the Old Testament. A judgment therefore duly founded 
 upon them must be absolutely decisive." J 
 
 Taylor acknowledges his great indebtedness to the 
 philosopher Locke,§ and shows the influence of that 
 philosophy in his exegesis. Toward the close of the 
 century Biblical interpretation more and more declined 
 in Great Britain, and we must go to the continent and 
 especially to Germany for the exegesis as well as the 
 higher and lower criticism of modern times.| 
 
 VII. BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION OF MODERN TIMES. 
 
 We have seen in our studies of Biblical literature that 
 there was a great revival of Biblical studies, especially in 
 Germany toward the close of the eighteenth century, 
 which extended to all departments. For Biblical inter- 
 pretation Ernesti was the chief of the new era. 
 Ernesti was essentially a philologist rather than a 
 
 * Paraf/irase and Commentary on the New Testatneni. 2 vols., 1703-9, folio. 
 t Hebrew Concordance, 2 vols, folio, London, 1754. 
 
 X Preface of Hebrew Concordance. See also his Paraphrase with notes on 
 the Epistle to the Remans , London, 1745, pp. 114, 127, 146. 
 § In /. c, p. 149. I See pp. 149, ao6, seq.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 347 
 
 theologian, and he applied to the Bible the princi- 
 ples which he had employed in the interpretation of the 
 ancient classics. He began at the foundation of inter- 
 pretation, grammatical exegesis, and placed it in such a 
 position before the world that it has ever since main- 
 tained its fundamental importance. He published his 
 principles of interpretation in 1761.* Ernesti was fol- 
 lowed by Zacharia,f Morus,:}: C. D. Beck,§ and others. 
 Moses Stuart translated Ernesti with the notes of Morus 
 abridged. II 
 
 About the same time as Ernesti, Semler urged the 
 importance of historical interpretation.^ Semler was an 
 open-minded, devout scholar, and appropriated freely 
 the material wherever he could find it, and reproduced it 
 in forms fashioned by his own genius. He was greatly 
 influenced by foreign interpreters and was the channel 
 through whom the historical interpretation, still linger- 
 ing in Reformed lands, made its way into Lutheran Ger- 
 many. Among those who influenced Semler may be 
 mentioned : J. A. Turretine, who had introduced the 
 Swiss revolt against scholasticism,'^* John Taylor of Nor- 
 
 * Institutio Interpret is N. T. 1761, 3te Auf., 1774 ; 5te Aufl. ed. Ammon, 
 1809. It was translated into English and edited by Bishop Terrot in 1809 from 
 Ammon 's edition, for the Biblical Cabinet^ I. and IV., Edinburg. 
 
 t Einleit. in d. Auslegekunsf, 1778. 
 
 X Acroases. acad. super Herm., N. T. 1797 and 1802, ed. by Eichstadt. 
 
 § Monogram, her ?neneut ices librorum N. Foed., Lips., 1803. 
 
 I Elementary Principles of Interpretation, translated from the Latin of J. A. 
 Ernesti, accompanied by notes, with an appendix containing extracts from Mo- 
 rus, Beck, Keil, and Henderson. 4th edit., Andover, 1842. The earlier edition 
 was republished in England with additional observations by Dr. Henderson, 
 London, 1827, which were used in Stuart's fourth edition. 
 
 1 Vorbereit. zurtheol. Herm., 1760-69; Apparatus ad liheralem, N. T. In- 
 ter p., 1767. 
 
 ** De S. S. interp. tractatus bipartitus, 1728. This was an unauthorized and 
 defective edition and it was repudiated by the author. A better edition was ed- 
 ited by Teller in 1776.
 
 5ia BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 wich and Daniel Whitby,* and L. Meyer, the Spinozist.f 
 Semler was followed by J. G. Gabler, G. L. Baur, K. C. 
 Bretschneider, and others. 
 
 These elements of interpretation were combined in the 
 grammatico-historical method of C. A. G. Keil.:|: The 
 grammatico-historical method was introduced into the 
 United States of America chiefly by Moses Stuart and 
 his school. 
 
 The defects of the grammatico-historical method were 
 discovered and attacks were made upon it from both 
 sides. Kant and his school urged rational and moral ex- 
 egesis, to which the historical must yield as of vastly 
 less importance. There was truth in this rising to the 
 moral sense, but as it was stated and used by the Kant 
 ians it resulted in binding the Bible in the fetters of a 
 philosophical system that was far more oppressive than 
 the theological system had been. Staudlein,§ Stern,[( 
 Stark,^ and Kaiser,** and above all Germar,tf renderetl 
 great service by urging that the interpreter should enter 
 into sympathy with the spirit of the Biblical authors. 
 
 On the other side the little barwl of Pietists of the 
 older Tubingen school urged the inadequacy of the 
 grammatico-historical method and insisted upon faith 
 and piety in the interpreter.:!::}: The chief of these were 
 Storr,§§ Flatt and Steudel of Tubingen, Knapp of Halle, 
 and Seller of Erlangen.|} 
 
 ♦ See p. 346, ako Tholuck, Vermischte Schri/ien, Hamburg, 1839, pp. 30, 40. 
 ■|- Author of an anonymous treatise : Philosophise Script, interpres., 1666. 
 X Lchr. d. Herm., 1810. § De interp. N. T., 1807. 
 
 I Ueherden Begriff und obersten Grundsatz d. hist, interp. d. N. T.y 1815. 
 \ Beitr. 2. Herm., 1817. ** System Herm.^ 1817. 
 
 ++ Beitrag zur allgemein. Hermeneutik, Altona, 1828. 
 
 \\ Reuss, Gesch. d. H. S. N. T,, 4te Aufl., 1864, p. 582, seq. 
 
 §§ De sensu historico, ijyS. 
 
 II Bifi. Ilerm., 1880, edited in Holland by Heringa; and translated fron» th« 
 Holland edition and edited with additions by Wm. Wright, London, 1835.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 349 
 
 This conflict of principles worked more and more con- 
 fusion. If the older exegesis was at fault in neglecting 
 the human element and the variety of features of the 
 Bible on the human side ; the newer interpreters of the 
 grammatico-historical school were still more at fault in 
 neglecting the divine element and the unity of the Bible. 
 
 A healthful method of interpretation had been intro- 
 duced from England in the translation of the works of 
 Bishop Lowth, which urged literary interpretation. 
 Herder, Eichhom, and others exerted their influence in 
 the same direction. Schleiermacher deserves the credit 
 for combining all that had thus far been gained into a 
 higher unity, by hts organic method of interpretation.* 
 
 Schleiermacher lays down his principles in a series of 
 theses : 
 
 " Ix) the application (of Hermeneutrcs) to the New Testament the 
 philologfeal view, which isolates every writing of every author, stands 
 over against the dogmatic view, which regards the N. T. as the work 
 of one author. Both approach one another when one considers that, 
 in the view of the religious contents, the identity of the school comes 
 in, and in the view of the details, the identity of language. . . . The 
 philological view lags behind its own principle when it rejects the 
 general dependence for the sake of the individual culture. The dog- 
 mafic view transcends its needs when it rejects individual culture for 
 the sake of dependence, and so destroys itself. The only question 
 that remains, is, which of the two is to be placed. above the other; 
 and this must be decided by the philological view itself in favor of 
 its own dependence. When the philological view ignores this it an- 
 nihilates Christianity. When the dogmatic view extends the canon 
 of the analogy of faith beyond these limits it annihilates Scripture." t 
 
 Liicke, of Schleiermacher's school, well states the prin- 
 ciple when he says that we must 
 
 * His Ilermeneutik und Kritik is a posthumous work by his pupil, F. Lucke, 
 published Berlin, 1838, but the influence of his method was felt at an earlier date; 
 and expressed by his disciples. 
 
 + In /. r., pp. 79-81.
 
 350 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 "so construct the general principles of Hermeneutics as that the 
 proper theological element may be united with them in a really or- 
 ganic manner, and likewise so fashion and carry on the theo- 
 logical element that the general principles of interpretation may 
 maintain their full value." * 
 
 He also insisted upon love for the Word of God, as 
 the indispensable requisite for the interpreter.f 
 
 The vast importance of this organic method is seen 
 in the exegetical works of De Wette, Neander, Klausen, 
 Bleek, Lutz, Meyer, and indeed the chief interpreters of 
 modern Germany. 
 
 The greatest defect of interpretation at this time was in 
 the lack of apprehension of the true relation of the New 
 Testament to the Old Testament. The Old Testament 
 v/as neglected by Schleiermacher and many of his school. 
 It was necessary for the discipline of Biblical theology to 
 ))e developed ere this defect could be overcome. The 
 unfolding of the discipline of Biblical theology in the 
 school of Neander has established the organic unity of 
 the New Testament in the combination of a number of 
 historical types ; the organic unity of the Old Testa- 
 ment has also been especially urged by Oehler in the spirit 
 of Neander, together with some of the features of the 
 older Tubingen school. The organic unity of the whole 
 Bible has beeijr. especially insisted upon by Hofmann of 
 Erlangen, Delitzsch, and others of their school. This is 
 a further unfolding of the organic principle of Schleier- 
 macher, and the revival in another form of the Puritan 
 principle wrapt up in the covenant theology, and which 
 has worked through the schools of Cocceius and the 
 Pietists, to attach itself to the scientific principles of 
 
 * Studien und Krit., 1830, p. 421 ; see also his Grundriss d. N. T. Herm., 
 1817. 
 t See Klausen in /. c, p. 311 ; Immer in /. c, p. 66 ; Reuss in /. c, p. 605.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 35J| 
 
 exegesis that have thus far been developed. The school 
 of Hofmann claim this principle which they call the 
 heilsgeschichtliche,'* as the highest attainment of Her- 
 meneutics. This insisting above all upon interpreting 
 Scripture as one divine book giving the history of re- 
 demption, is the restatement of the Puritan principle of 
 the gradual revelation of the covenants of grace. The 
 variety of the Bible is better understood in relation to its 
 unity ; and the genesis of its revelation of redemption 
 is made more prominent. 
 
 Francis Roberts already states it admirably : 
 
 " Still remember how Jesus Christ is revealed in Scripture, grad- 
 ually in promises and covenants, till the noon-day of the gospel 
 
 shined most clearly For (i) God is a God of order ; and He 
 
 makes known His gracious contrivances orderly. (2) Christ, and 
 salvation by Him are treasures too high and precious to be disclosed 
 all at once to the church. (3) The state of the church is various ; 
 she hath her infancy, her youth, and all the degrees of her minority, 
 as also her riper age ; and therefore God revealed Christ, not ac- 
 cording to his own ability of revealing, but according to the churches 
 capacity of receiving. (4) This gradual revealing of Christ suits 
 well with our condition in this world, which is not perfect, but grow- 
 ing mto perfection, fully attainable in heaven only. Now this grad- 
 ual unveiling of the covenant and promises in Christ, is to be much 
 considered throughout the whole Scripture ; that we may see the 
 wisdom of God's dispensations, the imperfections of the churches 
 condition here, especially in her minority ; and tiie usefulness of 
 comparing the more dark and imperfect with the more clear and 
 complete manifestation of the mysteries of God's grace in Christ " 
 (in /. c, p. 10). 
 
 VIII. METHOD OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. 
 
 The Bible is composed of a body of literature. As 
 such it is a part of the literature of the world, having 
 features in common with all other literatures, and also 
 
 • See Volck, in Zockler, Handb., p. 661, seg. ; Hofmann, Bib. Herm.^ Notd. 
 1880.
 
 352 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 features peculiar to itself. From these circumstances 
 arise the fundamental principles of interpretation. Bib- 
 lical interpretation is a section of general interpretation. 
 Here all students of the Bible are on common ground. 
 Rationalistic, evangelical, scholastical, and mystical, they 
 should all alike begin here. This is the broad base on 
 which the pyramid of exegesis is to rise to its apex. It 
 is the merit of Schleiermacher that he clearly and defi- 
 nitely established this fundamental relation. From gen- 
 eral interpretation arises : 
 
 (i) Grammatical interpretation. The Bible is written 
 in human languages. These languages contain the Bible 
 which is to be studied. There is no other way than to 
 master them, and thoroughly understand their grammar.* 
 
 " Only the philologist can be an interpreter. It is true that the 
 office of interpretation requires more than mere philology, or an ac- 
 quaintance with language ; but all those other qualifications that may 
 l>elong to it are useless without this acquaintance, whilst on the con • 
 trary, in very many cases nothing more than this is necessary foi 
 correct interpretation." f 
 
 Others than philologists may become interpreters of 
 Scripture by depending upon the labors of philologists 
 in the translations and expositions that they produce — 
 but without these the originals of Scripture would be as 
 inaccessible as the Hamathite inscriptions which still 
 defy the efforts of scholars to decipher them. 
 
 The great defect of ancient and mediaeval interpreta- 
 tion was in the neglect of the grammar of the Bible, and 
 in the dependence upon the LXX and Vulgate versions. 
 Hence a multitude of errors that have come into the 
 traditional exegesis through the fathers and schoolmen, 
 
 » See Chap. III. 
 
 + Planck, Introduction to Sacred Philology and InterpretatioHy trans, and 
 edited by S. H. Turner, Edin., 1834, pp. 140-141.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 353 
 
 which have become rooted in the history of doctrine 
 and the customs of the church as evil weeds so that it has 
 taken generations of grammatical study to eradicate them. 
 It is the merit of Ernesti in modern times that he so 
 insisted upon grammatical exegesis that he induced 
 exegetes of all classes to begin their work here at the 
 foundation. Grammatical exegesis is, however, depend- 
 ent upon the progress of linguistic studies. There has 
 been great progress in the knowledge of the New Testa- 
 ment Greek : in the study of the dialects, in the com- 
 parison of the Greek with its cognates of the Indo-Ger- 
 manic family of languages, in the science of etymology 
 of words, and still more in the history of the use of 
 words in Greek literature. In the study of the Hebrew 
 language, there has been still greater progress. When 
 one traces the history of its study in modern times, and 
 rises from Levita and Reuchlin, through Buxtorf and 
 Castel, Schultens and John Taylor, to Gesenius and 
 Ewald, one feels that he is climbing to greater and 
 greater heights. The older interpreters who knev/ 
 nothing of comparative Shemitic philology, who did not 
 understand the position of the Hebrew language in the 
 development of the Shemitic family, who were ignorant 
 of its rich and varied syntax, who relied on traditional 
 meanings of words, and had not learned their etymolo- 
 gies and their historic growth — lived almost in another 
 world. The modern Hebrew scholars are working in 
 far more extended relations, and upon vastly deeper 
 principles, and we should not be surprised at new and 
 almost revolutionary results. 
 
 (2) The second stage of our pyramid of exegesis is 
 logical and rhetorical interpretation. Here also there are 
 general features in common with other literatures, and 
 also features peculiar to Biblical literature.
 
 354 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 (a) The laws of thought are derived from the human 
 mind itself. These enable us to determine the value of 
 all thought, to discriminate the true, close, exact reason- 
 ing from the inexact and fallacious. It is assumed by 
 some that the Bible is divine in such a sense that it cor- 
 responds with these laws of thought exactly and is fault- 
 less in its logic. If this were so, it is astonishing that 
 we find so little that is technical, or in the form of logical 
 propositions, in the Bible. Here was the fault of the 
 Jewish Halacha, and the mediaeval dialectic, and the 
 modern scholastic use of proof texts. The Bible has 
 been interpreted by the formulas of Aristotle in the 
 middle age, and then by the logical methods of the dif- 
 ferent philosophies in the modern age. These scholas- 
 tic and philosophical logicians overlook the fact that 
 pure logic is one thing, applied logic another, and the 
 history of its application a third. There are differ- 
 ences in logic as in other things. Human logic is far 
 from infallible. Our modern logic has not remained in 
 the state of innocence, nor has it reached the state 
 of perfection. Certainly there are few if any dogmatic 
 divines and philosophers who do not violate its principles 
 and neglect its methods as stated in our logical manuals. 
 Every race has indeed its own methods of reasoning. 
 The German and the French minds move in somewhat 
 different grooves. Still more is this the case when we 
 consider the Hebrew and the Greek and the Anglo-Saxon. 
 The Biblical writers wrote for the men of their own time 
 and used the forms of thought of the men of their time. 
 It is not sufficient, therefore, to apply logical analysis to 
 the text of the Scripture, as is so often done.* The 
 proper use of logical interpretation is to seek for the 
 
 * Lange, Hermeneutik, p. 43.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 355 
 
 method of reasoning of the Biblical author; his plan, 
 his scope, his course of argument, and the relation of his 
 methods to those of his cotemporaries. 
 
 " The Scripture doth not explaine the will of God by universal 
 and scientific rules, but by narrations, examples, precepts, ex- 
 hortations, admonitions, and promises ; because that manner 
 doth make most for the common use of all kinde of men, and 
 also most to affect the will, and stirre up godly motions, which 
 is the chief scope of divinity." * 
 
 " Langfuage is not the invention of metaphysicians, or convo- 
 cations of the wise and learned. It is the common blessing of 
 loankind, framed for their mutual advantage in their intercourse 
 with each other. Its laws therefore are popular, not philosophi- 
 cal, being founded on the general laws of thought which govern 
 the whole mass in the community. . . . Scarcely will we hear in a 
 J ong and serious conversation between the best speakers, a sen- 
 t ence which does not need some modification or limitation in 
 < irder that we may not attribute to it more or less than was in- 
 tended. Nor is the operation at all difficult. We make the cor- 
 rection instantly, with so little cost of thought that we would be 
 tempted to call it instinct did we not know that many of our per- 
 ceptions which seem intuitive are the results of habit and educa- 
 tion. It would be an exceedingly strange thing, if the Bible, the 
 most popular of all books, composed by men, for the most part 
 taken from the multitude, addressed to all, and on subjects in- 
 teresting to all, were found written in language to be interpreted 
 on different principles. But, in point of fact, it is not. Its style 
 is eminently, and to a remarkable degree, that which we would 
 expect to find in a volume designed by its gracious Author to be 
 the people's book — ^abounding in all those kinds of inaccuracy 
 which are sprinkled through ordinary discourse ; hyperboles, an- 
 alogies, and loose catachrestical expressions, whose meaning no 
 one mistakes, though their deviation from plumb, occasionally 
 makes the small critic sad."t 
 
 Again, it is an abuse of logical interpretation to regard 
 
 * Aines, Marrow of Sacred Divinity, London, 1643. 
 
 \ McClelland, Manual 0/ Sacred Interpretation, pp. 61-63, N. Y. 1842.
 
 556 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 the Biblical writers as all alike logical. Those who take 
 the logical methods of the apostle Paul as the key to the 
 New Testament, and interpret, by the apostle to the Gen- 
 tiles, the practical Peter and James and the mystic John 
 and above all our blessed Lord Jesus himself, the Son of 
 man, embracing in himself all the types of humanity for 
 the redemption of all — do violence to these other writers, 
 rend the seamless robe of the gospel, and do not aid the 
 proper understanding of Paul himself. Those who 
 should find the key of the Old Testament in the wis- 
 dom literature, would commit a most unpardonable 
 blunder. How much greater is the sin of those who 
 first insist upon interpreting the epistles of Paul in ac- 
 cordance with the principles of analysis of modern logic^ 
 and then of interpreting all the rest of the New Testa- 
 ment by this interpretation of Paul, and then the whole 
 body of the Hebrew Old Testament by this interpreta- 
 tion of the New Testament. In view of such a method, 
 one might inquire, why take all this trouble to impose 
 meanings upon such a vast body of ancient literature? 
 It would be far easier and more honest to construct the 
 dogmatic system by logical principles, and leave the Bible 
 to itself. We are not surprised that when and where 
 such methods have prevailed. Biblical studies have been 
 neglected and despised. 
 
 {b) RJietorical interpretation is closely connected with 
 logical. There are common features of rhetoric that be- 
 long to all discourse, and there are special features which 
 are peculiar to the Biblical literature. The Bible has 
 been tested and interpreted too often, after Greek, Ger- 
 man, French, and English models (see Chap. viii.). We 
 have to discriminate in the Bible the more logical parts 
 from the more rhetorical parts. The fault of the Halacha 
 and scholastic methods was in their overlooking the rhe-
 
 l-HE INTERPBETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 357 
 
 torical features of the Bible. The fault of the Haggada 
 and allegorical methods was in overlooking the logical. 
 In rhetorical exegesis it is essential to discriminate poetry 
 from prose, the different kinds of poetry and prose from 
 each other, the style of each author, as well as the liter- 
 ary peculiarities of the people and race which produced 
 the Bible. Here is a neglected field of study which prom- 
 ises great rewards to those who will pursue it,* and it 
 will prove of especial richness to the homilist and cate- 
 chist. 
 
 (3) Thus far all parties work in common. As we rise 
 to the higher stage of historical interpretation there arise 
 differences between the rationalistic and other interpre- 
 ters, owing to certain presuppositions with which they 
 approach the Bible. There are different conceptions of 
 history. The evangelical interpreters recognize the super- 
 natural element as the determining factor ; the rational- 
 istic interpreters endeavor to explain everything by 
 purely natural laws. Among believers in the supernatural 
 there is also a difference, in that some are ever resorting 
 to the supernatural to explain the history, while other 
 more judicious interpreters explain by the natural element 
 until they are compelled by overpowering evidence to re- 
 sort to the supernatural. Semler has the credit in modern 
 times of laying great stress on the historic interpretation. 
 In historical exegesis we have to recognize that the Biblical 
 writers were men of their times and yet men above their 
 times. They were influenced by inspiration to introduce 
 new divine revelations, and to revive old truths and set 
 them in new lights ; they were reformers, and so came 
 into conflict with the conservatives of their time. Many 
 errors spring up here. The Pharisees interpreted thc- 
 
 * See page 228 seq.
 
 358 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Old Testament by tradition. The scholastics pursue 
 the same course with reference to the New Testament. 
 The rationalists interpret Scripture altogether by history 
 and natural forces. Here the scholastic and rationalistic 
 interpreters of our times lock horns. They are both 
 alike in error. Tradition is the bastard of history and 
 should be resorted to only when we have no history, 
 and then with caution and suspicion as to its origin. 
 History is to help, not rule — for in the history of re- 
 demption the supernatural force shapes and controls 
 history. The true method is to rise from the natural to 
 the supernatural. History has been impregnated with 
 the supernatural. We must not expect to find the su- 
 pernatural everywhere on the surface. The supernat- 
 ural comes into play only when the natural is incapable 
 of accomplishing the divine purpose ; so it is to be 
 sought when it alone is capable of affording explanation 
 of the phenomena. Then the supernatural displays it- 
 self with convincing, assuring force. 
 
 Lutz has some admirable remarks here : * 
 
 " The historico-grammatical method of interpretation has brought 
 out truths which cannot be valued too highly. No book needs more 
 than the Holy Scriptures to be understood inaccordance with the times 
 
 in which they were first read But it is just as true that such 
 
 an exposition in its one-sidedness limiting itself to grammar and 
 history, entirely loses sight of the peculiar features of the Bible, and 
 would bring about a complete separation between church and exe- 
 gesis. Thereby the church would be deprived of its light, and exe- 
 gesis would dig its own grave." 
 
 (4) In rising to comparative interpretation we have to dis- 
 tinguish still further the attitude of interpreters toward 
 the Bible. Supernaturalists come to the Bible as a sacred 
 canon, an organic whole. Rationalists come to the Bible 
 
 * Dfh. Ilerm., Pforzheim, i86i. zte Ausg., p. 168.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 359 
 
 as a collection of merely human writings. It is the merit 
 of the Puritans, of the Federalists of Holland, and in re- 
 cent times of the schools of Schleiermacherand Hofmann, 
 that they urged the organic unity of Scripture. It is 
 presumed that writers are consistent, and that writers 
 of the same school are in substantial accord. This is 
 a general presumption derived from the study of all 
 literature. But we must go further and as supernatu- 
 ralists insist that as all the writers of the Bible are of 
 the school of the Holy Spirit and conspired to give us 
 the complete organism of the canon, there is a unity and 
 concord that extends throughout the Bible. There is 
 error here on the right and the left. The rationalists 
 regard the Bible as a bundle of miscellaneous and hete- 
 rogeneous writings. The scholastics regard them as a 
 homogeneous mass. As Lange says : 
 
 " We should read the Bible as a human book, but not as a heathen 
 book ; as a divino-human book according to the fact that there is a 
 distinction between elect men of God who walk on the heights of 
 humanity and the populace in the low plains of humanity ; as the 
 documents of revelation, which participate throughout in the revela- 
 tion, the unicum among all religious writings." * 
 
 The rationalists sink the unity in the variety ; the 
 scholastics destroy the variety for the sake of the unity. 
 The true evangelical position is, that the Bible is a vast 
 organism in which the unity springs from an amazing 
 variety. The unity is not that of a mass of rocks or a 
 pool of water. It is the unity that one finds in the best 
 works of God. It is the unity of the ocean where every 
 wave has its individuality of life and movement. It is 
 the unity of the continent, in which mountains and 
 rivers, valleys and uplands, flowers and trees, birds and 
 insects, animal and human life combine to distinguish it 
 
 * GrindriSi d, bib. Hcrmeneutik, Heidelberg, 1878, p. 68.
 
 360 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 as a magnificent whole from other continents. It is the 
 unity of the heaven, where star differs from star in form, 
 color, order, movement, size, and importance, but ^1 de- 
 clare the glory of God. 
 
 (5) As we rise to the fifth stage of exegesis, the use of 
 the literature of interpretation, we part company with the 
 Roman Catholic and all churchly interpreters. The 
 Bible is the Canon of the Christian Church. What re- 
 lation does it sustain to the Church ? We are separated 
 from the originals by ages. Multitudes of students have 
 studied the Bible, and their labor has not been in vain. 
 As the prince of modern preachers says : 
 
 " In order to be able to expound the Scriptures, and as an aid to 
 your pulpit studies, you will need to be familiar with the commenta- 
 tors : a glorious army, let me tell you, whose acquaintance will be 
 your delight and profit. Of course, you are not such wiseacres as to 
 think or say that you can expound Scripture without assistance from 
 *he works of divines and learned men, who have labored before you 
 
 in the field of exposition It seems odd, that certain men who 
 
 lilk so much of what the Holy Spirit reveals to themselves, should 
 think so little of what he has revealed to others." * 
 
 But the question presses itself upon the exegete, how 
 far he is to go in allowing himself to be influenced by the 
 history of exegesis. The Roman Catholic Church makes 
 the church itself, the fathers, and councils, the expositors 
 of Scripture, to which all exposition is to be conformed. 
 We have learned from the history of exegesis how false 
 this position is.f We have found the best interpreters 
 using false methods, and establishing false principles. The 
 literature of exegesis is an invaluable help, but this help 
 is as much negative as positive. It exhibits a vast mul- 
 titude of errors that have been exposed, and so prevents 
 us from stumbling into them. It shows us a great num« 
 
 ♦Spurgeon, Comment tHg and Commentaries, p. ii. t See page 338 »eg.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 36J 
 
 ber of positions so plainly established and fortified, that 
 it were folly to question them. But at the same time, it 
 presents a number of positions so weakly supported, 
 that they excite suspicion of their validity ; and others, 
 where contests have not resulted in settlement. The 
 literature of exegesis enables us to understand the real 
 state of the questions that have to be determined by the 
 interpreter of the Scriptures. It prevents us from wast- 
 ing our energies in doing what others have done before 
 us, or in working in barren or unprofitable fields; and it 
 directs us to the fruitful soil of the Bible, the mines to 
 be worked, and the problems to be solved. It were 
 suicidal for interpretation to limit itself to the exegesis 
 of the fathers, the schoolmen, or even the reformers 
 and theologians of the Protestant churches. It would 
 result in forsaking the interpretation of the Script- 
 ures, and devoting ourselves to the interpretation of the 
 interpreters. 
 
 Francis Roberts happily says : 
 
 " There must be constant caution that all tongfues, arts, histories, 
 translations, and comments be duly ranked in their proper place, in 
 a subserviency under, not a regency or predominancy over the Holy 
 Scriptures, which are to controule them all. For when Hagar shall 
 once usurp over her mistress, it's high time to cast her out of doors 
 till she submit herself." * 
 
 (6) In rising a stage higher in our pyramid to doctrinal 
 interpretation, we must part company with the Protestant 
 scholastics, for which we have been prepared, as were 
 Abraham and Lot by previous minor contentions. The 
 Bible is a divine revelation. It presents us with " what 
 man is to believe concerning God, and what duty God 
 requires of man." f The Bible is the rule of faith. It 
 
 * In /. c.y p. 5. t West. Shorter Cat., 223. 
 
 16
 
 362 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 is to be interpreted in accordance with the analogy of 
 faith. This analogy is the substance of Scripture doc« 
 trine found in the plainest passages of Scripture. Thia 
 was the view of the reformers. But the scholastics sub- 
 stituted for this mternal rule of faith an external rule of 
 faith — first in the apostles' creed, then in the symbols of 
 the churches, and finally in the Reformed or Lutheran 
 or Anglican systems of doctrine. And thus the Script- 
 ures became the slaves of dogmatic a priori systems. The 
 evangelical interpreter returns to the position of the re- 
 formers. He has learned in the history of doctrine that 
 the early church depended too much upon the apostle 
 John, the mediaeval church upon Peter and James, the 
 modern church on the apostle Paul. He finds a system 
 of theology in the Bible itself which he has learned as a 
 Biblical Theology to be carefully distinguished from 
 Dogmatic Theology. He has found that Peter and John 
 and James and Paul were all disciples of Jesus Christ, 
 and have in Him their centre and life. The evangelical 
 interpreter has learned that the Old Testament is an or- 
 ganic whole, in which priests and prophets, sages and 
 poets find their centre and life in the theophanies of Je- 
 hovah. He has learned that Jehovah and Jesus are one, 
 and that in the Messiah of prophecy and history the 
 Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments become an 
 organic whole. With this bringing forth of the internal 
 substance of the Scriptures in its unity and variety theo- 
 logical exposition finds its satisfaction and delight, and 
 the analogy of faith is harmonized with the principles 
 of interpretation which have indeed prepared the way 
 for its advance and achievements.* Francis Roberts 
 saw this and stated it in the 17th century.f 
 
 • See Chap. XI. t In /. c, p. la
 
 THE INTEEPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 353 
 
 "Now that we may more successfully and clearly understand 
 Scripture by Scripture, these ensueing particulars are to be observed ; 
 (i) That Jesus Christ our mediator and the salvation of siimers by 
 Him is the very substance, marrow, soul and scope of the whole 
 Scriptures. What are the whole Scriptures, but as it were the spir- 
 itual swadling cloathes of the Holy child Jesus, (i) Christ is the 
 truth and substance of all the types and shadows. (2) Christ is the 
 matter and substance of the Covenant of Grace under all administra- 
 tions thereof ; under the Old Testament Christ is veyled, under the 
 New Covenant revealed. (3) Christ is the centre and meeting- 
 place of all the promises, for in him all the promises of God are yea, 
 and they are Amen. (4) Christ is the thing signified, sealed, and 
 exhibited in all the sacraments of Old and New Testaments, 
 whether ordinary or extraordinary. (5) Scripture genealogies are to 
 lead us on to the true line of Christ. (6) Scripture chronologies are 
 to discover to us the times and seasons of Christ. (7) Scripture laws 
 are our schoolmaster to bring us to Christ ; the moral by correcting, 
 the ceremonial by directing. And (8) Scripture gospel is Christ's 
 light, whereby we know him ; Clirist's voice, whereby we hear and 
 follow him ; Christ's cords of love, whereby we are drawn into sv/eet 
 union and communion with him ; yea it is the power of God unto 
 salvation unto all them that believe in Christ Jesus. Keep therefore 
 still Jesus Christ in your eye, in the perusal of the Scripture, as the 
 end, scope, and substance thereof. For as the sun gives light to all 
 the heavenly bodies, so Jesus Christ the sun of righteousness gives 
 light to all the Holy Scriptures." 
 
 (7) In rising- now to the highest stage of interpreta- 
 tion — practical interpretation — we part company with 
 the mystics as well as the scholastics, and return- to the 
 position of the Puritans and Westminster divines. The 
 Bible is a book of life — a people's book — a book of con- 
 duct. It came from the living God. It tends to the 
 living God. Here is the apex of the pyramid of inter- 
 pretation. He who has not reached this stage has 
 stopped on the way and will not understand the 
 Bible, The Bible brings the interpreter to God. We 
 ^an understand the Bible only by mastering it. We
 
 364 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 need the master key. No one but the Master himself 
 can give it to us. It is necessary to know God and His 
 Christ in order to know the Bible. The Scriptures can- 
 not be understood from the outside by grammar, logic, 
 rhetoric, and history alone. The Bible cannot be under- 
 stood when involved in the labyrinth of its doctrines. 
 The Bible is to be understood from its centre — its heart 
 — its Christ. Jesus Christ does not reveal Himself ordi- 
 narily aside from the Bible, by new revelations outside 
 of it casting new light upon it from the exterior, as the 
 mystics suppose. But the Messiah is the light centre 
 of the Scriptures themselves. He is enthroned in them 
 as His Holy of Holies, as was Jehovah in the ancient 
 temple. Through the avenues of the Scriptures we go 
 to find Christ — in their centre we find our Saviour. It 
 is this personal relation of the author of the entire 
 Scripture to the interpreter that enables him truly to 
 understand the divine things of the Scripture. Jesus 
 Christ knew the Old Testament and interpreted it as 
 one who knew the mind of God.* He needed no helps 
 to climb the pyramid of interpretation. He was born 
 and ever lived at the summit. The apostles interpreted 
 the Scriptures from the mind of Christ, read by the 
 Spirit He had given them.f We have no such supernat- 
 ural help. We cannot use their a priori methods, but 
 we may climb toward them. We have all the enthusi- 
 asm of the quest — all the joy of discovery. 
 
 It is not necessary for us to complete our studies of 
 the lower stages of exegesis ere we climb higher. The 
 excgete is not building the pyramid. He is climbing it. 
 Every passage tends toward the summit. Some inter, 
 preters remain forever in the lowest stages. Others 
 
 * See p. 312. + See p. 319.
 
 THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE, 355 
 
 spring hastily to the higher stages and fall back crippled 
 and are flung down to the lowest. The patient, faithful, 
 honest exegete climbs steadily to the summit. 
 
 Our Puritan fathers understood this principle. The 
 doctrine that the Holy Spirit is the supreme interpreter 
 of Scripture is the highest attainment of interpretation. 
 The greatest leaders of the church in all ages have acted 
 on this principle, however defective their apprehension 
 of it may have been, and however little they may have 
 consciously used it in Scripture interpretation. It was 
 this consciousness of knowing the mind of the Spirit and 
 having the truth of God that made them invincible. It 
 was Athanasius against the world. With the divine 
 truth of the blessed Trinity he was mightier than the 
 world. It was Luther against pope and emperor. He 
 could do no other. The Word of God in his hands and 
 in his heart assured him of justification by faith ; and 
 poor, weak man though he was, he was mightier than 
 Church and State combined. 
 
 It was this principle "that the supreme judge, by 
 which all controversies of religion are to be determined, 
 and all decrees of councils, opinions of ancient writers, 
 doctrines of men, and private spirits, are to be examined, 
 and in whose sentence we are to rest, can be no other 
 but the Holy Spirit speaking in the Scripture,"* that 
 made the Puritan faith and life invincible. 
 
 O that their descendants had maintained it ! If they 
 had laid less stress upon the minor matters : the order 
 of the decrees, the extent of the atonement, the nature 
 of imputation, the mode of inspiration, and the divine 
 right of presbytery, — and had adhered to this essential 
 principle of their fathers, the history of Puritanism would 
 
 * If^estminster Confession^ I. 10.
 
 366 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 have been higher, grander, and more successful. We 
 would not now be threatened with the ruin that has 
 overtaken all its unfaithful predecessors in their turn. 
 Let their children return to it; let them cling to it as 
 the most precious achievement of British Christianity ; 
 let them raise it on their banners, and advance with it 
 into the conflicts of the day ; let them plant it on every 
 hill and in every valley throughout the world ; let them 
 not only give the Bible into the hands of men and trans- 
 late it into their tongues, but let them put it into their 
 hearts, and translate it into their lives. Then will 
 Biblical interpretation reach its culmination in practical 
 interpretation, in the experience and life of mankind.
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 Biblical Theology, as a theological discipline, had 
 its origin in the effort to throw off from the Bible the 
 accumulated traditions of scholasticism, guard it from 
 ihe perversions of mysticism, and defend it from the at- 
 tacks of rationalism. Its growth has been through a 
 struggle with these abnormal tendencies, until it has es- 
 tablished a well-defined system, presenting the unity of 
 the Scriptures as a divine organism, and justly estimating 
 the various human types of religion, doctrine, and morals. 
 
 I. THE FOUR TYPES OF THEOLOGY. 
 
 The Bible is the divine revelation as it has become 
 fixed and permanent in written documents of various 
 persons in different periods of history, collected in one 
 body called the canon, or sacred Scriptures. All Chris- 
 tian theology must be founded on the Bible, and yet the 
 theologians of the various Christian churches, and the 
 several periods of Christian history have differed great- 
 ly in their use of the Bible. Each age has its own prov- 
 idential problems to solve in the progress of our race, 
 and seeks in the divine word for their solution, looking 
 from the point of view of its own immediate and pecul- 
 iar necessities. Each temperament and characteristic 
 tendency of human nature apj)roaches the Bible from its 
 
 (307)
 
 368 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 own peculiarities and necessities. The subjective and 
 the objective, the form and the substance of knowledge, 
 the real and the ideal, are ever readjusting themselves 
 to the advancing generations. If the Bible were a codex 
 of laws, or a system of doctrines, there would still be 
 room for difference of attitude and interpretation ; but 
 inasmuch as the Bible is rather a collection of various 
 kinds of literature : poetry and prose, history and story, 
 oration and epistle, sentence of wisdom and dramatic 
 incident ; and, as a whole, concrete rather than abstract, 
 the room for difference of attitude and interpretation is 
 vastly enhanced. Principles are not always distinctly 
 given, but must ordinarily be derived from a concrete 
 body of truth and facts, and concrete relations ; and 
 everything depends upon the point of view, method, 
 process, and the spirit with which the study is conducted. 
 Thus the jnystic spirit arising from an emotional nat- 
 ure and unfolding into a more or less refined aesthetic 
 sense, seeks union and communion with God, direct, im- 
 mediate, and vital, through the religious feeling. It 
 either strives to break through the forms of religion to 
 the spiritual substance, or else by the imagination sees 
 allegories in the forms, or modes of divine manifestation 
 in sensuous outlines and colors of beauty and grandeur, 
 to be interpreted by the religious aesthetic taste. The 
 religious element is disproportionately unfolded, to the 
 neglect of the doctrinal and ethical. This mystic spirit 
 exists in all ages and in most religions, but it was es- 
 pecially prominent in the Ante-Nicene church, and in 
 Greek and Oriental Christianity, and was distinguished 
 by its intense devotion and its too exclusive absorption 
 in the contemplation of God and of Jesus Christ as God 
 and Saviour. Its exegesis is characterized by the alle- 
 gorical method.
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY 3gg 
 
 The scholastic spirit seeks union and communion with 
 God by means of well-ordered forms. It searches the 
 Word of God for a well-defined system of law and doc- 
 trine by which to rule the Church and control the world. 
 It arises from an intellectual nature, and grows into a 
 more or less acute logical sense, and a taste for systems of 
 order. This spirit exists in all ages and in most religions, 
 but was especially dominant in the middle age of the 
 church and in Latin Christianity. It is distinguished by 
 an intense legality and by too exclusive attention to the 
 works of the law, and the consideration of the sover- 
 eignty of God, the sinfulness of man, and the satisfac- 
 tion to be rendered to God for sin. In Biblical studies 
 it is distinguished by the legal, analytic method of in- 
 terpretation, carried on at times with such hair-splitting 
 distinctions, and subtilty of reasoning, that the Script- 
 ures become as it were a magician's book, which through 
 the device of the manifold sense are as effectual to the 
 purpose of the dogmatician for proof texts as are the 
 sacraments to the priests in their magical operation. 
 The doctrinal element prevails over the religious and 
 ethical. 
 
 The speculative spirit seeks union and communion with 
 God through the human reason and conscience, and, like 
 the mystic spirit, disregards the form, but from another 
 point of view. It is developed into a more or less pure 
 ethical sense. It works with honest doubt and inquisi- 
 tive search after truth, for the solution of the great prob- 
 lem of the world and man. It is distinguished by an 
 intense rationality and morality. It yearns for a con- 
 science at peace with God and working in faith toward 
 God and love toward man. This has been the prevailing 
 spirit in the Germanic world since the Reformation, and 
 is still the characteristic spirit of our age. The Church, 
 16*
 
 3*^0 BIBLICAL STUDY". 
 
 its institutions and doctrines, tlie sacred Scriptures them- 
 selves, are subjected to earnest criticism in the honest 
 search for moral and redemptive truth, and the eternal 
 ideas of right, which are good forever, and are approved 
 by the reason and conscience. The ethical element pre- 
 vails over the religious and the doctrinal. 
 
 Now, the evangelical spirit combines what is true and 
 of advantage in all these tendencies of human nature. 
 Born of the Holy Spirit, it is ever appropriating all the 
 faculties and powers of man, and eliminating therefrom 
 defective and abnormal tendencies and habits. It is 
 reverent, believing, loving approach to God through the 
 means of grace. It is above all vital union and com- 
 munion with the Triune God in the forms of divine ap- 
 pointment, and the love and service of God and the 
 brethren with all the faculties. It uses the form in order 
 to the substance. It is inquiring, obedient, devout, and 
 reformatory. It combines the subject and the object of 
 knowledge, and aims to realize the ideal. It unites the 
 devotional with the legal and moral habits and attitudes. 
 It strives to unite in the church the various types of 
 human experience in order to complete manhood, and 
 the completion of the kingdom of God in the golden age 
 of the Messiah. 
 
 This evangelical spirit is the spirit of our Saviour, who 
 speaks to us through four evangelists in the various 
 types, in order to give us a complete and harmonious 
 representation of Himself. This is the spirit which com- 
 bines the variety of the Old and New Testament writers 
 into the unity of the Holy Ghost. This is the spirit 
 which animated the Christian church in its great ad- 
 vancing epochs, when a variety of leaders, guided by the 
 Holy Spirit, combined the types into comprehensive 
 movements. This was the underlying and moving prin-
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 371 
 
 ciple of the Reformation and of Puritanism where vital 
 religion combined with great intellectual activity and 
 moral earnestness, to produce the churches of Protestant 
 Christianity. 
 
 The great initial movements by which the Christian 
 church advanced in the combination of the variety of 
 forces into harmonious operation, in every case gave way 
 to reaction and decline, in which the various forces sep- 
 arated themselves, and some particular one prevailed. 
 So it was in the seventeenth century after the Reforma- 
 tion. The successors of the reformers, declining from 
 the vital religion and moral vigor of Luther, Calvin, and 
 Knox, broke up into various antagonistic parties in the 
 different national churches, in hostility with one another, 
 more and more marring the harmony of divine truth and 
 the principles of the Reformation. The reaction first 
 began with those who had inherited the scholastic spirit 
 from the middle age, and substituted a Protestant scho- 
 lasticism for the mediaeval scholasticism in the Lutheran 
 and Reformed churches of the continent, and a Protest- 
 ant ecclesiasticism for a papal in the churches of Great 
 Britain. The Scriptures once more became the slaves 
 of dogmatic systems and ecclesiastical machinery, and 
 were reduced to the menial service of furnishing proof 
 texts to the foregone conclusions of polemic divines and 
 ecclesiastics. 
 
 The French Huguenots and British Puritans, in their 
 struggles against persecution, maintained a vital religion, 
 and reacted to the unfolding of the mystic type of the- 
 ology and devoted their attention to works of piety, to 
 union and communion with God, and the practical ap- 
 plication of the Scriptures to Christian life, holding fast 
 to the covenant of grace as the principle of their entire 
 theology, while they distinguished between a theoretical
 
 ^^g BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 and a practical divinity, presenting the former in the 
 common Reformed sense, but advancing the latter to a 
 very high degree of development, the best expression of 
 which is found in the Westminster symbols.* Puritan- 
 ism had, however, within itself antagonistic elements, 
 which separated themselves after the composition of the 
 Westminster standards, into various types, and the Puri- 
 tan spirit largely advanced into the Puritanical, on the 
 one side reacting to scholasticism in the school of the In- 
 dependent divine, John Owen, and on the other into 
 mysticism, in the many separating churches of Great 
 Britain, and in such members of the Westminster As- 
 sembly as Thomas Goodwin and Peter Sterry. Puritan- 
 ism passed over to the continent through Wm. Ames 
 and others, and in the school of Cocceius maintained a 
 more biblical cast of doctrine in the system of the cove 
 nants, and afterward gave birth to Pietism in Reformed 
 and Lutheran Germany, producing the biblical school of 
 Bengel and the Moravians ; subsequently bursting forth 
 in England in the form of Methodism, which is a genu- 
 
 * John Dury, one of the Westminster divines, a Scotchman, the great peace- 
 maker of his age, in his work, An Earnest Plea for Gospel Communion, sheds 
 much light upon this subject. He defines Practical Divinity to be "a system or 
 collection of divine truth relating to the Practice of Piety." The great majority 
 of the writings of the Puritan divines and Westminster men are upon this theme. 
 It embraces chaps, xix.-xxxi. of the Westminster Confession of Faith, the larger 
 part of the Catechisms, and indeed the more characteristic, the abler, and the 
 better parts. Wm. Gouge (also member of Westminster Assembly) in 1633 
 headed a petition of the London ministers to Archbishop Ussher to frame a sys- 
 tem of Practical Divinity, as a bond of union among Protestants, distinguishing 
 between essentials and circumstantials. John Dury, in 1654, presents such an 
 outline himself, working it out on the principle of the Covenant of Grace. He 
 says : " Nor is it possible (as I conceive) ever to unite the Professors of Christi- 
 anity to each other, to heal their breaches and divisions in Doctrine and Practice, 
 and tc make them live together, as brethren in one spirit ought to do, without the 
 same sense of the Covenant by which they may be made to perceive the terms 
 upon which God doth unite all those that are his children unto himself " (p. 19 
 An Earnest Plea/or Gospel Communion, London, 1654).
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 373 
 
 ine child of Puritanism in the stress that it lays upon 
 piety and a Christian life, although it shares with all 
 these movements that have grown out of Puritanism, 
 the common fault of undue emphasis upon the religious 
 element, and a more or less sharply defined mysticism, 
 to the neglect of the doctrinal and the ethical. 
 
 The school of Saumur in France, the school of Calix- 
 tus in Germany, and the Cambridge Platonists in Eng- 
 land (who were Puritan in origin and training), revived 
 the ethical type and strove to give the human reason its 
 proper place and functions in matters of religion, and 
 prepared the way for a broad, comprehensive church. 
 They were accompanied, however, by a more active 
 movement, which by an undue emphasis of the rational 
 and the ethical, followed Hobbes, John Goodwin, and 
 Biddle into a movement which in England assumed the 
 form of Deism, and in France of Atheism, in Holland of 
 Pantheism, and in Germany of Rationalism. And thus 
 the three great types became antagonized both within 
 the national churches, in struggling parties, and without 
 the national churches, in separating churches and hostile 
 forms of religion and irreligion, of philosophy and of 
 science. Thus the evangelical spirit of the Reformation 
 was crushed between the contending parties, and its 
 voice drowned for a while by the clamor of partisanship. 
 The struggle has continued into the present century, but 
 has been modified since Schleiermacher in the growth of 
 the evangelical spirit to become the potent reconciling 
 force of the 19th century.* 
 
 * Thf various types are not always found in their streng;th and purity as di- 
 vergent forces, but frequently in a more or less mixed condition. Thus the 
 Cambririge Platonists, while predominantly rational and ethical, were also char- 
 acterized by the mystic spirit, especially in the case of Henry Moore. The Puri- 
 tans, William Perkins and William Ames, combined the scholastic and mystic 
 types. The scholastic and the rational combined in Calixtus and Arminius, 
 This might be illustrated by numerous exan;ples.
 
 374 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 IL RISE OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 It was in the midst of this conflict of theological types 
 that Biblical Theology had its origin and historical de- 
 velopment, and has now its position and importance. It 
 was first during the conflict between Rationalism and 
 Supernaturalism in Germany that the need of a Biblical 
 Theology began to be felt. Scripture was the common 
 battle-field of Protestants, and each party strove to pre- 
 sent the Scriptures from its own peculiar point of view ; 
 and it became important to distinguish the teachings of 
 the Scriptures themselves from the teachings of the 
 schools and the theologians of the contending parties. 
 This was attempted almost simultaneously from both 
 sides of the conflict. G. T. Zacharia, a pupil of Baum- 
 garten at Halle, and a decided supernaturalist,* would 
 compare the Biblical ideas with the church doctrine in 
 order to correct and purify the latter. He would base 
 Dogmatics on the Scriptures, which alone can prove 
 and correct the system. The author speaks of the ad- 
 vancing economy of redemption, but has no conception 
 of an organic development.f Soon after, Ammon (C. F.) 
 issued his work on Biblical Theology.;}: Ammon was a 
 rationalist. Miracles and prophecy are rejected as un- 
 tenable. They will not bear critical and historical inves- 
 tigation. He would gather material from the Bible for 
 a dogmatic system without regard to the system that 
 might be built upon it.§ Thus from both sides the 
 scholastic system was undermined by the scriptural in- 
 vestigation. 
 
 * Bibl. Tkeol. Oder Untersuchung dcs biblischen Grundes der vornehmsten 
 iheologischen LeJiren, 1772. 
 
 t See Tholuck's view of him in Herzog;, J?eal Ency., i Auf., xviii., p. 351. 
 
 X Entwurf etner reineji Bibl. Tlieologie^ 1792, and Biblische Theoiogie, 1801. 
 
 § Tholuck regards his Biblical Theology as a fundamental one for the histori- 
 co-critiiiil Rationalism. (See Herzog, i Aufl., xix., p. 54, seg.)
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. ^^^ 
 
 In the meanwhile Michaelis, Griesbach, and Eichhofn 
 had given a new impetus to BibHcal studies. Gabler 
 (J. F.), the pupil and friend of Eichhorn and Gries- 
 bach, who influenced him and largely determined his 
 theological position, first laid the foundations of Bib- 
 lical Theology as a distinct theological discipline.* He 
 presented the historical principle as the distinguishing 
 feature of Biblical Theology over against a system of 
 Dogmatics.f Gabler himself did not work out his prin- 
 ciples into a system, but left this as an inheritance to his 
 successors. 
 
 Lorenzo Baur :}: defines Biblical Theology as a develop- 
 ment, pure and unmixed with foreign elements, of the 
 religious theories of the Jews, of Jesus, and the apostles, 
 according to the different historical periods, the varied 
 acquirements and views of the sacred writers, as derived 
 from their writings. He sought to determine the uni- 
 versal principles which would apply to all times and in- 
 dividuals. He would from the shell of Biblical ideas get 
 the kernel of the universal religion. § De Wette | sought 
 to separate the essential from the non-essential by re- 
 
 * In an academic discourse : de justo discrimine theologicB bibliccB et dog- 
 matics regundtsque rede utriusque finibus, 1787. 
 
 t Gabler was a man of the type of Eichhorn and Herder, on the borders of 
 the iSth and 19th centuries, from whom the fructifying influences upon the 
 Evangelical Theologfy of the 19th century went forth. He labored for many 
 years as Professor at Jena, and worked for the advancement of Biblical and His- 
 torical Learning with an intense moral earnestness. 
 
 X Bihl. Theo. d. N. T., 1800- 1802. 
 
 S P. C. Kaiser's Bihlische Theologie oder Judaismus und Christianismus 
 nach graTnmatisch-historischen hiterpretationsmethode und nacli eincr- frri- 
 muthigen Stellung in die kritisch vergleichetide Uftiversaigesc/n'chte der Relig- 
 ion und die universale Religion (Bd. L, 1S13; H. a, 1814 ; H. b. 1821) is of 
 the same point of view. 
 
 I Bibl. Dngmatik des Alt. und Xeuen Testaments oder kritiscJie Darstelluti^ 
 ier Religionslehre des Hebraismus, des yude)tthuins, des Urchristenthums, 
 1813, 3te Aufl., 1831.
 
 876 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 ligious philosophical reflection. He would exclude the 
 local, the temporal, and the individual in order to attain 
 the universal religion. He made the advance of treat- 
 ing Biblical Theology in periods, and of distinguishing 
 the characteristic features of Hebraism and Judaism, of 
 Christ and His apostles ; but in his treatment the dog- 
 matic element has too great prominence given to it, so 
 that he justly gives this work the title. Biblical Dog- 
 matics* W. Vatkef in 1835 issued an able and instruct- 
 ive work, discussing fully the essential character of the 
 Biblical religion in relation to the idea of religion. He 
 divides his theme into two parts, presenting the religion 
 of the Old and the New Testaments. The first part is 
 subdivided into two stages : the Bloom and the Decay, 
 historically traced. The author also divides into a gen- 
 eral and a special part ; the former alone has been pub- 
 lished, and is entirely speculative in character. It does 
 not consider the individualities of the authors, and shows 
 no advance beyond L. Baur and DeWette.:j: Daniel von 
 Coin § carries out the historical method more thoroughly 
 than any of his predecessors, and presents a much more 
 complete system, but he does not escape the speculative 
 
 * L. F. O. Baumgarten Crusius' Grundzuge der Biblischen Theologies 1828, 
 is of slight importance, reacting from the advances made by L. Baur and De 
 Wette. 
 
 + Religion des Alien Testaments nach den kanonischen BUchern entwickelt, 
 as the first part of a Biblical Theology. 
 
 I It has recently come into prominence, owing to the author's views of O. T. 
 Literature, which are in agreement with those of Reuss and Kuenen, at the ba- 
 sis of the Critical Theories of Wellhausen. 
 
 J. C. F. Steudel's Vorlesungen fiber die Theologie des Alien Testaments 
 nach dessen Tode herausgegeben von G. F. Oehler, 1840, is still on the older 
 ground, taking Biblical Theology to be "the systematic survey of the religious 
 ideas which are found in the v/ritings of the Old Testament," including the 
 Apocryphal, without distincUon of periods or authois or writings, all arranged 
 under the topics : Man, God, and tlie relation between God and Man. 
 
 § Bibl. Theo., 1836.
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 377 
 
 trammels of his predecessors. He presents the follow- 
 ing principles of Biblical Theology : 
 
 " (l) To carefully distinguish the times and authors, and the medi- 
 ate as well as the immediate presentation of doctrine ; (2) To 
 strongly maintain the religious ideas of the authors themselves ; (3) 
 To present and explain the symbolical mythical forms and their re- 
 ation to the pure ideas and convictions of the authors ; (4) To ex- 
 plain the relation of the authors and their methods to the external 
 conditions of the people, the time and the place under which they 
 were trained ; (5) To search for the origin of the ideas in their prim- 
 itive forms." * 
 
 De Wette and Von Coin recognize a difference of the 
 authors, but not from any inner peculiarity of the au- 
 thors themselves, but from the external conditions of 
 time, place, and circumstances. The authors are placed 
 side by side without any real conception of their differ- 
 ences or of their unity. The historical principle is ap- 
 plied and worked out, but in an external fashion, and 
 the relation to the universal religion and other religions 
 is considered rather than the interrelation of the vari- 
 ous doctrines and types of the Scriptures themselves. 
 
 III. DEVELOPMENT OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 This was the condition of affairs when Strauss issued 
 his Life of Jesus, and sought, by arraying one New Tes- 
 tament writer against another, as F. Baur justly charges 
 against him, to prove the incompetence of all the wit- 
 nesses and reduce the life of Jesus to a myth.f F. Baur 
 himself sought by the historico-critical process to show 
 the natural development of Christianity out of the vari- 
 ous forces brought into conflict with each other in the 
 
 • Bib. Theologte, I., p. 30. 
 
 t F. Faur, Kril. Untersuch. in d. kann. Evang.^ P- 7' ! F Baur, Kirchen' 
 geschichte des 19 Jahrhunderts, p. 397. Strauss replies in his Leben Jesuf. d, 
 deutsche Volk., p. 64.
 
 378 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 first and second Christian centuries, reducing the life 
 and teachings of Jesus to a minimum. Neander grap- 
 pled with the mythical hypothesis of Strauss, and the 
 development hypothesis of F. Baur, and sought to con- 
 struct a life of Jesus and a history of the apostolic 
 church, resting upon a sound historical criticism of the 
 New Testament writings.* He introduced a new prin- 
 ciple into Biblical Theolog}', and made it a section in his 
 History of the Apostles. He sought to distinguish the 
 individualities of the various sacred writers in their con- 
 ception of Christianity and to unite them in a higher 
 unity. 
 
 " The doctrine of Christ was not to be given to man as a stiff and 
 dead letter, in a fixed and inflexible form, but, as the word of the 
 Spirit and of life, was to be proclaimed in and by its life in living va- 
 riation and variety. Men enlightened by the Divine Spirit caught up 
 Jhese doctrines and appropriated them in a living manner according 
 1o their respective differences in education and life. These differ- 
 ences were to manifest the living unity, the richness and depth of 
 the Christian spirit according to the various modes of human con- 
 ception, unconsciously complementing and explaining each other. 
 For Christianity is meant for all men, and can adapt itself to the 
 most varied human characters, transform them and unite them in a 
 higher unity. For the various peculiarities and fundamental tenden- 
 cies in human nature are designed to work in and with one another 
 at all times for the realization of the idea of humanity, the presenta- 
 tion of the kingdom of God in humanity." t 
 
 Neander thus gave to Biblical Theology a new and 
 important feature that was indispensable for the further 
 development of the discipline. Neandcr's presentation 
 
 * Geschichte der P/lanzung und Leitutig e'er cJn-ist lichen Kijche durch dit 
 Apostel, 1832, sth Aufl., 1862 ; translated into English in Biblical Cabinet, Edin- 
 burgh, 1842; Bohn's Library, London, 1856; translated by J. E. Ryland, re- 
 vised and corrected according to the fourth German edition by E. G. Robinson, 
 N. Y., T863. 
 
 t Gesch. d. P/. uiid Leit.^ Gotha, 5te Aufl., p. 501.
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 379 
 
 has still many defects. It is kept in a too subordinate 
 position to his history. But he takes the stand so nec- 
 essary for the growth of Biblical Theology that the the- 
 ology of the various authors is to be determined from 
 their own characters and the essential and fundamental 
 conceptions of their own writings. Neander presents as 
 the central idea of Paul, the law and righteousness, which 
 give the connection as well as contrast between his original 
 and final conception. The fundamental idea of James 
 is, that Christianity is the perfect law. John's conception 
 is, that divine life is in communion with the Redeemer, 
 death in estrangement from Him. 
 
 Schmid, a colleague of F. Baur at Tubingen, first gave 
 Biblical Theology its proper place in Theological Ency- 
 clopaedia.* He defined Biblical Theology as belonging 
 essentially to the department of Exegetical Theology, 
 " We understand by Biblical Theology of the New Tes- 
 tament the historico-genetic presentation of Christianity 
 as thisis given in the canonical writings of the New Tes- 
 tament ; a discipline which is essentially distinguished 
 from Systematic Theology by its historical character, 
 while by its limitation to the biblical writings of the New 
 Testament, it is separated from Historical Theology, and 
 is characterized as a part of Exegetical Theology. Of 
 this last it constitutes the summit by which Exegetical 
 Theology is connected with the roots of Systematic as 
 well as Historical Theology, and even touches Practi- 
 cal Theology." Schmid regards Christianity as the 
 fulfilment of the Old Covenant, which consists in Law 
 and Promise.f He seeks to present Christianity in its 
 
 * In his invaluable essay, Ueber das Interesse und den Siatid d. Bibl. T/ieo, 
 des Neu. Test, in unserer Zeit. Tiibinger Zeitschri/t /. T/teo., 4 Heft., 1838, 
 pp. 126, 129. 
 
 t Bib. Theo., p. 367.
 
 380 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 unity with the Old Testament as well as in its contrast 
 thereto. He thus gains four possibilities of doctrine, 
 which are realized in the four principal apostles. James 
 presents Christianity as the fulfilled Law ; Peter as the 
 fulfilled Promise ; Paul as contrasted with the Law ; and 
 John as contrasted with both Law and Promise. For 
 many years he lectured on the Theology of the New 
 Testament. These lectures were published after his 
 death by his pupils.* 
 
 Oehler (G. F.), also of the university of Tubingen, 
 takes the same position with reference to the Old Tes- 
 tament.f He defines the Theology of the Old Testa- 
 ment as " the historico-genetic presentation of the re- 
 vealed religion contained in the canonical writings of 
 the Old Testament." His Lectures were first issued in 
 1873-4,:}: by his son. Oehler distinguishes in the Old 
 Testament three parts : Mosaism, Prophetism, and the 
 Chokma — the first fundamental ; the Prophetism repre- 
 senting the objective side, and the Chokma the subject- 
 ive : these two unfolding in parallelism with one another. 
 Thus he marks an advance in the Old Testament in the 
 discrimination of types^ corresponding with the distin- 
 guishing of types in the New Testament by Neander 
 and Schmid.§ Schmid and Oehler combine in giving us 
 organic systems of Biblical Theology as the highest point 
 of Exegetical Theology, and with a distinction of types 
 combining in a higher unity, and with Neander introduce 
 a new epoch in Biblical Theology. | 
 
 * Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 1853, 4th ed., 1869. Translated 
 into English, but without the invaluable definitions at the beginning of the sec- 
 tions. Eiinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1870. 
 
 t Proiegomena zur Theologie des Alie?i Testaments, 1845. 
 
 X Theologie des Alien Test., 2 Bde., II. Aufl., 1883. 
 
 § His work has been translated into English in Clark's Lib., Edin., 2 vols., 
 1874 ; also revised and edited by Prof. G. E. Day. New York, 1883. 
 
 I The posthumous Lectures of Prof. Havemick, of Konigpiburg, on Bibl. Theo.
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. Qg-{ 
 
 On the other hand, F. Baur attempts to account for 
 the peculiarities of the New Testament writings, as well 
 as the origin of the Christian church, by his theory of 
 the two opposing forces, the Judaistic and the Pauline, 
 gradually uniting in the later writings of the New Tes- 
 tament in the second century into a more conservative 
 and mediating theology, reaching its culmination in the 
 Johannean writings, which are at an elevation above the 
 peculiarities of the earlier stages of development. Bib- 
 lical Theology is to Baur a purely historical discipline. 
 In it the scriptural doctrine loosens itself from the fet- 
 ters of the dependent relation in which it has been to 
 the dogmatic systems of the church, and will more and 
 more emancipate itself therefrom. New Testament The- 
 ology is that part of Historical Theology which has to 
 ])resent the doctrine of Jesus as well as the doctrinal 
 systems resting upon it, in the order and connection of 
 their historical development, according to the peculiar 
 characteristics by which they are distinguished from one 
 another, so far as this can be ascertained in the New 
 Testament writings. Baur strongly objects to the idea 
 of Neander and his school, that there is a wzi^j/ in the 
 variety of New Testament doctrines, which is the very 
 opposite of his own view of a development out of con- 
 trasted and irreconcilable forces. Baur justly admits 
 that the doctrines of Jesus must be at the foundation. 
 The doctrine of Jesus must be drawn chiefly from the 
 
 tf. A/i. Test., were published by Hahn in 1848, and a revised edition by Her- 
 mann Schultz in 1863, but are of no special value. Prof. H. Messner, of Perlin, 
 in 1856, published Die Lehre der Apostel in the spirit of Neander. He beL;ins 
 with the system of James, Jude, and Peter ; makes the discourse of Stephen a 
 transition to the Pauline system, and gives the theolof;y of Paul with that of tlie 
 Epistle to the Hebrews app)ended, and concludes with the theology of Jolin .ir.d 
 the Apocalypse. He finally gives a searching comparison of the various forms o) 
 apostolic doctrine, seeking a unity in the variety.
 
 382 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 discourses in Matthew, yet these not in their present 
 form, as given in our Greek Gospel, but in their original 
 form, to be determined by sound criticism. The essen- 
 tial principle of Christianity and of the doctrine of Jesus 
 is the ethical principle ; the law is not only enlarged by 
 the Gospel, but the Gospel is contrasted with it. They 
 arc related as the outer to the inner, the act to the in- 
 tention, the letter to the spirit. " Christianity presented 
 in its original form in the doctrine of Jesus is a religion 
 breathing the purest moral spirit." " This moral ele- 
 ment, as it is made known in the simple sentences of 
 the sermon on the mount, is the purest and clearest con- 
 tent of the doctrine of Jesus, the real kernel of Chris- 
 tianity, to which all the rest, however significant, stands 
 in a more or less secondary and accidental relation. It 
 is that on which the rest must be built, for however little 
 it has the form and color of that Christianity which has 
 become historical, yet it is in itself the entire Chris- 
 tianity." ■^ 
 
 Neander and Baur, the great historical rivals of our 
 century, thus attain the same end in John's contempla- 
 tion which reconciles and harmonizes all the previous 
 points of view. According to Neander and his school, 
 the variety therein attains a higher unity ; according to 
 Baur and his school, the contradictory positions are rec- 
 onciled in an ideal spirit which is indifferent to all mere 
 externals. The Lectures of Baur were published after 
 his death in i864.f 
 
 Prof. Reuss, of Strasburg, in 1852 issued his History 
 of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age.:}: In the 
 Preface to the last edition he states : 
 
 * Neu. Test. TJieologic, p. 64, seq. 
 
 \ Vorlcstingen i'lher Neutestamentlichc Tlieologie. 
 
 \ Ilistoire de la Theolu^ic Chrciienne an Sikcle Afostolique, 2 tomes. A
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 383 
 
 " The unity which has been sought at the end of the work, T have 
 dwelt upon where the history itself points to it — namely, at the be- 
 ^nning. It is in the primitive Gospel, in the teaching of the Lord 
 Himself, that we find the focus of those rays which the prism of 
 analysis places before us, separately in their different shades of color. 
 As it has not been my design to produce a critical or theoretical, 
 but a historical work, I have necessarily followed the natural evolu- 
 tion of the ideas, nor did it come within my province to violate this 
 order to subserve any practical purpose, however lawful." 
 
 It is the distinguishing merit of Reuss that he sets 
 the Biblical Theology of the New Testament in the 
 midst of the religious movements of the times. He 
 begins with a discussion of Judaism, e. g., the theology 
 of the Jews subsequent to the Exile and in its various 
 sects, then considers John the Baptist and the Forerun- 
 ners. In the second part he treats of the Gospels ; in 
 the third part the Jewish Christian Theology, and in the 
 fourth the Pauline, and in the fifth the theology of John. 
 But the historical method absorbs and overwhelms the 
 inductive, and he justly names his work a History of 
 Christian Theology in Apostolic Times. Standing with 
 the school of Baur in contending for the position of the 
 discipline in Historical Theology, he differs from it in 
 his giving up the reconciliation of contrasts in John's 
 Theology. In the same year, 1852, Lutterbcck,* a Ro- 
 man Catholic writer, goes even more thoroughly than 
 Reuss into the doctrinal systems in the midst of which 
 Christianity arose : (i) The Heathen systems ; (2) The 
 Jewish ; (3) The mixed systems and heresies of the 
 apostolic period. He then passes over to the Christian 
 system, distinguishing the various types as did Neander, 
 
 translation of the 3d edition into English has been published by Hodder & 
 Stouf^hton, London, in 2 vols., 1872. 
 
 * Keutestameiitlichen I.e/irbegriffen, Ein Hanibuck /ilr dlteste Doi;;meti^e- 
 ichiclitc und ^yslematisclic ExCf^cse dcs Keuen 7'esfamcnlcs, 2 Bande.
 
 384 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 and shows their genesis and internal harmony in an able 
 and thorough manner, distinguishing three stages of 
 apostolic doctrine : (i) From the death of Christ to the 
 Apostolic Council, the original type ; (2) The time of 
 contrasted views, 50-70 ; (3) The period of mediation, 
 or the later life of the apostle John, 70-100 A.D. 
 
 G. L. Hahn * reacts to the historical ground without 
 distinction of types. B. Weiss f has also been influ- 
 enced by the conflict between the schools of Neander 
 and Baur to take an intermediate position. He ex- 
 cludes the life of Jesus and the great events of Apostolic 
 history, and also restricts Biblical Theology to the vari- 
 ety of the types of doctrine and abandons the effort for 
 a higher unity. Within the limits chosen by the author 
 his work is elaborate and thorough, and a most valuable 
 addition to the literature, but does not show any prog- 
 ress in his conception of the discipline. 
 
 Hermann Schultz, in 1869,:}: laid stress upon the his- 
 rorico-critical method of the school of Baur, yet includes 
 religion as well as dogmatics and ethics in his scheme, 
 rxcluding the apocryphal books and limiting himself to 
 the canonical writings. His work is elaborate and thor- 
 ough in its working out of details, but does not show 
 any real progress.§ 
 
 In his Biblical Theology, Van Oosterzee,|| in 1870, docs 
 not enter much into details or present a thoroughgoing 
 
 * Theologie des Alien Testaments, vol. i., 1854. 
 
 + Lehrb. d. Bibl. Theo. d. N. T., 1868, 3te Aufl., 1880. Translated into English 
 in Clark's Library, vol. i., 1883. 
 
 X Alttestamentliche Theologie, 2te Aufl., 1878. 
 
 § In his last edition Schultz has gone over to the school of Wellhausen, and 
 reconstructed his Biblical Theology so as to distinguish a Prophetic and Levitical 
 period, and abandons the historical development, and thus like Ewald declines 
 from the advanced position of F. Baur and Neander. 
 
 \ Bibl. Theo. of tlie New Test. Translated from the Dutch by M. J. Evans. 
 N. Y., 1876.
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 385 
 
 comparison, yet he seeks the higher unity as well as the 
 individual types. He regards Biblical Theology as apart 
 of Historical Theology, but his treatment of it is after 
 the style of Neander. He does not estimate the- life of 
 Jesus and the religious life of the apostolic church. He 
 neglects the religious and ethical elements, and as a whole 
 must be regarded as falling behind the later treatises on 
 the subject. Bernard * issued a brief work in the spirit 
 of Neander, but without any advance in the working out 
 of the theme. 
 
 Ewald (H.) in 1 871-6 issued his massive and profound 
 work.f The first volume treats of the doctrine of the 
 word of God, the second of the doctrine of God, the 
 third of the world and man, the fourth of the life of 
 men and the kingdom of God. These divisions of the 
 subject-matter are simple and comprehensive, and the 
 treatment, especially in the first volume, admirable and 
 profound, and yet the historical side of the discipline 
 falls too much into the background ; so that we must 
 regard the work on the whole as a decline from the 
 higher position of the schools of Neander and Baur. 
 Indeed Old Testament Theology was not yet ripe for 
 the treatment that was necessary to bring it up to the 
 standard of the New Testament Theology. The older 
 views of the Biblical writings of the Old Testament, 
 both of the Critical and Traditional sides, were too 
 mechanical and uncertain. There was needed a great 
 overturning of the soil of the Old Testament by a rad- 
 ical critical study of its religion and history such as 
 Strauss had made in the New Testament. Such a treat- 
 
 • Progress 0/ Doctrine in the New Testament, Bampton Lectures, 1864, 2d 
 edit., 1867. 
 
 t Lehre der Bibel von Gott oder Theologie des Alten und Netun Bundes, 4 
 Bde. 
 
 17
 
 386 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 ment was prepared by Vatke, Reuss, and Graf,* but first 
 carried out by Kuenen,t and then by Julius Wellhauscn.J 
 These distinguished three great codes and sections in the 
 Pentateuch, and found two antagonistic elements in the 
 Old Testament Scriptures, and ventured upon a radical 
 reconstruction of Old Testament Religion and History 
 and established a large and enthusiastic school. 
 
 Kuenen, in his history of Israel, finds in the period 
 from Hezekiah to the exile two antagonistic parties in 
 perpetual conflict. The one is the more popular and 
 conservative party advocating the ancient religion of 
 the land, the local sanctuaries and image worship, to- 
 gether with various deities. This party was formed by 
 the majority of the prophets and the older Levitical 
 priests. The other party was the progressive and the 
 reforming party aiming at a central and exclusive sanct 
 uary and the worship of Jehovah alone in a more spirit 
 ual manner. This was the priestly party at Jerusalem 
 formed by the prophets Isaiah, Micah, and Jeremiah. 
 These parties struggled with varying fortunes until the 
 exile. The reforming party issued as their programme 
 the Deuteronomic code. Independent of them, yet at 
 times merging with the party of progress, was the 
 Chokma tendency.§ The struggle was thus " between 
 Jahvism and Jewish nationality." || During the exile, 
 influenced by Ezekiel's programme of reconstruction, 
 
 * Ilitzig;, in Ris posthumous Vorlesungen fiber Bibl. Theo. ttnd Mess. Weissa- 
 gttngen, 1880, treats first of the principle of the religion of the Old Testament, 
 e.g., the idea of God as a holy spirit. This developed itself in two directions : 
 Universalism and Particulartim. The book is defective in method, arbitrary 
 in judgment, and shows no real progress beyond this distinction of types. 
 
 t Religion of Israel, x9£if)-'j<:i (in the Dutch language, translated 1873-5 '°to 
 English) and by his Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, 1877. 
 
 X Gesch. Israel, Bd. i., 1878, 2 Ausg., 1883. 
 
 ^ Religion 0/ Israel, ii., chap. 6. \ In /. c, I., p. 70.
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 387 
 
 the priestly legislation of the middle books of the Pen- 
 tateuch was composed, and Ezra introduced it to the 
 new commonwealth at Jerusalem. 
 
 " Ezra and Nehemiah assailed as much the independence of the 
 religious life of the Israelites, which found utterance in prophecy, 
 as the more tolerant judgment upon the heathen to which many in- 
 clined ; their reformation was in other words anti-prophetic and 
 anti-universalistic. History teaches us that the Reformation of 
 Ezra and Nehemiah nearly coincides in date with the disappearance 
 of Prophecy in Israel." (II., p. 240, seq.).* 
 
 The three great codes were afterward combined in 
 the Pentateuch. Thus this scheme of reconstruction of 
 Old Testament legislation and religion adopted by such 
 a large number of critics resembles in a most remarkable 
 degree the reconstruction of the New Testament his- 
 tory and doctrine proposed by Baur ; namely, two aji- 
 tagonistic and irreconcilable forces resulting in a final 
 system above them both. 
 
 With reference to the three codes and sections of the 
 Pentateuch, evangelical men should not fail to recognize 
 them. They correspond in a remarkable manner with 
 the various presentations of the Gospel of Jesus. And 
 so the great types such as we find in the Prophetic, 
 Priestly, and Chokma writings are clearly defined, cor- 
 responding closely with the Petrine, Pauline, and the 
 Johannean types of the New Testament. The corre- 
 spondence goes even farther, in that, as the Jewish Chris- 
 tian type is divided in twain by the gospels of Mark and 
 Matthew, and by the apostles Peter and James, so the 
 prophetic type breaks up into the Psalmists and the 
 
 * See the articles : Tke Theory 0/ Professor Kuenen, by the Rev. T. W. Cham- 
 bers, D.D., in the Presbyterian Review, 1880, p. 304, seg. ; T/te Critical Theo- 
 ries 0/ Julius U'ellhausen, by Prof. Henry P. Smith, in the same Review, i88a, 
 p. 357, seq. ; and Critical Study 0/ the History 0/ the 1 Uglier Criticism, in tli« 
 same Review, 1883, p. 69, seq.
 
 388 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Prophets. The three great types must be recognized 
 in the Old Testament from the TJiora onward, extend- 
 ing through the histories, prophets, and poetical books 
 * and other writings, as in the New Testament the types 
 are recognized from the gospels through the book of 
 Acts to the Epistles and Apocalypse. The school of 
 Kuenen and Wellhausen regard them as antagonistic as 
 are the parties in Church and State in our own day, the 
 history and religion having a purely natural develop- 
 ment. Evangelical exegetes will, in the main, deal with 
 the Old Testament as they have done with the New 
 Testament under the lead of Neander, Schmid, and 
 Oehler, and recognize the variation of type in order to 
 a more complete and harmonious representation as they 
 combine under the supernatural influence of a divine 
 progressive revelation. 
 
 Recent works on New Testament theology have de- 
 voted themselves more to a study of the particular types 
 with reference to their psychological development out 
 of the condition of mind and historical position and 
 training of the various New Testament writers. Immer* 
 restates the positions of the school of Baur, but with 
 the important advance that he traces the various stages 
 of the development of the Pauline theology itself with 
 considerable industry and skill, so Pfleiderer,-}- Sabatier,:}: 
 
 * Theo. d. N. T., 1877. 
 
 + It was natural that the theology of Paul should receive at first the closest 
 Examination. Usteri, Entwickelung des Paulinischen Lehrbegriffes, 1829, 6te 
 Aufl., 1851, is a classic work ; followed by Dahne, Entwickelung des Paulin- 
 ischen LehrhegriffSy 1835 ; Baur, Paulus der Apostel Jesu Christi, 1845, 2te 
 Aufl., 1866; Opitz (H.), System des Paulus, 1874. 
 
 X HApotre Paul esquisse d'une Histoire de sa Pensie, 1870. Deuxilme edi- 
 tion revue et augmentee, 1881, Paris. He finds the origin of Paul's theology 
 in the combination of the three facts — his Pharisaism which he left, the Cliris- 
 tian church which he entered, and the conversion by which he passed from the 
 one to the other. He then traces the genesis of the Pauline theology in three 
 periods.
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 389 
 
 and especially Holsten,* who strives to derive the pecu- 
 liarity of the doctrine of Paul out of his consciousness 
 rather than from the vision and Christophany on the way 
 to Damascus.f Thoma:j: strives to explain the theology 
 of John as a development out of the struggling doctrinal 
 conceptions of Judaism and Alexandrianism. § These, 
 then, are the two points on which Biblical Theology may 
 be expected to make a new advance: (i) in the relation 
 of the variety of types to one another and to their 
 unity ; (2) in the origin and development of the particu 
 lar types. 
 
 We have thus far distinguished two stages in the de- 
 velopment of the discipline of Biblical Theology. Gab- 
 ler first stated its historical principle and distinguished 
 it from Systematic Theology. Neander then distin- 
 guished its variety of types, and Schmid stated its exe- 
 getical principle and distinguished it from Historical 
 Theology as a part of Exegetical Theology. We are 
 about to enter upon a third stage in which Biblical The- 
 ology, as the point of contact of Exegetical Theology 
 with the three other great sections of Theological Ency- 
 clopaedia, will show the true relation of its various types 
 to one organic system of divine truth, will trace them 
 
 * Zum Evangelium des Paulus u. d. Petrus, 1868 ; Evangelium des Paulus, 
 1880. 
 
 t Prof. A. B. Bruce, of Glasgow, in his article on PauVs Conversion and the 
 Pauline Gospel, in the Pres. Review, 1880, p. 652, seq., ably discusses these 
 theories, and shows the connection of Pauline theology with the supernatural 
 event of the Christophany and the ajx)stle's consequent conversion. 
 
 X Die Genesis des Johannes Evangelium, 1882. 
 
 § Other special writers upon p)articu)ar types are : Riehm's Lehrbegriff des 
 Hcbraerhrie/s, 1867 ; K. R. Kostlin, Lehrbegriff des Evang. und der Briefe 
 yohannes, 1845 ; B. Weiss, Petrinische Lehrbegriff, 1855 ; Johanneischt 
 Lehrbegriff, 1862 ; Zschokke, Theologie der Prophet en des Alten Testaments^ 
 1877 ; VV. Schmidt, Lehrgehalt des yacobus Brie/es, 1869 ; H. Gebhardt, Lehr- 
 begriff der Apofcalypse, 1873.
 
 390 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 each and all to their supernatural origin and direction as 
 distinguished from the ordinary types of human think- 
 ing ; and thus will act as a conserving and a reconciling 
 force in the theology of the last quarter of our century. 
 Step by step Biblical Theology has advanced in the 
 progress of exegetical studies. It is and must be an ag- 
 gressive discipline. It has a fourfold work : of removing 
 the rubbish that Scholasticism has piled upon the Word 
 of God ; of battling with Rationalism for its principles, 
 methods, and products ; of resisting the seductions of 
 Mysticism ; and of building up an impregnable system 
 of sacred truth. As the Jews returning from their exile 
 built the walls of Jerusalem, working with one hand, and 
 with the other grasping a weapon, so must Biblical schol- 
 ars build up the system of Biblical Theology, until they 
 have erected a structure of Biblical truth containing 
 the unity in the variety of Divine Revelation, a struct- 
 ure compacted through the fitting together of all the gems 
 of sacred truth according to the adaptation of a divine 
 prearrangement. 
 
 IV. THE POSITION AND IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL 
 THEOLOGY. 
 
 Having considered the origin and history of Biblical 
 Theology, we are now prepared to show its position and 
 importance, and define it as to its idea, method, and sys- 
 tem, (i) The idea of Biblical Theology. — Biblical The- 
 ology is that theological discipline which presents the 
 theology of the Bible in its historical formation within 
 the canonical writings. The discipline limits itself 
 strictly to the theology of the Bible, and thus excludes 
 from its range the theology of the Apocryphal and Pseu- 
 depigraphical writings of the Jewish and Christian sects, 
 the ideas of the various external religious parties, and
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 39 ^ 
 
 the religions of the world brought in contact with the 
 people of God at different periods in their history. It 
 is true that these must come into consideration for com- 
 parative purposes in order to show their influence posi- 
 tively and negatively upon the development of Biblical 
 doctrine ; for the Biblical religion is a religion in the 
 midst of a great variety of religions of the world, and 
 its distinctive features can be shown only after the elim- 
 ination of the features that are common with other re- 
 ligions. We must show from the historical circumstances, 
 the psychological preparations, and all the conditioning 
 influences, how far the origin and development of the 
 particular type and the particular stage of religious de- 
 velopment of Israel and the Church were influenced by 
 these external forces. We must find the supernatural 
 influence that originated and maintained the Biblical 
 types and the Biblical religion as distinct and separate 
 from all other religions. And then these other religious 
 forces will not be employed as co-ordinate factors with 
 the Biblical material, as is done by Reuss, Schwegler, 
 and Kuenen, who make Biblical Theology simply a his- 
 tory of religion, or of doctrine in the times of the Bible 
 and in the Jewish nation. Rather these theological con- 
 ceptions of other religions will be seen to be subordinate 
 factors as influencing Biblical Theology from without, 
 and not from within, as presenting the external occa- 
 sions and conditions of its growth, and not its normal 
 and regulative principles. The Biblical limit will be 
 maintained ; for the Biblical material stands apart by 
 itself, in that the theology therein contained is the 
 theology of a divine Revelation, and thus distinguished 
 from all other theologies, both as to its origin and its 
 development ; for they give us either the products of 
 natural religion in various normal and abnormal sys-
 
 392 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 terns, originating and developing under the influence ol 
 unguided or partially guided human religious strivings, 
 or else are apostasies or deflections from the religion o't 
 revelation in its various stages of development. 
 
 The discipline we have defined as presenting the T/ie- 
 ology of the Bible. It is true that the term Biblical The- 
 ology is ambiguous as being too broad, having been em- 
 ployed as a general term including Biblical Introduction, 
 Hermeneutics, and so on. And yet we must have a broad 
 term, for we cannot limit our discipline to Dogmatics, for 
 Biblical Dogmatics, as rightly conceived, is a part of Sys- 
 tematic Theology, being a />rzorz and deductive in method. 
 Biblical Dogmatics deduces the dogmas from the Bibli- 
 cal material and arranges them in an a priori dogmatic 
 system, presenting not so much the doctrines of the 
 Bible in their simplicity and in their concrete form as 
 they are given in the Scriptures themselves, but such 
 doctrines as may be fairly derived from the Biblical ma- 
 terial by the logical process, or can be gained by setting the 
 Bible in the midst of philosophy and church tradition. We 
 cannot deny to this department the propriety of using 
 the name Biblical Dogmatics or even Biblical Theology. 
 For where a Dogmatic system derives its chief or only 
 material from the Scriptures there is force in its claim 
 to be Biblical Theology. We do not, therefore, use the 
 term Biblical Theology as applied to our discipline with 
 the implication that a dogmatic system derived from the 
 Bible is «^«-Biblical or not sufficiently Biblical, but as a 
 term which has come to be applied to the discipline 
 which we are now distinguishing from Biblical Dogmat- 
 ics.' Biblical Theology, in the sense of our discipline, 
 and as distinguished from Biblical Dogmatics, cannot 
 take a step beyond the Bible itself, or, indeed, beyond 
 the particular writing or author under consideration at
 
 BIL iCAL THEOLOGY. 393 
 
 the time. Biblical Theology has to do only with the 
 sacred author's conceptions, and has nothing whatever 
 to do with the legitimate logical consequences. It is 
 not to be assumed that either the author or his genera- 
 tion argued out the consequences of their statements, 
 still less discerned them by intuition ; although, on the 
 other hand, we must always recognize that the religion 
 and, indeed, the entire theology' of a period or an au- 
 thor may be far wider and more comprehensive than the 
 record or records that have been left of it ; and that, in 
 all cases. Biblical Theology will give us the minimum 
 rather than the maximum of the theology of a period or 
 author. But, on the other hand, we must also estimate 
 the fact that this minimum is the inspired authority to 
 which alone we can appeal. The only consequences 
 with which Biblical Theology has to do are those his. 
 torical ones that later Biblical writers gained in their ad- 
 vanced knowledge of divine revelation, those conclusions 
 that are true historically — whatever our subjective con- 
 clusions may be as to the legitimate logical results of 
 their statements. And even here the interpretation and 
 use of later writers are not to be assigned to the author;; 
 themselves or the theology of their times. We would 
 therefore urge that the term Biblical Dogmatics should 
 be applied to that part of Dogmatics which rests upon 
 the Bible and derives its material from the Bible by the 
 legitimate use of its principles. Dogmatics as a theo- 
 logical discipline, in our judgment, is far wider than the 
 Biblical material that is employed by the dogmatician. 
 The Biblical material should be the normal and regula- 
 tive material, but the dogmatician will make use of the 
 deductions from the Bible and other authorities that the 
 church has made in the history of doctrine and incor- 
 porated in her creeds, or preserved in the doctrinal treat- 
 17*
 
 394 BIBLICAL STUDr. 
 
 ises of the theologians. He will also make use of right 
 reason, and of philosophy, and science, and the religious 
 consciousness as manifest in the history of the church 
 and in the Christian life of the day. It is all-important 
 that the various sources should be carefully discriminated, 
 and the Biblical material set apart by itself in Biblical 
 Dogmatics, lest in the commingling of material that 
 should be regarded as Biblical which is «^«-Biblical, or 
 extra Biblical, or contra Biblical, as has so often hap- 
 pened in the working of ecclesiastical tradition. And, 
 even then, when Biblical Dogmatics has been distin- 
 guished in Systematic Theology, it should be held apart 
 from Biblical Theology, for Biblical Dogmatics is the 
 point of contact of Systematic Theology with Exegeti- 
 cal Theology, and Biblical Theology is the point of con- 
 tact of Exegetical Theology with Systematic Theology, 
 each belonging to its own distinctive branch of theolo- 
 gy, with its characteristic methods and principles. That 
 system of theology which would anxiously confine it- 
 self to supposed Biblical material, to the neglect of the 
 material presented by philosophy, science, literature, 
 art, comparative religion, the history of doctrine, the 
 symbols, the liturgies, and the life of the church, and 
 the pious religious consciousness of the individual or of 
 Christian society, must be extremely defective, unscien- 
 tific, and cannot make up for its defects by an appeal to 
 the Scriptures and a claim to be Biblical. None of the 
 great systematic theologians, from the most ancient 
 times have ever proposed any such course. It has been 
 the resort of the feebler Pietists in Germany, and of the 
 narrower Evangelicalism of Great Britain and America, 
 doomed to defeat and destruction, for working in such 
 contracted lines. 
 
 We do n^t, therefore, present Biblical Thcolog)' as a
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 395 
 
 substitute for Systematic Theology. Systematic Theol- 
 ogy is more comprehensive than Biblical Theology can 
 ever be. But we urge the importance of Biblical Theol- 
 ogy in order to the important distinction that should be 
 made, in the first place, between the Biblical sources and 
 all other sources of Theology, and then, in the second 
 place, to distinguish between the Biblical Theology as 
 presented in the Scriptures themselves, and Biblical 
 Dogmatics which makes legitimate deductions and appli- 
 cations of the Biblical material. 
 
 But Biblical Theology is wider than the doctrines of 
 the Bible. It includes Ethics also. Here the school of 
 Baur and even Weiss and Van Oosterzee would stop. 
 But Schmid, Schultz, and Oehler are correct in taking 
 Biblical Theology to include religion as well as doc- 
 trines and morals, that is, those historic persons, facts, 
 and relations which embody religious, dogmatical, and 
 ethical ideas. This discrimination is important in System- 
 atic Theology, but it is indispensable in Biblical Theol- 
 ogy where everything is still in the concrete. Thus a 
 fundamental question in the theology of the New Testa- 
 ment, is what to do with the life of Jesus. The life of 
 Jesus is, as Schmid shows, the fruitful source of His 
 doctrine, and a theology which does not estimate it, 
 lacks foundation and vital power. The life of Jesus may 
 indeed be regarded from two distinct points of view, as 
 a biographical, or a doctrinal and religious subject. The 
 birth of Jesus may be regarded as a pure historical fact 
 or as an incarnation. His suffering and death may be 
 historical subjects, or as expressing atonement. His life 
 may afford biographical matter or be considered as re- 
 ligious, doctrinal, and ethical, in that His life was a new 
 religious force, a redemptive influence and an ethical 
 example. Biblical Theology will have to consider, there-
 
 396 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 fore, what the life of Jesus presents for its various de- 
 partments. And so the great fact of Pentecost, the 
 Christophanies to Peter, Paul, and John, and the apos- 
 tolic council at Jerusalem must all be brought into 
 consideration. And in the Old Testament we must 
 consider the various covenants and the religious insti- 
 tutions and laws that were grouped about them. With- 
 out religion, with its persons, events, and institutions, 
 Biblical Theology would lose its foundations, and without 
 ethical results it would fail of its rich fruitage. 
 
 We state, furthermore, that the discipline presents 
 the theology of the Bible in its historical formation. 
 This does not imply that it limits itself to the consider- 
 ation of the various particular conceptions of the various 
 authors, writings, and periods, as Weiss and even Oehler 
 maintain, but with Schmid, Messner, Van Oosterzee 
 after Neander it seeks the unity in the variety ; ascertains 
 the roots of the divergencies, traces them eAch in their 
 separate historical development, shows them co-operat- 
 ing in the formation of one organic system. For Biblical 
 Theology would not present a mere conglomerate of 
 heterogeneous material in a bundle of miscellaneous 
 Hebrew literature, but would ascertain whether there is 
 not some principle of organization ; and it finds that 
 principle in a supernatural divine revelation and com- 
 munication of redemption in the successive covenants 
 of grace, extending through many centuries, operating 
 through many minds, and in a great variety of literary 
 styles, employing all the faculties of man and all the 
 types of human nature, in order to the accomplishment 
 of one massive, all-embracing and everlasting Divine 
 Word adapted to every age, every nation, every type of 
 character, every temperament of mankind ; the whole 
 world.
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 397 
 
 (2) The Place of Biblical Theology. — Biblical Theology 
 belongs to the department of Exegetical Theology as a 
 higher exegesis completing the exegetical process, and 
 presenting the essential material and principles of the 
 other departments of theology. 
 
 The boundaries between Exegetical and Historical 
 Theology are not so sharply defined as those between 
 either of them and Systematic Theology. All Histori- 
 cal Theology has to deal with sources, and in this respect 
 must consider them in their variety and unity as well as 
 development ; and hence many theologians combine 
 Exegetical Theology and Historical Theology under 
 one head — Historical Theology. It is important, how- 
 ever, to draw the distinction, for this reason. The 
 sources of Biblical Theology are in different relation 
 from the sources of a history of doctrine, inasmuch as 
 they constitute a body of divine revelation, and in this 
 respect to be kept distinct from all other sources, even 
 cotemporary and of the same nation. They have an 
 absolute authority which no other sources can have. Thi; 
 stress is to be laid less upon their historical develop- 
 ment than upon them as an organic body of revelation, 
 and this stress upon their importance as sources not 
 only for historical development, but also for dogmatic 
 reconstruction and practical application, requires that 
 the special study of them should be exalted to a separate 
 discipline and a distinct branch of theology. 
 
 Now in the department of Exegetical Theology, Bib- 
 lical Theology occupies the highest place, the latest 
 and crowning achievement. It is a higher exegesis 
 completing the Exegetical Process. All other branches 
 of Exegetical Theology are presupposed by it. The 
 Biblical Literature must first be studied as sacred liter- 
 ature. All questions of date of writing, integrity, con-
 
 398 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 struction, style, and authorship must be determined by 
 the principles of the Higher Criticism. Biblical Canonics 
 determines the extent and authority of the various 
 writings that are to be regarded as composing the 
 sacred canon, and discriminates them from all other 
 writings by the criticism of the believing spirit enlight- 
 ened and guided by the Holy Spirit in the Church. 
 Biblical Textual Criticism ascertains the true text of the 
 writings in the study of MSS. and versions and citations, 
 and seeks to present it in its pure primitive forms. 
 Biblical Hermeneutics lays down the rules of Biblical 
 Interpretation, and Biblical Exegesis applies these 
 rules to the various particular passages of the sacred 
 Scriptures. Now Biblical Theology accepts all these 
 rules and results thus determined and applied. It is 
 not its office to go into the detailed examination of the 
 verse and the section, but it must accept the results of a 
 thorough exegesis and criticism in order to advance 
 thereon and thereby to its own proper work of higher 
 exegesis ; namely, rising from the comparison of verse 
 with verse, and paragraph with paragraph, where simple 
 exegesis is employed, to the still more difficult and in- 
 structive comparison of writing with writing, author with 
 author, period with period, until by generalization and 
 synthesis the theology of the Bible is attained as an 
 organic whole. 
 
 Biblical Theology is thus the culmination of Exeget- 
 ical Theology, and must be in an important relation to 
 all other branches of theology. For Historical Theol- 
 ogy it presents the great principles of the various periods 
 of history, the fundamental and controlling tendencies 
 which, springing from human nature and operating in 
 all the religions of the world, find their proper expres- 
 sion and satisfaction in the normal development of
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 399 
 
 Divine Revelation, but which, breaking loose from these 
 salutary bonds, become perverted and distorted into 
 abnormal forms, producing false and heretical principles 
 and radical errors. And so in the Biblical unity of these 
 tendencies Biblical Theology presents the ideal unity 
 for the church and the Christian in all times of the 
 world's history. For Systematic Theology, Biblical 
 Theology affords the holy material to be used in Bibli- 
 cal Apologetics, Dogmatics, and Ethics, the funda- 
 mental and controlling material out of which that 
 systematic structure must be built which will express 
 the intellectual and moral needs of the particular age, 
 fortify the church for offence and defence in the strug- 
 gles with the anti-Christian world, and give unity to its 
 life, its efforts, and its dogmas in all ages. For Practical 
 Theology it presents the various types of religious ex- 
 perience and of doctrinal and ethical ideas which must 
 be skilfully applied to the corresponding differences of 
 type which exist in all times, in all churches, in all 
 lands, and indeed in all religions and races of mankind. 
 Biblical Theology is indeed the Irenic force which will 
 do much to harmonize the antagonistic forces and vari- 
 ous departments of theology, and bring about that toler- 
 aiiofi within the church which is the greatest requisite of 
 our times. 
 
 (3) J^.Iethod of Biblical Theology. — The method em- 
 ployed by Biblical Theology is a blending of the genetic 
 and the inductive methods. The method of Biblical 
 Theology arises out of the nature of the discipline and 
 its place in Theological Encyclopaedia. P" z it must 
 show the Theology of the Bible in its historic formation, 
 ascertain its genesis, the laws of its development from 
 germinal principles, the order of its progress in every 
 individual writer, and from writer to writer and age to
 
 400 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 age in the successive periods and in the whole Bible, it 
 must employ the genetic method. It is this genesis 
 which is becoming more and more important in our dis- 
 cipline, and is indeed the chief point of discussion in our 
 day. Can all be explained by a natural genesis, or must 
 the supernatural be called in ? The various Rationalistic 
 efforts to explain the genesis of the Biblical types of 
 doctrine in their variety and their combination in a unity 
 in the Scriptures are extremely unsatisfactory and un- 
 scientific. With all the resemblances to other religions, 
 the Biblical Religion is so different that its differences 
 must be explained, and these can only be explained by 
 the claims of the sacred writers themselves, that God 
 Himself in various forms of Theophany and Chris- 
 tophany revealed Himself to initiate and to guide the 
 religion of the Bible in its various movements and 
 stages. Mosaism centres about the great Theophany of 
 Sinai, as Christianity centres about the Resurrection of 
 Jesus Christ, and the life, death, ascension, and second 
 advent therein involved. It is now the problem of 
 Biblical Theology as it has traced the Theology of the 
 Jewish Christian type to the Theophany of Pentecost, 
 and of the Pauline to the Christophany on the way to 
 Damascus, so to trace the Johannean type and the vari- 
 ous Old Testament types to corresponding supernatural 
 initiation. The Johannean type may be traced to the 
 Christophanies of Patmos.* The Old Testament is full 
 of Theophanies which originate particular Covenants 
 and initiate all the great movements in the history of 
 Israel. 
 
 * We regard the Apocalypse as the earliest of the Johannean writings. Th. 
 Christophanies therein described had been granted to the apostle prior to the 
 composition of the Gospel, so that the Gospel was written under their influence 
 still more even than under the recollection of the association with Jesus during 
 His earthly ministry.
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 401 
 
 As it has to exhibit the unity in the variety of the 
 various conceptions and statements of the writings and 
 Authors of every different type, style, and character, and 
 by comparison generalize to its results, Biblical Theol- 
 ogy must employ the inductive method and the synthet- 
 ic process. This inductive method is the true method 
 of Exegetical Theology. The details of Exegesis have 
 been greatly enriched by this method during the present 
 century, especially by the labors of German divines, and 
 in most recent times by numerous laborers in Great 
 Britain and America. But the majority of the laborers 
 in Biblical Theology have devoted their strength to 
 the working out of the historical principle of our disci- 
 pline. Yet within the various types and special doc- 
 trines a large amount of higher exegesis has been ac- 
 complished by Weiss, Riehm, Schultz, Diestel, Weiffen. 
 bach, and others. But the highest exegesis in the com 
 parison of types and their arrangement in an organie 
 system with a unity and determining principle out oi 
 which all originate and to which they return their fruit- 
 age, remains comparatively undeveloped. Indeed the 
 study of the particular types, especially in the Old Tes- 
 tament, must be conducted still further and to more 
 substantial results ere the highest exegesis can fulfil its 
 task. 
 
 The genetic and the inductive methods must indeed 
 combine in order to the best results. They must co-op- 
 erate in every writing, in the treatment of every author, 
 of every period and of the whole. They must blend in 
 harmony throughout. On their proper combination the 
 excellence of a system of Biblical Theology depends. 
 An undue emphasis of cither will make the system de- 
 fective and inharmonious. 
 
 (4) The system and divisions of Biblical Theology. —
 
 i02 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 These are determined partly by the material itself, but 
 chiefly by the methods of dealing with it. We must make 
 the divisions so simple that they may be adapted to the 
 most elementary conceptions, and yet comprehensive 
 enough to embrace the most fully developed conceptions, 
 and also so as to be capable of a simple and natural 
 subdivision in the advancing periods. In order to this 
 we must find the dominant principle of the entire revela- 
 tion and make our historical and our inductive divisions 
 in accordance with it. The Divine revelation itself 
 might seem to be this determining factor, so that we 
 should divide historically by the historical development 
 of that revelation, and synthetically by its most charac- 
 teristic features. But this divine revelation was made 
 to intelligent man and involved thereby an active appro- 
 priation of it on his part, both as to its form and sub- 
 stance, so that from this point of view we might divide 
 historically in accordance with the great epochs of the 
 appropriation of divine revelation, and synthetically by 
 the characteristic features of that appropriation. From 
 either of these points of view, however, there might be 
 — there naturally would be, an undue emphasis of the 
 one over against the other at the expense of a complete 
 and harmonious representation. We need some princi- 
 ple that will enable us to combine the subject and the 
 object — God and man — in the unity of its conception. 
 Such a principle is happily afforded us in the Revelation 
 itself, so distinctly brought out that it has been histori- 
 cally recognized in the names given to the two great sec- 
 tions of the Scriptures, the Old and the New Testa- 
 ments or Covenants. The Covenant is the fundamental 
 principle of the divine revelation, to which the divine 
 revelation commits its treasures and from which man con- 
 tinually draws upon them. The Covenant has a great
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 403 
 
 variety of forms in the sacred Scriptures, but the most 
 essential and comprehensive form is that assumed in the 
 Mosaic Covenant at Sinai which becomes the Old CovC' 
 nant, pre-eminently, and over against that is placed the 
 New Covenant of the Messiah Jesus Christ, so that the 
 great historical division becomes the Theology of the Old 
 Cove?iant and the Theology of the New Covenant. 
 
 The Covenant must also determine the synthetic divis- 
 ions. The Covenant is a union and communion ef- 
 fected between God and Man. It involves a personal 
 relationship which it originates and maintains by certain 
 events and institutions. This is Religion. The Cove- 
 nant and its relations, man apprehends as an intelligent 
 being with meditation, reflection, and reasoning. All 
 this he comprehends in doctrines, which he apprehends 
 and believes and maintains as his faith. These doctrines 
 will embrace the three general topics of God, of Man, 
 and of Redemption. The Covenant still further has to 
 do with man as a moral being, imposing moral obliga- 
 tions upon him with reference to God and man and the 
 creatures of God. All these are comprehended under 
 the general term Ethics. These distinctions apply 
 equally well to all the periods of divine revelation ; 
 they are simple, they are comprehensive, they are all- 
 pervading. Indeed they interpenetrate one another, so 
 that many prefer to combine the three under the one 
 term Theology, and then treat of God and Man and the 
 union of God and Man in redemption, in each division 
 by itself with reference to religious, ethical, and doc- 
 trinal questions ; but it is easier and more thorough-go- 
 ing to keep them apart, even at the expense of looking 
 at the same thing at times successively from three dif- 
 ferent points of view. 
 
 From these more general divisions we may advance to
 
 4,04 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 such subdivisions, as may be justified in the successive 
 periods of Biblical Theology, both on the historic and 
 synthetic sides, and, indeed, without anticipation. 
 
 The relation between the historical and the synthetic 
 divisions may be variously viewed. Thus Ewald, in his 
 Biblical Theology, makes the historical divisions so en- 
 tirely subordinate as to treat of each topic of theology 
 by itself in its history. The difficulty of this method is, 
 that it does not sufficiently show the relative develop- 
 ment of doctrines, and their constant action and reaction 
 upon one another in the successive periods. It may 
 be of advantage for thoroughness in any one department 
 to take that topic by itself and work it out in its histori- 
 cal development ; but in a comprehensive course of Bib- 
 lical Theology the interests of the whole cannot be sac- 
 rificed for the particular sections. They must be ad- 
 justed to one another in their historical development in 
 the particular periods. Hence it will be necessary to 
 determine in each period: (i) the development of each 
 particular doctrine by itself, as it starts from the gen- 
 eral principle, and then (2) to sum up the general results 
 before passing over into another period. 
 
 It will also be found that Theology does not unfold 
 in one single line, but in several, from several different 
 points of view, and in accordance with several different 
 types. It will therefore be necessary on the one side 
 ever to keep these types distinct, and yet to show their 
 unity as one organism. Thus in the Pentateuch the 
 great types of the Jahvist, the two Elohists, and the Deu- 
 teronomist, will be distinctly traced until they combine 
 in the one organism of our Pentateuch, presenting the 
 fundamental Thorah of Israel. In the historical books 
 the Prophetic and Levitical historians will be distin- 
 guished and compared for a higher unity. The three
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 405 
 
 great types — the psalmists, wise men, and prophets — 
 will be discriminated, the variations within the types 
 carefully studied and compared, and then the types 
 themselves brought into harmony, and at last the whole 
 Old Testament presented as an organic whole. The New 
 Testament will then be considered in the forerunners 
 of Christ ; then the four types in which the evangelists 
 present the Theology of Jesus, each by itself, in com- 
 parison with the others, and as a whole. The Apostolic 
 Theology will be traced from its origin at Pentecost in 
 its subsequent division into the three great types, the 
 Jewish Christian of Peter, James and Jude ; the Gentile 
 Christian of Paul, Luke, and the epistle to the Hebrews; 
 and, finally, the Johannean of the gospels, epistle, and 
 apocalypse of John ; and the whole considered in the 
 xmity of the New Testament ; and then, as the last 
 thing, the whole Bible will be considered, showing not 
 only the unity of the theology of Christ and His apos- 
 tles, but also of the unity of the theology of Moses and 
 David and all the prophets, with the theology of Jesus 
 and His apostles, as each distinct theology takes its 
 j)lace in the advancing system of divine revelation, all 
 conspiring to the completion of a perfect, harmonious, 
 symmetrical organism, the infallible expression of God's 
 will, character, and being to His favored children. At 
 the same time, the religion of each period and of the 
 whole Bible will be set in the midst of the other relig- 
 ions of the world, so that it will appear as the divine 
 grace ever working in humanity, and its sacred records 
 as the true lamp of the world, holding forth the light of 
 life to all the nations of the world.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 
 
 The essential principle of the Calvinistic system of the- 
 ology is redemption by the divine grace alone. The 
 Reformed churches have ever been distinguished for 
 their intense interest in the covenant of grace. Some- 
 times the divine grace has been hardened by an undue 
 stress upon the sovereignty of it, so that sovereignty has 
 taken the place of the divine grace as the central princi- 
 ple of theology in some of the scholastic systems ; and 
 sometimes the divine grace has been softened by an un- 
 due emphasis upon the Fatherhood of God. But even 
 in these more extreme tendencies of Calvinism the es- 
 sential principle of the divine grace alone has not been 
 abandoned, however little any of the systems have com- 
 prehended the richness and the fulness of the " grace of 
 God that bringeth salvation " (Titus ii. ii). 
 
 Redemption by the divine grace alone is the banner 
 principle of the Reformed churches, designed to exclude 
 the uncertainty and arbitrariness attached to all human 
 instrumentalities and external agencies. As the banner 
 principle of the Lutheran Reformation was justification 
 by faith alone excluding any merit or agency of human 
 works, so the Calvinistic principle excluded any inherent 
 efficacy, in human nature or in external remedies, foi 
 overcoming the guilt of sin and working redemption. 
 (406)
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 407 
 
 In these two principles lie the chief merits and the chief 
 defects of the two great churches of the Reformation. 
 Intermediate between these principles of faith alone and 
 grace alone, lies a third principle, which is the divine 
 word alone. This principle we conceive to have been 
 emphasized in the Reformation of Great Britain and es- 
 pecially in the Puritan churches. The Word of God has 
 been called the formal principle of Protestantism over 
 against faith alone, the material principle, and it has 
 been said that the Reformed churches have laid more stress 
 upon the formal principle, while the Lutheran churches 
 have laid more stress upon the material principle. This 
 does not, in our judgment, correspond with the facts of 
 the case. Rather is it true that in the three great 
 churches of the Reformation, the three principles, 
 faith, grace, and the divine word, were emphasized over 
 against the errors of Rome ; but these churches differed 
 in the relative importance they ascribed to one of 
 these three principles of the Reformation in its rela- 
 tion to the other two. The Word of God is the in- 
 termediate principle where faith and grace meet. The 
 Word of God gives faith its appropriate object. The 
 Word of God is the appointed instrument or means of 
 grace. 
 
 I. THE GOSPEL IN THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 The Word of God as a means of grace, as a principle 
 of the Reformation, has, however, its technical meaning. 
 It is not the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments 
 in their entirety, but rather the Gospel contained in the 
 Scriptures: 
 
 " The Holy Gospel which God Himself first revealed in Paradise., 
 afterwards proclaimed by the Holy Patriarchs and Prophets, and
 
 408 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 foreshadowed by the sacrifices and other ceremonies of the law and 
 finally ftilfiUed by His well-beloved Son." * 
 
 The merit of the Lutheran Reformation was that it so 
 distinctly set forth the means by which man appropri- 
 ates the grace of the Gospel — by faith alone. Faith is 
 the sole appropriating instrument and it becomes a test 
 of the Word of God itself, for faith having appropriated 
 the gospel of the grace of God is enabled to determine 
 therefrom what is the Word of God and what is not the 
 Word of God. 
 
 As Luther said : 
 
 " All right holy books agree in this that they altogether preach 
 and urge Christ, This also is the true touchstone to test all books, 
 when one sees whether they so urge Christ or not, since every script- 
 ure shews Christ (Rom. Hi. 21), and St. Paul will know nothing but 
 Christ (i Cor. ii. 2) ; what does not teach Christ that is not yet apos- 
 tolical, even if St. Paul or St. Peter taught it ; on the other hand, 
 what preaches Christ would be apostolical, even if Judas, Annas, Pi- 
 late, and Herod did it." f 
 
 The merit of the Calvinistic Reformation is that it so 
 distinctly set forth the means by which God accom- 
 plishes human redemption — by the divine grace of the 
 Gospel. The divine grace is the sole efificacious instru- 
 ment of redemption, and this grace becomes itself a test 
 of the true Word of God. The divine grace in the 
 Scriptures gives its witness for the Scriptures, discrimi- 
 nating the true canon from all other books. 
 
 " We know these books to be canonical, and the sure rule of our 
 faith not so much by the common accord and consent of the church, 
 as by the testimony and inward illumination of the Holy Spirit, which 
 enables us to distinguish them from other ecclesiastical books, upcn 
 which, however useful, we cannot found any article of faith." J 
 
 * Heidelb. Cat. , Quest. 19. 
 
 t Vorred. zu Epist. Jacobus; Walch, xiv., p. 149. 
 
 X French Confession, Art. iv.
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 409 
 
 It was the merit of the British Reformation from the 
 beginning that it laid such stress on the divine Word 
 alone, and it was especially in the British churches that 
 this principle received its fullest statement and develop- 
 ment. Thus it was a cardinal principle of the Church 
 of England that : 
 
 " The Holy Scripture conteyneth all things necessary to salvation ; 
 so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, 
 is not to be required of any man that it should be believed as an ar- 
 ticle of faith or be thought requisite as necessary to salvation."* 
 
 And the Westminster Assembly, in carrying on the 
 work of Reformation, state that : 
 
 " The authority of the Holy Scripture, for which it ought to be be- 
 lieved and obeyed, dependeth not upon the testimony of any man or 
 church, but wholly upon God (who is truth itself), the Author there- 
 of; and therefore it is to be received, because it is the word of God."t 
 
 Thus the three principles of the Reformation were 
 emphasized variously in the three great branches of the 
 Reformation. The most serious defect was in the fail- 
 ure of the respective churches properly to combine these 
 principles, and especially in the neglect to define with 
 sufficient care the relation of the divine grace and hu- 
 man faith to the Word of God. Hence the common 
 error into which the churches of the Reformation soon 
 fell, notwithstanding their symbols of faith, namely, the 
 undue emphasis of the external Word of God over 
 against the internal Word of God. But as we have said, 
 " The Protestant principle struggles against this con- 
 founding of the means of grace with the divine grace it- 
 self, this identification of the instrument and the divine 
 agent, in order therefore to their proper discrimination. 
 This is the problem left unsolved by the Reformation ; 
 
 • XXXIX Articles, Art. VI. t West. Con/., 1., 4. 
 
 18
 
 4rlO BIBLICAL STCTDY. 
 
 in which the separate churches of Protestantism have been 
 working, and which demands a solution from the church 
 of the nineteenth century. Here the most radical ques- 
 tion is that of the divine Word and its relation to the 
 work of the Holy Spirit. This solved, all the other 
 questions will be solved. Herein the churches of the 
 Reformation may be harmonized. The Reformed 
 churches have a peculiar call to grapple bravely with the 
 problem." * The solution of this problem has been 
 prepared by the exaltation of the Person of Jesus Christ 
 more and more during the last century, as the central 
 principle of theology. He is the Word of God in the 
 Word of God, the eternal Logos. He is the veritable 
 grace of the Gospel in whose person grace concentrates 
 itself for the redemption of mankind. " For God so 
 loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, 
 that whosoever believeth on him should not perish, but 
 have everlasting life" (John iii. i6). 
 
 II. THE GRACE OF GOD IN THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 The grace of God is the free unmerited favor of God 
 in redemption. That grace is bestowed upon men in 
 Jesus Christ, the Saviour. That grace is presented to 
 us by the Holy Spirit and applied by Him to our per- 
 sons and lives. This application is made in the use of 
 certain external media which are called the means of 
 grace. " The Holy Ghost works faith in our hearts by 
 the preaching of the Holy Gospel, and confirms it by the 
 use of the Holy Sacraments." f Thus the chief of these 
 means of grace, according to our Reformed churches, is 
 the Word of God or the holy Gospel as contained in 
 the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. 
 
 ♦ Presbyterian Review, II , p. 573. See p. 159. 
 \ Ileidelb. Cat., Quest. 65.
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 411 
 
 (i) In what sense are the Scriptures means of grace? 
 The Scriptures are means of grace in that they con- 
 tain the Gospel of Christ which is the power of God 
 unto salvation. The Word of God is called the Sword 
 of the Spirit. For it " is living, and active, and sharper 
 than any two-edged sword, and piercing even to the di- 
 viding of soul and spirit, of both joints and marrow, and 
 quick to discern the thoughts and intents of the heart " 
 (Heb. iv. 12). It is the lamp of God. "Thy word is a 
 lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path " (Ps. cxix. 
 105). It is the seed of regeneration. For Christians 
 have " been begotten again, not of corruptible seed, but 
 of incorruptible, through the Word of God, which liveth 
 and abideth " (i Pet. i. 23). It is a power of God 
 {SvvafAi'^). " For I am not ashamed of the gospel ; for 
 it is the power of God unto salvation " (Rom. i. 16), says 
 Paul to the Romans ; and he reminds his disciple, Tim- 
 othy, that " from a babe thou hast known the sacred 
 writings, which are able {roc dwa/^sva) to make thee wise 
 unto salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus " 
 (2 Tim. iii. 15). These attributes of the Word of God 
 cannot be brought under the category of Inspiration. 
 The Inspiration of the Word of God is a highly impor- 
 tant doctrine, but it must not be so greatly emphasized 
 as to lead us to neglect other and still more important 
 aspects of the Bible. Inspiration has to do with the 
 truthfulness, reliability, accuracy, and authority of the 
 Word of God ; the assurance that we have that the in- 
 struction contained therein comes from God. But these 
 attributes of the divine Word that we have just men- 
 tioned in Biblical terms are deeper and more important 
 than Inspiration. They lie at the root of Inspiration, 
 as among its strongest evidences. They stand out as 
 the most prominent features of the Gospel, independent
 
 412 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of the doctrine of Inspiration. They are features shared 
 by the Bible with the Church and the sacraments which 
 are not inspired and are not infalHble. They are those 
 attributes that make the Bible what it is in the life of the 
 people and the faith of the church without raising the 
 question of Inspiration. They ascribe to the Word of 
 God a divine power {dvva/ui?) such as is contained in a 
 seed of life, the movement of the light, the activity of a 
 sword, a power that works redemption, the supreme 
 means of grace. As Robert Boyle well says : * 
 
 " Certainly then, if we consider God as the Creator of our soulsj 
 and so likeliest to know the frame and springs and nature of his own 
 workmanship, we shall make but little difficulty to believe that in the 
 books written for and addressed to men, he hath employed very pow- 
 erful and appropriated means to work upon them. And in effect, 
 there is a strange movingness, and, if the epithet be not too bold, a 
 kind of heavenly magic to be found in some passages of Scripture, 
 which is to be found nowhere else." 
 
 (2) What, then, is this power of grace contained in the 
 Scriptures? The power of grace contained in the Script- 
 ures is the redemption made known to us, freely offered 
 to us and effectually applied to us in Jesus Christ, the 
 Saviour. It is the Holy Gospel in the Scriptures, the 
 Word of God written, presenting as in a mirror of wonder- 
 ful combinations from so many different points of view, 
 the glorious person, character, life, and achievements of 
 the Word of God incarnate, the eternal Logos. Thus the 
 Scriptures give us not merely the history of Israel, but 
 the history of redemption from its earliest prot-evan- 
 gelium to its fruition in Jesus Christ, the Messiah of 
 history and prophecy. They give us not ordinary biog- 
 raphy, but the experience of redeemed men, telling us of 
 
 * Sorm Constderations touching the Style of the H. Scriptures^ London 
 t66i, p. 241.
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 413 
 
 their faith, repentance, spiritual conflicts, and the victo- 
 ries of grace. They give us the grandest poetry of the 
 world and the most sublime moral precepts, but this 
 poetry is composed of the songs of the redeemed ; and 
 these precepts are the lessons of those who are wise m 
 the fear of God. They give us oratory, but the orations 
 are prophetic, impassioned utterances of warning and 
 comfort in view of the conflicts of the kingdom of grace 
 and its ultimate triumph, and the preaching of the gos- 
 pel of a risen and glorified Saviour. They give us essays 
 and epistles, but these are not to enlighten us in the arts 
 and sciences, the speculations of philosophy, and the 
 maxims of commerce, that we may be students in any 
 of the departments of human learning ; but they set forth 
 Jesus Christ the Saviour in whom are hid all the treas- 
 ores of wisdom and knowledge (Col. ii. 3). Redemption 
 is written all over the Scriptures of the Old and New 
 Testaments. The grace of God that bringeth salvation 
 is the one all-pervading influence. This is the holy sub- 
 stance of the Bible to which all else is the human form 
 in which it is enveloped. Hence the two great divisions 
 of the Bible are called Testaments or Covenants, for 
 they are covenants of grace, the great storehouses in 
 which God has treasured up for all time and for all the 
 world the riches of His grace of redemption. 
 
 This grace of Redemption contained in Jesus Christ 
 and conveyed by the Scriptures, is redemption from 
 sin to holiness, from death in guilt to life in blessed- 
 ness, it is a grace of regeneration and a grace of sanc- 
 
 tification. 
 
 (a) It is a grace of regeneration. Christians are be- 
 gotten again, not of corruptible seed but of incorrupti- 
 ble, by the Word of God which liveth and abideth for- 
 ever (i Peter i. 23). Jesus represents His word as a
 
 414 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 seed of grain which He Himself plants in the human 
 heart. It springs up in the good soil, first the blade, 
 then the ear, then the full grain in the ear, and grows 
 to maturity amidst all kinds of difficulties and dangers 
 (Mark iv.). It is a germ of life that imparts itself to 
 man's heart and finds therein the prepared ground of its 
 growth. The words of Jesus are spirit and life (John vi. 
 63); they bear in them the regenerating force of the 
 divine Spirit to quicken the human spirit. The Gospel 
 is no dead letter, it is a living organism, for Christ 
 Jesus is in it, in it all, and in every part of it, 
 and the energy of the divine Spirit pervades it, 
 so that its words are endowed with the omnipotence of 
 divine love and the irresistibleness of divine grace. 
 Those brief, te^se, mysterious, yet simple texts, spread 
 giH over the Bible, the inexhaustible supply for the min- 
 isters of the Word, those little Bibles, that contain the 
 quintessence of the whole — like the mountain lakes, clear 
 yet reaching to vast depths, like the blue of the sky, 
 charming yet leading to infinite heights — they lay hold 
 of the sinner with the irresistible conviction of his sin , 
 they persuade the penitent of the divine forgiveness ; 
 they constrain faith by the energy of redeeming love ; 
 they assure the repenting of the adoption of the heaven- 
 ly Father. There are no other words like the words of 
 God contained in the sacred Scriptures, in which the 
 grace of God appropriates, moulds, and energizes the 
 forms of human speech with creative, generative power. 
 ip) The grace of redemption contained in the Script- 
 ures is also sanctifying grace. Our Saviour prays the 
 Father for His disciples : " Sanctify them through thy 
 truth ; thy word is truth " (John xvii. 17). He tells His 
 disciples, " Already ye are clean because of the word 
 'hich I have spoken unto you " (John xv. 3). The word
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 4^5 
 
 of the Gospel is thus a cleansing, sanctifying word : for 
 it is not bare truth appealing to the intellect with logi- 
 cal power, it is not truth clothed with beauty and charm- 
 ing the aesthetic nature of man ; but it is truth which is 
 essentially ethical, having moral power, and above all en- 
 ergized by the religious forces, which lay hold of the re- 
 ligious instincts of man, and it leads him to God. This 
 could not be accomplished by the law of command- 
 ments contained in ordinances, but only by the Gospel 
 of the grace of God, the soul-transforming words of our 
 holy religion. For the Gospel sets forth Jehovah, the 
 Holy Redeemer, the Father and the Preserver. The 
 Gospel sets forth Jesus Christ as the crucified, risen, and 
 glorified Saviour ; presents us His blood and righteous- 
 ness, throws over our nakedness the robe of His justifi- 
 c ation, and commands us by the vision of His graces 
 3,nd perfections. The Word of God is a purifying and 
 sanctifying word, because it contains the words of holy 
 men, of a sinless and entirely sanctified Saviour, of a per- 
 fect God, the Holy One of Israel. 
 
 Human speech is the most wonderful endowment of 
 man. It is the tower of strength in little children, who 
 as babes and sucklings are enabled to praise their God 
 (Ps. viii. 2). It is the means of communication between 
 intelligent beings. It is the means of communication 
 between God and man. Human speech finds its noblest 
 employment by man in prayer, praise, adoration, and 
 preaching of the Gospel of the grace of God. Human 
 speech finds its highest employment by God in being 
 made the instrument of His divine power. It enwraps 
 and conveys to sinful man the divine grace of regenera- 
 tion and sanctification, it presents the divine Trinity to 
 man in all their redemptive offices, and it is the channel
 
 416 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 of communication, of attachment, of communion, of or 
 ganic union, and everlasting blessedness. 
 
 " For the grace of God hath appeared, bringing salvation to all men, 
 instructing us, to the intent that, denying ungodliness and worldly 
 lusts, we should live soberly and righteously and godly in this present 
 world ; looking for the blessed hope and appearing of the glory of 
 the great God and our Savior Jesus Christ : who gave himself for us, 
 that he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purity unto himself a 
 people for his own possession, zealous of good works." (Titus ii. 1 1- 
 14). 
 
 III. THE EFFICACY OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 The Scriptures are means of grace because they have 
 in them the grace of God in Jesus Christ, the grace of 
 regeneration and sanctification. In what, then, lies the 
 efficacy of this grace ? How are we regenerated and 
 sanctified by the word of redemption in Christ ? 
 
 " The Spirit of God maketh the reading, but especially the preach- 
 ing of the Word, an effectual means of enlightening, convincing and 
 humbling sinners, of driving them out of themselves, and drawing 
 them unto Christ ; of conforming them to his image, and subduing 
 them to his will ; of strengthening them against temptations and 
 corruptions ; of building them up in grace, and establishing their 
 hearts in holiness and comfort through faith unto salvation."* 
 
 These are faithful and noble words. They ought to 
 become more real to the experience of the men of this 
 generation, where the peril, on the one hand, is in laying 
 too much stress on doctrines of faith, and, on the other, 
 in overrating maxims of morals. Religion, the experi- 
 ence of the divine grace and growth therein, is the chief 
 thing in the use of the Bible and in Christian life. The 
 Holy Scriptures are means of grace, but means that have 
 to be applied by a divine force to make them efficacious. 
 There must be an immediate contact and energetic work. 
 
 * West. Larger Cat., Q. 155.
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 4^7 
 
 ing upon the readers and hearers and students of the 
 Word by a divine power. The Word of God does not 
 work ex opere operate, that is, by its mere use. It is 
 not the mere reading, the mere study of the Bible, that 
 is efficacious. It is not the Bible in the house or in the 
 hands. It is not the Bible read by the eyes and heard 
 by the ears. It is not the Bible committed to memory 
 and recited word for word. It is not the Bible ex- 
 pounded by the teacher and apprehended by the mind 
 of the scholar. All these are but external forms of the 
 Word which enwrap the spiritual substance, the grace 
 of redemption. The casket contains the precious jewels. 
 It must be opened that their lustre and beauty may 
 charm us. The shell contains the nut. It must bo 
 cracked or we cannot eat it. The pitcher contains the 
 water ; but it must be poured out and drunk to satisfy 
 thirst. The Word of God is effectual only when it has 
 become dynamic, and wrought vital and organic changes, 
 entering into the depths of the heart, assimilating itself 
 to the spiritual necessities of our nature, transformin[; 
 life and character. This is the purpose of the grace 
 which the Bible contains. This is the power of grace 
 that the Bible exhibits, in holding forth to us Jesus 
 Christ the Saviour. This can be accomplished in us 
 only by the activity of the Holy Spirit working in and 
 through the Scriptures in their use. 
 
 IV. THE APPROPRIATION OF THE GRACE OF THE SCRIPT- 
 URES. 
 
 How then are we to obtain the grace of God con- 
 tained in the Scriptures and effectually applied unto us 
 by the Holy Spirit as regenerating and sanctifying 
 grace ? The universal Protestant answer to this ques- 
 tion would be, the grace of the Scriptures is received by 
 18*
 
 418 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 faith. Faith is the hand of the soul which grasps and 
 takes to itself the grace of God. But the nature of this 
 appropriation by faith needs unfolding. The Westmin- 
 ster Shorter Catechism* gives the best answer to the 
 question : 
 
 " That the Word may become effectual to salvation, we must at- 
 tend thereunto with diligence, preparation and prayer; receive it 
 with faith and love, lay it up in our hearts, and practice it in our 
 lives." 
 
 (i) The first thing we have to do in our study of the 
 Word of God is to give it our attention. Indeed atten- 
 tion is the first requisite of all study and of all work. 
 Diligence and preparation are necessary for all under- 
 takings. No one can fulfil his calling in life without 
 these qualifications. But there is an attention to be 
 given to the Word of God which is peculiar, and vastly 
 higher than the attention given to ordinary avocations 
 of life. It is an attention that is distinguished by 
 prayer, for the study of the Bible is a study of redemp- 
 tion, a search for the power of God in Jesus Christ, a 
 quest for the grace of salvation. Such study must be 
 pointed with prayer, for prayer is the soul's quest after 
 God. Prayer di rects the student of the Bible to God in 
 the Bible. It withdraws the attention from all other 
 things that might absorb and attract it, and concentrates 
 it on God. Prayer is the arrow-head that bears the ar- 
 row of attention to its mark — God. If the grace of God 
 in the sacred Scriptures, the prevenient grace, — always 
 preceding and anticipating the quest of man, ready to 
 be found, waiting to impart itself to us, — be directed by 
 the Holy Spirit ; then the attention of the Bible student, 
 directed by prayer, comes in immediate contact with this 
 
 *Ques. 9a
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 419 
 
 Spirit of grace and receives the power of salvation in 
 personal union with Him. Hence it is that prayer is 
 associated with the Word of God and the Sacraments as 
 a means of grace. It is not a means of grace in the 
 same way as the Word of God, but it is a means of 
 grace of no less importance ; for if the Word of God is 
 the instrument, the means by which the grace of God is 
 given to us by the Holy Spirit, prayer is the instrument 
 or means of grace whereby we are able to receive and 
 use the grace of God. It is of prime importance, there- 
 fore, that the student of the Bible should be bathed 
 hi prayer, and that the spirit of prayer should be the 
 animating influence in all our investigations of the 
 Scriptures. Prayerful attention seeks and finds God, 
 appropriates His grace and the redemptive influence of 
 His Word. 
 
 Robert Boyle * well says : 
 
 "And surely this consideration of the Bible's being- one of the 
 conduit pipes, through which God hath appointed to conveigh his 
 Truth, as well as graces to his children, should methinks both largely 
 animate us to the searching of the Scriptures, and equally refresh us 
 in it- For as no Instrument is weak in an omnipotent hand : so 
 ought no means to be looked upon as more promising than that 
 which is like to be prospered by Grace, as 'tis devised by Omniscience. 
 We may confidently expect God's blessing upon his own institutions, 
 since we know, that whatsoever we ask according to the will of God, 
 he will give it us, and we can scarce ask anything more agreeable to 
 the will of God, than the competent understanding of that book 
 wherein his will is contained." 
 
 In order to emphasize this all-important point and 
 give it its proper position in Biblical study, it will be 
 necessary for us to make some discriminations. 
 
 * Some Considerations touching the Style of the H. Scriptures. London^ 
 1661, p. 50.
 
 4,20 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 {a) The first work in the scientific and systematic 
 study of the Scriptures is called textual criticism, or the 
 Lower Criticism. It is first of all necessary to know the 
 text in which the Scriptures are contained. Hence the 
 candidates for the ministry devote a large portion of 
 their time to a study of the sacred languages, the various 
 versions and MSS. of the Word of God. All transla- 
 tions must be derived from a faithful study of the orig- 
 inals. It is indispensable that a living church should 
 have a ministry who are brought into immediate contact 
 with the divine originals. The Bible in unknown tongues 
 is a Paradise fenced and barred (see Chaps. III. and VI.). 
 The acquisition of the original text removes the barrier; 
 the translation into the tongue of the people opens the 
 gates, that all who will may enter in. Hence our Prot- 
 estant churches have made it an article of faith that the 
 Bible must be given to the people in their own tongue, 
 and continually interpreted to the people by ministers, 
 who know themselves the originals, and are able to re- 
 move misapprehensions that will always arise, to some 
 extent, in connection with all translations and reproduc- 
 tions. But this first step of the mastery of the divine 
 original text may be accomplished and yet the grace of 
 God that is in the Scriptures remain entirely unknown. 
 It is as if a man should enter the king's garden and de- 
 vote his entire attention to the study of the gates and 
 walls. 
 
 {b) The second step in Biblical study is literary criti- 
 cism or Higher Criticism (see Chaps. VII., VIII., and 
 IX.). The sacred Scriptures are composed of a great 
 variety of writings of different authors in different pe- 
 riods of history, writing in many different styles, such as 
 poetry and prose, history and story, epistle and prophecy. 
 Some of this literature is exceedingly choice from a
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 42I 
 
 purely literary point of view. An anthology of the 
 choicest pieces of Biblical literature would certainly be a 
 very profitable study for many of God's people. Their 
 eyes would be opened to the wondrous forms of beauty 
 in which God has chosen to reveal His grace of redemp- 
 tion. But to study the Bible as sacred literature is not 
 to study it as a means of grace. Exclusive devotion to 
 that theme is as if one should enter the king's garden, 
 and instead of going at once to his gracious presence, 
 in accordance with his invitation, we should devote our- 
 selves to the beautiful trees and flowers and ornamental 
 shrubs and landscape. 
 
 (c) The third work of Biblical study is Biblical exegesis 
 (see Chap. X.). In this department the student in every 
 way endeavors to get at the true meaning of the Script- 
 ures. The particular passage and the entire writing 
 under consideration must be studied with the most 
 minute accuracy, and, at the same time, the most com 
 prehensive summation of evidence. But even this may 
 be carried on in a most thorough and successful manner 
 in all its stages, except the last and highest (see p. 363), 
 without finding God in Jesus Christ. Some of the 
 best exegetes have not been true Christians. The peril 
 in exegesis is, the becoming absorbed in details, and in 
 giving ourselves to the quest after truth and scholarly 
 accuracy. It is as if one entered the king's garden and 
 devoted himself at once to a scientific examination and 
 classification of its contents, the survey and mapping 
 out of its sections. 
 
 {d) The fourth work of Biblical study is the study of the 
 theology of the Bible (see Chap. XI.) — its religion, its doc- 
 trines, and its morals. This is the highest attainment of 
 Biblical scholarship, but it is not the study of the Bible 
 as a means of grace. It is as if we entered the king's
 
 i22 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 palace and devoted our attention to the principles and 
 maxims of his administration, the rules of his household, 
 while the king himself was graciously waiting to receive 
 us into his own presence and give us the kiss of fatherly 
 salutation. 
 
 All of these various subjects of Biblical study are 
 vastly important. The Church has not yet awakened to 
 the vast possibilities and the wonderful fruitage to be 
 derived from Biblical study. No one could exalt these 
 departments, each and all of them, more highly than we 
 are disposed to do, but notwithstanding, it must be said 
 that if all these studies could be accomplished in a most 
 scholarly manner, the chief thing, the one supreme thing, 
 might still remain unaccomplished — namely, the study 
 of the Bible as a means of grace. This is the highest 
 achievement of Biblical study. For prayer will seek first 
 the presence and the person of God. It will not be de- 
 tained by anything in the Bible. It will press on through 
 the text, the literature, the exegesis, and the theology, 
 giving them but slight attention, a mere passing glance, 
 firmly advancing into the presence-chamber of God. It 
 will run in the footsteps of the divine Spirit until the man 
 is ushered into the presence of the Heavenly Father and 
 bows in adoration and love to the dear Saviour and has 
 the adoption and recognition of sonship. Then first will 
 he be assured that the Bible is indeed the Word of God, 
 the inspired canon, when he has found God in the Bible 
 (see Chap. V.) ; then first will he understand the Script- 
 ures at their centre, in their very heart, when he has recog- 
 nized his Saviour in them (see Chap. X., p. 364) ; then in 
 the light of the Redeemer's countenance, the student may 
 go forth to the enjoyment of all the beauties and glories 
 and wondrous manifestations of truth and love in the 
 Scriptures and find them radiant with the love of Christ,
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 423 
 
 and pervaded throughout with the effectual grace of 
 God. As an ancient Puritan divine has said : 
 
 " Thus in the Scriptures ye find life, because the Word is so effect- 
 ual to doe you good, to convert your soul, to pull down Satan's 
 throne, and to build up the soul in grace. It is a hammer to break 
 the hard heart, a fire to purge the drossie heart, a Ught to shine into 
 the darke heart, ao oyle to revive the broken heart, artnour of proof 
 to stablish the weake and tempted heart. If these precious things be 
 matters of Christian religion ; then surely the written word is the 
 foundation of it. Eternal life is in the Scriptures, because they testify 
 of Christ, they set forth Christ who is the way the truth and the life ; 
 in them ye find life, because in them ye find Christ. So far as by 
 Scripture we get acquaintance with Christ ; so far we are acquainted 
 with salvation and no farther. For if you knew all Histories and all 
 the prophecies, if ye had the whole Bible by heart, if by it you could 
 judge of all disputes, yet until you find Christ there, you cannot find 
 life ; the Scriptures are to us salvificall because they bring us unto 
 Christ." * 
 
 (2) Faith in the form of prayerful attention and inves- 
 tigation is followed by appropriating faith. The atten- 
 tion becomes more and more absorbed in its object. 
 Prayer having attained its quest is satisfied and grateful. 
 The grace of God, so evidently set forth in the Script- 
 ures in Jesus Christ the Saviour, is appropriated in this 
 personal contact. The affections are generated and im- 
 part to faith new vigor. The Holy Spirit grasps the 
 hand of prayer and pours into it the treasures of grace, 
 and they are clasped as infinitely precious to believing 
 and loving hearts. As a distinguished modern divine 
 says : 
 
 " Holy Scripture gives faith its object. It puts Christianity in its 
 purity and attractiveness before our eyes as an object which is itself 
 a challenge and inducement to enter into union with it by faith." 
 . . . . " The Holy Spirit perpetually glorifies Christ as He is set 
 
 Lyford, Plain Man^s Senses exercised^ 1655, pp. 59, 60.
 
 424 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 forth in Scripture, makes Him emerge, so to speak, from the letter 
 and stand out in living form before us. He thus brings us through 
 the medium of Holy Scripture into communion with the living 
 Christ." * 
 
 Thus faith and love are the two eyes of the soul that 
 see the living Christ present in His Word. They are 
 the spiritual appetites by which we partake of the bread 
 of heaven and living water. Such a receiving is an ever- 
 increasing enjoyment of the infinite riches of divine 
 grace, the inexhaustible treasures of redemptive love. 
 The supply of grace in the Scriptures is inexhaustible. 
 The possibilities of the growth of the affections of faith 
 and love are only limited by the possibilities of grace 
 itself. This system of grace is compared by the prophet 
 Zechariah to a vast self-feeding lamp-stand with its seven 
 branches and lighted lamps, supplied by the ever-living, 
 growing, and oil-producing olive-trees that stand by its 
 sides and overshadow it (Zech. iv.). The oil of grace is 
 ever fresh and new — the light is ever bright and brilliant 
 Faith's eye sees and understands it more and more. 
 
 But just here it is necessary to guard against a too 
 common error. It is true that the grace of God per- 
 vades the Scriptures and Christ is the master of the 
 Scriptures, but it is not equally easy for faith to see and 
 appreciate the grace of God in every passage. The 
 Bible contains supplies of grace for all the world, and 
 for all time, for the weak and baby Christians, for the 
 strong and manly Christians, for the immature Christian 
 centuries, and for the church in its highest development 
 as the Bride of the Lamb. Training in the school of 
 grace is indispensable for the appropriation of the grace 
 of the Scriptures. There are but few who are able to 
 appropriate more than the grace that lies on the surface 
 
 * DomRr System of Christian Doctrine, IV., pp. 260, 261.
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 425 
 
 of the plainest pzissages of Scripture. The Church is 
 constantly learning new lessons of grace from the Script- 
 ures. We have a right to expect still greater light to 
 break forth from the Scriptures when the Church has 
 been prepared to receive it. The Church did not attain 
 its maturity at the Nicene Council. Augustine was not 
 the highest achievement of Christian faith and experi- 
 ence. The Protestant Reformation did not introduce 
 the golden age. A church that is not growing in grace 
 is a lukewarm, if not a dead church. A theology that is 
 not progressive is bedridden, if not a dead theology. 
 The Church needs a greater Reformation than it has 
 ever yet enjoyed — a more extensive pouring out of the 
 Holy Spirit, a deeper quickening, a more intense devo- 
 tion in love and service to our Saviour and the interests 
 of His kingdom. We are convinced that the seeds of 
 such a Reformation are embedded in the Bible, only 
 waiting a new spring-time of the world to shoot forth. 
 The grace of God will reveal itself to another Luther 
 and another Calvin at no very distant day, in vastly 
 greater richness and fulness, for the sanctification of the 
 Church and the preparation of the Bride for her Bride- 
 groom. In the meantime it behooves us all to turn 
 away from the abnormal, immature, and defective expe- 
 riences and systems of very poor Christians so often held 
 up to us as models for our attainment, and to set our 
 faces as a flint against every wresting of Scripture in the 
 interest of any dogma, new or old, and concentrate our 
 faith and love upon the image of the grace of God in 
 Jesus Christ, the crucified, risen and glorified Redeemer. 
 He is the one object that concentrates the grace of God 
 — the fountain source of supply for all believers. Into 
 His image as the divine likeness we are to be trans- 
 formed, and we ought to think of no other.
 
 426 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 The Scriptures are indeed means, not ends. They are 
 to bring us to God, to assimilate us to Christ, to unite 
 us in organic union with Him. If this has not been ac- 
 compHshed, there has been very great failure, however 
 much we may have accomplished in Biblical scholarship, 
 or Dogmatic Theology, in the History and Polity of the 
 Church, in devotional reading and preaching, in the ap- 
 plication of particular passages to our souls. But those 
 who have become personally attached to Jesus Christ 
 have found the Master of the Scriptures. He is the key 
 to its treasures, the clue to its labyrinths. Under His 
 instruction and guidance believers search the Scriptures 
 with ever-increasing pleasure and profit. They ever find 
 treasures new and old. They understand the secret of 
 grace. They know how to extract it from the varied forms 
 in which it is enveloped. They explore the deepest 
 mines and bring forth lustrous gems of truth. They 
 climb the highest peaks and rapturously gaze on the 
 vast territories of their Lord. With the Psalmist they 
 exclaim (Ps. cxix. 97, 103, 127, 160) • 
 
 " O how I love thy instruction ! 
 It is my meditation all the day. 
 
 " How sweet are thy words unto my taste ! 
 Sweeter than honey to my mouth. 
 
 " I love thy commandments above gold. 
 Yea above fine gold. 
 
 " The sum of thy words is truth, 
 And everlasting all thy righteous judgments." 
 
 (3) But the grace of God in the Scriptures can be fully 
 appropriated only by practicing faith. Our Saviouf 
 taught His disciples : " If any man willeth to do his will 
 he shall know of the teaching, whether it be of God or
 
 THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 427 
 
 whether I speak from myself" (John vii. 17). Experi- 
 ment is ever the victor of doubt. Faith is tested by 
 practice. Abraham's faith was proved by his willingness 
 to sacrifice his well-beloved son. Mere faith is seeming 
 faith, a shadow, a dead vanity. A real, genuine, living 
 faith apprehends and uses divine grace. The grace ot 
 God is effectual. It is dynamic in its application of re- 
 demption. It is no less dynamic after it has been ap- 
 propriated by man. The light of the world lights u.p 
 Christian lamps. The water of life becomes in the be- 
 liever a fountain, from which shall flow rivers of living 
 water (John vii. 38). The grace of God is made effect- 
 ual by " laying it up in our hearts and practicing it in 
 our lives." The grace of God becomes a grace of expe- 
 rience. Unless the divine grace continue to flow forth 
 from a man in his life and conduct, the source of 
 supply is stopped. As a reservoir which has no outlet 
 will have no incoming waters. A lamp that does not 
 burn will not be able to receive fresh supplies of oil. 
 
 From this two things follow : 
 
 (a) If a Christian man would use the Scriptures as a 
 means of grace he must continually put them in prac- 
 tice in his heart and life. If the church would appre- 
 hend more and more the riches of the grace of Jesus 
 Christ contained in the Scriptures it must become a 
 more practical, earnest, Christ-like church. The source 
 of supply from the Scripture reservoir is feeble because 
 the outflowing of grace from Christian men and women 
 is feeble. 
 
 {d) Christians become secondary sources of supply. 
 The Word of God, the Gospel of Jesus Christ, when ap- 
 propriated by the Christian, assimilated to his needs, 
 transformed into his life, does not cease to be the Gos- 
 pel of the grace of God. The external form has been
 
 4:28 BIBLICAL STUDT. 
 
 changed, but the internal substance of grace is the same. 
 The Word of God does not cease to be the Word of 
 God when wrapped in other than Scripture language. 
 Hence it is that the Christian becomes a living epistle of 
 God (2 Cor. iii. 3), and the Church, as a body of such epis- 
 tles, a means of grace, conveying the divine grace in an- 
 other form to the world. It is ever the grace of God that 
 is the effectual divine force and not the form in which 
 for the time it may be enveloped. Happy the church 
 when its ministers have become more really such living 
 epistles, written with the Spirit of the living God ! Blessed 
 will that time be, when the entire membership of the 
 church shall become such epistles, when Christ, who so 
 loved the Church and gave Himself for it, shall have 
 sanctified it, having cleansed it by the washing of watef 
 with the Word (Eph. v. 25) ! Then will the ancient 
 prophecy be realized (Heb. viii. lo-i i) : 
 
 " I will put my laws in their mind, 
 And on their heart also will I write them : 
 And I will become their God, 
 And they shall become my people : 
 And they shall not teach every one his fellow-citizen, 
 And every one his brother, saying, Know the Lord ; 
 For all shall know me, 
 From the least to the greatest of them."
 
 A CATALOGUE 
 
 OF 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 »*^ This catalogue has been prepared for those who desire to 
 pursue Biblical study in three grades : ( i ). The books marked 
 with a star and placed first in each division^ are recommended 
 to the general public. (2). The books marked with a cross, 
 following those marked with a star, are recommended for 
 theological students and ministers. (3). The remainder of 
 the books mentioned have been selected for a reference library 
 in a theological seminary, as an introduction to a more schol- 
 arly study of the Scriptures. The arrangement is first topi- 
 cal, and second in accordance with relative importance to the 
 several classes of students. Honorary and official titles of 
 authors or editors have been omitted. 
 
 I. — Biblical Study in General. 
 
 *ScHAFF, Philip. A Dictionary of the Bible, including Biog- 
 raphy, Natural History, Geography, Topography, Archae- 
 ology, and Literature. Philadelphia : American Sunday- 
 school Union. 3d edition. 1883. 
 
 "Hitchcock, Roswell D. A New and Complete Analysis oj 
 the Holy Bible. The Old and New Testaments arranged 
 by Subjects on the basis of M. Talbot, with Indexes and 
 Tables by N. West. With Cruden's Concordance, revised 
 by J. Eadie. New York : A. J. Johnson & Co. 1870. 
 
 fSMiTH, William. Dictionary of the Bible, comprising its 
 Antiquities, Biography, Geography, and Natural History. 
 3 vols. London : John Murray, 1860-63. Rt-'vised and 
 edited by H. B. Hackett, with the co-operation of Ezra Ab- 
 bot. 4 vols. New York: Hurd & Houghton. 1868-70. 
 
 f ZOECKLER, Otto. Zr(2«^<5«^/: ^. Theologischen Wissenschaften 
 in Encyklopddischer Darstellung mit besonderer Riicksicht 
 auf der einzelnen Disciplinen in verbindung mit Cromer^
 
 430 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Grau, Harnack, KUbel,Luthardt,von Scheele, F.W. Schultz, 
 L. Schultz, Strack, Volck, von Zezschwitz, Plath und 
 Schafer. Nordlingen: C. H. Beck. 1882-3. [5 half vols, 
 have appeared. A translation is \n press. T. & T. Clark, 
 Edinburgh]. 
 
 tLADD, George T. The Doctrine of Holy Scripture. A crit- 
 ical, historical, and dogmatic inquiry into the origin and 
 nature of the Old and New Testaments. 2 vols. New 
 York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1883. 
 
 WoGUE, L. Histoire de la Bible et de rSxighe Biblique 
 Jusqu' a nos Jours. Paris ^ I'lmprimerie Nationale. t88i. 
 
 Hagenbach, K. C. Encyklopddie und Methodologie der 
 Theologischen Wissenschaften. lote Aufl. von E. Kautzsch. 
 1880. Leipzig : C. Hirzel. 1874. 
 
 DiESTEL, LuDWiG. Geschichte des Alien Testamentes in der 
 Christlichen Kirche. Jena : H. Dufft. 1869. 
 
 Roberts, Francis. Clavis Bibliorum. The Key to the Bible, 
 unlocking the richest Treasures of the Holy Scriptures. 
 4th edition, folio. London : P. Parker. 1675. 
 
 KiTTO, John. A Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literature, originally 
 edited by John Kitto. 3d edition, greatly enlarged and 
 improved. Edited by W. L. Alexander. 3 vols. Lon- 
 don : A. & C. Black. Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & 
 Co. 1865. 
 
 RiE^M, Edward. Handwdrterbuch des Biblisches Alteriums 
 fur ge'bildete Bibelleser. Bielefeld und Leipzig : Belhagen 
 & Klasing. 1875-83 (still unfinished). 
 
 II. — The Languages of the Bible and 
 Cognates. 
 
 (i) The Hebrew Language. 
 
 fDAViDSON, A. B. An Introductory Hebrew Grammar, with 
 Progressive Exercises in Reading and Writing. 5 th 
 edition. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1883. 
 
 fGESENius, WiLHELM. Hebrew Grammar. Translated by 
 Benj. Davis from Rodiger's edition. Thoroughly revised
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDr. 43;! 
 
 and enlarged on the basis of the latest edition of E. 
 Kautzsch, and from other recent authorities, by Edward 
 C. Mitchell. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1880. 
 
 f Driver, S. R. A Treatise of the Tenses in Hebrew ^ and 
 some other Syntactical Questions. Oxford : At the Clar- 
 endon Press. 2d edition. 1881. 
 
 f Robinson, Edward. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the 
 Old Testament^ including the Biblical Chaldee. From the 
 Latin of William Gesenius, with corrections and large ad- 
 ditions, partly furnished by the author in manuscript, 
 and partly condensed from his larger Thesaurus 3d edi- 
 tion. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1849. 
 
 fPoTTER, Joseph Lewis. An English-Hebrew Lexicon^ be- 
 ing a complete Verbal Index to Gesenius' Hebrew Lexi- 
 con, as translated by Edward Robinson. Boston : Crocker 
 & Brewster. 1872. 
 
 f Harper, W. R. Hebrew Vocabularies. Chicago : Max 
 Stern, Goldsmith & Co. 1882. 
 
 f Green, William Henry. A Grammar of the Hebrew 
 Language. 4th edition (in press). New York : John 
 Wiley & Sons. 1883. 
 
 Ewald, Heinrich. Syntax of the Hebrew Language. Trans- 
 lated from the 8th German edition by James Kennedy. 
 Edinburgh. T. & T. Clark. 1879. 
 
 Nordheimer, Isaac. A Critical Grammar of the Heb'^'eit 
 Language. 2 vols. 2d edition. New York : Wiley & 
 Putnam. 1842. 
 
 Ewald, Heinrich. Ausfuhrliches Lehrbuch der Hebrdischen 
 Sprache des Alten Bundes. 8te Ausgabe. Gottingen, 
 J. C. Dieterich. 1870. 
 
 Bottcher, Friedrich. Ausfuhrliches Lehrbuch der Hebra- 
 ischen Sprache-, nach dem. Tode des Verfassers herausge- 
 geben von Ferd. Miihlau. 2 Bde. Leipzig : J. A. Barth. 
 1866. 
 
 Olshausen, Justus. Lehrbuch der Hebrdischen Sprache 
 Braunschweig : F. Vieweg und Sohn. 1861.
 
 432 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Gesenius, Wilhelm. Ausfiihrliches grammatisch-kritischei 
 Lehrgebaiide der Hebraischen Sprache mit vergleichung 
 der verwandten Dialekte. Leipzig : C. W. Vogel. 1817. 
 
 Strack, Hermann. Hebrdische Grarnmatik mit Uebungs- 
 stiicken, Litteratur und Vokabular. Karlsruhe und Leip- 
 zig : H. Reuther. 1883. 
 
 BiCKEL, GusTAVUS. Outlines of Hebrejv Grammar. Re- 
 vised by the author and annotated by the translator, S. L 
 Curtiss, Jr. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. 1877, 
 
 I iESENius, Wilhelm. Thesaurus philologicus criticus linguae 
 Hebraeae et Chaldaeae Veteris Testamenti. Editio altera. 
 3 Tom, 1835-53. Lipsiae : F. C. G. Vogel. (The work 
 was completed by Aemilius Roediger.) 
 
 (jESEnius, Wilhelm. Hebrdisches und Chalddisches Hand- 
 wdrterbuch. gte Aufl. von F. Miihlau und W. Volck. 
 Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1882-83. 
 
 FuERST, Julius. Hebrdisches und Chaldaisches Handworter- 
 buch iiber das Alte Testament. Leipzig : B. Tauchnitz. 
 A Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testametit. 4 th 
 edition. Translated from the German by Samuel David- 
 son. London: Williams & Norgate. 1871. 
 
 Meier, Ernst. Hebrdisches Wurzelwdrterbuch. Manheim : 
 
 F. Bassermann. 1845. 
 
 (iiRDLESTONE, R, B. Synonyms of the Old Testament : their 
 bearing on Christian Faith and Practice. London : Long- 
 mans, Green & Co. 187 1. 
 
 (2) Aramaic. 
 
 fRiGGS, Elias. a Manual of the Chaldee Language, con- 
 taining a Chaldee grammar, chiefly from the German of 
 
 G. B. Winer ; a Chrestomathy consisting of selections 
 from the Targums, and including notes on the Biblical 
 Chaldee, etc. 4th edition. New York : A. D. F. Ran- 
 dolph & Co. 1858, 
 
 fCowpER, B, Harris. The Principles of Syriac Grammar. 
 Translated and abridged from the work of Hoffmann. 
 London : Williams & Norgate. 1858, 
 
 tCASTELL, Edmund. Lexicon Syriacum ex eius Heptaglotto 
 seorsim typis describi curavit atque sua adnotata adjecit 
 J, D. Michaelis. Gottingae : J, C Dieterich. 1788.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 433 
 
 fROEDlGER, Aemilius. CJirestomathia Syriaca quam glossa- 
 rio et tabulis grammaticis. Editio altera. Halis : Sump- 
 tibus Orphanotrophei. 1868. 
 
 LuzZATTO, S. D. Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaic Lan- 
 guage and the Talmud Babli Idioms. Translated from 
 the Italian, and largely renewed by J. S. Goldammer. 
 New York : John Wiley & Sons. 1876. 
 
 Strack, H. L., & Carl Siegfried. Lehrbuch der Neuhe- 
 brdischen Spracheund Litteratur- Karlsruhe: H. Reuther. 
 1884, 
 
 Levy, Jacob. Chalddisches Wortcrbuch ilber die Targumim 
 und einen grossen Theil des rabbinischen Schriftthums. 
 2 Bde. 2te Ausgabe. Leipzig : Baumgartner. 1876, 
 
 Levy, Jacob. Neuhebrdisches und Chalddisches Wortcrbuch 
 ilber die Talmudim und Midraschim nebst beitragen von 
 H. L. Fleischer. 4 Bde. Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 
 1876-83. (The fourth vol. has not yet appeared.) 
 
 Phillips, George. A Syriac Grammar. 3d edition. Cam- 
 bridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1866. 
 
 Noeldeke, Th. Kurzgefasste Syrische Grammatik. Leipzig: 
 T. O. Weigel. 1880. 
 
 Merx, Adalbert. Grammatica Syriaca quam post Hoff- 
 manni. Halis : Lib. Orphanotrophei. 1867. 
 
 Smith, R. Payne. Thesaurus Syriacus collegerunt S. M. 
 Quatremere, G. H. Bernstein, .G. W. Lorsbach, A. J. Ar- 
 nold, C. M. Agrell, F. Field, A. Roediger, auxit, digossit, 
 exposuit, edidit. Oxonii, e typographeo Clarendomano. 
 1868-83. (6 Fasciculi as far as page 2256 have been pub- 
 lished completing the letter Mem.) 
 
 Noeldeke, Theo. Manddische Grammatik. Halle : Wais- 
 enhaus. 1875. 
 
 (3) Arabic and iEthiopic. 
 
 tWRiGHT, William. A Grammar of the Arabic Language. 
 Translated from the German of Caspari and edited with 
 numerous additions and corrections. 2d edition. 2 vols. 
 London : F. Norgate. 1874-5, 
 
 fPETERMANN, J. H. Brcvis Linguae Arabicae grammatica, 
 litteratura, chrestomathia cum glossario. Editio secunda. 
 Berolini : G. Eichler. 1867. 
 19
 
 434 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 fFREYTAG, G. W. Lexicoji Arabico- Latinmn. 4 Tom. Halis 
 C. A. Schwetschke et Filium. 1830-37, 
 
 f DiLLMANN, August. Grammatik der Aethiopischen Sprache 
 Leipzig: T. O. Weigel. 1857, 
 
 f DiLLMANN, August. Chrestomathia Aethiopica. Lipsiae ■ 
 T.O. Weigel. 1866. 
 
 fDiLLMANN, August. Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae. Lip- 
 siae : T. O. Weigel. 1865. 
 
 Arnold, F. A. Chrestomathia Arabica. Halis : C E M. 
 Pfefifer. 1853. 
 
 Catafago, Joseph. An English and Arabic Dictionary. 
 2d edition. London : Bernard Quaritch. 1873. 
 
 Wahrmund, Adolph. Handworterbuch der Arabischen und 
 Deutschcn Sprache (Modern Arabic). 2 Bande. Giessen : 
 J. Ricker. 1870-77. 
 
 Penrice, John. A Dictionary and Glossary of the Koran. 
 London: H. S. King & Co. 1873. 
 
 Lane, Edward William. An Arabic Lexicon^ derived from 
 the best and most copious Eastern sources, comprising a 
 very large collection of words and significations omitted 
 in the Kamoos, with supplements to its abridged and de- 
 fective explanations, ample grammatical and critical com- 
 ments, and examples in prose and verse. Vols. I.— V. 
 Williams & Norgate. 1863-74. Continued under the 
 editorship of Stanley Lane Poole. Vol. V., 1877, Vol. VI. 
 1—2, 1 881-2. (Completed as far as 2640 pages of the 
 whole work.) 
 
 Dozy, R. Snpplejftent aux Dictionaires Arabes. 2 Tomes. 
 Leyde : E. J. Brill. 1881. 
 
 Pretorius, Franz. Amharische Sprache. Halle : Waisen- 
 haus. 1879. 
 
 (4) Phoenician and Samaritan. 
 
 fScHROEDER, P. Die Phdnizische Sprache. Entwurf einer 
 Grammatik nebst Sprach und Schriftproben. Halle : Wai- 
 senhaus. 1869. 
 
 fLEVY, M. A. Phonizisches Wdrterbuch. Breslau : H 
 Skutsch. 1864.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 435 
 
 fPETERMANN, J. H. Brevis Linguae Samaritanae. Bero- 
 lini : G. Eichler. 1873. 
 
 (5) Assyrian and Babylonian. 
 
 f Delitzsch, Fried. Assyrische Lesestucke. 2te Aufl. Leip- 
 zig : J. C. Heinrichs. 1878. 
 
 f Sayce, a. H. An Assyrian Grammar for comparative pur- 
 poses. London : Trubner & Co. 1872. 
 
 fScHRADER, Eberhard. AssyriscJics Syllabar fur den Ge- 
 branch in seinen Vorlesungen zusammengestellt. Berlin : 
 Koniglichen Acad. d. VVissenschaften. 1880. 
 
 SCHRADER, Eberhard. Die Assyrisches-babylonische Keilin- 
 schriften. Kritische Untersuchungen der Grundlagen ihro: 
 Entzifferung. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. 1872. 
 
 NoRRis, Edm. Assyrian Dictionary. 3 vols. London : 
 Williams & Norgate. 1868-72. 
 
 Sayce, A. H. Lectures upon the Assyrian Language and Syl- 
 labary. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1877. 
 
 Sayce, A. H. Babyloiiian Literature. Lectures delivered at 
 the Royal Institution. London : Samuel Bagster & Sons. 
 1879. 
 
 Oppert, Jules. Elements de la Grafnmaire Assyriene. 2me 
 Edition. Paris : A. Franck. 1868. 
 
 (6) Greek. 
 
 fWiNER, G. B. Grafnmatik des Netitest. Sprachidioms. 7 Aufl. 
 von G. Lunemann. Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1867. 
 A Treatise of the Grammar of New Testa?nent Greek, re- 
 garded as a sure basis for New Testament Exegesis. 
 Translated from the German, with large additions and 
 full indices. 2d edition by W. F. Moulton. 8th English 
 edition. T. & T. Clark. 1877. A Grammar of the 
 Ldiom of the New Testament. 7th edition, enlarged and 
 improved by G. Lunemann. Revised and authorized 
 translation. By J. H. Thayer Andover : W. F. Draper. 
 1877. 
 
 f Robinson, Edward. A Greek and English L,exicon of the 
 New Testament. A new edition. New York : Harper & 
 Brothers. 1872.
 
 4,36 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 fCREMER, Hermann. Biblisch-theologisches Wdrierbuch det 
 Neutestamentlichen Grdcitdt. 3te sehr vermehrte und ver- 
 besserte Auflage. Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1881-83. 
 Biblico- Theological Lexicon of New Testament Greek. 
 Translated from the German of the 2d edition with ad- 
 ditional matter and corrections by the author. By Wil- 
 liam Urwick. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1878. 
 
 fScOTT, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. Compiled by 
 H. G. Liddell and Robert Scott. 7th edition, revised and 
 augmented throughout with the co-operation of Professor 
 Drisler. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1883. 
 
 i Green, T. S. A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect. 
 London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1872. 
 
 Buttmann, Alexander. Grammatik des Neutestament. 
 Sprachgebrauchs. 2 Abtheil. Berlin : Dtimmler. 1857-59. 
 A Grammar of the New Testament. Authorized translation 
 by J. H. Thayer, with numerous additions and corrections 
 by the author, Andover : W. F. Draper, 1873. 
 
 Jelf, W, E. Granwiar of the Greek Language. 4th edition. 
 2 vols. Oxford : James Parker & Co. 1866. 
 
 WiLKE, C. G. Clavis N. T. philologica. 3 Edit, emendata et 
 aucta von W. Grimm. Leipzig : Lib, Arnoldiana. 1879. 
 
 CuRTius, George. Grundzilge der Griechische?i Etymologic. 
 
 5 Aufl. Leipzig: B. G. Treubner. 1879. Principles of 
 Greek Etymology. Translated with the sanction of the 
 author by A. S. Wilkins and E. B. England. 2 vols. 
 London : John Murray. 1875-6. 
 
 Schmidt, J. H. Synonymik der Griechischen Sprache. 3 
 Bande. Leipzig : B. G. Treubner, 1876-79, 
 
 Trench, R. C. Synonyms of the Neiv Testametit. The two 
 parts in one, 9th edition, revised, London : Macmillan 
 
 6 Co. 1880, 
 
 Webster, William. The Syntax and Synonyi7u of the Greek 
 Testament. London : Rivingtons. 1864. 
 
 Sophocles, E. A. A Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzan- 
 tine Periods. Boston : Little, Brown & Co. 1870.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 437 
 
 III. — The Canon of Scripture. 
 
 *Charteris, a. H. The New Testament Scriptures : their 
 claims, history, and authority. Being the Croall Lectures 
 for 1882. London : James Nisbet & Co. New York : 
 Robert Carter & Brothers. 1882. 
 
 fSTUART, Moses. Critical History and defence of the Old 
 Testament Canon. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1865. Ed- 
 ited, with occasional notes and references, by Peter Lori- 
 mer. London : William Tegg & Co. 1849. 
 
 fWESTCOTT, B. F. A General Survey of the History of the 
 Canofi of the New Testament. 5 th edition. London : 
 Macmillan & Co. 1881. 
 
 Charteris, a. H. a Collection of Early Testimonies to the 
 Canonical Books of the New Testament. Based on Kirch- 
 hofer's Quellensammlung. Edinburgh : William Black- 
 wood & Sons. 1880. 
 
 Reuss, Edward. Histoire du Canon des Saintes-Ecrittires 
 dans r Eglise Chr^tienne. 2 edition. Strasbourg : Treut- 
 tel et Wurtz. 1863. 
 
 CosiN, John. Scholastical History of the Ca?ion of the Holy 
 Scrifitures. London: R.Norton. 1657. In Vol. IIL of 
 Works. Oxford : J. H. Parker. 1849. 
 
 FuERST, Julius. Der Kanon des Alt. Test, nach den Ueber- 
 lieferungen in Talmud und Midrasch. Leipzig : Dorf- 
 fling & Franke. 1868. 
 
 Davidson, Samuel. The Canon of the Bible : its formation, 
 history, and fluctuations. 3d edition. London : C. Ke- 
 gan Paul. 1880. 
 
 Credner, C- a. Gesch. d. neutest. Kanon herausgegeben von 
 G. Volkmar. Berlin : G. Reimer. i860. 
 
 Zahn, Theodor. Forchujjgen zur Gesch. des neutest. ICanons 
 u. der altkirchl. Litcratur. I Thcil : Tatiau's Diatessaron. 
 J J Thiel : der Evangcliencommentar des Theophilus von 
 Antiochen. Erlangen : A. Deichert. 1 881-3.
 
 4a8 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 IV. — The Text of Scripture. 
 (i) The Originals and Versions. 
 (a) Of the whole Bible. 
 
 * The Holy Bible, co^\\.z\nvs\^ the Old and New Testaments 
 
 Translated out of the original tongues, and with the forme! 
 translations diligently compared and revised. New York ; 
 American Bible Society. 
 
 * The Jloly Bible, contammg the Old and New Testaments. 
 
 Translated out of the original tongues, and with the form- 
 er translations diligently compared and revised, by his 
 majesty's special command. The S. S. Teacher's edition. 
 Oxford : Printed at the University Press. 
 
 * Cambridge Paragraph Bible of the Authorized English Ver' 
 
 sion, with the text revised, the marginal references remod- 
 elled, and a critical introduction prepared by F. H. Scriv- 
 ener. Cambridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1873. 
 
 fSxiER, R., and K. G. W. Theile. Polyglotten-Bibel zum 
 praktischen Handgebrauch. Die Heilige Schrift Alten 
 und Neuen Testaments in iibersichtlicher Nebeneinander- 
 stellung des Urtextes, der Septuaginta, Vulgata, und Lu- 
 theriibersetzung, so wie der wichtigsten Varianten der 
 vornehmsten deutschen Uebersetzungen. 5 Bande. Bie- 
 lefeld : Velhagen & Klasing. 1864. 
 
 Walton, Brian. S. S. Biblia-Polyglotta. Complectentia 
 Textus Originales Hebraicum cum Pentateucho Samari- 
 tano Chaldaicum Graecum Versionumque Antiqarum Sa- 
 maritanae Graeco-Sept., Chaldaicae, Syriacae, Lat. Vulg. 
 Arabicae, Aethiopicae, Persicae, quicquid comparari pote- 
 rat. 6 vol. folio. London : Thos. Roycroft. 1657. 
 
 Bibliorum Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus ed. Constantinus 
 Tischendorf 4 vol. Petropoli. 1862. 
 
 Biblioru-m sacrormn graecus codex Vaticanus collatis studiis 
 Caroli Vercellone et Josephi Cozza, editus. Folio. 6 
 Tom. Roma. 1869-1881. 
 
 DiLLMANN, A. Biblia Vetcris Testainenti Aethiop. Tom i. 
 Octateuchus. 1853-55. II. Lihri Peguf?/, Paralipome' 
 non Esdrae, Esther. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. 1861-72
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 439 
 
 Codex Alexandrimis. fac- simile., printed in photo- lithography. 4 
 Parts folio. An absolute fac-simile produced by order of 
 the Trustees of the British Museum. London. 1879-81. 
 (The New Testament and Part I. of the Old Testanieni 
 have appeared.) 
 
 (b) Of the Old Testament. 
 
 \Biblia Hebraica ad optimas editiones imprimis Ev. van del 
 Hooght. cur. etc. C. G. Guil. Theile. Ed. Steor. V. Lip- 
 siae : B. Tauchnitz. 1873. 
 
 \Liber Genesis Textum Massoreticum accuratissime expressit, 
 e fontibus masorae varie illustravit, notis criticis confir- 
 mavit S. Baer. Praefatus est. Fr. Delitzsch. Lipsiae : 
 B. Tauchnitz, i860 ; L. Jesajae., 1872 ; Z. Jobi, 1875 ; 
 L. duodecim Prophet. 1878 ; Z. Psahnorum, 1880 ; Z. Pro- 
 verbiorum, 1880 ; Libri Danielis Ezrae et JVehemiae, 1882, 
 
 \ Testamentum Vetus,graece j'uxta LXX interpretes Text. Vatic. 
 rom. emend, ed. argum. et locos n. test, parall. notavit, 
 omnem lect. variet. cod. vetus. Alex., Ephr. Syri., Fr. 
 August, subjunxit, proleg. uberrimis instr. Const, de 
 Tischendorf. Ed. VI. Prolegomena rec. Nestle. 2 torn. 
 Lipsiae: F. A, Brockhaus. 1880. 
 
 Prophetarnm posteriorum codex Babylonicus PetropolitamtSy 
 ed. Herm. Strack. Editiu Biijlio. imperialis. Petropoli. 
 1876. 
 
 Biblia Hebrae, cum titraque Masora et Targum item cum com-, 
 fneniariis rabbinorum studio. Joan, Buxtorfii 5 Tom. folio. 
 Basileae : L. Konig. 1618-20. 
 
 Etheridge, J. W. The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan 
 ben Uzziel on the Pentateuch ; with the fragments of Je- 
 rusalem Targum. From the Chaldee. 2 vols. London: 
 Longmans, Green & Co. 1862-1865. 
 
 Petermann, J. H. Pe?itateuchus Samaritanus Ad fidem libro- 
 rum mss. apud Nablusianos repertorum 1. Genesis. Ber- 
 lin : Moeser. 1872. 
 
 Petermann, J. H. Versuch einer hcbr. Formeulehre nach der 
 Aussprache der heut. Samaritaner. Leipzig : F. A. Brock- 
 haus. 1868. (Contains variations of Samaritan MSS. from 
 the Massoretic)
 
 440 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Ceriani, a. M. Codex Syro-hexaplaris Ambrosianus photo 
 lithographice editus curante. Mailand : Biblio. Ambrosi- 
 anae. 1874. 
 
 Origenis Hexaploruin quae sup er sunt ; sive veterum interpre* 
 turn Graecorum in totum V. T. fragmenta, adhibita etiam 
 versione syro-hexaplari concinnavit emendavit et multis 
 partibus auxit. 2 vols. Oxford: Fred. Field. 1867—75. 
 
 (c) Of the New Testament. 
 
 *The New Testaf?ient of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ 
 translated out of the Greek : being the version set forth 
 A.D. i6ii, compared with the most ancient authorities and 
 revised a.d. 1881. Printed for the Universities of Oxford 
 and Cambridge. Oxford: At the University Press. 1881. 
 
 * The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ 
 translated out of the Greek : being the version set forth 
 A.D. 161 1, compared with the most ancient authorities and 
 revised a.d. 1881, with the readings and renderings pre- 
 ferred by the American Committee of Revision, incorpO' 
 rated into the text. By Roswell D. Hitchcock. New 
 York: Fords, Howard & Hurbert. 1881. 
 
 f The New Testament in the Original Greek. The Text re 
 vised by B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, with Introduc 
 tion and Appendix by the editors. 2 vols. Cambridge ; 
 Macmillan & Co. 1881. New York : Harper & Brothers. 
 1881-2. 
 
 fGARDiNER, F. A HarmoTiy of the Four Gospels in Greek, 
 according to the text of Tischendorf, with a collation of 
 the Textus Receptus, and of the Texts of Griesbach, 
 Lachmann, and Tregelles. Andover : W. F. Draper. 
 Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 187 1. 
 
 No7!Ufn Testamentum Graece. Ad antiquissimos testes denuo 
 recensuit apparatum criticum omni studio perfectum ap- 
 posuit commendationem isagogicam praetexuit C. Tischen- 
 dorf. Editio octava critica major. 2 Bde. Lipsiae : Gie- 
 secke & Devrient. 1869-72. 
 
 Tregelles, Samuel P. The Greek New Testament. Edited 
 from ancient authorities. London : Bagster & Sons. 
 1857-72.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY, 4.4.^ 
 
 RusHBROOKE, W. G. SynopticoH. An exposition of the com- 
 mon matter of the Synoptic Gospels, with Appendices. 
 London : Macmillan & Co. 1880. 
 
 Novum Testamentuni Graece et Latine. Car. I.achmannus re- 
 censuit, Phil Buttmannus graecae leciiones auctoritates 
 apposuit. 2 Tom. Berolini : G. Reimer. 1832-50. 
 
 Novum Testamentum Graecutn. Textus Stephanici 1550. 
 Accedunt variae lectiones editionum Bezae, Elzeviri, Lach- 
 manni, Tischendorfii et Tregellessii. Curante F. H. 
 Scrivener. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell & Co. 1872, 
 
 Robinson, Edward. A JIarmony of the Four Gospels in 
 Greek, according to the text of Hahn. Revised edition. 
 Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1872. 
 
 TisCHENDORF, CoNST. Synopsts evafigeltca. IV. evang. or- 
 dine chronolog. concinnavit, brevi comment, illustr. 4te 
 Aufl. Leipzig : Mendelssohn. 1878. 
 
 The English Hexapla. Six translations of the New Tes- 
 tament : Wiclif, 1380 ; Tyndale, 1554 ; Cranmer, 1539 , 
 Genevan, 1557 ; Anglo- Rhemish, 1582 ; Authorized, 1611 ; 
 arranged in parallel co/nmns, beneath the original Greek 
 text, by Scholtz. With a History of English translations 
 and translators. Londoi : Samuel Bagster & Sons. 
 
 (2) Concordances. 
 
 *Young, Robert. Anafyfr''. il Concordance to the Bible, on an 
 entirely new plan, ccntairing every word in alphabetical 
 order, arranged under its Hebrew or Greek original, with 
 the literal meaning of each "^nd its pronunciation. 3d re- 
 vised edition. Edinburgh : G. A. Young & Co. New 
 York : I. K. Funk & Co. i?bo. 
 
 *Cruden, Alexander. A CompMe Concordance to the Holy 
 Scriptures. New York: Dodd cV Mead. 1870. 
 
 fTnOMS, J. A. A complete Concordct^e to the revised Version 
 of the New Testament. Embracmr the marginal readings 
 of the English Revisers as well as those of the American 
 Committee. Published under the ;^utho^i/ition of the 
 Oxford and Cambridge Universities. .N*'^ Yo-rk Charles 
 Scribner's Sons. 1883. 
 19*
 
 44:2 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 f Hudson, C. F. A Critical Greek and English Concordance 
 of the New Testament. Revised and completed by Ezra 
 Abbot. 4th edit. Boston : H. L. Hastings. 1877. 
 
 tWiGRAM, G. V. Etiglishman' s Hebrew and Chaldce Concord- 
 ance of the Old Testament. 4th ed. 2 vols. London : S. 
 Bagster & Sons. 
 
 FuERST, Julius. Librorum Sacrorum Veteris Testamentt 
 Coficordantiae Hebraicae atque Chaldaicae. Lipsiae : B. 
 Tauchnitz. 1840. 
 
 NoLDius, Christianus. Concordantiae particularumEbraeo- 
 Chaldaicarum. J. G. Tympius recensuit. Jena : J. F. 
 Bielck. 1734. 
 
 Trommius, Abraham. Concordantiae Graecae Versio vulgo die- 
 tae LXX interpretum. 2 Tomi. Amstelodami : Sumpti 
 bus Societatis. 17 18. 
 
 Bruder, a. v. H. Concordantiae omnium vocuni Novi Testa- 
 mentum Graecae. 5 edit. Lipsiae: Ernest Bredt. iSfio. 
 
 (3) Textual Criticism of the Old Testament. 
 
 fSxRACK, Herm. L. Prolegomena Critica in Veins Testamen- 
 turn Hebraicum. Leipzig: J. C. Heinrichs. 1873. 
 
 Davidson, Sam. Treatise on Biblical Criticism. 2 vols. 
 Boston: Gould & Lincoln. 1853. 
 
 GiNSBURG, C. The Alassorah. Compiled from manuscripts 
 alphabetically and lexically arranged. Vols. I. and II. 
 Aleph — Tav. London. 1880-83. 
 
 Levita, Elias. The Massoreth Ha-Massoreth, being an ex- 
 position of the Massoretic notes on the Hebrew Bible, or 
 the ancient critical apparatus of the Old Testament in 
 Hebrew, with an English translation and critical and ex- 
 planatory notes. By C D. Ginsburg. London : Long- 
 mans, Green, Reader & Dyer. 1867. 
 
 BuxTORF, John. Tiberius sive co?nmentarius Masorethicus 
 Basle : Lud. Kcnig. 1620. 
 
 Cappellus, Ludovic. Critica Sacra s. de variis quae in 
 sacris. V. T, libris occurrunt lectionibus libri VI. Lute- 
 tiae Parisiorum : Sebast. Cramoisy. 1650
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 44.3 
 
 K.ENNICOTT, Benj. Vetiis Test. Heb> cum variis lectionibus^ 
 2 Tom. folio. Oxonii, e typo Clarend. 1776-1780. 
 
 DeRossi, J. "B. Variae lectiones Vet. Test. 4 Tom. Parma. 
 1 784-1 788 ; also, Scholia c7-itica in V. T. libros seu sup- 
 plementa ad varias sacri textus lectiones. Palma : Ex 
 regie typographeo. 1798. 
 
 Frensdorf, S. Die Massora Magna j Erster Theil, Masso- 
 retisches VVorterbuch. Hanover und Leipzig : Cohen & 
 Risch. 1876. 
 
 WiCKES, William. Treatise on the Accentuation of the three 
 so-called poetic books of the Old Testament. Oxford : 
 Clarendon Press. 188 r. 
 
 Frankel, Z. Vorstudien zu der Septuaginta. Leipzig: F. C W. 
 Vogel. 1841. 
 
 RoNSCH, H. Itala und Vulgata. Das Sprachidiom der ur- 
 christl. Itala und Kathol. Vulgata unter Beriicksichtigung 
 der Rom. Volkssprache erlautert. Marburg : N. G. El- 
 wert. 1869. 
 
 Ziegler, L. Die Lateinischen Bibeliibersetzung vor Hierony- 
 fnas u fid die Itala dcs Augustinus. Ein Beitrag zur Gesch. 
 d. Heil. Schrift Munchen : Th. Riedel. 1879. 
 
 Walton, Brian. In Biblia Polyglotta Prolegomena specialia 
 recognovit Dathianisque et variorum notis suas immis- 
 cuit F. Wrangham. 2 Tom. Cantabrigiae : T. Smith. 
 1828. 
 
 (4) Textual Criticism of the New Testament. 
 
 *Mombert, J. I. A Handbook of the Etis^lish Versions of the 
 Bible. New York : A. D. F. Randolph & Co. 1883. 
 
 f Scrivener, F. H. Ditroduction to the Criticism of the New 
 Testament. 3d edit. Cambridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 
 1883. 
 
 fScHAFF, P. Companion to the Greek Testament and the En- 
 glish Version. New York: Harper & Brothers. 18S3. 
 
 Kaulen, Fr. Handbuch zur Vulgata. Eine systematische 
 Darstellung ihres lateinischen Sprachcharakters. Mainz : 
 Kirchheim. 1870.
 
 444 BIBLICAL STUDY, 
 
 Eadie, John. The English Bible. An external and critical 
 History of the various English Translations of Scripture. 
 2 vols. Macmillan & Co. 1876. 
 
 Tholuck, a. Das Alte Testament im Nenen Testament. 6 
 Aufl. Gotha : F. Perthes. 1868. 
 
 fToY, Crawford H. Quotations in the New Testament. New 
 York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1884. 
 
 TuRPiE, D. M. The Old Testament in the New. A Contri 
 bution to Biblical Criticism and Interpretation. London , 
 Williams & Norgate. 1868. 
 
 V. — The Higher Criticism. 
 
 (i) The Old Testament. 
 
 *Cross, J. A. Introductory Hints to English Readers of the 
 Old Testament. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1882. 
 
 *Smith, W. Robertson. The Old Testament in the Jeivish 
 Church. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1881. New 
 York : D. Appleton & Co. 1881. 
 
 f Bleek, Fred. Einleitung in das N. T. 4te Aufl- Bearbeitei 
 von J. Wellhausen. Berlin : G. Reimer. 1878. Trans- 
 lated from the 2d German edition by G. H. Venables. 2 
 vols. London. 1875. 
 
 Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the Old Testament, 
 critical, historical, and theological. 3 vols. London 
 Williams & Norgate. 1862-3. 
 
 Keil, K. F. Lehrbuch der historisch-kritisch. Einleitung in d. 
 kanonischen und apokryphischen Schriften d. A. T. Frank- 
 furt- a- Maine : Heyder & Zimmer. 3te Aufl. 1873. 
 Trans, by C. M. Douglas. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. 
 Clark. 1869. 
 
 DeWette, W. M. L. Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Ein- 
 leitu7ig in die kanoiiischen und apokryphischen Biicher des 
 Alien Testaments. Neu bearbeitet von Eberhard Schrader. 
 8te Ausgabe. Berlin : G. Reimer. 1869. Translated 
 from the German edition and enlarged by Theodore Par- 
 ker. 2 vols. Boston : Little & Brown. 1843. 
 
 Kleinert, Paul. Abriss der Einleitung zum A. Tin Tabellen* 
 form. Berlin : G. W. F. MUller. 1878.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 445 
 
 Simon, Richard. Histoire Critique du Vicux TeslamcnL 
 Rotterdam : R. Leers. 1685. 
 
 EiCHHORN, J. G. Einlcitung in das Alte Testament. 4te 
 Aufl. 5 Bde. Gottingen : Lauffer. 1823-4. 
 
 NOLDEKE, Theo. Die Alttestametitliche Literatur in einer 
 Reihe von Aufsatzen. Leipzig: Quardt & Handel. 1868. 
 
 Reuss, Edward. Die Geschichte der heiligen Schriften Al- 
 ten Testaments. Braunschweig : C A. Schwetschke & 
 Sohn. 188 1. 
 
 Haevernick, H. a. C. Handbuch der historisch-kritischen 
 Eirileitung in das Alte Testament. 3 Bande. Erlangen : 
 Carl Heyden. 1836-49. 2te Aufl. von C. F. Keil. 
 Frankfurt und Erlangen. I. i, 1854 ; IL 2, 1856. 
 
 (2) Higher Criticism of parts of the Old Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 *MuRRAY, Thomas C. Lectures on the Origin afid Growth 
 of the Psalms. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 
 1880. 
 
 *Smith, W. R. The Prophets of Israel. London : Long- 
 
 I mans, Green & Co. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 1882. 
 
 Green, William Henry. Moses and the Prophets. New 
 York : Robert Carter & Brothers. 1883. 
 
 *Tavlor, Isaac. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. London : 
 Bell & Daldy. 1861. New York: Rudd & Carleton. 
 1862. With a biographical introduction by Wm. Adams. 
 
 LowTH, Wm. De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum, .... cum nolis 
 et epimetris, J. D. Michaelis, . . . . ed. E. F C. Roscn- 
 miiller, Oxonii, 1821. Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of 
 the Hebrews. Translated from the original Latin by G. 
 Gregory. A new edition, with notes by C. E. Stowe. 
 Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1829. 
 
 Herder, J- G. Vom Gcist der Hebr. Pucsic. Dessau. 1782- 
 83. The Spirit of ILcbrcw Poetry. Translated from the 
 (German by James Marsh. 2 vols. Burlington, Vt. : E. 
 D. Smith. 1833. 
 
 tJiCKELL, G. Carmina Vctcris Tcstainoiti Alctrice. Oeni- 
 ponte: Academica Wagncriana. 1882. 
 
 J
 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 44 fi BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 KuENEN, A. De Profeten en de profetie in der Israel. Leiden, 
 1875. The Prophets and Prophecy m Israel. Translated 
 from the Du-tch by the Rev. Adam Milroy. London : 
 Longmans, Green & Co. 1877. 
 
 Wellhausen, J. Prolegotnena zur Geschichte Israels. 2te 
 Ausgabe der Gesch. Israels. Band L Berlin : G. Reimer. 
 1883. 
 
 BiNNiE, William. The Psalms : their History, Teachings, 
 and Use. London : T. Nelson. 1870. 
 
 Bruston, Charles. Histoire critique de la littlrature proph- 
 itique des H^breux dcpiiis les origines jusqua la mort d' 
 Isaie. Paris : G. Fischbacher. 1881. 
 
 PusEY, E. B. Daniel the Prophet. Nine Lectures, delivered 
 in the Divinity school of the University of Oxford. 3d 
 edition. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1869. 
 
 (3) The Higher Criticism of the New Testament. 
 
 fBLEEK, Fred. Einleitung i?i d. IV. T. nach dessen Vorle- 
 sungen herausgegeben von J. Bleek. 3te Aufl. von Man- 
 gold. Berlin: G. Reimer. 1875. An Ijitroduction to the 
 New Testamejit. Translated by W. Urwick. 2 vols. Edin- 
 burgh : T.& T.Clark. 1869-70. 
 
 Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the study of the New 
 Testanietit, critical, exegetical, and theological. 3 vols. 
 London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1848-51. 
 
 Reuss, Edward. Die Geschichte der h. Schriften N. T. 5 
 Aufl. Braunschweig: Schwetschke & Sohn. 1874. 
 
 DeWette, W. M. L. Lehrbuch d. hist.-krit. Einleit. i?i die ka- 
 non. BUcher des N. T. 6te Aufl. von Messner & Lune- 
 mann. Berlin : G. Reimer. i860. 
 
 MiCHAELis, J. D. Einleitung in d. gottl. Schriften des N. 
 Bundes. 4te Aufl. Gottingen : Vandenhok. 1788. In- 
 troduction to the New Testament. Translated into En- 
 glish with additions by Herbert Marsh. 6 vols. 4 edi- 
 tion. London : F. C. & J. Rivington. 1823. 
 
 Hertwig, 0. R. Tabellen zur Einl. ins N. T. 4 Aufl, voR 
 H. Weingarten. Berlin: G. VV. F. MUller. 1872.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 447 
 
 (4) The Higher Criticism of parts of the New 
 Testament. 
 
 *Westcott, B. F. Introduction to the Study of the Four Gos- 
 pels, with historical and explanatory notes. 6th edition. 
 London : Macmillan & Co. 1881. 
 
 f Sanday, W. The Gospels in the Second Century. London : 
 Macmillan & Co. 1876. 
 
 f Abbot, Ezra. The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel. Ex- 
 ternal evidences. Boston : G. H. Ellis. 1880. 
 
 Mill, W. H. Observations on the attempted application of 
 Pantheistic Principles to the theory and historical criticism 
 of the Gospel. 2d edition edited by B. Webb. Cam- 
 bridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1861. 
 
 TiSCHENDORF, CoNST. Waun wurden unsere Evaiigclien ver- 
 fasst. 4te Aufl., J. C. Heinrichs, 1880. Origin of the 
 Four Gospels. Translated into English. Boston : Am. 
 Tract Society. 1868. 
 
 Lardner, Nathaniel. The Credibility of the Gospel His- 
 tory. 5 vols. London : W. Ball. 1838. 
 
 Ebrard, J. H. A. Wissenschaftliche Kritik der cvajigelischen 
 Geschichtc. 3te Aufl. Frankfurt-a-M. : Heyder & Zim- 
 mer. 1868. 
 
 Weiss, Bernard. Das Matthdus Evangelium und seine Lu- 
 cas-pa rallelen erklart. Halle : Waisenhaus. 1876. 
 
 Weiss, Bernard. T)as Marcus Evangelium itnd seine syn- 
 optischen Parallelen erklart. Berlin : W. Hertz. 1872. 
 
 VI. — The Interpretation of Scripture. 
 
 (i) Hermeneutics. 
 
 *Spurgeon, C. H. Commenting and Commentaries. Two 
 Lectures addressed to the students of the Pastor's College, 
 .... together with a catalogue of Biblical Commen- 
 taries and Expositions. London : Passmore & Alabaster. 
 New York : Sheldon & Co. 1876. 
 
 tiMMER, A. Hermeneutik des N. T. Wittenberg : H. Koel- 
 ling. 1873. Ilermciieutics of the New Testament. Trans- 
 lated from the German by A. IJ. Neuman. Andover : W 
 F. D riper. 1877.
 
 A 
 
 y.8 BIBLICAL feTUDT. 
 
 SCHLEIERMACHER, Fred. Herrneneuiik und Kritik mit be- 
 sorderer Beziehung auf das Neue Test. Aus Schleier- 
 macher's handschrift. Nachlasse und nachgeschriebenen 
 Vorlesungen herausgegeben von F. Liicke. Berlin : G. 
 Reiraer. 1838. 
 
 Davidson, Samuel. Sacred Hermeneutics. Developed and 
 applied, including a history of Biblical Interpretation 
 from the earliest of the Fathers to the Reformation. 
 Edinburgh : Thomas Clark. 1843. 
 
 Klausen, H. N. Hermeneutik des Ncuen Testaments aus. 
 dem Danischen ubersetzt von C D. Schmidt-Phiseldek. 
 Leipzig: K. F. Kohler. 1841. 
 
 Rambach, J. J. Institutiones Hermefieuticae Sacrae. Editio 
 octava, cum praef. J. F. Buddei. Jenae : J. W. Hartun- 
 gil. 1764. 
 
 Lange, J. D. Grimdriss d. biblischen Hermetieutik. Heidel- 
 berg : C. Winter. 1878. 
 
 McClelland, Alex. A brief treatise on the Canon and In • 
 terpretation of the Holy Scriptures. New York: Robert 
 Carter & Bros. i860. 
 
 Ernesti, J. A. Institutio Interpretis N. T. 5 edit, ed 
 C. F. Ammon. 1809. Lipsiae : Weidmann. Elementarj 
 Principles of Interpretation. Translated from the Latin, 
 and accompanied by notes, with an appendix, containing 
 extracts from Morus, Beck, Keil, and Henderson. By 
 Moses Stuart. 4th edition. Andover : Allen, Morrill & 
 Wardwell.. 1842. 
 
 GiNSBURG, C. D. The Kabbalah : its doctrines, develop- 
 ment, and Literature. London : Longmans, Reader & 
 Dyer. 1865. 
 
 KiHN, Heinrich. Theodor von Alopsuestia und Junilius Af- 
 ricanus als Exegeten. Freiburg im Breisgau : Herder. 
 1880, 
 
 Siegfried, Carl. Philo von Alexandria als Ausleger des Al- 
 ien Testaments- Jena : H. Dufft. 1875. 
 
 DopKE, J. C. C. IIer)ncneutik der neittesiamcntlichen Schrifi 
 steller. Leipzig: F. C W. Vogel. 1829.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 449 
 
 tTERRY, Milton S. Biblical Hermeneutics. A Treatise on 
 the Interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. New 
 York : Phillips & Hunt. 1883. 
 
 (2) Commentaries. 
 
 (A) On the whole Bible. 
 
 •Henry, Matthew. An exposition of the Old and Netv Tes- 
 taments ; wherein each chapter is summed up in its con- 
 tents ; the sacred Text inserted at large, in distinct Para- 
 graphs, etc. Edited by the Rev. Edward Bickersteth. 
 6 vols. London: H. G. Bohn. 1846. 9 vols. New 
 York : R. Carter & Bros. 1876. 
 
 fLANGE, J. P. Critical, doctrinal, and homiletical Commentary 
 on the Holy Scriptures, with special reference to ministers 
 and students, in connection with a number of eminent 
 European divines. Translated, enlarged, and edited by 
 Philip Schaff, in connection with American scholars of va- 
 rious evangelical denominations. 25 vols. New York : 
 Chas. Scribner's Sons. 1867—82. Genesis, Wx'dx 3. Qiq.wqxc\ 
 Introduction to the Old Testament. By J. P, Lange. Tran; - 
 lated from the German, with additions, by Tayler Lewis an I 
 A. Gosman. — Exodus^hy C. AL Mead; Leviticus, by i. 
 Gardiner, with General Introduction, by H. Osgood. — Num ■ 
 bers. By J. P. Lange. Translated and enlarged by Samue ■ 
 T. Lowrie and A. Gosman ; Deuteronomy, by F. W. J. Shioe 
 der, translated and enlarged by A. Gosman. — Joshua, by F 
 R. Fay, translated, with additions, by George R. JMiss 
 Judges and Ruth, by Paulus Cassel, translated, with addi 
 tions, by P. H. Steenstra. — -^^ Samuel, by C. F. D. Ere] man n. 
 translated, enlarged, and edited by C. H. Toy and J. A. Bioa- 
 dus. — iKings. By K. C. W. F. Bahr. Book 1., translated and 
 enlarged by Edwin Harwood. Book II., translated and en- 
 larged by W. G. Sunmer. — Chronicles I. and II., by Otto 
 Zockler, translated, enlarged, and edited by James G. Mur- 
 phy ; \Ezra, by Fr. VV. Schultz, translated, enlarged, and 
 edited by Chas. A. Briggs ; Nehemiah, by Howard Crosby ; 
 Esther, by Fr. W. Schnltz, translated, enlarged, and edited 
 by James Strong. — SJob. A Rhythmical Version, with an 
 Introduction and Annotation by 'I'ayler Lewis. A Com- 
 mentary by Otto Zockler, translated from the German, with 
 additions, by L. J. Evans. Together with an Introductory
 
 4:50 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Essay on Hebrew Poetry by Philip Schaff. — The Psalms. 
 By Carl Bernhard Moll. Translated, with additions, by C. 
 A. Briggs, John Forsyth, J. B. Hammond, and J. F. Mc- 
 Curdy. With a new Metrical Version of the Psalms, and 
 Philological notes, by T. J. Conant. — \Proverbs^ by Otto 
 Zockler, translated by C. A. Aiken ; Ecclesiastes, by O. 
 Zockler, translated by Wm. Wells, with additions, and a new 
 Metrical Version by Tayler I^ewis ; The Song of Solomon, 
 by O. Zockler, translated, with additions, by W. H. Green. — - 
 Isaiah. By C. VV. E. Naegelsbach. Translated, with ad- 
 ditions, by Samuel T. Lowrie and Dunlop Moore. — /erefuiah, 
 by C. W. E. Naegelsbach, translated and enlarged by S. R. 
 Asbury ; Lamentations^ by C. W. E. Naegelsbach, translated 
 and enlarged by W. H. Hornblower. — Ezekiel. By F. W. J. 
 Schroeder. Translated, edited, and enlarged by Patrick 
 Fairbairn and William Findlay, aided by Thomas Crerarand 
 Sinclair Manson ; Daniel, translated, edited, and enlarged 
 by James Strong. — The Minor Prophets, Hosea, Joel, and 
 Amos, by Otto SchmoUer, translated, with additions, by Jas. 
 E. McCurdy, John Forsyth, and Talbot W. Chambers, re- 
 spectively ; Obadiah, Jo7iah, and Micha, by Paul Kleinert, 
 translated, with additions, by George R. Bliss ; Nahnm, Ha- 
 bakkuk, and Zephaniah, by Paul Kleinert, translated, with 
 additions, by Chas. Elliott ; Haggai, by James E. McCurdy ; 
 Zechariah. by T. W. Chambers ; Afalachi, by Joseph Pack- 
 ard. Index to the 14 vols, on the Old Testament, by H. Pick. 
 — \The Apocrypha of the Old Testament. With historical 
 introductions, a revised translation, and notes critical and 
 explanatory. By E. C. Bissell. — Matthew. With a General 
 Introduction to the New Testament. By J. P. Lange. 
 Translated, with additions, by Philip Schaff. — Mark. By J. 
 P. Lange. Revised from the Edinburgh translation, with ad- 
 ditions, by W. G. T. Shedd ; Luke, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, 
 translated, with additions, by Philip Scliaff and Charles C. 
 Starbuck. — John. By John P. Lange. Translated by E. D. 
 Yeomans and Evelina Moore. With additions by E. R. 
 Craven and Philip Schaff. — Acts. By G. V. Lechler and 
 Chas. Gerok. Translated, with additions, by C. F. Schaef- 
 fer, — \Rotna7is. By J. P, Lange and F. R. Fay. Trans- 
 lated by J. K. Hurst. Revised and enlarged by P. Schaff 
 and M. B. Riddle. — Corinthians. By Christian F. Kling. 
 Translated, with additions, by D. W. Poor. — Gulatians, by 
 Otto Schmoller, translated by C. C. Slarbuck, with additions 
 by M. B. Riddle ; Philippians, by Karl Braune, translat^id
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 45J 
 
 and enlarged by H. B. Hackett ; Ephesi({ns and Colossians, 
 by Karl Braune, translated and enlarged by M. B. Riddle. — 
 Thessalonians, by Auberlen and Riggenbach, translated with 
 additions, by John Lillie ; Timothy^ by J. J. Van Oosterzee, 
 translated, with additions, by E. A. VVashburn and E. Har- 
 wood ; Titus, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, translated, with addi- 
 tions, by Geo. E. Day; Philemon, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, 
 translated, with additions, by H. B. Hackett ; Hebretvs, by 
 Carl B. Moll, translated, with additions, by A. C. Kendrick. 
 — James, by J. P. Lange, J. J. Van Oosterzee ; Peter ^ by P. 
 F. C. Fronmiiller ; John, by Karl Braune ; Jude, by P. F. C. 
 Fronniiiller, all translated, with additions, by Isidor Mombert. 
 — \The Revelation of John. By J. P. Lange. Translated by 
 Evelina Moore. Enlarged and edited by E. R. Craven. 
 Together with double alphabetical Index to the ten volumes 
 on the New Testament, by John H. Woods. 
 
 The Holy Bible according to the authorized Version (a.d. 161 1), 
 with an explanatory and critical Commentary and a revision 
 of the translation, by bishops and other clergy of the Angli- 
 can Church. Edited by F. C. Cook, xovols. London : John 
 Murray. 187 1-8 1. 7he Holy Bible, according to the Author- 
 ized Version. With explanatory and critical note?, and a re- 
 vision of the translation by bishops and clergymen of the 
 Church of England. — New York : Chas. Scnbner's Sons. 
 1871-81. Genesis, by E. H. Browne; Exodus, Chapters 
 L-XIX. by F. C. Cook, and XX. to the end, by Samuel 
 Clark ; Leviticus, by Samuel Clark ; Numbers and Deuter- 
 onomy, by T. E. Espin. — Joshua, by T. E. Espin ; Judges, 
 Ruth, and Samuel, by Arthur Hervey ; \ First Kings, by 
 George Rawlinson. — -^Second Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, 
 Nehemiah, and Esther, by George Rawlinson.— y^;<^, by 
 F. C. Cook ; Psalms, by G. H. S. Johnson and C. J. Elliott ; 
 Proverbs, by E. H. Plumptre ; Ecclesiastcs, by W. T. 
 Bullock; Song of Solomon, by T. L. Kingsbury. — Isaiah^ 
 by W. Kay ; Jeremiah and Lamentations, R. Payne 
 Smith, — Ezekiel, by G. Curry; Daniel, by H. J. Rose and 
 J. M. Fuller; The Minor Prophets, by E. Huxtable, F. 
 Meyrick, R. Gandell, Sam'l Clark, I*\ C. Cook, and W^ 
 Drake. — St. Matthew, by H, I^ongueville Mansel ; St. Mark, 
 by F. C. Cook ; St. Luke, by W. Jkisil Jones and F. C. 
 Cook, with a General Introduction by Wm. Thompson. — .S7 
 John, Introduction, Commentary, and Critical Notes, by B, 
 F. Westcott ; The Acts of the Apostles, Introduction by F,
 
 452 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 C. Cook, Commentary and Critical Notes by William Jacob- 
 son. — Romans^ by E. H. Gififord ; Corinthians, by Evans and 
 Joseph Waite ; Galatians^ by J. S. Howson ; Ephesians, by 
 F. Meyrich ; Philippians, by J. Gwynn ; Colossians, Thessa- 
 lonians, and Philemon, by Wni. Alexander; Tintothy and 
 Titus, by H. VVace and John Jackson. — Hebrews, by 
 W. Kay ; St. James, by Robert Scott ; St. John, by Wni. 
 Alexander ; St. Peter and St. Jiide, by J. B. Lightfoot and 
 J. R. Liimby ; Revelation, by Wm. Lee. 
 
 The Pulpit Commentary. Edited by H. D. M. Spence and 
 Joseph S. Exell. London : C. Kegan Paul & Co. 1880- 
 83. New York : A. D. F. Randolph & Co. Genesis, by T. 
 Whitelaw, with Homilies by J. F. Montgomery, R. A. Red- 
 ford, F. Hastings, VV. Roberts. An Introduction to the 
 Study of the Old Testament by F. W. Farrar, and Intro- 
 ductions to the Pentateuch by H. Cotterill and T. White- 
 law. 7th edition. — Exodus, by G. Rawlinson, with Homilies 
 by J. Orr, C. A. Goodhart, D. Young, J. Urquhart, and H. 
 T. Robjohns. 4th edition. 2 vols. — Leviticus, by Fred. 
 Meyrick, with Introductions by R. Colhns, A. Cave, and 
 Homilies by R. A. Redford, J. A. Macdonald, W. Clark- 
 son, S. R. Aldridge, and McCheyne Edgar. 3d edition. — 
 Numbers, by R. Winterbotham, with Homilies by E. S. 
 Prout, W. Binnie, U. Young, J, Waite, and an Introduction 
 by Thomas Whitelaw. 4th edition. — Deuteronomy, by W. 
 L. Alexander, with Homilies by Dickerson Davies, C. 
 Clemance, J. Orr, and R. M. Edgar. 2d edition. — Joshua, 
 by J. J. Lias, with Homilies by R. Glover, E. De Pressense, 
 S. R. Aldridge, W. F. Adeney, J. Waite, and Introductions 
 to the Historical Books by A. Plummer and J. J. Lias. 
 4th edition. — Judges by A. C. Hervey, with Homilies by A. 
 F. Muir and W. F. Adeney ; Ruth, by J. Morison, with 
 Homilies i^y \V. M. Statham and J. R. Thomson. 4th edi- 
 tion. — /. Samuel, by R. Payne Smith, with Homilies by 
 Donald Eraser, C. Chapman, and B. Dale. 5th edition. — 
 /. Kings, by Joseph Hammond, with Homihes by E. de 
 Pressense, J. Waite, A. Rowland, J. A. Macdonald, and J. 
 Urquhait. 3d edition. — Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, by G. 
 Rawlinson, with Homilies by J. R. Thomson, R. A. Red- 
 ford, \V. S. Lewis, J. A. Macdonald, A. Mackennal, W. 
 Clarkson, F. Hastings, W. Dinwiddle, D. Rowlands, G. 
 Wood, P. C. Barker, and J. S. Exell. 5th edition. — St. 
 Mark, by E. Bickersteth, with Homilies by J. R. Thorn-
 
 ^ 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 453 
 
 son, E. Johnson, J. J. Given, A. Rowland, A. F. Muir, R. 
 Green. 2d edition. 2 vols. 
 
 Wordsworth, Christopher. The Holy Bible, '\\\ ihe fi^nihor- 
 ized Version. With Notes and Introduction. New Edition. 
 7 vols. London : Rivingtons. 1872. 
 
 Critici Sacri sine doctisswiorum virorum in S. S. Biblia Anno- 
 tationes et Tractatus. Edited by J. Pearson, A. Scattergood, 
 F. Gouldman, and R. Pearson. 9 vol., folio. London : C. 
 Bee. 1660. 13 vol., folio. Amsterdam. 1669. 
 
 Poole, Matth. Synopsis Criticorum. 4 vols, in 5, folio. 
 London : J. Flescher & T. Roycroft. 1669. Utrecht, 1684. 
 
 Reuss, Edward. La. Bible Traduction nouvelle avec intro- 
 ductions et commentaires. 15 Part. Paris: Sadoz et Fisch 
 bacher. 1874-1881. 
 
 (B) The Old Testament, 
 (a) The Old Testament as a whole. 
 
 \Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zu7n Alt. Test. Leipzig: 
 -■' S. Hirzel. 1838-83. In 17 Banden^ \Genesis, 4. Aufl., 
 von A. Dillmann, 1883 \^\Exodus &= Levit., 2. Aufl., von 
 A. Dillmann, 1880 ; Num., Deut., Jos., von A. Knobel, 
 i86i ; Richter, Ruth., von E. Bertheau, 1845 ; Samuel, 
 von O. Thenius, 2. Aufl., 1864; Kdnige, von O. Thenius, 
 2. Aufl., 1873 ; \Jesaja, 4. Aufl., von L. Diestel, 1872 ; 
 Jerem., von F. Hitzig, 2. Aufl., 1866 ; \Ezechiel, 2. Aufl., 
 von R. Smend, 1880 ; \Klein. Propheten, 4. Aufl., von H. 
 Steiner, 1881 ; Psalmen, von J. Olshausen, 1853 •,-\\Hiob., 
 -3. Aufl., von A. Dillmann, 1869 \ Spriiche, von E. Berlhuau, 
 u. Koheleth, von F. Hitzig, 1847 ; Hohelied, von F. Hitzig, 
 u. Klaglieder, von O. Thenius, 1855 ; Da?iiel, von F. Hitzig, 
 1850 ; Esra, Neh., Esther, von E. Bertheau, 1862; Chron- 
 ik., von E. Bertheau, 1862. 
 
 tKEiL, C F., und Franz Delitzsch. Biblische Commentar 
 iiber das A. T. 14 Bande. Leipzig : Dorffling & Franke. 
 1861-83. Translated as Biblical Commentary on the Old 
 Testament. 25 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1864- 
 78. (The Commentaries on Psalms, 3d German edition, 
 1873-4 ; Job, 2d edition, 1876 ; Proverbs, 1873 ; Song of 
 Songs &" Koheleth, 1875 ; Isaiah, 3d edition, 1879, all by 
 F. l^elitzsch, are excellent. The Conmientaries by Keil
 
 454 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 upon the Minor Prophets, 2d edition, 1873 ; Daniel, 1876 : 
 and Ezekiel, 2d edition, 1883, are valuable; the others are 
 of less importance.) 
 
 f BoETTCHER, F. Neue exegetish-kritsche Aehreiilese zum Alien 
 Testament. 3 Abtheil. Leipzig: J. A. Barth. 1863-5. 
 
 RosENMUELLER, C. F. K. ScJioHa i7i Vetjis Testameiitum. 
 23 vol. Leipzig : J. A. Barth. 1820-34. 
 
 WuENSCHE, A. Bibliotheca Rabbinica : Eine Sammlung Alte 
 Midraschim (23 Lief, published). Leipzig: Otto Schiiltze. 
 1880-83. 
 
 (b) Historical Books. 
 
 fCALViN, John. In librum Geneseos comnientarius cur. E. 
 Hengstenberg. 2 Pts. Berlin : G. Bethge 1838. Com- 
 mentaries on the First Book of Moses, called Genesis. 
 Translated from the original Latin and compared with 
 the French edition. By John King. 2 vols. Edin- 
 burgh : T. & T. Clark. 1847-50. 
 
 f Delitzsch, Franz. Commentar fiber d. Genesis mit Beitragen 
 von Fleischer u. Wetzstein. 4te Aufl. Leipzig : Dorffling 
 und Franke. 1872. 
 
 fScHULTZ, F. W. Das Deuteronomium erklart. Berlin : G. 
 Schlawitz. 1859. 
 
 fKALiscH, M. M. Historical and Critical Conifnentary on the 
 Old Testament. With a new translation. Vol. L, Genesis, 
 1858. Vol. IL, Exodus, 1855. Vols. IIL and IV., Leviti- 
 cus, 1867-72. London: Longman, Brown & Co. 1858. 
 
 Masius, Andreas. Josuae imperatoris historia illustrata atque 
 explicata. Antwerpiae : C. Plantin. 1574- Also in 
 Critici sacri. 
 
 Ainsworth, Henry. Annotations on the Five Books of 
 Moses, the Psalms, and the Song of Solomon. Folio. 
 London. 1639. 
 
 Kalisch, M. M. Bible Studies. Part I., The Prophecies of 
 Balaam. London: Longmans. 1877. 
 
 Murphy, James. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on 
 the Book of Genesis. With a new translation. Edin- 
 burgh : T. & T. Clark. 1863. Andover : >V. F. Draper. 
 1866. Co??imej!tary on Exodus.. Edinburgh and Andover, 
 1866. Leviticus. Edinburgh and Andover. 1872.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 455 
 
 TucH, Fried. Connnentar ilber die Genesis. 2. Aufl. bes. 
 von Arnold und Merx. Halle: Waisenhaus. 1871. 
 
 Bush, George. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of 
 Numbers. Designed as a general help to Biblical reading 
 and instruction. New York : Ivison, Phinney & Co. 
 1863. 
 
 Bush, George. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of 
 Joshua. 2d edition. New York : Ivison, Phinney & Co. 
 1862. 
 
 Wright, C H. H. Book of Ruth in Hebrew. With gram- 
 matical and critical commentary. London : Williams 
 & Norgate. 1864. 
 
 Davidson, A. B. Lectures, Expository and Practical, on the 
 Book of Esther. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1859. 
 
 Bachmann, J. Das Buck der Richter. Bd. I., Cap. I.-V. 
 Berlin : Wiegandt & Grieben. 1868-69. 
 
 (c) Psalter. 
 
 *Spurgeon, C. H. The Treasiiry of David. Containing an 
 original exposition of the Book of Psalms ; a collection of 
 illustrative extracts from the whole range of literature ; a 
 series of horailetical hints upon almost every verse ; and 
 a list of writers upon each psalm. 6 vols. London : 
 Passmore & Alabaster. 1870-78. 
 
 * Vincent, Marvin R. Gates into the Psalm-country. New 
 York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1878. 
 
 fCALViN, John. In librum Psalmorum commetitarius. 2 
 Part., ed. A. Tholuck. Berlin : G. Eichler. 1836. Cotn- 
 mentaries on the Psalms of David. 3 vols. London : 
 Thomas Tegg. 1840. 
 
 f EwAi-D, Heinrich. Die Dichter des alien Bundes erkldrt. 2. 
 Ausg. ; 3 Bde. ; Gottingen : Vanderhock & Ruprecht ; 
 1 866-1 867. Commentary on the Psalms, translated by E. 
 Johnson ; 2 vols. Commentary on the Book of Job, trans- 
 lated by J. F. Smith ; London : Williams & Norgate ; 
 1880--82. 
 
 fPEROWNE, J. J. S. The Book of Psalms ; a new translation, 
 with introduction and notes, critical and explanatory. 5tb 
 edition. London: G. Bell & Sons. 1883. Andover 
 W. F. Draper. 1876.
 
 456 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 fHuPFELD, H. Die Psalmeft iibersetzt und ausgelegt, mit Zu- 
 satzen und Berichtigungen von E, Riehm. 2te Aufl. 4 
 Bde. Gotha: F. A. Perthes. 1867-72. 
 
 Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Psalms, translated ana 
 explained. 6th ed. 3 vols. New York : Charles Scrib- 
 ner. 1866. 
 
 Barnes, Albert. Notes, Critical, Explanatory and Practi- 
 cal, 071 the Book of Psalms. 3 vols- New York : Harper 
 & Brothers. 1868-69. 
 
 Horne, George. A Commentary on the Book of Psalms 
 with an introductory essay by Edward Irving. Glas- 
 gow : Thomas Tegg. i860. New York: R. Carter & 
 Brothers. 1849. 
 
 Murphy, J. G. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the 
 Book of Psalms, with a new translation. Edinburgh : T. 
 & T. Clark. 1875. Andover : W. F. Draper 1875. 
 
 Neale, J. M., and R. F. Littledale. A Com7?ienta7y on 
 the Psalms, from the primitive and mediaeval writers; and 
 from the various office books and hymns of the Roman, 
 Mozarabic, Ambrosian, Galilean, Greek, Coptic, Armen- 
 ian, and Syrian rites. 4 vols. London : J. Masters & Co. 
 1860-74. 
 
 Hengstenberg, E. W. Commentar iiber d. Psalmen. 2te 
 Aufl. 4 Bde. Ludvvig Oehmigke. 1849-52. 
 
 A.UGUSTINE, AURELIUS. Expositions on the Book of Psahns. 
 Translated by J. Tweed. Vols. XXIV., XXV., XXX., 
 XXXII., XXXVII., XXXIX. of Library of the Fathers 
 of the Holy Catholic Church. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 
 1848. 
 
 Graetz, H. K^'itischer Cofmnefitar zu den Psalmen nebst 
 Text und Uebersetzung. 2 Bde. Breslau : S. Schott- 
 laender. 1882-3. 
 
 (d) The Wisdom Literature. 
 
 *Cox, Samuel. A Commeiitary on the Book of Job, with a 
 translation. London : Kegan Paul & Co.. 1880. 
 
 •Plumptre, E. H. Ecclesiastes ; or, the Preacher, with Notei 
 and Introduction. Cambridge: University Press. 1881.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 457 
 
 •Hamilton, James. The Royal Preacher. Lectures on Ec- 
 clesiastes. London : James Nisbet. 1865. New York • 
 Robert Carter & Bros. 
 
 fSxuART, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 
 New York : M. W. Dodd. 1852. 
 
 . f GiNSBURG, C. D. The Song of Sotigs ; with a commentary, 
 
 * historical and critical. London : Longman, Brown & Co. 
 
 1857. 
 
 fWRiGHT, C. H. H. The Book of Koheleth, considered in 
 / relation to modem Criticism and to the doctrines of 
 
 ■"^—^ modern Pessimism, with a critical and grammatical Com- 
 
 mentary. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1883. 
 
 Davidson, A. B. A Commentary on Job, grammatical and 
 exegetical, with a translation. Vol. L London : Will- 
 iams & Norgate. 1862. 
 
 Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on Ecclesiastes. New York ; 
 G. P. Putnam. 187 1. 
 
 WiTHiNGTON, Leonard. Solomon's Song, Translated and 
 Explained. Boston : J. E. Tilton & Co. 186 1. 
 
 BoETTCHER, F. Die dltesten BUhnendichtung ; der Debora- 
 Gesang und das hohe Lied, dramatisch dargestellt und 
 neu iibersetzt. Leipzig: J. A. Barth. 1850. 
 
 Taylor, Francis. Observations upon I.-IX. Chapters of 
 Proverbs. 2 vols. London : George Eversden. 1645- 
 57- 
 
 GiNSBURG, C. D. Coheleth or Ecclesiastes ; translated, with 
 a Commentary. London : Longman, Brown & Co. 1857. 
 
 Durham, James. Clavis Cantici ; or, an Exposition of the 
 Song of Solomon. Edinburgh. 1668. Aberdeen. 1840. 
 
 Gregory the Great. Morals on the Book of Job, trans 
 lated, with notes and indices, in vols. XVIIL, XXI., 
 XXIIL, XXXL of The Library of the Bathers of the 
 Holy Catholic Church. Oxford : J. H. Parker. 1848. 
 
 Ren AN, Ernest. L EccUsiaste, traduit de I'Hebreu avec 
 une 6tude sur I'age et le caraciere du livre. 2. edition. 
 Paris : Caiman L' vy. 1882. 
 20
 
 458 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 (e) The Prophets. 
 
 fEwALD, Heinrich. Die Propheten des Alien Bundes er- 
 klart ; Neue Bearbeitung ; 3 Bde. ; Gottingen : Vander- 
 hoeck & Ruprecht ; 1867-68. Commentary on the Prophets 
 of the Old Testament ; translated by J. F. Smith ; 5 vols. ; 
 London : Williams & Norgate ; 1875-81. 
 
 fCHEYNE, T. K. The Prophecies of Isaiah. A new transla- 
 tion, with commentary and appendixes. 2 vols. Lon- 
 don : C. Kegan Paul & Co. 1880-1 881. 
 
 Umbreit, F. W. C. Praktischer Commentar tiber die Pro- 
 pheten des Alt. Bundes. 4 Bde. Hamburg : F. Perthes. 
 1841-46. 
 
 Gesenius, Wilhelm. Der Prophet Jesaja iibersetzt, und mit 
 vollst. phil.-krit. u. histor. Commentar begleitet. 3 Bde. 
 Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel. 1821. 
 
 The 53^ Chapter of Isaiah according to the Jewish interpreters. 
 Texts edited from printed books and MSS. by Ad. Neu- 
 
 I bauer ; translation by S. R. Driver and Ad. Neubauer. 
 
 With an introduction to the translations by E. B. Pusey. 
 2 vols. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1876-77. 
 
 Alexander, J. A. The Prophecies of Isaiah. Translated 
 and explained. Revised edition. 2 vols. New York : 
 C. Scribner & Co. 1869. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 
 1874. 
 
 LowTH, Robert. Isaiah. A new translation, with a pre- 
 liminary dissertation and notes, critical, philological, and 
 explanatory. 2d edition. London: J. Dodsley. 1779. 
 
 Henderson, E, The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah, and that 
 of the Lamentations. Translated from the original He- 
 brew. With a Commentary, critical, philological, and 
 exegetical. London: Hamilton. 1851. Andover : W. 
 F. Draper. 1868. 
 
 ScHOLZ, Anton. Commentar ztnn Buche des Propheten Jere- 
 mias. Wiirzburg : L. Woerl. 1880. 
 
 Graf, K. H. Der Prophet Jercmia erklart. Leipzig: T. 
 O. Weigel. 1862. 
 
 Haevernick, H. a. C. Cotnmentar iihcr den Propheten 
 Ezechicl. Erlangcn : Carl Heyder. 1843.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL SIUDF. 459 
 
 Fairbairn, Patrick. Ezekiel and the Book of His Prophecy. 
 2d edition. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1855. 
 
 Hengstenberg, E. W. Die Weissagungen des Propheten Ezech- 
 iel; 2Bde. ; Berlin: Gustav Schlawitz ; 1867-1868. The 
 Prophecies of Ezekiel elucidated ; translated by A. C. and 
 J. G. Murphy; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark; 1869. 
 
 Greenhill, Wm. Exposition of Ezekiel. 5 vols. 1645-67. 
 Revised and corrected by James Sherman. Edinburgh: 
 James Nichol. 1863. 
 
 (f) Minor Prophets and Daniel. 
 
 fPusEY, E. B. The Minor Prophets ; with a Commentary 
 explanatory and practical, and introductions to the several 
 books. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1877. 
 
 f Wright, C. H. H. Zechariah and His Prophecies considered 
 I in relation to Modern Criticism ; with a critical and gram- 
 
 ~ — matical Commentary and new Translation. London : 
 
 Hodder & Stoughton. 1879. 
 
 fWuENSCHE, A. Der Prophet Hosea iibersetzt und erklart 
 mit Benutzung der Targumim u. der jiid. Ausleger. Leip- 
 zig : T. O. Weigel. 1868. 
 
 fWuENSCHE, A. Die Weissagungen des Propheten Joel Qber- 
 setzt und erklart. Leipzig : R. Reisland. 1872. 
 
 fKRANiCHFELD, R. Dos Buch Daniel erklart. Berlin : 
 Gustav Schlawitz. 1868. 
 
 Henderson, E. The Books of the Twelve Minor Prophets. 
 London: Hamilton & Co. 1845. Andover: W. F. 
 Draper, i860. 
 
 BuRROUGHES, Jeremiah. An Exposition of the Prophecies of 
 Hosea. 4 vols. London: 1643-51. Edinburgh: J. 
 Nichol. 1863. 
 
 PococK, Edward, Commentary on Hosea; Oxford, At the 
 Theatre. 1685. On Joel, Micah, and Malachi ; Oxioxdi, 
 1691. 
 
 Rainolds, John. The Prophecies of Obadiah opened and ap* 
 plyed. 1613. Edinburgh: J. Nichol. 1S64.
 
 460 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 King, John. Lectures upon lonah. Oxford. 1600. Edin- 
 burgh : J. Nichol. 1864. 
 
 Kalisch, M. M. Bible Studies. Part II., The Book of Jonah. 
 London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1878. 
 
 More, Henry. A Plaine and continued Exposition of the 
 several Prophecies of Daniel. London. 1681. 
 
 Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Datiiel. 
 Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1850. 
 
 Haevernick, H. a. C. Commentar uber das Buch Daniel, 
 Hamburg: Fried. Perthes. 1839. 
 
 Commentaries on the New Testament. 
 
 (a) The New Testament as a whole. 
 
 *A Popular Commentary on the New Testament. Prepared by 
 a number of American and British scholars of the leading 
 Evangelical Denominations, under the General Editorship 
 of Philip Schaff. 4 volumes. Each volume profusely illus- 
 trusted with cuts of Bible Lands and Bible Scenes, made from 
 recent Photographs, and prepared under the supervision of 
 Wm. M. Thomson, and with maps prepared under the super- 
 vision of Arnold Guyot. — I. Matthew, Mark and Luke. With 
 an Introduction. By Philip Schaff and Matthew B. Riddle. — 
 II. *John, by Wm. Milligan and Wm. F. Moulton ; Acts of the 
 Apostles, by J. S. Howson and Donald Spence. — III. *AV 
 fna?is, by Philip Schaff and M. B. Riddle ; Corinthians, by Da- 
 vid Brown ; *Galatians, by Philip Schaff; Ephesians, by Matt. 
 B. Riddle ; Philippians. by J. Rawson Lumby ; Colossia/is, 
 by M. B. Riddle ; Thessalonians, by Marcus Dods ; Timothy, 
 by Edward Hayes Plumptre ; Titus, by J. Oswald Dykes ; 
 Philemon, by J. Rawson Lumby. — IV. Hebrews, by Joseph 
 Angus ; James, by Paton J. Gloag ; Peter, by G. D. Y. Sal- 
 mond ; John, by Wm. B. Pope and Wm. F. Moulton ; 
 Jude, by Joseph Angus ; Revelation, by Wm. Milligan and 
 Wm. F. Moulton. 
 
 *BuTLER, J. G. The Bible- Reader's Commentary. The New 
 Testament in Two Volumes. The Text arranged in sec- 
 tions ; with brief readings and complete annotations, selected 
 from the "choice and best observations" of more than 300 
 eminent Christian Thinkers of the Past and Present. New 
 York : D. Appleton & Co. 1878-9.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4(51 
 
 fBENGEL, J. A. Gnomon N. T., 5 editio von J. Steudel ; Stutt- 
 gartiae : J. F. Steinkopf, i860. Gnomon of the New Testa- 
 ment, edited by Charlton T. Lewis and Marvin R. Vincent ; 
 
 2 vols, Philadelphia : Perkenpine & Higgins. i860. 
 
 f Meyer, H. A. W. Krit. ex. Comm. uber d. N. T. notting- 
 en : Vanderhoek & Ruprecht, 1832-83. 16 Abtheilungen. 
 Matth., 7 Aufl. von B. Weiss, 1876 ; Markus, Lukas, Johan- 
 nes., 6 Aufl. von B. Weiss, 1878-80; Aposteli^eschichte von 
 H. H. Wendt, 5 Aufl., 1881 ; Rdmerbrief, 6 Auil. von B. 
 Weiss, 1881 ; /. Corinth. 6 Aufl. von C. F. G. Heinrici, 
 1881 ; //. Corinth., 6 Aufl, von Heinrici, 1883 ; Galater 
 von Y. Sieffert, 6 Aufl., 1881 ; Epheserbrief vor\ W, Schmidt, 
 
 5 Aufl., 1878; Phil., Col., Philem., 4 Aufl. von H. A. W. 
 Meyer, 1874; Thess., 4 Aufl. von G. Liinemann, 1878; 
 Tim., Titus, Fetrus, Judd, Johannes, 4 Aufl. von J. E. 
 Huther, 1876-80 ; Jacobus, 4 Aufl. von W. Beyschlag, 1882 ; 
 Hebrderbrief, 4 Aufl. von Liinemann, 1878 ; Offenb. Johan., 
 
 3 Aufl. von F. Diisterdiek, 1877. Critical and Exegetical 
 Commentary o)i the New Testament. From the German, 
 with the sanction of the author, 10 vols. Edinburgh : T. 
 
 6 T. Clark. 1876-79. 
 
 f Cai.vin, John. In Novum Testamentum Commentarii, curavit 
 A. Tholuck. 7 vol, Editio altera. Berolini : G. Thome. 
 1838. 
 
 Alforp, Henry. New Testament for English Readers j con- 
 taining the authorized version, with a revised English Text ; 
 marginal references, and a critical and explanatory Com- 
 mentary. New edition, 4 parts, in 2 vols, London : Riv- 
 ingtons, 1868. 
 
 ("hrysostom, John. Homilies on the New Testament. Vols. 
 
 IV., v., VL, vn., XL, xn., xiv., xv., xxvn., xxvhl, 
 
 XXXni., XXXIV., XXXV., XXXVI. of the Library of the 
 Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church. Oxford : J. H. 
 Paiker. 1848. 
 
 De Weite, W. M. L. Kurtzgefasstes exeget. Handb. z. N. T. 
 3 Ikle. 1 1 Abtheil. Nach seinem Tode, bearbeitet von 
 Messner, Ikiickner, Overbcck & Moller. Leipzig : Weid- 
 mann. 1836 scq. 
 
 HoFMANN, von J. Ch. Die Heilige Schriften Neuen Testa- 
 ments zusanimenhdii'^end untersucJit. 9 Teilen. Nord' 
 lingen: C. H. Beck.' 1862-83.
 
 ^62 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Ellicott, C. J. A New Testament Commentary, for English 
 Readers, by various writers. 3 vols. London : Cassell, 
 Fetter, Galpin & Co. 1878 seg. New York : E. P. Button 
 &Co. 
 
 Spiess, Ed. Logos Spermatikos. Parallelstellen zuin Neuen 
 Testament aus den Schriften der alten Griechen. Leipzig : 
 Wilhelm Engelmann. 1871. 
 
 ScHOETTGEN, Ch. Horae hebraicae et talmudicae in universum 
 Novu7n Testamentum. Dresdae : C. Hekel. 1733. 
 
 (b) The Gospels and Book of Acts. 
 
 ♦Bruce, A. B. The Parabolic Teaching of Christ. A sys- 
 tematic and critical study of the Parables of our Lord. 
 London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1882. New York : A. C. 
 Armstrong & Co. 1883. 
 
 f MORISON, James. Matthew s Memoirs of Jesus Christ. I^on- 
 don : Hamilton, Adams & Co, 1870. 
 
 f MoRisoN, James, A Practical Commentary on the Gospel ac- 
 cording to Mark. 2d edition. London: Hamilton, Adams 
 & Co. 1876. Boston : N. J. Bartlett. 1882. 
 
 fGoDET, F. Commentaire sur VSvangile de St. Luc. 2 Edition. 
 2 vol. Neuchatel : J. Sandoz. A Commentary on the 
 Gospel of St. Luke, translated by E. W. Shalders and M, 
 D. Cusin. 2 vols. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1875. 
 
 fGoDET, F. Co7n. sur tevangile de St. Jean. 3 vol. 2 edition. 
 Paris: Lib. Frangois et ^trang^re, 1876-77. Commentary 
 on the Gospel of St. John, with a critical introduction, trans- 
 lated from the 2d French edition by M. D. Cusin and S 
 Taylor; 3 vols.; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1876-77. 
 
 |Trench, R. C. Notes on the Parables, nth edition, Lon- 
 don, Macmillan & Co., 1870, 9th edition. New York, D. 
 Appleton & Co., 1858. 
 
 Tholuck, a. F. Die Bergpredigt, 5. Aufl., 1872 ; Gotha: F. 
 A. Perthes, 1872. Commentary on the Sermon on the 
 Mount, translated from the 4th revised and enlarged Ger- 
 man edition by R. L. Brown ; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 
 i860; Philadelphia: Smith, English & Co. 
 
 Alexander, J. Addison. The Gospel according to Mark Ex- 
 plained. New York : Chas. Scribner. 1858.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 453 
 
 LuTHARDT, C. E. Das Johanncischc Evatigelium ; 2 Thle.; 2 
 Auri. ; Niirnberg: (i<.'iger, 1875-6. St. Jokns Gospel, de- 
 scribed and exi)iained acxorduig to its peculiar character ; 
 3 vols. ; Edinburgh : T. & T. Ciark. 1876-8. 
 
 Aquinas, Thomas. Catena Aurea. Commentary on the four 
 Gospels, collected out of works of the Fathers. 4 vols. 
 Oxford : J. H. Parker. 1841-44. 
 
 Greswell, E. B. D. Exposition of the Parables and other 
 parts of the Gospels. 5 vols. Oxford : J. G. & F. Rivington. 
 1834. 
 
 EuTHYMius, ZiGABENUS. Commentar in IV. evangelia. Gr. 
 et Lat. ed. C. F. Matthaei. 3 toiii. Lips. : Weidniann. 
 1792. 
 
 AcHELis, E. Die Bergpredigt nach Matthaeus und Lucas. 
 Bielefr'd: Velhagen & Klasing. 1875. 
 
 GoEBEL, iu Die Parablen Jesu. Gotha : F. A, Perthes, 
 1879-80. The Parables of Jesus. Edinburgh ; T. & T. 
 Clark. 1883. 
 
 J.UECKE, G. C. F. Commentar fiber die Schriften des Evan- 
 gelisten Johannes. 3. Aufl. 4 Bde. Bonn : E. Weber. 
 1850-1856. 
 
 WuENSCHE, August. A^cue Beitrdge zur Erlaiiterung der 
 Evangelien aus Talmud &> Midrash. Gottingen : Van- 
 derhoeck & Ruprecht. 1878. 
 
 fGLOAG, P. J. A Ctitical and E^cgetical Commentary on the 
 Acts of the Apostles. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 
 1870. 
 
 Hackett, H. B. a Commentary on the Original Text of the 
 Acts of the Apostles. New edition. Andover : W. F. 
 Draper. 1877. 
 
 Alexander, J. A. The Acts of the Apostles Expounded. 3d 
 edition. 2 vols. New York : C. Scribner & Co. 1867. 
 
 (c) Pauline Epistles. 
 
 fGoDET, F. Commentaire sur Pdpttre aux Romains. 2 Tom. 
 Neuchatel : J. Sandoz. Commentary on St. PauT s Epistle 
 to the Romans. Translated from the French by A. Cusin. 
 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1880-81.
 
 464 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 fHoDGE, Chas. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans 
 New edition. Revised and in a great measure rewritten, 
 Philadelphia: R. & H. Claxton. 1856. 
 
 Shedd, W. G. T. a Critical and Doctrinal Commentary on the 
 Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans. New York : Charles 
 Scribner's Sons. rSyg. 
 
 Stuart, Moses. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on 
 the Epistle to the Romans. 3d edition. Edited and revised 
 by R. D. C. Robbins. New edition. Andover : VV. F. 
 Draper. 1876. 
 
 Beet, Joseph A. A Comrnentary on St. Pants epistle to the 
 Romans. 2d edition. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 
 1881. 
 
 Philippi, F. a. Commentar it. d. brief Pauli an die Romer ; 
 3 Aufl. ; Frankfurt a. M.: Heyder & Zimmer, 1866, Com- 
 mentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Roma?is ; translated 
 from the 3d edition by J. S. Banks ; 2 vols.; Edinburgh : T. 
 & T. Clark, 1878-9. 
 
 f Stanley, A. P. The Epistles of St. Paul to the Cori?ithians, 
 with critical notes and dissertations. 5th edition. London : 
 J. Murray. 1882. 
 
 f Beet, Joseph A. A Commentary on St. Paufs Epistle to the 
 Corinthians. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1882. 
 
 Hodge, Charles. An Exposition of the Eirst Epistle to the 
 Corinthians. New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1857. 
 
 Hodge, Charles. An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the 
 Corinthians. New York : R. Carter & Brothers, i860. 
 
 Heinrici, C. F. G. Das erste Sendschreiben des Apostel Paulus 
 an die Korinthier. Berlin : W. Hertz. 1880. 
 
 fl-iGHTFOOT, J. B. St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. 5th 
 edition. London: Macmillan & Co. 1880. Andover: W. 
 F. Draper. 1870. 
 
 f Luther, Martin. A Commentary on St. PanVs Epistle to the 
 Galatians. Philadelphia : Smith, English & Co. i860. 
 
 Eli-icott, C. J. Commentary, Critical and Grammatical on 
 St. PauVs Epistle to the Galatians. London : Longmans 
 & Co. Andover: VV. F. Draper. 1867.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4(}5 
 
 Eadie, John. Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of 
 Paul to the Galatians. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1S69. 
 
 f Eauie, John, Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle, 
 of Paul to the Ephesians. 2d edition. London : 1861. 
 New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1861. 
 
 f Ei-LICOTT, C. J. A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on 
 St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians. With a revised trans- 
 lation. 3d edition. London : Longmans & Co. 1864. 
 Andover : W. F. Draper. 1862. 
 
 Hodge, Charles. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephe- 
 sians. New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1856. 
 
 fLiGHTFOOT, J. B. St. Pauts Epistle to the Philippians. A 
 revised text, with Introduction, Notes, and Dissertations. 3d 
 edition. London : Macmillan & Co. 1873. 
 
 fELLicoTT, C. J. A Commentary, Critical and Grammatical^ 
 on St. Paut s Epistles to the Philippians, Colossians, and to 
 Philemon. 3d edition. London : Longmans & Co. An- 
 dover : W. F. Draper. 1865. 
 
 tLiGHTFOOT, J. B. St. Pauts Epistles to the Colossians and to 
 Philemon. A revised text, with Litroduction, Notes, and 
 Dissertations. 2d edition. London : Macmillan & Co. 
 1875. 
 
 Bayne, Paul. A?i Entire Commentary upon the whole of tht 
 Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians. London. R. Milbourne 
 1643. Edinburgh : James Nichol. 1866. 
 
 Airay, Henry. Lectures upon the whole Epistle of St. Pan 
 to the Philippians. London, 16 18. Edinburgh : J. Nichol 
 1864. 
 
 Byfield, N. An Exposition upon the Epistle to the Colossians. 
 Folio. London: N. Butler. 1617. 
 
 |Ei,i,icoiT, C. J. A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on 
 St. Paul's Epistles to the Thessalonians, with a revised 
 translaiion. London: Longmans & Co. Andover: W. F. 
 Dra|)er. 1865. 
 
 Eadie, John. A Commentary on the Gri 
 Epistles of Paul to the Thessalonians. 
 Young. With a Preface by John Cairns. 
 millan & Co. 1877. 
 20* 
 
 ■ck Text 
 
 of 
 
 the 
 
 Edited 
 
 by 
 
 W. 
 
 London 
 
 : Mac-
 
 I^fi BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 LiLLiK, John. Lectures o?i the Epistles of Paul to the Thessa- 
 loniaiis. New York : R. Carter & Brothers, i860. 
 
 fEi-i.icoTT, C. J. A critical and grammatical Commentary on the 
 Pastoral Epistles, with a revised translation. London : 
 Longmans, Green & Co. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1865. 
 
 Fairbairn, Patrick. The Pastoral Epistles. Greek text, 
 and translation, with introductions, expository notes, and 
 dissertations. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1874. 
 
 Barlow, John. Exposition of II. Timothy, C/iaps. i.-ii. 
 London ; George Latham. 1632. 
 
 Hall, Thomas. Commentary on II. Timothy, C. Hi. and iv. 
 Folio. London : J, Starkey. 1658. 
 
 Taylor, Thomas. Comfnentarie upon Titus. Cambridge. 
 16 1 9. Folio, 1668. 
 
 (d) General Epistles. 
 
 ■{"Delitzsch, B'ranz. Comtnentar zum Brief e an die Hebrder. 
 Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke, 1857. Commentary o?i the 
 epistle to the Hebrews. Trans, by T. L. Kingsbury. 2 vols. 
 Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1868-70. 
 
 Bleek, F. Der Brief an die Hebrder erlautert durch Einlei- 
 tung, Uebersetzung und fortlaufenden Commentar. 2 Ab- 
 theil. Berlin: F. Diiinn)ler. 1828-40. Der HebrderbrieJ 
 erklart, herausg. von K. A. Windrath. Elberfeld : Frider- 
 icks. 1868. 
 
 Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebre7vs. 
 New edition. Andover: W. F. Draper. 1876, 
 
 Gouge, William. Commentary on the whole Epistle to the He- 
 brews. 2 vols., folio, London, Joseph Kirton, 1655. 3 
 vols. Edinburgh : James Nichol. 1866-67. 
 
 Owen, John. Exposition of Hebrews. 4 vols., folio, Lon- 
 don, 1668-74. Edited by W. A, Goold. 7 vols. Edin- 
 burgh : T. & T. Clark. 
 
 M ANTON, Thoatas. A Practical Exposition on the Epistle of 
 fames. London. 1651. Revised and corrected by James 
 Sherman. London : S. Iloldsworth. 1842.
 
 BOOKS OF REFEUENCE FOli BIBLICAL STUDY. 4^7 
 
 Hasseit, F. 'i\ The Catholic Epistle of St. fames. Lon- 
 don : Sanuiel Bagster & Sons. 1876. 
 
 tI.EiGHTON, Robert. Commeritary upon \st Peter. 2 vols., 
 1613-1684. 2 vols. Philadel[)hia : Presbyterian Board of 
 Publication. 1864. 
 
 LiLLiE, John. Lectures on the First and Second Epistles of 
 Peter. New York : Charles Scribner & Co. London : 
 Hodder & Stoughton. 1869. 
 
 tWESTCOTT, Brook F. The Epistles of St. John. The Greek 
 Text with notes and essays. London : Macniillan & Co, 
 1883. 
 
 tCANDLiSH, Robert. First epistle of John expounded. 2 vols. 
 Edinburgh : A. & C. Black. 1870. 
 
 *Ebrard, J. H. A. Die Briefe Johannis. Konigsberg : A. 
 W. Unzer. 1859. Commentary 07i the epistles of St. John, 
 Translated by VV. B. Pope. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 
 t86o. 
 
 <k)TTON, John. Commentary upon the first epistle of John. 
 Folio, 2d edition. London : Thomas Parkhurst. 1658. 
 
 Jfnkyn, William. An exposition upon the epistle of Jude. 2 
 vols., Samuel Gellibrand, 1652 ; revised and corrected by 
 James Sherman. London : Samuel Holdsworth. 1839. 
 
 <e) The Book of Revelation. 
 
 •Glasgow, James. The Apocalypse translated and expounded. 
 Edinburgh : T. & T. Claik. 1862, 
 
 tSTUART, Moses. A Commentary on the Apocalypse. 2 vols, 
 Andover : Allen, Morrill & Wardwell. 1845. 
 
 tELLioiT, C. B. Horae Apocalypticae. A Commentary on the 
 Apocalypse, critical and historical. 5th edition. 4 vols. 
 London : Seeley, Jackson & Halliday. 1862. 
 
 VirRiNGA, C. Anakrisis Apocalypsios Johantiis apostoli. 
 Amsterdam: H. Strick. 1719. Leucopctiae : J. F. VVehr- 
 mann. 1721. 
 
 B^iGHTMAN, Thomas. 71ic Revelation of the Revelation. 
 Amsterdam, 16 15. Lcydcn, 1644.
 
 468 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Durham, James. A Commentarie upon the book of the Reve* 
 lation. Glasgow. 1658. New edition, Glasgow, 1788. 
 
 EiCHHORN, J. G. Commentarius in apocalypsin Joannis. 2 vol. 
 Gottingen : J. C. Dieterich. 1 79 1. 
 
 Kliefoth, Th. Die Offenbarung des Johannes, 3 AbtheiL 
 Leipzig : Dorffling & Franke. 1874. 
 
 VII. Biblical History. 
 
 (i) Biblical Geography and Natural History. 
 
 ♦Tristram, H. B. The Topography of the Holy Land. A 
 succinct account of all the places, rivers, and mountains ol 
 the land of Israel, mentioned in the Bible, so far as they have 
 been identified, together with their modern names and his- 
 torical references. London : Society for Promoting Chris- 
 tian Knowledge. 1876. New York : Pott, Young & Co. 
 1878. 
 
 *Tristram, H. B. The Natural History of the Bible. Being 
 a review of the physical geography, geology, and meteorolo- 
 gy of the Holy Land ; with a description of every animal 
 and plant mentioned in Holy Scripture. London : Society 
 for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1867^ New York : 
 Pott, Young & Co. 
 
 ♦Thomson, W. M. The Land and the Book ; or, Biblical Il- 
 lustrations drawn from the manners and customs, the scenes 
 and scenery of the Holy Land. 2 vols. New York : Har- 
 per & Brothers. 1859. New edition, illustrated. 3 vols. 
 1880-83. 
 
 ♦Stanley, Arthur P. Sinai and Palestine in connection ivith 
 their history. New edition. London : John Murray. New 
 York : A. C. Armstrong & Son. 1883. 
 
 tBAEDEKER, K. Paldstina und Syrien. Handbuch ftir Rei- 
 sende. 2te Aufl. Leipzig : Karl Baedeker. 1880. Pal- 
 estine and Syria. Boston : J. R. Osgood & Co. 
 
 tRoBiNSON, Edward. Biblical Researches in Palestine and in 
 the adjacent regions. A journal of travels in the year 1838. 
 2 vols. 2d edition. Boston: Crocker & Brewster, i860. 
 
 ^RoBINSON, Edward. Later Biblical Researches in Palestine 
 and in the adjacent regions. A journal of travels in the year 
 1852. 2d edition. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1857.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4(59 
 
 fRoBiNSON, Edward. Physical Gi'ognip/iy of the Holy Land. 
 Boston: Crocker & Brewster. 1865. 
 
 f-MERRiLL, Selah. East of the Jordan. A record of travel 
 and observation in the countries of Moab, Gilead, and Bashan 
 during the years 1875-77. New York : Chas. Scribner's 
 Sons. i88r. New edition, 1883, 
 
 tToBLER, Titus. Descriptiones Terrae Sanctae ex saeculo 
 VIII., IX., XII., et XV. Leipzig : J. C. Heinrichs. 1874. 
 
 tToBLER, Titus. Bibliographia Geographica Palestlnae. 
 I^eipzig : Hirzel. 1867. 
 
 tDELiTZSCH, Fried. Wo lag das Paradies ? Leipzig : J. C. 
 Heinrichs. 1881. 
 
 fTRUMBULL, H. Ci-AY. Kadesh-Bamea : Its importance and 
 probable site. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1884. 
 
 CoNDER, C. R. Tent Work ifi Palestine. 2 vols. London 1 
 R. Bentley & Son, New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1878. 
 
 ^Map of Western Palestine. In 26 sheets. By C. R. Conder 
 and H. H. Kitschener. London. 1880. 
 
 tMENKE, Theo. Bibelatlas in acht Blatter n. Gotha : J. 
 Perthes. 1868. 
 
 Lynch, W. F. Narrative of the United States Expedition to 
 the river Jordan and the Dead Sea. Philadelphia : Lee & 
 Blanchard. 1849. 
 
 Ebers, G. Durch Gosen zum Sinai. Aus dem Wandcrbuch 
 und der Bibliothek. 2te Auf. Leipzig: W. Engelniann. 
 1881. 
 
 Wktzstein, J. G. Reiscbericht iibcr Ilaiiran und die Tracho- 
 ncn. nebst einein Anhange iiber die Sabaischen Denkmiiler 
 in Ostsyrien. Berlin : D. Reimer. i860. 
 
 Palmer, E. H. The Desert of the Exodus. 2 vols. Cam- 
 bridge : Deighton, Hell & Co. 1871. New York: Harper 
 & Brothers. 1872. 
 
 Wilson, John. The Lands of the Bible Visited and Described. 
 2 vols. Edinburgh: J^ongmans. 1847-
 
 ^70 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Burton, Richard F., and Charles Drake. Unexplored 
 Syria. 2 vols, l^ondon : Tinsley Bros. 1872. 
 
 Tobler, T. Topographie von Jerusalem undseinen Umgebungen 
 2 Bde. Berlin: G. Reimer. 1853-4. 
 
 Tobler, T. Nazareth in Paldstina. Berlin: G. Reimer. 
 t868. 
 
 ToBT.KR, T. Bethlehem in Paldstina. St. Gallen. Huber & 
 Comp. 1849. 
 
 Warren, Charles. Underground Jerusalem. An account of 
 some of the principal difficulties encountered in its explora- 
 tion and the results obtained. London : Richard Bentley 
 & Son. 1876. 
 
 Wilson, Chas W., and Warren, Chas. The Recovery of Jer- 
 usalem. A Narrative of Exploration and Discovery in the 
 city and Holy Land. Edited by W. Morrison. New York : 
 D. Appleton & Co. 1871. 
 
 Tristram, H. B. The Land of Israel. A journal of travels 
 in Palestine, undertaken with special reference to its physi- 
 cal character. 2d ed. London : Soc, Prom. Christian 
 Knowledge. 1866. 
 
 Tristram, H. B. The Land of Moab. Travels and Discov- 
 eries on the East side of the Dead Sea and the Jordan. Lon- 
 don : J. Murray. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1873. 
 
 RiTTER, Carl. The complete Geography of Palestine and the 
 Sinaitic Peninsula. Translated by W. L. Gage. 4 vols, 
 Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1866. New York : D. Apple- 
 ton & Co. 1870. 
 
 Williams, George. The Holy City. Historical, topographi- 
 cal, and antiquarian notices of Jerusalem. 2d ed. 2 vols. 
 London : Parker & Son. 1849. 
 
 (2) Old Testament History. 
 
 (a) Archseology of the Old Testament 
 
 ♦CoNDER, F. R. A Handbook to the Bible. Being a guide to 
 the study of the Holy Scriptures, derived from ancient mon- 
 uments and modern exploration. London : Longmans, Green 
 & Co. New York : A. D. F. Randolph & Co.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOli BIBLICAL STUDY. 47I 
 
 *IvANE, E. W. An account of the manners and customs of the. 
 modern Egyptians. 2 vols. 5th edition. London : J. 
 Murray. 1871. 
 
 *Lane, E. W. The Thousand and One Nights, commonly 
 called, in England, The Arabian Nights' Entertainments. 
 A new translation from the Arabic, with copious notes, A 
 new edition, edited by E. S. Foole. 3 vols. London : 
 Routledge, Warne & Routledge. 1865. 
 
 + £wALD, Heinrich, Die Alterthiimer des Volkes Israel. 3 
 Ausg, Gottingen : Dieterich, 1866. The Antiquities of 
 Israel. Translated from the German by "H. vS. Solly. Lon- 
 don : Longmans, Green & Co. 1876. 
 
 fKEii-, C. F. Handbuch der Biblischen Archdologie. 2te. 
 Aufl. Frankfurt-a-M. : Heyder & Zimmer. 1875. 
 
 Van Lennep, H, J. Bible Lands : their modern customs and 
 manners illustrative of Scripture. New York : Harper & 
 Brothers. 1875. 
 
 Saalschutz, J. L. Archdologie der Hebrder, fur Freunde des 
 Alterthums und zum Gebrauche bei akadetnischen Vorle- 
 sungen. 2 Thcile. Konigsberg : Gebriider Borntrager. 
 1855-6. 
 
 Madden, F. W. Coins of the Jews. 2d edition. London : 
 B, Quaritch. Boston : J. R. Osgood & Co. 1881. 
 
 DeVVette, W. AL L, Lehrbuch der hebrdisch-judischen Arch- 
 dologie nebst einem Grundrisse der hebriiisch-jiidisch-Ge- 
 schichte. 4 Auf. bearbeitet von F. J. Raebiger. Leipzig ; 
 F. C W. Vogel. 1864. 
 
 Waehner, A. G. Antiquitates Ebraeoruni de Israeliticae Gen- 
 tis. 2 voll. Goltingae : A. Vandenhoeck. 1 742-3. 
 
 (b) The History of the Jews. 
 
 *Smith, William. The Old Testament History. London : 
 J.Murray. 1865, New York : Harper & i^rothers, 1871. 
 
 *MiLMAN, H. H. The History of the Jews, from the earliest 
 Period down to Modern Times. 3 vols. London : Ward, 
 I>ock & Co. New York : A. C. Armstrong & Son. 1882. 
 
 •Stanley. A. P. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. 
 3 Parts. 7th edition. London : J. Murray. New York : 
 Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1877.
 
 |.72 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 *-EwALr), Heinrich. Geschichte dcs Volkcs Israel ; 7 Bande, 
 3 Aiisg. ; Gottingen : Dieterich, 1864-68. The History 
 of Israel, translated from the German ; edited by R. Mar- 
 tineau and J. E. Carpenter. London : Longman, Green & 
 Co. 1871. 
 
 tJosEPHUS, Flavius. Opera omnia Graecae et Lafittae, curavit 
 F. Oberthiir, 3 torn., Lipsiae, 1782-85 ; Opera recog., G. 
 Dindorf, 2 volL, Paris, 1845-49 ; Editio Stereotypa, 6 voll., 
 Lips., Tauchnitz, 1850; trans, VV. Whiston, 4 vols., London, 
 1737 (many editions). 
 
 Hengstenberg, E. \V. Geschichte d. Reiches Gottes unter d. alien 
 Bunde ; 3 Theile ; Berlin: G. Schlawitz, 1869-71. History 
 of the Kingdom of God under the Old Testament, translated 
 from the German ; 2 vols. ; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 
 1871-3. 
 
 JosT, J. M. Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Secten. 3 
 Bde. Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke. 1857-9. 
 
 Graetz, H. Geschichte der Juden von den dltesten Zeiten his 
 auf die Gegenwart. 1 1 Bde. 2 Aufl. Leipzig : Oskar 
 Leiner, 1864-1870. 
 
 (c) Cotemporary History of the Old Testament. 
 
 *Rawlinson, G. The Five Great Monarchies of the Aficient 
 Eastern World. 4 vols, London : J. Murray. 1862-67. 
 
 *Bru-gsch Bey, Henry. Geschichte Aegyptens unter den Pha- 
 raonen. Leipzig, J. C. Heinrichs. A History of Egypt under 
 the Pharaohs, derived entirely from the monuments. Trans- 
 lated and edited from the German by Philip Smith. 2d 
 edition, 2 vols, London : J. Murray, 1881. 
 
 tLENORMANT, Franqois. les Origincs de T histoire J 2 Tom.; 
 Paris: Maisoneuve & Cie, 1880-83. The Beginnings of 
 History according to the Bible and tne traditions of Oriental 
 peoples, from the creation of man to the deluge ; trans, 
 from the 2d French edition, with an introduction by Francis 
 Brown ; New York : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1882 (2d 
 volume in press). 
 
 t-EBERS, G. Aegypten und die Bucher Moses. Sachl. Coni 
 mentar zu den Aegypt. Stellen in Genesis u. Exodus. Leip 
 zig : Engelmann, 1868.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 473 
 
 hScHRADER, E. Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament^ 
 mit einem Beitrage von Paul. Haupt. 2 Aufl. Giessen : J. 
 Ricker. 1883. 
 
 ViGOUROUX, F. La Bible et les dicouvertes modernes en Pales- 
 tine, en Egypte et en Assyrie. 3 edition. 4 Tom. Paris : 
 Berche et Tralin. 1882. 
 
 Hengstenberg, E. W. Die Bucher Moses und Aegypten ; 
 Berlin: L. Oehinigke, 1841. Egypt and l/ie Books of Moses, 
 translated by R. D. C. Robbins ; New York : Robert Carter 
 & Brothers, 1850. 
 
 SCHRADER, E. Die Keilischriften und Geschichtsforschung. 
 Ein Beitrag zur inonunientalen Geographie, Geschichte und 
 Chronologie der Assyrer. Giessen: J. Ricker. 1878. 
 
 DuNCKER, Max. Geschichte des Alterthum. 3 Aufl. 5 Bande. 
 Berlin. 1880-81. History of Antiquity. From the Ger- 
 man. By E. Abbott. 6 vols. London : Richard Bentley 
 & Son. 1877-82. 
 
 Rawlinson, Geo. History of Ancient Egypt. 2 vols. Lor- 
 don : I^ongman, Green & Co. 1881. 
 
 Smith, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis. Neiy 
 edition. London : Sampson Low, Marston & Co. i88a 
 New York : Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1876. 
 
 Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries ; an Account of Ex 
 plorations and Discoveries on the site of Nineveh durinj 
 1873 ^"d 1874, with illustrations. New edition, edited br 
 A. H. Sayce, 1880. London : Sampson Low & Co. Ncm 
 York : Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1875. 
 
 Budge, Earnest A. The History of EsarJiadJon, translated 
 from the Cuneiform inscriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets 
 in the British Museum. Boston : J. R. Osgood & Co. 
 1881. 
 
 Wilkinson, J. G. Manners and Customs of the Ancient 
 K'^xptians. New edition, revised and corrected by Samuel 
 r>iich. 3 vols. London: J.Murray. 1878. 
 
 Smiih, Geo. History of Assurhaiiipal. Translated from the 
 Cuneiform Inscrii)tions. London: Williams & Norgate. 
 1871.
 
 474 BIBLICAL STUDI. 
 
 Smith, Geo. The Assyrian Eponym Canon, containing trans- 
 lations of the documents, and an account of the evidence, 
 on the comparative chronology of the Assyrian and Jewish 
 Kingdoms, from the death of Solomon to Nebuchadnezzar. 
 London: Samuel Bagster & Sons. 1875. 
 
 LoTZ, W. Die Inschriften Tiglathpilesers in transkribierten 
 Assyrischen Grundtext mit Uebersetzung und Konmientar. 
 Leipzig: J. C. Heinrichs. 1880. 
 
 Lenormant, F\ Histoire anciemie de r Orient jusqu' aux 
 guerres mediques. Neuvieme Edition. 3 Tom. Paris : A. 
 Levy. 1881-83. 
 
 Sharpe, Samuel. The History of Egypt, from the earliest 
 times till the conquest of the Arabs. 2 vols. London : 
 George Bell & Son. 1876, 
 
 ZiNCKE, F. B. Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. 2d 
 edition, London : Smith, Elder & Co. 1873. 
 
 Kenrick, J, Phoenicia. London: B. Fellows. 1855. 
 
 WiLKiNS, A. Phxnicia and Israel A Historical Essay. 
 London : Hodder & Stoughton. 187 1. 
 
 NuTT, J. W. A Sketch of Samaritan History, Dog7na ana 
 Literature. London : Triibner & Co. 1874. 
 
 Records of the Past, being English translations of the Assyr- 
 ian and Egyptian monuments, published under the sanction 
 of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. 1 1 vols. London : 
 S. Bagster & Sons. 1873-78. 
 
 Cooper, W. R. An Archaic Dictionary ; Biographical, His- 
 torical, and Mythological, from the Egyptian, Assyrian, and 
 Etruscan monuiwents and papyri. London : Samuel Bagster 
 & Sons. 1876. 
 
 (3). The History of the Jews and their Sur- 
 roundings during the Greek and Roman 
 Periods. 
 (a) The Apocryphal Books of the Old Testament. 
 
 *The Apocrypha, Greek afid English in parallel columns. 
 I>ondon : S. Bagster & Co. 187 1.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 475 
 
 f-BrssEix E. C. The Apocrypha of the Old Testament, with 
 historical introductions, a revised translation, and notes, 
 critical and explanatory. New York : Charles Scribner's 
 Sons. 1880. 
 
 Kurtzgefasstes Handbuch z. d. Apokryphen des Alten Testa- 
 mentes, erklart von O. F. Fritzsche u. C. L. \V. Grimm. 6 
 Bde. Leipzig: S. Hirzel. 1851-60. 
 
 Deane, W. J. The Book of Wisdom. The Greek text, the 
 Latin Vulgate, and the authorized English version, with an 
 introduction, critical apparatus, and a Commentary. Ox- 
 ford ; Clarendon Press. 188 1. 
 
 Neubauer, a. The Book of Tobit. A Chaldee text, from a 
 unique MS. in the Bodleian Library, with other Rabbinical 
 texts, English translation and the Italu. Oxford : Clarendon 
 Press. 1878. 
 
 Keil, C. F. Commentar uber die Bucher der Makkabder. 
 Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke. 1875. 
 
 Kneucker, J. J. Das Buck Baruck, Geschichte und Kritik, 
 Uebersetzung und Erkliirung, mit einem Anhang fiber den 
 pseudepigraphischen Baruch. Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 
 1879. 
 
 VoLK-MAR, G. Handbuch der Einlcituug in die Apokryphen. 3 
 Bde. Leipzig: J. Fues. 1860-67. 
 
 (b) Pseudepigraphs. 
 
 *ScHODDE, G. H. The Book of Enoch, translated from the 
 Ethiopic, with introduction and notes. Andover : W. F. 
 Draper. 1882. 
 
 tFABRicius, J. A. Codex Pseudepigraphi Vcteris Testanienti, 
 Editio altera. 2 voll. Hamburg : apud Viduam Felginer- 
 iam et Bohmium. 1722-23. 
 
 tDiLLMANN, A. Das Buch Henoch; iibersctzt und erklart. 
 Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1853. 
 
 ^Hii-GENKELD, A. Messias Judacorum ; libris eoruiii paulo 
 ante et paulo post Christum natum conscri|)tis ilhistratus. 
 Lipsiae : R. Reisland. 1869. 
 
 p'"RiKi>i.ncB, J. H. Oraciila Sibyllina, ad fidem codd. MSS. 
 quotquot extant recensuit, praetextis i)rolegoininis illustravit, 
 versione Germanica instruxit, aiinotaliones criticas et reruin 
 indicem adjcxit. Lipsae : T. O. Weigel. 1852.
 
 476 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 fLANGEN, J. De Apocalysi Baruch^ commentatio anno siv 
 pericis priinum edita. Freiburg: Herder. 1867. 
 
 DiLLMANN, A. Liber Henoch AetJiiopicae. ad quinque codi. 
 cum fidem editus cum variis lectionibus. Lipsiae : V. C. 
 W. Vogel. 185 1. 
 
 DiLLMANN, A. Ascensio Isaiae Aethiopiae et. Latine. Lipsiae : 
 F. A. Brockhaus. 1877. 
 
 RoENSCH, H. Das Buck der JubilcPen oder die kleine Genesis. 
 Unter beifugung des revirdirten Textes der in der Ambro- 
 siana aufgefundenen lat. Fragmente, sovie einer von A. 
 Dillmann aus 2 uthio[). Handschrift. gefertigten )at. Ueber- 
 tragung erlaiitert und untersucht. Leipzig: J. Fues. 1874. 
 
 (c) History. 
 *Prideaux, Humphrey. T/ie Old and New Testaments con- 
 nected in the history of the Jews and neighboring nations, 
 from the declension of the kingdom of Israel and Judah to 
 the time of Christ. New edition, revised, with notes, anal- 
 yses, and introductory reviews, by J. Talboys Wheeler. 3d 
 edition. 2 vols. London : Thomas Tegg. 1876. 
 
 *CuRTius, Ernst. Griechische GescJiichte. 3 Aufl. 3 Bde. 
 Berlin : Weidmann. 1868. The History of Greece. 5 
 vols. Translated by A. W. Ward. New York : Scnbner, 
 Armstrong & Co. 1874. 
 
 *MoMMSEN, Theo. Rowische Geschichte. 5 Aufl. 3 Bde. 
 Berlin : Weidmann. 1868. The History of Rome. Trans- 
 lated by W. P. Dickson. 2d edition. 4 vols. I^ondon : Rich- 
 ard Bentley. New York : Charles Scribner. 1864-6. 
 
 tMoN'i'ET, Edouard. Essai sur les origines des partis Sadu- 
 cien et Pharisien et leur Hist oi re jusqti' a la naissance de 
 JdsHS Christ. Paris ; Fischbach. 1883. 
 
 Li;cius, P. E. Der Essenistnus in seifie?n Verhdltniss zuin 
 Judenthum. Strassburg : C. F. Schmidt. 1881. 
 
 W'ei-i,hausen, J. Die Pharisder und die Sadducder. Greifs- 
 wald : Bamberg. 1874. 
 
 (4). New Testament History. 
 
 (a) Cotemporary History. 
 
 *JosKFMUS, Fi.Avius. The Jewish /Ti/r, with his autobiography. 
 A new translation, by R. Traill, edited, with notes, by Isaac 
 Taylor, London : Houlston & Wright. 1868.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 477 
 
 rScHUKRER, E.MIL. Lehrbiich der Neutestamentliclw Zci/ge- 
 schichte. Leipzig : J. C. Heinrichs. 1874. 
 
 Hausrath, a. Netitestamcntliche Zeitgeschichte. a AiiH. 4 
 The. Heidelberg: F, Bassermann, 1874-77. History of 
 the Netu Testament Times. Translated by C. T, Foyiiting 
 and P. Queuzer. Williams & Norgate. 1878-83. (Two 
 vols, only have appeared.) 
 
 DoLLiNGER, J. J. I. Heidcnthum und Judenthum. Vorhalle 
 zur Geschichte des Christenthuins. Regensburg : C. J, 
 Manz. 1857. 
 
 Friedlander, L. DarstcUung aus der Sittengeschichte Roms. 
 in der Zeit von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine. 5 
 Aufl. 3 Theile. Leipzig: S. Hirzel. 1881. 
 
 (b) Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical books relat- 
 ing to the origin of Christianity. 
 
 fTiscHENDORF, C. Evangelia apocrypha. Leipzig : Avenarius 
 & Mendelssohn. 1853. 
 
 tTlscHENDORF, C. Apocalypses apocryphae. Mosis, Esdrae, 
 Pauli, Johannis, item Mariae dormito. Leipzig: H.Men- 
 delssohn. 1866. 
 
 *I-,iPSius, P. A. Die Apokryphen Apostelgeschichicn und Apos- 
 tellcgendeti. Ein Beitrag zur altchristlichen Literaturgesch- 
 ichte. Braunschweig: C. A. Schwetschke & Sohn. 1883. 
 
 TiscHENDORF, C. Acta Apostolorum apocrypha. Lei[)zig : 
 Avenarius & Mendelssohn. 185 1. 
 
 Baring-Gould, S. Tlie lost and hostile Gospels. An Essa\' on 
 the Toledeth Jeschu and the Petrine and Pauline (Josjicls 
 of the first three centuries, of which fragments remain. Lon- 
 don : Williams & Norgate. 1874. 
 
 Wright, William. Apocryphal Literature of the New 2'esia- 
 ment. London : Williams & Norgate. 1865. 
 
 Cooper, V>. Harris. Apocryphal Gospels and Documents relat- 
 ing to Christ. ]>ondon: Williams & Norgate. 1867. 
 
 Bonnet, Max. Acta Thomae. Graece partim cum novis cod 
 icil)us contulit primus edidit Latine recensuit pracfactus est. 
 Lipsiae : H. Mcndclsolin. 1883.
 
 4,78 BIBLICAL STUDT. 
 
 (c) Life of Jesus Christ. 
 
 *Karrar, 1*'. W. The Life of Christ. 2 vols. I-ondon ; 
 
 Petler, Galpin & Co. New York : E. P. Dulton & Co. 
 
 1874. 
 ♦Geikie, C. The Life and Words of Christ. New edition. 
 
 London: Strahan & Co. J878. New York : D. Appleton 
 
 & Co. 1877. 
 
 tWEiss, Bernhard Das Leben Jesu. 2 Bde, Berlin : Wil- 
 helm Herz. 1882-83. The Life of Jesus. Translated 
 by J. W. Hope. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1883. 
 
 f Ullmann, C. Die Siindlosigkeit Jesu. 7 Aufl. Gotha : F. 
 A. Perthes. 1863. The Sinlessness of Jesus. Translated 
 from the 6th German edition by R. C. Brown. Edinburgh : 
 T. & T. Clark. New edition, translated by Sophia Taylor. 
 1870. 
 
 tCASPARi, C. E. Chronolog-geograph. Einleitung in d. Leben 
 Jesu Chrisii. Hamburgh : Agentur des Rauen Hauses. 1869. 
 A Chronological and Geographical Lntroduction to the Life 
 of Christ. Translated by M. J. Evans. Edinburgh : T. & 
 T. Clark. 1876. 
 
 Keim, Th. Geschichte Jesu von Nazara in ihrer Verkettung 
 niit dem (jesammtleben seines Volkes. 3 Bde. ZUrich ; 
 Orell, Fussle & Co. 1867-72. The Llistory of Jesus of 
 Nazareth. Translated by Ransom & Gilbert. 5 vols, 
 Williams & Norgate. 1873-81. 
 
 Andrews, S. J. The Life of our Lord upon earth. Consid- 
 ered in its historical, chronological, and geographical rela- 
 tions. 4th edition. New York : Charles Scribner & Co. 
 1868. 
 
 Strauss, David. Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet. 3 Aufl. 
 2 Bde. Tubingen : C, F. Osiander. 1838-39. DiiS leben 
 Jesu filr das deutsche Volks. 3 Aufl. Leipzig : F. A. 
 Brockhaus. 1874. Life of Jesus. Authorized tra^jslation. 
 2d edition. 2 vols. London: Williams & Norgate, 1879. 
 
 Neander, a. Das Leben Jesu in seinen geschichtlichen Zusam- 
 menhange und seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung darge- 
 stellt. 7 Aufl. Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1873. The Life 
 of Jesus. Translated from the 4th (lerman edition by J. 
 ATcChntock and C. E. Blumenthal. 3d edition. New V.vrk • 
 Harper & Brothers. 1850.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 479 
 
 Hase, K. Geschichte Jesu. Leipzig : Breitkopf & HLirtel. 
 1876. 
 
 Hervey, Arthur. Genealogies of our Saviotir, from Matthew 
 and Luke. London : Bell & Daldy. 1853. 
 
 Trench, R. C. Notes on the Miracles of our Lord. loth edi- 
 tion. London: Macinillan & Co. 1874. New York: D, 
 Appleton & Co. 1858. 
 
 Renan, Ernest. Vie de Je'sus. 17 ed. Paris: Calmann Ldvy. 
 1882. Life of Jesus- Translated from the original Krencli, by 
 C. K. Wilbour. New York : G. W. Carleton & Co. 1862. 
 
 Stroud, William. A Treatise on the physical cause of the 
 death of Christ., and its relation to the principles and jirac- 
 tice of Christianity. 2d edition. London: Hamilton, Adams 
 & Co. New York : I). Appleton & Co. 1871. 
 
 Jameson, Anna, and E. Easti^ake. The IListory of our Lord 
 as exemplified in Works of Art, with that of His types ; St. 
 John the Baptist ; and other Persons of the Old and New 
 Testament. Commenced by the late Mrs. Jameson, con- 
 tinued and completed by Lady Eastlake. 2 vols. London : 
 Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green. 1864. 
 
 LuDOLPHUS DE Saxonia. Vita Jesu Christ e quat. evang. et 
 scriptoribus orthodox, concinnata. Strasburg. 1470. Ed 
 Bolard et Carnandes. Bruxelles. 1870, 
 
 (d) The Apostolical Church. 
 
 *ScHAFF, Philip. History of the Christian Church. A new 
 edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged. Vol, L Apostoli- 
 cal Christianity, a.d. i-ioo. New York : Charles Scnbner's 
 Sons. 1882. 
 
 ♦CoNYBEARE, W. J., and J. S. HowsoN. The Life a7id epistles 
 of St. Paul. 2 vols. London : Longmans, (}reen & Co. 
 1875. New edition, 1877. 2 vols, in i. New York: 
 Charles Scribner's Sons. 
 
 ♦McDonald, J. M. Life and writings of St. John. Edited 
 witli an introduction by J. S. Howson. New York : Scribner, 
 Armstrong & Co. 1877. 
 
 ♦HowsON, J. S. Jlorae Pctrinac ; or, Studies in the life of St 
 Peter. I>ondon : Religious Tract Society. 1883.
 
 480 \ BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 *HowsoN, John S. Tlie Companions of St. Paul. London . 
 A. Strahan. 187 1. 
 
 tLEvaN, Thomas. The life and epistles of St. Paul. 3d edi- 
 tion. 2 vols. London : Geo. Bell & Sons. 1875. 
 
 tNEANDER, A. Geschichte der Pfla?izung mid Leitung der 
 christlichen Kirche durch die Apostel. 5 Aufl. Gotha : F. 
 A.Perthes. 1862. History of the Planting and Training 
 of the Christian Church. Translated from the German by 
 J. E. Ryland. Revised and corrected according to the 4th 
 German edition by E. G. Robinson. New York : Sheldon 
 & Co. 1865. 
 
 Baumgarten, M. Die Apostelgeschichte oder der Entvvicke- 
 lungsgang der Kirche von Jerusalem bis Rom. 2 Thle. 
 Halle : G. A. Schwetscke & Sohn. 1852. 
 
 Earrar, F. W. The life and work of St. Paul. 2 vols. 
 London : Cassell. 1879. N*^^^ York : E. P. Dutton & Co. 
 
 Smith, James. The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul. 4th 
 edition, revised and corrected by VV. E. Smith. London : 
 LongnianSj Green & Co. 1880. 
 
 Renan, Ernest. Histoire des Origines du Christianis?ne. 7 
 vol. Paris : Calmann Levy. 1 882-1 883. 
 
 VIIL— Biblical Theology. 
 
 (i) Theology of the Bible. 
 
 (a) The Theology of the whole Bible. 
 
 f EwALD, Heinrich. Lehre der Bibel von Gott oder Theologic 
 des Alten und Neuen Bundes. 4 Bde. Leipzig : ¥. C. W. 
 Vogel. 1871-76. 
 
 (b) Special Topics. 
 
 ■{•Delitzsch, P'ranz. System d. Biblischen Psychologie. 2 Aufl. 
 Leipzig : Dorffling & Franke. 1863. System of Biblical 
 Psychology. Trans, by R. E. Wallis. 2 edit. Edinburgh : 
 T. & T. Clark. 1867. 
 
 |Cave, Alfred. The Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice* Edin- 
 bmgh: T. & T. Clark. 1877
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4S1 
 
 Laidijvw, John. The Bible doctrine of man. Edinburgh : T. 
 & T.Clark. 1879. 
 
 Fairbairn, Patrick. The Revelation of Law in Scripture. 
 Considered with respect both to its own nature and to its 
 relative place in successive dispensations. Edinburgh : T. 
 & T. Clark. 1868. 
 
 Fairbairn, Patrick. The Typology of Scripture. Viewed in 
 connection with the whole series of the divine dispensations. 
 6th edition. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1876. 
 New York : N. Tibbals & Sons. 1880. 
 
 Beck, J. T. Umriss d. bibl. Seelenlehre. 3 Aufl. Stuttgart : 
 J. ¥. Steinkopf. 187 1. Outlines of Biblical Psychology. 
 Translated from the 3d German edition, 1871. Edinburgh: 
 T. & T. Clark. 1877. 
 
 (2) Theology of the Old Testament, 
 (a) Theology of the old religions. 
 
 *Rawlinson, George. The Religions of the Ancient World. 
 London : Rehgious Tract Society. 1882. New York : 
 Charles Scribner's Sons. 1883. 
 
 fl^ENORMANT, F. Les Scicnces occidtes en Asie. La Magic chey. 
 les Chald^ens et Ics origineaux Accadiennes. Paris : Maison- 
 neuve et Cie. 1874. Chaldean Magic. Its origin and 
 development. Translated from the French, with consider- 
 able additions, by the author, and notes by the editor. 
 London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1877. 
 
 ScHRADER, E. Die Holleiifahrt der Lstar. Ein altbabylonisches 
 Ej^os nebst Proben assyrischer Lyrik. Giessen : J. Ricker. 
 1874. 
 
 Krehl, L. Ueber die Religion der vorislatnischen Arabcr. 
 Leipzig: Serig. 1863. 
 
 Movers, J. C. Die Phdnizier. 3 Bde. Bonn : E. Weber. 
 1841-50. 
 
 Baudissin, W, W. Studien zur Semitischen ReligionsgeschicJite. 
 1-2 Heft Leijjzig : W. Grunow. 1876-79. 
 
 SriESS, Edmund. Entwicklungsgeschichte der Vorsicllungen 
 von Zustande nach deni Tode auf Grund vcrgleichcnder Re-r 
 ligionsforschung. Jena : H. Costenoble. 1877. 
 21
 
 482 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 TiELE, C. P. Vcrgelijkc7jde geschiedenis der Egyptische en 
 Mesopotamtsche godsdienstcn. Anisterdatn : P. N. Van 
 Kampen. 1869-72. History of the Egyptian Religion. 
 Vol. I. Translated by lames Hallingal. Boston: Houghton, 
 Mifflin & Co, 
 
 (b) The Old Testament as a whole. 
 
 ♦Oehler, G. F. Vorlesungen iiber die Theologie d, Alt. Test. 
 2 Bde. 2 Aufl. 1883. Theology of the Old Testament. 2 
 vols. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1874. Revised edition 
 by G. E. Day. New York : Funk & VVagnalls. 1883. 
 
 fScHULTZ, Hermann. Alttestametitliche Theologie. Die offen- 
 barungsreligion auf ihrer voichristlichen Entwickelungsstufe, 
 dargestellt. 2 Aufl. Frankfurt-a-M. : Heyder & Zimmer. 
 1878. 
 
 HoFMANN, J. C. R, Der Schriftbeweis. 2 Aufl. 3 Bde. 
 Nordlingen : C. H. Beck. 1857-60. 
 
 Cc) The Religion of Israel. 
 
 fKoNiG, F. E. Der Offenbarungsbegriff des Alten Testamentes. 
 2 Bde. Leipzig : J. C. Heinrichs. 1882. 
 
 fTHOLucK, A. Die Propheten U7id ihre Weissagungen- Gotha : 
 F, A. Perthes. Abd. 2. 1861. 
 
 tKuPER. Das Prophetenthum des Alten Bundes. Leipzig: 
 Dorffling & Franke. 1870. 
 
 KuENEN, A. De Godsdieiist van Israel tot den Ondergang 
 van den Joodschen Staat. Haarlem, 1869. The Religion of 
 Israel. Translated from the Dutch by A. H. May. 3 vols. 
 London : Williams & Norgate. 1874-5. 
 
 KuENEN, A. De Profeten eji de Profetie on der Israel. Leiden. 
 1875. The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. Translated 
 from the Dutch by A. Milroy, with an introduction by J. 
 Muir. London: I.,ongmans, Green & Co. 1877. 
 
 Trip, J. Die Theophanien ijt den Geschichtsbuechern des Alten 
 Festamcnts. Leiden : D. Noothoven van'Goor. 1858. 
 
 (d) Religious Institutions. 
 *Atwater, Edward E. History and Significance of the Sa- 
 cred Tabernacle of the Hebrews. New York : Dodd & 
 Mead. 1875.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 453 
 
 *Edersheim, a. The temple, its ministry and services os they 
 7vere in the time of Christ. London : T. Nelson & Sons. 
 1874. 
 
 f Bahr, K. C. W. F. Symbolik des Mosaischen Cultus. I. Bd., 
 2te Aufl., 1874; ir. Bd., 1839. Heidelberg: J. C. B. Mobr. 
 
 tSAALSCHOxz, J, L. Das Mosaische Recht nebst den vervoll- 
 standigenden thaliniidisch-rabbinischen Bestimmungen. 2 
 Aufl. 2 Theile. Berlin : C. Heymann. 1853. 
 
 VVarburton, William. The divine Legation of Moses demon- 
 strated. 3 vols. London : Thomas Tegg. 1846. 
 
 Wines, E. C. Commentaries on the La^vs of the Ancient He- 
 brews. New York: G. P. Putnam & Co. 1855. 
 
 Michaelis, J. D. Commentaries on the law of Moses. 4 vols. 
 London: Rivingtons. 18 14. 
 
 Kurtz, J. H. Der Alttestamentliche Opfercultiis. Ein nach 
 seiner gesetzlichen Begrundung und Anwendung. Mitau: 
 A Neumann. 1862. Sacrificial Worship of the Old Tes- 
 tament. Edinburgh : 1\ & T. Clark. 1863. 
 
 Bahr, K. C. W. F. Der Salomonische Tcmpel mit Beriick- 
 sichtigiing seines Vorhiiltnisses zur heiligen Architectur, 
 Karlsiuhe: C. T. Groos. 1848. 
 
 (e) Special Doctrines of the Old Testament 
 
 fORELi.i, VON C. Die alttestamentliche Weissagung von der 
 Vollendung des Gottesrciches. Wien : G. P. Faesy. 1882. 
 
 fRiKHM, E. Begriff. d. Siihne im Alien Testament. Gotha : 
 V. A. Perthes^ 1877. 
 
 f RiEHM, Ed. Die Messianische IVeissagung ihre Entstehung, 
 ihr zeitgeschichtlicher Charakter und ihr Verhiiltnis zu der 
 neutestamentychen Erfullung. Gotha: F. A. Perthes, 1875. 
 Messianic Prophecy. 'IVant-lated by J. Jefferson. Edinburgh : 
 T. & T. Clark. 1875. 
 
 f Bo'iTCHER, F. De inferis rebiisque post mortem futuris ex. 
 Hebraeorum et Graecorum opinionibus libri duo. Dresden : 
 H. M. Go<tschalck. 1846.
 
 484 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Reinke, L. Die Messianischen Weissagungen bei den grossen 
 und k'.eiuen Proplieten des A. T. 4 Bde. Giesen : E. Roth. 
 1859-62. 
 
 Kahle, Albert. Biblische Eschatologie. Abth. I. Escha- 
 tologie des Allen Test. Gotha : G. Schloessmann. 1870. 
 
 VVuensche, Aug. Die Leiden des Messias in ihrer Ueberein- 
 stimmung mit der Lehre des Alten Testaments und den Ans- 
 spiiichen der Rabbinen in den Talmuden, Midraschiin und 
 andern alten rabbinischen Schriften. Leipzig : R. Reisland. 
 1870. 
 
 Hengstenberg, E. W. Christologie des Alten Testaments. 2 
 Aufl. 3 Bde. Berlin : L. Oehmigke. 1854-56. Christology 
 of the Old Testament. Trans, by T. Meyer. 4 vols. Edin- 
 burgh : T. & T. Clark. 1859-65. 
 
 (3). Theology of the Jews during the Greek and 
 Roman Periods. 
 
 (a) The Theology of the surrounding Religions. 
 
 Nagelsbach, K. F. Homerische Theologie. 2 Aufl. von G. 
 Autenrieth. Nurnberg : C. Geiger. 1861. 
 
 NXgelsbach, K. F. Die nachhomerische Theologie des grie- 
 chischen Volksglauben bis auf Alexander Nurnberg : C. 
 Geiger. 1857. 
 
 Tyler, W. S. The Theology of the Greek Poets. Andover: 
 W. F. Draper. 1870. 
 
 Lewis, Tayler. Plato against the Atheists ; or, the tenth book 
 of the dialogues on Laws, as accompanied with critical notes 
 and followed by extended dissertations on some of the main 
 points of the Platonic Philosophy and Theology, especially 
 as comi)ared with the Holy Scripture. New York : Harper 
 & Brothers. 1845. 
 
 Pressense, E. de. The Religions before Christ. Being an 
 Introduction to the History of the first three centuries of ihe 
 Church. Translated by L. Corkran. Edijiburgh : T. & T. 
 Clark. 1862. 
 
 Darbistan, the ; or School of Manners. Translated from the 
 original Persian, With notes and illustrations by David 
 Shea and Anthony Troyer. 3 vols. London : Allen & Co, 
 1843.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 435 
 
 (b) Theology of the Apocryphal books and Pseud- 
 epigraphs. 
 
 ^Drummond, James. The Jewish Messiah. A critical his- 
 tory of the Messianic idea among the Jews from the rise of 
 the Maccabee to the closing of the Talmud. London : 
 Longmans, Green & Co. 1877. 
 
 j-Bretschneider, K. G. Systematische Darstellung der Dog- 
 matik und Moral der apocryphischen Schriften des Alien 
 Testaments. Leipzig: G. L. Crusius. 1805. 
 
 f ViTRiNGA, C. De Synagoge vetere. I-eucopetriae : J. F. Wehr- 
 mann. 1726. The Synagogue and the Church. Condensed 
 from the original Latin work of Vitringa by J. L. Bernard. 
 I-ondon : B. Fellows. 1842. 
 
 f Langen, J. Das Judenthum in Paldstina zur Zeit Christi, 
 Ein Beitrag zur Offenbarungs-und religions-geschichte als 
 Einleitung in die Theologie des N. T. Freiburg im B. : 
 Herder. 1866. 
 
 (c) Later Jewish Theology. 
 
 tZuNZ, L. Die gottesdienstlichen Vdrtrdge der Juden, historisch 
 entwickelt. Berlin : A. Asher. 1832. 
 
 fWEBER, F. System der altsynagogalen paldstinischen Theologie 
 aus Targum, Midrasch, und Talmud. Leipzig : Dorffling & 
 Franke. 1880. 
 
 Chiarini, L. Le Talmud de Babylone traduit en langue Fran- 
 gaise et complete par celui de Jerusalem et par d'aulres 
 moniimens de I'antiqiiite Judaique. 2 voll. Leipzig : J. A. 
 G. Weigel. 1831. 
 
 Surknhusius, G. Mishna sive totins Hebraeorum Juris, 
 Riiiuim, Anfiquitatum, ac Legum oralium Systema. 6 Pars 
 Anistclaedanii. 1698-1702. 
 
 SciiWAiJ, M. Le Talmud de Jerusalem traduit pour la pre, 
 mien; fois. 6 Tom. (thus far published). Paris : Maison* 
 euv-&Cc. 1871-83.
 
 486 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 (4) New Testament Theology. 
 
 (a) As a whole. 
 
 ♦Bernard, T, D. The Progress of Doctrine in the New Tes* 
 tament. Bampton Lecture, 3 edition. London : Macmil- 
 lan & Co. 1873. 2d edition. Gould & Lincoln. 1868. 
 
 tWEiss, Bernhard. Lehrbuch der Biblischen Theologie des 
 Neuen Testaments ; 3 Aufl., Berlin, Wilhelm Hertz, 1880. 
 Biblical Theology of the New Testament^ translated from 
 the third revised edition by D. Eaton ; 2 vols.; Edinburgh : 
 T. & T. Clark, 1882-83. 
 
 tScHMiD, C. F. Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 
 herausg, von Heller, 4 Aufl. ; Gotha, i86g. Biblical The 
 ology of the Neiv Testament ; Edinburgh: T. & T, Clark. 
 1870. 
 
 Baur, F. C. Vorlesungen iiber Neutestamentliche Theologie, 
 herausgegeben von F. F. Baur. Leipzig : L. W. Reisland. 
 1864. 
 
 Reuss, Eduard. Histoire de la TMologie Chre'tienne au Sihle 
 Apostolique ; 3 edit.; Strasbourg, Treuttel & VViirtz, 1864. 
 History of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age, trans- 
 lated from the 3d edition by Annie Harwood ; 2 Vv^ls. ; 
 London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1872. 
 
 LuTTERP.ECK, A. B. Die Neutestamentliche Lehrbegriffen, ein 
 Handbuch fur alteste Dogmengeschichte und systematische 
 Exegese des Neuen Testamentes. 2 Bande. Mainz : F. 
 Kupferberg. 1852. 
 
 OosTERZEE Van. J. J. De Theologie des Niewen Verbonds. 
 2 vorm. Utrecht : Kermink & Zn. 1867. The Theology 
 of the Neiv Testa me?it. Translated from the Dutch by M. 
 J. Evans. New York : Dodd & Mead. 187 1. 
 
 (b) Theology of Gospels. 
 
 ♦Bruce, A. B. The Training of the Twelve, or passages out 
 of the (iospels exhibiting the twelve disciples of Jesus under 
 discipline for the apostleship. 3d edition. Edinburgh : T, 
 &T. Claik. 1883.
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCi: FOR BIULICAL STUDY. 437 
 
 Hardwick, C. Christ and other Masters. An historical 
 inquiry into some of the chief i-arallelisins and contrasts 
 between Christianity and the religious systems of the An- 
 cient World. New edition. Cambridge ; Macmillan & Co. 
 1883. 
 
 Smeaton, George. The Doctrine of the Atofiement as Taught 
 by Christ Himself. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1868. 
 
 Weiffenb ACH, W. Ber Wiedcrkunftsgedatikes Jesu, nach den 
 Synoptikern kritisch untersucht und dargestellt. Leipzig : 
 Breitkopf & Hartel. 1873. 
 
 (c) Theology of the Epistles. 
 
 tOpiTZ, Hermann. Das Systetn des Paulus nach seinen Briefen. 
 Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1874. 
 
 ^RIEHM, Ed. K. a. Der Lehrbegriff des Hebrderbriefes dar- 
 gestellt und niit verwandten Lehrbegriffen verglichen. Neue 
 Ausg. Basel: Balnier & Riehm. 1867. 
 
 IGebhardt, Hermann. Der Lehrbegriff der Apokalypse. 
 (lotha, Besser, 1873. The Doctrine of the Apocalypse, 
 translated from the (ierman bv J. Jefferson ; Edinburgh, T. 
 & T.Clark, 1878. 
 
 Irons, VV. J. Christiaiiity as Taught by St. Paul. 2d edition. 
 Oxford: James Parker & Co. 1876. 
 
 U.steri, L. Entwickelung des Paulifiischen Lehrbegriffcs in 
 seincm Verhiiltnisse zur biblischen Dogmatik des Neuen 
 Testamentes. 6 Ausg. Zurich : Orell, Fiissle & Co. 
 1851. 
 
 Bauk, F. C. Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Chrisli. Sein i.eben 
 und Werken, seine 15riefe und seine Lehre. Ein ]>eitrat; zu 
 einer kritischen Geschichte des Urchristenthums. 2 Aufl. 
 nach dem Tode des Verfassers besorgt von E. Zeller. 2 
 'J'heile. Leipzig: L. \V'. Reisland. 1866-67. 
 
 Sakatier, S. D Apotre Paul. Est/nisse d'unc histoire de sa 
 pens/e. 2 edit. Paris: G. Fischbacher. 1881. 
 
 Hoksii;n, C. Zum Evangeliinn des Paulus u- des Pclrus 
 Roslock : H. Schmidt. 1808,
 
 4:88 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 HoLSTEN, C. Das Evangelium des Paulus. Teil I. Berlin. 
 1880. 
 
 Thoma, Alb. Die Genesis des Johannes- Evangelium. Ber- 
 lin : G. Reimer. 1882. 
 
 Haupt, Erich. Der Erste Brief des Johannes. Beitrag z. 
 bib. Theol. ; Coberg : Post, 1869. The First Epistle of 
 John : A contribution to Biblical Theology, translated, with 
 an introduction bv W. B. Pope ; Edinburgh, T. & T. Clark, 
 1879. 
 
 Sm EATON, George. The Doctrine of the Atonement as taught 
 by the Apostles. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1870. 
 
 Schmidt, W. G. Der Lehrgehalt des Jakobusbriefes. Leipzig : 
 Heinrichs. 1869. 
 
 (d) Special Doctrines in the New Testament. 
 
 *Jacob, G. a. The Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testa- 
 lament. London : Strahan & Co. 1871. 
 
 tERNESTi, H. F. T. L, Die Ethik des Apostel Paulus. 3 Aufl. 
 Braunschweig : E. Leibrock. 1880. 
 
 Gess, W. F. Christi Person und Werk, nach Christi Selbst- 
 zeugniss und den Zeugnissen der Apostel. 2 Abtheil. 
 Basel : C. Detloff. 187(^78. 
 
 The Parousia. A Critical inquiry into the New Testament 
 doctrine of our Lord's second Coming, l^ondon : Dally, 
 Isbiter & Co. 1878. 
 
 Philippi, Ferd. Die Biblische und Kirchliche Lehre votn 
 Antichrist. GUtersloh : C. Bertelsmann. 1877.
 
 I.— INDEX OF TEXTS OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 ii. 8 seg 
 
 ii. 24 
 
 iv. 23 
 
 iv. 23 seg 
 
 ix. 25-27 . . . 
 
 xi. 31 
 
 zii. 14 
 
 xiv 
 
 xlv. ig, 20.. . 
 
 XV. 6 
 
 xix. 26 
 
 xxi. 6, 7 
 
 xxii 
 
 xxiv. 60 
 
 XXV. 23 
 
 xxvii. 27 seg . 
 xxvii. 3g, 40. 
 xliv. 18-34. .. 
 xlviii. 15-20. 
 
 xlviii. 19 
 
 xlix 
 
 3t8 
 313 
 249 
 264 
 268 
 47 
 48 
 48 
 267 
 317 
 3" 
 268 
 316 
 267 
 26g 
 271 
 272 
 234 
 269 
 270 
 280 
 
 Exodus. 
 
 iii, 6 
 
 iv. 22 
 
 xii. 46 
 
 XV 51, 249, 256, 259, 280, 284, 
 
 xix 
 
 xix. 5 
 
 XX. 13-14 
 
 xxiv. 17 
 
 Leviticus. 
 xix. 18 
 
 NU.MBERS. 
 
 VI. 23 
 
 ^•35 
 
 XXI . 
 
 xxi. 14 
 
 xxi. 17 
 
 xxi. 17-18. . . 
 xxi. 27-30. . 
 xxiii. 7 seg . 
 xxiii. 18-27. 
 xxiv. 3-9 . . 
 xxviii. 9-10. 
 
 269 
 267 
 285 
 248 
 249 
 270 
 273 
 279 
 280 
 274 
 309 
 
 Deuteronomy. 
 
 viii. 3 
 
 XXV. 4 
 
 XXV. 5 
 
 xxix. 22, etc. . 
 
 Deuteronomy. 
 
 XXX J93 
 
 XXX. II seg 316 
 
 xxxi. 21, 22, etc 188 
 
 xxxii. ... 51,193.256,259,273,280,284 
 x.\xiii 272, 280 
 
 Joshua. 
 ii. 8 seg 316 
 
 X. ia-13. 
 X. 13 . . 
 
 XXIV .... 
 
 271 
 248 
 234 
 
 Judges. 
 
 Y 249, 259, 273, 285 
 
 II 66, 249 
 
 IX 234 
 
 xi. 40 249 
 
 xiv 249 
 
 xiv. 12 241) 
 
 xiv. 14-18 286 
 
 XV. 16 ... 286 
 
 xxi. 9 249 
 
 I. Samuel. 
 
 xviu. 7 
 xxi. 1-7. 
 
 265 
 309 
 
 II. Samuel. 
 
 i. 18 ... ni, ■2^tf 
 
 !• 39-27 53, 277 
 
 111- 33 249 
 
 >"•. 33-37 270 
 
 xxii 23 
 
 xxiii. 1-7 274 
 
 I. Kings. 
 
 IV. 31 . . . 
 'V. 32, 33 
 
 XI. 41 
 
 xiii. 2 
 
 xiv. 19, 29. 
 
 xvi. 5 
 
 xviii 
 
 249 
 248 
 
 227 
 
 227 
 234 
 
 II. Kings. 
 
 i. 18 227 
 
 viii. 23 227 
 
 xvii 199 
 
 xviii. II 60 
 
 XX. 20 22J
 
 490 
 
 I. Chronicles. 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 I Psalms. 
 
 xii. 8 270 
 
 xii. 18 271 
 
 xvi 156 
 
 XXIX. 29 227 
 
 II. Chronicles. 
 
 ix. 29 227 
 
 xii. 15 22; 
 
 xiii. 22 227 
 
 xvi. II 227 
 
 xxiv. 27 227 
 
 xxvi. 22, etc 227 
 
 xxxiii. 18,19 227 
 
 XXXV. 27 227 
 
 Nehemiah. 
 viii. 8 62, 308 
 
 XI. 23. 
 
 227 
 
 Job. 
 
 xxviii. 28 29 
 
 xxxi. 1-37 290 
 
 xxxix. 19-25 272 
 
 xlii. 7 196 
 
 FSALMS. 
 
 i. 189, 281 
 
 336 
 187 
 
 n. I 
 
 ii. I itq 
 
 tii. I 18 
 
 Vlll. 
 
 viii. 
 
 X. 7. 
 xii. . 
 
 Ml. 8 
 
 xiv 23. 
 
 xiv. 1-3 
 
 xvi .8-11 
 
 xviii 23, 156, 
 
 xix 
 
 xix. 4 
 
 xxi. 1-2 
 
 xxiii 
 
 XXV 
 
 XXV. 14 
 
 xxxii. I . . . . 
 xxxii. I seq . 
 
 xxxiv 
 
 xxxvi. 2 
 
 xxxvii 
 
 Xlii 
 
 xliii 
 
 xiv 
 
 23 
 
 liii 
 
 Ixix. 22-23 
 
 Ixix. 25 187. 
 
 Ixxil. I 
 
 Ixxx 53, 
 
 Ixxxii. 6 
 
 Ixxxviii 
 
 Ixxxix 
 
 xc 51, i83, 
 
 Kcii.-c 
 
 280 
 317 
 277 
 415 
 278 
 278 
 
 317 
 278 
 118 
 156 
 317 
 187 
 
 I 256 
 2S2 
 316 
 260 
 282 
 278 
 29 
 317 
 187 
 278 
 317 
 278 
 275 
 275 
 277 
 
 , 156 
 187 
 3'5 
 1S8 
 277 
 305 
 
 xcv. 7 i88 
 
 xcv. 8 189 
 
 xcviii. 1 60 
 
 cix. 8 187, 315 
 
 ex. I 187 
 
 cxi 278 
 
 cxyiii. 22-23 311 
 
 cxix 278 
 
 cxix. 97, 103, 127, 160 426 
 
 cxix. 105 411 
 
 cxx vi 188 
 
 cxxvii 188 
 
 cxxxvii 188 
 
 cxl. 3 317 
 
 cxlv 278 
 
 cxlviii. 7-8 36c 
 
 Proverbs. 
 
 i.-ix 286 
 
 i'i:.34 317 
 
 vui. 17 seq 29 
 
 x. 1 260 
 
 X. 1-5 265 
 
 xiii. 24 266 
 
 xvi. 9 266 
 
 xxiii. IS, 16 23i 
 
 xxiii. 29-35 286, 287 
 
 xxiv. 30-34 288 
 
 XXV. 1 179,217 
 
 xxvii. 22-27 2';6 
 
 XXX. 15-16 236 
 
 XXX. 24-28 287 
 
 xxxi. 10-30 286 
 
 Song of Solomon. 
 i. 2-ii. 7 288 if. 
 
 Isaiah 
 
 191 
 156 
 249 
 191 
 191 
 
 V. 12 
 
 vi. 9 
 
 vi . 9 seq 
 
 ix. 1 seq 191 
 
 X. 22 seq 191 
 
 xi. 10 191 
 
 xxiii, 15 seq 249 
 
 XXV. 8 318 
 
 xxvi. 1-6 283 
 
 xxviii. II-I2 317 
 
 xxix. 13 191 
 
 xl. 3 191 
 
 xl .-Ixvi 53 
 
 xlii. 1-4 191 
 
 xliv. 28 188 
 
 xiv. I 188 
 
 Hi. i3-liii 292 
 
 liii. I, 4, 7 19' 
 
 lix. 7 317 
 
 Ix. 3-5 191 
 
 Ixi 310 
 
 Ixi. 1-2 191 
 
 Ixv. I seq 191 
 
 \x\i. \-] seq 318 
 
 Jekemiah. 
 
 xxxi. 15 i9'» 3**
 
 INDEX OF TEXTS OF SCKIPTURE, 
 
 491 
 
 EZEKIEL. 
 
 xxxviii.-xxxijc 318 
 
 DA-VIEL. 
 
 vii. 1 189 
 
 \ ii. Q sej 318 
 
 jti. 31 i8g 
 
 xii 31S 
 
 xii. II 189 
 
 HOSEA. 
 
 i. 10 190 
 
 ii. 33 190 
 
 vi 6 309 
 
 xi. 1 315 
 
 JOEU 
 
 ii. 28-32 191 
 
 iii 319 
 
 Amos. 
 
 vi. 5 849 
 
 MlCAH. 
 
 iv 156 
 
 Xechariah. 
 
 iv 424 
 
 xi. 7 140 
 
 xi. 12-13 191,216-7 
 
 xiv. 6 seq 295 
 
 Malachi. 
 
 iii. 1 191 
 
 Matthew. 
 
 ii. 13-18 31S 
 
 ii. 17 igi 
 
 iii. 3 191 
 
 iv. 4 12 
 
 iv. 4-10 - 309 
 
 iv. 14 191 
 
 V. 18 13 
 
 v. 21 seq 312 
 
 viii. 17 191 
 
 xii. 3 seq 3°^ 
 
 xii. 17 191 
 
 xii. 39-41 190 
 
 xiii. 14 191 
 
 XV. 6 4 
 
 XV. 7 19' 
 
 XV. 14 135 
 
 xix. 3 teq 312 
 
 xix. 7 193 
 
 xix. 8 185 
 
 xxi. 42 3" 
 
 xxii. 15-46 62 
 
 xxii. 23-31 3" 
 
 xxii. 43-45 187, 309 
 
 xxi V. 15 189 
 
 xxvii. 9 141. '69, 191, 2i6 
 
 Mark. 
 
 i. 2 '91 
 
 i. 44, etc '93 
 
 Mark. 
 
 iv 4M 
 
 vii. 6 191 
 
 vii. 10 193 
 
 xii. 26 192 
 
 xii. 36, 37 187 
 
 xvi. 9-20 218, 220 
 
 Luke. 
 
 i. 1-4 227 
 
 iii. 4 191 
 
 iv. 16-22 3'o 
 
 iv. 17 191 
 
 X. 7 193 
 
 xiii. 14 seq 310 
 
 xiv. 25 131 
 
 XV 310 
 
 xvi. 29, 31 131 
 
 xvii. 32 3" 
 
 XX. 42 169,188 
 
 XX. 42-44 187 
 
 xxiv. 27 131,192 
 
 x.\iv. 44 13' 
 
 xxiv. 44 seq 3'3 
 
 John. 
 
 i. 1-14 7» 
 
 i. 14 72 
 
 i. 18 63,312 
 
 i. 23 191 
 
 i.45 '93 
 
 iii. 16 410 
 
 v. 46, 47 193 
 
 vi. 63 414 
 
 vii. 17 298,427 
 
 vii. 19 '°3 
 
 vii. 23 '92 
 
 vii. 38 427 
 
 viii. i-ii 218 
 
 X. 34 13' 
 
 X. 34-36 3'^9 
 
 xii. 34 ^3' 
 
 xii. 38 191 
 
 xii. .39-41 '9' 
 
 xiii. 7 '8e 
 
 xiv. 26 6g 
 
 XV. 3 4'4 
 
 XV. 25 '3' 
 
 xvi. 8 72 
 
 xvi. 13 " 
 
 XVI. 15 28 
 
 xvii. 17 414 
 
 xix. 36 33'5 
 
 Acts. 
 
 i. 16-20 '87 
 
 i. 20 3'."^ 
 
 ii. 16 '9' 
 
 ii. 16 seq 3'9 
 
 ii. 25-29 '87 
 
 ii. 34 '**7 
 
 iii. 22 193 
 
 iii. 22-24 '93 
 
 iii. 24 '901 '92 
 
 iv. 24, 25, 26 336 
 
 iv. 25 187, 18S, jya 
 
 vii '4' 
 
 vii. 37 '93 
 
 viii. 28-30 '9»
 
 492 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Acts. 
 xiii. 15 131 
 
 xiii- 33 '^ 
 
 XV 320 
 
 XV. 21 192 
 
 xvii. 2 131 
 
 xvii. II 131 
 
 xviii. 24 131 
 
 xviii. 28 131 
 
 XXV i. 22 131, 193 
 
 xxviii. 23 131, 192 
 
 xxviii. 25 191 
 
 Romans. 
 
 i. 16 
 
 iii. I sef. 
 iii. 9-18. 
 iii. 21 
 
 IV. 
 
 6.... 
 
 . 27, 29. 
 5, 19- ■■ 
 6-10. . . 
 
 X. 18. 
 
 I. Corinthians. 
 
 IX. 9 seg. 
 ix. 14... 
 
 XI. 23 seg. . 
 
 xiv. 21 
 
 xiv. 21 seg. 
 
 4" 
 
 73 
 317 
 408 
 320 
 317 
 187 
 190 
 191 
 
 193 
 316 
 191 
 316 
 191 
 187 
 337 
 191 
 
 408 
 
 337 
 320 
 316 
 193 
 317 
 193 
 131 
 
 317 
 
 II. Corinthians. 
 
 iii. 3 428 
 
 iii. 7 316 
 
 iii. 15 193 
 
 iii. 18 13 
 
 Galatians. 
 
 IV. 22 seg.. .. 
 iv. 22, 23, 34. 
 iv. 24 
 
 73, 140 
 ••• 336 
 ... 317 
 
 Ephesians. 
 
 V. 25 
 
 Phiuppians. 
 
 HI. 2. 
 
 COLOSSIANS. 
 
 428 
 
 413 
 
 4 
 
 n. 17 244, 320 
 
 I. Timothy. 
 i. 32* 
 
 II. Timothy. 
 
 iii. 8 316 
 
 iii. 15 131. 4i« 
 
 Titus. 
 
 ii. ti 406 
 
 ii. 11-14 416 
 
 Hebrews. 
 
 J-3 13 
 
 •v 317 
 
 IV. 7 188, 193 
 
 iv. 12 411 
 
 vii 318 
 
 vii. 14 193 
 
 viii. 5 193, 244 
 
 viii. 10-11 428 
 
 ix. 19 193 
 
 X. 1 244 
 
 X. I seg 320 
 
 X. 28 193 
 
 xi 316 
 
 xi. 40 244 
 
 xii. 21 793 
 
 James. 
 
 ii 320 
 
 ii. 7-13 3'7 
 
 ii. 21 seg 316 
 
 V. II 316 
 
 V. 17 316 
 
 I. Peter. 
 
 i. 23 13, 411, 41J 
 
 ii. 9 seg.. , 3ig 
 
 II. Peter. 
 
 i. 21 27 
 
 ii. 4 seg 3i<< 
 
 I. John. 
 
 V. 7 218 
 
 JUDE. 
 
 9 seg 316 
 
 14 190 
 
 Revelation. 
 
 ii 320 
 
 xii. I seg 318 
 
 xii. 6 318 
 
 xiii. 5 318 
 
 xiij. 18 318 
 
 xvi, 12 318 
 
 xvi. 16 318 
 
 xvii. 5 318 
 
 xviii. 2 318 
 
 xxi.-xxii 318 
 
 xxii. 18-19 6 
 
 I. ESDRAS. 
 
 33» 
 
 S»
 
 II.— INDEX OF TOPICS. 
 
 Accents 152,251 
 
 in Hebrew verse and prose 263 
 
 place of 152-3 
 
 —— System of Polish and German Jews 258 
 
 Accommodation, Principle of 185,312 
 
 Acts 73, 230 
 
 Akkadian language 47 
 
 Hymns 262 
 
 Allegorical method 317 
 
 Jesus' use of 310 
 
 in the Latin Church 324 ifl 
 
 Origen the father of 322 
 
 of Philo 306 
 
 Truth and failure of 307 
 
 Allegory 305 
 
 Allegory not unbecoming to Jesus 318 
 
 Alliteration 256 
 
 Aloesa 93 
 
 Alphabet S3 
 
 Amoraim 177 
 
 Anonymes 222 
 
 Anthropology 71 
 
 Anthropomorphism 54 
 
 Antioch, School of 325 
 
 Antwerp polyglot 143 
 
 Apocalypse 70,109,111,165,226 
 
 Apoca'iypse of Ezra 127,129 
 
 Apocalypses, Jewish apocryphal. 109, 224 
 
 Apocrypha 63, 70 
 
 Apostles' creed 92 
 
 Apostolic church. Elements of 320 
 
 Appropriation of the Grace of the 
 
 Scriptures 417 
 
 Appropriation of the Word of God. ... 297 
 
 Arabic language 18,19,46,50 
 
 Aramaic language 50 
 
 " character and his- 
 
 tory 59if- 
 
 written character 153 
 
 Aramaisras 284 
 
 Archai'^ms, Poetic 284 
 
 Aruhaeology, Sacred 17 
 
 Arminianism 113 
 
 Ascension of Isaiah 224 
 
 A-h(orcth 49 
 
 Assosiance 756 
 
 A -sumption of Moses 224 
 
 Assyria and Babylonia, monuments of 2S4 
 
 Assyrian language '8, 19, 46, 48 
 
 Hymns . 262 
 
 Autliciilicity 87.93 
 
 of tlie Scriptures '^'^ > ff- 
 
 Questions which arise 220 
 
 Authority of the Lible. no, 219/", 243 
 
 Baal 49 
 
 Babylonia 47 
 
 Babylonian hymns 26a 
 
 language 46, 48 
 
 vowel system 153 
 
 Bagdad 304 
 
 Baptism 243 
 
 Basle, University of 144 
 
 Bassora 304 
 
 Beraitka 174,177 
 
 Bethhoron 271 
 
 Bible.. ....•• 75,991245,248,363,417 
 
 and criticism 75 
 
 Forms and meaning 6 
 
 German , of Luther 50 
 
 Literary study of 214 
 
 material for all ages. 37 
 
 Text of 139.^. 
 
 Traditional views of 9"; 
 
 Use of 4 
 
 Version of King James 50 
 
 Biblical Books, View of Du Pin 201 
 
 Study, attractive. . 3 
 
 " extensive i 
 
 " important i 
 
 " profound fl 
 
 " Renewed attention to 2ii 
 
 Book of Jubilees 155 
 
 Book of the wars of Jah veh 248 
 
 Book of Yashar 248 
 
 Cabalistic System 302 
 
 Cairo 304 
 
 Calixtus, School of 373 
 
 Calvinistic orthodoxy 113 
 
 Cambridge men 134 
 
 ^— Platonists 373 
 
 Canon of Scripture 21, 105 
 
 Augustinian 106 
 
 Hellenistic 106 
 
 Hieronymian 106 
 
 — — Italic 132 
 
 Jewish 130 
 
 Josephus' 180 
 
 Puritan 114 
 
 of the Reformers 106 
 
 Syriac 13a 
 
 criticism of 125 
 
 determination of 21 
 
 extent of no 
 
 of the New Testament 13a 
 
 — " ;; Old " 127 
 
 — O. T. not determined by N. T... 131 
 not d':torniiiicd hy consensus .. . 21 
 
 Principles for determination of 
 
 107, 138 
 Results of criticism of 131
 
 ^94 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Canonics. BiUical 21, 78 
 
 Sacred 17 
 
 Canonicity not a purely historical ques- 
 tion 125 
 
 Carthage, Council of 105 
 
 Chaldee, Biblical 18, 46, Co 
 
 Chemosh 49 
 
 Christ the centre of Scripture 364 
 
 ■ Person of 71,410 
 
 Chronicles. . .50, 128, 129, 187, 197, 198, 
 
 222, 227, 230 
 
 Citation 8) 
 
 Errors in 85 
 
 of O. T., in N. T 131 
 
 Compilations 226 
 
 Conception, Differences of 88, 94 
 
 Constraint of symbol and Scripture. . . gS 
 
 Construct relation 53 
 
 Council of Trent 3^z 
 
 Covenants 402 
 
 Apostles' use and view of 319 
 
 Theology of 343 
 
 Credibility 87 
 
 of the Scriptures 240 
 
 distinguished from infallibility. . . 241 
 
 Creed, Doctrine of the 243 
 
 Critical conflicts 102 
 
 Evangelical, test no 
 
 theories, Recent 102 
 
 Criticism, in general 77i?"- 
 
 Bible and liff- 
 
 Biblical 78, 82, 94, 139 
 
 " Historic right of 101 
 
 " necessity of 76 
 
 has been largely destructive 81 
 
 Distinction oetween Higher and 
 
 Lower 78 
 
 I )ivisions of 82 
 
 Evangelical 104, 172 
 
 - Higher. .21, 24, 78, 86, 164 ff^ 204, 420 
 " attractive 246 
 
 " and the authority of Script- 
 
 ure 243 
 
 and the credibility of 
 
 Scripture 244 
 
 " Illustrations of its princi- 
 
 ples 92/. 
 
 " Importance of 92 
 
 " in America 210 y". 
 
 " in Great Britain 206, 209 y. 
 
 " intheXVI.-XVII. Cent.iesy: 
 
 — " " XIX. Cent 207 y^ 
 
 '■ not determined by tradition 196 
 
 " Prejudice against 212,246 
 
 " Principles of 170 
 
 " Questions to be determined 
 
 by 87, 212 
 
 " Rise of . . . 196 
 
 • " Three stadia of 207-8 
 
 " Unfolding in Germany, etc 2:2 
 
 Historical 82^., 19S 
 
 Literary 82,85 
 
 Lower, vid. Textual. 
 
 a priori objections 99 
 
 Objections to application to the 
 
 Bible 95 
 
 Principles and methods 82 
 
 Textual or Lower. .21, 22, 78, 246, 420 
 
 " and Inspiration . . . i.^(>ff. 
 
 " of O. T. behind that of N. 
 
 T 150 
 
 Criticism, Textual, of XVI., XVII., 
 
 XVIII, XIX. Cent.. 140-8 
 
 Textual, ^ cope of 23 
 
 The true 162 
 
 Daniel.. 50, 60, 128, 129, 187, 197, 218, 224 
 
 Decalogue 243 
 
 Deism 206, 222 
 
 Deuteronomic code 386 
 
 Deuteronomy ... 51,167,194,224,234 
 
 Dialogues of the ancient worthies 233 
 
 Dirge, The 285 
 
 Distich 264 
 
 Distinction between poetry and prose 
 
 slight 251 
 
 Documentary theory 200, zozjff"., 207 
 
 Documents, Genesis of the 208 
 
 Dogmatics, Biblical 392 
 
 Dogmatic method 194 
 
 Ebionites 320 
 
 Ecclesiasies..26, 50, 109, in, 128, 129, 
 
 165, 167, 187, 224, 286 
 
 Ecclesiasticus 131 
 
 Edessa, School of 304, 326 
 
 Syrian school at 152 
 
 Editing and interpolating of Scripture 219 
 
 Editorship 178 
 
 Efficacy of Scripture 416 
 
 Eg:S'pt 48 
 
 Eloquence, Biblical models of. 234 
 
 Epistles of the apostles as models 237 
 
 Epistles as prose literature 236 
 
 Errors in the original autographs 242 
 
 Errors in the presen t text 240 
 
 Essenes 129, 300, 302, 307 
 
 Esther. .109, iii, 128, 129, 187, 197, 218, 
 
 222. 238 
 
 Ethics 395,403 
 
 Ethiopic language 18, 19, 46 
 
 Evangelical spirit 370 
 
 Evidence, External 90 
 
 Internal 887". 
 
 Exegesis, Biblical 17, 421 
 
 " general principles .. . 27 
 
 Comparative 31 
 
 Doctrinal 33 
 
 Four kinds of Augustine 324 
 
 Grammatical 29 
 
 Historical 30 
 
 History of 28 
 
 Literary 32 
 
 Logical and rhetorical 30 
 
 The proper method of 194 
 
 Synthetic method. 14 
 
 of the middle age 328 
 
 in the Oriental church 328 
 
 Practical 34 
 
 Process of i -'. 
 
 Proper spirit of 16 
 
 Exegete, The work of 28, 35 
 
 How far influenced iy history... 360 
 
 Exodus 48 
 
 Ezekiel 128, 129, 190 
 
 Ezra 60, 129, 187, 107, 222, 230, 237 
 
 lizra. Restoration of O. T. by lii^. 
 
 Faith, Appropriating. . . 423 
 
 Practicing 426 
 
 Fiction in the Bible 238 /• 
 
 Fides divina xoS, 123, *)6
 
 INDEX OF TOPICS. 
 
 495 
 
 Ftdes divina and huntana ii6 
 
 Figures of speech 253 
 
 Forijeiy, Theory of 223 
 
 Foims, Poetic 383 
 
 Fraj»mentary Hypothesis, The 207 
 
 Gem ARA 174, 180 
 
 Genesis R. C support of documentary 
 
 tlieory 202 
 
 Geneva, Univeisity of 144 
 
 German theology 135 
 
 Germany 346 
 
 God. Hebrew conception of 53 
 
 Gospel in the Scriptures 407 
 
 Gospels, The ._ 230 
 
 Grace of God in the Scriptures 410 
 
 Greek language 60, t-^ff. 
 
 " beautiful and finished. 66 
 
 " characteristics of. 64 
 
 " complex and artistic. 64 
 
 " form and style of 
 
 speech 6s 
 
 " strength and vigor. . fA/. 
 
 Biblical 69 
 
 Hellenistic 18 
 
 - — of the New Testament 353 
 
 - — N. T. writers used 69 
 
 Haggada. .. 62, 73, 238, 300, 304, 310, 315 
 
 1 l.agioRrapha \%t ff. 
 
 )[alacha 62, 73, 174, 300, 304, 316 
 
 • — method of Jesus 309 
 
 Kalacha and Haggada, Principles of. . 301 
 
 Hebrew Grammar 29 
 
 " The first 107 
 
 - — History 56 
 
 • — Language 18, 46, 48, 49, 60, 71, 107 
 
 " religious 50 
 
 *■ correspondence to 
 
 thought 52 
 
 . — — " life and fervor 56 
 
 " majesty and sublimity.. 53 
 
 " simple and natural. . . 51 
 
 " characteristics 51 
 
 - — " and tiie cognates. .. . iSy! 
 " culture, Babylonian ori- 
 gin 48 
 
 Letters, forms used 153 
 
 Literature different from Indo- 
 
 Germanic 215 
 
 Poetic art, Climajt of 294 
 
 Poetry 52, 55, 56, »5o, 248^. 
 
 Text 151 
 
 " The present 153 
 
 Hebrews, The 250 
 
 a literary and poetic people 248 
 
 Epistle to. . . .26. 70, 165, 166, 167, 
 
 222, 2J7, 316, 317 
 Hellenistic and Christian theories, x'iciff. 
 
 Hermeneutics, Biblical 27 
 
 Ileimeneutical principles, Lutheran . . 333 
 
 Hcrodians 60 
 
 Hcxa'^tich 271 
 
 Himjaric language 46 
 
 History, Hebrew .... 56 
 
 'I'wo kinds, priestly, prophetic... 230 
 
 Sources of . 84 
 
 Holy Spirit, llie interpreter of Script- 
 ure 365 
 
 Hosca .... 190, .^35 
 
 Huguenots, French 371 
 
 Humanists 33: 
 
 Hymn, The 284 
 
 Inconsistencies, The supposed, of tie 
 
 Bible 244 
 
 Independents 134 
 
 Inductive method in Biblical Study... 76 
 
 Inerrancy of Scripture 24oy". 
 
 Inflection, Method of Hebrew 52, 57 
 
 InspirRtion 220,411 
 
 Church doctrine 99, 243 
 
 Dogmatic 97 
 
 not confined to particular words. 158 
 
 Plenary 241 
 
 Scriptural doctrine 96 
 
 Symbolical '" 96,242 
 
 Textual Criticism and iS^.^- 
 
 Traditional doctrine ico 
 
 ^— Various theories <^(> ff- 
 
 Verbal 76,113,144,156 241 
 
 Integrity 87, 92 
 
 of the Scriptures 216 
 
 Interpolations in the Pentateuch 21S 
 
 in the New Testament 218 
 
 in the Septuagint 218 
 
 Interpretation of Scripture 296^. 
 
 Method of 351 
 
 History of Biblical 299 
 
 Literature of 360 
 
 Requiutes to proper 214/". 
 
 True Christian method 320 
 
 Jesus gave no rules of 3 1 ^ 
 
 Comparative 358 
 
 -Doctrinal 361 
 
 of the Fathers and Schoolmen yzojf. 
 
 General 297 
 
 Grammatical 352 
 
 Hellenistic 305,321 
 
 — —Historical 3^7 
 
 Logical and Rhetorical 'i^'SjJ'- 
 
 Pietistic 31.1 
 
 Practical 308, 362 
 
 -Puritan 340 
 
 Puritan and Arminian 335 
 
 Rabbinical 299 
 
 —— of the Reformers Z^^ Ju- 
 
 Roman Catholic 331, 300 
 
 in the New Testament Z°7 JT- 
 
 of the middle age 330 
 
 of modern times 346 
 
 of XVII. Cent, in England 338 
 
 Palestinian methods 320 
 
 Principles of Anliochian School. . 326 
 
 " " Cabalistic 303 
 
 " " Puritan 344 
 
 " " Schleicrmacher 349 
 
 " " Westminster Confes- 
 sion 337 
 
 Organic method 350 
 
 methods of apostles 315 
 
 Rules of Rabbinical juo 
 
 Seven Rules of Tychonius. 323 
 
 Features of our Saviour's ^ii 
 
 Defects of ancient and media;val. 35a 
 
 " " grammalico-historiLal. 348 
 
 Introduction, Biblical 76 
 
 — Home's 209 
 
 First extant, by Junilius 183 
 
 Isaiah 190, igi, 218, 233, 278 
 
 Jaiivkh 54, jr
 
 496 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 109, 237 
 105 130 
 217, 218 
 .... 186 
 67 
 198, 
 
 258, 288 
 . . . . 190 
 73. 237 
 70, 225 
 222, 238 
 207, 222 
 109, 237 
 190, 222 
 . . . . 62 
 
 James, Epistle 70, 
 
 Jamnia, Assembly at 
 
 Jeremiah tgo, tgi, 
 
 Jesus Christ, Authority of . ^ 
 
 Jews 
 
 Job, Book of... 26, 128, 129, 16S, 
 222, 249, 252, 257, 
 
 Joel, " " 
 
 John, Epistles 
 
 Gospel 
 
 Jonah 190, 
 
 Joshua 190, 
 
 Jude 
 
 Judges 
 
 Judith 
 
 Justification by faith 
 
 Kings, Books of. 190, 198, 222, 226 
 
 Koran 50, 151 
 
 Language. . ._ 42 
 
 Connection between thought and 42 
 
 Poetic 283 J^. 
 
 ■ of our Saviour 61 
 
 Languages of the Bible 18, 42 _^. 
 
 Lamentations ... 128,222,258,278,286 
 
 Laodicea, Council of 105 
 
 Legend 231 
 
 preferable to term, myth 232 
 
 Legends and fables, N. T. use of 316 
 
 Leyden, University of 144 
 
 Literal interpretation of Jesus 309 
 
 sense excluded, Rules of Philo... 305 
 
 Literature, Biblical 16 
 
 " Field of 20 
 
 " History of 76 
 
 " Problems of 216 
 
 Hebrew 56 
 
 " Divisions into poetry and 
 
 prose 229 
 
 Literary features 87 
 
 study of the Bible is Higher Crit- 
 icism 215, 246 
 
 usage. The common 195 
 
 Ixindon Holyglot 143 
 
 Lord 's Prayer 243 
 
 Supper 243 
 
 Luke, Gospel 70 
 
 Luther 50 
 
 Lutheranism 113 
 
 Maccabees, Book of 238 
 
 Maccabeus, Judas 130 
 
 Malachi 223, 236 
 
 Man, Hebrew conception of 54 
 
 Mandaic language 46 
 
 Hark, (Jospel 70, 227 
 
 Massoretic system. 24, 57, 105, 140, 142, 
 
 257i 259 
 
 i^^^;: 148.^., 150. 154 
 
 tradition 19 
 
 Massorites .... 141, 145, 178 
 
 Matthew, Gospel 70,227 
 
 Measures of time, etc 49 
 
 Mesopotamia 47 
 
 Messana 93 
 
 Methodism 372 
 
 Metres 256 
 
 Micah 23s 
 
 Midra.sh 1 58 
 
 method 308 
 
 Minor Prophets 216 
 
 Mishna 130, 142, 174, 50a 
 
 Modern training and oriental thought. 239 
 
 Moloch 49 
 
 Moravians 372 
 
 Mosaic code 199 
 
 Moses, represented as lawgiver, not as 
 
 author 193 
 
 Mystic 119, 123 
 
 spirit 368 
 
 Mysticism 120 _^. 
 
 Myth, term associated with polytheism 23a 
 Myths of Assyria and Babylonia 232 
 
 Nature, Hebrew conception of. . 54, 254 
 Nehemiah. 128, 187, 197, 222, 230, 236, 237 
 
 N ezikin 1 73 
 
 Nisibis, School of 304, 326 
 
 InHuence of 327 
 
 Opinion and conception. Differences 
 
 of... 88, 94 
 
 Oration in the Bible 234 
 
 Palestinian vowel system 152 
 
 Parallelism 49, 52, 203, 259, 261, 264 
 
 Introverted 261 
 
 ordinarily progressive 266 
 
 not prediction 315 
 
 Paris polyglot 143 
 
 Patmos 230 
 
 Paulj Epistles. . . 70, 73, 237 
 
 Pauline Epistles, Authenticity 226 
 
 Pentastich 270 
 
 Pentateuch. 24, 25, 49, 50, 129, 165, 181, 
 192, 197, 199, 200, 207, 210, 
 
 222, 227, 230, 232, 38b 
 
 Investigation byEichhorn 204 
 
 Theory of R. Simeon 198 
 
 Thi ee codes 387 
 
 Pentecost 73 
 
 Person of Jesus Christ 71, 410 
 
 Peshat, or literal interpretation . . 300, 
 
 .3031 304 
 
 Peshitto 23 
 
 Peter, Epistles 70, 73, 109, 166, 237 
 
 Phahiris, Epistles of 93 
 
 Pharisees 6x, 129, 130, 299, 310 
 
 Philo, Logos of 71 
 
 Philology, Sacred 17 
 
 Phoenician language 18,19,46,48,60 
 
 Pietism, German. .. . 372 
 
 Pietists, German 344 
 
 Plato, Nous of 71 
 
 Platonic Philosophy 305 
 
 Play of Words 256 
 
 Plural of intensity 52 
 
 Poetic forms 283 
 
 Poetry, Arabic 255/., 262 
 
 of Assyria and Egypt 248 
 
 of the Bible 229 
 
 Composite 288 
 
 Gnomic 28,5 
 
 Hebrew SZi.SSi 5^) 1501 ^^^ ff 
 
 " Apprehension of 253 
 
 • " Breadth of 249 
 
 — - " Characteristics 250, 255 
 
 " Composed of vejses 255
 
 INDEX OF TOPICS. 
 
 497 
 
 Poetry, Hebrew, External form subor- 
 dinated to internal 
 emotion 259 
 
 '—— " Forms of _. . 255 
 
 — — " " Lyric, Gnomic, 
 
 Composite 284 
 
 — — •* Measurement b y 
 
 words or accent 279^. 
 
 — — '♦ Faralleliim of mem- 
 
 bers, 49, 53, 203, 259, 
 
 261, 264 
 
 " Realistic 253 
 
 " Religious 250 
 
 " Sententious 252 
 
 " Subjective 252 
 
 Lyric 284 
 
 Prophetic 292 
 
 Syriac 258, 262 
 
 Polyglots 143 
 
 Prayer 418,422 
 
 Prayers of the Bible 285 
 
 Prelatists 117 
 
 Pre>byterians 134 
 
 Scotch 134 
 
 Principles for determination of read- 
 ings 86 
 
 Private judgment, Right of 124 
 
 Proof texts. Indiscriminate use of 5 
 
 Prophetical books 234 
 
 Prophets... 190/^ 
 
 Prose of the Bible 230 
 
 ■Characteristics of Scripture 239 
 
 Historical 230 
 
 Protestant critical principle x^iff. 
 
 position. The true iii 
 
 Protestantism, Formal principle of. 13, 
 
 108, 407 
 Proverbs. 26, 128, 129, 169, 187, 197, 217, 
 
 252, 258, 265/;, 28: 
 Psalms, or Psalter. 24, 25, 51, 166, 168, 
 
 1&7, 197, 217, 222, 252, 256, 257, 258 
 
 Psalter, DaviJic authorship 187 
 
 of Solomon 224 
 
 Pseudonyme, Use of 223 
 
 Pseudonymes 223 
 
 among the Jews 224 
 
 ■ in I'uritan literature 224 
 
 Ptolemxus Philadeiphus 126 
 
 Puritanism 101,335 
 
 Puritans 117,118,134,371 
 
 Puritan Theology 147 
 
 Qakites 303 
 
 Rabbinical ideas of Scripture, Errors 
 
 of 302 
 
 Theorief 173 
 
 Rationalism 222 
 
 Rtfalism in the Hebrew langjuage. ... 54 
 
 Rclactiu ; of the (). T. Scriptures 179 
 
 Redemption by grace alone 406 
 
 Refunnation, The. . .. 171,331 
 
 - — Formal principle of the Protest- 
 
 ant 13,108,407 
 
 — — Merit of the British 400 
 
 " " Calvinistic 408 
 
 — - " " Lutheran 40J 
 
 Protestant, a critical revival 106 
 
 Prepar.ition for 330 
 
 RdsTmers, Principles for determination 
 cf Canon used by 107 
 
 Refrain, The S3, 27S 
 
 Religion, Biblical, Development of the 20S 
 
 Revision, Demand for 103 
 
 Rhyme .». 255 
 
 Riddles 286 
 
 Rome, Church of 109 
 
 Rule of Faith, Defined by John Ball.. 336 
 
 " " of the Puritans 33s 
 
 " " " Reformers 333 
 
 Ruth 128, 187, 222 
 
 Sabbath 48 
 
 Sadducees 60, 1 29 
 
 Samaritan language. 18, 19, 46 
 
 Samaritans 129 
 
 Samuel 190, 194, 222, 230 
 
 Scenery of the text 31 
 
 Scholastic spirit 369 
 
 Scholasticism 99 
 
 Science, Opposition to 7 
 
 Scripture, Authority of 25 
 
 Fourfold sense 323 
 
 Literary forms of 228 
 
 Text of 21, 113 
 
 Scriptures, The 1(0 
 
 fundamental position of 13 
 
 as literary productions 24 
 
 as means of grace 41 6 
 
 as sources :n 
 
 Human elements in the i;\ 
 
 Sedan, University of i.| 4 
 
 Selah in the Psalter 2j 8 
 
 Septuagint.. .68, 70, 105, 125, 140, 153, 
 
 15s. 30S1 3' " 
 
 A Greek Targum ut 
 
 Shemitic languages i < 
 
 Shulamite, '1 he 23 | 
 
 Sibyline oracles if") 
 
 Silence, Argument from 9Pfi <- K 
 
 Sirach, Wisdom of J i 
 
 Sodh method 300, 302, 305 
 
 Soliar, Book of 30:1 
 
 Solomon, Wisdom of 71 
 
 Song, The 285 
 
 Song of Songs.... 26, 109, in, 128, 129, 
 
 187, 239, 258, 278, 286 
 
 Sources of Biblical history 2^1 
 
 Speculative spirit 3^9 
 
 Spiritual sense 34 
 
 Strophe. The 272 
 
 marked by the alphabet 27S 
 
 Style, Differences of 83, 93 
 
 Poetic 283 
 
 Subscription of Protestant symbols. . . 101 
 
 Suffixes, Hebrew 53 
 
 Symbol 99 
 
 Synonyms, Hebrew 55 
 
 Syriac language 18,19, 46 
 
 vowel system 152 
 
 Talmud 105, 107, 130, 141, T42, 
 
 170, i^o, 300 
 Talmuds, Babylonian and Jerusalem.. 173 
 
 Tanaites i77 
 
 Tareiims 23 
 
 Tauroininium 93 
 
 Testament, New 236, 243 
 
 " Canon of 106 
 
 — - " Citations of the 155 
 
 " Literary development 
 
 of 7J
 
 i98 
 
 BIBLICAL STDDY. 
 
 Testament, New, Use of the Old. 308 
 
 — — " Variety in writings. 70 
 
 " Writers 68 
 
 Old ^ 243 
 
 — — " Canon of 105 
 
 - " Citation in 308 
 
 " New Testament view of,. 184 jf". 
 
 Relation of Old and New .... 35, 350 
 
 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. 224 
 
 Testimony, Positive 90 
 
 Tetrastich 269 
 
 Text, Diflferences of 155 
 
 of the Bible ''■'i'iff- 
 
 of the Old Testament ^S^jff"- 
 
 of Scripture 112 
 
 Sources of error in 85 
 
 Transmission of 22 
 
 Theolog>-. 420 
 
 American 135 
 
 British 135 
 
 Biblical 17, 367 
 
 " Belongs to Exegetical 
 
 Theology 379 
 
 " Culmination of Exegeti- 
 
 cal Theology 397 
 
 " Development of 377 
 
 " Historical principle of. . . 375 
 
 " Idea of 390 
 
 " Method of 399 
 
 —— " Methods and aims 37 
 
 . " Place of 397 
 
 .— " Position and importance 
 
 of 390 
 
 " Presents the Biblical sys- 
 
 tpm of doctrine 39 
 
 " Problem of 400 
 
 " Rise of ^74 
 
 .. " System and divisions of. 401 
 
 — — *' Term is broad 392 
 
 ^— " Traces historical forma- 
 tion 396 
 
 Exegetical, a science 15 
 
 " Divisions and subdi- 
 
 visions 16 
 
 " Methods iS.;^- 
 
 " " analytic 15 
 
 . ■ " " historical.... 14 
 
 - — . " " synthetic... 14 
 
 " Neglect of 12 
 
 . " The primary disci- 
 pline 10 
 
 . '• Work of II 
 
 - Federal 343 
 
 . Four types of 3^7 
 
 — — Historical 10 
 
 Theology, Practical la 
 
 Systematic 10, 354 
 
 Theophanies 296 
 
 Thirty-nine articles '^f-l/- 
 
 Tiberian vowel system 152 
 
 Titles of Biblical Books 2.ji 
 
 Titus T30 
 
 Tobit 62, 238 
 
 Toseptha, 174, 177 
 
 Tradi tion 99, 220. 222 
 
 Traditional theories, Criticism of 170 
 
 " Scholastic d e - 
 
 fence of 200 
 
 Traditionalism 99 
 
 Translation 43 
 
 Process of 157 
 
 Sources of error in 85 
 
 Trent, Council of 109 f. 
 
 Trinity 71 
 
 Tristich 267 
 
 Tlibingen school 208 
 
 Union Theological Seminary 20 
 
 Unity in the Scriptures. 359 
 
 of statement of th e Scriptures .... 244 
 
 Ur of the Chaldees 47 
 
 Verse ._ _. 255 
 
 Hebrew, its essential principle... 260 
 
 " Measurement by the ac- 
 
 cent 262 
 
 - — - '* Synonymous, antitheti- 
 cal, synthetic 260 
 
 Versions 23, 153 
 
 Vowel points and accents. 24, 139, 144, 
 
 151. 156 
 Vulgate 23,105,112,166 
 
 Westminster Assembly 409 
 
 — — Divines 117, 134 
 
 Standards 25 
 
 Wisdom, Book of 62 
 
 of Sirach 131 
 
 of Solomon 71 
 
 Writings, Historic position of 88 
 
 Individual 21 
 
 Order of 177 
 
 Zaude. 93 
 
 Zechariah 216 
 
 Integrity disputed 217 
 
 Zelots 129, 300, 302, 307 
 
 Zohar, Book 142 
 
 Zurich Consensus 135, 144 
 
 University of 144
 
 III.— INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 
 
 Abbot, Ezra 925,447 
 
 Aboth , 127 
 
 Acha 127 
 
 Achelis, E 463 
 
 Adams, Th 467 
 
 Wm 66,445 
 
 Adeney, W. F 452 
 
 jEiieid 394 
 
 iEschines 64 
 
 iEschylus 64 
 
 Aglen, A. S. 253 
 
 Auls to Faith 211 
 
 Ainsworth, Henry 339,344,454 
 
 Airay, Henry 465 
 
 Akiba, Rabbi . . iii, 130, 154, 174 
 
 Alcaeus 256 
 
 Alcala, Alphonso de 106 
 
 Alcuin 329 
 
 Aldridge, S. R 452 
 
 Alexander, Addison 210 
 
 -— J-A 4S5, 458, 462, 463 
 
 Wm 452 
 
 W. 1 452 
 
 Alford, Henry 461 
 
 Alexandrinus, Codex 438 
 
 Amrina, Sixt . . .. 146 
 
 Ambrose . 221,323 
 
 American Presby. Review 14, 29 
 
 Ames Wm 343i 35S> 37^, 373 
 
 Amira 142 
 
 Ammon, C. F 374 
 
 Andrews, S.J 478 
 
 Angus, J seph 460 
 
 Antwerp I'olyglot I47 
 
 Apocrj'pha. . , . 474 
 
 Aquila . . . lS4i 303 
 
 Aquinas, Thomas 329,463 
 
 Arias Montanus 143 
 
 Aristeas 126 
 
 Aristion 321 
 
 Arminins, J 373 
 
 Arnold, F. A 434 
 
 A'o.irias. Rabbi 260 
 
 Ascensio Isaiae 476 
 
 Ashe, Simcdii 342 
 
 Assembly's Annotations i6S 
 
 Astruc, j. 169, 202, 204 
 
 Athanasiiis 220, 356 
 
 Alteriol, Wm 344 
 
 Al water, !■;. E 482 
 
 Auberlen, C. A 451 
 
 Augustine, Aurelius.182, 220, 323, 324, 
 
 325. 4*5. 45' 
 
 Uaba Uathra (Talm. Babli) . . 105, 173 
 
 175, 316, 317, 218, 221, 227 
 
 Babylonicus Petrop., Codex 439 
 
 Bach man, J 453 
 
 Bacon, Francis 221 
 
 Baedeker, Karl 468 
 
 Baehr, K. C. W. F 449, 483 
 
 Baer, S 149, 43^ 
 
 Ball, John 336, 342, 343 
 
 Barbier. A. A 223 
 
 I'ar Cappara 174 
 
 Baring-Gould, S 477 
 
 Bar Khokba 130 
 
 Barker, P. C ... 452 
 
 Barlow, John 466 
 
 Barnabas 322 
 
 Baruch Apocalypsis 476 
 
 Buch 475 
 
 Basil 182 
 
 Bassett, F. T 467 
 
 Baudissen, W 481 
 
 Baumgarten, A. G 374, 481 
 
 Banmgarten-Crusius, L. F. 376 
 
 Baur. F. C. 377, 381, 382, 384, 387, 395, 
 
 486, 487 
 
 Loren zo 375, 376 
 
 Baxter, Richard 147, 155, 243 
 
 Bayne, Paul 344, 465 
 
 Beck, C. D 347 
 
 J.T.. 481 
 
 Beda Venerabilis 329 
 
 Beecher, Willis J 83, 104 
 
 Beet, J. A .". 464 
 
 Belgian C'onfession 108, 167 
 
 BcUarmine, R 1S2 
 
 Bengel, J. A 149,344,372,401 
 
 Hciitley, Richard 93, 148, 169 
 
 Berger, Samuel ic7 
 
 Bernard. T. D 298, 385, 4S6 
 
 Beitheau, F. 571203,450,45,; 
 
 Beyschlag, W 461 
 
 Beza, T 336 
 
 Bible, Bomberg's Rabbinical 1-59 
 
 — - Holy 43S 
 
 Bible for Learners 211 
 
 Biblia Hehraica 439 
 
 Bibliothcca Rabbinica ^-i 
 
 .Sacra 211, 2iy 
 
 Bickcll.G 153. 258, 43'- 445 
 
 Bickersteth, E 4;-' 
 
 Piddle, J 373 
 
 Biiinie, W 446, 4^4 
 
 Bissell, K. C 450, 47J 
 
 Blake, Thomas 342 
 
 BIcck, Fr. . . 69, 73, 208, 350, 444, 446, 466 
 
 Boderianus, Fabricius 143 
 
 P.oehl, Edw 15S 
 
 Boettcher, Fr. . . 55, 57. 43', 454. 457. 4»3 
 (409)
 
 500 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Bonnet, Max 
 
 Boyle, Robt 169, 412, 
 
 Braune, K 449, 450, 
 
 Brentius, J 
 
 Bretschneider, K. C 348, 
 
 Briggs, C. A i4> 39, 104, 153, 171, 
 
 208, 209, 228. 
 
 Brightman, Th 343, 
 
 Brit, and For. Evang. Rev 
 
 British Quarterly 
 
 Bro ugh ton, Hugh 142 
 
 Brown, D 
 
 Francis 187, 
 
 Browne, E. H 
 
 Bruce, A. B 236, 246, 389, 462, 
 
 Bruder, A. v. H 
 
 Brugsch Bey, H 
 
 Bruston, Charles 
 
 Budge, E. A 
 
 Bullinger, Henry 
 
 Bullock, W. T 
 
 Bunsen.C. C. J 
 
 Burroughs, Jer 
 
 Burton, Rich. F 
 
 Bush, G 
 
 Butler, J. G 
 
 Biittraann, A 
 
 Buxtorf, J. 113, 144, 156, 170, 184, 353, 
 
 439i 
 Byfield, Nicholas 344, 
 
 Cairns, John 
 
 Ca'amy, Edmund iii, 147, 
 
 Calixtus, George 113, 
 
 Calmet, A 
 
 Calvip., John... 107, 112, 133, 140, 146, 
 165, 166, 217, 223, 333, 
 
 ^ , . , „ , 334i 371, 454, 455, 
 
 Candlish, Rob 
 
 Ca.ius, Melchoir 
 
 Capel, Richard 
 
 Cappellus, Lud.,86, 142, 143, 144, 147, 
 164, 170, 184, 334, 
 
 Lud. and Jac 
 
 Ca.-iov, A. C 
 
 Carlstadt, And 
 
 Carpzov, J. G 184,200,297, 
 
 Cartwriglit, Thomas. 114, 167, 335, 343, 
 
 Caryl. Joseph 
 
 Casaubon, I ... 146, 
 
 Caspari, C. E 
 
 Cassel, Paulus 
 
 Cassiodorus 
 
 Castell, Edm.... I43i 353. 
 
 Catafago. J 
 
 Cave, Alf 452, 
 
 Ccreani, A.M 
 
 Chambers, T. W 387, 
 
 Chapman, C 
 
 Charteris, A. H 106,110,132, 
 
 Cheyne, T. K 218, 
 
 Ciiiarini, L. A '75, 3°ii 3°3, 
 
 Chija-Rabbi. 
 
 Clirysostom. J 182, 326, 329, 
 
 Cicero. M. T 224, 
 
 Letters of 
 
 Clark. Samuel 344, 
 
 Clarkson. W. . 
 
 Clemancc, C 
 
 Clewent of Alexandria 182, 
 
 — of Rome ,,. 
 
 461 
 467 
 167 
 158 
 
 342 
 146 
 113 
 169 
 334 
 344 
 344 
 168 
 478 
 449 
 327 
 432 
 434 
 480 
 440 
 430 
 453 
 437 
 453 
 485 
 174 
 461 
 236 
 237 
 451 
 452 
 452 
 322 
 
 322 t 
 
 Clementine Pseudograph j^ 
 
 Clericus, J 184, igg, sj", 
 
 Cobb,W.H ..^ 111 
 
 Cocceius, J 143, 342, 343, 350, 37a 
 
 Colenso, J. W 210, 211 
 
 Collins, K 452 
 
 Complutensian Polj'glot 106, 147 
 
 Conant, J. T 45a 
 
 Conder, C. R 469 
 
 F. R 470 
 
 Contemporary Review 211 
 
 Conybeare, VV. J 479 
 
 Cook, F. C 451 
 
 Cooper, B. H 477 
 
 -r-.W.R. 474 
 
 Cosin, John 117, 437 
 
 Cotterill. H 452 
 
 Cotton, John. 467 
 
 Co wper, B. H 432 
 
 Cox, Samuel 456 
 
 Crcdner, C. A 437 
 
 Cremer, H 73, 436 
 
 Critici sacri 453 
 
 Crosby, Howard 449 
 
 Cross, J. A 218, 444 
 
 Cruden, Alex 429, 441 
 
 Curry, G 451 
 
 Curtius, E 64, 65, 66, 67, 476 
 
 G 436 
 
 Curtiss, S. I., Jr 18, 130, 216, 217 
 
 Cyprian 321 
 
 Daehnb, a. F 388 
 
 Dale, B 452 
 
 Davenant, J 344 
 
 Davidson, A. B 430, 455, 457 
 
 li •• • 442 
 
 Samuel. 86, log, 150, 210, 320, 324, 
 
 330, 432, 437, 442, 444, 446, 448 
 
 Davies, D 452 
 
 Day, G. E 38a 
 
 Deane, W. J 126,475 
 
 De Dieu, L 146, 334 
 
 Delitzsch, Franz. .. 149, 217, 218, 224, 
 
 350, 439i 454, 466, 480 
 
 Fried 60, 435, 469 
 
 Demarest, J. T 467 
 
 Demosthenes . 64,236 
 
 De Rossi, J. B 149,443 
 
 Descartes, R 7 
 
 Deutsch, Emanuel 174 
 
 De Wette, W. M. L.207, 210, 229, 350, 
 
 375, 376, 377, 444, 446, 461, 471 
 Diestel, Lud. 28, 165, 325, 326, 401, 430, 453 
 Dillmann, Aug. .152, 153, 155, 156, 230, 
 
 434, 438, 453, 475, 47^ 
 
 Dinwiddle, W 452 
 
 Diodorus of T.arsus . 326 
 
 Doddridge, Philip 345 
 
 Dods, Marcus • 460 
 
 Dodwell, Henry 134 
 
 Doepke, J. C. C . . 448 
 
 Dollinger, J. J. 1 477 
 
 Donaldson, J. W 65 
 
 Doruer, Isaac A. . .22, 70, 108, 114, 137, 
 
 203. 314, 323, 424 
 
 August 325 
 
 Doxy, R 434 
 
 Drake, W 45' 
 
 Driver. S.R 43', 4S8 
 
 Droysen, J. G 84
 
 INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 
 
 501 
 
 Drummoiid, James 485 
 
 HrusiusJ 146,334 
 
 Ducas, Demetrius 106 
 
 Duesterdiek, F 461 
 
 Duncker. Max 473 
 
 Du Pin, L. E 87, 83, 9a, 200, 217 
 
 I>urh am, James 457,468 
 
 Uury, John 07a 
 
 Dykes.J.O 460 
 
 Eadie John 444,46s 
 
 tasaake, E 479 
 
 Ebers, G 469, 472 
 
 Ebrard, J. H. A 447,467 
 
 Eck, J 107 
 
 Edersheim, A 483 
 
 Edgar, McCheyoc 452 
 
 — -R. M 452 
 
 Eichhorn, J. G..178, 129, 132, 1C9, 202, 
 i^- ,. „j ,?°3. «05, 207, 349, 375, 445, 468 
 
 Eichstkdt, H. K. A 298 
 
 Eliezar, Rabbi 301 
 
 Ellicott, C.J 462, 464, 46s, 466 
 
 Elliott, C. B 467 
 
 C.J 451 
 
 Enoc'i, Book of 475, 476 
 
 Ephraim the Syrian 326 
 
 Erasmus 331,345 
 
 Greek Testament 147 
 
 Erdmann, C. F. D 449 
 
 Ernesti, J. A 298, 339, 346, 353, 448 
 
 H. F. T. L 489 
 
 Erpeaius 143, 146 
 
 iLspin, T. E 451 
 
 P^ssays and Reviews 210, 211 
 
 Etheridge, J. W 62,439 
 
 Eucherius of Lyons 323 
 
 Eusebius 256, 321 
 
 Euthymius. Zigabenus 329, 463 
 
 Evans, T.S 452 
 
 M.J 384 
 
 Ewald, Heinr. . . 46, 57, 130, 208, 209, 
 229, 235, 250, 259, 353, 38s, 
 
 ^ „ , ^ ♦°<' ♦S'. 4S5. 458, 471. 472, 480 
 
 Exell.J. S 452 
 
 Expositor 109 
 
 r-iBRICIUS, J. A 182,475 
 
 F lirbairn, Patrick 439, 466, 481 
 
 F »rrar, F. W 452, 478, 480 
 
 rf^'- *■'•?■, V '''♦9, 450 
 
 Ilacius, Matthew 333 
 
 Klatt.C.C.. 348 
 
 Fleury, Abbo Claude 202 
 
 Fox, John 344 
 
 Francois, Abbd Laurent 202 
 
 Fianke, H 344 
 
 Frankel. Z 126, 443 
 
 Eraser, Donald 452 
 
 French Confession 408 
 
 Frensdorf, S 14.9, 443 
 
 Freytag, G. H 434 
 
 Fricdlander, L 477 
 
 Friedlieb, J. H . 475 
 
 Fritzsche, O. F 475 
 
 Fronmllllcr, P. F. C 451 
 
 Fuerst, lu.ius Mi 77, 43*, 437, 442 
 
 Fiilke, Wm 142 
 
 Fuller, J. M 451 
 
 Gablkr, J. G 348,389 
 
 Galileo 7 
 
 Gallican Confession io3 
 
 Gandell. R 45, 
 
 Gardiner, F 440, 449 
 
 Gataker, Thomas 344 
 
 Gebhardt, Herm 389, 488 
 
 Geddes, -Mex 207 
 
 Geiger, Abr 433 
 
 Geike. C 478 
 
 Genesis, Textum Massoreticum 439 
 
 Gerhard, J 333 
 
 Gerraar, F. H 348 
 
 Gerok, Chas 450 
 
 Gesenius, W 47, 107, 152, 208, 
 
 - ,,, „ 353, 430, 432, 458 
 
 Gess, W. F 488 
 
 Gieseler, J. C. L 83 
 
 Gifford, E. H 45! 
 
 Gillett, E. H 330 
 
 Ginsberg, C. D. . 107, 141, 142, 150, 152, 
 
 _. ,, „ „ 302, 303, 442, 448, 457 
 
 Girdlestone, R. B 55, 433 
 
 Given, J.J ' 453 
 
 Gladstone, W. E 59 
 
 Glasgow, James 467 
 
 Gloag,P J 460, 463 
 
 Glover, K 452 
 
 Godet, F 225, 462, 463 
 
 Goebel, S 463 
 
 Goodhart, C. A 452 
 
 Goodwin, John 373 
 
 J horaas 372 
 
 Gouge, Wra 188, 344, 372, 466 
 
 Gouldman, Henry 147 
 
 Graetz, H 129, 150, 154, 174, 175, 
 
 2i8, 456, 472 
 
 Graf, K. H 386, 458 
 
 Green, R 45-1 
 
 T. S 436 
 
 W. H. an, 431, 445 
 
 GreenhiU, Thomas 3^4 
 
 Wm 459 
 
 Gregory the Great 325, 457 
 
 Gregory, C. R 149 
 
 Gresswell, E, B. D 463 
 
 Greve, E. J 257 
 
 Griesbach, J. J 149, 375 
 
 Grill, J 52, 55 
 
 Grimm, C. L. W 436,473 
 
 Grosart, A. B 221 
 
 Grotius, Hugo 146, 3(5 
 
 Guyot, Arnold 460 
 
 Gwynn, J 452 
 
 Hacket, H. B 
 
 Haevcrnick, H. A. C. . . 380, 445, 4 8. 
 
 Hagenbach, K. C i7< 78. 
 
 Hahn, G. L 381, 
 
 Halkett, Samuel 
 
 Hall, Thomas 
 
 Hamilton, James 
 
 Wm 82,83,92, 
 
 Hammond, Henry 169,191, 
 
 4f>3 
 
 
 Hardwick, C 
 
 Harmony of the Confessions 
 
 Harper, W. R ... 20, 
 
 Hase.K 
 
 Mastings, F 
 
 3<3 
 4J« 
 47"; 
 4Sa
 
 502 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Haupt, Erich 
 
 Ha!!>rath, A 62,301, 
 
 lieiiiegger, J. H. . . . 113, 144, 156, 184, 
 
 Heiiielberg Catechism 13, 408, 
 
 Kciiirici, C. F. G 461, 
 
 Jleins'us, JJaniel 
 
 Helvetic Confession (II.) 108, 
 
 Confessions ..... 
 
 Henderson, E 458, 
 
 Hengstenberg, E. W... 184,235,456, 
 
 XT .r u 459.472,473, 
 
 Henry, Matthew 345, 
 
 Herder, J. G 169, 203, 204, 228, 
 
 ,, . ., 34Q, 37S> 
 
 Heringa, J 
 
 Her'.e. Chas 
 
 Herodotus 
 
 Hert.iig, O. R 
 
 Ilorvev, A . . 451, 
 
 A. C . 
 
 Hexapla, English 
 
 Hilary 
 
 Hilgenfeld, A 
 
 Hillel, Rabbi 62, 
 
 HirzeI,S 
 
 Hitchcock, R. D 429, 
 
 Ilitzig, F 386, 
 
 Hobbes, Thos i6g, 
 
 Hodge, A. A . 161, 
 
 Chas.. . 464, 
 
 Hofniann, J. C .... 209, 350, 351, 461. 
 
 Holhmus, M. D 
 
 Holsten, C 389,487, 
 
 Home, G 
 
 T. Hartwell 184, 
 
 Hon, F. J. A 86,150, 
 
 Howson, J. S 452, 460, 479, 
 
 Hud.son, C. F 
 
 Huet. P. D 
 
 Hume. D 
 
 Hupfeld, H 14, 77, 208, 
 
 Huss, John 
 
 Huther, J.E 
 
 Huxtable, E 
 
 Hyde, Thomas 
 
 477 
 200 
 410 
 464 
 334 
 332 
 13 
 459 
 
 484 
 449 
 
 445 
 348 ! 
 118 ; 
 
 233 I 
 446 1 
 
 479 I 
 
 452 I 
 441 I 
 323 
 
 475 i 
 
 3ot ! 
 
 453 i 
 440 I 
 
 453 i 
 
 373 ! 
 24T 
 
 465 I 
 
 Jerusalem, J. F. W tot 
 
 Joel, M 154 
 
 Johanan, Rabbi 176 
 
 Johnson, E 4co 
 
 -— G. H.S 4^1 
 
 Jonathan ben Uzziel 439 
 
 Jones, Wm 257 
 
 Iliad 64, 294 
 
 Immer, A. .. 27, 70, 73, 298, 330, 388, 447 
 
 Irenaeus 182, 321, 325 
 
 Irish Articles 167 
 
 Irons, W. J 487 
 
 Ismacl, Rabbi 301 
 
 Jablonsky, p. E 175 
 
 Jackson, J 452 
 
 Jacob ben Chajim 139 
 
 Jacob. G. A 488 
 
 Jacobson, W 452 
 
 Jadaim. Tract 130 
 
 Jameson, Anna 479 
 
 - — \Vm 167 
 
 Jarnai, Rabbi 174 
 
 Jay, Michael de 143 
 
 Jel.b, J.. . 261 
 
 Icliu'la, Rabbi 174, 177 
 
 jolf, W. E 67, 436 
 
 Jenkyn,Wm 467 
 
 Jciorae... 109, 129, 140, 182, 220, 256, 329 
 
 { crime's Vulgate 147 
 erome of Prague 330 
 
 — W. B 
 
 451 
 
 Josephus, Flavius 126, 127, 128, 130, 
 
 180, 221, 256, 307, 472, 476 
 
 lost, J. M 47a 
 
 Journal Soc. Bib. Lit. and Exeg.. 91, 
 
 187, 211 
 
 JubilJien, Buch der 476 
 
 Junilius Africanus 129, 183, 184, 327 
 
 Justin Martyr 32a 
 
 Kahle, Alb .' 
 
 Kaiser. P C 348, 
 
 Kalisch, M. M 454, 
 
 Kant. Immanuel 7, 
 
 Kaulen, Fr 
 
 Kay,W 451, 
 
 Keble, J 
 
 Keil, C. A. G 153, 184, 224, 
 
 ^rT^-„^ 444,471, 
 
 Keim, 7h 
 
 Kennicott, B 148, 149, 
 
 Ken rick, J 
 
 Kidder, R.. : i6g, 
 
 Kihn, Heinr 129,323,326,327, 
 
 King, John 
 
 Kingsbury, T. L . . 
 
 Kitto, John 
 
 Klausen, H. N. .297, 320, 322, 324, 325, 
 
 „, . „ , 331, 333, 334, 350, 
 
 Kleinert, Paul 444, 
 
 Khefoth, Th 
 
 Kling, C. F 
 
 Knapp, G. C 
 
 Kneucker, J.J. 
 
 Knight, Charles 
 
 Knfjbel, A 208, 
 
 Knox, J 
 
 Koenig, F. E 
 
 Koestlin, K. R 
 
 Koppe, J. B 203, 207, 208, 
 
 Kranichfeld, R 
 
 Krehl, L 
 
 Krug,W.T 
 
 Kuenen, A 211, 376, 386, 391, 446, 
 
 Kueper 
 
 Kurtz, J.H 
 
 484 
 375 
 4^ 
 348 
 443 
 452 
 S29 
 34fl 
 47'5 
 47« 
 44:i 
 474 
 191 
 448 
 460 
 451 
 430 
 
 44 « 
 450 
 46a 
 450 
 348 
 475 
 221 
 
 453 
 371 
 
 482 
 
 389 
 218 
 
 459 
 
 482 
 483 
 
 Laidlaw, J 481 
 
 Lane, E. W . . 434, 471 
 
 Lang, J 223 
 
 Lange, J. P.... 217, 299, 354, 359, 448, 
 
 449, 450, 451 
 
 Langen, J 476, 485 
 
 Lanier, S 229 
 
 Lardner. Nath 447 
 
 I.auiwein 26^ 
 
 Lechler, G 134, 330, 450 
 
 Lee, Wm 452 
 
 Leigh, Edward 338, 339, 340, 344 
 
 Leightun, Robert 467 
 
 Lenormant. Fr 232, 472, 472, 481 
 
 Levita, Elias... 107, 127, 130, 140. 141, 
 
 i43> '5°, 353 44k
 
 INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 
 
 503 
 
 Levy, Jacob 174, 433 
 
 ;^ — .*•• A 434 
 
 Lovin, T. homas 480 
 
 Lewis, T. Carlton 344 
 
 ; Tayler 449, 450, 484 
 
 Ley, Julius 262, 278 
 
 Li:is. J.J 452 
 
 Library of the Fathers of the Holy 
 
 Roman Catholic Church 456, 461 
 
 Liddell, H. G. . . 436 
 
 Lightfoot, John 142, 211, 318, 344 
 
 77,- J- B 452, 4'^4, 46s 
 
 Lillie, John 466, 467 
 
 Lipsius, P. A 477 
 
 Liltledale, R. F 456 
 
 l.ivy, T 233 
 
 Ix)cke, J 346 
 
 Lombard, Peter 329 
 
 London Ministers, 1647 130 
 
 Lotz. W 474 
 
 Lowlh, Wm 148, 151, 154, 169, 203, 
 
 204, 228, 260, 261, 346, 349, 445, 458 
 
 Lucius 128 
 
 P. E 476 
 
 - — of Samosata 304, 325 
 
 Ludolphus de Saxonia 479 
 
 Luecke, F 349 
 
 G.C. F 463 
 
 Luenemann, G 435, 461 
 
 Lumby. J. R 93, 452, 460 
 
 Luth.-jrdt. C. E 225, 463 
 
 Luther, M 22, 71, 81, 107, 140, 141, 
 
 146. 165, 330, 331, 333, 365, 371, 408, 464 
 
 1 utterbeck, J. A. B 383,486 
 
 Liitz, J. L. S 350, 358 
 
 I .iizzato, S. D 175, 433 
 
 Lyford, Wm 120, 157, 423 
 
 Lynch. W. F 46^ 
 
 Lyra, Nicolas de 329 
 
 MaCUON ALD, J. A 452 
 
 Mackennel, A 452 
 
 Madden, F. W 471 
 
 Makkabaer, Blicher der. 475 
 
 Mansel, H. L 451 
 
 Manton, Th 466 
 
 Map of Western Palestine 469 
 
 Marc->ius, S 184 
 
 Marsh, Geo. P 232 
 
 Marsliall, Stephen 223 
 
 Martin Marprelate 223 
 
 Martinius, M 146 
 
 Masiu-s, And 143, 169, 454 
 
 Massora Magna 149, 442 
 
 McClelland, A 355, 448 
 
 McCo.sh,J 82, 83 
 
 McCiirdy, J. K 450 
 
 McOonald, J. M 479 
 
 Mcad.C. M 449 
 
 Meilc, Joseph 146, i6g, 191 
 
 Meier, l>nst B62, 432 
 
 ,\;.,!.,nLlh.,n. P 333 
 
 Mciikc, Theo 469 
 
 Mcrci-r, J 146 
 
 M -rrill, S 469 
 
 M erx. A 126, 433 
 
 Messias Judaeorum 475 
 
 Messner, H .... 381, sgO 
 
 Mcycr.H. A. W 350, 461 
 
 John 340 
 
 Meyer, L 348 
 
 Meyrick, F 451, 453 
 
 Michaelis, J. D 203( 375> 4^3 
 
 Middock, Henry 340 
 
 Mill. John 148 
 
 W.H 447 
 
 Milligan, Wm 460 
 
 Milman, H. H 471 
 
 Mitchell, A. F loi, 167 
 
 Mocha, Rabbi . .. ie2 
 
 Moll, C. B 450, 451 
 
 Mombert, J. I 443 
 
 Mommsen, Theo 476 
 
 Mohtet, Edouard 476 
 
 Montgomery, J. F 452 
 
 Moore, Henry 373 
 
 More, Henry 460 
 
 Morinus, f 143, 144 
 
 Morison. J 452, 462 
 
 Morus, S. F. N 298, 347 
 
 Moulton, W. F 435, 460 
 
 Movers, J. C 481 
 
 Mozley, T . . . 206 
 
 Miihlau, F 432 
 
 Miiller, Julius 108 
 
 Muir, A. F 453 
 
 Murphy, James 454 
 
 Murray, T. C 218, 222, 445 
 
 Musculus, W 146, 333 
 
 Naegelsbach, C. W. E. 236, 45-1 
 
 K. F 484 
 
 Neale. J. M 221, 456 
 
 Neauder, A. . . . 209, 350, 378, 380, 381, 
 
 382, 38:1. 384, 388, 389, 396, 478, 48a 
 
 Nehemiah, Kabbi 177 
 
 Nestle, E 439 
 
 Nestorius 326 
 
 Neubauer, Ad 458, 47 ( 
 
 Xewcommen, M 22 t 
 
 Newman, J. H 32 1 
 
 Niemeyer, A. H i-.* 
 
 Noeldeke, Theo... 154, 155, 224,227, 
 
 238, 433. 44! 
 
 Noldius, C 44a 
 
 Norri>. E 43; 
 
 Nutt, J. W 474 
 
 Oecolampadius, J 146, 166, 333, 33. 
 
 Oecumenius 325 
 
 Oehler, G. F. . . 350, 376, 380, 388, 395, 
 
 396, 482 
 
 Olshausen, J 431, 453 
 
 Onkelos, Targum 303, 439 
 
 Opitz, Hermann 388, 488 
 
 Oppert, J 435 
 
 Orelli, C. von 483 
 
 Origen 109, 129, 322 
 
 Origaiiis Hexapla 147, 440 
 
 Orr, J 4S3 
 
 Owen, John... 134, 145, 146, 147, 156, 
 
 170, 184, 372, 466 
 
 l'*( kari), J 450 
 
 PpVaer. E. H 469 
 
 Herbert 221 
 
 I'apiafi 330 
 
 Paris Polyglot 147 
 
 Parousia.'l he 488 
 
 Patton, Francis L.. 104, 119, 124, 125, 
 
 171, 241
 
 504 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Paul of Nisibis 183, 327 
 
 Pearson, John 147, 453 
 
 ——.Rich, 147. 453 
 
 PeUican, K 146 
 
 Peiirice, John 434 
 
 Perkins, Wm 373 
 
 Perowne, J. J. S 218, 222, 455 
 
 Petermann, J. H 433, 435, 439 
 
 Peyrerius, 1 184 
 
 Pfleiderer, O 388 
 
 Phagius, P 146 
 
 Philippi, F. A 464, 488 
 
 Phillips, G 433 
 
 Philo of Alexandria 126, 127, 128, 
 
 130, 181, 221, 305, 321 
 
 Pick, B 450 
 
 Pin, L. E. Du 87, 88, 92, 200, 217 
 
 Pindar 256 
 
 Piscator, J 146 
 
 Planck, G, J 186, 352 
 
 Plato 64, 224 
 
 Plummer, A 452 
 
 PUimptre, E. H 431, 456, 460 
 
 Pococke, Edw 143, 345, 459 
 
 Poole, Matthew.... 147, 148, 157, 167, 
 
 ,,r ^ 345, 453 
 
 Pope, Wm. B 460 
 
 Potter, J. L 431 
 
 Piake, Charles 47O 
 
 Presbyterian Review. ... 14, 39, 83, 85, 
 88, 104, 119, 125, IS3, 161, 171, 20-i, 
 
 209, 211, 228, 241, 329, 387, 410 
 
 l*ressel, F.. 175 
 
 Pressensd, E. de 452, 484 
 
 Pretorius, Fr 434 
 
 Prideaux, H 146, 200, 476 
 
 Front, E. S 452 
 
 i'usey, E. B 329, 446, 458, 459 
 
 Rainolds, John ^^44, 459 
 
 Rainy, Robert 96 
 
 Rambach, J. J 298, 344, 448 
 
 Raphcleng, Franz 143 
 
 Rashi, Rabbi 178, 329 
 
 Rawlinson, G 451,452,472,473, 481 
 
 Records of the Past 474 
 
 Rcdford, R. A 452 
 
 Reinke, L 484 
 
 Renan, Ernst 226, 457, 479, 480 
 
 Reuchlin, J 107, 353 
 
 Reuss, Edw. . . 14, 68, 70, 77, 106, 108, 
 119, 229, 249, 323, 348, 376, 382, 
 
 386, 391, 437, 445, 446, 453, 486 
 
 Reynolds, John 344 
 
 Rh;inibanus, Maurus 329 
 
 Riddle, M. B 460 
 
 Riehm, Edw. . . 224, 318, 3S9, 401, 430, 
 
 483, 488 
 
 Risgenbach, C. J 451 
 
 Riggs, Ehas 432 
 
 Ritter, Karl , 470 
 
 Rivctus, Andrew 143, 167, 333 
 
 Roberts, Francis. . . 298, 340, 341, 342, 
 
 343, 344. 351, 361, 362, 430 
 
 - — W 452 
 
 Robinson, Edw. .210, 431, 435, 441,468, 469 
 
 E.G 37^ 
 
 Robjohns, H. T 452 
 
 Roedifcer, Aemil .. 433 
 
 Roeasch, H 443, 476 
 
 Rose, H. J 45t 
 
 Rosenmuller, C. F. K 320, 454 
 
 Rossi, Azzariah de 141 
 
 Row,C. A 8 
 
 Rowland, A 452, 453 
 
 Rowlands, D 452 
 
 Rushbrooke, W. G 441 
 
 Ryland,J.E 378 
 
 Saadia, Rabbi 304, 329 
 
 Saalschutz, J. L 257,471, 483 
 
 Sabatier, A 388, 487 
 
 St. Caro, Hugo de 329 
 
 St. Petersburg, Codex 149, 152 
 
 Salmond, G. D. F 460 
 
 Ssftiday, W log, 447 
 
 Sappho 257 
 
 Sayce, A. H 45, 48, 59, 435 
 
 Scaliger, J. J 146 
 
 Scattergood, A 147, 453 
 
 Schaff, P 13, 63, 66, 69, 71, 92, 93, 
 
 221, 226, 429, 443, 450, 460, 479 
 
 Schindler 146 
 
 Schleiermacher, F 297, 349, 350, 
 
 352, 373, 448 
 Schmid, C. P.. 379, 380, 388, 3S9, 395, 
 
 396, 486 
 
 Schmidt, J. H 436 
 
 W. G 389, 461, 488 
 
 Schmoller, Otto 450 
 
 Schnedermann, G 143 
 
 Schodde, G. H 475 
 
 Schoettgen, Ch 260, 462 
 
 Scholz, A 458 
 
 J. M. A 149 
 
 Schrader, Eb. . . . 47, 49, 262, 435, 473, 481 
 
 Scjjroeder, F. W. J 449, 450 
 
 — -P 434 
 
 Schuerer, E 60,175,301,477 
 
 Schultens, A 353 
 
 Schultz, F. W 449, /.r^ 
 
 Hermann 381,384,395,401, 462 
 
 Schutze, L 216 
 
 Schwab, M 485 
 
 Schwegler, A 391 
 
 Scotch Confession of 1560 114, 117 
 
 Scott, H. M 216 
 
 ■ Robert 4 36 
 
 Thomas 345, 452 
 
 Scrivener, F. H 86, 148, 150, 438, 
 
 44', 443 
 
 Seder, G. F 340 
 
 Selden , J t 46 
 
 Semler, J. S 136, 199, 347, 357 
 
 Shairpe, J. C 253 
 
 Shakespeare, W 221 
 
 Shammai. Rabbi 62 
 
 Sharpe, Samuel 474 
 
 Shedd, W. G. T 464 
 
 Sibyllina, Oracula 475 
 
 Sieffert, F 461 
 
 Siegfried, Karl 198, 303, 305, ;o6, 
 
 307, 323, 329, 448 
 Simon, Rich . . . 182, 198, 199, 201, 204, 445 
 
 Simeon, Rabbi 177 
 
 Sinaiticus Petropolitanus, Codex. 149, 438 
 
 Sionita, Gabriel 142,143 
 
 Smeaton, George 487, 488, 489 
 
 Smcctymniius 223 
 
 Smend, R . 453
 
 INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 
 
 505 
 
 Smith, George 47, 473, 474 
 
 James 480 
 
 H. B 162, 241 
 
 H. P 88, 387 
 
 -T—R. P 433, 451, 452 
 
 Wm 429, 471 
 
 W. Robertson.. 109, 130, 154, 211, 
 
 224. 251. 444i 445 
 
 Socrates 64, 72 
 
 Sophocles ... 64 
 
 E.A 436 
 
 Spanheim, F 200 
 
 Spence, D 460 
 
 H. D. M 452 
 
 Speaer, P. J 34?, 344 
 
 Spiess, Edm 462, 481 
 
 Spinoza, B. 197 
 
 Spurgeon, C. H 345,360,447. 455 
 
 Spursto w, Wm . 223 
 
 Stkudlein, C. F 348 
 
 Stanley, A. P 464, 468, 471 
 
 Stark, C. L W . 348 
 
 Stalham, W. M . . 452 
 
 Stein. C.W. 348 
 
 Stendel, J. C. F 348, 376 
 
 Sterry, Peter 372 
 
 Stier, R 438 
 
 Storr, G. C 348 
 
 Strabo, Walafrid .. 329 
 
 Strack, Hermann L. . 77, 127, 128, 130, 
 
 149. 153, 178, 216, 224, 432, 439, 442 
 
 Strauss, IJavid 81,377,385, 478 
 
 Stroud, Wm 479 
 
 Struthers, J 167 
 
 Smart, Moses.. 310, 298, 347, 348, 437, 
 
 457, 460, 464, 466, 467 
 
 Supernatural Religion 211 
 
 Suienhtisius, G 485 
 
 5yro-hexaplaris Ambrosianiis 440 
 
 Tati.\.n 437 
 
 Taylor, C 127 
 
 Francis 168, 169, 339, 344, 457 
 
 Isaac. 86, 445 
 
 John, of Norwich 34^1 347» 353 
 
 Thomas 466 
 
 Terry, M . S 449 
 
 Tertullian 182,321, 325 
 
 Testament. New 440 
 
 Testamcnlum Hi). Graece 440, 441 
 
 <VJ .439 
 
 Thayer, T. H 435, 436 
 
 Theile, K. G.W 438 
 
 ThcMius, O 453 
 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia 304, 326 
 
 Thcodoret 182, 326, 329 
 
 Thcopliilii:; of Antioch 437 
 
 1 heciphylact . . . 329 
 
 Thirty-nine Articles . .. 114, 409 
 
 I'lioluck, A.. . . 112, 141, 316, 317, 348, 
 
 374i 444. 462. 4S2 
 
 Ihoma, Alb 389,488 
 
 TlH.impson, W 451 
 
 Thorns, J. A 441 
 
 Thomson, J. R 452 
 
 — — Wni. Si 460, 468 
 
 Thiicydidcs 64,233 
 
 Tide, C. P 482 
 
 Tiichendorf, Const 149, 1S9, 439. 
 
 440, 441, 447, 477 
 
 Tobit, Hook of ._ 475 
 
 Tobler. Titus . , 469,470 
 
 Trani. Sue. Bibl. Archaeology 59 
 
 Tr..pp John. 344 
 
 J regelles, b. P 150, 440 
 
 Trench, K. C 731436,462, 479 
 
 Trip. J 482 
 
 Tristram, n. B 468,47a 
 
 Trcmmius, A 443 
 
 Tuch, Fried 455 
 
 Turner, S. H 186, 210, 352 
 
 Turpie. D. M 444 
 
 Turretine, J. A 147, 347 
 
 Francis 1 13, 144, 156 
 
 Tychonius 323 
 
 Tyler, W. S 484 
 
 Tyndale, W 163, 332, 33s 
 
 Ullm.an.m. C 478 
 
 Umbreit, F. W. C 458 
 
 Urqutvart, J 452 
 
 U.slier, J 146, 167, 337, 343, 37a 
 
 Usteri, L 388, 487 
 
 V.\N D.\LK, Anton 199 
 
 Van I.ennep, H. J /,7i 
 
 Van Oosterzee, J. J .... . 384, 395, 396, 
 
 450, 451. 486 
 
 V,ater, J. S 207 
 
 Vaticanus, Codex 438 
 
 Vatke, W 376,386 
 
 Vigouroux, F 473 
 
 Viiice;it, M. R 344, 455 
 
 Vitriuga, C 200, 202, 467, 485 
 
 Voetias, G 113, 156 
 
 Volck, W 61,334,351,432 
 
 Volkmar, G 475 
 
 Von Coeln, Daniel 3767377 
 
 Voltaire, F 8t 
 
 Voragine, Jacobus de 232 
 
 Wace, H 452 
 
 Wachner, A. G 301, 471 
 
 Wahrnnjnd, A 434 
 
 \Yaitp, J 45a 
 
 W'alch, J. C 165, 332 
 
 Wallis, John 159 
 
 Walton, Brian.. 143, 144, 145, 164, 184, 
 
 438, 443 
 
 Warburton, Wm 483 
 
 Warficld, B. B .. 83,161,241 
 
 Warren, Charles 470 
 
 Watson, Thomas 338 
 
 Weber, F 300, 301, 485 
 
 Webster, Wm 436 
 
 WeifTenbach, W 401, 487 
 
 Weiss, Bernhard... 195,208,225,226, 
 227, 230. 384, 389, 395, 
 396,401, 447, 461, 47S, 4S6 
 
 Weizsaccker, C 62 
 
 Wellhauseii, J 376, 3S4, 3S6, 446, 476 
 
 W'endt, H. H 461 
 
 Wenrich, j. G. . . . 217 
 
 Westott, 1). F.. 86, 150, 437, 440, 447, 451 
 
 a:id Hort. 86, 150, 440 
 
 Westminster, Confession of Faith. .6, 
 13, 25, loi, 115, 160, 167, 
 
 241, 297, 337, 365, 409 
 
 Larger Catechism >3. 25, 416 
 
 — Sh(;ru-r " 13,361,418 
 
 Symbols 343, 37a
 
 506 
 
 BIBLICAL STUDY. 
 
 Wetstein, J. C 149 
 
 WeLzstein, J. G 469 
 
 Whately, R 36 
 
 Whichcote, B 112 
 
 \\hitby, Daniel 346, 348 
 
 Whitelaw, T 452 
 
 Wickes, W 152, 443 
 
 Wicklif, J 330 
 
 Wilke, C. G 436 
 
 Wilkins, A 474 
 
 Wilkinson, J. G 473 
 
 Williams, George 470 
 
 Wilson, John 469 
 
 Wilson, Chxs. W 470 
 
 Winer, G. B 69,70,435 
 
 Wines, E, C 483 
 
 Winterbotham, R 452 
 
 Wisdom, Book of. 475 
 
 Withington, L 4; 7 
 
 Witsius, Hermann 185, 200 
 
 Wogue, L 142, 174, 178, 300, 301, 
 
 3031 304. 430 
 
 Wood, G 452 
 
 Woods, J. H 451 
 
 Wordsworth, C 453 
 
 Wright C. H. H 455, 457, 45, 
 
 Wm 178, 217, 224, 255, 256, 
 
 261, 3^8, 433, 477 
 Wuensche, Aug 63, 235, 238, 286, 
 
 454, 459, 463, 484 
 
 Xenophon 64, 233 
 
 Ximenes,Caid 106 
 
 Young, D 452 
 
 — —Thomas 223, 441 
 
 Zacharia, G. T 347, 374 
 
 Zahn, Theo 77, 437 
 
 Zamora, Alphonso de 106 
 
 Zeitschnft d. D. M. G 52, 258 
 
 Zezschwitz, C. A. G. v 66, 72 
 
 Ziegler, L 443 
 
 Zincke, F. B 474 
 
 Zoeckler, Otto.. .77, 216, 217, 429, 449, 450 
 
 Zschokke, H 389 
 
 Zunz, L 62, 130, 17;, 48s 
 
 Zurich Consensus 156 
 
 Zwingli, U 81, 140, 146, 166, 333, 3J4 
 
 ADDITIONS TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Ladd.G.T 430 
 
 Noeldeke, Th 433 
 
 Siegfried, C 433 
 
 Strack, H. 433 
 
 Toy, C. H 
 
 Trumbull, H. C. 
 Westcott, B. F. . 
 Wigram, G, V... 
 
 409 
 467
 
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