THE LIBRARY ■'■: OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES GIFT OF Willia^a Popper ^:^.-^:- '4''' W 1 BIBLICAL STUDY. BIBLICAL STUDY ITS PRINCIPLES METHODS AND HISTORY TOGETHER WITH A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS OF REFERENCE BY CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS D.D. DAVENPORT PROFESSOR OF HEBREW AND THE COGNATE LANGUAGES IN THE UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY NEW YORK CITY THIRD EDITION NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1891 COPYRIGHT, 1883, BT CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS. EDWARD O, JENKINS, Printer and Siereotyper, to North William St., New York. $5 TO ROSWELL D. HITCHCOCK, D.D., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, NEW YORK, AND WASHBURN PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY IN THE SAME, AND TO ISAAC A. DORNER, D.D., PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN : THE SURVIVORS OF TWO NOBLE FACULTIES, TO WHOM THE AUTHOR OWES HIS THEOLOGICAL TRAINING, IS DEDICATED AS A TOKEN OF GRATITUDE AND AFFECTION. 9efi57?^ PREFACE. This work is the product of the author's experience as a student of the Bible, and a teacher of theological students in Biblical Study. From time to time, during the past fourteen years, he has been called upon to give special attention to particular themes in public addresses and review articles. In this way the ground of Biblical Study has been quite well covered. This scattered ma- terial has been gathered, and worked over into an or- j>'anic system. The following articles and addresses have been freely tised wherever the material contained in them seemed appropriate: (i) Two articles on Biblical Theology in the American Presbyterian Review ^ i^/o. PP- 105 seq., 793, seq. (2) An inaugural address on Exegetical The- ology on the author's induction into the chair of He- brew and Cognate Languages in the Union Theological Seminary, New York, October, 1876; published in the Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review, 1877, p. 5, seq. (3) An address before the Sunday-school Teach- ers' Association of New York on the Languages of the Bible, in the autumn of 1876, which v/as published in the volume Gocfs Word Man'^s Light and Gtiide, New York, 1877, P- 37' ^^^- (4) Aj^ article in the Presbyte- rian Reviezv, 1881, p. 551, seq., on the Right, Duty, and Limits of Biblical Criticism. (5) Two articles in the Homiletical Quarterly, London, 188 1, pp. 398, seq., and 535, seq., on Ilebrezv Poetry. (6) An article in the Pres- (vii) yiii PREFACE. byierian Revieiv, 1882, p. 503, seq., on Biblical Theology, ij) An article in the Hcbreio Student, 1882, p. 65, seq.y on the Literary Study of the Bible. (8) An article in the Presbyterian Review, 1883, P- 69, seq., on the Critical Study of the HigJier Criticism, with special reference to the Pentateuch. (9) An address upon the Scriptures as a Means of Grace, delivered before the Sunday-school Convention of the Presbytery of New York in the winter of 1882, and then enlarged and delivered before the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church, at Lancaster, Pa., in May, 1883. (10) An address before the Union Theological Seminar>% New York, at the opening of the term, September 20, 1883, on the Inter- pretation of Scripture. This material has been used by the author when it suited his purpose, but it will be found that the additional matter is far greater than that already given to the public in these scattered pieces, and that the book is a complete and symmetrical whole. The author has aimed to present a guide to Bib- lical Study for the intelligent layman, as well as the theological student and minister of the Gospel. It is his conviction that the scientific study of the Word of God .should be combined with a devout use of it. Piety and scholarship must be wedded in order to the best results. It is a misfortune that they should ever be divorced. A great re»^aval of Biblical Study is now in progres^s in Great Britain and America. It is all-important that this revival should be guided in the right direction. Scholasticism and Rationalism are alike perilous. Scholasticism is largely responsible for the neglect of a scholarly study of the Scriptures for a century in Eng- lish-speaking lands. (See pp. 123, seq., 145, seq., 149, PREFACE, Jx scq., 206, seq., 209, scq., 345-346, 373, seq>) It is chieHy responsible for the reaction into the other extreme of RationaHsm. As Scholasticism is the chief prov^ocative to Rationalism, it can never by any possibility overcome it. The evangelical spirit of the Biblical authors, the vital and experimental religion of the Reformers and Puritan fathers is the only force that will be at all effective. It is necessary that we should react to their principles and methods, and build upon them. True progress in the- ology is to be found in the working out of the principles of the Reformation and of Puritanism, in carrying them on to higher and grander results. These principles have been neglected by British and American theo- logians of the past century. It has been a constant aim in this book to call attention to these principles and to the methods of Biblical Study based upon them, and to explain the doctrine of the Bible in the chief Puritan symbol, the Westminster Confession, by citations from its authors and their forerunners. (See pp. 114, scq., 167, seq-^ 33 5 » -^'V-j Zl^^ seq.) At the same time a sketch of the entire history of each department of Biblical Study has been given, the stages of its development are traced, the normal is discriminated from the abnormal, and the whole is rooted in the methods of Christ and His apostles. The Literature of Biblical Study has been considered in its appropriate places in the system. But it has been deemed best to present a catalogue of a reference libra- ry for Biblical Study by itself at the end of the work. The labor that has been expended upon this part of the book will be appreciated by those who have had ex- perience in Bibliography. These will be ready to excuse any defects or errors that may iiave arisen from inadver- tence or lack of material. jf PREFACE. The ground of Biblical Study has been covered, with the exception of Biblical History. This department has been included in the Reference Library because it seemed necessary for completeness. It has been omit- ted from the discussions because it is usual to classify Biblical History with Historical Theology. The author did not care to determine this disputed question in a work already sufficiently extensive. In the use of Scripture the freedom which charac- terizes the Biblical authors, the fathers, the reformers, and the Puritan sires has been followed. The A. V. and R. V. have been quoted, or modified, or a new trans- lation from the originals has been given, just as it suited the author's purpose at the time. He has been con- cerned chiefly to give the sense of the originals of divine revelation. The three indexes have been prepared by the author's pupil and friend. Rev. Charles R. Gillett, A.M., the librarian of the Union Theological Seminary, New York, to whom he would express his thanks for the great pains taken in the work. With an implicit faith in the God of the Bible, and the power of grace contained in the holy Word ; and with an unwavering recognition of the supreme excel- lence of the written Word, as the mirror of the eter- nal Logos ; and with an entire submission to its author- ity as supreme over all doctrines of men and ecclesi- astical decisions, this Biblical Study is submitted to the judgment of the intelligent reader. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Advantages of Biblical Study, p. i. Biblical Study the most important, p. i ; the most extensive, p. i ; the most profound, p. 2; the most attractive, p, 3, of all studies. CHAPTER n. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY, p. ID. Exegetical Theology the most general term for Biblical Study, p. 10. I. Biblical Literature, p. 17 : (i) Biblical Canonics, p. 21 ; (2) Textual Criticism, p. 22 ; (3) The Higher Criticism, p. 24. II. Biblical Exegesis, p. 27. III. Biblical Theology, p. 37. CHAPTER III. The Languages of the Bible, p. 42. The languages of the Bible the most suitable for declaring the divine revelation to mankind, p. 42. I. The Hebrew Language, p. 46. II. The Aramaic Langttage, p. 59, III. The Greek Language, p. 63. CHAPTER IV. The Bible and Crimcism, p. 75. The necessity of criticism to determine the true canon, text, and char- acter of the various writings of the Bible, p. 75. I. What ii Criticism % p. 78. II. Principles of Criticism, p. 82 ; derived (i) from General Criticism, p. 82 ; (2) from Historical Criticism, P' 83 ; (3) fror" Criticism of the text, p. 85 ; (4) from Higher Criticism, p. 86; questions to be determined by Higher Criti- cism, p. 87 ; principles of Higher Criiicism, p. 88; illustrations, (xi> Xii CONTENTS. p. 92. III. Criticism of the Bible, p. 94; confronted by tradi tional views, p. 95 ; based on the principles of the Reformation, p. lOI. CHAPTER V. The Cakon of Scripture, p. 105. No official determination of the Canon in the ancient Church, p. 105. I. The Canon of the Reformers, p. 106. The Reformation prin- ciple of determining the Canon, p. 107 ; its abandonment by the scholastics, p. 113. II. The Puritan Canon, p. 114 : The Puri- tan principle discriminated from the Anglican, p. 114 ; the Puri- tan mystic, p. 119; abandonment of the Puritan principle, p. 124. III. Criticism of the Cation, p. 125. The LXX and the Canon of the O. T., p. 126. The men of the great synagogue, p. 127. Evidence from Philo and Josephus, p. 128; The N. T. determination of the O. T. Canon, p. 131 ; The N. T. Canon in the early church, p. 132. The Protestant Canon, p. 133. The principles for determining the Canon, p. 136. CHAPTER VI. The Text of the Bible, p. 139. I. Textual Criticism in the Sixteenth Cetitury, p. 140 ; of the Re- formers, p. 140; of the Scholastics, p. 141. II. Textual Criti- cism in the Seventeenth Century,'^. 142: Cappellus and Bux- torf, p. 143 ; Walton and Owen, p. 144. III. Textual Criticism in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, p. 148 : New Test. Criticism, p. 148 ; Old Test. Criticism, p. 149. IV. The Text oj the Old Testament, p. 151 •. The Vowel points and accents, p. 1 5 1 ; the letters, p. 153; the versions, p. 153. V. Textual Cri.icis/n and Inspiration, p. 156: Verbal inspiration rejected, p. 156; the external word instrumental, p. 158; the internal word inspired, p. 161. CHAPTER VII. The Higher Criticism, p. 164. I. The Higher Criticism in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centu- ries, p. 165 : The freedom of the Reformers and Puritans, p. 165. The new questions opened in the Eighteenth Century, p. 169. II. Criticism of the Traditional Theories, p. 171 : The true CONTEXTS. Xlll method and its defence, p. 171. III. The Rabbinical Theories, p. 173. IV. Hellenistic and Christian Theories, p. 180. V. Thi Netu Testament View of the Old Testament Literature,'!^. 184. V^I. The Rise of the Higher Criticism, p, 196: Spinoza and Simon, p. 197 ; Astruc, Lowth, and Herder, p. 202 ; Eichhorn p. 203. VII. The Higher Criticism in the Nineteenth Cent' ury, p. 207. CHAPTER VIII. Literary Study of the Bible, p. 214. I. The Integrity of the Scriptures,"^. 2\(i. II. The Authenticity of the Scriptures, p. 220 : (l) Anonymes, p. 222 ; (2) Pseudonymes, p. 223 ; (3) Compilations, p. 226. III. Literary forms of the Scriptures, p. 228 : (i) History, p. 230; (2) the Oration, p. 234; (3) the Epistle, p. 237 ; (4) Fiction, p. 238. IV. Credibility of the Scriptures, p. 240 : Inerrancy not a Protestant doctrine, p. 241. Higher Criticism strengthens the credibility of Scripture, p. 244. CHAPTER IX. Hebrew Poetry, p. 248. The Hebrews a remarkably poetic people, p. 248. I. CharacteriS' tics of Hebrew Poetry, p. 250. 11. Forms of Hebrew Poetry, p. 255. III. Parallelism of members, p. 272. IV, l^he Strophe, p. 272. V. Measurement by Words or Accents, p. 279. VI. Poetic Laiigiiage, p. 283. VII. Kinds of Hebrew Poetry, p. 284: (i) Lyric, p. 284; (2) Gnomic, p. 285; (3) Composite, p. 288. CHAPTER X. The Interpretation of Scripture, p. 296. The Word of God at first oral, p. 296 ; the interpretation of writings, p. 297. I. Rabbinical interpretation, p. 299: Rules of the Ha- laclia and Haggada, p. 301 ; the Sodh, p. 302 ; the Peshat, p. 303. II. Hellenistic Interpretation, p. 305: Rules of allegory, p. 306. III. Interpretation of Scripture in the Neiv Testa- ment, p. 307 ; Jesus' use of the Rabbinical and Hellenistic meth- ods, p. 309 ; the distinguishing features of Jesus' method, p. 31 1 ; the apostolic u?e of flaggada, Halacha, and Ailegory, p. 315 ; the distinguishing features of apostolic interpretation, p. 319. Xiv CONTENTS. IV. Interpretation of the Fathers and Schoolmen, p. 320 : The churchly tendency, p. 321 ; the allegorical tendency, p. 322 ; the Antiochan school, p. 325 ; the traditional interpretation of the middle age, p. 328. V. Tke Interpretation of the Reformers ana their Successors, p. 331 : The Humanists, p. 331 ; the reforma- tion principle of interpreting Scripture by Scripture, p. 332 ; the scholastic rule of faith, p. 333. VI. The Interpretation of the Puritans and Arminians, p, 335 : The Puritan principle of the Holy Spirit in Scripture, p. 336 ; Puritan practical interpreta- tion, p. 340 ; Puritan doctrine of the Covenants, p. 342 ; the Federalists and Pietists, p. 343 ; the Arminian historical inter- pretation, p. 345. VII. Biblical Interpretation of Modern Times, p. 346: The grammatico-historical method of Ernesti, Semler, and Keil, p. 347 ; the older Tubingen school, p. 348 ; the organic method of the school of Schleiermacher, p. 349 ; the interpretation of the history of redemption, p. 351. VIII. Method of Biblical Interpretation, p. 351 : (i) Grammatical, p. 352 ; (2) Logical and Rhetorical, p. 353 ; (3) Historical, p. 357 ; (4) Comparative, p. 358; (5) Use of the literature of interpreta- tion, p. 360; (6) Doctrinal interpretation, p. 361 ; (7) Practical, P- 363. CHAPTER XI. Biblical Theology, p. 367. I. The Four types of Theology, p. 367 : The mystic, p. 368 ; scho- lastic, p. 369; speculative, p. 369; evangelical, p. 370 ; their his- toric struggles, p. 371. II. The Rise of Biblical Theology, p. 374: Zachariah and Ammon, p. 374; Gabler, p. 375; DeWette and V^on Coin, p. 376. III. Development of Biblical Theology, p. 377 : The Tiibingen school and the school of Neander, p. 377; Reuss, Kuenen, and Wellhausen, p. 386; the present problems, p. 389. IV. Position and importance of Biblicai Theology, p. 390 : d) The idea of Biblical Theology, p. 390 ; (2) Place of Biblical Theology, p. 397 ; (3) Method, p. 399; (4) Sys- tem and Divisions, p. 401 ; Unity and variety of the Bible, p. 404. CHAPTER XII. The Scriptures as a Means of Gracf, p. 406. The principles of the Reformation, p. 406. I. The Gospel in the Scriptures, p. 407. II. The Grace of God in the Scriptures, CONTENTS. XV p. 410: (1) They contain the power of God unto salvation, p. 411 ; (2) The grace of redemption from sin to holiness, p. 412: (a) The grace of regeneration, p. 413; (d) The grace of sancti- fication, p. 414. III. 7V:i' efficacy oj the Scriptures, p. 416, IV. The appropriatiott of the grace of the Scriptures, p. 417: (i) By prayerful attention, p. 418; (2) by appropriating faith, p. 423; (3) by practicing faith, p. 426. A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY, p. 429. L Biblical Study in General, p. 429. 11. The Languages of the Bible and Cognates, p, 430 ; Hebrew, p. 430; Aramaic, p. 432 ; Arabic and .^Ethiopic, p. 433 ; Phoenician and Samaritan, p. 434; Assyrian and Babylonian, p. 435 ; Greek, p. 435; \\\ Canon of Scripture, p. 437. IV. Text of Scripture, p. 438 ; Originals and Versions, p. 438 ; Concordances, p. 441 ; Textual Criticism of the Old Testament, p. 442 ; Textual Criticism o< the New Testament, p. 448. V. The Higher Criticism, p. 444 , of the Old Testament, p. 444 ; of the New Testament, p. 446, VI. Interpretation of Scri/' ' . ;■>. 447; (i) Hermeneutics, p. 447; (2) Comnieritarits on ;',.>_■ wliole Bible, p. 449; on tiivi Old Testament, p. 433 ; on the New Testament, p. 460. VIl. Biblical History, p. 468 ; Biblical Geography and Natural His- tory, p. 468 ; Old Testament History, p. 470 ; History of tlie Jews and their surroundings during the Greek and Roman pe- riods, p. 474; New Testament History, p. 476. YMl. Biblical Theology, p. 480 : of the whole Bible, p. 480 ; of the Old Testament, p. 481 : Theology of the Jews during the Greek and Roman periods, p. 484 ; New Testament Theology, p. 486, INDEXES. f. Texts of Scripture, p. 489. II. Topics, p. 493. Ill Books and Authors, p. 499, CHAPTER I. THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. Biblical study is the most important of all studies, for it is a study of the. Word of God, which contains a divine revelation of redemption to the world. Nowhere else can such a redemption be found save where it has been derived from this fountain source or from those sacred persons, institutions, and events presented to us in the Bible. The Bible is the chief source of the Chris- tian religion, Christian theology, and Christian life. While other secondary and subsidiary sources may be used to advantage in connection with this principal 5'ource, they cannot dispense with it. For the Bible contains the revelation of redemption ; the Messiah and His kingdom are the central theme ; its varying contents lead by myriads of paths in converging lines to the throne of the God of grace. The Bible is the sure way of life, wisdom, and blessedness. Biblical study is the most extensive of all studies, for its themes are the central themes which arc inextri- cably entwirted in all knowledge. Into its channels every other study pours its supply as all the brooks and rivers flow into the ocean. The study of the Bible is a study for men of every class and occupation in life, for all the world. No profound scholar in any department of in- vestigation can avoid the Bible. Sooner or later his 2 BIBLICAL STUDY. special studies will lead him thithei. The Bible is an ocean of heavenly wisdom. The little child may sport upon its shores and derive instruction and delight. The most accomplished scholar finds its vast extent and mys- terious depths beyond his grasp. We open the Bible and on its earliest pages are con- fronted with the origin of the world, the creation of man, the problem of evil. Its histories present, in brief yet impressive outlines, the struggle of good and evil, the strife of tribes and nations, and, above all, the inter- play of divine and human forces, showing that a divine plan of the world is unfolding. The springs of human action, the secrets of human experience and motive are disclosed in the measures of psalm and proverb. The character, attributes, and purposes of God are unveiled in the strains of holy prophets. The union of God and man in redemption is more and more displayed in the progress of its literature. Two great covenants divide the plan of redemption into two stages, the old cove- nant and the new. The former presents us instructions which are a marvel of righteousness, holiness, and grace ; institutions that are symmetrical and grand, combining, as nowhere else, the real and the ideal, — the light and guide to Israel bearing on to the new covenant. In the latter the Messiah presents His achievements of redemp- tion in which are stored up the forces which have shaped the Christian centuries, and the secrets of the everlasting future. All the sciences and arts, all the literatures, histories, and religions of the world gather about the Bible to contribute to its study and derive help from its revelations. Biblical study is the most profound of all studies, for :t has to do with the secrets of life and death, of God and man, of this world and other worlds. Its chief con- THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 3 tents art divine revelations. These were revealed be- cause man could not attain them otherwise. Even those contents of the Bible that are not revealed are colored and shaped by the revelations with which they are con- nected. All study which goes beyond the surface soon reaches the mysterious. There are many mysteries that patient and persistent investigation has solved, is solv- ing, or may be able to solve. But the mysteries revealed in the Bible are those which man has not been able to attain by inductive and deductive investigation. When the study of the other departments of human learning has reached their uttermost limits, there still remains a gulf between those limits and the contents of divine revelation. Divine revelation is to the other depart- rrtents of human knowledge what heaven is to earth. It is above them, it encircles them — it envelops them on every side. Like heaven, it discloses vast heights. Those things which are revealed lift the student of the Bible to regions of knowledge that reach forth to the in- finite. And yet profound as the divine revelation is, it is simple. It is like the sunlight bearing its own evidence in itself. It is like the blue vault of heaven clear and bright. It is a revelation for babes as well as men, for the simple as well as the learned. The most profound study cannot master it. Any attentive study of it is rewarded with precious knowledge. Biblical study is the most attractive of all studies. The variety of ttpic, richness of material, beauty of form, wealth of illustration, the vast importance of its themes, the unity in which the amazing variety of au- thor, age, and topic is bound together — all make the Bible the most interesting and absorbing study for peasant and prince, for child and sage, for all the world. If this is not the actual experience of all mankind, it 4 BIBLICAL STUDY. is not the fault of the Bib.e, but of the religious teachers who have obtruded their traditions and theories upon the Bible as the Pharisees did in the time of our Lord Jesus (Matt. xv. 6 ; Col. ii. 8). The people and learned men have been too often driven from the Bible by Prot- estant ministers as well as Roman Catholic priests. The Bible has been hedged about with awe as if the use of it, except in solemn circumstances and with de- votional feelings, was a sin against the Holy Spirit. Men have been kept from the Bible as from the sacra- ments by dread of the serious consequences involved in their use. The Bible has been made an unnatural and unreal book, by attaching it exclusively to hours of de- votion and detaching it from the experiences of ordinary life. The study of the Bible will inevitably lead to holy and devout thoughts, will bring the student to the pres- ence of God and His Christ — but it is a sad mistake to suppose that the Bible can be approached only in spe- cial frames of mind and with peculiar preparation. It is not to be covered as with a funereal pall and laid away for hours of sorrow and affliction. It is not to be re- garded with feelings of bibliolatry, which are as perni- cious as the adoration of the sacrament. It is not to be used as a book of magic, as if it had the mysterious power of determining all questions at the opening of the book. It is not to be used as an astrologer's horoscope to determine from its words and letters, the structure of its sentences, and its wondrous symbolism, through seem- ing coincidences, the fulfilment of biblical prophecy in the events transpiring round about us or impending over us. The Bible is no such book as this — it is a book of life, a real book, a people's book. It is a blessed means of grace when used in devotional hours, — it has also holy lessons and beauties of thought and sentiment for hours TILE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 5 of leisure and recreation. It appeals to the JEsthetic and intellectual as well as moral and spiritual faculties, the whole man in his whole life. Familiarity with the Bible is to be encouraged. It will not decrease, but rather enhance the reverence with which we ought to approach the Holy God in His Word. The Bible takes its place among the masterpieces of the world's literature. The use of it as such no more interferes with devotion than the beauty and grandeur of archi- tecture and music prevent the adoration of God in the worship of a cathedral. Rather the varied forms of beauty, truth, and goodness displayed in the Bible will conspire to bring us to Him who is the centre and in- spiration of them all. Another sin against the Bible is often committed by the indiscriminate use of proof texts in dogmatic asser tion and debate. They are hurled against one another in controversy with such difference of interpretation that it has become a proverb that anything can be proved from the Bible. The Bible has been too often used as if it were a text-book of abstract definitions giving ab- solute truth. On the contrary, the Bible was not made for ecclesiastical lawyers, but for the people of God. It gives the concrete in the forms and methods of general literature. Its statements are ordinarily relative ; they depend upon the context in which they are imbedded, the scope of the author's argument, his peculiar point of view, his type of thought, his literary style, his position in the unfolding of divine revelation. There are occa- sional passages so pregnant with meaning that they seem to present, as it were, the quintessence of the whole Bible. Such texts were called by Luther little bibles. But ordinarily, the texts can be properly understood only in their context. To detach them from their place and 6 BIBLICAL STUDY. use them as if they stood alone, and deduce from them all that the words and sentences may be con- strained to give, as absolute statements, is an abuse of logic and the Bible. Such a use of other books would be open to the charge of misrepresentation. Such a use of the Bible is an adding unto the Word of God new meanings and taking away from it the true meaning. Against this we are warned by the Bible itself (Rev. xxii. 18-19). Deduction, inference, and application may be used within due bounds, but they must always be based upon a correct apprehension of the text and context of the passage. These processes should be conducted with great caution, lest in transferring the thought to new con- ditions and circumstances, there be an insensible assimi- lation first of its form and then of its content to these conditions and circumstances, and it become so trans- formed as to lose its biblical character and become a tradition of man.* It is a melancholy feature of bibli- cal study that so much attention must be given to the removal of the rubbish of tradition that has been heaped upon the Word of God now as in the times of Jesus. The Bible is like an oasis in a desert. Eternal vigilance and unceasing activity are necessary to prevent the sands from encroaching upon it and overwhelming its fertile soil and springs of water. The Bible is given to us in the forms of the world's literature, and its meaning is to be determined by the reader as he determines the meaning of other literature by the same principles of exegesis. It is a Protestant principle that the Word of God should be given to the people in their own familiar tongue with the right of private judgment in its interpretation. It is a corollary * Westm. Confession of Faith, I. 6. THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. 7 of this principle that they be taught that it is to be under, stood in a natural sense, as other writings are understood. Any unnatural and artificial interpretation bears its own condemnation in itself. The saving truths of Scripture can be " savingly understood " only through the illumi- nation of the Spirit of God,* but this is not for the reason that they are not sufficiently plain and intelligible, or that some special principles of interpretation are needed of a scholastic or cabalistic sort — but owing to the fact that in order to salvation they must be applied to the soul of man by a divine agent, and appropriated by the faith of the heart and the practice of the life. We must call attention to a still more serious mistake in the use of the Bible. There are those who think that f hey alone have the truth of God, that the highest wis- dom has already been attained, and that they are the guardians of orthodoxy. They presume to oppose the discoveries in science or philosophy, the improvements in theology and methods of church work, and even the deeper study of the Word of God itself, by isolated texts and traditional interpretations. Scarcely a pro- found thinker, since the days of Socrates, who has not been obliged to pause in his work and defend himself, like the apostle Paul, against these "dogs" and "evil workers " (Phil. iii. 2). Galileo was silenced by the quoting of the Bible against the Copernican theory of the revolution of the earth around the sun. Descartes had to defend his orthodoxy. The enemies of the Crit- ical philosophy of Kant charged that no critic who fol- lowed out the consequences of his positions could be a good man, a good citizen, or a good Christian. f * Westminster Confession, L, 6. + These points are discussecJ by Krug-, Ueber das Verhdltniss der Kritischen riiilosofhie zur moraUs^h'n, folitischen und religiosen Kultur der Menschen, Jena, 1798. g BIBLICAL STUDf. The results of Geology have been opposed by those who insist that the world was made in six days of twen- ty-four hours. Biology has to fight its way against those who affirm that the doctrine of development is against the Scriptures. Such use of the Bible has too often the effect of driving scholars away from it, and especially from the Old Testament, the most abused part of it. As Dr. C. A. Row says : " The fact is therefore indisputable, that theologians have handled Scripture on such faulty principles, that they have laid down as truths indisputably divine, a number of dogmas which have brought reve- lation into direct collision with some of the greatest discoveries of modern science, and that after having, on their first enunciation, de- nounced them as inconsistent with the belief that Scripture contains the record of a divine revelation, they have been compelled to accept them as unquestionable verities. Moreover, the general distrust arising from failures of this kind has been intensified by the pertinac- ity with which theologians have clung to various unsound positions which they have only abandoned when further resistance had be come impossible. The history of the conflict between Science and Revelation is full of such instances, and the consequences have been disastrous in the extreme." * Such theologians as those here described have brought disgrace upon the Church and especially upon the Old Testament Scriptures. Other and better theologians have taken the side of truth and science, and through their help progress has been made. It is ever necessary for the friends of truth, and of progress in the Church to oppose and to overcome ob- structionists. It is the duty of all lovers of the Bible to break up the superstitions that cluster about it, to ex- pose the false dogmatic and polemic use of its texts, and to show that it favors all truth and every form of • Revelation and Modern Theology Contrasted. London, 18S3. p. 7. THE ADVANTAGES OF BIBLICAL STUDY. g scholarly investigation. The Bible is an honest book in all its parts, — it is the Word of God, and every sincere disciple of wisdom will find in its pages not only the real and the highest truth, but will be stimulated and encouraged to press forward under the guidance of the Holy Spirit unto all truth (John xvi. 13). The design of this book is to set forth the principles, methods, and branches of Biblical study, and to give sketches of their history. It is proposed, first of all, to survey the whole field, and then to examine the several departments. We shall aim to explain the true uses of the Bible and show throughout that Biblical study is, as we have claimed, the most important, extensive, pro- found, and attractive of all studies. 1* CHAPTER II. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. The most general term for the various departments of Biblical study is Exegetical Theology. Exegetical Theology is one of the four grand divisions of Theolog- ical Science. It is related to the other divisions, his- torical, systematic, and practical, as the primary and fundamental discipline upon which the others depend, and from which they derive their chief materials. Exe- getical Theology has to do especially with the sacred Scriptures, their origin, history, character, exposition, doctrines, and rules of life. It is true that the other branches of theology have likewise to do with the sacred writings, in that their chief material is derived therefrom, but they differ from Exegetical Theology, not only in their methods of using this material, but likewise in the fact, that they do not themselves search out and gather this material directly from the holy writings, but depend upon Exegetical Theology therefor ; while their energies are directed, in Historical Theology in tracing the de- velopment of that material as the determining element in the history of the people of God ; in Systematic Theology, in arranging that material in the form most appropriate for systematic study, for attack and defence, in accordance with the needs of the age ; in Practical Theology, in directing that material to the conversion (10) EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. lj[ of souls, and training them in the holy life. Thus the whole of theology depends upon the study of the Scriptures, and unless this department be thoroughly wrought out and established, the whole structure of theological truth will be weak and frail, and it will be found, in the critical hour, resting on the shifting sands of human opinion and practice, rather than on the rock of infallible divine truth. The work of Exegetical Theology is all the more im- portant, that each age has its" own peculiar phase or department of truth to elaborate in the theological con- ception and in the life. Unless, therefore, theology freshen its life by ever-repeated draughts from the Holy Scriptures, it will be unequal to the tasks imposed upon it. It will not solve the problems of the thoughtful, r students the option of Hebrew instruction ; but must use all our influence to constrain them to fulfil their duty of preparing students foi the study of theology, as well as of the other professions. 20 BIBLICAL STUDY. and rich, warm blood is animating the frame, giving to the features nobility and beauty.* If the Church is to be renowned for its mastery of the Bible, if the symbols and the life of the Church are to harmon- ize, we must advance and occupy this rich and fruitful field for the Lord, and not wait for unbelievers to oc- cupy it before us, and then be compelled to contend at a disadvantage, they having the prestige of knowledge and success. While, therefore, we exclude the study of the Hebrew and cognate languages from the range of Exegetical Theology, we magnify their importance, not only to the theological student, but also to the entire field of schol- arship. Other scholars may do without them, but for the theologian these studies are indispensable, and we must at the very beginning strain all our energies to the mastery of the Hebrew tongue. If it has not been done before entering the seminaries, it must be done in the seminaries, and those who have no seminary or college advantages must use the best helps they can find.f Having excluded Sacred Philology from Exegetical Theology and from Biblical Literature, we now have to define more closely the proper field of Biblical Litera- ture. Biblical literature has to do with all questions * It is exceedingly gratifying that our American students are eagerly entering upon these studies. The large classes in the cognate langfuages, in our seminaries promise great things for the future in this regard. The classes in the Cognates Ln Union Theological Seminary, New York, in 1882-3, were, in Arabic, 10 ; in Assyrian, Junior and Senior, 10 ; in Chaldee, 23 ; in Syriac, 9. The Cognates are taught in many seminaries, such as Andover, Yale, Lane, Princeton, Auburn, Western, Northwestern. t Favorable opportunities are now afforded for the study of Hebrew by Prof. William R. Harper, Ph.D., of the Theological Seminarj- at Morgan Park, Chi. cago. He conducts with ability, enthusiasm, and success a Hebrew Correspond- ence school of several classes and also a Hebrew Summer school. Several hun« dred ministers and laymen have already been trained in them. exegetical theology. 21 respecting the sacred Scriptures that may be necessary to prepare the way of Biblical Exegesis. Looking at the sacred Scriptures as the sources to be investigated, we see three fields of inquiry presenting themselves : the collection or canon, the text, and the individual writings ; or, in more detail, the three groups of ques- tions : I. As to the idea, extent, character, and author- ity of the canon, collected as the sacred Scriptures of the church. 2. As to the text of which the canon is composed, the MSS. in which it is preserved, the trans- lations of it, and citations from it. 3. As to the origin, authorship, time of composition, character, design, and direction of the individual writings that claim, or are claimed, to belong to the sacred Scriptures. These sub- ordinate branches of Biblical Literature may be called Biblical Canonics, the Lower or Textual Criticism, and the Higher Criticism. I. Biblical Canonics cow^iders the canon of sacred Script- ure as to its idea, its historical formation, its extent, character, authority, and historical influence. These in- quiries are to be made in accordance with the historical and synthetic methods. We are not to start with pre- conceived dogmatic views as to the idea of the canon, but derive this idea by induction from the sacred writ- ings themselves ; and in the same manner decide all other questions that may arise. Thus the extent of the canon is not to be determined by the consensus of the churches,* or by the citation and reverent use of them in the fathers, and their recognition by the earliest standard authorities,t for these historical evidences, so * Indeed, they do not ag^ee with reference to its extent whether it includes the Apocryphal books or not, and, still further, they differ in the matter of distin- guishing within the canon, between writings of primary and secondaiy authority. t These, indeed, are not entirely agreed, and if they were, could only give us a human and fallible authority. 22 BIBLICAL STUDY. important in Historical Theology, have no value in Ex egetical Theology, as they had no influence in the for- mation of the canon itself ; nor, indeed, by their accord with orthodoxy or the rule of faith,* for it is not only too broad, in that other writings than sacred are ortho- dox, but again too narrow, in that the standard is the shifting one of subjective opinion, or external human authority, which, indeed, presupposes the canon itself as an object of criticism ; and all these external reasons, historical and dogmatic, after all, can have but a provis- ional and temporary authority — but the only authorita- tive and final decision of these questions is from the in- ternal marks and characteristics of the Scriptures, their recognition of one another, their harmony with the idea, character, and development of a divine revelation, as it is derived from the Scriptures themselves, as well as their own well-tested and critically-examined claims to inspiration and authority, and, above all, the divine au- thority speaking by and with them. These reasons, and these alone, gave them their historical position and au- thority as a canon. And it is only on this basis that the historical and dogmatic questions may be properly considered, with respect to their recognition by Jew and Christian, and their authority in the church. The writings having thus been considered collectively, we are prepared for the second step, the examination of the text itself. 2. Textual Criticism considers the text of the sacred Scriptures both as a whole and in detail. The sacred writings have shared the fate of all human productions in their transmission from hand to hand, and in the * It was in accordance with this subjective standard that Luther rejected the epistle of James, and Esther. Comp. Domer, Gesch. der Protest. Theologie, 1868, p. 234, seq. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 23 multiplication of copies. Hence, through the mistakes of copyists, the intentional corruption of the heretic, and supposed improvement of the over-anxious ortho- dox, the MSS. that have been preserved betray differ- ences of reading. This department has a wide field of investigation. First of all, the peculiarities of the Bible language must be studied, and the idiomatic itidividual- ities of the respective authors. Then the age of the various MSS. must be determined, their peculiarities, and relative importance. The ancient versions now come into the field, especially the Septuagint, the Chal- dee and Samaritan Targums, the Syriac Peshitto, and the Vulgate, which again, each in turn, has to go through the same sifting as to the critical value of its own text. Here, especially in the Old Testament, we go back of any MSS. and are brought face to face with differences that can be accounted for only on the supposition of original MSS., whose peculiarities have been lost. To these may be added the citations of the original text in the Talmud and Christian scholars. Then we have th«; still more difficult comparison of parallel passages, where differences of text show a difference in MSS. reaching far back of any historical MSS., or even version.'* Text- ual Criticism has to meet all these difficulties and answer all these questions, and harmonize and adjust all these differences, in order that, so far as possible, the genuine, original, pure, and uncorrupted text of the Word of God may be gained, as it proceeded directly from the original authors to the original readers. This * Comp. Psalm xiv. with Psalm liii. ; Psalm xviii. with 2 Samuel xxii., and the books of Samuel and Kings on one hand, with the books of the Chroniclo5 on the other, and, indeed, throughout. Compare also the Canonical books ol Ezra, Nehemiah, and Daniel, with the Apocryphal additions and supplements in the Septuagint version, and finally the citation of earlier writings in the latei ones, especially in the New Testament. 24 BIBLICAL STUDY. department of study is all the more difficult for the Old Testament, that the field is so immense, the writings so numerous, various, and ancient, the languages so little understood in their historical peculiarities, and, still fur- ther, in that we have to overcome the prejudices of the Massoretic system, which, while faithful and reliable so far as the knowledge of the times went, yet, as resting simply on tradition, without critical or historical investi- gation, and without any proper conception of the gen- eral principles of grammar and comparative philology, tannot be accepted as final ; for the time has long since passed when the vowel points and accents can be deemed Taspired. We have to go back of them, to the unpointed text, for all purposes of criticism, 3. The Higher Criticism is distinguished from the Lower or Textual Criticism by presupposing the text and dealing with individual writings and groups of writings. The parts of writings should be first investigated, the individual writings before the collected ones. With ref- erence to each writing, or, it may be, part of a writing, we have to determine the historical origin and author- r^hip, the original readers, the design and character of the composition, and its relation to other writings of its group. These questions must be settled partly by ^;r- ternal historical evidence, but chiefly by interna/ evidence, such as the language, style of composition, archaeolog- ical and historical traces, the conceptions of the author respecting the various subjects of human thought, and the like. Now with reference to such questions as these, we have little to do with traditional views or dogmatic opinions. Whatever may have been the prevailing views in the church with reference to the Pentateuch, Psalter, or any other book of Scripture, they will not deter the conscientious cxegete from accepting and teaching the re- EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 25 suits of a historical and critical study of the writings themselves. It is just here that Christian theologians have greatly injured the cause of the truth and the Bible by dogma- tizing in a department where it is least of all appropri- ate, and, indeed, to the highest degree improper, as if our faith depended at all upon these human opinions re- specting the Word of God ; as if the Scriptures could be benefited by defending the indefensible, whereas by fre- quent and shameful defeats and routs traditionalists bring disgrace and alarm even into the impregnable fortress it- self, and prejudice the sincere inquirer against the Script- ures, as if these were questions of orthodoxy or piety, or of allegiance to the Word of God or the symbols of the church. The Westminster standards teach that " the word of God is the only rule of faith and obedi- ence," ^ and that " the authority of the Holy Scripture for which it ought to be believed and obeyed, depend eth not upon the testimony of any man or church, but wholly upon God, the author thereof." f The other Prot- estant symbols are in accord with them. How unortho- dox it is, therefore, to set up another rule of prevalent opinion as a stumbling-block to those who would accept the authority of the Word of God alone. So long as the Word of God is honored, and its decisions regarded as final, what matters it if a certain book be detached from the name of one holy man and ascribed to another, or classed among those with unknown authors ? Are the laws of the Pentateuch any less divine, if it should be proved that they are the product of the experience of God's people from Moses to Josiah?:}: Is the Psalter to * Larger Catechism^ Quest, iii. f Con/ess. of Faith, Chap. i. 4. X British and Foreign Evang. Review, July, 1S68, Art. " The Progress 0/ Old Teitntnent Studies." 2 26 BIBLICAL STUDY. be esteemed any the less precious that the psalms should be regarded as the product of many poets singing through many centuries the sacred melodies of God-fearing souls, responding from their hearts, as from a thousand-stringed lyre, to the touch of the Holy One of Israel? Is the book of Job less majestic and sublime, as, the noblest monument of sacred poetry, it stands before us in its solitariness, with unknown author, unknown birthplace, and from an unknown period of history ? Are the ethi- cal teachings of the Proverbs, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, any the less solemn and weighty, that they may not be the product of Solomon's wisdom alone, but of the reflection of many holy wise men of different epochs, gathered about Solomon as their head? Is the epistle to the Hebrews any less valuable for its clear pre sentation of the fulfilment of the Old Testament priest- hood and sacrifice in the work of Christ, that it must be detached from the name of Paul ? Let us not be so pre- sumptuous, so irreverent to the Word of God, so unbe- lieving with reference to its inherent power of convinc- ing and assuring the seekers for the truth, as to condemn any sincere and candid inquirer as a heretic or a ration- alist, because he may differ from us on such questions as these ! The internal evidence must be decisive in all questions of Biblical Criticism, and the truth, whatever it may be, will be most in accordance with God's Word and for the glory of God and the interest of the church.* Thus Biblical Literature gives us all that can be learned respecting the canon of Holy Scripture, its text and the * Tbe whole of this parag;raph was written and delivered before the outbreak of the Robertson Smith controversy in Scotland and the discussions respecting the Higher Criticism in the United States. These controversies emphasize the im- portance and the correctness of the principles we then stated. We shall come upon them again in Chapter VII., which is devoted to the subject. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. Q'^ various writings ; and presents the sacred Scriptures as the holy Word of God, all the errors and improvements of men having been eliminated, in a text, so far as pos- sible, as it came from holy men who "spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost " (2 Peter i. 21); so that we are brought into the closest possible relations with the living God through His Word, having in our hands the very form that contains the very substance of divine revelation ; so that with reverence and submission to His will we may enter upon the work of interpretation, confidently expecting to be assured of the truth in the work of Biblical Exegesis. n. Biblical Exegesis. And now first of all we have to lay down certain general principles derived from the study of the Word of God, upon which this exegesis it- self is to be conducted. These principles must accord with the proper methods of Exegetical Theology and the nature of the work to be done. The work of establish- ing these principles belongs to the introductory depart- ment of Biblical Hermeneutics. The Scriptures are human productions, and yet truly divine. They must be interpreted as other human writings, and yet their peculiarities and differences from other human writings must be recognized,* especially the supreme determining difference of their inspiration by the Spirit of God, in accordance with which they require not only a sympathy with the human element in the sound judgment and practical sense of the grammarian, the critical investiga- tion of the historian, and the aesthetic taste of the man of letters ; but also a sympathy with the divine element, an inquiring, reverent spirit to be enlightened by the Spirit of God, without which no exposition of the Script. * Comp. Immer, Hermen^utik der N. T., p p. 28 BIBLICAL STUDY. ures as sacred, inspired writings is possible. It is this feature that distinguishes the discipHne from the other corresponding ones, as Sacred Hermeneutics. Thus we have to take into the account the inspiration of the Scriptures, their harmony, their unity in variety, their sweet simpHcity, and their sublime mystery ; and all this not to override the principles of grammar, logic, and rhetoric, but to supplement them ; yes, rather, infuse into them a new life and vigor, making them sacred grammar, sacred logic, and sacred rhetoric. And just here it is highly important that the history of exegesis should come into the field of study in order to show us the abuses of false principles of interpretation as a warn- ing ; and the advantages of correct principles as an en- couragement.* After this preliminary labor, the exegete is prepared for his work in detail. The immensity of these details is at once overpowering and discouraging. The extent, the richness, the variety of the sacred writings, poetry, history, and prophecy, extending through so many cent- uries, and from such a great number of authors, known and unknown, the inherent difficulty of interpreting the sacred mysteries, the things of God — who is sufficient for these things? who would venture upon this holy ground without a quick sense of his incapacity to grasp the divine ideas, and an absolute dependence upon the Holy Spirit to show them unto him? (John xvi. 15). Truly, here is a work for multitudes, for ages, for the most profound and devout study of all mankind, for here we have to do with the whole word of God to man. The exegete is like the miner. He must free himself as * Compare especially Dieslel, Gesch. d. A. T. in der Christ. Kircfie. Jena, 1869. EXEOETICAL THEOLOGY. 29 far as possible from all traditionalism and dogmatic prej- udice, must leave the haunts of human opinion, and bury himself in the Word of God. He must descend beneath the surface of the Word into its depths. The letter must be broken through to get at the precious idea. The dry rubbish of misconception must be thrown out, and a shaft forced through every obstacle to get at the truth. And while faithful in the employment of all these powers of the human intellect and will, the true exegete fears the Lord, and only thereby hopes through his intimacy with Him for the revelation of wisdom.* I. The exegete begins his work with Grammatical Exegesis. Here he has to do with \}i\Q form, the dress of the revelation, which is not to be disregarded or under- valued, for it is the form in which God has chosen to convey His truth, the dress in which alone we can ap- proach her and know her. Hebrew grammar must therefore be mastered in its etymology and syntax, or grammatical exegesis will be impossible. Here patience, exactness, sound judgment, and keen discernment are required, for every word is to be examined by itself, ety- mologically and historically, not etymologically alone, for Greek and Hebrew roots have not infrequently been made to teach veiy false doctrines. It has been forgot- ten that a word is a living thing, and has, besides its root, the still more important stem, branches, and prod- ucts — indeed, a history of meanings. The word is then to be considered in its syntactical relations in the clause, and thus step by step \)[iQ grammatical sense is to be as- certained, the false interpretations eliminated, and the various possible meanings correctly presented and classi- fied. Without this patient study of words and clauses * Job xxviii. 28 ; Ps. xxv. 14 ; Prov. viii. 17, seq. 30 BIBLICAL STUDY. no accurate translation is possible, no trustworthy expo- sition can be made.^ It is true that grammatical exe« gesis leaves us in doubt between many possible con- structions of the sense, but these doubts will be solved as the work of exegesis goes on, and then, on the other hand, it eliminates many views as ungrammatical which have been hastily formed, and effectually prevents that jumping at conclusions to which the indolent and im- petuous are alike inclined. 2. The second step in exegesis is Logical and Rhetor- ical Exegesis. The words and clauses must be inter- preted in accordance with the context, the development of the author's thought and purpose ; and also in ac- cordance with the principles of rhetoric, discriminating plain language from figurative, poetry from prose, history from prophecy, and the various kinds of history, poetry, and prophecy from each other. This is to be done not after an arbitrary manner, but in accordance with the general laws of logic and rhetoric that apply to all writ- ings whatever. While the use of figurative language has led the mystic and the dogmatist to employ the most arbitrary and senseless exegesis, yet the laws of logic and rhetoric, correctly applied to the text, will clip the wings of the fanciful, and destroy the assumptions of the dogmatist, and, still further, will serve to determine many questions that grammar alone cannot decide, and, hence, more narrowly define the meaning of the text. 3. The third step in exegesis is Historical Exegesis. The author must be interpreted in accordance with his * Yes, we may say that no translation can be thoroughly understood after the generation in which it was made, without this resort to the original text, which alone can determine in many cases the meaning of the translators themselves, when we come upon obsolete terms, or words whose meanings have become modiljed or lost. EXEGETiCAL THEOLOGY. 3] historical surroundings. We must appiy to the text the knowledge of the author's times, derived from archaeol- ogy, geography, chronology, and general history. Thus only will we be able to enter upon the scenery of the text. It is not necessary to resort to the history of exegesis ; one's own observation is sufficient to show the absurdities and the outrageous errors into which a neglect of this principle leads many earnest but ignorant men. No one can present the Bible narrative in the dress of modern every-day life without making the story ridiculous. And it must be so from the very nature of the case. Historical circumstances are essential to the truthfulness and vividness of the narrative. Instead of our transporting Scripture events to our scenery, we must transport ourselves to their scenery, if we would correctly understand them and realize them. If we wish to apply Scripture truth we may, after having correctly apprehended it, eliminate it from its historical circum- stances, and then give it a new and appropriate form for practical purposes ; but we can never interpret Scripture without historical exegesis ; for it serves to more nar- rowly define the meaning of the text, and to eliminate the unhistorical materials from the results thus far at- tained in the exegetical process. 4. The fourth step in exegesis is Comparative Exegesis. The results already gained with reference to any partic- ular passage are to be compared with the results attained in a like manner in other similar passages of the same author, or other authors of the period, and in some cases from other periods of divine revelation. Thus, by a comparison of scripture with scripture, additional light will be thrown upon the passage, the true conception will be distinguished from the false, and the results at- tained adequately supported. 32 BIBLICAL bTUDY. 5. The fifth step in exegesis is one of vast importance which, for lack of a better name, may be called Literary Exegesis. Great light is thrown upon the text by the study of the views of those who, through the centuiies, in many lands, and from the various points of view, have studied the Scriptures. Here on tliis battle- ground of interpretation we see almost every view assailed and defended. Multitudes of opinions have been overthrown, never to reappear ; others are weak and tottering — comparatively few still maintain the field. It is among these latter that we must in the main find the true interpretation. This is the furnace into which the results thus far attained by the exegete must be thrown, that its fires may separate the dross and leave the pure gold thoroughly refined. Christian divines, Jewish rabbins, and even unbelieving writers have not studied the Word of God for so many centuries in vain. No true scholar can be so presumptuous as to neglect their labors. No interpreter can rightly clainj originality or freshness of conception who has not famil iarized himself with this mass of material that otheni have wrought out. On the other hand, it is the best; check to presumption, to know that every view that is worth anything must pass through the furnace. Any exegete who would accomplish anything should know that he is to expose himself to the fire that centres upon any combatant that will enter upon this hotly- contested field. From the study of the Scriptures he will come into contact with human views, traditional opinions, and dogmatic prejudices. On the one side these will severely criticize and overthrow many of his results ; on the other his faithful study of the Word of God will be a fresh test of the correctness of those hu- man views that have hitherto prevailed. Thus, from the EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 33 acting and /eacting influences of this conflict, the truth of. God will maintain itself, and it alone will prevail. We have thus far described these various steps of exegesis, in order that a clear and definite conception may be formed of its field of work — not that they are ever to be represented by themselves in any commen- tary, or even carried on independently by the exegete himself, but they should be regarded as the component parts of any thorough exegetical process ; and although, as a rule, naught but the results are to be presented to the public, yet these results imply that no part of the process has been neglected, but that all have harmonized in them, if they are reliable results. In advancing now to the higher processes of exe- gesis, we observe a marked difference from the pre- vious ones, in that they have had to do with the en- tire text, these with only select portions of it. And still further we would remark, that while in these proc- esses the results are to be attained which will be most profitable to the great masses of mankind, we must severely criticize those who, without having gone through them themselves, either use the labors of the faithful exegete without acknowledgment, or else, accepting traditional views without examination, build on an unknown foundation ; for the world does not need theological castles in the air, ov theories of Christian life, but a solid structure of divine truth as the home of the soul, and an infallible guide for living and dying. 6. The sixth step in exegesis is Doctrinal Exegesis, which considers the material thus far gathered in order to derive therefrom the ideas of the author respecting religion, faith, and morals. These ideas are then to be considered in their relation to each other in the section and chapter. Thus we get the doctrine that the author 2* 34 BIBLICAL STUDY. would teach, and are prepared for a comparison of it with the doctrines of other passages and authors. Here we have to contend with a false method of searching for the so-called spiritual sense, as if the doctrine could be independent of the form in which it is rev^ealed, or, in- deed, so loosely attached to it, that the grammar and logic should teach one thing, and the spiritual sense another. There can be no spiritual sense that does not accord with the results thus far attained in the exe- getical process. The true spiritual sense comes before the inquiring soul as the product of the true exegetical methods that have been described. As the differences of material become manifest in the handling of it, the doctrine stands forth as divine and infallible in its own light. Any other spiritual sense is false to the Word of God, whether it be the conceit of Jewish cabalists or Christian mystics. 7. The seventh and iinal effort of exegesis is Practical Exegesis, the application of the text to the faith and life of the present. And here we must eliminate not only the temporal bearings from the eternal, but also those ele- ments that apply to other persons and circumstances than those in hand. Everything depends upon the character of the work, whether it be catechetical, homiletical, evan- gelistic, or pastoral. All Scripture may be said to be prac- tical for some purpose, but not every Scripture for every purpose. Hence, practical exegesis must not only give the true meaning of the text, but also the true applica- tion of the text to the matter in hand. Here we have to deal with a false method of seeking edification and deriving pious reflections from every passage, thus constraining the text to meanings that it cannot bear, doing violence to the Word of God, which is not only not to be added to or taken from as a whole, but also as EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 35 to all its parts. This spirit of interpretation, while nom- inally most reverential, is really very irreverential. It originates from a lack of knowledge of the Scriptures, and the neglect to use the proper methods of exegesis, as if the Holy Spirit would reveal the sacred mysteries to the indolent, even if they should be pious ; for while He may hide the truth from the irreverent critic, He cannot be expected to reveal it except to those who not only have piety, but also search for it as for hidden treas- ures. This indolence and presumptuous reliance upon the Holy Spirit, which too often proves to be a depend- ence upon one's own conceits and fancies, has brought disgrace upon the Word of God, as if it could be mani- fold in sense, or were able to prove anything that might be asked of it. Nay, still worse, it leads the preacher to burden his discourse with material which, however good it may be in itself, not only has no connection with the text, but no practical application to the circumstances of the hour, or the needs of the congregation. Over against this abuse of the Scriptures, the exegete learns to use it properly, and while he cannot find everywhere what he needs, yet he can find by searching for it, far more and better than he needs ; yes, he will learn, as he studies the Word, that it needs no forcing, but aptly and exactly satisfies with appropriate material every phase of Christian experience, gently clears away every shadow of difficulty that may disturb the inquiring spir- it, proving itself sufficient for each and every one, and ample for all mankind. We have endeavored to consider the various proc- esses of exegesis by which results are attained of 'es- sential importance to all the other departments of the- ology. The work of the exegete is foundation work. It is the work of the study, and not of the pulpit, or 36 BIBLICAL STUDY. the platform. It brings forth treasures new and old from the Word of God, to enrich the more prominent and public branches of theology. It finds the nugget of gold that they are to coin into the current concep- tions of the times. It brings forth ore that they are to work into the vessels or ornaments, that may minister comfort to the household and adorn the home and the person. It gains the precious gems that are to be set by these jewelers, in order that their lustre and beauty may become manifest and admired of all. Some think it strange that the Word of God does not at once reveal a system of theology, or give us a confession of faith, or catechism. But Archbishop Whately correctly explains it when he says that, " Since no one of the first promulgators of Christianity did that which they must, some of them at least, have been naturally led to do, it follows that they must have been supernaturally withheM from it." . . . . " Each Church, therefore, was left through the wis: foresight of Him who alone ' knew what is in man,' to provide {o( its own wants as they should arise ; — to steer its own course by tbi chart and compass which His holy word supplies, regulating fo/ itself the sails and rudder according to the winds and currents \t may meet with." * Indeed experience shows us that no body of divinity can answer more than its generation. Every catechism and confession of faith will in time become obsolete and powerless, remaining as historical monuments and sym- bols, as the worn and tattered banners that our veterans or honored sires have carried victoriously through the campaigns of the past — but not suited entirely for their descendants. Each age has its own peculiar work and needs, and it is not too much to say, that not even the * Essays on some of the Peculiarities of the Christian Religion. Fifth edi- tion, London, 1846. Essay vi., pp. 34^ 355. EXEGETICAL TIIEOLOGr. 37 Bible could devote itself to the entire satisfaction of the wants of any particular age, without thereby sacrificing its value as the book of all ages. It is sufficient that the Bible gives us the 7naterial for all ages, and leaves to man the noble task of shaping that material so as to suit the wants of his own time. The word of God is given to us in the Bible, as His truth is displayed in physical nature — in an immense and varied storehouse of material. We must search the Bible in order to find what we require for our soul's food, not expecting to employ the whole, but recognizing that as there is enough for us, so there is sufficient for all mankind and for all ages. Its diversities are appropriate to the vari ous types of human character, the various phases of human experience, and no race, no generation, no man, woman, or child, need fail in finding in the Scriptures the true soul-food, for it has material of abounding wealth, surpassing all the powers of human thought and all the requirements of human life. III. The work of Exegetical Theology does not end however, with the work of Biblical Exegesis, but advances to its conclusion in Biblical Theology. Exegetica! Theology not only, in the department of Biblical Exege- sis, produces the material to be used in the other depart- ment of theology, but it has as its own highest problem, the tliorough arrangement of that material in accord- ance with its own synthetic method. As there is a his- tory in the Bible, an unfolding of divine revelation, a unity, and a wonderful variety, so Exegetical Theology cannot stop until it has arranged the biblical material in accordance with its historical position, and its relative value in the one structure of divine revelation. And here, first, we see the culmination of the exegetical proc- 38 BIBLICAL STUDY. ess, as all its departments pour their treasures into this basin, where they flow together and become compacted into one organic whole — for Biblical Theology rises from the exegesis of verses, sections, and chapters, to the higher exegesis of writings, authors, periods, and of the Old and New Testaments as wholes, until the Bible is discerned as an organism, complete and symmetrical, one as God is one, and yet as various as mankind is vari- ous, and thus only divine-human as the complete reve- lation of the God-man. In this respect Biblical Theology demands its place in theological study as the highest attainment of exegesis. It is true that it has been claimed that the history of Biblical Doctrine, as a subordinate branch of Historical Theology, fully answers its purpose ; and again, that Biblical Dogmatics, as the fundamental part of System- atic Theology, covers its ground. These branches of the sister grand divisions of theology deal with many of its questions and handle much of its material, for the reason that Biblical Theology is the highest point of exegesis where the most suitable transition is made to the other departments ; but it does not, it cannot, belong to either of them. As Biblical Theology was not the product of Historical or Systematic Theology, but was born in the throes of the exegetical process of the last centurj% so it is the child of exegesis, and can flourish only in its own home. The idea, methods, aims, and, indeed, re- sults, are entirely different from those presented in the above-mentioned parts of Historical and Systematic Theology. It does not give us a history of doctrine, al- though it uses the historical method in the unfolding of the doctrine. It does not seek the history of the doc- trine, but the formation, the organization of the doctrine EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 39 in history. It does not aim to present the systematic theology of the Bible, and thus arrange biblical doc- trine in the form that Systematic Theology must assume for the purposes of the day; but in accordance with its synthetic method of seeking the unity in the variety, it endeavors to show the biblical system of doctrine, the form assumed by theology in the Bible itself, the organ- ization of the doctrines of faith and morals in the his- torical divine revelation. It thus considers the doctrine at its first historical appearance, examines its formation and its relation to others in the structure, then traces its unfolding in history, sees it evolving by its own in- herent vitality, as well as receiving constant accretions, ever assuming fuller, richer, grander proportions, until in the revelation of the New Testament the organiza- tion has become complete and finished. It thus not only distinguishes a theology of periods, but a theology of authors and writings, and shows how they harmonize in the one complete revelation of God." It is only from this elevated point of view that many important ques- tions can be settled, such as the Relatioti of the Old Tes- tament to the New Testament — ri fundamental question for all departments of theology. It is only when we recognize the New Testament as not only the historical fulfilment of the Old Testament, but also as its exe- getical completion, that the unity and the harmony, all the grander for the variety and the diversity of the Scriptures, become evident. It is only from this point of view that the apparently contradictory views, as, for instance, of Paul and James, in the article of justifica- * See author's juticles on Biblical Theology, in American Presbyterian Re- view, 1870, and in the Presbyterian Review^ 1882, and Chapter XI. of this volume. iO BIBLICAL STUDY. tion,. may be reconciled in their difference of types. It is only here that a true doctrine of inspiration can be given, properly distinguishing the divine and human elements, and yet recognizing them in their union. It is only thereby that the weight of authority of the Scripture can be fully felt, and the consistency of the infallible canon invincibly maintained. It is only in this culminating work that the preliminary processes of exegesis are delivered from all the imperfections and errors that still cling to the most faithful work of the exegete. It is only from these hands that Historical Theology receives its true keys, Systematic Theology its indestructible pillars, and Practical Theology its all- conquering weapons. Thus Exegetical Theology is a theological discipline, which, in its various departments, presents an inexhaust- ible field of labor, where the most ambitious may work with a sure prospect of success, and where the faithful disciple of the Lord may rejoice in the most intimate fellowship with the Master, divine truths being received immediately from the divine hand, old truths being il- luminated with fresh meaning, new truths filling the soul with indescribable delight. The Bible is not a field whose treasures have been exhausted, for they are inex- haustible. As in the past, holy men have found among these treasures jewels of priceless value ; as Athanasius, Augustine, Anselm, Luther, and Calvin, have derived therefrom nciu doctrines that have given shape not only to the church, but to the world ; so it is not too muc to expect that even greater saints than these may yet :.(o forth from their retirement, where they have been alone in communion with God through His Word, hold- ing up before the world some new doctrine, freshly de- EXEGETICAX. THEOLOGY. 42 rived from the ancient writings, which, although hith- erto overlooked, will prove to be the necessary comple- ment of all the previous knowledge of the church, no less essential to its life, growth, and progress than the Athanasian doctrine of the Trinity, the Augustinian doc- trine of sin, and the Prctestant doctrine of justification through faith. CHAPTER III. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. The languages of the Bible were prepared by Divine Providence as the most suitable ones for declaring the divine revelation to mankind. Belonging, as they do, to the two great families of speech, the Shemiticand the In- do-Germanic, which have been the bearers of civilization, culture, and the noblest products of human thought and emotion, they are themselves the highest and most per- fect developments of those families ; presenting, it is true, their contrasted features, but yet combining in a higher unity, in order to give us the complete divine revelation. Having accomplished this their highest purpose, they soon afterward became stereotyped in form, or, as they are commonly called, dead languages ; so that henceforth all successive generations, and indeed all the families of earth, might resort to them and find the common, divine revelation in the same fixed and un- alterable forms. Language is the product of the human soul, as are thought and emotion, and, therefore, depends upon the constitution of that soul, the historical experiences of the family or race speaking it, especially the stage of development in civilization, morals, and religion. 71ie connection between language and thought is not loose, but an essential connection. Language is not merely a (42) THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 43 dress that thought may put on or off at its pleasure ; it is the body of which thought is the soul ; it is the flesh and rounded form of which thought is the life and en- ergy. Hence it is that language is moulded by thought and emotion, by experience and culture ; it is, as it were, the speaking face of the race employing it, and it be- comes the historical monument of the experience of that race ; so that in many nations that have perished, and whose early history is lost in primeval darkness, their language gives us the key to their history and experi- ence as truly as the Parthenon tells us of the Greek mind, and the Pyramids of the Egyptian. It is not a matter of indifference, therefore, as to the languages that were to bear the divine revelation ; for, although the divine revelation was designed for all races, and may be conveyed in all the languages of earth, yet, inasmuch as it was delivered in advancing historical de- velopment, certain particular languages must be em- ployed as most suitable for the purpose, and indeed those which could best become the fountains for en- riching the various languages of the earth. Hence it is that we can confidently claim that there are no lan- guages — not even the English and the German, which have drunk deepest from the classic springs of the He- brew and the Greek — that there are no languages that could so adequately convey the divine revelation in its simplicity, grandeur, fulness, variety, power and impres- siveness, as those selected by Divine Providence for the purpose. Hence it is that no translation can ever take the place of the original Scriptures ; for a translation is, at the best, the work of uninspired men, who, though holy and faithful, and guided by the Spirit of God, are yet unable to do more than give us their own interpretation 44 BIBLICAL STUDY. of the sacred oracles. They must enter into the very spirit and atmosphere of the original text ; they must think and feel with the original authors ; their hearts must throb with the same emotion ; their minds must move in the same lines of thinking ; they must adapt themselves to the numerous types of character coming from various and widely different periods of divine rev- elation, in order to correctly apprehend the thought and make it their own, and then reproduce it in a foreign tongue. A mere external, grammatical, and lexico- graphical translation is worthless. Unless the spirit of the original has been not only apprehended, but con- veyed, it is no real translation. Hence it is requisite that all-sided men should be chosen for this work, or at least a body of men representing the various types and phases of human experience and character. But even then the translation can only express the theological, ethical, and practical conceptions of the holiest and most learned men of the particular age ; and, inasmuch as the divine revelation was given through holy mei* who spake not only from their own time and for thei/ own time, but from and for the timeless Spirit, the eter- nal ideas for all time ; the advancing generations will ever need to understand the Word of God better than their fathers, and must, if they are faithful, continually improve in their knowledge of the original Scriptures, in their power of apprehending them, of appropriating them, and of reproducing them in speech and life. How important it is, therefore, if the church is to maintain a living connection with the sacred Scriptures, and enter ever deeper into their spirit and mysterious life, that it should encourage a considerable portion of its youth to pursue these studies, and at all events in- sist that its ministry, who are to train it in the things THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 4.5 of God, should have not merely a superficial knowledge of the Bible, such as any layman may readily attain, but a deep and thorough acquaintance with the original per- ennial fountains of truth ; otherwise, as history has al ready sufficiently shown, these uninspired versions will assume the place of the original inspired Word ; and the interpretations of a particular generation will become the stereotyped dogmas of many generations, and the life of a Christian people will be cut off from its only source of spiritual growth, and a barren scholasticism, with its stereotyped dogmas, mechanical institutions, and opera operata, will assume the place and importance of the divine word and living communion with God. The languages of the Bible being the only adequate means of conveying and perpetuating the divine revela- tion, it is important that we should learn them not mere- ly from the outside, with grammar and lexicon, but also from the inside, from a proper conception of the genius and life of these tongues as employed by the ancient saints, and especially of the historical genius of the lan- guages as the sacred channels of the Spirit's thought and life. For language is a living thing, and has its birth, its growth, its maturity, its decline, and its death. Language is born, not as a system of roots or detached words, that gradually come together by natural selection into sentences. As plants may grow from roots after they have been cut down, but do not have their birth in roots, but in the seed-germs which contain the plants in embiyo ; so language, although it may be analyzed into roots, yet was not born in roots and never existed in roots, but came into being as sentences,* as thought is ever a sentence, and not a word. Then as the mind de- * Sayce, Principles 0/ Comp. Philology, p. 136, seq., 2d ed., London, 187.S. ^ BIBLICAL STUDY. velops, thought is developed with its body, languagt and thus the language grows with the culture of a pec pie. All languages that have literary documents can be traced in their historical development. Especially is this the case with the languages of the Bible ; they have a long history back of them ; centuries of literary devel- opment were required to produce them. I. THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. The Hebrew language was long supposed to be the original language of mankind ; but this view can no lon- ger be held by any philologist, for the Hebrew language, as it appears to us in its earliest forms in the sacred Scriptures, bears upon its face the traces of a long-pre- vious literary development.* This is confirmed by com- paring it with the other languages of the same family. Thus the Shemitic family may be divided into four groups: I. The Southern group — Arabic, Ethiopic, and Himjaric. 2. The Aramaic group — Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, and Mandaic. 3. The Hebrew group — the Phoenician and Hebrew, 4. The Assyrian and Babylo- nian. Now these languages are more closely related to one another than those of the Indo-Germanic family, the people speaking them having been confined to com- paratively narrow limits, crowded on the north by the Jndo-Germanic tongues, and on the south by the Tu- ranian. These languages are grouped in sisterhoods. They all go back upon an original mother-tongue of which all traces have been lost. In general the Arabic or Southern group present the older and fuller forms of etymology and syntax, the Aramaic or Northern group * Ewald, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, 3te Ausg. ; Gott., 1864, s. 78, seq.; Ewald 4us/. Lehrb. des Heb. Spraciie, fic Ausg ; Gott., 1863, s. 23. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 47 the later and simpler forms. The Hebrew and Assyrian groups lie in the midst of this linguistic development, where the Assyrian is nearer to the Southern group and the Hebrew to the Northern group.* The differ- ences in stage of linguistic growth from the common stock depend not so much upon the period or distance of separation as upon literary culture. The literary use of a language has the tendency to reduce the complex elements to order, and to simplify and wear away the superfluous and unnecessary forms of speech and syn- tactical construction. These languages have, for the most part, given us a considerable literature ; they were spoken by cultivated nations of the ancient world, me- diating between the great centres of primitive Turanian culture — the Euphrates and the Nile. Everything seems to indicate that they all emigrated from a common cen- tre in the desert on the south of Babylonia,t the Arabic group separating first, next the Aramaic, then the He- brew, while the Babylonian gained ultimately the mas- tery of the original Akkadian of Babylonia, and the As Syrian founded the great empire on the Tigris. The book of Genesis (xi. 31) represents Abram as going forth from this central seat of Ur of the Chaldees, at first northward into Mesopotamia, and then emigrating to Canaan, just as we learn from other sources the Canaan ites had done before him. The monuments of Ur reveal that about this time, 2000 B.C., it was the scat of a great literary development.:}: The father of the faith- * See Gescnius, //ed. und Chald. FTandwdrterbuch, Qte Aufl. neu bearbeltel ron Mulau und Volck, Leipzig, 1883. VoJi den Quellen, p. xx., sq. t Vide Schrader, Die Ahstammung dcr Chaldder und die Ursitze dcr Semu ten, Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. M, G., 1873. \ Geo. Smith, The Chaldean Account 0/ Genesis, etc., p. 29, seq. New York, 1876. 4-8 BIBLICAL STUDY. ful, whose origin ;^as in that primitive seat of cuUure, and who Hved as a chieftain of miHtary prowess (Gen. xiv.) and exalted religious and moral character among the cultivated nations of Canaan, and who was received at the court of Pharaoh (xii. 14) — that other great centre of primitive culture — on friendly terms, to some extetit at least, made himself acquainted with their literature and culture. Whether Abraham adopted the language of the Canaanites, or brought the Hebrew with him from the East, is unimportant, for the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian are nearer to the Hebrew and Phoenician than they are to the other Shemitic families,* so that if the languages, as now presented to us, differ less than the Romance languages — the daughters of the Latin — in their earlier stages in the time of Abraham, their dif- ference could scarcely have been more than dialectic. The ancient Phoenician, the nearest akin to the Hebrew, was the language of commerce and intercourse between the nations in primitive times, as the Aramaic after the fall of Tyre, and the Greek after the conquest of Alex- ander, Thus the Hebrew language, as a dialect of the Canaanite and closely related to the Babylonian, had already a considerable literary development prior to the entrance of Abram into the Holy Land. The old dea that Egypt was the mother of Hebrew civilization and culture has been disproved ; for, though the Hebrews remained a long period in Egyptian bondage, they re- tained their Eastern civilization, culture, and language, so that at the Exodus they shook off at once all connec- tion with the Egyptian civilization and culture as alien and antagonistic to their own. For the very peculiari- ties of the Hebrew language, literature, and civilization * Sayce, Assyrian Grammar , p. r, seq. London, 1872. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 49 are those of the Babylonian. The biblical traditions of the Creation, of the Deluge, of the Tower of Babel, are those of the Assyrians and Babylonians. The sacred rest-day, with the significance of the number seven, the months, seasons, and years, the weights and measures, coins — all are of the same origin. Still further, that most striking feature of Hebrew poetry — the parallelism of members — is already in the oldest Akkadian hymns. Yes, the very temptations of the Hebrews to the worship Kif Ashtoreth and Baal, of Chemosh and Moloch, are those that have ruined the other branches of their com- mon race.* How shall we account for these things un- less we suppose that they were brought with him by Abram in his emigration to Canaan ? Fixing our atten- tion upon the single feature of the parallelism of mem- bers, how could the Hebrews have retained it as the es- sential feature of their poetry, if they had no poetic treasures preserved among them, and the poetic spirit had remained undeveloped with them ? Without ven- turing upon an opinion with reference to the amount of literature to be attributed to these early times, but taking the Pentateuch as it is, we see therein a language admirably adapted for its purpose, the product of pre- vious literary development. Whether Moses wrote the entire Pentateuch or not, most scholars will admit a con- siderable Mosaic nucleus. This being true, the princi- ples of language seem to require either that the ancient records have been improved by later editors, or that there must have been a body of sacred literature to give the language that stable character that marks it throuLTh- out the entire sacred Scriptures; for while there is cer- tainly a development in the Hebrew language of the * Vide Schrader, Semitismus und Bahylonismus . Jahrb. v. Prot. Theol.^ «875. 3 50 BIBLICAL STUDY. Bible, and three periods may be readily distinguished, yet the differences between the earlier and the classic period are but slight, the chief distinguishing features being in the later writings of the Chronicler, Ecclesi- astes, and Daniel, all showing a decline from the classic models and an approximation to the Aramaic, in ety- mology and syntax. Sacred books give languages a permanence such as no other literature can give them. This is evident not only from the German Bible of Luther, and King James' English version, which have kept these great languages comparatively stationary, but also from the Koran, which has kept the Arabic so fixed to its classic style that it has taken a thousand years for the vulgar Arabic to reach that stage of linguistic develop ment presented in the earliest Hebrew of the Bible. Hence unless the language of the writings of Moses has been changed by later editors, at least a considerable portion of the Pentateuch must be assigned to his times. Moses is the father of the Hebrew language and litera- ture, as Luther is of the German. He moulded its fun- damental types, and started it in those directions that it has ever since maintained. As Abraham had gone forth from the culture of Babylonia to enter upon the pilgrim life of believing communion with El Shaddai, so Moses went forth from the culture of Egypt to become the representative of Jahveh, and organize a kingdom of priests, a holy nation, a theocracy the vital principles of which became reverential fear and worship of the per- sonal God of the covenant. Thus the Hebrew language became, in its essential spirit and genius, a religious language, the holy tongue of the holy people of God, and Moses laid its founda« tions in a literature of sacred history, poetry, and proph- ecy. The histories contained in the Pentateuch ar-e the THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 51 fountain of all subsequent history. The grand hymn (Exod. XV.), the prayer (Ps. xc), the prophetic didactic poem (Deut. xxxii.), are the great boughs of lyric poetry upon which the Psalter subsequently burst forth in all its glory ; and the prophetic discourses in Deuteronomy are the sources, as they give the key to all subsequent prophecy. Looking now at the language as religious according to its genius, and considering it in its fundamental types and their historical development, we observe the follow- ing as some of its most prominent characteristics : I. It is remarkahly stmp/e and natural. This is indeed a common feature of the Shemitic family. As compared with the Indo-Germanic, they represent an earlier stage in the development of mankind, the childhood of the race. Theirs is an age of perception, contemplation, and observation, not of conception, reflection, and reasoning. Things are apprehended according to their appearance as phenomena, and not according to their internal char- acter as noumena. The form, the features, the expres- sions of things are seen and most nicely distinguished, but not their inward being ; the effects are observed, but these are not traced through a series of causes, but only either to the immediate cause or else by a leap to the ultimate cause. Hence the language that expresses such thought is simple and natural. We see this in its sounds, which are simple and manifold, disliking diphthongs and compound letters ; in its roots, uniformly of three con- sonants, generally accompanied by a vowel ; in its iiv flections, mainly by internal modifications ; in its simple arrangement of clauses in the sentence, with a limited number of conjunctions. Thus tlie conjunction vav plays a more important part in the language than all conjunctions combined, distinguishing by a shnple mod 52 BIBLICAL STUDY. ification of vocalization, accentuation, or position, be tween clauses coordinate, circumstantial, or subordinate, and in the latter between those indicating purpose, or result. This is the most remarkable feature of the lan- guage, without a parallel in any other tongue. And so the poetry is constructed on the simple principle of the parallelism of members, these being synthetic, antithetic, or progressive ; and in the latter case advancing, like the waves of the sea, in the most beautiful and varied forms. Hence it is that the Hebrew language is the easiest to render into a foreign tongue, and that Hebrew poetry can readily be made the common property of mankind. 2. We observe a striking correspondence of the lan- guage to the thought. This rests upon a radical difference between the Shemitic and Indo-Germanic family in their relative appreciation of the material and the form of lan- guage.* The form, the artistic expression, is to the Hebrew a very small affair. The idea, the thought, and emotion flow forth freely and embody themselves with- out any external restraint in the speech. This is clear from the method of inflection, which is mostly by inter- nal changes in the root, expressing the passive by chang- ing the clear vowel into the dull vowel, the intensivv,- by doubling the second radical, the pure idea of the root by the extreme shortness of the infinitive and the segholate, the causative and the reflexive by lengthening the stem from without, and, so far as cases and moods exist, ex- pressing them harmoniously by the three radical short vowels. How beautiful in form, as well as sense, is the abstract plural of intensity by which Elohim expresses the fulness * Vid. Grill, uhcr d. Verhaltniss d. indogerm. u. d. semit. Sprachwury-th In the Zeitscltrift D. M. G. 1873. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 53 of the idea of God conceived as the one to be revered ; by which chayyim expresses the fulness of Hfe, and which is employed in such passages as Eccles. v. 8, where the exaltation of God over all earthly judges would be represented, " For high over high watcheth The Highest over them." So in the dependence of the construct relation, and the use of the suffixes. But perhaps this feature is most striking in Hebrew poetry where the absence of an ar tistic form is more apparent. We see that, with a gen- eral harmony of lines and strophes, the proportion in length and number is frequently broken through. And though the Hebrew poet uses the refrain, yet he likes to modify it, as in the lament of David over Jonathan, 2 Sam. i. 19-27, the 80th Psalm, and the magnificent prophecy, Isaiah 40-66. Again, though the Hebrew poet uses the alphabet to give his lines or strophes a sort of regularity in order, using it as so many stairs up which to climb in praise, in pleading, in lamentation, and in advancing instruction, yet he by no means binds himself to an equal number of lines, or even measure of length ; and, apparently without necessity at times, breaks through his alphabet itself. Free as the ocean is the poet's emotion, rising like the waves in majestic strivings, heaving as an agitated sea, ebbing and flowing like the tide in solemn and measured antitheses, sporting like the wavelets upon a sandy beach. 3. The Hebrew language has a wonderful majesty and sublimity. This arises partly from its original religious genius, but chiefly from the sublime materials of its thought. ' God, the only true God, Jahveh, the Holy Redeemer of His people, is the central theme of the 54 BIBLICAL STUDY. Hebrew language and literature, a God not apart from nature, and not involved in nature, no Pantheistic God, no mere Deistic God, but a God who enters into sym- pathetic relations with His creatures, who is recognized and praised, as well as ministered unto by the material creation. Hence there is a realism in the Hebrew lan- cruacfe that can nowhere else be found to the same ex- tent. The Hebrew people were as realistic as the Greek were idealistic. Their God is not a God thought out, reasoned out as an ultimate cause, or chief of a Pan- theon, but a personal God, known by them in His asso- ciation with them by a proper name, JAHVEH. Hence the so-called anthropomorphisms and anthropopathisms of the Old Testament, so alien to the Indo-Germanic mind that an Occidental theology must explain them away, from an incapacity to enter into that bold and sublime realism of the Hebrews. Thus, again, man is presented to us in all his naked reality, in his weakness and sins, in his depravity and wretchedness, as well as in his bravery and beauty, his holiness and wisdom. In the Hebrew heroes we see men of like passions with ourselves, and feel that their experience is the key to the joys and sorrows of our life. So also in their con- ception of nature. Nature is to the Hebrew poet all aglow with the glory of God, and intimately associated with man in his origin, history, and destiny. There is no such thing as science ; that was for the Indo-Germanic mind ; but they give us that which science never gives, that which science is from its nature unable to present us : namely, those concrete relations, those expressive features of nature that declare to man their Master's mind and character, and claim human sympathy and protection as they yearn with man for the Messianic fut- ure. Now the Hebrew language manifests this realism THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 55 on its very face. Its richness in synonyms is remarka- ble. It fs said that the Hebrew language has, relatively to the English, ten times as many roots and ten times fewer words ; * and that while the Greek language has 1,800 roots to 100,000 words, the Hebrew has 2,000 roots to 10,000 words.f This wealth in synonyms is appal- ling to the Indo-Germanic scholar who comes to the Hebrew from the Latin and the Greek, where the syno- nyms are more or less accurately defined. But nothing of the kind has yet been done by any Shemitic scholar, so far as we know. What will you do with a language that has fifty-five words for destroy, sixty for break, and seventy-four for take "i % It is exceedingly doubtful whether this richness of synonyms can be reduced to a .system and the terms sharply and clearly defined ; the differences are like those of the peculiar gutturals of the Shemitic tongues, so delicate and subtle that they can hardly be mastered by the Western tongue or ear. So these synonyms can hardly be apprehended and con- veyed into languages so poor when compared with such wealth. This wealth of synonym is connected with a corre- sponding richness of expression in the synonymous clauses that play such an important part in Hebrew po- etry, and indeed are the reason of its wonderful richness and majesty of thought. Thus the sacred poet or prophet plays upon his theme as upon a many-stringed in-strument, bringing out a great variety of tone and melody, advancing in graceful steppings or stately march- higs to the climax, or dwelling upon the theme v/ith an * Grill, in /. c. \ Bottcher, Ausf. Lehrbuch d. Hcb. Spracfic, I , p. 8. Leipzig, 1866. X Girdlestone, Synonyms 0/ the Old Test., p. 15. London, 1871. 56 BIBLICAL STUDY. inexhaustible variety of expression and coloring. The Hebrew language is like the rich and glorious verdure of Lebanon, or as the lovely face of the Shulamite, dark as the tents of Kedar, yet rich in color as the curtains of Solomon, or her graceful form, which is so rapturously described as she discloses its beauties in the dance of the hosts.* It is true that Hebrew literature is not as exten- sive as the Greek ; it is confined to history, poetry, proph- ecy, and possibly romance ;f but in these departments it presents the grandest productions of the human soul. Its history gives us the origin and destiny of our race, un- folds the story of redemption, dealing now with the in- dividual, then with the family and nation, and at times widening so as to take into its field of representation the most distant nations of earth ; it is a history in which God is the great actor, in which sin and holiness are the chief factors. Its poetry stirs the heart of mankind with hymns and prayers, with sentences of wisdom ; and in the heroic struggles of a Job and the conquering virtue of a Shulamite, there is imparted strength to the soul and vigor to the character of man and woman transcend- ing the influence of the godlike Achilles or the chaste Lucretia ; while the second half of Isaiah presents the sublimest aspirations of man. Where shall we find such images of beauty, such wealth of illustration, such grand- eur of delineation, such majestic representations? It seems as if the prophet grasped in his tremendous soul the movements of the ages, and saw the very future mirrored in the mind of God. 4. The Hebrew language is remarkable for its life and fervor. This is owing to the emotional and hearty char- acter of the people. There is an artlessness, self-aban. Song of Songs, i. 5 ; vii, 1-7. t See Chapters VIII. and IX. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE, 57 donment, and earnestness in the Hebrew tongue ; it is transparent as a glass, so that we see through it as into the very souls of the people. There is none of that re- serve, that cool and calm deliberation, that self-conscious- ness that characterize the Greek.* The Hebrew language is distinguished by the strength of its consonants and the weakness of its vowels ; so that the consonants give the word a stability of form in which the vowels have the greatest freedom of movement. The vowels circulate in the speech as the blood of the language. Hence the freedom in the varying expressions of the same root and the fervor of its full-toned forms. And if we can frust the Massoretic system of accentuation and vocalization, the inflection of the language depends upon the dislike of the recurrence of two vowelless consonants, and the law of the vocal sheva and the half-open syllable ; and on the power of the accent over the vocalization not only of the accented syllable, but also of the entire word, and the law of the pretonic Qdntetz. This gives the language a won- derful flexibility and elasticity. In the Hebrew tongue the emotions overpower the thoughts and carry them on in the rushing stream to the expression. Hence the lit- erature has a power over the souls of mankind. The language is as expressive of emotion as the face of a modest and untutored child, and the literature is but the speaking face of the heart of the Hebrew people. The Psalms of David touch a chord in every soul, and inter- pret the experience of all the world. The sentences of Solomon come to us as the home-truths, as the social and political maxims that sway our minds and direct our lives. The prophets present to us the objective omnipo- * Ewald, in /. c, p. 33 ; Bottcher, in /. c, p. 9. Bertheau, in Herzog, Reai^ Encyclopadie, L, Aufl. Ed. v., p. 613. 3* gg BIBLICAL STUDY. tent truth, which, according to the beautiful story of Zerubbabel,* is the mightiest of all, flashing conviction like the sun and cutting to the heart as by a sharp two- edged sword. So with the history ; it presents to us the simple facts of the lives of individuals and of nations in the light of the Divine countenance, speaking to our hearts and photographing upon us pictures of real life. These are some of the most striking features of the Hebrew language, which have made it the most suitable of all to give to mankind the elementary religious truths and facts of divine revelation. The great body of the Bible, four-fifths of the sum total of God's Word, is in this tongue. It is no credit to a Christian people that the Hebrew language has no place at all in the most of our colleges and universities ; that its study has been confined, for the most part, to theological seminaries and the students for the ministry. It is not strange that the Old Testament has been neglected in the pul- pit, the Sabbath-school, and the family, so that many minds, even of the ministry, have doubted whether it was any longer to be regarded as the Word of God. It is not strange that Christian scholars, prejudiced by their training in the languages and literatures of Greece and Rome, should be unable to enter into the spirit, and appreciate the peculiar features of the Hebrew language and literature, and so fail to understand the elements of a divine revelation. Separating the New Testament and the words and work of Jesus and His apostles from their foundation and their historical preparation, stu- dents have not caught the true spirit of the Gospel, nor apprehended it in its unity and variety as the fulfilment of the law and the prophets. But this is not all, foi * L Esdras iv. 33-41. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 59 we shall now attempt to show that the other languages of the Bible, the Aramaic and the Greek, have been moulded and transformed by the theological concep- tions and moral ideas that had been developing in the Hebrew Scriptures, and which, having been ripened under the potent influence of the Divine Spirit, were about to burst forth into bloom and eternal fruitfulness in these tongues prepared by Divine Providence for the purpose. The Hebrew language is, as we have seen, the language of religion, and moulded entirely by religious and moral ideas and emotions. The Greek and the Aramaic are of an entirely different character ; they were not, as the Hebrew, cradled and nursed, trained from infancy to childhood, armed and equipped in their Jieroic youth with divine revelation, but- they were moulded outside of the realm of divine revelation, and only subsequently adapted for the declaration of sacred truth. And first this was the case with the Aramaic. II. THE ARAMAIC LANGUAGE goes back in its history to the most primitive times. It is the farthest developed of the Shemitic family, showing a decline, a decrepitude, in its poverty of forms and vocalization, in its brevity and abruptness, in its ple- onasm, and in its incorporation of a multitude of foreign words. It was the language of those races of Syria and Mesopotamia that warred with the Egyptians and Assyr- ians, and possibly, as Gladstone suggests, took part in the Trojan war,* who, according to Sayce,f used the earliest system of writing, and were the agents through whom both the Hebrew and the Greek alphabets were * Gladstone's Homeric Synchronising N. Y., 1876, p. 173. + The Hamathite Inscriptions, Trans. Society of Bib. Archcsology, London, 1870, p. 30. 30 BIBLICAL STUDY. conveyed to those peoples. At all events the Aramaic became the language of commerce and intercourse be tween the nations during the Persian period,* taking the place of the Phoenician, as it was in turn supplanted by the Greek. The children of Judah having been carried into captivity and violently separated from their sacred places and the scenes of their history, gradually acquired this commercial and common language of intercourse, so that ere long it became the language of the Hebrew people, the knowledge of the ancient Hebrew being con- fined to the learned and the higher ranks of society. Hence, even in the books of Ezra and Daniel, consider- able portions were written in Aramaic. This Aramaic is called the Biblical Chaldee, to distinguish it from the Chaldee of the Targums, but really gives us an older type of the language. The Aramaic continued to be the language of the Jews during the Persian, Greek, and Roman periods, and was the common speech of Palestine in the times of our Lord,t although it had long ceased to be the language of commerce and intercourse, the Greek having taken its place, which gradually penetrated from the commercial and official circles even to the lowest ranks of society. Thus there was a mingling of a Greek population with the Shemitic races, not only in the Greek colonies of the Decapolis and the cities of the sea-coast of Palestine, but also in the great centres of Tiberias, Samaria, and even in Jerusalem itself. Greek manners and customs were, under the influence of the Herodians and the Sad- ducees, pressing upon the older Aramaic and Hebrew, * If must also have been widely spoken in the Assyrian period, as we see from II. King;s xviii. ii ; see also Fried. Delitzsch, fFi? Lag das Parodies. Leipzig, i88i, p. 258. t Schurer, Neutestament, Zeitgesch., p. 372, Leipzig, 1874. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. ^1 not without the stout resistance of the Pharisees. The language of our Saviour, however, in which He delivered His discourses and instructions, was undoubtedly the Aramaic, although we could hardly deny Him the knowledge and use of the Greek. For not only do the Aramaic terms that He used, which are retained at times by the evangelists, and the proper names of His disciples, but also the very structure and style of His discourses, show the Aramaic characteristics. For our Saviour's methods of delivery and style of instruction were essentially the same as those of the rabbins of His time. Hence we should not think it strange, that from this Aramaic literature alone we can bring forward parallels to the wise sentences and moral maxims of the Sermon on the Mount, the rich and beautiful parables, by which He illustrated His discourses, and the fiery zeal of His denunciation of hypocrisy, together vv^ith the profound depths of His esoteric instruction. Our Saviour used the Aramaic language and methods, in order there by to reach the people of His times, and place in the prepared Aramaic soil the precious seeds of heavenly truth. It is the providential significance of the Ara maic language that it thus prepared the body for the thought of our Saviour. It is a language admirably adapted by its simplicity, perspicuity, precision, and definiteness, with all its awkwardness, for the associa- tions of every-day life. It is the language for the lawyer and the scribe, the pedagogue and the pupil ; indeed, the English language of the Shemitic family.* Thus the earlier Aramaic of the Bible gives us only official docu- ments, letters, and decrees, or else simple narrative. As moulded by the Jewish people after the return from * Volck in Herzog's Real Ertcyklopxdie, IL Aufl. i, p. 603. 62 BIBLICAL STUDY. exile, it was through the giving of the sense of the original Hebrew Scriptures (Neh. viii. 8). The whole life of the Jewish people, subsequent to the exile, was in this giving the sense of the Hebrew Scriptures, both in th&Halacha of the rabbinical schools, and the Haggada of the synagogue and the social circle. It is true that the Halacha was developed in the rival schools of Sham- mai and Hillel into the most subtle questions of casu- istry, and our Saviour often severely reproved the Phar- isaic spirit for its subtlety and scholasticism ; yet not infrequently He employed their methods to the discom- fiture of His opponents,* as in Matt. xxii. 15-46, although His own spirit was rather that of the old prophets than of the scribes. The Haggada was developed by the rab- bins into a great variety of forms of ethical wisdom and legend. This we see already in the apocryphal books of Wisdom, in the stories of Zerubbabel, of Judith, of Susanna, and of Tobit.f This latter method was the favorite one of our Saviour, as calculated for the com- mon people, and to it we may attribute the parables, and the sweet sentences of the Sermon on the Mount, which, though after the manner of the scribes,J have yet a clearness and transparency as the atmosphere of the Holy Land itself, a richness and simplicity as the scarlet flower of the fields He loved so well, a calm majesty and profound mystery as the great deep, for He was the * Weizsacker, Untersuchungen uber die cv. GescMchte, p. 35S, seq.^ Gotha, 1864. ■f- Zunz, Gottesdienstlichen Vorlrage der Juden, Berlin 1832, pp. 42, 100, 120 ; Etheridge, Introduction to Hebrew Literature, London, 1S56, p. 102, tpq. Those who are intereited in this subject may find a large collection of this Haggadistic literature in the Eililiotlieca RabHnica, Eine Smnvdung Alter Mid' raschim ins Deutsche ilbertragen von Aug. Wunsche, 20 Lief. Leipzig, 1880 B4. X Hausrath, Die Zeit Jesus, Heidelberg, 1868, p. 90. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. g3 expositor of the Divine mind, heart, and being to man- kind (John i. 1 8). The office of the Aramaic language was still further to mediate between the old world and the new — the Hebrew and the Greek ; for the Greek language was the chosen one to set forth the divine revelation in its com- pletion. III. THE GREEK LANGUAGE was bom and grew to full maturity outside of the sphere of the divine revelation, and yet was predestined " as the most beautiful, rich, and harmonious language ever spoken or written " " to form the pictures of silver in which the golden apple of the Gospel should be pre- served for all generations." * For, as Alexander the Great broke in pieces the Ori- ental world-monarchies that fettered the kingdom of God, and prepared a theatre for its world-wide expan- sion, so did the Greek language and literature that his veterans carried with them prove more potent weapons than their swords and spears for transforming the civili- zation of the East and preparing a language for the uni- versal Gospel. The Greek language is the beautiful flower, the elegant jewel, the most finished masterpiece of Indo-Germanic thought. In its early beginning we see a number of dialects spoken by a brave and warlike people, struggling with one another, as well as with ex- ternal foes, maintaining themselves successfully against the Oriental and African civilizations, while at the same time they appropriated those elements of culture which they could incorporate into their own original thought and life ; a race of heroes such as the earth has nowhere * SchalT, Hist, cf the Apostolic Church, p. i^jj. New York, 1859. See also Schall, History 0/ the Christian Church, L, p. 78. New York, i88a. g4 bIBLICAL STUDY. else produced, fighting their way upward into light and culture until they attained the towering summits of an art, a literature, and a philosophy, that has ever been the admiration and wonder of mankind. As Pallas sprang forth in full heroic stature from the head of her father Zeus, so Greek literature sprang into historical existence in the matchless Iliad. Its classic period was constituted by the heroism and genius of the Athenian republic, which worked even more mightily in language, literature, and art, than in the fields of politics and war, producing the histories of Thucydides and Xenophon, the tragedies of an ^schylus and Sophocles, the philos- ophy of a Socrates and Plato, the oratory of a Demos- thenes and i^schines. Looking at the Greek language before it became the world-language, and so the lan- guage of a divine revelation, we observe that its charac- teristic features are in strong contrast with those of the Hebrew tongue. I. The Greek language is complex and artistic. As the Hebrew mind perceives and contemplates, the Greek conceives and reflects. Hence the Greek ety- mology is elaborate in its development of forms from a few roots, in the declensions and cases of nouns, in the conjugations, tenses, and moods of the verb, giving the idea a great variety of modifications. Hence the syntax is exceedingly complex in the varied use of the conjunc- tions and particles, the intricate arrangement of the sen- tences as they may be combined into grand periods, which require the closest attention of a practiced mine to follow, in their nice discriminations and adjustments of the thought.* Hence the complex and delicate rules * Curtius, Griech. Gcsch., Berlin, 1865, 2d AuQ., I., pp. 19, 20; History 0/ Greece, New York, 1875, vol. i., pp. 30, 32. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. g5 of prosody, with the great variety of metres and rhythms. The Greek mind would wrestle with the ex- ternal world, would search out and explore the reason of things, not being satisfied with the phenome7ia, but grasping for the noumena. Thus a rich and varied litera- ture was developed, complex in character, the epos, the drama, the philosophical treatise, and scientific discus- sion, which are purely Greek, and could have little place among the Hebrews.* 2. The Greek language is characterized by its atten- tion to the form or style of its speech, ao\. to limit thr. freedom of the movement of thought a..id emotion, but to direct them in the channels of clear, definite, logica I sentences, and beautiful, elegant, and artistic rhetorical figures. The Greek was a thorough artist ; and as th-? palaces of his princes, the temples of his gods, the irr ages of his worship, his clothing and his armor, mus J be perfect in form and exquisite in finished decora tion, so the language, as the palace, the dress of hi j thought, must be symmetrical and elegant.f Henc". there is no language that has such laws of euphony, in volving changes in vocalization, and the transpositior and mutation of letters ; for their words must be musi- cal, their clauses harmonious, their sentences and periods symmetrical. And so they are combined in the most exquisite taste in the dialogues of the philosophc^r, the measures of the poet, the stately periods of the histo rian and the orator. The sentences " are intricate, com- plex, involved like an ivory cabinet, till the discovery of its nominative gives you the key for unlocking the * Donaldson, The New Cratylus, 3d ed., p. 153. t Curtius, Griech. Gesc/t., 1., pp. 20, 21 ; History 0/ Greece, New York, 1875 L, pp. 32-34. ^ BIBLICAL 8TUDT. mechanism and admiring the ingenuity and beauty oi its rhetoric." * 3. The Greek language is thus beautiful and fi?nshed. The Greek mind was essentially ideal, not accepting the external world as its own, but transforming it to suit its genius and its taste. This was owing to its original hu- manizing genius and its central theme, man as the he- roic, man as the ideally perfect.f As the language and literature of the Hebrews were inspired to describe " the righteous acts of Jahveh's dominion in Israel and the victories of his holy arm" (Judges v. 11 ; Psa. xcviii. i), and thus were majestic and sublime ; so the language and literature of the Greeks were to sing the exploits of the godlike Achilles, the crafty Ulysses, and the all-conquer- ing Hercules ; to paint the heroic struggles of the tribes at Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platea, to conceive a model republic and an ideal human world, and thus were beautiful, stately, and charming. The gods are ideal- ized virtues and vices and powers of nature, and con- ceived after the fashion of heroic men and women, ar- ranged in a mythology which is a marvel of taste and genius. Nature is idealized, and every plant and tree and fountain becomes a living being. Indeed, eveiy- thing that the Greek mind touched it clothed with its own ideals of beauty. Hence the drama is the most ap- propriate literature for such a people, and the dialogue the proper method of its philosophy.:}: 4. The Greek language has remarkable strength and * W. Adams, Charge on occasion of the induction of Dr. Shedd as Pro' /cssor of Bih. Literature, New York, 1864, p. 10. t Schaff, yl/ostolic Church, New York, p. T45 ; Zezschwitz, Profangracital itnd hihlischer Sprachgehraitch, Leipzig, 1S69, p. 13. X Curtius, Cricch. Gesc/i., III., p. 508; History of Greece, New York, 1875, rol. v., pp. 16;), 170. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 67 vigor. Its stems have been compressed, vowel and con- sonant compacted together. Its words are complete in themselves, ending only in vowels and the consonants n, r, and s ; they have a singular independence, as the Greek citizen and warrior, and are protected from muti* lation and change.* It is true it has a limited numbef of roots, yet it is capable of developing therefrom an in- definite variety of words ; f so that although it cannot approach the wealth of synonym of the Hebrew, yet its words are trained as the athlete, and capable of a great variety of movements and striking effects. Its syntax is organized on the most perfect system, all its parts compacted into a solid mass, in which the individual is not lost, but gives his strength to impart to the whole the weight and invincible push of ih& phalanx. Hence the Greek language is peculiarly the language of ora- tory that would sway the mind and conquer with invin- cible argument. It is the language of a Demosthenes, the model orator for the world. It wrestles with the mind, it parries and thrusts, it conquers as an armed host. Such was the language with which Alexander went forth to subdue the world, and which he made the com- mon speech of the nations for many generations. It is true that the Greek was required to forfeit somewhat of its elegance and refinement in its collision with so many barbarous tongues, but it lost none of its essential char- acteristics when it was adopted by the Egyptian, the Syrian, and the Jew. The Jews were scattered widely in the earth, engaged in commercial pursuits that re- * Curtius, Griech. Gesch., L, p. i8 ; Hist, of Greece, New York, 1875, vol. I, p. 29. t Jelfs, Greek Gram., 4th. ed., Oxford, 1864, p. 330. 68 BIBLICAL STUDY. quired them, above all others, to master the common speech of the nations. Hence those of Europe, Asia Minor, and Africa, easily adopted the Greek as their vernacular, and it gradually became more and more the language of Syria and Palestine. This was furthered by the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into the Greek at Alexandria, the centre of the Greek culture of the times, a translation which shows upon its face the diffi- culties of rendering for the first time foreign conceptions into a strange tongue,* but which nevertheless became of incalculable importance in preparing the way for the New Testament writers. The original productions of the Jews of Alexandria and Palestine, many of which are preserved in the apocryphal books of the Old Testa- ment, combined to produce the same result. Gradually the Jewish mind was modified by the Greek thought and culture, and the Greek language was, on the other hand, adapted to the expression of Hebrew and Ara- maic conceptions. The apostles of our Lord, if they were to carry on a work and exert an influence, world- wide and enduring, were required, from the very circum stances of the times, to use the Greek; for the Aramaic would have had but a narrow and ever-diminishing in- fluence, even if their labors had been confined to the synagogues of the dispersed Jews. Hence we are not surprised that, without an exception, so far as we know, the New Testament writers composed their works in Greek, yes, even gave us the Aramaic discourses of our Saviour in the Greek tongue. Nor was this without its [)ro\idential purpose ; for though our Saviour delivered His discourses in Aramaic, yet they were not taken * Rcuss, Ilellenistisches Idiom, in Herzog, Realencyklopadic, I. Aufl., pk 709, II., AuH. p. 745. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BlbLE. 69 down by the evangelists as they heard them in that tongue, but were subsequently recalled to their minds by the Holy Spirit, who, in accordance with the promise of our Lord, brought all things to their remembrance (John xiv. 26) ; so that they recalled the ideas, rather than the language, and gave the ideas, therefore, the Greek embodiment ; and so we have no translation of the words of Jesus, but the words of Jesus as they passed through the Hellenistic conception of the evangelists, colored by their minds and human characteristics ; * for it was evi- dently the design of God that the Saviour's words, as well as acts and His glorious person, should be presented to the world through those four typical evangelists, who ;iLppropriately represent the four chief phases of human character and experience. The New Testament writers used the common Greek of their time, yet as men who had been trained in the Hebrew Scriptures and in the Aramaic methods of ex- position, but above all as holy men who spake as they were moved by the Holy Spirit. Hence, as the Greek language had now to perform a work for which it had providentially been preparing, and yet one which it had never yet attempted, namely, to convey the divine rev- elation to mankind, so it must be remoulded and shaped by the mind of the Spirit to express ideas that were new both to the Greek and the Jew, but which had been de- veloping in the languages and literatures of both nations, for each in its way prepared for the Gospel of Christ. f Hence we are not surprised that the biblical Greek should be distinguished not only from the classic * Winer, New Test. Gram., Thayer's edit., Andover, 1^72, p. 27; Bleek's Einleit. in d. N. T., 2d Aufl., Berlin, 1866, p. 76; Edin., 1869, p. 72, seq. t Schaff, Apostolic Church, p. 146 ; also Sdiaff, History qf the Christian Church, I., p. 76, seq. i^Q BIBLICAL STUDY. models, but also from the literary Greek of the time although when compared with the Greek of the Septua. gint and the Apocrypha, it approximates more to the literary Greek, being " not the slavish idiom of a trans- lation, but a free, language-creating idiom, without, how- ever, denying its cradle," * It is true that much of its elegance and artistic finish has been lost, and the nicely- rounded sentences and elaborate periods, with their deli- cately-shaded conceptions, have disappeared, yet its dis- tinguishing characteristics, especially its strength and beauty, its perspicuity, and its logical and rhetorical power, have been preserved, while to these have been added the simplicity and richness, the ardor and glow of the Aramaic style ; but over and above all these, the language has been employed by the Spirit of God, and transformed and transfigured, yes, glorified, with a light and sacredness that the classic literature never possessed. It is true that the writings of the New Testament are not all on the same level of style and language.f The gospels of Matthew and Mark, and the epistles of Peter and James, together with the Apocalypse, have stronger Aramaic coloring, which disturbs the Greek lines of beauty, the Greek form being overpowered by the life and glow of the Aramaic emotion ; yet in the writings of Luke and John, but especially of Paul and the Epis- tle to the Hebrews, the strength and excellence of the Greek unite with the peculiarities of the Aramaic and the Hebrew in striving, under the potent influence of the Holy Spirit, to convey the new religion in the most adequate and appropriate language and style. * Reuss, Hellenistisches Idiom, in Herzog, I. Aud., V., p. 710; II. Aufl., v., p. 747 ; Winer, New Test. Grain., p. 39. t Immer, Ilermeneutik des Neuen Testaments, Wiltemberg, 1S73, p. 106, scq. , Anier. ed., Aiulovcr, 1877, p. 132 ; Rju,-;, in /. c, p. 747. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 7| Here the humanizing and idealistic tendencies of the Greek combine with the theological and realistic tenden- cies of the Hebrew and the Aramaic ; for to these New Testament writers the person of Christ assumes the central and determining position and influence, as yaJu veh the one God did to the Old Testament writers. Christ became the emperor of the Scriptures, to use Luther's expression, and His person irradiated its lan- guage and literature with His own light and glory. Thus when the mind now strove to conceive no longer the simple idea of the one God Jahveh, but the complex idea of the person of Christ and the Trinity therein in- volved, the Hebrew language was entirely inadequate; and the Greek, as the most capable, must be strained and tried to the utmost to convey the idea of the Logos, who was in the beginning, was with God, and was God, and yet became the Word incarnate, the God-man, the interpreter in complete humanity of the fulness of the Deity dwelling in Him (John i. 1-14) ; for notwithstand* ing the historical preparation for this conception in the theophanies of the Hebrews, the nous of Plato, the logos of Philo, and the wisdom of Solomon and Sirach, it was yet an entirely new conception, which, notwithstanding the preparation of the Hebrew and the Greek, the world could not appropriate without the transforming and en- lightening influence of the Spirit of God.* So in an- thropology the apostle Paul combines the Hebrew and Greek conceptions in order to produce a new and perfect conception. Taking the psychology of the Greek as a system he gave the central place to the Hebrew ruach or * Domer, Entivicklungsgeschichte der Lehre von der Person CJirisU Stuttgart, 1845, I, p. 64 ; Edin., T. & T. Clark, 1861, pp. 44, 45 ; Schaflf, u Lang^, Com. on jfo/tn, N. Y., p. 55. 72 BIBLICAL STUDY. spirit, finding, to use the words of Zezschwitz, its " un disturbed centralization in living union with the Spirit of God."* He then brings out the strife of the flesh (aap^) with the spirit {Ttvevjua), and the false position of the psychical nature {fpvxi}) over against the spirit. So also for the first he gives to the world the true conception of the conscience (ffweldrfffig) as " the remnant of the spirit in the psychical man," '' the divine voice," the consciousness of which Socrates felt as the " summit of the knowledge of the true wisdom by the Greek spirit." f Jlence the development of the doctrine of sin with its technical terms, and of holiness with its new ideas and Jcinguage. How infinitely deeper and higher than the (jreek are these conceptions of the New Testament language, as the person of Christ, presented by the omnipotent Spirit, convinces the world of sin, of right- eousness, and of judgment (John xvi. 8). Jesus, as " the only-begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth " (John i. 14), assumes the place not only of the heroic ideal man of the Greeks, but even of the unapproachable holy Jahveh of the Hebrews. Hence the elevation of the graces of meekness, patience, long-suffering, self-sacrifice ; and the dethronement of the Greek virtues of strength, beauty, bravery, manhood. And so in all departments of Chris- tian thought, there was a corresponding elevation and degradation of terms and conceptions. We need only mention regeneration, redemption, reconciliation, justifi- cation, sanctification, life and death, heaven and hell, the church, the kingdom of God, repentance, faith, Christian love, baptism, the Lord's supper, the Lord's day, the advent, the judgment, the new Jerusalem, ever- * Zezschwitz, Pro/an gracii at, etc., p. 36, seq. \ Zezschwitz, in /. f., p>p. 35-57. THE LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 73 lasting glory.* Truly a new world was disclosed by the Greek language, and the literature of the New Testa- ment, as the Hebrew and the Aramaic and the Greek combined their energies and capacities in the grasp of the Divine creating and shaping Spirit, who transformed the Greek language and created a new and holy Greek literature, as the earth heaves and subsides into new forms and shapes under the energy of the great forces of its advancing epochs. The especial literary development of the New Testa- ment is in the sermon and the theological tract. We trace these from the first beginning on the day of Pen- tecost through the discourses of the book of Acts, and parallel therewith the epistles of Peter and Paul and John. Looking at the sermons we observe that they are no longer on the Aramaic model as are the dis- courses of our Lord, but we see the Greek orator as well as the Aramaic rabbin. So with the epistles, espe- cially of Paul, although he reminds us of the rabbinical schools in his use of the halacha and haggada methods, t yet they exhibit rather the dialectic methods of the Greek philosopher. Thus the Greek orator and phi- losopher prepared the language and style of Paul the preacher and theologian no less than the Hebrew prophet and wise man gave him the fundamental prin- ciples of his wisdom and experience. And although the Greek literature of the New Testament has no De- mosthenes' " On the crown," or Plato's Republic, as it has no Iliad or Prometheus ; yet it lays the foundation of the sermon and the tract, which have been the literary * Bleek, Einleitung, p. 71 ; Immer, Nermeneufik, p. 105 ; Am. ed., Ando- ver, 1877, pp. 129-131; Cremer, Bib. Theol. IVorterbuch der Neu-Tcstament, Gradtat and Trench, Nexu Testament Synonyms under the respective words. t Gal. iv. 22, seq. ; Rom. iii. i, seq., etc. 4 Y4 BIBLICAL STUDY. means of a world-transforming power, as, from the pulpit and the chair, Christian ministers have stirred the hearts and minds of mankind, and lead the van of progress of the Christian world — for the sermon combines the pro- phetic message of the Hebrew with the oratorical force of the Greek, as it not only fires the heart, but strives in the council-chamber of the intellect and pleads at the bar of the conscience; while the epistle combines the sententious wisdom of the Hebrew with the dia- lectic philosophy of the Greek, in order to mould and fashion the souls of men and of nations, by great vital and comprehensive principles that constitute the invin- cible forces of Christian history. CHAPTER IV. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. The Bible is composed of a great variety of writings of holy men under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, in a long series extending through many centuries, pre- served to us in three different original languages, the Hebrew, the Chaldee, and the Greek, besides numerous versions. These languages were themselves the prod- ucts of three different civilizations, which having accom- j)lished their purpose passed away, the languages no longer being used as living speech, but preserved only in written documents. They present to us a great variety of literature, as the various literary styles and the various literary forms of these three languages have combined in this one sacred book of the Christian church, making it as remarkable for its literary variety as for its religious unity. The Bible is the sacred canon of the church of Christ, the infallible authority in all matters of worship, faith, and practice. From this point of view it has been stud- ied for centuries by Jew and Christian. Principles of in- terpretation have been established and employed in building up systems of religion, doctrine, and morals. The divine element, which is ever the principal thing, has been justly emphasized ; and the doctrine of inspiration has been extended by many dogmatic divines so as to (75) re BIBLICAL STUDY. cover the external letter, the literary form and style, in the theory of verbal inspiration. The fact has been too often overlooked, that it has not seemed best to God to create a holy language for the exclusive vehicle of His Word, or to constitute peculiar literary forms and styles for the expression of His revelation, or to commit the keeping of the text of this Word to infallible guar- dians. But on the other hand, as He employed men rather than angels as the channels of His revelation, so He used three human languages with all the varieties of literature that had been developed in the various nations, using these languages in order that He might approach mankind in a more familiar way in the huma?i forms with which they were acquainted and which they could readily understand, and He permitted the sacred text to depend for its accuracy upon the attention and care of the suc- cessive generations of His people. Hence the necessity of biblical criticism to determine the true canon, the correct text, and the position and character of the vari- ous writings. These sacred writings might be studied from the histor- ical point of view under the title. History of Biblical Lit- erature, or from the dogmatic point of view as Biblical Introduction ; but both of these methods of treating biblical literature, unless they depend entirely upon traditional opinions, presuppose the work of criticism. The dogmatic method of Biblical Introduction is con- trary to the genius -of biblical study. The Biblical In- troductions constructed on this plan have gathered a vast amount of material in a dry, scholastic, pedantic, and ill-adjusted mass, so as to prejudice the student against the Scriptures when he should be introduced by the best methods into the sacred halls of its literature. The addition of the attributes *' historical," and " histori- THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. ^7 co-critical," to " introduction " has been accompanied by a corresponding internal irriprovement through the in- troduction of the critical arid the historical methods, but they have been kept in too subordinate a place even in the works most characterized by freedorh of criticism. Through the influence of Reiiss and Hupfeld the his- torical method came into use as the dominant one.^ But such a history of biblical literature can be con- structed only after criticism has accohipHshed its work of destruction and of construction, and it will be shaped and controlled by criticism. Hermann Strack f thinks that such a history is at present impossible on account of the great diversity of opinion among critics. It is true that any such history will represent the subjective opinions of the historian and his school. The works of Fiirst and Reuss are built upon theoretical considera- tions rather than established facts. But a history of biblical literature might be constructed which would distinguish between facts and theories, and though it might be imperfect and not altogether satisfactory, it might prepare the way for something better, and it would certainly present the material in a most attractive form. But the dominant method in all biblical studies should be the inductive and not the historical. The construc- tion of a history of biblical literature would not dis- pense with a system of biblical literature as a part of Exegetical Theology. In the construction of this sys- tem criticism will prove the most important method. * Reuss, (fte Gesch. d. heil. Schriften N. T., 1842, 5te Aufl., 1874; Hupfeld, Begriff und Metfwd d. so^enan. Hb. Einleii., 1844 ; Furst, Gesch. d. bib. LiU eratur historisch uiid krtttsch behattdelt, 1867-70 ; Zahn, Euileitung in dat fV. T., in Ilerzog-, Real Encyk. ii. Aufl. iv., p. 147, 1879; Reuss, Gesch. d. heil, Schriften Alien Test. 1881. t Zockler, Handbuch der theologischen Wissentcha/ten, I., 1882, p. 122. ifg BIBLICAL STUDY. It seems best, therefore, to distinguish the three depart, merits of Biblical Literature as, Biblical Canonics, Text' ual Criticism, and Higher Criticism. The distinction between the lower and the higher criticism has long been known to scholars. These terms have been more widely used than any others to discrim- inate between the criticism of the text and the criticism of the literary forms and contents. They are not al- together satisfactory, but we shall retain them as the best terms that have been suggested and in accordance with the established technics of criticism. Hagenbach * proposes to substitute internal and external criticism for higher and lower criticism, but we have yet to learn that any critic has adopted his proposition. We propose to give in this chapter a general discus- sion of criticism itself, its idea, divisions, principles, and methods, and the propriety of its application to th(; Bible ; in the three following chapters to treat the three departments of biblical criticism separately, and in the two subsequent chapters to present biblical literature in its two great literary forms, as prose and poetry. I. WHAT IS CRITICISM? Biblical criticism is one of the departments of his- torical criticism, as historical criticism is one of the divisions of general criticism. Criticism is a method of knowledge, and, wherever there is anything to be known, the critical method has its place. Knowl- edge is gained by the faculties of the human mind through sense-perception, the intuitions, and the rea- soning powers. If these were infallible in their work- ing, and their results were always reliable, there would * Encyklopddie,gi& Aufl., 1874, p. 164. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 79 be no need of criticism ; but, in fact, these faculties are used by fallible men who do not know how to use them, or employ them in various degrees of imperfection, so that human knowledge is ever a mixture of the true and false, the reliable and the unreliable ; and errors of individuals are perpetuated and enhanced by trans- mission from man to man and from generation to gen- eration. Criticism is the test of the certainty of knowl- edge, the method of its verification. It examines the products of human thinking and working and tests them by the laws of thought and of history. It eliminates the false, the uncertain, the unsubstantial from the true, the certain, and the substantial. •The unthinking rely upon their own crude knowledge which they have received from their fathers and friends or acquired by their narrow experience, without reflect- ing upon the uncertainty necessarily attached to it. But the reflecting mind which has experienced the un- certainty of its own acquisitions and of those things that have been transmitted to it, cannot rely upon anything as really known until it has been tested and found reli- able by criticism. For criticism reviews the processes of thought and the arguments and evidences by which its results have been acquired. It studies these prod- ucts in their genesis, examines them carefully in the or- der of their production, verifies and corrects them, im- proves upon them where improvement is possible, strengthens them where strength is needed, but also destroys them when they are found to be worthless, misleading, or false, as mere conceits, illusions, or fraudu- lent inventions. Criticism is thus on the one side de- structive, for its ofifice is to detect the false, eliminate it, and destroy it. This is not infrequently a painful process to the critic himsel' and to those who have allowed go BIBLICAL STUDY. themselves to be deceived, and have been relying upon the unreliable ; but it is indispensable to the knowledge of the truth ; it is the path of safety for the intellect and the morals ; it removes the obstructions to progress in knowledge. The destruction of an error opens up a vision of the truth, as a mote removed from the eye or frost brushed from the window. For criti- cism is also constructive. It tests and finds the truth It rearranges truths and facts in their proper order and harmony. In accordance with the strictness of its methods, and the thoroughness of their application will be the certainty of the results. But criticism itself, as a human method of knowledge, is also defective and needs self-criticism for its own rectification, security, and prog- ress. It must again and again verify its methods and correct its processes. Eternal vigilance is the price of truth as well as of liberty. It improves its methods with the advancement of human learning. In the infancy or growth of a nation, or of an individual, or of the world, •we do not find criticism. It belongs to the manhood and maturity of a nation and the world's civilization. Criticism requires for its exercise careful training. Only those who have learned how to use its tools and have employed them with the best masters, and have attained a mastery of the departments of knowledge to be criticised, are prepared for the delicate and difficult work of criticism ; for knowledge must be attained ere it can be tested. Criticism refines the crude oil of knowledge. It cleanses and polishes the rough diamond of thought. It removes the dross from the gold of wisdom. Criticism searches all departments of knowl- edge as a torch of fire consuming the hay, straw, and stubble, that the truth of God may shine forth iu its majesty and certainty as the imperishable and eternal THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 81 No one need fear criticism, save those who are uncer- tain in their knowledge, for criticism leads to certitude. It dissipates doubt. Fiat Lux is its watchword. We are not surprised that criticism has thus far been largely destructive, for there were many errors that had grown up and become venerable with age, and were so interwoven and embedded in systems of philosophy, of theology, of law, medicine, and science, as well as the manners and customs of men, that a long conflict was necessary to destroy them. Mankind in general are more concerned with the maintenance of established positions and systems and vested interests than they are interested in the truth of God and of nature. Scholars, when they see the venerable errors, hesitate to destroy them for fear of damaging their own interests or those of their friends, and sometimes out of anxiety for the truth, with which the error is entangled. But in the providence of God, some great doubter like Voltaire, Hume or Strauss, or some great reformer like Luther or Zwingli, arises to lay violent hands upon the systems in which truth and error are combined, raze them to the ground and trample them in the dust, that from the ruins the imperishable truth may be gathered up and arranged in its proper order and harmony. The modern world since the Reformation has become more and more critical, until the climax has been reached in our day. The destruction of error has been the chief duty of criticism, but its constructive work has not been neglected, and this will more and more rise into importance in the progress of knowledge. It is not with- out significance that the age of the world most charac- terized by the spirit of criticism has been the age of the most wonderful progress in all departments of human knowledge. 4* 32 BIBLICAL STUDY. Criticism divides itself into various branches in accord ance with the departments of knowledge: (i) Philosoph- ical Criticism ; (2) Historical Criticism ; and (3) Scientific Criticism. Limiting ourselves to historical criticism we distinguish it from other criticism, in that it has to do with the materials of the past, the sources of the his- tory of mankind ; as philosophical criticism has to do with the facts of human consciousness, and scientific criticism with the facts of external nature. Historical criticism deals with the various sources of history ; liter- ary documents, monuments, laws, customs, institutions, traditions, legends, and myths. The great importance of the literary sources justifies their separation in the distinct branch of literary criticism. Biblical criticism is one of the sections of literary criticism, as it has tc do with the sacred literature of the Christian Church. II. THE PRINCIPLES OF CRITICISM. The principles and methods of Biblical Criticism will thus embrace (i) those of Criticism in general, (2) of His- torical Criticism, (3) of Literary Criticism, and (4) of Bibli- cal Criticism. Biblical Criticism has thus the advantage of all this preliminary work in other fields to guide and illustrate its own peculiar work. I. From General Criticism it derives the fundamental laws of thought, which must not be violated, such as the laws of identity, of contradiction, of exclusion, and of sufficient reason ; * also the laws of probation, which must be applied to all reasoning : There must be no begging of the question at issue, no reasoning backward and for- ward or in a circle, no jumping at conclusions, no set- * Sir \Vm. Hamilton, Logic, Boston, i860, p. 57 ; also McCosh, Laws of Disatnive Thought^ N. Y., 1871, p. 195, seq. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 83 ting out to prove one thing and then insensibly sub- stituting another thing in its place.* These laws of probation are the sharp tools of the critic with which he tests all the acquisitions of the human mind and all the reasonings of scholars in all departments of knowledge.f 2. From Historical Criticism Biblical Criticism derives the principles of historic genesis. The evidences of history belong to the past. They are oral, written, or monu- mental. They have passed through several stages before they reached us. They must be traced back to their origin in order to determine whether they are genuine ; or whether they have been invented as interesting sto- ries for hours of idleness and recreation, or as forgeries with the intent to deceive ; or whether there is a min- gling of these various elements that need to be separated and distinguished.:}: The order and processes of the development of the material must be considered in order to determine its integrity, or how far it has been modified by external influences or the struggle of internal inconsistencies, and how far the earlier and the later elements may be distin- guished and the excrescences removed from the original. The character of the material must be studied in order to determine how far it is reliable and trustworthy ; whether it is in accordance with the experience of man- kind, and so natural ; or contrary to that experience, and so unnatural or supernatural ; whether it is in harmony with itself and consistent with its own conditions and * Sir Wm. Hamilton, Logic, p. 369 ; McCosh, Laws of Discursive Thought, p. 183, seq. t An excellent application of these principles to Piblical Criticism is found in th; article of Willis J. Beecher on the Logical Methods of Professor Kuenen^ in the Presbyterian Review, 1882, III., p. 701, seq. X Gieseler, Text-Book of Church History. N. Y., 1857, 1., p. 23. g4 BIBLICAL STUDY. circumstances ; whether there are disturbing influences that determine the material so as to warp or color it and how far these influences extend.* The value of the materials of history depends upon such considerations as these; also upon the nearness or remoteness of the material to the matters concerning which they render testimony ; upon the extent and vari- ety of evidence, if that extent and variety are primitive and not derived from an original source upon which they all depend. The consistency and persistence of materials are also evidences of vitality and inherent strength of evidence. The sources of history that cannot bear this criticism are not reliable sources. The application of these sim- j)le tests removes from the pages of history numberless legends, fables, and myths, and determines the residuum of truth and fact that underlies them. It is distressing to part with the sweet stories which have been told us in our early life, and which have been handed down by the romancers from the childhood and youth of our race. We may still use them as stories, as products of the imagination, but we dare not build on them as his- toric verities. As men we must know the truth. We cannot afford to deceive ourselves or others. Many of these legends and traditions have strongly intrenched themselves and lie like solid rocks in the path of historic investigation. They must be exploded to get at the truth, and this cannot be done without noise and confusion ; and outcries of alarm from the weak and timid, and those who are interested in the maintenance of error and court popularity by an ap- peal to prejudices. Sometimes these traditions may be ■'^ See Droysen, Grundriss der Hisiorik. Leipzig, 1868. pp. 16-17. THE BIBLE Al^D ORlTlCTSM. 85 overcome by positive evidence obtained by careful re- search in ancient documents, and by parallel lines of evi- dence. But it is not always possible to obtain sufficient external positive evidence. Sometimes we have to rely upon a long-continued and unbroken silence, and some- times we have to challenge the tradition and reject it from sheer lack of evidence and the suspicious circum- stances of its origin and growth. 3. From Literary Criticism Biblical Criticism derives its chief principles and methods. As literature it must first be considered as text. The MSS., versions, and cita- tions are studied in order to attain, as far as possible, the ')riginals.* The laws of the transmission of books are I0 be determined. The sources of error in the text are the carelessness, ignorance, or inadvertence of the copy- ists. We have to consider the mistakes which they were liable to make, such as in words of similar sound, in letters of like form, in the repetition of words in passing from line to line, in the omission or insertion of words or clauses by slips of the eye, in the transfer of explana- tory notes from the margin to the text. The errors in translation arise from lack of knowledge of the original, or inability to give adequate expression to the idea of the original, save by paraphrase, and in defective judg- ment as to the best way of rendering it. Errors in cita- tion arise from slips of the memory and the desire to use a part and not the whole of the passage, or the adaptation of it to circumstances beyond the scope of the original. There are also errors in the text because of the wear and tear of time in the destruction of MSS., ren- * A statement of the principles of Textual Criticism in relation to the New Testament may be found in the article of Prof. B. B. Warfield on The C-reeh Testament of Westeott and Hort. Presbyterian Review, III., 1S82, p. 334, uq. gg BIBLICAL 8TUDT. dering them illegible, indistinct, or mutilated, and through the efforts to restore them.''^ The value of the MSS. must first be considered, their interrelation and antiq- uity and history. They must be arranged in families or groups that their relative authority may be estab- lished.f The value of the MSS. having been deter- mined, we are prepared to examine the relative value of the readings. The principles on which this is done are : (i) The reading which lies at the root of all the varia- tions and best explains them is to be preferred. (2) The most difficult reading is more likely to be correct from the natural tendency of the scribe to make his text as easy and intelligible as possible, and the natural process of simplification in transmission.:}: (3) The reading most in accordance with the context, and especially with the style and usage of the author and his times, is to be preferred. This is on the principle of consistency and " intrinsic probability." § 4. Having secured the best text of the writings, criti- cism devotes itself to the higher task of considering them as to integrity, authenticity, literary form, and re- liability. This is appropriately called Higher Criticism. This branch of criticism has established its principles * See Cappellus, Criiica Sacra, 1650, Lib. I. ; Scrivener, Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament, 1874, p. 7, seq. ; Isaac Taylor, History of the Transmission of Ancient Books to Modern Times, new edition. Liver- pool, 1879, p. 22 ; also Westcott and Hort, New Testament in the Origifiat Greek, Vol. II., Introduction, N. Y., 1882, p. 5, seq. t See Scrivener in /. c, p. 404, seq. Westcott and Hort deserve great credit lor their elaboration of this principle in /. c, p. 39, seq. X These two principles are combined by Westcott and Hort in /. c, p. 22, seq., under the term " transcriptional probability." § See Westcott and Hort in /. c, p. 20, seq. Scrivener expands these prina- ples to seven in number in /. c, p. 436, seq. ; Davidson, Treatise of Biblical Criticism, Boston, 1853, p. 386, seq., gives principles of Textual Criticism for the Old Testament. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. QY and methods of work. Thus the learned Roman Cath. olic, Du Pin, in the introduction to his magnificent work on ecclesiastical writers, gives an admirable state- ment of them with reference to those ecclesiastical writ- ers before the higher criticism of the Scriptures had fairly begun. We shall build largely upon him in the statement of principles.* The questions to be determined by higher criticism are : (i) As to the integrity of the writings. Is the writing the work of a single author or is it a collection of writ- ings of different authors ? Is it in its original condition, or has it been edited or interpolated by later writers ? Can the parts be discriminated, the original form of the writing determined, and the different steps in interpola- tion and editing traced ? (2) As to the authenticity of the writings. Is the writ ing anonymous, pseudonymous, or does it bear the au thor's name ? If the author's name is given, is the title genuine or is it a forgery ? What reliance can be placed upon tradition with regard to the authorship of anony- mous writings ? (3) As to literary features. What is the style of the author, his method of composition ? What literary form does he assume, poetry or prose, and what variety of these general forms ? (4) As to the credibility of the writings. Is the writ- ing reliable ? Do its statements accord with the truth, or are they colored and warped by prejudice, supersti- tion, or reliance upon insufficient or unworthy testimony ? What character does the author bear as to prudence, good judgment, fairness, integrity, and critical sagacity? * Nouvelle Bibliotheque des Auteurs Hcclesiastiques, Paris, 1694 ; New His* tjry 0/ Ecclesiastical Writers, London, 1696. gg BIBLICAL STUDY. These questions of the higher criticism are to be de termined by the following principles : * (i) The writing must be in accordance with its sup- posed historic position as to time and place and circum- stances. " Time is one of the most certain proofs ; for nothing more evi- dently shows that a book cannot belong to that time wherein it is pretended to have been written, than when we find in it some marks of a later date. These marks, in the first place, are false dates ; for 'tis an ordinary- thing for impostors, that are generally ignorant, to date a book after the death of the author to whom they ascribe it, or of the person to whom they ascribe it, or of the person to whom it is dedicated, or written ; and even when they do fix the time right, yet they often mistake in the names of the consuls, or in some other ( ircumstances : All which are invincible proofs that he that dated Miis book did not live at that time. Secondly, impostors very often speak of men that lived long after the death of those persons to whom they attribute those spurious discourses, or they relate the his- tory of some passages that happened afterwards, or they speak of cities and people that were unknown at the time, when those authors wrote " t (2) Differences of style imply differences of expe- rience and age of the same author, or, when sufBciently great, differences of author and of period of composition. " In short, stile is a sort of touchstone, that discovers the truth or falsehood of books; because it is impossible to imitate the stile of any author so perfectly as that there will not be a great deal of dif- ference. By the stile, we are not only to understand the bare words and terms, which are easily imitated ; but also the turn of the dis- course, the manner of writing, the elocution, the figures, and the * A brief statement of these principles is presented in relation to Biblical Critr« tism by Prof. Henry P. Smith, in his article on the Critical Theories 0/ Juliui IVe/l/iattsett, Presbyterian Review^ 1882, III., p. 370. + Du Pin, New History of Ecclesiastical Writers. 3d edition, corrected. London, 1696, p. vii. seq. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 89 method : All which particulars, it is a difficult matter so to counter- feit as to prevent a discovery. There are, for instance, certain au- thors, whose stile is easily known, and which it is impossible to im- itate : We ought not, however, always to reject a book upon a sligh difference of stile, without any other proofs ; because it often hap- pens that authors write differently, in different times : Neither ought we immediately to receive a book as genuine, upon the bare resem- blance of stile, when there are other proofs of its being spurious ; because it may so happen, that an ingenious man may sometimes counterfeit the stile of an author, especially in discourses which are not very long. But the difference and resemblance of stile may be so remarkable sometimes, as to be a convincing proof, either of truth or falsehood " (in /. c, p. viii.). (3) Differences of opinion and conception imply dif- ferences of author when these are sufficiently great, and also differences of period of composition. " The opinions or things contained in a book, do likewise discover the forgery of it: (i) When we find some opinions there, that were not maintained till a long time after the author, whose name it bears. (2) When we find some terms made use of, to explain these doc- trines, which were not customary till after his death. (3) When the author opposes errors, as extant in his own time, that did not spring up till afterwards. (4) When he describes ceremonies, rites and customs that were not in use in his time. (5) When we find some opinions in these spurious discourses, that are contrary to those that are to be found in other books, which unquestionably belong to that author. (6) When he treats Of matters that were never spoken of in the time when the real author was alive. (7) When he relates histories that are manifestly fabulous " (in /. c, p. viii.). (4) Citations show the dependence of the author upon the author or authors cited, where these are definite and the identity of the author cited can be clearly estab-^ lished. In cases of doubt as to which author uses the' other, or whether two or more authors may not depend upon an earlier author; this doubt can be resolved only by the careful determination of the exact interrelation 90 BIBLICAL STUDY. of the passages and the genesis of the one out of the other. This is the most difficult principle of the highet criticism in its application, Du Pin simply attaches it to No. (i), "or lastly, they cite authors that wrote and lived after those whom they make to mention them." These four principles are embraced under the mternal evidence. To them we must now add two principles of external evidence. (5) Positive testimony as to the writing in other writ- ings of acknowledged authority. (6) The silence of authorities as to the writing in ques- tion. These are combined by Du Pin : " The external proofs are, in the first place, taken from ancient manuscripts ; in which either we do not find the name of an author : or else we find that of another : The more ancient or correct they are, the more we ought to value them. Secondly, from the testimony or silence of ancient authors ; from their testimony, I say, when they formally reject a writing as spurious, or when they attribute it t(> some other author ; or from their silence when they do not speak oi it, though they have occasion to mention it : This argument, which is commonly called a negative one, is oftentimes of very great weight. When, for example, we find, that several entire books which are attributed to one of the ancients, are unknown to all antiquity : When all those persons that have spoken of the works of an author, and besides, have made catalogues of them, never mention such a particular discourse : When a book that would have been sei"vice- able to the Catholics has never been cited by them, who both might and ought to have cited it, as having a fair occasion to do it, 'tis ex- treamly probable that it is supposititious. It is very certain that this is enough to make any book doubtful, if it was never cited by any of the ancients ; and in that case it must have very authentik char- acters of antiquity, before it ought to be received without contradic- t'on. And on the other hand, if there should be never so few con- jectures of its not being genuine, yet these, together with the silence of the ancients, will be sufficient to oblige us to believe it to be a forgery " (in /. c, p. viii.). THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 91 The argument from silence has risen to so much greater importance than it was in the seventeenth cent- ury that we shall venture to define it more narrowly. {a) Silence is a lack of evidence, when it is clear that the matter in question did not come within the scope of the author's argument. {b) It is an evidence that it had certain characteristics that excluded it from the author's argument. {c) The matter in question lies fairly within the au- thor's scope, and was omitted for good and sufficient reasons that may be ascertained. The omission was in- tentional. {d) The silence of the author as to that which was within the scope of his argument was unconscious and implies ignorance of the matter. {e) When the silence extends over a variety of writings of different authors, of different classes of writings and different periods of composition, it implies either somt; strong and overpowering external restraint such as divine interposition, or ecclesiastical or civil power, or it im- plies a general and wide-spread public ignorance whiclx presents a strong presumptive evidence in favor of the non-existence of the matter in question.* The internal evidence must be used with great caution and sound judgment, for an able and learned forger might imitate so as to deceive the most expert, and the author of a pseudepigraph might intentionally place his writing in an earlier age of the world and in circum- stances best suited to carry out his idea. But sooner or later a faithful and persistent application of the critical * For an elaboration and explanation of these principles we must refer to the author's paper on the argument e silentio, read before the Socie'y of Biblical Literature and Exegesis in June, 1883, and published in their Journal, for 1883. 92 BIBLICAL STUDY. tests will determine the forgeries and the pseudepigraphs and assign them their real literary position. As to the relative value of the internal artd external evidence we cannot do better than use the judicious words of Sir VVm. Hamilton : " But if our criticism from the internal grounds alone be, on the one hand, impotent to estab- lish, it is, on the other hand, omnipotent to disprove." * The importance of this higher criticism is so well stated by Du Pin, that we will again quote him : " Criticism is a kind of torch, that lights and conducts us in the obscure tracts of antiquity, by making us to distinguish truth from falsehood, history from fable, and antiquity from novelty. 'Tis by this means, that in our times we have disengaged ourselves from an infinite number of very common errors, into which our fathers fell for want of examining things by the rules of true criticism. For 'tis a surprising thing to consider how many spurious books we find in antiquity ; nay, even in the first ages of the Church " (in /. c, p. vii.). In order to illustrate these principles of the higher criticism, we shall present a few specimens of their appli- cation. The first illustration that we shall give is with refer- ence to the question of integrity. The so-caKed Apos- tles' Creed is the most sacred writing exterior to the canon of Scripture. " Till the middle of the seventeenth century it was thr. cn^ rent be- lief of Roman Catholic and Protestant Christendom that the Apos- tles' Creed was ' tne?nbratu7n articulatmnqtie,' composed t>y the apos- tles in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, or before their separation ; to secure unity of teaching, each contributing an article (hence the somewhat arbitrary division into twelve articles)." The arguments adduced by Dr. Schaff to prov<; that this tradition is false, are: (i) The intrinsic im^iroba * Lo£:c, p. 471. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. ^^ hility of such a mechanical composition. (2) The silence of Scripture. (3) The silence of the apostolic fathers and all the Ante-Nicene and Nicene fathers and synods. (4) The variety in form of the creed down to the eighth century. (5) The fact that the Apostles' Creed never had any currency in the East where the Nicene creed occupies its place.* Lumby goes into the matter of the structure of the creed more fully, and shows the process of its formation and all the changes through which it passed, until it gradually, in 750 A.D., assumed its present stereotyped form.f The best illustration of the higher criticism with reference to the question of authenticity, is afforded by Bentley in his celebrated work on the epistles of Phalaris.:}: Bentley proves these epistles to be forgeries (•f a sophist: I. By internal evidence, (i) They do not accord with their presumed age, but with other ages. They mention {a) Aloesa, a city which was not built till 140 years after the latest year of Phalaris ; ip) Theridean cups, which were not known until 120 years after the death of Phalaris ; [c) Messana, as a different city from Zaude, whereas it was a later name for the same city, and not changed till -60 years after the death of Pha- laris ; {(V) Taurominium, 140 years before it was ever thought of. (2) Differences of style : {a) the use of the Attic dialect instead of the Doric, the speech of Phalaris, and indeed not the old Attic, but the new Attic that was not used till centuries after Phalaris' time. * Schaff, Creeds 0/ Christendom, New York, 1877, I., p. 19. + Lumby, History 0/ the Creeds, Cambridge, 1873, p. 169, seq. % A Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris, London, 1659, a new edition edited by Wilhelm Wagner, London, 1883. 04 BIBLICAL STUDY. (3) Differences of thought : {a) reference to tragedy be- fore tragedy came into existence ; {b) use of Attic and not Sicilian talents in speaking of money : {c) use of the word Ttpovoia for Divine Providence, which was not used before Plato, and noaj^o^ for the universe, which was not so used before Pythagoras ; id) inconsistencies between the ideas and matter of the epistle, which are those of a sophist, and the historical character of Phalaris as a politician and tyrant. (4) Relation to other writers. He uses Herodotus, Demosthenes, Euripides. n. The external evidences are : (5) testimony. Atossa is said to have been the first inventor of epistles. Hence those that carry the name oi Phalaris two gener- ations earlier must be impostures. (6) Silence. There is a thousand years of silence as to these epistles. " For had our letter been used or transcribed during that thousand years, somebody would have spoken of it, especially since so many of the an- cients had occasion to do so ; so that their silence is a direct argument that they never had heard of them."* We have dwelt at some length upon the principles and methods of the higher criticism, because of their great importance in our day with reference to the Scriptures and the lack of information concerning them that pre- vails to an astonishing degree among men who make some pretensions to scholarship. III. THE CRITICISM OF THE BIBLE. Thus far Biblical Criticism has derived from other branches of criticism the principles and methods of its work. Has it not, however, some peculiar features of * New edition, 1883, p. 481. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 95 its own, as it has to do with the sacred canon of the Christian Church? Does the fact that the canon of sacred Scripture is holy, inspired, and of divine author- ity, hft it above criticism, or does it give additional features of criticism that enable us to test the genuine- ness of these claims respecting it? We hold that the latter is the true and only safe position, and that it should be our effort to determine these principles and methods. We reserve this question for our following chapter. In the meanwhile we have to meet on the threshold of our work the a priori objections that would obstruct our progress in the application of the principles and methods of criticism to the Bible. Biblical Criticism is confronted by traditional views of the Bible that do not wish to be disturbed, and by dog- matic statements respecting the Bible which decline reinvestigation and revision. The claim is put forth that these traditional views and dogmatic statements are in accordance with the Scriptures and the symbols of the Church, and that the orthodox faith is put in peril by criticism. It should be distinctly recognized at the outset that such claims as these can only influence the adherents of the church, and, at the utmost, debar them from the exercise of criticism. They cannot be more than amus- ing to the unbelieving and the sceptical, who care but little for the church and still less for theologians and their orthodoxy. They will use the tests of criticism without restraint. We cannot prevent them. The question is whether Christian scholars also shall be enti led to use them in defence of the Scriptures, or whether that defence is to be left in the hands of dog- matic theologians and scholastics. A still further re- mark is necessary just here in the mterests of truth 90 BIBLICAL STUDY. and honesty. Wh) should the Scriptures fear the most searching investigation ? If they are truly the Word of God they will maintain themselves and vindicate them- selves in the battle of criticism. If we are sure of this, let us rejoice in the conflict that will lead to victory ; if we are in doubt of it, it is best that our doubts should be removed as soon as possible. Then let the tests be applied, and let us know in whom and what we believe.* It is pretended that the Church doctrine of inspira- tion is in peril, and that the authority of the Scriptures is thereby undermined. If there were one clearly de- fined orthodox doctrine of inspiration to which all evangelical men agreed, as supported by Scripture and the Protestant confessions, our task would be easier. But, in fact, there are various theories of inspiration, and several ways of stating the doctrine of inspiration that are without support in Scripture or symbol. It is necessary, therefore, to discriminate, in order to deter- mine exactly what is in peril, whether inspiration itself and the authority of the Scriptures, or some particular and false theor>' of inspiration and the authority of some theologian or school of theology. The doctrine of inspiration may be constructed (i) by a careful, painstaking study of the sacred Scriptures themselves, gathering together their testimony as to their own origin, character, design, value, and authority. This gives us the biblical doctrine of the Scriptures and the doctrine of inspiration as a part of Biblical Theology. (2) The doctrine of inspiration may be constructed from a study of the symbolical books of the Church, which express the faith of the Church as attained in the great * Robert Rainy, Bible and Criticism^ London, 1878, p. 33. THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. 9^ crises of its history, in the study of the Scriptures, in the experiences and life of men. This gives us the symbol- ical, or orthodox, or Church doctrine of inspiration. (3) The doctrine of inspiration may be constructed by a study of Scripture and symbol, and the logical unfold- ing of the results of a more extended study of the whole subject in accordance with the dominant philo- sophical and theological principles of the times. This gives us the dogmatic, or school, or traditional doctrine %A inspiration as it has been established in particular hchools of theology, and has become traditional in the long-continued teaching of the Church and the pulpit, in the various particular theories of inspiration that have been formulated. As we rise in the doctrinal process from the sim- ple biblical statements, unformulated as they lie in the sacred writings or formulated in Biblical Theology, to the more complex and abstract statements of the sym- bols expressing the formulated consensus of the leaders of the Church in the formative periods of history, and then to the more theoretical and scholastic statements of the doctrinal treatises of the theologians, while the doctrine becomes more and more complex, massive, con- sistent, and imposing, and seems, therefore, to become more authoritative and binding ; in reality the authority diminishes in this relative advance in systematization, so that what is gained in extension is lost in intension ; for the construction is a construction of sacred materials by human and fallible minds, with defective logic, failing sometimes to justify premises, and leaping to conclu- sions that cannot always be defended, and in a line and direction determined by the temporary and provisional conditions and necessities of the times, neglecting modi- fying circumstances and conditions. The concrete that 5 1)8 BIBLICAL STUDY. the Bible gives us is for all time, as it is the living and eternal substance ; though changeable, it reproduces and so perpetuates itself in a wonderful variety of forms of beauty, yet all blending and harmonizing as the colors of the clouds and skies under the painting of the sun- beams ; but the abstract is the formal and the perish- able, as it is broken through and shattered by the pulsa- tions and struggles of the living and developing truth of God, ever striving for expression and adaptation to every different condition of mankind, in the different epochs and among the various races of the world. The course of religious history has clearly established the principle that there is a constant tendency in all re- ligions, and especially in the Christian religion, in the systematic or dogmatic statement to constrain the sym- bol as well as the Scriptures into the requirements oi the particular formative principle and the needs of the particular epoch. The dogmatic scheme is too often the mould into which the gold of the Scriptures and the silver of the creed are poured to coin a series of defini- tions, and fashion a system of theology which not only breaks up the concrete and harmonious whole of tlie Scriptures into fragments, stamping them with the im- print of the particular conception of the theologian in order to their reconstruction ; but not infrequently the constructed system becomes an idol of the theologian and his pupils, as if it were the orthodox, the divine truth, while a mass of valuable scriptural and symboli- cal material is cast aside in the process, and lies neg- lected in the workshop. In course of time the symbols as well as the Scriptures are overlaid with glosses and perplexing explanations, so that they become either dark, obscure, and uncertain to the ordinary reader, or else have their meanings deflected and perverted, until THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. ^ they are once more grasped by a living, energetical faith in a revived state of the Church, and burst forth from their scholastic fetters, that Scripture, creed, and life may once more correspond. While traditionalism and scholasticism have not prevailed in the Protestant Church to the same extent as in the Greek and Roman churches, for the right of private judgment and the uni- versal priesthood of believers have maintained their ground with increasing vigor in Western Europe and America since the Reformation ; yet it is no less true that the principle of traditionalism is ever at work in the chairs of theology and in the pulpits of the Church ; so that in seeking for truth and in estimating what is binding on faith and conscience, even Protestants must distinctly separate the three things : Bible, symbol, and tradition ; the Bible, the sole infallible norm ; the sym- bol, binding those who hold to the body of which it is the banner ; while tradition demands at the most our re- spect, and reverence, and careful consideration, and the presumption in its favor; but must be tried and criti- cised by every thinking man, and every living, energetic Christian. It is of vast importance that we should make these distinctions on the threshold of the study of the critical theories ; for there is no field in which tradition has been more hasty in its conclusions, more busy in their formation, more dogmatic and sensitive to criticism more reluctant and stubborn to give way to the truth, than in the sacred fields of the Divine Word. Thus criticism is confronted at the outset now as ever with two a priori objections. 1st. There are those who maintain that their tradi- tional views of the sacred Scriptures are inseparably bound up with the church doctrine of inspiration, so IQQ BIBLICAL STUDY. that even if they should be in some respects doubtful or erroneous, they must be left alone for fear of the de- struction of the doctrine of inspiration itself. This is true of those traditional theories of inspiration which in some quarters have expanded so as to cover a large part of the ground of Exegetical Theology, and commit them- selves to theories of text and author, date, style, and in- tegrity of writings, in accordance with a common, but, in our judgment, an injudicious method of discussing the whole Bible under the head of bibliology in the pro- legomena of the dogmatic system ; but this is not true of the symbolical doctrine of inspiration, still less of the scriptural doctrine. The most that this objection can require of the critics is, that they should be careful and cautious of giving offence, or of needlessly shocking prej- udices ; that they should be respectful and reverent of the faith of the people and of revered theologians ; but it is not to be supposed that it will make them recreant to their trust of seeking earnestly, patiently, persist- ently, and prayerfully for the truth of God. It may be found that the school doctrines of inspiration have ob- truded themselves in place of the symbolical and script- ural doctrine, and it may be necessary to destroy these school doctrines in order to the safety of the biblical and symbolical doctrine. However distressing this may be to certain dogmatic divines and their adherents, it may afford gratification to all sincere lovers of the truth of God. 2d. There are those who claim that their traditional theory is the logical unfolding of the doctrine of the Symbols and the Scriptures. But this is begging the very question at issue which will not be yielded. Why should dogmatic theologians claim exemption from criti- cism and the testing of the grounds of their systems? THE BIBLE AND CKITICISM. 101 Such an arbitrary claim for deductions and conse- quences is one that no true critic or historian ought to concede ; for, by so doing, he abandons at once the right and ground of criticism, and the inductive meth- ods of historical and scientific investigation, and sacri- fices his material to the dogmatist and scholastic, sur- rendering the concrete for the abstract. The very sensi- tiveness to criticism displayed in some quarters justifies the critics in their suspicion that the theories are weak and will not sustain investigation. Traditional theories cannot overcome critical theories with either of these a priori objections of apprehended peril to faith or logical inconsistencies, but must submit to the test of the symbol and the Scriptures to which the critics appeal as the arbiters against tradition. The characteristic principle of Puritanism is that : " God alone is Lord of the conscience, and hath left it free from the doctrines and commandments of men, which are in anything contrary to His Word or beside it in matters of faith and worship ; so that, to believe such doctrine, or to obey such commandments out of conscience, is to betray true liberty of conscience ; and the requiring an implicit faith, and an absolute and blind obedience, is to destroy liberty of conscience and reason also."* Biblical criticism bases its historic right on the princi- ples of the Reformation and of Puritanism over against the Roman Catholic principle of the supremacy of tradi- tion and dogma. On this basis the Protestant symbols have been accepted and subscribed by honest and faith- ful men for iht'w face value for all that is fairly contained therein, and not for certain unknown and undiscovered consequences which may have a chance majority or the most authoritative teachers. Symbols of faith are the ex- * Westminster Con/, of Faith, xx. 2 ; see also A. F. Mitchell, The Westminf tter Assembly : its History and Standards, London, 1883, pp. 8, seq., 465. IQ2 BreLICAL STUDY. pression of the faith of those who constructed them, and of those who subsequently adopted them, so far as they give expression to Christian doctrine ; but, with regard to those questions not covered by their statements, which they may have held in abeyance, or purposely omitted on account of disagreement, and in order to lib- erty, or because they were not suited for a national con- fession or a child's catechism, or because they had not yet arisen in the field of controversy, — to bring these in by the plea of logical deduction, is to elaborate and en- large the creed against the judgment of those who framed it, is to usurp the constitutional methods of revision, is to dogmatize and obstruct those active, ener- getic scholars, who, having accepted them for their face value as a genuine expression of their faith, push forth into the unexplored fields of the Bible and theology, in order, by the inductive method and the generalization of facts, rather than by deductions from symbolic or scholastic statements, to win new triumphs for their Divine Master. These preliminary observations are necessary, in order to clear the ground and make the distinction evident between the symbolical, the truly orthodox doctrine of inspiration from which true criticism has nothing to fear, and any traditional, scholastic, or professedly orthodox doctrine of inspiration, such as those that have waged war with criticism so often since the Reformation. Recent critical theories arise and work as did their pred- ecessors, in the various departments of exegetical the- ology. Here is their strength, that they antagonize scholastic dogma with the Bible itself, and appeal from ^t"/^*?^/ theology to biblical theology. Unless traditional theories of inspiration can vindicate themselves on Bible grounds, meet the critics, and overcome them in fair THE BIBLE AND CRITICISM. JOS conflict, in the sacred fields of the Divine Word, sooner or later traditional theories will be driven from the field. It will not do to antagonize critical theories of the Bible with traditional theories of the Bible, for the critic ap- peals to history against tradition, to an array of facts against so-called inferences, to the laws of probation against dogmatic assertion, to the Divine Spirit speaking in the Scriptures against external authority. History, facts, truth, the laws of thought, are all divine prod- ucts, and most consistent with the Divine Word, and they will surely prevail. It is significant that the great majority of professional biblical scholars in the various universities and theologi- cal halls of the world, embracing those of the greatest learning, industry, and piety, demand a revision of tradi- tional theories of the Bible, on account of a large induc- tion of new facts from the Bible and history. These critics must be met with argument and candid reasoning as to these facts and their interpretation, and cannot be overcome by mere cries of alarm for the Church and the Bible which, in their last analysis, usually amount to nothing more than peril to certain favorite views. What peril can come to the Scriptures from a more profound critical study of them ? The peril is to scholastic dog- mas and to tradition. But what then are we contending for as evangelical men, for the faith of the Scriptures, the faith of Wittenberg, of Geneva, and of Westminster, or for the faith of the Reformed scholastics, and the faith of certain schools of theology and their chiefs? We must recognize in order to meet this issue, upon which every- thing depends, that biblical critics cannot afford to carry the load of the school theology into the conflicts of tiie nineteenth century, but must strip to the symbols for a conflict with rationalism and materialism ; and we should 104 BIBLICAL STUDY. not fear as evangelical biblical scholars to accept the challenge of our adversaries and go forth from the breast- works of our symbols to meet them in fair and honor- able warfare in open field with the biblical material itself on the principles of induction."^ The sword of the Spirit alone will conquer in this warfare. Are Christian men afraid to put it to the test ? For this is a conflict after all between true criticism and false criticism ; be- tween the criticism which is the product of the evangel- ical spirit of the Reformation, and critical principles that are the product of deism and rationalism. Evan- gelical criticism has been marching from conquest to conquest, though far too often at a sad disadvantage, like a storming party who have sallied forth from their breast- works to attack the trenches of the enemy, finding in the hot encounter that the severest fire and gravest peril are from the misdirected batteries of their own line. Shall evangelical criticism in searching the Scriptures be per- mitted to struggle unhindered with rationalistic criticism, or must it protect itself also from scholastic dogmatism ? We do not deny the right of dogmatism and the a priori method, nor the worth of tradition, within their proper spheres ; but we maintain the equal right of criticism and the inductive method, and their far greater importance in the acquisition of true and reliable knowledge. If criticism and dogmatism are harnessed together, a span of twin steeds, they will draw the car of theology rap- idly toward its highest ideal ; but pulling in opposite di- rections, especially in the present crisis, they will tear it to pieces. * See author's article on the Right, Duty, and Limits of Biblical Criticism, Presbyterian Review, II., p. 557, seq.; Willis J. Beecher, art. Logical Mcth- vds 0/ Prof. Kiienen, Presbyterian Review, III., p. 703; Francis L. Palton; art. Pentateuchal Criticism, Presbyterian Review, IV., p. 356, seq. CHAPTER V. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. Biblical Criticism in its larger sense, embracing the several departments of biblical literature after its early activity in the Christian schools of Alexandria and Syria, and in the rabbinical schools of Tiberias and Babylon, in the study of the canon and the text of Scripture, gave place to a long supremacy of dogma and tradition. The Septuagint version became the in- spired text to the Greek church, the Massoretic text of the Hebrew Scriptures to the Jews, and the Vulgate version to the Roman church. The canon of the Old Testament having been determined by the assembly at Jamnia toward the close of the first Christian century by rabbinical authority, became limited in the Talmud to the 24 books. These are mentioned in the order: (i) The five books of the law; (2) eight books of the prophets — Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the twelve minor prophets ; (3) eleven other books — Ruth, Psalms, Job, Prowirbs, Eccle- siastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles.'^ The Christian church made no official cktcrmination of the canon of Scripture save in provincial sy lods, such as the Council of Laodicea and the synod of Carthage, • Talm. Bdbliy Baba BatJira, p. 14 a. 5* (105i 106 BIBLICAL STUDY. both in the fourth century, whose decisions express the differences of opinion which have always been in the church. In part the theologians have followed the stricter Hieronymian canon which corresponds with the Talmudic with reference to the Old Testament, but chiefly the fuller Hellenistic and Augustinian canon including the apocryphal books of the Old Testament. In the New Testament, by general consent, the four gospels, the book of Acts, the thirteen epistles of Paul, the epistle to the Hebrews, the first epistle of Peter, and first epistle of John were recognized, while the doubts of the early church as to the epistles of James, Jude, 2d Peter, 2d and 3d John, and the Apocalypse became more and more feeble and infrequent.* These sacred books were interpreted by the body of tradition that had become solidified in the Talmud among the Jews, and in the fathers and schoolmen in the various Christian churches. I. THE CANON OF THE REFORMERS. The Protestant Reformation was a great critical revival, due largely to the new birth of learning in Western Europe. The emigration of the fugitive Greeks from Constantinople after its capture by the Turks, had planted a young Greek culture. A stream of thought burst forth, and poured like a quicken- ing flood strong and deep over Europe. Cardinal Ximenes, with the aid of a number of Christian and Jewish scholars, such as Alphonso de Zamora, Demetrius Ducas, and Alphonso de Alcala, issued the world-re- nowned Complutensian Polyglot, 1513-17. The Greek * Reuss, Ilistoire du Canon des Saintes Ecritures IL Idition, Strasbourg, 1864, pp. 191 seq., 218 scq., ■2Q.\ scq., ■214, seq. ; Charteris, The New Testa- ment Scriptures, N. Y., 18S2, p. 163, seq. THE CANON OF SCRIPTUKE. 107 New Testament was studied with avidity by a series of scholars, among whom Erasmus was pre-eminent. He pubHshed the first Greek Testament in 1516. Elias Levita and Jacob ben Chajim, in whom Jewish learning culminated, introduced Christians into a knowledge of the Hebrew Scriptures. Reuchlin laid the foundation for Hebrew scholarship among Christians, by publish- ing the first Hebrew grammar and lexicon combined in 1506.* This return to the original text of the Old and New Testaments aroused the suspicions of the scholas- tics and monks, and the new learning was assailed with bitterness. Even Levita had to defend himself against ihe charge of heterodoxy for teaching Christians the Hebrew language, the law of Moses, and the Talmud.f But the reformers took their stand as one man for the critical study of the sacred Scriptures, and investigated the original texts under the lead of Erasmus, Elias Levita, and Reuchlin, and laid down what must be regarded as the fundamental principle of Biblical Criti- cism for the determination of the canon. Thus Luther in his controversy with Eck said, " The Church cannot give any more authority or power than it has of itself. A council cannot make that to be of Scripture which is not by nature of Scripture.":]: Calvin says: " But there has very generally prevailed a most pernicious error that the Scriptures have only so much weight as is conceded to them by the suffrages of the Church, as though the eternal and in- violable truth of God depended on the arbitrary will of men." .... " For, as God alone is a sufficient witness of Himself in His own * Gesenius, GescJi. d, hehr. S/>rach., p. 106, seq. t See his Massoreth JIa-Massoretft, edited by Ginsburg, London, 1867, p. 97, seq. X Disputatio excel. D. theolog. Joh. F.ccii. et Lut/ieri, hist. III., 129, seq, Berger, La Bible au Siezihnie Siicle, Paris, 1879, p. 86, 108 BIBLICAL STUDY. Word, so also the Word will never gain credit in the hearts of men till it be confirmed by the internal testimony of the Spirit. It is necessary, therefore, that the same Spirit, who spake by the mouths of the prophets, should penetrate into our hearts, to convince us that they faithfully delivered the oracles which were divinely in- trusted to them."* This principle is well expressed in the 2d Helvetic Confession, the most honored in the Reformed church : "We believe and confess the canonical Scriptures of the holy prophets to be the very true Word of God and to have sufficient authority of themselves, not of men " (Chap. I.). " Therefore in controversies of religion or matters of faith we cannot admit any other judge than God Himself, pronouncing by the holy Scriptures what is true and what is false ; what is to be followed, or what is to be avoided " (Chap. II.). The Gallican Confession gives a similar statement : " We know these books to be canonical, and the sure rule of our faith, not so much by the common accord and consent of the Church, as by the testimony and inward persuasion of the Holy Spirit, which enables us to distinguish them from other ecclesiastical books ' (IV. Art.).t Thus while other testimony is valuable and important, yet, the evangelical test of the canonicity and interpre- tation of the Scriptures was, God Himself speaking in and through them to His people. This alone gave the fides divina. This was the so-called formal principle of the Reformation, no less important than the so-called material principle of justification by faith.;}: The reformers applied this critical test to the tradi- * Institutes, I. 7. + See also the Belgian Confession, Article V. X Doraer, Gesch. Prot. Theo., p. 234, seq., 379, seq. Julius MuUer, Das Verfialtttiss zwischen der Wirksamkeit des heil. Geistes und dem Gnaden- mittel des gottlichen Wortes, in his Dogmat. Abhandlungen, 1871, p. 139, seq, Reuss, Histoire du Canon, p. 308, seq. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. -^00 tional theories of the Bible, and eliminated the apocry- phal books from the canon. They also revived the an- cient doubts as to Esther, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Epistle of James, 2d Peter, Jude, and the Apocalypse. The Reformed symbols elaborated the formal principle further than the Lutheran, and ordinarily specified the books that they regarded as canonical. In this they re- jected the traditions of the early Christian church which followed the Hellenistic rather than the Palestinian Jews, and, in its use of the Septuagint version, used also the apocryphal writings, and did not sharply separate them from the canonical ; indeed, with the* exception of a few critics, such as Origen and Jerome, it cited without discrimination the many Jewish apocalypses and Sibyl- line oracles which sprang up in the first and second cent- uries of our era, as well as in the first and second centu- ries B.C.* The church of Rome, in accordance with its reliance upon the support of tradition, determined the apocryphal books to be canonical at the Council of Trent. That the reformers accepted only the present canon of our symbols, excluding the apocryphal books, was not due to the Jewish tradition, which they did not hesitate to dispute, as they did that of the church itself. It is doubtless truef that the reformers fell back on the authority of Jerome in their determination of the canon, as they did largely upon Augustine for the doctrine of grace ; but this was in both cases for support against Rome in authority \\hich Rome recognized, rather than as a basis on which to rest their faith and criticism. They went further back than Jerom'=» to * Sanday, Value of tJie Patristic Writings for the Criticisin and ExegetU «f the Bible. Expositor, Feb., 1880. Davidson, Canon, p. loi, seq. f Robertson Smith, Old Testament in the fevaish Church, 1881, p. 41. IIQ BIBLICAL STUDY. the evangelical Christian and genuine Hebrew principle, of the common consent of the believing children of God, which in course of time eliminated the sacred canonical books from those of a merely national and temporary character, because they approved themselves to their souls as the very word of God. As Dr. Charteris says : " The Council of Trent had formally thrown down a challenge. It recognized the canon because of the traditions of the Church, and on the same ground of tradition accepted the unwritten ideas about Christ and His apostles, of which the Church had been made the custodian. The reformers believed Scripture to be higher than the Church. But on what tould they rest their acceptance of the canon of Scripture ? How did they know these books to be Holy Script- ures, the only and ultimate divine revelation ? They answered that Ihe divine authority of Scripture is self-evidencing, that the regener- ate man needs no othA* evidence, and that only the regenerate can :}ppreciate the evidence. It follows from this, if he do not feel the evidence of their contents, any man may reject books claiming to be Holy Scripture." * It is true this evangelical critical test did not solve all questions. It left in doubt several writings which had been regarded as doubtful for centuries. But uncer- tainty as to these does not weaken the authority of those that are recognized as divine ; it only affects the extent of the canon, and not the authority of those writ- ings regarded as canonical. "Suppose we were not able to give positive proof of the divine in- spiration of every particular Book that is contained in the Sacred Records, it does not therefore follow that it was not inspired ; and yet much less does it follow that our religion is without foundation. Which I therefore add, because it is well known there are some par- ticular Books in our Bil)le that have at some times been doubted of in the church, whether they were inspired or no. But I cannot con- * The New Testament Scriptures ; their Claims, History, and Authority. Croall Lectures, i832. N. Y., 1883, p. 203. THE CANON OF SCRI^URE. ;{|| ceive that doubt concerning such Books, where persons have sus^ pended their assent, without casting any unbecoming reflections, have been a hindrance to their salvation, while what they have owned and acknowledged for truly divine, has had sanctifying effect upon their hearts and lives." * This is the true Protestant position. For unless these books have given us their own testimony that they are divine and therefore canonical, we do not re- ceive them with our hearts ; we do not rest our faith and life upon them as the very Word of God ; we give mere intellectual assent ; we receive them on authority, tacitly and without opposition, and possibly with the dogmatism which not unfrequently accompanies incipi- ent doubt, but also without true interest and true faith and assurance of their divine contents. We believe that the canon of Scripture established by the Reformed .symbols can be successfully vindicated on Protestant critical principles. We are convinced that the church has not been deceived with regard to its inspiration. Esther, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Songs, and the Apoc- alypse will more and more establish themselves in the hearts of those who study them. But we claim that it is illegitimate to first attempt to prove their canonicity and then their inspiration, or to rely upon Jewish rab- binical tradition any more than Roman Catholic tradi- tion, or to anathematize all who doubt some of them in the spirit of Rabbi Akiba and the Council of Trent. The only legitimate method is that of our fathers, the Reformers and Puritans: first prove their inspiration from their own internal divine testimony, and then ac- cept them as canonical because our souls rest upon them as the veritable divine word. " For he that believes that ♦ Ed. Calamy, Inspiration of the Holy Writings, Lond., 1710, p. 42. 1^12 BIBLICAL STUDY. God saith, without evidence that God saith it ; doth not believe God, while he believes the thing that is from God, et eadem ratione, si contiguisset Alcorano Turcica ere didisset." * The same critical principle was applied by the re- formers to the text of Scripture. They rejected the inspiration of the ancient versions, the Greek and the Vulgate, and against the Greek and Roman churches resorted to the original text. They bat- tled against the Vulgate version, in behalf of versions for the people, and for a simple grammatical exegesis against traditional authority and the manifold sense. They laid down the hermeneutical. rule that the Spirit of God, speaking in His Word, alone could decide the meaning of the text ; and that difficult passages must be interpreted by plain ones. In the various departments of exegesis they went diligently to work. Hebrew and Greek grammars, lexicons, texts, versions, and commen- taries poured from the press. If the reformers were great dogmatic theologians, they were greater biblical scholars, and their theology was fresh, warm, and vigor- ous, because derived from a critical study of Scripture. The greatest dogmatic writer of the Reformation, John Calvin, was also its greatest exegete.f So long as the controversy with Rome was active and energetic, and ere the counter-reformation set in, the Protestant critical principle maintained itself; but as the internal conflicts of Protestant churches began to absorb more and more attention, and the polemic with "• Wliichcote, Eight Letters of Dr. A. Tuckney and Benj. Whichcote, 1753, p. III. t Tholuck {Ver7i!isch'e L'chrt/ten^ II., 341) correctly describes him as distin- guished ahke for dogmatic impartiality, exegetical tact, many-sided scholarship, and deep Christian spirit. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 113 Rome became less and less vigorous, the polemic against brethren more and more violent, the Reformed system of faith was built up by a series of scholastics over against Lutheranism, and Calvinistic orthodoxy over against Arminianism. The elaboration of the Protest- ant Reformed system by a priori deduction carried with it the pushing of the peculiar principles of Protestantism more and more into the background. The authority of the Reformed faith and tradition assumed the place of a Roman faith and tradition, and the biblical scholarship of Protestant churches, cut off from the line of Roman tra- dition, worked its way along the line of Jewish rabbini- cal tradition, and began to establish a Protestant ortho- doxy — in the Swiss schools under the influence of Bux . torf, Heidegger and Francis Turretine; and in the Dutch schools under the influence of Voetius. Lutheran theology had the same essential develop, ment through internal struggles. The school of Calix tus at Helmstadt had struggled with the scholasti( spirit, until the latter had sharpened itself into th( most radical antagonism to the Reformed church and the Melancthon type of Lutheran theology. Carlov stated the doctrine of verbal inspiration in the same es- sential terms as the Swiss scholastics, and was followed therein by the Lutheran scholastics generally. " It treated Holy Scripture as the revelation itself, instead of as the memorial of the originally revealed, ideal, actual truth ; the con- sequence being that Holy Scripture was transformed into God's ex- clusive work, the human element was explained away, and the orig- inal hving power thrust away behind the writing contained in let- ters. Faith ever draws its strength and decisive certainty from the( original eternally living power to which Scripture is designed to lead. But when Scripture was regarded as the goal, and attestation was sought elsewhere than in the experience of faith through the pres- ence of truth in the Spirit, then the Reformation standpoint was X14 BIBLICAL STUDY. abandoned, its so-called material principle violated, and it became easy for Rationalism to expose the contradictions in which the in- quirers had thus involved themselves." * II. THE PURITAN CANON. The Thirty-nine Articles take an intermediate position between the reformers and the Roman Catholic church in their doctrine of the canon : " In the name of holy Scripture, we do understand those Canon- ical books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority was never any doubt in the Church." The 24 books of the Hieronymian canon of the Old Testament are then mentioned. It then continues : " And the other books (as Hierome saith) the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners : but yet doth it not ap- ply them to establish any doctrine." It then names 14 apocryphal l)ooks, and concludes : " All the books of the New Testament, as they are commonly received, we do receive and account them for Canonical." (Art. VI.). The Thirty-nine Articles thus base themselves on the Hieronymian tradition as the Roman Catholic church did on the stronger Augustinian tradition. The Scotch Confession of 1560, however, maintains the position of the reformers : "As we beleeve and confesse the Scriptures of God sufficient to instruct and make the man of God perfite, so do we affirme and avow the authoritie of the same to be of God, and nether to depend on men nor angelis. We affirme, therefore, that sik as allege the Scripture to have na uther authoritie bot that quhilk it hes re- ceived from the Kirk, to be blasphemous against God, and injurious to the trew Kirk, quhilk alwaies heares and obeyis the voice of her awin spouse and Pastor ; bot takis not upon her to be maistres over the samin." (Art. XIX.). Thos. Cartwright, the chief of the English PuritanSj takes the same view : ♦ Domer, System 0/ Christian Doctrine, Vol. II., p. 186. THE CANON OF SGRtPTURE. 115 ** Q. How may these bookes be discerned to bee the word of God ? " A. By these considerations following : " First, they are perfectly holy in themselves, and by themselves : whereas all other writings are prophane, further then they draw holinesse from these ; which yet is never such, but that their holi- nesse is imperfect and defective. " Secondly, they are perfectly profitable in themselves, to instruct to salvation, and all other are utterly unprofitable thereunto, any further then they draw from them. " Thirdly, there is a perfect concord and harmonie in all these Bookes, notwithstanding the diversity of persons by whom, places where, and time when, and matters whereof, they have been written. " Fourthly, there is an admirable force in them, to incline men's hearts from vice to vertue. " Fifthly, in great plainenesse and easinesse of stile, there shineth a great Majesty and authority. " Sixthly, there is such a gracious simplicity in the writers of these IJookes, that they neither spare their friends, nor themselves, but most freely, and impartially, set downe their owne fauits and infirmi- ties as well as others. " Lastly, God's owne Spirit working in the harts of his children doth assure them, that these Scriptures are the word of God." * The Westminster Confession gives expression to the mature Puritan faith respecting the Scriptures : § 2. " Under the name of Holy Scripture, or the word of God written, are now contained all the books of the Old and New Testa- ment, which are these" (mentioning the 66 books commonly re- ceived). " All which are given by inspiration of God to be the rule of faith and hfe." § 3. " The books commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine inspiration, are no part of the canon of the Scripture ; and therefore are of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be any otherwise approved, or made use of, than other human writings." § 4. " The Authority of the Holy Scripture, for which it ought to be believed and obeyed, dependeth not upon the testimony of any man or church, but wholly upon God, (who is truth itself,) the au- * Thos. Cartwright, Treatise 0/ the Christian Religion. London, 1616. llg BIBLICAL STUDY. thor thereof ; and therefore it i» to be received, because it is the word of God." § 5. " We may be moved and induced by the testimony of the church to an high and reverent esteem for the Holy Scripture ; and the heavenliness of the matter, the efficacy of the doctrine, the maj- esty of the style, the consent of all the parts, the scope of the whole, (which is to give all glory to God,) the full discovery it makes of the only way of man's salvation, the many other incomparable excel- lencies, and the entire perfection thereof, are arguments whereby it doth abundantly evidence itself to be the word of God ; yet, not- withstanding, our full persuasion and assurance of the infallible truth, and divine authority thereof, is from the inward work of the Holy Spirit, bearing witness by and with the word in our hearts." (I.. § 2-5). The Westminster Confession distinguishes in its state- ments (i) the external evidence, the testimony of the church ; (2) the internal evidence of the Scriptures themselves; {'^) the fides divina. Here is an ascending series of evidences for the authority of the Scriptures. The fides humana belongs strictly only to the first class of evidences. This testimony of the church is placed first in the Confession because it is weakest. The sec ond class not only gives fides hiimana, but also divina, owing to the complex character of the Scriptures them- selves ; but the third class as the highest gives purely fides divma. The Confession carefully discriminates the wcigJit of these evidences. The authority of the church only induces " an high and reverent esteem for the Holy Scripture." The internal evidence of the " excel- lencies and entire perfection thereof are arguments whereby it doth abundantly evidence itself to be the word of God "; but our " full persuasion and assurance of the infallible truth and divine authority thereof " come only from the hi;:(l est evidence, " the inward work of the Holy Spirit, bearing witness by and with the word THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 117 in our hearts." In accordance with this, " The authority of the Holy Scripture dependeth wholly upon God " (§ 4). On this principle, then, the canon is determined. The books of the canon are named (§ 2), and then it is said, "All which are given by inspiration of God to be the rule of faith and life." The apocryphal books are no part of the canon of Scripture because they are not of divine inspiration (§ 3). It is, therefore, the authority of God himself, speaking through the Holy Spirit, by and with the word to the heart, that determines that the writings are infallible as the inspired Word of God, and it is their inspiration that determines their canonicity. Thus the Westminster divines maintained the Refor- mation point of view. They were not as a body scho- lastics, though there were scholastics among them ; but were preachers, catechists, and expositors of the Script- ures, with a true evangelical spirit. They were called from the active work of the ministry, and from stubborn resistance to dogmatic authority, to the active work of reforming the church of England into closer conformity with the Reformed churches of the continent. Among the doctrines to be reformed was the doctrine respecting the Scriptures. There was a difference between the Puritans and Prelatists on this subject, as we have seen, in placing the XXXIX Articles alongside of theScottish Confession and the statement of Thos. Cartwright. This difference was still further developed. The Prelatical view is stated by Bishop Cosin :* "For though there be masv^ Internal Testimonies belonging to the Holy Scriptures, whereby we may be sufficiently assured, that they are the true and lively oracles of God, .... yet for the par- ticular and just number of such books, whether they be more or less, • Scholastic History of the Canon. London, 1657, p. 4, seq. u$ BIBLJEGAL STU1>I then either wme private perspKS, or some one particular church ^ late, have been pleased to make them, we have no better nor other external rule or testimony herein to guide us, then the constant voice of the catholic and universal church, as it hath been delivered to us upon record from one generation to another." The Puritans in the Westminster Assembly in revis- ing Article VI. of the XXXIX Articles, erased the state- ments upon which the Prelatists built : " Of whose au- thority was never any doubt in the church "; " And the other books (as Hierome saith) the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners ; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine." And they changed the statement : " All the books of the New Testament, as they are commonly received, we do receive and account them for canonical "; so as to ex- press the Puritan doctrine : " All which books, as they are commonly received, we do receive and acknowledge them to be given by the inspiration of God ; and in that regard, to be of the most certain credit, and high- est authority." Chas. Herle, the Prolocutor, admirably states the Protestant position over against the Romish : " They (the Papists) being asked, why they believe the Scripture to be the Word of Godf Answer, because the Church says 'tis so ; and being asked againe, why they beleeve the Church ? They an- swer, because the Scripture sales it shall be guided into truth ; and being asked againe, why they beleeve that very Scripture that says so ? They answer, because the Church says 'tis Scripture, and so (with those in the Psalm xii. 8), they walk in a circle or on every side. They charge the like on us (but wrongfully) that we beleeve the Word, because it sayes it self that it is so ; but we do not so re- solve our Faith ; we believe unto salvation, not the Word barely, because it witnesses to itself, but because the Spirit speaking in it to our consciences witnesses to them that it is the Word indeed ; we resolve not our Faith barely either into the Word, or Spirit as its THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. XIQ single ultiipate principle, but iijto the testimony of the Spirit speak- ing to our consciences in the Word." * It has been objected by a recent writer: " It does not tend in the slightest degree to reconcile us to these opinions to say that the reformers entertained them. It would not be strange if in their opposition to the claims of the church of Rome, they went to the opposite extreme and were in danger of falling into the errors of the mystics." f It is true that in this matter the reformers and Pu- ritans were in radical opposition to Rome. This was the so-called formal principle, one of the essential prin- ciples of Protestantism. If they had not taken this po- sition they would have been powerless against the Roman claim of tradition. As Reuss well says : " Nothing was more foreign to the spirit of Luther, of Calvin, an»l their illustrious fellow-laborers, nothing was more radically contrary to their principles, than to base the authority of the sacred scripture* upon that of the Church and its tradition, to go in effect, to mount guard over the fathers, and range their catalogues in line, cause theii obscurities to disappear by forced interpretalions and their contra- dictions by doing violence to them, as is the custom of our day. They very well knew that this would have been the highest inconsistency, indeed the ruin of their system, to attribute to the church the right of making the Bible after they had contested that of making the doc- trine ; for that which can do the greater can do the less." \ It is true that the mystic element was strong among the reformers and the Puritans. This is indeed the chiel feature which distinguishes them from the Swiss, Dutch, and Lutheran scholastics and their modern followers * Deitir Sapienti, pp. 152-3. London, 1655. + I'Yancis L. Patton, article, Pentateuchal Criticism, Presbyterian Review IV., p. 346. X Reuss, Histoire du Canon, p. 313. 120 BIBLICAL STUDY. But their mystic was not mysticism. There never have been times in the history of the church when mys- ticism prevailed in such a variety of forms and persist- ence of energy as in the times of the Reformation and of the Westminster divines. They had to guard their doctrines at every point against mysticism. It is strange reading of history to represent either the re- formers or the Puritans as going too far in the direction of mysticism. The statements of the Westminster divines were made 111 the face of the strongest force of mysticism that has ever manifested itself. Thus, in 1647, the London min- isters (many of whom were members of the Westminster Assembly) issued their testimony against this false mys- ticism and the heresies of their time. They mention as '■ Errors against the Divine Authority of the Holy Scripture, That fie Scripture, whether true Manuscript or no, whether Hebrew, (Vreek, or English, it is but human ; so not able to discover a divine (»od. Then where is your command to make that your rule or disci- fJine, that cannot reveal you God, nor give you power to walk with (jod? That, it is no foundation of Christian Religion, to believe that the English Scriptures, or that book, or rather volume of books called the Bible, translated out of the originall Hebrew and Greek c;opies, into the English tongue are the Word of God. That, ques- tionless no writing whatsoever, whether translations or originalis, are the foundation of Christian Religion." * Wm. Lyford, an esteemed Presbyterian divine, invited to sit in the Westminster Assembly, but preferring his pastoral work, wrote a commentary on this testimony of the London ministers.f * A Testimony to the Truth of Jesus Christ and to our solemn League and Covenant. Subscribed by the ministers of Christ within the Province of Lon- don, Dec. 14, 1647. London, 1648. t The Plain man's sense exercised to discern good and evil, or A Discover) THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 121 In his chapter on the Divine Authority of Scripture, he says : " I shall not trouble you with the Popish controversies concerning the Scripture, but apply myself to the errors of the present age." He then quotes the language from the Testimony given above. He then goes on to give the properties of Scripture, and after brief men- tion of the error of making " the Church the judge over Scriptures ' (p. 7), he says : " But the error I am now to deale with, is that of the blasphemous Anti-Scripturist, under which name I comprehend all such as either deny them to be divinely inspired and given of God, cr else allowing their divine authority, yet refuse to submit to Script- ure as the supreme and all-sufficient Judge, pretending to other divine revelations, besides and beyond the written word, unto which upon all occasions they appeal, as if the Scriptures were not able to ac- quaint the soul with the highest discoveries of God's truth and mind. If they be urged with any proof out of the Old Testament, they re- ject it, as if the Old Testament were antiquated, and out of date : If they be pressed with a place in the New Testament, then they say, that is not the meaning, which we produce because (say they) you have not the spirit, the spirit teacheth us otherwise. And thus under pretence of Inspirations of the Holy Ghost, and improvements beyond and above all Scripture, they striice at the root, and blow up the very foundations of all faith and religion, of all our hopes and comforts ; these are the devill's engineers — ."(p. 17). Our author knows how to steer between the Scylla of Romanism and the Charybdis of mysticism. The re- formers and Puritans knew their work better than some of our modern theologians. " It is one thing to say the Spirit teacheth us by Scripture, and another thing to pretend the Spirit's teaching besides or beyond, or contrary to the Scripture ; the one is a divine truth, the other is vile tnontam'sme" (p. 20). After controverting the " foure fold error: (i) of them 0/ the Errors, Heresies, and Blasphemies of these Times, and the Toleration 0/ them, as they are collected and testified against by the ministers of London, in tlw.ir Testimony to the Truth of fesrus Christ. London, 1655. (J 122 BIBLICAL STUDY. that would place this authority (of scripture) in the Church ; (2) of them who appeale from scripture to the spirit ; (3) of them that make reason the supreme Judge ; (4) of them that expound scripture according to Provi- dences," he goes on to expound the position of our Protestant symbols : "The authority and truth of God speaking in the Scripture, is that upon which our faith is built, and doth finally stay itselfe : The min- istry of the Church, the illumination of the Spirit, the right use of reason are the choicest helps, by which we believe, by which we see the law and will of God ; but they are not the law itself; the divine truth and authority of God's word, is that which doth secure our consciences If you ask what it is that I believe ? I answer, I believe the blessed doctrines of salvation by Jesus Christ ; if you ask, why I believe all this, and why I will venture my soul to all eter- nity on that doctrine ? I answer, because it is the revealed will 0/ God concerning us. If you ask further. How I know that God hath revealed them ? I answer, by a two-fold certainty ; one of faith, the other of experience ; (i) I do infallibly by faith believe the Revela- tion, not upon the credit of any other Revelation, but for itselfe, the Lord giving testimony thereunto, not only by the constant Testimony of the Church, which cannot universally deceive, nor only by miracles from heaven, bearing witness to the Apostle's doctrine, but chiefly by its own proper divine light, which shines therein. The truth contained in Scripture is a light, and is discerned by the sons of light : It doth by its own light, persuade us, and in all cases, doubts, and questions, it doth clearly testifie with us or against us ; which light is of that nature, that it giveth Testimony to itself, and receiv- eth authority from no other, as the Sun is not seene by any light but his own, and we discerne sweet from soure by its own taste (2) Whereunto add, that other certainty of experience, which is a certainty in respect of the Affections and of the spiritual man. This is the Spirit's seal set to God's truth (namely), the light of the word ; v;hcn it is thurs shewncn unto us, it doth work such strange and su- jjf.vnaiural effects uj)on the soul ; . . . .It persuades us of the truth ar,d goodness of the will of God ; and of the things revealed; and all this by way of spiritual taste and feeling, so that the things ajv- prehended by us in di\ ine knowledge, are more certainly discerned THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 123 in the certainty of experience, than anything is discerned in the light of natural! understanding " (p. 39). " They tliat are thus taught, doe know assuredly that they have heard God himselfe : In the former way, the light of Divine Rea- son causeth approbation of the things they believe. In the later, the Purity and power of Divine Knowledge, causeth a taste and feel- ing of the things they heare And they that are thus established in the Faith, doe so plainly see God present with them in his Word, that if all the world should be turned into Miracles, it could not re- move them from the certainty of their perswasion ; you cannot un- p>erswade a Christian of the truth of his Religion, you cannot make him thinke meanly of Christ, nor the Doctrine of Redemption, noi of duties of Sanctification, his heart is fixed trusting in the Lord. So then we conclude, that the true reason of our Faith, and ground, on which it finally stayeth itself, is the Authority of God himself, whom we doe most certainly discerne, and feele to speake in the word of faith, which is preached unto us " (p. 39.) This is the true doctrine of the Reformation and of the Westminster divines, in which they know no antago- nism between the human reason, the religious feeling, and the Divine Spirit in the Word of God. It is a mer- ciful Providence that they were guided to this position, for, if they had gone with the Swiss scholastics in basing themselves on rabbinical tradition as to the Old Testa- ment, they would have committed the churches of the Reformation to errors that have long since been ex- ploded by scholars. This is the true Puritan mystic in conflict with mysticism and its best antidote. It is the mystic element that needs above all things to be revived in the British and American churches. It brings the people face to face with the Bible and with the Divine Spirit working in and with it, so that they need no mediat- ing priesthood of theologians, no help of apologetics or of polemics to convince them of the authority of the Bible and enable them to maintain it against all cavilling. It is also objected that this resting upon the fides divina 124 BIBLICAL STUDY. for the proof of the inspiration and canonicity of the Script ure implies that " every Christian makes his own Bible."^ True, but this right of private judgment is the Protestant position. Are we prepared to abandon it ? Shall it be maintained with reference to other doctrines and aban- doned with reference to the source oi these doctrines ? This would be a fatal inconsistency to Protestantism. The right of private judgment must apply to the authority, in- spiration, and canonicity of Scripture, as well as to the doc- trines of atonement, justification by faith, and original sin. It is no more difficult of application in the one case than the others. It may be an unfamiliar practice to those who rest on the authority of the church for the authority of Scripture, But it is no more unfamiliar to them than the right of private judgment itself is unfa- miliar to those who rest upon the authority of an infal- lible church for all doctrines. The right of private judgment with reference to the authority of a book of Scripture no more prevents the consensus of individuals in a confession of faith on this subject than on any other. It is important that the individual Christian should have his own convictions on all of these sub- jects. The consensus of such Christians who know what they believe is much stronger than the consensus of those who rest merely upon the external authority of the testimony of the church. We accept the doc- trine of the Westminster Confession with reference to the Bible, because it coincides with our convictions and experience with reference to the Bible. We would not subscribe to it otherwise. Our faith in divine things rests upon divine and not on human authority. It is still fi rther objected that, " If, however, canon* • F. L. Patton ii '. c, p. 350. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 125 icity be, as we believe it is, a purely historical question, it is only in a very limited way that subjective tests can be employed in determining it." * If canonicity be a purely historical question, then the reformers and the Westminster Confession and the other reformed creeds were in error when they made it purely a question of inspiration and of the internal divine au- thority of the Scriptures themselves. To abandon this position is to accept essentially the Roman Catholic position. The difference then amounts to this : At what historic point shall we stand, or on what historic names shall we base our faith in the canon ? Shall we go with Rome and base the canon on the authority of the living church as the heir of Catholic tradition, or shall we go with the XXXIX Articles and rely on the authority of Jerome and the Jewish assembly at Jamnia, or shall we accept the consensus of the Ante-Nicene church and share their doubts as well as their certainties ? Which- ever of these positions we may take, we still build on uncertain and fallible authority, and dishonor the suffi- ciency and authority of the Scriptures themselves. We violate one of the Reformation principles upon which our Protestantism depends, and the most consistent course would be to follow Cardinal Newman in His path- way to Rome. III. CRITICISM OF THE CANON. It is all the more necessary to apply to the canon the critical test established by the reformers, now that we are much better informed as to the relation of the Jews to the canon than they were. The New Testament writers and the fathers generally depended upon the Septuagint • F. L. Patton in /. c, p. 349. J26 B.6LICAL STUDY. version of the Old Testament. The story of its tiansla* tion by means of seventy-two accomplished scholars chosen from the twelve tribes of Israel, with the co-oper- ation of Ptolemaeus Philadelphus, king of Egypt, and the Jewish high-priest of Jerusalem, and inspired to do their work by the Divine Spirit, — which prevailed for many centuries in the Eastern and Western churches, — has been traced to its simpler form in Josephus* and PhilOjf and from these to the original letter of Aris- teas, and that has been proved to be a forgery ;}: and its statements wide of the truth. For an internal examina- tion of the translation itself proves it to have been made by different men on different principles and at different times. Frankel is followed by a large number of scholars in the opinion that it was a sort of Greek Targum which grew up gradually at first from the needs of the syna- gogue worship, and then from the desire of the Hellen- istic Jews to collect together the religious literature of their nation, as the Palestinian and Babylonian Targums were subsequently made for the Jews speaking Aramaic.§ Some of the sacred books — such as Daniel, Esther, and Jeremiah — have additional matter not found in the Hebrew Massoretic text. The apocryphal writings are mingled with those taken into the Hebrew canon with- out discrimination. As Deane | says : " If we judge from the MSS. that have come down to us, it woukl be impossible for any one, looking merely to the Septuagint version and * Antiq. XII. 2. t Vita Mosis, II., § 5-7. X Tlie orifjinal text of the letter is best given in Merx., Archiv filr HYssi/i- *chajtlicJie Er/orschung des Alten Testaments, I., p. 242, seq. Halle, 1S70. % Frankel, Vorstudien z. d. Sepiuagmta, Leipzig, 1841 ; Scholtz, Alexand. Uebersetz. d. Buck lesaias, 1880, p. 7, seq. I Book 0/ Wisdom, Oxford, 1S81, p. 37, seq. THE CANON OF SCUIPTUKE. 127 its allied works, to distinguish any ol" tiie books in the collection as ol less authority than others. Thtre is nothing whatever to mark off the canonical writings tVom wh<-)f have been called the deuterocanon- ical. They are all presented as f equal standing and authority, and, if we must make distinctions between them, and place some on a higher platform than others, this separation must be made on grounds which are not afforded by the arrangement of the various documents themselves." The scholastics depend upon the tradition that the Old Testament canon was determined by the so- called men of the great synagogue. They rely for this upon Elias Levita* and the long Jewish tradition that goes, back to a slender support in the Misnaic tract, Aboth (I. i-2).t But back of this there is no historical evidence whatever. The silence of all the writings from the first century A.D. backwards is absolute. They could not have omitted to mention such a body as this if it ever had an existence, and determined the canon and everything else upon which the Jewish religion depended. The Apocryphal Literature, in its wide and varied extent, knows of no such body. The numerous pseu- depigraphical writers are also silent. Philo and Josephus know of nothing of the kind. The New Testament writers do not recognize it. On the other hand, the apocalypse of Ezra, from the first century A.D., repre- sents the whole canon as determined by Ezra, who com- mitted the whole to writing by divine inspiration.:}: How could it do so in the face of the great synagogue? There are well-established disputes as to the canon among the Jews in the first Christian century which '■'■ ^fasso7-eth Ila-Massoref/t, edited by Ginsburg, 1S67, p. 112, seq'. t Strack, Die Sf'ri'ichcr der Vdtcr ; Fin ethischar Mischna- Ti aktat, Karlsi ruhe, 1882. Taylor, Sayings 0/ tlic. Jewish Falhers, Ca;nbrid{;e, 1877. \ XIV. 19, seq. 128 BIBLICAL STUDY. could not have taken place if a venerable body like the supposed men of the great synagogue had determined everything. This tradition must go with the letter of Aristeas out of the field of history into the realm of shadowy and unsupported legends. Another evidence for the fixture of the Old Testament canon has been found in a supposed writing of Philo of the first Christian century.* This work speaks of the law, the prophets, hymns, and other writings, making either three or four classes, but without specification of partic- ular books. But this writing has recently been proved to have been written in the third century A.D., and wrongly attributed to Philo.f The position has been accepted by scholars,:}: and is invincibly established. The testi- mony of Philo is therefore reduced to the books that he quotes, as of divine authority. He omits to mention Nehe- miah, Ruth, Esther, Chronicles, Ezekiel, Lamentations, Daniel, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs. § He uses Proverbs and Job. This we would expect from Philo'5 type of thought and the subject-matter of his writings. But his omission of Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songa is surprising. These writings belong to the same clas!» of wisdom-literature as Job and Proverbs. They would have given him the very best field for his peculiar method of allegory. The omission in this case weighs against them, Ezekiel and Daniel, the symbolical proph- ets, we would expect him to make use of. Josephus | mentions 22 books as making up his canon — 5 of the law, 13 of the prophets, and 4 of poems and precepts, but * De Vita Contemfi., s. III. t Lucius, Die Therapeuten und ihre Stellung in der Askese^ Strassburg, i88ak X Strack, art. Kanon in Herzog, II. Aufl., vii., p. 425. § Eichhom, Einleitung, 3te, Ausgabe, 1803, L, p. 98. I Co7ttra Afion, I., 8. THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE. 129 does not define which they are. He uses all of the Talmudic canon except Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, and Job.* The silence of Josephus as to these cannot be pressed, because they did not clearly come within his scope. Various efforts have been made to determine his books, but without conclusive results. The lists of subsequent w^riters have been used. Here, if on the one hand the lists of Origen and Jerome favor the Talmudic, the list of Junilius Africanus favors the exclusion of Chronicles, Ezra, Job, Song of Songs, and Esther.f Graetzij: seems to us to come nearer the mark in excluding the Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes from the list of Josephus. He falls, then, by his 22, just these two short of the Talmudic list of 24. We are left by Josephus in uncertainty as to certain Old Testament books. Moreover, the state- ments of Josephus do not carry with them our confi. dence as to the views of the men of his time ; for we. know that several books were in dispute among the Pharisees, such as Ezekiel, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. They were generally, but not unanimously acknowledged. The Sadducees are said by some of the fathers to have agreed with the Samaritans in rejecting all but the Pentateuch. This must be a mistake. But we can hardly believe that they accepted Ezekiel and Daniel in view of their denial of angels and the resurrec- tion. The Essenes and the Zelots agreed in extending the canon to esoteric writings. The apocalypse of Ezra mentions 70 of these as given to Ezra to interpret the 24, and so of even greater authority. These parties * Eichhom in /. r., I., p. 123. t See Prof. Kihn, Theodore von Mopsuestia und Julius A/ricanus ah Exegeten Frei., 1880, p. 86. X Gesck. d. Juden, III., p. 501, Leipsig, 1863. 6* 130 BIBLICAL STUDY. differ from the Pharisees only in that they committed the esoteric wisdom to writing, whereas the Pharisees handed it down as an infallible tradition, and prohibited the committing it to writing, until at last it found em- bodiment in the Misnayoth and the Talmuds. The eminent Jewish scholar, Zunz, is correct in his statement : " Neither Philo nor Josephus impart to us an authentic list of the sacred writings." * It seems clear that the Jewish canon was not definitely settled until the assembly at Jamnia, during the Jewish war with Titus (about 70 A.D.), and the decisions were car- ried through by a majority of votes, accompanied with acts of violence toward the dissenting parties.f We iloubt not that the canon of the Palestinian Jews re- ceived its latest addition by common consent not later than the time of Judas Maccabeus,;}: and no books of later composition were added afterward ; yet the schools of the Pharisees continued the debate with reference to some of these writings until the assembly at Jamnia, and the Hellenistic Jews had a wider and freer conception of the canon. § We cannot rely upon the determination of the canon of the Old Testament by the authority of the Pharisees, who, after the rejec- tion of the true Messiah, brought on the ruin of their nation in the Jewish war. We cannot yield to the authority of Rabbi Akiba, the supporter of Bar Khokba, the false messiah, and his coadjutors, any more on this * Gottesdtenst lichen Vortrage dcr yuden, 1S32, p. 18. + Graetz, Gesch. d. jfudeti, 1863, III., p. 496, seg. ; Robertson Smith, Tht Old Testament in the ye7vish Church, N. Y., 18S1, p. 172, scq., and 412 seq. \ S. Ives Curtiss in Current Disciissictis in Theology, p. 63 ; see also Ihe Misnaic tract, y ad aim. III. S- X Strach, Herzogf, Real Encyk., II. Aud., vii., p. 426; Ewald, Z^A;-tf /- vine original, whereby they involved themselves in extreme laby- rinths, engaging themselves in defence of that which might be easily proved to be false, and thereby wronged the cause which they seemed to defend. Others, therefore, of more learning and judg- ment knowing that this position of the divine original o{ th^ points could not be made good ; and that the truth needed not the patron- age of an untruth, would not engage themselves therein, but granted it to be true, that the faints were invented by the Rabbins, yet de- nied the consequence, maintaining, notwithstanding, that the reading and sense of the text might be certain without punctuation, and that therefore the Scriptures did not at all depend upon the authority of the Church : and of this judgment were the chief Protestant Di- vines, and greatest linguists that then were, or have been since in the Christian world, such as I named before; Luther, Zwinglius, Calvin, Beza, Musculus, Brentius, Pellicane, Oecolampadius, Mercer Piscator, P. Phagius, Drusius, Schindler, Martinius, Scaliger, De Dieu, Casaubon, Erpenius, Sixt. Amana, Jac. and Ludov. Capellus, Grotius, etc. — among ourselves. Archbishop Ussher, Bishop Pri- deaux, Mr. Mead, Mr. Selden, and innumerable others, whom I for- bear to name, who conceived it would nothing disadvantage the cause, to yield that proposition, for that they could still make it good, that the Scripture was in itself a sufficient and certain rule for faith and life, not depending upon any human authority to sup- port it."* We have quoted this extract at length for the light it casts upon the struggle of criticism at the time. John Owen, honored as a preacher and dogmatic writer, but certainly no exegete, had spun a theory of inspiration after the a priori scholastic method, and with it did bat- tle against the great Polyglot. It was a Quixotic at- tempt, and resulted in ridiculous failure. His dogma is crushed as a shell in the grasp of a giant. The indigna- tion of Walton burns hot against this wanton and un- reasoning attack. But he consoles himself with the The Considerator Considered, London, 1659, p. 220, seg. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 147 opening reflection that Origen's Hexapla ; Jerome'a Vulgate ; the Complutensian Polyglot ; Erasmus' Greek Testament ; the Antwerp and Paris Polyglots have all in turn been assailed by those whose theories and dog- mas have been threatened or overturned by a scholarly induction of facts. The theory of the scholastics prevailed but for a brief period in Switzerland, where it was overthrown by the reaction under the leadership of the younger Turretine. The theory of John Owen did not influence the West- minster men : •' In fact, it was not till several years after the Confession was completed, and the star of Owen was in the ascendant, that under the spell of a genius and learning only second to Calvin, English Puritanism so generally identified itself with what is termed his less liberal view." * Owen's scholastic type of theology worked in the doc- trine of inspiration, as well as in other dogmas, to the detriment of the simpler and more evangelical West- minster theology ; and in the latter part of the seven- teenth century gave Puritan theology a scholastic type which it did not possess before. But it did not prevent such representative Presbyterians as Matthew Poole, Edmund Calamy, and the Cambridge men, with Baxter, from taking the more evangelical Westminster position. The critics of the Reformed church produced master- pieces of biblical learning, which have been the pride and boast of the churches to the present. Like Cappel- lus, they delighted in the name critical, and were not afraid of it. The Critici Sacri of John Pearson, Anton Scattergood, Henry Gouldman, and Rich. Pearson, fol- lowed up Walton's Polyglot in 1660 (9 vols, folio), and * Mitchell, Minutes 0/ Westminsftr Assembly, p. xx. 14:8 BIBLICAL STUDY. this was succeeded by Matthew Poole's Synopsis Criti corum in 1669 (5 vols, folio). Ill TEXTUAL CRITICISM IN THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES. Biblical criticism continued in England till the midst of the eighteenth century. Mill issued his critical New Testament in 1707, the fruit of great industry, and was assailed by unthinking men who preferred pious igno- rance to a correct New Testament.* But Richard Bent-» ley espoused the cause of his friend with invincible arguments, and he himself spent many years in the collection of manuscripts, but died leaving his magnifi- cent work incomplete, and his plans to be carried out by foreign scholars. For " now original research in the science of Biblical Criticism, so far as the New Testament is concerned, seems to have left the shores of England to return no more for upwards of a century ; and we must look to Germany if we wish to trace the further progress of investigations which our countrymen had so auspiciously begun." t Bishop Lowth did for the Old Testament what Bent- ley did for the New. In his works % he called the atten- tion of scholars to the necessity of emendation of the Massoretic text, and encouraged Kennicott to collate the manuscripts of the Old Testament, which he did and published the result in a monumental work in 1776- i78o.§ This was preceded by an introductory work in 1753-59-11 * Scrivener, Introduction to the Criticism of the N. T., ad edit. 1874, p. 400. t Scrivener in /.£■., p 402. X De Sacra Poesi Nebraeorum, 1753, and Isaiah : A New Translation, tvitk 9 fyenminary Dissertation and Notes, 1778, 2d edition, 1779. I Vettis Test. Heb. cum var. lectionibus, 2 torn., Oxford. I The state of the printed Hebrew Text of the Oli Testament considered^ % vols., Svo. Oxford. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLK 149 After this splendid beginning, Old Testament criti- cism followed its New Testament sister to the conti- nent of Europe and remained absent until our own day. On the continent the work of Mill was carried on by J. A. Bengel * J. C. Wetstein,f J. J. Gries- bach,:j: J. M. A. Scholz,§ C. Lachmanii,! culminating in Const. Tischendorf, who edited the chief uncial authori- ties, discovered and edited the Codex Sinaiticus^^ and issued numerous editions of the New Testament, the earliest in 1841. He crowned his work with the eighth critical edition of the New Testament, which he lived to complete, but had to leave the Prolegomena to another.** Tischendorf is the greatest textual critic the world has yet produced. In the Old Testament, De Rossi carried on the work of Kennicott.f f Little has been done since his day until recent times, when Baer united with Delitzsch in issuing in parts a revised Massoretic text, 1869-1882; Hermann Strack examined the recently-discovered Ori- ental manuscripts, the chief of which is the St. Petersburg codex of the Prophets of the year ^\6K.Xi,%\ and Frens- dorf undertook the production of the Massora Magna.^ * Prodromus, JV. T. Gr., 1725. Novtttn Test., 1734. t New Test. Gr. cum lectionibus variantibus Codicum, etc. Amst. 1751-2. X Symbolae Criticae, II. torn., 1785-93. § Bib. krit. Reise I^pzig, 1823 ; N. T. Graece, 2 Bde. Leipzig, 1830-36. I Novum Test. Graece et Latine, 2 Bde., Berlin, 1842-50. 1 Bihlioriim Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus, St. Petersburg-, 1862 ; Dit Sinaibibel, Ihre Entdeckung, Herausgabe und Erwerbung, Leipzig, 1871. ** Novum Test amentum Graece. Editio octava: Critica Major, Lipsiae, 1869-72. The Prolegomena is in the hjinds of an Americafl scholar, Dr. C. R. Gregory. ft Variae lectiottes Vet. Test., 4 torn., Parnl., 1784-1788. XX Prophetarum Posferiorum Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus, Pfctropoli, 1876, §§ Die Massora Magna; Erster Theil, Massoretisches Worterboch, Hanovet und Leipzig, 1876. 150 BIBLICAL STUDY. Within recent times textual criticism has taken strong hold again in England. S. P. Tregelles,* F. H. Scrivener,f B. F. Westcott, and F. J. A. Hort :{: have advanced the textual criticism of the New Testament beyond the mark reached by continental scholars. In Old Testa- ment criticism England is advancing to the front rank The work of Ginsburg on the Massora § is the greatest achievement since the unpublished work of Elias Levita. But the Massoretic text is only the beginning toward a correct text of the Old Testament. The Textual Criticism of the Old Testament is at least half a century behind the New Testament. I| And the reason of it is, that scholars have hesitated to go back of the Massoretic text. Few have given their at- tention to the literary features of the Bible and espec- ially its poetic structure. But it is just here that the eyes of the student are opened to the necessity of emen- dation of the text where we can receive no help from the Massorites, who seem to have been profoundly igno- rant of the structure of Hebrew poetry. Prof. Gratz, the Jewish scholar, has recently said that we ought not to speak of a Massoretic text that has been made sure to us, but rather of different schools of Massorites, and follow their example and remove impossible readings from the text.^f * The Greek New Testament edited from ancient authorities, etc., 4to, 1857- 1872, pp. 1017. + Plain Introductien to the Criticism of the Neva Testament, j^ edition, 1883. X The New Testament in the Original Greek. Vol. 11. Introduction and Appendix. N. Y,, 1882. § The Massorah cotnpiled from Manuscripts Alphabetically and Lexically arranged, Vol. Land II. Aleph — Tav, London, 1880-83. I Davidson, Treatise 0/ B.blical C>-.ticism, Boston, 1853, 1., p. I6^, seq. 'i Krit. Com. zu den Psalmen nebst Text und Uebersetzung, Breslau, L, 1882, p. 118, seq. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 151 Bishop Lowth, with his fine aesthetic sense and in- sight into the principles of Hebrew poetry, saw and stated the truth : " If it be asked, what then is the real condition of the present He- brew Text ; and of what sort, and in what number, are the mistakes which we must acknowledge to be found in it : it is answered, that the condition of the Hebrew Text is such, as from the nature of the thing, the antiquity of the writings themselves, the want of due care, or critical skill (in which latter at least the Jews have been exceed- ingly deficient), might in all reason have been expected, that the mis- takes are frequent, and of various kinds ; of letters, words, and sen- tences ; by variation, omission, transposition ; such as often injure the beauty and elegance, embarrass the construction, alter or obscure the sense, and sometimes render it quite unintelligible. If it be ob- jected, that a concession, so large as this is, tends to invalidate the authority of Scripture; that it g^ves up in effect the certainty and authenticity of the doctrines contained in it, and exposes our religion naked and defenceless to the assaults of its enemies: this, I think, is a vain and groundless apprehension Important and funda- mental doctrines do not wholly depend on single passages ; and uni- versal harmony runs through the Holy Scriptures ; the parts mutually support each other, and supply one another's deficiencies and obscu- rities. Superficial damages and partial defects may greatly diminish the beauty of the edifice, without injuring its strength, and bringing on utter ruin and destruction." * The views of the critics prevailed over those of the scholastics, and no one would now venture to dispute their conclusions. IV. THE TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. It has become more and more evident that the He- brew vowel points and accents were not attached to the original MSS. of their authors, but that they have been the product of a long historical development. The Arabic Koran gives us doubtless the simplest sys. • Lo%vth, Isaiak, 2d ed., London, 779, pp. lix., Ix. J 53 BIBLICAL STUDY. tern. The Syriac gives us a double system, the Greek and the Syrian proper, standing between the Arabic and the Hebrew. The Hebrew has also two systems, the Pales* tinian and the Babylonian, the latter preserved in the Codex PetripoL, 916 A.D., which was unknown until re- cent times. These two evidently developed side by side and go back on an earlier, simpler system, somewhat like the Arabic, which has been lost.* The origin of the system of pointing the Shemitic languages was proba- bly in the Syrian school at Edessa, and from thence it passed over from the Syriac text at first to the Arabic and afterward to the Hebrew texts. The movement be- gan with diacritical signs to distinguish certain letters and forms, such as we find in the Syriac. This gav(; place to a system of vowel points. Among the Hebrews the Babylonian is the earlier, and is characterized by placing the vowel pjoints above the letters ; the Tiberiaii js the later and more perfect system, and has therefore prevailed. The system did not reach its present condi tion until the seventh century at Babylon and the mid- dle of the eighth century of our era, in Palestine,f al- though Ginsburg attributes the origin of the Babylonian system to Acha, about 550, and the Tiberian to Mocha, about S7^'X It was the work of the Massoretic Jewish critics. The accents went through a similar course of development. They serve for a guide in the cantillation of the synagogues even more than for division of the sentences and the determination of the tone. These also were modelled after the musical notation of the Syrian Church.§ Hence the double tradition as to the place of * Gesenhis, Hebr. Gram., ed. Rodiger and Kantzsch, 22 iufl., p. 31. •f- TiWlTaaxxvi, Bibeltext. A. T., in Herzog', Ency. II., pp. 394-6. X Life 0/ Elias Levita, in /. c, p. 61, seg. § Wickes, Treatise on the Accentuation of the Three so-called Poetic Booh, 9/ the Old Testament. Oxford, 1881. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 153 the accent, the German and Polish Jews placing it aftef the Aramaic on the penult, whereas the Spanish and Italian Jews followed by Christians place it on the ulti- mate. Bickell has recently decided against the present accepted method.* Still further the square Aramaic characters used in our Bible were exchanged for earlier Hebrew letters, such as we see upon ancient coins, in the Samaritan MS. of the Pentateuch, the Siloam Inscription,t and on the Mesha stone. This change was made not earlier than the fourth century B.G.,X sind Upon it the Massoretic pointing depends. It is true that the present consonant text was fixed before the Talmudic era by the Jewish school of Tiberias, and the differences in reading since that time are few and comparatively unimportant in the MSS. thus far collated,§ but the ancient Syriac version^ and especially the LXX, and the Samaritan copy, go back of the labors of the Massoretic period and the work of the schools of Tiberias and Babylon, and give testimony to an earlier text than that presented to us in the pres,'^ ent Hebrew text. It is characteristic of scholastics that they underrate these versions. Even Keil, in his anxiety to maintain the present Massoretic text, charges the LXX version with the carelessness and caprice of transcribers and an uncritical and wanton passion for emendation. But this is in the face of the fact that the LXX version was the authorized text of the ancient church, that the New Testament citations are generally supposed to be large- • Cartnina Veteris Testamenti Metrtce, Oeniponte, 1882, p, 219, seg. t See author's article on the Siloam Inscription in Presbyterian Review III, p. 401, seq. X Dillmann, Biheltext. d. A. T. Herzog, II., p. 384. S Strack, Proleg. Critica, Leip., 1873, p 66/. 7* J 154. BIBLICAL isTUDY. \y from it, and that its testimony is centuries earlief than that of the Jewish school of Tiberias. The Phar isaical authority was directed to destroy the confidence of the Hellenistic Jews in it, and the version of Aquila was made to supplant it and rally the Jews of the world around an official and universally received text.''^ But whether a deliberate attempt was made to suppress and destroy all varying copies, as W. Robertson Smith fol- lowing Noeldeke supposes,f is questionable. We doubt not that those zealots, who under the lead of Rabbi Akiba brought about the destruction of their country and the universal hatred of their race, were capable of this wickedness, but we have not learned that there is sufficient historical evidence to sustain this opinion. There can be no doubt, moreover, as Robertson Smith states ; " It has gradually become clear to the vast ma- jority of conscientious students that the Septuagint is really of the greatest value as a witness to the early state of the text.":]; Bishop Lowth already § calls the Massoretic text " The Jews' interpretation of the Old Testament." " We do not deny the usefulness of this interpretation, nor would we be thought to detract from its merits by setting it in this light ; it is perhaps, upon the whole, preferable to any one of the ancient versions ; it has probably the great advantage of having been formed upon a tradi- tionary explanation of the text and of being generally agreeable to that sense of Scripture which passed current and was commonly re- ceived by the Jewish nation in ancient times : and it has certainly been of great service to the moderns in leading them into the knowl- edge of the Hebrew tongue. But they would have made a much * Graetz, Gesck. der Juden, 1866, IV., p. 437 ; Joel, Blicke in die Religiom geschichte zum Anfang des zweiten Christ lichen Jahrhunderts, I., 1880, p. ♦3. sei- t Old Test, in Jewish Church, p. 74. J In /. c, p. 86. § In hb Preliminary Dissert, to Isaiah, 2d edit,, London, 1779, p. Iv. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 153 better use of it, and a greater progress in the explication of the Scriptures of the Old Testament, had they consulted it, without ab- solutely submitting to its authority ; had they considered it as an as- sistant, not as an infallible guide." Probably few scholars would go so far as this, yet there is a strong tendency in that direction. It is a most sig- nificant fact that the New Testament does not base its citations upon the original Hebrew text in literal quota- tion, but uses ordinarily the LXX and sometimes the Hebrew and possibly ancient Aramaic Targums with the utmost freedom. This question of citation has ever given trouble to the apologist. Richard Baxter meets it in this way : " But one instance I more doubt of myself, which is, when Christ and his apostles do oft use the Septuagint in their citations out of the Old Testament, whether it be alwaies their meaning to justifie each translation and particle of sense, as the Word of God and rightly done ; or only to use that as tolerable and containing the main truth intended which was then in use among the Jews, and therefore understood by them ; and so best to the auditors. And also whether every citation of number or genealogies from the Sep- tuagint, intended an approbation of it in the very points it differeth from the Hebrew copies." * Professor Bohl, of Vienna, has recently advanced the theory that these citations are all from a Targum used in the synagogues of Palestine in the first Christian cent- ury, which has been lost.f The book of Jubilees of the first Christian century and other pseudepigraphs of the time testify with the Samaritan text and Targum to differences of text not represented in the Massoretic system.:]: * More Reasons, 1672, p. 49 ; see also p. 45. \ Forschungen nach einerVolksbihel zur Zeit Jcsu, Wien, 1873 ; Alttestament* lichen Citate in Neuen Test., Wien, 1878. X Noldeke, Alttestamentliche Literatur, 1868, p. 241 ; Dillmann, Beitr> »us dent Buck der Jubilaen aur Kritik des Pentateuch Textes, 1883. J5^ BIBLICAL STUDY. But we must go still further back than the versions and citations to the parallel passages and duplicate psalms, prophecies, and narratives of the Old Testament in our study of the original text. No one can study at- tentively the texts of Pss. xiv. and Hii., Ps. xviii. and i Chron. xvi., Micah iv. and Isa. ii., not to speak of the many other parallel passages, without being impressed with the liberty that has been taken, in the most ancient times, in making intentional changes, showing : "With what freedom later authors worked over ancient docu* ments, and also that they were not accustomed to regard the preser- vation of every word and letter as necessary." * V. TEXTUAL CRITICISM AND INSPIRATION. So far as the Old Testament is concerned, the the* ory of Buxtorf, Heidegger, Turretine, Voetius, Owen, and the Zurich Consensus, as to vowel points and ac- cents, has been so utterly disproved that no biblical scholar of the present day would venture to defend them. But can their theory of Verbal Inspiration stand without these supports? Looking at the doc- trine of inspiration from the point of view of textual criticism, we see at once that there can be no inspira- tion of the written letters or uttered sounds of our pres- ent Hebrew text, for these are transliterations of the originals which have been lost, and the sounds are uncer- tain, and while there is a general correspondence of these letters and sounds so that they give us essentially the original, they do not give us exactly the original. The inspiration must therefore lie back of the written letters and the uttered sounds and be sought in that which is common to the old characters and the new » Dillmann, Biheltext. A. T"., Herzog, II. Aufl., II., p. 383. THE TEXT OF THfi BIBLE. 15Y the utterance of the voice and the constructions of the pen, namely, in the concepts, the sense and meaning that they convey : " All language or writing- is but the vessel, the symbol, or declara- tion of the rule, not the rule itself. It is a certain form or means by which the divine truth cometh unto us, as things are contained in words, and because the doctrine and matter of the text is not made unto one but by words and a language which I understand ; there- fore I say, the Scripture in English is the rule and ground of my faith, and whereupon I relying have not a humane, but a divine authority for my faith."* For the divine Word was not meant for the Hebrew and Greek nations alone, or for Hebrew and Greeic scholars, but for all nations and the people of Goc^. It is given to the world in a great variety of languages with a great variety of letters and sounds, so that the sacred truth approaches each one in his native tongu<; in an appropriate relation to his understanding, just a^s at Pentecost the same Divine Spirit distributed Himself in cloven tongues of fire upon a large number of differ- ent persons. Thus every faithful translation as an in- strument conveys the divine Word to those who read or hear it : " For it is not the shell of the words, but the kernel of the matter which commends itself to the consciences of men, and that is the same in all langTiages. The Scriptures in English, no less than in Hebrew or Greek, display its lustre and exert its power and discover the character of its divine original." t This is shown by the process of translation itselt The translator does not transliterate the letters and syl- lables, transmute sounds, give word for word, transfer * Lyfurd, Plain Man's Sense Exercised, etc., p. 49. t Matthew Poole, Blow at the Root, London, 1679, p. 33^ 158 BIBLICAL STUDY. foreign words and idioms, but he ascertains the sense the idea, and then gives expression to the idea, the sensC; in the most appropriate way. It is admitted that close, literal translations are bad, misleading, worse than para^ phrases. The Midrash method of Ezra is far preferable, to give the sense to the people without the pedantry and subtilties of scholarship. As another Puritan says : " Now, what shall a poor unlearned Christian do, if he hath noth- ing to rest his poore soul on ? The originals he understands not ; if he did, the first copies are not to be had ; he cannot tell whether the Hebrew or Greek copies be the right Hebrew or tiie right Greek, or that which is said to be the meaning of the Hebrew or Greek, but as men tell us, who are not prophets and may mistake. Besides, the transcribers were men and might err. These considerations let in Atheisme like a flood." * It is a merciful providence that divine inspiration is not confined to particular words and phrases and gram- matical, logical, or rhetorical constructions ; and that the same divine truth may be presented in a variety of synonymous words and phrases and sentences. It is the method of divine revelation to give the same laws, doctrines, narratives, expressions of emotion, and proph- ecies in great variety of forms, none of which are ade- quate to convey the divine idea, but in their combination it is presented from all those varied points of view that a rich, natural language affords, in order that the mind and heart may grasp the idea itself, appropriate and reproduce it in other forms of language, and in the motives, principles, and habits of every-day life. The external word, written or spoken, is purely instrumejital, conveying divine truth to the soul of man, as the eye and the ear are instrumental senses for its appropriation * Rich. Capel, Remains, London, 1658. THE TEXT OF THE BIBLE. 159 by the soul. It does not work ex opere operato by any mechanical or magical power. As the Lutherans tend to lay the stress upon the sacraments, in their external operation, and the Angli- cans upon the external organization of the church, so the Reformed church has ever been in peril of laying the stress on the letter, the external operation of the Word of God. The Protestant principle struggles against this confounding of the means of grace with the divine grace itself, this identification of the instru- ment and the divine agent, in order therefore to their proper discrimination. This is the problem left unsolved by the Reformation, in which the separate churches of Protestantism have been working, and which demands a solution from the church of the nineteenth century. Here the most radical question is, that of the divine Word and its relation to the work of the Holy Spirit. This solved, all the other questions will be solved. Herein the churches of the Reformation may be har- monized. The Reformed churches have a peculiar call to grapple bravely with the problem. Its solution can come only from a further working out of the critical principles of the Reformation and Puritanism, not by logical deduction from the creeds and scholastic dogmas alone, but by a careful induction of the facts from the Scriptures themselves, a comparison of these results with those obtained by the dogmatic process, in order that the dogmatic and critical methods may act and react upon one another, to that most desired conclusion. But both must maintain the fundamental distinction be- tween the external and the internal word, so well stated by John Wallis, one of the clerks of the Westminster Assembly : " The Scriptures in themselves are a Lanthom rather than a Light ; J0^ BIBLICAL STUDY. they shine* indeed, but it is alieno lumtne ; it is ndt their own, but a borrowed light. It is God which is the true light that shines to us in the Scriptures ; and they have no other light in them, but as they represent to us somewhat of God, and as they exhibit and hold forth God to us, who is the true light that ' enlighteneth every man that comes into the world.' It is a light, then, as it represents God unto us, who is the original light. It transmits some rays ; some beams of the divine nature ; but they are refracted, or else we should not be able to behold them. They lose much of their original lustre by passing through this medium, and appear not so glorious to us as they are in themselves. They represent God's simplicity obliquated and refracted, by reason of many inadequate conceptions ; God con- descending to the weakness of our capacity to speak to us in our own dialect."* The Scriptures are lamps, vessels of the most holy character, but no less vessels of the divine grace than were the apostles and prophets who spake and wrote them. As vessels they have come into material contact with the forces of this world, with human weakness, ig- norance, prejudice, and folly ; their forms have been modified in the course of the generations, but theii divine contents remain unchanged. We will never be able to attain the sacred writings in the original letters and sounds and forms in which they gladdened the eyes of those who first saw them, and rejoiced the hearts of those who first heard them. If the external words of these originals were inspired, it does not profit us. We are cut off from them forever. Interposed between us and them is the tradition of centuries and even millen- niums. Doubtless by God's " singular care and provi- dence they have been kept pure in all ages, and are therefore authentical." f Doubtless throughout the whole work of the authors " the Holy Spirit was pres. ent, causing His energies to flow into the spontaneous * Sermons, Lond., 1791, pp. 127-8. t Con/. 0/ Faith, I., viii. THE TKrr OF THE BIBLE. X^l exercises of the writers' faculties, elevating and directing where need be, and everywhere securing the errorless expression in language of the thought designed by God "; * but we cannot in the symbolical or historical use of the term call this providential care of His Word of superintendence over its external production— inspira- tion. Such providential care and superintendence is not different in kind with regard to the Word of God, the visible church of God, or the forms of the sacraments. Inspiration lies back of the external letter — it is that which gives the word its efficacy, it is the divine afflatus which enlightened and guided holy men to apprehend the truth of God in its appropriate forms ; assured them of their possession of it ; and called and enabled them to make it known to the church by voice and pen. This made their persons holy, their utterances holy, their writings holy, but only as the instruments, not as the holy thing itself. The divine Logos — that is ths sum and substance of the Scripture, the holy of holiej^ whence the Spirit of God goes forth through the hob' place of the circumstantial sense of type and symbol, and literary representation, into the outer court of thvays end and resting-place." t " For though the Scripture be an outward instrument and the preacher also to move men to believe. Yet the chief and principal cause why a man believeth, or believeth not, is within ; that is, the Spirit of God leadeth His children to believe." J * Prin. Cairns, Unbelief in 18/A Century, p. 152. t Works y Parker Series, I., p. 317. % JVoris, III., p. 139, CHAPTER VII. THE HIGHER CRITICISM. We have shown in our previous chapters that the Ref. ormation was a great critical revival ; that evangelical biblical criticism was based on the formal principle of Protestantism, the divine authority of the Scriptures over against ecclesiastical tradition ; that the voice of God Himself, speaking to His people through His Word, is the great evangelical critical test ; that the reformers applied this test to the traditional theory of the canon and eliminated the apocryphal books therefrom ; that they applied it to the received versions, and, rejecting the inspiration and authority of the Septuagint and Vul- gate versions, resorted to the original Greek and Hebrew texts ; that they applied it to the Massoretic traditional pointing of the Hebrew Scriptures, and, rejecting it as uninspired, resorted to the divine original unpointed text ; that they applied it to the traditional manifold sense and allegorical method of interpretation, and, re- jecting these, followed the plain grammatical sense, in- terpreting difficult and obscure passages by the mind of the Spirit in passages that are plain and undisputed. We have also described the second critical revival undei the lead of Cappellus and Walton, and their conflict with the Protestant scholastics who had reacted from the crit- ical principles of the Reformation into a reliance upon (104) THE giGOER CRITICISM. 165 f9.bbiuical tradition. We have shown that the Puritan olivines still held the position of the reformers, and were not in accord with the scholastics. We have now to trace a third critical revival which began toward the close of the eighteenth century in the investigations of the poetic and literary features of the Old Testament by Bishop Lowth in England and the poet Herder in Ger- many, and of the structure of Genesis by the Roman Catholic physician Astruc. The first critical revival had been mainly devoted to the canon of Scripture, its au« thority and interpretation. The second criticjU revival had been chiefly with regard to the original texts and versions. The third critical revival now gave attention to the investigation of the sacred Scriptures as literature. I. THE HIGHER CRITICISM IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. Little attention had been given to the literary features of the Bible in the sixteenth century. How the reformers v/ould have met these questions we may infer from their freedom with regard to traditional views in the few cases in which they expressed themselves. Luther denied the Apocalypse to John and Ecclesiastes to Solomon. He maintained that the epistle of James was not an apostolic writing. He regarded Jude as an extract from 2d Peter, and said, What matters it if Moses should not himself have written the Pentateuch?* He thought the epistle to the Hebrews was written by a disciple of the apostle Paul, who was a learned man, and made the epistle as a sort of a composite piece in which there are some things hard to be reconciled with the Gospel. Calvin denied the * See Diestel, Gesck. des Alten Test, in der christlichen Kirche^ 1869, p. 250, teq,; and Vorreden in W*lcb edit, of I-uther's Werken, XIV., pp. 35, 146-153 Tixhreden, I., p. 28. l(^Q BIBLICAL STUDY. Pauline authorship of the epistle to the Hebrews and doubted the Petrine authorship of 2d Peter. He taught that Ezra or some one else edited the Psalter and made the first Psalm an introduction to the collection, not hes- itating to oppose the traditional view that David was the author or editor of the entire Psalter. He also re- garded Ezra as the author of the prophecy of Malachi — Malachi being his surname. He furthermore con- structed, after the model of a harmony of the gospels, a harmony of the pentateuchal legislation about the Ten Commandments as a centre, holding that all the rest of the commandments were mere ** appendages, which add not the smallest completeness to the Law." * Zwingli, CEcolampadius, and other reformers took similar positions. These questions of authorship and date troubled the reformers but little ; they had to bat- tle against the Vulgate for the original text and popular versions, and for a simple grammatical exegesis over against traditional authority and the manifold sense. Hence it is that on these literary questions the symbola of the Reformation take no position whatever, except to lay stress upon the sublimity of the style, the unity and harmony of Scripture, and the internal evidence of its inspiration and authority. Calvin sets the example in *" Therefore, God protests that He never enjoined anything with respect to sacrifices ; and He pronounces all external rites but vain and trifling if the very least value be assigned to them apart from the Ten Commandments. Whence we more certainly arrive at the conclusion to which I have adverted, viz. : that they are not, to sp)eak correctly, of the substance of the law, nor avail of them- selves in the worship of God, nor are required by the Lawgiver himself as nec- essary, or even as useful, unless they sink into this inferior position. In fine, they are appendages which add not the smallest completeness tc the Law, but whose object is to retain the pious in the spiritual worship of God, wliich con- sists of Faith and Repentance, of Praises whereby their gratitude is proclaimed, and even of the endurance of the cross " \Preface to Harmony of the Four Last Books of the Pentateuch). THE HIGHEK CRITICISM. 167 this particular in his Institutes, and is followed by Thomas Cartwright, Archbishop Usher, and other Cal- vinists. The Westminster Confession is in entire accord with the other Reformed confessions and the faith of the Reformation. It expresses a devout admiration and profound reverence for the holy majestic character and style of the Divine Word, but does not define the human authors and dates of the various writings. As Prof. A. F. Mitchell, of St. Andrew's, well states : " Any one who will take the trouble to compare their list of the canonical books with that given in the Belgian Confession or the Irish articles, may satisfy himself that they held with Dr. Jameson that the authority of these books does not depend on the fact whether this prophet or that wrote a particular book or parts of a book whether a certain portion was derived from the Elohist or the Jeho- vist, whether Moses wrote the close of Deuteronomy, Solomon wa« the author of Ecclesiastes, or Paul of the Epistle to the Hebrews but in the fact that a prophet, an inspired man, wrote them, and thai they bear the stamp and impress of a divine origin." * And Matthew Poole, the great Presbyterian critic ol the seventeenth century, quotes with approval the fol- lowing from Melchior Canus : " It is not much material to the Catholick Faith that any book was written by this or that author, so long as the Spirit of God is be- lieved to be the author of it ; which Gregory delivers and explains : For it matters not with what pen the King writes his letter, if it be true that he writ it." t Andrew Rivetus, one of the chief Reformed divines * Minutes of the Sessions of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, Nor, 1644— Mch., 1649, edited by A. F. Mitchell and J. Struthers. Edin., 1874, p xlix. t Blow at the Root, 4th ed., 1671, p. 228. 168 BIBLICAL STUDY. of the continent,* after discussing the various views of the authorship of the Psalms, says : " This only is to be held as certain, whether David or Moses or any other composed the psalms, they themselves were as pens, but the Holy Spirit wrote through them : But it is not necessary to trouble ourselves about the pen when the true author is established." In his Introduction to the sacred Scriptures,f he en- ters into no discussion of the literary questions. This omission makes it clear that these questions did not concern the men of his times. Until toward the close of the seventeenth century, those who, in the brief pre- liminary words to their commentaries on the different books of Scripture, took the trouble to mention the au- thors and dates of writings, either followed the tradition- al views without criticism or deviated from them in en- tire unconsciousness of giving offence to the orthodox faith. This faith was firmly fixed on the divine author of Scripture, and they felt little concern for the human authors employed. One looks in vain in the commen- taries of this period for a critical discussion of literary questions.:]: * In his Prolog, to his Com, on the Psalms. t Isagoge seu Introductio generalis ad scripturam sacram, 1627. X As ^leciniens we would present the following from the Assemhl/s Annota- tions, (i) Francis Taylor on yob : " Though most excellent and glorious things be contained in it, yet they seem to partake the same portion with their subject ; being (as his prosperity was) clouded often with much darkness and ob- scurity, and that not only in those things which are of lesse moment and edifica- tion (viz. : the Time and Place and Penman, etc.), but in jxjints of higher doc- trine and concernment. The Book is observed to be a sort of holy poem, but yet not a Fable ; and, though we cannot expressly conclude when or by whom it was written, though our maps cannot show us what Uz was, or where situate, yet cannot this Scripture of Job be rejected until Atheisme grow as desperate aa his wife wa3, and resolve with her to curse God and dye." The traditional view that Moses wrote Job is simply abandoned and the authorship left unknown. (a) Casaubon, Pre/ace to the Psalms : '• The author of this book (the immedi- THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 1^9 The literary questions opened by Lowth, Herder, and Astruc were essentially new questions. The revived at- tention to classical and oriental history and literature carried with it a fresh study of Hebrew history and literature. The battle of the books waged between Bentley and Boyle, which was decided in the interests of literary criticism by the masterpiece of Bentley,* was the prelude of a struggle over all the literary monu- ments of antiquity, in which the spurious was to be sep- arated from the genuine. It was indispensable that the whole Greek and Latin and Hebrew literatures should pass through the fires of this literary and historical crit- icism, which soon received the name of Higher Criticism. As Eichhorn says : ate and secondary, we mean, besides the original and general of all true Script- ure, the Holy Ghost ....), though named in some other places of Scripture David, as Luke xx. 42, and elsewhere, is not here in the title of the book ex- pressed. The truth is, they are not all David's Psalms, some having been made l)ef ore and some long after him, as shall be shown in due place." The tradi- tional view as to the Davidic authorship of the Psalter is abandoned without hes- itation or apology. (3) Francis Taylor, Preface to the Proverbs : " That Solo- mon is the author of this book of Proverbs in general is generally acknowledged ; hut the author, as David of the Psalms, not because all made by him, but be- cause either the maker of a good part, or collector and approver of the rest. It is not to be doubted but that many of these Proverbs and sentences were known and used long before Solomon Of them that were collected by others as Solomon's, but long since his death, from chap, xxv.-xxx., and then of those that bear Ag^r's name, xxx., and Lemuel's xxxi If not all Solomon's, then, but partly his and partly collected by him and partly by others at several times, no wonder if diverse things, with little or no alteration, be often repeated." Joseph Mede {Works, II., pp. 963, 1022, London, 1664), Henry Hammond i^Paraphrase and Annotations upon the New Testament, London, 1871, p. 135), Kidder (Demonstration of the Messias, London, 1726, II., p. 76), and others denied the integrity of Zechariah, and, on the ground of Matthew xxvii. 9, as- cribed the last six chapters to Jeremiah. The Mosaic authorship of the Penta- teuch was questioned by Carlstadt {De Script. Canon, 1521, § 85), who left the author undetermined. The Roman Catholic scholar, Masius {Com. in Jos/:., 1574, Praef, p. 2, and chap. x. 13 ; xix. 47 ; Critica Sacr., 11., p. 1892, London, i^Gc) and the British philosopher, llobbes {Leviathan, 1651 ; yiart iii., c. xxxiii.), distinguished between Mosaic originals euid our present Pentateuch. * Epistles of IVia/aris and Fables of AIsop, 1699 ; see Chap. IV., p. 93. 8 lYO BJBT.TCAL STtJDT. " Already long ago scholars have sought to deterfrrine the age of anonymous Greek and Roman writings now frOm theh contents, and then since these are often insufficient for an invcstigat on of this kind, from their language. They have also by the same means sep- arated from ancient works pieces of later origin, which, by accidental circumstances, have become mingled with the ancient pieces. And not until the writings of the Old Testament have been subjected to the same test can any one assert with confidence that the sections of a book all belong in reality to the author whose name is prefixed." ♦ II. CRITICISM OF THE TRADITIONAL THEORIES. The traditional views of the Old Testament literature, as fixed in the Talmud and stated in the Christian fathers, came down as a body of lore to be investigated and tested by the principles of this Higher Criticism. There were fdur ways of meeting the issue : (i) By at- tacking the traditional theories with the weapons of the higher criticism and testing them at all points, dealing with the Scriptures as with all other writings of antiqui- ty. (2) By defending the traditional theories as the es- tablished faith of the Church on the ground of the au- thority of tradition, as Buxtorf and Owen had defended the inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points against Cap- pellus and Walton. (3) By ignoring these questions as matters of scholarship and not of faith, and resting on the divine authority of the writings themselves. In point of fact, these three methods were pursued, and three parties ranged themselves in line to meet the issues; the deistic or rationalistic, the traditional or scholastic, the pietistic or mystical, and the battle of the ages between these tendencies was renewed on this line. There was a fourth and better way which few pursued. The evangelical spirit would work in the line of the * Einleit^ iii., p. (fy. THE HIGHER CRITICiJsM. JfJ Reformation and apply the critical test established by the reformers and (i) inquire what the Scriptures teach about themselves, and separate this divine authority from all other authority ; (2) apply the principles of the higher criticism to decide questions not decided by divine authority ; (3) use tradition^ in order to determine as far as possible questions not settled by the previous methods. We are not surprised that this method of criticism ^ has been objected to from the three points of view indi- cated above. We shall notice only the objection that it " begs the whole question." — " It is the divine author^ ity of Scripture that constitutes the question in de- bate."t This objection arises from a misapprehension of the real state of the question. The questions of the higher criticism are questions of integrity, au- thenticity, credibility, and literary form of the vari- ous writings that constitute the Bible. The inspira- tion and authority of Scripture may be concerned with the results of the higher criticism, but they are ques. tions with which higher criticism itself has nothing to do. The authority and inspiration of the Scriptures are properly considered in connection with biblical ca* nonics, where they were discussed by the reformers and have been discussed by us.ij: If the higher criticism should result in showing that any of the sacred books have characteristics that are inconsistent with the doc- trine of the inspiration and authority of the Scriptures, we should have to inquire first whether the conflict is with certain theories of inspiration or the biblical and * See author's article A Critical Study of the History of the Higher Criti- (ism, with Special Reference to the Pentateuch, In Presbyterian Review, IV., p. 74, seq. + F. L. Patton, article Pentateuchal Criticism, in Presbyterian Review^ IV. p. 353. seq. \ In Chap. V 172 BIBLICAL STUDY. symbolical doctrines of inspiration. We have found that the results of the textual criticism are in conflict with verbal inspiration,* but not with the symbolical doctrine of inspiration. If it should be found that the results of the higher criticism are in conflict with other school doctrines of inspiration, it is important that these doctrines should be changed as soon as possible to accord with these results. If it should be found that they are in conflict with the biblical or symbolical doctrine, it would place the critic in an embarrassing situation, where he would be obliged either to reject the authority of the Scriptures or his critical results. Rationalistic critics have chosen the former alternative. This has been due, in our judgment, to the rationalism with which they began and carried on their criticism and not to the re- sults of criticism itself. The critic, as, indeed, every thinker, must confront this dread alternative. It is one of the perils of scholarship. We can only express our own convictions that while the traditional teachings of the schools will have to be modified to a considerable extent in the several departments of biblical study, there has nothing been established by modern critical work that will at all disturb the statements of the symbols of the Reformation with reference to the authority of the Word of God. The method we have given is a method of evangelical criticism and not a method of proving inspiration. When, therefore, we state that the evangelical critic must first " inquire what the Scriptures teach about them- selves and separate this divine authority from all other authority," we might omit the adjectives " divine " and *' evangelical " and then the statement would apply • Chap. VI., p 156, seq. THE HIGHER GR.TICISM. 173 equally well to all critics. They set out by finding what the biblical writings have to say about themselves. Evan- gelical critics are satisfied with this. Rationalistic critics are not. Here, after ascertaining what the Scriptures teach, the critics divide in accordance with their precon- ceptions. In the conflict of opinion, evangelical critics will waive their opinions as to the divine authority of this testimony, but in their own convictions, critical work, and teachings they will not waive them. The second step of the evangelical critic is to " apply the principles of the higher criticism to determine questions not decided by divine authority." As an evangelical critic this will be his method. In conflict with the ra- tionalistic critics he will not hesitate to test the state- ments of the Scripture about themselves, but in doing this it is not necessary, nor is it possible for him to di- vest himself of the conviction that they are statements carrying with them divine authority. III. THE RABBINICAL THEORIES. In order to present the subject in its historical order we shall state the traditional views as they came down to the critics at the close of the 17th century. The orthodox rabbinical theory of the Old Testament literature is contained in the tract Baba Bat lira of the Talmud. This tract is of the ordtr Nezikin ; and is found in part in both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds. These Talmuds differ from one another in the particular tracts that they contain and in the matter in the tracts, so that the Babylonian Talmud is four times greater than that of Jerusalem. Both Talmuds in the treatises and tracts are composed of various elements or layers which are discriminated from one another by certain formulas of citation. The best known of these is the 1Y4 BIBLICAL STUDY. Mishna of Rabbi Jehuda.* But there are also B^ raitha and Toseptha and Gemara in the Talmud. If the Talmud be divided into Mishna and Gemara, it is more proper technically to attach the Beraitha and Toseptha to th€ Mishna section, for the Gemara is a commentary «ot on the Mishna of Rabbi Jehuda alone, but also on the Beraithoth, which it cites.f The relation of the Beraitha and the Toseptha to the Mishna of the Rabbi Jehuda is not of inferior authority ©r of more recent origin. Some of them represent a more ancient tradition of the school of R. Akiba. They are all Mishnayoth. But the collection of Rabbi Jehuda is the Mishna, by eminence as the first collection, and the Beraithoth give other Mishnayoth not embraced in his collection, but collected by others, such as R. Jan- Viidk, R. Chija, Bar Cappara, etc.:}: The Mishna has re- * This has been published apart in various editions, e. g., i v. folio, Naples, I 492 ; Surenhusius, 6 v. folio, Amsterdam, 1698-1703 ; yost, 6 thle, Berlin, . 832-34 ; Sittenfeld, 6 thle, Berlin, 1863, and others. t To disting^uish between the Mishna of Rabbi Jehuda and all the other ele- ments as Gemara, 4s incorrect and misleading unless we use these terms in a purely formal sense, and distinguish in the Gemara the Mishnaic elements from the commentary of the Gemara upon them. Thus Emanuel Deutsch in his Liter- ary Remains (p. 40): "Jehuda the 'Redactor' had excluded all but the best authenticated traditions as well as all discussion and exegesis, unless where par- ticularly necessary. The vast mass of these materials was now also collected as a sort of Apocryphal oral code. We have dating a few generations after the Redaction of the official Mishna, a so-called external Mishna {Beraitha) ; further the discussions and additions belongfing by rights to the Mishna called Toseptha (Supplement) ; and finally, the exegesis and methodology of the HalacJia (JSi/ri, Si/ra, Mec/rilta), iiuch of which was afterwards introduced into the Talmud." So Levy in his Imu Hebraisches und Chaldaisches Worterbuck (1. 260), defines : ** i^rr^"!!! 'IS properly that which is outside of the Canon (we must supply Jj^rr^iri^ to iitT'~Ln), that is, every Mishna (or Halacha, doctrine) which was not taken up into the collection of the Mishna by R. Jehuda Hanasi, and many of which collected separately by his later contemporaries are contained in different compendiums. " X See Gratz, Geschichte der Juden, iv. 2^/. ; Wogue, Histoire de '■''Exiglst Biblique, 1881, p. 185. THE HIGHEB CfilTlCISM. ^75 mained fixed and definite since the immediate disciples of Rabbi Jeliuda completed it, although it was probably not committed to writing until the middle of the sixth century as Luzzato and GrStz show,* when the entire Talmuds were written out together. The Toseptha gives other Mishnayoth added as an appendix. The Gemara is then a commentary on these Mishnayoth.\ In th^ passage on the books of the Old Testament of the Babylonian Talmud we have only to distinguish the Beraitlia from the Gemara. The Beraitha is introduced regularly by " Our rabbins teach," " It is taught.";}: We present in translation a sectipn of the tract Baba Bathra, fol. 14 a., containing the most important refer- ences to the Old Testament writings. Beraitha. — The Rabbins have taught that the classification of the Prophets is, Joshua and Judges, Samuel and Kings, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Isaiah and the twelve (minor prophets). GzyiASiPi..— {Question) : How is it? Hosea i? first because it is written, " In the beginning the Lord spake to Hosea." But how did he speak in the beginning v.ith Hosea? Have there not been so many prophets from Moses unto Hosea ? Rabbi Johanan said that he was the first pf the four prophets who prophesied in the * Grate, Gesch. d. Juden, iv., p. 494. + ChiariiH, Le Talmud de Babylone^ 1831, p. ig, gfo so far as to say : " Les Mekil t-ili, ies Tosapholh et les Beraitoth ont aussi porti le litre de t*lVDl2J?0 OM.de jTllZ'l^ im'^D125'2« p'ce qu'elles jouissarent de la menie auctorile que la Mischna de Juda le Saint ^ et qu'elles iiaient plus reputies encore que cette dernier e des cSte de fordre et de la clarti." But they are regarded as apocryphal Mishnayoth by some. But this does not decide their intrinsic value. See also Pressel, in Herzog Real Ency., x Aufl., xv., p. 661 ; Gelbhaus, Rabbi Jehuda /lanassi, Wien, 1876, p. 92. Schurer, LeJirb. d. N. T. Zeitge^ schichie^ p. 42 ; Zunz, Gattesdienstlichen Vortrage der yuden, Berlin, 1832, p. 49, seq. % We follow the editio princeps, 12 vols, folio, Venitia, Bomberg', 1520, but have also consulted the edition published at Berlin and Frankfort-on-t^ie-Oder by Jablonsky, 1736, which follows the Basle edition in expurgating the anti-Chris- tian passages. Both of these are in the libiaiy of tlie Union Thtjol. Seal., N. Y, 176 BIBLICAL STUDY. same period, and these are: Hosea, Isaiah, An b, and Micah, Should then Hosea be placed before at the head ? {Reply) : No , since his prophecies had been written alongside of Haggai, Zecha- riah, and Malachi, and Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi were the last of the prophets, it was counted with them. {Question) : Ought it to have been written apart and ought it to have been placed be- fore ? {Reply) : No ; since it was little and might be easily lost. {Questz&n) : How is it ? Isaiah was before Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Ought Isaiah to be placed before at the head ? {Reply) : Since the book of Kings ends in ruin and Jeremiah is, all of it, ruin, and Ezekiel has its beginning ruin and its end comfort, and Isaiah is all of it comfort ; we join ruin to ruin and comfort to comfort. Beraitha. — The classification of the Hagiographa, is Ruth and the book of Psalms, and Job, and Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs and Lamentations, Daniel and the roll of Esther, Ezra and Chronicles. Gemara. — {Question) : But according to the Tanaite who said Job was in the days of Moses, ought Job to be placed before at the head } {Reply) : We begin not with afflictions. {Question) : Ruth has also afflictions ? {Reply) : But afflictions which have an end. As Rabbi Johanan says. Why was her name called Ruth ? Because David went forth from her who refreshed the Holy One, blessed be He ! with songs and praises. Beraitha. — And who wrote them 7 Moses wrote his book, the chapter of Balaam and Job; Joshua wrote his book and the eight verses of the law ; Samuel wrote his book and Judges and Ruth ; David wrote the book of Psalms with the aid of the ten ancients, with the aid of Adam the first, Melchizedek, Abraham, Moses, Heman, Jeduthun, Asaph, the three sons of Korah ; Jeremiah wrote his book, the books of Kings and Lamentations ; Hezekiah and his company wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes, whose sign is pl^j^i ; the men of the great synagogue wrote Ezekiel and the twelve (minor prophets), Daniel and the roll of Esther, whose sign is ^~5p J Ezra wrote his book and the genealogy of Chronicles until himself. Gemara. — This will support Rab, for Rab Jehuda told that Rab said : Ezra went not up from Babylon until he had registered his own genealogy, then he went up. {Question) : And who finished it (his book) ? {Reply) : Nehemiah, son of Hachaliah. The author THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 177 (of the Beraitha) said Joshua wrote his book and the eight rerses of the law ; this is taught according to him who says of he eight verses of the law, Joshua wrote them. For it is taught : And Moses the servant of the Lord died there. How is it possible that Moses died and wrote : and Moses died there ? It is only unto this pas- sage Moses wrote, afterwards Joshua wrote the rest. These are the words of Rabbi Jehuda, others say of Rabbi Nehemiah, but Rabbi Simeon said to him : Is it possible that the book of the law could lack one letter, since it is written : Take this book of the law ? It ia only unto this the Holy One, blessed be He ! said, and Moses said and wrote. From this place and onwards the Holy One, blessed be He, said and Moses wrote with weeping {Question) : Joshua wrote his book .'' But it is written there : And Joshua died. {Reply) : Eleazar finished it. {Question) : But yet it is written there : And Eleazar the son of Aaron died. {Reply) : Phineas finished it. {Question) : Samuel wrote his book ? But it is written there : And Samuel died, and they buried him in Rama. {Reply) : Gad the seer and Nathan the Prophet finished it. We have to distinguish the view of the Tanaim in th(* Beraitha and the view of the Amoraim in the Gemara. The Tanaim do not go beyond the scope of giving (i) the order of the sacred writings, (2) their editors. (i) In the order of the ivritings we observe severa' singular features, which lead us to ask whether the ordei is topical, chronological, liturgical, or accidental. The Amoraim explain the order generally as topical, although other explanations are given, but their reasons are in- consistent and unsatisfactory. Is there a chronological reason at the bottom ? Thjs is clear in the order of the three classes — law, prophets, and other writings. But will it apply to the order of the books in the classes ? There seems to be a general observance of the chrono- logical order if we consider the subject matter as the determining factor, and not the time of composition. In the order of the prophets Jeremiah precedes Eze- kiel properly. But why does Isaiah follow ? Is it out 8* lYS BIBLICAL STUDY. of a consciousness that Isaiah was a collection of severa. writings besides those of the great Isaiah,* or from the feeHng that Isaiah's prophecies had more to do with the restoration than the exile, and so naturally followed Eze- kiel ? The minor prophets are arranged in three groups, and these groups are chronological in order. Hosea was placed first out of a mistaken interpretation of his introductory words. Malachi appropriately comes last. But this order of the prophets in the Beraitha is aban- doned by the Massorites, who arrange Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. In the other writings there is a sort of chrono- logical order if we consider the subject matter, but the Massoretic text differs from the Beraitha entirely, and indeed the Spanish and German manuscripts from one another. We cannot escape the conviction that there was a liturgical reason at the basis of the arrangement ; which has not yet been determined. At all events, its authority has little weight for purposes of higher criticism. (2) As to their editorship. The verb katkabh=--=*^ vjrotQ," cannot imply composition in the sense of authorship in several cases of its use ; but must be used in the sense of editorship or redaction. Thus it is said that the men of the great synagogue wrote Ezekiel, the minor proph- ets, Daniel, and the roll of Esther. This cannot mean that they were the original authors, but that they were editors of these books. It is not stated whether they edited them by copy from originals or from oral tradi- tion. Rashi takes the latter alternative, and thinks that holy books could not be written outside of Palestine.f An insuperable objection to this editing of Daniel and • Strack in Herzog, Real Eneyk., vii., p. 43. + Strack iu Herzog, Real Encyk.^ vii., p, 418 ; Wright, Kohehth, p. 454, seq.\ VVogue, Hist oi re de la Bible ^ p. ig, scq. tii:e higher criticism. ^79 Esther at the same time as Ezekiel and the twelve, is their exclusion from the order of the prophets, where they would have naturally gone if introduced into the canon at that time; Esther with the prophetic histories, and Daniel with Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah. Again, when it is said Hezekiah and his company wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, this can only mean editorship, and not authorship. The Tosaphoth on the Beraitha says : " Hezekiah and his college -wrote Isaiah ; because Hezekiah caused them tp busy themselves with the law, the matter was called after his name. But he (Hezekiah) did not write it him- self, because he died before Isaiah, since Manasseh, his ftuccessor, killed Isaiah." The redaction of Proverbs, rSong of Songs and Ecclesiastes by Hezekiah's company, is probably a conjecture based upon Proverbs xxv. i. But the whole story is incredible. It carries with it a canon of Hezekiah, and would be inconsistent with the subse- quent positions of these books in the canon. David is represented as editing the Psalter with the aid of ten ancients^ — that is, he used the psalms of the ten worthies and united them with his own in the collec- tion. Moses is represented as writing his book, the chap- ter of Balaam and Job. The chapter of Balaam is distin- guished probably as edited and not composed by Moses. Jn view of the usage of the rest of this Beraitha, we cannot be sure whether it means that Moses edited the law and Job, or whether here "wrote" means author- ship. The same uncertainty hangs over the references to Joshua, Samuel, Jeremiah, and Ezra. The statements of the Beraitha, therefore, seem rather to concern official editorship than authorship, and it dis- tinguishes no less than eight stages of redaction of the Old Testament Scriptures: (i) By Moses, (2) Joshua, 180 BIBLICAL STUDr. (3) Samuel, (4) David, (5) Hezekiah and his college, (6) Jeremiah, (7) the men of the great synagogue, (8) Ezra. The Gemara in its commentary upon this passage en- larges this work of redaction so as to give a number of additional prophets a hand in it. Joshua, completes the work of Moses, Eleazar the work of Joshua, and Phineas his work ; Gad and Nathan finish the work of Samuel, then come David, Hezekiah, Jeremiah, the men of the great synagogue ; and Nehemiah finishes the work of Ezra. It is easy to see that all this is pure conjecture, and of little value for purposes of criticism. IV. HELLENISTIC AND CHRISTIAN THEORIES. Having considered the Rabbinical Tradition, we are now prepared to examine that of the Jewish historian, Josephus. His general statement is : " We have not myriads of books among us disagreeing and con tradicting one another, but only twenty-two, comprising the histor,' of all past time, justly worthy of belief. And five of them are thos«; of Moses, which comprise the law and the tradition of the genera lion of mankind until his death. This time extends to a little less than three thousand years. From the death of Moses until Arta- xerxes, the king of the Persians after Xerxes, the prophets after Moses composed that which transpired in their times in thirteen books. The other four books present hymns to God and rules of life for men."* " And now David, being freed from wars and dangers, and enjoy- ing a profound peace, composed songs and hymns to God of several sorts of metre : some of those which he made were trimeters, and some were pentameters." t Josephus' views as to Hebrew literature vary some, what from the Talmud. He strives to exalt the Hebrew Scriptures in every way as to style, antiquity, and variety ♦ Contra Apion., i., § 8. \ Antiq., vii. 12, THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 181 above the classic literature of Greece. He represents Moses as the author of the Pentateuch, even the last eight verses describing his own death.* We do not hesitate to reject his views of the number and arrange- ment of the books in the canon, or his statements as to the metres of Hebrew poetry ; we certainly cannot ac- cept his authority, without criticism, in questions of authorship. Philo agrees with Josephus in making Moses the author of the narrative of his own death,f but has little to say about matters that concern the higher criticism. A still more ancient and higher authority in some respects than the Talmud or Josephus is the apocalypse of Ezra, from the first Christian century, printed among the apocryphal books in the English Bible, and pre- served in five versions, and used not infrequently by the fathers as if it were inspired Scripture. This tradi- tion represents that the law and all the holy books were burned at the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchad- nezzar and lost ; that Ezra under divine inspiration restored them all, and also composed seventy others to be delivered to the wise as the esoteric wisdom for the interpretation of the twenty-four.:|: * Antig., iv. 8, 48. + Lt/e 0/ Moses, III. 39, X Ezra saith : " For thy law is burnt, therefore no man knoweth the things that are done of thee, or the works that shall beg^in. But if I have found gTa.ce before thee, send the Holy Ghost unto me, and I shall write all that hath been done in the world since the beginning which were written in thy law, that men may find thy path," etc " Come hither, (saith God), and I shall light a candle of understanding in thine heart which shall not be put out till the things be performed which thou shalt begin to write. And when thon hast done, some things shalt thou publish, and some tilings shalt thou show secretly to the wise. .... The first that thou hast written publish openly, that the worthy an^the unworthy may read it ; but keep the seventy last, that thou mayest deliver them only to such as be wise among the people, for in them is the spring of under- standing, the fountain of wisdom and the stream of knowledge" (xiv. 19-46). 182 BIBLK AL STUDY Tlxis view of the restoration of the Old Testament writings by Ezra was advocated by some of the fathers. Qeraent of Alexandria * says : " Since the Scriptures perished in the captivtty of Nebuchadnezzar, Esdras the Levite, the priest, in the time of Artaxerxes, king of the Persiarns, having become inspired, in the exercise of prophecy re- stored again the whole of the ancient Scriptures." So, also, Tertullian,f Chrysostom,:{: an ancient writing attributed to Augustine,§ the heretical Clementine hom- ilies. J Another common opinion of the fathers is repre- sented by Irenaeus : ^ " During the captivity of the people under Nebuchadnezzar, the Scriptures had been corrupted, and when, after seventy years, the Jews had returned to their own land, then in the time of Artaxerxes, King of the Persians, [God] inspired Esdras the priest, of the tribe of Levi, to recast all the words of former prophets, and to re-estab- lish with the people the Mosaic legislation." So, also, Theodoret** and Basil.ff Jerome ;{::{: says with reference to this tradition : " Whether you wish to say that Moses is the author of the Pentateuch, or that Ezra I'estored it, is indifferent to me." Bellarmin§§ is of the opinion that the books of the Jews were not entirely lost, but that Ezra corrected those that had become cor- rupted, and improved the copies he restored. Jerome, in the fourth century, relied largely upon * Stromata^ i. 22. t De cultu foeminarum, c. 3. X Horn, viii., in Epist. Hebraeos^ Migne's edition, xvii. p. 74. § De mirahilibus sacrae scripturae, II. 33, printed with Augustine's works, but not genuine. I Horn. iii. c. 47. IT Adv. Hcereses, iii. 21, 2. ** Praef. in Psaltnos. •H Epist. ad Chilonetn, Migne's edition, IV., p. 358. See Simon, Hist. Crit. de Vieux Test., Amsterd. 1685, and Fabricius, Codex Pseudepigraph. Ham- burg, 1722, p. 1 156, seq. \\ Adv. Helvidium. §§ De verba Dei.y lib. 2. THE HIGHER CRITICISM. ^g3 Jewish rabbinical authority, and gave his great influence toward bringing the fluctuating traditions in the church into more accordance with the rabbinical traditions, but iie could not entirely succeed. He held that the orphan Psalms belonged as a rule to the previous ones, and in general followed the rabbins in associating the sacred ■writings with the familiar names — Moses, IDavid, Solo- mon, Jeremiah, Ezra, and so on. There is, however, no consensus of the fathers on these topics. Junilius, in the midst of the sixth century, author of the first extant Introduction,* a reproduction of a lost work of his instructor, Paul of Nisibis, of the Antiochian school of Exegesis, presents a view which may be re- garded as representing very largely the Oriental and Western churches. He divides the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments into 17 histories, 17 prophe- cies, 2 proverbial, and 17 doctrinal writings. Under authorship, he makes the wise discrimination between those having their authors indicated in their titles and introductions, and those whose authorship rested purely on tradition, including in the latter the Pentateuch and Joshua.f This work of Junilius held its own as an authority in the Western church until the Reformation. It would ♦ Institutio regularis Divinae Legis. ■\ " Scriptores divinorum librorum qua ratione cognosdmus ? Tribus modis : aut ex titulis et proemiis ut propheticos libros et apostoli epistolas, aut ex titulis tantum ut evangelistas, aut ex traditione veterum ut Moyses traditur scripsisse quinque primes libros historic, cum non dicat hoc titulus nee ipse referat ' dixit dominus ad me,' sed quasi de alio 'dixit, dominus ad Moysen.' Similiter et Jesu Nave liber ab eo quo nuncupatur traditur scriptus, et primum regum librum Samuel scripsisse perhibetur. Sciendum praeterea quod quorundam librorum penitus ig:norantur auctores ut Judicum et Ruth et Regum iii. ultimi et cetera similia, quod ideo credendum est divinitus dispensatum, ut alii quoque divini libri non auctorum merito, sed sancti spiritus gratia tantum culmen auctoritatis obtinuisse noscantur." (§ viii. 2 ; see Kihn, Theodorvon Mopsuestia und jfuH- ilius African us als Ex e get en, pp. 319-330). 184 BIBLICAL STUDY. be difficult to define a consensus of the first Christian century or of the fathers in regard to the authorship of the historical books of the Old Testament or other ques- tions of the higher criticism. The variant traditions, unfixed and fluctuating, came down to the men of the eighteenth century to be tested by the Scriptures, and by the principles of the higher criticism, and they found no consensus patrum and no orthodox sytnbolical doctrines in their way. V. THE NEW TESTAMENT VIEW OF OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE. It is claimed, however, that Jesus and His apostles have determined these questions for us, and that their divine authority relieves us of any obligation to investi- gate further, as their testimony is final. This does not seem to have been the view of Junilius or the fathers. So far as we can ascertain, this argument was first urged in opposition to Peyrerius by Maresius,* and pressed by Heidegger, the Swiss scholastic, who sided with Buxtorf and Owen against Cappellus and Walton. But the argu- ment having been advanced by these divines, and forti- fied by the Lutheran scholastic Carpzov, and maintained by Hengstenberg, Keil, and Home, and by a large num- ber of scholars who lean on these authorities, it is neces- sary for us to test it. Clericus went too far when he said that Jesus Christ and His apostles did not come into the world to preach criticism to the Jews.f The * Maresius, Refutatio FabiclcB Preadamitce, 1656 ; Heidegger, Exercit. Bib- iicce, 1700 ; Dissert, ix., p. 250, seq. \ In Sentimens de quelques Theologiens de Holland sur V Histoire Critique, p. 126, Amst., 1685, Clericus says: "Jesus Christ et ses Apotres n'etant pas renus au monde, pour ensegner la Critique au Juifs, il ne faut pas s'etonner, i'ils parlent selon I'opimon commune." THE HIGHER CRITICISM. 185 response of Hermann Witsius, that Jesus came to teach the truth, and could not be imposed upon by common ignorance, or be induced to favor vulgar errors, is just.* And yet we cannot altogether deny the principle of accommodation in the life and teachings of Jesus. The principle of accommodation is a part of the wonderful condescension of the divine grace to human weakness, ignorance, and sinfulness. Jesus teaches that Moses, because of the hardness of their hearts, suffered ancient Israel to divorce their wives for reasons which the higher dispensation will not admit as valid (Matt. xix. 8). The divine revelation is a training-school for the disciple, ever reserving from him what he is unable to bear, and holding forth the promise of greater light to those using the light they have. "It is not required in a religious or inspired teacher, nor indeei! would it be prudent or right, to shock the prejudices of his unin- formed hearers, by inculcating truths which they are unprepared tit receive. If he would reap a harvest, he must prepare the groun. I before he attempts to sow the seed. Neither is it required of sucl an one to persist in inculcating religious instruction after such evi- dence of its rejection as is sufficient to prove incurable obstinacy. Now it must be granted that in most of these cases there is accom- modation. The teacher omits, either altogether or in part, certain religious truths, and, perhaps, truths of great importance, in accom- modation to the incompetency and weakness of those whom he has to instruct It appears, then, that accommodation may be allowed in matters which have no connection with religion, and in these, too, so far as regards the degree and the form of instruction. * " Enim vero non fuere Christus et Apostoli Critices doctores, quales se naberi postulant, qui hodie sibi reg^num litterarum in quavis vindicant scientia ; fuerunt tamen doctores veritatis, neque passi sunt sibi p>er communem ignoran- tiam aut procerum astum imponi. Non certe in mundum venere ut vulgares errores foverunt, suaque auctoritate munirent, nee per J udajos solum sed et popu- los unice, a se jjendentes longe lateque spargerent.' — Affsc. Sacra, I., p. 117. 186 BIBLICAL STUDY. But positive accommodation to religfious error is not to be found in Scripture, neither is it justifiable in moral principle." * Jesus withheld from the twelve apostles many things of vast importance which they could not know then, but should know hereafter (John xiii. 7). Jesus did not enter into any further conflict with the errors of His time than was necessary for His purposes of grace in the Gospel. He exercised a wise prudence and a majestic reserve in matters of indifference and minor importance, and was never premature in declaring Himself and the principles of His Gospel. There were no sufficient reasons why He should correct the prevailing views as to the Old Testa- ment books, and by His authority determine these liter- ary questions. He could not teach error, but he could and did constantly forbear with reference to errors. Polygamy and slavery have been defended from the New Testament because Jesus and His apostles did not declare against them. If all the views of the men of the time of Christ are to be pronounced valid which He did not pronounce against, we shall be involved in a labyrinth of difficulties. The authority of Jesus Christ, to all who know Him to be their divine Saviour, outweighs all other authority whatever. A Christian man must follow His teachings in all things as the guide into all truth. The authority of Jesus Christ is involved in that of the apostles. What, then, do Jesus and His apostles teach as to the questions of higher criticism ? If they used the lan- guage of the day in speaking of the Old Testament books, it does not follow that they adopted any of the various views of authorship and editorship that went * Dr. S. H. Turner, in his edition of Plaick's Introduction to Sacred Philol' •gy. Edin., 1834, pp. 275-277. New York, 1834, p. 280, itq. THE HIGHER CRITICISM. I37 with these terms in the Talmud, or in Josephus, or in the apocalypse of Ezra, for we are not to interpret their words on this or on any other subject by Josephus, or the Mishna, or the apocalypse of Ezra, or any such ex- ternal authorities, but by the plain grammatical and contextual sense of their words themselves. . From the various New Testament passages we present the follow- ing summary of what is taught on these subjects : I. Of the Hagiographa the only ones used in the New Testament in connection with names of persons are the Psalter and Daniel. With reference to Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Esther, and Ruth, the New Testament gives no evi- dence whatever in questions of the higher criticism.* (i) With reference to the Psalter, citations are made from Ps. Ixix. 26; cix. 8 (in Acts i. 16-20); ii. i, seq. (in Acts iv. 25) ; as " by the mouth of David "; from xxxii. I, seq. (in Rom. iv. 6); Ixix. 23 (in Rom. xi. 9); xvi. 8-1 1 (in Acts ii. 25-29) ; ex. i (in Acts ii. 34), as " David saith "; and ex. i (in Matt. xxii. 43-45 ; Mark xii. 36, 37; Luke xx. 42-44); under various terms in the parallel passages as, '* David in the Spirit calls him Lord "; " David himself said in the Holy Spirit "; " Da- vid himself saith in the book of Psalms." The maxi- mum of evidence here is as to the Davidic authorship of Pss. ii., xvi., xxxii., Ixix., cix., and ex., in all six psalms out of the 150 contained in the Psalter. As to the rest, there is no use of them in connection with the name of an author. There is, however, a passage upon which the Davidic authorship of the entire Psalter has * For a fuller discussion of this subject, we would refer to the exhaustive paper of Prof. Francis Brown, The New Testament Witness to the Authorship of Old Testament Books in the Journal of the Society qf Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1882, p. 95, seq. 183 BIBLICAL STUDY. been based, e. g., Heb. iv. 7 ; * where a citation from Pa * Thus, William Gouge, one of the most honored Puritan divines, in his Commentary on Hebrews, in discussing this j>assage, says : " From the mention of David in reference to the Psalm, we may probably con- clude that David was the penman of the whole Book of Psalms, especially from this phrase, ' David himself saith in the Book of Psalms' (Luke xx. 42). Some exceptions are .made against this conclusion, but such as may readily be an- swered. " Objection i. — Sundry psalms have not the title of David prefixed before them ; they have no title at all, as the first, second, and others. Ans. — If they have no title, why should they not be ascribed to David, rather then to any other, con- sidering that the Book of Psalms is indefinitely attributed to him (as we heard out of the forementioned place, Luke xx. 42), which is the title prefixed before aU the Psalms, as comprising them all under it ? Besides, such testimonies as are taken out of Psalms that have no title are applied to David, as Acts iv. 25, and this testimony that is here taken out of Psalm xcv. 7. ^^ Objection 2. — Some titles are ascribed to other authors; as Psalms Ixxii., cxxvii. to Solomon. Ans. — The Hebrew servile lamed is variously taken and translated ; as sometimes, of, Psalm iii. i, ' A Psalm of David.' Then it signi- fieth the author : Thus it is used in most titles, especially when they are applied to David. Other time this is translated /or, as Psalm bcxii. i and cxxvii. In these it implieth that the Psalm was penned _/rose literature. This is the contribution of the Ara- tnaic language to the Old Testament in the letters con- tained in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. But it is in the New Testament that the epistle receives its mag- Piificent development in the letters of James, Peter, Paul, Jude, and John — some familiar, some dogmatic, some ecclesiastical, some pastoral, some speculative and pre- dictive, and in the epistle to the Hebrews we have an elaborate essay. How charming the letters of Cicero to his several fa- miliar friends ! What a loss to the world to be de- prived of them ! But who among us would exchange for them the epistles of the apostles? And yet it is to be feared that we have studied them not too much as doc- trinal treatises, perhaps, but too little as familiar letters to friends and to beloved churches, and still less as lit- erary models for the letter and the essay. It might re- fresh and exalt our theological and ethical treatises, if their authors would study awhile with Paul in his style 238 BIBLICAL STUDY. and methoJ. They might form a juster conception of his doctrines and principles. They certainly would un- derstand better how to use his doctrines, and how to apply his principles. (4) Fiction is represented in the New Testament in ^the parables of Jesus. It is also represented in the apoc- ryphal books of Tobit and Susanna, and in the 4th book of Maccabees in the story about the seven heroic Maccabee sons, and, in i Esdras iv., in the legend about Zerubbabel and Truth. It is true these are not canonical, but they illustrate the part that fiction played in the lit- erature of the Hebrews of the centuries between the Testaments. We might also bring into consideration the fiction of the Haggada of the Jews in the various niidrashim!^ I Many divines have thought that the books of Esther .'and Jonah should be classed as fiction.f Any a prion ' objection to fiction as unworthy of inspiration is de- barred by the parables of Jesus. With reference to these books it must, therefore, be entirely a question of induc- tion of facts. The beautiful story of Zerubbabel and Truth, with its sublime lesson, " Truth is mighty, and will prevail," loses nothing in its effect by being a story and not history. The wonderful devotion and self-sac- rifice of the Maccabee mother, and the patient endur- ance of the most horrible tortures by her sons, which have stirred and thrilled many a heart, and strengthened many a pious martyr to the endurance of persecution, are no less powerful as ideal than as real. So it would be with Jonah and Esther if they could be proved to be fiction. The model of patriotic devotion, the lesson of * See the great collection in Wunsche, Bibliotheca Rabbinica, Leipzig^, 1880-84. + Noldeke, Altlest. Literatur, 1868, p. 71, seq. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 239 the universality of divine providence and grace, would be still as forcible, and the gain would be at least equal to the loss, if they were to be regarded as inspired ideals rather than inspired statements of the reed. The sign of the prophet Jonah as a symbol of the resurrection of Je- sus Christ is as forcible, if the symbol has an ideal basis, as if it had an historical basis. Be this as it may, the \ element of fiction is sufficiently well represented in the Old Testament in the story of the Shulamite in the Song of Songs, and in the elaboration of the historical person and trials of Job into one of the grandest ideals of the imagination, and in the soul struggles of Kohe- leth. These are then the most general forms of prose litera- ture contained in the sacred Scriptures. They vie witlj the literary models of the best nations of ancient and modern times. They ought to receive the study of all Christian men and women. They present the greatest variety of form, the noblest themes, and the very best models. Nowhere else can we find more admirable aesthetic as well as moral and religious culture. Chris tian people should urge that our schools and colleges should attend to this literature, and not neglect it for the sake of the Greek and Roman, which with all their rare forms and extraordinary grace and beauty, yet lack the oriental wealth of color, depths of passion, heights of rapture, holy aspirations, transcendent hopes, and transforming moral power. Our college and university training and the drift of modern thought lead us far away from oriental thought and emotion, and the literature that expresses them. Few there are who have entered into the spirit and life of the Orient as it is presented to us in the sacred Scriptures. It is not remarkable that the Old Testa- 240 BIBLICAL STUDY. merit has been to many a dead book, exciting no livings heartfelt interest. Here is a new and interesting field for vhe student of our day. The young men are enter- ing into it with enthusiasm. The church of Christ will be greatly enriched by the fruits of their labors. IV. THE CREDIBILITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. This is the most delicate and difificult question of the higher criticism with reference to all literature, but es- pecially with reference to biblical literature. That there are errors in the present text of our Bible, and inconsist- encies, it seems to us vain to deny. We have come upon some of them in the course of our investigations (pp. 191, 192). There are chronological, geographical, and other circumstantial inconsistencies and errors which we should not hesitate to acknowledge. These errors arise in the department of exegesis more than in higher criti- cism. It does not follow, however, that circumstantial, incidental errors, such as might arise from the inadver- fence or lack of information of an author, are any im- peachment of his credibility. If we distinguish between revelation and inspiration, and yet insist upon inerranc> with reference to the latter as well as the former, we vir- tually do away with the distinction ; for no mere man can escape altogether human errors unless divine revela- tion set even the most familiar things in a new and in- fallible light, and also so control him that he cannot make a slip of the eye or the hand, a fault in the imagi- nation, in conception, in reasoning, in rhetorical figure, or in grammatical expression ; and indeed so raise him above his fellows that he shall see through all their errors in science and philosophy as well as theology, and anticipate the discoveries in all branches of knowl- edge by thousands of years. Errors of inadvertence in LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 241 minor details, where the author's position and charac- ter are well known, do not destroy his credibility as a witness in any literature or any court of justice. It is not to be presumed that divine inspiration lifted the author above his age any more than was necessary to convey the divine revelation and the divine instruction with infallible certainty to mankind. We have to take into account the extent of the author's human knowl- edge, his point of view and type of thought, his meth- ods of reasoning and illustration. The question of credi- bility is to be distinguished from infallibility. The form is credible, the substance alone is infallible. It is claimed by some divines that the inerrancy * of Scripture is es- sential to the inspiration of the Scriptures, and that " a proved error in Scripture contradicts not only our doc- trine, but the Scripture claims, and therefore its inspira- tion in making those claims."t But inerraticy \s, neither a scriptural nor a symbolical nor a historical term in connection with the subject of Inspiration. These rep- resentations of the doctrine of inspiration have no sup- jiort in the symbols or faith of the Reformation, or in the Westminster Confession, or in the Scriptures. We hold with our revered instructor, the late Henry B. Smith, to plenary inspiration rather than verbal. It may be as it is stated. *' It (plenary inspiration) is in itself indefinite, and its use contributes nothing, either to the precision or the emphasis of the definition "; % but this is as far as the Scriptures or the symbols of faith war- rant us in going ; it is as far as it is at all safe in the present juncture to advance in definition. Verbal inspi- ration is doubtless a more precise and emphatic defini- ♦ F. L. Patton, Pentateuchal Criticism, Presbyterian Review^ IV., p. 363. ■f Drs. Hodge and Warfield, art. Inspiration, Presbyterian Review, H., p. a45- X Drs. Hodge and Warfield ia /. f ., p. 232. 11 242 BIBLICAL STUDY. tion than pleTiary inspiration ; but this very emphasis and precision imperil the doctrine of inspiration itself by bringing it into conflict with a vast array of objec- tions along the whole line of Scripture and history, which must be met and overcome in incessant warfare, where both sides may count on doubtful victories, but where the weak, ignorant, and hesitating, stumble and fall into divers temptations, and may make shipwreck of their faith. From the point of view of biblical criticism, we are not prepared to admit errors in the Scriptures in the original autographs, until they shall be proven. Very many of those alleged have already received suiifi- cient or plausible explanation ; others are in dispute between truth-seeking scholars, and satisfactory explana- tions may hereafter be given. New difificulties are con- stantly arising and being overcome. It is difficult on the one side to demonstrate an error, as it is on the other side to demonstrate that the Scriptures must be absolutely errorless. It is a question of fact to which all theories and doctrines must yield. It cannot be deter- mined by a priori definitions and statements on either side. Indeed the original autographs have been lost for ages and can never be recovered. How can we deter- mine whether they were absolutely errorless or not ? To assume that it must be so, as a deduction from the theory of verbal inspiration, is to beg the whole question. In the meanwhile we confidently affirm that the doc- trine of inspiration as stated in the symbols of faith will maintain its integrity in spite of any circumstantial errors that may be admitted or proved in the Scriptures, so long as these errors do not directly or indirectly disturb the infallibility of its matters of faith or of the historic events and institutions with which they are inseparably united. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 243 We are convinced that Richard Baxter more correctly states the church doctrine when he says : " And here I must tell you a great and needful truth, which .... Christians fearing to confess, by overdoing tempt men to Infidelity. The Scripture is like a man's body, where some parts are but for the preser\'ation of the rest, and may be maimed without death : The sense is the soul of the Scripture ; and the letters but the body, or vehicle. The doctrine of the creed. Lord's Prayer and Decalogue, Baptism and the Lord's Supper, is the vital part, and Christianity itself. The Old Testament letter (written as we have it about Ezra's time) is that vehicle which is as imperfect as the Revelation of these times was : But as after Christ's incarnation and ascension, the Spirit was more abundantly given, and the Revelation more perfect and sealed, so the doctrine is more full and the vehicle or body, that is, the words are less imperfect and more sure to us ; so that he that doubteth of the truth of some words in the Old Testament, or o( some circumstances in the New, hath no reason therefore to doubt of the Christian religion, of which these writings are but the vehick or body, sufficient to ascertain us of the truth of the History and Doctrine." * Higher criticism comes into conflict with the authority of Scripture when it finds that its statements are not authoritative and its revelations are not credible. If the crcdibiHty of a book is impeached, its divine authority and inspiration are also impeached. But to destroy his credibiHty something more must be presented than trivial matters and minute details that do not affect the author's scope of argument or his religious instructions. We hold that it is an unsafe position to assume, that v/e must first prove the credibility, inerrancy, and infallibil- ity of a book ere we accept its authority. If inquirers waited until all the supposed errors in our canonical books were satisfactorily explained they would never accept the Bible as a divine revelation. To press the The Catechizing of Families^ 1683, p. 36. 244 ' BIBLICAL STUDY. critics to this dilemma, inerrancy or uninspired, might catch the critics on one of the horns if they were not critical enough to detect the fallacy and escape, but it would be more likely to catch the people, who know nothing of criticism, and so undermine and destroy their faith. The higher criticism has already strengthened the credibility of Scripture. It has studied the human feat- ures of the Bible and learned the wondrous variety of form and color assumed by the divine revelation. Many of the supposed inconsistencies have been found to be different modes of representing the same thing, comple- mentary to one another and combining to give a fuller representation than any one mode could ever have given, as the two sides of the stereoscopic view give a represen- tation superior to that of the ordinary photograph. The imity of statement found in the midst of such wondrous variety of detail in form and color is vastly more con- vincing than a unity of mere coincidence such as the older harmonists sought to obtain by stretching and straining the Scriptures on the procrustean bed of their hair-splitting scholasticism. Many of the supposed in- consistencies have been found to arise from different stages of divine revelation, in the earlier of which God condescended to the weakness and the ignorance of men, and gave to them the knowledge that they could appro- priate, and held up to them ideals that they could under- stand as to their essence if not in all their details. The earlier are shadows and types, crude and imperfect rep- resentations of better things to follow.* Many of the supposed inconsistencies result from the popular and unscientific language of the Bible, thus approaching the • Hebrews viii. 5 ; x. i ; xi. 40 ; Col. ii. 17. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE, 245 people of God in different ages in concrete forms and avoiding the abstract. The inconsistencies have resulted from the scholastic abstractions of those who would use the Bible as a text-book, but they do not exist in the concrete of the Bible itself. Many of the supposed in- consistencies arise from a different method of logic and rhetoric in the Oriental writers and the attempt of mod- ern scholars to measure them by Occidental methods. Many of the inconsistencies result from the neglect to appreciate the poetic and imaginative element in the Bible and a lack of aesthetic sense on the part of its in- terpreters. The higher criticism has already removed a large number of difificulties and will remove many more when it has become a more common study among scholars. " The Bible conveys to us its didactic lesson in a very occasional, indirect, and indefinite way. Its method is literary, not dogmatic. It teaches, as it were, without intending to teach ; relates a history, and leaves us to infer the lesson ; indites a psalm expressive of the sentiments awakened in the writer's mind by contemplation of the manifestation which God has made of Himself, and leaves us to find out by poetic sympathy the thought embodied. The Bible contains all sorts of literature — histories, prophecies, poems lyric and dramat- ic, proverbs, parables, epistles. All are profitable for doctrine, but none are dogmatic ; all are excellent for religious edification, but dis- appointing from the point of view of scholastic theology. Not even the epistles of Paul can properly be characterised as dogmatic in the scholastic sense. The four great epistles are full of doctrine of the most important character, but it is conveyed in an occasional, ab- rupt, vehement way, by a man engaged in a great controversy as to the meaning of Christianity, — whose bosom is agitated by strong emotion, and whose language is a faithful reflection of Iiis feelings — eloquent, bufinexact; crowded with deep, grand thoughts, but with thoughts that struggle for utterance, and are sometimes only half uttered in broken sentences, in which grammar is shipwrecked on the rock of heroic passion. The writing is noble. Divine, inspired in every sense of the term, most profitable for doctrine ; but how dif- 24:6 BIBLICAL STUDY. ferent Irotn the style of doginatic theology, with its careful defini- tions, and minute distinctions, and cold, passionless, scientific dic- tion ! " * The literary study of the Bible is appropriately called higher criticism to distinguish it from lower criticism which devotes itself to the study of original texts and versions. There are few who have the patience, the per- sistence, the life-long industry in the examination of the minute details that make up the field of the lower or textual criticism. But the higher criticism is more at- tractive. It has to do with literary forms and styles and models. It appeals to the imagination and the aesthetic taste as well as to the logical faculty. It kindles the en- thusiasm of the young. It will more and more enlist the attention of men of culture and the general pub- lic. It is the most inviting and fruitful field of biblical study in our day. Many who are engaged in it are ra- tionalistic and unbelieving, and they are using it with disastrous effect upon the Scriptures and the orthodox faith. There is also a prejudice in some quarters against these studies and an apprehension as to the results. This prejudice is unreasonable. This apprehension is to be deprecated. It is impossible to prevent discus- sion. The church is challenged to meet the issue. It is a call of Providence to conflict and to the triumph of evangelical truth. The Divine Word will vindicate it- self in all its parts. These are not the times for negli- gent Elis or timorous and presumptuous Uzzahs. Brave Samuels and ardent Davids who fear not to employ new methods and engage in new enterprises and adapt them- selves to altered situations, will overcome the Philistines with their own weapons. The higher criticism has rent A. B. Bruce, The Chief End of Revelation, London, 1881, p. 284, seq. LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 247 the crust, with which rabbinical tradition and Cliristian scholasticism have encased the Old Testament, overlay- ing the poetic and prophetic elements with the legal and the ritual. Younger biblical scholars have caught glimpses of the beauty and glory of biblical literature. The Old Testament is studied as never before in the Christian church. It is beginning to exert its charming influence upon ministers and people. Christian theology and Christian life will ere long be enriched by it. God's blessing is in it to those who have the Christian wisdom to recognize and the grace to receive and employ it. CHAPTER IX. HEBREW POETRY. The Hebrews were from the most ancient times a re. markably literary and poetic people. Poetry pervaded and influenced their entire life and history. The Bible has preserved to us a large amount of this poetry, but it ' is almost exclusively religious poetry. And notwith- standing that the most ancient poetry of Assyria, Baby- lon, and Egypt is likewise religious, we yet have abun- dant evidence from the poetic lines and strophes quoted in the historical books, as well as statements with regard to other poetry not included in the collections known to us, — abundant evidence that a large proportion of the poetic literature of the Hebrews, relating to the every- day life of the people, and to those national, social, and historical phases of experience that were not strictly re- ligious, has been lost to us. For reference is made to the book of the wars of Jahveh (Num. xxi. 14), and the book of Yashar (Josh. x. 13 ; 2 Sam. i. 18), anthologies of poetry earlier than any of the poetic collections in the Hebrew Scriptures ; and also to a great number of songs and poems of Solomon with reference to flowers, plants, trees, and animals (i Kings iv. 32, 33). The mention of Ethan, Heman, Chalcol and Darda, the sons of Mahol, in connection with the wisdom and poems of Solomon,. (248) HEBREW POETRY. 249 opens a wide field of conjecture with regard to the great amount of their poetry which has been lost (i Kings iv. 31). And if we consider that such a masterpiece as the book of Job is the product of a sacred poet whose name, or at least connection with the poem, has been lost, how many more such great poems and lesser ones may have disappeared from the memory of the Hebrew people during their exile and prolonged afflictions. For we cannot believe that such sublime odes as Exod. xv. and Judges v. could exist alone. These masterpieces of lyric poetry must have been the flower and fruit of a long and varied poetical development. Prof. Reuss admirably states the breadth of Hebrew poetry : " All that moved the souls of the multitude was expressed in song ; it was indispensable to the sports of peace, it was a necessity for the rest from the battle, it cheered the feast, and the marriage (Is. v. 12 ; Amos. vi. 5; Judges xiv.), it lamented in the hopeless dirge for the dead (2 Sam. iii. 33), it united the masses, it blessed the individual, and was everywhere the lever of culture. Young men and maidens vied with one another in learning beautiful songs, and cheered with them the festival gatherings of the villages, and the still higher assem- blies at the sanctuary of the tribes. The maidens at Shilo went yearly with songs and dances into the vineyards (Judges xxi. 19), and those of Gilead repeated the sad story of Jeptha's daughter (Judges xi. 40), the boys learned David's lament over Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 18) ; shep • herds and hunters at their evening rests by the springs of the wilder- ness sang songs to the accompaniment of the flute (Judges v. 11). The discovery of a fountain was the occasion of joy and song (Num. xxi. 17). The smith boasted defiantly of the products of his labour (Gen. iv. 23). Riddles and witty sayings enlivened the social meal (Judges xiv. 12; I Kings x.). Even into the lowest spheres the spirit of poetry wandered and ministered to the most ignoble pursuits ' (Is. xxiii. 15 seg.).* • Art. Heb. Poesie, Hertog Encyklopddie, ii. Aufl., V,, p. 672, ieq. ^50 BIBLICAL STUDY. L THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HEBREW POETRY. In the Hebrew poetry preserved to us in the sacred Scriptures we observe the following characteristics: 1. // is religions poetry. Indeed it was most suitable that Hebrew poetry should have this as its fundamental characteristic ; for the Hebrews had been selected by God from all the nations to be His own choice possession, His first-born among the nations of the earth (Exod. iv. 22; xix. 5); and therefore it was their distinctive inher- itance that they should be a religious people above all things else. And it is of the very nature of religion that it should express itself in song; for religion lays hold of the deepest emotions of the human soul, and causes the heart-strings to vibrate with the most varied and power- ful feelings of which man is capable, which can only find expression through the voice and pen in those forms of human language which alone by their varied movement can express these varied emotions. From this point of view Hebrew poetry has unfolded a rich and manifold literature that not only surpasses in this regard the no- blest products of the most cultivated Indo-Germanic races, the Greek, the Roman, and the Hindu ; but also lies at the root of the .religious poetry of the Jewish synagogue and the church of Christ, as their fruitful source, their perennial well-spring of life and growth. No poetry has such power over the souls of men as He- brew poetry. David's psalms, Solomon's sentences, Isa- iah's predictions, the trials of Job, are as fresh and potent in their influence as when first uttered by their masterly authors. They are world-wide in their sway ; they are everlasting in their sweep. The songs of Moses and the Lamb are sung by heavenly choirs. 2. // is simple mid natural. Ewald states that " He- HEBREW POETRY. 251 brew poetrj- has a simplicity and transparency that can scarcely be found anywhere else — a natural sublimity that knows but little of fixed forms of art, and even when art comes into play it ever remains unconscious and careless of it. Compared with the poetry of other ancient peoples, it appears as of a more simple and child- like age of mankind, overflowing with an internal fulness and grace that troubles itself but little with external or- nament and nice artistic law."* Hence it is that the distinction between poetry and rhetorical prose is so slight in Hebrew literature. The Hebrew orator, espec- ially if a prophet, inspired with the potent influences of the prophetic spirit, and stirred to the depths of his soul with the divine impulse, speaks naturally in an elevated poetic style, and accordingly the greater part of prophecy i-3 poetic. And so when the priest or king stands before the people to bless them, or lead them in their devo- tions, their benedictions and prayers assume the poetic movement. Thus there is the closest correspondence between the emotion and its expression, as the emotion gives natural movement and harmonious undulations to the expression by its own pulsations and vibrations. These pulsations are expressed by the beat of the accent, which, falling as a rule on the ultimate in Hebrew words, strikes with peculiar power ; and the vibrations are ex- pressed in accordance with the great variety of movement of which they are capable in the parallelism of members. As Robertson Smith correctly says : "Among the He- brews all thought stands in immediate contact with liv- ing impressions and feelings, and so if incapable of rising to the abstnict is prevented from sinking to the unreal."! This faithful mirroring of the concrete in the poetic ex. • Die Dichter^ I., p. 15. t British Quarterly, January, 1877, P- S^. 252 BIBLICAL STUDY. pression is the secret of its power over the masses of mankind who are sensible of its immediate influence upon them, although they may be incapable of giving a logical analysis of it. 3. It is essentially subjective. The poet sings or writes from the vibrating chords of his own soul's emotions, presenting the varied phases of his own experience, in sorrow and joy, in faith and hope, in love and adoration, in conflict, agony, and despair, in ecstasy and transport, in vindication of himself and imprecation upon his ene- mies. Even when the external world is attentively re- garded, it is not for itself alone, but on account of its relation to the poet's own soul as he is brought into contact and sympathy with it. This characteristic of Hebrew poetry is so marked in the Psalter, Proverbs, and book of Job, as to give their entire theology an an thropological character. Man's inmost soul, and all the vast variety of human experience, are presented in He- brew poetry as the common experience of humanity of all ages and of all lands. 4. // is sententious. The Hebrew poet expresses his ethical and religious emotions in brief, terse, pregnant sentences loosely related with one another, and often without any essential connection, except through the common unity of the central theme. They are uttered as intuitions, that which is immediately seen and felt, rather than as products of logical reflection, or careful elaborations of a constructive imagination. The parts of the poem, greater anti lesser, are distinct parts, the distinction often being so sharp and abrupt that it is dif- ficult to distinguish and separate the various sections of the poem, owing to the very fact of the great variety of possibility of division, in which it is a question simply of more or less. The author's soul vibrates with the beat. HEBREW POETRY. 253 ings of the central theme, so that the movement of the poem is sometimes from the same base to a more ad- vanced thought, then from a corresponding base, or from a contrasted one ; and at times, indeed, step by step • in marching or climbing measures. As Aglen says, " He- brew eloquence is a lively succession of vigorous and in- cisive sentences, producing in literature the same effect which the style called arabesque produces in architect- ure. Hebrew wisdom finds its complete utterance in the short, pithy proverb. Hebrew poetry wants no fur- ther art than a rhythmical adaptation of the same sen- tentious style." * Hence the complexity and confusion of Hebrew poetry to minds which would find strict logical relations between the various members of the poem, and constrain them after occidental methods. Hence the extravagance of Hebrew figures of speech, which transgress all classic rules of style, heaping up and mixing metaphors, presenting the theme in such a variety of images, and with such exceeding richness of coloring, that the western critic is perplexed, confused, and bewil. dered in striving to harmonize them into a consistent whole. Hebrew poetry appeals through numberless con- crete images to the emotional and religious nature, and can only be apprehended by entering into sympathetic relations with its own poetic spirit, and by following the guidance of its members to their central theme, to which they are all in subjection as to a prince, while in com- parative independence of one another. 5. It is realistic. Professor Shairp says: "Whenever the soul comes into living contact with fact and truth, whenever it realizes these with more than common viv- idness, there arises a thrill of joy, a glow of emotion. • Bible Educator^ Vol. 11., p. 340. 254 BIBLICAL STUDY. And the expression of that thrill, that glow, is poetiy The nobler the objects, the nobler will be the poetry they awaken when they fall on the heart of a true poet." ^ Now the Hebrew poets entered into deep and intimate fellowship with external nature, the world of animal, veg- etable, and material forces ; and by regarding them as in immediate connection with God and man, dealt only with the noblest themes. For to the Hebrew poet all nature was animate with the influence of the Divine Spirit, who was the agent in the creation, brooding over the chaos, who conducts the whole universe in its devel- opment toward the exaltation of the creature to closer communion with God, so that it may attain its glory in the divine glory. Hence all nature is aglow with the glory of God, declaring Him in His being and attributes, praising Him for His wisdom and goodness. His minis- rers to do His pleasure, rejoicing at His advent and tak- ing part in His theophanies. And so it is the represen- tation of Hebrew poetry that all nature shares in the destiny of man. In its origin it led by insensible grada- tions to man, its crown and head, the masterpiece of the divine workman. In his fall it shared with him in the curse ; and to his redemption it ever looks forward, with longing hope and throes of expectation, as the redemp- tion of the entire creation. And so, there is no poetry so sympathetic with nature, so realistic, so sensuous and glowing in its representations of nature, as Hebrew poe- try. This feature of the sacre \ writings, which has ex- posed them to the attacks of unbelieving men of science, presenting a wide and varied field of criticism, is really one of their most striking features of excellence ; com- mending itself to the believing student of nature in thatj * Poetic Interpretation of Nature^ p. 15. HEBREW POETRY. 256 while it does not teach truths and facts of science in sci- entific forms, yet it alone, of ancient poetry, has laid hold of the eternal principles, the most essential facts and forms of objects of nature, with a sense of truth and beauty that none but sacred poets, enlightened by the Spirit of God, have been enabled to do. Hence it is that not even the sensuous romantic poetry of modern times, enriched with the vast stores of research of mod- ern science, can equal the poetry of the Bible in its faithfulness to nature, its vividness and graphic power, its true and intense admiration of the beauties of nature and reverence of its sublimities. II. THE FORMS OF HEBREW POETRY. The leading characteristics of Hebrew poetry deter- mine its forms of expression ; its internal spirit sways and controls the form with absolute, yea, even capricious, power. The Hebrew poets seem acquainted with those various forms of artistic expression used by the poets of other nations to adorn their poetry, measure its move- ments, and mark its lines and strophes ; yet they do not employ them as rules or principles of their art, constrain- ing their thought and emotion into conformity with them, but rather use them freely for particular purposes / and momentary effects. Indeed Hebrew poetry attained . its richest development at a period when these various external beauties of form had not been elaborated into a system, as was the case at a subsequent time in other nations of the same family of languages. I. The form of the verses. There are various ways em- ployed in the poetry of the sister languages of measur- ing and adorning the verses. Thus rhyme is of exceed- ing importance in Arabic poetry, having its fixed rules* ^Wright, Arabic Grammar, 2d edit., II., pp. 377-81. 256 BIBLICAL STUDY. carefully elaborated. But no such rules can be found in Hebrew poetry. Rhyme does exist, and is used at times with great effect to give force to the variations in the play of the emotion by bringing the variations to har- monious conclusions ; but this seldom extends beyond a couplet or triplet of verses. So also the Hebrew poet delights in the play of words, using their varied and contrasted meanings, changing the sense by a slight change of a letter, or contrasting the sense all the more forcibly in the use of words of similar form and vocali- zation, and sometimes of two or three such in the paral- lel verses. Alliteration and assonance are also freely employed. All this is in order that the form may cor- respond as closely as possible to the thought and emo- tion in their variations, as synonymous, antithetical, and progressive ; and that the coloring of the expression may heighten its effect. The principle of rhyme, however, remains entirely free. It is not developed into a system and rules of art. So also the measurement of the verses, or the princi- ple of metres, is thoroughly developed in Arabic poetry, where they are ordinarily reckoned as sixteen in number.''* Repeated efforts have been made to find a system of me- tres in Hebrew poetry. Thus Josephusf represents Exod. XV. and Deut. xxxii. as written in hexameters, and that the Psalms were written in several metres, such as trimeters and pentameters. Eusebius \ says that Deut. xxxii. and Ps. xviii. are in heroic metre of sixteen syllables, and that trimeters and other metres were em- ployed by the Hebrews. Jerome § compares Hebrew poetry with that of the Greek poetry of Pindar, Alcaeus, * Wright, Arabic Grammar^ 2d edit,, H., p. 387. t Antiquities, ii. 16 ; iv. 8 ; vii. 12. \ De Prcep. Evang., xi. 5. § Pre/ace to the book 0/ Job. HEBREW POETRT. 257 and Sappho, and represents the book of Job as composed mainly of hexameters with the movement of dactyls and spondees ; and * finds in the Psalter iambic trimeters, and tetrameters. But these writers seem to have been misled by their desire to assimilate Hebrew poetry to the great productions of the classic nations with which they were familiar. No such system of metres can be found in connection with the accepted system of Hebrew accentuation and vocalization. The Jews, who became for many centuries the sole custodians of the Hebrew text, did not accept any such system, but arranged the system of poetic accentuation simply for cantillation in the synagogues. More recent attempts have been made to explain and measure Hebrew verses after the methods of the Arabic and Syriac. Thus William Jones f endeavored to apply the rules of Arabic metres to Hebrew poetry ; E. J„ Greve, also, in 1791 and 1810; but this involves the rev olutionary proceeding of doing away with the Massoreti( • system entirely, and in its results is far from satisfactory The Arabic poetry may be profitably compared as tc spirit, characteristics, figures of speech, and emotional language, as Wenrich has so well done,:}: but not as re- gards metres, for these, as the best Arabic scholars state, are of a comparatively late period when compared with Hebrew poetry, and were possibly preceded by an earlier and freer poetic style. Saalchiitzg endeavored to construct a system of He- brew metres, retaining the Massoretic vocalization, but * In his Epist. ad Paulam. ■f Com. Poet. Asiat. curav., Eichhom, T777, p. 61, seq. \ De Poeseos Heb. atque AraHc. orig. indole mutuuque consensu atque ats' fn'tnt'/te, Lipsiae, 1843. § Von der Form der Hebraischen Poesie, 1825. 2S8 BIBLICM. STUDY. contending that the accents do not determine the ac- cented syllable, and so pronouncing the words in accord- ance with the Aramaic, and the custom of Polish and German Jews, on the penult instead of the ultimate. More recently, Bickell* strives to explain Hebrew poetry after the analogy of Syriac poetry. His theory is that Hebrew poetry is essentially the same as Syriac, not measuring syllables, but counting them in regular order. There is a constant alternation of accented and unac- cented syllables, a continued rise and fall, so that only iambic and trochaic feet are possible. The Massoretic accentuation and vocalization are rejected and the Ara- maic put in its place. The grammatical and rhythmical accents coincide. The accent is, like the Syriac, general- ly on the penult. The parallelism of verses and thought is strictly carried out. Dr. Bickell, whose familiarity with Syriac literature and Hebrew scholarship are well known, has, as must be admitted, carried out his theory with a degree of mod- eration and thoroughness which must command admira- tion and respect. Not distinguishing between long and short syllables, and discarding the terminology of classic metres, he gives us specimens of metres of 5, 7, 12, 6, 8, 10 syllables, and a few of varying syllables. He has ap- plied his theory to the whole of Hebrew poetry,t and arranged the entire Psalter, Proverbs, Job, Lamentations, Song of Songs, most of the poems of the historical books, and much of the prophetic poetry in accordance with these principles. He has also reproduced the effect in a translation into German, with the same number of * Metrices Bibltcce, 1S79 ; Carmina Veteris Testavtenti Afeirice, 1882. t Zeitschrift d. D, M. G., 1880, p. 557 ; Carmina Veteris Testamentt Me- trice ^ 1882. HEBREV/ POETRl. 259 Syllables and strophical arrangement.* The theory 13 attractive and deserves fuller consideration than can be given to it here ; yet it must be rejected on the ground that it does away with the difference between the He- brew and the Aramaic families of the Shemitic lan- guages ; and would virtually reduce the Hebrew to a mere dialect of the Aramaic. It overthrows the tradi- tional accentuation upon which Hebrew vocalization and the explanation of Hebrew grammatical forms largely depend. Hebrew poetry, as Ewald has shown, may, on the Mas- soretic system of accentuation and vocalization, be re- garded as generally composed of verses of seven or eight syllables, with sometimes a few more or a few less, for reasons that can be assigned.f This is especially true of the ancient hymns,:}: and those Psalms having certain melodies indicated in their titles ; yet even here we must regard Hebrew poetry as at an earlier stage of poetic development than the Syriac. The poet is not bound to a certain number of syllables. While in the main making the length of the verses correspond with the parallelism of the thought and emotion, he does not constrain himself to uniformity as a principle or law of his art ; but increases or diminishes the length of his verses in perfect freedom in accordance with the rhythmical movements of the thought and emotion them- selves. The external form is entirely subordinated to the internal emotion, which moves on with the utmost free- dom, and assumes a poetic form merely as a thin veil which does not so much clothe and adorn as shade and color the native beauties of the idea. This movement * Dichtungen der Hebrder. I. Geschichtlicheund Prophetische Lieder.II.Hiob, III. Der Psalter. t Dic/tter, I., p. 108, seq. J Exod. xv., Deut. xxxii., and Judges v. 260 BIBLICAL STUDY. of emotion gives rise to a general harmony of expres. sion in the parallelism of structure in lines and strophes — a parallelism which affords a great variety and beauty of forms. Sometimes the movement is like the wavelets of a river flowing steadily and smoothly on, then like the ebbing and flowing of the tide in majestic antitheses, and again like the madly-tossed ocean in a storm, all uniformity and symmetry disappearing under the passionate heaving of the deepest emotions of the soul. The first to clearly state and unfold the essential prin- ciple of Hebrew verse was Bishop Lowth,* although older writers, such as Rabbi Asarias, and especially Schoettgen,f called attention to various forms of paral- lelism. Lowth distinguishes three kinds. [ (i) Synonymous. " O Jehovah, in Thy strength the king shall rejoice ; • And in Thy salvation how greatly shall he exult ! The desire of his heart Thou hast granted unto him. And the request of his lips Thou hast not denied." Ps. xxi. I, 2. (2) Antithetical, " A wise son rejoiceth his father ; But a foolish son is the grief of his mother." Prov. X. I. (3) Synthetic. " Praise ye Jehovah, ye of the earth ; Ye sea monsters, and all deeps : Fire and hail, snow and vapor, Stormy wind, executing His command." Ps. cxlviii. 7, 8. * De Sacra Paesi Hebr. xix., 1753; also Preliminary Dissertation to his work on Isaiah, 1778. t IIorcB Heb., Diss, vi., De Exergasia Sacra. HEBREW POETKT. 261 Bishop Lowth's views have been generally accepted, although open to various objections; for the majority of the verses are synthetic, and these in such a great va- riety that it seems still more important in many cases to classify and distinguish them than to make the dis- criminations proposed by Bishop Lowth. There is a general mingling of the three kinds of parallelism in Hebrew poetry, so that seldom do the synonymous and antithetical extend beyond a couplet, triplet, or quartette of verses. The poet is as free in his use of the various kinds of parallelism as in the use of rhyme or metre, and is only bound by the principle of parallel- ism itself. Bishop J ebb * added a fourth kind, which he called the introverted parallelism, where the first line corresponds with the fourth, and the second with the third, thus ; " My son, if thine heart be wise, My heart also shall rejoice ; Yea, my reins shall rejoice, When thy Hps speak right things." Prov. xxiii. 15, 16. But this is a difference in the structure of the strophe and of the arrangement of the parallelism, rather than of the parallelism itself, as Wright properly states.f Other schemes have been proposed, but none have been exhaustive and satisfactory, and none have found acceptance generally among scholars. It is sufificieht for us at present to recognize in Hebrew poetry the es- sential principle of parallelism itself. This parallelism of members was until recently thought to be a peculiar- ity of Hebrew poetry, as a determining principle of po- ♦ Sacred Literature, % iv., 1820. t Art Hebrew Poetry in Smith's Diet, of the Bible 262 BJBLICAL STUDT. etic art, although it is used among other nations for cer tain momentary effects in their poetry ; but recent dis- coveries have proved that the ancient Assyrian, Baby Ionian, and Akkadian hymns have the same dominant feature in their poetry, so that the conjecture of Schra- der,* that the Hebrews brought it with them in their emigration from the vicinity of Babylon, is highly prob- able. Indeed, it is but natural that we should go back of the more modern Syriac and Arabic poetry to the more ancient Assyrian and Babylonian poetry for illus- trations of the poetry of the Hebrews, which was histor- ically brought into connection with the latter and not with the former. Taking these ancient Shemitic poe- tries together, we observe that they have unfolded the principle of parallelism into a most elaborate and or- nate artistic system, which among other nations has been known and used, but remained comparatively un- developed, whilst other nations have developed the prin- ciples of rhyme and metre which have been known and used, but remain undeveloped by the Hebrews, Assyr- ians, and Babylonians. 2. In addition to the principle of parallelism, others have sought a principle of measurement of the verses of Hebrew poetry by the accent. Thus Lautwein,t Ernst Meier,;}: and more recently Julius Ley.§ The latter has elaborated quite a thorough system, with a large number of examples. He does not interfere with the Massoretic system, except in the use of the maqqeph and metheg, and his theory of a circumflex accentuation in monosyllables at the end of ■"" Jahrh.f. Prot. Thco., i., 122. + Versuch cincr richtigcn Theorie von d. hiblischen Verskunst, 1775. X Die Form der Hcbr. Poesie, 1853. § Gruiidzilge d. Rhythmus des Vers-und StropJienbaues in d. Hcbr. Poesie^ 1875- HEBREW POETRY; 2M53' a verse ; but his arrangement of Hebrew poetry into hexameters, octameters, decameters, etc., depends largely upon his views of substitution and compensation, which are to account for the irregularities of the verses ; and upon the variety of the breaks or caesuras, as, for in- stance, in the octameter, which may be composed of 4 + 4 tones, or 2 + 6, 3 + 5, or 5 + 3, His theory also re- sults in producing longer verses than seem suited to the principle of the parallelism, and the spirit of Hebrew po- etry. At the same time it seems to us evident that the accent has great power in Hebrew verse. The thought is measured by the throbbings of the soul in its emotion, and this is naturally expressed by the beat of the accent. The accent has no unimportant part to play in English verse, but in Hebrew, as the poetic accent always cor- responds with the logical accent, and that is as a rul*- on the ultimate, it falls with peculiar power. Even in prose the accent controls the vocalization of the entir<; word, and in pause has double strength. How much more is this the case in poetry, where the emotion ex pressed by homogeneous sounds causes it to beat with exceeding power and wonderful delicacy of movement. This can hardly be reproduced or felt to any great ex- tent by those who approach the Hebrew as a dead lan- guage. We can only approximate to it by frequent practice in the utterance of its verses. The accent may be used as a principle of measurement to a very large extent in Hebrew poetry, but it is not an absolute law, for whilst many poems and strophes are uniform in this respect, the poet breaks away from it and increases or diminishes the number of accents, as well as words, to correspond with the movements of his thought and emotion. Upon these two principles of the parallelism of mem- 264 BIBLICAL STUDY. bers and the play of the accent the form of Hebrew verse depends. The ancient verse divisions have been obscured and lost, even if they were ever distinctly marked. We can recover them only by entering into the spirit of the poetry, and allowing ourselves to be carried on in the flow of emotion, marking its beats and varied parallelism. These features of Hebrew poetry make it a " universal poetry," for the parallelism can be reproduced in the main in most languages into which Hebrew poetry may be translated, and even the same number of accents may be to a great extent preserved ; only that the coloring of the words, and the varied ihythm of their utterance, and the strong beating of the accent, can only be experienced by a Hebrew scholar in the careful and practiced reading of the Hebrew text. III. THE PARALLELISM OF MEMBERS. Having considered the characteristics of Hebrew j>oetry and the forms of its verses in general, we have now to examine more particularly the various kinds of I)arallelism. The simplest form of the parallelism of Hebrew poetry is the distich, where two lines or verses balance one another in thought and expression, as in the earliest \ / specimen of poetry in the Bible (Gen. iv. 23, seq), called the sword song of Lemekh : " 'Adah and Zillah, hear my voice ; Wives of Lemekh, oh, give ear to my song ; Surely a man do I slay for wounding me, And a boy for hurting me. If sevenfold Cain be avenged, Then Lemekh seventy and seven." We have here six lines in three couplets. In the first HEBREW POETRY. 265 couplet the parallelism is completely synonymous ; " wives of Lemekh " being synonymous with " 'Adah and Zillah ;" and " give ear to my song " with " hear my voice "; that is to say, the same essential idea is ex- pressed in the two lines in language which varies only as synonymous terms and expressions vary. In the second couplet the terms are also synonymous, except in one particular, where there is an emphatic progress in the descent from " man " to " boy." In the third couplet, whilst the thought is synonymous, there is yet an emphasis in the changing of two terms, from " Cain " to " Lemekh," and from ''sevenfold" to " seventy and seven." A beautiful example, resembling the last couplet, is given in the chorus of the damsels in praise of the vic- tories of David (i Sam. xviii. 7) : " Saul smote his thousands, And David his myriads." Antithetical distichs are most numerous and varied in the book of Proverbs, thus (Prov. x. 1-5) : " I. A wise son maketh glad his father ; But a foolish son is the grief of his mother. •' 2. Treasures of wickedness profit not ; But righteousness delivereth from death. " 3. Jehovah will not let the desire of the righteous famish ; But the craving of the wicked He disappointeth. "4. He becometh poor that worketh with an idle hand ; But the hand of the diligent maketh rich. " 5. He that gathereth in fruit harvest is a wise son ; But he that lies in deep sleep in grain harvest is a base son." In the second of these couplets the antithesis is through- out : "Righteousness" to "treasures of wickedness," and " delivereth from death " to " profit not." Usually, 12 266 BIBLICAL STUDY. however, there are one or more synonymous terms to make the antithesis more emphatic. In the fourth couplet " hand " is a common term, and the contrast is of "idle" and "diligent," " becometh poor" and " maketh rich." In the third couplet "Jehovah" is a common term with " He," and " desire " synonymous with " craving," in order to the antithesis of " righteous " with " wicked," and " will not let famish " with " disap- pointeth." In the first couplet " son " is a common term ; " father " and " mother " are synonymous, in or- der to the antithesis of " wise " and " foolish," " maketh glad " and " grief." In the fifth couplet " son " is a com- mon term, " fruit harvest " is synonymous with " grain harvest," whereas "wise" has as its antithesis " base," and " gathereth " " lies in deep sleep." Sometimes the antithesis is limited to a single term, as in Prov. xvi. 9 : " Man's heart deviseth his way ; But Jehovah directeth his steps." Here the contrast is between " man's heart " and " Jeho- vah," the remaining terms are synonymous. The antithesis sometimes becomes more striking in the antithetical position of the terms themselves, as in Prov. xiii. 24 : " He that spareth his rod, hateth his son ; But he that loveth him seeketh him chastisement." The common terms are "father" and "son," the anti- thetical, "spareth his rod" with "seeketh him chastise- ment," and "hateth" with " loveth "; but that which closes the first line begins the second, and that which begins the first closes the second. Parallelism is ordinarily progressive in that great HEBREW POETRY. 2G7 variety of forms which such a rich and powerful language as the Hebrew renders possible. The blessing of Abram by Melchizedek (Gen. xiv. 19, 20) is composed of two progressive distichs : " Blessed be Abram of God Most High, Founder of heaven and earth ; And blessed be God Most High, Who hath delivered thy adversaries into thy hand." In the first of these couplets the second line advances from the idea of " God Most High " into that of " Found- er of heaven and earth." In the second couplet, the second line advances from " God Most High " into " who hath delivered thy adversaries into thy hand." The blessing of Rebekah by her brothers (Gen. xxiv. 60) is a progressive distich : •" O thou our sister, become thousands of myriads, And may thy seed inherit the gate of those that hate them." The second line sums up the "thousands of myriads" of the first, in order to give the climax of the wish, in the inheritance of the gate of their enemies. The words of Moses when the ark of the covenant set forward and when it rested are couplets (Num. x. 35): " Arise, Jehovah, and let Thine enemies be scattered ; And let those who hate Thee flee from before Thee. Return, Jehovah, To the myriads of thousands of Israel." The first of these couplets is synonymous throughout ; the second is an example of an unfinished line, the pause in the poetical movement is to give more emphasis to the second line when its advanced idea is expressed. The tristich is developed from the distich with the 268 BIBLICAL STUDY. same variety of parallelisms. The song of Sarah (Gen. xxi. 6, 7) gives us both a distich and tristich : *' Laughter hath God made for me. Whosoever heareth will laugh with me. Who could have said to Abraham, Sarah doth suckle children. For I have borne a son for his old age." The distich is synonymous in general, although there is an advance in thought by bringing in " whosoever hear- eth " to take part in the laughter of joy. The tristich is progressive in that the second line gives the object of the saying of the first, and the third the reason of it ; while at the same time, the term " borne a son " is synon- ymous with " suckle children " of the second line, and the term " for his old age '* is synonymous with " Abra- ham " of the first line. The blessing of Noah (Gen. ix. 25-27) is comprised of two distichs and a tristich. " Cursed be Canaan. A servant of servants shall he be to his brethren. Blessed be Jehovah, God of Shem, And let Canaan be their servant. May God spread out Japhet, And may He dwell in the tents of Shem, And let Canaan be their servant." In the first distich we have another example of an un- finished line, the second progressive to it. In the sec- ond distich we have a simple progression in the thought. In the final tristich the progression runs on through the three lines. It is also worthy of note that the last line is in the three examples of the nature of a refrain. There are two interesting specimens of the tristich in HEBREW POETRY. 269 the blessing of the sons of Joseph by Jacob (Gen. xlviii 15-20): " The God before whom my fathers walked, Abraham and Isaac ; The God who acted as my shepherd from the first even to this day j The Malakh who redeemed me from every evil — bless the lads. And let my name be named in them ; And the name of my fathers, Abraham and Isaac, And let them increase to a great multitude in the midst of the land." The first tristich is in its three lines synonymous so far as the first half of the lines, but in the second half there is a steady march to the climax. The second tristich is synonymous in its first and second lines, where the lead- ing idea of the name is varied from Jacob himself to Abraham and Isaac ; but the third line is an advance in thought. The priest's blessing (Num. vi. 23) is also an example of a synonymous tristich : '• Jehovah bless thee and keep thee ; Jehovah let His face shine upon thee and be gracious to thee ; Jehovah lift up His face upon thee and give thee peace." The tetrastich is formed from the disticli, and consists generally of pairs balanced over against one another, but sometimes of three lines against one ; rarely there is a steady march of thought to the end. The oracle respecting Jacob and Ksau (G^n, xxv. 23) 's an example of balanced pairs : " Two nations are in thy womb. And two peoples will separate themselves* firom tht Ivrfels ; And people will i)revail over people. And the elder will serve the younger." The pairs are synonymous within themselves, bu( pro« gressive with reference to one another. 270 BIBLICAL STUDY. The blessing of Ephraim by Jacob (Gen. xlviii. 1 9) is an example of antithetical pairs : " He also will become a people, And he also will grow great ; But yet his younger brother will become greater than he. And his seed will become abundance of nations." The song of the well (Num. xxi. 17-18) is an interest- ing and beautiful example of a more involved kind of parallelism, where the second and third lines constitute a synonymous pair ; while at the same time, as a pair they are progressive to the first line, and are followed by a fourth line progressive to themselves : " Spring- up well ! Sing to it ! Well that princes have dug ; The nobles of the people have bored, With sceptre, with their staves." The dirge of David over Abner (2 Sam. iii. 33-37) presents a similar specimen, where, however, the first and fourth lines are synonymous with one another, as well as the second and third lines : " Was Abner to die as a fool dieth ! Thy hands were not bound, And thy feet were not put in fetters ; As one falling before the children of wickedness, thou did'st fall." A fine example of a tetrastich, progressive throughout, is found in the extract from an ancient ode (i Chron. xii. 8), describing the Gadites who joined David's band : " Heroes of valor, men, a host. For battle, wielders of shield and spear ; And their faces were faces of a lion, And like roes upon the mountains for swiftness." Th-Q pe7itastich is usually a combination of the distich HEBilEW POETRY. 271 and tristich. A beautiful specimen is given in Josh. x. 12, 13, probably a strophe of an ode of victory over the Canaanites at Bethhoron, which has been lost ; "Sun stand still in Gibeon, And moon in the valley of Ajalon ; And the sun stood still. And the moon stood, Until the people avenged themselves on their enemies." The first and second lines are essentially synonymous, and so the third and fourth ; but the second pair is pro- gressive to the first, and the fifth line is progressive to the second pair. The oracle with which Amasai joined David's band (i Chron. xii. 18) is an example of the same kind, save that the fifth line is progressive to the previous four lines: " Thine are we, Da\'id, And with thee, son of Jesse. Peace, peace to thee. And peace to thy helpers ; For thy God dotli help thee." The hexastich is a combination of two tristichs, or a tetrastich and distich, and is often used in poems. The blessmg of Jacob by Isaac (Gen. xxvii. 27 seq^ gives us an example of a tetrastich and hexastich : " See the smell of my son ! It is like the smell of a field which Jehovah hath blessed. And may God give thee of the dew of heaven, And the fulness of earth, and abundance of corn and new wine.' " May peoples bless thee, And nations do thee homage, Be thou lord of thy brethren, And may the sons of thy mother do thee homage. Blessed be those who bless thee, And cursed be those who curse thee." 272 BIBLICAL STUDY. The tetrastich has its first line unfinished ; its second progressive thereto ; the third and fourth Hnes are also progressive. The hexastich is composed of three coup- lets, the first and second having their lines synonymous, the third couplet antithetical, but the pairs are progres. sive with reference to one another. Isaac's blessing of Esau (Gen. xxvii. 39, 40) is also a hexastich : " Lo far from the fatness of the earth will thy dwelling-place be. And far from the dew of heaven above, And by thy sword wilt thou live ; And thy brother wilt thou serve. And it will come to pass when thou wilt rove about, Thou wilt break off his yoke from upon thy neck." Longer groupings of lines are found in poems of vari- ous kinds : the description of the horse in Job xxxix. 19-25 has fourteen lines, the conclusion of the blessing of Moses (Deut. xxxiii.) has seventeen lines. IV. THE STROPHE. The strophe is to the poem what the lines or verses are in relation to one another in the system of parallel- ism. They are composed of a greater or lesser number of lines, sometimes equal, and sometimes unequal. Where there is a uniform flow of the emotion the strophes will be composed of the same number of lines, and will be as regular in relation to one another as the lines of which they are composed ; but where the emotion is agitated by passion, or broken by figures of speech, or abrupt in transitions, they will be irregular and uneven. The strophes are subject to the same principles of parallelism as the lines themselves, and are thus either synonymous to one another, antithetical, or progressive, in those sev- HEBREW POETRY. 2^3 era! x arieties of parallelism already mentioned. A fa- vorite arrangement is the balancing of one strophe with another on the principle of the distich, then agam o two with one as a tristich. Thus the song (Deut. xxxik) has three parts of four strophes in each part, arranged in double pairs of strophe and antistrophe, accordmg to th^ scheme of 3 x 2 x 2. The song of Deborah (Judges V ) is composed of three parts, with three strophes m each part according to the scheme of 3 x 3- These divis- ions are determined by the principles of parallelism, not being indicated by any signs or marks in the Hebrew text One of the earliest examples of strophes is in the ode (Num. xxi. 27-30), composed of three strophes grad- ually diminishing in accordance with its dirge-like char- acter, a favorite conceit of Hebrew poets; thus of 6.5.4 lines.' The ode is abrupt in style, rapid in transitions, full of rare forms and expressions, with frequent allitera- tions, and of real beauty : " Come to Hesbon ! Built, yea established be the city of Sihon ; For fire went forth from Hesbon, Flame from the city of Sihon. It consumed Ar of Moab, The lords of the high places of Arnon. " Woe to thee, Moab ! Thou art lost, people of Chemosh ! He hath given over his sons unto flight, And his daughters unto captivity, Unto the king of the Amorites, Sihon ! " Then we shot at them.— He was lost,— Hesbon unto Dibon. — And we wasted them even to Nophah, With fire unto Medebah." 12* gY4 BIBLICAL STUDY. The oracle of Balaam (Num. xxiv. 3-9) is composed of five strophes, according to the scheme ; 5.6.4.5.4 lines " Oracle of Balaam, son of Beor ; Oracle of the man whose eye was shut ; Oracle of one hearing the words of God, Who was gazing at the vision of the Almighty, Fallen down and with eyes uncovered. " How excellent thy tents, Jacob I Thy dwellings, Israel I Like streams spread out. Like gardens by a river, Like aloes which Jehovah planted. Like cedars by the water. " Water flows from his backets. And his seed are on many waters. That his king may be higher than Agag, And his kingdom exalt itself. " God bringeth him forth from Egypt, Like the swiftness of the yore-ox hath he ; He devoureth nations, his adversaries, And their bones he cruncheth. And their arrows crusheth. " He doth bow down, doth couch as a lion. And as a lioness ; who would stir him up? Blessed be those who bless thee. But cursed be those who curse thee." The last song of David (2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7) is composed of five strophes of five lines each (the first strophe being restored to its original form by elimination of title and editorial comments) : " Oracle of the man raised up on high. The spirit of Jehovah speaks in me ; And His word is upon my tongue, The God of Israel doth say to me, The Rock of Israel doth speak. HEBREW POETRY. 275 •* A ruler over men — righteous ; A ruler in the fear of God. Yea, he is like the morning light when the sun rises, A morning without clouds. From shining, fKDm rain, tender grass sprouts from the earth " Is not thus my house with God ? For an everlasting covenant hath He made with me. Arranged in all things, and secured. Yea, all my salvation and every delight Will He not cause it to sprout ? " But the worthless, like thorns all of them are thrust away. For they cannot be taken with the hand. The man touching them Must be armed with iron, and the spear's staff. And with fire they will be utterly consumed." Further illustrations of the strophe will be given in connection with the external marks of division now to be considered. The simplest and most natural of these IS the Refrain. A good example of the Refrain is given in Pss. xlii. and xliii., which are really one : ' As a hart which crieth out after the water brooks, So my soul crieth out for Thee, O God ! My soul doth thirst for God, for the God of life : How long ere I shall come to appear before the face of God ? My tears have been to me food day and night ; While they say unto me all day, ' Where is thy God ? ' These things would I remember, and would pour out my soul with- in me : How I used to pass along in the throng, used to lead them up to the house of God, With the sound of rejoicing and praise, a multitude keeping fes- tival, Why art thou bowed down, my soul ? and why art thou moan- ing within me ? Wait on God : for yet shall I praise Him, The deliverance of my face, and my God. 276 BIBLICAL STUDY. " Wherefore would I remember Thee from the land of Jordan, and the Hermons, from the mount Mizar. Deep unto deep is calling to the sound of Thy cataracts ; All Thy breakers and Thy billows do pass over me : By day Jehovah will appoint His mercy, And by night His song will be with me, prayer to the God of my life. I must say to the God of my rock, Why dost Thou forget me ? Why go I mourning because of the oppression of an enemy ? As a breaking in my bones my adversaries do reproach me ; While they say unto me all day, ' Where is thy God ? ' Why art thou bowed down, my soul ? and why art thou moan- ing within me ? Wait on God : for yet shall I praise Him, The deliverance of my face, and my God. " Judge me, O God, and plead my cause against an unmerciful na- tion ; Against a man of deceit and wickedness, deliver me. O Thou God, my fortress, why dost Thou cast me off.-* Why must I go about mourning because of the oppression of an enemy ? Send Thy light and Thy truth : let them lead me ; Let them bring me unto Thy holy mount, even to Thy dwellings. That I may come to the altar of God, To the God of the joy of my rejoicing, That I may praise Thee with harp, O God, my God. Why art thou bowed down, my soul.? and why art thou moan- ing within me ? Wait on God ; for yet shall I praise Him, The deliverance of my face, and my God." The strophes have each nine lines, the refrain three lines. We are well aware that other arrangements of the lines are usual, and that objection may be taken to our elimination of ver. 7 a ; but it seems clearly established that a copyist's mistake has caused the refrain of the first strophe to be deprived of its closing word, which begins this verse ; and the other three words are easiest HEBREW POETHY, 277 to explain as copyist's mistakes, also repeated from the refrain. Psalm viii. is a beautiful example of a hymn with a refrain, having the peculiarity that the refrain begins the first strophe and closes the second : " Jehovah, our Lord, How excellent is Thy name in all the earth 1 ' Thou whose glory doth extend over the heavens. Out of the mouth of little children and sucklings Thou dost establish strength because of Thine adversaries. To silence enemy and avenger. When I see Thy heavens, the work of Thy fingers. Moon and stars which Thou hast prepared ; What is frail man, that Thou shouldst be mindful of him ? Or the son of man, that Thou visitest him ? When Thou didst make him a little lower than the angels. With glory and honor crowning him, Thou mad'st him to have dominion over the works of Thy hands ; All things Thou didst put under his feet : Sheep and oxen, all of them ; And also beasts of the field ; Birds of heaven, and fishes of the sea ; Those that pass through the paths of the seas. Jehovah, our Lord, How excellent is Thy name in all the earth ! " But the refrain does not always divide the poem into equal strophes. Thus the dirge (2 Sam. i. 19-27) is composed of three parts, which melt away according to the scheme of 18, 5, i. The refrain itself does not al- ways correspond throughout. Thus in Ps. Ixxx. it in- creases itself for emphasis in the heaping up of the divine names in the successive strophes ; and where the two middle strophes constitute a double strophe, giving the allegory of the vine with a double refrain at the close, massing together a series of imperatives. Ps. xlv. 278 BIBLICAL STUDY. gives us a varying refrain and three gradually-increasing parts. The refrain is also used for the division of larger pieces of poetry, as in the Song of Songs, where it di- vides the poem into five acts ; and in the prophet Isaiah, xl.-lxvi., which it divides into three great divisions.* Another means of marking the strophes is the alpha- bet, whereby the line or strophe begins with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. This seems to have been designed as an aid to the memory, and to mark the advance step by step. They constitute, as it were, lad- ders up which the poet climbs in his prayers, exhortations, and praises, and down which he climbs in his lamenta- tions. Sometimes the alphabet in its order marks the initial letters of the lines, as in Pss. xii. and cxi. ; some- times of couplets, as in Pss. xxv., xxxiv., cxlv. ; and again in strophes of four lines, as in Pss. ix., x., and xxxvii. ; and in the long Ps. cxix. in greater strophes, in which every couplet begins with the same letter, eight times repeated in each strophe. The alphabetic structure reaches its culmination in the book of Lamentations, which is com- posed of five songs, four being alphabetical. In the first and second the strophes are of three couplets, in the third song also of three couplets ; but each of these be- gins with the letter proper to the strophe, so that it is repeated three times in each strophe. The fourth song is composed of alphabetical strophes of two couplets. The Selah in the Psalter is thought by some, notably a recent scholar, Julius Ley, to always mark the divis- ions of the strophe when it occurs; but in our judgment it is rather a musical sign, and has no relation to the poetic structure whatever. * The author has recently discovered that Gen. i. is a poem of the Creation in six strophes with a refrain. The lines are ordinarily five-toned. Strophes i. and ii. liave seven lines each ; iii.-v. ten lines each ; vi. is a double strophe of twenty lines with a double refrain. See the Old Testament Student^ Chicago, April, T884. HEBBjEW POETRY. 279 V. THE MEASUREMENT BY WORDS OR ACCENTS. The accent seems to measure the Hebrew verses, so that in the main the lines will have the same number of beats ; but the delight of Hebrew poetry in its freedom prevents the carrying of the principle out into the forms of metrical laws. The three-toned lines, which may, in a restricted sense, be named trimeters, are favorites in early poetry ; then come four-toned lines and five-toned. Six-toned lines occur, but they are not so frequent. There can be no doubt that the Maqqeph, as placed at present, has reference to cantillation in the synagogue, and not the original metrical movement. Yet there is no reason to doubt that in the main it corresponds with the old metrical arrangement. It must, however, be rejected in some cases, and in others inserted, where it is not found in the present text. The power of the language to reduce the number of accented words, by joining two or more together, must have been of great service to the Hebrew poet. As a specimen, we give from the first oracle of Balaam (Num. xxiii. 7, seq^ the first strophe in Hebrew transliterated : Min — 'ara'm | yanhe'ni | B414'q. Me'lekh | Moa'b | mehar^re — q6dem. L*khah | 'irih — li | ya'»q6bh Ul'khS.h I z6''mah | yisVa-'el Mih — 'eqqob | 16' — qabboh | 'el Umih — 'ez'om | 16' — zi'am | Jahveh. To show this as far as possible to the English reader v\'e translate : " From Aram | Balaq | brings me, The king | of Moab | from the mountains of the East. O come I curse for me | Jacob And oh come | execrate | Israel. 280 BIBLICAL STUDY. How can I denounce | what God | doth not denounce ? And how can I execrate | what Jehovah | doth not execrate ? " For from tlie top | of rocks | I see him, And from hills | I spy him. Lo a people | alone | will he dwell, And among nations | he will not | be reckoned. Who hath counted | the dust | of Jacob ? And as to number | the fourth | of Israel ? Let me myself die | the death | of the upright. And let my last end | be | like his." The closing distich is of the nature of a refrain. There is but one exception to three-toned lines ; the second line of the second strophe having but two tones. The second prophecy of Balaam is the same in struct- ure (Num. xxiii. 18-24) : two strophes of six lines each, three-toned, with a refrain in four three-toned line*.. The several prophecies of Jacob (Gen. xlix.) are three- toned, also the songs of Moses (Deut. xxxii. and xxxiii.) The ode (Exod. xv.) is four-toned. The refrain we givj. in Hebrew : Shiru I 1" Jahveh | khi — gha'oh j gha'ah Sus I w" rokh^bho | rdmah | bayyam. We translate the first strophe : " My strength | and song is Jah | and He has become | my salvation. The same is my God | that I may glorify Him | my Father's God | that I may exalt Him. Jehovah is | a warrior, | Jehovah is | His name. Chariots of Pharaoh | and his host | He hath thrown | into the sea, And the choicest | of his charioteers | are drowned | in the sea of reeds. The depths | cover them over, ] they descend | into the deep places I like a stone." The last line is lengthened to five tones for the climax. Psalm iv. is an evening prayer of David, composed of HEBREW POETRY. 281 five strophes in the scheme of 3.4.34.3, and generally four toned lines : " When I call | answer me | God | of my righteousness. In trouble | Thou didst enlarge | for me, Be gracious to me | and hear | my prayer. " Ye sons of man | how long | shall my glory | become shame ? Will ye love | vanity | will ye seek | a lie ? But know I that Jehovah | hath wonderfully selected | a pious man for Himself. Jehovah | heareth | when I call | unto Him. " Be ye angry | but do not | sin, Speak I in your heart | upon your bed | and be still. Sacrifice | sacrifices of righteousness | and trust | unto Jehovah. " Many ] are saying | who can show us | good ? Let wave upon them | the light | of thy face | Jehovah. Thou hast given | joy | in my heart. More than at the time when | their corn | and their new wine ) increased. " In peace ] together | I will lie down | to sleep. For Thou | Jehovah | alone, In confidence | causeth me to dwell." The first psalm is an example of two strophes, the one of eight four-toned lines, the other of six three-toned lines : " O the blessedness | of the man | Who does not | walk | in the counsel | of the wicked, And in the way | of sinners | doth not | stand, And in the seat | of scorners | doth not | sit ; But on the contrary | in the doctrine | of Jehovah | is his delight, . And in His doctrine | he meditateth | day | and night : And so he is | like a tree | planted | by brooks of water. Which yieldeth | its fruit | in its season, And its leaf | withereth not | and ail which he doeth | he causetb to prosper. 288 BIBLICAL STUDY. " Not so I the wicked | But on the contrary, like the chaff | which the wind | driveth away^ Wherefore the wicked | shall not stand | in the judgment, Nor sinners | in the congregation | of the righteous, For Jehovah knoweth | the way | of the righteous ; But the way | of the wicked | goeth to ruin." The nineteenth psalm is an interesting example of varied measurement. It is composed of two parts : the first of two strophes of six and eight four-toned lines, the last of eight and six five-toned lines. It is only nec- essary to call attention to these five-toned lines as really composed of 3 + 2, with a caesura-like pause. Thus, the first strophe of the second part : " The doctrine | of Jehovah ( is perfect, | restoring | the soul ; The testimony ( of Jehovah | is reliable, || making wise | the simple; The statutes | of Jehovah | are upright, 1| rejoicing | the heart ; The command | of Jehovah | is pure, |i enlightening | the eyes ; The fear | of Jehovah | is clear, I standing | for ever ; The judgments | of Jehovah | are truth, | they are righteous | alto- gether : Those desirable | more than gold |1 or than fine | gold ; Sweeter | than honey || and the drippings | of the comb." The twenty-third psalm shows a beautiful progress in the gradual lengthening of the lines in the three strophes : " Jehovah is | my shepherd | I cannot want. In pastures | of green grass | He causeth me to lie down ; Unto waters | of refreshment [ He leadeth me ; Myself I He restoreth | ' He guideth me | in paths | of righteousness | for His name's sake ; Also I when I walk | in the valley | of dense darkness, I fear not | evil, | for Thou art ( with me, Thy rod | and Thy staff | they | comfort me. EUEBREW POETRY. 283 "* He prepareth ] before me | a table | in the presence | of my adver- saries ; Has he anointed | with oil | my head, | my cup | is abundance ; Surely goodness | and mercy | pursue me | all the days | of my hfe, And I shall return | to dwell in the house | of Jehovah [ for length I of days." Isaiah xxvL i-6 gives an example of six-toned lines : " A city of strength | have we, 9 salvation | is put | for walls | and rampart. Open I the gates || that a righteous nation | keeping | faithfulness I may enter. One in purpose firm | Thou keepest | in peace ; | in peace, | for in Thee | he trusteth. Trust in Jehovah | for ever, i yea, in Jah | Jehovah | a rock ever- lasting. 'Tis He doth bringdown ] dwellers | on high || a city | inaccessible ; He bringeth it low, | he bringeth it low | unto earth, || razeth it | to the dust ; The foot I trampleth it, | feet | of the afflicted, | steps | of the weak." Examples might be multiplied indefinitely, but we have given enough to illustrate the principle. VI. POETIC LANGUAGE. As in all other languages, so in the Hebrew the poetic style is elevated, artistic, and cultivated, and hence above the every-day talk of the houses and streets. For this purpose it selects not the language of the schools, which becomes technical, pedantic, and artificial, but the older language, which, with its simplicity and strong vital energy, is in accord with the poetic spirit. Thus in the forms of the language there is (a) an occasional use of the fuller sounding forms, as athaJi for aJi^ of the fern, noun ; {p) the older endings of preposi- tions in b^li for bal, minni for miny 'dli for V/, 'dli for 'al, 284 BIBLICAL STDDr. 'ddhi for ^ad ; {c) the older case endings of nouns as chay^tho for chayyath, and b^ni for ben; {d) the older suffix forms in vio and ^mo for dm; {e) the fuller forms of the inseparable prepositions l^inS for l^, ¥m6 for b^ ; {/) the ?tun paragogic or archaic ending of 3 pf. of verbs, ti7i for ii. The style is more primitive, using many archaic ex- pressions that have been lost to the classic language. There are in the older books so-called Aramaisms. There are, however, carefully to be distinguished, an earlier and a later Aramaism. The monuments of Assyria and Babylon show us that the earlier Hebrew language waij historically in contact with the languages of Syria and the Euphrates. The Assyrian and Babylonian shed great light on these poetic archaisms. A later connection of Hebrew with Aramaic is indicated in the later historical writings of the Bible, which is of an altogether differer t type. The poetic language is also remarkably rich i i synonyms, exceedingly flexible and musical in structure and thus the older forms are retained in these synonym t for variety of representation, when they have lonj ; passed from use in the prose literature. VII. THE KINDS OF HEBREW POETRY. Hebrew poetry may be divided into three general classes, Lyric, Gnomic, and Composite. (i) Lyric poetry is the earliest development of literature. We find it scattered through the various historical and pro- phetical books, and also in the great collection of Hebrew lyric poetry, the Psalter. The three pieces ascribed to Moses, Ex. XV., Psalm xc, and Deut. xxxii., subdivide lyric poetry into the hymn, the prayer, and the song. The hymn is found in rich variety — the evening hymn, the morning hymn, the hymn in a storm, hymns of vie- HEBREW POETRY. 285 tor)' Of odes, as that of the victory over the Egyptians, Ex. XV. ; over the Moabites, Num. xxi. ; the ode of the battle of Beth Horon, Josh. x. ; the song of Deborah, Judges V. ; the thanksgiving as in the song of Hannah, and many pieces of Isaiah ; the grand oratorio, Ps. xcii.-c, and the most of the fourth and fifth books of the Psalter, containing the greater and lesser hallels, the hallelujah psalms and doxologies. The prayers are in rich variety — evening and morning prayers, a litany ?)efore a battle, prayers for special and national deliver ance ; psalms of lamentation, penitence, religious medi- tation, of faith, and assurance — in all the rich variety of devotion. These are most numerous in the psalms ascribed to David, and may be regarded as especially the Davidic type, although the xc. psalm ascribed to Moses and Hab. iii. are among the most wonderful specimens, as the one traverses the past and compares the frailness of man with the everlasting God, and the other marches into the future and bows with trembling in the presence of the most sublime Theophany. A special form of this class is the dirge, as the laments of David over Jonathan and Abner, and in the exceed- ingly elaborate and artistic book of Lamentations, and not infrequently in the prophets. The songs are abun- dant, and in every variety: the sword song of Lamech, the birth song of Sarah, the blessings of the patriarchs Noah, Abraham, Isaac, the priest Aaron, and the swan song of David. In the Psalter we have songs of exhor- tation, warning, encouragement, historical recollections, prophetic anticipations, and the love song. The psahns of Asaph arjs chiefly of this class. (2) Gnomic poetry has but few specimens in the his- torical books. We have a riddle of the ancient hero Samson : 286 BIBLICAL STUDr. "From the eater | came forth | food, And from the strong | came forth | sweetness"; followed by a satire : " If you I had not ploughed | with my heifer, You would not | have found out | my riddle." Judges xiv. 14-18. Another witty saying of this hero is preserved : " With the jaw-bone | of an ass | a heap | two heaps ; With the jaw-bone | of an ass | have I smitten | a thousand men. Judges xv. 16. The Hebrews were fond of this species of poetry, but we could hardly expect to find much of it in the Bible.^ Its religious and ethical forms are preserved in a rich collection in the Proverbs, consisting of fables, parables, proverbs, riddles, moral and political maxims, satires, philosophical and speculative sentences. There are up- wards of five hundred distinct couplets, synonymous, antithetical, parabolical, comparative, emblematical, be- sides fifty larger pieces of three, four, five, six, seven, and eight lines, with a few poems, such as the temperance poem (xxiii. 29-35), the pastoral (xxvii. 22-27), the pieces ascribed to the poets Aluqah, Agur, and Lemuel, the alphabetical praise of the talented wife (xxxi. 10-31), and the great admonition of Wisdom in fifteen advanc- ing discourses (i.-ix.). A few specimens of this kind of poetry will suffice to illustrate it. There are several riddles ascribed to Ahiqah in Prov. XXX. : (i) The riddle of the insatiable things, xxx. 15- 16: " Two daughters | (cry) : give ! | give ! Three | are they | whicli cannot be satisfied ; Four I say not ) enough." * See Wunsche, Die Rdthsehueisheii bei d. llebracrn^ Leipzig, 1883. HEBREW POETRY. 2gY The answer : • Sheol, 1 and a barren | womb ; Land | cannot be satisfied | with water ; And fire | says not | enough." (2) The riddle of the little wise people, xxx. 24-28 : " Four 1 are | Httle ones of earth ; But they [ are wise | exceedingly." The answer : " The ants [ are a people | not strong, But they prepare | in summer | their food ; Conies | are a people | not mighty, But they make | in the rock | their home ; A king I the locusts | have not. But they march forth | in bands | — all of them ; The spider | with the hands | thou mayest catch. But she I dwells in the palaces | of kings," A beautiful temperance piece is found in xxiii. 2g--^^, composed of ten lines of five tones each : " Who hath woe ? | who hath wretchedness ? J who hath | stripes t I who hath murmuring ? Who hath wounds | without cause ? [ who hath | dark flashing ] eyes ? Those tarr)'ing long | at the wine I : those going | to seek | spiced wine. Look I not I on wine | when it | sparkleth red ; When it giveth | in the cup | its glance | ; floweth | smoothly : Its end is | that as a serpent | it biteth, || and like an adder | it stingeth. Thine eyes | will see | strange things, || and thine heart utter j perverse things ; So that thou wilt become | like one lying down | in the heart of the sea || ; and like one lying down | on the top of a mast. They have smitten me | (thou wilt say), but I am not | hurt | they have wounded me, | I feel it not : How long I ere I shall arise | that I may seek it j yet | again ? " BIBLICAL STUDY. Another choice piece is the representation of the sluf. gard, xxiv. 30-34, eleven lines of three tones each : " By the field | of a slothful man | 1 passed, And by the vineyard | of a man ( without understanding And lo, its wall | was grown up | with thorns, Its face I covered over | with nettles, And its wall | of stones | was broken down ; So that I gazed j to give it | attention ; I saw I — I received | instruction. A little sleep, | a little | of slumber A little folding | of the hands | to lie down ; And thy poverty | comes | walking on. And thy want | as a man | armed with a shield." (3) Composite poetry starts in part from a lyric base as in prophecy, beginning with the blessings of Jacob and Moses, and the poems of Balaam, and in lesser and fjreater pieces in the prophetical writings, the Song of 5)ongs, and Lamentations ; in part from a gnomic base as in the book of Job, and Ecclesiastes. We shall present a few specimens. The first Act of the Song of Songs will give an illus- tration of the use of the dramatic element : Scene I. Solo. Let him kiss me with some kisses of his mouth, For thy caresses are better than wine ; For scent thine ointments are excellent ; O thou sweet ointment, poured forth as to thy name I Therefore the virgins love thee. Solo. Oh ! Draw me ! Chorus. After thee we will run ! Solo. O that the king had brought me to his apartment I Chorus, We will rejoice and we will be glad with thee. We will celebrate thy caresses more than wine. Rightly they love thee. Scene II. Shulamite. Dark am I — Chorus. — but lovely — HEBREW POETRY. ggg Shulamite. — daughters of Jerusalem, as the tents of Kedar. Chorus. — as the curtains of Solomon. Sh. Gaze not upon me because I am swarthy. Because the sun scanned me : My mother's sons were angry with me, They set me as keeper of the vineyards ; My vineyard, which is my own, have I not kept- O tell me, thou whom my soul loveth : Where feedest thou thy flock ? Where dost thou let them couch at noon ? Why should I be, as one straying After the flocks of thy companions ? Ch. If thou knowest not of thyself, thou fairest among women. Go forth for thyself at the heels of the flock. And feed thy kids at the tabernacles of the shepherds. Scene III. Solomon. To my mare in the choice chariot of Pharaoh I liken thee my friend. Lovely are thy cheeks in rows (of coin), thy neck in thy neck- lace ! Rows of gold we will make thee, with chains of silver. Sh. While the king was in his divan my nard gave its scent. A bundle of myrrh, is my beloved to me, that lodgeth between my breasts ; A cluster of henna, is my beloved to me, in the vineyards of En Geddi. Sol. Lo thou art lovely, my friend, Lo thine eyes are doves. Sk. Lo thou art lovely, my beloved. Yea sweet, yea our arbour is green. Sol. The timbers of our houses are cedar. Our wainscoting cypress. Sk. I am the flower of Sharon, The anemone of the valleys. Sol. As the anemone among the thorns, ' So is my friend among the daughters. Sh. As the apricot among the trees of the wood. So is my beloved among the sons. In its shadow I dclijjhted to sit, 13 290 BIBLICAL SiTUDT. And its fruit was sweet to my tiste. that he had brought me to th« vineyard. His banner over me being love- • Sustain me with raisin-cakes, support me with apricots; For I am love sick His left hand would be under my head, His right hand would embrace me 1 adjure you, daughters of Jerusalem, by the gazelles, Or by the hinds of the field that ye »\ruuse not. And that ye stir not up love till it picas'*- The finest piece of ethics in the Old Testament is found in Job xxxi. : " (l) A covenant have I concluded with my eyiv \ How then should I consider a maiden ? Else what portion of Eloah from above. Or inheritance of Shadday from on high ? Is there not destruction for the evil doer • And calamity for the worker of iniquity ? Is He not seeing my ways ; And all my steps counting ? " (2) If I have walked with falsehood. And my foot has made haste unto deceit Let Him weigh me in righteous balances^ That Eloah may know my integrity ! If my step used to incline from fhe way, And after my eyes my heart did walk, And to my palms a spot did cle^^ve, Let me sow and let another eat, And as for my crops, let them be rioted out. ' (3) If my heart hath been seduced unto a woman. And at the door of my neighbour I have lurked Let my wife grind the mill for another. And over her let others bend ; For that were infamy ; And that were an iniquity for the judg'cs ; For it is a fire that devoureth unto Ab^ddoi^ And in all my increase it rooteth up. HEBREW POETRY. 291 " (4) If I used to refuse the right of my slave, Or my maid servant, when they plead with me ; What could I do when God should rise up, And when He would investigate, what could I respond tc Him? Did not, in the womb, my maker make him. And one being form us in the belly? * (5) If I used to keep back the weak from his desire, And caused the eye of the widow to fail. And ate my portion alone. And the orphan did not eat of it : Nay — from my youth did he grow up unto me as a father ; And from the womb of my mother I was accustomed to guide her. ' (6) If I could see a man ready to perish without clothing And the poor having no covering Surely his loins blessed me, And from the fleece of my sheep he warmed himself. If I lifted up my hand over the orphan, When I saw my help in the gate My shoulder — let it fall from its blade. And my arm — let it be broken from its bone ! For there was fear unto me of calamity from God, And because of His majesty I could not. (7) If I have made gold my confidence, And unto fine gold said, thou art my tnist ; If I used to rejoice that my wealth was great. And that my hand had found vast resources ; If I used to see the light that it was shining brightly. And the moon moving in splendour. So that my heart was enticed in secret, And my hand kissed my mouth : — This also were an iniquity for judges. For I had denied El on high. " (8) It I was accustomed to rejoice in the calamity of the one hat ing me, Or was excited with joy when evil overtook him ; • 2^2 BIBLICAL STUDY. Nay ! I did not give my palate to sinning, In asking with a curse his life. Verily the men of my tent say : Who can shew us one not filled with his meat ? Without the stranger used not to lodge, My doors to the caravan I used to open. " (9) If against me my land crieth, And together its furrows weep ; If its strength I have eaten without silver. And the life of its lord I have caused to expire ; Instead of wheat let thorns come forth, And evil weeds instead of barley. " (10) If I have covered as man my transgression. Hiding in my bosom my iniquity ; Because I feared the great multitude. And the contempt of the clans made me afraid ; And so was silent, would not go out to the gate : — O that I had one to hear me — Behold my mark ! — Let Shadday answer me ! that I had the bill (of accusation) my adversary has written ! Surely I would lift it up on my shoulder, 1 would bind it as a crown of glory upon me, The number of my steps would I declare to him. As a prince I would approach him." We shall finally present a specimen of Prophetic Poe- try, and indeed the most sublime piece in the Old Tes- tament, as well as one of the most artistic (Is. Hi. 13- liii.), consisting of five gradually increasing strophes : " (i) Behold my servant shall prosper, He shall be lifted up and be exalted and be very high. According as many were astonished at thee — So disfigured more than a man was his appearance. And his form than the sons of men ; — So shall he startle many nations ; Because of him kings will stop their mouths ; For what had not been told them they shall see. And v/hat they had not heard they shall attentively consider, HEBREW POETRY. 293 (2) Who believed our message, And the arm of Jehovah, unto whom was it revealed ? When he grew up as a suckling plant before us. And as a root out of a dry ground ; He had no form and no majesty that we should see him, And no appearance that we should take pleasure in him ; Despised and forsaken of men ! A man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief! And as one before whom there is a hiding of the face ! Despised, and we regarded him not ! (3) Verily our griefs ^g bore And our sorrows — ^ * Be util. cred.y c. 5. t De docfrtna, III. 15. X Klausen in /. c, p. 162, seq. ; Davidbon in /. c, p. 133, seg. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 305 jects, so as not to be ignorant of the force and nature of those which are used figuratively; and assisted, besides, l)v accuracy in the texts, which has been secured by skill and care in the matter of correction ; — when thus prepared, let him proceed to the examination and solu- tion of the ambiguities of Scripture." * We think that Klausen on the whole is justified, so far as the Latin church is concerned, in his statement that : " None of the rest of the fathers, earlier or later, came near Augus- tine in the conception and statement of the essential character and conditions of the interpretation of Scripture. The truths which the Reformation in the sixteenth century again invoked into fruitful life, namely, of the relation of the sacred Scriptures to Christian doctrine, and of the scientific interpretation of the Scriptures, and which havt: become subsequently the foundations for the erection of evangelical dogmatics, may all be shown in the writings of Augustine, ev pressed in his clear, strong language." t This should, however, be qualified with the remark that Augustine's practice did not altogether accord with his precepts. He was dominated by the rule of faith :{: and the authority of the church, as Irenaeus and Tcrtul- lian had been ; and he did not apprehend the essential Reformation principle of scriptural interpretation, name- ly, the analogy of faith in the Scriptures themselves. Augustine, in his practice, used too much of \\\^ allegory ; and the Latin fathers followed his example rather than his precepts, and more and more gave themselves up to this method. Gregory the Great went to the greatest lengths in allegory. Toward the close of the third century Lucius of Sam- osata established at Antioch a new cxegetical school, which soon rose to a great power and influence, and pro- * De doctrina, III. i. t In /. c, p. 165. X Diestel, Ge^ch. d. Alt. Test, in d. Clirist. Kirclte, Jena, 1S69, p. 85 ; A. Dor- ler, Augustinus sein theo/ogischcs i,y:>te>n, Berlin, 1873, p. 240, seq. 826 BIBLICAL STUDY. duced the greatest exegetes of the ancient church. Its fundamental principles are well stated by Kihn.* (i) Every passage has its literal meaning and only one mean- ing. We must, however, distinguish between plain and figurative language, and interpret each passage in ac- cordance with its nature. (2) Alongside of the literal sense is the typical sense, which arises out of the rela- tion of the old covenant to the new. It is based upon the literal sense which it presupposes. These are sound principles and are in accord with the usage of the New Testament. " The Antiochans mediated between the two contrasted positions: a coarse, childish, literal sense, and an arbitrary allegorical interpre- tation ; between the extremes of the Judaizers and Anthropomorphites on the one hand, and the Hellenistic Gnostics and Origenists on the other; and they paved the way for a sound biblical exegesis which remained influential for all coming time, if indeed not always preva- lent." t The Antiochan school, like all others, produced schol- ars of different tendencies. Some of them, like Theo- dore of Mopsuestia, Diodorus of Tarsus, and Nestorius pressed historical and grammatical exegesis too far, to the neglect of the higher typical and mystical ; but in Chrysostom, Theodoret, and Ephraim the Syrian, the principles of the school find expression in the noblest products of Christian exegesis, which served as the reser- voir of supply for the feeble traditionalists of the middle ages; and are valued more and more in our own times. :{: With the decline of the school of Antioch, its princi- ples were maintained at Edessa and Nisibis, and thence gave an impulse to the Arabs and the Jewish exegesis of the middle ages, and thus in a roundabout way again * In /. c, p. 29. + Kihn in /. c, p. 2> X Diestel in /. c, pp. 135, 138. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 327 influenced the church of the West at the Reformation But an earlier influence may be traced in the reproduc- tion of the work of Paul of Nisibis by yunilius Africanus in his Institutes.* The rules of Junilius are brief but excellent : " {Disciple). What are those things which we ought to guard in the understanding of the sacred Scriptures ? {Master). That those things which are said may agree with Him who says them ; that they should not be discrepant with the reasons for which they were said ; that they should accord with their times, places, order, and intention. {Disciple). How may we learn the intention of the divine doctrine? {Master). As the Lord Himself says, that we should love God with all our hearts and with all our souls and our neighbors as ourselves. But corruption of doctrine is, on the contrary, not to love God or the neighbor."! The school of Nisibis influenced the Occident also through Cassiodorus, who wished to establish a corre- sponding theological school at Rome, but failed on ac- count of the warlike times.:}: If this had been accom- plished, the history of the middle age might have been very different. He introduced the methods of the school of Nisibis in his Institutions. This was an impor- tant text-book in the middle age and exerted a health- ful influence. He urges to use the fathers as a Jacob's ladder by which to rise to the Scriptures themselves. He insists upon the comparison of Scripture with Script- ures, and points out that frequent and intense medita- tion is the way to a true understanding of them.§ Jerome seems to have occupied an intermediate and not altogether consistent position. He strives for his« torical and grammatical exposition, yet it is easy to see * Instituta Regularia Divinae Legts. \ Kihn in /. c, p. 526. X Kihn in /. t., p. 210. § Kihn in /. c, pp. 211-212; Praef. de Instit. dtv. litt., Migne, T. 70, p 1105, scq. 328 BIBLICAL STUDY. that at the bottom he is more inclined to the allegorical method. He lays down no principles of exegesis, but scattered through his writings one finds numerous wise remarks : " The sacred Scripture cannot contradict itself." * " Whoever in- terprets the gospel in a different spirit from that in which it was written, confuses the faithful and distorts the gospel of Christ." t " The gospel consists not in the words of Scripture but in the sense, not in the surface but in the marrow, not in the leaves of the words but in the roots of the thought." J Thus there grew up in the ancient church three great exegetical tendencies : the literal and traditional, the al- legorical and mystical, the historical and ethical, and these three struggled with one another and became more and more interwoven, in the best of the fathers, but took on all sorts of abnormal forms of exegesis in others. In the middle age the vital Christian spirit was mor(; and more suppressed, and ecclesiastical authority as sumed the place of learning. The traditional principle of exegesis became more and more dominant and along- side of this the allegorical method was found to be the most convenient for reconciling Scripture with tradition. The literal and the historical sense was almost entirely ignored. The fourfold sense became fixed, as expressed in the saying: the literal sense teaches what has been done, the allegorical what to believe, the moral what to do, the anagogical whither we are tending.§ In the middle age exegesis consisted chiefly in the re- production of the expositions of the fathers, in collec- tions and compilations, called epitomes, glosses, postilles, chains. In the Oriental church the chief of these com * Fpist. ad Marcellam. t Epist. ad Gal. i. 6. % Epist. ad Gal. i. ii. ^ Litera gesta docet, quid credas allegorta, moralis quid agas, quo lendas Anagogia. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 329 pilers were: Oecumenius (t999), Theophylact (f 1007), and Euthymius Zigabenus (f ii 1 8). These contain chiefly the exegesis of Chrysostom, Theodoret, and the Anti- ochan school. In the Occidental church, there is more independence and greater use of the allegory. The chief Latin expositors of the middle age are, Beda(f 735), Al- cuin (+ 804), Walafrid Strabo (f 849), Rhabanus Mauru? (t 856), Peter Lombard (f 1164), Thomas Aquinas (f 1274),* Hugo de St. Caro (f 1260). The only exegete of the middle age who shows any acquaintance with the Hebrew text of the Old Testament is the converted Jew, Nicolaus de Lyra (f 1340). He seems to have appre- hended better than any previous writer the proper exe- getical method, but could only partly put it in practice. He was doubtless influenced greatly by the grammatical exegesis of the Jews of the middle age, from Saadia's school, and especially by Raschi.f He wrote postille.s on the entire Bible. He mentions the four senses of Scripture and then says : "All of them presuppose the literal sense as the foundation. Ai a building, declining from the foundation, is likely to fall, so the mys- tic exposition, which deviates from the literal sense, must be reck- oned unbecoming and unsuitable." And yet he adds : " 1 protest, I intend to say nothing either in the way of assertion or determination, except in relation to such things as have been clearly settled by Holy Scripture on the authority of the church. All besides must be taken as spoken scholastically and by way of exer- * Ilis Catena Aurea on the Gospels have been translated by Pusey, Keb*,, and Newman, 6 vols., Oxford, 1870 ; and may be consulted as the most accessibie specimen of the interpretation of the middle age. t See Siegfried, Raschi's Rinjluss an/ Nicolatis von Lira und Luther in det Ansle^^un^ der Genesis, in Merx, Arc/uv, I., p. 428, scq. ; II., p. 39, seq. 330 BIBLICAL STUDY. cise; for which reason, I submit all I have said, and aim to say, to the correction of our holy mother the church." * In such bondage to the infallable church, it is astonish- ing that he accompHshcd so much. He exerted a health- ful, reviving influence in biblical study and in a measure prepared for the Reformation. There is truth in the saying, " If Lyra had not piped, Luther would not have danced." f Luther thought highly of Lyra, and yet Luther really started from a principle entirely different from the literal sense. For this he was rather prepared by Wicklif and Huss. Wicklif was a contemporary of Lyra, and opposed the abuse of the allegorical method horn the spiritual side, and in contrast with Lyra recog- nized the authority of the Scriptures as above the au- thority of the church. He makes the all-important state- ment which was not allowed to die, but became the Puri- tan watchword in subsequent times: "The Holy Spirit teaches us the sense of Scripture as Christ opened the Scriptures to His apostles.":}: Huss and Jerome of Prague followed Wicklif in this respect. § With reference to the interpretation of the middle age as a whole, the remarks of Immcr are appropriate : j| " It lacks the most essential qualification to scriptural interpreta- tion, linguistic knowledge, and historical perception This de- fect inheres in th-; mediasval period in general. Hence there could be no advance in interpretation. But what it could do it did : it col- lected and preserved ; and what was thus preserved waited for new fructifying elements, which were to be introduced in the second half of the fifteenth century." * Postillae perpetuae^ sen brevia commentaria in Univena Biblia, prnl. ii., Davidson in I. c, p. 175. se(f. •f Si Lyra non lyrassct, Littheriis non saltas.set. X Lechler, Johann von Wiclif, Leipzig, 1873, L, p. 483, seg. ; Lorimer's edi- tion, London, 1878, IL, p. 29, seq. % Gillett, Life and Times 0/ Jo/in Huss, Boston, 1864, 2d ed., L, p. 295, seg, \ In /. c, p. 37. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 33^ The mediaeval exegesis reached its culmination at the Council of Trent, where Roman Catholic interpretation was chained forever in the fourfold fetters: that it must be conformed to the rule of faith, the practice of the church, the consent of the fathers, and the decisions of the councils. But the seeds of a new exegesis had been planted by Lyra and Wicklif which burst forth into fruitful life in the Protestant Reformation. V. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE REFORMERS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS. The Reformation was accompanied by a great revival of Biblical Study in all directions, but especially in the interpretation of the Scriptures. The Humanists were influenced, by their studies of the Greek and Hebrew languages and literatures, to apply this new learning to the study of the Bible. Erasmus is tlie acknowledged chief of interpreters of this class. He insisted that the interpretation of the Scriptures should be in accordance with the original Greek and Hebrev/ texts, and urged the giving of the grammatical and literal sense over against the allegorical sense, which had been the ally of tradition.* The Humanists, however, did not go to the root of the evil ; they were too deferential to the author- ity of the Church, and sought to correct the errors in exegesis by purely scholarly methods. The Reformers, however, revived the principle of Wicklif and Huss, strengthened it, and made it invincible. They urged the one literal sense against the fourfold sense, but they still more insisted that Scripture should be its own in- terpreter, and that it was not to be interpreted by tra- dition or external ecclesiastical authority. Thus, Luther says: * Klausen in /. c, p. 227. 332 BIBLICAL STUDY. " Every word should be allowed to stand in its natural meaning and that should not be abandoned unless faith forces us to it."* .... " It is the attribute of Holy Scripture that it interprets itself by passages and places which belong together, and can only be under- stood by the rule of faith." f Tyndale says : "Thou shalt understand, therefore, that the Scripture hath but one sense, which is the literal sense. And that literal sense is the root and ground of all, and the anchor that never faileth, vvhereunto if thou cleave, thou canst never err or go out of the way. And if thou leave the literal sense, thou canst not but go out of the way. Neverthelater, the Scripture useth proverbs, similitudes, riddles, or allegories, as all other speeches do ; but that which the proverb, similitude, riddle, or allegory signifieth, is ever the literal sense, which thou must seek out diligently : as in the English we borrow words and sentences of one thing, and apply them unto another, and give them new significations." .... "Beyond all this, when we have found out the literal sense of the Scripture by the process of the text, or by a like text of another place, then go we ; and as the Scripture borroweth similitudes of worldly things, even so we again borrow similitudes or allegories of the Scripture, and apply them to our purposes ; which allegories are no sense of the Script- urt-, but free things besides the Scripture, and altogether in the liberty ol' ihe Spirit." " Finally, all God's words are spiritual, if thou hav(; eyes of God, to see the right meaning of the text, and whereunto tiie Scripture pertaineth, and the final end and cause thereof." J The view of the Reformed churches is expressed in the 2d Helvetic Confession (ii. i) : " We acknowledge that interpretation of Scripture for authentical and proper, which being taken t'rom the Scriptures themselves (that is, from the phrase of that tongue in which they were written, they being also waved according to the circumstances and expounded according to the proportion of places, either like or unlike, or of * Walch, xix., p. 1601. t Walch, iii., p. 2042. 1 The Obedience 0/ a Christian Man, 1528 ; Parker edition, Doctrinal Treat- rt'9, p. 307, seq. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 333 more and plainer), accordeth with the rule of faith and charity, and maketh notably for God's glory and man's salvation." * The Reformers produced masterpieces of exegesis by these principles, and set the Bible in a new light before the world. Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin especially were great exegetes;f Bullinger(f 1575), Oecolampadius(tl 531), Me- lancthon, Musculus (11563), were worthy to stand by their side. Their immediate successors had somewhat of their spirit, although the sectarian element already influences them in the maintenance of the peculiarities of the dif- ferent churches. The Hermeneutical principles of the I^utherans are well stated by Matth. Flacius ; :}: those of the Reformed by And. Rivetus.§ The weakness of the Reformation principle was in the lack of clear definition of what was meant by the analogy or rule of faith. It is clear that the Reformers set the rule of faith in the Scriptures themselves, — in the substance of doctrine ap- prehended by faith. But when it came to define what that substance was, there was difficulty. Hence, so soon as the faith of the church was expressed in sym- bols, these were at first unconsciously, and at last avow- edly, identified with this Scripture rule of faith. The Lutheran scholastic Gerhard says : " From these plain passages of Scripture the rule of faith is col- lected, which is the sum of the celestial doctrine collected from the most evident passages of Scripture. Its parts are two — the former concerning faith, whose chief precepts are expressed in the apostles' creed ; the latter concerning love, the sum of which the decalogue explains." || * We give the English version of Hartnony of the Confessions, London, 1643, on account of its historical relations. t Klausen in /. c, p. 223 ; also, p. 112. X Ciavis Serif turae Sacrae, Antwerp, 1567 ; Basileae, 1609. Best edition, ed Musaeus, 1675. ? Isagoge, 1627. J Gerhard, Loci, Tubingae, 1767, Tom. I., p. 53. 334 BIBLICAL STUDY. Hollazius* defines the analogy of faith: "the funda- mental articles of faith, or the principal chapters of the Christian faith collected from the clearest testimonies of the Scriptures." Carpzovf makes it: "the system of Scripture doctrine in its order and connection." If this system of doctrine had been that found in the Scriptures themselves, in accordance with the modern discipline of Biblical Theology,:}: there would have been some propriety in the definition ; but inasmuch as the scholastic theologians proposed to express that system of doctrine in their theological commonplaces, in other methods and forms than those presented in the Script- ures, practically the rule or analogy of faith became these theological systems, and so an external rule was substituted for the internal rule of the Scriptures them- selves ; the Reformation principle was more and more abandoned ; and the Jewish Halacha, and the mediaeval scholastic re-entered, and took possession of Protestant exegesis. § The Reformed church was slower in attaining this result than the Lutheran church, owing to the exegetical spirit that had come down from Oecolampadius, Calvin, and Zwingli ; but already Beza leads off in the wrong direction ; and notwithstanding the great stress laid upon literal and grammatical exegesis by Cappellus and the school of Saumur in France; by Drusius, De Dieu, and Dan. Heinsius in Holland ; the drift was in the scholastic direction ; and when the Swiss churches arrayed them- selves against the French excgetes ; and the churches of Holland were divided by the Arminian controversy, and the historical and literal exegesis came to characterize * Exam. Tkeo/ogici Acroa7iiatict\ 1741, Holmiae, p. 1777- t Primes Lineae IJcrm. Ilelmstad., 1790, p. 28. J See Chap. XI. § Volck, in Zockler, Handb. Thcc. JVt'ss., p. 657 ; Klausen in /. c, p. 354. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 335 ir.ore and more the latter; the scholastic divines more and more employed the dogmatic method, and urged to interpret in accordance with the external rule of faith. VI. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PURITANS, AND THE ARMINIANS. British Puritanism remained true to the Reformation principle of interpretation till the close of the seventeenth century. The views of Tyndale and the Puritans went deeper into the essence of the matter than those of the continental reformers. This was doubtless owing to the fact of their conflict against ecclesiastical authority and the prelatical party, and their protests against the obtru- sion of Popish ceremonies on the Christians of England. They urged more and more the principle of the Script ures alone as the rule of the church, and made \hQJus divimim the supreme appeal. Thus Thomas Cartwright : " Scripture alone being able and sufficient to make us wise to salvation, we need no unwritten verities, no traditions of men, no canons of councels, or sentences of fathers, much less decrees of popes, to supply any supposed defect of the written word, or to give us a more perfect direction in the way of life, then is already set down expressly in the canonicall Scriptures They are of di- vine authority. They are the rule, the line, the squyre and light, whereby to examine and trie all judgements and sayings of men, and of angels, whether they be such as God approveth, yea or no ; and they are not to be judged or sentenced by any." * Especially noteworthy is the statement that no ex- ternal rule is to be used to supply any supposed de- fects of the written word, and that plain direction is given by what is set down expressly in the Scripture, ♦ Treatise of Christian Religion, 1616, p. yjj. 336 BIBLICAL STUDY John Ball * gives an admirable statement of the Puritan position : " The expounding of the Scriptures is commanded by God, and practiced by the godly, profitable both for the unfolding of obscure places, and applying of plaine texts. It stands in two things, (i) In giving the right sense. (2) In a fit application of the same. Of one place of Scripture, there is but one proper and naturall sense, though sometimes things are so expressed, as that the things themselves doe signifie other things, according to the Lord's ordinance : Gal. iv. 22, 23, 24 ; Ex. xii. 46, with John xix. 36 ; Ps. ii. i, with Acts iv. 21, 25, 26, We are not tyed to the expositions of the Fathers or councels for the finding out the sense of the Scripture, the Holy Crhost speaking in the Scripture, is the only faithful interpreter of the Scripture. The meanes to find out the true meaning of the Scripture, are conference of one place of Scripture with another, diligent consideration of the scope and circumstances of the place, ai; the occasions, and coherence of that which went before, with that which foUoweth after ; the matter whereof it doth intreat, and cir- cumstances of persons, times and places, and consideration, whether the words are spoken figuratively or simply ; for in figurative speeches, not the outward shew of words, but the sense is to be taken, and knov/Iedge of the arts and tongues wherein the Scriptures were criginaliy written. But alwayes it is to bee observed, that obscure places are not to bee expounded contrary to the rule of faith set downe in plainer places of the Scripture." The analogy or rule of faith is expressly defined by him as " set downe in plainer places of the Scripture," and it is maintained that " the Holy Ghost speaking in the Scripture is the only faithful interpreter of Script- ure." This improvement of the Protestant principle by lifting it to the person of the Holy Spirit speaking in the word to the believer, prevents any substitution of an external symbol or system of theology for the rule ol * Short T?-eatise containing al/ the prinripall Grounds 0/ Christian Religion Tenth Impression. London, 1635. p. 39. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 337 faith of the Scriptures themselves. Archbishop Usher takes the same position as Ball : * " The Spirit of God alone is the certain interpreter of His word written by His Spirit. For no man knoweth the things pertaining to God, but the Spirit of God (I. Cor. ii. 11) The interpreta- tion therefore must be of the same Spirit by which the Scripture was written ; of which Spirit we have no certainty upon any man's credit, but onely so far forth as his saying may be confirmed by the Holy Scriptures How then is the Scripture to be interpreted by Scripture? According to the analogy of faith (Rom. xii. 6), and •^.he scope and circumstance of the present place, and conference of other plain and evident places, by which all such as are obscure and hard to be understood ought to be interpreted, for there is no matter necessary to eternal life, which is not plainly, and sufficiently set forth in many places of Scripture." These extracts from the Puritan fathers, who chiefly influenced the Westminster divines, will enable us to understand the principles of interpretation laid down in the Westminster Confession (I. 9-10^, which are in ad- vance of all the symbols of the Reformation in this par- ticular : " The infallible rule of interpretation of Scripture is the Scripture Itself; and therefore, when there is a question about the true and full sense of any Scripture (which is not manifold, but one), it must be searched and known by other places that speak more clearly " (§9). " The supreme judge, by which all controversies of religion are to be determined and all decrees of councils, opinions of ancient writ- ers, doctrines of men, and private spirits, are to be examined, and in whose sentence we are to rest, can be no other but the Holy Spirit, speaking in the Scripture " (§ 10). These principles of interpretation give the death-blow to the manifold sense, and also to any external analogy of faith for the interpretation of Scripture. It has been * Body 0/ Divtnitie, London, 1645. Fourth Edit., London, 1653, pp. 34, 25, 15 338 BIBLICAL STUDY. made contra-confessional in those churches which adopt the Westminster symbols to believe and teach any but the one true and full sense of any Scripture, or to appeal to " doctrines of men," or any external rule or analogy of faith, or to make any other but the Holy Spirit Him- self the supreme interpreter of Scripture to the believer and the church. It was not without good and sufficient reasons that the Westminster divines substituted the " Holy Spirit speaking in the Scripture " for the analogy of faith which had been so much abused, and which was to be still more abused by the descendants of the Puri- tans, after they had forgotten their Puritan fathers, and resorted to the Swiss and Dutch scholastics for theolog- ical instruction. Edward Leigh (a lawyer and member of the Long Parliament, and said to have been a lay member of the Westminster Assembly,) clearly states the Puritan posi- tion * in his chapter on the Interpretation of Scripture : " The Holy Ghost is the judge, and the Scripture is the sentence or definitive decree. We acknowledge no publick judge except the Scripture, and the Holy Ghost teaching us in the Scripture, He that made the law should interpret the same." . . . . " The Papist says, that the Scripture ought to be expounded by the rule of faith, and therefore not by Scripture only. But the rule of faith and Scripture is all one. As the Scriptures are not of man, but of the Spirit, so their interpretation is not by man, but of the Spirit likewise." + We shall call attention to some other features of the interpretation of the seventeenth century in England, because it has been neglected by British and American * Systeme, or Body of Divinity. London, 1654, pp. 107, iig. + Thomas Watson, in his Body of Practical Divinity, in exposition of the VVestniinstifr Shorter Catechism, London, 1692, p. 16, takes the same position : " The Scripture is to be its own interpreter, or rather the Spirit speaking in it ; nothin{^ can cut the diamond but the diamond ; nothing; can interpret Scripitvire but Scripture ; the sun best discovers itself by its own beams-." THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 339 scholars, and consequently also by German critics and historians, upon whom many of our modern Anglo-Saxon interpreters depend, conservative and progressive alike. Henry Ainsworth says : " I have chiefly laboured in these annotations upon Moses, to ex- plain his words and speech by conference with himself, and other prophets and apostles, all which are commenters upon his lawes, and do open unto us the mysteries which were covered under his veile ; for by a true and sound literall explication, the spiritual mean- ing may be the better discerned. And the exquisite scanning of words and phrases, which to some may seeme needlesse, will be found (as painful to the writer) profitable to the reader." * Francis Taylor, a Westminster divine, a great Hebrew scholar and Talmudist, author of many commentaries and other practical and theological works, says :f " The method used by me is new, and never formerly exactly fol- lowed in every verse, by any writer, Protestant or Papist, that ever I read, (i) Ye have the grammatical sense in the various significa- tions of every Hebrew word used throughout the Old Testament, which gives light to many other texts ; (2) Ye have the rhetorical sense, in the tropes and figures ; (3) The logicall, in the several arguments ; (4) The theological in divine observations." This is an exact and admirable method which would /)ave delighted Ernesti in the next century, if he had known of it, with the exception of the last point in which the Puritan practical interpretation comes in play. Edward Leigh :}: also lays down excellent principles : " The word is interpreted aright, by declaring (i) the order, (2) the summe or scope, (3) the sense of the words, which is done by framing a rhetorical and logical analysis of the text. In giving the sense, three rules are of principal use and necessity to be observed. * Pentateuch, Preface, 1626. t Epist. dedicatory to the Exposition 0/ the Proverbs. London, 1655. t In /. c, p. 119. 340 BIBLICAL STUDY. (i) The literal and largest sense of any words in Scripture must no< be embraced further when our cleaving thereto would breed some disagreement and contrariety between the present Scripture, ano some other text or place, else shall we change the Scripture into a nose of wax. (2) In case of such appearing disagreement, the Holy Ghost leads us by the hand to seek out some distinction, restriction, limitation or signe for the reconcilement thereof, and one of these will always fit the purpose ; for God's word must always bring per- fect truth, it cannot fight against itself. (3) Such figurative sense, limitation, restriction or distinction must be sought out, as the word of God affordeth either in the present place or some other; and chiefly those that seem to differ with the present text, being duly compared together." We do not know where a more careful statement, of this delicate problem of harmonizing Scripture with ►Scripture, can be found.* The Puritan interpreters laid stress upon the practical interpretation, or application of Scripture. The best statement is found in the Key of the Bible, by Francis Roberts, 4th edition, London, 1675, p. 5, seq. : " That the Holy Scriptures may be more profitably and clearly un- derstood, certain rules or directions are to be observed and followed : "I. Some more special and peculiar, more particularly concerning scholars. As (i) The competent understanding of the original lan- * This same Edward Leigh was one of the best Biblical scholars of the seven- teenth century. He published Annotations upon all the New Testament, phil- logicall and Theolopcall wherein the emphasis and elegance of the Greeke is ob- served, some imperfections in our translation are discovered, divers Jewish rites and customes tending to illustrate the text are mentioned, many antilogies and seeming contradictions reconciled, severall darke and obscure places opened, sundry passages vindicated from the false glosses of Papists and Heretics. Lon- don, 1650, folio. The title is descriptive of a sound method. He also published Critica Sacra on the Hebrew 0/ the Old Testament, 4to, London, 1639. Crit- ica Sacra on the Greek of the New Testament. 4to, London, 1646. These were combined in a foho, 1662. They were translated into Latin by Henry Mid- doch and published at Amsterdam, 1679, and then at Leipzig, 1696, with Pref- ace by John Meyer, a Hebrew Professor there, and in this way exerted a grea- influence on the continent until the close of the century. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. ^\ guages. .... (2) The prudent use of Logiclo .... (3) The sub- servient help of other arts, as Rhetoric, Natural Philosophy, etc, .... (4) The benefit of humane histories to illustrate and clear the theme. (5) The conferring of ancient translations with the origi- nals (6) The prudent use of the most orthodox, learned, and judicious Commentators. (7) Constant caution that all tongues, arts, histories, translations, and comments be duly ranked in their proper places in subserviency under, not in regency or predomi- nancy over the Holy Scriptures which are to controle them all." " II. Some more general and common directions, which may be of use to all sorts of Christians learned and unlearned (i) Beg wisdom of the onely wise God, who gives liberally and upbraids not (2) Labour sincerely after a truly gracious spirit, then thou shalt be peculiarly able to penetrate into the internal marrow and mysteries of the holy Scriptures (3) Peruse the Scripture with an humble self-denying heart (4) Familiarize the Script- ure to thyself by constant and methodical exercise therein (5) Understand Scripture according to the theological analogy, or cer- tain rule of faith and love (6) Be well acquainted with the order, titles, times, penman, occasion, scope, and principal parts of the books, both of the Old and New Testament. (7) Heedfully and judiciously observe the accurate concord and harmony of the Holy Scriptures. (8) Learn the excellent art of explaining and under- standing the Scriptures, by the Scriptures. (9) Endeavor sincerely to practice Scripture, and you shall solidly understand Scripture." We have given these rules at length, both on account of their intrinsic excellence and also to call attention to a work of great value which has been lost sight of for a long time in the history of interpretation. This same Francis Roberts, — who was a Presbyterian minister of London during the Commonwealth period, and at the restoration remained with the Established church, — is the author of a massive work in two folio volumes, which construct a system of theology on the doctrine of the covenants.* * The Mysterie and Marrow 0/ the Bible: viz., God^s Covenants voitk man, W the first Adam, be/ore the Fall ; and in the last Adam, yesus Christ, after 342 BIBLICAL STUDY. In his epistolary introduction he says : " I began my weekly lectures, to treat of God's Covenants, on Sept. 2, 165 1, and have persisted therein till the very publica- tion of this book, in May, 1657." In the same introduction he describes his treatise as " A Work of vast extent, comprising in it : all the methods of divine dispensations to the Church in all ages ; all the conditions of the Church under those dispensations ; all the greatest and precious promises, of the life that now is, and of that which is to come ; all sorts of blessings promised by God to man ; all sorts of duties re- promised by man to God ; all the gradual discoveries of Jesus Christ, the only Mediator and Saviour of sinners ; the whole mystery of all true religion from the beginning to the end of the world ; and which as a continued thred of gold runs through the whole series of all the Holy Scriptures, .... because I have set my heart exceedingly to the Covenants of my God, which (in my judgment) are an universal basis or foundation of all true religion and happiness, I have shunned no diligence, industry, or endeavor that to me seemed requisite for the profitable unveiling of them." Francis Roberts in this work carries out a plan de- vised and partially executed by John Ball.* According to Thomas Blake,t " his purpose was to speak on this subject of the covenant, all that he had to say in all the whole body of divinity. That which he hath left behind gives us a taste of it." In this Ball anticipated Cocce- ius and the Dutch Federal theology, as indeed his system of the covenants is of a purer type, having all the ad- vantages of the historical method of the Dutch Federal school without its far-fetched typologies. Indeed the the Fall; from the Beginning to the End of the World ; Unfolded and Illus' trated in positive Aphorisms and their Explanations. 2 vols., London, 1657. * Treatise of the Covenant of Grace, London, 1645, 410, published after his death by his friend Simeon Ashe, and with commendatory notices by five other Westminster divines. + Treatise of the Covenant of God entered with mankinde in the severat Undes and degrees of it. Preface, London, 1653, THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 343 theology of the covenants had been embedded in Puri- tan theology since Thomas Cartvvright.* The covenant principle is also in Usher's Body of Divinity, and the Westminster symbols. In truth, the historical principle that characterizes the covenant theology is better wrought out by John Ball and Francis Roberts than by Cocceius. It will be found that the doctrine of the covenants passed over from England with the Puritan spirit into Holland, into the Federal school, and thence into Spener and the German Pietists. The essential mystic spirit is common to these three great movements which were the historic successors of one another in the order, England, Hol- land, Germany, although each assumed a form adapted to its peculiar circumstances and conditions.f The Federal school in Holland was characterized by a tendency to allegorize, which was foreign to the best Puritan type, although Thomas Brightman, in his Com- mentaries on Revelation, Song of Songs, and Daniel, reintroduced the allegorical method into the Protestant church and carried it to great lengths. He had not a few followers in Great Britain, and on the continent where his works were republished. This element is united with the principle of the cove- nant in the Federal theology, and proved its greatest weakness. The Federal theology, however, exerted a wholesome influence in preserving the mystic spirit of interpretation over against the purely external historical method of the Arminians ; and in maintaining the his- toric method of divine revelation over against the exter- * In his Treatise of Christian Religion, 1616, he treats first of the doctrine of God and then of man ; next of the Word of God, and this he divides into two p»arts : the doctrine of the Covenant of Works, called the law, the Covenant of Grace, the gospel ; and treats of Christology and Soteriology under the latter. t Cocceius w£is a pupil of Ames, the British Puritan. See Mitchell, Westmin iter Assembly^ Ixjndon, 1883, p. 344, seq. 344 BIBLICAL STUDY. nal and mechanical systematizing of the Dutch scholas. tics. Spener and the German Pietists also represented the mystic spirit of interpretation and adopted many of the chief features of Puritanism. They laid stress upon personal relations to God and experimental piety in or- der to the interpretation of Scripture. This was accom- panied among the best of them with true scholarship. The Pietistic interpretation may be found stated by Franke,* but especially by Rambach,t whose work was fruitful for many generations and still retains its value. The best exegete in this direction is the celebrated Ben- gel, whose interpretation is a model of piety and accu- racy.:|: His principle of interpretation is briefly stated : *' It is the especial office of every interpretation to ex- hibit adequately the force and significance of the words which the text contains, so as to express everything which the author intended, and to introduce nothing which he did not intend " (xiv. Preface). The principles of interpretation of the Puritans worked mightily during the seventeenth century in Great Britain, and produced exegetical works that ought to be the pride of the Anglo-Saxon churches in all time. Thomas Cartwright, Henry Ainsworth, John Reynolds, John Fox, Nicholas Byfield, Paul Bayne, Hugh Broughton, J. Davenant, Francis Taylor, William Gouge, John Lightfoot, Edward Leigh, Wm. Attersol, Thos. Gataker, Joseph Caryl, Samuel Clark, John Trapp, William Green- hill, Francis Roberts, and numerous others have opened up the meaning of the Word of God for all generations. Among the last of the Puritan works on the more learned * Manducatio ad lectionem, S.S. 1693; Praelectiones Hermeneut., 1717. + Jnstitutiones Hermeneitticae, 1723, 8th edit., Jenae, 1764, ed. Buddeus. X Gnomon^ N. T., Tubingen, 1742, English edition by T. Carlton Lewis and Uarviu R. Vincent, Philadelphia, 1860-62. THE INTEllPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 345 side was the Synopsis Criticormn of Matthew Poole ; but the more practical side of interpretation continued to advance until it attained its highest mark in Matthew Henry.* Other practical commentaries have been of great service to the churches, such as those of Ph. Dod- dridge t and Thomas Scott,:}: but the Puritan interpreta- tion soon lost its strength by the neglect of theological education. Excluded from the universities by their re- ligious principles, the non-conformists were unable to organize educational institutions of their own that were at all adequate, and hence the ministry fell back upon dogmatizing or spiritualizing, equally perilous, without an exact knowledge of the Biblical text.§ In the meanwhile, the Humanistic spirit had main- tained itself in the Prelatical party in the church of Eng- land and found expression among the Arminians of Holland. The chief interpreter of the seventeenth cent- ury, who revived the spirit of Erasmus, was Hugo Gro- tius. He laid stress upon historical interpretation.! He was followed by the Arminians generally, especially Clericus. In Great Britain Henry Hammond had the same spirit and methods-l^ Edward Pocock** also seeks as the main thing " to settle the genuine and literal mean- * Expositions of the Old and N'ew Testaments, London, 1704-6. t Family Expositor. 6 vols. 4to, London, 1760-62. X Family Bible , with notes. 4 vols. 4to, 1796. § It is the merit of C. H. Spurgeon that he has recently called attention to the neglected Puritan commentators and expressed his great obligations to them. See his Commenting and Commentaries, N. Y., 1876, and also Treasury of David, London, 6 vols., 1870, seq.^ which contains copious extracts from the Puri- tan commentaries. I Annotativnes in lib. evang., Amst., 1641 ; Annot. in Vet. Test., Paris, 1664. \ Paraphrase and Annotations upon all the books of the New Testament, 1653, Svo, 3d edition, folio, London, 1671. In a Postscript concerning new h"ght or divine illumination, over against the Quakers, he insisted up)on the plain, literal, and historical sense. ** Com. on Micah, 1677, Hosea, 1685, Joel, 1691. 15* 346 BIBLICAL STUDY. ing of the text." Dan. Whitby* also represents this tendency ; and still later Bishop Lowth (see p. 203) and John Taylor of Norwich.f The latter says: " To understand the sense of the Spirit in the New, 'tis essentially necessary that we understand its sense in the Old Testament. But the sense of the Spirit cannot be understood unless we understand the language in which that sense is conveyed. P'or which purpose the Hebrew Concordance is the best Expositor. For there you have in one view presented all the places of the sacred code where any words are used ; and by carefully collating those places, may judge what sense it will, or will not bear, which being once settled there lies no appeal to any other writing in the world : because there are no other books in all the world in the pure original Hebrew, but the books of the Old Testament. A judgment therefore duly founded upon them must be absolutely decisive." J Taylor acknowledges his great indebtedness to the philosopher Locke,§ and shows the influence of that philosophy in his exegesis. Toward the close of the century Biblical interpretation more and more declined in Great Britain, and we must go to the continent and especially to Germany for the exegesis as well as the higher and lower criticism of modern times.| VII. BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION OF MODERN TIMES. We have seen in our studies of Biblical literature that there was a great revival of Biblical studies, especially in Germany toward the close of the eighteenth century, which extended to all departments. For Biblical inter- pretation Ernesti was the chief of the new era. Ernesti was essentially a philologist rather than a * Paraf/irase and Commentary on the New Testatneni. 2 vols., 1703-9, folio. t Hebrew Concordance, 2 vols, folio, London, 1754. X Preface of Hebrew Concordance. See also his Paraphrase with notes on the Epistle to the Remans , London, 1745, pp. 114, 127, 146. § In /. c, p. 149. I See pp. 149, ao6, seq. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 347 theologian, and he applied to the Bible the princi- ples which he had employed in the interpretation of the ancient classics. He began at the foundation of inter- pretation, grammatical exegesis, and placed it in such a position before the world that it has ever since main- tained its fundamental importance. He published his principles of interpretation in 1761.* Ernesti was fol- lowed by Zacharia,f Morus,:}: C. D. Beck,§ and others. Moses Stuart translated Ernesti with the notes of Morus abridged. II About the same time as Ernesti, Semler urged the importance of historical interpretation.^ Semler was an open-minded, devout scholar, and appropriated freely the material wherever he could find it, and reproduced it in forms fashioned by his own genius. He was greatly influenced by foreign interpreters and was the channel through whom the historical interpretation, still linger- ing in Reformed lands, made its way into Lutheran Ger- many. Among those who influenced Semler may be mentioned : J. A. Turretine, who had introduced the Swiss revolt against scholasticism,'^* John Taylor of Nor- * Institutio Interpret is N. T. 1761, 3te Auf., 1774 ; 5te Aufl. ed. Ammon, 1809. It was translated into English and edited by Bishop Terrot in 1809 from Ammon 's edition, for the Biblical Cabinet^ I. and IV., Edinburg. t Einleit. in d. Auslegekunsf, 1778. X Acroases. acad. super Herm., N. T. 1797 and 1802, ed. by Eichstadt. § Monogram, her ?neneut ices librorum N. Foed., Lips., 1803. I Elementary Principles of Interpretation, translated from the Latin of J. A. Ernesti, accompanied by notes, with an appendix containing extracts from Mo- rus, Beck, Keil, and Henderson. 4th edit., Andover, 1842. The earlier edition was republished in England with additional observations by Dr. Henderson, London, 1827, which were used in Stuart's fourth edition. 1 Vorbereit. zurtheol. Herm., 1760-69; Apparatus ad liheralem, N. T. In- ter p., 1767. ** De S. S. interp. tractatus bipartitus, 1728. This was an unauthorized and defective edition and it was repudiated by the author. A better edition was ed- ited by Teller in 1776. 5ia BIBLICAL STUDY. wich and Daniel Whitby,* and L. Meyer, the Spinozist.f Semler was followed by J. G. Gabler, G. L. Baur, K. C. Bretschneider, and others. These elements of interpretation were combined in the grammatico-historical method of C. A. G. Keil.:|: The grammatico-historical method was introduced into the United States of America chiefly by Moses Stuart and his school. The defects of the grammatico-historical method were discovered and attacks were made upon it from both sides. Kant and his school urged rational and moral ex- egesis, to which the historical must yield as of vastly less importance. There was truth in this rising to the moral sense, but as it was stated and used by the Kant ians it resulted in binding the Bible in the fetters of a philosophical system that was far more oppressive than the theological system had been. Staudlein,§ Stern,[( Stark,^ and Kaiser,** and above all Germar,tf renderetl great service by urging that the interpreter should enter into sympathy with the spirit of the Biblical authors. On the other side the little barwl of Pietists of the older Tubingen school urged the inadequacy of the grammatico-historical method and insisted upon faith and piety in the interpreter.:!::}: The chief of these were Storr,§§ Flatt and Steudel of Tubingen, Knapp of Halle, and Seller of Erlangen.|} ♦ See p. 346, ako Tholuck, Vermischte Schri/ien, Hamburg, 1839, pp. 30, 40. ■|- Author of an anonymous treatise : Philosophise Script, interpres., 1666. X Lchr. d. Herm., 1810. § De interp. N. T., 1807. I Ueherden Begriff und obersten Grundsatz d. hist, interp. d. N. T.y 1815. \ Beitr. 2. Herm., 1817. ** System Herm.^ 1817. ++ Beitrag zur allgemein. Hermeneutik, Altona, 1828. \\ Reuss, Gesch. d. H. S. N. T,, 4te Aufl., 1864, p. 582, seq. §§ De sensu historico, ijyS. II Bifi. Ilerm., 1880, edited in Holland by Heringa; and translated fron» th« Holland edition and edited with additions by Wm. Wright, London, 1835. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 349 This conflict of principles worked more and more con- fusion. If the older exegesis was at fault in neglecting the human element and the variety of features of the Bible on the human side ; the newer interpreters of the grammatico-historical school were still more at fault in neglecting the divine element and the unity of the Bible. A healthful method of interpretation had been intro- duced from England in the translation of the works of Bishop Lowth, which urged literary interpretation. Herder, Eichhom, and others exerted their influence in the same direction. Schleiermacher deserves the credit for combining all that had thus far been gained into a higher unity, by hts organic method of interpretation.* Schleiermacher lays down his principles in a series of theses : " Ix) the application (of Hermeneutrcs) to the New Testament the philologfeal view, which isolates every writing of every author, stands over against the dogmatic view, which regards the N. T. as the work of one author. Both approach one another when one considers that, in the view of the religious contents, the identity of the school comes in, and in the view of the details, the identity of language. . . . The philological view lags behind its own principle when it rejects the general dependence for the sake of the individual culture. The dog- mafic view transcends its needs when it rejects individual culture for the sake of dependence, and so destroys itself. The only question that remains, is, which of the two is to be placed. above the other; and this must be decided by the philological view itself in favor of its own dependence. When the philological view ignores this it an- nihilates Christianity. When the dogmatic view extends the canon of the analogy of faith beyond these limits it annihilates Scripture." t Liicke, of Schleiermacher's school, well states the prin- ciple when he says that we must * His Ilermeneutik und Kritik is a posthumous work by his pupil, F. Lucke, published Berlin, 1838, but the influence of his method was felt at an earlier date; and expressed by his disciples. + In /. r., pp. 79-81. 350 BIBLICAL STUDY. "so construct the general principles of Hermeneutics as that the proper theological element may be united with them in a really or- ganic manner, and likewise so fashion and carry on the theo- logical element that the general principles of interpretation may maintain their full value." * He also insisted upon love for the Word of God, as the indispensable requisite for the interpreter.f The vast importance of this organic method is seen in the exegetical works of De Wette, Neander, Klausen, Bleek, Lutz, Meyer, and indeed the chief interpreters of modern Germany. The greatest defect of interpretation at this time was in the lack of apprehension of the true relation of the New Testament to the Old Testament. The Old Testament v/as neglected by Schleiermacher and many of his school. It was necessary for the discipline of Biblical theology to ))e developed ere this defect could be overcome. The unfolding of the discipline of Biblical theology in the school of Neander has established the organic unity of the New Testament in the combination of a number of historical types ; the organic unity of the Old Testa- ment has also been especially urged by Oehler in the spirit of Neander, together with some of the features of the older Tubingen school. The organic unity of the whole Bible has beeijr. especially insisted upon by Hofmann of Erlangen, Delitzsch, and others of their school. This is a further unfolding of the organic principle of Schleier- macher, and the revival in another form of the Puritan principle wrapt up in the covenant theology, and which has worked through the schools of Cocceius and the Pietists, to attach itself to the scientific principles of * Studien und Krit., 1830, p. 421 ; see also his Grundriss d. N. T. Herm., 1817. t See Klausen in /. c, p. 311 ; Immer in /. c, p. 66 ; Reuss in /. c, p. 605. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 35J| exegesis that have thus far been developed. The school of Hofmann claim this principle which they call the heilsgeschichtliche,'* as the highest attainment of Her- meneutics. This insisting above all upon interpreting Scripture as one divine book giving the history of re- demption, is the restatement of the Puritan principle of the gradual revelation of the covenants of grace. The variety of the Bible is better understood in relation to its unity ; and the genesis of its revelation of redemption is made more prominent. Francis Roberts already states it admirably : " Still remember how Jesus Christ is revealed in Scripture, grad- ually in promises and covenants, till the noon-day of the gospel shined most clearly For (i) God is a God of order ; and He makes known His gracious contrivances orderly. (2) Christ, and salvation by Him are treasures too high and precious to be disclosed all at once to the church. (3) The state of the church is various ; she hath her infancy, her youth, and all the degrees of her minority, as also her riper age ; and therefore God revealed Christ, not ac- cording to his own ability of revealing, but according to the churches capacity of receiving. (4) This gradual revealing of Christ suits well with our condition in this world, which is not perfect, but grow- ing mto perfection, fully attainable in heaven only. Now this grad- ual unveiling of the covenant and promises in Christ, is to be much considered throughout the whole Scripture ; that we may see the wisdom of God's dispensations, the imperfections of the churches condition here, especially in her minority ; and tiie usefulness of comparing the more dark and imperfect with the more clear and complete manifestation of the mysteries of God's grace in Christ " (in /. c, p. 10). VIII. METHOD OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. The Bible is composed of a body of literature. As such it is a part of the literature of the world, having features in common with all other literatures, and also • See Volck, in Zockler, Handb., p. 661, seg. ; Hofmann, Bib. Herm.^ Notd. 1880. 352 BIBLICAL STUDY. features peculiar to itself. From these circumstances arise the fundamental principles of interpretation. Bib- lical interpretation is a section of general interpretation. Here all students of the Bible are on common ground. Rationalistic, evangelical, scholastical, and mystical, they should all alike begin here. This is the broad base on which the pyramid of exegesis is to rise to its apex. It is the merit of Schleiermacher that he clearly and defi- nitely established this fundamental relation. From gen- eral interpretation arises : (i) Grammatical interpretation. The Bible is written in human languages. These languages contain the Bible which is to be studied. There is no other way than to master them, and thoroughly understand their grammar.* " Only the philologist can be an interpreter. It is true that the office of interpretation requires more than mere philology, or an ac- quaintance with language ; but all those other qualifications that may l>elong to it are useless without this acquaintance, whilst on the con • trary, in very many cases nothing more than this is necessary foi correct interpretation." f Others than philologists may become interpreters of Scripture by depending upon the labors of philologists in the translations and expositions that they produce — but without these the originals of Scripture would be as inaccessible as the Hamathite inscriptions which still defy the efforts of scholars to decipher them. The great defect of ancient and mediaeval interpreta- tion was in the neglect of the grammar of the Bible, and in the dependence upon the LXX and Vulgate versions. Hence a multitude of errors that have come into the traditional exegesis through the fathers and schoolmen, » See Chap. III. + Planck, Introduction to Sacred Philology and InterpretatioHy trans, and edited by S. H. Turner, Edin., 1834, pp. 140-141. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 353 which have become rooted in the history of doctrine and the customs of the church as evil weeds so that it has taken generations of grammatical study to eradicate them. It is the merit of Ernesti in modern times that he so insisted upon grammatical exegesis that he induced exegetes of all classes to begin their work here at the foundation. Grammatical exegesis is, however, depend- ent upon the progress of linguistic studies. There has been great progress in the knowledge of the New Testa- ment Greek : in the study of the dialects, in the com- parison of the Greek with its cognates of the Indo-Ger- manic family of languages, in the science of etymology of words, and still more in the history of the use of words in Greek literature. In the study of the Hebrew language, there has been still greater progress. When one traces the history of its study in modern times, and rises from Levita and Reuchlin, through Buxtorf and Castel, Schultens and John Taylor, to Gesenius and Ewald, one feels that he is climbing to greater and greater heights. The older interpreters who knev/ nothing of comparative Shemitic philology, who did not understand the position of the Hebrew language in the development of the Shemitic family, who were ignorant of its rich and varied syntax, who relied on traditional meanings of words, and had not learned their etymolo- gies and their historic growth — lived almost in another world. The modern Hebrew scholars are working in far more extended relations, and upon vastly deeper principles, and we should not be surprised at new and almost revolutionary results. (2) The second stage of our pyramid of exegesis is logical and rhetorical interpretation. Here also there are general features in common with other literatures, and also features peculiar to Biblical literature. 354 BIBLICAL STUDY. (a) The laws of thought are derived from the human mind itself. These enable us to determine the value of all thought, to discriminate the true, close, exact reason- ing from the inexact and fallacious. It is assumed by some that the Bible is divine in such a sense that it cor- responds with these laws of thought exactly and is fault- less in its logic. If this were so, it is astonishing that we find so little that is technical, or in the form of logical propositions, in the Bible. Here was the fault of the Jewish Halacha, and the mediaeval dialectic, and the modern scholastic use of proof texts. The Bible has been interpreted by the formulas of Aristotle in the middle age, and then by the logical methods of the dif- ferent philosophies in the modern age. These scholas- tic and philosophical logicians overlook the fact that pure logic is one thing, applied logic another, and the history of its application a third. There are differ- ences in logic as in other things. Human logic is far from infallible. Our modern logic has not remained in the state of innocence, nor has it reached the state of perfection. Certainly there are few if any dogmatic divines and philosophers who do not violate its principles and neglect its methods as stated in our logical manuals. Every race has indeed its own methods of reasoning. The German and the French minds move in somewhat different grooves. Still more is this the case when we consider the Hebrew and the Greek and the Anglo-Saxon. The Biblical writers wrote for the men of their own time and used the forms of thought of the men of their time. It is not sufficient, therefore, to apply logical analysis to the text of the Scripture, as is so often done.* The proper use of logical interpretation is to seek for the * Lange, Hermeneutik, p. 43. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 355 method of reasoning of the Biblical author; his plan, his scope, his course of argument, and the relation of his methods to those of his cotemporaries. " The Scripture doth not explaine the will of God by universal and scientific rules, but by narrations, examples, precepts, ex- hortations, admonitions, and promises ; because that manner doth make most for the common use of all kinde of men, and also most to affect the will, and stirre up godly motions, which is the chief scope of divinity." * " Langfuage is not the invention of metaphysicians, or convo- cations of the wise and learned. It is the common blessing of loankind, framed for their mutual advantage in their intercourse with each other. Its laws therefore are popular, not philosophi- cal, being founded on the general laws of thought which govern the whole mass in the community. . . . Scarcely will we hear in a J ong and serious conversation between the best speakers, a sen- t ence which does not need some modification or limitation in < irder that we may not attribute to it more or less than was in- tended. Nor is the operation at all difficult. We make the cor- rection instantly, with so little cost of thought that we would be tempted to call it instinct did we not know that many of our per- ceptions which seem intuitive are the results of habit and educa- tion. It would be an exceedingly strange thing, if the Bible, the most popular of all books, composed by men, for the most part taken from the multitude, addressed to all, and on subjects in- teresting to all, were found written in language to be interpreted on different principles. But, in point of fact, it is not. Its style is eminently, and to a remarkable degree, that which we would expect to find in a volume designed by its gracious Author to be the people's book — ^abounding in all those kinds of inaccuracy which are sprinkled through ordinary discourse ; hyperboles, an- alogies, and loose catachrestical expressions, whose meaning no one mistakes, though their deviation from plumb, occasionally makes the small critic sad."t Again, it is an abuse of logical interpretation to regard * Aines, Marrow of Sacred Divinity, London, 1643. \ McClelland, Manual 0/ Sacred Interpretation, pp. 61-63, N. Y. 1842. 556 BIBLICAL STUDY. the Biblical writers as all alike logical. Those who take the logical methods of the apostle Paul as the key to the New Testament, and interpret, by the apostle to the Gen- tiles, the practical Peter and James and the mystic John and above all our blessed Lord Jesus himself, the Son of man, embracing in himself all the types of humanity for the redemption of all — do violence to these other writers, rend the seamless robe of the gospel, and do not aid the proper understanding of Paul himself. Those who should find the key of the Old Testament in the wis- dom literature, would commit a most unpardonable blunder. How much greater is the sin of those who first insist upon interpreting the epistles of Paul in ac- cordance with the principles of analysis of modern logic^ and then of interpreting all the rest of the New Testa- ment by this interpretation of Paul, and then the whole body of the Hebrew Old Testament by this interpreta- tion of the New Testament. In view of such a method, one might inquire, why take all this trouble to impose meanings upon such a vast body of ancient literature? It would be far easier and more honest to construct the dogmatic system by logical principles, and leave the Bible to itself. We are not surprised that when and where such methods have prevailed. Biblical studies have been neglected and despised. {b) RJietorical interpretation is closely connected with logical. There are common features of rhetoric that be- long to all discourse, and there are special features which are peculiar to the Biblical literature. The Bible has been tested and interpreted too often, after Greek, Ger- man, French, and English models (see Chap. viii.). We have to discriminate in the Bible the more logical parts from the more rhetorical parts. The fault of the Halacha and scholastic methods was in their overlooking the rhe- l-HE INTERPBETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 357 torical features of the Bible. The fault of the Haggada and allegorical methods was in overlooking the logical. In rhetorical exegesis it is essential to discriminate poetry from prose, the different kinds of poetry and prose from each other, the style of each author, as well as the liter- ary peculiarities of the people and race which produced the Bible. Here is a neglected field of study which prom- ises great rewards to those who will pursue it,* and it will prove of especial richness to the homilist and cate- chist. (3) Thus far all parties work in common. As we rise to the higher stage of historical interpretation there arise differences between the rationalistic and other interpre- ters, owing to certain presuppositions with which they approach the Bible. There are different conceptions of history. The evangelical interpreters recognize the super- natural element as the determining factor ; the rational- istic interpreters endeavor to explain everything by purely natural laws. Among believers in the supernatural there is also a difference, in that some are ever resorting to the supernatural to explain the history, while other more judicious interpreters explain by the natural element until they are compelled by overpowering evidence to re- sort to the supernatural. Semler has the credit in modern times of laying great stress on the historic interpretation. In historical exegesis we have to recognize that the Biblical writers were men of their times and yet men above their times. They were influenced by inspiration to introduce new divine revelations, and to revive old truths and set them in new lights ; they were reformers, and so came into conflict with the conservatives of their time. Many errors spring up here. The Pharisees interpreted thc- * See page 228 seq. 358 BIBLICAL STUDY. Old Testament by tradition. The scholastics pursue the same course with reference to the New Testament. The rationalists interpret Scripture altogether by history and natural forces. Here the scholastic and rationalistic interpreters of our times lock horns. They are both alike in error. Tradition is the bastard of history and should be resorted to only when we have no history, and then with caution and suspicion as to its origin. History is to help, not rule — for in the history of re- demption the supernatural force shapes and controls history. The true method is to rise from the natural to the supernatural. History has been impregnated with the supernatural. We must not expect to find the su- pernatural everywhere on the surface. The supernat- ural comes into play only when the natural is incapable of accomplishing the divine purpose ; so it is to be sought when it alone is capable of affording explanation of the phenomena. Then the supernatural displays it- self with convincing, assuring force. Lutz has some admirable remarks here : * " The historico-grammatical method of interpretation has brought out truths which cannot be valued too highly. No book needs more than the Holy Scriptures to be understood inaccordance with the times in which they were first read But it is just as true that such an exposition in its one-sidedness limiting itself to grammar and history, entirely loses sight of the peculiar features of the Bible, and would bring about a complete separation between church and exe- gesis. Thereby the church would be deprived of its light, and exe- gesis would dig its own grave." (4) In rising to comparative interpretation we have to dis- tinguish still further the attitude of interpreters toward the Bible. Supernaturalists come to the Bible as a sacred canon, an organic whole. Rationalists come to the Bible * Dfh. Ilerm., Pforzheim, i86i. zte Ausg., p. 168. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 359 as a collection of merely human writings. It is the merit of the Puritans, of the Federalists of Holland, and in re- cent times of the schools of Schleiermacherand Hofmann, that they urged the organic unity of Scripture. It is presumed that writers are consistent, and that writers of the same school are in substantial accord. This is a general presumption derived from the study of all literature. But we must go further and as supernatu- ralists insist that as all the writers of the Bible are of the school of the Holy Spirit and conspired to give us the complete organism of the canon, there is a unity and concord that extends throughout the Bible. There is error here on the right and the left. The rationalists regard the Bible as a bundle of miscellaneous and hete- rogeneous writings. The scholastics regard them as a homogeneous mass. As Lange says : " We should read the Bible as a human book, but not as a heathen book ; as a divino-human book according to the fact that there is a distinction between elect men of God who walk on the heights of humanity and the populace in the low plains of humanity ; as the documents of revelation, which participate throughout in the revela- tion, the unicum among all religious writings." * The rationalists sink the unity in the variety ; the scholastics destroy the variety for the sake of the unity. The true evangelical position is, that the Bible is a vast organism in which the unity springs from an amazing variety. The unity is not that of a mass of rocks or a pool of water. It is the unity that one finds in the best works of God. It is the unity of the ocean where every wave has its individuality of life and movement. It is the unity of the continent, in which mountains and rivers, valleys and uplands, flowers and trees, birds and insects, animal and human life combine to distinguish it * GrindriSi d, bib. Hcrmeneutik, Heidelberg, 1878, p. 68. 360 BIBLICAL STUDY. as a magnificent whole from other continents. It is the unity of the heaven, where star differs from star in form, color, order, movement, size, and importance, but ^1 de- clare the glory of God. (5) As we rise to the fifth stage of exegesis, the use of the literature of interpretation, we part company with the Roman Catholic and all churchly interpreters. The Bible is the Canon of the Christian Church. What re- lation does it sustain to the Church ? We are separated from the originals by ages. Multitudes of students have studied the Bible, and their labor has not been in vain. As the prince of modern preachers says : " In order to be able to expound the Scriptures, and as an aid to your pulpit studies, you will need to be familiar with the commenta- tors : a glorious army, let me tell you, whose acquaintance will be your delight and profit. Of course, you are not such wiseacres as to think or say that you can expound Scripture without assistance from *he works of divines and learned men, who have labored before you in the field of exposition It seems odd, that certain men who lilk so much of what the Holy Spirit reveals to themselves, should think so little of what he has revealed to others." * But the question presses itself upon the exegete, how far he is to go in allowing himself to be influenced by the history of exegesis. The Roman Catholic Church makes the church itself, the fathers, and councils, the expositors of Scripture, to which all exposition is to be conformed. We have learned from the history of exegesis how false this position is.f We have found the best interpreters using false methods, and establishing false principles. The literature of exegesis is an invaluable help, but this help is as much negative as positive. It exhibits a vast mul- titude of errors that have been exposed, and so prevents us from stumbling into them. It shows us a great num« ♦Spurgeon, Comment tHg and Commentaries, p. ii. t See page 338 »eg. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 36J ber of positions so plainly established and fortified, that it were folly to question them. But at the same time, it presents a number of positions so weakly supported, that they excite suspicion of their validity ; and others, where contests have not resulted in settlement. The literature of exegesis enables us to understand the real state of the questions that have to be determined by the interpreter of the Scriptures. It prevents us from wast- ing our energies in doing what others have done before us, or in working in barren or unprofitable fields; and it directs us to the fruitful soil of the Bible, the mines to be worked, and the problems to be solved. It were suicidal for interpretation to limit itself to the exegesis of the fathers, the schoolmen, or even the reformers and theologians of the Protestant churches. It would result in forsaking the interpretation of the Script- ures, and devoting ourselves to the interpretation of the interpreters. Francis Roberts happily says : " There must be constant caution that all tongfues, arts, histories, translations, and comments be duly ranked in their proper place, in a subserviency under, not a regency or predominancy over the Holy Scriptures, which are to controule them all. For when Hagar shall once usurp over her mistress, it's high time to cast her out of doors till she submit herself." * (6) In rising a stage higher in our pyramid to doctrinal interpretation, we must part company with the Protestant scholastics, for which we have been prepared, as were Abraham and Lot by previous minor contentions. The Bible is a divine revelation. It presents us with " what man is to believe concerning God, and what duty God requires of man." f The Bible is the rule of faith. It * In /. c.y p. 5. t West. Shorter Cat., 223. 16 362 BIBLICAL STUDY. is to be interpreted in accordance with the analogy of faith. This analogy is the substance of Scripture doc« trine found in the plainest passages of Scripture. Thia was the view of the reformers. But the scholastics sub- stituted for this mternal rule of faith an external rule of faith — first in the apostles' creed, then in the symbols of the churches, and finally in the Reformed or Lutheran or Anglican systems of doctrine. And thus the Script- ures became the slaves of dogmatic a priori systems. The evangelical interpreter returns to the position of the re- formers. He has learned in the history of doctrine that the early church depended too much upon the apostle John, the mediaeval church upon Peter and James, the modern church on the apostle Paul. He finds a system of theology in the Bible itself which he has learned as a Biblical Theology to be carefully distinguished from Dogmatic Theology. He has found that Peter and John and James and Paul were all disciples of Jesus Christ, and have in Him their centre and life. The evangelical interpreter has learned that the Old Testament is an or- ganic whole, in which priests and prophets, sages and poets find their centre and life in the theophanies of Je- hovah. He has learned that Jehovah and Jesus are one, and that in the Messiah of prophecy and history the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments become an organic whole. With this bringing forth of the internal substance of the Scriptures in its unity and variety theo- logical exposition finds its satisfaction and delight, and the analogy of faith is harmonized with the principles of interpretation which have indeed prepared the way for its advance and achievements.* Francis Roberts saw this and stated it in the 17th century.f • See Chap. XI. t In /. c, p. la THE INTEEPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 353 "Now that we may more successfully and clearly understand Scripture by Scripture, these ensueing particulars are to be observed ; (i) That Jesus Christ our mediator and the salvation of siimers by Him is the very substance, marrow, soul and scope of the whole Scriptures. What are the whole Scriptures, but as it were the spir- itual swadling cloathes of the Holy child Jesus, (i) Christ is the truth and substance of all the types and shadows. (2) Christ is the matter and substance of the Covenant of Grace under all administra- tions thereof ; under the Old Testament Christ is veyled, under the New Covenant revealed. (3) Christ is the centre and meeting- place of all the promises, for in him all the promises of God are yea, and they are Amen. (4) Christ is the thing signified, sealed, and exhibited in all the sacraments of Old and New Testaments, whether ordinary or extraordinary. (5) Scripture genealogies are to lead us on to the true line of Christ. (6) Scripture chronologies are to discover to us the times and seasons of Christ. (7) Scripture laws are our schoolmaster to bring us to Christ ; the moral by correcting, the ceremonial by directing. And (8) Scripture gospel is Christ's light, whereby we know him ; Clirist's voice, whereby we hear and follow him ; Christ's cords of love, whereby we are drawn into sv/eet union and communion with him ; yea it is the power of God unto salvation unto all them that believe in Christ Jesus. Keep therefore still Jesus Christ in your eye, in the perusal of the Scripture, as the end, scope, and substance thereof. For as the sun gives light to all the heavenly bodies, so Jesus Christ the sun of righteousness gives light to all the Holy Scriptures." (7) In rising- now to the highest stage of interpreta- tion — practical interpretation — we part company with the mystics as well as the scholastics, and return- to the position of the Puritans and Westminster divines. The Bible is a book of life — a people's book — a book of con- duct. It came from the living God. It tends to the living God. Here is the apex of the pyramid of inter- pretation. He who has not reached this stage has stopped on the way and will not understand the Bible, The Bible brings the interpreter to God. We ^an understand the Bible only by mastering it. We 364 BIBLICAL STUDY. need the master key. No one but the Master himself can give it to us. It is necessary to know God and His Christ in order to know the Bible. The Scriptures can- not be understood from the outside by grammar, logic, rhetoric, and history alone. The Bible cannot be under- stood when involved in the labyrinth of its doctrines. The Bible is to be understood from its centre — its heart — its Christ. Jesus Christ does not reveal Himself ordi- narily aside from the Bible, by new revelations outside of it casting new light upon it from the exterior, as the mystics suppose. But the Messiah is the light centre of the Scriptures themselves. He is enthroned in them as His Holy of Holies, as was Jehovah in the ancient temple. Through the avenues of the Scriptures we go to find Christ — in their centre we find our Saviour. It is this personal relation of the author of the entire Scripture to the interpreter that enables him truly to understand the divine things of the Scripture. Jesus Christ knew the Old Testament and interpreted it as one who knew the mind of God.* He needed no helps to climb the pyramid of interpretation. He was born and ever lived at the summit. The apostles interpreted the Scriptures from the mind of Christ, read by the Spirit He had given them.f We have no such supernat- ural help. We cannot use their a priori methods, but we may climb toward them. We have all the enthusi- asm of the quest — all the joy of discovery. It is not necessary for us to complete our studies of the lower stages of exegesis ere we climb higher. The excgete is not building the pyramid. He is climbing it. Every passage tends toward the summit. Some inter, preters remain forever in the lowest stages. Others * See p. 312. + See p. 319. THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE, 355 spring hastily to the higher stages and fall back crippled and are flung down to the lowest. The patient, faithful, honest exegete climbs steadily to the summit. Our Puritan fathers understood this principle. The doctrine that the Holy Spirit is the supreme interpreter of Scripture is the highest attainment of interpretation. The greatest leaders of the church in all ages have acted on this principle, however defective their apprehension of it may have been, and however little they may have consciously used it in Scripture interpretation. It was this consciousness of knowing the mind of the Spirit and having the truth of God that made them invincible. It was Athanasius against the world. With the divine truth of the blessed Trinity he was mightier than the world. It was Luther against pope and emperor. He could do no other. The Word of God in his hands and in his heart assured him of justification by faith ; and poor, weak man though he was, he was mightier than Church and State combined. It was this principle "that the supreme judge, by which all controversies of religion are to be determined, and all decrees of councils, opinions of ancient writers, doctrines of men, and private spirits, are to be examined, and in whose sentence we are to rest, can be no other but the Holy Spirit speaking in the Scripture,"* that made the Puritan faith and life invincible. O that their descendants had maintained it ! If they had laid less stress upon the minor matters : the order of the decrees, the extent of the atonement, the nature of imputation, the mode of inspiration, and the divine right of presbytery, — and had adhered to this essential principle of their fathers, the history of Puritanism would * If^estminster Confession^ I. 10. 366 BIBLICAL STUDY. have been higher, grander, and more successful. We would not now be threatened with the ruin that has overtaken all its unfaithful predecessors in their turn. Let their children return to it; let them cling to it as the most precious achievement of British Christianity ; let them raise it on their banners, and advance with it into the conflicts of the day ; let them plant it on every hill and in every valley throughout the world ; let them not only give the Bible into the hands of men and trans- late it into their tongues, but let them put it into their hearts, and translate it into their lives. Then will Biblical interpretation reach its culmination in practical interpretation, in the experience and life of mankind. CHAPTER XI. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. Biblical Theology, as a theological discipline, had its origin in the effort to throw off from the Bible the accumulated traditions of scholasticism, guard it from ihe perversions of mysticism, and defend it from the at- tacks of rationalism. Its growth has been through a struggle with these abnormal tendencies, until it has es- tablished a well-defined system, presenting the unity of the Scriptures as a divine organism, and justly estimating the various human types of religion, doctrine, and morals. I. THE FOUR TYPES OF THEOLOGY. The Bible is the divine revelation as it has become fixed and permanent in written documents of various persons in different periods of history, collected in one body called the canon, or sacred Scriptures. All Chris- tian theology must be founded on the Bible, and yet the theologians of the various Christian churches, and the several periods of Christian history have differed great- ly in their use of the Bible. Each age has its own prov- idential problems to solve in the progress of our race, and seeks in the divine word for their solution, looking from the point of view of its own immediate and pecul- iar necessities. Each temperament and characteristic tendency of human nature apj)roaches the Bible from its (307) 368 BIBLICAL STUDY. own peculiarities and necessities. The subjective and the objective, the form and the substance of knowledge, the real and the ideal, are ever readjusting themselves to the advancing generations. If the Bible were a codex of laws, or a system of doctrines, there would still be room for difference of attitude and interpretation ; but inasmuch as the Bible is rather a collection of various kinds of literature : poetry and prose, history and story, oration and epistle, sentence of wisdom and dramatic incident ; and, as a whole, concrete rather than abstract, the room for difference of attitude and interpretation is vastly enhanced. Principles are not always distinctly given, but must ordinarily be derived from a concrete body of truth and facts, and concrete relations ; and everything depends upon the point of view, method, process, and the spirit with which the study is conducted. Thus the jnystic spirit arising from an emotional nat- ure and unfolding into a more or less refined aesthetic sense, seeks union and communion with God, direct, im- mediate, and vital, through the religious feeling. It either strives to break through the forms of religion to the spiritual substance, or else by the imagination sees allegories in the forms, or modes of divine manifestation in sensuous outlines and colors of beauty and grandeur, to be interpreted by the religious aesthetic taste. The religious element is disproportionately unfolded, to the neglect of the doctrinal and ethical. This mystic spirit exists in all ages and in most religions, but it was es- pecially prominent in the Ante-Nicene church, and in Greek and Oriental Christianity, and was distinguished by its intense devotion and its too exclusive absorption in the contemplation of God and of Jesus Christ as God and Saviour. Its exegesis is characterized by the alle- gorical method. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY 3gg The scholastic spirit seeks union and communion with God by means of well-ordered forms. It searches the Word of God for a well-defined system of law and doc- trine by which to rule the Church and control the world. It arises from an intellectual nature, and grows into a more or less acute logical sense, and a taste for systems of order. This spirit exists in all ages and in most religions, but was especially dominant in the middle age of the church and in Latin Christianity. It is distinguished by an intense legality and by too exclusive attention to the works of the law, and the consideration of the sover- eignty of God, the sinfulness of man, and the satisfac- tion to be rendered to God for sin. In Biblical studies it is distinguished by the legal, analytic method of in- terpretation, carried on at times with such hair-splitting distinctions, and subtilty of reasoning, that the Script- ures become as it were a magician's book, which through the device of the manifold sense are as effectual to the purpose of the dogmatician for proof texts as are the sacraments to the priests in their magical operation. The doctrinal element prevails over the religious and ethical. The speculative spirit seeks union and communion with God through the human reason and conscience, and, like the mystic spirit, disregards the form, but from another point of view. It is developed into a more or less pure ethical sense. It works with honest doubt and inquisi- tive search after truth, for the solution of the great prob- lem of the world and man. It is distinguished by an intense rationality and morality. It yearns for a con- science at peace with God and working in faith toward God and love toward man. This has been the prevailing spirit in the Germanic world since the Reformation, and is still the characteristic spirit of our age. The Church, 16* 3*^0 BIBLICAL STUDY". its institutions and doctrines, tlie sacred Scriptures them- selves, are subjected to earnest criticism in the honest search for moral and redemptive truth, and the eternal ideas of right, which are good forever, and are approved by the reason and conscience. The ethical element pre- vails over the religious and the doctrinal. Now, the evangelical spirit combines what is true and of advantage in all these tendencies of human nature. Born of the Holy Spirit, it is ever appropriating all the faculties and powers of man, and eliminating therefrom defective and abnormal tendencies and habits. It is reverent, believing, loving approach to God through the means of grace. It is above all vital union and com- munion with the Triune God in the forms of divine ap- pointment, and the love and service of God and the brethren with all the faculties. It uses the form in order to the substance. It is inquiring, obedient, devout, and reformatory. It combines the subject and the object of knowledge, and aims to realize the ideal. It unites the devotional with the legal and moral habits and attitudes. It strives to unite in the church the various types of human experience in order to complete manhood, and the completion of the kingdom of God in the golden age of the Messiah. This evangelical spirit is the spirit of our Saviour, who speaks to us through four evangelists in the various types, in order to give us a complete and harmonious representation of Himself. This is the spirit which com- bines the variety of the Old and New Testament writers into the unity of the Holy Ghost. This is the spirit which animated the Christian church in its great ad- vancing epochs, when a variety of leaders, guided by the Holy Spirit, combined the types into comprehensive movements. This was the underlying and moving prin- BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 371 ciple of the Reformation and of Puritanism where vital religion combined with great intellectual activity and moral earnestness, to produce the churches of Protestant Christianity. The great initial movements by which the Christian church advanced in the combination of the variety of forces into harmonious operation, in every case gave way to reaction and decline, in which the various forces sep- arated themselves, and some particular one prevailed. So it was in the seventeenth century after the Reforma- tion. The successors of the reformers, declining from the vital religion and moral vigor of Luther, Calvin, and Knox, broke up into various antagonistic parties in the different national churches, in hostility with one another, more and more marring the harmony of divine truth and the principles of the Reformation. The reaction first began with those who had inherited the scholastic spirit from the middle age, and substituted a Protestant scho- lasticism for the mediaeval scholasticism in the Lutheran and Reformed churches of the continent, and a Protest- ant ecclesiasticism for a papal in the churches of Great Britain. The Scriptures once more became the slaves of dogmatic systems and ecclesiastical machinery, and were reduced to the menial service of furnishing proof texts to the foregone conclusions of polemic divines and ecclesiastics. The French Huguenots and British Puritans, in their struggles against persecution, maintained a vital religion, and reacted to the unfolding of the mystic type of the- ology and devoted their attention to works of piety, to union and communion with God, and the practical ap- plication of the Scriptures to Christian life, holding fast to the covenant of grace as the principle of their entire theology, while they distinguished between a theoretical ^^g BIBLICAL STUDY. and a practical divinity, presenting the former in the common Reformed sense, but advancing the latter to a very high degree of development, the best expression of which is found in the Westminster symbols.* Puritan- ism had, however, within itself antagonistic elements, which separated themselves after the composition of the Westminster standards, into various types, and the Puri- tan spirit largely advanced into the Puritanical, on the one side reacting to scholasticism in the school of the In- dependent divine, John Owen, and on the other into mysticism, in the many separating churches of Great Britain, and in such members of the Westminster As- sembly as Thomas Goodwin and Peter Sterry. Puritan- ism passed over to the continent through Wm. Ames and others, and in the school of Cocceius maintained a more biblical cast of doctrine in the system of the cove nants, and afterward gave birth to Pietism in Reformed and Lutheran Germany, producing the biblical school of Bengel and the Moravians ; subsequently bursting forth in England in the form of Methodism, which is a genu- * John Dury, one of the Westminster divines, a Scotchman, the great peace- maker of his age, in his work, An Earnest Plea for Gospel Communion, sheds much light upon this subject. He defines Practical Divinity to be "a system or collection of divine truth relating to the Practice of Piety." The great majority of the writings of the Puritan divines and Westminster men are upon this theme. It embraces chaps, xix.-xxxi. of the Westminster Confession of Faith, the larger part of the Catechisms, and indeed the more characteristic, the abler, and the better parts. Wm. Gouge (also member of Westminster Assembly) in 1633 headed a petition of the London ministers to Archbishop Ussher to frame a sys- tem of Practical Divinity, as a bond of union among Protestants, distinguishing between essentials and circumstantials. John Dury, in 1654, presents such an outline himself, working it out on the principle of the Covenant of Grace. He says : " Nor is it possible (as I conceive) ever to unite the Professors of Christi- anity to each other, to heal their breaches and divisions in Doctrine and Practice, and tc make them live together, as brethren in one spirit ought to do, without the same sense of the Covenant by which they may be made to perceive the terms upon which God doth unite all those that are his children unto himself " (p. 19 An Earnest Plea/or Gospel Communion, London, 1654). BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 373 ine child of Puritanism in the stress that it lays upon piety and a Christian life, although it shares with all these movements that have grown out of Puritanism, the common fault of undue emphasis upon the religious element, and a more or less sharply defined mysticism, to the neglect of the doctrinal and the ethical. The school of Saumur in France, the school of Calix- tus in Germany, and the Cambridge Platonists in Eng- land (who were Puritan in origin and training), revived the ethical type and strove to give the human reason its proper place and functions in matters of religion, and prepared the way for a broad, comprehensive church. They were accompanied, however, by a more active movement, which by an undue emphasis of the rational and the ethical, followed Hobbes, John Goodwin, and Biddle into a movement which in England assumed the form of Deism, and in France of Atheism, in Holland of Pantheism, and in Germany of Rationalism. And thus the three great types became antagonized both within the national churches, in struggling parties, and without the national churches, in separating churches and hostile forms of religion and irreligion, of philosophy and of science. Thus the evangelical spirit of the Reformation was crushed between the contending parties, and its voice drowned for a while by the clamor of partisanship. The struggle has continued into the present century, but has been modified since Schleiermacher in the growth of the evangelical spirit to become the potent reconciling force of the 19th century.* * Thf various types are not always found in their streng;th and purity as di- vergent forces, but frequently in a more or less mixed condition. Thus the Cambririge Platonists, while predominantly rational and ethical, were also char- acterized by the mystic spirit, especially in the case of Henry Moore. The Puri- tans, William Perkins and William Ames, combined the scholastic and mystic types. The scholastic and the rational combined in Calixtus and Arminius, This might be illustrated by numerous exan;ples. 374 BIBLICAL STUDY. IL RISE OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. It was in the midst of this conflict of theological types that Biblical Theology had its origin and historical de- velopment, and has now its position and importance. It was first during the conflict between Rationalism and Supernaturalism in Germany that the need of a Biblical Theology began to be felt. Scripture was the common battle-field of Protestants, and each party strove to pre- sent the Scriptures from its own peculiar point of view ; and it became important to distinguish the teachings of the Scriptures themselves from the teachings of the schools and the theologians of the contending parties. This was attempted almost simultaneously from both sides of the conflict. G. T. Zacharia, a pupil of Baum- garten at Halle, and a decided supernaturalist,* would compare the Biblical ideas with the church doctrine in order to correct and purify the latter. He would base Dogmatics on the Scriptures, which alone can prove and correct the system. The author speaks of the ad- vancing economy of redemption, but has no conception of an organic development.f Soon after, Ammon (C. F.) issued his work on Biblical Theology.;}: Ammon was a rationalist. Miracles and prophecy are rejected as un- tenable. They will not bear critical and historical inves- tigation. He would gather material from the Bible for a dogmatic system without regard to the system that might be built upon it.§ Thus from both sides the scholastic system was undermined by the scriptural in- vestigation. * Bibl. Tkeol. Oder Untersuchung dcs biblischen Grundes der vornehmsten iheologischen LeJiren, 1772. t See Tholuck's view of him in Herzog;, J?eal Ency., i Auf., xviii., p. 351. X Entwurf etner reineji Bibl. Tlieologie^ 1792, and Biblische Theoiogie, 1801. § Tholuck regards his Biblical Theology as a fundamental one for the histori- co-critiiiil Rationalism. (See Herzog, i Aufl., xix., p. 54, seg.) BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. ^^^ In the meanwhile Michaelis, Griesbach, and Eichhofn had given a new impetus to BibHcal studies. Gabler (J. F.), the pupil and friend of Eichhorn and Gries- bach, who influenced him and largely determined his theological position, first laid the foundations of Bib- lical Theology as a distinct theological discipline.* He presented the historical principle as the distinguishing feature of Biblical Theology over against a system of Dogmatics.f Gabler himself did not work out his prin- ciples into a system, but left this as an inheritance to his successors. Lorenzo Baur :}: defines Biblical Theology as a develop- ment, pure and unmixed with foreign elements, of the religious theories of the Jews, of Jesus, and the apostles, according to the different historical periods, the varied acquirements and views of the sacred writers, as derived from their writings. He sought to determine the uni- versal principles which would apply to all times and in- dividuals. He would from the shell of Biblical ideas get the kernel of the universal religion. § De Wette | sought to separate the essential from the non-essential by re- * In an academic discourse : de justo discrimine theologicB bibliccB et dog- matics regundtsque rede utriusque finibus, 1787. t Gabler was a man of the type of Eichhorn and Herder, on the borders of the iSth and 19th centuries, from whom the fructifying influences upon the Evangelical Theologfy of the 19th century went forth. He labored for many years as Professor at Jena, and worked for the advancement of Biblical and His- torical Learning with an intense moral earnestness. X Bihl. Theo. d. N. T., 1800- 1802. S P. C. Kaiser's Bihlische Theologie oder Judaismus und Christianismus nach graTnmatisch-historischen hiterpretationsmethode und nacli eincr- frri- muthigen Stellung in die kritisch vergleichetide Uftiversaigesc/n'chte der Relig- ion und die universale Religion (Bd. L, 1S13; H. a, 1814 ; H. b. 1821) is of the same point of view. I Bibl. Dngmatik des Alt. und Xeuen Testaments oder kritiscJie Darstelluti^ ier Religionslehre des Hebraismus, des yude)tthuins, des Urchristenthums, 1813, 3te Aufl., 1831. 876 BIBLICAL STUDY. ligious philosophical reflection. He would exclude the local, the temporal, and the individual in order to attain the universal religion. He made the advance of treat- ing Biblical Theology in periods, and of distinguishing the characteristic features of Hebraism and Judaism, of Christ and His apostles ; but in his treatment the dog- matic element has too great prominence given to it, so that he justly gives this work the title. Biblical Dog- matics* W. Vatkef in 1835 issued an able and instruct- ive work, discussing fully the essential character of the Biblical religion in relation to the idea of religion. He divides his theme into two parts, presenting the religion of the Old and the New Testaments. The first part is subdivided into two stages : the Bloom and the Decay, historically traced. The author also divides into a gen- eral and a special part ; the former alone has been pub- lished, and is entirely speculative in character. It does not consider the individualities of the authors, and shows no advance beyond L. Baur and DeWette.:j: Daniel von Coin § carries out the historical method more thoroughly than any of his predecessors, and presents a much more complete system, but he does not escape the speculative * L. F. O. Baumgarten Crusius' Grundzuge der Biblischen Theologies 1828, is of slight importance, reacting from the advances made by L. Baur and De Wette. + Religion des Alien Testaments nach den kanonischen BUchern entwickelt, as the first part of a Biblical Theology. I It has recently come into prominence, owing to the author's views of O. T. Literature, which are in agreement with those of Reuss and Kuenen, at the ba- sis of the Critical Theories of Wellhausen. J. C. F. Steudel's Vorlesungen fiber die Theologie des Alien Testaments nach dessen Tode herausgegeben von G. F. Oehler, 1840, is still on the older ground, taking Biblical Theology to be "the systematic survey of the religious ideas which are found in the v/ritings of the Old Testament," including the Apocryphal, without distincUon of periods or authois or writings, all arranged under the topics : Man, God, and tlie relation between God and Man. § Bibl. Theo., 1836. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 377 trammels of his predecessors. He presents the follow- ing principles of Biblical Theology : " (l) To carefully distinguish the times and authors, and the medi- ate as well as the immediate presentation of doctrine ; (2) To strongly maintain the religious ideas of the authors themselves ; (3) To present and explain the symbolical mythical forms and their re- ation to the pure ideas and convictions of the authors ; (4) To ex- plain the relation of the authors and their methods to the external conditions of the people, the time and the place under which they were trained ; (5) To search for the origin of the ideas in their prim- itive forms." * De Wette and Von Coin recognize a difference of the authors, but not from any inner peculiarity of the au- thors themselves, but from the external conditions of time, place, and circumstances. The authors are placed side by side without any real conception of their differ- ences or of their unity. The historical principle is ap- plied and worked out, but in an external fashion, and the relation to the universal religion and other religions is considered rather than the interrelation of the vari- ous doctrines and types of the Scriptures themselves. III. DEVELOPMENT OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. This was the condition of affairs when Strauss issued his Life of Jesus, and sought, by arraying one New Tes- tament writer against another, as F. Baur justly charges against him, to prove the incompetence of all the wit- nesses and reduce the life of Jesus to a myth.f F. Baur himself sought by the historico-critical process to show the natural development of Christianity out of the vari- ous forces brought into conflict with each other in the • Bib. Theologte, I., p. 30. t F. Faur, Kril. Untersuch. in d. kann. Evang.^ P- 7' ! F Baur, Kirchen' geschichte des 19 Jahrhunderts, p. 397. Strauss replies in his Leben Jesuf. d, deutsche Volk., p. 64. 378 BIBLICAL STUDY. first and second Christian centuries, reducing the life and teachings of Jesus to a minimum. Neander grap- pled with the mythical hypothesis of Strauss, and the development hypothesis of F. Baur, and sought to con- struct a life of Jesus and a history of the apostolic church, resting upon a sound historical criticism of the New Testament writings.* He introduced a new prin- ciple into Biblical Theolog}', and made it a section in his History of the Apostles. He sought to distinguish the individualities of the various sacred writers in their con- ception of Christianity and to unite them in a higher unity. " The doctrine of Christ was not to be given to man as a stiff and dead letter, in a fixed and inflexible form, but, as the word of the Spirit and of life, was to be proclaimed in and by its life in living va- riation and variety. Men enlightened by the Divine Spirit caught up Jhese doctrines and appropriated them in a living manner according 1o their respective differences in education and life. These differ- ences were to manifest the living unity, the richness and depth of the Christian spirit according to the various modes of human con- ception, unconsciously complementing and explaining each other. For Christianity is meant for all men, and can adapt itself to the most varied human characters, transform them and unite them in a higher unity. For the various peculiarities and fundamental tenden- cies in human nature are designed to work in and with one another at all times for the realization of the idea of humanity, the presenta- tion of the kingdom of God in humanity." t Neander thus gave to Biblical Theology a new and important feature that was indispensable for the further development of the discipline. Neandcr's presentation * Geschichte der P/lanzung und Leitutig e'er cJn-ist lichen Kijche durch dit Apostel, 1832, sth Aufl., 1862 ; translated into English in Biblical Cabinet, Edin- burgh, 1842; Bohn's Library, London, 1856; translated by J. E. Ryland, re- vised and corrected according to the fourth German edition by E. G. Robinson, N. Y., T863. t Gesch. d. P/. uiid Leit.^ Gotha, 5te Aufl., p. 501. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 379 has still many defects. It is kept in a too subordinate position to his history. But he takes the stand so nec- essary for the growth of Biblical Theology that the the- ology of the various authors is to be determined from their own characters and the essential and fundamental conceptions of their own writings. Neander presents as the central idea of Paul, the law and righteousness, which give the connection as well as contrast between his original and final conception. The fundamental idea of James is, that Christianity is the perfect law. John's conception is, that divine life is in communion with the Redeemer, death in estrangement from Him. Schmid, a colleague of F. Baur at Tubingen, first gave Biblical Theology its proper place in Theological Ency- clopaedia.* He defined Biblical Theology as belonging essentially to the department of Exegetical Theology, " We understand by Biblical Theology of the New Tes- tament the historico-genetic presentation of Christianity as thisis given in the canonical writings of the New Tes- tament ; a discipline which is essentially distinguished from Systematic Theology by its historical character, while by its limitation to the biblical writings of the New Testament, it is separated from Historical Theology, and is characterized as a part of Exegetical Theology. Of this last it constitutes the summit by which Exegetical Theology is connected with the roots of Systematic as well as Historical Theology, and even touches Practi- cal Theology." Schmid regards Christianity as the fulfilment of the Old Covenant, which consists in Law and Promise.f He seeks to present Christianity in its * In his invaluable essay, Ueber das Interesse und den Siatid d. Bibl. T/ieo, des Neu. Test, in unserer Zeit. Tiibinger Zeitschri/t /. T/teo., 4 Heft., 1838, pp. 126, 129. t Bib. Theo., p. 367. 380 BIBLICAL STUDY. unity with the Old Testament as well as in its contrast thereto. He thus gains four possibilities of doctrine, which are realized in the four principal apostles. James presents Christianity as the fulfilled Law ; Peter as the fulfilled Promise ; Paul as contrasted with the Law ; and John as contrasted with both Law and Promise. For many years he lectured on the Theology of the New Testament. These lectures were published after his death by his pupils.* Oehler (G. F.), also of the university of Tubingen, takes the same position with reference to the Old Tes- tament.f He defines the Theology of the Old Testa- ment as " the historico-genetic presentation of the re- vealed religion contained in the canonical writings of the Old Testament." His Lectures were first issued in 1873-4,:}: by his son. Oehler distinguishes in the Old Testament three parts : Mosaism, Prophetism, and the Chokma — the first fundamental ; the Prophetism repre- senting the objective side, and the Chokma the subject- ive : these two unfolding in parallelism with one another. Thus he marks an advance in the Old Testament in the discrimination of types^ corresponding with the distin- guishing of types in the New Testament by Neander and Schmid.§ Schmid and Oehler combine in giving us organic systems of Biblical Theology as the highest point of Exegetical Theology, and with a distinction of types combining in a higher unity, and with Neander introduce a new epoch in Biblical Theology. | * Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 1853, 4th ed., 1869. Translated into English, but without the invaluable definitions at the beginning of the sec- tions. Eiinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1870. t Proiegomena zur Theologie des Alie?i Testaments, 1845. X Theologie des Alien Test., 2 Bde., II. Aufl., 1883. § His work has been translated into English in Clark's Lib., Edin., 2 vols., 1874 ; also revised and edited by Prof. G. E. Day. New York, 1883. I The posthumous Lectures of Prof. Havemick, of Konigpiburg, on Bibl. Theo. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. Qg-{ On the other hand, F. Baur attempts to account for the peculiarities of the New Testament writings, as well as the origin of the Christian church, by his theory of the two opposing forces, the Judaistic and the Pauline, gradually uniting in the later writings of the New Tes- tament in the second century into a more conservative and mediating theology, reaching its culmination in the Johannean writings, which are at an elevation above the peculiarities of the earlier stages of development. Bib- lical Theology is to Baur a purely historical discipline. In it the scriptural doctrine loosens itself from the fet- ters of the dependent relation in which it has been to the dogmatic systems of the church, and will more and more emancipate itself therefrom. New Testament The- ology is that part of Historical Theology which has to ])resent the doctrine of Jesus as well as the doctrinal systems resting upon it, in the order and connection of their historical development, according to the peculiar characteristics by which they are distinguished from one another, so far as this can be ascertained in the New Testament writings. Baur strongly objects to the idea of Neander and his school, that there is a wzi^j/ in the variety of New Testament doctrines, which is the very opposite of his own view of a development out of con- trasted and irreconcilable forces. Baur justly admits that the doctrines of Jesus must be at the foundation. The doctrine of Jesus must be drawn chiefly from the tf. A/i. Test., were published by Hahn in 1848, and a revised edition by Her- mann Schultz in 1863, but are of no special value. Prof. H. Messner, of Perlin, in 1856, published Die Lehre der Apostel in the spirit of Neander. He beL;ins with the system of James, Jude, and Peter ; makes the discourse of Stephen a transition to the Pauline system, and gives the theolof;y of Paul with that of tlie Epistle to the Hebrews app)ended, and concludes with the theology of Jolin .ir.d the Apocalypse. He finally gives a searching comparison of the various forms o) apostolic doctrine, seeking a unity in the variety. 382 BIBLICAL STUDY. discourses in Matthew, yet these not in their present form, as given in our Greek Gospel, but in their original form, to be determined by sound criticism. The essen- tial principle of Christianity and of the doctrine of Jesus is the ethical principle ; the law is not only enlarged by the Gospel, but the Gospel is contrasted with it. They arc related as the outer to the inner, the act to the in- tention, the letter to the spirit. " Christianity presented in its original form in the doctrine of Jesus is a religion breathing the purest moral spirit." " This moral ele- ment, as it is made known in the simple sentences of the sermon on the mount, is the purest and clearest con- tent of the doctrine of Jesus, the real kernel of Chris- tianity, to which all the rest, however significant, stands in a more or less secondary and accidental relation. It is that on which the rest must be built, for however little it has the form and color of that Christianity which has become historical, yet it is in itself the entire Chris- tianity." ■^ Neander and Baur, the great historical rivals of our century, thus attain the same end in John's contempla- tion which reconciles and harmonizes all the previous points of view. According to Neander and his school, the variety therein attains a higher unity ; according to Baur and his school, the contradictory positions are rec- onciled in an ideal spirit which is indifferent to all mere externals. The Lectures of Baur were published after his death in i864.f Prof. Reuss, of Strasburg, in 1852 issued his History of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age.:}: In the Preface to the last edition he states : * Neu. Test. TJieologic, p. 64, seq. \ Vorlcstingen i'lher Neutestamentlichc Tlieologie. \ Ilistoire de la Theolu^ic Chrciienne an Sikcle Afostolique, 2 tomes. A BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 383 " The unity which has been sought at the end of the work, T have dwelt upon where the history itself points to it — namely, at the be- ^nning. It is in the primitive Gospel, in the teaching of the Lord Himself, that we find the focus of those rays which the prism of analysis places before us, separately in their different shades of color. As it has not been my design to produce a critical or theoretical, but a historical work, I have necessarily followed the natural evolu- tion of the ideas, nor did it come within my province to violate this order to subserve any practical purpose, however lawful." It is the distinguishing merit of Reuss that he sets the Biblical Theology of the New Testament in the midst of the religious movements of the times. He begins with a discussion of Judaism, e. g., the theology of the Jews subsequent to the Exile and in its various sects, then considers John the Baptist and the Forerun- ners. In the second part he treats of the Gospels ; in the third part the Jewish Christian Theology, and in the fourth the Pauline, and in the fifth the theology of John. But the historical method absorbs and overwhelms the inductive, and he justly names his work a History of Christian Theology in Apostolic Times. Standing with the school of Baur in contending for the position of the discipline in Historical Theology, he differs from it in his giving up the reconciliation of contrasts in John's Theology. In the same year, 1852, Lutterbcck,* a Ro- man Catholic writer, goes even more thoroughly than Reuss into the doctrinal systems in the midst of which Christianity arose : (i) The Heathen systems ; (2) The Jewish ; (3) The mixed systems and heresies of the apostolic period. He then passes over to the Christian system, distinguishing the various types as did Neander, translation of the 3d edition into English has been published by Hodder & Stouf^hton, London, in 2 vols., 1872. * Keutestameiitlichen I.e/irbegriffen, Ein Hanibuck /ilr dlteste Doi;;meti^e- ichiclitc und ^yslematisclic ExCf^cse dcs Keuen 7'esfamcnlcs, 2 Bande. 384 BIBLICAL STUDY. and shows their genesis and internal harmony in an able and thorough manner, distinguishing three stages of apostolic doctrine : (i) From the death of Christ to the Apostolic Council, the original type ; (2) The time of contrasted views, 50-70 ; (3) The period of mediation, or the later life of the apostle John, 70-100 A.D. G. L. Hahn * reacts to the historical ground without distinction of types. B. Weiss f has also been influ- enced by the conflict between the schools of Neander and Baur to take an intermediate position. He ex- cludes the life of Jesus and the great events of Apostolic history, and also restricts Biblical Theology to the vari- ety of the types of doctrine and abandons the effort for a higher unity. Within the limits chosen by the author his work is elaborate and thorough, and a most valuable addition to the literature, but does not show any prog- ress in his conception of the discipline. Hermann Schultz, in 1869,:}: laid stress upon the his- rorico-critical method of the school of Baur, yet includes religion as well as dogmatics and ethics in his scheme, rxcluding the apocryphal books and limiting himself to the canonical writings. His work is elaborate and thor- ough in its working out of details, but does not show any real progress.§ In his Biblical Theology, Van Oosterzee,|| in 1870, docs not enter much into details or present a thoroughgoing * Theologie des Alien Testaments, vol. i., 1854. + Lehrb. d. Bibl. Theo. d. N. T., 1868, 3te Aufl., 1880. Translated into English in Clark's Library, vol. i., 1883. X Alttestamentliche Theologie, 2te Aufl., 1878. § In his last edition Schultz has gone over to the school of Wellhausen, and reconstructed his Biblical Theology so as to distinguish a Prophetic and Levitical period, and abandons the historical development, and thus like Ewald declines from the advanced position of F. Baur and Neander. \ Bibl. Theo. of tlie New Test. Translated from the Dutch by M. J. Evans. N. Y., 1876. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 385 comparison, yet he seeks the higher unity as well as the individual types. He regards Biblical Theology as apart of Historical Theology, but his treatment of it is after the style of Neander. He does not estimate the- life of Jesus and the religious life of the apostolic church. He neglects the religious and ethical elements, and as a whole must be regarded as falling behind the later treatises on the subject. Bernard * issued a brief work in the spirit of Neander, but without any advance in the working out of the theme. Ewald (H.) in 1 871-6 issued his massive and profound work.f The first volume treats of the doctrine of the word of God, the second of the doctrine of God, the third of the world and man, the fourth of the life of men and the kingdom of God. These divisions of the subject-matter are simple and comprehensive, and the treatment, especially in the first volume, admirable and profound, and yet the historical side of the discipline falls too much into the background ; so that we must regard the work on the whole as a decline from the higher position of the schools of Neander and Baur. Indeed Old Testament Theology was not yet ripe for the treatment that was necessary to bring it up to the standard of the New Testament Theology. The older views of the Biblical writings of the Old Testament, both of the Critical and Traditional sides, were too mechanical and uncertain. There was needed a great overturning of the soil of the Old Testament by a rad- ical critical study of its religion and history such as Strauss had made in the New Testament. Such a treat- • Progress 0/ Doctrine in the New Testament, Bampton Lectures, 1864, 2d edit., 1867. t Lehre der Bibel von Gott oder Theologie des Alten und Netun Bundes, 4 Bde. 17 386 BIBLICAL STUDY. ment was prepared by Vatke, Reuss, and Graf,* but first carried out by Kuenen,t and then by Julius Wellhauscn.J These distinguished three great codes and sections in the Pentateuch, and found two antagonistic elements in the Old Testament Scriptures, and ventured upon a radical reconstruction of Old Testament Religion and History and established a large and enthusiastic school. Kuenen, in his history of Israel, finds in the period from Hezekiah to the exile two antagonistic parties in perpetual conflict. The one is the more popular and conservative party advocating the ancient religion of the land, the local sanctuaries and image worship, to- gether with various deities. This party was formed by the majority of the prophets and the older Levitical priests. The other party was the progressive and the reforming party aiming at a central and exclusive sanct uary and the worship of Jehovah alone in a more spirit ual manner. This was the priestly party at Jerusalem formed by the prophets Isaiah, Micah, and Jeremiah. These parties struggled with varying fortunes until the exile. The reforming party issued as their programme the Deuteronomic code. Independent of them, yet at times merging with the party of progress, was the Chokma tendency.§ The struggle was thus " between Jahvism and Jewish nationality." || During the exile, influenced by Ezekiel's programme of reconstruction, * Ilitzig;, in Ris posthumous Vorlesungen fiber Bibl. Theo. ttnd Mess. Weissa- gttngen, 1880, treats first of the principle of the religion of the Old Testament, e.g., the idea of God as a holy spirit. This developed itself in two directions : Universalism and Particulartim. The book is defective in method, arbitrary in judgment, and shows no real progress beyond this distinction of types. t Religion of Israel, x9£if)-'j<:i (in the Dutch language, translated 1873-5 '°to English) and by his Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, 1877. X Gesch. Israel, Bd. i., 1878, 2 Ausg., 1883. ^ Religion 0/ Israel, ii., chap. 6. \ In /. c, I., p. 70. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 387 the priestly legislation of the middle books of the Pen- tateuch was composed, and Ezra introduced it to the new commonwealth at Jerusalem. " Ezra and Nehemiah assailed as much the independence of the religious life of the Israelites, which found utterance in prophecy, as the more tolerant judgment upon the heathen to which many in- clined ; their reformation was in other words anti-prophetic and anti-universalistic. History teaches us that the Reformation of Ezra and Nehemiah nearly coincides in date with the disappearance of Prophecy in Israel." (II., p. 240, seq.).* The three great codes were afterward combined in the Pentateuch. Thus this scheme of reconstruction of Old Testament legislation and religion adopted by such a large number of critics resembles in a most remarkable degree the reconstruction of the New Testament his- tory and doctrine proposed by Baur ; namely, two aji- tagonistic and irreconcilable forces resulting in a final system above them both. With reference to the three codes and sections of the Pentateuch, evangelical men should not fail to recognize them. They correspond in a remarkable manner with the various presentations of the Gospel of Jesus. And so the great types such as we find in the Prophetic, Priestly, and Chokma writings are clearly defined, cor- responding closely with the Petrine, Pauline, and the Johannean types of the New Testament. The corre- spondence goes even farther, in that, as the Jewish Chris- tian type is divided in twain by the gospels of Mark and Matthew, and by the apostles Peter and James, so the prophetic type breaks up into the Psalmists and the * See the articles : Tke Theory 0/ Professor Kuenen, by the Rev. T. W. Cham- bers, D.D., in the Presbyterian Review, 1880, p. 304, seg. ; T/te Critical Theo- ries 0/ Julius U'ellhausen, by Prof. Henry P. Smith, in the same Review, i88a, p. 357, seq. ; and Critical Study 0/ the History 0/ the 1 Uglier Criticism, in tli« same Review, 1883, p. 69, seq. 388 BIBLICAL STUDY. Prophets. The three great types must be recognized in the Old Testament from the TJiora onward, extend- ing through the histories, prophets, and poetical books * and other writings, as in the New Testament the types are recognized from the gospels through the book of Acts to the Epistles and Apocalypse. The school of Kuenen and Wellhausen regard them as antagonistic as are the parties in Church and State in our own day, the history and religion having a purely natural develop- ment. Evangelical exegetes will, in the main, deal with the Old Testament as they have done with the New Testament under the lead of Neander, Schmid, and Oehler, and recognize the variation of type in order to a more complete and harmonious representation as they combine under the supernatural influence of a divine progressive revelation. Recent works on New Testament theology have de- voted themselves more to a study of the particular types with reference to their psychological development out of the condition of mind and historical position and training of the various New Testament writers. Immer* restates the positions of the school of Baur, but with the important advance that he traces the various stages of the development of the Pauline theology itself with considerable industry and skill, so Pfleiderer,-}- Sabatier,:}: * Theo. d. N. T., 1877. + It was natural that the theology of Paul should receive at first the closest Examination. Usteri, Entwickelung des Paulinischen Lehrbegriffes, 1829, 6te Aufl., 1851, is a classic work ; followed by Dahne, Entwickelung des Paulin- ischen LehrhegriffSy 1835 ; Baur, Paulus der Apostel Jesu Christi, 1845, 2te Aufl., 1866; Opitz (H.), System des Paulus, 1874. X HApotre Paul esquisse d'une Histoire de sa Pensie, 1870. Deuxilme edi- tion revue et augmentee, 1881, Paris. He finds the origin of Paul's theology in the combination of the three facts — his Pharisaism which he left, the Cliris- tian church which he entered, and the conversion by which he passed from the one to the other. He then traces the genesis of the Pauline theology in three periods. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 389 and especially Holsten,* who strives to derive the pecu- liarity of the doctrine of Paul out of his consciousness rather than from the vision and Christophany on the way to Damascus.f Thoma:j: strives to explain the theology of John as a development out of the struggling doctrinal conceptions of Judaism and Alexandrianism. § These, then, are the two points on which Biblical Theology may be expected to make a new advance: (i) in the relation of the variety of types to one another and to their unity ; (2) in the origin and development of the particu lar types. We have thus far distinguished two stages in the de- velopment of the discipline of Biblical Theology. Gab- ler first stated its historical principle and distinguished it from Systematic Theology. Neander then distin- guished its variety of types, and Schmid stated its exe- getical principle and distinguished it from Historical Theology as a part of Exegetical Theology. We are about to enter upon a third stage in which Biblical The- ology, as the point of contact of Exegetical Theology with the three other great sections of Theological Ency- clopaedia, will show the true relation of its various types to one organic system of divine truth, will trace them * Zum Evangelium des Paulus u. d. Petrus, 1868 ; Evangelium des Paulus, 1880. t Prof. A. B. Bruce, of Glasgow, in his article on PauVs Conversion and the Pauline Gospel, in the Pres. Review, 1880, p. 652, seq., ably discusses these theories, and shows the connection of Pauline theology with the supernatural event of the Christophany and the ajx)stle's consequent conversion. X Die Genesis des Johannes Evangelium, 1882. § Other special writers upon p)articu)ar types are : Riehm's Lehrbegriff des Hcbraerhrie/s, 1867 ; K. R. Kostlin, Lehrbegriff des Evang. und der Briefe yohannes, 1845 ; B. Weiss, Petrinische Lehrbegriff, 1855 ; Johanneischt Lehrbegriff, 1862 ; Zschokke, Theologie der Prophet en des Alten Testaments^ 1877 ; VV. Schmidt, Lehrgehalt des yacobus Brie/es, 1869 ; H. Gebhardt, Lehr- begriff der Apofcalypse, 1873. 390 BIBLICAL STUDY. each and all to their supernatural origin and direction as distinguished from the ordinary types of human think- ing ; and thus will act as a conserving and a reconciling force in the theology of the last quarter of our century. Step by step Biblical Theology has advanced in the progress of exegetical studies. It is and must be an ag- gressive discipline. It has a fourfold work : of removing the rubbish that Scholasticism has piled upon the Word of God ; of battling with Rationalism for its principles, methods, and products ; of resisting the seductions of Mysticism ; and of building up an impregnable system of sacred truth. As the Jews returning from their exile built the walls of Jerusalem, working with one hand, and with the other grasping a weapon, so must Biblical schol- ars build up the system of Biblical Theology, until they have erected a structure of Biblical truth containing the unity in the variety of Divine Revelation, a struct- ure compacted through the fitting together of all the gems of sacred truth according to the adaptation of a divine prearrangement. IV. THE POSITION AND IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. Having considered the origin and history of Biblical Theology, we are now prepared to show its position and importance, and define it as to its idea, method, and sys- tem, (i) The idea of Biblical Theology. — Biblical The- ology is that theological discipline which presents the theology of the Bible in its historical formation within the canonical writings. The discipline limits itself strictly to the theology of the Bible, and thus excludes from its range the theology of the Apocryphal and Pseu- depigraphical writings of the Jewish and Christian sects, the ideas of the various external religious parties, and BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 39 ^ the religions of the world brought in contact with the people of God at different periods in their history. It is true that these must come into consideration for com- parative purposes in order to show their influence posi- tively and negatively upon the development of Biblical doctrine ; for the Biblical religion is a religion in the midst of a great variety of religions of the world, and its distinctive features can be shown only after the elim- ination of the features that are common with other re- ligions. We must show from the historical circumstances, the psychological preparations, and all the conditioning influences, how far the origin and development of the particular type and the particular stage of religious de- velopment of Israel and the Church were influenced by these external forces. We must find the supernatural influence that originated and maintained the Biblical types and the Biblical religion as distinct and separate from all other religions. And then these other religious forces will not be employed as co-ordinate factors with the Biblical material, as is done by Reuss, Schwegler, and Kuenen, who make Biblical Theology simply a his- tory of religion, or of doctrine in the times of the Bible and in the Jewish nation. Rather these theological con- ceptions of other religions will be seen to be subordinate factors as influencing Biblical Theology from without, and not from within, as presenting the external occa- sions and conditions of its growth, and not its normal and regulative principles. The Biblical limit will be maintained ; for the Biblical material stands apart by itself, in that the theology therein contained is the theology of a divine Revelation, and thus distinguished from all other theologies, both as to its origin and its development ; for they give us either the products of natural religion in various normal and abnormal sys- 392 BIBLICAL STUDY. terns, originating and developing under the influence ol unguided or partially guided human religious strivings, or else are apostasies or deflections from the religion o't revelation in its various stages of development. The discipline we have defined as presenting the T/ie- ology of the Bible. It is true that the term Biblical The- ology is ambiguous as being too broad, having been em- ployed as a general term including Biblical Introduction, Hermeneutics, and so on. And yet we must have a broad term, for we cannot limit our discipline to Dogmatics, for Biblical Dogmatics, as rightly conceived, is a part of Sys- tematic Theology, being a />rzorz and deductive in method. Biblical Dogmatics deduces the dogmas from the Bibli- cal material and arranges them in an a priori dogmatic system, presenting not so much the doctrines of the Bible in their simplicity and in their concrete form as they are given in the Scriptures themselves, but such doctrines as may be fairly derived from the Biblical ma- terial by the logical process, or can be gained by setting the Bible in the midst of philosophy and church tradition. We cannot deny to this department the propriety of using the name Biblical Dogmatics or even Biblical Theology. For where a Dogmatic system derives its chief or only material from the Scriptures there is force in its claim to be Biblical Theology. We do not, therefore, use the term Biblical Theology as applied to our discipline with the implication that a dogmatic system derived from the Bible is «^«-Biblical or not sufficiently Biblical, but as a term which has come to be applied to the discipline which we are now distinguishing from Biblical Dogmat- ics.' Biblical Theology, in the sense of our discipline, and as distinguished from Biblical Dogmatics, cannot take a step beyond the Bible itself, or, indeed, beyond the particular writing or author under consideration at BIL iCAL THEOLOGY. 393 the time. Biblical Theology has to do only with the sacred author's conceptions, and has nothing whatever to do with the legitimate logical consequences. It is not to be assumed that either the author or his genera- tion argued out the consequences of their statements, still less discerned them by intuition ; although, on the other hand, we must always recognize that the religion and, indeed, the entire theology' of a period or an au- thor may be far wider and more comprehensive than the record or records that have been left of it ; and that, in all cases. Biblical Theology will give us the minimum rather than the maximum of the theology of a period or author. But, on the other hand, we must also estimate the fact that this minimum is the inspired authority to which alone we can appeal. The only consequences with which Biblical Theology has to do are those his. torical ones that later Biblical writers gained in their ad- vanced knowledge of divine revelation, those conclusions that are true historically — whatever our subjective con- clusions may be as to the legitimate logical results of their statements. And even here the interpretation and use of later writers are not to be assigned to the author;; themselves or the theology of their times. We would therefore urge that the term Biblical Dogmatics should be applied to that part of Dogmatics which rests upon the Bible and derives its material from the Bible by the legitimate use of its principles. Dogmatics as a theo- logical discipline, in our judgment, is far wider than the Biblical material that is employed by the dogmatician. The Biblical material should be the normal and regula- tive material, but the dogmatician will make use of the deductions from the Bible and other authorities that the church has made in the history of doctrine and incor- porated in her creeds, or preserved in the doctrinal treat- 17* 394 BIBLICAL STUDr. ises of the theologians. He will also make use of right reason, and of philosophy, and science, and the religious consciousness as manifest in the history of the church and in the Christian life of the day. It is all-important that the various sources should be carefully discriminated, and the Biblical material set apart by itself in Biblical Dogmatics, lest in the commingling of material that should be regarded as Biblical which is «^«-Biblical, or extra Biblical, or contra Biblical, as has so often hap- pened in the working of ecclesiastical tradition. And, even then, when Biblical Dogmatics has been distin- guished in Systematic Theology, it should be held apart from Biblical Theology, for Biblical Dogmatics is the point of contact of Systematic Theology with Exegeti- cal Theology, and Biblical Theology is the point of con- tact of Exegetical Theology with Systematic Theology, each belonging to its own distinctive branch of theolo- gy, with its characteristic methods and principles. That system of theology which would anxiously confine it- self to supposed Biblical material, to the neglect of the material presented by philosophy, science, literature, art, comparative religion, the history of doctrine, the symbols, the liturgies, and the life of the church, and the pious religious consciousness of the individual or of Christian society, must be extremely defective, unscien- tific, and cannot make up for its defects by an appeal to the Scriptures and a claim to be Biblical. None of the great systematic theologians, from the most ancient times have ever proposed any such course. It has been the resort of the feebler Pietists in Germany, and of the narrower Evangelicalism of Great Britain and America, doomed to defeat and destruction, for working in such contracted lines. We do n^t, therefore, present Biblical Thcolog)' as a BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 395 substitute for Systematic Theology. Systematic Theol- ogy is more comprehensive than Biblical Theology can ever be. But we urge the importance of Biblical Theol- ogy in order to the important distinction that should be made, in the first place, between the Biblical sources and all other sources of Theology, and then, in the second place, to distinguish between the Biblical Theology as presented in the Scriptures themselves, and Biblical Dogmatics which makes legitimate deductions and appli- cations of the Biblical material. But Biblical Theology is wider than the doctrines of the Bible. It includes Ethics also. Here the school of Baur and even Weiss and Van Oosterzee would stop. But Schmid, Schultz, and Oehler are correct in taking Biblical Theology to include religion as well as doc- trines and morals, that is, those historic persons, facts, and relations which embody religious, dogmatical, and ethical ideas. This discrimination is important in System- atic Theology, but it is indispensable in Biblical Theol- ogy where everything is still in the concrete. Thus a fundamental question in the theology of the New Testa- ment, is what to do with the life of Jesus. The life of Jesus is, as Schmid shows, the fruitful source of His doctrine, and a theology which does not estimate it, lacks foundation and vital power. The life of Jesus may indeed be regarded from two distinct points of view, as a biographical, or a doctrinal and religious subject. The birth of Jesus may be regarded as a pure historical fact or as an incarnation. His suffering and death may be historical subjects, or as expressing atonement. His life may afford biographical matter or be considered as re- ligious, doctrinal, and ethical, in that His life was a new religious force, a redemptive influence and an ethical example. Biblical Theology will have to consider, there- 396 BIBLICAL STUDY. fore, what the life of Jesus presents for its various de- partments. And so the great fact of Pentecost, the Christophanies to Peter, Paul, and John, and the apos- tolic council at Jerusalem must all be brought into consideration. And in the Old Testament we must consider the various covenants and the religious insti- tutions and laws that were grouped about them. With- out religion, with its persons, events, and institutions, Biblical Theology would lose its foundations, and without ethical results it would fail of its rich fruitage. We state, furthermore, that the discipline presents the theology of the Bible in its historical formation. This does not imply that it limits itself to the consider- ation of the various particular conceptions of the various authors, writings, and periods, as Weiss and even Oehler maintain, but with Schmid, Messner, Van Oosterzee after Neander it seeks the unity in the variety ; ascertains the roots of the divergencies, traces them eAch in their separate historical development, shows them co-operat- ing in the formation of one organic system. For Biblical Theology would not present a mere conglomerate of heterogeneous material in a bundle of miscellaneous Hebrew literature, but would ascertain whether there is not some principle of organization ; and it finds that principle in a supernatural divine revelation and com- munication of redemption in the successive covenants of grace, extending through many centuries, operating through many minds, and in a great variety of literary styles, employing all the faculties of man and all the types of human nature, in order to the accomplishment of one massive, all-embracing and everlasting Divine Word adapted to every age, every nation, every type of character, every temperament of mankind ; the whole world. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 397 (2) The Place of Biblical Theology. — Biblical Theology belongs to the department of Exegetical Theology as a higher exegesis completing the exegetical process, and presenting the essential material and principles of the other departments of theology. The boundaries between Exegetical and Historical Theology are not so sharply defined as those between either of them and Systematic Theology. All Histori- cal Theology has to deal with sources, and in this respect must consider them in their variety and unity as well as development ; and hence many theologians combine Exegetical Theology and Historical Theology under one head — Historical Theology. It is important, how- ever, to draw the distinction, for this reason. The sources of Biblical Theology are in different relation from the sources of a history of doctrine, inasmuch as they constitute a body of divine revelation, and in this respect to be kept distinct from all other sources, even cotemporary and of the same nation. They have an absolute authority which no other sources can have. Thi; stress is to be laid less upon their historical develop- ment than upon them as an organic body of revelation, and this stress upon their importance as sources not only for historical development, but also for dogmatic reconstruction and practical application, requires that the special study of them should be exalted to a separate discipline and a distinct branch of theology. Now in the department of Exegetical Theology, Bib- lical Theology occupies the highest place, the latest and crowning achievement. It is a higher exegesis completing the Exegetical Process. All other branches of Exegetical Theology are presupposed by it. The Biblical Literature must first be studied as sacred liter- ature. All questions of date of writing, integrity, con- 398 BIBLICAL STUDY. struction, style, and authorship must be determined by the principles of the Higher Criticism. Biblical Canonics determines the extent and authority of the various writings that are to be regarded as composing the sacred canon, and discriminates them from all other writings by the criticism of the believing spirit enlight- ened and guided by the Holy Spirit in the Church. Biblical Textual Criticism ascertains the true text of the writings in the study of MSS. and versions and citations, and seeks to present it in its pure primitive forms. Biblical Hermeneutics lays down the rules of Biblical Interpretation, and Biblical Exegesis applies these rules to the various particular passages of the sacred Scriptures. Now Biblical Theology accepts all these rules and results thus determined and applied. It is not its office to go into the detailed examination of the verse and the section, but it must accept the results of a thorough exegesis and criticism in order to advance thereon and thereby to its own proper work of higher exegesis ; namely, rising from the comparison of verse with verse, and paragraph with paragraph, where simple exegesis is employed, to the still more difficult and in- structive comparison of writing with writing, author with author, period with period, until by generalization and synthesis the theology of the Bible is attained as an organic whole. Biblical Theology is thus the culmination of Exeget- ical Theology, and must be in an important relation to all other branches of theology. For Historical Theol- ogy it presents the great principles of the various periods of history, the fundamental and controlling tendencies which, springing from human nature and operating in all the religions of the world, find their proper expres- sion and satisfaction in the normal development of BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 399 Divine Revelation, but which, breaking loose from these salutary bonds, become perverted and distorted into abnormal forms, producing false and heretical principles and radical errors. And so in the Biblical unity of these tendencies Biblical Theology presents the ideal unity for the church and the Christian in all times of the world's history. For Systematic Theology, Biblical Theology affords the holy material to be used in Bibli- cal Apologetics, Dogmatics, and Ethics, the funda- mental and controlling material out of which that systematic structure must be built which will express the intellectual and moral needs of the particular age, fortify the church for offence and defence in the strug- gles with the anti-Christian world, and give unity to its life, its efforts, and its dogmas in all ages. For Practical Theology it presents the various types of religious ex- perience and of doctrinal and ethical ideas which must be skilfully applied to the corresponding differences of type which exist in all times, in all churches, in all lands, and indeed in all religions and races of mankind. Biblical Theology is indeed the Irenic force which will do much to harmonize the antagonistic forces and vari- ous departments of theology, and bring about that toler- aiiofi within the church which is the greatest requisite of our times. (3) J^.Iethod of Biblical Theology. — The method em- ployed by Biblical Theology is a blending of the genetic and the inductive methods. The method of Biblical Theology arises out of the nature of the discipline and its place in Theological Encyclopaedia. P" z it must show the Theology of the Bible in its historic formation, ascertain its genesis, the laws of its development from germinal principles, the order of its progress in every individual writer, and from writer to writer and age to 400 BIBLICAL STUDY. age in the successive periods and in the whole Bible, it must employ the genetic method. It is this genesis which is becoming more and more important in our dis- cipline, and is indeed the chief point of discussion in our day. Can all be explained by a natural genesis, or must the supernatural be called in ? The various Rationalistic efforts to explain the genesis of the Biblical types of doctrine in their variety and their combination in a unity in the Scriptures are extremely unsatisfactory and un- scientific. With all the resemblances to other religions, the Biblical Religion is so different that its differences must be explained, and these can only be explained by the claims of the sacred writers themselves, that God Himself in various forms of Theophany and Chris- tophany revealed Himself to initiate and to guide the religion of the Bible in its various movements and stages. Mosaism centres about the great Theophany of Sinai, as Christianity centres about the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, and the life, death, ascension, and second advent therein involved. It is now the problem of Biblical Theology as it has traced the Theology of the Jewish Christian type to the Theophany of Pentecost, and of the Pauline to the Christophany on the way to Damascus, so to trace the Johannean type and the vari- ous Old Testament types to corresponding supernatural initiation. The Johannean type may be traced to the Christophanies of Patmos.* The Old Testament is full of Theophanies which originate particular Covenants and initiate all the great movements in the history of Israel. * We regard the Apocalypse as the earliest of the Johannean writings. Th. Christophanies therein described had been granted to the apostle prior to the composition of the Gospel, so that the Gospel was written under their influence still more even than under the recollection of the association with Jesus during His earthly ministry. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 401 As it has to exhibit the unity in the variety of the various conceptions and statements of the writings and Authors of every different type, style, and character, and by comparison generalize to its results, Biblical Theol- ogy must employ the inductive method and the synthet- ic process. This inductive method is the true method of Exegetical Theology. The details of Exegesis have been greatly enriched by this method during the present century, especially by the labors of German divines, and in most recent times by numerous laborers in Great Britain and America. But the majority of the laborers in Biblical Theology have devoted their strength to the working out of the historical principle of our disci- pline. Yet within the various types and special doc- trines a large amount of higher exegesis has been ac- complished by Weiss, Riehm, Schultz, Diestel, Weiffen. bach, and others. But the highest exegesis in the com parison of types and their arrangement in an organie system with a unity and determining principle out oi which all originate and to which they return their fruit- age, remains comparatively undeveloped. Indeed the study of the particular types, especially in the Old Tes- tament, must be conducted still further and to more substantial results ere the highest exegesis can fulfil its task. The genetic and the inductive methods must indeed combine in order to the best results. They must co-op- erate in every writing, in the treatment of every author, of every period and of the whole. They must blend in harmony throughout. On their proper combination the excellence of a system of Biblical Theology depends. An undue emphasis of cither will make the system de- fective and inharmonious. (4) The system and divisions of Biblical Theology. — i02 BIBLICAL STUDY. These are determined partly by the material itself, but chiefly by the methods of dealing with it. We must make the divisions so simple that they may be adapted to the most elementary conceptions, and yet comprehensive enough to embrace the most fully developed conceptions, and also so as to be capable of a simple and natural subdivision in the advancing periods. In order to this we must find the dominant principle of the entire revela- tion and make our historical and our inductive divisions in accordance with it. The Divine revelation itself might seem to be this determining factor, so that we should divide historically by the historical development of that revelation, and synthetically by its most charac- teristic features. But this divine revelation was made to intelligent man and involved thereby an active appro- priation of it on his part, both as to its form and sub- stance, so that from this point of view we might divide historically in accordance with the great epochs of the appropriation of divine revelation, and synthetically by the characteristic features of that appropriation. From either of these points of view, however, there might be — there naturally would be, an undue emphasis of the one over against the other at the expense of a complete and harmonious representation. We need some princi- ple that will enable us to combine the subject and the object — God and man — in the unity of its conception. Such a principle is happily afforded us in the Revelation itself, so distinctly brought out that it has been histori- cally recognized in the names given to the two great sec- tions of the Scriptures, the Old and the New Testa- ments or Covenants. The Covenant is the fundamental principle of the divine revelation, to which the divine revelation commits its treasures and from which man con- tinually draws upon them. The Covenant has a great BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 403 variety of forms in the sacred Scriptures, but the most essential and comprehensive form is that assumed in the Mosaic Covenant at Sinai which becomes the Old CovC' nant, pre-eminently, and over against that is placed the New Covenant of the Messiah Jesus Christ, so that the great historical division becomes the Theology of the Old Cove?iant and the Theology of the New Covenant. The Covenant must also determine the synthetic divis- ions. The Covenant is a union and communion ef- fected between God and Man. It involves a personal relationship which it originates and maintains by certain events and institutions. This is Religion. The Cove- nant and its relations, man apprehends as an intelligent being with meditation, reflection, and reasoning. All this he comprehends in doctrines, which he apprehends and believes and maintains as his faith. These doctrines will embrace the three general topics of God, of Man, and of Redemption. The Covenant still further has to do with man as a moral being, imposing moral obliga- tions upon him with reference to God and man and the creatures of God. All these are comprehended under the general term Ethics. These distinctions apply equally well to all the periods of divine revelation ; they are simple, they are comprehensive, they are all- pervading. Indeed they interpenetrate one another, so that many prefer to combine the three under the one term Theology, and then treat of God and Man and the union of God and Man in redemption, in each division by itself with reference to religious, ethical, and doc- trinal questions ; but it is easier and more thorough-go- ing to keep them apart, even at the expense of looking at the same thing at times successively from three dif- ferent points of view. From these more general divisions we may advance to 4,04 BIBLICAL STUDY. such subdivisions, as may be justified in the successive periods of Biblical Theology, both on the historic and synthetic sides, and, indeed, without anticipation. The relation between the historical and the synthetic divisions may be variously viewed. Thus Ewald, in his Biblical Theology, makes the historical divisions so en- tirely subordinate as to treat of each topic of theology by itself in its history. The difficulty of this method is, that it does not sufficiently show the relative develop- ment of doctrines, and their constant action and reaction upon one another in the successive periods. It may be of advantage for thoroughness in any one department to take that topic by itself and work it out in its histori- cal development ; but in a comprehensive course of Bib- lical Theology the interests of the whole cannot be sac- rificed for the particular sections. They must be ad- justed to one another in their historical development in the particular periods. Hence it will be necessary to determine in each period: (i) the development of each particular doctrine by itself, as it starts from the gen- eral principle, and then (2) to sum up the general results before passing over into another period. It will also be found that Theology does not unfold in one single line, but in several, from several different points of view, and in accordance with several different types. It will therefore be necessary on the one side ever to keep these types distinct, and yet to show their unity as one organism. Thus in the Pentateuch the great types of the Jahvist, the two Elohists, and the Deu- teronomist, will be distinctly traced until they combine in the one organism of our Pentateuch, presenting the fundamental Thorah of Israel. In the historical books the Prophetic and Levitical historians will be distin- guished and compared for a higher unity. The three BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. 405 great types — the psalmists, wise men, and prophets — will be discriminated, the variations within the types carefully studied and compared, and then the types themselves brought into harmony, and at last the whole Old Testament presented as an organic whole. The New Testament will then be considered in the forerunners of Christ ; then the four types in which the evangelists present the Theology of Jesus, each by itself, in com- parison with the others, and as a whole. The Apostolic Theology will be traced from its origin at Pentecost in its subsequent division into the three great types, the Jewish Christian of Peter, James and Jude ; the Gentile Christian of Paul, Luke, and the epistle to the Hebrews; and, finally, the Johannean of the gospels, epistle, and apocalypse of John ; and the whole considered in the xmity of the New Testament ; and then, as the last thing, the whole Bible will be considered, showing not only the unity of the theology of Christ and His apos- tles, but also of the unity of the theology of Moses and David and all the prophets, with the theology of Jesus and His apostles, as each distinct theology takes its j)lace in the advancing system of divine revelation, all conspiring to the completion of a perfect, harmonious, symmetrical organism, the infallible expression of God's will, character, and being to His favored children. At the same time, the religion of each period and of the whole Bible will be set in the midst of the other relig- ions of the world, so that it will appear as the divine grace ever working in humanity, and its sacred records as the true lamp of the world, holding forth the light of life to all the nations of the world. CHAPTER XII. THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. The essential principle of the Calvinistic system of the- ology is redemption by the divine grace alone. The Reformed churches have ever been distinguished for their intense interest in the covenant of grace. Some- times the divine grace has been hardened by an undue stress upon the sovereignty of it, so that sovereignty has taken the place of the divine grace as the central princi- ple of theology in some of the scholastic systems ; and sometimes the divine grace has been softened by an un- due emphasis upon the Fatherhood of God. But even in these more extreme tendencies of Calvinism the es- sential principle of the divine grace alone has not been abandoned, however little any of the systems have com- prehended the richness and the fulness of the " grace of God that bringeth salvation " (Titus ii. ii). Redemption by the divine grace alone is the banner principle of the Reformed churches, designed to exclude the uncertainty and arbitrariness attached to all human instrumentalities and external agencies. As the banner principle of the Lutheran Reformation was justification by faith alone excluding any merit or agency of human works, so the Calvinistic principle excluded any inherent efficacy, in human nature or in external remedies, foi overcoming the guilt of sin and working redemption. (406) THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 407 In these two principles lie the chief merits and the chief defects of the two great churches of the Reformation. Intermediate between these principles of faith alone and grace alone, lies a third principle, which is the divine word alone. This principle we conceive to have been emphasized in the Reformation of Great Britain and es- pecially in the Puritan churches. The Word of God has been called the formal principle of Protestantism over against faith alone, the material principle, and it has been said that the Reformed churches have laid more stress upon the formal principle, while the Lutheran churches have laid more stress upon the material principle. This does not, in our judgment, correspond with the facts of the case. Rather is it true that in the three great churches of the Reformation, the three principles, faith, grace, and the divine word, were emphasized over against the errors of Rome ; but these churches differed in the relative importance they ascribed to one of these three principles of the Reformation in its rela- tion to the other two. The Word of God is the in- termediate principle where faith and grace meet. The Word of God gives faith its appropriate object. The Word of God is the appointed instrument or means of grace. I. THE GOSPEL IN THE SCRIPTURES. The Word of God as a means of grace, as a principle of the Reformation, has, however, its technical meaning. It is not the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments in their entirety, but rather the Gospel contained in the Scriptures: " The Holy Gospel which God Himself first revealed in Paradise., afterwards proclaimed by the Holy Patriarchs and Prophets, and 408 BIBLICAL STUDY. foreshadowed by the sacrifices and other ceremonies of the law and finally ftilfiUed by His well-beloved Son." * The merit of the Lutheran Reformation was that it so distinctly set forth the means by which man appropri- ates the grace of the Gospel — by faith alone. Faith is the sole appropriating instrument and it becomes a test of the Word of God itself, for faith having appropriated the gospel of the grace of God is enabled to determine therefrom what is the Word of God and what is not the Word of God. As Luther said : " All right holy books agree in this that they altogether preach and urge Christ, This also is the true touchstone to test all books, when one sees whether they so urge Christ or not, since every script- ure shews Christ (Rom. Hi. 21), and St. Paul will know nothing but Christ (i Cor. ii. 2) ; what does not teach Christ that is not yet apos- tolical, even if St. Paul or St. Peter taught it ; on the other hand, what preaches Christ would be apostolical, even if Judas, Annas, Pi- late, and Herod did it." f The merit of the Calvinistic Reformation is that it so distinctly set forth the means by which God accom- plishes human redemption — by the divine grace of the Gospel. The divine grace is the sole efificacious instru- ment of redemption, and this grace becomes itself a test of the true Word of God. The divine grace in the Scriptures gives its witness for the Scriptures, discrimi- nating the true canon from all other books. " We know these books to be canonical, and the sure rule of our faith not so much by the common accord and consent of the church, as by the testimony and inward illumination of the Holy Spirit, which enables us to distinguish them from other ecclesiastical books, upcn which, however useful, we cannot found any article of faith." J * Heidelb. Cat. , Quest. 19. t Vorred. zu Epist. Jacobus; Walch, xiv., p. 149. X French Confession, Art. iv. THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 409 It was the merit of the British Reformation from the beginning that it laid such stress on the divine Word alone, and it was especially in the British churches that this principle received its fullest statement and develop- ment. Thus it was a cardinal principle of the Church of England that : " The Holy Scripture conteyneth all things necessary to salvation ; so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man that it should be believed as an ar- ticle of faith or be thought requisite as necessary to salvation."* And the Westminster Assembly, in carrying on the work of Reformation, state that : " The authority of the Holy Scripture, for which it ought to be be- lieved and obeyed, dependeth not upon the testimony of any man or church, but wholly upon God (who is truth itself), the Author there- of; and therefore it is to be received, because it is the word of God."t Thus the three principles of the Reformation were emphasized variously in the three great branches of the Reformation. The most serious defect was in the fail- ure of the respective churches properly to combine these principles, and especially in the neglect to define with sufficient care the relation of the divine grace and hu- man faith to the Word of God. Hence the common error into which the churches of the Reformation soon fell, notwithstanding their symbols of faith, namely, the undue emphasis of the external Word of God over against the internal Word of God. But as we have said, " The Protestant principle struggles against this con- founding of the means of grace with the divine grace it- self, this identification of the instrument and the divine agent, in order therefore to their proper discrimination. This is the problem left unsolved by the Reformation ; • XXXIX Articles, Art. VI. t West. Con/., 1., 4. 18 4rlO BIBLICAL STCTDY. in which the separate churches of Protestantism have been working, and which demands a solution from the church of the nineteenth century. Here the most radical ques- tion is that of the divine Word and its relation to the work of the Holy Spirit. This solved, all the other questions will be solved. Herein the churches of the Reformation may be harmonized. The Reformed churches have a peculiar call to grapple bravely with the problem." * The solution of this problem has been prepared by the exaltation of the Person of Jesus Christ more and more during the last century, as the central principle of theology. He is the Word of God in the Word of God, the eternal Logos. He is the veritable grace of the Gospel in whose person grace concentrates itself for the redemption of mankind. " For God so loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth on him should not perish, but have everlasting life" (John iii. i6). II. THE GRACE OF GOD IN THE SCRIPTURES. The grace of God is the free unmerited favor of God in redemption. That grace is bestowed upon men in Jesus Christ, the Saviour. That grace is presented to us by the Holy Spirit and applied by Him to our per- sons and lives. This application is made in the use of certain external media which are called the means of grace. " The Holy Ghost works faith in our hearts by the preaching of the Holy Gospel, and confirms it by the use of the Holy Sacraments." f Thus the chief of these means of grace, according to our Reformed churches, is the Word of God or the holy Gospel as contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. ♦ Presbyterian Review, II , p. 573. See p. 159. \ Ileidelb. Cat., Quest. 65. THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 411 (i) In what sense are the Scriptures means of grace? The Scriptures are means of grace in that they con- tain the Gospel of Christ which is the power of God unto salvation. The Word of God is called the Sword of the Spirit. For it " is living, and active, and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing even to the di- viding of soul and spirit, of both joints and marrow, and quick to discern the thoughts and intents of the heart " (Heb. iv. 12). It is the lamp of God. "Thy word is a lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path " (Ps. cxix. 105). It is the seed of regeneration. For Christians have " been begotten again, not of corruptible seed, but of incorruptible, through the Word of God, which liveth and abideth " (i Pet. i. 23). It is a power of God {SvvafAi'^). " For I am not ashamed of the gospel ; for it is the power of God unto salvation " (Rom. i. 16), says Paul to the Romans ; and he reminds his disciple, Tim- othy, that " from a babe thou hast known the sacred writings, which are able {roc dwa/^sva) to make thee wise unto salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus " (2 Tim. iii. 15). These attributes of the Word of God cannot be brought under the category of Inspiration. The Inspiration of the Word of God is a highly impor- tant doctrine, but it must not be so greatly emphasized as to lead us to neglect other and still more important aspects of the Bible. Inspiration has to do with the truthfulness, reliability, accuracy, and authority of the Word of God ; the assurance that we have that the in- struction contained therein comes from God. But these attributes of the divine Word that we have just men- tioned in Biblical terms are deeper and more important than Inspiration. They lie at the root of Inspiration, as among its strongest evidences. They stand out as the most prominent features of the Gospel, independent 412 BIBLICAL STUDY. of the doctrine of Inspiration. They are features shared by the Bible with the Church and the sacraments which are not inspired and are not infalHble. They are those attributes that make the Bible what it is in the life of the people and the faith of the church without raising the question of Inspiration. They ascribe to the Word of God a divine power {dvva/ui?) such as is contained in a seed of life, the movement of the light, the activity of a sword, a power that works redemption, the supreme means of grace. As Robert Boyle well says : * " Certainly then, if we consider God as the Creator of our soulsj and so likeliest to know the frame and springs and nature of his own workmanship, we shall make but little difficulty to believe that in the books written for and addressed to men, he hath employed very pow- erful and appropriated means to work upon them. And in effect, there is a strange movingness, and, if the epithet be not too bold, a kind of heavenly magic to be found in some passages of Scripture, which is to be found nowhere else." (2) What, then, is this power of grace contained in the Scriptures? The power of grace contained in the Script- ures is the redemption made known to us, freely offered to us and effectually applied to us in Jesus Christ, the Saviour. It is the Holy Gospel in the Scriptures, the Word of God written, presenting as in a mirror of wonder- ful combinations from so many different points of view, the glorious person, character, life, and achievements of the Word of God incarnate, the eternal Logos. Thus the Scriptures give us not merely the history of Israel, but the history of redemption from its earliest prot-evan- gelium to its fruition in Jesus Christ, the Messiah of history and prophecy. They give us not ordinary biog- raphy, but the experience of redeemed men, telling us of * Sorm Constderations touching the Style of the H. Scriptures^ London t66i, p. 241. THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 413 their faith, repentance, spiritual conflicts, and the victo- ries of grace. They give us the grandest poetry of the world and the most sublime moral precepts, but this poetry is composed of the songs of the redeemed ; and these precepts are the lessons of those who are wise m the fear of God. They give us oratory, but the orations are prophetic, impassioned utterances of warning and comfort in view of the conflicts of the kingdom of grace and its ultimate triumph, and the preaching of the gos- pel of a risen and glorified Saviour. They give us essays and epistles, but these are not to enlighten us in the arts and sciences, the speculations of philosophy, and the maxims of commerce, that we may be students in any of the departments of human learning ; but they set forth Jesus Christ the Saviour in whom are hid all the treas- ores of wisdom and knowledge (Col. ii. 3). Redemption is written all over the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. The grace of God that bringeth salvation is the one all-pervading influence. This is the holy sub- stance of the Bible to which all else is the human form in which it is enveloped. Hence the two great divisions of the Bible are called Testaments or Covenants, for they are covenants of grace, the great storehouses in which God has treasured up for all time and for all the world the riches of His grace of redemption. This grace of Redemption contained in Jesus Christ and conveyed by the Scriptures, is redemption from sin to holiness, from death in guilt to life in blessed- ness, it is a grace of regeneration and a grace of sanc- tification. (a) It is a grace of regeneration. Christians are be- gotten again, not of corruptible seed but of incorrupti- ble, by the Word of God which liveth and abideth for- ever (i Peter i. 23). Jesus represents His word as a 414 BIBLICAL STUDY. seed of grain which He Himself plants in the human heart. It springs up in the good soil, first the blade, then the ear, then the full grain in the ear, and grows to maturity amidst all kinds of difficulties and dangers (Mark iv.). It is a germ of life that imparts itself to man's heart and finds therein the prepared ground of its growth. The words of Jesus are spirit and life (John vi. 63); they bear in them the regenerating force of the divine Spirit to quicken the human spirit. The Gospel is no dead letter, it is a living organism, for Christ Jesus is in it, in it all, and in every part of it, and the energy of the divine Spirit pervades it, so that its words are endowed with the omnipotence of divine love and the irresistibleness of divine grace. Those brief, te^se, mysterious, yet simple texts, spread giH over the Bible, the inexhaustible supply for the min- isters of the Word, those little Bibles, that contain the quintessence of the whole — like the mountain lakes, clear yet reaching to vast depths, like the blue of the sky, charming yet leading to infinite heights — they lay hold of the sinner with the irresistible conviction of his sin , they persuade the penitent of the divine forgiveness ; they constrain faith by the energy of redeeming love ; they assure the repenting of the adoption of the heaven- ly Father. There are no other words like the words of God contained in the sacred Scriptures, in which the grace of God appropriates, moulds, and energizes the forms of human speech with creative, generative power. ip) The grace of redemption contained in the Script- ures is also sanctifying grace. Our Saviour prays the Father for His disciples : " Sanctify them through thy truth ; thy word is truth " (John xvii. 17). He tells His disciples, " Already ye are clean because of the word 'hich I have spoken unto you " (John xv. 3). The word THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 4^5 of the Gospel is thus a cleansing, sanctifying word : for it is not bare truth appealing to the intellect with logi- cal power, it is not truth clothed with beauty and charm- ing the aesthetic nature of man ; but it is truth which is essentially ethical, having moral power, and above all en- ergized by the religious forces, which lay hold of the re- ligious instincts of man, and it leads him to God. This could not be accomplished by the law of command- ments contained in ordinances, but only by the Gospel of the grace of God, the soul-transforming words of our holy religion. For the Gospel sets forth Jehovah, the Holy Redeemer, the Father and the Preserver. The Gospel sets forth Jesus Christ as the crucified, risen, and glorified Saviour ; presents us His blood and righteous- ness, throws over our nakedness the robe of His justifi- c ation, and commands us by the vision of His graces 3,nd perfections. The Word of God is a purifying and sanctifying word, because it contains the words of holy men, of a sinless and entirely sanctified Saviour, of a per- fect God, the Holy One of Israel. Human speech is the most wonderful endowment of man. It is the tower of strength in little children, who as babes and sucklings are enabled to praise their God (Ps. viii. 2). It is the means of communication between intelligent beings. It is the means of communication between God and man. Human speech finds its noblest employment by man in prayer, praise, adoration, and preaching of the Gospel of the grace of God. Human speech finds its highest employment by God in being made the instrument of His divine power. It enwraps and conveys to sinful man the divine grace of regenera- tion and sanctification, it presents the divine Trinity to man in all their redemptive offices, and it is the channel 416 BIBLICAL STUDY. of communication, of attachment, of communion, of or ganic union, and everlasting blessedness. " For the grace of God hath appeared, bringing salvation to all men, instructing us, to the intent that, denying ungodliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly and righteously and godly in this present world ; looking for the blessed hope and appearing of the glory of the great God and our Savior Jesus Christ : who gave himself for us, that he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purity unto himself a people for his own possession, zealous of good works." (Titus ii. 1 1- 14). III. THE EFFICACY OF THE SCRIPTURES. The Scriptures are means of grace because they have in them the grace of God in Jesus Christ, the grace of regeneration and sanctification. In what, then, lies the efficacy of this grace ? How are we regenerated and sanctified by the word of redemption in Christ ? " The Spirit of God maketh the reading, but especially the preach- ing of the Word, an effectual means of enlightening, convincing and humbling sinners, of driving them out of themselves, and drawing them unto Christ ; of conforming them to his image, and subduing them to his will ; of strengthening them against temptations and corruptions ; of building them up in grace, and establishing their hearts in holiness and comfort through faith unto salvation."* These are faithful and noble words. They ought to become more real to the experience of the men of this generation, where the peril, on the one hand, is in laying too much stress on doctrines of faith, and, on the other, in overrating maxims of morals. Religion, the experi- ence of the divine grace and growth therein, is the chief thing in the use of the Bible and in Christian life. The Holy Scriptures are means of grace, but means that have to be applied by a divine force to make them efficacious. There must be an immediate contact and energetic work. * West. Larger Cat., Q. 155. THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 4^7 ing upon the readers and hearers and students of the Word by a divine power. The Word of God does not work ex opere operate, that is, by its mere use. It is not the mere reading, the mere study of the Bible, that is efficacious. It is not the Bible in the house or in the hands. It is not the Bible read by the eyes and heard by the ears. It is not the Bible committed to memory and recited word for word. It is not the Bible ex- pounded by the teacher and apprehended by the mind of the scholar. All these are but external forms of the Word which enwrap the spiritual substance, the grace of redemption. The casket contains the precious jewels. It must be opened that their lustre and beauty may charm us. The shell contains the nut. It must bo cracked or we cannot eat it. The pitcher contains the water ; but it must be poured out and drunk to satisfy thirst. The Word of God is effectual only when it has become dynamic, and wrought vital and organic changes, entering into the depths of the heart, assimilating itself to the spiritual necessities of our nature, transformin[; life and character. This is the purpose of the grace which the Bible contains. This is the power of grace that the Bible exhibits, in holding forth to us Jesus Christ the Saviour. This can be accomplished in us only by the activity of the Holy Spirit working in and through the Scriptures in their use. IV. THE APPROPRIATION OF THE GRACE OF THE SCRIPT- URES. How then are we to obtain the grace of God con- tained in the Scriptures and effectually applied unto us by the Holy Spirit as regenerating and sanctifying grace ? The universal Protestant answer to this ques- tion would be, the grace of the Scriptures is received by 18* 418 BIBLICAL STUDY. faith. Faith is the hand of the soul which grasps and takes to itself the grace of God. But the nature of this appropriation by faith needs unfolding. The Westmin- ster Shorter Catechism* gives the best answer to the question : " That the Word may become effectual to salvation, we must at- tend thereunto with diligence, preparation and prayer; receive it with faith and love, lay it up in our hearts, and practice it in our lives." (i) The first thing we have to do in our study of the Word of God is to give it our attention. Indeed atten- tion is the first requisite of all study and of all work. Diligence and preparation are necessary for all under- takings. No one can fulfil his calling in life without these qualifications. But there is an attention to be given to the Word of God which is peculiar, and vastly higher than the attention given to ordinary avocations of life. It is an attention that is distinguished by prayer, for the study of the Bible is a study of redemp- tion, a search for the power of God in Jesus Christ, a quest for the grace of salvation. Such study must be pointed with prayer, for prayer is the soul's quest after God. Prayer di rects the student of the Bible to God in the Bible. It withdraws the attention from all other things that might absorb and attract it, and concentrates it on God. Prayer is the arrow-head that bears the ar- row of attention to its mark — God. If the grace of God in the sacred Scriptures, the prevenient grace, — always preceding and anticipating the quest of man, ready to be found, waiting to impart itself to us, — be directed by the Holy Spirit ; then the attention of the Bible student, directed by prayer, comes in immediate contact with this *Ques. 9a THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 419 Spirit of grace and receives the power of salvation in personal union with Him. Hence it is that prayer is associated with the Word of God and the Sacraments as a means of grace. It is not a means of grace in the same way as the Word of God, but it is a means of grace of no less importance ; for if the Word of God is the instrument, the means by which the grace of God is given to us by the Holy Spirit, prayer is the instrument or means of grace whereby we are able to receive and use the grace of God. It is of prime importance, there- fore, that the student of the Bible should be bathed hi prayer, and that the spirit of prayer should be the animating influence in all our investigations of the Scriptures. Prayerful attention seeks and finds God, appropriates His grace and the redemptive influence of His Word. Robert Boyle * well says : "And surely this consideration of the Bible's being- one of the conduit pipes, through which God hath appointed to conveigh his Truth, as well as graces to his children, should methinks both largely animate us to the searching of the Scriptures, and equally refresh us in it- For as no Instrument is weak in an omnipotent hand : so ought no means to be looked upon as more promising than that which is like to be prospered by Grace, as 'tis devised by Omniscience. We may confidently expect God's blessing upon his own institutions, since we know, that whatsoever we ask according to the will of God, he will give it us, and we can scarce ask anything more agreeable to the will of God, than the competent understanding of that book wherein his will is contained." In order to emphasize this all-important point and give it its proper position in Biblical study, it will be necessary for us to make some discriminations. * Some Considerations touching the Style of the H. Scriptures. London^ 1661, p. 50. 4,20 BIBLICAL STUDY. {a) The first work in the scientific and systematic study of the Scriptures is called textual criticism, or the Lower Criticism. It is first of all necessary to know the text in which the Scriptures are contained. Hence the candidates for the ministry devote a large portion of their time to a study of the sacred languages, the various versions and MSS. of the Word of God. All transla- tions must be derived from a faithful study of the orig- inals. It is indispensable that a living church should have a ministry who are brought into immediate contact with the divine originals. The Bible in unknown tongues is a Paradise fenced and barred (see Chaps. III. and VI.). The acquisition of the original text removes the barrier; the translation into the tongue of the people opens the gates, that all who will may enter in. Hence our Prot- estant churches have made it an article of faith that the Bible must be given to the people in their own tongue, and continually interpreted to the people by ministers, who know themselves the originals, and are able to re- move misapprehensions that will always arise, to some extent, in connection with all translations and reproduc- tions. But this first step of the mastery of the divine original text may be accomplished and yet the grace of God that is in the Scriptures remain entirely unknown. It is as if a man should enter the king's garden and de- vote his entire attention to the study of the gates and walls. {b) The second step in Biblical study is literary criti- cism or Higher Criticism (see Chaps. VII., VIII., and IX.). The sacred Scriptures are composed of a great variety of writings of different authors in different pe- riods of history, writing in many different styles, such as poetry and prose, history and story, epistle and prophecy. Some of this literature is exceedingly choice from a THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 42I purely literary point of view. An anthology of the choicest pieces of Biblical literature would certainly be a very profitable study for many of God's people. Their eyes would be opened to the wondrous forms of beauty in which God has chosen to reveal His grace of redemp- tion. But to study the Bible as sacred literature is not to study it as a means of grace. Exclusive devotion to that theme is as if one should enter the king's garden, and instead of going at once to his gracious presence, in accordance with his invitation, we should devote our- selves to the beautiful trees and flowers and ornamental shrubs and landscape. (c) The third work of Biblical study is Biblical exegesis (see Chap. X.). In this department the student in every way endeavors to get at the true meaning of the Script- ures. The particular passage and the entire writing under consideration must be studied with the most minute accuracy, and, at the same time, the most com prehensive summation of evidence. But even this may be carried on in a most thorough and successful manner in all its stages, except the last and highest (see p. 363), without finding God in Jesus Christ. Some of the best exegetes have not been true Christians. The peril in exegesis is, the becoming absorbed in details, and in giving ourselves to the quest after truth and scholarly accuracy. It is as if one entered the king's garden and devoted himself at once to a scientific examination and classification of its contents, the survey and mapping out of its sections. {d) The fourth work of Biblical study is the study of the theology of the Bible (see Chap. XI.) — its religion, its doc- trines, and its morals. This is the highest attainment of Biblical scholarship, but it is not the study of the Bible as a means of grace. It is as if we entered the king's i22 BIBLICAL STUDY. palace and devoted our attention to the principles and maxims of his administration, the rules of his household, while the king himself was graciously waiting to receive us into his own presence and give us the kiss of fatherly salutation. All of these various subjects of Biblical study are vastly important. The Church has not yet awakened to the vast possibilities and the wonderful fruitage to be derived from Biblical study. No one could exalt these departments, each and all of them, more highly than we are disposed to do, but notwithstanding, it must be said that if all these studies could be accomplished in a most scholarly manner, the chief thing, the one supreme thing, might still remain unaccomplished — namely, the study of the Bible as a means of grace. This is the highest achievement of Biblical study. For prayer will seek first the presence and the person of God. It will not be de- tained by anything in the Bible. It will press on through the text, the literature, the exegesis, and the theology, giving them but slight attention, a mere passing glance, firmly advancing into the presence-chamber of God. It will run in the footsteps of the divine Spirit until the man is ushered into the presence of the Heavenly Father and bows in adoration and love to the dear Saviour and has the adoption and recognition of sonship. Then first will he be assured that the Bible is indeed the Word of God, the inspired canon, when he has found God in the Bible (see Chap. V.) ; then first will he understand the Script- ures at their centre, in their very heart, when he has recog- nized his Saviour in them (see Chap. X., p. 364) ; then in the light of the Redeemer's countenance, the student may go forth to the enjoyment of all the beauties and glories and wondrous manifestations of truth and love in the Scriptures and find them radiant with the love of Christ, THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 423 and pervaded throughout with the effectual grace of God. As an ancient Puritan divine has said : " Thus in the Scriptures ye find life, because the Word is so effect- ual to doe you good, to convert your soul, to pull down Satan's throne, and to build up the soul in grace. It is a hammer to break the hard heart, a fire to purge the drossie heart, a Ught to shine into the darke heart, ao oyle to revive the broken heart, artnour of proof to stablish the weake and tempted heart. If these precious things be matters of Christian religion ; then surely the written word is the foundation of it. Eternal life is in the Scriptures, because they testify of Christ, they set forth Christ who is the way the truth and the life ; in them ye find life, because in them ye find Christ. So far as by Scripture we get acquaintance with Christ ; so far we are acquainted with salvation and no farther. For if you knew all Histories and all the prophecies, if ye had the whole Bible by heart, if by it you could judge of all disputes, yet until you find Christ there, you cannot find life ; the Scriptures are to us salvificall because they bring us unto Christ." * (2) Faith in the form of prayerful attention and inves- tigation is followed by appropriating faith. The atten- tion becomes more and more absorbed in its object. Prayer having attained its quest is satisfied and grateful. The grace of God, so evidently set forth in the Script- ures in Jesus Christ the Saviour, is appropriated in this personal contact. The affections are generated and im- part to faith new vigor. The Holy Spirit grasps the hand of prayer and pours into it the treasures of grace, and they are clasped as infinitely precious to believing and loving hearts. As a distinguished modern divine says : " Holy Scripture gives faith its object. It puts Christianity in its purity and attractiveness before our eyes as an object which is itself a challenge and inducement to enter into union with it by faith." . . . . " The Holy Spirit perpetually glorifies Christ as He is set Lyford, Plain Man^s Senses exercised^ 1655, pp. 59, 60. 424 BIBLICAL STUDY. forth in Scripture, makes Him emerge, so to speak, from the letter and stand out in living form before us. He thus brings us through the medium of Holy Scripture into communion with the living Christ." * Thus faith and love are the two eyes of the soul that see the living Christ present in His Word. They are the spiritual appetites by which we partake of the bread of heaven and living water. Such a receiving is an ever- increasing enjoyment of the infinite riches of divine grace, the inexhaustible treasures of redemptive love. The supply of grace in the Scriptures is inexhaustible. The possibilities of the growth of the affections of faith and love are only limited by the possibilities of grace itself. This system of grace is compared by the prophet Zechariah to a vast self-feeding lamp-stand with its seven branches and lighted lamps, supplied by the ever-living, growing, and oil-producing olive-trees that stand by its sides and overshadow it (Zech. iv.). The oil of grace is ever fresh and new — the light is ever bright and brilliant Faith's eye sees and understands it more and more. But just here it is necessary to guard against a too common error. It is true that the grace of God per- vades the Scriptures and Christ is the master of the Scriptures, but it is not equally easy for faith to see and appreciate the grace of God in every passage. The Bible contains supplies of grace for all the world, and for all time, for the weak and baby Christians, for the strong and manly Christians, for the immature Christian centuries, and for the church in its highest development as the Bride of the Lamb. Training in the school of grace is indispensable for the appropriation of the grace of the Scriptures. There are but few who are able to appropriate more than the grace that lies on the surface * DomRr System of Christian Doctrine, IV., pp. 260, 261. THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 425 of the plainest pzissages of Scripture. The Church is constantly learning new lessons of grace from the Script- ures. We have a right to expect still greater light to break forth from the Scriptures when the Church has been prepared to receive it. The Church did not attain its maturity at the Nicene Council. Augustine was not the highest achievement of Christian faith and experi- ence. The Protestant Reformation did not introduce the golden age. A church that is not growing in grace is a lukewarm, if not a dead church. A theology that is not progressive is bedridden, if not a dead theology. The Church needs a greater Reformation than it has ever yet enjoyed — a more extensive pouring out of the Holy Spirit, a deeper quickening, a more intense devo- tion in love and service to our Saviour and the interests of His kingdom. We are convinced that the seeds of such a Reformation are embedded in the Bible, only waiting a new spring-time of the world to shoot forth. The grace of God will reveal itself to another Luther and another Calvin at no very distant day, in vastly greater richness and fulness, for the sanctification of the Church and the preparation of the Bride for her Bride- groom. In the meantime it behooves us all to turn away from the abnormal, immature, and defective expe- riences and systems of very poor Christians so often held up to us as models for our attainment, and to set our faces as a flint against every wresting of Scripture in the interest of any dogma, new or old, and concentrate our faith and love upon the image of the grace of God in Jesus Christ, the crucified, risen and glorified Redeemer. He is the one object that concentrates the grace of God — the fountain source of supply for all believers. Into His image as the divine likeness we are to be trans- formed, and we ought to think of no other. 426 BIBLICAL STUDY. The Scriptures are indeed means, not ends. They are to bring us to God, to assimilate us to Christ, to unite us in organic union with Him. If this has not been ac- compHshed, there has been very great failure, however much we may have accomplished in Biblical scholarship, or Dogmatic Theology, in the History and Polity of the Church, in devotional reading and preaching, in the ap- plication of particular passages to our souls. But those who have become personally attached to Jesus Christ have found the Master of the Scriptures. He is the key to its treasures, the clue to its labyrinths. Under His instruction and guidance believers search the Scriptures with ever-increasing pleasure and profit. They ever find treasures new and old. They understand the secret of grace. They know how to extract it from the varied forms in which it is enveloped. They explore the deepest mines and bring forth lustrous gems of truth. They climb the highest peaks and rapturously gaze on the vast territories of their Lord. With the Psalmist they exclaim (Ps. cxix. 97, 103, 127, 160) • " O how I love thy instruction ! It is my meditation all the day. " How sweet are thy words unto my taste ! Sweeter than honey to my mouth. " I love thy commandments above gold. Yea above fine gold. " The sum of thy words is truth, And everlasting all thy righteous judgments." (3) But the grace of God in the Scriptures can be fully appropriated only by practicing faith. Our Saviouf taught His disciples : " If any man willeth to do his will he shall know of the teaching, whether it be of God or THE SCRIPTURES AS A MEANS OF GRACE. 427 whether I speak from myself" (John vii. 17). Experi- ment is ever the victor of doubt. Faith is tested by practice. Abraham's faith was proved by his willingness to sacrifice his well-beloved son. Mere faith is seeming faith, a shadow, a dead vanity. A real, genuine, living faith apprehends and uses divine grace. The grace ot God is effectual. It is dynamic in its application of re- demption. It is no less dynamic after it has been ap- propriated by man. The light of the world lights u.p Christian lamps. The water of life becomes in the be- liever a fountain, from which shall flow rivers of living water (John vii. 38). The grace of God is made effect- ual by " laying it up in our hearts and practicing it in our lives." The grace of God becomes a grace of expe- rience. Unless the divine grace continue to flow forth from a man in his life and conduct, the source of supply is stopped. As a reservoir which has no outlet will have no incoming waters. A lamp that does not burn will not be able to receive fresh supplies of oil. From this two things follow : (a) If a Christian man would use the Scriptures as a means of grace he must continually put them in prac- tice in his heart and life. If the church would appre- hend more and more the riches of the grace of Jesus Christ contained in the Scriptures it must become a more practical, earnest, Christ-like church. The source of supply from the Scripture reservoir is feeble because the outflowing of grace from Christian men and women is feeble. {d) Christians become secondary sources of supply. The Word of God, the Gospel of Jesus Christ, when ap- propriated by the Christian, assimilated to his needs, transformed into his life, does not cease to be the Gos- pel of the grace of God. The external form has been 4:28 BIBLICAL STUDT. changed, but the internal substance of grace is the same. The Word of God does not cease to be the Word of God when wrapped in other than Scripture language. Hence it is that the Christian becomes a living epistle of God (2 Cor. iii. 3), and the Church, as a body of such epis- tles, a means of grace, conveying the divine grace in an- other form to the world. It is ever the grace of God that is the effectual divine force and not the form in which for the time it may be enveloped. Happy the church when its ministers have become more really such living epistles, written with the Spirit of the living God ! Blessed will that time be, when the entire membership of the church shall become such epistles, when Christ, who so loved the Church and gave Himself for it, shall have sanctified it, having cleansed it by the washing of watef with the Word (Eph. v. 25) ! Then will the ancient prophecy be realized (Heb. viii. lo-i i) : " I will put my laws in their mind, And on their heart also will I write them : And I will become their God, And they shall become my people : And they shall not teach every one his fellow-citizen, And every one his brother, saying, Know the Lord ; For all shall know me, From the least to the greatest of them." A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. »*^ This catalogue has been prepared for those who desire to pursue Biblical study in three grades : ( i ). The books marked with a star and placed first in each division^ are recommended to the general public. (2). The books marked with a cross, following those marked with a star, are recommended for theological students and ministers. (3). The remainder of the books mentioned have been selected for a reference library in a theological seminary, as an introduction to a more schol- arly study of the Scriptures. The arrangement is first topi- cal, and second in accordance with relative importance to the several classes of students. Honorary and official titles of authors or editors have been omitted. I. — Biblical Study in General. *ScHAFF, Philip. A Dictionary of the Bible, including Biog- raphy, Natural History, Geography, Topography, Archae- ology, and Literature. Philadelphia : American Sunday- school Union. 3d edition. 1883. "Hitchcock, Roswell D. A New and Complete Analysis oj the Holy Bible. The Old and New Testaments arranged by Subjects on the basis of M. Talbot, with Indexes and Tables by N. West. With Cruden's Concordance, revised by J. Eadie. New York : A. J. Johnson & Co. 1870. fSMiTH, William. Dictionary of the Bible, comprising its Antiquities, Biography, Geography, and Natural History. 3 vols. London : John Murray, 1860-63. Rt-'vised and edited by H. B. Hackett, with the co-operation of Ezra Ab- bot. 4 vols. New York: Hurd & Houghton. 1868-70. f ZOECKLER, Otto. Zr(2«^<5«^/: ^. Theologischen Wissenschaften in Encyklopddischer Darstellung mit besonderer Riicksicht auf der einzelnen Disciplinen in verbindung mit Cromer^ 430 BIBLICAL STUDY. Grau, Harnack, KUbel,Luthardt,von Scheele, F.W. Schultz, L. Schultz, Strack, Volck, von Zezschwitz, Plath und Schafer. Nordlingen: C. H. Beck. 1882-3. [5 half vols, have appeared. A translation is \n press. T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh]. tLADD, George T. The Doctrine of Holy Scripture. A crit- ical, historical, and dogmatic inquiry into the origin and nature of the Old and New Testaments. 2 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1883. WoGUE, L. Histoire de la Bible et de rSxighe Biblique Jusqu' a nos Jours. Paris ^ I'lmprimerie Nationale. t88i. Hagenbach, K. C. Encyklopddie und Methodologie der Theologischen Wissenschaften. lote Aufl. von E. Kautzsch. 1880. Leipzig : C. Hirzel. 1874. DiESTEL, LuDWiG. Geschichte des Alien Testamentes in der Christlichen Kirche. Jena : H. Dufft. 1869. Roberts, Francis. Clavis Bibliorum. The Key to the Bible, unlocking the richest Treasures of the Holy Scriptures. 4th edition, folio. London : P. Parker. 1675. KiTTO, John. A Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literature, originally edited by John Kitto. 3d edition, greatly enlarged and improved. Edited by W. L. Alexander. 3 vols. Lon- don : A. & C. Black. Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1865. RiE^M, Edward. Handwdrterbuch des Biblisches Alteriums fur ge'bildete Bibelleser. Bielefeld und Leipzig : Belhagen & Klasing. 1875-83 (still unfinished). II. — The Languages of the Bible and Cognates. (i) The Hebrew Language. fDAViDSON, A. B. An Introductory Hebrew Grammar, with Progressive Exercises in Reading and Writing. 5 th edition. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1883. fGESENius, WiLHELM. Hebrew Grammar. Translated by Benj. Davis from Rodiger's edition. Thoroughly revised BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDr. 43;! and enlarged on the basis of the latest edition of E. Kautzsch, and from other recent authorities, by Edward C. Mitchell. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1880. f Driver, S. R. A Treatise of the Tenses in Hebrew ^ and some other Syntactical Questions. Oxford : At the Clar- endon Press. 2d edition. 1881. f Robinson, Edward. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament^ including the Biblical Chaldee. From the Latin of William Gesenius, with corrections and large ad- ditions, partly furnished by the author in manuscript, and partly condensed from his larger Thesaurus 3d edi- tion. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1849. fPoTTER, Joseph Lewis. An English-Hebrew Lexicon^ be- ing a complete Verbal Index to Gesenius' Hebrew Lexi- con, as translated by Edward Robinson. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1872. f Harper, W. R. Hebrew Vocabularies. Chicago : Max Stern, Goldsmith & Co. 1882. f Green, William Henry. A Grammar of the Hebrew Language. 4th edition (in press). New York : John Wiley & Sons. 1883. Ewald, Heinrich. Syntax of the Hebrew Language. Trans- lated from the 8th German edition by James Kennedy. Edinburgh. T. & T. Clark. 1879. Nordheimer, Isaac. A Critical Grammar of the Heb'^'eit Language. 2 vols. 2d edition. New York : Wiley & Putnam. 1842. Ewald, Heinrich. Ausfuhrliches Lehrbuch der Hebrdischen Sprache des Alten Bundes. 8te Ausgabe. Gottingen, J. C. Dieterich. 1870. Bottcher, Friedrich. Ausfuhrliches Lehrbuch der Hebra- ischen Sprache-, nach dem. Tode des Verfassers herausge- geben von Ferd. Miihlau. 2 Bde. Leipzig : J. A. Barth. 1866. Olshausen, Justus. Lehrbuch der Hebrdischen Sprache Braunschweig : F. Vieweg und Sohn. 1861. 432 BIBLICAL STUDY. Gesenius, Wilhelm. Ausfiihrliches grammatisch-kritischei Lehrgebaiide der Hebraischen Sprache mit vergleichung der verwandten Dialekte. Leipzig : C. W. Vogel. 1817. Strack, Hermann. Hebrdische Grarnmatik mit Uebungs- stiicken, Litteratur und Vokabular. Karlsruhe und Leip- zig : H. Reuther. 1883. BiCKEL, GusTAVUS. Outlines of Hebrejv Grammar. Re- vised by the author and annotated by the translator, S. L Curtiss, Jr. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. 1877, I iESENius, Wilhelm. Thesaurus philologicus criticus linguae Hebraeae et Chaldaeae Veteris Testamenti. Editio altera. 3 Tom, 1835-53. Lipsiae : F. C. G. Vogel. (The work was completed by Aemilius Roediger.) (jESEnius, Wilhelm. Hebrdisches und Chalddisches Hand- wdrterbuch. gte Aufl. von F. Miihlau und W. Volck. Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1882-83. FuERST, Julius. Hebrdisches und Chaldaisches Handworter- buch iiber das Alte Testament. Leipzig : B. Tauchnitz. A Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testametit. 4 th edition. Translated from the German by Samuel David- son. London: Williams & Norgate. 1871. Meier, Ernst. Hebrdisches Wurzelwdrterbuch. Manheim : F. Bassermann. 1845. (iiRDLESTONE, R, B. Synonyms of the Old Testament : their bearing on Christian Faith and Practice. London : Long- mans, Green & Co. 187 1. (2) Aramaic. fRiGGS, Elias. a Manual of the Chaldee Language, con- taining a Chaldee grammar, chiefly from the German of G. B. Winer ; a Chrestomathy consisting of selections from the Targums, and including notes on the Biblical Chaldee, etc. 4th edition. New York : A. D. F. Ran- dolph & Co. 1858, fCowpER, B, Harris. The Principles of Syriac Grammar. Translated and abridged from the work of Hoffmann. London : Williams & Norgate. 1858, tCASTELL, Edmund. Lexicon Syriacum ex eius Heptaglotto seorsim typis describi curavit atque sua adnotata adjecit J, D. Michaelis. Gottingae : J, C Dieterich. 1788. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 433 fROEDlGER, Aemilius. CJirestomathia Syriaca quam glossa- rio et tabulis grammaticis. Editio altera. Halis : Sump- tibus Orphanotrophei. 1868. LuzZATTO, S. D. Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaic Lan- guage and the Talmud Babli Idioms. Translated from the Italian, and largely renewed by J. S. Goldammer. New York : John Wiley & Sons. 1876. Strack, H. L., & Carl Siegfried. Lehrbuch der Neuhe- brdischen Spracheund Litteratur- Karlsruhe: H. Reuther. 1884, Levy, Jacob. Chalddisches Wortcrbuch ilber die Targumim und einen grossen Theil des rabbinischen Schriftthums. 2 Bde. 2te Ausgabe. Leipzig : Baumgartner. 1876, Levy, Jacob. Neuhebrdisches und Chalddisches Wortcrbuch ilber die Talmudim und Midraschim nebst beitragen von H. L. Fleischer. 4 Bde. Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 1876-83. (The fourth vol. has not yet appeared.) Phillips, George. A Syriac Grammar. 3d edition. Cam- bridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1866. Noeldeke, Th. Kurzgefasste Syrische Grammatik. Leipzig: T. O. Weigel. 1880. Merx, Adalbert. Grammatica Syriaca quam post Hoff- manni. Halis : Lib. Orphanotrophei. 1867. Smith, R. Payne. Thesaurus Syriacus collegerunt S. M. Quatremere, G. H. Bernstein, .G. W. Lorsbach, A. J. Ar- nold, C. M. Agrell, F. Field, A. Roediger, auxit, digossit, exposuit, edidit. Oxonii, e typographeo Clarendomano. 1868-83. (6 Fasciculi as far as page 2256 have been pub- lished completing the letter Mem.) Noeldeke, Theo. Manddische Grammatik. Halle : Wais- enhaus. 1875. (3) Arabic and iEthiopic. tWRiGHT, William. A Grammar of the Arabic Language. Translated from the German of Caspari and edited with numerous additions and corrections. 2d edition. 2 vols. London : F. Norgate. 1874-5, fPETERMANN, J. H. Brcvis Linguae Arabicae grammatica, litteratura, chrestomathia cum glossario. Editio secunda. Berolini : G. Eichler. 1867. 19 434 BIBLICAL STUDY. fFREYTAG, G. W. Lexicoji Arabico- Latinmn. 4 Tom. Halis C. A. Schwetschke et Filium. 1830-37, f DiLLMANN, August. Grammatik der Aethiopischen Sprache Leipzig: T. O. Weigel. 1857, f DiLLMANN, August. Chrestomathia Aethiopica. Lipsiae ■ T.O. Weigel. 1866. fDiLLMANN, August. Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae. Lip- siae : T. O. Weigel. 1865. Arnold, F. A. Chrestomathia Arabica. Halis : C E M. Pfefifer. 1853. Catafago, Joseph. An English and Arabic Dictionary. 2d edition. London : Bernard Quaritch. 1873. Wahrmund, Adolph. Handworterbuch der Arabischen und Deutschcn Sprache (Modern Arabic). 2 Bande. Giessen : J. Ricker. 1870-77. Penrice, John. A Dictionary and Glossary of the Koran. London: H. S. King & Co. 1873. Lane, Edward William. An Arabic Lexicon^ derived from the best and most copious Eastern sources, comprising a very large collection of words and significations omitted in the Kamoos, with supplements to its abridged and de- fective explanations, ample grammatical and critical com- ments, and examples in prose and verse. Vols. I.— V. Williams & Norgate. 1863-74. Continued under the editorship of Stanley Lane Poole. Vol. V., 1877, Vol. VI. 1—2, 1 881-2. (Completed as far as 2640 pages of the whole work.) Dozy, R. Snpplejftent aux Dictionaires Arabes. 2 Tomes. Leyde : E. J. Brill. 1881. Pretorius, Franz. Amharische Sprache. Halle : Waisen- haus. 1879. (4) Phoenician and Samaritan. fScHROEDER, P. Die Phdnizische Sprache. Entwurf einer Grammatik nebst Sprach und Schriftproben. Halle : Wai- senhaus. 1869. fLEVY, M. A. Phonizisches Wdrterbuch. Breslau : H Skutsch. 1864. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 435 fPETERMANN, J. H. Brevis Linguae Samaritanae. Bero- lini : G. Eichler. 1873. (5) Assyrian and Babylonian. f Delitzsch, Fried. Assyrische Lesestucke. 2te Aufl. Leip- zig : J. C. Heinrichs. 1878. f Sayce, a. H. An Assyrian Grammar for comparative pur- poses. London : Trubner & Co. 1872. fScHRADER, Eberhard. AssyriscJics Syllabar fur den Ge- branch in seinen Vorlesungen zusammengestellt. Berlin : Koniglichen Acad. d. VVissenschaften. 1880. SCHRADER, Eberhard. Die Assyrisches-babylonische Keilin- schriften. Kritische Untersuchungen der Grundlagen ihro: Entzifferung. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. 1872. NoRRis, Edm. Assyrian Dictionary. 3 vols. London : Williams & Norgate. 1868-72. Sayce, A. H. Lectures upon the Assyrian Language and Syl- labary. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1877. Sayce, A. H. Babyloiiian Literature. Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution. London : Samuel Bagster & Sons. 1879. Oppert, Jules. Elements de la Grafnmaire Assyriene. 2me Edition. Paris : A. Franck. 1868. (6) Greek. fWiNER, G. B. Grafnmatik des Netitest. Sprachidioms. 7 Aufl. von G. Lunemann. Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1867. A Treatise of the Grammar of New Testa?nent Greek, re- garded as a sure basis for New Testament Exegesis. Translated from the German, with large additions and full indices. 2d edition by W. F. Moulton. 8th English edition. T. & T. Clark. 1877. A Grammar of the Ldiom of the New Testament. 7th edition, enlarged and improved by G. Lunemann. Revised and authorized translation. By J. H. Thayer Andover : W. F. Draper. 1877. f Robinson, Edward. A Greek and English L,exicon of the New Testament. A new edition. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1872. 4,36 BIBLICAL STUDY. fCREMER, Hermann. Biblisch-theologisches Wdrierbuch det Neutestamentlichen Grdcitdt. 3te sehr vermehrte und ver- besserte Auflage. Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1881-83. Biblico- Theological Lexicon of New Testament Greek. Translated from the German of the 2d edition with ad- ditional matter and corrections by the author. By Wil- liam Urwick. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1878. fScOTT, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. Compiled by H. G. Liddell and Robert Scott. 7th edition, revised and augmented throughout with the co-operation of Professor Drisler. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1883. i Green, T. S. A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1872. Buttmann, Alexander. Grammatik des Neutestament. Sprachgebrauchs. 2 Abtheil. Berlin : Dtimmler. 1857-59. A Grammar of the New Testament. Authorized translation by J. H. Thayer, with numerous additions and corrections by the author, Andover : W. F. Draper, 1873. Jelf, W, E. Granwiar of the Greek Language. 4th edition. 2 vols. Oxford : James Parker & Co. 1866. WiLKE, C. G. Clavis N. T. philologica. 3 Edit, emendata et aucta von W. Grimm. Leipzig : Lib, Arnoldiana. 1879. CuRTius, George. Grundzilge der Griechische?i Etymologic. 5 Aufl. Leipzig: B. G. Treubner. 1879. Principles of Greek Etymology. Translated with the sanction of the author by A. S. Wilkins and E. B. England. 2 vols. London : John Murray. 1875-6. Schmidt, J. H. Synonymik der Griechischen Sprache. 3 Bande. Leipzig : B. G. Treubner, 1876-79, Trench, R. C. Synonyms of the Neiv Testametit. The two parts in one, 9th edition, revised, London : Macmillan 6 Co. 1880, Webster, William. The Syntax and Synonyi7u of the Greek Testament. London : Rivingtons. 1864. Sophocles, E. A. A Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzan- tine Periods. Boston : Little, Brown & Co. 1870. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 437 III. — The Canon of Scripture. *Charteris, a. H. The New Testament Scriptures : their claims, history, and authority. Being the Croall Lectures for 1882. London : James Nisbet & Co. New York : Robert Carter & Brothers. 1882. fSTUART, Moses. Critical History and defence of the Old Testament Canon. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1865. Ed- ited, with occasional notes and references, by Peter Lori- mer. London : William Tegg & Co. 1849. fWESTCOTT, B. F. A General Survey of the History of the Canofi of the New Testament. 5 th edition. London : Macmillan & Co. 1881. Charteris, a. H. a Collection of Early Testimonies to the Canonical Books of the New Testament. Based on Kirch- hofer's Quellensammlung. Edinburgh : William Black- wood & Sons. 1880. Reuss, Edward. Histoire du Canon des Saintes-Ecrittires dans r Eglise Chr^tienne. 2 edition. Strasbourg : Treut- tel et Wurtz. 1863. CosiN, John. Scholastical History of the Ca?ion of the Holy Scrifitures. London: R.Norton. 1657. In Vol. IIL of Works. Oxford : J. H. Parker. 1849. FuERST, Julius. Der Kanon des Alt. Test, nach den Ueber- lieferungen in Talmud und Midrasch. Leipzig : Dorf- fling & Franke. 1868. Davidson, Samuel. The Canon of the Bible : its formation, history, and fluctuations. 3d edition. London : C. Ke- gan Paul. 1880. Credner, C- a. Gesch. d. neutest. Kanon herausgegeben von G. Volkmar. Berlin : G. Reimer. i860. Zahn, Theodor. Forchujjgen zur Gesch. des neutest. ICanons u. der altkirchl. Litcratur. I Thcil : Tatiau's Diatessaron. J J Thiel : der Evangcliencommentar des Theophilus von Antiochen. Erlangen : A. Deichert. 1 881-3. 4a8 BIBLICAL STUDY. IV. — The Text of Scripture. (i) The Originals and Versions. (a) Of the whole Bible. * The Holy Bible, co^\\.z\nvs\^ the Old and New Testaments Translated out of the original tongues, and with the forme! translations diligently compared and revised. New York ; American Bible Society. * The Jloly Bible, contammg the Old and New Testaments. Translated out of the original tongues, and with the form- er translations diligently compared and revised, by his majesty's special command. The S. S. Teacher's edition. Oxford : Printed at the University Press. * Cambridge Paragraph Bible of the Authorized English Ver' sion, with the text revised, the marginal references remod- elled, and a critical introduction prepared by F. H. Scriv- ener. Cambridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1873. fSxiER, R., and K. G. W. Theile. Polyglotten-Bibel zum praktischen Handgebrauch. Die Heilige Schrift Alten und Neuen Testaments in iibersichtlicher Nebeneinander- stellung des Urtextes, der Septuaginta, Vulgata, und Lu- theriibersetzung, so wie der wichtigsten Varianten der vornehmsten deutschen Uebersetzungen. 5 Bande. Bie- lefeld : Velhagen & Klasing. 1864. Walton, Brian. S. S. Biblia-Polyglotta. Complectentia Textus Originales Hebraicum cum Pentateucho Samari- tano Chaldaicum Graecum Versionumque Antiqarum Sa- maritanae Graeco-Sept., Chaldaicae, Syriacae, Lat. Vulg. Arabicae, Aethiopicae, Persicae, quicquid comparari pote- rat. 6 vol. folio. London : Thos. Roycroft. 1657. Bibliorum Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus ed. Constantinus Tischendorf 4 vol. Petropoli. 1862. Biblioru-m sacrormn graecus codex Vaticanus collatis studiis Caroli Vercellone et Josephi Cozza, editus. Folio. 6 Tom. Roma. 1869-1881. DiLLMANN, A. Biblia Vetcris Testainenti Aethiop. Tom i. Octateuchus. 1853-55. II. Lihri Peguf?/, Paralipome' non Esdrae, Esther. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. 1861-72 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 439 Codex Alexandrimis. fac- simile., printed in photo- lithography. 4 Parts folio. An absolute fac-simile produced by order of the Trustees of the British Museum. London. 1879-81. (The New Testament and Part I. of the Old Testanieni have appeared.) (b) Of the Old Testament. \Biblia Hebraica ad optimas editiones imprimis Ev. van del Hooght. cur. etc. C. G. Guil. Theile. Ed. Steor. V. Lip- siae : B. Tauchnitz. 1873. \Liber Genesis Textum Massoreticum accuratissime expressit, e fontibus masorae varie illustravit, notis criticis confir- mavit S. Baer. Praefatus est. Fr. Delitzsch. Lipsiae : B. Tauchnitz, i860 ; L. Jesajae., 1872 ; Z. Jobi, 1875 ; L. duodecim Prophet. 1878 ; Z. Psahnorum, 1880 ; Z. Pro- verbiorum, 1880 ; Libri Danielis Ezrae et JVehemiae, 1882, \ Testamentum Vetus,graece j'uxta LXX interpretes Text. Vatic. rom. emend, ed. argum. et locos n. test, parall. notavit, omnem lect. variet. cod. vetus. Alex., Ephr. Syri., Fr. August, subjunxit, proleg. uberrimis instr. Const, de Tischendorf. Ed. VI. Prolegomena rec. Nestle. 2 torn. Lipsiae: F. A, Brockhaus. 1880. Prophetarnm posteriorum codex Babylonicus PetropolitamtSy ed. Herm. Strack. Editiu Biijlio. imperialis. Petropoli. 1876. Biblia Hebrae, cum titraque Masora et Targum item cum com-, fneniariis rabbinorum studio. Joan, Buxtorfii 5 Tom. folio. Basileae : L. Konig. 1618-20. Etheridge, J. W. The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan ben Uzziel on the Pentateuch ; with the fragments of Je- rusalem Targum. From the Chaldee. 2 vols. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1862-1865. Petermann, J. H. Pe?itateuchus Samaritanus Ad fidem libro- rum mss. apud Nablusianos repertorum 1. Genesis. Ber- lin : Moeser. 1872. Petermann, J. H. Versuch einer hcbr. Formeulehre nach der Aussprache der heut. Samaritaner. Leipzig : F. A. Brock- haus. 1868. (Contains variations of Samaritan MSS. from the Massoretic) 440 BIBLICAL STUDY. Ceriani, a. M. Codex Syro-hexaplaris Ambrosianus photo lithographice editus curante. Mailand : Biblio. Ambrosi- anae. 1874. Origenis Hexaploruin quae sup er sunt ; sive veterum interpre* turn Graecorum in totum V. T. fragmenta, adhibita etiam versione syro-hexaplari concinnavit emendavit et multis partibus auxit. 2 vols. Oxford: Fred. Field. 1867—75. (c) Of the New Testament. *The New Testaf?ient of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ translated out of the Greek : being the version set forth A.D. i6ii, compared with the most ancient authorities and revised a.d. 1881. Printed for the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Oxford: At the University Press. 1881. * The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ translated out of the Greek : being the version set forth A.D. 161 1, compared with the most ancient authorities and revised a.d. 1881, with the readings and renderings pre- ferred by the American Committee of Revision, incorpO' rated into the text. By Roswell D. Hitchcock. New York: Fords, Howard & Hurbert. 1881. f The New Testament in the Original Greek. The Text re vised by B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, with Introduc tion and Appendix by the editors. 2 vols. Cambridge ; Macmillan & Co. 1881. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1881-2. fGARDiNER, F. A HarmoTiy of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the text of Tischendorf, with a collation of the Textus Receptus, and of the Texts of Griesbach, Lachmann, and Tregelles. Andover : W. F. Draper. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 187 1. No7!Ufn Testamentum Graece. Ad antiquissimos testes denuo recensuit apparatum criticum omni studio perfectum ap- posuit commendationem isagogicam praetexuit C. Tischen- dorf. Editio octava critica major. 2 Bde. Lipsiae : Gie- secke & Devrient. 1869-72. Tregelles, Samuel P. The Greek New Testament. Edited from ancient authorities. London : Bagster & Sons. 1857-72. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY, 4.4.^ RusHBROOKE, W. G. SynopticoH. An exposition of the com- mon matter of the Synoptic Gospels, with Appendices. London : Macmillan & Co. 1880. Novum Testamentuni Graece et Latine. Car. I.achmannus re- censuit, Phil Buttmannus graecae leciiones auctoritates apposuit. 2 Tom. Berolini : G. Reimer. 1832-50. Novum Testamentum Graecutn. Textus Stephanici 1550. Accedunt variae lectiones editionum Bezae, Elzeviri, Lach- manni, Tischendorfii et Tregellessii. Curante F. H. Scrivener. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell & Co. 1872, Robinson, Edward. A JIarmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the text of Hahn. Revised edition. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1872. TisCHENDORF, CoNST. Synopsts evafigeltca. IV. evang. or- dine chronolog. concinnavit, brevi comment, illustr. 4te Aufl. Leipzig : Mendelssohn. 1878. The English Hexapla. Six translations of the New Tes- tament : Wiclif, 1380 ; Tyndale, 1554 ; Cranmer, 1539 , Genevan, 1557 ; Anglo- Rhemish, 1582 ; Authorized, 1611 ; arranged in parallel co/nmns, beneath the original Greek text, by Scholtz. With a History of English translations and translators. Londoi : Samuel Bagster & Sons. (2) Concordances. *Young, Robert. Anafyfr''. il Concordance to the Bible, on an entirely new plan, ccntairing every word in alphabetical order, arranged under its Hebrew or Greek original, with the literal meaning of each "^nd its pronunciation. 3d re- vised edition. Edinburgh : G. A. Young & Co. New York : I. K. Funk & Co. i?bo. *Cruden, Alexander. A CompMe Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. New York: Dodd cV Mead. 1870. fTnOMS, J. A. A complete Concordct^e to the revised Version of the New Testament. Embracmr the marginal readings of the English Revisers as well as those of the American Committee. Published under the ;^utho^i/ition of the Oxford and Cambridge Universities. .N*'^ Yo-rk Charles Scribner's Sons. 1883. 19* 44:2 BIBLICAL STUDY. f Hudson, C. F. A Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament. Revised and completed by Ezra Abbot. 4th edit. Boston : H. L. Hastings. 1877. tWiGRAM, G. V. Etiglishman' s Hebrew and Chaldce Concord- ance of the Old Testament. 4th ed. 2 vols. London : S. Bagster & Sons. FuERST, Julius. Librorum Sacrorum Veteris Testamentt Coficordantiae Hebraicae atque Chaldaicae. Lipsiae : B. Tauchnitz. 1840. NoLDius, Christianus. Concordantiae particularumEbraeo- Chaldaicarum. J. G. Tympius recensuit. Jena : J. F. Bielck. 1734. Trommius, Abraham. Concordantiae Graecae Versio vulgo die- tae LXX interpretum. 2 Tomi. Amstelodami : Sumpti bus Societatis. 17 18. Bruder, a. v. H. Concordantiae omnium vocuni Novi Testa- mentum Graecae. 5 edit. Lipsiae: Ernest Bredt. iSfio. (3) Textual Criticism of the Old Testament. fSxRACK, Herm. L. Prolegomena Critica in Veins Testamen- turn Hebraicum. Leipzig: J. C. Heinrichs. 1873. Davidson, Sam. Treatise on Biblical Criticism. 2 vols. Boston: Gould & Lincoln. 1853. GiNSBURG, C. The Alassorah. Compiled from manuscripts alphabetically and lexically arranged. Vols. I. and II. Aleph — Tav. London. 1880-83. Levita, Elias. The Massoreth Ha-Massoreth, being an ex- position of the Massoretic notes on the Hebrew Bible, or the ancient critical apparatus of the Old Testament in Hebrew, with an English translation and critical and ex- planatory notes. By C D. Ginsburg. London : Long- mans, Green, Reader & Dyer. 1867. BuxTORF, John. Tiberius sive co?nmentarius Masorethicus Basle : Lud. Kcnig. 1620. Cappellus, Ludovic. Critica Sacra s. de variis quae in sacris. V. T, libris occurrunt lectionibus libri VI. Lute- tiae Parisiorum : Sebast. Cramoisy. 1650 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 44.3 K.ENNICOTT, Benj. Vetiis Test. Heb> cum variis lectionibus^ 2 Tom. folio. Oxonii, e typo Clarend. 1776-1780. DeRossi, J. "B. Variae lectiones Vet. Test. 4 Tom. Parma. 1 784-1 788 ; also, Scholia c7-itica in V. T. libros seu sup- plementa ad varias sacri textus lectiones. Palma : Ex regie typographeo. 1798. Frensdorf, S. Die Massora Magna j Erster Theil, Masso- retisches VVorterbuch. Hanover und Leipzig : Cohen & Risch. 1876. WiCKES, William. Treatise on the Accentuation of the three so-called poetic books of the Old Testament. Oxford : Clarendon Press. 188 r. Frankel, Z. Vorstudien zu der Septuaginta. Leipzig: F. C W. Vogel. 1841. RoNSCH, H. Itala und Vulgata. Das Sprachidiom der ur- christl. Itala und Kathol. Vulgata unter Beriicksichtigung der Rom. Volkssprache erlautert. Marburg : N. G. El- wert. 1869. Ziegler, L. Die Lateinischen Bibeliibersetzung vor Hierony- fnas u fid die Itala dcs Augustinus. Ein Beitrag zur Gesch. d. Heil. Schrift Munchen : Th. Riedel. 1879. Walton, Brian. In Biblia Polyglotta Prolegomena specialia recognovit Dathianisque et variorum notis suas immis- cuit F. Wrangham. 2 Tom. Cantabrigiae : T. Smith. 1828. (4) Textual Criticism of the New Testament. *Mombert, J. I. A Handbook of the Etis^lish Versions of the Bible. New York : A. D. F. Randolph & Co. 1883. f Scrivener, F. H. Ditroduction to the Criticism of the New Testament. 3d edit. Cambridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1883. fScHAFF, P. Companion to the Greek Testament and the En- glish Version. New York: Harper & Brothers. 18S3. Kaulen, Fr. Handbuch zur Vulgata. Eine systematische Darstellung ihres lateinischen Sprachcharakters. Mainz : Kirchheim. 1870. 444 BIBLICAL STUDY, Eadie, John. The English Bible. An external and critical History of the various English Translations of Scripture. 2 vols. Macmillan & Co. 1876. Tholuck, a. Das Alte Testament im Nenen Testament. 6 Aufl. Gotha : F. Perthes. 1868. fToY, Crawford H. Quotations in the New Testament. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1884. TuRPiE, D. M. The Old Testament in the New. A Contri bution to Biblical Criticism and Interpretation. London , Williams & Norgate. 1868. V. — The Higher Criticism. (i) The Old Testament. *Cross, J. A. Introductory Hints to English Readers of the Old Testament. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1882. *Smith, W. Robertson. The Old Testament in the Jeivish Church. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1881. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1881. f Bleek, Fred. Einleitung in das N. T. 4te Aufl- Bearbeitei von J. Wellhausen. Berlin : G. Reimer. 1878. Trans- lated from the 2d German edition by G. H. Venables. 2 vols. London. 1875. Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the Old Testament, critical, historical, and theological. 3 vols. London Williams & Norgate. 1862-3. Keil, K. F. Lehrbuch der historisch-kritisch. Einleitung in d. kanonischen und apokryphischen Schriften d. A. T. Frank- furt- a- Maine : Heyder & Zimmer. 3te Aufl. 1873. Trans, by C. M. Douglas. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1869. DeWette, W. M. L. Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Ein- leitu7ig in die kanoiiischen und apokryphischen Biicher des Alien Testaments. Neu bearbeitet von Eberhard Schrader. 8te Ausgabe. Berlin : G. Reimer. 1869. Translated from the German edition and enlarged by Theodore Par- ker. 2 vols. Boston : Little & Brown. 1843. Kleinert, Paul. Abriss der Einleitung zum A. Tin Tabellen* form. Berlin : G. W. F. MUller. 1878. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 445 Simon, Richard. Histoire Critique du Vicux TeslamcnL Rotterdam : R. Leers. 1685. EiCHHORN, J. G. Einlcitung in das Alte Testament. 4te Aufl. 5 Bde. Gottingen : Lauffer. 1823-4. NOLDEKE, Theo. Die Alttestametitliche Literatur in einer Reihe von Aufsatzen. Leipzig: Quardt & Handel. 1868. Reuss, Edward. Die Geschichte der heiligen Schriften Al- ten Testaments. Braunschweig : C A. Schwetschke & Sohn. 188 1. Haevernick, H. a. C. Handbuch der historisch-kritischen Eirileitung in das Alte Testament. 3 Bande. Erlangen : Carl Heyden. 1836-49. 2te Aufl. von C. F. Keil. Frankfurt und Erlangen. I. i, 1854 ; IL 2, 1856. (2) Higher Criticism of parts of the Old Testa- ment. *MuRRAY, Thomas C. Lectures on the Origin afid Growth of the Psalms. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1880. *Smith, W. R. The Prophets of Israel. London : Long- I mans, Green & Co. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1882. Green, William Henry. Moses and the Prophets. New York : Robert Carter & Brothers. 1883. *Tavlor, Isaac. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. London : Bell & Daldy. 1861. New York: Rudd & Carleton. 1862. With a biographical introduction by Wm. Adams. LowTH, Wm. De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum, .... cum nolis et epimetris, J. D. Michaelis, . . . . ed. E. F C. Roscn- miiller, Oxonii, 1821. Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. Translated from the original Latin by G. Gregory. A new edition, with notes by C. E. Stowe. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1829. Herder, J- G. Vom Gcist der Hebr. Pucsic. Dessau. 1782- 83. The Spirit of ILcbrcw Poetry. Translated from the (German by James Marsh. 2 vols. Burlington, Vt. : E. D. Smith. 1833. tJiCKELL, G. Carmina Vctcris Tcstainoiti Alctrice. Oeni- ponte: Academica Wagncriana. 1882. J ^ J 44 fi BIBLICAL STUDY. KuENEN, A. De Profeten en de profetie in der Israel. Leiden, 1875. The Prophets and Prophecy m Israel. Translated from the Du-tch by the Rev. Adam Milroy. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1877. Wellhausen, J. Prolegotnena zur Geschichte Israels. 2te Ausgabe der Gesch. Israels. Band L Berlin : G. Reimer. 1883. BiNNiE, William. The Psalms : their History, Teachings, and Use. London : T. Nelson. 1870. Bruston, Charles. Histoire critique de la littlrature proph- itique des H^breux dcpiiis les origines jusqua la mort d' Isaie. Paris : G. Fischbacher. 1881. PusEY, E. B. Daniel the Prophet. Nine Lectures, delivered in the Divinity school of the University of Oxford. 3d edition. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1869. (3) The Higher Criticism of the New Testament. fBLEEK, Fred. Einleitung i?i d. IV. T. nach dessen Vorle- sungen herausgegeben von J. Bleek. 3te Aufl. von Man- gold. Berlin: G. Reimer. 1875. An Ijitroduction to the New Testamejit. Translated by W. Urwick. 2 vols. Edin- burgh : T.& T.Clark. 1869-70. Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the study of the New Testanietit, critical, exegetical, and theological. 3 vols. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1848-51. Reuss, Edward. Die Geschichte der h. Schriften N. T. 5 Aufl. Braunschweig: Schwetschke & Sohn. 1874. DeWette, W. M. L. Lehrbuch d. hist.-krit. Einleit. i?i die ka- non. BUcher des N. T. 6te Aufl. von Messner & Lune- mann. Berlin : G. Reimer. i860. MiCHAELis, J. D. Einleitung in d. gottl. Schriften des N. Bundes. 4te Aufl. Gottingen : Vandenhok. 1788. In- troduction to the New Testament. Translated into En- glish with additions by Herbert Marsh. 6 vols. 4 edi- tion. London : F. C. & J. Rivington. 1823. Hertwig, 0. R. Tabellen zur Einl. ins N. T. 4 Aufl, voR H. Weingarten. Berlin: G. VV. F. MUller. 1872. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 447 (4) The Higher Criticism of parts of the New Testament. *Westcott, B. F. Introduction to the Study of the Four Gos- pels, with historical and explanatory notes. 6th edition. London : Macmillan & Co. 1881. f Sanday, W. The Gospels in the Second Century. London : Macmillan & Co. 1876. f Abbot, Ezra. The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel. Ex- ternal evidences. Boston : G. H. Ellis. 1880. Mill, W. H. Observations on the attempted application of Pantheistic Principles to the theory and historical criticism of the Gospel. 2d edition edited by B. Webb. Cam- bridge : Deighton, Bell & Co. 1861. TiSCHENDORF, CoNST. Waun wurden unsere Evaiigclien ver- fasst. 4te Aufl., J. C. Heinrichs, 1880. Origin of the Four Gospels. Translated into English. Boston : Am. Tract Society. 1868. Lardner, Nathaniel. The Credibility of the Gospel His- tory. 5 vols. London : W. Ball. 1838. Ebrard, J. H. A. Wissenschaftliche Kritik der cvajigelischen Geschichtc. 3te Aufl. Frankfurt-a-M. : Heyder & Zim- mer. 1868. Weiss, Bernard. Das Matthdus Evangelium und seine Lu- cas-pa rallelen erklart. Halle : Waisenhaus. 1876. Weiss, Bernard. T)as Marcus Evangelium itnd seine syn- optischen Parallelen erklart. Berlin : W. Hertz. 1872. VI. — The Interpretation of Scripture. (i) Hermeneutics. *Spurgeon, C. H. Commenting and Commentaries. Two Lectures addressed to the students of the Pastor's College, .... together with a catalogue of Biblical Commen- taries and Expositions. London : Passmore & Alabaster. New York : Sheldon & Co. 1876. tiMMER, A. Hermeneutik des N. T. Wittenberg : H. Koel- ling. 1873. Ilermciieutics of the New Testament. Trans- lated from the German by A. IJ. Neuman. Andover : W F. D riper. 1877. A y.8 BIBLICAL feTUDT. SCHLEIERMACHER, Fred. Herrneneuiik und Kritik mit be- sorderer Beziehung auf das Neue Test. Aus Schleier- macher's handschrift. Nachlasse und nachgeschriebenen Vorlesungen herausgegeben von F. Liicke. Berlin : G. Reiraer. 1838. Davidson, Samuel. Sacred Hermeneutics. Developed and applied, including a history of Biblical Interpretation from the earliest of the Fathers to the Reformation. Edinburgh : Thomas Clark. 1843. Klausen, H. N. Hermeneutik des Ncuen Testaments aus. dem Danischen ubersetzt von C D. Schmidt-Phiseldek. Leipzig: K. F. Kohler. 1841. Rambach, J. J. Institutiones Hermefieuticae Sacrae. Editio octava, cum praef. J. F. Buddei. Jenae : J. W. Hartun- gil. 1764. Lange, J. D. Grimdriss d. biblischen Hermetieutik. Heidel- berg : C. Winter. 1878. McClelland, Alex. A brief treatise on the Canon and In • terpretation of the Holy Scriptures. New York: Robert Carter & Bros. i860. Ernesti, J. A. Institutio Interpretis N. T. 5 edit, ed C. F. Ammon. 1809. Lipsiae : Weidmann. Elementarj Principles of Interpretation. Translated from the Latin, and accompanied by notes, with an appendix, containing extracts from Morus, Beck, Keil, and Henderson. By Moses Stuart. 4th edition. Andover : Allen, Morrill & Wardwell.. 1842. GiNSBURG, C. D. The Kabbalah : its doctrines, develop- ment, and Literature. London : Longmans, Reader & Dyer. 1865. KiHN, Heinrich. Theodor von Alopsuestia und Junilius Af- ricanus als Exegeten. Freiburg im Breisgau : Herder. 1880, Siegfried, Carl. Philo von Alexandria als Ausleger des Al- ien Testaments- Jena : H. Dufft. 1875. DopKE, J. C. C. IIer)ncneutik der neittesiamcntlichen Schrifi steller. Leipzig: F. C W. Vogel. 1829. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 449 tTERRY, Milton S. Biblical Hermeneutics. A Treatise on the Interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. New York : Phillips & Hunt. 1883. (2) Commentaries. (A) On the whole Bible. •Henry, Matthew. An exposition of the Old and Netv Tes- taments ; wherein each chapter is summed up in its con- tents ; the sacred Text inserted at large, in distinct Para- graphs, etc. Edited by the Rev. Edward Bickersteth. 6 vols. London: H. G. Bohn. 1846. 9 vols. New York : R. Carter & Bros. 1876. fLANGE, J. P. Critical, doctrinal, and homiletical Commentary on the Holy Scriptures, with special reference to ministers and students, in connection with a number of eminent European divines. Translated, enlarged, and edited by Philip Schaff, in connection with American scholars of va- rious evangelical denominations. 25 vols. New York : Chas. Scribner's Sons. 1867—82. Genesis, Wx'dx 3. Qiq.wqxc\ Introduction to the Old Testament. By J. P, Lange. Tran; - lated from the German, with additions, by Tayler Lewis an I A. Gosman. — Exodus^hy C. AL Mead; Leviticus, by i. Gardiner, with General Introduction, by H. Osgood. — Num ■ bers. By J. P. Lange. Translated and enlarged by Samue ■ T. Lowrie and A. Gosman ; Deuteronomy, by F. W. J. Shioe der, translated and enlarged by A. Gosman. — Joshua, by F R. Fay, translated, with additions, by George R. JMiss Judges and Ruth, by Paulus Cassel, translated, with addi tions, by P. H. Steenstra. — -^^ Samuel, by C. F. D. Ere] man n. translated, enlarged, and edited by C. H. Toy and J. A. Bioa- dus. — iKings. By K. C. W. F. Bahr. Book 1., translated and enlarged by Edwin Harwood. Book II., translated and en- larged by W. G. Sunmer. — Chronicles I. and II., by Otto Zockler, translated, enlarged, and edited by James G. Mur- phy ; \Ezra, by Fr. VV. Schultz, translated, enlarged, and edited by Chas. A. Briggs ; Nehemiah, by Howard Crosby ; Esther, by Fr. W. Schnltz, translated, enlarged, and edited by James Strong. — SJob. A Rhythmical Version, with an Introduction and Annotation by 'I'ayler Lewis. A Com- mentary by Otto Zockler, translated from the German, with additions, by L. J. Evans. Together with an Introductory 4:50 BIBLICAL STUDY. Essay on Hebrew Poetry by Philip Schaff. — The Psalms. By Carl Bernhard Moll. Translated, with additions, by C. A. Briggs, John Forsyth, J. B. Hammond, and J. F. Mc- Curdy. With a new Metrical Version of the Psalms, and Philological notes, by T. J. Conant. — \Proverbs^ by Otto Zockler, translated by C. A. Aiken ; Ecclesiastes, by O. Zockler, translated by Wm. Wells, with additions, and a new Metrical Version by Tayler I^ewis ; The Song of Solomon, by O. Zockler, translated, with additions, by W. H. Green. — - Isaiah. By C. VV. E. Naegelsbach. Translated, with ad- ditions, by Samuel T. Lowrie and Dunlop Moore. — /erefuiah, by C. W. E. Naegelsbach, translated and enlarged by S. R. Asbury ; Lamentations^ by C. W. E. Naegelsbach, translated and enlarged by W. H. Hornblower. — Ezekiel. By F. W. J. Schroeder. Translated, edited, and enlarged by Patrick Fairbairn and William Findlay, aided by Thomas Crerarand Sinclair Manson ; Daniel, translated, edited, and enlarged by James Strong. — The Minor Prophets, Hosea, Joel, and Amos, by Otto SchmoUer, translated, with additions, by Jas. E. McCurdy, John Forsyth, and Talbot W. Chambers, re- spectively ; Obadiah, Jo7iah, and Micha, by Paul Kleinert, translated, with additions, by George R. Bliss ; Nahnm, Ha- bakkuk, and Zephaniah, by Paul Kleinert, translated, with additions, by Chas. Elliott ; Haggai, by James E. McCurdy ; Zechariah. by T. W. Chambers ; Afalachi, by Joseph Pack- ard. Index to the 14 vols, on the Old Testament, by H. Pick. — \The Apocrypha of the Old Testament. With historical introductions, a revised translation, and notes critical and explanatory. By E. C. Bissell. — Matthew. With a General Introduction to the New Testament. By J. P. Lange. Translated, with additions, by Philip Schaff. — Mark. By J. P. Lange. Revised from the Edinburgh translation, with ad- ditions, by W. G. T. Shedd ; Luke, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, translated, with additions, by Philip Scliaff and Charles C. Starbuck. — John. By John P. Lange. Translated by E. D. Yeomans and Evelina Moore. With additions by E. R. Craven and Philip Schaff. — Acts. By G. V. Lechler and Chas. Gerok. Translated, with additions, by C. F. Schaef- fer, — \Rotna7is. By J. P, Lange and F. R. Fay. Trans- lated by J. K. Hurst. Revised and enlarged by P. Schaff and M. B. Riddle. — Corinthians. By Christian F. Kling. Translated, with additions, by D. W. Poor. — Gulatians, by Otto Schmoller, translated by C. C. Slarbuck, with additions by M. B. Riddle ; Philippians, by Karl Braune, translat^id BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 45J and enlarged by H. B. Hackett ; Ephesi({ns and Colossians, by Karl Braune, translated and enlarged by M. B. Riddle. — Thessalonians, by Auberlen and Riggenbach, translated with additions, by John Lillie ; Timothy^ by J. J. Van Oosterzee, translated, with additions, by E. A. VVashburn and E. Har- wood ; Titus, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, translated, with addi- tions, by Geo. E. Day; Philemon, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, translated, with additions, by H. B. Hackett ; Hebretvs, by Carl B. Moll, translated, with additions, by A. C. Kendrick. — James, by J. P. Lange, J. J. Van Oosterzee ; Peter ^ by P. F. C. Fronmiiller ; John, by Karl Braune ; Jude, by P. F. C. Fronniiiller, all translated, with additions, by Isidor Mombert. — \The Revelation of John. By J. P. Lange. Translated by Evelina Moore. Enlarged and edited by E. R. Craven. Together with double alphabetical Index to the ten volumes on the New Testament, by John H. Woods. The Holy Bible according to the authorized Version (a.d. 161 1), with an explanatory and critical Commentary and a revision of the translation, by bishops and other clergy of the Angli- can Church. Edited by F. C. Cook, xovols. London : John Murray. 187 1-8 1. 7he Holy Bible, according to the Author- ized Version. With explanatory and critical note?, and a re- vision of the translation by bishops and clergymen of the Church of England. — New York : Chas. Scnbner's Sons. 1871-81. Genesis, by E. H. Browne; Exodus, Chapters L-XIX. by F. C. Cook, and XX. to the end, by Samuel Clark ; Leviticus, by Samuel Clark ; Numbers and Deuter- onomy, by T. E. Espin. — Joshua, by T. E. Espin ; Judges, Ruth, and Samuel, by Arthur Hervey ; \ First Kings, by George Rawlinson. — -^Second Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, by George Rawlinson.— y^;<^, by F. C. Cook ; Psalms, by G. H. S. Johnson and C. J. Elliott ; Proverbs, by E. H. Plumptre ; Ecclesiastcs, by W. T. Bullock; Song of Solomon, by T. L. Kingsbury. — Isaiah^ by W. Kay ; Jeremiah and Lamentations, R. Payne Smith, — Ezekiel, by G. Curry; Daniel, by H. J. Rose and J. M. Fuller; The Minor Prophets, by E. Huxtable, F. Meyrick, R. Gandell, Sam'l Clark, I*\ C. Cook, and W^ Drake. — St. Matthew, by H, I^ongueville Mansel ; St. Mark, by F. C. Cook ; St. Luke, by W. Jkisil Jones and F. C. Cook, with a General Introduction by Wm. Thompson. — .S7 John, Introduction, Commentary, and Critical Notes, by B, F. Westcott ; The Acts of the Apostles, Introduction by F, 452 BIBLICAL STUDY. C. Cook, Commentary and Critical Notes by William Jacob- son. — Romans^ by E. H. Gififord ; Corinthians, by Evans and Joseph Waite ; Galatians^ by J. S. Howson ; Ephesians, by F. Meyrich ; Philippians, by J. Gwynn ; Colossians, Thessa- lonians, and Philemon, by Wni. Alexander; Tintothy and Titus, by H. VVace and John Jackson. — Hebrews, by W. Kay ; St. James, by Robert Scott ; St. John, by Wni. Alexander ; St. Peter and St. Jiide, by J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Liimby ; Revelation, by Wm. Lee. The Pulpit Commentary. Edited by H. D. M. Spence and Joseph S. Exell. London : C. Kegan Paul & Co. 1880- 83. New York : A. D. F. Randolph & Co. Genesis, by T. Whitelaw, with Homilies by J. F. Montgomery, R. A. Red- ford, F. Hastings, VV. Roberts. An Introduction to the Study of the Old Testament by F. W. Farrar, and Intro- ductions to the Pentateuch by H. Cotterill and T. White- law. 7th edition. — Exodus, by G. Rawlinson, with Homilies by J. Orr, C. A. Goodhart, D. Young, J. Urquhart, and H. T. Robjohns. 4th edition. 2 vols. — Leviticus, by Fred. Meyrick, with Introductions by R. Colhns, A. Cave, and Homilies by R. A. Redford, J. A. Macdonald, W. Clark- son, S. R. Aldridge, and McCheyne Edgar. 3d edition. — Numbers, by R. Winterbotham, with Homilies by E. S. Prout, W. Binnie, U. Young, J, Waite, and an Introduction by Thomas Whitelaw. 4th edition. — Deuteronomy, by W. L. Alexander, with Homilies by Dickerson Davies, C. Clemance, J. Orr, and R. M. Edgar. 2d edition. — Joshua, by J. J. Lias, with Homilies by R. Glover, E. De Pressense, S. R. Aldridge, W. F. Adeney, J. Waite, and Introductions to the Historical Books by A. Plummer and J. J. Lias. 4th edition. — Judges by A. C. Hervey, with Homilies by A. F. Muir and W. F. Adeney ; Ruth, by J. Morison, with Homilies i^y \V. M. Statham and J. R. Thomson. 4th edi- tion. — /. Samuel, by R. Payne Smith, with Homilies by Donald Eraser, C. Chapman, and B. Dale. 5th edition. — /. Kings, by Joseph Hammond, with Homihes by E. de Pressense, J. Waite, A. Rowland, J. A. Macdonald, and J. Urquhait. 3d edition. — Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, by G. Rawlinson, with Homilies by J. R. Thomson, R. A. Red- ford, \V. S. Lewis, J. A. Macdonald, A. Mackennal, W. Clarkson, F. Hastings, W. Dinwiddle, D. Rowlands, G. Wood, P. C. Barker, and J. S. Exell. 5th edition. — St. Mark, by E. Bickersteth, with Homilies by J. R. Thorn- ^ BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 453 son, E. Johnson, J. J. Given, A. Rowland, A. F. Muir, R. Green. 2d edition. 2 vols. Wordsworth, Christopher. The Holy Bible, '\\\ ihe fi^nihor- ized Version. With Notes and Introduction. New Edition. 7 vols. London : Rivingtons. 1872. Critici Sacri sine doctisswiorum virorum in S. S. Biblia Anno- tationes et Tractatus. Edited by J. Pearson, A. Scattergood, F. Gouldman, and R. Pearson. 9 vol., folio. London : C. Bee. 1660. 13 vol., folio. Amsterdam. 1669. Poole, Matth. Synopsis Criticorum. 4 vols, in 5, folio. London : J. Flescher & T. Roycroft. 1669. Utrecht, 1684. Reuss, Edward. La. Bible Traduction nouvelle avec intro- ductions et commentaires. 15 Part. Paris: Sadoz et Fisch bacher. 1874-1881. (B) The Old Testament, (a) The Old Testament as a whole. \Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zu7n Alt. Test. Leipzig: -■' S. Hirzel. 1838-83. In 17 Banden^ \Genesis, 4. Aufl., von A. Dillmann, 1883 \^\Exodus &= Levit., 2. Aufl., von A. Dillmann, 1880 ; Num., Deut., Jos., von A. Knobel, i86i ; Richter, Ruth., von E. Bertheau, 1845 ; Samuel, von O. Thenius, 2. Aufl., 1864; Kdnige, von O. Thenius, 2. Aufl., 1873 ; \Jesaja, 4. Aufl., von L. Diestel, 1872 ; Jerem., von F. Hitzig, 2. Aufl., 1866 ; \Ezechiel, 2. Aufl., von R. Smend, 1880 ; \Klein. Propheten, 4. Aufl., von H. Steiner, 1881 ; Psalmen, von J. Olshausen, 1853 •,-\\Hiob., -3. Aufl., von A. Dillmann, 1869 \ Spriiche, von E. Berlhuau, u. Koheleth, von F. Hitzig, 1847 ; Hohelied, von F. Hitzig, u. Klaglieder, von O. Thenius, 1855 ; Da?iiel, von F. Hitzig, 1850 ; Esra, Neh., Esther, von E. Bertheau, 1862; Chron- ik., von E. Bertheau, 1862. tKEiL, C F., und Franz Delitzsch. Biblische Commentar iiber das A. T. 14 Bande. Leipzig : Dorffling & Franke. 1861-83. Translated as Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. 25 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1864- 78. (The Commentaries on Psalms, 3d German edition, 1873-4 ; Job, 2d edition, 1876 ; Proverbs, 1873 ; Song of Songs &" Koheleth, 1875 ; Isaiah, 3d edition, 1879, all by F. l^elitzsch, are excellent. The Conmientaries by Keil 454 BIBLICAL STUDY. upon the Minor Prophets, 2d edition, 1873 ; Daniel, 1876 : and Ezekiel, 2d edition, 1883, are valuable; the others are of less importance.) f BoETTCHER, F. Neue exegetish-kritsche Aehreiilese zum Alien Testament. 3 Abtheil. Leipzig: J. A. Barth. 1863-5. RosENMUELLER, C. F. K. ScJioHa i7i Vetjis Testameiitum. 23 vol. Leipzig : J. A. Barth. 1820-34. WuENSCHE, A. Bibliotheca Rabbinica : Eine Sammlung Alte Midraschim (23 Lief, published). Leipzig: Otto Schiiltze. 1880-83. (b) Historical Books. fCALViN, John. In librum Geneseos comnientarius cur. E. Hengstenberg. 2 Pts. Berlin : G. Bethge 1838. Com- mentaries on the First Book of Moses, called Genesis. Translated from the original Latin and compared with the French edition. By John King. 2 vols. Edin- burgh : T. & T. Clark. 1847-50. f Delitzsch, Franz. Commentar fiber d. Genesis mit Beitragen von Fleischer u. Wetzstein. 4te Aufl. Leipzig : Dorffling und Franke. 1872. fScHULTZ, F. W. Das Deuteronomium erklart. Berlin : G. Schlawitz. 1859. fKALiscH, M. M. Historical and Critical Conifnentary on the Old Testament. With a new translation. Vol. L, Genesis, 1858. Vol. IL, Exodus, 1855. Vols. IIL and IV., Leviti- cus, 1867-72. London: Longman, Brown & Co. 1858. Masius, Andreas. Josuae imperatoris historia illustrata atque explicata. Antwerpiae : C. Plantin. 1574- Also in Critici sacri. Ainsworth, Henry. Annotations on the Five Books of Moses, the Psalms, and the Song of Solomon. Folio. London. 1639. Kalisch, M. M. Bible Studies. Part I., The Prophecies of Balaam. London: Longmans. 1877. Murphy, James. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Genesis. With a new translation. Edin- burgh : T. & T. Clark. 1863. Andover : >V. F. Draper. 1866. Co??imej!tary on Exodus.. Edinburgh and Andover, 1866. Leviticus. Edinburgh and Andover. 1872. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 455 TucH, Fried. Connnentar ilber die Genesis. 2. Aufl. bes. von Arnold und Merx. Halle: Waisenhaus. 1871. Bush, George. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of Numbers. Designed as a general help to Biblical reading and instruction. New York : Ivison, Phinney & Co. 1863. Bush, George. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of Joshua. 2d edition. New York : Ivison, Phinney & Co. 1862. Wright, C H. H. Book of Ruth in Hebrew. With gram- matical and critical commentary. London : Williams & Norgate. 1864. Davidson, A. B. Lectures, Expository and Practical, on the Book of Esther. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1859. Bachmann, J. Das Buck der Richter. Bd. I., Cap. I.-V. Berlin : Wiegandt & Grieben. 1868-69. (c) Psalter. *Spurgeon, C. H. The Treasiiry of David. Containing an original exposition of the Book of Psalms ; a collection of illustrative extracts from the whole range of literature ; a series of horailetical hints upon almost every verse ; and a list of writers upon each psalm. 6 vols. London : Passmore & Alabaster. 1870-78. * Vincent, Marvin R. Gates into the Psalm-country. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1878. fCALViN, John. In librum Psalmorum commetitarius. 2 Part., ed. A. Tholuck. Berlin : G. Eichler. 1836. Cotn- mentaries on the Psalms of David. 3 vols. London : Thomas Tegg. 1840. f EwAi-D, Heinrich. Die Dichter des alien Bundes erkldrt. 2. Ausg. ; 3 Bde. ; Gottingen : Vanderhock & Ruprecht ; 1 866-1 867. Commentary on the Psalms, translated by E. Johnson ; 2 vols. Commentary on the Book of Job, trans- lated by J. F. Smith ; London : Williams & Norgate ; 1880--82. fPEROWNE, J. J. S. The Book of Psalms ; a new translation, with introduction and notes, critical and explanatory. 5tb edition. London: G. Bell & Sons. 1883. Andover W. F. Draper. 1876. 456 BIBLICAL STUDY. fHuPFELD, H. Die Psalmeft iibersetzt und ausgelegt, mit Zu- satzen und Berichtigungen von E, Riehm. 2te Aufl. 4 Bde. Gotha: F. A. Perthes. 1867-72. Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Psalms, translated ana explained. 6th ed. 3 vols. New York : Charles Scrib- ner. 1866. Barnes, Albert. Notes, Critical, Explanatory and Practi- cal, 071 the Book of Psalms. 3 vols- New York : Harper & Brothers. 1868-69. Horne, George. A Commentary on the Book of Psalms with an introductory essay by Edward Irving. Glas- gow : Thomas Tegg. i860. New York: R. Carter & Brothers. 1849. Murphy, J. G. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms, with a new translation. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1875. Andover : W. F. Draper 1875. Neale, J. M., and R. F. Littledale. A Com7?ienta7y on the Psalms, from the primitive and mediaeval writers; and from the various office books and hymns of the Roman, Mozarabic, Ambrosian, Galilean, Greek, Coptic, Armen- ian, and Syrian rites. 4 vols. London : J. Masters & Co. 1860-74. Hengstenberg, E. W. Commentar iiber d. Psalmen. 2te Aufl. 4 Bde. Ludvvig Oehmigke. 1849-52. A.UGUSTINE, AURELIUS. Expositions on the Book of Psahns. Translated by J. Tweed. Vols. XXIV., XXV., XXX., XXXII., XXXVII., XXXIX. of Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1848. Graetz, H. K^'itischer Cofmnefitar zu den Psalmen nebst Text und Uebersetzung. 2 Bde. Breslau : S. Schott- laender. 1882-3. (d) The Wisdom Literature. *Cox, Samuel. A Commeiitary on the Book of Job, with a translation. London : Kegan Paul & Co.. 1880. •Plumptre, E. H. Ecclesiastes ; or, the Preacher, with Notei and Introduction. Cambridge: University Press. 1881. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 457 •Hamilton, James. The Royal Preacher. Lectures on Ec- clesiastes. London : James Nisbet. 1865. New York • Robert Carter & Bros. fSxuART, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. New York : M. W. Dodd. 1852. . f GiNSBURG, C. D. The Song of Sotigs ; with a commentary, * historical and critical. London : Longman, Brown & Co. 1857. fWRiGHT, C. H. H. The Book of Koheleth, considered in / relation to modem Criticism and to the doctrines of ■"^—^ modern Pessimism, with a critical and grammatical Com- mentary. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1883. Davidson, A. B. A Commentary on Job, grammatical and exegetical, with a translation. Vol. L London : Will- iams & Norgate. 1862. Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on Ecclesiastes. New York ; G. P. Putnam. 187 1. WiTHiNGTON, Leonard. Solomon's Song, Translated and Explained. Boston : J. E. Tilton & Co. 186 1. BoETTCHER, F. Die dltesten BUhnendichtung ; der Debora- Gesang und das hohe Lied, dramatisch dargestellt und neu iibersetzt. Leipzig: J. A. Barth. 1850. Taylor, Francis. Observations upon I.-IX. Chapters of Proverbs. 2 vols. London : George Eversden. 1645- 57- GiNSBURG, C. D. Coheleth or Ecclesiastes ; translated, with a Commentary. London : Longman, Brown & Co. 1857. Durham, James. Clavis Cantici ; or, an Exposition of the Song of Solomon. Edinburgh. 1668. Aberdeen. 1840. Gregory the Great. Morals on the Book of Job, trans lated, with notes and indices, in vols. XVIIL, XXI., XXIIL, XXXL of The Library of the Bathers of the Holy Catholic Church. Oxford : J. H. Parker. 1848. Ren AN, Ernest. L EccUsiaste, traduit de I'Hebreu avec une 6tude sur I'age et le caraciere du livre. 2. edition. Paris : Caiman L' vy. 1882. 20 458 BIBLICAL STUDY. (e) The Prophets. fEwALD, Heinrich. Die Propheten des Alien Bundes er- klart ; Neue Bearbeitung ; 3 Bde. ; Gottingen : Vander- hoeck & Ruprecht ; 1867-68. Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament ; translated by J. F. Smith ; 5 vols. ; London : Williams & Norgate ; 1875-81. fCHEYNE, T. K. The Prophecies of Isaiah. A new transla- tion, with commentary and appendixes. 2 vols. Lon- don : C. Kegan Paul & Co. 1880-1 881. Umbreit, F. W. C. Praktischer Commentar tiber die Pro- pheten des Alt. Bundes. 4 Bde. Hamburg : F. Perthes. 1841-46. Gesenius, Wilhelm. Der Prophet Jesaja iibersetzt, und mit vollst. phil.-krit. u. histor. Commentar begleitet. 3 Bde. Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel. 1821. The 53^ Chapter of Isaiah according to the Jewish interpreters. Texts edited from printed books and MSS. by Ad. Neu- I bauer ; translation by S. R. Driver and Ad. Neubauer. With an introduction to the translations by E. B. Pusey. 2 vols. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1876-77. Alexander, J. A. The Prophecies of Isaiah. Translated and explained. Revised edition. 2 vols. New York : C. Scribner & Co. 1869. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1874. LowTH, Robert. Isaiah. A new translation, with a pre- liminary dissertation and notes, critical, philological, and explanatory. 2d edition. London: J. Dodsley. 1779. Henderson, E, The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah, and that of the Lamentations. Translated from the original He- brew. With a Commentary, critical, philological, and exegetical. London: Hamilton. 1851. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1868. ScHOLZ, Anton. Commentar ztnn Buche des Propheten Jere- mias. Wiirzburg : L. Woerl. 1880. Graf, K. H. Der Prophet Jercmia erklart. Leipzig: T. O. Weigel. 1862. Haevernick, H. a. C. Cotnmentar iihcr den Propheten Ezechicl. Erlangcn : Carl Heyder. 1843. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL SIUDF. 459 Fairbairn, Patrick. Ezekiel and the Book of His Prophecy. 2d edition. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1855. Hengstenberg, E. W. Die Weissagungen des Propheten Ezech- iel; 2Bde. ; Berlin: Gustav Schlawitz ; 1867-1868. The Prophecies of Ezekiel elucidated ; translated by A. C. and J. G. Murphy; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark; 1869. Greenhill, Wm. Exposition of Ezekiel. 5 vols. 1645-67. Revised and corrected by James Sherman. Edinburgh: James Nichol. 1863. (f) Minor Prophets and Daniel. fPusEY, E. B. The Minor Prophets ; with a Commentary explanatory and practical, and introductions to the several books. Oxford : J. Parker & Co. 1877. f Wright, C. H. H. Zechariah and His Prophecies considered I in relation to Modern Criticism ; with a critical and gram- ~ — matical Commentary and new Translation. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1879. fWuENSCHE, A. Der Prophet Hosea iibersetzt und erklart mit Benutzung der Targumim u. der jiid. Ausleger. Leip- zig : T. O. Weigel. 1868. fWuENSCHE, A. Die Weissagungen des Propheten Joel Qber- setzt und erklart. Leipzig : R. Reisland. 1872. fKRANiCHFELD, R. Dos Buch Daniel erklart. Berlin : Gustav Schlawitz. 1868. Henderson, E. The Books of the Twelve Minor Prophets. London: Hamilton & Co. 1845. Andover: W. F. Draper, i860. BuRROUGHES, Jeremiah. An Exposition of the Prophecies of Hosea. 4 vols. London: 1643-51. Edinburgh: J. Nichol. 1863. PococK, Edward, Commentary on Hosea; Oxford, At the Theatre. 1685. On Joel, Micah, and Malachi ; Oxioxdi, 1691. Rainolds, John. The Prophecies of Obadiah opened and ap* plyed. 1613. Edinburgh: J. Nichol. 1S64. 460 BIBLICAL STUDY. King, John. Lectures upon lonah. Oxford. 1600. Edin- burgh : J. Nichol. 1864. Kalisch, M. M. Bible Studies. Part II., The Book of Jonah. London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1878. More, Henry. A Plaine and continued Exposition of the several Prophecies of Daniel. London. 1681. Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Datiiel. Boston : Crocker & Brewster. 1850. Haevernick, H. a. C. Commentar uber das Buch Daniel, Hamburg: Fried. Perthes. 1839. Commentaries on the New Testament. (a) The New Testament as a whole. *A Popular Commentary on the New Testament. Prepared by a number of American and British scholars of the leading Evangelical Denominations, under the General Editorship of Philip Schaff. 4 volumes. Each volume profusely illus- trusted with cuts of Bible Lands and Bible Scenes, made from recent Photographs, and prepared under the supervision of Wm. M. Thomson, and with maps prepared under the super- vision of Arnold Guyot. — I. Matthew, Mark and Luke. With an Introduction. By Philip Schaff and Matthew B. Riddle. — II. *John, by Wm. Milligan and Wm. F. Moulton ; Acts of the Apostles, by J. S. Howson and Donald Spence. — III. *AV fna?is, by Philip Schaff and M. B. Riddle ; Corinthians, by Da- vid Brown ; *Galatians, by Philip Schaff; Ephesians, by Matt. B. Riddle ; Philippians. by J. Rawson Lumby ; Colossia/is, by M. B. Riddle ; Thessalonians, by Marcus Dods ; Timothy, by Edward Hayes Plumptre ; Titus, by J. Oswald Dykes ; Philemon, by J. Rawson Lumby. — IV. Hebrews, by Joseph Angus ; James, by Paton J. Gloag ; Peter, by G. D. Y. Sal- mond ; John, by Wm. B. Pope and Wm. F. Moulton ; Jude, by Joseph Angus ; Revelation, by Wm. Milligan and Wm. F. Moulton. *BuTLER, J. G. The Bible- Reader's Commentary. The New Testament in Two Volumes. The Text arranged in sec- tions ; with brief readings and complete annotations, selected from the "choice and best observations" of more than 300 eminent Christian Thinkers of the Past and Present. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1878-9. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4(51 fBENGEL, J. A. Gnomon N. T., 5 editio von J. Steudel ; Stutt- gartiae : J. F. Steinkopf, i860. Gnomon of the New Testa- ment, edited by Charlton T. Lewis and Marvin R. Vincent ; 2 vols, Philadelphia : Perkenpine & Higgins. i860. f Meyer, H. A. W. Krit. ex. Comm. uber d. N. T. notting- en : Vanderhoek & Ruprecht, 1832-83. 16 Abtheilungen. Matth., 7 Aufl. von B. Weiss, 1876 ; Markus, Lukas, Johan- nes., 6 Aufl. von B. Weiss, 1878-80; Aposteli^eschichte von H. H. Wendt, 5 Aufl., 1881 ; Rdmerbrief, 6 Auil. von B. Weiss, 1881 ; /. Corinth. 6 Aufl. von C. F. G. Heinrici, 1881 ; //. Corinth., 6 Aufl, von Heinrici, 1883 ; Galater von Y. Sieffert, 6 Aufl., 1881 ; Epheserbrief vor\ W, Schmidt, 5 Aufl., 1878; Phil., Col., Philem., 4 Aufl. von H. A. W. Meyer, 1874; Thess., 4 Aufl. von G. Liinemann, 1878; Tim., Titus, Fetrus, Judd, Johannes, 4 Aufl. von J. E. Huther, 1876-80 ; Jacobus, 4 Aufl. von W. Beyschlag, 1882 ; Hebrderbrief, 4 Aufl. von Liinemann, 1878 ; Offenb. Johan., 3 Aufl. von F. Diisterdiek, 1877. Critical and Exegetical Commentary o)i the New Testament. From the German, with the sanction of the author, 10 vols. Edinburgh : T. 6 T. Clark. 1876-79. f Cai.vin, John. In Novum Testamentum Commentarii, curavit A. Tholuck. 7 vol, Editio altera. Berolini : G. Thome. 1838. Alforp, Henry. New Testament for English Readers j con- taining the authorized version, with a revised English Text ; marginal references, and a critical and explanatory Com- mentary. New edition, 4 parts, in 2 vols, London : Riv- ingtons, 1868. ("hrysostom, John. Homilies on the New Testament. Vols. IV., v., VL, vn., XL, xn., xiv., xv., xxvn., xxvhl, XXXni., XXXIV., XXXV., XXXVI. of the Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church. Oxford : J. H. Paiker. 1848. De Weite, W. M. L. Kurtzgefasstes exeget. Handb. z. N. T. 3 Ikle. 1 1 Abtheil. Nach seinem Tode, bearbeitet von Messner, Ikiickner, Overbcck & Moller. Leipzig : Weid- mann. 1836 scq. HoFMANN, von J. Ch. Die Heilige Schriften Neuen Testa- ments zusanimenhdii'^end untersucJit. 9 Teilen. Nord' lingen: C. H. Beck.' 1862-83. ^62 BIBLICAL STUDY. Ellicott, C. J. A New Testament Commentary, for English Readers, by various writers. 3 vols. London : Cassell, Fetter, Galpin & Co. 1878 seg. New York : E. P. Button &Co. Spiess, Ed. Logos Spermatikos. Parallelstellen zuin Neuen Testament aus den Schriften der alten Griechen. Leipzig : Wilhelm Engelmann. 1871. ScHOETTGEN, Ch. Horae hebraicae et talmudicae in universum Novu7n Testamentum. Dresdae : C. Hekel. 1733. (b) The Gospels and Book of Acts. ♦Bruce, A. B. The Parabolic Teaching of Christ. A sys- tematic and critical study of the Parables of our Lord. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1882. New York : A. C. Armstrong & Co. 1883. f MORISON, James. Matthew s Memoirs of Jesus Christ. I^on- don : Hamilton, Adams & Co, 1870. f MoRisoN, James, A Practical Commentary on the Gospel ac- cording to Mark. 2d edition. London: Hamilton, Adams & Co. 1876. Boston : N. J. Bartlett. 1882. fGoDET, F. Commentaire sur VSvangile de St. Luc. 2 Edition. 2 vol. Neuchatel : J. Sandoz. A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke, translated by E. W. Shalders and M, D. Cusin. 2 vols. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1875. fGoDET, F. Co7n. sur tevangile de St. Jean. 3 vol. 2 edition. Paris: Lib. Frangois et ^trang^re, 1876-77. Commentary on the Gospel of St. John, with a critical introduction, trans- lated from the 2d French edition by M. D. Cusin and S Taylor; 3 vols.; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1876-77. |Trench, R. C. Notes on the Parables, nth edition, Lon- don, Macmillan & Co., 1870, 9th edition. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1858. Tholuck, a. F. Die Bergpredigt, 5. Aufl., 1872 ; Gotha: F. A. Perthes, 1872. Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount, translated from the 4th revised and enlarged Ger- man edition by R. L. Brown ; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, i860; Philadelphia: Smith, English & Co. Alexander, J. Addison. The Gospel according to Mark Ex- plained. New York : Chas. Scribner. 1858. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 453 LuTHARDT, C. E. Das Johanncischc Evatigelium ; 2 Thle.; 2 Auri. ; Niirnberg: (i<.'iger, 1875-6. St. Jokns Gospel, de- scribed and exi)iained acxorduig to its peculiar character ; 3 vols. ; Edinburgh : T. & T. Ciark. 1876-8. Aquinas, Thomas. Catena Aurea. Commentary on the four Gospels, collected out of works of the Fathers. 4 vols. Oxford : J. H. Parker. 1841-44. Greswell, E. B. D. Exposition of the Parables and other parts of the Gospels. 5 vols. Oxford : J. G. & F. Rivington. 1834. EuTHYMius, ZiGABENUS. Commentar in IV. evangelia. Gr. et Lat. ed. C. F. Matthaei. 3 toiii. Lips. : Weidniann. 1792. AcHELis, E. Die Bergpredigt nach Matthaeus und Lucas. Bielefr'd: Velhagen & Klasing. 1875. GoEBEL, iu Die Parablen Jesu. Gotha : F. A, Perthes, 1879-80. The Parables of Jesus. Edinburgh ; T. & T. Clark. 1883. J.UECKE, G. C. F. Commentar fiber die Schriften des Evan- gelisten Johannes. 3. Aufl. 4 Bde. Bonn : E. Weber. 1850-1856. WuENSCHE, August. A^cue Beitrdge zur Erlaiiterung der Evangelien aus Talmud &> Midrash. Gottingen : Van- derhoeck & Ruprecht. 1878. fGLOAG, P. J. A Ctitical and E^cgetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1870. Hackett, H. B. a Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the Apostles. New edition. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1877. Alexander, J. A. The Acts of the Apostles Expounded. 3d edition. 2 vols. New York : C. Scribner & Co. 1867. (c) Pauline Epistles. fGoDET, F. Commentaire sur Pdpttre aux Romains. 2 Tom. Neuchatel : J. Sandoz. Commentary on St. PauT s Epistle to the Romans. Translated from the French by A. Cusin. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1880-81. 464 BIBLICAL STUDY. fHoDGE, Chas. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans New edition. Revised and in a great measure rewritten, Philadelphia: R. & H. Claxton. 1856. Shedd, W. G. T. a Critical and Doctrinal Commentary on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. rSyg. Stuart, Moses. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 3d edition. Edited and revised by R. D. C. Robbins. New edition. Andover : VV. F. Draper. 1876. Beet, Joseph A. A Comrnentary on St. Pants epistle to the Romans. 2d edition. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1881. Philippi, F. a. Commentar it. d. brief Pauli an die Romer ; 3 Aufl. ; Frankfurt a. M.: Heyder & Zimmer, 1866, Com- mentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Roma?is ; translated from the 3d edition by J. S. Banks ; 2 vols.; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1878-9. f Stanley, A. P. The Epistles of St. Paul to the Cori?ithians, with critical notes and dissertations. 5th edition. London : J. Murray. 1882. f Beet, Joseph A. A Commentary on St. Paufs Epistle to the Corinthians. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1882. Hodge, Charles. An Exposition of the Eirst Epistle to the Corinthians. New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1857. Hodge, Charles. An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. New York : R. Carter & Brothers, i860. Heinrici, C. F. G. Das erste Sendschreiben des Apostel Paulus an die Korinthier. Berlin : W. Hertz. 1880. fl-iGHTFOOT, J. B. St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. 5th edition. London: Macmillan & Co. 1880. Andover: W. F. Draper. 1870. f Luther, Martin. A Commentary on St. PanVs Epistle to the Galatians. Philadelphia : Smith, English & Co. i860. Eli-icott, C. J. Commentary, Critical and Grammatical on St. PauVs Epistle to the Galatians. London : Longmans & Co. Andover: VV. F. Draper. 1867. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4(}5 Eadie, John. Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Galatians. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1S69. f Eauie, John, Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle, of Paul to the Ephesians. 2d edition. London : 1861. New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1861. f Ei-LICOTT, C. J. A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians. With a revised trans- lation. 3d edition. London : Longmans & Co. 1864. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1862. Hodge, Charles. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephe- sians. New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1856. fLiGHTFOOT, J. B. St. Pauts Epistle to the Philippians. A revised text, with Introduction, Notes, and Dissertations. 3d edition. London : Macmillan & Co. 1873. fELLicoTT, C. J. A Commentary, Critical and Grammatical^ on St. Paut s Epistles to the Philippians, Colossians, and to Philemon. 3d edition. London : Longmans & Co. An- dover : W. F. Draper. 1865. tLiGHTFOOT, J. B. St. Pauts Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon. A revised text, with Litroduction, Notes, and Dissertations. 2d edition. London : Macmillan & Co. 1875. Bayne, Paul. A?i Entire Commentary upon the whole of tht Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians. London. R. Milbourne 1643. Edinburgh : James Nichol. 1866. Airay, Henry. Lectures upon the whole Epistle of St. Pan to the Philippians. London, 16 18. Edinburgh : J. Nichol 1864. Byfield, N. An Exposition upon the Epistle to the Colossians. Folio. London: N. Butler. 1617. |Ei,i,icoiT, C. J. A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles to the Thessalonians, with a revised translaiion. London: Longmans & Co. Andover: W. F. Dra|)er. 1865. Eadie, John. A Commentary on the Gri Epistles of Paul to the Thessalonians. Young. With a Preface by John Cairns. millan & Co. 1877. 20* ■ck Text of the Edited by W. London : Mac- I^fi BIBLICAL STUDY. LiLLiK, John. Lectures o?i the Epistles of Paul to the Thessa- loniaiis. New York : R. Carter & Brothers, i860. fEi-i.icoTT, C. J. A critical and grammatical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles, with a revised translation. London : Longmans, Green & Co. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1865. Fairbairn, Patrick. The Pastoral Epistles. Greek text, and translation, with introductions, expository notes, and dissertations. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1874. Barlow, John. Exposition of II. Timothy, C/iaps. i.-ii. London ; George Latham. 1632. Hall, Thomas. Commentary on II. Timothy, C. Hi. and iv. Folio. London : J, Starkey. 1658. Taylor, Thomas. Comfnentarie upon Titus. Cambridge. 16 1 9. Folio, 1668. (d) General Epistles. ■{"Delitzsch, B'ranz. Comtnentar zum Brief e an die Hebrder. Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke, 1857. Commentary o?i the epistle to the Hebrews. Trans, by T. L. Kingsbury. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1868-70. Bleek, F. Der Brief an die Hebrder erlautert durch Einlei- tung, Uebersetzung und fortlaufenden Commentar. 2 Ab- theil. Berlin: F. Diiinn)ler. 1828-40. Der HebrderbrieJ erklart, herausg. von K. A. Windrath. Elberfeld : Frider- icks. 1868. Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebre7vs. New edition. Andover: W. F. Draper. 1876, Gouge, William. Commentary on the whole Epistle to the He- brews. 2 vols., folio, London, Joseph Kirton, 1655. 3 vols. Edinburgh : James Nichol. 1866-67. Owen, John. Exposition of Hebrews. 4 vols., folio, Lon- don, 1668-74. Edited by W. A, Goold. 7 vols. Edin- burgh : T. & T. Clark. M ANTON, Thoatas. A Practical Exposition on the Epistle of fames. London. 1651. Revised and corrected by James Sherman. London : S. Iloldsworth. 1842. BOOKS OF REFEUENCE FOli BIBLICAL STUDY. 4^7 Hasseit, F. 'i\ The Catholic Epistle of St. fames. Lon- don : Sanuiel Bagster & Sons. 1876. tI.EiGHTON, Robert. Commeritary upon \st Peter. 2 vols., 1613-1684. 2 vols. Philadel[)hia : Presbyterian Board of Publication. 1864. LiLLiE, John. Lectures on the First and Second Epistles of Peter. New York : Charles Scribner & Co. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 1869. tWESTCOTT, Brook F. The Epistles of St. John. The Greek Text with notes and essays. London : Macniillan & Co, 1883. tCANDLiSH, Robert. First epistle of John expounded. 2 vols. Edinburgh : A. & C. Black. 1870. *Ebrard, J. H. A. Die Briefe Johannis. Konigsberg : A. W. Unzer. 1859. Commentary 07i the epistles of St. John, Translated by VV. B. Pope. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. t86o. ock & Co. New York : A. C. Armstrong & Son. 1882. •Stanley. A. P. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. 3 Parts. 7th edition. London : J. Murray. New York : Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1877. |.72 BIBLICAL STUDY. *-EwALr), Heinrich. Geschichte dcs Volkcs Israel ; 7 Bande, 3 Aiisg. ; Gottingen : Dieterich, 1864-68. The History of Israel, translated from the German ; edited by R. Mar- tineau and J. E. Carpenter. London : Longman, Green & Co. 1871. tJosEPHUS, Flavius. Opera omnia Graecae et Lafittae, curavit F. Oberthiir, 3 torn., Lipsiae, 1782-85 ; Opera recog., G. Dindorf, 2 volL, Paris, 1845-49 ; Editio Stereotypa, 6 voll., Lips., Tauchnitz, 1850; trans, VV. Whiston, 4 vols., London, 1737 (many editions). Hengstenberg, E. \V. Geschichte d. Reiches Gottes unter d. alien Bunde ; 3 Theile ; Berlin: G. Schlawitz, 1869-71. History of the Kingdom of God under the Old Testament, translated from the German ; 2 vols. ; Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1871-3. JosT, J. M. Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Secten. 3 Bde. Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke. 1857-9. Graetz, H. Geschichte der Juden von den dltesten Zeiten his auf die Gegenwart. 1 1 Bde. 2 Aufl. Leipzig : Oskar Leiner, 1864-1870. (c) Cotemporary History of the Old Testament. *Rawlinson, G. The Five Great Monarchies of the Aficient Eastern World. 4 vols, London : J. Murray. 1862-67. *Bru-gsch Bey, Henry. Geschichte Aegyptens unter den Pha- raonen. Leipzig, J. C. Heinrichs. A History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, derived entirely from the monuments. Trans- lated and edited from the German by Philip Smith. 2d edition, 2 vols, London : J. Murray, 1881. tLENORMANT, Franqois. les Origincs de T histoire J 2 Tom.; Paris: Maisoneuve & Cie, 1880-83. The Beginnings of History according to the Bible and tne traditions of Oriental peoples, from the creation of man to the deluge ; trans, from the 2d French edition, with an introduction by Francis Brown ; New York : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1882 (2d volume in press). t-EBERS, G. Aegypten und die Bucher Moses. Sachl. Coni mentar zu den Aegypt. Stellen in Genesis u. Exodus. Leip zig : Engelmann, 1868. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 473 hScHRADER, E. Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament^ mit einem Beitrage von Paul. Haupt. 2 Aufl. Giessen : J. Ricker. 1883. ViGOUROUX, F. La Bible et les dicouvertes modernes en Pales- tine, en Egypte et en Assyrie. 3 edition. 4 Tom. Paris : Berche et Tralin. 1882. Hengstenberg, E. W. Die Bucher Moses und Aegypten ; Berlin: L. Oehinigke, 1841. Egypt and l/ie Books of Moses, translated by R. D. C. Robbins ; New York : Robert Carter & Brothers, 1850. SCHRADER, E. Die Keilischriften und Geschichtsforschung. Ein Beitrag zur inonunientalen Geographie, Geschichte und Chronologie der Assyrer. Giessen: J. Ricker. 1878. DuNCKER, Max. Geschichte des Alterthum. 3 Aufl. 5 Bande. Berlin. 1880-81. History of Antiquity. From the Ger- man. By E. Abbott. 6 vols. London : Richard Bentley & Son. 1877-82. Rawlinson, Geo. History of Ancient Egypt. 2 vols. Lor- don : I^ongman, Green & Co. 1881. Smith, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis. Neiy edition. London : Sampson Low, Marston & Co. i88a New York : Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1876. Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries ; an Account of Ex plorations and Discoveries on the site of Nineveh durinj 1873 ^"d 1874, with illustrations. New edition, edited br A. H. Sayce, 1880. London : Sampson Low & Co. Ncm York : Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1875. Budge, Earnest A. The History of EsarJiadJon, translated from the Cuneiform inscriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets in the British Museum. Boston : J. R. Osgood & Co. 1881. Wilkinson, J. G. Manners and Customs of the Ancient K'^xptians. New edition, revised and corrected by Samuel r>iich. 3 vols. London: J.Murray. 1878. Smiih, Geo. History of Assurhaiiipal. Translated from the Cuneiform Inscrii)tions. London: Williams & Norgate. 1871. 474 BIBLICAL STUDI. Smith, Geo. The Assyrian Eponym Canon, containing trans- lations of the documents, and an account of the evidence, on the comparative chronology of the Assyrian and Jewish Kingdoms, from the death of Solomon to Nebuchadnezzar. London: Samuel Bagster & Sons. 1875. LoTZ, W. Die Inschriften Tiglathpilesers in transkribierten Assyrischen Grundtext mit Uebersetzung und Konmientar. Leipzig: J. C. Heinrichs. 1880. Lenormant, F\ Histoire anciemie de r Orient jusqu' aux guerres mediques. Neuvieme Edition. 3 Tom. Paris : A. Levy. 1881-83. Sharpe, Samuel. The History of Egypt, from the earliest times till the conquest of the Arabs. 2 vols. London : George Bell & Son. 1876, ZiNCKE, F. B. Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. 2d edition, London : Smith, Elder & Co. 1873. Kenrick, J, Phoenicia. London: B. Fellows. 1855. WiLKiNS, A. Phxnicia and Israel A Historical Essay. London : Hodder & Stoughton. 187 1. NuTT, J. W. A Sketch of Samaritan History, Dog7na ana Literature. London : Triibner & Co. 1874. Records of the Past, being English translations of the Assyr- ian and Egyptian monuments, published under the sanction of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. 1 1 vols. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1873-78. Cooper, W. R. An Archaic Dictionary ; Biographical, His- torical, and Mythological, from the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Etruscan monuiwents and papyri. London : Samuel Bagster & Sons. 1876. (3). The History of the Jews and their Sur- roundings during the Greek and Roman Periods. (a) The Apocryphal Books of the Old Testament. *The Apocrypha, Greek afid English in parallel columns. I>ondon : S. Bagster & Co. 187 1. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 475 f-BrssEix E. C. The Apocrypha of the Old Testament, with historical introductions, a revised translation, and notes, critical and explanatory. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1880. Kurtzgefasstes Handbuch z. d. Apokryphen des Alten Testa- mentes, erklart von O. F. Fritzsche u. C. L. \V. Grimm. 6 Bde. Leipzig: S. Hirzel. 1851-60. Deane, W. J. The Book of Wisdom. The Greek text, the Latin Vulgate, and the authorized English version, with an introduction, critical apparatus, and a Commentary. Ox- ford ; Clarendon Press. 188 1. Neubauer, a. The Book of Tobit. A Chaldee text, from a unique MS. in the Bodleian Library, with other Rabbinical texts, English translation and the Italu. Oxford : Clarendon Press. 1878. Keil, C. F. Commentar uber die Bucher der Makkabder. Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke. 1875. Kneucker, J. J. Das Buck Baruck, Geschichte und Kritik, Uebersetzung und Erkliirung, mit einem Anhang fiber den pseudepigraphischen Baruch. Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 1879. VoLK-MAR, G. Handbuch der Einlcituug in die Apokryphen. 3 Bde. Leipzig: J. Fues. 1860-67. (b) Pseudepigraphs. *ScHODDE, G. H. The Book of Enoch, translated from the Ethiopic, with introduction and notes. Andover : W. F. Draper. 1882. tFABRicius, J. A. Codex Pseudepigraphi Vcteris Testanienti, Editio altera. 2 voll. Hamburg : apud Viduam Felginer- iam et Bohmium. 1722-23. tDiLLMANN, A. Das Buch Henoch; iibersctzt und erklart. Leipzig : F. C. W. Vogel. 1853. ^Hii-GENKELD, A. Messias Judacorum ; libris eoruiii paulo ante et paulo post Christum natum conscri|)tis ilhistratus. Lipsiae : R. Reisland. 1869. p'"RiKi>i.ncB, J. H. Oraciila Sibyllina, ad fidem codd. MSS. quotquot extant recensuit, praetextis i)rolegoininis illustravit, versione Germanica instruxit, aiinotaliones criticas et reruin indicem adjcxit. Lipsae : T. O. Weigel. 1852. 476 BIBLICAL STUDY. fLANGEN, J. De Apocalysi Baruch^ commentatio anno siv pericis priinum edita. Freiburg: Herder. 1867. DiLLMANN, A. Liber Henoch AetJiiopicae. ad quinque codi. cum fidem editus cum variis lectionibus. Lipsiae : V. C. W. Vogel. 185 1. DiLLMANN, A. Ascensio Isaiae Aethiopiae et. Latine. Lipsiae : F. A. Brockhaus. 1877. RoENSCH, H. Das Buck der JubilcPen oder die kleine Genesis. Unter beifugung des revirdirten Textes der in der Ambro- siana aufgefundenen lat. Fragmente, sovie einer von A. Dillmann aus 2 uthio[). Handschrift. gefertigten )at. Ueber- tragung erlaiitert und untersucht. Leipzig: J. Fues. 1874. (c) History. *Prideaux, Humphrey. T/ie Old and New Testaments con- nected in the history of the Jews and neighboring nations, from the declension of the kingdom of Israel and Judah to the time of Christ. New edition, revised, with notes, anal- yses, and introductory reviews, by J. Talboys Wheeler. 3d edition. 2 vols. London : Thomas Tegg. 1876. *CuRTius, Ernst. Griechische GescJiichte. 3 Aufl. 3 Bde. Berlin : Weidmann. 1868. The History of Greece. 5 vols. Translated by A. W. Ward. New York : Scnbner, Armstrong & Co. 1874. *MoMMSEN, Theo. Rowische Geschichte. 5 Aufl. 3 Bde. Berlin : Weidmann. 1868. The History of Rome. Trans- lated by W. P. Dickson. 2d edition. 4 vols. I^ondon : Rich- ard Bentley. New York : Charles Scribner. 1864-6. tMoN'i'ET, Edouard. Essai sur les origines des partis Sadu- cien et Pharisien et leur Hist oi re jusqti' a la naissance de JdsHS Christ. Paris ; Fischbach. 1883. Li;cius, P. E. Der Essenistnus in seifie?n Verhdltniss zuin Judenthum. Strassburg : C. F. Schmidt. 1881. W'ei-i,hausen, J. Die Pharisder und die Sadducder. Greifs- wald : Bamberg. 1874. (4). New Testament History. (a) Cotemporary History. *JosKFMUS, Fi.Avius. The Jewish /Ti/r, with his autobiography. A new translation, by R. Traill, edited, with notes, by Isaac Taylor, London : Houlston & Wright. 1868. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 477 rScHUKRER, E.MIL. Lehrbiich der Neutestamentliclw Zci/ge- schichte. Leipzig : J. C. Heinrichs. 1874. Hausrath, a. Netitestamcntliche Zeitgeschichte. a AiiH. 4 The. Heidelberg: F, Bassermann, 1874-77. History of the Netu Testament Times. Translated by C. T, Foyiiting and P. Queuzer. Williams & Norgate. 1878-83. (Two vols, only have appeared.) DoLLiNGER, J. J. I. Heidcnthum und Judenthum. Vorhalle zur Geschichte des Christenthuins. Regensburg : C. J, Manz. 1857. Friedlander, L. DarstcUung aus der Sittengeschichte Roms. in der Zeit von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine. 5 Aufl. 3 Theile. Leipzig: S. Hirzel. 1881. (b) Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical books relat- ing to the origin of Christianity. fTiscHENDORF, C. Evangelia apocrypha. Leipzig : Avenarius & Mendelssohn. 1853. tTlscHENDORF, C. Apocalypses apocryphae. Mosis, Esdrae, Pauli, Johannis, item Mariae dormito. Leipzig: H.Men- delssohn. 1866. *I-,iPSius, P. A. Die Apokryphen Apostelgeschichicn und Apos- tellcgendeti. Ein Beitrag zur altchristlichen Literaturgesch- ichte. Braunschweig: C. A. Schwetschke & Sohn. 1883. TiscHENDORF, C. Acta Apostolorum apocrypha. Lei[)zig : Avenarius & Mendelssohn. 185 1. Baring-Gould, S. Tlie lost and hostile Gospels. An Essa\' on the Toledeth Jeschu and the Petrine and Pauline (Josjicls of the first three centuries, of which fragments remain. Lon- don : Williams & Norgate. 1874. Wright, William. Apocryphal Literature of the New 2'esia- ment. London : Williams & Norgate. 1865. Cooper, V>. Harris. Apocryphal Gospels and Documents relat- ing to Christ. ]>ondon: Williams & Norgate. 1867. Bonnet, Max. Acta Thomae. Graece partim cum novis cod icil)us contulit primus edidit Latine recensuit pracfactus est. Lipsiae : H. Mcndclsolin. 1883. 4,78 BIBLICAL STUDT. (c) Life of Jesus Christ. *Karrar, 1*'. W. The Life of Christ. 2 vols. I-ondon ; Petler, Galpin & Co. New York : E. P. Dulton & Co. 1874. ♦Geikie, C. The Life and Words of Christ. New edition. London: Strahan & Co. J878. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1877. tWEiss, Bernhard Das Leben Jesu. 2 Bde, Berlin : Wil- helm Herz. 1882-83. The Life of Jesus. Translated by J. W. Hope. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1883. f Ullmann, C. Die Siindlosigkeit Jesu. 7 Aufl. Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1863. The Sinlessness of Jesus. Translated from the 6th German edition by R. C. Brown. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. New edition, translated by Sophia Taylor. 1870. tCASPARi, C. E. Chronolog-geograph. Einleitung in d. Leben Jesu Chrisii. Hamburgh : Agentur des Rauen Hauses. 1869. A Chronological and Geographical Lntroduction to the Life of Christ. Translated by M. J. Evans. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1876. Keim, Th. Geschichte Jesu von Nazara in ihrer Verkettung niit dem (jesammtleben seines Volkes. 3 Bde. ZUrich ; Orell, Fussle & Co. 1867-72. The Llistory of Jesus of Nazareth. Translated by Ransom & Gilbert. 5 vols, Williams & Norgate. 1873-81. Andrews, S. J. The Life of our Lord upon earth. Consid- ered in its historical, chronological, and geographical rela- tions. 4th edition. New York : Charles Scribner & Co. 1868. Strauss, David. Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet. 3 Aufl. 2 Bde. Tubingen : C, F. Osiander. 1838-39. DiiS leben Jesu filr das deutsche Volks. 3 Aufl. Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus. 1874. Life of Jesus. Authorized tra^jslation. 2d edition. 2 vols. London: Williams & Norgate, 1879. Neander, a. Das Leben Jesu in seinen geschichtlichen Zusam- menhange und seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung darge- stellt. 7 Aufl. Gotha : F. A. Perthes. 1873. The Life of Jesus. Translated from the 4th (lerman edition by J. ATcChntock and C. E. Blumenthal. 3d edition. New V.vrk • Harper & Brothers. 1850. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 479 Hase, K. Geschichte Jesu. Leipzig : Breitkopf & HLirtel. 1876. Hervey, Arthur. Genealogies of our Saviotir, from Matthew and Luke. London : Bell & Daldy. 1853. Trench, R. C. Notes on the Miracles of our Lord. loth edi- tion. London: Macinillan & Co. 1874. New York: D, Appleton & Co. 1858. Renan, Ernest. Vie de Je'sus. 17 ed. Paris: Calmann Ldvy. 1882. Life of Jesus- Translated from the original Krencli, by C. K. Wilbour. New York : G. W. Carleton & Co. 1862. Stroud, William. A Treatise on the physical cause of the death of Christ., and its relation to the principles and jirac- tice of Christianity. 2d edition. London: Hamilton, Adams & Co. New York : I). Appleton & Co. 1871. Jameson, Anna, and E. Easti^ake. The IListory of our Lord as exemplified in Works of Art, with that of His types ; St. John the Baptist ; and other Persons of the Old and New Testament. Commenced by the late Mrs. Jameson, con- tinued and completed by Lady Eastlake. 2 vols. London : Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green. 1864. LuDOLPHUS DE Saxonia. Vita Jesu Christ e quat. evang. et scriptoribus orthodox, concinnata. Strasburg. 1470. Ed Bolard et Carnandes. Bruxelles. 1870, (d) The Apostolical Church. *ScHAFF, Philip. History of the Christian Church. A new edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged. Vol, L Apostoli- cal Christianity, a.d. i-ioo. New York : Charles Scnbner's Sons. 1882. ♦CoNYBEARE, W. J., and J. S. HowsoN. The Life a7id epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols. London : Longmans, (}reen & Co. 1875. New edition, 1877. 2 vols, in i. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ♦McDonald, J. M. Life and writings of St. John. Edited witli an introduction by J. S. Howson. New York : Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1877. ♦HowsON, J. S. Jlorae Pctrinac ; or, Studies in the life of St Peter. I>ondon : Religious Tract Society. 1883. 480 \ BIBLICAL STUDY. *HowsoN, John S. Tlie Companions of St. Paul. London . A. Strahan. 187 1. tLEvaN, Thomas. The life and epistles of St. Paul. 3d edi- tion. 2 vols. London : Geo. Bell & Sons. 1875. tNEANDER, A. Geschichte der Pfla?izung mid Leitung der christlichen Kirche durch die Apostel. 5 Aufl. Gotha : F. A.Perthes. 1862. History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church. Translated from the German by J. E. Ryland. Revised and corrected according to the 4th German edition by E. G. Robinson. New York : Sheldon & Co. 1865. Baumgarten, M. Die Apostelgeschichte oder der Entvvicke- lungsgang der Kirche von Jerusalem bis Rom. 2 Thle. Halle : G. A. Schwetscke & Sohn. 1852. Earrar, F. W. The life and work of St. Paul. 2 vols. London : Cassell. 1879. N*^^^ York : E. P. Dutton & Co. Smith, James. The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul. 4th edition, revised and corrected by VV. E. Smith. London : LongnianSj Green & Co. 1880. Renan, Ernest. Histoire des Origines du Christianis?ne. 7 vol. Paris : Calmann Levy. 1 882-1 883. VIIL— Biblical Theology. (i) Theology of the Bible. (a) The Theology of the whole Bible. f EwALD, Heinrich. Lehre der Bibel von Gott oder Theologic des Alten und Neuen Bundes. 4 Bde. Leipzig : ¥. C. W. Vogel. 1871-76. (b) Special Topics. ■{•Delitzsch, P'ranz. System d. Biblischen Psychologie. 2 Aufl. Leipzig : Dorffling & Franke. 1863. System of Biblical Psychology. Trans, by R. E. Wallis. 2 edit. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1867. |Cave, Alfred. The Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice* Edin- bmgh: T. & T. Clark. 1877 BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 4S1 Laidijvw, John. The Bible doctrine of man. Edinburgh : T. & T.Clark. 1879. Fairbairn, Patrick. The Revelation of Law in Scripture. Considered with respect both to its own nature and to its relative place in successive dispensations. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1868. Fairbairn, Patrick. The Typology of Scripture. Viewed in connection with the whole series of the divine dispensations. 6th edition. 2 vols. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1876. New York : N. Tibbals & Sons. 1880. Beck, J. T. Umriss d. bibl. Seelenlehre. 3 Aufl. Stuttgart : J. ¥. Steinkopf. 187 1. Outlines of Biblical Psychology. Translated from the 3d German edition, 1871. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1877. (2) Theology of the Old Testament, (a) Theology of the old religions. *Rawlinson, George. The Religions of the Ancient World. London : Rehgious Tract Society. 1882. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 1883. fl^ENORMANT, F. Les Scicnces occidtes en Asie. La Magic chey. les Chald^ens et Ics origineaux Accadiennes. Paris : Maison- neuve et Cie. 1874. Chaldean Magic. Its origin and development. Translated from the French, with consider- able additions, by the author, and notes by the editor. London : S. Bagster & Sons. 1877. ScHRADER, E. Die Holleiifahrt der Lstar. Ein altbabylonisches Ej^os nebst Proben assyrischer Lyrik. Giessen : J. Ricker. 1874. Krehl, L. Ueber die Religion der vorislatnischen Arabcr. Leipzig: Serig. 1863. Movers, J. C. Die Phdnizier. 3 Bde. Bonn : E. Weber. 1841-50. Baudissin, W, W. Studien zur Semitischen ReligionsgeschicJite. 1-2 Heft Leijjzig : W. Grunow. 1876-79. SriESS, Edmund. Entwicklungsgeschichte der Vorsicllungen von Zustande nach deni Tode auf Grund vcrgleichcnder Re-r ligionsforschung. Jena : H. Costenoble. 1877. 21 482 BIBLICAL STUDY. TiELE, C. P. Vcrgelijkc7jde geschiedenis der Egyptische en Mesopotamtsche godsdienstcn. Anisterdatn : P. N. Van Kampen. 1869-72. History of the Egyptian Religion. Vol. I. Translated by lames Hallingal. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co, (b) The Old Testament as a whole. ♦Oehler, G. F. Vorlesungen iiber die Theologie d, Alt. Test. 2 Bde. 2 Aufl. 1883. Theology of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. 1874. Revised edition by G. E. Day. New York : Funk & VVagnalls. 1883. fScHULTZ, Hermann. Alttestametitliche Theologie. Die offen- barungsreligion auf ihrer voichristlichen Entwickelungsstufe, dargestellt. 2 Aufl. Frankfurt-a-M. : Heyder & Zimmer. 1878. HoFMANN, J. C. R, Der Schriftbeweis. 2 Aufl. 3 Bde. Nordlingen : C. H. Beck. 1857-60. Cc) The Religion of Israel. fKoNiG, F. E. Der Offenbarungsbegriff des Alten Testamentes. 2 Bde. Leipzig : J. C. Heinrichs. 1882. fTHOLucK, A. Die Propheten U7id ihre Weissagungen- Gotha : F, A. Perthes. Abd. 2. 1861. tKuPER. Das Prophetenthum des Alten Bundes. Leipzig: Dorffling & Franke. 1870. KuENEN, A. De Godsdieiist van Israel tot den Ondergang van den Joodschen Staat. Haarlem, 1869. The Religion of Israel. Translated from the Dutch by A. H. May. 3 vols. London : Williams & Norgate. 1874-5. KuENEN, A. De Profeten eji de Profetie on der Israel. Leiden. 1875. The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. Translated from the Dutch by A. Milroy, with an introduction by J. Muir. London: I.,ongmans, Green & Co. 1877. Trip, J. Die Theophanien ijt den Geschichtsbuechern des Alten Festamcnts. Leiden : D. Noothoven van'Goor. 1858. (d) Religious Institutions. *Atwater, Edward E. History and Significance of the Sa- cred Tabernacle of the Hebrews. New York : Dodd & Mead. 1875. BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR BIBLICAL STUDY. 453 *Edersheim, a. The temple, its ministry and services os they 7vere in the time of Christ. London : T. Nelson & Sons. 1874. f Bahr, K. C. W. F. Symbolik des Mosaischen Cultus. I. Bd., 2te Aufl., 1874; ir. Bd., 1839. Heidelberg: J. C. B. Mobr. tSAALSCHOxz, J, L. Das Mosaische Recht nebst den vervoll- standigenden thaliniidisch-rabbinischen Bestimmungen. 2 Aufl. 2 Theile. Berlin : C. Heymann. 1853. VVarburton, William. The divine Legation of Moses demon- strated. 3 vols. London : Thomas Tegg. 1846. Wines, E. C. Commentaries on the La^vs of the Ancient He- brews. New York: G. P. Putnam & Co. 1855. Michaelis, J. D. Commentaries on the law of Moses. 4 vols. London: Rivingtons. 18 14. Kurtz, J. H. Der Alttestamentliche Opfercultiis. Ein nach seiner gesetzlichen Begrundung und Anwendung. Mitau: A Neumann. 1862. Sacrificial Worship of the Old Tes- tament. Edinburgh : 1\ & T. Clark. 1863. Bahr, K. C. W. F. Der Salomonische Tcmpel mit Beriick- sichtigiing seines Vorhiiltnisses zur heiligen Architectur, Karlsiuhe: C. T. Groos. 1848. (e) Special Doctrines of the Old Testament fORELi.i, VON C. Die alttestamentliche Weissagung von der Vollendung des Gottesrciches. Wien : G. P. Faesy. 1882. fRiKHM, E. Begriff. d. Siihne im Alien Testament. Gotha : V. A. Perthes^ 1877. f RiEHM, Ed. Die Messianische IVeissagung ihre Entstehung, ihr zeitgeschichtlicher Charakter und ihr Verhiiltnis zu der neutestamentychen Erfullung. Gotha: F. A. Perthes, 1875. Messianic Prophecy. 'IVant-lated by J. Jefferson. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1875. f Bo'iTCHER, F. De inferis rebiisque post mortem futuris ex. Hebraeorum et Graecorum opinionibus libri duo. Dresden : H. M. Goeitrat; zu einer kritischen Geschichte des Urchristenthums. 2 Aufl. nach dem Tode des Verfassers besorgt von E. Zeller. 2 'J'heile. Leipzig: L. \V'. Reisland. 1866-67. Sakatier, S. D Apotre Paul. Est/nisse d'unc histoire de sa pens/e. 2 edit. Paris: G. Fischbacher. 1881. Hoksii;n, C. Zum Evangeliinn des Paulus u- des Pclrus Roslock : H. Schmidt. 1808, 4:88 BIBLICAL STUDY. HoLSTEN, C. Das Evangelium des Paulus. Teil I. Berlin. 1880. Thoma, Alb. Die Genesis des Johannes- Evangelium. Ber- lin : G. Reimer. 1882. Haupt, Erich. Der Erste Brief des Johannes. Beitrag z. bib. Theol. ; Coberg : Post, 1869. The First Epistle of John : A contribution to Biblical Theology, translated, with an introduction bv W. B. Pope ; Edinburgh, T. & T. Clark, 1879. Sm EATON, George. The Doctrine of the Atonement as taught by the Apostles. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark. 1870. Schmidt, W. G. Der Lehrgehalt des Jakobusbriefes. Leipzig : Heinrichs. 1869. (d) Special Doctrines in the New Testament. *Jacob, G. a. The Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testa- lament. London : Strahan & Co. 1871. tERNESTi, H. F. T. L, Die Ethik des Apostel Paulus. 3 Aufl. Braunschweig : E. Leibrock. 1880. Gess, W. F. Christi Person und Werk, nach Christi Selbst- zeugniss und den Zeugnissen der Apostel. 2 Abtheil. Basel : C. Detloff. 187(^78. The Parousia. A Critical inquiry into the New Testament doctrine of our Lord's second Coming, l^ondon : Dally, Isbiter & Co. 1878. Philippi, Ferd. Die Biblische und Kirchliche Lehre votn Antichrist. GUtersloh : C. Bertelsmann. 1877. I.— INDEX OF TEXTS OF SCRIPTURE. ii. 8 seg ii. 24 iv. 23 iv. 23 seg ix. 25-27 . . . xi. 31 zii. 14 xiv xlv. ig, 20.. . XV. 6 xix. 26 xxi. 6, 7 xxii xxiv. 60 XXV. 23 xxvii. 27 seg . xxvii. 3g, 40. xliv. 18-34. .. xlviii. 15-20. xlviii. 19 xlix 3t8 313 249 264 268 47 48 48 267 317 3" 268 316 267 26g 271 272 234 269 270 280 Exodus. iii, 6 iv. 22 xii. 46 XV 51, 249, 256, 259, 280, 284, xix xix. 5 XX. 13-14 xxiv. 17 Leviticus. xix. 18 NU.MBERS. VI. 23 ^•35 XXI . xxi. 14 xxi. 17 xxi. 17-18. . . xxi. 27-30. . xxiii. 7 seg . xxiii. 18-27. xxiv. 3-9 . . xxviii. 9-10. 269 267 285 248 249 270 273 279 280 274 309 Deuteronomy. viii. 3 XXV. 4 XXV. 5 xxix. 22, etc. . Deuteronomy. XXX J93 XXX. II seg 316 xxxi. 21, 22, etc 188 xxxii. ... 51,193.256,259,273,280,284 x.\xiii 272, 280 Joshua. ii. 8 seg 316 X. ia-13. X. 13 . . XXIV .... 271 248 234 Judges. Y 249, 259, 273, 285 II 66, 249 IX 234 xi. 40 249 xiv 249 xiv. 12 241) xiv. 14-18 286 XV. 16 ... 286 xxi. 9 249 I. Samuel. xviu. 7 xxi. 1-7. 265 309 II. Samuel. i. 18 ... ni, ■2^tf !• 39-27 53, 277 111- 33 249 >"•. 33-37 270 xxii 23 xxiii. 1-7 274 I. Kings. IV. 31 . . . 'V. 32, 33 XI. 41 xiii. 2 xiv. 19, 29. xvi. 5 xviii 249 248 227 227 234 II. Kings. i. 18 227 viii. 23 227 xvii 199 xviii. II 60 XX. 20 22J 490 I. Chronicles. BIBLICAL STUDY. I Psalms. xii. 8 270 xii. 18 271 xvi 156 XXIX. 29 227 II. Chronicles. ix. 29 227 xii. 15 22; xiii. 22 227 xvi. II 227 xxiv. 27 227 xxvi. 22, etc 227 xxxiii. 18,19 227 XXXV. 27 227 Nehemiah. viii. 8 62, 308 XI. 23. 227 Job. xxviii. 28 29 xxxi. 1-37 290 xxxix. 19-25 272 xlii. 7 196 FSALMS. i. 189, 281 336 187 n. I ii. I itq tii. I 18 Vlll. viii. X. 7. xii. . Ml. 8 xiv 23. xiv. 1-3 xvi .8-11 xviii 23, 156, xix xix. 4 xxi. 1-2 xxiii XXV XXV. 14 xxxii. I . . . . xxxii. I seq . xxxiv xxxvi. 2 xxxvii Xlii xliii xiv 23 liii Ixix. 22-23 Ixix. 25 187. Ixxil. I Ixxx 53, Ixxxii. 6 Ixxxviii Ixxxix xc 51, i83, Kcii.-c 280 317 277 415 278 278 317 278 118 156 317 187 I 256 2S2 316 260 282 278 29 317 187 278 317 278 275 275 277 , 156 187 3'5 1S8 277 305 xcv. 7 i88 xcv. 8 189 xcviii. 1 60 cix. 8 187, 315 ex. I 187 cxi 278 cxyiii. 22-23 311 cxix 278 cxix. 97, 103, 127, 160 426 cxix. 105 411 cxx vi 188 cxxvii 188 cxxxvii 188 cxl. 3 317 cxlv 278 cxlviii. 7-8 36c Proverbs. i.-ix 286 i'i:.34 317 vui. 17 seq 29 x. 1 260 X. 1-5 265 xiii. 24 266 xvi. 9 266 xxiii. IS, 16 23i xxiii. 29-35 286, 287 xxiv. 30-34 288 XXV. 1 179,217 xxvii. 22-27 2';6 XXX. 15-16 236 XXX. 24-28 287 xxxi. 10-30 286 Song of Solomon. i. 2-ii. 7 288 if. Isaiah 191 156 249 191 191 V. 12 vi. 9 vi . 9 seq ix. 1 seq 191 X. 22 seq 191 xi. 10 191 xxiii, 15 seq 249 XXV. 8 318 xxvi. 1-6 283 xxviii. II-I2 317 xxix. 13 191 xl. 3 191 xl .-Ixvi 53 xlii. 1-4 191 xliv. 28 188 xiv. I 188 Hi. i3-liii 292 liii. I, 4, 7 19' lix. 7 317 Ix. 3-5 191 Ixi 310 Ixi. 1-2 191 Ixv. I seq 191 \x\i. \-] seq 318 Jekemiah. xxxi. 15 i9'» 3** INDEX OF TEXTS OF SCKIPTURE, 491 EZEKIEL. xxxviii.-xxxijc 318 DA-VIEL. vii. 1 189 \ ii. Q sej 318 jti. 31 i8g xii 31S xii. II 189 HOSEA. i. 10 190 ii. 33 190 vi 6 309 xi. 1 315 JOEU ii. 28-32 191 iii 319 Amos. vi. 5 849 MlCAH. iv 156 Xechariah. iv 424 xi. 7 140 xi. 12-13 191,216-7 xiv. 6 seq 295 Malachi. iii. 1 191 Matthew. ii. 13-18 31S ii. 17 igi iii. 3 191 iv. 4 12 iv. 4-10 - 309 iv. 14 191 V. 18 13 v. 21 seq 312 viii. 17 191 xii. 3 seq 3°^ xii. 17 191 xii. 39-41 190 xiii. 14 191 XV. 6 4 XV. 7 19' XV. 14 135 xix. 3 teq 312 xix. 7 193 xix. 8 185 xxi. 42 3" xxii. 15-46 62 xxii. 23-31 3" xxii. 43-45 187, 309 xxi V. 15 189 xxvii. 9 141. '69, 191, 2i6 Mark. i. 2 '91 i. 44, etc '93 Mark. iv 4M vii. 6 191 vii. 10 193 xii. 26 192 xii. 36, 37 187 xvi. 9-20 218, 220 Luke. i. 1-4 227 iii. 4 191 iv. 16-22 3'o iv. 17 191 X. 7 193 xiii. 14 seq 310 xiv. 25 131 XV 310 xvi. 29, 31 131 xvii. 32 3" XX. 42 169,188 XX. 42-44 187 xxiv. 27 131,192 x.\iv. 44 13' xxiv. 44 seq 3'3 John. i. 1-14 7» i. 14 72 i. 18 63,312 i. 23 191 i.45 '93 iii. 16 410 v. 46, 47 193 vi. 63 414 vii. 17 298,427 vii. 19 '°3 vii. 23 '92 vii. 38 427 viii. i-ii 218 X. 34 13' X. 34-36 3'^9 xii. 34 ^3' xii. 38 191 xii. .39-41 '9' xiii. 7 '8e xiv. 26 6g XV. 3 4'4 XV. 25 '3' xvi. 8 72 xvi. 13 " XVI. 15 28 xvii. 17 414 xix. 36 33'5 Acts. i. 16-20 '87 i. 20 3'."^ ii. 16 '9' ii. 16 seq 3'9 ii. 25-29 '87 ii. 34 '**7 iii. 22 193 iii. 22-24 '93 iii. 24 '901 '92 iv. 24, 25, 26 336 iv. 25 187, 18S, jya vii '4' vii. 37 '93 viii. 28-30 '9» 492 BIBLICAL STUDY. Acts. xiii. 15 131 xiii- 33 '^ XV 320 XV. 21 192 xvii. 2 131 xvii. II 131 xviii. 24 131 xviii. 28 131 XXV i. 22 131, 193 xxviii. 23 131, 192 xxviii. 25 191 Romans. i. 16 iii. I sef. iii. 9-18. iii. 21 IV. 6.... . 27, 29. 5, 19- ■■ 6-10. . . X. 18. I. Corinthians. IX. 9 seg. ix. 14... XI. 23 seg. . xiv. 21 xiv. 21 seg. 4" 73 317 408 320 317 187 190 191 193 316 191 316 191 187 337 191 408 337 320 316 193 317 193 131 317 II. Corinthians. iii. 3 428 iii. 7 316 iii. 15 193 iii. 18 13 Galatians. IV. 22 seg.. .. iv. 22, 23, 34. iv. 24 73, 140 ••• 336 ... 317 Ephesians. V. 25 Phiuppians. HI. 2. COLOSSIANS. 428 413 4 n. 17 244, 320 I. Timothy. i. 32* II. Timothy. iii. 8 316 iii. 15 131. 4i« Titus. ii. ti 406 ii. 11-14 416 Hebrews. J-3 13 •v 317 IV. 7 188, 193 iv. 12 411 vii 318 vii. 14 193 viii. 5 193, 244 viii. 10-11 428 ix. 19 193 X. 1 244 X. I seg 320 X. 28 193 xi 316 xi. 40 244 xii. 21 793 James. ii 320 ii. 7-13 3'7 ii. 21 seg 316 V. II 316 V. 17 316 I. Peter. i. 23 13, 411, 41J ii. 9 seg.. , 3ig II. Peter. i. 21 27 ii. 4 seg 3i<< I. John. V. 7 218 JUDE. 9 seg 316 14 190 Revelation. ii 320 xii. I seg 318 xii. 6 318 xiii. 5 318 xiij. 18 318 xvi, 12 318 xvi. 16 318 xvii. 5 318 xviii. 2 318 xxi.-xxii 318 xxii. 18-19 6 I. ESDRAS. 33» S» II.— INDEX OF TOPICS. Accents 152,251 in Hebrew verse and prose 263 place of 152-3 —— System of Polish and German Jews 258 Accommodation, Principle of 185,312 Acts 73, 230 Akkadian language 47 Hymns 262 Allegorical method 317 Jesus' use of 310 in the Latin Church 324 ifl Origen the father of 322 of Philo 306 Truth and failure of 307 Allegory 305 Allegory not unbecoming to Jesus 318 Alliteration 256 Aloesa 93 Alphabet S3 Amoraim 177 Anonymes 222 Anthropology 71 Anthropomorphism 54 Antioch, School of 325 Antwerp polyglot 143 Apocalypse 70,109,111,165,226 Apoca'iypse of Ezra 127,129 Apocalypses, Jewish apocryphal. 109, 224 Apocrypha 63, 70 Apostles' creed 92 Apostolic church. Elements of 320 Appropriation of the Grace of the Scriptures 417 Appropriation of the Word of God. ... 297 Arabic language 18,19,46,50 Aramaic language 50 " character and his- tory 59if- written character 153 Aramaisras 284 Archai'^ms, Poetic 284 Aruhaeology, Sacred 17 Arminianism 113 Ascension of Isaiah 224 A-h(orcth 49 Assosiance 756 A -sumption of Moses 224 Assyria and Babylonia, monuments of 2S4 Assyrian language '8, 19, 46, 48 Hymns . 262 Autliciilicity 87.93 of tlie Scriptures '^'^ > ff- Questions which arise 220 Authority of the Lible. no, 219/", 243 Baal 49 Babylonia 47 Babylonian hymns 26a language 46, 48 vowel system 153 Bagdad 304 Baptism 243 Basle, University of 144 Bassora 304 Beraitka 174,177 Bethhoron 271 Bible.. ....•• 75,991245,248,363,417 and criticism 75 Forms and meaning 6 German , of Luther 50 Literary study of 214 material for all ages. 37 Text of 139.^. Traditional views of 9"; Use of 4 Version of King James 50 Biblical Books, View of Du Pin 201 Study, attractive. . 3 " extensive i " important i " profound fl " Renewed attention to 2ii Book of Jubilees 155 Book of the wars of Jah veh 248 Book of Yashar 248 Cabalistic System 302 Cairo 304 Calixtus, School of 373 Calvinistic orthodoxy 113 Cambridge men 134 ^— Platonists 373 Canon of Scripture 21, 105 Augustinian 106 Hellenistic 106 Hieronymian 106 — — Italic 132 Jewish 130 Josephus' 180 Puritan 114 of the Reformers 106 Syriac 13a criticism of 125 determination of 21 extent of no of the New Testament 13a — " ;; Old " 127 — O. T. not determined by N. T... 131 not d':torniiiicd hy consensus .. . 21 Principles for determination of 107, 138 Results of criticism of 131 ^94 BIBLICAL STUDY. Canonics. BiUical 21, 78 Sacred 17 Canonicity not a purely historical ques- tion 125 Carthage, Council of 105 Chaldee, Biblical 18, 46, Co Chemosh 49 Christ the centre of Scripture 364 ■ Person of 71,410 Chronicles. . .50, 128, 129, 187, 197, 198, 222, 227, 230 Citation 8) Errors in 85 of O. T., in N. T 131 Compilations 226 Conception, Differences of 88, 94 Constraint of symbol and Scripture. . . gS Construct relation 53 Council of Trent 3^z Covenants 402 Apostles' use and view of 319 Theology of 343 Credibility 87 of the Scriptures 240 distinguished from infallibility. . . 241 Creed, Doctrine of the 243 Critical conflicts 102 Evangelical, test no theories, Recent 102 Criticism, in general 77i?"- Bible and liff- Biblical 78, 82, 94, 139 " Historic right of 101 " necessity of 76 has been largely destructive 81 Distinction oetween Higher and Lower 78 I )ivisions of 82 Evangelical 104, 172 - Higher. .21, 24, 78, 86, 164 ff^ 204, 420 " attractive 246 " and the authority of Script- ure 243 and the credibility of Scripture 244 " Illustrations of its princi- ples 92/. " Importance of 92 " in America 210 y". " in Great Britain 206, 209 y. " intheXVI.-XVII. Cent.iesy: — " " XIX. Cent 207 y^ '■ not determined by tradition 196 " Prejudice against 212,246 " Principles of 170 " Questions to be determined by 87, 212 " Rise of . . . 196 • " Three stadia of 207-8 " Unfolding in Germany, etc 2:2 Historical 82^., 19S Literary 82,85 Lower, vid. Textual. a priori objections 99 Objections to application to the Bible 95 Principles and methods 82 Textual or Lower. .21, 22, 78, 246, 420 " and Inspiration . . . i.^(>ff. " of O. T. behind that of N. T 150 Criticism, Textual, of XVI., XVII., XVIII, XIX. Cent.. 140-8 Textual, ^ cope of 23 The true 162 Daniel.. 50, 60, 128, 129, 187, 197, 218, 224 Decalogue 243 Deism 206, 222 Deuteronomic code 386 Deuteronomy ... 51,167,194,224,234 Dialogues of the ancient worthies 233 Dirge, The 285 Distich 264 Distinction between poetry and prose slight 251 Documentary theory 200, zozjff"., 207 Documents, Genesis of the 208 Dogmatics, Biblical 392 Dogmatic method 194 Ebionites 320 Ecclesiasies..26, 50, 109, in, 128, 129, 165, 167, 187, 224, 286 Ecclesiasticus 131 Edessa, School of 304, 326 Syrian school at 152 Editing and interpolating of Scripture 219 Editorship 178 Efficacy of Scripture 416 Eg:S'pt 48 Eloquence, Biblical models of. 234 Epistles of the apostles as models 237 Epistles as prose literature 236 Errors in the original autographs 242 Errors in the presen t text 240 Essenes 129, 300, 302, 307 Esther. .109, iii, 128, 129, 187, 197, 218, 222. 238 Ethics 395,403 Ethiopic language 18, 19, 46 Evangelical spirit 370 Evidence, External 90 Internal 887". Exegesis, Biblical 17, 421 " general principles .. . 27 Comparative 31 Doctrinal 33 Four kinds of Augustine 324 Grammatical 29 Historical 30 History of 28 Literary 32 Logical and rhetorical 30 The proper method of 194 Synthetic method. 14 of the middle age 328 in the Oriental church 328 Practical 34 Process of i -'. Proper spirit of 16 Exegete, The work of 28, 35 How far influenced iy history... 360 Exodus 48 Ezekiel 128, 129, 190 Ezra 60, 129, 187, 107, 222, 230, 237 lizra. Restoration of O. T. by lii^. Faith, Appropriating. . . 423 Practicing 426 Fiction in the Bible 238 /• Fides divina xoS, 123, *)6 INDEX OF TOPICS. 495 Ftdes divina and huntana ii6 Figures of speech 253 Forijeiy, Theory of 223 Foims, Poetic 383 Fraj»mentary Hypothesis, The 207 Gem ARA 174, 180 Genesis R. C support of documentary tlieory 202 Geneva, Univeisity of 144 German theology 135 Germany 346 God. Hebrew conception of 53 Gospel in the Scriptures 407 Gospels, The ._ 230 Grace of God in the Scriptures 410 Greek language 60, t-^ff. " beautiful and finished. 66 " characteristics of. 64 " complex and artistic. 64 " form and style of speech 6s " strength and vigor. . fA/. Biblical 69 Hellenistic 18 - — of the New Testament 353 - — N. T. writers used 69 Haggada. .. 62, 73, 238, 300, 304, 310, 315 1 l.agioRrapha \%t ff. )[alacha 62, 73, 174, 300, 304, 316 • — method of Jesus 309 Kalacha and Haggada, Principles of. . 301 Hebrew Grammar 29 " The first 107 - — History 56 • — Language 18, 46, 48, 49, 60, 71, 107 " religious 50 *■ correspondence to thought 52 . — — " life and fervor 56 " majesty and sublimity.. 53 " simple and natural. . . 51 " characteristics 51 - — " and tiie cognates. .. . iSy! " culture, Babylonian ori- gin 48 Letters, forms used 153 Literature different from Indo- Germanic 215 Poetic art, Climajt of 294 Poetry 52, 55, 56, »5o, 248^. Text 151 " The present 153 Hebrews, The 250 a literary and poetic people 248 Epistle to. . . .26. 70, 165, 166, 167, 222, 2J7, 316, 317 Hellenistic and Christian theories, x'iciff. Hermeneutics, Biblical 27 Ileimeneutical principles, Lutheran . . 333 Hcrodians 60 Hcxa'^tich 271 Himjaric language 46 History, Hebrew .... 56 'I'wo kinds, priestly, prophetic... 230 Sources of . 84 Holy Spirit, llie interpreter of Script- ure 365 Hosca .... 190, .^35 Huguenots, French 371 Humanists 33: Hymn, The 284 Inconsistencies, The supposed, of tie Bible 244 Independents 134 Inductive method in Biblical Study... 76 Inerrancy of Scripture 24oy". Inflection, Method of Hebrew 52, 57 InspirRtion 220,411 Church doctrine 99, 243 Dogmatic 97 not confined to particular words. 158 Plenary 241 Scriptural doctrine 96 Symbolical '" 96,242 Textual Criticism and iS^.^- Traditional doctrine ico ^— Various theories <^(> ff- Verbal 76,113,144,156 241 Integrity 87, 92 of the Scriptures 216 Interpolations in the Pentateuch 21S in the New Testament 218 in the Septuagint 218 Interpretation of Scripture 296^. Method of 351 History of Biblical 299 Literature of 360 Requiutes to proper 214/". True Christian method 320 Jesus gave no rules of 3 1 ^ Comparative 358 -Doctrinal 361 of the Fathers and Schoolmen yzojf. General 297 Grammatical 352 Hellenistic 305,321 — —Historical 3^7 Logical and Rhetorical 'i^'SjJ'- Pietistic 31.1 Practical 308, 362 -Puritan 340 Puritan and Arminian 335 Rabbinical 299 —— of the Reformers Z^^ Ju- Roman Catholic 331, 300 in the New Testament Z°7 JT- of the middle age 330 of modern times 346 of XVII. Cent, in England 338 Palestinian methods 320 Principles of Anliochian School. . 326 " " Cabalistic 303 " " Puritan 344 " " Schleicrmacher 349 " " Westminster Confes- sion 337 Organic method 350 methods of apostles 315 Rules of Rabbinical juo Seven Rules of Tychonius. 323 Features of our Saviour's ^ii Defects of ancient and media;val. 35a " " grammalico-historiLal. 348 Introduction, Biblical 76 — Home's 209 First extant, by Junilius 183 Isaiah 190, igi, 218, 233, 278 Jaiivkh 54, jr 496 BIBLICAL STUDY. 109, 237 105 130 217, 218 .... 186 67 198, 258, 288 . . . . 190 73. 237 70, 225 222, 238 207, 222 109, 237 190, 222 . . . . 62 James, Epistle 70, Jamnia, Assembly at Jeremiah tgo, tgi, Jesus Christ, Authority of . ^ Jews Job, Book of... 26, 128, 129, 16S, 222, 249, 252, 257, Joel, " " John, Epistles Gospel Jonah 190, Joshua 190, Jude Judges Judith Justification by faith Kings, Books of. 190, 198, 222, 226 Koran 50, 151 Language. . ._ 42 Connection between thought and 42 Poetic 283 J^. ■ of our Saviour 61 Languages of the Bible 18, 42 _^. Lamentations ... 128,222,258,278,286 Laodicea, Council of 105 Legend 231 preferable to term, myth 232 Legends and fables, N. T. use of 316 Leyden, University of 144 Literal interpretation of Jesus 309 sense excluded, Rules of Philo... 305 Literature, Biblical 16 " Field of 20 " History of 76 " Problems of 216 Hebrew 56 " Divisions into poetry and prose 229 Literary features 87 study of the Bible is Higher Crit- icism 215, 246 usage. The common 195 Ixindon Holyglot 143 Lord 's Prayer 243 Supper 243 Luke, Gospel 70 Luther 50 Lutheranism 113 Maccabees, Book of 238 Maccabeus, Judas 130 Malachi 223, 236 Man, Hebrew conception of 54 Mandaic language 46 Hark, (Jospel 70, 227 Massoretic system. 24, 57, 105, 140, 142, 257i 259 i^^^;: 148.^., 150. 154 tradition 19 Massorites .... 141, 145, 178 Matthew, Gospel 70,227 Measures of time, etc 49 Mesopotamia 47 Messana 93 Methodism 372 Metres 256 Micah 23s Midra.sh 1 58 method 308 Minor Prophets 216 Mishna 130, 142, 174, 50a Modern training and oriental thought. 239 Moloch 49 Moravians 372 Mosaic code 199 Moses, represented as lawgiver, not as author 193 Mystic 119, 123 spirit 368 Mysticism 120 _^. Myth, term associated with polytheism 23a Myths of Assyria and Babylonia 232 Nature, Hebrew conception of. . 54, 254 Nehemiah. 128, 187, 197, 222, 230, 236, 237 N ezikin 1 73 Nisibis, School of 304, 326 InHuence of 327 Opinion and conception. Differences of... 88, 94 Oration in the Bible 234 Palestinian vowel system 152 Parallelism 49, 52, 203, 259, 261, 264 Introverted 261 ordinarily progressive 266 not prediction 315 Paris polyglot 143 Patmos 230 Paulj Epistles. . . 70, 73, 237 Pauline Epistles, Authenticity 226 Pentastich 270 Pentateuch. 24, 25, 49, 50, 129, 165, 181, 192, 197, 199, 200, 207, 210, 222, 227, 230, 232, 38b Investigation byEichhorn 204 Theory of R. Simeon 198 Thi ee codes 387 Pentecost 73 Person of Jesus Christ 71, 410 Peshat, or literal interpretation . . 300, .3031 304 Peshitto 23 Peter, Epistles 70, 73, 109, 166, 237 Phahiris, Epistles of 93 Pharisees 6x, 129, 130, 299, 310 Philo, Logos of 71 Philology, Sacred 17 Phoenician language 18,19,46,48,60 Pietism, German. .. . 372 Pietists, German 344 Plato, Nous of 71 Platonic Philosophy 305 Play of Words 256 Plural of intensity 52 Poetic forms 283 Poetry, Arabic 255/., 262 of Assyria and Egypt 248 of the Bible 229 Composite 288 Gnomic 28,5 Hebrew SZi.SSi 5^) 1501 ^^^ ff " Apprehension of 253 • " Breadth of 249 — - " Characteristics 250, 255 " Composed of vejses 255 INDEX OF TOPICS. 497 Poetry, Hebrew, External form subor- dinated to internal emotion 259 '—— " Forms of _. . 255 — — " " Lyric, Gnomic, Composite 284 — — •* Measurement b y words or accent 279^. — — '♦ Faralleliim of mem- bers, 49, 53, 203, 259, 261, 264 " Realistic 253 " Religious 250 " Sententious 252 " Subjective 252 Lyric 284 Prophetic 292 Syriac 258, 262 Polyglots 143 Prayer 418,422 Prayers of the Bible 285 Prelatists 117 Pre>byterians 134 Scotch 134 Principles for determination of read- ings 86 Private judgment, Right of 124 Proof texts. Indiscriminate use of 5 Prophetical books 234 Prophets... 190/^ Prose of the Bible 230 ■Characteristics of Scripture 239 Historical 230 Protestant critical principle x^iff. position. The true iii Protestantism, Formal principle of. 13, 108, 407 Proverbs. 26, 128, 129, 169, 187, 197, 217, 252, 258, 265/;, 28: Psalms, or Psalter. 24, 25, 51, 166, 168, 1&7, 197, 217, 222, 252, 256, 257, 258 Psalter, DaviJic authorship 187 of Solomon 224 Pseudonyme, Use of 223 Pseudonymes 223 among the Jews 224 ■ in I'uritan literature 224 Ptolemxus Philadeiphus 126 Puritanism 101,335 Puritans 117,118,134,371 Puritan Theology 147 Qakites 303 Rabbinical ideas of Scripture, Errors of 302 Theorief 173 Rationalism 222 Rtfalism in the Hebrew langjuage. ... 54 Rclactiu ; of the (). T. Scriptures 179 Redemption by grace alone 406 Refunnation, The. . .. 171,331 - — Formal principle of the Protest- ant 13,108,407 — — Merit of the British 400 " " Calvinistic 408 — - " " Lutheran 40J Protestant, a critical revival 106 Prepar.ition for 330 RdsTmers, Principles for determination cf Canon used by 107 Refrain, The S3, 27S Religion, Biblical, Development of the 20S Revision, Demand for 103 Rhyme .». 255 Riddles 286 Rome, Church of 109 Rule of Faith, Defined by John Ball.. 336 " " of the Puritans 33s " " " Reformers 333 Ruth 128, 187, 222 Sabbath 48 Sadducees 60, 1 29 Samaritan language. 18, 19, 46 Samaritans 129 Samuel 190, 194, 222, 230 Scenery of the text 31 Scholastic spirit 369 Scholasticism 99 Science, Opposition to 7 Scripture, Authority of 25 Fourfold sense 323 Literary forms of 228 Text of 21, 113 Scriptures, The 1(0 fundamental position of 13 as literary productions 24 as means of grace 41 6 as sources :n Human elements in the i;\ Sedan, University of i.| 4 Selah in the Psalter 2j 8 Septuagint.. .68, 70, 105, 125, 140, 153, 15s. 30S1 3' " A Greek Targum ut Shemitic languages i < Shulamite, '1 he 23 | Sibyline oracles if") Silence, Argument from 9Pfi <- K Sirach, Wisdom of J i Sodh method 300, 302, 305 Soliar, Book of 30:1 Solomon, Wisdom of 71 Song, The 285 Song of Songs.... 26, 109, in, 128, 129, 187, 239, 258, 278, 286 Sources of Biblical history 2^1 Speculative spirit 3^9 Spiritual sense 34 Strophe. The 272 marked by the alphabet 27S Style, Differences of 83, 93 Poetic 283 Subscription of Protestant symbols. . . 101 Suffixes, Hebrew 53 Symbol 99 Synonyms, Hebrew 55 Syriac language 18,19, 46 vowel system 152 Talmud 105, 107, 130, 141, T42, 170, i^o, 300 Talmuds, Babylonian and Jerusalem.. 173 Tanaites i77 Tareiims 23 Tauroininium 93 Testament, New 236, 243 " Canon of 106 — - " Citations of the 155 " Literary development of 7J i98 BIBLICAL STDDY. Testament, New, Use of the Old. 308 — — " Variety in writings. 70 " Writers 68 Old ^ 243 — — " Canon of 105 - " Citation in 308 " New Testament view of,. 184 jf". Relation of Old and New .... 35, 350 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. 224 Testimony, Positive 90 Tetrastich 269 Text, Diflferences of 155 of the Bible ''■'i'iff- of the Old Testament ^S^jff"- of Scripture 112 Sources of error in 85 Transmission of 22 Theolog>-. 420 American 135 British 135 Biblical 17, 367 " Belongs to Exegetical Theology 379 " Culmination of Exegeti- cal Theology 397 " Development of 377 " Historical principle of. . . 375 " Idea of 390 " Method of 399 —— " Methods and aims 37 . " Place of 397 .— " Position and importance of 390 " Presents the Biblical sys- tpm of doctrine 39 " Problem of 400 " Rise of ^74 .. " System and divisions of. 401 — — *' Term is broad 392 ^— " Traces historical forma- tion 396 Exegetical, a science 15 " Divisions and subdi- visions 16 " Methods iS.;^- " " analytic 15 . ■ " " historical.... 14 - — . " " synthetic... 14 " Neglect of 12 . " The primary disci- pline 10 . '• Work of II - Federal 343 . Four types of 3^7 — — Historical 10 Theology, Practical la Systematic 10, 354 Theophanies 296 Thirty-nine articles '^f-l/- Tiberian vowel system 152 Titles of Biblical Books 2.ji Titus T30 Tobit 62, 238 Toseptha, 174, 177 Tradi tion 99, 220. 222 Traditional theories, Criticism of 170 " Scholastic d e - fence of 200 Traditionalism 99 Translation 43 Process of 157 Sources of error in 85 Trent, Council of 109 f. Trinity 71 Tristich 267 Tlibingen school 208 Union Theological Seminary 20 Unity in the Scriptures. 359 of statement of th e Scriptures .... 244 Ur of the Chaldees 47 Verse ._ _. 255 Hebrew, its essential principle... 260 " Measurement by the ac- cent 262 - — - '* Synonymous, antitheti- cal, synthetic 260 Versions 23, 153 Vowel points and accents. 24, 139, 144, 151. 156 Vulgate 23,105,112,166 Westminster Assembly 409 — — Divines 117, 134 Standards 25 Wisdom, Book of 62 of Sirach 131 of Solomon 71 Writings, Historic position of 88 Individual 21 Order of 177 Zaude. 93 Zechariah 216 Integrity disputed 217 Zelots 129, 300, 302, 307 Zohar, Book 142 Zurich Consensus 135, 144 University of 144 III.— INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. Abbot, Ezra 925,447 Aboth , 127 Acha 127 Achelis, E 463 Adams, Th 467 Wm 66,445 Adeney, W. F 452 jEiieid 394 iEschines 64 iEschylus 64 Aglen, A. S. 253 Auls to Faith 211 Ainsworth, Henry 339,344,454 Airay, Henry 465 Akiba, Rabbi . . iii, 130, 154, 174 Alcaeus 256 Alcala, Alphonso de 106 Alcuin 329 Aldridge, S. R 452 Alexander, Addison 210 -— J-A 4S5, 458, 462, 463 Wm 452 W. 1 452 Alford, Henry 461 Alexandrinus, Codex 438 Amrina, Sixt . . .. 146 Ambrose . 221,323 American Presby. Review 14, 29 Ames Wm 343i 35S> 37^, 373 Amira 142 Ammon, C. F 374 Andrews, S.J 478 Angus, J seph 460 Antwerp I'olyglot I47 Apocrj'pha. . , . 474 Aquila . . . lS4i 303 Aquinas, Thomas 329,463 Arias Montanus 143 Aristeas 126 Aristion 321 Arminins, J 373 Arnold, F. A 434 A'o.irias. Rabbi 260 Ascensio Isaiae 476 Ashe, Simcdii 342 Assembly's Annotations i6S Astruc, j. 169, 202, 204 Athanasiiis 220, 356 Alteriol, Wm 344 Al water, !■;. E 482 Auberlen, C. A 451 Augustine, Aurelius.182, 220, 323, 324, 325. 4*5. 45' Uaba Uathra (Talm. Babli) . . 105, 173 175, 316, 317, 218, 221, 227 Babylonicus Petrop., Codex 439 Bach man, J 453 Bacon, Francis 221 Baedeker, Karl 468 Baehr, K. C. W. F 449, 483 Baer, S 149, 43^ Ball, John 336, 342, 343 Barbier. A. A 223 I'ar Cappara 174 Baring-Gould, S 477 Bar Khokba 130 Barker, P. C ... 452 Barlow, John 466 Barnabas 322 Baruch Apocalypsis 476 Buch 475 Basil 182 Bassett, F. T 467 Baudissen, W 481 Baumgarten, A. G 374, 481 Banmgarten-Crusius, L. F. 376 Baur. F. C. 377, 381, 382, 384, 387, 395, 486, 487 Loren zo 375, 376 Baxter, Richard 147, 155, 243 Bayne, Paul 344, 465 Beck, C. D 347 J.T.. 481 Beda Venerabilis 329 Beecher, Willis J 83, 104 Beet, J. A .". 464 Belgian C'onfession 108, 167 BcUarmine, R 1S2 Bengel, J. A 149,344,372,401 Hciitley, Richard 93, 148, 169 Berger, Samuel ic7 Bernard. T. D 298, 385, 4S6 Beitheau, F. 571203,450,45,; Beyschlag, W 461 Beza, T 336 Bible, Bomberg's Rabbinical 1-59 — - Holy 43S Bible for Learners 211 Biblia Hehraica 439 Bibliothcca Rabbinica ^-i .Sacra 211, 2iy Bickcll.G 153. 258, 43'- 445 Bickersteth, E 4;-' Piddle, J 373 Biiinie, W 446, 4^4 Bissell, K. C 450, 47J Blake, Thomas 342 BIcck, Fr. . . 69, 73, 208, 350, 444, 446, 466 Boderianus, Fabricius 143 P.oehl, Edw 15S Boettcher, Fr. . . 55, 57. 43', 454. 457. 4»3 (409) 500 BIBLICAL STUDY. Bonnet, Max Boyle, Robt 169, 412, Braune, K 449, 450, Brentius, J Bretschneider, K. C 348, Briggs, C. A i4> 39, 104, 153, 171, 208, 209, 228. Brightman, Th 343, Brit, and For. Evang. Rev British Quarterly Bro ugh ton, Hugh 142 Brown, D Francis 187, Browne, E. H Bruce, A. B 236, 246, 389, 462, Bruder, A. v. H Brugsch Bey, H Bruston, Charles Budge, E. A Bullinger, Henry Bullock, W. T Bunsen.C. C. J Burroughs, Jer Burton, Rich. F Bush, G Butler, J. G Biittraann, A Buxtorf, J. 113, 144, 156, 170, 184, 353, 439i Byfield, Nicholas 344, Cairns, John Ca'amy, Edmund iii, 147, Calixtus, George 113, Calmet, A Calvip., John... 107, 112, 133, 140, 146, 165, 166, 217, 223, 333, ^ , . , „ , 334i 371, 454, 455, Candlish, Rob Ca.ius, Melchoir Capel, Richard Cappellus, Lud.,86, 142, 143, 144, 147, 164, 170, 184, 334, Lud. and Jac Ca.-iov, A. C Carlstadt, And Carpzov, J. G 184,200,297, Cartwriglit, Thomas. 114, 167, 335, 343, Caryl. Joseph Casaubon, I ... 146, Caspari, C. E Cassel, Paulus Cassiodorus Castell, Edm.... I43i 353. Catafago. J Cave, Alf 452, Ccreani, A.M Chambers, T. W 387, Chapman, C Charteris, A. H 106,110,132, Cheyne, T. K 218, Ciiiarini, L. A '75, 3°ii 3°3, Chija-Rabbi. Clirysostom. J 182, 326, 329, Cicero. M. T 224, Letters of Clark. Samuel 344, Clarkson. W. . Clemancc, C Clewent of Alexandria 182, — of Rome ,,. 461 467 167 158 342 146 113 169 334 344 344 168 478 449 327 432 434 480 440 430 453 437 453 485 174 461 236 237 451 452 452 322 322 t Clementine Pseudograph j^ Clericus, J 184, igg, sj", Cobb,W.H ..^ 111 Cocceius, J 143, 342, 343, 350, 37a Colenso, J. W 210, 211 Collins, K 452 Complutensian Polj'glot 106, 147 Conant, J. T 45a Conder, C. R 469 F. R 470 Contemporary Review 211 Conybeare, VV. J 479 Cook, F. C 451 Cooper, B. H 477 -r-.W.R. 474 Cosin, John 117, 437 Cotterill. H 452 Cotton, John. 467 Co wper, B. H 432 Cox, Samuel 456 Crcdner, C. A 437 Cremer, H 73, 436 Critici sacri 453 Crosby, Howard 449 Cross, J. A 218, 444 Cruden, Alex 429, 441 Curry, G 451 Curtius, E 64, 65, 66, 67, 476 G 436 Curtiss, S. I., Jr 18, 130, 216, 217 Cyprian 321 Daehnb, a. F 388 Dale, B 452 Davenant, J 344 Davidson, A. B 430, 455, 457 li •• • 442 Samuel. 86, log, 150, 210, 320, 324, 330, 432, 437, 442, 444, 446, 448 Davies, D 452 Day, G. E 38a Deane, W. J 126,475 De Dieu, L 146, 334 Delitzsch, Franz. .. 149, 217, 218, 224, 350, 439i 454, 466, 480 Fried 60, 435, 469 Demarest, J. T 467 Demosthenes . 64,236 De Rossi, J. B 149,443 Descartes, R 7 Deutsch, Emanuel 174 De Wette, W. M. L.207, 210, 229, 350, 375, 376, 377, 444, 446, 461, 471 Diestel, Lud. 28, 165, 325, 326, 401, 430, 453 Dillmann, Aug. .152, 153, 155, 156, 230, 434, 438, 453, 475, 47^ Dinwiddle, W 452 Diodorus of T.arsus . 326 Doddridge, Philip 345 Dods, Marcus • 460 Dodwell, Henry 134 Doepke, J. C. C . . 448 Dollinger, J. J. 1 477 Donaldson, J. W 65 Doruer, Isaac A. . .22, 70, 108, 114, 137, 203. 314, 323, 424 August 325 Doxy, R 434 Drake, W 45' Driver. S.R 43', 4S8 Droysen, J. G 84 INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 501 Drummoiid, James 485 HrusiusJ 146,334 Ducas, Demetrius 106 Duesterdiek, F 461 Duncker. Max 473 Du Pin, L. E 87, 83, 9a, 200, 217 I>urh am, James 457,468 Uury, John 07a Dykes.J.O 460 Eadie John 444,46s tasaake, E 479 Ebers, G 469, 472 Ebrard, J. H. A 447,467 Eck, J 107 Edersheim, A 483 Edgar, McCheyoc 452 — -R. M 452 Eichhorn, J. G..178, 129, 132, 1C9, 202, i^- ,. „j ,?°3. «05, 207, 349, 375, 445, 468 Eichstkdt, H. K. A 298 Eliezar, Rabbi 301 Ellicott, C.J 462, 464, 46s, 466 Elliott, C. B 467 C.J 451 Enoc'i, Book of 475, 476 Ephraim the Syrian 326 Erasmus 331,345 Greek Testament 147 Erdmann, C. F. D 449 Ernesti, J. A 298, 339, 346, 353, 448 H. F. T. L 489 Erpeaius 143, 146 iLspin, T. E 451 P^ssays and Reviews 210, 211 Etheridge, J. W 62,439 Eucherius of Lyons 323 Eusebius 256, 321 Euthymius. Zigabenus 329, 463 Evans, T.S 452 M.J 384 Ewald, Heinr. . . 46, 57, 130, 208, 209, 229, 235, 250, 259, 353, 38s, ^ „ , ^ ♦°<' ♦S'. 4S5. 458, 471. 472, 480 Exell.J. S 452 Expositor 109 r-iBRICIUS, J. A 182,475 F lirbairn, Patrick 439, 466, 481 F »rrar, F. W 452, 478, 480 rf^'- *■'•?■, V '''♦9, 450 Ilacius, Matthew 333 Klatt.C.C.. 348 Fleury, Abbo Claude 202 Fox, John 344 Francois, Abbd Laurent 202 Fianke, H 344 Frankel. Z 126, 443 Eraser, Donald 452 French Confession 408 Frensdorf, S 14.9, 443 Freytag, G. H 434 Fricdlander, L 477 Friedlieb, J. H . 475 Fritzsche, O. F 475 Fronmllllcr, P. F. C 451 Fuerst, lu.ius Mi 77, 43*, 437, 442 Fiilke, Wm 142 Fuller, J. M 451 Gablkr, J. G 348,389 Galileo 7 Gallican Confession io3 Gandell. R 45, Gardiner, F 440, 449 Gataker, Thomas 344 Gebhardt, Herm 389, 488 Geddes, -Mex 207 Geiger, Abr 433 Geike. C 478 Genesis, Textum Massoreticum 439 Gerhard, J 333 Gerraar, F. H 348 Gerok, Chas 450 Gesenius, W 47, 107, 152, 208, - ,,, „ 353, 430, 432, 458 Gess, W. F 488 Gieseler, J. C. L 83 Gifford, E. H 45! Gillett, E. H 330 Ginsberg, C. D. . 107, 141, 142, 150, 152, _. ,, „ „ 302, 303, 442, 448, 457 Girdlestone, R. B 55, 433 Given, J.J ' 453 Gladstone, W. E 59 Glasgow, James 467 Gloag,P J 460, 463 Glover, K 452 Godet, F 225, 462, 463 Goebel, S 463 Goodhart, C. A 452 Goodwin, John 373 J horaas 372 Gouge, Wra 188, 344, 372, 466 Gouldman, Henry 147 Graetz, H 129, 150, 154, 174, 175, 2i8, 456, 472 Graf, K. H 386, 458 Green, R 45-1 T. S 436 W. H. an, 431, 445 GreenhiU, Thomas 3^4 Wm 459 Gregory the Great 325, 457 Gregory, C. R 149 Gresswell, E, B. D 463 Greve, E. J 257 Griesbach, J. J 149, 375 Grill, J 52, 55 Grimm, C. L. W 436,473 Grosart, A. B 221 Grotius, Hugo 146, 3(5 Guyot, Arnold 460 Gwynn, J 452 Hacket, H. B Haevcrnick, H. A. C. . . 380, 445, 4 8. Hagenbach, K. C i7< 78. Hahn, G. L 381, Halkett, Samuel Hall, Thomas Hamilton, James Wm 82,83,92, Hammond, Henry 169,191, 4f>3 Hardwick, C Harmony of the Confessions Harper, W. R ... 20, Hase.K Mastings, F 3<3 4J« 47"; 4Sa 502 BIBLICAL STUDY. Haupt, Erich Ha!!>rath, A 62,301, lieiiiegger, J. H. . . . 113, 144, 156, 184, Heiiielberg Catechism 13, 408, Kciiirici, C. F. G 461, Jleins'us, JJaniel Helvetic Confession (II.) 108, Confessions ..... Henderson, E 458, Hengstenberg, E. W... 184,235,456, XT .r u 459.472,473, Henry, Matthew 345, Herder, J. G 169, 203, 204, 228, ,, . ., 34Q, 37S> Heringa, J Her'.e. Chas Herodotus Hert.iig, O. R Ilorvev, A . . 451, A. C . Hexapla, English Hilary Hilgenfeld, A Hillel, Rabbi 62, HirzeI,S Hitchcock, R. D 429, Ilitzig, F 386, Hobbes, Thos i6g, Hodge, A. A . 161, Chas.. . 464, Hofniann, J. C .... 209, 350, 351, 461. Holhmus, M. D Holsten, C 389,487, Home, G T. Hartwell 184, Hon, F. J. A 86,150, Howson, J. S 452, 460, 479, Hud.son, C. F Huet. P. D Hume. D Hupfeld, H 14, 77, 208, Huss, John Huther, J.E Huxtable, E Hyde, Thomas 477 200 410 464 334 332 13 459 484 449 445 348 ! 118 ; 233 I 446 1 479 I 452 I 441 I 323 475 i 3ot ! 453 i 440 I 453 i 373 ! 24T 465 I Jerusalem, J. F. W tot Joel, M 154 Johanan, Rabbi 176 Johnson, E 4co -— G. H.S 4^1 Jonathan ben Uzziel 439 Jones, Wm 257 Iliad 64, 294 Immer, A. .. 27, 70, 73, 298, 330, 388, 447 Irenaeus 182, 321, 325 Irish Articles 167 Irons, W. J 487 Ismacl, Rabbi 301 Jablonsky, p. E 175 Jackson, J 452 Jacob ben Chajim 139 Jacob. G. A 488 Jacobson, W 452 Jadaim. Tract 130 Jameson, Anna 479 - — \Vm 167 Jarnai, Rabbi 174 Jay, Michael de 143 Jel.b, J.. . 261 Icliu'la, Rabbi 174, 177 jolf, W. E 67, 436 Jenkyn,Wm 467 Jciorae... 109, 129, 140, 182, 220, 256, 329 { crime's Vulgate 147 erome of Prague 330 — W. B 451 Josephus, Flavius 126, 127, 128, 130, 180, 221, 256, 307, 472, 476 lost, J. M 47a Journal Soc. Bib. Lit. and Exeg.. 91, 187, 211 JubilJien, Buch der 476 Junilius Africanus 129, 183, 184, 327 Justin Martyr 32a Kahle, Alb .' Kaiser. P C 348, Kalisch, M. M 454, Kant. Immanuel 7, Kaulen, Fr Kay,W 451, Keble, J Keil, C. A. G 153, 184, 224, ^rT^-„^ 444,471, Keim, 7h Kennicott, B 148, 149, Ken rick, J Kidder, R.. : i6g, Kihn, Heinr 129,323,326,327, King, John Kingsbury, T. L . . Kitto, John Klausen, H. N. .297, 320, 322, 324, 325, „, . „ , 331, 333, 334, 350, Kleinert, Paul 444, Khefoth, Th Kling, C. F Knapp, G. C Kneucker, J.J. Knight, Charles Knfjbel, A 208, Knox, J Koenig, F. E Koestlin, K. R Koppe, J. B 203, 207, 208, Kranichfeld, R Krehl, L Krug,W.T Kuenen, A 211, 376, 386, 391, 446, Kueper Kurtz, J.H 484 375 4^ 348 443 452 S29 34fl 47'5 47« 44:i 474 191 448 460 451 430 44 « 450 46a 450 348 475 221 453 371 482 389 218 459 482 483 Laidlaw, J 481 Lane, E. W . . 434, 471 Lang, J 223 Lange, J. P.... 217, 299, 354, 359, 448, 449, 450, 451 Langen, J 476, 485 Lanier, S 229 Lardner. Nath 447 I.auiwein 26^ Lechler, G 134, 330, 450 Lee, Wm 452 Leigh, Edward 338, 339, 340, 344 Leightun, Robert 467 Lenormant. Fr 232, 472, 472, 481 Levita, Elias... 107, 127, 130, 140. 141, i43> '5°, 353 44k INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 503 Levy, Jacob 174, 433 ;^ — .*•• A 434 Lovin, T. homas 480 Lewis, T. Carlton 344 ; Tayler 449, 450, 484 Ley, Julius 262, 278 Li:is. J.J 452 Library of the Fathers of the Holy Roman Catholic Church 456, 461 Liddell, H. G. . . 436 Lightfoot, John 142, 211, 318, 344 77,- J- B 452, 4'^4, 46s Lillie, John 466, 467 Lipsius, P. A 477 Liltledale, R. F 456 l.ivy, T 233 Ix)cke, J 346 Lombard, Peter 329 London Ministers, 1647 130 Lotz. W 474 Lowlh, Wm 148, 151, 154, 169, 203, 204, 228, 260, 261, 346, 349, 445, 458 Lucius 128 P. E 476 - — of Samosata 304, 325 Ludolphus de Saxonia 479 Luecke, F 349 G.C. F 463 Luenemann, G 435, 461 Lumby. J. R 93, 452, 460 Luth.-jrdt. C. E 225, 463 Luther, M 22, 71, 81, 107, 140, 141, 146. 165, 330, 331, 333, 365, 371, 408, 464 1 utterbeck, J. A. B 383,486 Liitz, J. L. S 350, 358 I .iizzato, S. D 175, 433 Lyford, Wm 120, 157, 423 Lynch. W. F 46^ Lyra, Nicolas de 329 MaCUON ALD, J. A 452 Mackennel, A 452 Madden, F. W 471 Makkabaer, Blicher der. 475 Mansel, H. L 451 Manton, Th 466 Map of Western Palestine 469 Marc->ius, S 184 Marsh, Geo. P 232 Marsliall, Stephen 223 Martin Marprelate 223 Martinius, M 146 Masiu-s, And 143, 169, 454 Massora Magna 149, 442 McClelland, A 355, 448 McCo.sh,J 82, 83 McCiirdy, J. K 450 McOonald, J. M 479 Mcad.C. M 449 Meilc, Joseph 146, i6g, 191 Meier, l>nst B62, 432 ,\;.,!.,nLlh.,n. P 333 Mciikc, Theo 469 Mcrci-r, J 146 M -rrill, S 469 M erx. A 126, 433 Messias Judaeorum 475 Messner, H .... 381, sgO Mcycr.H. A. W 350, 461 John 340 Meyer, L 348 Meyrick, F 451, 453 Michaelis, J. D 203( 375> 4^3 Middock, Henry 340 Mill. John 148 W.H 447 Milligan, Wm 460 Milman, H. H 471 Mitchell, A. F loi, 167 Mocha, Rabbi . .. ie2 Moll, C. B 450, 451 Mombert, J. I 443 Mommsen, Theo 476 Mohtet, Edouard 476 Montgomery, J. F 452 Moore, Henry 373 More, Henry 460 Morinus, f 143, 144 Morison. J 452, 462 Morus, S. F. N 298, 347 Moulton, W. F 435, 460 Movers, J. C 481 Mozley, T . . . 206 Miihlau, F 432 Miiller, Julius 108 Muir, A. F 453 Murphy, James 454 Murray, T. C 218, 222, 445 Musculus, W 146, 333 Naegelsbach, C. W. E. 236, 45-1 K. F 484 Neale. J. M 221, 456 Neauder, A. . . . 209, 350, 378, 380, 381, 382, 38:1. 384, 388, 389, 396, 478, 48a Nehemiah, Kabbi 177 Nestle, E 439 Nestorius 326 Neubauer, Ad 458, 47 ( Xewcommen, M 22 t Newman, J. H 32 1 Niemeyer, A. H i-.* Noeldeke, Theo... 154, 155, 224,227, 238, 433. 44! Noldius, C 44a Norri>. E 43; Nutt, J. W 474 Oecolampadius, J 146, 166, 333, 33. Oecumenius 325 Oehler, G. F. . . 350, 376, 380, 388, 395, 396, 482 Olshausen, J 431, 453 Onkelos, Targum 303, 439 Opitz, Hermann 388, 488 Oppert, J 435 Orelli, C. von 483 Origen 109, 129, 322 Origaiiis Hexapla 147, 440 Orr, J 4S3 Owen, John... 134, 145, 146, 147, 156, 170, 184, 372, 466 l'*( kari), J 450 PpVaer. E. H 469 Herbert 221 I'apiafi 330 Paris Polyglot 147 Parousia.'l he 488 Patton, Francis L.. 104, 119, 124, 125, 171, 241 504 BIBLICAL STUDY. Paul of Nisibis 183, 327 Pearson, John 147, 453 ——.Rich, 147. 453 PeUican, K 146 Peiirice, John 434 Perkins, Wm 373 Perowne, J. J. S 218, 222, 455 Petermann, J. H 433, 435, 439 Peyrerius, 1 184 Pfleiderer, O 388 Phagius, P 146 Philippi, F. A 464, 488 Phillips, G 433 Philo of Alexandria 126, 127, 128, 130, 181, 221, 305, 321 Pick, B 450 Pin, L. E. Du 87, 88, 92, 200, 217 Pindar 256 Piscator, J 146 Planck, G, J 186, 352 Plato 64, 224 Plummer, A 452 PUimptre, E. H 431, 456, 460 Pococke, Edw 143, 345, 459 Poole, Matthew.... 147, 148, 157, 167, ,,r ^ 345, 453 Pope, Wm. B 460 Potter, J. L 431 Piake, Charles 47O Presbyterian Review. ... 14, 39, 83, 85, 88, 104, 119, 125, IS3, 161, 171, 20-i, 209, 211, 228, 241, 329, 387, 410 l*ressel, F.. 175 Pressensd, E. de 452, 484 Pretorius, Fr 434 Prideaux, H 146, 200, 476 Front, E. S 452 i'usey, E. B 329, 446, 458, 459 Rainolds, John ^^44, 459 Rainy, Robert 96 Rambach, J. J 298, 344, 448 Raphcleng, Franz 143 Rashi, Rabbi 178, 329 Rawlinson, G 451,452,472,473, 481 Records of the Past 474 Rcdford, R. A 452 Reinke, L 484 Renan, Ernst 226, 457, 479, 480 Reuchlin, J 107, 353 Reuss, Edw. . . 14, 68, 70, 77, 106, 108, 119, 229, 249, 323, 348, 376, 382, 386, 391, 437, 445, 446, 453, 486 Reynolds, John 344 Rh;inibanus, Maurus 329 Riddle, M. B 460 Riehm, Edw. . . 224, 318, 3S9, 401, 430, 483, 488 Risgenbach, C. J 451 Riggs, Ehas 432 Ritter, Karl , 470 Rivctus, Andrew 143, 167, 333 Roberts, Francis. . . 298, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344. 351, 361, 362, 430 - — W 452 Robinson, Edw. .210, 431, 435, 441,468, 469 E.G 37^ Robjohns, H. T 452 Roedifcer, Aemil .. 433 Roeasch, H 443, 476 Rose, H. J 45t Rosenmuller, C. F. K 320, 454 Rossi, Azzariah de 141 Row,C. A 8 Rowland, A 452, 453 Rowlands, D 452 Rushbrooke, W. G 441 Ryland,J.E 378 Saadia, Rabbi 304, 329 Saalschutz, J. L 257,471, 483 Sabatier, A 388, 487 St. Caro, Hugo de 329 St. Petersburg, Codex 149, 152 Salmond, G. D. F 460 Ssftiday, W log, 447 Sappho 257 Sayce, A. H 45, 48, 59, 435 Scaliger, J. J 146 Scattergood, A 147, 453 Schaff, P 13, 63, 66, 69, 71, 92, 93, 221, 226, 429, 443, 450, 460, 479 Schindler 146 Schleiermacher, F 297, 349, 350, 352, 373, 448 Schmid, C. P.. 379, 380, 388, 3S9, 395, 396, 486 Schmidt, J. H 436 W. G 389, 461, 488 Schmoller, Otto 450 Schnedermann, G 143 Schodde, G. H 475 Schoettgen, Ch 260, 462 Scholz, A 458 J. M. A 149 Schrader, Eb. . . . 47, 49, 262, 435, 473, 481 Scjjroeder, F. W. J 449, 450 — -P 434 Schuerer, E 60,175,301,477 Schultens, A 353 Schultz, F. W 449, /.r^ Hermann 381,384,395,401, 462 Schutze, L 216 Schwab, M 485 Schwegler, A 391 Scotch Confession of 1560 114, 117 Scott, H. M 216 ■ Robert 4 36 Thomas 345, 452 Scrivener, F. H 86, 148, 150, 438, 44', 443 Seder, G. F 340 Selden , J t 46 Semler, J. S 136, 199, 347, 357 Shairpe, J. C 253 Shakespeare, W 221 Shammai. Rabbi 62 Sharpe, Samuel 474 Shedd, W. G. T 464 Sibyllina, Oracula 475 Sieffert, F 461 Siegfried, Karl 198, 303, 305, ;o6, 307, 323, 329, 448 Simon, Rich . . . 182, 198, 199, 201, 204, 445 Simeon, Rabbi 177 Sinaiticus Petropolitanus, Codex. 149, 438 Sionita, Gabriel 142,143 Smeaton, George 487, 488, 489 Smcctymniius 223 Smend, R . 453 INDEX OF BOOKS AND AUTHORS. 505 Smith, George 47, 473, 474 James 480 H. B 162, 241 H. P 88, 387 -T—R. P 433, 451, 452 Wm 429, 471 W. Robertson.. 109, 130, 154, 211, 224. 251. 444i 445 Socrates 64, 72 Sophocles ... 64 E.A 436 Spanheim, F 200 Spence, D 460 H. D. M 452 Speaer, P. J 34?, 344 Spiess, Edm 462, 481 Spinoza, B. 197 Spurgeon, C. H 345,360,447. 455 Spursto w, Wm . 223 Stkudlein, C. F 348 Stanley, A. P 464, 468, 471 Stark, C. L W . 348 Stalham, W. M . . 452 Stein. C.W. 348 Stendel, J. C. F 348, 376 Sterry, Peter 372 Stier, R 438 Storr, G. C 348 Strabo, Walafrid .. 329 Strack, Hermann L. . 77, 127, 128, 130, 149. 153, 178, 216, 224, 432, 439, 442 Strauss, IJavid 81,377,385, 478 Stroud, Wm 479 Struthers, J 167 Smart, Moses.. 310, 298, 347, 348, 437, 457, 460, 464, 466, 467 Supernatural Religion 211 Suienhtisius, G 485 5yro-hexaplaris Ambrosianiis 440 Tati.\.n 437 Taylor, C 127 Francis 168, 169, 339, 344, 457 Isaac. 86, 445 John, of Norwich 34^1 347» 353 Thomas 466 Terry, M . S 449 Tertullian 182,321, 325 Testament. New 440 Testamcnlum Hi). Graece 440, 441 3. 25, 416 — Sh(;ru-r " 13,361,418 Symbols 343, 37a 506 BIBLICAL STUDY. Wetstein, J. C 149 WeLzstein, J. G 469 Whately, R 36 Whichcote, B 112 \\hitby, Daniel 346, 348 Whitelaw, T 452 Wickes, W 152, 443 Wicklif, J 330 Wilke, C. G 436 Wilkins, A 474 Wilkinson, J. G 473 Williams, George 470 Wilson, John 469 Wilson, Chxs. W 470 Winer, G. B 69,70,435 Wines, E, C 483 Winterbotham, R 452 Wisdom, Book of. 475 Withington, L 4; 7 Witsius, Hermann 185, 200 Wogue, L 142, 174, 178, 300, 301, 3031 304. 430 Wood, G 452 Woods, J. H 451 Wordsworth, C 453 Wright C. H. H 455, 457, 45, Wm 178, 217, 224, 255, 256, 261, 3^8, 433, 477 Wuensche, Aug 63, 235, 238, 286, 454, 459, 463, 484 Xenophon 64, 233 Ximenes,Caid 106 Young, D 452 — —Thomas 223, 441 Zacharia, G. T 347, 374 Zahn, Theo 77, 437 Zamora, Alphonso de 106 Zeitschnft d. D. M. G 52, 258 Zezschwitz, C. A. G. v 66, 72 Ziegler, L 443 Zincke, F. B 474 Zoeckler, Otto.. .77, 216, 217, 429, 449, 450 Zschokke, H 389 Zunz, L 62, 130, 17;, 48s Zurich Consensus 156 Zwingli, U 81, 140, 146, 166, 333, 3J4 ADDITIONS TO SECOND EDITION. Ladd.G.T 430 Noeldeke, Th 433 Siegfried, C 433 Strack, H. 433 Toy, C. H Trumbull, H. C. Westcott, B. F. . Wigram, G, V... 409 467 ^K'#MHL4Bi^':'i^*"' ^^: -;S^° 4iB •r. 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