^UNIVERSnTo/miFQRNIA
COLLEGE of MINING
DEPARTMENTAL
LIBRARY
BEQUEST OF
SAMUElBENEDICTCHRlSTY
PROFESSOR OF
MINING AND METALLURGY
1885-1914
TREATISE ON ORE DEPOSITS,
BERNHARD VON GOTTA,
PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES,
FREIBERG, SAXONY.
TRANSLATED FROM THE SECOND GERMAN EDITION,
BY
FREDERICK PRIME, JR.,
MINING ENGINEER.
REVISED BY THE AUTHOR.
WITH NUMEKOUS ILLUSTKATIONS.
NEW YORK:
D. VAN NOSTEAND, PUBLISHER,
23 MURRAY STREET AND 27 WARRSN STREET.
1870.
IV
is a duty we owe to the bountiful Giver ? as well as to those
laborious men, who by their observations and researches have
unlocked the treasures.
The importance of preserving the* distinctive characteristics
of Professor Von Cotta's work has, in a measure, necessitated
the sacrifice of any attempt at style. My absence, while the
book was in press, prevented a personal examination of the
proof-sheets.
I have great pleasure in acknowledging the kind and con-
tinued assistance of the Rev. Rt. Wells Whitford, British and
American Chaplain at Leipsic (grandson of Robert Wells, of
Charleston, So. Carolina), during the progress of the impression.
I am much indebted to my friend, Professor Von Cotta,
for the encouragement and attention he gave me, until he was
obliged to be absent from Freiberg, in the Altai Mountains, in
his official employment by the Russian Government.
FREDERICK PRIME, Jr.
26 Broad St. New-York,
February, 1869.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
My former pupil, Mr. Frederick Prime Jr., a very enthusi-
astic student in this branch of geology, has received my full
approval and permission to translate my book on ORE DEPOSITS.
I have suggested many alterations, and additions, which he will
set forth in this translation; so that, as a whole, it may be con-
sidered as a new edition (the third one) of my work. From
the attention I have given to it, as the translation progressed,
I feel justified in approving it as a whole. *
B. VON COTTA.
Freiberg, January, 1869.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
GENERAL PART.
Page
1. Ores and metalliferous deposits f.V,. , v fj^-^^'Vr .... .1
2. Composition of metalliferous deposits . . . . .- v; .V . . . 2
3. Minerals which especially occur as ores .", . . ';../ . . 3
4. 5.] List of minerals . . . ;. . . .",.,> .'I .-.,: ^ ^V.,.^; . 3 10
6. Texture of the ores and vein-stones . ./J .,..^ ^ ,;.. .,;.-. . 10
7. Grouping of the ores and vein-stones . ^.- .,':.-. . t ;y >.-* < 13
8. Succession of minerals in metalliferous veins and geodes ... 15
9. Occurrence of metalliferous deposits ..-., .V..,r ..--.* -,.^/4; . 17
OEE-BEDS.
10. What are ore-beds? /\^V.;v; : 17
11. Peculiar conditions of ore-beds --V^ l '-j r'-:^ ; - 19
12. Occurrence of ore-beds, and distribution of ores in them ... 21
13. Origin of ore-beds -..-., -.^a'- ^ "gV^ 22
14. Prospecting for and following of ore-beds
15. Surface-deposits . s ,i -,-,,..,.. ^ ; . . - 23
METALLIFEKOUS VEINS.
16. What are metalliferous veins, or lodes? 26
17. Classification of veins .; \ '-.'-. i ..;'/,:-/. : C f^'T .//;-v^' r > :^>- 27
18. Intersections of veins .. ^ .*. : . . '_' *". *" v -v '. f -..";.,> . 29
19. Faults
20. Results of dislocations ^'l\^'- : .\^'.'.''^' . 32
21. Occurrence of lodes V * ,, .- X . V* ., . 33
22. Breadth, strike, and dip, of lodes . . .>. . . . : . ... 35
23. Distribution of ores in lodes .* ,, ^:;,v^ 36
24. Differences of depth 37
25. Gossan, iron hat, chapeau en fer, Pacos, Colorados ..... 38
VIII
Page
26. Primary differences of depth . . .-..;-. - v .-. -. . ..y." . . . 39
27. Theoretical examination . . ... v^. . ,>' ', t .*. -\ . . 42
28. Influence of the breadth of fissures on the local distribution of ores 43
29. Influence of the nature of the country . . : : . . ..*_ V . . . . 45
30. Relation of ore-deposits to the enclosing rock around Freiberg . 50
31. Distinction between red and grey gneiss, and their influence on
lodes . .V . . '. . o*. ,. . : .- v f > ... 52
32. Investigation of the influence of the country-rock on the contents
of lodes .v-/ . > -.',,;'/ .- v?V-. . 53
33. Materials for a theory . . '. ^i 7 ; .*.-*.>. 54
34. Ability of rocks to conduct heat . . . . .-: '.'>, '*' .. "?&*' . 55
35. Density of rocks . *K. />/.; ^. ^^,* >*.''. . .- . 56
36. Porosity of rocks /'."'/ >.^ ; . ''..- ./'.-. ,..:'.
37. Smoothness or roughness of the surfaces of rocks . . ' r ,\ . . 57
38. Chemical reactions of rocks .... 7 . ^. .. , .. -> ...
39. Electric currents ' . ." . . . .< .- r\' i v . /^-. . ; ,,~"i 58
40. Chief results . .\~*. ,-'-. , .-W: . ' -,; ._ ^ ,,.' . 59
41. Influence of strike and dip of lodes on their richness . .. ; . 60
42. Determination of the age of lodes 62
43. Age of lodes 63
44. Origin of lodes. Formation of fissures 64
45. Possibility of dislocations . ..- '. '. ./ ; ~ J . 66
46. Filling of fissures . * ' . ;- , . ..- ' ? ^i r ' . 68
47. Theories of the formation of veins, up to the time of Werner . 69
48. Theories of the formation of veins, since Werner 71
49. Theories of contemporaneous formation, and of descension . .
50. Theory of lateral-secretion . . /^;. . /_. , .. \ ^. . . . 72
51. Theory of infiltration .-., T ^:;\ '//... r . . . . . . . 73
52. Theory of sublimation ,. ':*L ,%-^~V ..,,'. 74
53. Theory of injection w ..- 75
54. Concluding observations . .. j l" 76
55. Search for lodes .'v -..'-. 79
56. Following- up of lodes 80
SEGREGATIONS.
57. What are segregations? ... ..'. 81
58. Recumbent, and vertical, segregations ..... . ., . .
59. Particular kinds of segregations 84
60. Occurrences of segregations . . > 85
61. Distribution of the ores in the segregations 86
62. Search for and following-up of segregations 87
IMPREGNATIONS.
63. What is unde stood by, or comprised in impregnations V .87
64. Occurrence of impregnations 88
65. Modes of occurrence of ores in impregnations . . . ." V , .
IX
Page
66. Distribution of impregnations . ..^^ ; ^^^ / w ^ ;,^; r . . 89
67. Origin and age of impregnations .... i; ;;'*:.:*/>*:'',- - 9
68. Search for and following-up of impregnations . : . > -^ .^ ^ . 92
ORE-DISTRICTS.
69. What are ore-districts? . * .^. V^ ^, i>> ,v., ^ ... */,; .. , . . 93
SPECIAL PART.
A COLLECTION OF EXAMPLES.
70. Summary . --. >,;._>, '."J-Z-^ -. - . :' ' : ^"- > ^ 'V J V' ; i l; */ *\ . 95
GERMANY.
I. THE ERZGEBIRGE.
71. Geological formation 96
72. Ore-deposits of the Erzgebirge in general 97
73. Ore-district of Freiberg ,. ... V,A-. . ^t^l^V" -" 98
74. Ore-district of Altenberg .... ; . *-'.,,-- 105
75. Altenberg tin stockwerk 106
76. Tin-deposits of Zinnwald 109
77. Tin-deposits of Graupen, and Poebel ill
78. Hematite deposits of the Altenberg district . ,- .. ^ > "X
79. Ore-district of Berggiesshiibel : , >. .. . % 112
80. Ore-districts of Katharinenberg and Saida . . . >-.^-V. 113
81. Marienberg ^ ^ -^ ? ^i,: v^.^^.v -114
82. Ehrenfriedersdorf and Geyer . , : . . . -./ '! . r> , iv v .-. 115
83. Annaberg district . ./,. . . ^ . .- . . .' 118
84. Joachimsthal district .;./... -1 . 4:.< -i?.v r , '----uv^ ' 119
85. Ore-district of Schwarzenberg 120
86. District of Johanngeorgenstadt and Eibenstock 123
87. Schneeberg district . . ..,.'.,. .;\ ,^ . > t , ,v ..-/.". 126
88. Bleistadt v -^..^^, ''* : < '-.v ...:'-:, ; . 130
n. THE FICHTELGEBIRGE.
89. Geological formation ^ ,i-f *.- -. -. -v " . 1 . 131
90. Lodes in the Voigtland slates ^ ; .:.'.>.. 132
91. Iron-deposits in the south-eastern schist-region 134
92. Gold and antimony ore-deposits at Goldkronach 135
X
III. THE THURINGIAN FOREST.
Fage
93. Geological formation 136
94. Ore-deposits in the eastern Silurian formation of the Thuringian
forest ' . . ? 137
95. Magnetite deposits of the Northwestern Thuringian forest . . 138
96. Manganese and iron-lodes in the porphyries of the Thuringian
forest .>'",. r 139
97. Argentiferous ore-deposits in the Carboniferous formation . 140
98. Iron-deposits in the sechstein -formation V V -"" .'** '' ' ' 142
IV. THE HARTZ.
99. General geological formation 145
100. Iron-ore-deposits . ../.,.";* 147
101. Manganese deposits . .>. 148
102. Antimony lodes 149
103. Lead and silver-lodes. A. Harzgerode and Neudorf ....
104. B. Andreasberg district . 150
105. C. District of Clausthal 153
106. General remarks on the Clausthal lodes . 157
107. Rammelsberg near Goslar ... 158
108. Lautersberg district 164
109. Copper-slates in the Hartz, Thuringia, and Hesse 165
V. THE RHINE.
110. Geological formation .173
111. Iron-ores in the Carboniferous formation 1?5
112. Iron-deposits in the Devonian
113. Iron-ores in the Hundsriick . -. -. t . ) V 1 179
114. Manganese deposits
115. Zinc- and lead-deposits
116. Copper, lead, silver, nickel, and cobalt-lodes . .
117. Holzappel group
118. Rheinbreitenbach .^: .1--. > .... ... 191
119. Agger valley , -.-^ '.. . , . 192
120. Dillenburg . . ;-.:.%/.. . .
121. Antimony ore-deposits
122. Lead-ore-deposit near Commern 196
123. Gold-deposits 197
VI. THE PALATINATE.
124. Quicksilver-deposits .200
VII. THE BLACK FOREST.
125. Geological formation
126. Lodes in the Kinzig valley 204
XI
Tage
127. Lodes in the southerly portion of the Black Forest .... 207
128. Pisolithic iron-deposit at Eanderii . '; f .-/- . . >. -."." -~\ ' . ; .- \ 208
129. Smithsonite deposits at Wiesloch in Baden .... :' v . v 211
130. Gold-deposits in the Rhine valley . .'/".',;'., -.. V, V ,. -. . 212
VIII. THE SUABIAN AND FRANCONIAN JURA.
131. Geological formation ^^^^ ^^"^v'' ^C : v)^ 'f^." : . ; 214
132. Iron-deposits . . . ' ,^'\' l \"^ ''*''v'-*V 1?: ^ -. '^T '.;. ;.-.-';;, . . 216
IX. THE BOHEMIAN FOREST, AND BOHEMIA.
133. Geological formation . . . / ^ .,.^f J? . .^^:. ;l -, 1 .^ > ^^ ' . 217
134. Bodenmais y' < V .... . ... '"'*".,, r* ''-\-\ "** 218
135. Erbendorf r '^ ^ \ . '. . .V^.],-, . . . 220
136. Schlackenwald near Carlsbad . ;-'... . . . t /.^3^.- -v 221
137. Przibram ., .'^ ; . . ^- .' ' -.\ , '>- " .- '. . ,\ : . - ; ... . '. -;'.,' ^^ . l . 222
138. Mies . . . v--. . . . . ^^Sf . ' . T t. . . 224
139. Horzowitz *- vi Vs, ^-,. f .:- ,^-. x * , ^ ? p> . -^V . . . 225
140. Magnetite in the lordship of Radnitz . . . .. ; /;"-;. .. -
141. Adamstadt and Rudolstadt in southern Bohemia, northeasterly
of Budweis ~..^;'H--i i . 226
142. Kuttenberg % v> . .... ^^^^^-/v,^ 4V^t- i 227
143. Copper-ores in the rothliegendes near Boehmischbrod . . . 228
X. THE RIESENGEBIRGE.
144. Geological formation 7 , 7 "... . "^ ^ ";._... >.- 230
145. Copper-ores in the rothliegendes of northern Bohemia, and in
the crystalline schists at Rochlitz . . ., J 281
146. Kupferberg in Silesia . .^.''."^:'-^\^'.^'^^.^ : ^\J'^^
147. Eisenkoppe near Altenberg . V ' . T.-^rS^/' . , ,T ^^ . '\ '. 238
148. Voigtsdorf-Querbach . . . . _ v> '\'^. J .' ^ v ". -."v . . .
149. Iron-ore-deposits near Schmiedeberg '* ;' '-? ' > 239
150. Gablau, westerly of Waldenburg . . . iC . /;...;; . 241
151. Zuckmantel !*'/"- ., : V -,\ -s - .-' . . 242
XI. ELEVATED PLATEAU OF UPPER SILESIA.
152. Geological formation "V; ; 'x-''.ii ,'i? - '. '^r-^ -. 243
153. Clay-ironstone of the Carboniferous formation 244
154. Clay-ironstone of the Keuper formation . .. '\ : . 245
155. Smithsonite, galena, and limonite-deposits in the muschelkalk-
formation 247
XII. THE NORTH GERMAN PLAINS.
156. Geological formation 255
157. Cottbus 256
XII
THE CARPATHIAN COUNTRIES.
XIII. THE NORTHERN CARPATHIANS.
Page
158. Geological formation . 257
159. Ironstone-beds in Carpathian sandstone 258
160. Copper-ore-beds near Poschorita, and Domokos 261
161. Lead- and silver-ore-deposits at Kirlibaba ' . . . 263
162. Veins of auriferous pyrites at Borsa . , .. 265
XIV. TRANSYLVANIA.
163. Geological formation . . ...".. . -v.-SV' .% N . " . .. . 267
164. Sinka near Kronstadt . . . \; .'/. V 268
165. Western Transylvania . . , I . ; . .V , - 270
166. Vorospatak . ;--,:'.. '"..">'' V ". ' M\. -? 271
167. Offenbanya . ." , v .; .""-Y_ . . . 277
168. Nagyag . . y v i-v ; ."'. '-V, 28
XV. THE BANAT, AND SERVIA.
169. Geological formation 284
170. Lunkany *.-"' *;,:, frV. -' . "Y .'y , . . v 285
171. The Banat ore-segregations . . -.-;,..: 286
XVI. HUNGARY.
172. Geological formation . v-' . . ; ;'*--<- . 294
173. Schemnitz . -7 i i ( , ; ,. . /,. .. . .... ^ '.. ^ . . . 295
174. Kremnitz . . '..^ -;;'.^^ /.' -'.,'V- -'"' '" ^ '' ' ' '* ? ^ ''' - 2 "
175. Herrengrund -'.'' * >f \^. '. ^..^ ^ . \* - - ' > ' ! - V "'^^^
176. Magurka . . '. --. . . v , : \ . . - ;v. ^ .\ U './ '. ^ ' ' 300
177. Dobschau . -f^-'l *: ; . > ; '> ; 301
178. Schmollnitz 303
179. Nagybanya, Felsobanya, Kapnik, and Olalaposbanya .... 304
XVII. THE ALPS.
180. Geological formation v -.iV\ ri j f , - : * ; f . >^. > v '; -^ 5 309
181. Gold-deposits of the Alps . ': ""'. / 'v* '^ "; '" '^.' ": " '/'? ''. '. - 310
182. Gold- veins in the Salzburg Tauern chain 313
183. Gold-deposits on the Heinzen Mountain 317
184. Gold-veins on the Callajida in Graubiinden 318
185. Gold-veins of La Gardette 319
186. Copper- and lead-deposits at Klausen in the Tyrol .... 320
187. Copper-deposit at Agordo . -.., .^ .. : . -. .\. v ,. / ^ r , . 323
188. Silver- and copper-deposits in Alpine limestone at Brixlegg in
the Tyrol / . "". \ ."'; !'^. . v X .... 327
189. Silver- and copper-deposits in Alpine limestone at Schwatz in
~lt- the Tyrol ..>'. .A " 4M<;VV; . 328
XIII
Page
190. Silver-deposits of Chalanches near Allemont, Dept of Isere . 328
191. Lead- and zinc-deposits of Carinthia . * .^ -^; r : v : .; . . 329
192. Cobalt- and nickel-deposits, at Schladming in Styria, on the
Nockel Mountain in the Leogang valley, and in the Val d'An-
niviers in the Canton of Valais ... ; ? V '".! -"~.-^>' .. . 341
193. Quicksilver-deposits of Idria in Carniola . . . .... . -. " . . 342
194. Iron-deposits in the crystalline schists of the Eastern Alps . 344
195. Iron-deposits of the Lower Palaeozoic in the Eastern Alps . . ,.
ITALY.
196. Preliminary remarks " " *" '^r%.;.^.. *-~\^u. **' : '^' ''' * S47
XVIIL MOUNTAINS OF MO'DENA AND TUSCANY.
197. Cinnabar-deposits at Ripa in Modena . V . _^ . >.;-T^ . . 347
198. Lead- and copper-ores in the Apuanian Alps . . . V . . . 348
199. Copper-ores in the serpentine of Modena . , ..! 349
200. Copper- and lead-deposits of Tuscany . . . . > lfcj * Hf > : . . . 350
XIX. THE ISLAND OF ELBA.
201. Cape Calamita, and Rio r ./.-." \-^ ./ ^ * .& ,'." ../>'' *, . 354
FRANCE.
202. General remarks .... :.~.:i':r'j^*<^.r>i- : Z.'^.:>i.^.^ 357
XX. IRON-DEPOSITS OF FRANCE.
203. Oolithic ores, and iron-deposits in the Jurassic group > . .358
204. Oolithic deposits in the Swiss and French Jura . .... 359
205. Iron-deposits near Thionville 360
206. Tertiary iron-ores in the Dept. of the Lot . . . r .; . T_. 362
XXI. CENTRAL DISTRICT OF FRANCE.
207. General remarks . . . './ .-'I*'. **.' '.-.- %: . - :- .^^.-^ ,-. 363
208. Lead-lodes of the Forez .. : ^ 7 . '. ^ ." .;^/N?:^> . 369
209. Ore-deposits in the Aveyron-district . . .'-.- . ? ..^. . . 370
210. Lodes in the neighborhood of Pont-Gibaud near Clermont . . 375
211. Manganese-deposits of Romaneche in the Dept. of Saone-et-Loire 376
212. Copper-deposits at Chessy near Lyon . -;-.,. ^.. ?_ y-&-tfj r : i 377
XXII. BRITTANY.
213. Geological formation . ^. . -. 380
214. Tin-deposits 381
215. Lodes of Poullaouen and Huelgoat 383
XIV
XXIII. THE PYRENEES.
Page
216. Geological formation . . *' 1 ./-...,?.- A *'.'/ 385
217. Manganese-deposits in the.Dept. of Hautes-Pyrenees . . . 386
218. Culera in Catalonia . . . \ . . f . . '. \ - V / '.'.;. 387
XXIV. SPAIN.
'--/;/ "It. s A. '> '::*'- lit'Vs *' -V- < '" ">^'~ ^ -'-' ifC''
219. General summary - : v^^^ ' ";^^ 389
220. Calamine -deposits in the province of Sant-Ander . , .-'.I, " - 390
221. Lodes of Hiendelencia in the province of Guadalajara ... 391
222. Lodes in the Sierra de Carthagena . . . -.-.*' .,-.;.. > , . 392
223. Lodes in the Sierra Almagrera .... ~;*y : ^/^' ;: f'; 1 'i 393
224. Lead-lodes near Linares, in Andalusia . ,' ' 396
225. Copper-deposits in the province of Huelva, in Andalusia . . 397
226. Quicksilver-deposits at Almaden in Estremadura . . -^ . . 399
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
227. Summary .. ' V: ^ : 'r c -', 1'.^;. : ''VWV 401
XXV. CORNWALL.
228. Geological formation . v ;^^r^i . 402
229. Summary of the ore-deposits in Cornwall 406
230. Lodes of Cornwall -''.* -'.;"-.'.-'. .-'^': "/ . . fev . 408
231. Distribution of ores in Cornwall 417
232. Stream-works of Cornwall ;, v ^ ,-.-^r .-..* , t >' 420
233. Theoretical remarks on the Cornwall ore-district . . '-.; . . 422
XXVI. WALES.
234. Lodes of ^Cardiganshire . ", '^'-+ ">". ^, ^^. '^:- .'jt'. 427
XXVII. DERBYSHIRE.
23 t f >; Geological formation /; = '-. ;"'." ;V .-". '." . . . . .!''.". . 430
236. Lead-deposits . ,.>/ V7'^ - r .^^ 3 V->-'^i;i^&j^ ; '- '''>7 /.-;' '' 431
XXVIII. CUMBERLAND.
237. Lead-deposits ; ^ :> ^^'>,^^-:-;^^s J; . 434
XXIX. IRELAND.
238. Wicklow ^ i^^Z-^? y^^^:'^^ 436
SCANDINAVIA.
XXX. NORWAY AND SWEDEN.
239. General remarks ; . r^ > ;: ;; V 438
240. Contact-deposits in the neighborhood of Christiania .... 440
XV
Page
241. Kongsberg " ". K -. X .'/. > '> ' J v r . '.'. .' . ./: / 442
242. Fallbands of cobalt-ore at Skutterud and Snarum j.. : *;*>>/. . 445
243. Magnetite-deposits of Arendal . ...<^..-"' : .j\-~~ *,' .-'' *'/?*. 447
244. Copper-deposits of Roraas in Norway . J&f" "* ^l ' .... 450
245. Copper-deposits of Eaafjord and Raipas in Norway .... 451
246. Copper-deposits at Falun (Sweden) V -"-^ ' ^ 452
247. Sala (Sweden) / .^ ;.-<%.' V'i. . . ' 454
248. Deposits around 'Philipstad (Sweden) . . .*X?<,; ; i .* . . 456
249. Magnetite-deposits at Dannemora (Sweden) . . . 459
250. Ore-deposits of Tunaberg (Sweden) . ..>;>'- ' V : .... 460
251. Lake- and bog-ores of Sweden . . . . . . . ." . : . . 461
252. Deposits of Pittkaranda (Finland) . . . ',' . ".. \ ~ . . .462
THE URAL MOUNTAINS.
253. Geological formation ^-Vp^^-i- >'-' '.. . : . .-.. ; - 463
254. Copper-deposits of Gumeschewskoy . x /%. i-:-^'- /-^-'WY - - ' , 465
255. Copper-deposits of Bogoslowsk . ;. '. V ^'* > , .... 466
256. Copper-deposits of the Permian formation > .". 467
257. Deposits of gold and platinum in the Urals . 'V V 1 .... 470
258. Gold-deposits at Beresof . . v *-'. VvV "/';-^ ' \ " 472
259. Other gold-j)lacers in the Urals . , : v^. ^v V *^*H'*\ 474
THEOEETICAL RETROSPECTS.
260. Summary . '^.^, .. .:- .' : .c -T .' . . : ; : . :''< .^.^ . .''.' ^' > '.^- "*:>-.,. 475
261. Diversities, differences, and grouping of ore-deposits . /.',>.. 479
262. Tin-formation 481
263. Freiberg older silver-lodes 486
264. Barytic lead-formation , * : ^ ' ; ; ' : ' 487
265. Veins of ironstone . A'V/ T . y .^'. c ' . ., ''-'. ; "7 *- -' ' - > '' v '' '. 490
266. Metalliferous greenstones in the neighborhood of Schwarzenberg 491
267. Telluric and auriferous lodes of Transylvania 493
268. Silver-lodes of Andreasberg in the Hartz . . . _./.>- : ^..^ r 494
269. Segregations of pyrites . . .; V^^:^: ;.;.,.. ...... Vr . 495
270. Lead- and zinc- deposits in limestone and dolomite. . ."%'. "V - 496
271. Fallbands .,.;.,;.-. 500
272. Impregnations of copper-ores in mechanical sediments . - 5 1
273. Deposits of spathic iron . .^.-V .*-.'-.-".>.'...-* i > 502
274. Distribution of ore-deposits . .- -1 ^. v .; r v; .. . .^v 1., : . \ -. 509
275. Relations of the rocks to the ore-deposits . ', . -. .^^,.- - 516
276. Distribution of the ores in the deposits .:/. './V,. ". . . 522
277. Conditions of age of the ore-deposits . jsj - : 'r-'/ : '. ' ',' ' "~i -. 526
278. Age of metals V/>^..' 534
279. Manner of formation of the ore-deposits . * :^ 's^-,.V i, - v 546
280. Determination of the value of the ore-deposits . , . :, . . 552
GENERAL PART,
ORES AND METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS.
1. Under the general term ores are comprehended all
minerals and mineral aggregates, which from their metallic con-
tents attract the attention of the miner. Metalliferous de-
posits are therefore for us all local accumulations of minerals or
mineral aggregates, which correspond to this demand.
The idea of the terms ores and metalliferous deposits,
in mining parlance, cannot be well expressed in a more precise
or scientific manner. There is not any particular class "of
minerals, or of rocks, corresponding to these terms. To them
belong native metals, metallic oxides, metallic sulphides, and
even metallic salts and their combinations; but on the other
hand not all metalliferous species of the Mineral Kingdom,
because many of these cannot, either from their nature, or the
too small percentage of a metal they contain, proportionally to
its worth, be worked with profit. No rock, for example, contain-
ing 5 per cent of oxide of iron can be considered as an ore ;
while on the other hand a vein of quartz, with but 1 per cent of
gold, would be regarded as a very rich and valuable metallic
deposit; so relative is the idea.
It is even possible, and has already occurred, that a mineral,
which for a long time was useless to the miner, and on this
account was not considered as an ore, has, by means of new
discoveries, been included in the category of ores. Blende, for
example, when it did not contain valuable metals, could hardly
have been considered formerly as an ore, though commonly defi-
ned as such; but since a method has been discovered of extract-
ing Zinc from it with profit, it may be ranked without doubt
among the ores. Far more striking are the cases of Clay and
1
2 COMPOSITION OF METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS.
Cryolith from which Aluminum is produced; for these minerals,
which formerly no one would have considered as such, belong
now, when strictly defined, to the category of ores.
The expression t met a Hi feroujs deposit' defines, as before
mentioned, the local accumulation of any sorts of ores in any
form. I divide all metalliferous deposits, according to their forms,
into Regular and Irregular. The first are agaija divided into
Beds and Veins: the last, into Segregations and Impregnations.
These forms are general: that is, they are repeated with many
modifications in very many localities of the Earth, and all known
occurrences of ores can be classified under them.
These separate forms of metalliferous deposits are sometimes
so typical, that there can be no doubt of their peculiar charac-
ter; sometimes, however, undefined; and the forms passing, to a
certain degree, into one another; so that it is by no means
always easy to determine, to which class they belong; while these
changes again have many modifications, which will be more
specially treated of hereafter. I propose first to consider the
Nature and Grouping of the ores, without noticing the particular
form of the deposits in which they occur.
COMPOSITION OF METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS.
2. The metalliferous deposits, like the rocks, consist of
minerals ; only their composition is a much more complicated one,
a much larger number of minerals taking an essential share in
them, and being often much more irregularly distributed.
Some of these minerals are especially rich iri metals: these
are the ores; the rest of them form the 'gang' or Vein-stone'.
The ores, as well as the 'gang', consist frequently of other
minerals, besides those which generally compose the widely ex-
tended rocks.
Many metalliferous deposits, like many of the rocks, consist
essentially of only one ore; for example, Spathic Iron, Magnet-
ite, Hematite, Limonite, and the like : others, on the contrary, in
fact the greater part, consist of two or more ores combined with
one another and with different kinds of gang; for example, argenti-
ferous Galena, Blende, Copper Pyrites, Mispickel, Quartz, Heavy
Spar, Fluor Spar, Calcite, etc. The metalliferous veins appear to be
the most complicated in their composition, the stratified deposits
the most simple; the reverse is however exceptionally the case.
LIST OF MINERALS, AS ORES. 3
MINERALS WHICH 'ESPECIALLY OCCUR AS ORES.
3 4 The number of minerals occurring as ores is very
large; of which many are very rare, or from other causes are,
up to the present time, unimportant for practical purposes. It is
impossible to draw a sharp line of demarcation between the
important, and the unimportant ones ; since the unimportant may,
through the progress of science, become important. In the follow-
ing list I have included most of the minerals that can be con-
sidered as ores, those which are at present unimportant being
printed in smaller type. Those characteristics being added, which
are of the most importance for the miner and smelter: viz. H,
the hardness; G, the specific gravity, and the chemical compo-
sition ; the last only in approximate numbers, which are the result
of calculation, and are better adapted for the purpose of this book,
than the special results of separate Analyses, which can never
be generally adopted, and are only of value for the particular
case where they occur. The most common constituents are
considered; small decimals being left out and large ones consi-
dered as whole numbers. The list is arranged according to
Dana's Mineralogy, 4 th edition. Besides the abbreviations above-
mentioned, monomet. is used for monometric, dimet. for dimetric,
trimet. for trimetric, hex. for hexagonal, monoclin. for monoclinic,
triclin. for triclinic.
LIST OF MINERALS.
GOLD. Monomet. H=2'5 3. G=15 19. Generally alloyed with
silver, frequently up to 40 per cent, also with copper and iron.
PLATINUM. Monomet. H=4 4-5. G=16 19. Nearly always
. alloyed with somewhat of iron and iridium, more rarely with
rhodium, palladium and osmium, or even with copper and lead.
Platiniridium. H=6 7. G=16 23.
Palladium. Monomet. H=4'5 5. G=12. Palladium alloyed with
a little platinum and iridium.
Quicksilver. G=13. Mercury with sometimes a little silver.
AMALGAM. Monomet. H=3 -3-5. G=10 14. Ag 2635, Hg
74-65.
Arquerite. Monomet. H=2 2'5. G=10. Ag 87, Hg 13.
Gold Amalgam. G=15, Hg58-61, Au 38 42, Ag 5.
SILVER. Monomet. H=2'5-3. G=10 11. Silver frequently
alloyed with other metals.
4 LIST OF ORE-MISEKAL5
Bismuth Silver. Bi27. Pb33 7 Agio. Fe4, Cu 1 . S 16.
COPPER. Monomet. H=2-b-3. G=8. Pure copper often con-
taining silver disseminated through it.
Iridosmine. Hex. H=6-7. G=19<-21. IT 20 73, Os 25 80,
firequendy with iron.
Tellurium. Hex. H=2 2-5. G=6. Tellurium with gold and iron.
BISMUTH. Hex. TT " "1 T 7 F T nl 'Hi iMMiiii 1
traces of arsenic.
Tetradymite. Hex. H=l"5 2. G=7 8. Bismuth and tellurium
in varying proportions with arsenic.
ANTIMONY. Hex. H=3 3-5. G=6. Antimony containing at
times silver, iron, or arsenic.
ARSENIC. Hex. H=3'5. G=6. Arsenic often with traces of
other metals.
Arsenical Antimony. Hex. H=35. G=6. As 65, Sb 35.
REALGAR. Monodm. H=l-5 2. G=3. S 30, As 70.
ORPIMENT. Triniet H=l-5 2. G=3- S 39, As 6J.
Bismuthine. Trimet. H=2-25. G=3. S 18, Bi88L
Stibnite. Trimet. H=2. G=4. S 27, Sb 73.
Discrashe. Trimet. H=3*5-^. G=9. Sb23 7 Ag 77.
Domeykite. H=3 3'5. As^8, Cu 72.
SILVER GLANCE. Monomet. H=2-2-5. G=7. S 13, Ag87.
ERUBESCITE. Monomet. H=3. G 4 5. S 28, Cu 56, Fe 16.
GALENA. Monomet. H=2 5-3. G=7. S 13, Pb 87.
Manganblende. Monomet. H=3'5 4. G=4. S 37. Abn63.
Sulphuret of Iron and Nickel. Monomet. H=3'5 4. G=5. S 37,
Fe41, Ni.22.
Clausthalite. Monomet. H=2*5 3. G=7 S. Se28, Pb 72.
Kaumannhe. Monomet H=2-5. G=8. Se 27, Ag 73.
Tiemannite. H=2'5. G=7. Se 25. Hg "
Lerbachite. G=8. Contains lead, mercury and selenium.
Berzelianhe. Se38, Cu62.
Eocairite. Se 32, Cu 25, Ag 43.
Hessite. H=2 3 5. G=8. Te 37, Ag 63.
Altahe. Monomet H=3 3-5. G=8. Te38, Pb62.
Grunauite. Monomet H=4'5. G=r - _. Bi 10. Ni 22, Fe 6,
Co 11, Cu 12, Pb 7.
BLENDE. Monomet H=3-5 4. G=4. S33, Zn67, often with
much iron.
COPPER GLANCE. Trimet H=2-5-3. G=5. S20, Cu80.
LIST OF ORE-MISERAL8- 5
Stromeyrite. Trimet H=2'5 3. G=6. 8 16, Ag53, Cu31.
CINNABAR Hex. H=2 2*5. G=. S 14, Hg86.
Millerite. Hex. H= 3 3-5. Gh=5. 835, NI65.
PYRRHOTINE. Hex. H=3'5 4-5. G=4. 859, Fe41.
Greenockite. Hex. H=3 3'5. G=o. .< 22, Cd 78.
Onoirite. H=2-5. G=7. Se25, Hg 75.
COPPER NICKEL. Hex. H=5 55. G=7. As 56, Ni 44.
Breithauptite. Hex. H=5'5. G=7. Sb 69, Ni31.
IRON PYRITES. Monomet. H=6 65. G=5. S53, Fe47.
S3IALTINE. Monomet. H=o-5 *5. G=7. As 72 92, Co 028,
NiO 28, FeO 9.
CHLOANTHITE. Monomet. H=5'5. G=6 As 72, Ni 28.
COBALTINE. Monomet H=5'5. G=6. 8 19, As 45, Co 36.
Gersdorffite. Monomet. H=5'5. G=6. S 19. As 45. Ni 36.
Ullmannite. Monomet. H=5 5'5.
MARCASITE. Trimet. H=6 6-5. G^=4. S53, Fe47.
Leucopyrite. Trimet. H=5 5'- = >. G=7. As 73, Fe^7.
MISPICKEL. Trimet. H=O-O 6. G=6. As46 ? S20, Fe34.
Sylvanite. Trimet. H=1'5 2. G=5 S. Te56. An 28, Ag 16.
Nagyagite. Dimet. H=l 1-5. G=7. S 310, Te 1332, Pb
51-61, Au6 9.
Covelline! Hex. H=l5-2. G=4. 834, Cn66.
MOLYBDENITE. Hex. H=l 1 5. G=4. S41 ? Mo 59.
Skutterndite. Monomet. H=6. G=7. As 79, Co 21.
LINNAITE. Monomet. H=5-5. G=5. 842, Go 58.
Cuban. Monomet. H=4. G^=4. 836, Cu23, Fe4L
CHALCOPYRITE (Copper Pvrites> Dimet. H=3-5-4. G=4.
8 35, Cu 35, Fe 30.
Birnliardthe HomichlineX H=3-5. G=4. S30 35, Cn43 4S.
Fe21 22.
Tin Pyrites. Dimet. H=L G=4. 8 30, 8n 27, Ca 30, Fe 13.
Siernberghe. Trimet H=l 1*5. G=4. 834, Ag32, Fe34.
Wolfsbeigite. Trimet Hf=3 4. G=4. S 25, Sb 50, Ca 25.
Berthierite. H=2 3. G=4. 829, 8b58, Fe 13.
Zinkenite. Trimet H=3 3-5. G=5. S 22, Lb 34, Pb 44.
Miargyrite. Monoclin. H=2 2-5. G=o. 821, Sb43, Ag36
Ragionite. Monoclin. H=2-5. G=5. 8 21, 8b 38, Pb 41
Jamesonite. Trimet H=2 2*5. G=5. S20, Sb36, Pb44.
Heteromorjtoe. H=l 3. G=6. 819, Sb31. Pb50.
Chiviatite. G=7. 818, Bi61. Pb 17, CuS, Fe 1.
Dufrenoysite Monomet H=2 3. G=5. 830, As 31, Cu39.
6 LIST OF ORE-MINERALS.
Binnite. Trimet. H=3. G=5. S 22, As 21, Pb 57.
PYRARGYRITE (Ruby Silver). Hex. H=2 2-5. G=6. S 18,
Sb 23, Ag 59. *
PROUSTITE (Ruby Silver). Hex. Ek=2 2-5. G=5. S 20, As 15 ?
Ag 65.
Freieslebenite. Monoclin. H=2 2'5. G=6. S 19, Sb 27, Pb 30,
Ag 24.
Bournonite. Trimet. H=2'5 3. G=r6. S 20, Sb 25, Pb 42, Cu 13.
BOULANGERITE. H=2-5-3. G=6. S 18, Sb 24, Pb 58.
Aikinite. Trimet. H=2 5. G=6. S 17, Bi 36, Pb 36, Cu 11.
Wolchite. Trimet. H=3. G=6. S 20, Sb 25, Pb 42, Cu 13.
TETRAHEDRITE. Monomet. H=3 4-5. G=5. Contains sul-
phur, arsenic, antimony, silver, copper, iron, zinc, and mer-
cury, in most varying proportions.
Tennantite. Monomet. H^3'5 4.' G=4. S 28, As 19, Cu 49,
Fe 4.
Geocronite. Trimet* H=2-3. G=6. S 16, Sb. 17, Pb 67.
POLYBAS1TE. Hex. H=2-3. G=6. S 16, Sb 13, Ag 71.
STEPHANITE. Trimet. H=2 2-5. G=6. S 16, Sb 14,
Ag 70.
ENARGITE. Trimet. H=3. G=4. S 33, As 19, Cu 48.
Xanthocone. Hex. H=2. G=5. S 21, As 15, Ag 64.
Fireblende. Monoclin. H=2. G=4. Contains sulphur, antimony,
and silver up to 62 per cent.
Wittichite. Trimet (?). H=3'5. Gh=5. S 19, Bi 43, Cu 38.
Calomel. Dimet. H=l^-2. G=6. Cl 15, Hg 85.
KERARGYRITE (Horn Silver). Monomet. H=l 1-5. G= 5.
Cl 25, Ag 75.
EMBOLITE. Monomet. H=l 1-5. G=5. Cl 13, Br 20, Ag 67.
Megabromite. Monomet. H=2'5 3. G=6. Cl 9, Br 27, Ag 64.
Mikrobromite. Monomet. H=2 5 3. G=5. Cl 18, Br 12, Ag 70.
Bromyrite (Bromic Silver). Monomet. H=l 2. G=6..Br43, Ag57.
lodyrite (lodic Silver). Hex. H=l 1-5: G^r5. I 54, Ag-46.
Coccinite (lodic Mercury). I 56, Hg 44. -
RED COPPER. Monomet. H=3'5-4. Gh=6. Cu 89, O 11.
Martite. Monomet. H=6. G=5. O 30, Fe 70.
Iserine. Monomet. H=6 6'5. G=5. TiO 2 55, FeO 29, Fe a O 3 15.
Irite. Monomet. H=? G=6. Ir 55, Os 9, Fe 11, Cr 10, O 15.
MAGNETITE (Magnetic Iron Ore). Monomet. H=5'5-6. G= 5.
O 28, Fe 72.
LIST OF ORE-MINERALS. 7
FRANKLINITE. Monomet. H=5'5 6'5. G=5. 25, Fe 45,
Mn 9, Zn 21.
CHROMIC IRON. Monomet. H=5'5 6. G=4. Cr 2 O 3 55, AL,O 3 6;
Fe 2 O 3 12, FeO 18, MgO 9.
PITCH BLENDE. Monomet. H=5'5. G=6 8. O 15, U 85.
Melaconite. H=3. G=6. O 20, Cu 80..
Plumbic Ochre. G=8. O 7, Pb 93.
ZINCITE. Hex. H=4-4'5. G=5. O 20, Zn 80.
HEMATITE (Specular Iron). Hex. H=5'5 6'5. G=5. O30, Fe70.
ILMENITE. Hex. H=5 6. G=5. TiO 2 45, Fe 2 O 3 15, FeO 40.
Braunite. Dimet. H=6-6'5. G=5. O 30, Mn 70.
Hausmannite. Dimet. H=5 5'5. G=5. O 28, Mn 72.
CASS1TERITE (Tin Ore). Dimet. H=6 7. G=7. O 22, Sn 78.
PYROLUSITE. Trimet. H=2 2-5. G=5. O 37, Mn 63.
Minium, G=4. O 9, Pb 91.
Crednerite. Monoclin. H=4'5. G=5. O 26, Mn 39, Cu 35.
Voltzite. H=4-5. G=3. ZnS 83, ZnO 17.
Matlockite. Dimet. H=2-5 3. G=7. Cl 14, Pb 83, O 3.
Mendipite. Trimet. H=2'5 3. G=7. Cl 10, Pb 86, O 4.
Gothite. Trimet. H=5 5'5. G=4. Fe 2 O 3 90, HO 10.
Manganite. Trimet. H=4. G=4. Mn 2 O 3 89, HO 11.
Polianite. Trimet. H=6 5 7. G=5. MnO. 2 .
LB1ONITE (Brown Hematite). H=5 5'5. G=4. Fe 2 3 86,
HO 14.
PSILO^IELANE. H=5 6. G=4. Consists of peroxide of man-
ganese and water with varying quantities of alkaline earths.
WAD. H=0*5 6. G=3. Essentially the same as the last.
ATACAMITE. Trimet. H=3 3-5. G=4. Cl 16, Cu 15, CuO 56,
HO 13.
Sercarmontite. Monomet. H 2 2'5. G=5. Sb 84, O 16.
Valentinite. Trimet. H=2'5 3. G=5. Sb 84, O 16.
Bismuth Ochre. G=4. O 10, Bi 90.
Kermesite (Red Antimony). Monoclin. H=l 1-5. G=4. S 20,
O 5, Sb 75.
Cervantite. G=4. O 20, Sb 80.
Ammiolite. Is an antimonite of mercury.
Molybdine. O 34, Mo 66.
Eulytine. Monomet. H=4'5. G=6. Silicate of bismuth.
Willemite. Hex. H=55. G=4. SiO 3 27, ZnO 73.
Dioptase. Hex. H=5. G=3. SiO 3 39, CuO 50, HO 11.
CHRYSOCOLLA. H 2-3. G=2. SiO 3 35, CuO 45, HO 20.
8 LIST OF ORE-MINERALS.
CALAMINE. Trimet. H=4'5 5. G=3. Si0 3 25, ZnO 67, HO 8.
Scheeletine (Tungstate of Lead). Dimet. H=2'5 3. G=8.
W0 3 51, PbO 49.
Wulfenite (Molybdate of Lead). Dime! H=2'5 3. G=6. Mo0 3 39,
PbO 61.
WOLFRAM. Trimet. H=5 5-5. Gh=7. W0 3 76, MnO 15,
FeO 9.
Crocoisite. Monoclin. H=2'5-3. G=6. CrO 3 31, PbO 69.
Vauquelinite. Monoclin. H=2'5 3. Gh=5. CrO 3 28, PbO 61
CuO 11.
Melanochroite. Trimet. H=3 3-5. G=6. Cr0 3 23, PbO 77.
Dechenite. H=4. G=6. V0 3 45, PbO 55.
Descloizite. Trimet. H=3'5. G=6. V0 3 29, PbO 71.
Vanadinite. Hex. H=2'5 3. G=7. Cl 2, VO 3 20, PbO 71, Pb 7.
Volborthite. Hex. H=3. G=3. VO 3 37, CuO 58, HO 5.
ANGLESITE. Trimet. H 2 5-3. G=6. S0 3 26, PbO 74.
Leadhillite. Trimet. H=2'5. G=6. PbO, S0 3 27, PbO, C0 2 73.
Caledonite. Trimet. H=2'5 3. G=6. PbO, S0 3 56, PbO, C0 2 33,
CuO, C0 2 11.
Susannite. Hex. H=2'5. G=6. PbO, SO 3 27, PbO, C0 2 73.
Lanarkite. Monoclin. H=2 2-5. G=7. PbO, S0 3 53, PbO r
CO 47.
Cyanosite (Sulphate of Copper). Triclin. H=2 2-5. G=2. S0 3 32,
CuO 32, HO 36.
Voltaite. Monomet. A sulphate of the protoxide and peroxide
of iron.
Goslarite. Trimet. H=2 2-5. G=2. SO 3 28, ZnO 28, HO 44.
COPPERAS (Sulphate of Iron). Monoclin. H=2. G=2. S0 3 29,
FeO 26, HO 45.
Bieberite (Cobalt Vitriol). Monoclin. SO 3 28, CoO 26, HO 46.
Botryogen. Monoclin. H=2 2 '5. G=2 Is a hydrated sulphate
of iron, magnesia, and lime.
Copiopite. Is a sulphate of iron.
Coquimbite. Hex. H=2 2'5. G=2. Is a hydrated sulphate of
the peroxide of iron.
Jarosite. Hex. H=3 4. G=3. Is a hydrated sulphate of potash
and the peroxide of iron.
Linarite. Monoclin. H=2'5-3. G=5. PbO ; S0 3 76, CuO 20,
HO 4.
Brochantite Trimet. H=3'5-4. G=4. S0 3 18, CuO 70, HO 12.
Lettsomite. Is a hydrated sulphate of copper, alumina, and iron.
LIST OF ORE-MINERALS. 9
PYROMORPHITE. Hex. H=35 4. G=7. P0 6 16, 01. 2,
PbO 74, Pb 8.
Mimetene. Hex. H=3'5. G=7. AsO 6 23, 01 2, PbO 68, Pb 7.
Triphyline. Trimet. H=4 5. G=3. P0 6 45, FeO 40, MnO 6,
LiO 7, MgO 2.
Triplite. Trimet. H 5 5*5. G=4. PO 5 33, MnO 33, FeO 34.
Thrombolite. H=3 4. 0=3. P0 5 44, CuO 39, HO 17.
Vivianite. Monoclin. H=2. G=2. A hydrated phosphate of iron.
Erythrine (Cobalt Bloom). Monoclin. H=1'5 2-5. G=3. As0 5 38,
CoO 38, HO 24.
Annabergite. H=2 2'5. Gh=3. AsO 5 39, NiO 37, HO 24.
Kottigite. AsO 5 37, ZnO 31, CoO 7, NiO 2, HO 23.
Symplesite. Monoclin. H=2-5. G=2. A hydrated arsenate of iron.
Scorodite. Trimet. H=35 4. G= 3. AsO 5 50, Fe 2 O 3 34, HO 16.
Libethenite. Trimet. H=4. G==4. PO 5 30, CuO 66, HO 4.
Olivenite. Trimet, H=3. G=4. As0 5 40, CuO 56, HO 4.
Conichalcite. Is a hydrated arsenate and phosphate of copper
and lime.
Euchroite. Trimet. H=3'5 4. G=3. As0 5 34, CuO 47, HO 19.
Arseniosiderite. H=l 2. 0=4. As0 5 38, Fe 2 3 39, CoO 14,
HO 9.
Erinite. H=4-5 5. Gh=4. As0 5 35, CuO 60, HO 5.
Phosphocalcite (Lunnite). Monoclin. H=5. G=4. P0 5 21, CuO 71,
HO 8.
Tyrolite. H=l-5 2. G=3. As0 5 25, CuO 44, CoO,CO 2 11,
HO 20.
Aphanesite (Abichite). Monoclin. H=2'5 3. G=4. As0 5 30,
CuO 63, HO 7.
Chalcophyllite. Hex. H=2. G=2. As0 5 18, CuO 50, HO 32.
Liroconite. Monoclin. H=2 2-5. G=3. As0 5 26, CuO 37,
A1 2 3 12, HO 25.
Uranite. Trimet. H=l 2. Gh=3. P0 5 15, CoO 6, U 2 O 3 63,
HO 16.
Chalcolith. Dimet. H=2 2-5. 0=3. P0 5 15, CuO 9, U 2 3 61,
HO 15.
Plumbo-resinite (Bleigummi). H=44-5. G=6. PO 6 8, PbO 38,
M 2 O 3 35, HO 19.
CHALYBITE (Spathic Iron). Hex. H=3'5 4-5. Q=4. C0 2 38,
FeO 62.
SMITHSONITE. Hex. H=5. O=4. CO 2 36, ZnO 64.
CERUSITE. Trimet. H=3 3-5. G=6. C0 2 16, PbO 84.
10 TEXTURE OF ORES, AND VEIN-STONES.
MALACHITE. Monoclin. H=3*5 4. G=4. CO, 20, CuO 72,
HO 8.
AZURITE. Monoclin. H=3-5 -4. G= 4. CO 2 26, CuO 69, HO 5.
Aurichalcite (Buratite). H=2. G=3/CO 2 16, CuO 29, ZnO 45,
HO 10.
ZINC BLOOM. G=3-5. C0 2 14, ZnO 75, HO 11.
Emerald Nickel. H=3. G=2. C0 2 12, NiO 59, HO 29.
Bismuthite. H= 4-4-5. G=7. BiO,CO 2 +BiO, SO 3 .
Cerasine. Dimet. H=2'5-3. G=6. PbCl 51, PbO,C0 2 49.
THE TEXTURE OF THE ORES AND VEIN-STONES.
6. The metallic deposits are composed, like the common
rocks, of minerals combined in the most heterogeneous manner.
The following varieties of texture may be especially distin-
guished.
1. Compact: when the individual mineral particles cannot
be distinguished compact dimonite, compact hematite.
2. Granular: .the separate particles form grains of about
the same size Granular Magnetite.
3. Irregular granular: by this name I mean the com-
mon modification in metallic deposits of the granular texture, in
which the separate individual ingredients are of different sizes,
unlike forms, and generally also unevenly distributed. This
structure is very common in metallic veins and floors (Stock-
4. Disseminated: when the separate ores are distributed,
in general unequally, as independent grains, lamins, or crystals,
in a uniformly compact granular or schistose mass. If they
form crystals, this texture completely coincides with the por-
phyritic structure in rocks. This texture is quite common in
metallic deposits.
5. Combed or banded: the separate ingredients, or com-
binations of two or three of them, form layers of equal or unequal
thickness.
This variety of texture is particularly common in metallic
veins: the layers are then parallel to the fissure; the first or
oldest comb (-a) was deposited on both the sides of the cleft, on
this the second (b\ and so on (c, d\ until the whole fissure was
filled. In this manner the same, -or at least very similar bands
are symmetrically deposited from the sides to the middle.
SIMPLE, AND EEPEATED SYMMETRY.
11
d c
In the annexed ideal wood-cut,
the separate layers or combs (a,
5, c, d) are all represented as
being of different composition,
but the same on both sides of
the centre ; so that one and the
same mineral, or mineral aggre-
gation, occurs but once from
either side to the middle. I call
this the simple symmetry
of the layers. It is, however,
often the case that similar layers, separated by discrepant ones,
are repeated several times; as in the following example from the
Drei Prinzen vein near Freiberg.
lende
Quartz
Fluor fpar
Blende
Heavy spar
ron pyrites
eavy spar
ron pyrites
Fluor spar
Iron pyrites
Calcite
Calcite
Iron pyrites
Fluor spar
Iron pyrites
:Heavy spar
on pyrites
spar
Blende
jFluor spar
[Quart*
ilende.
Drei Prinzen lode, from a drawing by Von Weissenbach.
I call this last case a symmetrical repetition (or self-
repeating symmetry) of the layers. The symmetry of the
combed texture appears to have been sometimes destroyed by
later causes; as for example, through repeated re-opening of the
same fissure, by which is formed a dislocation of the veins
12
SELF-REPEATING SYMMETRY.
themselves, or double, or even manifold veins, which on first
appearance seem to form but one.
The following wood-cut represents a vein, which appears, on
a b 6 ft c d d tne ther hand, to be formed by
seven unsymmetrically arranged
combs, but in truth consists of the
three veins (A, B, 0,) formed next
to and after one another, of which
A. and C. also consist of combs,
while B. consists of but one band.
The combed texture is not con-
fined to veins alone, it also occurs
in concentrical bands formed in
Floors, so that the layers surround
some nucleus, most commonly a
fragment, as shown in the accompanying wood-cut.
Such formations are generally called
cockade-ores (Cocardenerze) or r i n g -
ores (Ringerze}.
The banded texture frequently affords
an opportunity of observing the successive
deposit of the separate mineral substances,
similarly to where they crystallize over
one another in amygdaloidal cavities.
6. Brecciated: the metallic deposits frequently contain
fragments of the rock enclosing them (wallrock), or those which
come from still older formations of ore. When these fragments
are numerous, the texture is brecciated; these formations are
sometimes called in German Brockengestein.
The following modifications may be distinguished:
a. the fragments lie in the deposit without showing any
peculiar appearance;
b. the fragments are surrounded by concentric layers
(cockade ore, ring ore) or by a radial crystalline texture (Spharen-
textur) in the manner shown in the following wood-cut;
GROUPING OF ORES AND VEIN-STONES.
13
c. the fragments come entirely from the wallrock;
d. the fragments come from older metallic deposits; which
is particularly striking when showing a banded texture ; or
e. the fragments predominate; and are, in part, very large
and flaky: this form passes into broken-up masses of rock
traversed by numerous metallic threads.
7. Amygdaloidal: the metallic deposits are traversed by
numerous irregular, generally angular or almond-shaped cavi-
ties, whose sides are lined with crystals. These cavities are a
very common occurrence in metallic deposits, when more scat-
tered; and generally take a central situation in combed veins,
while they seem to occur everywhere between the fragments
in brecciated metallic deposits. The two following wood-cuts
attempt to represent this relation in an ideal manner.
Lode possessing 1 (a) combed texture,
with geode (d} in the middle. .
Brecciated lode with fragments
of the country rock (5) and geodes (d).
The outer limits of metalliferous deposits, especially of veins,
are called selvages (Salbander), when they have a marked line
of demarcation between the deposits and the country rock.
GROUPING OF THE ORES AND VEIN-STONES.
7. In metallic ^deposits, as well as in rocks, certain min-
erals appear to be, more frequently than others, combined or associa-
14
TABLE OF MINERAL COMBINATIONS.
ted : so, for example, Blende and Galena, Pyrites and Chalcopy-
rite, Cobalt and Nickel ores, Tin and Wolfram ores, Heavy
Spar and Fluor Spar. Quartz is but seldom entirely wanting in
any combination. These combinations are, however, more com-
plicated, and not always so constant as is the case in the common
rocks: to which must be added, that the number of mineral
species forming them is, generally, much greater. For these
reasons it is hardly possible to enumerate all the combinations
already known to exist in metallic deposits, or even, as in the
case of rocks, to give them particular names. Such combina-
tions of ores and vein-stones are sometimes called ore-formations,
vein-formations, vein-types, etc., which will be more fully treated
of hereafter.
The cause of the combination of certain minerals into groups,
is probably a chemical and not a geological one, but yet differing
from that of the combination of the elements forming the
minerals. It consists, possibly, in the fact, that certain substances
possess the ability to be dissolved, and to crystallize, under like
conditions ; and that they exist side by side in the same solution ;
while others on the contrary do not. In place of the list of
combinations which here follow in the German edition, and which
appear more suitably under the examples hereafter given; I here
insert, according to the wish of the Author, a short tabular
abstract of combinations of two, three, four, and more minerals,
which are particularly frequent in metallic deposits.
Two
Members.
Three Members-
Four or more Members.
Galena,
Blende. .-
Galena, Blende ,
Iron pyrites.
(Silver Ores.)
Galena, Blende, Iron pyrites, Quartz, and
Spathic Iron, Dialogite, Brown Spar,
Calc. Spar, or Heavy Spar.
Iron pyrites,
Chalcopyrite.
Iron pyrites, Chal-
copyrite, Quartz.
(Copper Ores.)
Iron pyrites, Chalcopyrite, Galena, Blende,
and Spathic Iron, Dialogite, Brown Spar,
Calc. Spar, or Heavy Spar.
Gold, Quartz.
Gold, Quartz,
Iron pyrites.
Gold, Quartz, Iron pyrites, Galena, Blende,
and Spathic Iron, Dialogite, Brown Spar,
Calc. Spar, or Heavy Spar.
Cobalt and
Nickel Ores.
Cobalt and
Nickel ores, Iron
pyrites.
Cobalt and Nickel Ores, Iron pyrites, and
Galena, Blende, Quartz, Spathic Iron, Dialogite,
Brown Spar, Calc. Spar, or Heavy Spar.
Tin, Wolfram.
Tin, Wolfram,
Quartz.
Tin. W T olfram, Quartz, Mica, Tourmaline,
Topaz, etc.
Gold, Tellu-
rium.
-'**-
Gold, Tellurium,
Tetrahedrite.
(Various Tellu-
rium ores.)
Gold, Tellurium, Tetrahedrite, Quartz. and
Brown Spar, or Calc Spar.
SUCCESSION OF MINERALS IN VEINS AND GEODES. 15
Two
Members.
Three Members.
Four or more Members.
Cinnobar,
Tetrahedrite.
Cinnobar, Tetra-
hedrite, Pyrites.
(Various ores of
Quicksilver.)
Cinnobar, Tetrahedrite, Pyrites, Quartz, and
Spathic Iron, Dialogite, Brown Spar,
Calc. Spar, or Heavy Spar.
Magnetite,
Chlorite.
Magnetite, Chlo-
rite, Garnet.
Magnetite, Chlorite, Garnet, -Pyroxene, Horn-
blende, Pyrites, etc.
SUCCESSION OF MINERALS IN METALLIFEROUS
VEINS AND GEODES.
^ 8. As the association (combination) of minerals in me-
talliferous deposits is not merely accidental, but is limited by
certain laws of affinity, or conditions of origin; so is the suc-
cession of the individual minerals also, which manifests itself, either
in the series of dissimilar combs, or in the successive crystalliza-
tions in geodes. Von Weissenbach, 30 years ago, observed
the following succession of separate vein-stones from the sides
(selvages) to. the middle of the vein, in the system of lodes
around Brand, near Freiberg:
1. Quartz veins containing Iron pyrites, black Blende,
Galena, and Mispickel affording a moderate percentage of silver.
2. Dialogite and Brown Spar (Rhomb Spar) with-the above-
mentioned ores, but richer in silver, and containing in certain
portions Tetrahedrite, argentiferous Tetrahedrite, and such like
rich silver ores.
3. Spathic Iron, Fluor Spar, and Heavy Spar, over which
a more uncommon variety of Brown Spar (the tautokliner Kar-
bonspath of Breithaupt) has sometimes formed. Ores the same
as in 2, but less of them; the galena disseminated in the Heavy
Spar generally contains but little silver.
4. Calcite, sometimes containing rich silver ores, but without
the ores of 1.
Some of the so-called Formations, which have been discrimi-
nated in the system of veins around Freiberg, nearly correspond
to these successions of combinations in a vein: viz. the so-called
pyritic lead-formation (kiesigen Bleiformation), the noble lead-
formation (edlen Bleiformation), and the barytic lead-formation
(barytischen Bhiformatiori). These so-called Formations, besides
16 MINERAL SUCCESSIONS IN VEINS AND GEODES.
occurring separately, are also found together in the same
vein and succeeding one another. Where the barytic combina-
tion occurs alone, it frequently forms numerous combs of almost
the same composition, which are often- repeated, that is, a repeated
alternation of Heavy Spar, Galena, and Blende, often with some-
what of Pyrites, Fluor Spar, Quartz, etc. The same process of
Formation must have been periodically continued, in such cases,
for a long period. More recently Breithaupt and Kenwood have
carefully examined the succession of minerals in veins and amyg-
daloidal cavities, whereby a certain conformity, even in parts of
the earth most removed from one another, has been proved.
While it was not possible to deduce any general law of succes-
sion from these series, still many accordant facts were discovered.
In the first place, nearly all these series commence with Quartz.
Very commonly the same minerals follow one another in the
same order. It is sometimes possible to combine several series
occurring in the same vein, and to complete them mutually ; ,by
which the series, apparently simple, become complex, and some-
times such as are repeated.
By the observation of such or similarly recurring mineral
successions, in different districts, the question necessarily arises,
as to what caused them. These causes, as well as those where
the same combinations recur, appear to be chiefly of a chemical
nature, and withal of great geological importance.
The worth of mineral combinations, and of mineral successions,
is certainly misapprehended; if it be supposed, that they are
characteristic of particular geological Periods; that their nature
is dependent on the period of their origin ; that in every period
everywhere similar combinations or successions, in different pe-
riods dissimilar ones, were formed ; and that it is possible, from the
nature of these combinations or successions, to determine their
geological age. In each separate portion of the earth they cer-
tainly appear to follow one another in nearly the same relative
order as to age, in so far as they are the gradual result of simi-
lar geological events. But these events have taken place in the
various regions of the earth at different periods, or have even
been repeated at intervals ; and it would, in this case, be equally
incorrect to consider, that like combinations or successions were
of the same age, as if the long since exploded idea were still
maintained, that like rocks must all have been formed at the same
time. It may however be correct, that like or similar combina-
OCCURRENCE OF METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS. 17
tions or successions were formed, in confined and geologically
conformable districts, just as the similar rocks have been formed
almost contemporaneously.
OCCURRENCE OF METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS.
9. Generally considered, it cannot be stated, that the
occurrence of metalliferous deposits, joined to other determined
geological phenomena, is always united with them, or is confined
to particular rocks or formations. The most that can be asserted
is, that they are more commonly found in mountainous regions
than in plains, that they appear to be more frequent in the older
rocks and formations than in the very recent ones, and that the
new volcanic rocks, in particular, appear to contain but few of them.
But the case is entirely different, when particular forms or
kinds of deposits are spoken of. It is immediately apparent,
for example, that the metalliferous veins and floors occur prin-
cipally near the limits of differently formed rocks; that they
chiefly occur only between older rocks and formations, in con-
sequence of which they are mostly found in mountainous
regions 5 and that certain kinds or combinations of ores appear
to be especially united with certain rocks; as for example, tin
ores with greisen, granite, gneiss, mica schist, and quartz porphyry.
I will return to these specialities hereafter, as also to the origin
of metalliferous deposits.
We will now more closely examine the four principal forms,
in which they occur.
ORE-BEDS.
WHAT ARE ORE-BEDS?
' 10. Aggregations of ore, which lie parallel to the strati-
fication or foliation of the rock enclosing them, consequently form-
ing one or more subordinate layers between any stratified or
foliated rock, are called ore-beds. To this class I consider
to belong the superficial deposits, lying loose upon the surface,
which were evidently formed by precipitation or denudation;
2
18 WHAT ARE ORE-BEDS?
as Bog-Iron ore and auriferous sand. The first of -these, I call
parallel layers; the last, surface deposits. I must, however, some-
what modify the definition of parallel layers, by adding that they
are only true beds or layers, whei* it is evident from the nature
of their origin, that they were formed, in most cases, contem-
poraneously with the rocks in which they lie; that is, after the
layers which originally lay under them, and before those covering
them: as for example the Black-band in many coal formations.
Does any circumstance on the contrary prove, that they only
correspond in their general form and extension to the parallel
strata, and as having more recently filled a fissure, which has
opened parallel to the stratification or foliation ; they are then
not true beds, but bedded veins, that is, veins having the form
of beds. This distinction is sometimes easy, sometimes, on the
contrary, very difficult; sometimes unimportant for the practical
miner, sometimes of great importance ; naturally, always a sub-
ject of interest to geologists.
In general there are no such sharp limits, between true beds
and the enclosing rock, as in bedded veins. It is impossible
for true beds to cause faults, they can never cut through a vein
or other bed, they never send off veinlike branches in the ori-
ginal superstrata, nor can they contain fragments of these. But
all these negative characteristics may naturally also occur in
bedded veins. If the mass of /the deposit is of such a different
nature from the enclosing rock, that the same origin cannot be
properly ascribed to both; it is already a reason to consider it
a vein, or that at least subsequent metamorphic action or im-
pregnation has taken place. If the bed, on the contrary, follow
very constantly the flexures of the stratification or cleavage, or
if many such are formed in one zone; by which I mean len-
ticular deposits lying separated from one another between two
layers; there is then reason to think, that these are true beds.
There are cases frequently occurring, in which the question can
not be positively determined.
Some mining laws, without paying attention to the manner
of their formation, distinguish beds and veins by the angle of
their dip; the slightly inclined veins being called beds, the greatly
inclined beds, veins. This is, self-evidently, a very unscientific
method of classification; since a bed can as well have a dip of
90, as a vein lie horizontally. From what has been said it is
PECULIARITIES OF ORE-BEDS. 19
evident, that true ore-beds can only occur in stratified deposits,
or in such as have a foliated texture ; since a parallel stratifi-
cation does not exist in massive rocks.
PECULIAR CONDITIONS OF ORE-BEDS.
" W * ' '
11. The extension of a bed in a horizontal line is called
the strike; hence a horizontal line on the surface of the beds
shows the direction of the strike. The slope of the layers, or
the angle which the beds make with the plane of the horizon,
is called the dip , which is consequently at right angles with the
strike: the direction of the dip is the point of the compass
towards which the beds slope. The direction of the strike and that
of the dip, is determined by means of a pocket compass, while the
angle of the dip is measured by an instrument called a clinometer.
When a bed is much folded, the general strike and dip must
be determined, in addition to the strikes and dips of the different
portions of the layer.
The layer immediately under the metalliferous bed is called
the floor or footwall: that lying directly over it, the roof or
hanging wall. The thickness of the beds must always be mea-
sured in a line perpendicular to the walls; it may be very variable
in different portions of the same bed; and the bed, by thinning
out, may entirely disappear. The outcrop is that portion of the
bed appearing at the surface.
Ore-beds, like other
strata, sometimes
are much distorted,
forming flexures,
basins, saddles, and
even air- saddles,
when the upper por-
An air-saddle. tion is removed by
denuding action.
The beds are sometimes divided by intervening layers, so as
to form two or more branches separating at a very acute angle.
A disturbance of the strata is also frequently occasioned by faults,
which will be more fully treated of under the head of veins. The
mass of the bed is sometimes most curiously distorted and dis-
located by such disturbing influences, as shown in the accom-
panying woodcuts.
2*
20
PECULIARITIES OF ORE-BEDS
In the fifth figure the strata are synclinal', did they slope
away from one another, they would be anticlinal.
The ore-beds do not possess so great a variety as the veins,
segregations, and impregnations, in regard to their extent or com-
position; as a rule they are enclosed between two nearly parallel
layers of rock, whose limits are not always apparent, since the
bed frequently passes imperceptibly into the wallrock.
OCCURRENCE OF ORE-BEDS, AND DISTRIBUTION OF ORES. 21
OCCURRENCE OF ORE-BEDS, AND DISTRIBUTION OF
THE ORES IN THEM.
12. True ore-beds can, from their nature, only occur in
stratified or ; at least, foliated rocks, or on the surface ; they occur
in rocks of all ages belonging to this class, the oldest as well as
the most recent; occurring, as a rule, more commonly and
of a more complex nature m the older formations than in the
more recent.
Of- all ores, those of iron occur the most frequently in beds ;
in the case of other ores the distinction between true beds and
zones of impregnation, recumbent segregations and bedded veins,
is extremely difficult to determine.
Many beds consist of one or more layers of compact or
granular ore, as limonite, hematite, magnetite, spathic iron,
spherosiderite, and clay -ironstone. The ores in such cases natu-
rally occur pretty evenly distributed, only depending in amount
on the variations in thickness. Such deposits may possess sharp
and well defined limits at the floor and roof, they may also pass
imperceptibly into the enclosing rock.
In some metalliferous beds, especially those consisting of
spherosiderite, the mass of ore forms one or more layers of
nodules in a particular bed or zone of some stratified rock.
These nodules may be so isolated as hardly to form a bed; in
which case they may be regarded as scattered recumbent segre-
gations or nodules. The texture of many iron ore-beds is oolithic,
in which case the limits are more or less clearly defined.
Other ore-beds consist only of an aggregation of very small
particles of ore in a distinct layer or stratum, as the copper
slates ( Kup fers chief er) of Thuringia, and the Fallbands in the
crystalline schists of Scandinavia, which are probably more cor-
rectly impregnations. In this case the limits are generally not
well defined, and the distribution of the ore is irregular: that
is, the bed contains richer and poorer portions. The reason of
this has not, up to the present time, been discovered ; conse-
quently, the ore can only be found by chance.
A true ore-bed can never possess a combed texture with
symmetrical layers, this being only found in veins. A true
bed can, also, hardly possess a real irregular granular texture,
and the irregular distribution of ore so often combined with it.
22 ORIGIN, PROSPECTING, AND FOLLOWING OF ORE-BEDS.
The composition of ore-beds ; in general, is a much more
simple one than that of lodes.
Sometimes an ore-bed shows itself particularly rich in the neigh-
bourhood of intersecting veins ; this Inequality, as a rule, is not
original, but caused by impregnation from the veins. In placers
the particles of ore are distributed according to purely mecha-
nical laws, which will be more fully spoken of in 15.
OKIGIN OF ORE-BEDS.
13. There can be no doubt that all true ore-beds were
originally formed by mechanical or chemical precipitation from
water. Their condition may have been much changed after-
wards; thus under certain conditions hematite may have been
formed from limonite, etc. ; but their origin remains a precipita-
tion. However certain this may be, still the origin of the me-
talliferous portions of some of the beds remains unexplained.
Iron is a metal so widely distributed in its different forms,
so common in all rocks, and held in solution in so many springs ;
that the origin of the strata, in which it predominates, appears
by no means obscure. On this account deposits of iron-stone
only require an explanation of their state of aggregation and
manner of occurrence in each particular case. The case is different
with most of the other metalliferous beds, such as those of
chalcopyrite, and copper-slate; in these the origin of the metals
is still somewhat obscure, and by no means so easy of explana-
tion as in the case of iron-stone beds. The metals they contain
must necessarily have come from the interior of the earth, whether
in a state of vapor or dissolved in water; that is, they must have
formed, in some other condition, a part of the earth's crust or
interior ; their concentration in a bed was always the result of
secondary causes.
The presence of ore in fragmentary deposits and placers is
easy to explain. They come from the mechanical destruction of
metalliferous rocks by the action of water ; a natural process of
dressing has concentrated the heavier portions in particular layers
or localities.
PROSPECTING FOR AND FOLLOWING OF ORE-BEDS.
14. The prospecting for and following of an ore-bed is
based on much simpler principles than those for the other
SURFACE-DEPOSITS. 23
metalliferous deposits. If it be supposed that a certain district
contains a bed of ore, it is only necessary to examine the strata
carefully, in the order in which they occur; any other method
would be erroneous; the search can be made by means of adits,
borings, trenches, or shafts. Only when traces of such a bed
have been discovered, is it advisable to follow it in the direction
of its strike and dip, in order to ascertain if it develops greater
width or richness in any direction. Naturally, the inferior and
superior layers forming the walls, must be chiefly observed ;
since the continuation of the bed can be looked for only
between them ; and as they are frequently, from their greater thick-
ness or peculiar character, easier to recognise than the outcrop
of the bed itself, they lighten the tracing. It is self-evident, that
all disturbances of the original stratification, all foldings or faults,
must be carefully observed.
Sometimes probable conclusions can be drawn a priori from
the encreased or diminished thickness of the whole strata, or
from the manner in which it was originally deposited in basins
or saddles. All these conditions are unfortunately of such a nature,
that no general, rules can be deduced from them; much more
depends on a sound and careful observation of the special case;
and it is thus that geological education, observation, or knowledge
of details, is proved.
SURFACE-DEPOSITS.
15. It is well known that gold, platinum, tin ores, and
many precious stones, are very frequently found in loose aggre-
gates on the surface of the earth, in which undoubtedly they
were not formed, but were brought there by the destruction of
other deposits. These deposits have been called surface deposits,
placers, or washings^ this last, because the metallic particles or
gems are obtained from the bed by various manners of washing;
and also because a concentration takes place by means of a natural
crushing and dressing.
All surface-deposits have been formed by the destruction
of some other kind of deposit. During, or after the decomposi-
tion, the greater part of the enclosing rock, being specifically
lighter or more easily dissolved, is, as a rule, carried away by
the water. Only a portion of the same remained with the speci-
fically heavier and less easily destructible metallic or ore part-
icles, and has been again deposited with these. This is the reason
24 CLASSES OF SURFACE-DEPOSITS.
why for the most part only gold, platinum, tin ores, or certain hard
precious stones, magnetite, specular iron, and a few rare metals or
metallic minerals, are found in surface-deposits. Precisely these
minerals are, but slightly, or not at dl, decomposed by the action
of water and the atmosphere, and they, also, possess a greater
specific gravity than many other mineral bodies.
This manner of origin is at the same time the reason why
the very heavy and indestructible metals gold and platinum are,
in comparison with their rare general dissemination, found so
particularly often in surface deposits, and why their production
from the same is so much more profitable than from the original
deposits. However finely disseminated and sparingly distributed
they were in these last, they are being, or have been, concen-
trated in the surface-deposits as if by an artificial dressing; and
hardly any portion ot them has been lost. In fact it has already
been often found that the working of such deposits was very
profitable ; while it was impossible to find the original deposits or,
when found, to work them with advantage ; because the ores were
in them too sparingly distributed. The surface-deposits generally
possess the advantage of an easy working of their loose, and
never thickly covered material.
The origin of the deposits may be twofold, and the deposits
have certainly been formed in both ways, the only difficulty
being to determine at times in which of the two.
Many surface-deposits lie, even now, over the deposit, from
partial displacement of which they originated, covering its outcrop, or
on its very site. Others, on the contrary, have been deposited at
various distances from their original source. The first were formed on
the spot by weathering and partial erosion; the last, through preci-
pitation ; in that the brooks, rivers, or streams of some kind, tore
the material away and deposited it again in another place, at
the same time separating the heavier and lighter portions from each
other. The first, those which have been formed on the spot, are
the most rare, and generally the poorest. They are characterized
by their position on high table-lands or even on mountain de-
clivities, as also by the homogeneous nature of their composition
from the products of weather-drift : they are not formed of matter
which has been washed together, and in certain cases been
rounded, nor of sand and mud.
The last, the deposits which have been washed together,
are always found only in indentations of valleys, basin-shaped
KULES OF SURFACE-DEPOSITS. 25
depressions; or low ground, for example, in true valleys, or at the
foot of mountains. They show a much greater complexity in
their composition, being composed of mud, clay, sand, boulders, etc.
The heavy metalliferous particles are much more concentrated
in particular spots, than is the case with the former class. The
solid bodies in them are generally rounded by the action of
water. They are also very differently composed, according as
they were formed by only one water-course, or several. The
surface-deposits appear always to belong to 'a very recent age:
many are still in process of formation; in others the operation
is long since finished; in, or over, some of them remains of
animals, belonging to the Post-tertiary period, have been found.
It is doubtful whether any surface-deposits exist, of a more remote
age, than the Post-tertiary; all known real metalliferous surface-
deposits may be provisionally referred to the same.
From the manner in which surface-deposits originated, certain
general and even a priori rules about those spots where they
are richest, may be deduced from physical laws, which have
also been confirmed by experience. Here are the following:
1. Where surface-deposits have been formed over those
from which they sprang, the distribution of the metals, corresponds
to what it was in these last.
2. When surface-deposits have "been! washed together, those
spots will be relatively the richest, where the current was broken,
whether by a more moderate descent, sudden change of direction,
or the discharge of a side-stream. The absolute richness, the
special relations, must be determined for each particular case
by experience; the size and weight of the particles, which have
been washed together, being taken into consideration.
3. Slight depressions, holes, channels,, and open fissures, in
the solid rock over which the current passes, are often parti-
cularly rich.
4. The deepest layers of each period of deposit are generally
the richest.
5. Sometimes several periods of deposit have followed one
another, and then several especially rich layers lie one above
another.
6. Not only the present river-channels, but especially ancient
channels, must be carefully examined.
Besides such general rules, which every one can deduce for
himself, no, particular characteristics of the richest spots can
26 METALLIFEROUS VEINS, OR LODES.
be given; especially none which can be deduced from the
mineralogical nature of the mass washed together. This varies
very much in the different sedimentary deposits according to
their origin, being now clay," now sand;: again gravel ; conclusions
as to the origin of the metallic particles can at times be drawn
however from their composition.
METALLIFEROUS VEINS.
WHAT ARE METALLIFEROUS VEINS, OR LODES?
16. Veins are aggregations of mineral matter in fis-
sures of rocks. Lodes are therefore aggregations of mineral
matter containing ores in fissures.
As all veins are aggregations in fissures , their form neces-
sarily approaches the tabular. Veins are never really tabular; as
they not only thin out gradually towards their ends, but very
frequently exhibit irregularities in their whole extent, which are
caused by unequal breadth, and deviations from the plane of
their course.
The rock in which a lode occurs is called' the country,
country-rock or wall-rock; or those sides next to the lode, the
walls; or when the lode is not perpendicular, the wall over it is
called the hanging ivall, that under it the foot-tcall. The exten-
sion of a lode in a horizontal direction is called the strike; the
angle which it makes with the plane of the horizon, the dip. If
the sides of a lode make many undulations, the dip must be
taken a number of times : the average of the observations is the
true dip. A cross vej?i or flu can is a vein containing no ore.
A branch or leader is a small vein' striking out from the main
lode. A selvage is a thin band of earthy matter between the
lode and the walls, or the sharp line of demarcation often observed
between the lodes and the wall-rock. The outcrop is that
portion of a vein appearing at the surface.
The breadth or size of veins is very variable : some are not
thicker than a sheet of paper, while others are several hundred
feet thick. Under these circumstances it is impossible to give a mean
breadth for lodes; although, as a rule, most paying lodes average
between 6 inches and 5 feet.
A vein is in the cap, when it is much contracted.
CLASSIFICATION OF VEINS.
27
A vein is said to split up, when a single broad fissure is
divided into several smaller ones.
The broader veins are, so much the more regular is their
course, and so much the nearer do they approach the tabular form.
Very narrow veins are often very irregularly formed. The length
of lodes, like their breadth, is very variable. As a rule, the broad-
est veins are the longest. Many so-called shorts or gash-veins
are only a few inches long, and are generally confined to a
single member of the formation in which they occur, while many
lodes have been traced for a distance of over five miles. The
depth, to which fissures extend, must at all events hold a cer-
tain relation to their breadth, and still more to their length. The
bottom of true veins has probably never been reached; although
many shorts, as well as many veins which contain only aggre-
gations of rock, thin out towards the surface or the bottom.
CLASSIFICATION OF VEINS.
17. Veins have been divided, according to their texture
and the extension of the country-rock, into
1. true veins,
2. bedded veins,
3. contact veins, as well as, owing to their peculiar form
and extent,
4. lenticular veins.
28
CLASSIFICATION OF VEINS.
By the first are understood veins (a) which traverse a rock
or formation independently of its texture and position, and not
parallel to its stratification or foliation : most of the veins around
Freiberg, Saxony, belong to this class. Bedded veins, on the
contrary, are those (b) which traverse the country parallel to
its stratification or foliation: they might be easily mistaken for
beds, were it not for their secondary character (fissure-nature),
which is characterized by peculiar circumstances, as for example
sending out branches as by (e). Contact veins are those which
occur between two dissimilar formations, as by (c), and conse-
quently, separate the formations from one another.
Lenticular veins are those which thin out in all directions,
as by (d)j which are in part, however, only local expansions of
really continuous fissures, in part, on the contrary, lentiform se-
cretions, and are not then properly veins.
In every district where metalliferous veins occur, there are
generally quite a number of them together, which often seem to
form groups in which they are parallel to one another, as follows:
The veins of Clausthal in the Hartz form a very characte-
ristic example of a group.
When on the contrary, as sometimes happens, a district or
rock is traversed irregularly in all directions by a net-work of
INTERSECTIONS OF VEINS.
29
veins, this district or rock is in Germany called a Truemerstock ;
of which Altenburg and Zinnwald in Saxony are examples.
INTERSECTIONS OF VEINS.
18. Where two veins intersect one another, they form
junctions. It is self-evident that the intersecting vein must be
more recent than the one intersected, as it fills a fissure in the
latter. All veins which meet one another do not intersect. Some
veins are most intimately combined at the point of junction;
the fissures, in the earth's crust, in which they lie having been
cotemporaneously filled : others which meet at a very acute angle
run parallel to one another, one or both of them bending and
altering their course. Generally but one of them changes its di-
rection, in which case it is always the one last formed (b).
It sometimes occurs, that
such veins, after running
parallel to one another, form
a junction and intersect; as
in the following woodcut.
Many veins after once coming in contact continue parallel
to one another, and are then called double veins.
FAULTS.
19. With the intersections of veins is frequently joined
a fault. A fault is a dislocation of an intersected vein from its
30 FAULTS.
original position, so that the
extension of its plane 110 longer
exactly meets its continuation
on j$ie opposite side of the in-
tersecting vein, as shown in
the wood- cut.
The term heave is sometimes applied to a horizontal disloca-
tion which occurs when one lode is intersected by another; a slide
is a vertical dislocation of a lode. The Germans include all
the above under the common name Verwerfung. All faults are
caused by a movement of the country; although such a motion
does not necessarily cause a fault. It is only necessary that the
hanging- or foot- wall should have been dislocated; on the other
hand botlTwalls may have been dislocated in contrary directions
or with different degrees of intensity. Most faults are to be
explained by a sinking or rising
of the hanging- or foot -wall;
some by a horizontal dislocation,
or even by a subversion. The
appearance of a fault may be
& caused merely by the opening
of a fissure ; when, as in the wood-
cut, the vein-fissure (b) intersects
an already existing vein (a) ob-
liquely, instead of at right
a angles.
In all faults the extent to which the vein has been thrown
is dependent on
1. the extent of the dislocation, and
2. the angle which the direction of the motion makes with
the line of intersection.
If this angle = O, then is the fault, even in the greatest dis-
location, imperceptible in the position of the halves of the
vein; or more properly speaking, no real fault occurs; it can
only be recognised in the dissimilarity of the contiguous halves
of the (intersected) vein which have been severed by the inter-
secting vein. In the following wood-cut the vein B has not
heaved the lode A, which is here supposed to lie in the plane of
the paper, out of its plane, but has thrown up the zone (a) more
on one side than on the other. When this angle = 90, the
fault appears as great as the motion has been.
COMPLICATED FAULTS
31
It is often of importance to the miner, to be able to deter-
mine beforehand; where a lode, which has been thrown, continues
on the other side of the fault: this can be only done with a
certain degree of safety, when the above conditions are known.
These, especially the size and direction of the throw, can only
be determined for particular cases by practice; that is, when it
has been observed, how the lode (a) faults the lode (), it can be
calculated how the same lode a would fault a third and older
lode (c).
It is self-evident, that under such and similar circumstances
the position of the lode sought-for can be accurately calcula-
ted. This mathematical portion of the Theory of Veins is spe-
cially treated of by Schmidt in his 'Theorie der Verschiebungen
alter er Gcinge', Frankfurt. 1810; Zimmermann in his ' IVieder-
ausrichtung verworfener Gauge, Lager und Flotze' , Leipsic, 1828;
by Von Carnall in Karsteris Archiv, vol. IX. 1832; and by Ch.
Combes in his 'Traite de T exploitation des mines', vol. I.
Sometimes very complicated cases of faults occur, which
appear hardly explicable ; until the position of the planes of the
lodes is exactly known, and it has, at the same time, been de-
termined, which of the fissures were combined with the faults.
A few examples may serve to give an idea of the great possi-
bility of such complicated cases, whereby no one should permit
32 COMPLICATED FAULTS, AND RESULTS OF DISLOCATIONS.
'^^w
himself to doubt the mathematical correctness and solution of all
these appearances.
Two lodes (a) and (b\ which, in a cross-section, are apparently
parallel, seem to be heaved- in opposite directions by the inter-
section of a third and more recent lode (c); which appearance
is easily explained, when the lodes (a) and (6) dip towards each
other, and the section A of the country has been raised, or the
section -B sunk.
A
Further, an older lode apparently faults a more recent one;
as for example, the more recent lode (&), in the following wood-
cut, intersects the older (a) and is still heaved; this has however
not been caused by the original fissure of the lode (a), but by a
later tearing open of a fissure (c), which has not been filled, by
the side of the lode (a).
In the same manner two lodes may apparently fault one another.
RESULTS OF DISLOCATIONS.
20. When one half of a rock-mass, traversed by a
fissure, has slidden up or down, other phenolnena besides faults
may be produced.
OCCURRENCE OF LODES. 33
For example: 1. great irregu-
larity in the thickness of the mass
filling the fissure of the slide. As
the fissures rarely follow true
planes, but are more or less
curved ; it frequently happens,
that the convexities, as also the
concavities, of one of the walls
are opposite those of the other.
In the extreme case, which the
woodcut represents, and in all simi-
lar ones, the width of the fissure or
thickness of the lode must of
course be locally very variable.
2. By reason of the disloca-
The white dotted line is supposed tions, which cause a violent tri-
to represent the vertical section of the turation of the walls On each other,
orifriniil line of tlio iissiirG owin^r to i ? 7 /* /
dislocation the arts a and a 1 b and b 2 **&&* Sides or jrtction Surfaces
which originally were opposite one an are very Commonly produced,
which exhibit a smooth, some-
times, even polished surface: on
these parallel furrows, grooves or scratches are very frequently
perceptible, which at the same time indicate the direction in
which the dislocation has taken place.
3. These dislocations have also frequently produced a line
powder, which has been afterwards transformed by softening
into a sort of clay. The origin of many clay veins and clay
selvages can be explained in this manner, while some are per-
haps only the result of decomposition.
OCCURRENCE OF LODES.
21. As a rule, lodes occur associated together; so that
when one lode has been discovered, there is a great probability
that others of a similar kind will be /ound in the neighborhood:
they are generally arranged in groups tolerably parallel to one
another, and form what the Germans call a Gangzug, of which
several may traverse the same district in different directions.
As for example, at Freiberg.
Lodes are also usually found in regions, in which igneous rocks
have burst through crystalline schists or stratified deposits. In a
3
34 OCCURRENCE OF LODES.
general sense they belong to the contact-phenomena of igneous rocks,
many are even contact- veins in the more restricted meaning; in
consequence of which, they are much more frequent in moun-
tainous regions than in plains ; since^the upheaval of the igneous
rocks has very commonly caused the elevation of mountains,
either directly or, at least, as a consequence.
Fournet has even attempted to bring particular classes of
lodes in causal " combination with particular kinds of igneous
rocks, to co-ordinate them. Although I, myself, translated Four-
net's instructive treatise on this subject in 1846, still a special
co-ordination of this kind appears to me no longer tenable,
although the idea is upheld by many facts.
Lodes occur more frequently in rock formations of great
age, than in the very recent ones : certain classes of them, as the
lodes of tin ore, are found only in the oldest rocks. The more
recent the formation of the igneous rocks, so much the more
rarely are they accompanied by lodes, the very recent only by
lodes of ironstone. The fact of lodes accompanying igneous rocks
by no means excludes the possibility, that the last should be
traversed by them; it depends, much more, on a similar relation
to their respective age ; as in the case of the crystalline schists,
and the still distinctly sedimentary deposits.
All these circumstances are in the best accord with the
hereafter to be proved acceptation; that the fissures of lodes are
the consequences of plutonic or volcanic concussions ; their filling,
the result of more or less deep underground, consequently in
this sense plutonic, actions. The formation of fissures, as
well as .their filling, still continues. This continuous (only
locally changing) process gives near the surface a different result
from that in the interior of the earth; hence occurs the, to a certain
extent, constant difference of age. Metalliferous veins, which,
from their nature, were formed at a great depth, could first attain
the surface only by means of a great, and consequently very long
continued, decomposition and erosion of the rocks covering
them. The less, on the contrary, the original covering (depth) .
was, under which they were formed; so' much the more easily
and rapidly could it (the covering) under otherwise like circum-
stances be destroyed, and what lies under it be laid free. All
plutonic formations must consequently appear older, the greater
the depth at which they were originally formed.
BREADTH, STRIKE. AND DIP. OF LODES. 35
There may, indeed, be exceptions to this rule, when the decom-
position and erosion has in any place been very energetic and
rapid; but the general rule is not altered by such exceptions.
In the prospecting for, and tracing of, metalliferous veins, it
is well to keep this rule in mind. I will return to this subject
hereafter.
BREADTH, STRIKE, AND DIP, OF LODES.
22. As already remarked in 16, it is impossible to give
a mean breadth for lodes in general; there are some exceeding
a fathom in breadth, although the majority remain under this.
The breadth of each separate lode also is frequently very
variable in different portions. This dissimilarity is, as we have
seen, a consequence of slides, which the enclosing walls of the
fissure have undergone, whereby every deviation of the fissure
from a plane would cause a widening or narrowing of the same.
Nor can any determined general direction of strike and dip,
or a measure of their extension in length and depth, be given.
The direction of their strike and dip is indeed at times a toler-
ably constant one; they occur every where more nearly approaching
a perpendicular, than the horizontal position. But even locally
many variations occur in the strike and dip ; and still less can two
separate districts of veins be traced back to a special law of the
strike and dip. If we consider that the upheaval of igneous rocks
has caused the formation of fissures, it cannot well be other-
wise, since the extent of their length follows no determined law.
What Riviere states in the Compt. rend. Vol. 45. p. 969, about
the constant direction of lodes, especially those in Europe con-
taining galena and blende, appears to me to be a fantasy similar
to that of Elie de Beaumont concerning the law of crystallo-
graphic elevation.
The extension of lodes in the direction of their dip is, cer-
tainly, in most cases a far greater one, than has yet been attained in
mining. It is customary to follow lodes substantially in both
directions, only so far as they give hopes of profit. In the direc-
tion of the strike, that is essentially conditioned by their contents;
for when a vein has been followed, as an almost sterile fissure,
for a couple of hundred fathoms, the search in that direction is
generally given up; while it is very possible that it would, in
the next hundred fathoms, prove very rich. In the direction of the
3*
36 DISTRIBUTION OF ORES IN LODES.
dip, that is in depth, the following' of a vein is much more diffi-
cult, on account of encreased difficulties in exploitation; and is
impossible beyond a certain distance. It may be said that, by
the methods employed at present in'mining, this distance must
occur at a perpendicular depth of 3000 feet ; and that probably
a distance of 10,000 feet in the interior of the earth will never
be reached. Under these circumstances it is very probable, that
most lodes continue to a far greater depth, than miners can follow
them. Up to the present time it has never been proved, that a
lode has been followed to its end, that is to where the fissure
actually ceased; most of the stated cases, concerning the wedging
out of veins, or their becoming sterile with encreased depth, rest
on the fact, that ores are generally irregularly distributed in the
veins, and that trial workings are more difficult to drive in the
direction of the dip, than of the strike. As long as the fissures
exist, there remains a possibility of their widening out and con-
taining ore.
On this subject see Burat in the Annales des Mines XI. p. 27, and
Pernobet, vol. XII. p. 307.
The so-called 'Gash veins' play a very peculiar part in
the experience of vein miners; they are veins which continue,
or are at least only worth mining, for a short distance under
the sod; and are always confined to one formation. It is possible
that subordinate fissures of the earth's crust were mechanically
filled with ore, from above inwards, and only for a very short
distance; so for example with stream tin, gold sand, oolithic iron
ore, etc. These are then no true fissure veins.
DISTRIBUTION OF ORES IN LODES.
23. The unequal distribution of the ores in lodes is a
very important subject for the miner, and interesting in a scien-
tific point of view.
In very many lodes, especially those the gang of which
consists chiefly of quartz, brownspar, dialogite, calcite, spathic
iron, heavy spar, fluor spar or combinations of the same, the
ores mingled with these are by no means equally, much rather
unequally distributed; in consequence of which the richer spots
are distinguished, from the poorer and sterile ones, by such names
as chimneys, bonanzas, finds, nests of ore, etc. Such lodes
are very seldom paying in their whole extent: as a rule, only
DIFFERENCES OF DEPTH. 37
separated aggregations, necessitating the search for other
similar ones after these have been worked out. It would, naturally,
be not only scientifically interesting, but also practically of the
greatest importance, to learn, if possible, the causes or the law
of this unequal distribution of ores. Unfortunately this has
not, up to the present time, been discovered; approaches to
this knowledge having been only recently begun, and most
of the researches in this direction being still much scattered.
I shall attempt to collect here the most important researches
already made, adding a few remarks: these researches relate
chiefly to differences of depth, breadth, country, local direction
of strike or dip; and, as regards the lodes, to still unknown
causes.
DIFFERENCES OF DEPTH.
^ 24. In many districts where vein mining is pursued, there
exists, or did for a long time exist, the opinion, that lodes are
only productive to a certain depth, all below this depth being
sterile. This opinion has been caused in most cases by the cir-
cumstance, that the opening and working of mines are easier at
small depths than at great ones, that the difficulties to be over-
come encrease with the depth, and that in consequence much
more extended trial-workings have been driven in the horizontal
direction of the strike, than in the perpendicular or inclined one
of the dip. When a chimney or pocket of ore accidentally ceased
at a depth of 100 fathoms, the miners determined with much
greater reluctance to sink 50 fathoms farther on a lode destitute
of ore, in order perhaps to reach a new chimney, than to drift
50 fathoms in a horizontal direction. All statements relating to
a real disappearance of the ore in a vertical direction are there-
fore to be accepted with a certain degree of distrust, and must
be first subjected to a most searching examination. It is a priori
very improbable, that lodes, as such, should cease at the pro-
portionally slight depth which mining is able to reach. It is
entirely another thing, when experience shows that the nature of
the ore changes with encreasing depth.
That is already a priori probable; and mining experience
would give many more proofs of the same, were not the field of
observation such a limited one in the direction of the depth.
There are but very few metal mines, which have reached a
greater perpendicular depth than 2000 feet; by far the greater
3H VARIOUS NAMES OF OUTCROP.
number of observations relate therefore to the slight zone of
2000 feet beneath the surface of the earth.
A certain kind of difference is very generally observed be-
tween the upper and lower depths of4odes; namely, those which
are caused by decompositions and transformations of the outcrop.
This is not a primary, but a secondary difference, caused by
the penetration of atmospheric air, infiltration of water, etc. As
really occurring this is important to the miner, but must be most
carefully separated from real difference of depth; which, often
.difficult, is always more so, where both kinds of difference of
depth occur together. I will first examine the secondary diffe-
rences of the outcrop, and then pass to primary differences of
depth.
GOSSAN, IRON HAT, CHAPEAU EN FER, PACOS,
COLORADOS.
25. The altered outcrop of lodes has received in different
parts of the world these various names; which are all to be
attributed, according to Haidinger's Terminology, to anogene l
metamorphoses.
In Germany the outcrop or upper portion of many lodes,
especially those rich in metallic sulphides, has been called Iron
Hat (eiserner Hut)', since the peroxide and hydrated peroxide
of iron are formed by the decomposition of the sulphides con-
taining a large percentage of iron (iron pyrites, magnetic pyrites,
chalcopyrite, mispickel, blende) ; which, being disseminated through
the whole gang, gives a predominant red or brown color.
This mass resembles iron stone, and can in some cases be used
as such. Other substances besides the metallic sulphides and
spathic iron have been subjected to decomposition, but contri-
bute less to the peculiar coloring of the iron hat; for example
from galena, chalcopyrite and copper glance, all the other lead
and copper ores have been formed. This formation of the iron
hat in lodes, by the decomposition of the sulphides and spathic
iron (frequently extending to a depth of many fathoms), natu-
rally presupposes that the sulphides and spathic iron were origi-
nally present; and, as these are frequently combined with silver
and lead ores or gold, it may be an indicator of rich deposits
of ore. From this circumstance sprang the old German rhyme
1 Set\ 171 foot-note.
PRIMARY DIFFERENCES OF DEPTH. 39
Es that kein Gang so gut,
Er hat einen eisernen Hut. l
This rule is subject to many exceptions, and only holds good for
those districts of veins in which the sulphides occur with rich
ore. The Cornish term Gossan has sprung from similar, but not
always predominating ferriferous and red-colored, products of decom-
position; the same is true ofthePacos, Colorados, and Negril-
lo s of the South American miners, which frequently show a very
variegated color caused by different oxides and salts of copper,
chloride of silver (bromide and iodide of silver), salts of lead, etc.
The general character of these altered outcroppings of lodes
consists in a decomposition and softening of the mass of the
wall rock, lack of sulphides, predominance of metallic oxides,
metallic salts, combinations with water, carbonic acid, phos-
phoric acid, arsenic acid, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc., which
frequently produce very dazzling colors: these products of trans-
formation are frequently accompanied by metallic copper and
silver, whkh have separated. With encreasing depth these pro-
ducts of decomposition pass over, often very gradually, into the
sulphides and spathic iron, which at last altogether predominate.
PKIMARY DIFFERENCES OF DEPTH.
26. I will begin the examination of this subject by enu-
merating a few examples.
1. On the Rathhausberg, Raurieser Tauern, etc., in the
Salzburg Alps the crystalline schists are traversed by veins of
auriferous quartz. These same veins are apparently traversing
the neighboring valley gorges, which are in some places over
200 feet deep. These veins appear to contain no gold in
the niveau of the valleys, at least this is only obtained from
them on the tops of the mountains at a height of 6 to 8000 feet
above the sea, and consequently under very unfavorable circum-
stances as regards climate. It would be in every way more
profitable, were it possible, to work the lodes from the deep
valleys; but the quartz veins appear to contain gold only in
their upper portions, it being no longer present in those por-
tions which have been laid open by the deep valleys. As this
phenomenon recurs in many lodes of this district, it cannot be
1 There is no lode like that,
Which has an iron hat.
40
PRIMARY DIFFERENCES OF DEPTH.
properly assigned to chance. At Ponte grande, in the Province
of Ossola, auriferous pyrites are only obtained at a height of
about 3000 feet above the bottom of the valley.
2. According to Oscar Lieber, many lodes in North and South
Carolina appear to contain gold in their upper portions, which
lower down contain lead and copper ores and hardly any gold.
According to Lieber the succession from above downwards was
gold, lead, copper ; not observed, it, is true, in one and the same
lode, but deduced from a combination of several observations.
He found that lodes in North and South Carolina of otherwise
very similar mineralogical character contained, in the depths
reached by mining, now gold, now lead ores, now copper ores;
and that in some cases lead ores occurred under the gold, in
others copper ores; while in still other lodes the copper^ores
were found under lead ores. From these facts he constructed
a plan of the succession of ores as shown in the woodcut.
Gold
Lead
Copper
The line aa represents the original, the line bb the present
surface. The lode 1 would still contain all three of the metalli-
ferous zones, the lode 2 only the lead and copper zones, 3 again
all three, 4 only the gold and copper zones, finally 5 only the
copper zone.
This representation is certainly very hypothetical; but it is, ac.
to Lieber, sustained by facts, many of which he has contributed
to the Author's Gangstudien, from which it appears to follow
that the gold is only found in the upper portions of the lodes.
Prof. Shepard and James Eights in the N. Y. Mining Magazine
for 1858, Vol. X. p. 27 1' and Vol. XL p. 136, assert, on the con-
trary, that the quartz lodes in North Carolina and Georgia
also contained auriferous copper and iron pyrites at greater
PRIMARY DIFFERENCES OF DEPTH. 41
depths ; but that the gold is only perceptible and easily recogni-
sed in their upper decomposed portion (gossan), in the ferru-
ginous quartz and iron ochre, while at great depths it is imper-
ceptible in the undecomposed pyrites. Murchison is also of the
opinion, that gold decreases with the depth in all gold veins, and
soon entirely ceases : a statement, which is apparently contra-
dicted by the Grass Valley and other mines of California.
3. Near Seiffen in the Erzgebirge many tin lodes are known
in the gneiss district, which, according to company reports, grad-
ually pass over with encreasing depth into lodes of argentiferous
copper ore.
4. In the ore district lying north and northwest of Freiberg
it has been found, that in the so-called edle Quarzformation (as
for example, the Alte and Neue Hojjnung mines) the veins be-
came poorer with the depth, while in the lodes of the barytische
Bleiformation they encreased in richness. Up to the present
time it has been impossible to determine, whether this change is
dependent on the depth, or has, perhaps, been caused by other
circumstances.
5. According to Vogelgesang, the real percentage of iron
in the lodes of Przibram in Bohemia is often greater in the
g ossan than in the undecomposed portions of the lodes; the upper
decomposed regions contain, on the other hand, but little silver,
even in those places where it occurs in workable quantities be-
neath. In this case it would appear as if secondary differences
of depth were combined with primary ones, a circumstance
which may frequently occur without being so easily recognised.
, 6. Lill von Lilienbach states of these same Przibram lodes,
that their contents encreased in richness to a depth of 200 fa-
thoms, but have remained constant from that depth to one of
300 fathoms.
7. Von Tschudi states ofOruro in Bolivia, which lies 12400
feet above the sea, and was renowned in former centuries for
its great silver riches, that it is at present in a state of great
decay. The observation made in many districts ; that argentife-
rous lodes are very rich in their outcroppings, and becoming
poorer with the depth, soon pass over into ores containing no
silver ; has been found true in each of the numerous mines of Oruro.
Other examples of this kind will be given in the second
portion of the book.
42 THEORETICAL EXAMINATION.
THEORETICAL EXAMINATION.
27. Were it generally proved? that a primary difference
in the contents of lodes was dependent on their depth, we could,
in the main, easily explain them. It would be easily conceiv-
able, that the continuous encrease of heat and pressure, in lissures
extending to great depths, should have had an influence in depo-
siting irregularly on the walls of the lissures the precipitate from
a solution. The column of a solution in a fissure 1000 feet
high, its hydrostatic pressure, and the necessary encrease of 20
degrees in temperature, might easily have caused differences in
the nature of the deposits in the fissure, corresponding to the
depth. The dissimilar zones, in the contents of lodes, correspon-
ding to the depth, can be more easily explained in this way, than
proved. It is indeed easily supposable, that many dissimilar so-
called vein formations, with which we have become acquainted
in distinct lodes, are in the main but formations, of unequal
depth.
If we imagine, that certain mineral solutions, when deposited
in fissures extending to a great depth, give as a result in the
upper zone, to a depth of 5000 feet, the vein formation a, in
the zone of the next 5000 feet the vein formation b, and in the
third, lower, zone the vein formation c; then dissimilar veins a,
5, or c, would be accessible to miners, according as the original
surface has remained, or has been destroyed to a depth of 5000
to 10 > 000 feet.
The case is still more striking, if we suppose, that certain
fissures A were filled with mineral matter, while the original
surface still existed ; others B, after the upper 5000 feet had been
eroded; and still others (7, after the surface had been washed
away to a depth of 10,000 feet. We then find at the surface,
and within reach of mining operations, the three vein formations
a, b and c together, as if being three different vein formations
of unequal age; while in reality the upper portions, the original
outcrops, of the veins a and b are wanting; the differences
existing are only those of depth.
This is entirely an ideal supposition, at the present time
without practical value; but it appears worth mentioning, since
it may draw attention to comparative researches, and possibly
lead to the right theory.
LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORES.
A
43
INFLUENCE OF THE BREADTH OF FISSURES ON THE
LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORES.
28. The general or the local breadth of fissures has evi-
dently exerted a double influence on the special development of
the mass filling them. In the first place, the solution, whatever
might be its nature, could circulate more freely, the minerals
which crystallized out had more room for expansion, in broader
lodes or the broader parts of a lode. Then, in the second place,
in the cases of successive combed deposits, more single layers
of like thickness could form over one another during a longer
period of time in a wide fissure, than in a narrow one; so long
as places of great breadth were not, by narrowing, enclosed on
all sides in such a manner, that the solution was not able to
penetrate farther. In this case geodes were formed.
If we imagine a solution of any kind to flow through a fis-
sure, which is here and there broad and narrow, the motion of
the fluid must necessarily be more rapid in the narrow portions,
than in the broad ones; for this reason deposits would take place
more easily in the broad places, than in the narrow ones.
In a banded structure of the lodes the dissimilarity may,
as mentioned, be caused by the last layers finding no place for
development in the narrower portions. When the more recent
44 LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORES.
layers are of a somewhat different nature from the older, outer
ones; the relative nature of the whole lode would necessarily be
altered.^?
We will examine this Case more^closely by means of very
general and ideal examples. Let us imagine four dissimilar but
equally broad bands successively deposited in a lode, but in the
narrower portions of the fissure only space for two or three of the
same, or in other words that they had already filled the fissure.
It would then depend on the relative metallic value of the se-
parate bands, in which places the lode was relatively, or absolu-
tely, the richest, in the narrower or in the broader.
Let all four bands be equally thick, and contain
the first band no metal,
the second band 1 per cent (of perhaps Silver)>
the third band 2 per cent,
the fourth band 3 per cent':
then the lode contains, where only the two outer layers have
been deposited, altogether only y 2 per cent; where the third
occurs with them, 1 per cent by 1 / s more gang; and when the
fourth is also developed, l l / 2 per cent by twice as much gang.
When however the case is Teversed, and they contain
the first layer 3 per cent,
the second layer 2 per cent,
the third layer 1 per cent,
the fourth layer per cent:
it gives inversely the greatest metallic value (= 2 ] / 2 per cent)
in that portion of the lode containing only the two outer layers,
the smallest (= lV- a per cent) in that portion which is twice as
broad containing all four layers. The absolute value is naturally
still the greatest in the last case, since the lode is twice as broad.
It is hoped this ideal example will aid in estimating the
extraordinary variety of the possible real cases. Still this exa-
mination into the influence of the unequal breadth of a vein fissure
cannot, without something additional, be applied to two different
unequally broad, fissures; since the conditions of the influx may
have been very dissimilar.
The union of branches into a single lode, or the reverse, the
splitting up of a lode into several smaller ones, has frequently
been assigned as the reason of the richness or poverty of the
same. The fact is indisputable. But the reason, strictly speaking,
is not the union or splitting up, as such, but only the changes
INFLUENCE OF THE NATURE OF THE COUNTRY. 45
in the breadth of the lode connected with it; when the single
branches are not of different ages, and in this case have acted
on one- another, as if being a portion of the country.
I now come to the influence caused by the nature of the
enclosing rocks.
INFLUENCE OF THE NATURE OF THE COUNTRY.
29. Formerly this influence on the distribution of the mat-
ter filling the lodes, especially the useful ores, was only known
in the most prominent cases, as for example in the junction of
veins, in which an older vein formed for a short distance the
wall of a more recent one; and in such striking cases, as those
observed in Cumberland and Derbyshire, where the lodes are very
variable between argillaceous shale, sandstone, limestone and trap.
I will first enumerate a few of the most striking cases.
1 . Around Freiberg, l and in several similar ore-districts, it
has been long known; that two lodes are, as a rule, richer in
ores in the neighborhood of their intersection, than in their re-
maining extent. This is especially perceptible, when a younger
vein intersects an older one, so that this last forms for a certain
distance one of the walls of the former; and the effect, thus
caused, is generally, other relations being equal, so much the
greater, the more acute the angle at which the intersection takes
place. Which fact is easily conceivable; since with equal breadth,
the plane of contact of the lodes is greater, the more acute the
angle at which they intersect. This holds good, when two veins
of unequal age meet without intersecting, when they join one
another so as to form a double lode ; no matter whether the
fissure for the more recent vein has been formed at one of the
selvages, or in the middle of the older one. The planes of con-
tact are naturally the greatest in the last case.
But since in all these cases, in addition to the size of the
planes of contact, the nature also of the older vein, and the quantity
or quality of the solution which has penetrated into the new
fissure (on which the amount of ore is dependent), are of the
greatest influence; it is easily comprehensible, that an equal or
even considerable enrichment does not always occur when two
veins meet. In fact, it has been exceptionally observed, that an
1 See: Von Cotta's Gangstudien. Vol. I. p.
46 INFLUENCE OF THE NATURE
empoverishment of lodes occurs in intersections; which may
possibly arise from the older .vein being shattered, and by which
a subsequent washing out of the ore in the same was facilitated.
What is still more striking is the *fact, that occasionally an
enrichment of the older, intersected vein, has taken place in the
neighborhood of the junction. This has very probably been
caused by the solution penetrating fine clefts of the same, and in
this case belongs to the phenomena of impregnation.
Several examples are added to the above, which are so far
similar, in that their metalliferous contents have been caused by
the favorable influence of the country.
2. At Schweina 1 and Kamsdorf, in the Thuringian Forest,
as also near Riegelsdorf in Hesse Cassel, the Zechstein, Kupfer-
schiefer, Grauliegendes, Rothliegendes, granite, gneiss and mica
schist, are traversed by veins in which heavy spar predominates.
In those places whe^e the veins are enclosed in Kupferschiefer,
or metalliferous Grauliegendes , they contain productive quan-
tities of cobalt- nickel- and copper-ores; while those portions of
the veins enclosed in the other rocks, contain hardly any-tiring
. but heavy spar.
3. At Kongsberg 2 in Norway the country consists chiefly
of mica schist, hornblende schist, talc schist and chlorite schist.
Certain belts or zones of these crystalline schists show them-
selves for an extent of several miles, with but few breaks, more
or less richly impregnated to a breadth of several hundred feet
with iron pyrites, copper pyrites and blende. These last are
mostly disseminated through the rock in extremely fine and hardly
perceptible particles, so that they are, at times, first discovered
on the surface, in consequence of their 'decomposing and impart-
ing a brown color to the rock. These zones are called 'Fall-
bands', and are of great importance to the mining at Kongsberg ;
since the silver lodes, which intersect the strata diagonally, are
as a rule only .rich within the Fallbands, and outside of them
contain but little* silver.
4. At Braunsdorf 3 near Freiberg the veins N , of the so-called
Edle. Quarzformation, are enclosed in mica schist, which con-
1 See: Tantscher in Karsten's Archiv. 1834, Vol. VII. p. 606; Hauser
in Leonhard's Jahrbuch f. Mineralogie, 1819, p. 311.
2 See: Hausmann, Reise durch Scandinavien, II. p. 12; Daubre'e, Scan-
dinavien's Erzlagerstatten, p. -44; Whitney, Metallic Wealth, etc. p. 42.
3 See: Von Cotta's Gangstudien, Vol. I. p. 217.
OF THE COUNTRY. . 47
tains an irregular layer of black graphitic schist, the so-called
schwarzen Gebirge. The veins have been only found productive
in the black schist: in the common mica schist they are very
poor.
5. In Cumberland 1 lodes of lead occur in carboniferous
limestone, which alternates with sandstone and argillaceous shales.
The lodes are only broad and productive, when enclosed in the
limestone, split up into branches: and non-productive in the
sandstone and shales.
6. In Derbyshire the carboniferous limestone, with subordi-
nate layers of greenstone, locally called toadstone, encloses lodes
of lead-ores; which, as in the preceding case, are broad and pro-
ductive only in the limestone, split up into branches and unpro-
ductive in the greenstone.
7. Near Marazion and Goldsithney 2 in Cornwall the green-
stones are crossed by elvans\ and both are traversed by lodes,
which in the greenstones contain copper pyrites, but where they
come in contact with the elvans, they also yield copper glance.
8. Almost the whole mineral wealth of Cornwall 3 appears
to occur within a distance of two or three miles on each side of
the junction of the slate and granite. Yet no part of the line
itself seems to have been more productive, than any other spot
of equal extent within the distance already mentioned; and though
the lodes not uncommonly run for several fathoms with granite
on one side and slate on the other, yet the portions so con-
tained between dissimilar rocks are not generally the richest.
9. Fox 4 says in addition; 'Lodes in Cornwall are very much
influenced by the nature of the rock which they traverse; and they
often change in this respect very suddenly, in passing from one
rock to another. Thus many lodes which yield an abundance of
ore in granite, are unproductive in clay-slate, or killas, and vice
versa. The same observation applies- to killas and the granitic
porphyry called elvan. Sometimes in the same continuous vein,
the granite will contain copper, and the killas, tin, or vice versa 1 .
Fox attempts to explain this phenomenon by means of electric
currents.
1 See: Dufrenoy, Elie de Beaumont, Coste and Perdonnet, Voyage me-
tallurgique en Angleterre.
2 See: Trans, royal geplog. soc. of Cornwall, Vol. V. p. 32.
3 See: the same, p. 219.
4 See: Fox on mineral veins, p. 10.
48 INFLUENCE OF THE NATURE
10. At Andreasberg l in the Hartz the walls of the lodes
consist, partly of Palaeozoic strata and quartzite, in which the
lodes are broad and productive in silver; partly of slate, in which
they are narrower and poorer.
11. At Kaafjord 2 in Finland the country consists of
diorite and arenaceous clay-slate: in the first the lodes are very
rich in copper ores, in the last they are contracted and unpro-
ductive.
12. In the Salzburg Alps 3 the rock consists principally of
gneiss, with subordinate strata of mica schist and granular lime-
stone. The lodes in the gneiss consist of quartz containing gold ;
in the mica schist they are generally much po'orer in gold; and
in limestone contain no gold, but in its place silver ores with
carbonates.
13. At Przibram 4 in Bohemia the walls of the lodes are
generally composed of greywacke, argillaceous shales, and green-
stones. In the grey wacke the "lodes are broad and productive, in
the shales narrow, and in the greenstones very much contracted.
14. Near Moschellandsberg in Rhenish Bavaria the coal
formation is traversed by lodes of quicksilver ores; and the mi-
ners, according to Gumbel, distinguish certain layers by the name
of good rock, between which the lodes show themselves far
richer, than between other so-called bad rock; what is the dif-
torence, Giimbel unfortunately does not mention.
15. At Lake Superior 3 lodes of copper intersect amygda-
loid, compact greenstone, conglomerate, and sandstone. According
to Koch and Rivot, they are very rich in the amygdaloid, and
mostly two feet broad ; in greenstone much narrower, #nd unpro-
ductive ; in conglomerate, and sandstone, also thinner, and mostly
contain no copper, but calcite and calamine in its place. Accord-
ing to Hague this is not altogether true.
16. At the Pindad mine in the State of Michicacan , Me-
xico, lodes of dialogite and ruby silver traverse an older and a
younger^ darker hornblende porphyry. According to the obser-
See: Hausmann im Herzinischen Archiv, p. 677.
See: Daubree. Scandinaviens Erzlagerstatten, p. 34.
See: Reissacher in Haidinger's Abhandhmgen, II. p. 17; Cotta, Geolog.
Briefe
aus d. Alpen, 1850, p. 144.
See: Von Cotta's Gangstudien, Vol. I. p. 322.
See: Koch, die Mineralgegenden der Vereinigten Staaten; Rivot in
Comptes rendus, 1855, Vol. 40. p. 136.
OF THE COUNTRY. 49
vation of E. Schleidens these contain much less ruby silver in
the younger porphyry than in the older and lighter colored qne.
17. Lieber ' in speaking of South Carolina says; every one
who has been engaged with us in vein mining must have re-
marked, that where a lode comes in contact with a vein of rock,
intersects it, or is broken through by it ; a local enrichment has
always taken place. This enrichment is at times so considerable
that many lodes have only been productive in such places. The
lodes of Carolina contain principally gold and copper ores, the
country is generally, itacoluimt, talc schist, mica schist, and gneiss;
the veins of rock, or dikes, consist chiefly of greenstones, phono-
lith, etc.
18. Daub 2 thought he observed in the Black' Forest a differ-
ence of the percentage of silver ores in veins of heavy spar,
according as they intersect older or more recent rocks or depo-
sits. According to him they are generally richer in granite and
gneiss, while their percentage of silver diminishes, in greywacke
and mica schist, carboniferous limestone, variegated sandstone,
Muschelkalk, and Jura; in such a manner that in the last for-
mation they consist almost entirely of heavy spar without any
ore. This observation was made, not on a single lode intersect-
ing all these rocks, but on a number of lodes, of which some
were found in this, others in that rock ; and in so far, gives no
certain result, even if itself entirely correct.
19. G. Leonhard, 3 on the contrary, observed in the silver
lodes of the Teufelsgrund in the Kinzig valley, which intersect
gneiss and porphyry, a considerable encrease of richness in
the decomposed gneiss, a marked decrease in the porphyry; simi-
larly also in the Riickenbach mine in the Miinster valley.
A portion of these cases has long been known as isolated
facts. More recently the knowledge and observations of the
influence which the country has on the richness of lodes, have been
somewhat generalised, and in this way a path broken towards
a theory for the same, as well as a general practical application
of the knowledge. This progress has been especially incited
by the examinations made in the neighborhood of Freiberg by
the government Commission under the direction of Hermann
Miiller.
' See: Cotta's Gangstudien, Vol. III. p. 2.
2 See: Daub in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1851, p. 1.
3 See: G. Leonhard. Geognost. Skizze d Herzogthums Baden, 1846.
4
50 RELATION OF ORE-DEPOSITS TO THE
RELATION OF ORE-DEPOSITS TO THE ENCLOSING
ROOK AROUND FREIBERG.
30. The country a-round Freiberg in which the silver
lodes are situated, consists chiefly of gneiss. Although this rock
is divided into many different varieties, traversed by dikes of
porphyry and greenstone, passes into mica schist, and this con-
tains layers of limestone; still the miners attached but little im-
portance to these variations and distinctions. With the excep-
tion of the above-mentioned case at Braunsdorf, no constant
relations were observed between the country and the variable
contents of the lodes. This was first definitely proved by the
examinations mentioned.
From these examinations it has been found, that, as a rule,
every modification of the rock was accompanied by a certain,
though but slight, modification in the matrix of the -lode, while
the difference was frequently a very marked one. By far the
greater number of known ore bunches or courses in the Freiberg
lodes can be explained by the variations of the country rock,
to which the junctions with older veins naturally belong.
Mr. H. Miiller says (Gangstudien I. p. 209): 'In just the
same manner as is the occurrence and formation of veins in this
locality in" general, do we find the deposits of ore in particular
combined jvith the occurrence of certain rocks. This influence
of the country rock makes itself perceptible, not only by differ-
ent separate veins in particular, but, also, in general and .on
a large scale, by the various groups or 'Ziige' of lodes occur-
ring in our district
The lodes in general, without distinction in regard to the
character of the formation, have attained a development favor-
able to mining only within compact rocks, in which feldspar or
quartz, hornblende, pyroxene, as also carbon (graphite, anthra-
cite) or carbonate of lime, form an essential ingredient ; while on
the contrary within less compact or fissured micaceous or mag-
nesian rocks they have been very unfavorably developed. The
most striking proof of this is given, by an exact comparison of
the extent and course of these rocks, with that of the produc-
tive portion of'the lodes traversing them, as also by a large
number of. old reports on the lodes. Although to be sure, the
lodes are not always favorably developed in rocks conducive to
a deposit of ores, and frequently are even barren of ores within
ENCLOSING ROCK AROUND FREIBERG. 51
them, still when they do contain ores, it is only in these rocks ;
while, on the other hand they are always barren and never
contain ores in the unfavorable rocks/
It has been frequently observed, that while rocks were
themselves unable to cause any sufficient enrichment of the lodes,
still their more favorable influence was observed, in that junc-
tions of lodes, consequently enrichments by means of a lode as
w r all rock, are only productive within these particular zones of
country. So that here the influence of two favorable walls con-
tribute to one result.
The examination of the Freiberg lodes by H. Miiller was
partly by direct observations, partly by the study of former
mining reports and charts. From the form of former workings
it is sometimes still possible to see, that they chiefly follow a
particular variety of the enclosing rock, which was probably the
cause of a particular bunch or course of ore.
From this point I intend to use the term .ore carrier for
those rocks exerting a favorable influence on the deposit of ores.
According to the observations made around Freiberg up
to the present time, an absolute influence, favorable or unfa-
vorable, cannot be ascribed to the various rocks, but only a
relative one. While, for example, the lodes of Braunsdorf
have been found to contain ores, and even, in parts, be pro-
ductive in the quartzose or gneissic mica schist varieties,
those of the Kurprinz Friedrich August, Alte HofFnung Gottes,
Gesegnete Bergmanns Hoffnung, Michaelis, and JEmanuel mines,
in similar or apparently the same rocks, have been found barren
and unproductive. While further, the granitic gneiss has exerted
in other portions of the Freiberg districts a very unfavorable
influence on the deposit of ores in the lodes traversing it; still
several of them, as the Keinsberg Gliick lode, have proved very
rich and productive in the same. This variable comportment,
or, as it might be called, this 'various relative carrying of ores
in the same or closely related rocks, appears at first sight a
contradiction to the fact, that the condition of the lodes depends
on the nature of the rocks ; in reality however, this is not the
case. There is always a certain law in connection with it ;
thus lodes, like those of Braunsdorf, occurring in quartzose or
micaceous gneiss and in pure mica schist, when they contain
ore at all, do so only in the first mentioned rocks, while in
the last they are always barren of ore. Lodes occurring both
4*
52 GNEISS, RED AND GREY: THEIR INFLUENCE ON LODES.
in granulitic gneiss and in quartzose or micaceous gneiss, as
those of the Alte Hoffnung Gottes and Gesegnete Bergmanns
Hoffnung mines, contain ore principally in granulitic gneiss,
while in the quartzose or micaceous "'gneiss they either contain
less or are entirely barren. Lodes which occur both in green-
stone and granulitic gneiss, as those of the Alte Hoffnung Gottes
mine, have proved richer in the first named rock than in the last.
Hence it is possible, that a lode containing but a very small
amount of ore may under circumstances prove barren and fre v e
from ore in a rock, which is found, elsewhere, to contain the
chief deposits of ore concentrated within it.
The number of cases up to the present time is indeed small,
in which it is possible to deduce such a relative connection of
the rocks with the ore deposits; since a conclusion in this respect
can only be drawn, when with the various relations of the rocks
the other conditions, which may have had an influence on the
nature of the lodes, are the same.
So, for example, the enrichment of the Frisch Gliick lode
caused by its junction with the Paul Stehender in quartzose
and micaceous gneiss, at the Alte Hoffnung Gottes mine, cannot
be compared with its poorer and unproductive portion in gran-
ulite gneiss, where the reason for such an enrichment is wanting.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN RED AND GREY GNEISS,
AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON LODES.
31. In addition to these special effects of dissimilar vari-
eties or kinds of country, H. Muller has recognised throughout
the Erzgebirge a general law in regard to the distribution
and extension of the lodes, as well as in their local contents.
The gneiss of the Erzgebirge may be divided into two great
varieties, or rather groups of varieties ; of which one has been
called red gneiss in distinction to the common grey gneiss,
because its feldspar is very commonly of a red color. Both the
grey and red gneiss are subdivided into many varieties both of
composition and texture. It is very difficult, at times, to deter-
mine whether in particular cases such a modification should be
assigned to grey or red gneiss, since up to the present time
sharp and positive distinctions have not been proved to exist
between the two principal varieties, although in extreme cases
they can be easily determined, and then differ most strikingly
INFLUENCE OF COUNTRY ROCK ON CONTENTS OF LODES. 53
in their mode of occurrence. Wherever the -red gneiss occurs
characteristically, it shows itself to be an igneous rock, which is
never the case with the grey or normal Freiberg gneiss. The
red gneiss even contains, at times, distinct fragments of the grey,
or it forms dikes in the same, and may be aptly termed a gneissic
(fissile) granite.
The characteristic distinctions between grey and red gneiss
are concisely given in the following table.
Grey Gneiss. Red Gneiss.
Silica ; 64-67 per cent.
Ingredients; orthoclase, some-
what of oligoclase, quartz, and
Silica; 7476 per cent.
Ingredients; orthoclase, quartz,
and a little light colored mica.
an abundance of dark colored
mica.
There are, however, intermediate grades between the two,
which cannot with certainty be assigned to the one or the other.
The grey gneiss appears in the Erzgebirge to exert a much more
favorable effect in general on the metalliferous contents of the
lodes than the red, which contains but few veins.
INVESTIGATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COUN-
TRY ROCK ON THE CONTENTS OF LODES.
32. From what has preceded, we may consider it as
proved, that the nature of the country has exerted a certain in-
fluence on the contents of lodes, and especially on the unequal
amount of ore they contain; although the observations hitherto
made can only be regarded as local, the results of which are
not as yet adapted to application, except in the localities, where the
observations were made. That is, while it may with good reason
be expected, that a dissimilar country will every where act
dissimilarly on the nature of the lodes ; still the conclusion must
not be drawn from this, that because thia or that rock, this or
that variety, may have shown itself in one or two cases as enrich-
ing certain lodes, as a good ore-carrier, therefore the same rock
or variety must prove so in all other cases. Local observations
must be made concerning this influence, before it can rightly
be adopted as a foundation for mining operations. The uncer-
tain limits of that, - which must be considered as belonging to a
rock; the great difference in the varieties of rocks amongst each
54 MATERIALS FOR A THEORY.
other, of such a nature that exactly the same variety but seldom
occurs in two different localities; the great variety in the manner
in which different rocks occur together; and, finally, the dissimi-
lar nature of ftie solutions filling the fissures, as well as the many
subordinate causes, which may and do have an influence on the
distribution of ores ; have exerted a modifying influence. For
all these reasons it can hardly be expected, that a general and
valid law will ever be discovered for the influence of the various
rocks forming the walls on the lodes. It is however very pos-
sible, that the causes of this particular influence may, to a cer-
tain extent, be discovered; that these causes may be traced to
particular properties of the rocks, which are in part independent of
their names; and that from this, certain general rules may be deduced
for the influences they exert; which may, with some caution, be
practically applied in ore districts but little known, and particu-
larly in such where no special observations on this subject
exist. On this account, it is very important to attempt to form
a theory on this influence as nearly correct as possible, and then
confirm or correct this by continued observations.
MATERIALS FOR A THEORY.
33. If we examine the examples given more closely, we
find- some of them, in which the influence of the country appears
to have been principally of a mechanical nature. Certain rocks
are more adapted to form regular fissures than others : in many,
instead of a simple fissure, a very irregular shattering of the rock
has taken place. These dissimilar forms of fissure appear to
have exerted an influence on the nature of the deposits; and
even if, as in some of the cases (see examples 5, 6, 10, 11, 13
and 15, 29), in addition to the form of the fissure, other causes,
founded in the ..country, appear to have had an effect on the
contents of the lodes; these can hardly be isolated from the main
cause. In any case we must recognise the form of the fis-
sure as one of the circumstances which affected the contents of
lodes.
In other cases, without any perceptible dissimilarity in the
formation of the fissure, very distinct and specific differences
occur, in the matter filling the lodes, between dissimilar enclosing
rocks of the same lode; sometimes of such a nature (as in
examples 7, 12, and 15), that not only the quantity of the ores
ABILITY OF ROCKS TO CONDUCT HEAT. 55
and gang occurring is different, but the ores are of another
kind. From this we must infer the presence of some property
within the rocks themselves, which affected the particular
character of the deposits, which had a particular affinity or
repulsion for this or that element, which caused it to precipitate
or prevented the same. In what may this property or, when
several are combined, in what may these properties consist?
The analogy of similar occurrences, in experiments and tech-
nical processes, refers us especially to the following properties,
as having possibly been influential :
1. The ability to conduct heat,
2. The density,
3. The greater or less porosity of the rocks,
4. The greater or less smoothness or roughness of the sur-
face of their fissures,
5. The chemical reaction of one or all the ingredients of
the. rock,
6. Electric currents.
We will consider these separately.
THE ABILITY OF ROCKS TO CONDUCT HEAT.
34. It is a well known fact, that the crystallization, from
solutions on the walls of vessels, is variable, according as these
consist of wood, stone, burnt clay, or metal. Even the various
kinds of wood, stone, or metal, appear to exert an influence on
this. Most probably, this difference is chiefly caused by the
difference in the power of substances to conduct heat, and pro-
bably also by their density, and the smoothness or roughness of
their surfaces, which in turn have had an influence on the ra-
diation of heat. This difference exerts itself, not only on liquid
solutions, but just as decidedly on the crystallization from a gase-
ous condition. This is very distinctly shown in the formation
of hoarfrost and the beautiful crystallizations of frost on windows.
A difference, so well known to exist in such a number of
cases, must necessarily have made itself perceptible in the crys-
tallizations taking place on the sides of fissures in the crust of
the earth, consisting of very dissimilar rocks. Many solutions
are only possible at a certain temperature ; and if a cooling pro-
cess takes place, until a point beneath this temperature is attained,
a partial or complete precipitation takes place. On this
56 DENSITY AND POROSITY OF ROCKS.
account, a rock, which is a good conductor of heat, must certainly
have had a far greater effect on the precipitation and crystal-
lization, than one which is a poor conductor.
This is indeed but a theoretical ^contemplation founded on
general observations, which has not as yet been confirmed by
special examinations of lodes. At all events it is worth keeping
in mind in all examinations on the important subject of the dis-
tribution of ores in lodes, or to be followed up by experiments.
The differences in the ability of rocks to conduct heat has most
certainly not been without an influence on the crystallizations
taking place in fissures.
THE DENSITY OF ROCKS.
35. The specific gravity is frequently somewhat related
to the conducting power of bodies; the denser bodies, including
the more compact rocks, are in general better conductors of
heat, than the less dense ones. It is moreover supposable, that
a greater attraction will, other things being equal, accelerate the
precipitation from solutions. It might be brought, in some degree,
into relation with the results of the cases recently mentioned, in
which the metalliferous and compactor rocks appear generally
to have had a more favorable effect on the ore deposits, than the
non-metalliferous and less compact ones. This action of the
attraction may possibly vary from that of the difference in the
conductibility of heat: thus the cause necessarily becomes more
complicated, and the recognition of the causes is rendered much
more difficult. On this account the difference in the density of
rocks must in any case be constantly considered in researches
on the question before us.
THE POROSITY OF ROCKS.
36. Porous rocks are not only penetrated by the water
soaking in from the surface, but also by the liquid solutions which
circulate in the fissures traversing them. Both can, and do,
exert an influence on the precipitate, which takes place on the
walls of the fissures. This circumstance is not only of influence
in itself, but from the fact, that the ability of a rock to conduct
heat is much changed, and its specific gravity encreased, by the
water penetrating it. Consequently complicated effects arise here
SMOOTHNESS OR ROUGHNESS OF SURFACES OF ROCKS. 57
also, the causes of which are difficult to distinguish. The poro.
sity of a rock has an especially modifying influence, when the
same contains soluble ingredients, and is in consequence able to
essentially encrease the influence to be considered in 37. Hence
it will be certainly so much the more difficult to determine the
relative value of the two causes.
THE SMOOTHNESS OR ROUGHNESS OF THE SURFACES
OF ROOKS.
37. The smoothness or roughness of rocks stands fre-
quently, although not always, in connection with the greater
or less porosity of the rocks; or, to be more explicit, very
porous rocks will always have a rough surface; but the converse
cannot be asserted, that im porous rocks always possess a smooth
surface ; since a very rough surface of fracture may be caused
by their being composed of very dissimilar minerals; as in gra-
nite. Experience has shown, that rough and smooth surfaces act
very dissimilarly towards the precipitates deposited on them:
which may be caused in part by their encreased or decreased
power to conduct heat: in any case the efficaceous surface of the
walls of fissures is much encreased by their roughness.
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ROCKS.
*
38. There is no doubt, that the water circulating in fis-
sures, (whether it be tolerably pure or already impregnated by
solutions of other substances,) does attack, change, or partly dis-
solve certain or frequently all the ingredients of the neighboring
rock. The real proof of this lies frequently before us in the
decomposed or in general altered rocks enclosing lodes or even
mere clefts.
Gustav Bischof has, in this relation, already led us on
the right path. He demonstrated, in von Leonhard's Jahrbuch
for 1844, pp. 257 and 341, that a mutual exchange must take
place through the reaction between the ingredients of the rocks
of veins. In the same manner as the bicarbonates of lime,
magnesia, iron, and manganese, are precipitated by alkalies in
the laboratory; so must precipitation take place, when water
containing these carbonates comes in contact with rocks or
minerals containing alkalies as ingredients. When these last
58 CHEMICAL REACTIONS, AND ELECTRIC CURRENTS.
are combined with silicic acid, these silicates are decomposed
by the carbonic acid of the bicarbonates. This explains both
the crystallizing out of- the carbonates and the so frequent do-
composition of rocks containing lodes, especially those which
are feld spathic.
What however has been as good as proved for the car-
bonates, may easily, with certain modifications, be true of many
other minerals in lodes, and even of the ores; by which means
certain substances may be principally deposited on the surfaces
of certain rocks. The possible encrease of this influence by the
porosity of rocks has been already mentioned in 36. Special
investigations on this subject also are unfortunately wanting.
Scheerer considers the presence of much darkcolored, ferrugi-
nous mica in gneiss to be a favorable agent.
ELECTRIC CURRENTS.
39. It has frequently occurred, that an essential influence
on the contents of lodes, and particularly on the unequal distri-
bution of ores in them, has been ascribed to the electric cur-
rents, which may possibly arise from the superposition, or con-
tact in any way, of somewhat dissimilarly composed rocks. This
hypothesis was founded on the fact, that during the decompo-
sition of a solution by a voltaic current dissimilar substances are
deposited at the positive and negative electrodes. Fo^ 1 in fact,
by means of artificially obtained electric currents, not only pro-
duced fissures in clay, but also filled these fissures with metallic
substances. In consequence of this he is of the opinion, that
electricity has exerted a great influence in the arrangement of
minerals in lodes ; he believes in particular, that the greater richness
of many lodes, on passing from one rock into another, can be
explained by supposing that the electro-negative acting rock
must have caused a greater deposit.
The fact of electric currents existing in the earth's crust is
however somewhat uncertain. Prof. Reich-, indeed, obtained
deviations of the needle, when he connected two different points
1 See: Philosophical Magaz. 1*36. IX. p. i;87, 1839. XIV. p. 145;
Transact, roy. geolog. soe. of Cornwall. 1840 V. p. 445; Leonhard's Jahrb.
1840. p. 114.
2 See: Poggendorft's Annaleu, Vol. 48. p. 287; Berg- u. Huttenmaun.
/eitung, 1844. p. 342.
CHIEF RESULTS. 59
of a lode by means oi % conducting wires; but he explains this
very clearly through the contact of the various ores composing
the isolated groups of ore, which are separated by sterile rock
acting as a moist conductor. According to this the electric cur-
rents were first caused by the distribution of the ores in the
lodes ; and the reverse cannot as yet be deduced, namely, that this
distribution has been caused by such currents. By connecting
points free of ore, Reich was unable to obtain the slightest
deviation.
The possibility of the effects observed by Fox cannot be
denied; but far too few facts are at present known to deduce
any thing farther in relation to the distribution of ores.
CHIEF RESULTS.
40. The circumstances mentioned in the preceding para-
graphs may have acted singly, or several of them together, on the
unequal distribution of the minerals and ores in lodes. The
general effect of several may have been one of their mutually
supporting each other, or one in which they partially or wholly
neutralised one another. As the final result of our observations,
thus much remains certain : although we but imperfectly know
the causes, the variation in the enclosing rock of lodes has, by
means, of its physical and chemical properties, exerted an influ-
ence on the dissimilarity of the matter filling these ; and this
is shown, as well by single lodes traversing several rocks, as by
different veins, of which some have this, others that rock as
country. There are certain rocks, which can, locally at least,
be termed ore- carriers, while others are almost the reverse of
this. The possible indication of such an effect depends particu-
larly on the absolute amount of ore in the lodes ; which is a
consequence of the amount of metallic substances carried into
the jissures by solutions. From this absolute amount of ore we
must distinguish a relative one, which is locally modified by
particular causes, by concentration. The modifying influences
of the country may be of themselves so slight that they, escape
observation; they may still, however, become perceptible through
combination with other causes. For example, the effect of junc-
tion of two lodes may of itself remain imperceptible, and even
so the effect caused by a particular enclosing rock; but where
they both meet, that is, where the line of junction of the former
60 INFLUENCE OF STRIKE AND DIP
traverses the, also but slightly favorable, zone of rock, a very
perceptible enrichment takes place.
In addition to the influence of the rocks ; which showed
itself by acting on the solutions coining in contact with them,
a much more direct effect may have occurred in separate cases,
in that the enclosing rock itself provided certain of the ingre-
dients of the veins, and among these also ores, which were finely
disseminated in it from the commencement, and were later some-
what more concentrated in the fissures. I will return to this
subject when speaking of the origin of lodes.
INFLUENCE OF STRIKE AND DIP OF LODES ON THEIR
RICHNESS.
41. It has been thought, that a certain relation existed,
as to the amount of ores they contained, between lodes and their
direction of strike and dip, the greater or less angle of inclina-
tion, which they make with the horizon, or with the planes of
cleavage or stratification. Fox went so far as to suppose, that
the prevailing direction of lodes could be explained by the in-
fluence of the earth's magnetism in the form of electrical currents.
To this end, it was his opinion, that lodes must have intersected
the magnetic meridian nearly at a right angle at the period of
their formation.
All the facts, which have been adduced in favor of this and
similar views, appear to me nevertheless to rest on imperfect
observations, or a false interpretation of the facts observed.
It is certainly correct, that in many districts, the lodes
striking in certain directions are pre-eminently rich in ores, those
in other directions containing less or none at all; or that some
may contain more of this, others more of that ore. But such
a constant parallelism can by no means be proved concerning
the lodes of various parts of the earth, or, indeed, all lodes. On
the contrary we find lodes generally representing most dissimilar
directions. If we reflect, that one and the same process forming
the fissures in the same district, and at the same time, will have
produced veins predominating in a certain direction; in other
districts, on the contrary, such veins in another direction; and
when we reflect that the filling of the fissures, as a rule, fol-
lowed closely on their formation, the fact explains itself very
simply. It is the consequence of a chronological difference, and
OF LODES ON THEIR RICHNESS.
61
there is no necessity for having recourse to the earth's magne-
tism. At one period these, at another those solutions circulated
in the fissures, at a third period perhaps none at all ; in conse-
quence, they are locally, according to their direction, dissimi-
larly or incompletely tilled with ore. From a local point of view,
this is of great importance to the practical miner; but in and
for itself, it has only to do with the manner in which the lodes
were tilled, while being in a general sense entirely independent
of the direction of the strike. The same is true of the direc-
tion of the dip and the degree of inclination.
Fox's views are very soon seen to be erroneous, if we exa-
mine a large number of ore districts, or even a single one, in
which lodes occur with dissimilar directions of strike, as around
Freiberg.
The varied, now greater, now less, dip of the same lode
may at times in so far have exerted a great influence on the
local breadth, and in consequence on the amount of ore ; in that
sinkings or upheavals of the hanging- or foot- wall took place,
by which the fissure was locally encreased or narrowed in width.
An attempt has been made to show this in an ideal manner in
the two following figures.
When the hanging
wall of the fissure (A)
sank, or the footwall
was raised, the more
horizontal portion (a b)
might have been com-
pressed to an impercep-
tible cleft ; when, on the
contrary, in an exactly
similar fissure (B) the
hanging wall was raised,
or the footwall sank, the
portion (a b) would be
the one chiefly widened.
Similar cases to these
have, in fact, often been
observed.
Finally, as regards
the angle at which a lode
intersects the texture or stratification of the country; this may
62 DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF LODES.
also have been oi great influence on the nature of the matrix.
But this difference belongs entirely to those which are caused
by the peculiar nature of the country. Smoothness or roughness
of the surface, porosity, the amount tff fracturing, are generally
quite different on the cross sections of schistose or slaty rocks,
from what they are on those parallel to the cleavage.
* - ( , ' . .I..'' - ' - ^E 7 . ->:
DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF LODES.
42. Every vein, and consequently every lode, is neces-
sarily of more recent formation than the rock it traverses; and
when by chance it, intersects other lodes, it is necessarily younger
than these. In so far the relative age of lodes can be easily
determined. But seldom, on' the contrary, can their real age be,
in some degree ascertained ; only, that is, exceptionally can the
time of their formation be referred back to well determined se-
dimentary formations. It is only possible to do this, when some
particular circumstance permits us to determine the simultane-
ousness of origin. It is generally even difficult to determine,
positively, whether lodes are older, than certain rocks or forma-
tions occurring near them, but which they do not intersect. This
is, with hardly an exception, only possible; when these rocks
lie directly over them, or when they are cut off in their course
without penetrating at any point into the rocks, or when these
contain fragments or pebbles which evidently came from the
lodes. But the question still remains unanswered; how much
older the lodes are, than the evidently more recent rocks or
formations? The chronological determination of the same only
becomes satisfactory, when the formation of the lodes can be
referred to the period, that elapsed between the formation of two
rocks or formations, that followed one another in quick succession.
The age of lodes can at times be determined indirectly, but not
beyond all doubt, when their creation by certain eruptive rocks
is recognised. It appears, as Fournet in particular has shown,
that the lodes may very frequently be co-ordinated with neigh-
boring igneous rocks, in such a manner as to compel us to infer,
that their formation was caused by the upheaval of these erup-
tive rocks; a circumstance which I have already mentioned in
AGK OF LODES. 63
THE AGE. OF LODES.
4o. It lias been sometimes assumed, that the lodes in
general, or at least certain kinds (formations) of the same, were
formed only during particular geological periods. Let us ex-
amine in how far such an assumption may be proven.
There is certainly no doubt, that lodes are more commonly
found between old, than recent rocks or formations, and but very
seldom in the youngest sedimentary deposits and igneous rocks ;
while, on an average, they are most common in the oldest.
Hence it may well be said, the greater the age of rocks and
formations, so much the more frequently are they as a rule tra-
versed by lodes. It might be deduced from this, that the process
of the formation of lodes has been in general one gradually
decreasing with time, and that certain kinds of lodes ceased to
be formed much sooner than others. We shall see, however,
that the distribution of ores can be explained in an entirely
different manner.
If we collect all the known facts and conclusions, which
are to some extent reliable, on the age of lodes in general, or
separate classes of the same; we find that there is no limitation
of their origin to particular geological periods. At the most it
can be said of tin lodes, that they have only been found in
rocks of the same age or older than the carboniferous period;
no other lodes can be limited to particular periods of formation;
since even gold, silver, lead, and copper lodes have been ex-
ceptionally found in Tertiary deposits, although as a rule they
only occur in much older rocks.
-As examples of relatively very recent lodes, I need only
mention the following. In the Department of Aveyron in France
plumbiferous silver-lodes, associated with copper ores, traverse
the lias; in Algiers the same traverse deposits of the cretace-
ous period; the auriferous quartzveins of Vorospatak in Tran-
sylvania traverse Tertiary Carpathian sandstone. If from these
examples the same age should be ascribed to all lodes similarly
composed; it would follow, that all auriferous lodes should be
considered as belonging to the Tertiary, or a still more recent
period, and a large class of silver-lodes as being younger than
some deposits of the cretaceous. Such a supposition cannot be
strictly .refuted, but does not coincide with the general occurrence
of such lodes.
64 AGE OF LODES.
It appears to me far more natural to assume, that the for-
mation of the various kinds of lodes has been taking place, at
all periods since a firm crust of the earth has existed, but at
various depths. Whether generally ^n the same, or in a de-
creasing ratio, must, as being undecided, remain questionable. And
farther, that this has taken place now in this, then in that dis-
trict, according to circumstances conditioned by general geological
events ; as a consequence of which the older rocks and deposits
more commonly contain lodes, than the recent ones, which were
not so long subjected to the possibility of lodes being formed
in them.
Were various lodes forming during all periods of time, but
at unequal depths; it would then, as just remarked, be easily
comprehensible, that the oldest rocks and formations were com-
monly most affected by this continuous event, being longest
subjected to it. It is just as comprehensible, that the kinds of
lodes belonging to the greatest depths, can only become acces-
sible to our observation, and to mining; where what was once
deep in the interior of the earth, has reached the surface by
the upheaval and erosion of what lay above it. A longer period,
as a rule, was necessary, to raise such deep inner regions to the
niveau of the present surface of the earth, and to destroy the
mass lying above them, than for less deep formations. It is,
consequently, very natural, that those lodes formed at the greatest
depths should appear to us to be relatively the oldest, precisely
because the most time was necessary to lay them free, which
could but seldom be replaced by greater energy of upheaval
and erosion.
Thus it is supposable ; that the formation of all kinds of
lodes is still taking place, but the majority at such depths that
we cannot observe them; and different kinds at unequal depths.
It is certainly supposable, though not in my opinion sustained
by facts, that dissimilar lodes belong to dissimilar periods;
or that, with the encreasing thickness of the earth's crust, the
formation of lodes has generally assumed a somewhat different
character. Both of these suppositions might to some extent be
combined with each other.
ORIGIN OF LODES. FORMATION OF FISSURES.
'44. Since, according to our definition, all true lodes are
aggregates of mineral matter in fissures ; fissures must necessarily
ORIGIN OF LODES. FORMATION OF FISSURES. 65
have first been formed and then tilled. Both operations may have
been independent of each other, and even when this is probably
not the case, still the formation of the fissures was an entirely
different operation from that of their being filled with mineral
matter. On this account I will speak of the former separately.
Even the purely mechanical operation, of the formation of
fissures, has been explained in very different ways. Werner 1
considered fissures to be consequences of compression caused by
specific gravity, by the drawing off or separation of the rocks in the
direction of an exposed side, by the contraction caused by
drying, or by the concussions caused by earthquakes.
Fox 2 explained them as being consequences of electrical
currents in particular directions, and on this account thought,
they were originally formed nearly at right angles to the direc-
tion of the magnetic meridian.
Others have considered them to be consequences of the
gradual cooling of the globe.
While it must be granted, that fissures could have been
formed in all 1 hese ways, and perhaps really have been so formed
ever since the earth has had a solid crust: while it may far-
ther be granted, that a fissure formed in this manner has some-
times been exceptionally filled with minerals and ores: it is
still most probable, as Von Beust in his criticism of Werner's
theory (1840) has clearly shown, that the majority of lode-fissures
have been torn asunder by concussions caused by volcanic or
plutonic activity; or, in other words, by volcanic or plutonic earth-
quakes. Even at the present time, earthquakes produce entirely
similar fissures, which are very frequently formed in groups like
those of lodes, and, in so far as they are caused by a single
concussion, run parallel to one another. Many irregular branches,
on the contrary, may be consequences of cooling or other causes.
There is no difficulty in thus explaining the formation of
the fissures themselves. It is, on the other hand, not so easy to
explain the circumstance, that the fissures of lodes are so fre-
quently combined with very considerable dislocations of the
halves of the country, the so-called faults.
1 See: Werner, Theorie v. d. Entstehung d. Gange, 1791.
2 See: Philosoph. Magaz. 1830, IX. p. 387; 1839, XIV. p. 145.
5
66 POSSIBILITY OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF DISLOCATIONS.
45. Leaving the as yet unknown condition of matter in
the interior of the earth entirely out of account, the firm crust
is certainly over 70 miles thick: how is it, under these circum-
stances, possible, that fissures of such proportionally short extent,
as those which most lodes are known to possess (they are known
from 4 to 18 miles in length), should be able to penetrate through
the entire hardened crust? when they do not penetrate through
the entire crust, how was their formation possible 5 and still more,
how could they have caused such considerable faults? These
are the questions before us. Their possibility is shown, not only
by the fissures formed by earthquakes at the present time, in
which also faults of a few feet in extent have been observed;
but the same can be shown in regard to many other solid bodies,
which are frequently intersected on their surfaces by cracks,
although, indeed, without dislocations. The fissures of glaciers
are especially instructive. Ice obviously belongs, according to
the general acceptation, to the solid bodies; and yet tolerably
wide fissures are commonly formed, and even small faults, which
do not traverse the entire mass of the glacier. Here also, greater
faults occur, by complete intersection of the mass of the
glacier. The cause, of the fissures in glaciers, is the movement
of the mass over an irregular surface of ground. Small dislo-
cations in the earth's crust can be explained in this manner, that
it every where consists of various rocks which possessed some-
what unequal powers of resistance. But dislocations (faults) of
more than 20 or 30 feet cannot be explained by fissures, which
do not completely intersect the firm crust of the earth, or rather
have not done so during the period of their formation. How
then could the often considerable faults, and friction-surfaces
frequently accompanying them, have been formed in such a thick
crust? The difficulty would be but slightly decreased by saying,
the earth's crust was not so thick at the time the faults were
formed as it now is; since some of them are of such recent
geological age, that the difference of thickness between the time
when they were formed and the present can only be very slight.
The formation by means of plutonic activity, seems to me
a solution of all these difficulties and doubts. A local thinning
of the earth's crust, caused by the solid upheaval of igneous rocks
DISLOCATIONS.
67
near or under the ore-district, nearly in the manner shown in
the following woodcuts ; suffices for the explanation.
_ If this explanation be correct, it follows, that the lodes cannot,
in reality, continue to a perpetual depth ; but the lower portion
being in most cases unattainable, it may as regards the miner
be termed perpetual. I must, finally, remark that many vein-
fissures have (probably) been repeatedly torn open, or have been
widened during the process of filling. The last appears to have
sometimes taken place as a consequence of the process of crys-
tallization in the lode-fissure, to which Von Weissenbach in
particular has called attention in Cotta's Gangstudien, vol. I. p. 66.
Fox also believes a gradual widening of the fissures to have been
caused by the force of the matter filling them, even in true veins, while Von
Weissenbach speaks only of lodes exhibiting columnar structure. ! (Philos.
1 By columnar structure is here meant the contents of the lodes crys-
tallizing at right angles to the selvages. Trans
68 FILLING OF FISSURES.
Magaz. 1^36, Y.; IX. p. 387.) This repeated tearing open, of the already
filled fissure, by outer force, is shown very distinctly in the occurrence of
double lodes, and of such as contain in their interior fragments of the mass
first formed in the lode.
THE FILLING OF FISSURES.
46. Let us now pass from the formation of fissures to
the manner in which they were filled : a subject, in which
hypothesis still has free play, and which must be treated as far
as possible in a manner guided by the limits of observation,
as well as by the application of known natural laws. Notwith-
standing the uncertain nature of the ideas, which may at the
present time be conceived concerning lodes, they are still of
some use to the practical miner, while science, as such, cannot
dispense with them.
It must first be remembered, that the lodes by no means
form a clearly distinct homogeneous and natural class of natural
bodies. Hence it cannot be expected, that they should be all
formed precisely in the same manner.
Then it is to be remarked, that several methods of forma-
tion are possible, and have in part already been proved, of
most of the minerals predominating in lodes. We can, therefore,
never consider an accidentally observed, or chemically proved,
manner of formation, as being the only one possible. The cir-
cumstances, under which they occur, are frequently more impor-
tant, than the observations, as yet made, on the manner in
which the minerals were formed.
It must not be forgotten, that many lodes are now composed
of minerals, entirely different from those of a former period;
and that many of the minerals composing the same, were formed
after and from others, partly by pseudomorphism.
Finally, the majority of lodes are not only composed dif-
ferently, but in a much more complicated manner than any
widely diffused igneous or sedimentary rock.
This circumstance must cause a distrust of every hypothesis,
which attempts to explain the formation of the lodes in general,
and those of complex composition in particular, in the same
manner as that of the igneous or sedimentary rocks. That they
cannot be considered as mechanical precipitates, is evident from
their nearly constant crystalline nature/
THEORIES OF THE FORMATION OF VEINS : 69
THEORIES OF THE FORMATION OF VEINS
UP TO THE TIME OF WERNER.
47. In his 'New Theory on the Origin of Veins' (1791),
Werner has given a concise summary of the older views on this
subject. He commences with Diodorus and Pliny, who were the
first to mention veins, and then speaks more fully of Agricola,
who was the first to propound a theory of veins in his work
f de ortu et causis subterraneorum' (1546). In this, the principal
agents were: water, which dissolved the enclosing rock, heat, and
cold. In accordance with the state of science at that time, he
considered the metals to have been formed from other substances.
Werner merely mentions Von Elterlein, Meyer, Von
Loehneis, and Barb a. r i
Balthasar Roesler (1700) explained the veins, as being
mineral matter filling fissures.
Becher (1703) ascribed the formation of ores and metals
in the lodes to underground gases; which penetrated upwards
from the centre of the earth into the lodes, or rather into the
suitable vein-stones and earths existing in them.
Stahl (1700) considered the lodes to have been formed in
the enclosing rock at the time the world was created.
Henkel in his 'Pyritologia' (1725) referred the presence of
ores in lodes to vapors; which he considered to have been
caused and produced by fermentation in the rocks. The vapors
penetrated earths and rocks suitable as matrix.-
Hofmann (1738), also, considered veins to be the matter
filling fissures.
Zimmermann (1746) supposed the veins, together with the
ores, to have been formed by a transformation of the rocks.
Von Op pel (1749) explains the veins distinctly as filling
fissures; and thus separates these from beds and strata.
Lelfmann (1753) first mentions Hofmann's hypothesis, and
then adds, that the lodes are branches of a great deposit, which
is probably situated in the centre of the earth. He compares the
lodes to the branches of a tree. The origin of the metals is in
the centre of the earth, whence they found their way into the
fissures in a humid and gaseous condition.
Deli us (1770) considered the vein-fissures to be a conse-
quence of the contraction caused by the drying up of the earth.
70 BEFOREHAND SINCE, WERNER'S TIME.
The rain water penetrating the rocks dissolved the elements of
the rocks and metals, and conveyed them into the fissures; where
by subsequent evaporation they crystallized out.
Von C h a r p e n t i e r (1 778 ) agreed essential ly with Zimmer-
mann's theory, which he carried still farther.
Baumer (1779) says: 'the lodes differ in form and matter
from the rocks: from various data it follows, that they were
formed under the ancient sea; since the out-croppings .of the
same are frequently covered with several layers of schist; and
petrifactions of sea- species have at times bee'n found, as well in
the geodes they contain, as also in the vein-stone itself
Gerhard (1781) considered the lodes to be the matter filling
fissures. The vein-stone and ores have been introduced by water,
which had previously dissolved them out of the enclosing rock.
Von T re bra (1785), like many others, considered the lodes
to have been formed by a metamorphosis, in consequence of a
kind of fermentation and decomposition caused by water and
heat. He terms the lodes, regions in the massive rock ; in which
interior motion, produced by flowing water, has changed the
variety of rock, together with the foreign bodies of the animal
and vegetable kingdom often occurring in them, into varieties
of ore and stone which are no longer the original rock.
Lasius (1789) thought, the fissures were caused by revolu-
tions of nature; and then assumes; that these fissures have been
filled with water, which was impregnated with carbonic acid and
other solvents, thus rendering it suitable to dissolve the particles
of earth, metal, Tand other substances in the rocks, which it has
penetrated from the fissures ; and that, according to the degree of solu-
bility, first these, then those particles have been dissolved, and then
by reason of various precipitants have been deposited in the fissures.
Werner developed his own theory most fully. The fissures
may have been caused, according to him: by compression in
consequence of the specific gravity, by the drawing off or separa-
tion x)f the rocks towards an exposed side (as for example the
side of a valley), in consequence of the contraction caused by
drying, by earthquakes, or by various other causes. The fissures,
as well as the matter filling them, have been formed at very
different periods. 'The vein-stuff arose from a wet precipitate,
which filled them from above; that is, from a wet, and mostly
chemical solution, which covered the region where the fissures
existed, and at the same time filled the open fissures.'
CONTEMPORANEOUS : DESCENSION. 71
THEORIES OF THE FORMATION OF VEINS
SINCE WERNER.
48. Baron Von Herder, in his work on the Meissen adit
(1838), has classified the various theories on the origin of veins
up to the commencement of this century; as well as the more
recent explanation, that they were formed, similarly to the igneous
rocks, by means of an igneous fluid injection; as follows:
1. Theory of contemporaneous Formation: the lodes
are not mineral matter filling fissures, but were formed at the
same time as the enclosing rock, or subsequently by a metamor-
phosis in the altered regions of the same. Stahl, Zimmer-
mann, Von Charpentier, Von Trebra.
2. Theory of Lateral-secretion: the lodes are mineral
matter filling fissures, the material of which came from the
enclosing rock. Delius, Gerhard, Lasius.
3. Theory of Descension: the veins are the filling of fis-
sures, the material came in from above. Baumer, Werner.
4. Theory of Ascension: the veins are the filling of fis-
sures, but the matter was introduced from below.
This last may be divided into the following sub- classes:
a. Theory of Infiltration: the material was introduced
in a state of aqueous solution, as mineral water. Lasius at least
approaches this view.
b. Theory of S ub 1 i m a t i o 11 a : the material was brought
into the fissures by ascending steam. Lehmann, and perhaps
B e c h e r.
c. Theory of Sublimation /?: the matter was introduced
in a gaseous condition, by sublimation. Perhaps Becher.
d. Theory of Injection: the material has been introduced
by an igneous-fluid injection, and has then solidified in the
fissures. Four net, and others.
Since Von Herder has thus given a sort of scheme of the
different theories; it will be sufficient, to speak somewhat concisely
of the various opinions with their more recent modifications,
opportunely mentioning the chief upholders of the same.
THEORIES OF CONTEMPORANEOUS FORMATION,
AND OF DESCENSION.
49. Neither the theory of contemporaneous formation,
nor that of descension, has had any upholder since Werner;
72 LATERAL-SECRETION.
unless Kiihn in his 'Handbuch der Geognosie' be considered as
such, although he only endeavored, as a faithful pupil of Wer-
ner to defend his teachings; and attempted to maintain them
by numerous interesting, but in no way convincing, examples.
Freiesleben ; the warm reverer of Werner, in his valuable works
on the Saxon metalliferous deposits, has avoided giving distinct
views on their origin. All the other pupils of Werner, worthy
of notice, have become unfaithful to his teaching; if the yielding,
through and from observation, to another conviction may be
so termed.
Baron Beust, in his 'Critical Examination of Werner's Theory'
(1840), has thoroughly refuted the views of the latter.
It is self-evident, that in the nineteenth century there are
no longer any upholders of the theory of contemporaneous for-
mation.
THEORY OP LATERAL-SECRETION.
50. Several modifications of this theory can be distin-
guished. Delius, Gerhard, and La si us, merely assumed;
that the water percolating through the rocks has, aided by car-
bonic acid, and other solvents, dissolved out certain ingredients
of the same ; and that afterwards, whatever may have been the
re-actions causing it, a precipitation from these solutions took
place in the fissures. This view has recently been carried still
farther, especially by Bischof; who has attempted, in his geo-
logy, to found it on as scientific grounds as possible.
Where it can be assumed, that the elements of the mineral
matter filling the veins exist, or have existed, in the enclosing
rock; no objection can properly be made against it. Especially
is this the case, when the term 'lateral' is not applied literally,
but is understood in the sense, that the solutions after their im-
pregnation, by dissolving out particles of the enclosing rock,
still had a free movement in the fissures, so that every particle
was not necessarily deposited exactly at the point, where it was
dissolved out of the enclosing rock. By this widening of the
meaning, however, the theory of lateral-secretion passes directly
into the theory of ascension of aqueous solutions (theory of in-
filtration), which assumes the matter to have been dissolved out
of the rocks at a greater depth, than that at which it was depo-
sited in the fissures. The encreased temperature then takes a
very necessary part in encreasing the solving power of the so-
INFILTRATION. 73
lution; and it is not necessary, that the surrounding rock, acci-
dentally known in the neighborhood of the earth's surface, should
contain all the elements of the minerals forming the lodes.- By
such a modification there is no longer any difficulty in explain-
ing the combed texture, as would be the case if the term lateral
were taken literally. It is clearly the most simple explanation,
that can be given, for many lodes, although not for all. The real
origin of the elements of the lodes may then remain partly in
doubt, but it may be assumed to occur rather in the unknown
interior, than on the known surface.
THEORY OF INFILTRATION.
51. This theory; which of course does not exclude con-
temporaneous secretions out of the enclosing rock, and indeed
necessarily presupposes such to be taking place at greater depth ;
joins closely on to the preceding; and forms, at the same time,
the first sub-class of the theory of ascension, or the explanation
by means of volcanic emanations.
Eliede Beaumont 1 explains the lodes, as being essentially products
of volcanic emanations: these he subdivides into igneous-fluid (injections),
gaseous (sublimations), and aqueous (infiltrations by means of hot mineral
springs). In accordance with which, he explains a portion of the lodes by
means of such hot aqueous infiltrations.
Durocher, 2 like Beaumont, has declared himself in favor of infil-
trations, sublimations, and igneous-fluid injections, and therewith refuted
Fournet in several points.
Von Dec hen 3 entirely excludes the igneous-fluid injection, as being
the origin of true veins of the most various kind ; and limits these essentially
to infiltrations from below.
These views have been shared by many geologists of the
present time ; and numerous investigators have busied themselves in
researches on the artificial formation of minerals, both in the
wet and dry way; especially, G. Bischof, Senarmont,
Kjerulf, Daubree, Deville, Malaguti, Ibbetson, etc.
1 also have repeatedly attempted to show that the Freiberg lodes,
and all analogous to these, can be most simply and easily
explained, both as regards their occurrence and their texture, by
infiltration from below : especially seeing the frequent combed
1 See: Bulletin de la Soc. geolog. d. France, 2nd Series, Vol. IV. p. 124
2 See: Compte rendu, vol. XXV 111. p. 607; vol. XIII. p. 850.
3 See: Leonhard's Jahrb. 1851, p. 210.
74 SUBLIMATION.
texture of these lodes very strongly points to such a mode of
origin, and their mineralogical composition is, in no manner,
opposed to it; since Bischof has shown that the -minerals, in
question, may have been formed frorar aqueous solutions.
THEORY OF SUBLIMATION.
52. In the views held by Beaumont, Durocher, and
Von Dec hen, mentioned in the preceding, the participation of
sublimation in the formation of lodes has been already spoken of.
Durocher 1 considers the unequal distribution of the minerals
and ores in lodes, as a special proof of the formation by subli-
mation. He believes, that these can only have been so formed,
in that dissimilar currents, of gas or vapor, have passed through
the fissures; and in accordance with this, distinguishes 'emana-
tions matrices' (metallic vapors), and 'Jixatrices' (principally sul-
phur vapors). These have passed through the fissures at different
places, in different directions and at different periods, here and
there uniting their forces.
It can hardly be doubted, that such an unequal distribution
is also possible by an infiltratory formation; and we have
learned, that the principal cause is the difference. in the character
of the enclosing rock.
The possibility of the formation by sublimation of many of
the ores and minerals occurring in lodes, especially by the
agency of chlorine, fluorine, and boron, has been proved beyond
a doubt : first of all in the specular iron, which frequently occurs
as a product of sublimation in the volcanic fissures : -I add a few
other examples..
Plattner* proved the formation of magnetite by sublimation in the
Freiberg reverberatory furnaces. Minerals are very frequently formed in
metallurgical operations; thus, Orthoclase, Galena, and most probably Copper
Pyrites and Blende. Very instructive, in this connection, is the formation of a
lode in the floor of a reverberatory furnace at Freiberg; where the cracks
in the masonry were partly, filled with a combed structure consisting of Galena,
a galena-like combination, and Copper Pyrites: which Plattner considered to
be the product of a long continuous sublimation. Still melting may have
played an active part in this case. On the formation of minerals in general
by metallurgical operations, see v. Leonhard's Hiittenerzeugnisse (1858), Berg-
u. Hiittenmann. Zeitung, 1852, p. 278; and 1855, pp. 128 and 143.
1 See: Compte rendu, 1849, vol. XXVIII. p. 6l>7.
2 See Cotta's Gangstudien, vol. II. p. 1.
INJECTION. 75
Daubree 1 succeeded by means of sublimation, in part with the aid of
Fluorine and Chlorine, in forming Tin ore, Oxide of Titanium, and Quartz.
Durocher 2 passed gases and metallic vapors (chiefly protochlorides,
although other combinations also) into heated glass- tubes, and obtained crys-
tals of many of the minerals occurring in metalliferous deposits, especially
Blende, Iron Pyrites, Galena, Sulphite of Silver, Sulphite of Antimony, Sul-
phite of Bismuth.
Ebelmen 3 also obtained many minerals, partly by melting, partly by
sublimation with the aid of boron and phosphorus; among them several, which
are characteristic for lodes.
Bun sen, 4 finally, in speaking of volcanic exhalations has shown, that
the same are well adapted to explain satisfactorily many of the mineral for-
mations in lodes.
Under these circumstances it is not impossible, that many
lodes have been formed by sublimation only, whether with the
aid of steam, or without it. In others, perhaps, only some of
the ingredients were sooner or later introduced by sublimation.
THEORY OF INJECTION.
53. When the igneous origin of many rooks, which occur
as dikes, had once been recognised, many persons were inclined,
during the first half of the present century, to consider all lodes
as igneous fluid injections. Petzhold, in his geology (1840),
even attempted to maintain, that as being the most recent and
consequently deepest ramifications from the interior of the earth,
they must necessarily be the richest in metals, and have the
greatest specific gravity; a hypothesis, which in any case betrayed
a great ignorance of the true nature of lodes. More recently
the injective nature of lodes in general, is defended almost alone
by Four net, while de Beaumont and Durocher consider
only certain classes of them to be injective, the majority, on
the contrary, as having been formed by sublimation or infiltra-
tion ; all however, as the consequences of local volcanic activity.
It may be, that certain metalliferous, and on this account
coming under the category of metallic deposits, igneous-rock
dikes, especially green-stones and serpentines, are to be desig-
nated as originally of igneous origin, which have been afterwards
1 See: Compte rendu, vol. XXIX. p. 227.
a See: Compte rendu, vol. 32, p. 823; vol. 42, p. 850.
3 See: Annales de Chimie et Phys. 3 Series, vol. 22, p. 213; vol. 30,
p. 129; vol. 32, p. 129; vol. 33, p. 34; Compte rendu, vol. 22, p. 710; vol.
33, p. 525.
4 See: Leonhard's Jahrb. 1852, p. 501.
5
76 CONCLUDING
to some extent altered. But for the characteristic lodes of every
kind it is altogether improbable, that matter forming them has
exactly the same origin as the Greenstones, Porphyries, Basalts
or Lavas. Their composition, their texture, and the manner of
their occurrence, are opposed to it.
Their composition is opposed to it, in that many minerals
have often crystallized in them contemporaneously, an impossible
occurrence, when the combination proceeds from a common
igneous-fluid condition.
Their texture is opposed to it, when the minerals, forming
them, are arranged in a symmetric combed texture.
Their occurrence is opposed to it, in so far as they frequently
fill narrow, widely ramifying systems of fissures, which it is
impossible should have been filled so completely by igneous-fluid
matter.
Finally, the very unequal distribution of the minerals, the
ores in particular, which shows itself dependent on slight modi-
fications of the wall-rock, is opposed to the theory of solidifi-
cation, as this must have had a consequent more equal distribu-
tion of 'all the minerals.
In all the cases, therefore, in which lodes show appearances,
like the above mentioned and they form by far the greater
number their origin by igneous-fluid injection is, according
to the present standpoint of science, inconceivable. In addition,
such a supposition is entirely superfluous, so long as the theories
previously mentioned suffice for their explanation.
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.
. 54. These numerous, and in part contradictory attempts
show, how difficult it is, to find a general explanation for the
formation of lodes. I, for my part, am of the opinion, that such
is impossible ; and that various kinds of lodes have been formed
in very different ways. Already, from the extremely vague
definition of ore, metallic deposit, and consequently of lode, it
follows, that the lodes do not form an accurately determined,
closely confined and, in themselves, consonant group of geolo-
gical phenomena; but are, according to their nature, the very
variedly composed fillings of the fissures in the earth's crust.
These fillings may and must have been formed in very different
ways. It is therefore impossible to find a single explanation for
OBSERVATIONS. 77
all; but rather imperatively necessary, to seek a special expla-
nation, or at least a modification of the same, for every parti-
cular occurrence ; to which, indeed, a great number of analogous
ones can be generally annexed. On this account I here confine
myself to a few general remarks, and spare special explanations
for the separate cases in the second part.
Without a doubt many lodes, especially such as show a
symmetric combed texture, and contain Quartz, Carbonates,
Heavy Spar, Fluor Spar, and metallic Sulphurets, have been
formed by a gradual precipitation from aqueous solutions. Their
texture, as well as the nature of the minerals composing them,
point to this; neither is otherwise explainable, than in this
manner; and we have especially to thank the researches of
Bischof for many explanations on the possibility of solution in,
and precipitation from, aqueous solutions, which formerly ap-
peared very difficult. The event appears to have mostly taken
place at great depths, and to have required very long periods
of time. It is a very marked distinction, that fillings of fissures
by secretion, infiltration, and also those by sublimation, presup-"
pose incalculably long periods of time, and a successive forma-
tion of the separate mineral portions, while the filling by igneous-
fluid, injection necessarily gives a result, which was accom-
plished in a short time, and formed contemporaneously in all its
parts.
But whence came the substances, that were dissolved in
water? Certainly not from without, and above, but from within;
either partially, or entirely, from the immediate wall-rock ; or,
it would appear, more commonly from a greater depth, than that
at which they were deposited; but always from the wall-rock of the
continuation of the fissure. It is, also, not impossible, that sub-
limations may have taken place in the interstices of such infil-
trations, or after their conclusion m r this however can only be
ascertained for the particular case. It is further very certain;
that numerous transformations have taken place in many lodes
after their first formation, whereby minerals originally existing
in them have been altered, and their elements frequently been
transposed; and that substances have penetrated from above,
which belonged to the atmosphere and organic life: oxygen,
water, phosphoric acid, etc. Such transformations are often very
important, as regards the observation of the existing condition
of lodes.
78 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.
It is further beyond a doubt, that, at times, clefts in vol-
canoes are filled with sublimed ores, especially specular Iron,
which was reduced from vapors of protochloride of Iron. Lodes
of specular or micaceous Iron, and similarly many other lodes,
may have been formed in the same manner at earlier periods
in the history of the earth. We must also here know the
special case, before we are able to form an opinion.
It is, also, by no means impossible, that certain ores, coming
in an igneous-fluid condition, not from the central hearth of
the igneous rocks, but from the re-melting of already existing
metallic deposits, should have penetrated fissures and solidified
in them; although no cases of .this kind are known, as being
formed at the present time, or hear the earth's surface. We are
as yet too little acquainted in this relation with the results ot
high pressure.
Finally, fissures which were originally filled with igneous-
fluid injections, may have afterwards undergone important trans-
formations; and, in particular, new substances may have pene-
trated in the way of infiltration or sublimation.
The most of these events probably occurred at great depths;
and the lodes now known are but the plutonic portions, formed
at great depths, of the results of geological events; the upper,
volcanic portions of which have been destroyed, but which were,
most probably, analogous to the volcanic phenomena observed
at the present time. Similar occurrences may even now be taking-
place in the interior of the earth.
Thus the formation of lodes shows itself to be not only
possibly, but also probably, very manifold ; and appears to have
always stood in some connection with neighboring, and often
shortly before occurring eruptions of igneous rocks. The local
re-action of the igneous-fluid interior of the earth created fissures,
forced igneous-fluid masses into many of the same, caused
gaseous emanations and sublimations in others ; and in addition,
during long periods of time, impelled the circulation of heated
water, which acted, dissolving at one point and again depositing
the dissolved substances at another, dissolving new ones in their
stead. The whole process is thus not confined to any particu-
lar geological period, or any particular locality; but recurs at
all times, either in the same or new regions, at the point where
a re-action of the interior of the earth has taken place.
SEARCH FOR LODES. 79
So much on the general process of the formation of lodes:
in detail it can only be proved for the particular case.
SEARCH FOR LODES.
55. If the preceding delineations and views can be con-
sidered as being substantially correct, what rules can be deduced
from them for the search after, and following up of lodes?
For the search after lodes, substantially the following:
1. Lodes may be more commonly expected in older, than
in more recent rocks, as well sedimentary as igneous; because
there is more probability, that the older ones have been covered
for a longer time by more recent ones, and were consequently
subjected for a longer period to the possibility of lodes forming
in them. This has been confirmed by experience.
2. They will be more commonly found in the neighbor-
hood of igneous rocks, than far removed from all such similar
eruptions ; therefore more frequently in mountainous regions, than
in plains: also confirmed by experience.
3. They will be found more commonly in the neighbor-
hood of so-called plutonic rocks, i. e. such as have solidified
beneath the surface, than in that of volcanic rocks, since the
majority of them could only have been formed at some depth
under a solid covering: also confirmed; and on this account'
most lodes appear pretty old, while perfectly similar ones inay
e\ 7 e.n now be' forming in the interior of the earth.
2. and 3. do not exclude the possibility of veins often
attaining a higher level than the igneous rocks causing them; in
which case they may occur in regions, in which the latter have
not been observed at the surface.
4. Lodes occur most frequently, not only in the neighbor-
hood of igneous rocks, but also in direct contact with them,
or even at the line of contact of two rocks, which have been
brought in conjunction by dislocations.
The preceding rules are particularly worthy of notice in
searching for lodes in districts, the geological character of which
is -entirely unknown, if once however single lodes are discovered
at any point, -the following may be also used.
5. It is then very probable, that several or many lodes
exist in the some vicinity; since their probable manner of for-
mation infers, that many are formed together. Hence many very
80 FOLLOWING UP OF LODES.
often follow nearly the same direction; since by every forcible
convulsion parallel fissures are formed in the earth's crust, when
it is not at the same time fissured in all possible directions by
very local causes. On this account either broad parallel lodes,
or a network of narrower ones, may be expected.
6. Most lodes have proportionally such a slight breadth,
and are in addition, from their composition, so subject to erosion;
that it cannot be expected, that their out-croppings on the sur-
face will be easily found. They are in fact very frequently
covered by a layer, formed of the products of erosion, which
hides them from view. Hence, as a rule, a surface examination
does not suffice. To find them, it is mostly necessary to search
beneath the soil covering them. This is possible:
a. by discerning the products of the decomposition of lodes
at the surface; for example, a peculiarly colored zone; or by
the presence of efflorescences of a special kind;
b. by following fragments or pebbles from the lodes in
watercourses to the point where they cease; in the neighborhood
of which the deposits, from which they were torn, probably exist.
The indications a and b must, however, always be further con-
firmed ;
c. by uncovering the surface ; which may, according to local
circumstances, consist in ditches, adits, pits, shafts, borings or
'even artificial washings away of the surface; and which may of
course also be employed, when other causes, besides those
mentioned under a and b, lead to the supposition of the existence
of a lode.
I approach too nearly here, however, to purely mining opera-
tions, and for further information must refer to works on that
subject,
FOLLOWING UP OF LODE&
66. When a lode has once been found, it is self-evident,
that in order to become better acquainted with it, or to prepare
it for regular mining operations, it must be followed up, both
in its strike and dip. In doing this, difficulties at times occur,
especially local wedgings-out of the lode, or faults. In such
cases the re-finding of the lode is by no means entirely depen-
dent on chance, but to a great extent on the right use of
geological principles.
SEGREGATIONS: WHAT? 81
The so-called wedging-out of the lodes does not seem to be
united with a complete cessation of the fissures, in which they
were formed; on the contrary, these nearly always appear to
continue farther, either as one or several clefts. These must be
followed, in order probably to find a widening and filling of the
same with ore. Should there be several clefts not continuing
quite parallel to one another; or should the, at its commence-
ment, single cleft branch into several; then such as keep the
direction of the principal strike and dip, should be chiefly observed.
If, on the contrary, a fault or dislocation occurs; then those
observations and principles must be followed, which have been
already given in 19.
If merely new ore is being searched for in a lode, which
only contains it locally; then the circumstances must be consi-
dered, which have been already mentioned in 23 to 41.
SEGREGATIONS.
WHAT ARE SEGREGATIONS?
57. Under segregations are classified all those aggre-
gations of ores having irregular form and definite limits. They
differ from 'beds and lodes, by the irregularity of their form ;
from impregnations, by their definite limits.
The irregularity and dissimilarity of form, combined with
definite limits, form the characteristics of this class of metallic
deposits.
Within the wide bounds of this definition may be made
a great number of subdivisions, which are not more definitely
separated from one another, than the segregations are from bed's,
lodes, and impregnations. There is a large number of charac-
teristic occurrences, which can be easily classified, while others
form transition stages.
RECUMBENT, AND VERTICAL, SEGREGATIONS.
58. The segregations are divided into
1. bed-masses, or recumbent segregations;
and, 2^ vein -masses, or vertical segregations.
6
82
RECUMBENT, AND VERTICAL,
The recumbent segregations nearly resemble the beds in
their form and position; they have an irregular lenticular form ;
the greatest dimensions of which are parallel to the stratification,
or cleavage, of the rock containing; them'; as for example, the
light portion of the following wood-cut.
This figure shows the vertical section of a recumbent segre-
gation, which, when several similar ones succeeded each other
in the same stratum, might certainly be considered as forming
part of a bed.
Recumbent segregations may however send off shoots of all
kinds into the surrounding rocks, as is shown in the dark portion
of the annexed wood-cut.
Vertical segregations are such aggregations of ore, or irreg-
ular metallic deposits, of which the greatest extension is entirely
independent of the texture or bedding of the rocks surrounding
them; but which are generally more extended in the vertical,
than the horizontal direction. At times they are like very
irregular lodes, local widenings of fissures; and in fact form
transitions to these. At times they have branches in a very
similar manner to veins. The following three wood-cuts give
ideal examples of vertical segregations ; the middle one shows
a segregation, surrounded by gang, while the lower one shows
two fillings, within widenings, of fissures.
SEGREGATIONS.
83
A distinction between the recumbent and vertical segregations has also
been made; that the former are more extended in a horizontal, the latter
6*
84 PARTICULAR KINDS, AND
in a vertical direction. Such a distinction appears to me to be yet more
variable, as well as more arbitrary, and less real and appropriate, than the
one adopted; although it may indeed occur, that a nearly vertical mass, or
segregation, may have to be considered as belonging to the horizontal ones.
It is then probable, that it is no longer in the position it originally occupied,
but has been raised on end together with the surrounding rocks. According
to my definition, the expression 'recumbent segregation' can no longer be
applied to such as occur in unstratified rocks, and such as show no cleavage ;
because with these a parallelism can no longer be proved. We must however
consider, that in all doubtful cases such fine distinctions of form have no
great value. In any case, the approximate parallelism, or the entire want of
the same, appears to me to be of more essential value, where either can be
proved, than the greater or less inclination of the longest dimensions of an
irregular body, the present position of which is frequently no longer the
original one.
PARTICULAR KINDS OF SEGREGATIONS.
59. The division into recumbent and vertical segrega-
tions must properly be called a general one; since every kind
of segregation can be classified under the one or the other.
Both the form and the manner of occurrence may however
cause further distinctions and special definitions. Without laying
any great value on these, I give the following, as being the most
common:
1. Floors (Stockwerke) are districts of rocks, which are
traversed by a great number of irregular or vein-like metallic
deposits, so that, as a rule, the whole mass has to be extracted
in mining. If the separate deposits are lodes, or fillings of
fissures, they form, strictly taken, a network of lodes; though
it is more usual to classify them under the segregated masses.
2. Contact-masses are irregular aggregations of ore,
which are chiefly found on the limits between two different
rocks ; as for example, the silver, lead, copper, and cobalt masses
of Tunaberg in Sweden, or the irregular metallic deposits of the
Banat, which are worked on the limits of igneous rocks and
limestone.
3. Fillings of cavities. Many aggregations of ores are
decidedly nothing more than fillings of cavities, which had been
previously washed out in Dolomite or Limestone ; so for example,
many deposits of Pea Iron-ore in the Swiss Jura and the Suabian
Alps. The following represents the idea of such an occurrence.
OCCURRENCES, OF SEGREGATIONS.
85
Although there are many other terms in use, they are so
local, and have such different significations in different places,
that it seems needless here to mention them.
OCCURRENCES OF SEGREGATIONS.
60. Irregular collections of ores most commonly occur
at the line of contact of various kinds of rocks, or near such
lines of contact. Many of these are actually contact formations
or contact segregations; although indeed others occur in the
middle of a crystalline or sedimentary rock, without it being
possible to find any relation between them and the neigh-
boring rock.
These segregations occur most frequently in the crystalline
schists, commonly accompanied by granular limestone, or igneous
rocks which traverse them ; for example, in Norway and Sweden .
Others form a part of igneous rocks, especially of amphibolic
or pyroxenic green-stones or serpentines. Some are known in
the Palaeozoic rocks; for example, the pyritic segregation of
Goslar in the Hartz, and the spathic iron masses in the eastern
Alps; which last, however, according to Von Schouppe are rather
irregular beds, than proper segregations. Irregularly formed
collections of ores also occur in the Subcarboniferous and Triassic
periods ; and certain lime-stones in the Alps contain aggregations
of ore, which, from their form, can be best considered as
belonging to the segregations.
In many lime-stones and dolomites, moreover, cavities exist;
which are partially filled with iron ores, especially oolithic iron-
86 ORE-DISTRIBUTION, TRACING AND FOLLOWING-UP,
ore ; and which may also be considered as belonging to the
segregated masses, even though the manner of their formation
greatly varies from that, in which most of the other segregations
have been formed; which indeed -is, otherwise, by no means homo-
geneous. True segregations have rarely been found entirely
enclosed by igneous rocks.
";--*., l|s -' ; *
DISTRIBUTION OF THE ORES IN THE SEGREGATIONS.
61. We have seen, that in the lodes the ores and gangs
are distributed irregularly. Something similar occurs in the
segregations, since richer and poorer regions can be distinguished,
only not to the same extent, and with the same precision, as
in the lodes. In addition the causes or relations of these dif-
ferences are less distinctly understood in the segregations than
in the lodes. The difference of those portions situated nearest
the surface -is frequently brought about by decompositions, which
have been caused by the effect of air and water. The appear-
ance of Gossan, Iron-Hat, Pacos, and Colorados, repeats itself
here also.
The influence of the unequal breadth may have caused the
ramifications of the masses to be somewhat differently composed
from the main body.
The influence of dissimilar wall-rock is hardly perceptible:
partly because segregations but seldom traverse different kinds
of rocks; partly because- the manner of their formation was
mostly different, and accompanied by different circumstances,
from those of the lodes; and moreover, such an influence could
hardly be extended to the interior of such wide masses. The
wall-rock appears to have exerted only a general, and not any
special influence; i. e. certain kinds of segregations appear
principally in certain kinds of rocks, or, as contact-masses, at
the lines of contact of different rocks. Thus, for example, Zink
ore masses are chiefly found combined with Dolomite or dolo-
mitic Lime-stone; similarly the segregations of manganese ores,
and also the oolithic Iron-ore segregations, are chiefly confined to
cavities in such rocks as have been eroded by water.
The origin of the segregations is evidently, like their form
and manner of occurrence, a still more irregular one, than that
of the lodes. Not only their masses, but also the space which
they occupy, would seem to have been formed in most dissimilar
OF SEGREGATIONS. -IMPREGNATIONS: WHAT'? 87
ways. It therefore becomes imperatively necessary, to explain
each separate occurrence.
SEARCH FOR AND FOLLO WING-UP OF SEGREGATIONS,
62. Through the great irregularity of this kind of deposits;
in regard to their form, inner nature, and manner of origin,
as well as their occurrence-, no rules can be given for the search
for and following up of the segregations. At the most, this
could be done only for certain classes of them; and even then
but with difficulty. The rules would have to be so variable
and indefinite, they would be of no use to the miner. The
principle holds good, that local experiences must be used locally.
The experience gained in one district, can only be used with
the greatest caution, and constant consideration of the altered
circumstances, in another. But within certain districts, indeed,
the general character of these, otherwise irregular deposits,
remains tolerably constant. Fortunately this uncertainty is
counterbalanced, to a certain extent, by the large masses in
which the segregations occur.
IMPREGNATIONS.
WHAT IS UNDERSTOOD BY, OR COMPRISED IN
IMPREGNATIONS?
63. The impregnations (disseminations) differ from all
other metallic deposits in having undetermined and in no way
sharply defined limits; which is, in all probability, frequently
caused by the ores having penetrated certain portions or zones
of a rock subsequent to its formation ; still there may be cer-
tain deposits corresponding to them, in which particles of ore
were originally thus disseminated. The rock forming the matrix
continues, therefore, between the separate particles of ore ; which
is not the case with the other classes of deposits. Their form,
although undefined, is in part like that of beds, in part of veins,
in part of segregations; and they can, in accordance with this,
be divided into bedded, vein-like, and segregated impregnations;
of which the former two may also be termed impregnation-zones.
88 OCCURRENCE OF, MODES OF ORE-OCCURRENCE IN,-
They occur, either alone and independently, or dependently,
in combination with other metallic deposits of defined limits,
which then form their nucleus. In the last case their formation
may have generally proceeded from^the defined deposits, in so
far that they are only consequences and companions of the same;
still the reverse is possible: namely, a local concentration pro-
ceeding from a disseminated distribution.
OCCURRENCE OF IMPREGNATIONS.
64. Impregnations of ores are found in all the principal
classes of rocks, in crystalline schists, in distinctly sedimentary
formations, and in igneous rocks. In the last, the older the
rocks, the more frequently do they occur.
The ore impregnations, which occur in combination with
other metallic deposits, form the local wall-rocks of lodes, the
hanging- and foot- walls of beds, or their undefined continua-
tion in the direction of strike and dip, or finally the outer
borders of segregations, forming essentially a portion of the
wall-rock.
Those, on the contrary, which occur independently, and
without apparent connection with other kinds of metallic depo-
sits, form zones, which are undefinedly bounded, and at times
even bedlike ; or regions in rocks extending in many directions,
in such a manner that these rocks, essentially, continue through
them, and are only within their extent in some degree more or
less impregnated with ores. Perhaps these apparently independent
impregnations are, in part, in connection with metallic deposits
of another kind lying deeper, but on that account not observ-
able or at least not yet discovered. In any case their general
occurrence corresponds with that most common to all other
metallic deposits.
MODES OF OCCURRENCE OF ORES IN IMPREGNATIONS.
65. The ores are distributed in various modes in the rocks
in which they form impregnations.
1. They form crystals, or grains, which are porphyritically
disseminated in the rock. The size of these crystals, or grains,
may be very variable; and at times they become imperceptible,
so that the impregnation cannot be recognised by the naked
DISTRIBUTION OF, IMPREGNATIONS. 89
eye, while the apparently homogeneous mass still contains, per-
haps, many particles of ore or metal: for instance, much of
the auriferous quartz in the West, and the Fallbands in Scan-
dinavia.
The ores form small globules, lenticular masses, or bunches,
lying distributed through the rock; each of which consists of
a collection of individual particles of ore, sometimes even of
very heterogeneous matter: for example, the lead-ores in the sand-
stone of Commern near Aix-la-Chapelle.
3. The ores fill extremely fine clefts, which either corre-
spond to the cleavage, or even traverse it: as, at times, in the
wall-rock of the lodes around Freiberg, etc.
4. The rock is only impregnated, and hence colored, by
a metallic oxide; which indeed would but seldom give occasion
to a profitable working, but may on the other hand be frequently
regarded as a leader to deposits of greater value. This fre-
quently occurs in the neighborhood of iron- or copper-ore deposits.
There is no reason, why all kinds of ores may not occur as
impregnations; and, in fact, impregnations of the most various
kinds are already known. It appears to me superfluous to
recount here the various kinds of impregnations, as we shall
become acquainted with the greatest variety of the same in the
second portion of this work.
DISTRIBUTION OF IMPREGNATIONS.
66. The impregnations do not follow any general law in
regard to their distribution, but are chiefly found in certain
kinds of rocks. Thus the tin-ore impregnations in crystalline
Schists, and granitic rocks, the impregnations of Zink-ores in
Dolomites and dolomitic Lime-stones, gold-impregnations in
quartzose rocks, chlorite-schist, talc-schist or micaceous iron-schist.
The impregnations, which occur with lodes, take a still
greater choice of wall-rock. Chiefly those rocks; which were
much cleft, were previously subjected to great decomposition,
or contained much coal or bitumen; are richly penetrated by
impregnations: a circumstance, which can be easily explained,
partly by the mere mechanical resistance which the others offered
to a penetrati6n of the solutions, partly from the want of a
re-acting exchange of ingredients.
90 ORIGIN, AND AGE,
It frequently occurs , in lode-fissures, that only a portion of
the ingredients forming the lode have penetrated the wall-rock
as impregnations.
"' -
ORIGIN AND AGE OF IMPREGNATIONS.
67. The impregnations occur, as we have seen, partly
in company with other kinds of metallic deposits, partly quite
independently of any. The first, generally, contain the same,
or a portion of the same ores, as the deposits *vhich they accom-
pany ; and are, as a rule, consequences of the formation or the
transformation of these.
When lodes are accompanied by ore-impregnations, it is
to be assumed, that, generally, the solutions from which the
materials of the lodes were precipitated they may have been
aqueous, igneous-fluid, or gaseous also penetrated the wall-
rock, and there caused certain deposits in fine clefts or in the
rock itself. In the last case, crystals have made room for them-
selves by their power of crystallization ; or an ore took the place
of a mineral dissolved; for example, tin-ore that of feldspar.
It is not necessary, that the impregnations should have taken
place contemporaneously with the principal filling of the fissure;
a case is known, by the side of a lode, in the Morgenstern-mine
near Freiberg, in which Mispickel has penetrated the Gneiss,
probably long after the formation of the lode, from a partial de-
composition and re-depositing of the same. This may occur in
many cases of impregnation; but especially in such, as are pro-
duced by the decomposition of the ores in the adjoining deposits.
It is, however, possible, that many impregnations are really
the cause of the lodes accompanying them. The impregnations
existed first, and the filling of the fissure followed by a process
of concentration.
That the formation of ore-impregnations is not confined ex-
clusively to the action of water, is very conclusively shown by
the impregnations of the bricks and blocks of Gneiss, in the
floor of a reverberatory furnace, combined with lodes of metallic
sulphurets, which are described in von Cotta's Gangstudien,
vol. II. p. 1.
Impregnations which accompany segregations, may, like
those accompanying lodes, have been formed contemporaneously
with these; i. e. have penetrated from the principal mass into
OF IMPREGNATIONS. 91
the surrounding rock; or they may have been formed by a
subsequent partial decomposition of the segregations The segre-
gations of Zink-ore, which are accompanied by impregnations,
appear to have been formed contemporaneously and, perhaps,
even homogeneously with these. The products of decomposition,
on the other hand, of segregations of copper-ore, consisting
chiefly of Pyrites, appear to have penetrated all the clefts of
the surrounding rock. Owing to their large bulk, it is very
improbable, that the segregations have ever been formed by
subsequent concentration from impregnations.
Impregnations, accompanying ore-beds, may also have been
formed contemporaneously and homogeneously with these, or from
a subsequent lixiviation of the same. In the first case, they are
evidently only a modification of the beds, having been a result
of contemporanQOus deposit with the adjoining rocks. The nor-
mal rock-deposit was not instantaneously, or" every where com-,
pletely interrupted; but more or --less ore-particles were mixed
with it. Where this mingling was locally very great, a true ore-
bed was formed with determined limits towards the hanging-
and foot-wall, while in other places its continuation was only
intimated by scattered particles of ore. Such transitions may
have also taken place in the direction of e the hanging- and
foot-wall. The bed of copper and iron Pyrites- at Poschorita
in the Bukowina shows similar phenomena. The copper-slates
( Kup fers chief er} of Thuringia may, in this sense, be also classi-
fied under the bed-like impregnations.
It is self-evident, tfiat a formal distinction between beds
and impregnations is rendered much more difficult by such cir-
cumstances. It would be theoretically more correct, although
practically more difficult to determine, were only those ore-de-
posits called impregnations, which have penetrated an already
existing rock or clefts in the same.
That beds or impregnations of Magnetic-iron or Specular-
iron were not originally deposited by water as such, is self-evi-
dent ; but they are always and only found irj. metamorphic rocks
as chlorite-schist, mica-schist, etc., and were consequently sub-
jected to the same catogene 1 influences, as the matter from
which the rocks sprang. The peroxide of iron, and under cer-
tain circumstances the protoxide, might be formed from the hy-
1 See foot-note to 171.
92 SEARCH, AND FOLLOWING-UP, OF IMPREGNATIONS.
drated peroxide of iron. Similar events might have taken place
in other metallic beds,- -and the accompanying or independently
occurring ore-impregnations, which are found in crystalline schists.
This circumstance may explain many*, otherwise unintelligible,
phenomena.
SEARCH FOR AND FOLLOWING UP OF
IMPREGNATIONS.
68. Impregnations, which are combined with other ore-
deposits, can only be expected in combination with these; and,
if they have been discovered , must be followed on the sides,
either in an upward or downward direction, wherein the special
character of the rock at times furnishes a limit.
The impregnations, which penetrated already existing rocks,
very frequently followed, witli a certain preference or choice,
certain kinds of rocks or modifications of the same, which either
were more#eagily penetrated than the others, or exerted a
certain chemical re-action, and by this means induced the
precipitation of metallic particles from widely extended solutions.
As regards this case also , the time has not yet arrived to
lay down general rules: local observations are the only ones
that can be given.
For independently occurring segregated and bedded im-
pregnations no other general rules can be given, with respect
to their search and following up, than those which have been
given for beds and segregations. In the use of such regard
must be had to the more undetermined character of the impreg-
nations in comparison with the clearly defined beds and se-
gregations.
ORE-DISTRICTS.
69. By ore-districts are understood combinations of
several ore-deposits into one common whole.
ORE-DISTRICTS. Q3
We have now learnt the most important circumstances and
differences of form in the occurrence of the separate metallic
deposits; and have distinguished:
A. Regular metallic deposits;
1. Beds,
2. Lodes.
B. Irregular metallic deposits;
1. Segregations,
2. Impregnations.
Very frequently two or more metallic deposits are united
into one common whole, that is. a district (region, or depot) ; and
not only deposits of the same form and kind are thus combined,
but such also as are differently formed and differently composed,
Beds of the same ore frequently alternate with beds of
rocks, forming in this manner a common ore-stratum; as, for
example, -the beds of iron-ore in the brown Jura of the Sua-
bian Alps, or the spherosiderite bed in the Carpathian sandstone
between Teschen and Kimpolung in the Bukowina.
Many segregated masses of analogous composition occur at
times in one rock-district; as the masses of Magnetite near
Arendal, the Silver, Lead, Copper, and Cobalt masses of Tuna-
berg; or several independent zones of impregnations occur ^together,
as the Fallbands of Kongsberg and of Tuna in Dalecarlia.
Such combinations of homogeneous metallic deposits have
clearly a common origin, and are the consequences of the same
geological event.
But deposits, which are dissimilar in form or composition,
are also frequently found so - combined with one another , that
they must be considered as formations belonging together or
dependent on each other, or can at least be united to one geo-
graphical group. We have already become acquainted with this
combination of dissimilar deposits in the case of the dependently
occurring impregnations; several such combinations^are frequently
again united in groups, as in the case of the Zinc-deposits of
Upper Silesia. Lodes and segregations, or beds and segrega-
tions, or even beds and lodes, are frequently found combined;
examples of these are the Zinc-deposits of Upper Silesia and
the district of the Ruhr in Westphalia, or the bedded veins and
segregations of spathic iron in the eastern Alps.
But, as already stated, even entirely dissimilar and perhaps
independently formed deposits are considered as forming one
94 ORE-DISTRICTS.
district, when they are to some degree geographically combined.
The boundaries of such divisions, or groups 7 are of course al-
ways more indefinite and to a certain degree arbitrary, the
greater the extent they comprise.
It would appear judicious to unite into one Group only
those deposits which have some geological connection; and to
lay no stress on the geographical combination; but such differences
are often difficult to determine.
SPECIAL PART,
A COLLECTION OF EXAMPLES.
SUMMARY.
70. I confine myself to a description of the most im-
portant ore-districts of Europe, without particular reference to
their geographical distribution. The general order described
will ; be as follows:
1. Germany, commencing with the Erzgebirge.
2. The Carpathian countries; Gallicia, Transylvania,
Hungary, JBanat, and Servia.
3. The Alps in their entire extent.
4. Italy.
5. France.
6. Spain.
,7. Great Britain.
8. Scandinavia.
9. European Russia.
96 GEOLOGICAL FORMATION, AND OEE-DEPOSITS
GERMANJ,
[. THE ERZGEBIRGE.
THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
71. The Erzgebirge forms a broad, nearly quadrilateral,
elevated plateau with a precipitous southeasterly descent towards
Bohemia, and a gentle northwesterly slope towards Saxony.
This plateau is traversed by winding valleys, but is not over-
topped by high peaks. Its crest rises on an average 2000 to
2500 feet above the sea, being at its highest point about 3800
feet. The mass of the Erzgebirge consists predominantly of
gneiss and mica-schist, which last gradually passes, towards the
northwest, into a fossil-free clay slate. These crystalline schists
have been penetrated by granite in several large and many small
masses and dikes; by granitic gneiss (distinguished by the name
of red gneiss); by masses and dikes of quartz, granitic and
syenitic porphyry; by various greenstones and wackes, which
however never cover large extended districts; and finally by
basalt, which rises here and there in the form of small conical
hills. Somewhat of greywacke is found on the northwestern
declivity, mostly covered by the carboniferous formation and
Rothliegendes-, the last mentioned formations occur also scattered
here and there on the eastern portion of the high ridge, and
form, in addition, a coherent basin at the northeastern edge of
the mountains by Potschappel. Quadersandstein reaches but a
short distance on to the eastern portion of the mountains; and
entirely isolated tertiary deposits are found at the foot of a few
basaltic elevations. All these sedimentary deposits have no
recognisable connection with the ore-deposits of the mountains:
these last have been found only in the crystalline schists and
igneous rocks of the Erzgebirge.
OEE-DEPOSITS OF THE ERZGEBIRGE IN GENERAL.
72. The ore-deposits of the Erzgebirge are of very great
diversity; and although, as a rule, not very rich, are still fre-
quent, and are known to exist in great numbers. Of useful
OF THE ERZGEBIRGE. 97
metals they contain; silver, lead, copper, cobalt, nickel, bismuth,
arsenic, antimony, tin, zinc, iron, and manganese, as well as
traces of gold and mercury. Hence all the ore-deposits of the
Erzgebirge may be classified as:
1. Tin ore deposits: these are the oldest of this region ;
and lie in. groups, divided into zones of 10 to 20 miles broad,
which extend along the crest of the mountains. They form
lodes, impregnations, and surface- deposits. The chief points,
where groups occur, are: Altenberg, SeifFen, Marienberg, Ehren-
friedersdorf, Eibenstock, Flatten, and Johanngeorgenstadt.
2. Lodes of silver and lead ores: often combined
with copper, lie chiefly, although not all, in a single zone;
which extends in a direction from NE. to SW. obliquely over
the broad crest of the mountains, from Meissen, through Frei-
berg, Langenau, Oederan, Wolkenstein, Marienberg, and Anna-
berg, to Joachimsthal. They form groups of lodes, and scattered
veins, extending in various directions.
3. Veins of cobalt and nickel ores: frequently contain-
ing bismuth, and also silver, lead, and copper ores; are
chiefly found in the neighborhood of Schneeberg. Cobalt and
nickel ores are also found at times in the silver lodes of Frei-
berg, Marienberg, Joachimsthal, etc.
4. Lodes of limonite and hematite: frequently contain-
ing ores of manganese; lie chiefly, like the lodes of tin ore, in
a zone corresponding to the crest of the mountains; but often
have a strike at right angles to their greatest extent.
5. Deposits of magnetite: beds, bedded veins, and cross
veins, frequently combined with other ores, and with greenstones,
are found distributed in groups all through the mountains.
6. Deposits of quicksilver ores: or rather traces of
nssures, bedded veins, or impregnations, containing cinnobar;
in the clay slate near Hartenstein.
7. Ores of antimony, arsenic, and zinc, are found in
most of the above-mentioned deposits ; manganese ores, chiefly
with those of some iron ores. Gold, of which traces are found
here and there, is no longer the object of exploitation.
The deposits of the Erzgebirge may be divided, according
to their geographical distribution, and grouping, and named
from the following places near which they occur:
1. Freiberg (Siebenlehn, Brand, Frauenstein).
2. Altenberg Zinnwald Graupen (Pobel).
98 ERZGEBIRGE ORE-DEPOSITS CLASSIFIED.
3. Berggiesshiibel (Liebstadt, Lauenstein).
4. Self fen Katharinenberg (Sayda).
5. Marienberg.
6. Ehrenfriedersdorf Geyer.
7. A 11 nab erg.
8. Kupferberg (Presnitz).
9. Joachimsthal (Gottesgabe, Flatten).
10. Schwarzenberg.
11. Johanngeorgenstadt Eibenst oc k.
12. Schneeberg.
13 Bleistadt.
To which the following less important districts , lying out-
side of the Erzgebirge proper, may be added:
14. Langenstriegis Miihlbach.
15. Mittweida Hohnstein.
16. Scharfenberg Munzig.
ORE-DISTRICT OF FREIBERG. l
73. This comprises the district between Nossen, Oederan,
Erbisdorf, and the stream Bobritzsch; but a few of the deposits
extend beyond these limits. The whole district consists predo-
minantly of gneiss; which forms many varieties, and is toward
the west overlaid by mica-schist and clay-slate. These schistose
rocks are intersected by dikes of quartz-porphyry, and by
gabbro, which is somewhat altered into serpentine.
Both grey and red gneiss occur, in the Freiberg district,
in a number of different varieties ; which generally alternate with
one another in parallel layers. The foliation, and stratification,
of both lies here nearly horizontal, and gradually dips only in
two directions, so as to form a gently sloping saddle. The red
T See: Von Herder, der Meissner Erbstolln, 1838; VonBeust, Porphyr-
gebilde bei Freiberg, 1835, Gangcharte des Freib. ^Revier, 1842, die Erz-
gangztige im sachs Erzgebirge, 1856, Ueber ein Gesetz der Erzvertheilung
auf den Freiberger Gangen, 1855 und 1858, Ueber die Erzfiibrung der Frei-
berger Gange, 1859, Die Erzzonen im sachsichen Erzgebirge, 1859: Freies-
leben, die sachs Erzgange, 18431846; Miiller, Zinn in der Blende bei Frei-
berg, Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeitung, 1851, p. :-J53, -Die Erzgange nordwestl. von
Freiberg, Gangstudien, I. p. 101; Vogelgesang, die Erzlagerstatten siidostl.
von Freiberg, Gangstudien, II. p. 10; Gatzschmann. Beitrag zur Geschichte
des Freib. Zinnbergbaues, Berg- und hiittenm. Zeitung, 1844; New chart of
the lodes in the Freiberg district, issued by the chief mining office.
ORE-DISTRICT OF FREIBERG. 99
gneiss generally contains but few lodes. The grey consists, in
its most extended and most characteristic variety, of the so-
called Freiberg Normal-Gneiss ; a distinct compound of ortho-
clase, quartz, and dark colored mica, with regular granular,
foliated texture, separated into distinctly parallel tables or lay-
ers. Both, the red as well as the grey, are divided into a great
number of subordinate varieties, and contain besides layers,
which can hardly any longer be called gneiss.
The deposits of this district; containing silver, lead, copper,
arsenic, and zinc ores; are collectively lodes. According to Von
Herder's enumeration, more than 900 such are known in the
Freiberg district. Their breadth is but seldom more than 12
feet. They have been divided, according to the matrix filling
them, into four different formations, which have been named as
follows:
1 . Noble quartz f o r m a t i o n , or Braunsdorfer formation .
2. Pyritous lead formation.
3. Noble lead formation, brown-spar formation, or
Brand formation.
4. Bar y tic lead formation, or Halsbrucke formation.
This is, at the same time, about the order of their relative
age: the first-named formations are the oldest, although the
difference in age between 1, 2, and 3, appears to be very slight,
and almost variable, while 4 is decidedly younger than the others.
In addition to these- comes, 5. the so-called Copper for-
mation, which can however be only regarded as a local mo-
dification of the pyritous lead formation in which copper ores
predominate.
1. The lodes of the noble quartz formation consist
predominantly of white quartz, or hornstone varieties of the same,
containing numerous- fragments of the country rock; gneiss,
mica-schist, or black-schist. The fragments lie free in the quartz,
which frequently radiates from them as a centre. These lodes
contain ores, chiefly in the geodes only, more seldom dissemi-
nated. The ores are very rich silver ores; but they only occur
in small quantities, and very unequally distributed in nests; es-
pecially ruby silver, silver glance, native silver, argentiferous
mispickel, silver tetrahedrite, tetrahedrite, myargyrite, stephanite,
and polybasite ; pyrites, galena, and blende, occur only to a very
subordinate degree ; the same is true of some other minerals, as
calc. spar, brown spar, fluor spar, heavy spar, etc., which occur
7*
100 PYRITOUS LEAD LODES.
almost only crystallized in dispersed drusy cavities. In addition
to the above the following minerals are found in the lodes of
this formation, in part only as varieties; gypsum, strontianite,
pearl spar, spathic iron, dialo'gite, cerusite, metaxite, hypochlo-
rite, antimonic ochre, valentinite, limonite, specular iron, geo-
cronite, galena, boulangerite, zinkenite, stibnite, heteromorphite,
berthierite, bournonite, copper pyrites, pyrites, millerite, blende,
kermesite, fireblende, manganblende. The quartz forming the chief
portion of the -gang, is always firmly united to the country rock.
Some of these lodes attain a breadth of 7 feet. Near Brauns-
dorf, where they occur most characteristically, they have only
been found worth exploiting in a black bituminous schist, the so-
called schwarzen Gebirge-, while they are nearly barren in the
common mica-schist. Near Hockendorf they have been found
at times locally very rich in the common gneiss.
Over 150 lodes, belonging to this formation, are known to
exist in the Freiberg district. The following are very charac-
teristic of this formation; Verlorene-Hoffnung and Segen-Gottes
lodes of the Neue-Hoffnung-Gottes mine near Braunsdorf, the
Peter and Frisch-Gliick of the Alte-Hoffnung,-Gottes mine at
Gross Voigtsberg, the Wolfgang lode of the Segen-Gottes mine
near Gersdorf, the harder branch of the Reinsberg Gltick at
Emanuel mine (the softer branch of this double lode belongs to
the barytic lead formation) and the Helmrich vein of the Romanus
mine near Siebenlehn, finally the Gottlieb lode of the Gesegnete
Bergmannshoffnung mine at Obergruna.
2. The pyritous lead lodes consist chiefly of sulphurets
with quartz. The first consist of galena containing 15 to 100
grammes of silver, blende, pyrites, copper pyrites, and mispickel.
At times the copper pyrites, together with other copper ores,
predominate; and then occurs the modification called the copper
formation.
Rich silver ores, heavy spar, carbonates, fluor spar, etc,
occur only to a very subordinate degree, for the most part only
in drusy cavities, in which they may be regarded as being a
more recent formation. In addition to these, the following min-
erals have been found, in part only as varieties, in these lodes;
hornstone, opal, gypsum, cerusite, pyromorphite, malachite, azu-
rite, tyrolite (copper froth), pharmacosiderite, scorodite, pharma-
colith, erythrine, pittizite, copperas, nacrite, allophane, chlorite,
chrysocolla, scheelite, atacamite, stilpnosiderite, kupfermangarierz,
NOBLE LEAD LODES. 101
melaconite, limonite, red copper, specular iron, cassiterite (traces
in blende), native silver, native copper, copper glance, stromeyerite,
bournonite, polybasite, silver glance, freieslebenite, silver tetrahed-
rite, tetrahedrite, tennantite, zinc tetrahedrite, erubescite, pyrar-
gyrite, and iceisskupfererz. The outcroppings of these lodes are
frequently very much decomposed, of the sulphurets only the
peroxide and hydrated peroxide of iron have remained (gossan).
This formation occurs chiefly in the lodes south-east of Frei-
berg; the Himmelfahrt mine exploits many of the same. Von
Herder has enumerated over 300 lodes as belonging to this for-
mation. The following misty be mentioned as being very charac-
teristic of this formation; the Frisch-Gluck, Gottlob, Abraham
and Jung-David lodes of the Himmelfahrt mine, the Laura and
Abendstern lodes of the Neuer Morgenstern mine near Freiberg,
the Jung-Andreas of the Kroner mine, the Leander of the Alt
Mordgrube, and the Hochbirkner mines of the Junge hohe Birke.
I have already mentioned the so-called copper ore/* lodes,
as being a modification of the pyritous lead formation: they
contain, in combination with quartz, chiefly the following
minerals; copper pyrites, erubescite, copper glance, tetrahedrite;
and, as products of the decomposition of these, azurite, malachite,
chrysocolla, and red copper. The Gottlob, Franzer, and Hein-
rich lodes of the Morgenstern mines are characteristic of this
modification. Their texture, like that of the pyritous lead lodes,
is .irregular granular.
3. Noble lead lodes. The predominant gang -consists
of carbonates, especially brown spar and dialogitc, with quartz.
The chief ore is galena, . somewhat richer in silver than in the
preceding formation; this occurs combined with blende and
pyrites, and frequently forms the middle layer of the very
commonly symmetrically formed lodes. These are accompanied,
more frequently than in the pyritpus lead formation, by rich
silver ores ; such as silver tetrahedrite, ruby silver, silver glance,
and native silver. In addition to which the following minerals,
some of them but varieties, occur in the lodes; hornstone, opal,
fluor- spar, gypsum, heavy spar, calc. spar, pearl spar, spathic
iron, cerusite, pyromorphite, . pittizite, nacrite, stilpnosiderite,
kerargyrite, limonite, white arsenic, specular iron, rutile, pitch
blende, arsenic, polybasite, stephanite, acanthite, freieslebenite,
tetrahedrite, copper pyrites, mispickel, xanthocone, and realgar.
These lodes are chiefly found in the neighborhood of Brand and
102 BARYTIC LEAD LODES.
JErbisdorf. Von Herder has enumerated about 340 veins as
belonging to this formation.
The following are especially characteristic for the dialogite
variety of these lodes; the Traugott, Carl, Ludwig, Hiilfe Gottes
and Gottholder lodes of the Beschert Gliick mine, the Felix and
David lodes of the Himmelsfiirst mines. On the other hand the
following lodes have as gang much more quartz or opal, and
proportionally but little brown spar; Segen-Gottes, Benjamin
and Gesellschafts-Freude of the Einigkeit mine, as well as the
Beschert Gliick of the Himmelsfiirst mine.
4. Barytic lead lodes. Heavy spar forms the pre-
dominant and most characteristic gang: this forms numerous
parallel and symmetrically arranged layers, between which occur
thin bands of galena, blende, pyrites, fluor spar, or also quartz.
The centre of the lode consists at times of large drusy cavities ;
in which occur the above mentioned minerals, or also rich sil-
ver ores and carbonates, beautifully crystallized. In addition
to the above characteristic minerals the following also occur;
agate, opal, gypsum, pseudo-apatite, calc. spar, brown spar,
pearl spar, spathic iron, cerusite, pyromorphite, erytbrine, nacrite,
beryl, fettbol, singuite, stilpnosiderite, kerargyrite, limonite,
specular iron, pitch blende, native silver, native copper, arsenic,
bismuth, clausthalite, bournonite, stephanite, polybasite, silver
glanze, tetrahedrite, copper pyrites, cobaltine, smaltine, chior-
anthite, copper nickel, millerite, fireblende, pyrargyrite, realgar.
Portions of these lodes are at times found reduced to breccia,
from the repeated bursting open of the fissure, especially in such
a manner, that fragments of the lodes having a banded texture
are cemented together by more recent cry>tallizations of the
same minerals with irregularly distributed drusy cavities. Curved
and concentric banded texture, forming cockade ores, also occurs
in these lodes. Some of them attain a breadth of over seven
feet; Von Herder enumerates about 130, the finest example of
which is the broad Halsbriickner lode.
These so-called formations do not always occur charac-
teristically, in some cases the classification is extremely difficult;
it frequently appears as if more recent minerals had been formed
in the same fissure with older ones, which may be explained by
previous incomplete filling or repeated bursting open of the
fissures.
They form in part parallel zones, of which a map was first
DIRECTIONS OF STRIKE, AND GROUPS OF LODES. 103
given by Baron Von Beust in his chart of the Freiberg mining
district, 1842; in which, however, the western group of the
noble quartz formation is wanting. Von Beust distinguishes the
following chief directions of strike, and groups of lodes.
1. A group of lodes, whose principal strike is from NE.
to SW. Towards the South they bend somewhat more in a
southerly, towards the North in a more easterly direction, con-
sequently describing a gentle curve. The matrix they contain
belongs partly to the noble lead, partly to the pyritous lead for-
mation, and to the copper formation. To the extreme Northwest
some lodes of the noble quartz formation have also this direction
of strike. The breadth of the entire group is about 21,000 feet, the
known length nearly twice as great. If the whole group be
regarded, as a system of fissures formed contemporaneously ; then
the length appears far too small, and permits the hope that still
unknown continuations exist. The dip of most of the lodes of
this system being nearly perpendicular, they consequently cut
through the but slightly inclined layers of gneiss nearly at right
angles.
2. A second chief direction of strike is from nearly S. to N.
with a much more gradual dip. These lodes form two nearly
parallel groups; the one southerly from Freiberg between the
Striegis and the Three Crosses, the other between Freiberg and
the Mulde. In the former and more southerly group the matrix,
filling the fissures, belongs principally to the noble lead for-
mation; in the latter, on the contrary, to the pyritous lead for-
mation. Both of these intersect group 1 at acute angles; and
form, in consequence, many junctions, which are distinguished
by a special richness in ares. From this circumstance two prin-
cipal regions of junctions have been formed, which were and
still are important in a mining view: between these lies a less
productive district.
3. A third principal direction of strike is from NW. to
SE. The lodes of this direction are scattered over a great
extent of country between Langenau and Freiberg, and nearly
all belong to the barytic lead formation. Southwest of Freiberg
they mostly dip towards SW. ; northeast of Freiberg, on the
contrary, they dip almost perpendicularly towards NE. . They
form no such closed group, as the lodes of- the other groups;
while on the other hand some of them, as the Halsbriickner
lode, are known to be of great length, and, in part, of great
104 QUANTITY OF ORE, AND AGES OF THE LODES.
breadth. 'They also form junctions with the lodes of groups
land 2; in which, as being the younger, they always intersect,
and frequently throw these; the junctions formed are frequently
distinguished by a richness in ores, r*
4. A fourth group, about 5 miles broad and 15 miles long,
striking from NE. and SW. is formed by the lodes of the noble
quartz formation in the district between Nossen and Oederan to
the Northwest of Freiberg ; and, on this account, stands in little
known relation with the other lodes. Most of these lodes dip
towards the Northwest. Their chief direction of strike nearly
corresponds to that of the first group ; but they are widely
separated from this, have a different matrix, and are less con-
stant in their special direction of strike. They are enumerated
here, as forming a special group: which might with the same
right be done with the two divisions of group 2.
Besides these principal directions of strike, many lodes,
having intermediate directions of strike, occur in the Freiberg ore
district; so that each separate known one, cannot, with certainty,
be classified under the preceding groups. Single lodes frequently
occur towards the limits of this great network of fissures, especially
in the neighborhood of Frauenstein, Ammelsdorf, Hockendorf, and
Dippoldiswalde ; they mostly belong to the noble quartz forma-
tion, which thus encloses on two sides the other somewhat more
recent lode-formations. In the interior of these districts the chief
junctions are, naturally, the points which have been mostly ex-
ploited, ,thus in the neighborhood of the Himmelfahrt mine and
town of Brand.
That the quantity of ore in all the Freiberg lodes is a very
unequal one, not only in the separate lodes, but in different
portions of the same lode, has been already shown in the general
part, where an attempt was made to trace back this inequality
in the distribution of ores to determined causes, especially the
modifications of the country rock.
All these lodes, with, perhaps, the exception of those be-
longing to the barytic formation, appear to stand in some causal
connection with the dikes of quartz-porphyry which traverse
the gneiss of the same region ; but these last are nearly always
intersected by the lodes, where they come in contact with them.
The only known exception is that of the Reinsberg Grliick lode,
belonging to the oldest or noble quartz formation, which is
ORE-DISTRICT OF ALTENBERG. 105
faulted by a dike of porphyry, and is consequently older than
this last. 1
It would appear, that the ages of the three first mentioned
formations of the Freiberg lodes vary but slightly. Since the
eruptions of porphyry of this district did not necessarily all take
place at the same period ; it may be concluded, from the excep-
tional case mentioned, in connection with other circumstances,
that the formation of the Freiberg lodes took place at about
the time at which the irruption of porphyry ceased; and that
they are to be regarded as being, in a certain degree, conse-
quences, or secondary effects of the same. Now, since boulders
of this porphyry have been found in neighboring upper Roth-
liegenden, while tiiffa formations are found in the lower Roth-
liegenden between Freiberg and Chemnitz, which appear to have
had some connection with the quartz-porphyry irruptions ; it may
be concluded, although not with certainty, that the Freiberg lodes,
in general, according to their formation, belong to about the
same period as the upper Rothliegenden.
Their matrix appears to me, without a doubt, to have been
formed, by infiltration; all the facts favor this view, none speak
against it: what has been previously said, about the manner of
formation by infiltration, will equally apply to the Freiberg lodes.
All their ingredients are consonant with it, their texture, especi-
ally the banded texture, the order of the mineral' succession, the
wide branching in narrow fissures, the frequent impregnation
of the neighboring rock, the great influence of the country rock
on the local composition of the lodes; all these circumstances
agree in proving this manner of formation.
ORE-DISTRICT OF ALTENBERG.
. 74. I consider the tracts around Zinnwald, Graupen,
and Pobel, as belonging to this district.
The gneiss of the Erzgebirge is here much intruded into
and broken through by granite, chloride granite porphyry, por-
phyritic granite, quartz porphyry, greisen, and basalt. The last
is more recent than all the other rocks, and is, probably, younger
than the ore deposits of this region. The chloritic granite por-
phyry appears to be more recent than the remaining igneous
Gangstudien, I. p. 168.
106 ALTENBERG
rocks: it is difficult to determine the relative ages of the rest.
The gneiss passes locally over into mica-schist, which contains
intermediate parallel beds of granular lime-stone or cipolline.
Isolated fragments of the coal formation, containing beds of
anthracite two to three feet broad, occur in a few localities;
they are partly overlaid by quartz porphyry, which is probably
more recent. These coal formations have no assignable connec-
tion with the ore deposits. The last are partly tin, partly iron
ore deposits, partly also cupriferous. The cassiterite occurs both
as impregnations in greisen or granitic rocks, as also in lodes.
ALTENBERG TIN STOCKWERK. 1
75. This tin ore deposit consists of a broad mass of
rock of irregular form, apparently of igneous origin, and yet
without any sharp line of contact with a portion of the rocks
surrounding it ; the latter are granite, chloride granite porphyry,
and quartz porphyry. This rock-mass contains tin ore throughout ;
but this is so finely disseminated as to be almost imperceptible,
and in such small quantities that only f / 3 to */* P^ r cent f ^ n
can be produced from it. The rock has a dark, often almost
black, color: and consists of quartz, and a silicate of alumina,
with fine coloring admixtures of mica, chlorite, specular iron,
tin ore, and, probably, also wolfram. Pyrites is disseminated
through the rock in fine particles, but the quartz alone can be
distinctly recognised, it often occurs as grains, without crystalline
structure, in the fine granular rock. Numerous quartz-veins tra-
verse this fine granular mass of rock in all directions ; and
molybdenite, bismuthine, copper pyrites, pyrites, fluor spar, topaz,
pycnite, and nacrite, also occur. The rock might perhaps be
termed a fine granular variety of greisen; but it differs from
this in texture, color, and in that it contains chlorite and specu-
lar iron. The miners call it fZwf&tr* or 'Stockwerksporphyr ' ;
the first name may be very appropriately retained, the last is
inappropriate, since it neither possesses a compact felsitic mass,
nor contains regular crystals.
1 See: Noggerath in Leonhardts Taschenbuch, 1825, p. 562, and 1830,
p. 256; Daubree in Annales des mines, J841, p. 61, 72, and 83; Cotta in
Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1860, p. 1 ; and Freiberg Bergakademische Festschrift,
i860, I. p. 157; Miiller in Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeitung, 1865, p. 178.
TIN STOCKWERK. 107
On the walls of rock of the great Altenberg Pinge, which
is a large crater-shaped hollow, formed by the breaking together
of extensive underground workings, a fine granular granite
occurs by the side of this dark stanniferous rock, or Z witter,
which passes, in a peculiar manner, into the zwitter. This
tolerably feldspathic granite is traversed at this point, like the
zwitter itself, by a number of small and irregular quartz- veins,
in which the same minerals are now and then observed as in
the veins of zwitter. Each of these quartz veins is enclosed on
both sides by, more or less broad, dark stripes, in which feld-
spar is no longer to be recognised, and which has entirely the
appearance of the zwitter; it probably also contains somewhat
of tin ore. These dark stripes abruptly merge, without any
distinct line of junction, into the reddish yellow, fine granular
granite, with considerable and very distinct feldspar. Hence
the whole appears, as if the dark stripes proceeded from a
transforming impregnation of the quartz veins, or the cracks
which preceded them; such is its probable origin. If the addi-
tional circumstance is considered ; that the zwitter proper, worth
exploiting, is traversed by quartz veins precisely similar to those
in the adjoining granite ; and that scattered lighter, fine-grained
spots, containing feldspar, occur at times between these veins ;
which therefore must consist of a fine granular granite; the
thought necessarily arises, that the whole mass of zwitter may
originally have been a fine granular granite, similar to that now
adjoining it; but into which local solutions, containing oxide of tin
in combination with other substances, have, aided by numerous
fissures, penetrated. The metals have combined with the quartz
and mica already existing in the granite, at the expense of the
feldspar, which was destroyed by the same solutions. Accord-
ing as the metamorphosis was complete, or only partial; there
was formed either real zwitter, or only a granite traversed by
veins of quartz or zwitter. If the facts are correctly .stated,
then the segregated tin deposit only forms the extreme result
of this metamorphosis, the continuation of which is found- in
traces, as quartz veins having a dark border in granite or por-
phyry, on the footpath between Altenberg and Zinnwald. It
appears to me, that traces of such a metamorphosis occur in the
chloritic granite porphyry adjoining the zwitter in the direction
of Geising. These consist in the fact, that the matrix of this
porphyry is frequently darker, poorer in feldspar, and richer
108
ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITION.
in chlorite, than is otherwise common. This rock has not yet
been examined, to see whether it contains any tin ore. The
preceding results of a- geological examination, have been com-
pletely confirmed by the chemical analyses of Dr. Rube in Frei-
berg. They gave the following composition; A denoting the
unaltered granite, B the dark colored stripes alongside of the
quartz veins, and the zwitter.
A.
B.
C.
;
B:T"
Diiferenc
^C^A^
B.
-B7c
Silicic acid . . . W^
7468
71,57
71,84
3,11
2,84
0,27
Titanic acid
Alumina
0,71
12 73
0,52
12 40
0,90
1440
0,19
033
-4- 0,19
+ 1,67
0,38
2 00
Protoxide of iron . . .
Lime
3,00
0,09
7,22
1 55
7,00
063
+ 4,22
+ 1,46
4- 4,00
4-0:54
4-0,22
4-0,92
Magnesia
0,35
0,05
0,79
0,30
4-0,44
0,74
Potash . . ...
4,64
2,80
2,30
1,84
2,34
+ 0,50
Soda . . .
1,54
1,60
0,67
4- 0,06
0,87
+ 0,93
Water
1 17
1 30
1 11
4- 13
006
+ 19
Oxide of copper ....
Peroxide of tin ....
0,50
0,09
0,27
0,69
trace
0,65
0,23
4- 0,60
X
4- 0,54
+ x
4-0,04
99,50
99,97
100,29
From the above analyses we find, that the composition of
the stripes and zwitter may be regarded as identical, while that
of the granite varies but slightly from them. This last has lost
somewhat of silicic acid and potash by the metamorphosis, and
received oxides of tin and iron in their stead; the silicic acid
lost may have been deposited in the cracks as quartz.
The stockwerk at Geyer is a somewhat analogous case.
Should it be questioned, whether the present condition of the
Zinnwald greisen may be explained by a similar metamorphosis,
I cannot attempt a direct answer. In its favor may be men-
tioned the enclosed granite masses, and the impregnations pro-
ceeding from vertical fissures. Against it, I would cite the very
distinct, and often coarse granular texture of this mixture of
quartz- and lithion-mica ; it being incomprehensible, how pre-
viously existing feldspar could have been replaced in such
a form.
As regards the Altenberg stockwerk, the theoretical possi-
bility of such a metamorphosis appears to me both possible, and
unobjectionable; provided it may be assumed, that a gradual
TIN DEPOSITS OF ZINNWALD. 109
and consequently protracted action took place at a great depth
below the surface.
It is known, that tin ore occurs pseudomorphous after feld-
spar in the granite of Cornwall; consequently it fills the place
formerly occupied by the destroyed feldspar. Kjerulf has pro-
duced tin ore from aqueous solutions, Daubree by sublimation.
That silicic acid may displace and replace feldspar, is a frequently
observed fact ; as also the formation of chlorite by the metamor-
phosis of rocks ,(for example, in the formation of serpentine) is
by no means a new occurrence. The presence of specular iron,
and metallic sulphurets, which were not necessarily all formed
contemporaneously, can be explained; even though the circum-
stances and actions cannot be specially marked, during which
the assumed metamorphosis may or must have taken place.
The totality of the phenomena is in favor of a gradual meta-
morphosis in the wet way, rather than by a process of sub-
limation.
TIN DEPOSITS OF ZINNWALD. *
76. The greisen of Zinnwald consists of a distinct, often
coarse granular mixture of quartz and white lithion mica, without
feldspar; and forms, so to speak, an underground mountain-top:
wolfram, somewhat of tin ore, and at times a little feldspar,
occur as accessory ingredients; the last of which, where it
encreases in quantity, causes natural transitions into granite;
while, from the miners' statements, horses of granite occur scat-
tered here and there in the granite proper. The greisen mass
is much intersected by two different kinds of tin deposits, which
both belong to the class of lodes. The broadest, being over a
foot wide, lie tolerably flat under one another, and are nearly
parallel with the dome-shaped outline of the greisen. The others,
far less broad, are nearly perpendicular; and when they inter-
sect, frequently fault the other, older concentric ones. The first
class, nearly horizontal and broader lodes, are formed chiefly
of the same minerals as the greisen; viz. quartz and lithion
mica, which have crystallized symmetrically from the selvages,
1 See: Manes in Ann. d. min. 1823, VIII. p. 513; and 1824, XI. p. 463;
Daubree in same, 1841, XIX. p. 61. 72, and 83; Jokely in Jahrb. d. geol.
geog. Reichsanstalt, 1858, p. 566.
110 ZINNWALD. I GRAUPEN AND POEBEL.
and are intimately combined with wolfram and tin ore. They
contain, at times, in the middle of the lode : galena, tin pyrites,
copper glance, copper pyrites, tetrahedrite, blende, fluor spar,
scheelite, cerusite, pyromorphite, ufanite, spathic iron, heavy
spar, feldspar, apatite, tourmaline, topaz, and pycnite. Sixteen
such lodes, from four inches to three feet wide, are known to
exist one over another. The miners generally call them beds,
from their nearly horizontal position, while the symmetrical
arrangement of the minerals from the selvages towards the
middle are the clearest proof of their formation in fissures. Still
their nature remains very remarkable, and problematical ; since,
as already mentioned, their outer portion forms only a more
distinctly crystallized continuation of the greisen. The quartz
occurs at times in very large crystalls; and some of them con-
sist of so-called H a ub en quartz; i. e. they are composed of
opposed plates parallel to their crystal faces, the result of having
been deposited in successive layers. The other minerals and
ores occur distributed, in the middle portions of the lodes, between
the two outer bands ; which are composed of quartz and mica
with somewhat of wolfram. Hence they are lodes which only
vary mineralogically, in part, from the greisen; and occur mostly
in a horizontal position, which is a very unnatural one for broad
fissures. The perpendicular and narrower lodes, which inter-
sect and frequently fault the preceding, consist on the other
hand often merely of cracks or small quartz veins, similar to
the irregular quartz vejns in the Altenberg zwitter, but differing
from these in having a constant strike and dip. They but sel-
dom contain ores, while the country rock is commonly very
much impregnated by the side of these with tin ore and wolf-
ram. As being the more recent, they may have formed the
passage-way for the mineral solutions; but it is difficult to con-
ceive, that they were also the cause of the destruction of the
feldspar; i. e. the formation of the greisen from granite, although
indeed masses of true granite are found in the greisen. Since
the Zinnwald greisen is formed from a coarse granular mixture
of quartz and mica, it is difficult to conceive, what has become
of the feldspar.
ALTENBERG HEMATITE DEPOSITS. HI
TIN-DEPOSITS OF GRAUPEN, AND POEBEL. l
77. Both localities have been but slightly examined; and
on this account I describe them together, although situated at
the opposite extremities of the Altenberg district. Between
Graupen and the Muckenthiirmchen, on the crest of the Erzgebirge,
are found in great quantities remains of former mining; which
come from former tin-mining in grey gneiss and porphyry.
According to Jokely, the 1 10 inch broad lodes in the gneiss
consist of fissile or micaceous, talcose, and somewhat feldspathic,
greisen; in which the tin ore forms threads, layers, or pockets;
while in addition talc, steatite, and fluor spar, occasionally occur.
They mostly have a gentle dip of only 10 to 20. The lodes
in the porphyry are on an average poorer. At Seegrunde their
matrix is chiefly clay, quartz, and hornstone; easterly of this
again, of a flintlike mass resembling greisen, with somewhat of
tin ore, wolfram, galena, mispickel, copper pyrites, millerite,
malachite, talc, and feldspar. Irregular pockets of, often, crys-
tallized tin-ore may be seen in a kind of friction-breccia, be-
tween porphyry arid gneiss, near the Miickenthurmchen.
At Pobel the gneiss is frequently intersected by tin lodes,
and impregnated with tin ore. Mining there has been recently
abandoned.
HEMATITE DEPOSITS OF THE ALTENBERG DISTRICT.
78. Hematite lodes, containing many fragments of the
country rock, traverse the granite and quartz po/phyry in the
region between Barenburg, Schellerhau, and Schmiedefeld. The
mineral matter filling these fissures consists partly of a breccia,
principally formed from fragments of the quartz porphyry, the
binding medium consisting of compact earthy and fibrous
hematite. Besides the hematite, these lodes often contain con-
siderable quartz; and it appears, that certain breccia-like quartz
veins, with ferruginous quartz as cementing medium, that occur
in the same district, are contemporaneous formations with these.
The iron ore lodes of the Erzgebirge lie in a zone nearly
parallel to the crest of the mountains; while the individual
1 See: Freiberg Jahrbuch, 1844, p. 35; Jokely in Jahrb. d. geol.
Reichsanst. 1858, p. 562; Miiller in Beitragen zur geol. Kenutniss des Erz-
gebirges, II. 1867.
112 BERGGIESSHUEBEL ORE-DISTRICT.
members mostly strike almost at right angles to the general ex
tension of the whole zone. From this fact they form a group
of but slight length, but far greater width ; whose individual
members occur much scattered/ and* in addition appear to be
generally combined with the occurrence of igneous rocks, such
as porphyry and granite. We shall hereafter become acquainted
with cases, of this iron ore zone of the Erzgebirge, in the
Schneeberg and Eibenstock districts. Those of the Altenberg
district are some of them exploited, but have never been care-
fully examined.
ORE-DISTRICT OF BERGGIESiSHUtfBEL. l .
79. The district is confined to the immediate neighbor-
hood of this small town. The ore-deposits occur in a dark grey
or black clay-slate; which encloses more or less broad layers
of hornblende schist, diorite slate, and black chert ; and is tra-
versed by 'dikes of claylike quartz porphyry: they are partly
overlaid by quader sand stein. This last has no connection what-
ever with the ore-deposits, but from its overlying prevents in
part a farther tracing of the others.
The composition of the ore-deposits appears, according to
Vogelgesang, to vary with the depth. In the upper workings of
the flat veins, limonite and hematite, with heavy spar, predomi-
nate. Deeper are found magnetic iron, garnet, sahlite, pistac-
ite, allochroite, colophonite, quartz, feldspar, etc. At a still
greater depth, magnetic iron predominates; and intimately asso-
ciated with It are erubescite, copper pyrites, copper glance,
tetrahedrite, red copper, azurite, malachite, chrysocolla, native
copper, pyrites, blende, galena, and (very rarely) native silver;
while chlorite, mica, tremolith, calc. spar, brown spar, and fluor
spar also, accompany the same. Among these are some min-
erals evidently of secondary origin, and first formed by pseudo-
morphous action. Not only are the outcroppings of the deposits
formed of gossan, but decompositions have also taken place at
a greater depth. Several of these deposits, from a few inches
to 20 feet broad, follow parallel to each other, as if they were
beds ; in addition, a ribbonlike striped limestone, with copper
1 See: Von C harp en tier, mineral. Geograph. d. Chursachs. Lande,
1778, p 145; Vogelgesang, in Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1852, p. 635.
KATHARINENBERG, AND SAIDA. ORE-DISTRICTS. 1,13
pyrites, blende, and galena, also occurs. These beds, which
might, from their multiferous composition, be considered as
being contact veins, are intersected by lodes which appear to
have been formed at different epochs. The older consist chiefly
of quartz with copper pyrites, the more recent of calc. spar
with copper glance and tetrahedrite ; their breadth never ex-
ceeds a few inches.
The occurrence of these lodes, connected with the circum-
stance, that the dikes of porphyry intersecting the clay-slate
also follow the slates in their principal direction of strike, ap-
pears to afford the best evidence for the determination of the
nature of those beds. If the iron ores are considered as form-
ing the original beds, there can hardly be any doubt, that the
other ores are of much more recent origin, and have first pene-
trated into the beds through the fissures in which the lodes
occur, in such a manner that the minerals have penetrated at
separate successive epochs; since the copper glance and tetra-
hedrite are here always combined with the hornstone and quartz.
These may have penetrated by a sort of infiltration.
ORE-DISTRICTS OF KATHARINENBERG AND SAIDA. 1
80. The region between Katharinenberg and Saida con-
sists almost entirely of gneiss, the red (igneous) gneiss frequently
alternating with the gray; in some places near Griinthal the
red gneiss can be distinctly seen to have cut through the gray.
Although small masses occur of granite, serpentine, and Roih-
liegendeSj they have no connection with the lodes ; which are
only found in the red and gray gneiss.
The Katharina-Frisch-Gluck and Nicolai mines, at Katha-
rinenberg, are now worked on six lodes, which occur inured
gneiss; while this last, in the Erzgebirge, is generally destitute
of lodes. Besides the lodes now exploited, several others are
known. The Nicolai and Katharina lodes appear to be the
most important: they consist of decomposed gneiss and clay,
quartz, and hornstone, with copper pyrites, copper glance, eru-
bescite, galena, blende, silver glance, ruby silver, and tetrahed-
rite; more rarely, they contain also calc. spar, fluor spar, and
'See: Joke'ly in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1857, p. 578, and 1858,
p. 556; Freiesleben in Berg- u huttenm. Zeit. 1846, p. 145.
8
1 14 MARIENBERG.
pyrites. The gneiss immediately adjoining the lodes is at times
impregnated with ruby silver. Similar lodes occur on the Bo-
hemian slope of the Erzgebirge. At Klostergrab about 40 are
known, whose matrix consists of clay and quartz, with galena,
blende, pyrites, ruby silver, and stephanite , while those in the
red gneiss at Tellnitz contain somewhat of feldspar.
Some copper ore deposits occur in the gneiss near Saida;
according to Freiesleben's description, there can be no doubt,
that they are bedded veins. The most important of the lodes
is the Eschig, which has been traced for a length of 2800 feet,
its breadth varying between 3 and 40 inches. The matrix con-
sists principally of qu'artz, in which hematite, malachite, chryso-
colla, erubescite, copper pyrites, black copper, red copper, azur-
ite, zinc tetrahedrite, tetrahedrite, chalcophyllite, aphanesite,
and pharmacosiderite, occur in pockets ; and more rarely galena,
blende, fluor spar, heavy spar, lithomarge, and red jasper.
MAR1ENBERG. 1
81. The ore-district of Marienberg, which was discovered
in 1520, consists of a gneiss plateau between the Rothen
Bockau, the Schletten and the Zschopau rivulets. .The gneiss
dips 40 60 towards NE. and NW. and is traversed by so-
called wacke, silver, and tin, ore-veins. About 140 silver
lodes are known, varying from 2 to 30 inches in breadth ; which
cross one another in such a manner as to produce a network;
and whose gang, consisting of decomposed gneiss, clay, quartz,
fluor spar and heavy spar, contains copper pyrites, hepatic py-
rites, arsenic, ruby silver, silver glance, native silver, and here
and there pockets of galena, blende, and cobalt and nickel ores.
We shall hereafter become acquainted with a very similar for-
mation in the mica-schist of Joachimsthal on the Bohemian side
of the Erzgebirge.
The tin ore lodes, which were formerly chiefly exploited
in the Marter and Wilde mountains, consist essentially of quartz
and clay in which tin ore is disseminated, in addition to which
the tin ore was generally found as an impregnation for a dis-
1 See: Von Trebra, Erklar. d. Marienb. Bergwerkskarte, 1770; Von Char-
pentier, mineral, geogr. Chursachs. 1778, p. 1 80 ; Bergwerksfreund, vol. 2-2, p.
40; Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 18CO, p. 141 ;-M tiller, in Gangstud. III. p. 290.
EHRENFRIEDERSDORF, AND GEYER. 115
tance of 2 to 3 feet in the country rock. Quite remarkable, accord-
ing to Von Charpentier's description, must have been the lode r
on which the Einhorn mine was worked in Mount Marter,
whose 1 to 2 feet broad matrix consisted of heavy spar and
fluor spar with silver ores and bismuth, while the country rock
between this and several parallel branches was impregnated
with tin ore. It almost appears as if the tin ore had first
penetrated into the rock through extremely narrow cracks;
which had afterwards been widened, and had then been filled
by the younger argentiferous lode formation.
In addition to these silver and tin ore lodes, the same dis-
trict, as mentioned, is traversed by numerous so-called wacke
or 'lime dikes'. These appear to consist of decomposed porphy-
ries and greenstones, and are not of sufficient breadth to form
distinct out-croppings at the surface. Not improbably these stand
in a certain genetic relation to the lodes, like that of the por-
phyry dikes to the Freiberg lodes.
EHRENFRIEDERSDORF AND GEYER.
82. This ore-district lies in the narrow portion of the
Erzgebirge mica-schist district, and appears to stand in some
connection with three eruptive masses of granite, the most im-
portant of which forms the beautiful rock of Greifenstein. That
the granite, as being the more recent, has burst through the
crystalline schistose rock, is most clearly proven from the nu-
merous fragments of this which it contains. This outbursting
appears to stand in connection with the tin ore formation of
this district, and perhaps also caused the fissures filled by the
silver lodes. The most important deposits are the tin and silver
ore lodes of the Sauberg near Ehrenfriedersdorf, and the tin
stockwerk at Geyer.
In the Sauberg 1 the crystalline schists are traversed by so-
called 'Wackengange' (dikes of wacke), and also by silver and
tin lodes. The tin lodes strike from E. W. and dip at a con-
siderable angle towards S. The breadth varies from 1 10 in-
ches: they consist mainly of compact white quajtz, which is
firmly united to the country rock. The following minerals occur
1 See: Von Charpentier, mineral, geogr. v. Chursachs., p. 192; Nau-
mann, Erlauterungen z. geogn. Karte v. Sachsen, 1838, pt. II. p. 250.
116 EHRENFRIEDERSDORF,
with the quartz; lithomarge, steatite, fluor spar, tin ore, mis-
pickel ; copper pyrites, and pyrites: of more rare occurrence
are; wolfram, molybdenite, blende, topaz, herderite, gilbertite,
beryl, apatite, scorodite, oligonspar (a variety of spathic iron
rich in manganese), plinian and pharmacosiderite, the last formed
by the decomposition of mispickel. The ores, especially the
tin ore, have often penetrated the country rock, or the imper-
ceptible 'clefts in the same, as impregnations. Where the quartz
predominates in the lodes, at times only a thin layer of tin ore
and mispickel occurs in the middle, at times the middle of the
principal portion of the lode consists almost entirely of mispickel,
enclosed at the selvages by thin bands of tin ore and quartz.
These lodes often lie close to and parallel with one another as
branches, so that they, with the rock enclosed between them,
can be exploited and removed at the same time.
The silver lodes strike N. S., have different dips, attain
over a foot in breadth, and always fault the tin lodes when
they meet. Their matrix consists of. quartz, heavy spar, and
fluor spar, with silver glance, ruby silver, and copper ores. At
the junctions both these classes of lodes are said to enrich one
another, and their contents are mixed together ; so that tin, silver
and copper ores, are found together with mispickel. Von Char-
pentier has, unfortunately, not given a more special account of
this; nor does he mention, whether the dikes of wacke have had
any influence; but only mentions, that they are intersected by
the lodes.
The Geyer stockwerk 1 consists of a small granite mass,
which has broken through the mica-schist. It has an irregu-
lar cone shape, truncated above, and encreasing in thickness
with the depth ; it is surrounded by the so-called stockscheider.
which, 1 10 feet thick, consists , partly of coarse granular gra-
nite, partly of an intimate mixture of quartz and feldspar with
numerous angular fragments of gneiss. The form of this gra-
nite mass has been well laid open by mining operations, and
the breaking together of old workings. The rock varies from
middle and granular to compact, in addition to the but sparingly
1 See: Von Charpentier, mineral, geogr. v. Chursachs. p. 203; Ha wkins,
in Trans, of the roy. soc. of Cornwall, II. p. 43; Mohs, in Molls Annal. 1805.
p. 353; Bonn a refill Ann. d. mines, vol. 38, p. 372; Manes, in same, 1823,
vol. 8. p. 515; Naumann, in Erlauter. z. geogn. Karte v. Sachsen, II. p. 176,
and 248; Stelzner, im Beitrage z. geogn. Kenntii. d. Erzgebirges. I. 1865.
AND GEYER. 117
occurring mica: chlorite, tourmaline, and apatite, also occur.
The whole granite mass is traversed by numerous lodes, which
strike NE.SW. and dip 7080 towards NW.; they are
nearly parallel, intersect only at very acute angles, are besides
collected in groups, in that several lodes occur near one an-
other at but slight intervals; and are separated from the next
group by a mass, of rock. They vary from 1 to 8 inches in
breadth, and consist principally of quartz, but hold in addition
steatite, tin ore, wolfram, rnispickel, and pyrites. The tin -ore
is not confined to the lodes, but occurs also in the country rock,
which is more or less impregnated with it, especially in the
jointing fissures. It then loses its granitic nature, consists in
general only of quartz, and gradually passes into the matrix of
the lodes. 'It is impossible/ says Von Charpentier, ' to determine
the limits between the quartz of the lodes and the stanniferous
quartzose country rock, as also between this and the granite
adjoining it, so imperceptibly does the one merge into the
other. On this account flucans are extremely rare, and are
only indicated in the broader lodes; the lode generally passes
as a whole into the rock.' It might well be supposed, that the
tin ore had penetrated the granite, subsequently to its forma-
tion, through the fissures with the quartz, and in doing so
had partially replaced the feldspar. The whole appearance re-
minds one very much of the Altenberg stockwerk: this last
might be marked as a more complete result of the same
operation.
An interesting observation of Von Charpentier is: that the
tolerably horizontal fissures, which divide the granite into floors,
also intersect the lodes, and are either empty, or at times filled
with tin ore for a considerable distance. The entire Stockwerk
together with its lodes, and the gneiss and mica-schist enclos-
ing, are traversed by a vein of an entirely different kind, the
so-called 'rothem Falle'. This strikes E. W., dips 65 in North,
and consists of quartz, hornstone, and red ochre, together with
numerous horses, which are of granite within the granite, of
mica-schist within the mica-schist. This lode belongs from its
entire nature to the common iron lodes of the Erzgebirge.
To the West of Geyer there occurs a pyrites deposit about
140 feet wide, which contains iron pyrites, with somewhat of
copper pyrites and galena. It is doubtful, whether it should be
considered as belonging to the beds, or lodes. From its gen-
1 18 ANNABERG.
eral nature it is to be probably attributed to the metalliferous
greenstones, with which we shall become acquainted in the
Schwarzenberg district.
ANNABERG DISTRICT. *
83. On the Pohl mountain near Annaberg the gneiss is
frequently broken through, and partly overlaid, by basalt; near
Buchholz it is intersected by dikes of porphyritic granite. Se-
veral silver lodes are known to exist, and have some of them
been exploited for a long time. The most important have
been opened by the Markus Roling mine. They are lodes strik-
ing E. W., having a breadth of 2- 8 inches, whose gang con-
sists of quartz and fluor spar with somewhat of heavy spar, in
which are found ruby silver, silver glance, native silver, cobalt,
nickel, and bismuth ores ; as well as somewhat of copper pyri-
tes, tetrahedrite, and native copper. This is a similar formation
to that of Joachimsthal. Numerous remains of former tin placers
are found in the woods South of Annaberg.
JOACHIMSTHAL DISTRICT. 2
84. The district of Joachimsthal consists of mica-schist
with subordinate layers of hornblende schist and limestone, tra-
versed by numerous dikes of quartz-porphyry and basalt ; which
last occurs partly in a decomposed condition as wacke, and as
so-called Butzenwacke, even contains the remains of tree trunks.
Two large granite masses arise out of the same mica schist to
the West. The dikes of porphyry chiefly strike NNW.-SSE.,
those of basalt, which intersect them, WSW. ENE., some of
them even WNW. ESE.
1 See: Von Charpentier, min. geogr. v. Chursachs., p. 326; Nau-
mann, in Erlauterung d. geogn. Karte v. Sachsen, II. p. 251.
2 See: Paulus, Orographie des Joachims. Distrikt, 1820; Maier, geogn.
Untersuch. z. Bestim. d. Alters d. Silber- u Kobaltgange z. Joachims. 183);
Vogl, Gangverhaltnisse u Mineralreichthum Joachims. 1856, and in oester.
Zeits. f. Berg. u. Hiittenwesen, 1855, no. 5; Jokely, in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichs-
anstalt 1857, p. 4 f >, and 569.
JOACHLMSTHAL. 119
The lodes are tin, silver, and iron-lodes.
The tin lodes are only known in the granite region North-
east of Abertham, at Neuhammer, Hirschenstand and Sauersack.
They were actively worked formerly by the Maurizi mine.
About 20 of them have been opened, which strike in such
various directions, as to form a network. They consist of fine
granular granite, with but little quartz and mica (consequently
altogether unlike greisen) ; which contains as accessories, tour-
maline, talc, mispickel, pyrites, and tin ore. These and similar
lodes are, near Flatten, accompanied by tin placers.
The silver lodes are divided into four groups, tolerably distinct
from each other. One principal group lies directly alongside of
the town of Joachimsthal, a second near Abertham,. a third at
Diirnberg, and a fourth at Gottesgabe. Vogl considers the first
three to form one zone ; which strikes WNW. ESE., and has
been principally exploited at the three points named; and many
of the lodes possibly extend through all three without a break.
There are two lines of strike, nearly at right angles to each
other, which all these lodes follow, and are accordingly distin-
guished as morgengdnge and mitternachtgange- The morgen-
g tinge, of which about 17 are known around Joachimsthal, all
strike nearly parallel to the mica schist from WNW. to ESE.,
but have a greater dip than this towards NNE. Twenty one
mitternacht lodes are known, of which the Greschieber lode is
nearly perpendicular, while the lodes on both sides generally dip
away from it. Maier states, that they frequently do not come
to the surface, but wedge out towards it, while they encrease in
breadth with the depth. The morgen lodes, being the more re-
cent, intersect the mitternacht ones; but Maier states, that the
reverse also takes place. Both classes always intersect the mica-
schist with all its subordinate strata, the quartz porphyry, and
often even the dikes of basalt and wacke. Still the case ap-
pears to occur, where dikes of the last have intersected lodes,
or have penetrated into their fissures; from which may, be de-
duced: that the silver lodes were almost contemporaneous with
the formation of the basalt, in that their fissures in part follow
the basalt dikes, in part are intersected by the basalt. At all
events they also stand in a certain genetic connection with the
porphyry, which here is evidently of much greater age than the
basalt. This subject is still somewhat obscure. The silver lodes
have not yet been found in the granite.
120 SCHWARZENBERG ORE-DISTRICT.
The matrix of all these lodes consists principally of clay
and fragments of schist, which have evidently been formed by
the friction of the walls on each other. The remaining gang
stones are most generally quartz and calc. spar, the last especi-
ally in the neighborhood of intersected limestone : more rare are
brown spar, dialogite, and fluor spar. The ores are more fre-
quent and varied in the mitternacht lodes, than the morgen ones.
Vogl enumerates 42 minerals, mostly metallic ones, as occurring
in the Geister lode, which belongs to the first class. I reca-
pitulate only the most important ones; viz. ruby silver, silver
glance, native silver, stephanite, acanthite, galena, blende, tetra-
hedrite, copper pyrites, pyrites, marcasite, arsenic, bismuth, sinal-
tine, copper nickel, chloanthite, bismuthine, and ores of uranium.
The distribution of the ores in the lodes is by no means
an equal one. Maier states, that they were mostly collected in
the upper, now exhausted, workings; and he attempts to explain
this by the theory of sublimation. Ruby silver and arsenic were
found particularly in the neighborhood of the limestone, very sel-
dom near the porphyry; where, on the other hand, other silver
ores were collected, and also penetrated, as impregnations, in-
to the cracks of the porphyry. Galena, blende, and pyrites,
have repeatedly penetrated the wacke dikes. The cobalt ores
are more frequent in the mitternacht, than the morgen lodes,
and more commonly near Abertham, than at Joachimsthal. At
greater depths the ores are for the most part only found at the
junctions. Vogl considers the lodes to have been formed by
infiltration. He found altogether 83 different mineral species in
this district, of which the greater portion were found in the
silver lodes.
ORE-DISTRICT OF SCHWARZENBERG. 1
85. The Schwarzenberg district consists chiefly of mica;
under and out of which stand out several masses of granite, gene-
rally surrounded by gneiss; the most important of which, the Rac-
kelmann, occurs in the immediate neighborhood of the town. The
'See: Cotta, in Erlaut. z. geogn. Karte v. Sachsen, II. p. 219; Von
BeusVin Gangstudien, vol. 3, p. 224; M tiller, in same, vol. 3, p. 174, and
286; Freiesleben, in his geological works; Sternberger, in oester. Zeits.
f. Berg- und Huttenw. 1857, p. 122.
CHIEF GROUPS. 121
crystalline schists all have a gentle slope away from this gra-
nite dome, so that their lines of strike surround it concentrically.
The ore-deposits of this district occur as:
1. bedded veins, combined with greenstone, and containing
many different ores;
2. hematite lodes.
The bedded veins surround the granite of the Rackehnann
also concentrically, as they follow the schistose structure of the
mica schist, not as a continuous circle, but as small fragments
of rings. These often attain a great breadth in the central
portion of their extent ; and from this cause approach, in hori-
zontal section, an irregular lenticular form. They are always
so firmly combined with the greenstones, that they are only with
difficulty separated from these, and are frequently accompanied
by granular limestone, or dolomite. Their composition is very
manifold ; and they can also be classified in groups according
to their distribution. Although, in a mining point of view, of
but little importance, they seem to me geologically very inter-
esting. They are certainly characteristic of a particular type
of ore- deposits; on which account I will describe them more
fully than their actual usefulness would warrant. The variety
of their mineral "composition is striking, in that no determined
arrangement can be recognised.
a* The Breitenbrunn Group. The champion deposit
of this group, which is exploited by the Fortuna and St.
Christoph mines, falls into two divisions. The upper, the so-
called 'Kamm', consists of a mixture of quartz, prase, hornblende,
actinolith, and chlorite; the lower, the so-called 'Erzflotz!, of
magnetic iron, pyrrhotine, pyrites, copper pyrites, mispickel,
black and yellow blende, somewhat of tin ore, garnet, idocrase,
actinolith, chlorite, hardened clay, and hornblende; forming an
irregular granular mixture together with the more seldom occurring
quartz, calc. spar, brown spar, fluor spar, apatite, diopside, sahlite,
pistacite, tourmaline, mica, talc, and picrolith ; under which follows
the so-called 'Sohlgestein', consisting of an intimate mixture of
quartz and feldspar with somewhat of pyrites. Its greatest
known breadth is 7 feet, the strike and dip parallel to that of
the mica-schist, the last being about 25 towards Southwest.
More recently the chief object of exploitation has been blende.
b. The Klobenstein Group. A metalliferous greenstone,
in the Sechs-Bruder mine, contained: hornblende, actinolith,
122 SCHWARZENBERG GROUPS.
pistacite, quartz ; garnet, chlorite, serpentine, tremolith, apatite,
steatite, copper pyrites, and magnetic iron. The Wohnhiit ten-
stein group is similarly composed.
c. Raschau Group. "The Staramasser mines, at Graul and
Katharina, exploit pyrites deposits 50 to 120 feet broad, which
belong to a greenstone mass. Where but little pyrites occurs,
the greenstone is always compact and firm; in those workings,
on the contrary, where pyrites and mispickel predominate, the
greenstone is decomposed, assumes the nature of wacke, and is
no longer recognisable. Besides the pyrites, the following min-
erals also occur: hornblende, sahlite, kaolin, lithoinarge, calc.
spar, pyrrhotine; and in fissures, as products of decomposition,
copperas, cyanosite, native copper, pharmacosiderite, and
scorodite.
d. Unverhofft-Gliick Group. Seven mines have ex-
ploited deposits in the neighborhood of the Anton smelting
works. The rock consists of greenstone with actinolith, quartz,
erlan, dialogite, brown spar, blende, copper pyrites, mispickel,
pyrites, and argentiferous galena; to a subordinate degree occur
picrolith, pistacite, helvin, allochroite, serpentine, and fluor spar;
while native silver, pyromorphite, and cerusite, are found in the
geodes. This so-called ' Erzflotz' is accompanied by a parallel
layer, consisting of granular limestone and dolomite, (which occur
to the West as foot-wall, to the East as hanging- wall,) and con-
tains at times fragments of the ore-deposit, and must conse-
quently have intersected it. The Schiitzenhaus group is
exactly like this; and the Gross-Pohla, Fiirstenberg, Wil-
de nau, and Bermsgrun groups are very similar.
e. Teufels stein garnet rock. A formation allied to the
preceding occurrences crops out on the Teufelssteiri near Sach-
senfeld; in which allochroite predominates, accompanied by
pistacite, hornblende, tremolith, fluor spar, quartz, magnetic iron,
pyrites, and erlan.
All these deposits , appear to belong together, and to be the
common result of some geological event. That the greenstones,
with which the ores are so intimately combined, have been forced,
as igneous rocks, through nearly parallel fissures in the direc-
tion of .cleavage widening the fissures in their passage can
hardly be doubted. Besides their analogy to the other green-
stones of the Erzgebirge, the great breadth of these veins, with
their dip of but 20 30, also confirms this view. How could
JOHANNGEORGENSTADT, AND EIBENSTOCK. 123
such broad, flat fissures have remained open, and been filled,
in any other manner? Still, it was not necessary, that the
mineral matter, forming the ores and many of the other mine-
rals, should have been originally present in the greenstones.
The fact, that the greenstones are only locally melalliferous,
and rich in minerals, favors the view ; that the contents of the
metalliferous deposits have in some manner subsequently pene-
trated the greenstones, either by infiltration, or sublimation.
Baron V. Beust has attempted to explain the ore distribution in
these greenstones by the formation of fissures in determined
belts, through which the solutions might have come in contact
with the greenstones ; and that the influence of the different
kinds of rocks must have been of such an energetic nature, as
to cause the deposits from the solutions only to take place
within, and partly at the expense of, the greenstones. The so
frequent occurrence of these rocks together with granular lime-
stones and dolomites, is almost more difficult to explain, than
the local contents in ores; the limestones, it is true, lie over,
or beneath them; in some cases, however, show by their inte"r-
secting and containing fragments, that they have subsequently
penetrated. An intersection appears to take place at Unver-
hofft Gliick, fragments of the greenstone are found here in the
limestone. Have the parallel limestone beds been subsequently
softened under great pressure, and moved from their original
position?
DISTRICT OF JOHANNGEORGENSTADT AND
EIBENSTOCK. A
86. This district, situated near the highest portion of
the Erzgebirge, consists mostly of granite and mica schist. The
schist passing at times into clay slate, forms here a portion of
the great district of this .rock in the Erzgebirge ; it also forms
tourmaline schist, and a few subordinate beds in granite. It
passes but exceptionally into gneiss. There is found, in this
district, a large number of tin and iron lodes, chiefly in the
granite ; while a few lodes, containing ores of silver and cobalt,
traverse the mica schist of the Fasten Mountain.
1 See: Von Charpentier, min. geog. v. Churs., p. 249; Oppe, in Gang-
studien, vol. II. p. 132, with map; Manes, in Annal. d. mines, 1823, vol 8.
124 TIN LODES.
The tin lodes strike either E. W. or N. -S. ; but they
at times deviate from this in the eastern portion of the district.
Their dip is in every way irregular. The content of the lode
resembles granite ; it consists principally of quartz, kaolin, litho-
marge, mica, talc, chlorite, and tourmaline, with somewhat of
tin ore. The last occurs in pockets, or ribbons. The distribu-
tion of these minerals in the lodes is more irregular, than in
common granite; so that they cannot, without reservation, be
termed stanniferous granite veins. The following minerals are
found at times in the lodes; viz. apatite, fluor spar, nacrite,
precious serpentine, garnet, micaceous iron, wolfram, molyb-
denite, mispickel, pyrites, copper pyrites, copper glance, malachite,
red copper, and very rarely galena, and native gold. Near iron
ore lodes they also contain; hornstone, hematite, specular iron,
and uranite; near metalliferous greenstones (not far from
Schwarzenberg), actinolith and silver, cobalt and bismuth ores.
These subordinate minerals appear to be mostly of secon-
dary formation; and either penetrated into the granitic rock
subsequently, or were formed by the occurrence of peculiar
circumstances. The general character of the lodes is so like
that of granite; that they might be considered to have been
injected in an igneous-fluid state; with which, however, do not
agree their slight breadth, and at times banded, even though
not exactly symmetrical, texture, as well as the irregular dis-
tribution of the ores in them. Since feldspar and mica may
also be formed in the wet way, a decision can only be arrived
at with great difficulty. In any case these lodes form a common
district with those previously mentioned at Abertham near
Joachimsthal. The distribution of the tin ore in the lodes appears,
according to Oppe, to have been much governed by the nature
and influence of the wall-rock. According to Oppe the lodes
are richest in
tourmaline schist; after which, . following the order in which
they have had the most favorable influence,
foliated mica-schist containing tourmaline,
granite,
foliated mica-schist, without tourmaline,
common mica-schist; and lastly, as most unfavorable.
clay-slate.
It is stated, that .the order should be nearly reversed as
respects the iron lodes.
These tin lodes are the oldest lodes of the region, but are
IRON LODES. 125
among themselves not all of the same age. Where in them
the granitic gang comes in contact with other gang stones, the
first always appear as the eldest.
In addition to the above is the tourmaline schist of the
Auersberg, which forms an insulated mass in the granite, partly
containing tin itself, partly traversed by very slender tin veins;
and this stannous rock appears to have been the source, whence
were formed the formerly worked tin placers around Eibenstock.
The lodes of iron-ore occur sometimes singly, sometimes
united in groups. They appear most thickly, united in a group
which intersects the granite mass almost N. S., passing east-
wardly of the town of Eibenstock. A great number of lodes
intersect one another at very acute angles, and nearly at one
point, near Rehhiibel. They often occur here, as generally in
the Erzgebirge, as contact-lodes, between granite and mica-schist.
They are much rarer in the mica-schist itself, than in the
granite; but, as bedded lodes, follow the mica-schist at times
in its line of strike. The majority of these lodes have a sudden
dip towards West. Their gangs must be regarded, as having
been mostly formed from the granite; but they have no such
resemblance to this, as those of the tin lodes; on the contrary
they appear more as masses, which have been formed by a
lixiviation of the adjoining rock, partly with, partly without a
crystalline texture. They consist of hornstone, quartz, and
ferruginous clay with hematite, more rarely combined with
specular iron. The hornstone passes into ferruginous quartz,
and jasper; the quartz, into amethyst, and chalcedony, or opal;
the clay, into kaolin, or lithomarge; the hematite, into black
iron stone (a variety of limonite rich in manganese), limonite,
and xanthosiderite. As subordinate minerals, occur polianite,
psilomelane, cobalt ores, bismuthine, bismuth ochre, bismuth,
copper pyrites, copper glance, erubescite, malachite, and red copper.
A local, and certainly very remarkable, occurrence was
the discovery, in 1834, of seams of anthracite, 1 / 2 to 5 inches
thick, extending about 40 feet in a hematite lode of the Lorenz
mine at Rehhiibel. The iron lode consisted, at this point, prin-
cipally of schist and granite fragments with quartz, hornstone,
and clay. The anthracite appears to have been derived from
the adjoining mica-schist, the latter at this point containing thin
seams of the coal, which may have penetrated entirely in a
mechanical way, like the fragments of rock in the lode.
126 SCHNEEBERG DISTRICT.
The texture of these iron lodes is, as a rule, an irregular
granular one; and they but seldom show traces of a combed
arrangement. The wall-rock is often strongly impregnated over
a great breadth ; the lodes are at time& as much as 100 feet broad.
Lodes of silver and cobalt ores at the Fastenberg. This
mountain consists, for the most part, of mica-schist ; which is
traversed by numerous granite dikes, striking S. N. or
SE.-r-NW. : to the North it is joined by a mass of granite. A
broad lode of iron Ore cuts through the mica-schist and granite.
A large number of silver lodes occur in the mica-schist, tra-
versing this, and the granite dikes, and faulting these last.
They also penetrate the granite mass, appear to contain fewer
ores in this, are cut off by the iron ore lode, but are again
found beyond this. The gang of these lodes is quartz, and
hornstone, with somewhat of fluor spar, calc. spar, clay, and par-
ticles of the wall-rock, in which occur many ores containing
silver, lead, copper, cobalt, nickel, bismuth, arsenic, iron, and,
as it appears, tin. Von Charpentier mentions especially native
silver, ruby silver, silver glance, kerargyrite, tetrahedrite, galena,
cerusite, mimetene, native copper, copper glance, blende, pitch-
blende, mispickel, arsenic, and copper nickel.
SCHNEEBERG DISTRICT. *
87. The district of Schneeberg consists chiefly of mica-
schist, at times passing into clay-slate, and burst through by
large granite masses, as well as smaller ones of greenstone.
The ore-deposits are lodes, which mostly occur in the mica-
schist and clay-slate, but at times also extend into the granite.
The most of them occur in the immediate neighborhood of
Schneeberg and Neustadtel. Miiller has classified them, according
to their ores and relative age, into:
1. copper lodes,
2. quartz veins,
8. pyritous lead lodes.
4. heavy spar lodes,
5. cobalt lodes,
6. iron lodes, and
7. so-called Schwebende.
1 See: Mil Her, in Gangstudien, III. p. 1; Von Charpentier, min. geog.
von Chursach.; Freiesleben, in his geological works of 1843, 1844, 1845, and
1846; Martini, in Karsten's Archiv, 1829, XIX. p. 531; Berggeist, 1860,
p. 517, 525, and'527.
CHIEF LODES. 127
Tin lodes are also found in a more southerly direction,
with which we became acquainted in the preceding ; while,
to the North, traces of quicksilver lodes are found in clay-slate
near Hartenstein; which are, however, of no importance.
The total of the Schneeberg lodes forms an apparently
irregular network; the like lodes generally, however, have the
same strike ; from which it follows, that fissures have been burst
open in various directions and filled at different periods.
The copper lodes strike NE. SW. and mostly have a steep
dip toward SW. They are formed of quartz with copper pyrites,
erubescite, copper glance, tetrahedrite, and red copper ; at times
also galena, black blende, pyrites, and mispickel. The chief
representatives of this formation are the Konig-David lode, and
those on which the St. Michaelis, St. Christoph and Griin-Schild
mines are exploited. The first-mentioned traverses granite and
mica-schist, and contains in addition to the above mentioned ores,
chrysocolla, malachite, azurite, native copper, allophane, tyrolite,
linarite, cerusite, pyromorphite, anglesite, native silver, as well
as jasper, heavy spar, and brown spar. The greater part of
these minerals have evidently been formed by the decomposition
of the original sulphurets. The texture is chiefly irregular
granular, although at times the sulphurets form leaders in the
quartz, from which it follows, that they are in general of more
recent formation than this.
The quartz veins have a similar strike to the copper lodes,
with a northwesterly dip of 45 to 80. They cross the cobalt
lodes nearly at right angles, and occur for the greater part in
mica-schist and clay-slate, but also penetrate the granite. Their -
matrix in the main is only quartz and clay; but still they now
and then contain somewhat of galena, copper pyrites, pyrites,
mispickel, black blende, chrysocolla, chlorite, tourmaline, and
fluor spar. At the junctions with the cobalt lodes, which inter-
sect them, they are also impregnated with cobalt ores.
The pyritous lead lodes strike NW. SE. and dip toward
SW. They occur in the clay-slate and mica-schist, and contain
principally quartz, chlorite, mispickel, blende, pyrites, copper
pyrites, galena, and decomposed wall-rock. They more rarely
contain tetrahedrite, erubescite, molybdenite, brown spar, calc.
spar, and some minerals formed by decomposition; such as
pyromorphite, cerusite; malachite, and nacrite. They are of no
128 COBALT LODES.
mining importance; since up to the the present time they have
not been found prolific in ores.
These three types of lodes do not probably differ much as
regards their age, and in this respect closely follow the more
southerly tin lodes. The following classes are much more recent.
The heavy spar lodes of this district, which were formerly
noted for their richness in silver, but have been now mostly
exhausted or abandoned, frequently occur as companions of
other lodes. When they occur alone, they strike N. S. and
are perpendicular. They generally occur in the mica-schist and
clay-slate, near where granite or greenstone have burst through
the same. Their gang is principally heavy spar; with which
are associated fluor spar, brown spar, calc. spar, and quartz;
and which contain at times rich silver ores, lead ores, cobalt,
nickel, bismuth, manganese, and iron ores.
The cobalt lodes are now the most important objects of
the Schneeberg mining. More than 150 of them are known,
mostly found in, the mica-schist and clay-slate; still in their
lower workings they have been followed into the granite. They
are mostly collected around Neustadtel; and strike NW. SE ,
although many vary greatly from this, and dip toward NW.
and SE. The chief matrix, filling these complexly composed
lodes, is hornstone, with somewhat of chalcedony and amethyst;
at times traces of the former presence of heavy spar is remarked.
The hornstone forms the oldest, and generally also the broadest
layer. From this oldest layer, to the middle of the lode, three
or four layers may be distinguished, which follow, but are not
sharply separated from one another, and which have a very
complex composition. The first of these, or the second layer,
contains: quartz, brown spar, safflorite, smaltine, copper nickel,
chloanthite, bismuth, bismuth ochre, bournonite, tetrahedrite,'
hematite, specular iron, spathic iron, limonite, and psilomelane.
The third contains: fluor spar, dolomite, calc. spar, arsenic,
pyrites, lonchidite, pitchblende, copper pyrites, galena, red blende,
and polianite. The fourth: realgar, earthy cobalt, cobalt bloom,
roselite, millerite, bismuthine, bismuthite, bismuth ochre, eulytine,
hypochlorite, marcasite, pyrrhotine, polybasite, stephanite, proust-
ite, pyrargyrite, sternbergite, silver glance, kerargyrite, native
silver, ganomatite, gummite, uranite, liebigite, uranium ochre,
kupferpecherz, pharmacosiderite, malachite, chrysocolla, native
copper, pyromorphite, wulfenite, cerusite, pyrolusite, and psilo-
SCHNEEBERG IRON-LODES. 129
melane. Of still more recent origin from decomposition are calc.
sinter, gypsum, cobalt -beschlag, arsenious acid, annabergite, iron
sinter, kottigite, and manganese ochre. These numerous minerals
by no means form constant layers in the lodes; some of them
occur but very seldom, and much scattered ; but the order of
succession in which they were formed, which appears to have
been partly by transformation, remains in general the one here
mentioned.
About 60 iron-lodes are known in the neighborhood of
Schneeberg; they mostly occur, at the outer limits of the granite,
as contact-lodes, and in the granite; more rarely within the
mica-schist. Their general direction of strike is NW. SE., but
at times varies greatly from this. One lode in particular, the
so-called Rothe Kamm, forms a contact-lode along the nearly
straight Northeast boundary of the Oberschlema granite-mass.
The same can, toward the Northwest, be followed for quite a
long way in the mica-schist, and finds, to the Southeast, an
almost straight continuation at the limit of the Auerhaminer granite-
mass. Nearly in the prolongation of its direction of strike is found
the Rothberg lode, not far from Schwarzenberg ; while between
these two points, where the rock consists almost entirely of mica-
schist, it appears seldom worth mining. This occurrence on the
the limits of, and in the granite, is repeated near Schwarzen-
berg and Eibenstock. The predominating minerals in these
lodes are: red and brown hornstone, jasper, ferruginous quartz,
rock crystal, amethyst, kaolin, clay, hematite, limonite, and
manganese ores. Subordinate to the preceding are chalcedony,
opal, heavy spar, brown spar, spathic iron, calc. spar, specular
iron, stilpnosiderite, chalcolith, uranite, as well as cobalt, bis-
muth, and copper ores.
All these Schneeberg lodes must, from their entire charac-
ter, be considered as lodes formed by infiltration, but in which,
after their formation, an extraordinary number of transmutations
must have taken place. Especially does this seem to have been the
case with the cobalt lodes. The granite appears to have played
the most important part, as causal igneous rock ; still all the lodes
are of much more recent origin than this.
130 THE FICHTELGEBIRGE
BLEISTADT. l
88. This district is mostly formed of mica-schist, locally
passing into gneiss, and traversed by a dike of porphyry, whose
course is nearly parallel to the axis of the Erzgebirge. Near
Bleistadt are found a few lodes, which strike N. S. or
WSW. ENE. To the first class belong 6 lodes, which in places
cross one another at very acute angles. The most important of
them is the Karl-Leopold, properly composed of two lodes, which
frequently unite and again separate Since, however, the horse
between the two, consisting of clay, fragments of schist, and
quartz, is also metalliferous, it is worked like a Stockwerk.
The lodes proper are 1 2 feet broad, the horse between them
at times 7 to 8 fathoms. In the other N. S. lodes the gang
is also chiefly clay and quartz, in which occur galena, blende,
and pyrites. Pyromorphite and cerusite have been formed by
the decomposition of galena. The two lodes of the second class,
which are the best known, have the same composition. The
ores occur in them in bands or nests, in which blende forms the
outer layer of the galena nests. In the upper workings, besides
pyromorphite, and cerusite, much limonite has been found. No
connection has been discovered between the se lodes and the dikes.
of porphyry.
II. THE FICHTELGEBIRGE.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
89. 1 include under the Fichtelgebirge the entire moun-
tain-district, forming an elevated plateau, included between the
Erzgebirge, the Bohemian Forest, and the Thuringian Forest.
Consequently, I include (in addition to the granitic mass of the
Fichtelgebirge, in its more narrow sense), the Voigtland and the
Franconian Forest. While the broad elevated plateau is generally
1500 to 2000 feet above the sea, the granite peaks rise to a
height of 3000 feet.
1 See: Jokely. in Jahrb. der geol. Reichsanst. 1857, p. 46; Sternberger,-
in oster. Zeitschr. f Berg- u. Hiittenw. 1857, p. 71.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 131
But few ore-deposits are known to exist in the granite
district; while more have been found in the rocks, generally
slaty, surrounding the granite: they are of far less importance
than those of the Erzgebirge.
Devonian and Silurian rocks, as well as azoic clay-slate,
predominate in the broad plateau. The last passes into mica-
schist, and this into gneiss, which last occupies but a small
extent. The gneiss is found, partly on the walls of the granite,
partly, combined with mica and hornblende schist, as an isolated
mass of elliptical form, in the middle of the silurian formation
near Miinchberg, whose strata, remarkably enough, it overlies.
The mica-schist contains subordinate layers of granular lime-stone,
dolomite and quartzite. Eclogite and serpentine frequently traverse
the Miinchberg gneiss. Numerous greenstone masses (diorite and
diabase) intersect the Silurian, Devonian, and clay-slates; which
greenstones are mostly divided into two zones, nearly parallel
to the strike of the strata, from NE. to SW. Besides these two
zones, numerous masses of greenstones occur scattered through
the strata. Limestones and iron ores are principally found
within the zones.
True porphyries are extremely rare within this large moun-
tain-district, which may be the cause, that the characteristic lode-
formations of the Erzgebirge are wanting.
Isolated masses of basalt occur in various places but appear
to stand in no relation to the ore-deposits.
The lodes are found principally in the northern portion of
the plateau, in the region occupied by the Silurian, Devonian, and
azoic slates, and in the crystalline schists near Goldkronach.
The iron bed, in the mica-schist of Arzberg, is the most
important of the ore beds ; and traces of tin ore are found in
granite near Weissenstadt, which are worth noticing, in that it
occurs in a southwesterly prolongation of the Erzgebirge tin-ore
zone.
Most of the ore-deposits of this district have been but
slightly examined and described 5 since they are not of very great
importance, I will describe them concisely.
The lodes mostly contain iron, copper, nickel, cobalt, anti-
mony, and gold ores. Iron, copper, nickel, and cobalt ores
frequently occur in the same lodes; but the iron generally pre-
dominates. Lodes of this nature are the most extensive; they
9*
132 LODES IN
are not confined to one locality, but occur scattered over nearly
the whole region occupied by the slates, and are only to a slight
extent combined with the. greenstone intersections of these.
LODES IN THE VOIGTLAND SLATES. l
90. In the graywacke rocks between Christgrtin, and
Stenn near Zwickau, occurs a succession of greenstones, which
are accompanied by iron ore deposits of a peculiar kind.
As these deposits principally occur at the limits of the
greenstones, they may be comprised under the general name of
contact-deposits; though at times they are found altogether within
the greenstones, or at some distance from them in the slates.
Though clearly of a veinlike character, these deposits are
distinguished from the iron lodes of the upper Erzgebirge and
western Voigtland (occurring as true fissure lodes), not only by
the irregularity of their extent, as well as of their strike and
dip ; but also by the frequent absence of salbands. The frequent
transition of their matrix; from limonite, and hematite; either
pure, or somewhat deteriorated by intermixture with chlorite,
quartz, and calc. spar; through more or less ferruginous green-
stone, or slate; into the totally barren country rock; shows a
greater resemblance to certain classes of beds. , They appear at
times, extending for a considerable distance in length and breadth,
forming veinlike masses several fathoms broad, at times following
the greenstone limits and slates in the most fantastic curves; at
times occurring as broad, bedlike zones, of extremely ferruginous
azoic or silurian slate, between non-metalliferous layers of this
rock ; again, as pockets or nests in the midst of decomposed
greenstone, which not seldom are of considerable breadth and
extent. Near the surface their ore is chiefly massive or earthy
limonite with somewhat of goethite of at greater depths these are
replaced by hematite in various degrees of purity.
With the occurrence of the greenstone zone, extending from
the Elster valley near Plauen to the neighborhood of Hof, are
found a large number of iron lodes of another formation. They
1 See: M tiller, die Eisenerzlagerstatten des ob. Erzgebirges in Voigtland,
1856; Spengler, Zeitsch. d. deutsch. geog. Gesellsch. 1851, vol. III. p. 384;
Berggeist, i860, pp. 527, and 708; Humboldt, in bergm. Journal, 1792,
vol. II. p. 74; Goldfuss and Bischof, Beschreibung d. Fichtelgebirges.
1817, vol. II. p. 213.
VOIGTLAND SLATES.
belong to the same system of fissures, as the iron lodes of the
upper Erzgebirge, with which they stand in very close geological
relation; and form a belt, whose individual members, commonly
parallel, have a general strike from SE. to NW. They are
characterised by their composition; which consists chiefly of
limonite and spathic iron, together with quartz, hornstone, and
clay; while heavy spar, goethite, and small quantities of copper
sulphurets, or salts, are more rare occurrences. Breithaupt has
discovered three new minerals in these lodes; homiehlin, roettisite,
and conarite. The separate members of this belt, whose breadths
vary from 2 to 14 feet, are found throughout the whole extent
of the greenstones mentioned, which they generally intersect at
right angles to their axis. It is true, that several of them
extend beyond the greenstones into the slates; but their ores
diminish so rapidly in these, that they are mostly unprofitable
to work.
Another very important iron locality occurs above Plauen,
and is also in the zone of the Voigtland greenstones: it extends
from the river Eister Southwest nearly to Hof. The most im-
portant of the lodes is the Grune-Tanneiy which can be traced
from Bosenbrunn almost to Pirk for a distance of 8400 feet, and
in whose different branches, five mines are or have been
exploited, but only to a slight distance beneath the surface. The
lode, which has at times a breadth of upwards of 14 feet, con-
sists chiefly of limonite, somewhat of spathic iron, and goethite,
with quartz, and small quantities of copper ores; it is stated
to have been at no point exploited to a greater depth than 25
fathoms. Not far from this occurs the Dreifaltigkeit lode, which
has a known length of 1050 fathoms, and has been worked to
a slight depth for copper, as well as iron ores.
The iron ore deposit of Oberbohmsdorf near Schleiz also
belongs to this class.
It is, according to Spengler, a hematite lode in aphanitic
greenstone, having a texture resembling conglomerate.
This lode strikes parallel to the greenstones from NE. to
SW., dips towards SE. and attains a breadth of 20 feet. Both
its breadth and relative percentage of iron appear to diminish
with the depth. The following wood-cut gives an idea of
the stratification. The percentage of iron in the red clay iron-
stone decreases with the depth; and it passes into a still fer-
ruginous mass, containing pyrites, which resembles greenstone.
134 IRON-DEPOSITS IN SE. SCHIST- REGION.
d e
a. Quartzose mica-schist.
b. Aphanite and slaty greenstone.
c. Iron-stone deposit.
d. Clay-slate.
e. Compact mica-schist.
The analogous lodes in the neighborhood of Steben, Naila,
and Selbitz, were concisely described by Humboldt in 1 792. The
great Silurian and Devonian slate-district of the Fichtelgebirge
is here bounded to the North by azoic clay-slate; while both
are frequently burst through by diorite, and diabase. The lodes
frequently intersect one another at acute angles; attain a breadth
of 10 to 20 feet, and consist principally of spathic iron, and
limonite, with quartz. As subordinate minerals ; occur: chal-
cedony ; lydian stone ; fluor spar, actinolith, hematite, copper
pyrites, and malachite. According to Goldfuss and Bischof, they
also contain azurite and iron pyrites; while the Ehrlich lode at
Steben contains ores only in the clay-slate cleaving into thick
slabs, while in that, which cleaves into thin plates, it is very
narrow and contains no ores.
IRON-DEPOSITS IN THE SOUTH-EASTERN
SCHIST-REGION. '
91. The mica- schist, between Wunsiedel and Eger, con-
tains, parallel to its strike, from SW. NE. two strata of granular
limestone, of which the immediate hanging-wall frequently con-
sists of limonite deposits. These are best opened up by mines
near Arzberg and Biebersbach.
The limonite, which is frequently covered by a crust of
clay, contains concretions of jaspery brown ferruginous quartz,
and considerable hausmannite.
These limonite deposits have probably been formed by the
alteration of spathic iron beds; since, in the deeper workings of
the mines, are still found traces of spathic texture. Under dif-
1 See: Goldfuss and Bischof, Beschr. d. Fichtelgeb. II. pp. 90, and
127; Flurl, die Gebirge Baierus u. d Oberpfalz, pp. 424, and 683.
ORE-DEPOSITS AT GOLDKRONACH. 135
ferent circumstances the spathic iron might have been altered
into magnetite deposits, combined with pyroxene or amphibole,
like the magnetite deposits in the greenstones of the Erzgebirge,
which so frequently occur in immediate contact with granular
limestone.
GOLD AND ANTIMONY OKE-DEPOSITS AT
GOLDKRONACH. 1
92. Goldkronach lies at the extreme southwesterly end
of the Fichtelgebirge, where hornblendic gneiss joins slates tra-
versed by greenstones, which Hahn considers as being azoic.
These only occupy a small extent, surrounded on three sides
by gneiss. This district contains gold lodes, which Hahn de-
scribes nearly as follows.
The auriferous lodes, occurring in the older crystalline clay^
slate (azoic clay-state) near Brandholz, are frequently recognised
only as thin fissures. These are distinguished by thin bands of
clay of dark brown, light brown, or almost white color, which
divide the hanging- and foot-walls like a mathematical plane.
Both the hanging- and foot-walls of these fissures have a quartz-
ose character for a distance of several inches, and are impreg-
nated by auriferous iron pyrites and mispickel, being but sel-
dom entirely bftrren. He never found native gold in such
places, and but seldom stibnite.
These appearances, especially the thin leaflike nature of
the lodes, are observed with satisfaction, since they are fre-
quently the forerunners of an approaching advantageous change
in the breadth and contents. To these single leaves (if I may
be permitted to use the term) is suddenly joined a second leaf,
as if springing out of the rock. The rock becomes softer, and
both the leaves separate from each other, enclosing between
themselves, as selvages, the lode proper, which in this manner
frequently attains a breadth of a foot or more.
The lode gradually contracts in the same manner as it ex-
panded. The selvages again approach each other, and the lode
returns to its empoverished condition. The lode acts in this
l See: Hahn, in Berg- und huttenm. Zeitung, 1855, p. 97; Goldfuss and
Bischof, Beschr. des Fi'chtelgeb. I. p. 184. The last describe the country-
rock as mica-schist.
136 THURINGIAN FOREST. GEOLOGICAL
manner, not merely in one, but in all directions, in which it is
exploited. The places, where the ores occur, have a lenticular
form, whose greatest diameter.-is 30 to 60 feet or more. The gang
of these lodes is generally a hard, fine, fibrous white quartz, fre-
quently traversed by threads of the same having a blue color ;
it is richly impregnated with auriferous mispickel, and iron py-
rites; and generally contains grains, or lamina, of gold. Stib-
nite also occurs, as a rule, with the encreasing breadth of the
lode; partly in larger masses with a crystalline texture, partly
in fine geodes as completely formed glancing needles, frequently
having a radiated structure. Kermesite and Jamesonite (?) occur
as rarities; the former having a spendid silk glance. Hahn
found, as still greater rarities, valentinite and native antimony,
the last of which he supposes to have been formed from the
stibnite by the action of vapors.
III. THE THURINGIAN FOREST.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
93. The Thuringian Forest is geologically divided into
two very unequal parts. The southeastern portion which joins
the elevated plateau of the Fichtelgebirge, without any natural
boundary occurring between them, forms like this a broad pla-
teau, consisting principally of Silurian rocks; which are to the
North bounded by Zechstein, to the Southwest by the carboni-
ferous formation, rothliegendes, and buntsandstein. In this broad
Silurian district, whose chief direction of strike is NE. to SW.,
but few igneous rocks occur; and these are small masses, and
dikes, of granite, porphyry, and greenstone. Perhaps in conse-
quence of this, it but seldom contains ores.
The northwestern portion forms a small mountain-ridge
with hilly surface striking from SW. to NE. Its geological
formation differs from the other portion, and is much more
varied. Granite, syenite, gneiss, and mica-schist, appear to be
the oldest rocks; and are frequently traversed by various por-
phyries and greenstones. The porphyries, in particular, which
may be divided into quartzose and quartzless (mostly mica por-
FORMATION. EASTERN ORE-DEPOSITS. 137
phyries), play an important, and frequently predominant part.
Combined with these, partly overlying, partly traversed by them,
are the carboniferous formation and rothliegendes, which form
very important strata among the mountains. Silurian rocks are
entirely wanting: the zeclistein formation forms a small border,,
frequently much tilted, on the outer edge of the mountains. ^
ORE-DEPOSITS IN THE EASTERN
SILURIAN FORMATION OF THE THURINGIAN FOREST. 1
94. 1. Iron ores. In the neighborhood of Spinach, not
far from Sonnenberg, .considerable quantities of limonite and
hematite are obtained in the silurian rocks, whose bedding cor-
responds to that described in 90.
At Schmiedeield, near Graienthal, a belt of iron ores occurs
in the Silurian district; which is parallel to the strike of the
slates, and is about 100 feet broad. The veins have a greater
dip than the Silurian strata, being about 85 in the NW. They
consist, at the surface, of limonite with lumps of oolithic, black r
manganiferous ironstone. Hematite has been found, at greater
depths, in several of the lodes; so that the limonite appears to
be a product of alteration from this; or perhaps more correctly,
both are to be regarded as being products from the alteration of
spathic iron; in which case these lodes would correspond to
those of the Silurian district in the Fichtelgebirge. The iron-
stone of Unter-Wirrbach near Blankenburg appears to be ana-
logous to these, but existing in larger quantities.
2. Gold, silver, and copper ores. Near Steinhaida, in
the same region, a small remnant of zechstein and buntsand-
stein is found on the top of the Silurian plateau. Gold wa&
formerly obtained from quartz veins in the Silurian rocks; which
is also the probable origin of the gold occasionally found in
the bed of the Schwarze.
At Weitisberga, not far from Lehesten, near the place,
where a mass of granite has burst through, are several lodes.
These appear to be more in small masses of greenstone occur-
ring in the slates, than in the slates themselves; and contain
'See: Voigt's Bergbaukunst, 1789, vol I. p. 182; the same, Magazin d.
Naturkunde, 1806, p. 472; Moll's Annalen, 1808, vol. VII. p. 174; Tant-
scher in Karsten's Archiv, 1829, vol. 19. p. 346; Berggeist, 1860, p. 657.
138 NORTHWESTERN MAGNETITE DEPOSITS.
galena, blende, and copper pyrites, intimately combined with
hornblende, and calc. spar. Tantscher thinks, these ores form
a bed, or segregation, in the- clay- slate.
Near Neustadt, a copper lode traverses the Silurian slate
nearly parallel to its direction of strike: it is at times 9 feet
broad. It consists on each side, for a breadth of 3 feet, of quartz,
and calc. spar, with copper ores; while the middle of the lode
is formed of a breccia of clay-slate 3 feet broad.
MAGNETITE DEPOSITS OF THE NORTHWESTERN
THURINGIAN FOREST. 1
95. The small granite mass, which comes to the surface
between various kinds of porphyries near Schmiedefeld, con-
tains, westerly of this village, at the Krux mines, some iron ore
deposits of irregular form, and whose true character is not yet
accurately known. The surrounding rock is hornblende granite;
which appears to pass into a kind of greenstone, or is combined
with this. The form of the deposits may be best described as
a segregation, although their true nature is not yet determined.
The most important is the Schwarz-krux, consisting of magnetite,
which is partly very pure, partly mixed with quartz, and gar-
nets ; and frequently also contains iron pyrites, mispickel, cop-
per pyrites, specular iron, and fluor spar. From the analyses
of the ore, it contains somewhat of tin. The impurities gen-
erally appear at the outer limits. It is remarkable, that these
deposits are intersected by small granite dikes; which differ in
their character from the surrounding granite, and 'probably tra-
verse it. Notwithstanding this, a supposition might be drawn,
that this extensive mass of magnetite was in fact only an altered
mass in granite, torn away by this, as it came to the surface,
from an iron ore deposit in the Silurian rocks; but such a
supposition lacks confirmation. n
The Roth- and Gelb-krux, near the Schwarz-krux, contain
similar iron deposits; but which consist, partly of hematite,
partly of very pyritous, and consequently poor, magnetite.
*See: Krug von Nidda, in Karsteii's Archiv, 1838, vol. XI p. 13;
Heim, Geogn. Beschreibung d. Thiiringer Waldes, 1803, vol. II. p. 100.
MANGANESE AND IRON LODES IN PORPHYRIES. 139
MANGANESE AND IRON LODES IN THE PORPHYRIES
OF THE THURINGIAN FOREST. 1
96. The quartz porphyries, as well as those free of
quartz (mica porphyry and melaphyr), are traversed in various
places by manganese lodes, whose strike is parallel to the ridge
of the mountains. These lodes exceptionally penetrate the gra-
nite. They contain chiefly pyrolusite, and psilomelane, with
heavy spar, and calc. spar ; with these are combined wad, haus-
mannite, braunite, and more rarely manganite. They often con-
tain also hematite, and limonite.
Credner says: 'These ores are found on the Rumpels and
Mittel Mountains near Elgersburg, which are the chief localities
of the same in the Thuringian Forest, mostly without gang.
They have but exceptionally, small quantities of tabular heavy
spar, and calc. spar. Large and small horses, of the porphyry,
in which the lodes occur, are frequently found in the matrix of
the lodes. When the pyrolusite occurs pure, it is found form-
ing parallel bands with the selvages of the lodes, or its needles
are all turned towards the middle of the lode. More commonly
such a regular arrangement does not occur. Pyrolusite
and psilomelane occur in irregular masses between the frag-
ments of porphyry, clay, and clayey wad, in the lode-tissures.
The breadth of the lodes is liable to great variations, being in
some places 10 15 feet; while in others they are but the thin-
nest lines; and then the whole porphyry mass is covered by a
network of threads, as in a stockwerk. Frequently a lode va-
ries in breadth with its strike and dip ; so that at close inter-
vals it changes from a considerable width to a barren cleft;
which appears to depend on the difference in the power of re-
sistance of the wall-rock. The length is just as variable. On
the Rumpels Mountain, lodes are known extending 3500 4000
feet; while others have been found workable only for short dis-
tances. Their extreme depth has not yet been reached; and
the frequently expressed opinion, that they wedge-out, has never
been confirmed. At the Gottesgabe mine, pyrolusite has been
found five feet broad, at a depth of 50 fathoms, and extends
'See: Credner, Geogn. Verhalt. Thiiring. u. d. Harz. 1843, p. 130;
Yon Nidda, in Karsten's Archiv. 1838. vol. XL pp. 48, 70, 76; Fritsch,
in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch. vol. XII. p. 137.
140 ARGENTIFEROUS ORE-DEPOSITS IN
still deeper. The contact of the lode with the wall-rock does
not always remain constant in its character, the nature of the
last exerting an unmistakable influence. Where the rock is firm,
the matrix of the lode is easily detached from it. The foot-
wall is distinguished by a regular line of contact, which at
times is almost a mathematical plane, and by so-called slick en-
si ides. The last can be traced for considerable distan-
ces by thin parallel furrows, mostly inclined 1025, and by
the deep red coloring of the wall-rock at the foot-wall. Tlio
manganese lodes around Elgersburg can be classified into five
groups; some of which apparently unite: they all strike from
N. or NE. to S. or SW.
The analogous occurrence of pyrolusite near Ilmenau, and
that near Friedrichsroda, are less important. At the last loca-
lity the pyrolusite occurs in melaphyr conglomerate, in con-
choidal layers, parallel to the salbands of the lodes. The veins
have the uncommon strike of N. or NW. to S. or SE.'
The iron lodes, in the porphyry district, and on its edges,
are more widely extended, than the manganese lodes. They
are closely related to the veins of manganese, essentially in
fact a modification of these. Their line of strike is SE. NW.,
parallel to the ridge of the mountains. Quartz and calc. spar
are the principal vein-stones, more rarely heavy spar. One of
the lodes occurs, on the Dom Mountain near Suhl, where the
porphyry and buntsandstein join; while the others strike paral-
lel to this in the porphyry, but are inclined to it, so that they
probably unite at some distance beneath the surface.
ARGENTIFEROUS ORE-DEPOSITS
IN THE CARBONIFEROUS FORMATION. 1
97. A dark clay-slate overlies the granite at Goldlauter
near Suhl, which belongs to the carboniferous formation. This
slate dips towards NW. and attains a thickness of 70 100 feet.
At times it passes into pyroschist, and contains very thin lay-
ers of anthracite, as well as impressions of ferns, stigmaria, and
fish. A bed of particularly dark color can be distinguished in
'See: Krug von Nidda, in Karsten's Arch. 1838, vol. XL p. 34;
Cotta, in Berg- u. hiittemn. Zeit. 1858, p. 352.
THE CARBONIFEROUS FORMATION. 141
this, having a very irregular slaty cleavage, and which varies
considerably in thickness. This is the bed containing the ores;
which is here described, more from its geological interest, than
its economic value. The ores form very regular thin ellipses,
or lenticular masses, from 1 to 6 inches in diameter, with a con-
centric arrangement in their interior, whose regularity is at
times disturbed.
Krug von Nidda says of them : ' Their composition is pecu-
liar, and deserves notice. The interior kernel generally con-
sists of a brown earthy or compact mineral, which is probably
spherosiderite; in the place of this occurs at times a black crys-
talline granular limestone, which contains small geodes lined
with crystals of calc. spar. This kernel is generally surrounded
by copper pyrites, tetrahedrite, native silver, and a silvery
white ore, containing a considerable percentage of silver, and
crystallizing in extremely fine needles. This last mineral, to
judge from its .crystals, is probably mispickel, which apparently
crystallizes in quadratic prisms having their acute edges re-
placed. A layer of reddish brown spar, containing but slight
traces of metals, surrounds the preceding minerals. Over this
follow alternating bands of mispickel, iron pyrites, and argilla-
ceous shale. The mispickel occurs only massive; the iron py-
rites is partly massive, partly in small pentagonal dodecahedrons.
The shaly substance always encreases towards the exterior; the
separate bands of mispickel, and iron pyrites, are thinner, and
occur at greater intervals. Mispickel and iron pyrites replace
one another : first the one, and then the other, predominates.
A very thin band of calc. spar sometimes forms the exterior
limit, on which are disseminated very thin laminse of ruby sil-
ver. The ellipses are seldom so perfectly formed, as to permit
the observation of all the layers mentioned on a single piece.
At times the argentiferous kernel occurs, and the outer rings
are wanting; at times one or the other of the bands surrounds
the kernel; at times the last is wanting, and one of the bands
takes its place.'
Whether in this case the ores were originally deposited
with the carboniferous strata, or subsequently penetrated by some
peculiar process of impregnation, I will not attempt to decide.
The nature of these deposits is somewhat similar to that of the
Kupfers chief er (copper slates); but the strata, in which they
occur, are much older.
142
IRON-DEPOSITS IN
IRON- DEPOSITS IN THE ZECHSTEIN FORMATION.
98. The zechstein formation is the most metalliferous
of those occurring in the Thuringian .^Forest. In it are found
the copper ore beds, copper, silver and cobalt-lodes, as well as
iron deposits. I will here pass over the copper-slate (knpfer-
schiefer), and the lodes combined with it; as it belongs not
merely to the Thuringian Forest, but is extended over a large
extent; and will describe the whole hereafter.
The iron deposits, in the zechstein of the Thuringian Forest,
are of various kinds. The most important occur in the neigh-
borhood of Herges on the southwesterly border; and are exploited
by the Stahlberg, Mommel, and other mines. Danz has de-
scribed these deposits very minutely. They evidently consisted
originally of spathic iron; but have been altered from the sur-
face into limomte.
Their form is very irregular ; and they must hence be
described as segregations. They approach a lode in form, in that
they lie in a row from SE. to NW., and even appear to be
united with each other; while the fact of their being confined
to a . zechstein zone suggests the idea of a contemporaneous
deposit. Their manner of bedding is very remarkable, and not
yet entirely clear.
Johannes Shaft
Buntsandstein
Mica-schist.
Cellular limestone.
1 See: Freiesleben, geogn. Arbeiten, vol. II. p. 113; Credner, geogn.
Verb. Thiiring. u. d. Harz. 1843, p. 129; Tantscher, in Karsten's Archiv,
1829, vol. 10, p. 364; Dauz, Topographic des Kreises Schmalkalden. 1848.
ZECHSTEIN-FORMATION.
143
Morgengesang.
Ironstone.
The zigzag lines are veins of heavy spar.
On the Klinge near Lautenbach.
Cellular limestone
a. Clay selvages.
Wasser Shaft.
Ironstone.
Biintsandstein
Ironstone.
144
IRON DEPOSITS IN ZECHSTEIN-FORMATION
Freundschaft Mine.
Bunt-
sandstein.
Ironstone
Cellular limestone.
Simonsberg Adit.
Buntsandstein
Ironstone,
Ferruginous
limestone.
Ferruginous limestone.
Moritz-Shaft Adit.
1
Buntsandstein.
Mica-schist.
The preceding woodcuts represent eight successive sections
from actual surveys. Danz ? from whom they are copied, gave
several more.
THE HARTZ: GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 145
In explanation of these wood-cuts 1 would only remark,
that the cellular limestone (rauhkalk) is at this locality the
upper member of the zeclistein formation, whose lower strata
-are apparently missing. The Roth is the upper member of the
bunt sand stein formation, and consequently belongs over the
variegated sandstone (bunts and stein) proper. The ferruginous
limestone (eisenkalk) is a variety of the cellular limestone, which
in all probability originally contained spathic iron, but now the
peroxide of iron. The zigzag lines denote veins of heavy spar.
The strata, of the zeclistein and buntsandstein formations,
are much dislocated, in part overturned: as may be seen from
the wood-cuts. Granite and porphyry appear to have burst
through with violence ; which is the more remarkable as at
every other locality in the Thuringian Forest, these rocks occur
under such circumstances, as prove them to have been formed
previous to the zechstein period.
I will not attempt to solve the question; and only remark,
that, though it appears difficult, it is possible, that the igneous
rocks were brought, into their present relations with the mica
schist, when already hardened, and consequently not by igneous
action.
It is worth noticing, that the bituminous shales, the copper
slates, and the Weissliegendes, appear to be entirely wanting;
while they recur, more to the South, near Aschbach.
IV. THE HARTZ.
GENERAL GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
99. The Hartz rises, out of more recent formations, as
a nearly elliptical district, immediately surrounded by a com-
plete border of the Zechstein formation, which may be desig-
nated as the boundary of the mountain district. Between the
border of Zechstein, and the older formations, crop out somewhat
of Rothliegendes, and a little of the Carboniferous formation
with coal beds. But the chief mass of the mountains is of older
origin.
10
146 GENERAL GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
The mountains proper consist principally of slaty and sandy
rocks, with subordinate strata of quartzite, siliceous slate, and
limestone ; which were until' recently..*classitied under the gray-
wacke group. These old and mostly much tilted rocks, whose
chief direction of strike is SW. NE., intersect the axis of the
mountains obliquely. They are frequently broken through by
various kinds of igneous rocks, especially by two large masses
of granite, that of the Brocken and that of the Ramberg: also,
by various small masses of greenstone (diabase and diorite),
which have some of them penetrated in a bedlike form ; by quartz-
porphyry and by quartzless porphyries often called melaphyr.
The older sedimentary rocks are at times much disturbed, where
they come in contact with these igneous rocks; and are changed
in their lithological condition, being altered into hornstone, etc.
Crystalline schists proper, and basaltic rocks, are entirely wanting.
The old slaty sedimentary formations, which were formerly
all comprised under the so-called graywacke group, belong,
according to the more recent researches of Romer, by whom their
fossils have been more accurately examined, to at least three
different periods; namely, the Silurian, the Devonian, and the
Subcarboniferous.
The total slate district of the Hartz is Silurian, southeasterly
of a straight line which would connect Stollberg and Harzgerode.
From there the Silurian slates form a broad western branch,
between parallel formations of the Subcarboniferous, through Giin-
tersberg and Hasselfeld, nearly to Andreasberg.
The occurrence of the Devonian strata is confined to three
larger districts, at Elbingerode (much limestone), Andreasberg,
and Goslar; and several smaller ones, in the neighborhoods of
Clausthal and Wildenau.
The slates, sandstones, and limestones, of the Subcarbo-
niferous or Culm formation, occupy the greater portion of the
surface of the entire Hartz northwesterly o fStollberg and Harz-
gerode.
The ore deposits of the Hartz may be classified, according
to the metals predominating in them, into:
1. Iron ore deposits, lodes, and beds.
2. Manganese ore deposits, lodes, and segregations.
3. Antimony lodes.
IRON ORE DEPOSITS. 147
4. Silver, lead and copper ore deposits, with cobalt-
and nickel-ores.
a. Lodes in the Subcarboniferous, Devonian and
Silurian districts.
b. Segregation of pyrites in the Devonian dis-
trict near Goslar.
c. Copper slates in the Zeclistein.
The iron ore deposits occur much scattered, chiefly in the
Silurian, Devonian, and Subcarboniferous districts. The man-
ganese deposits are mostly confined to the porphyry region
around Ilfelcl. The silver, lead, and copper deposits are distri-
buted in groups, which may be named after the following lo-
calities: Goslar, Clausthal, Andreasberg, and Harzgerode. The
antimony deposits are essentially confined to the Wolfsberg
(Wolfs Mountain).
IRON ORE DEPOSITS. 1
100. Those in the Hartz are, similarly to those already
described, distributed over the entire surface of the mountains.
They contain principally hematite, and limonite; but exceptionally
magnetite, or spathic iron. The relative rarity of the magnetite
can be most simply explained by the fact that metamorphic
crystalline schists are entirely wanting, while it is commonly
only in these that iron deposits are changed to the condition of
magnetite by catogene metamorphosis.
In the Hartz, as in the Erzgebirge, and Fichtelgebirge, the
iron deposits mostly accompany the igneous rocks, are even
frequently contact-formations, or are enclosed in them. They
occur here, as in the Voigtland, principally combined with cer-
tain pyroxenic greenstones (diabases) ; but are also found, at
least apparently, independent of these. They occur as lodes,
and beds.
The dome-shaped masses of greenstone, in the Silurian
district of the Eastern Hartz near Tilkerode, contain hematite
deposits, which, according to Zinken, do not extend into the clay-
1 See: Freiesleben, Bemerk. liber d. Harz, 1795, p. 259; Zimmer-
mann, in Karsten's Arch. 1837, vol. X. p. '26; Schultz, in the same, 1821,
vol. IV. p. 229; Zinken, der ostliche Harz, 1825, vol. I. p. 135; Credner,
Geogn. Verb. Thiir. u. d. Harz, 1843, p. 127; Jasche, Mineralogische Stu-
dien, 1838, p. 4; Perdonnet, in Ann. des Mines, 1828, vol. III.
10*
148 MANGANESE DEPOSITS.
slate : this is at the most colored red by peroxide of iron near
the same, or is traversed by small threads of iron-stone. They
form irregular lodes in diabase, especially where it joins the
clay-slate. They chiefly strike N. S. and but rarely dip other-
wise than 45 90 towards E. Their vein-stones are brown spar,
calc. spar and quartz. What is very curious is the occurrence,
in addition to specular iron, and red hematite, of all sorts of
selenium minerals, especially clausthalite, lehrbachite, and tilke-
rodite, also auriferous palladium: according to Credner, also
spathic iron, which is changed at the outcrop into limonite.
The iron deposits occurring at Elbingerode, Lehrbach, and
Zorge, are very similar.
On the Krokenstein a contact-lode of hematite occurs at
the junction of limestone and clay-slate; it appears to have no
connection with the greenstones.
MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 1
101. These are almost entirely confined to the porphyry
district of the Hartz around llfeld. For although many of the
iron lodes spoken of contain some ores of manganese, this is a
very subordinate occurrence, while the manganese ores are the
principal objects of exploitation at llfeld.
They form lodes in porphyry, at times 3 feet broad, princi-
pally in that free from quartz, which is often termed melaphyr.
While pyrolusite and psilomelane predominate in the man-
ganese lodes of the Thuringian Forest, manganite is here the
principal ore, combined with hausmannite, heavy spar, and
calc. spar.
In places these lodes consist almost entirely of manganite,
while again the same is composed almost wholly of horses. As
the lodes essentially occur only in the quartzless porphyry; they
are probably to be regarded mostly as secretions from the same,
but naturally secretions in fissures. The same rock also contains
at times manganese ores in its vesicular cavities.
In addition to the above occur pockets of manganese ores,
near Elbingerode, in the depressions of the surface of the sili-
ceous slate, which is here embedded in the Devonian clay-slate.
1 See: Kerl, in Berg- u. hiittenm. Ztg. 1853, p. 148; Holzberger, in
the same, 1859, p. 283.
ANTIMONY, LEAD AND SILVER, LODES. 149
ANTIMONY LODES. 1
102. Near Wolfs Mountain, southerly of Harzgerode, a
broad lode occurs in the Silurian district of the Eastern Hartz;
consisting chiefly of quartz, with somewhat of calc. spar, and
various ores of antimony, especially stibnite, zinkenite, bour-
nonite, feather-ore Qamesonite) and tinder-ore.
LEAD AND SILVER LODES. 2
103. They occur chiefly in three districts of the Harz.
In the Eastern Hartz, in the Silurian district of Harzgerode; in
the Western, so-called, Upper Hartz, in the Devonian district of
Andreasberg; and in the Subcarboniferous district of Clausthal
and Zellerfeld. Between these districts various single lodes of
a similar character occur, as at Tanne, etc. Lasius mentioned,
as a characteristic of all of them, the fact that they intersect
the rock strata at a very acute angle, and are only found
where many strata alternate with each other.
A. District of Harzgerode and Neudorf. The lodes
traverse the clay-slate of the Silurian formation, especially on
the Pfaffen and Meisen Mountains, they strike SE. NW. pa-
rallel to the principal axis of the Hartz. On the Pfaffen Moun-
tain they attain a breadth of 14 feet. They consist of quartz,
spathic iron, and calc. spar; with which are combined galena,
copper pyrites, iron' pyrites, tetrahedrite, bournonite, stibnite, and
which is very remarkable, traces of wolfram (whether cassiterite
also?). They frequently also contain fragments of the wall-
rock, which are often surrounded by concentrical bands of
ore, in the following order; spathic iron, massive quartz, fine
granular galena, dark brown blende, coarse granular galena.
Zinken has described some mineralogical details of these lodes,
particularly of the Birnbaum group, and also the circumstance;
that a vein, matrix, in places of porphyritic nature, in places
resembling clay-slate, is traversed by numerous small veins,
'See: Hausmann, die Bildung d. Harzgebirges, 1842, p. 134; Cred-
ner, geogn. Verh. Thtiringens u. d. Harz, p. 126.
2 See: Credner, Geogn. Verhaltn. Thuring. u. d Harz, p. 123; Zinken,
in Von Leonhard's Jahrbuch, 1850, p. 692; and Zeits. d. deutsch. Geolo.
Gesells. 1851, p. 231; Bergwerksfreund, vol. XXII. p. 331; Lasius,
die Harzgebirge, 1789.
150 ANDREASBERG.
which consist of quartz in the clay-slate, but in porphyry of
galena, whereby the nature of the wall-rock is shown to exert
a very peculiar influence.
B. ANDREASBERG DISTRICT. 1
104. Andreasberg lies in a small clay-slate district of
the Devonian formation, which is towards the South bounded by
diabase, towards the West by Subcarboniferous strata; while to
the North it is limited by granite, and to the East borders on
Silurian slates. The predominant clay-slate is traversed by py-
roxenic greenstones (diabases), by quartz, as well as lodes and
barren veins, so-called Ruscheln and Schlechten, by which local
terms are meant wide, or narrow, fissures filled with clay and
fragments of rock. The lodes are silver lodes, galena lodes,
copper pyrites and ironstone lodes. The first alone have been
exploited for many centuries, and are exhausted to a consider-
able depth.
Ten to twelve silver lodes, with various side branches are
known: they are, as a rule, only found between two great Ru-
scheln, the so-called Neuf anger and Edelleuter faulen Ruschel.
These Ruscheln, about 5 fathoms broad, consist of decomposed
clay-slate; and strike with bendings, branchings, and reunions,
NW. to SE. like the lodes they enclose. Where the lodes come
in contact with the Ruscheln, they are generally cut off; they
commonly become empoverished, and very narrow, for indefi-
nite distances before such contacts. Still the lodes send out
branches, or droppers, at times into the Ruscheln, or parallel to
them ; from which may be deduced, that the Ruscheln represent
fissures, which have been repeatedly torn open, and dislocated;
whose matrix, the decomposed clay-slate, already existed in
them before the formation of the lodes.
Two of the most interesting cases are represented by the
following wood-cuts. :*1-
x See: Schultz, in Karsten's Arch. 1822, vol. V. p. 95; Hausmann,
die Bildung des Harzgebirges,l842, p. 134; Credner, Geogii. Verh. Thtir.
u. d, Harz: Kerl, in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1859, p. 21; Breithaupt, in
the same,1860, p. 9; Credner, Geogn. Beschreibung des Bergwerkdistricts
St. Andreasberg, 1865; in the Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellschaft, and as
separate imprint.
SILVER LODES.
151
S. Samson champion lode.
T. Clay-slate.
N.R. Neufanger Rtischel.
L. Clay-aselvage of the Ruschel.
H. Cath rina shaft.
o. Upper
m. Middle
t. Lower
level.
The lode loses its independent character in the Ruschel, mixes with it,
and makes it metalliferous.
The so-called Schlechten are merely thin clay-fissures, al-
ways intersecting both the lodes and the Ruscheln, and fre-
quently also faulting them.
152 ANDREASBERG LODES.
The most important of the silver lodes are the Gnade-Got-
tes, Bergmannstrost, Samson, Franz-Gliick, Felicitas, Gideon,,
and Jacobs- Gliick. The first two strike ESE. WNW., are
nearly perpendicular, and somewhat oMer than the others; these
strike SSE NNW., are also nearly perpendicular, intersect and
fault the first, without differing essentially in their contents.
They attain a breadth of 4 feet, and consist chiefly of very
beautifully crystallized calc. spar, and quartz, with rich silver
ores, especially ruby silver. The calc. spar has also penetrated
the adjoining clay-slate for a considerable distance. Besides
these, have been found: galena (much less than at Clausthal) r
yellow blende, dark and light tetrahedrite, pyrargyrite, fire-
blende, discrasite, arsenic silver, scherbencobalt (an intimate
mixture of arsenical antimony, discrasite, and ruby silver), na-
tive silver, silver glance, stephanite, kerargyrite (buttermilk ore) r
dark tinder ore (a mixture of jamesonite and mispickel), gano-
matite (an intimate mixture of realgar, arsenic, stephanite, ruby
silver, discrasite and arsenolith), native copper, bournonite, chry-
socolla, heavy spar, fluor spar, harmotome, apophyllite, stilbite,
heulandite, chabasite, analcime, datolith; and very rarely gar-
net, epidote, and axinite. Kerl also mentions as rarities, ame-
thyst, brown spar, aragonite, witherite, talc, zygadite, prehnite^
pharmacolith, hsematoconite, anthraconite, naphtha, iron pyrites,
millerite, pyrrhotine, leucopyrite, arsenic, antimony, clausthalite,
copper nickel, smaltine, erythrine, breithauptite, annabergite r
pharmacolith, cerusite, stibnite, realgar, and even crystals of al-
bite, these last occurring on the greenstone of the wall-rock.
Breithaupt observed galena, as a pseudomorph, after 'anhydrite.
The zeoliths and other silicates, as well as the want of ga-
lena, and the predominance of rich silver ores; characterise the
Andreasberg lodes, and distinguish them essentially from the
silver lodes of Clausthal, in which galena abounds. They evi-
dently form a very peculiar mineral combination. Some of the
lodes possess a very regular banded texture; the Felicitas, for
example, has the following succession :
Salband, crystalline calc. spar with somewhat of disseminated galena.
Friable calc. spar with somewhat of tetrahedrite.
Crystalline calc. spar without ores.
Massive tetrahedrite.
Friable calc. spar with somewhat of tetrahedrite.
Tetrahedrite with galena. (Middle of the lode).
CLAUSTHAL DISTRICT. 153
It appears that the neighboring diabases must have exerted
a particular influence on the origin of these lodes. Haus-
rnann considers them to have been formed by sublimation; and
cites, in favor of this view the fact, that fine incrustations, for
example of realgar, are found on the lower sides of crystals in
geodes. Even could it be proven that some of the minerals of
these lodes had been formed by sublimation, it would scarcely
be permissible to adopt a like manner of formation for their
total matrix, especially for the chief minerals composing them;
viz. calc. spar, and quartz. Some of the minerals mentioned
are clearly formed by the decomposition of others, and are only
found in the upper workings*, for example, kerargyrite, tinder
ore, and ganomatite.
The diabases appear to be traversed by the lodes. The
cleaving, of the fissures containing the last, was in any case more
recent, than the first elevation of the Hartz, and the breaking
through of the diabases.
It is worth noticing, that the Samson-lode has been ex-
ploited, and found productive, to the perpendicular depth of 2500
feet, or 600 feet below the level of the sea ; while it has only been
possible, on account of the Ruscheln, to follow it in a horizontal
direction for a distance of 2100 feet. No influence of the wall-
rock on the ore contents has been noticed here.
C. DISTRICT OF CLAUSTHAL. 1
105. I consider, as belonging to this, the region lying
between Altenau, Grund, and Lautenthal. The same consists
principally of clay-slate and sandstone of the Subcarboniferous,
which are traversed, in the direction from Lehrbach to Harz-
burg, by nearly straight lines of diabases. These have either
burst through parallel to the stratification, or have been em-
bedded parallel to it; the Subcarboniferous is bounded, north-
wardly towards Goslar, by the striking-out of somewhat older
Devonian deposits. .
'See: Zimmermann, das Harzgebirge, I. pp. 105, 320; Hausmanu,
Bild. d. Harzgeb. p. 133; Credner, Geogn. Verh. Thtir. u. d. Harz. p. 121;
Kerl, in Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1859, p. 21; Kohler, in the same, 1859, p.
198; Cotta, in the same, 1864, p. 393; Wimmer, in Bericht d. Vereins
Maja, Halle, 1854, p. 14; and in Von Leonhard's Jahrbuch, 1854, p. 841;
there was also used a manuscript of Mr. Heucke, written in 1854.
154 LODES, AND GROUPS.
The strata and slates of the Subcarboniferous formation
mostly strike NE. SW. and dip toward SE. while the Devo-
nian formation is unconformable with these. The evidently ig-
neous embeddings of diabase, between Lehrbach and Altenau,
contain curious remains of a limestone occurrence, wedged-in
parallel to them, which Romer considers as belonging to the
Devonian Stringocephalus limestone.
The lodes occurring in this district are interesting for two
reasons; first, because of their great breadth, and secondly, on
account of the manner in which they have been filled.
They all strike E. W. with at times deviations towards
WNW. and ESE. ; consequently they are parallel to the chief
axis of the Hartz, they thus form together a mineral belt;
whose breadth however is nearly as great, as its known length.
In the direction of their breadth they lie, between the localities
of Lautenthal and Laubhiitte, near Grund. The limits of their
length are the Rosteberg near Grund, and Altenau. They have
been classified into nine separate groups, each of which con-
sists in part of but a single champion lode with several side-
veins. These are called:
1. The Burgstadter Group,
2. The Zellerfelder Group,
3. The Spiegel- and Hutschenthaler Group,
4. The Bockswieser Group,
5. The Lautenthaler Group,
6. The Wittenberg- and Wolfshagner Group,
7. The Rosenhofer Group,
8. The Silbernaaler Group, and
9. The Isakstammer and Laubhiitter Group.
This classification has evidently been occasioned more by
the chronology of their discovery than by the real nature of the
case. If we follow the chief fissures, according to their real
position, and their probable connection, from South to ^North,
we find five principal fissures with several subordinate ones, at
nearly equal distances apart, westerly of Clausthal and Zeller-
feld, which, in their eastern prolongation, in part actually unite,
in part, at least according to their direction, approach one an-
other at an acute angle ; so that they must collectively unite be-
fore reaching Altenau, when they continue in the same direction.
The most southerly of these fissures is the Laubhtitter-lsak-
stammer lode; which strikes W. E., and, if it continues in
CLAUSTHAL GROUPS. 155
this direction, must unite with the Silbernaaler Group easterly
of Clausthal.
The Silbernaaler Group is the one, which has been traced
for the greatest distance, over five miles. It 'commences at the
outer westerly limit of the Hartz ; at the Hilfe-Gottes mine ; and
continues, with a double bending, as the Bergwerkswohlfahrt-
lode, almost to Altenau. It unites with the Rosenhofer group,
under the Hirschler pond. The whole group consists essentially
of but one lode, whose breadth varies from 1 to 14 fathoms.
Its matrix is predominantly so-called Gangthonschiefer l (vein-
clay-slate), traversed by a number of threads of heavy spar,
among which are broader veins of heavy spar, whose salbands
are composed of very argentiferous galena, following the direc-
tion of strike. Ring-ores also occur in the heavy spar, whose
kernel consists of clay-slate surrounded by layers of heavy spar
and galena; also slate-fragments not concentrically enclosed.
In addition to the above mentioned minerals are found princi-
pally ; tetrahedrite, copper pyrites, iron pyrites, quartz, calc. spar,
and spathic iron. The lode dips about 70 towards N., which
is opposed to the general inclination of the lodes in this district.
Northwardly of this is situated the Rosenhofer group, which
extends from the Innerste valley, under Clausthal, to where it
unites with the Silbernaaler group. At the Alter-Seegen mine,
westerly of the town, this lode consists of several branches,
which apparently unite at a greater depth, but which show a
decrease, rather than an encrease, in richness at their junction
in the direction of strike. Besides this, the lode is frequently
broken up into numerous branches, several of which have caused
faults; hence it may be concluded, that they are not of exactly
contemporaneous formation. Their breadth varies from 1 to 11
fathoms, and averages 6 fathoms. Their matrix is predominantly
calc. spar, with which is combined galena: copper pyrites, iron
pyrites, and blende, are more rare.
Before the Rosenhofer group reaches the Silbernaaler, it
unites, near the Dorothea mine, with the Burgstadter group. It
is faulted about 20 feet by a so-called taube Ruscliel. It con-
sists of a champion lode, 20 to 40 feet wide, with numerous parallel
1 According to a careful examination made by the Author in 1864, the
Gangthonschiefer is nothing more than a portion of the wall-rock (clay-slate)
which has been altered, and impregnated with ores.
156 CLAUSTHAL LODES, AND GROUPS.
smaller ones. These last in part fault the champion lode, and
are therefore of more recent formation. At the point of contact
with the Rosenhofer group, .its breadth encreases to 35 fathoms ;
and this acute junction appears at certain depths to have deve-
loped a special richness in galena, but at a greater depth, the
blende encreases at the expense of the galena. Vein- clay-slate
and calc. spar form, in this group also, the chief matrix ; blende,
galena, copper pyrites, iron pyrites, etc. occur to but a subor-
dinate extent.
The Zellerfelder group forms a principal fissure between
Wildemann and Zellerfeld; this divides under a considerable
angle, as well eastwardly beyond Zellerfeld, as westwardly near
Wildemann. The southeasterly of these intersects the Burg-
stadter group at the Eleonore mine, while the northwesterly
does the same with the Spiegelthaler group. The gang is prin-
cipally composed, with a breadth of 6 17 fathoms, of vein-
clay-slate, calc. spar and quartz ; which are traversed by so-
called ribbon-ore threads (Banderzadern), consisting of galena,
copper pyrites, and iron pyrites. These only form isolated masses
of ore, principally at the junctions. In the Ring and Silber-
schnur mines, beautiful ring ores occur, having a fragment of
clay slate as kernel, surrounded, either by quartz, with galena,
and calc. spar; or, first by a layer of spathic iron, and then
quartz with ores.
In a northerly direction follows the Spiegel- and Hutschen-
thaler group, which do not accord with one another in their
strike and position. The Hutschenthal fissure strikes, like the
majority of the lodes, WNW. ESE. : the Spiegelthaler, on the
contrary, has a more northerly position, and strikes E. W.
Following this is the Bockswieser group, nearly on the
boundary of the Devonian rocks, and in fact partly penetrating
the Devonian strata. The same appears to consist of two parallel
champion-lodes, striking WNW. ESE., which figure under
several names. They traverse Posidonomya slate, siliceous slate,
Groniatite limestone, Orthoceras slate, Calceola slate, and quartz-
like sandstone containing Spirifers. It is stated, that the amount
of ore varies with the nature of the country -rock, and that the
lodes contain the most in clay-slate, Calceola slate, and Ortho-
ceras slate. The breadth, in places, exceeds a fathom; and the
matrix consists of clay-slate, quartz, calc. spar, brown spar, and
more rarely heavy spar, galena, blende, and pyrites.
GENERAL REMARKS. 157
The Lautenthaler group is the most northerly of all. It
consists of one champion-lode, 17 to 23 fathoms broad, which
splits up into numerous leaders. Its chief strike is nearly E. W. ;
it has been followed from the valley of the Innerste to Hahnen-
klee, where it passes, from the strata of the Subcarboniferous,
into those of the Devonian. Its principal vein-stone is again
vein-clay-slate, with chimneys and pockets of quartz, calc. spar,
galena, blende, copper- and iron-pyrites. The leaders of the
champion-lode at times possess a symmetrical texture, with the
following succession :
Calc. spar.
Blende,
Calc. spar,
Blende; and in the middle
Galena with pyrites and blende.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CLAUSTHAL LODES.
106. The Western Hartz is traversed, in its central por-
tion, at nearly equal distances, by a number of broad fissures,
almost parallel to the axis of the whole mountains ; which
obliquely intersect the strata, especially those of the Subcarbo-
niferous formation, splitting up into branches, which in part
again unite.
The fissures, often many fathoms broad, are for the most
part filled with fragments of the wall-rock, especially clay-slate
(which is then called in Clausthal vein-clay-slate). Perhaps it
would be more correct to say; that many single fissures have
cut through the rocks in zones; that these zones have been
disturbed, and now appear as a kind of fissure - matrix ; that
the fissured slate has at the same time been altered in some
degree by water, or vapors ; and is distinguished, as so-called
vein-clay-slate, from the common clay-slates. The other vein-
stones, and the ores, which have penetrated into the fissures,
are found in the intermediate fissures, of very variable width,
which are frequently united.
If we consider the vein-clay-slate, as only being altered in
condition, position, and coherence, and therefore not belonging
to the mass of the lodes proper, which were deposited in the
fissures from solutions; the predominating vein-stones, and ores,
are: quartz, calc. spar, heavy spar, brown spar, spathic iron,
argentiferous galena, blende, copper pyrites, and iron pyrites.
158 THE RAMMELSBERG
Besides these, occur in the lodes: tetrahedrite, light colored
tinder-ore (a mixture of lead, silver, antimony, and sulphur),
bournonite, melaconite, malachite, azurite, cerusite, pyromorphite,
anglesite, and limonite j these last principally in the upper levels,
as products of decomposition.
Kerl mentions in addition to these: amethyst, pearl-spar,
aragonite, gypsum, glauber salt, epsom salt, strontianite, asphal-
tum, anthracite, stibnite, clausthalite, tieinannite, cinnabar, amal-
gam, mercury, manganite, limonite, and hematite.
The condition of the matrix entirely corresponds to the
results of an infiltration: as favoring this view, may be men-
tioned the occasional combed texture, and the uncommonly
frequent formation of ring-ores, as also the fact that the minerals
have penetrated into all the fine clefts.
The differences in depth, of the Clausthal lodes, consist
(besides the secondary decompositions near the outcroppings),
principally in the champion-lodes being much broken up into
small leaders near the surface; and it is stated, that the propor-
tion of blende encreases, while that of galena decreases, with
the depth. A cessation of the lodes, or their matrix, in the
direction of the depth, has not yet been observed 5 although some
of the workings are as much as 1730 feet below the surface.
Zimmermann asserts, that in broad champion-lodes only the
small leaders are rich. The ores are very unequally distributed.
A difference of the country-rock in general, exerting any
important influence on the matrix of the lodes, has only been
discovered, according to Heucke, in the case of the Bockswieser
lodes. On the other hand, a strongly glancing, black clay-slate
having short clefts, as well as a red, very ferruginous schist,
which occur as portions of the matrix, are very unfavorable for
the branches traversing them. Besides which, the branches, con-
sisting of heavy spar and calc. spar, are mostly more recent,
and poorer than the others.
THE RAMMELSBERG NEAR GOSLAR. l
107. The Rammelsberg consists of the three lowest strata
of the Devonian formation; the Wissenbach slate, the Calceola
slate, and the Spirifer sandstone. Some great subversion has
1 See: Freiesleben, Bemerkung. iib. d. Harz, 1795, p. 75; La si us,
die Harzgebirge, 1789, vol. II. p. 373; Schultz, in Karsten's Arch. 1821, vol. IV.
NEAR GOSLAR. 159
caused the above to lie in reversed order, the Wissenbach slate
being the lower-, the sandstone the upper-most stratum.
The renowned pyritous deposit occurs in the Wissenbach
slate, which forms the projecting lower portion of the mountain;
the same consists here of real clay-slate, frequently used in the
surrounding country for roofing. In the immense slate-quarries,
on the left declivity of the Keppel valley above Goslar, the
very distinct cleavage, as a rule, cuts the less distinct stratifica-
tion at an acute angle; no such circumstance has been remarked
at the Rammelsberg. Not only do the great dimensions of the
pyrites deposits coincide in general with the cleavage; but
a zone of Goniatites and Orthoceratites changed to pyrites in
the slate, beneath the pyrites deposit, lies parallel to the cleav-
age; and they all lie individually with their breadth and length
parallel to it. Very probably therefore in the Rammelsberg, in
so far as it consists of Wissenbach slate, the stratification and
cleavage are parallel to one another; which is certainly impor-
tant for the observation of the pyrites deposit.
This deposit has been called a lode, bed, and segregation.
Passing over the earlier descriptions, I subjoin an extract from
Hausmann. He says: 'The same consists of an intimate, but
not everywhere uniform, mixture of iron pyrites, copper pyrites,
galena, blende, and mispickel, associated with small quantities
of other ores; with which are combined massive heavy spar,
and a little quartz and calc. spar. The ore-bed, which has been
inserted at the contact of the clay and graywacke slate, has a
general strike of ENE. WSW. and a variable dip, in general
45 toward SSE. The extension is also variable in the direc-
tion of the strike, and diminishes with the depth: it amounts to
210 fathoms at a depth of 105 fathoms beneath the mouth of
the new shaft. The breadth of the undivided bedded mass is
assumed to be 40 to 45 fathoms. At a depth 72 fathoms below
the mouth of the Kanekuhler shaft, the ore-mass separates into
two branches ; of which the hanging one wedges-out 23 fathoms
deeper, the lower or principal one continues farther. The greatest
thickness of the last, where it leaves the hanging branch, is
p. 229; Zimmermann, das Harzgebirge, 1834, p. 103; Hausmann, die
Bildung d. Harzgeb. 1842, p. 132; Credner, Geogn. Verb. Thlir. u. d.
Harz, p. 121; Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1860, Nr. 2; Kerl, in same, 1853, p. 7;
Cotta, in same, 1864, p. 309.
160
HAUSMANN'S DESCRIPTION.
23 to 25 fathoms. It also gradually decreases, toward the West,
in the line of the strike; while toward the East the bed has
more the appearance of being cut off: it gradually decreases in
the direction of the dip. A very firm clay-slate (so-called
Kniest) impregnated with iron and copper pyrites, is wedged-in
between the two portions of the ore-mass, forming the hanging-
wall of the principal branch. The outer limits of the ore-bed
are very irregular, in great part waving, here and there with
cracks: it is traversed by numerous joints. The most conspi-
cuous of these are perpendicular, and intersect the bed at right
-angles: others are parallel to the dip. In place of the first joints,
sometimes occur small veins (so-called Steinscheiden), often
barely a line broad; they contain copper pyrites, galena, heavy
spar, and calc. spar; and extend, neither into the hanging-, nor
foot-wall/
E. Ore-deposit.
F. Clay-slate (= Wissenbach slate).
G. Graywacke slate of Hausmann (= Calceola slate).
S. Graywacke of Hausmann (= Spirifer sandstone).
The wood-cut is a copy from Hausmann; it does not
-altogether agree with the above description, but represents the
ore-deposit as being entirely in the Graywacke slate; which is
more correct than at the contact of the same with clay-slate.
So far as I know, it has been since then generally described
as a bed, or recumbent segregation. It is self-evident, that a mass
of such a shape having a broad ramification in the roof, which
indeed was the foot-wall before the subversion, is not a bed in
the strict sense of the term. Even though it lies parallel to
the stratification and cleavage, such an immense ramification
would contradict the idea of a bed, leaving altogether out of
account the great breadth proportional to the slight extension,
and the entirely different nature of the mass from the enclosing
strata. Should any other term be found appropriate, it will still
remain difficult to explain the formation of such an entirely
compact aggregation of pyrites.
Is then the coherence of the entire mass so great, as is
RAMMELSBERG.
161
generally assumed? From the statements of Director Lehmann,
and from my own observation, I am convinced, that the common
view requires some correction.
The pyritous mass appears to consist of more or less len-
ticular aggregations of pyrites, separated by several, though but
thin layers of slate; whose totality occupies the space generally
assigned to the mass. Whether the ore, in the already exhausted
and partly inaccessible portions of the deposit, formed a conti-
nuous mass, or not, can no longer be determined ; the portions
of pyrites, at present opened by the workings, at no place ex-
ceeded a breadth of 50 feet, the majority being much narrower.
In several places I saw very distinctly, that two, three or more
irregular lens-shaped masses of pyrites occurred near together,
but were still separated by thin layers of slate. The following
wood-cut represents one of these points of observation.
S. Clay-slate.
K. Masses of pyrites.
The surveyors, who made the plans of the mine, may have
found it more convenient to insert the masses lying near each
other, and exploited together, as a whole. It is very possible,
or rather probable, that formerly no notice was taken of these
thin separations by the slate, and that the points exploited,
for widths of 20, 30, or more fathoms, in reality consisted of
irregular lenticular masses, separated from each other by the
slate. In this manner the broad and rapidly wedging-out
branch in the hanging-wall can be easily explained, as con-
sisting only of single lenses lying somewhat outside of the
principal zone. The form of the deposit, as a whole, is
then nothing more than the outer contour of a combination of
exploitable ore; while the form of the separate ore-masses may
be very different.
The whole deposit would have about the shape in the fol-
11
162
DESCRIPTION OF
lowing ideal section, in
which the separate lenticu-
lar masses of ore are, for the
sake of distinctness, repre-
sented somewhat widely
apart.
The explanation of this
remarkable aggregation of
pyrites is rendered some-
what easier by this represen-
tation ; which, though ideal,
is founded on observations.
We have no longer then to deal with a single deposit
of immense breadth, very peculiar shape, and proportionally
small extent in its strike, and dip; but with a combination of
single lenses of ore in a particular zone of slate. Still, indeed,
the difficult question remains to be answered, whether these
separate bodies of ore are to be regarded as contemporaneous lenti-
cular beds, or as formations which have subsequently penetrated.
As facts in favor of the contemporaneousness of their for-
mation, consequently of their true bed-nature; may be mentioned
their general parallelism with the cleavage, which here corre-
sponds to the stratification; also in their inner texture, since a
banded arrangement can very commonly be recognised in the
massive masses of pyrites; which also runs parallel to the
cleavage, and consequently to the stratification. This banded
texture is most distinctly seen in the so-called melirt ores, con-
sisting of alternating bands of pyrites and galena. l
Unfavorable, for the supposition of such a contemporaneous
formation, is the great breadth of some oi' these lenses; which,
from the manner of their deposit, must have been entirely dif-
ferent from the mechanical sediment, of which the clay- slate
was formed, which last contains distinct fossils converted to
pyrites. In those places, where the sulphurets were deposited,
the mechanical precipitation of clay-silt must have been inter-
1 The large pyrites lenses of Schmollnitz in Hungary mostly have a
similar texture, and are also surrounded by impregnated slates. I am unfor-
tunately not aware, if a similar separation into small lenses by layers of slate
has been observed, or not.
RAMMELSBERG. 163
rupted; and this process must have been frequently repeated in
the same localities. The depositing of so many sulphurets;
which contain, besides iron, copper, and lead, traces also of zinc,
bismuth, mercury, cadmium, thallium, manganese, nickel, cobalt,
antimony, arsenic, selenium, gold, and silver; does not altogether
agree with their forming a contemporaneous formation in an
otherwise entirely mechanical sediment, which they have, not
merely locally impregnated, but even in places dispossessed.
This circumstance is more in favor of the view, that a sub-
sequent penetration of the ores took place in the form of solu-
tions. But how then could such like impregnations have formed
the large spaces in which they alone predominate? Still less
can it be assumed, that these spaces already existed, since from
their great extent, they could not possibly have resisted the
pressure of the overlying strata for the long period of time
required for the formation of such large masses of pyrites.
Only a gradual replacement of the slate by the pyrites is
supposable, in such a manner, that the last may have by degrees
replaced the space, and in part acquired the texture of the
slate, as is the case of many pseudomorphs by replacement, and
fossils. This is, however, difficult to imagine; and the problem
still remains unsolved in regard to the manner of formation.
No event of the present time shows any thing analogous to this.
The pyritous masses of the Rammelsberg, moreover, do not
form the only case of this kind: they are very similar to the
deposits of Agordo, Schmollnitz, and Fahlun ; and in some degree
to those of Rio-Tinto, and Domokos-Poschorita.
The chief mass of the deposit is formed of iron pyrites,
which contains but little copper pyrites disseminated through it:
copper pyrites, galena, and somewhat of blende, are locally fre-
quent, in places even predominant. It appears, that the galena,
with somewhat of blende, occurs most commonly, and in larger
masses, in the foot-wall of the western portion; over this, and
more to the East, occur the so-called melirt ores, consisting of
alternating layers, or bands, of galena and pyrites. Over these,
again, occur the purer copper ores; and finally, still more to
the East, the poor iron pyrites. This is only a general law of
distribution, and is subject to many exceptions. The following
minerals occur at times, but are of no economic importance:
heavy spar, quartz, calc. spar, tetrahedrite, red copper, erubes-
cite, native copper, (in the places where the other minerals
11*
164 LAUTERBERG DISTRICT.
have been decomposed,) copperas, cyanosite, goslarite, voltaite,
romerite, copiapite, botryogen(P), glockerite, and gypsum; also
in the slate forming the hanging-walj, cerusite, and anglesite.
All the ores occur massive, being only more or less gra-
nular ; geodes are very rare. On the other hand parallel striated
friction-surfaces (schicken slides) are tolerably frequent.
The mineral composition of the deposit is a very simple
one, much more so than is generally the case with lodes. The
thirteen more rarely occurring metals, previously mentioned,
are mineralogically unrecognizable in all the ores, with the ex-
ception of the zinc.
THE LAUTERBERO DISTRICT. *
108. Lauterberg is situated in the Subearboniferous for-
mation, which is traversed in the neighborhood by porphyry.
There occur here, according to Schultz, some copper lodes ; the
most important of which strike NNW. SSE. and attain a breadth
of 3 fathoms. Their vein-stones are heavy spar, calc. spar, and
quartz; in which occur irregularly distributed pockets of copper
pyrites, homichlin, iron pyrites, melaconite, malachite, chryso-
colla, copper glance, erubescite, covelline, red copper, and lime-
malachite. The heavy spar is frequently found in a peculiar
sandy condition, similar to some of the lodes in the Black
Forest. According to Hausmann, fluor spar and anhydrite also
occur in the lodes.
THE COPPER SLATES
IN THE HARTZ, THURINGIA, AND HESSE. 2
109. The Zechstein formation, in this portion of Ger-
many, consists in its lower strata of the copper-slates (Kupfer-
scMefer) and the white-beds (Weisslieyendes), it rarely crops
out, except in the mountainous districts ; and has, during a long
period, been exploited in numerous places for the ores it
contains.
1 See: Zimmmermanu, Harzgeb. p. 105; Hausmann. Bild. d. Harzgeb.
p. 134. Kerl, in Berg- u. htittenm. Zeit. 1859, p. 21; Schultz, in Karsten's
Archiv, 1821, vol. IV. p. 22^.
2 See: Freiesleben, Geogn. Arbeiten, vol. III. and vol. IV. p. 15;
Schmidt, in Karsten's Archiv. 1823. vol. VI. p. 73; Von Veltheim, in
COPPER-SLATES IN THE HARTZ, etc.
165
The ores, occurring in this formation, are found, partly dis-
tributed in the strata above-mentioned, partly contained in fis-
sures, so-called backs (Ruckeri}, which intersect these beds;
but are only metalliferous in these, while above and below them
they merely contain heavy spar, or fragments of the wall-rock.
Since the metalliferous lower strata of the Zechstein formation
are most completely and characteristically developed in the
region around Mansfeld, at the southeasterly base of the Hartz,
1 will commence with the description of the same. To this I
will subjoin short remarks on the deviations in other localities.
Mansfeld. The red-beds (Roihliegendes), on the south-
eastern side of the Hartz, form a geological prolongation of its
chief axis, without projecting as a mountain chain above the
surrounding country. This prolongation is surrounded by a
Dolomite, Gypsum,
and Rocksalt.
same, 1S27, vol. XV. p. 80; Tantscher, in same, 1829, vol. XIX. p. 377;
1832, vol. IV. p. 289; 1834, vol. VII. p. 606; Pliimicke, in same, 1844, vol.
XVIII. p. 139; Weiss, in same, 1851, vol. XXIV. p. 306; Heuser, in Von
Leonhard's Taschenbuch, 1819, p. 311; Schulz, in same, 1820, p. 105;
Baumler, in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch. 1837, p. 25;* Credner,
(jeogn. Verb. Thiir. u. d. Harz, p. 125; Buff, in Noggerath's Rheinland-
Westphalen, vol. II. p. 152; Klip stein, Versuch einer geogn. Darstellung
d. Kupferschiefers d. Wetterau, 1830.
166 COPPER-SLATES IN THE HARTZ,
border of Zechstein, whose strata dip gradually toward SE.,
and contain exploitable ores, principally in the County of Mans-
feld, and the neighborhood of Sangerhausen. As above men-
tioned, the ores are found in the copper-slates and white-beds.
Both can be followed along the Hartz, on one side to Seesen,
on the other to Ballenstadt; but the percentage of ore they con-
tain, in these western prolongations, is so small, that they can-
not be profitably exploited. In Mansfeld, on the contrary, they
are worked with considerable success, owing to the uniformity of
their development. The general bedding of the Zechstein forma-
tion at this locality about agrees with the wood-cut: p. 165.
The upper member in Mansfeld consists chiefly of unstra-
tified gypsum, containing cavities; which have been washed-out
(so-called 'lime-chimneys'), and soft bituminous dolomite or lime-
stone (so-called 'Asche'). Under this follows a regularly strati-
fied fetid limestone, or Zechstein in its more narrow sense : this
passes underneath into a bituminous marl slate, whose lowest
portion, 10 to 20 inches thick, forms the copper-slate. Under
this follows a white or gray marly sandstone, in part conglo-
merate, called white-bed or gray-bed (Weissliegendes or Grau-
liegendes)] which also contains copper ores in places. This
white-bed, 1 to 4 feet thick, is distinctly separated by its dif-
ferent color, and by overlapping, from the red bed, on which
it lies.
The metalliferous strata of the formation can be divided,
according to Freiesleberi ; into
capping stratum,
copper- slate, and
white-bed.
The capping stratum is a firm bituminous marl-slate, which
at times contains copper ores, but is, as a rule, unworkable.
The ores occurring here and there in it, are : iron pyrites, copper
pyrites, copper glance, erubescite, red copper, malachite, azurite,
very rarely also somewhat of galena. These ores are either
finely disseminated, form thin plates or threads, or fill very fine
clefts. The thickness of the stratum is 4 6 feet.
The copper-slate consists essentially of a dark bituminous
marl-slate, 10 20 inches thick, in which copper and iron minerals
are distributed in unequal quantities. Besides copper and iron,
occur the metals silver, cobalt, nickel, zinc, lead, bismuth, and
arsenic. Both the quantity and quality, of these ore-admixtures,
THURINGIA, AND HESSE. 167
are locally very different. They are in part very finely or in-
visibly disseminated, in part form thin layers, small pockets,
nests, or the filling of fissures. The ores, which have been re-
cognised in the copper-slate, are: copper pyrites, copper glance,
erubescite. native copper, tetrahedrite, melaconite, red copper,
native silver (very rare), galena (rare), iron pyrites ; brown and
black blende, copper nickel, earthy cobalt; cobaltine, bismuth,
antimony, and arsenic (the last four very rare). Only the lower
half of the slate is generally rich enough to be worth smelting.
The white-bed consists of sandstone, coarse conglomeritic
sandstone, sandy or calcareous marl, of a grayish or almost
white color. This is at times penetrated, in its upper layers, by
streaks of ore, which is then called sand-ore. The ores, found in
it, are: copper pyrites (the most common), copper glance, iron py-
rites, galena, native bismuth, and blende: more rarely, native
copper, azurite, malachite, copper nickel, and molybdenite. The
ores are disseminated, and mixed in with the rocks, or form
veins and threads: the malachite, and azurite, also small nodules.
The other minerals found are: calc. spar, gypsum, heavy spar,
mica, asphaltum, and coal. Almost the only petrifactions found
are the remains of plants.
The members of the metalliferous strata show many modi-
fications, when examined in detail. All the members do not
every where occur, they are not every where of the same thick-
ness, and not- altogether composed alike.
The metalliferous portion is most fully developed in the
region lying between Hettstadt and Gerbstadt, somewhat more
simply near Eisleben and Sangerhausen. The regular bedding of
these strata is frequently disturbed, both in Mansfeld and the
Thuringian Forest, by so-called backs. By the term back, the Mans-
feld miner understands all disturbances of the regular bedding;
that is, all tiltings, basins, saddles, narrowings of the beds, and
true intersecting or faulting fissures. These backs seldom con-
tain ores, while they appear to have often exerted an influence
on the metalliferous contents of the strata traversed. This in-
fluence is shown by an encrease or decrease in the amount of
ores, not only in the immediate neighborhood, but at times for
a considerable distance, even to the next back ; it is also proved
by the ores being transposed from one layer to another. But all
the backs are not accompanied by such changes, many exerted
no influence, especially true fissures or vein-backs; while the
168 COPPER-SLATES IN THE HARTZ,
other disturbances of the bedding, which only caused flexures
without cutting through the strata, and in consequence narrow-
ings, breaks or divisions of.. the beds,, are mostly injurious. It
is remarkable, that the chief backs,' whose fissures contain a
non-rnetalliferous matrix, or at the most now and then some-
what of iron and copper pyrites, appear to have considerably
enriched the copper-slate, and sand-ore, even to twice its gene-
ral percentage. These, and the fissures branching from them,
are, what enriching junctions are in vein-mining. This enrich-
ment extends into the fetid limestone, the so-called capping rock,,
especially around Sangerhausen.
Baumler states, that recognizable nickel-ores occur only in
the vein-backs, while, in the copper-slate itself, they occur only
in an imperceptible condition.
Kiffhauser. A large quantity of copper-slate was for-
merly removed from the base of this small mountain, which
rises in the Thuringian basin.
Thuringian Forest. The Zechstein formation can be
followed in all its strata, along the northern base of this moun-
tain-chain. It has been found metalliferous, and been exploited,
at the following places:
A. Saalfeld and Camsdorf. In this district the prin-
cipal portions worked were, and still are, the so-called backs,
which, as mentioned, are veins traversing the zechstein and cop-
per-slate, and frequently causing faults. These are princi-
pally cobaltiferous in the niveau of the copper-slates; and even
the copper- slate, which is itself hardly exploitable, is impreg-
nated with cobalt ores in the neighborhood of these.
Tantscher, who described these deposits, distinguishes three
so-called 'cobalt depths', or geological niveaus.
The lowest 'cobalt depth', which is that portion of the veins
between decomposed clay-slate and the white-beds, contains
smaltine, tetrahedrite, earthy olivenite, copper nickel, and cop-
per pyrites. The second or middle 'cobalt depth', between the
lime-stratum and the copper-slate, also immediately above this,
contains brown, yellow, and green, earth-cobalt; erythrine, tet-
rahedrite, rarely smaltine, never copper nickel. The third or
upper 'cobalt depth', between the magnesian limestone, contains
only black earth-cobalt (cobaltiferous wad); which has often
penetrated for a considerable distance into fissures of the lime-
stone, and even into the mass of the same.
THURINGIA, AND HESSE. 169
B. 1 1m en an. Large quantities of copper-slate were for-
merly obtained at this locality. Recent examinations have ,
proved, that the bed was not thick enough, being 6 to 10 in-
ches thick, to be profitably exploited at the present condition
of prices.
C. Katterfeld and Fischbach. The copper-slates were
here also extensively worked; but the mines had to be aban-
doned on account of the encrease in the price of labor and fuel.
The Zeclistein formation can be followed^ at the south-
western base of the Thuringian Forest, from Landnoden to the
neighborhood of 8uhl. It was formerly mined in the following
localities.
D. Schweina and Gliicksbrunn. At these localities
the veins traversing the zechstein, were those principally ex-
ploited. They contained, in the copper-slates and white-beds;
copper, nickel, cobalt, and silver ores: above and beneath these,
only heavy spar and clay.
E. Alsbach. Numerous heaps of rubbish show, that the
copper-slates were formerly extensively worked.
Riegelsdorfin Hesse. The Zechstein formation crops
out here for a short distance, under the Buntsandstein (varie-
gated sandstone). The copper-slate forms the lowest bed, 4 6
inches thick, of the bituminous marl-slate; and contains finely
disseminated copper pyrites, tetrahedrite, earthy chrysocolla;
more rarely red copper, vnelaconite, and native copper. The
white-bed beneath it, 3 to 18 fathoms thick, also contains at
times in its upper layer, only one inch thick, copper ores, which
are then called sand- ores. The veins, or backs, strike in vari-
ous directions, their breadth encreasing from the smallest dimen-
sions to 4 fathoms. They vary considerably, as to their extent,
in the direction of strike and dip; many of them forming fis-
sures of only a few inches. Some of them, however, have pro-
duced faults of over 28 fathoms; and they must, of course, be
of considerable extent in the direction of strike and dip. These
lodes frequently split up into branches.
The following minerals occur : calc. spar, calc. sinter, brown
spar, dolomite, pharmacolith, quartz, heavy spar, anhydrite, gyp-
sum, iron pyrites, smaltine, copper nickel, copper pyrites, tetra-
hedrite, galena, ochreous limonite, hausmannite, cobaltiferous
wad, erythrine, annabergite, azurite, and earthy olivenite.
Heuser has distinguished 9 different vein-formations accord-
170 STADT-BERGE, AND
ing to the grouping of these minerals; but as these have been
% caused by slight differences in the manner or time of their for-
mation, it is sufficient to mention them.
The influence of the country-rock, on the local composition
of the lodes, is here very perceptible. Heuser says, that the
lodes (containing cobalt ores) are the richest in the white-beds,
while they decrease in the fetid limestone (Zechstein): and,
when the lodes extend to so great a depth, are entirely barren
in the red beds. This rule has been confirmed by the most
varied experience. Still it has its exceptions; since the lodes
have been found at times very rich in the fetid limestone. The
cobalt-ores have also penetrated, at times, from the lodes into
the wall-rock. The copper-slates often have their copper ores
replaced by cobalt ones.
Besides the veins (or filled fissures), occur so-called 'chan-
ges': These are really nothing more than unfilled fissures, or
cracks, which are frequently combined with faults of upwards
of 25 fathoms. They cut through, and generally fault the veins
also. They principally strike N. S. and are parallel to the
southern dip of the strata; while the richer veins mostly are
parallel to the strike of these last, and are intersected by the
'changes' at right angles.
Stadtberge and Frankenberg in Hesse. The Zecli-
stein formation again occurs with somewhat of copper, on the
eastern edge of the Rhenish Devonian and Subcarboniferous dis-
trict, under the Buntsand stein. According to Buff, there are
many more copper-containing strata, or zones, to be recognised,
than in Thuringia, without the total amount of ore being greater.
Of course, this greater distribution is not advantageous to mining.
The strata, of the formation at Stadtberge, are:
cellular limestone, 7 10 feet,
cellular wacke, 2175 feet,
fetid limestone, 35-40 feet.
Even the thinly stratified fetid limestone contains here and
there copper-glance finely disseminated in layers, and in its fis-
sures oxidised salts of copper. In its lower layers it alternates
with 10 to 30 beds of the copper-slates, each of which is l j % to
2 inches thick; while they occupy, with the interstratified non-
metalliferous rock, a total thickness of J / 2 to several fathoms.
They consist partly of a crumbling, partly of a common marl-
slate. The predominating ores in them are principally: earthy
FRANKENBERG IN HESSE. 171
chrysocolla (malachite?), and azurite, which cover the cleavage-
fissures. The firmer varieties appear to contain considerable
quantities of very finely disseminated sulphurets. These last
are probably here, as elsewhere, the original ores, the first
mentioned being secondary products, during the formation of
which the condition of the slate has been altered, so as to form
a crumbling mass. The amount of ore is always less on saddles,
and near disturbing fissures, but especially near the outcrop,
than in basins and towards the depth.
This formation is also traversed by veins, or backs, which
penetrate into the Devonian strata and contain a little copper
ore. Their matrix is principally white clay, with nodules of
copper glance, and distributed chrysocolla. By the penetration
of one of the backs into the underlying siliceous slate, this was
found to contain somewhat of copper in its numerous cracks.
At Frankenberg the strata of the Zechstein formation, com-
mencing with the upper ones, are:
Reddish-gray limestone, at times with plates of mica, only a thin layer.
Yellowish-gray cellular limestone, about 3 feet.
Variegated clay, 21 feet.
Brownish-gray fine granular sandstone with somewhat of mica, only a
thin layer.
Brownish-gray argillaceous shale, at times containing ores, about 3 feet.
Greenish-gray limestone, 3 feet.
Bluish-gray argillaceous shale, about 7 feet.
Reddish-gray limestone, 2 to 4 inches.
Ore-bed, a bluish-gray, slaty clay with darker stripes, 6 to 14 inches.
Reddish, fine granular sandstone.
Devonian.
The ore-bed proper, consisting of light crumbling clay, does
not contain the ores microscopically disseminated as in the cop-
per slate proper, but as the remains of plants converted into
ores. Stalk, fruit, and leaves, are converted into tetrahedrite,
copper glance, and marcasite: iron pyrites occurs but seldom,
copper pyrites never. These plants are converted often into
coal, and have threads of ore running through them, at times
to anthracite and without ore.
Sp ess art. This uniform mountain-ridge consists almost
entirely of variegated sandstone ; but in some places, especially
at the foot of the mountains, older rocks and strata crop out
from beneath it, among which is also the zechstein formation.
This is mined in several localities of the westerly edge adjoin-
ing Wetterau.
172 SPESSART IN HESSE.
The bedding and strata of the formation in this neighbor-
hood are, commencing with the upper ones, according to Von
Klipstein, the following:
Ironstone bed.
Bituminous limestone.
Copper-clay.
Copper-slate.
White-beds.
Red-beds.
Mica-schist.
This general stratification is modified in its details at vari-
ous localities, but all the beds can be referred back to the pre-
ceding normal formation. The special relations of the bedding
and ore contents are best known around Bieber, on which ac-
count I will describe this locality alone.
The iron-stone bed, the upper member of the zechstein
in this region, is overlaid by a limestone at Rohrig and Biichel-
bach, and averages 7 8 feet in thickness, but is at times even
18 feet. It consists of M very good and pure limonite, which
only contains small quantities of ochreous iron and psilomelane
mixed with it. The bed contains numerous geodes, whose walls
are covered with stalactitic limonite, and psilomelane. There are
found in the bed fibrous, massive, stalactitic, reniform, and botry-
oidal limonite, similar varieties of psilomelane, yellow, brown,
and red, ochreous iron, specular iron, and pyrolusite.
The bituminous limestone is thinly stratified in its up-
per portion, but becomes massive at a greater depth.
The copper-clay is a very clayey schistose marl with
slight traces of ores : in its lower portions it passes into bitumi-
mous marl-slate, several fathoms in thickness, whose lowest bed
forms the copper-slate proper, and contains copper ores finely
disseminated through it. Besides the copper ores are found
somewhat of tetrahedrite, cobalt, and bismuth ore: these last
only in the neighborhood of the intersecting veins, being pro-
bably impregnations from these. The copper-slate is vesicular
in many places, and frequently contains heavy spar in its cel-
lular cavities, on which occur small plates of silver tetrahedrite.
The white-bed contains boulders of granite, gneiss, mica-
schist, and various porphyries in a conglomerate, but no ores :
it gradually passes in its lower portion into the red-beds, in
common with which it fills depressions in the surface of the mica-
schist. It attains a thickness of ! /a to 56 feet.
RHINE, GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
173
All these strata are traversed by veins, which also extend
into a mica-schist, causing many faults, and in some places
throwing the strata 70 feet. Their matrix, 1 to 3 feet broad,
contains heavy spar, and spathic iron, with copper nickel, tetra-
hedrite, cobalt, and bismuth ores. The ores are irregularly dis-
tributed, and remarkably enough occur principally in the
mica-schist. They form in this respect a great contrast to those
of the Hartz, and Thuringian Forest, in not containing the ores
in the niveau of the copper slate. The impregnations from these
lodes, on the other hand, are chiefly found in the bituminous
marl-slate.
V. THE KHINE.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
110. This district is included between the following
cities lying on its outer border: Bingen, Luxemburg, Sedan,
Charlemont, Liege, Aix-la-Chapelle, Diiren, Bonn, Duisburg,
Dortmund, Waldeck, and Friedberg. It is a large extent of
country, but forms a geological whole.
It is principally composed of Devonian strata, which have
been tilted and upturned in a SW. NE. direction, and form an
elevated plateau, having an average height of 1100 to 1500 feet
above the sea. At its southwesterly edge, in the Hundsruck
and Taunus, occur quartzose unfossiliferous strata; on its north-
western edge it is overlaid by strata of the Subcarboniferous
and Carboniferous formations.
The members of these formations are, commencing with the
uppermost, in general the following :
According to Von Dechen In part, according to Sandberger.
Upper Millstone grit.
Carboniferous zone.
Millstone grit.
Carboniferous shale and sandstone,
with coal-beds and black-band.
Millstone grit.
Subcarboniferous strata,
siliceous slate, shaly sand-
stone, tabular limestone, and
Posidonomya slate.
Mountain limestone.
Subcarboniferous strata consisting
of Posidonomya slate, siliceous slate,
alum shale, clay-slate, and bitu-
minous limestone.
174
RHINE, GEOLOGICAL FORMATION
According to Von Dechen. ! In part, according to Sandberger.
Verenulli slate, a sandy clay
rock.
Kramenzel, consisting of
sandstone and concretions
of limestone in slate.
Flinz (Goniatite slate).
Eifel limestone and
Stringocephalus limestone.
Lenne slate, sandy clay
rocks containing beds of
limestone.
Wissenbach slate.
Older Rhenish Graywacke,
(Spirifer sandstone) with
beds of limestone.
Cypridina slate, clay-slate, and
siliceous slate.
Schalstein, combined with green-
stone, hematite, and limonite. Not
strictly confined to this mveau.
Gray and green schists, with lime
concretions (Kramenzelstein}. Clay-
slate, with thin layers of limestone
(Flinz).
Stringocephalus limestone. Eifel
limestone, and magnesian limestone,
alternating with marl, slate, and
sandstone.
Spirifer sandstone, or Rhenish
Graywacke.
Ardennes shales, unfossili-
ferous and semi-crystalline.
Taunus shales, clay-slate, talc-
schist, and quartzite, without or-
ganic remains.
Zechstein and Buntsandstein on the outer eastern' edges,
southerly Rotliliegendes and tertiary deposits, overlie these
older strata; while Buntsandstein and Muschelkalk occur in a
depression between Luxemburg and Diiren, cretaceous to the
North and lignite on the heights near the Wester-Forest. These
formations [are frequently broken through by greenstones,
basalts, and trachytes; where the Lenne slates occur, by quartz-
porphyries. Granite, gneiss, and mica-schist, Have never been
found.
The ore-deposits of this large district are very numerous,
and of a very varied character. Of course they cannot all be
here described in detail, I will describe in the following order:
1. Iron deposits.
2. Manganese deposits.
3. Smithsonite deposits occurring in Devonian and Mountain
limestone.
4. Copper, lead, silver, nickel, and cobalt lodes in the De-
vonian district.
IRON ORES IN WESTPHALIA, etc. 175
5. Antimony lodes.
6. The lead-deposits in the Buntsandstein of Commern.
7. Gold deposits.
IRON ORES IN THE CARBONIFEROUS FORMATION.
111. In Westphalia. 1 The Carboniferous formation of
Ruhr district in Westphalia contains, especially at Essen, Bochum,
and Horde, parallel deposits of the so-called Kohleneisenstein,
corresponding to the English blackband; it consists of an inti-
mate mixture of spathic iron, coal, and somewhat of silicate of
alumina. It was long mistaken for coal-shale, on account of
its slaty texture and black color; it contains in places so much
phosphorus as not to be worth smelting.
At Horde, six to eight beds are known to exist. Lottner
determined the bedding and thickness at one point to be the
following :
Ironstone . $&&'&.~l *:'*: ,-* f ;*; 56 inches.
Shale with a streak of iron-stone . . 45 "
Ironstone, locally replacing a coalbed 33 "
Ironstone . . ";V - -V/. ' . V'': -. 52 "
Slate . . -.-I-.'/ V'?^'-*j -M^. 18
Ironstone . . -.* .* .~?&-i&~Ai &**. 4 "
Ironstone . . . .-/ *^^'j?--:*^t^ 10 "
Besides the compact beds, nodular concretions are also fre-
quent in the shales of this coal formation; while Schnabel found
a bed, 24 feet thick, in the Charlottenburg mine at Bochum;
which was, however, cut off in numerous places by shale. All
these deposits are evidently of contemporaneous formation with
the coal-formation, and were formed from fresh-water deposits, as
they contain fresh-water fossils. The question has not yet been
satisfactorily explained, as to how the carbonafe of iron was
formed.
Around Saarbruck. 2 The ironstone deposits, of the Carbo-
niferous formation around Saarbriick, are generally richer than
1 See: Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1852, p. 74; Herold, in Verhandl. d.
naturh. Vereins d. preuss. Rheinlande, 1852, IX. p. 606; Carnall, in Zeitsch.
d. deutsch. geolog. Gesell. 1851, III. p. 3; Noggerath, in Jahrb. der geol.
Reichsanst. 1852, p. 133; Schnabel (Analyses), in Poggend. Annal. vol. LXXX.
p. 441 ; Lottner, Geogn. Skizze d. westphal. Steinkohlengebirges, 1859, p. 114>
2 See: Schmidt, in Noggerath's Rheinland-Westphalen, vol. IV. p. 97;
Noggerath, in same. vol. IV. p. 382.
176 IRON-DEPOSITS IN DEVONIAN.
those of the Ruhr. The deposits are composed of brown sphero-
siderite; the beds consist chiefly of lenticular concretions. These
concretions frequently contain in thejr interior the fossil remains
of plants, fish of the Genus Amblypterus or Saurians (Arche-
gosaurus). The strata composed of the spheroids form regular
beds between the coal shales, especially at Lehrbach, and Borsch-
weiler, where they are extensively exploited and smelted.
Beds of spherosiderite are also found in the lignite near Bonn.
IRON DEPOSITS IN THE DEVONIAN.
112. Many and various iron deposits occur in the Rhenish
Devonian, of which only a few can be mentioned. The same
occur as beds, fissure-lodes, contact-lodes, and segregations, on
the edges of greenstones, basalts, and porphyries; finally also
as surface-deposits.
Ironstone beds. 1 The eastern, especially the south-
eastern, portion of the Rhenish Devonian contains in the neigh-
borhood of Dillenburg, Wetzlar, etc. a large number of hematite
beds mostly associated with Sclialstein. 2 These often have a
very irregular form, and might on this account be easily
mistaken for segregated masses, were it not, that the fossils
they at times contain, prove them to have been formed contem-
poraneously with the 'other Devonian strata. According to Sand-
berger, these iron ore beds are always found associated with
diabase or schalstein ; they are frequently bounded by these on
one side, while they are surrounded by Cypridina slates on the
1 See: Buff, in Karsten's Arch. 1833. vol. VI. p. 440; Sandberger.
Uebers. d. geol. Verb. v. Nassau. 1847, p. 127 ; and in Leonhard's Jahrb.
1854, p. 455; Stifft, Geogn. Beschreib. d. Herzogth. Nassau, 1831, pp. 480,
485, and 486; Becher, Mineral. Beschreib. d. Nassauischen Lande; Klip-
stein, inZeitsch. d. deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch. 1853, p. 523; and in Gemein-
niitzige Nachrichten z. Forderung d. Bergbau- u. Huttenwesens, 1859. II.
2 Cotta says in his Lithology : 'So many rocks have been described
under the name of Sclialstein, that we can only say in general, that by it is
understood a laminated rock interspersed with small particles of calc. spar.
In Nassau, the base or matrix appears to be a very fine somewhat laminated
greenstone-tufa, which contains calc. spar in grains or thin layers of green, gray
or variegated spotted color. In some places, however, this rock partakes of
the character of breccia, or is porphyritic by reason of crystals of labradorite.
or it is amygdaloidal, or is even penetrated by clay-slate and chlorite schist."
Lawrence's Translation.
NASSAU BEDS. GREENSTONE DOMES. 177
others; they contain nearly all the fossils belonging to the
Stringocephalus limestone. .About 5, to 6,00 mines are worked
on these beds in Nassau. Stifft says of this region: 'The
hematite forms curved and faulted beds in scliahtein and green-
stone, in which fossils occasionally occurred; they were distin-
guished as 'Fluss' beds, with which calc. spar was combined, and
siliceous beds, mixed with common and ferruginous quartz. The
first often lie entirely in the schalstein^ while greenstone or
amygdaloid forms, at the most, the hanging- wall, never the foot-
wall, of these; the last are found entirely in diorite, and pecu-
liarly irregular in shape ' Buff found their thickness to vary
between 4 and 7 feet, and their superficial area to be seldom
more than a few hundred square fathoms. In addition to the
hematite, limonite is also found generally associated with lime-
stone (Allendorf, Katzenellenbogen).
Somewhat northerly of Stockhausen on the Lahn, occurs
on the Lohr mountain an iron ore-bed in schalstein near its
contact with labradorite porphyry. Von Klipstein says of it:
'On the southerly slope of the Lohr mountain, the Bernhard
mme is worked on this bed, where it crops out under the labra-
dor porphyry; the iron ore being only extracted at the outcrop-
ping of the bed, where it exhibits a peculiar character. The
mass of the bed, which overlies the amygdaloid of the Lohr
mountain, has not yet been opened to the hanging- wall ; it is
entirely broken up into branches at the outcrop, and rendered
impure by fragments of schalstein. It consists of a very ferruginous
red clayey mass, which encloses a number of leaders of pure
hematite. At some distance from the hanging-wall, considerable
brown ferruginous schalstein can be observed.'
Southerly of Brilon ! in Westphalia, a chain of greenstone
domes (labrador porphyry) occurs in the upper Devonian, or
more specially between the Lenne slates and Kramenzel, and
parallel to their strata. These domes, where they join the Kra-
menzel, are frequently accompanied by hematite masses, which
might from their shape be termed irregular lenses, or contact-
segregations ; but they frequently contain Devonian fossils, and
must consequently be contemporaneously formed beds of a some-
what irregular shape.
1 See: Castendy ck, inZeitsch. d. deutsch. geolo. Gesellsch. 1855, p. 253;
Stein, in same, 1860, p. 208.
12
178 IRONSTONE-LODES.
The same develop the greatest thickness (3 fathoms) on the
Eisenberg (Iron Mountain) ; and here, as in the surrounding
neighborhood, it appears that their thickness, as a rule, decreases,
where the proportion of lime in the Kramenzel encreases, and
the reverse. When the last consists of compact limestone, the
iron ore bed entirely disappears; and it seems from this, that in
the present case the iron ore bed and limestone mutually replace
one another.
Ironstone lodes. Lodes of spathic iron, whose matrix
has been partly altered to limonite, frequently occur in the
Devonian district. They at times contain, as in the Saxon
Voigtland, somewhat of copper pyrites; and thus form gradual
transitions into copper lodes containing spathic iron, which are
in turn closely related to quartzose lodes containing galena and
blende. We see deposits and phenomena recurring in the
Rhenish Devonian, like those with which we have already become
acquainted in the Fichtelgebirge, 90.
The Stahl Mountain near Mtisen in the County of Siegen
affords a good example. I am aware of but one description,
that of Schulze, 1 written in 1819, of this locality; I use his de-
scription as a basis, filling it out from my recollections of a visit
I made to it in 1830.
Schulze says: 'This deposit is neither a vein ^ nor a bed,
neither does it coincide with the idea of a Stockwerk.' It
appeared to me to be a broad but irregular vein. The lode
traverses the slates at an acute angle; it commences south-
easterly, as a very broad but pure mass of spathic iron, and
soon attains, in its strike toward NW., a breadth of 50 55 feet,
while still farther in the same direction it splits up into nume-
rous branches. The rock between these branches is clay-slate.
Where the pure matrix of spathic iron begins to branch, the
clay-slate is still mixed with a considerable amount of the same,
which is entirely wanting at a greater distance. At a length
of about 90 fathoms the clay-slate penetrates into the branches
of, and through the ironstone, so that only a slate, traversed by
small veins of spathic iron, can be seen; and* the previously
perceptible walls of the branches disappear. The branches attain
1 See: Schulze, in Leonhard's Taschenb. 1820, p. 582; Buff, in Nogge-
rath's Rheinland-Westphalen, vol. II. p. 169; Schmid, in same, vol. II.
p. 216; Von Dec hen, in same, vol. II. p. 42.
HUNDSRUECK IRON-ORES. 179
at times a breadth of 15 feet, are innumerable, and after sepa-
rating frequently again unite.
According to my recollection, somewhat of copper pyrites
is at times found at the selvages of this broad and irregular
lode of spathic iron. Toward SE., it is cut off and faulted by
a fissure, "the portion thrown has not been again discovered.
Several other lodes of spathic iron occur at the Martins-
haart ; those of the Schwaben mine contain argentiferous tetrahed-
rite and galena, while in others cerusite, anglesite, and blende,
are found.
Buff has described an interesting independently occurring
hematite lode, near the village of Faule Butter in the Wilde-
wiese Mountains. The same, occurs in the Devonian district,
within a vein of conglomerate, 24 fathoms broad. The con-
glomerate vein is formed of boulders of the Devonian, cemented
together by clay. The hematite lode attains a breadth of 3 7
feet, and dips 80 towards W. Small clay-dikes intersect it,
and contain, like the lode itself, small boulders belonging to the
Devonian slate.
Another very interesting case is that of the limonite lode
at the Alte Birke mine near Siegen. The same is diagonally
intersected by a perpendicular dike of wacke, which passes into
spherically jointed basalt, and is enclosed by selvages of jasper.
The limonite has become somewhat magnetic at the point of
intersection 5 that is, it contains grains of magnetite, which have
evidently been formed by the once igneous- fluid basalt: this
latter has at the present time been partially decomposed to wacke.
' .' "'.'".:
IRON ORES IN THE HUNDSRUECK. '
113. The Hundsriick, on the left bank of the Rhine,
consists principally of unfossiliferous clay-slate, with subordinate
beds of quartzite. It is geologically a very uniform region, in
which occur tolerably frequent iron ore deposits of two different
kinds. The first consist of bedlike impregnations, and of veins
in clay-slate/ the others of surface-deposits of limonite. The Hunds-
riick ore-deposits occur mostly in the Simmern and Zell circuits.
Impregnations. The soft, decomposed clay-slate is entirely
penetrated, in certain zones, by hydrated peroxide of iron, as
1 See: Noggerath, in Karsten's Archiv, 1842, vol. XVI. p. 470.
12*
180 LIMONITE LODES. SURFACE-,
well in its cleavage and cross fissures, as also in its mass; so
that it is converted into an Impure, still schistose limonite. Only
in the fissures, where there .was more room, has the same been
formed as a~massive or even fibrous" limonite, which occurs at
times in stalactitic shapes. The same frequently also contains
somewhat of pyrolusite. It appears doubtful, whether the iron-
ore was originally deposited with the clay-slate, and was sub-
sequently concentrated in the fissures, whether it is the product
of decomposed pyrites, or whether it has subsequently penetrated
from without.
The limonite lodes, in the clay-slate of the same region,
seem to have been originally quartz veins, into which hydrated
peroxide of iron has subsequently penetrated; partly, in that
it filled and widened innumerable cracks in the quartz, and thus
formed a sort of breccia, adjoining fragments, of which can still
be seem to have once belonged to it; partly, in that it was
chiefly deposited at the selvages of the quartz veins in such a
manner, that the outer layers of the lode are of more recent
formation than the central one. These lodes strike and dip in
various directions, at times parallel to the cleavage, as bedded
veins, frequently intersecting and faulting one another. They
also contain manganese ores in places, which are generally found
in the decomposed clay-slate (entirely penetrated by hydrated
peroxide of iron). They may thus be regarded as a modification
of the impregnation-fissures.
Surface-Deposits. These cover the much tilted clay-
slates, and consist of variegated clay, in which the iron-ore
occurs in irregular or spherical nodules, mostly collected in
layers. The clay at times alternates with layers of a sharp
white sand, or of small, rounded pebbles of white quartz. The
nodules of limonite often contain considerable psilomelane.
Noggerath considers these to be Tertiary deposits of the
age of the lignite formation (at Bonn). Their thickness and
special nature is very variable.
MANGANESE DEPOSITS. 1
114. These deposits are only found to any extent in the
southeastern portion of the Rhenish mountainous region, and
1 See: Von Klipstein, in Karsten's Arch. 1843, p. 265; Sandberger.
Uebersicht d geol. Verhaltn. d. Herzogth Nassau, 1847, p. 130; Gutberlet,
in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1855, p. 317.
AND MANGANESE, DEPOSITS. 181
appear to be chiefly combined with the magnesian limestone of
the Devonian formation.
Von Klipstein has fully described the interesting occurrence
Of Klein-Linden in the valley of the Lahn. In addition to some
impregnations in the dolomite, which have partly proceeded
from a vein ; nodular concretions of manganese ores are found
in clay on the surface of the dolomite, which are only covered
by a thin stratum of earth. In the lower stratum, next to the
dolomite, are found concretions of psilomelane, while in the
upper stratum, on the contrary, only those of pyrolusite. This
stratum contains considerable oxide of iron here and there on
its surface.
Surface soil. Clay containing peroxide of iron.
> y~ -/\ r ^\
I am unable to state, whether these nodules are portions of
a former deposit, which have been washed away from it, and
collected here ; or concretions formed on the spot. They were
evidently, at the time of their formation or deposit, composed
of pyrolusite, which has been converted in the upper stratum
into psilomelane, by the penetration of water.
Grutberlet has also described a rather peculiar occurrence
of manganese ores on the Miihl Mountain near Eimerode. This
mountain consists of Devonian clay-slate overlaid by strata of
siliceous slate and limestone. Five fissures traverse the siliceous
slate and limestone, nearly at right angles, from the hanging-
to the foot-wall, where they suddenly cease. These fissures, as
well as a number of isolated pockets, and nests, contain pyro-
lusite. These fissures vary much in breadth ; and small clefts
extend from them sideways. The pyrolusite is associated with
calc. spar, magnesite, clay, and lithomarge. The smaller veins
possess at times very distinct selvages; these consist of magnesite,
then pyrolusite; and the middle is occupied by crystallized calc.
182 ZINC AND LEAD DEPOSITS,
spar, and magnesite, with the clay and lithomarge. The broader
lodes contain many horses of the wall-rock, by which they
are split up into numerous branches.
Some 'other interesting occurrences of manganese ores in
the Rhine district are described by List in Leonhard's Jahr-
buch fur Mineralogie, 1861, p. 186; Volger, in the same, 1861,
p. 336; and Zerrener's 'Die Manganerzbergbaue 1 , 1861.
ZINC AND LEAD DEPOSITS.
'" * X '*
115. In Westphalia. 1 The Devonian Eifel limestone;
which extends from Elberfeld through Iserlohn ; Balve, and
Meschede, to Briloil ; forming a long zone between Lenne slate
and Goniatite slate or more recent strata, contains zinc and
lead ores at several points.
Between Iserlohn and Westrich the same occur mostly on
its limit, as contact-deposits between it and the Lenne slates.
The ores occur in pockets hanging somewhat together, 714
feet broad, containing clay and sand, with calamine, somewhat
of galena, and iron pyrites. Towards the magnesian limestone
they are by no means clearly defined, but pass into its cracks,
and as impregnations into its mass. The calamine masses lying
in clay become rarer, -limestone fragments take their place,
until finally the limestone altogether predominates. Their limits
towards the Lenne slates are, on the contrary, sharply defined.
Both smithsonite and calamine occur; the first forms rounded
and frequently porous masses, the last mostly compact layers.
These ores are evidently of more recent formation, than the
limestone.
Similar deposits exist, in the eastern prolongation of this
Devonian limestone zone, near Altenbiibreii, Brilon, Rosenbeck,
and Bleiwasche. They consist principally of smithsonite, with
somewhat of galena, free of silver, and are here found to be
the richest within 'the limestone, while towards the Lenne slates
they are too poor to be exploited. Castendyck states, that
they are essentially the matrices of very irregular fissures in
the limestone. Reddish sandy clay, calc. spar, cerusite, pyrites,
. l 13ee: Von Dechen, in Noggerath's Rheinland-Westphalen, vol. II. p 37;
Castendyck, in Berg- u. kuttenm. Zeit., 1850, p. 689; Huene, in Zeitsck.
d. deutsch. geolo. Gesellsch. 1852, p. 575; Berggeist, 1860, p. 450.
IN WESTPHALIA. .
183
and limonite, formed by "the decomposition of the last, occur in
these fissures also. The ores are distributed in pockets, or
branches.
Similar deposits are found at Gladbach, easterly of Cologne,
in a' magnesian limestone of like Devonian age, although no
longer in the same zone. Beds of lignite occur immediately
over the magnesian limestone. The surface of the last is ex-
tremely irregular, and the ores occur in depressions of the same,
sometimes on the steep sides, or in fissures. The ores consist
of loose fragments of calamine, smithsonite, and somewhat of galena
enclosed in clay. Single layers of such ore-fragments occur,
even above the limits of the limestone, in the clay of the lignite
formation. Von Huene gave the accompanying section of this
occurrence.
D. Dolomite; T. Clay; g. Calamine; e. Cerusite; K. Lignite; e. Blende.
. In speaking of the origin of this deposit, he says: 'It is a
remarkable fact, that up to the present time, no blende has been
found in the calamine, which had withstood alteration. Such
fragments occur very finely in the broad blende lode of the
Friihling mine at Altenbruck, two miles easterly of Eensberg,
where the blende has been altered into calamine at the out-
cropping of the deposit; and blende is still found in the centre
of larger calamine fragments. The whole occurrence of ores at
Gladbach and Paffrath clearly shows, that these are no longer
in their original deposit, but were washed into the wavelike
184
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE AND BELGIUM.
surface and basins of the limestone at the time the clay of the
lignite formation was deposited. The edges of the fragments
being mostly still sharp, tends to show that they are but a short
distance from the original deposits. 'It is probable that the ore-
fragments ; deposited with the lignite formation ; came from the-
outcrops of similar galena and blende lodes ; such as occur near
Bensberg ; Herkenrath, Altenbriick, etc., but which are there
found traversing Devonian rocks. The fact is curious, however,
that the blende at present found in those lodes is for the most
part coarsely laminar, while that just mentioned occurs in
botryoidal form.'
In the Neighborhood of Aix-la-Chapelle and in
Belgium. 1 The chains of hills in this region consist of Devo-
nian, Carboniferous, and Cretaceous strata. - The first two form
saddles, and basins, the strike of whose folds is from NE. to
SW. The Cretaceous strata lie nearly horizontal, overlapping
the others, but have been mostly destroyed by erosion, so that
the older rocks come to the surface The strata of the older
formations, which are alone of importance to us, are :
Carboniferous formations, mostly coal-shales;
Mountain limestone, frequently dolomitic;
Upper Devonian slates;
Lower Devonian limestones;
Lower Devonian slates.
The zinc ore deposits occur only in x the mountain limestone
or in its limits towards above and below, as shown in the
accompanying section.
Calamine.
Calamine.
a. Cretaceous Deposits.
b. Carboniferous shales.
c. Mountain limestone and dolomite.
d. Upper Devonian slates.
e. Lower Devonian limestones.
f. Lower Devonian slates. Black.
Zinc Deposits.
l See: Braun, in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. gool. Gesellsch. 1857, p. 354; Oeyn-
hausen, in Noggerath's Rheinland-Westphalen. vol. III. p. 200; Berggeist,
1860, p. 452; Delanoue, in Annales des Mines, 1850, XVIII. p. 455; Piot ?
in same, 1844, vol. V. p. 165; Manes, in same, 1821, vol. VI. p. 499;
VEINS. CONTACT-DEPOSITS. 185
It is certainly curious; that the calamine deposits, on the
left side of the Rhine, are found principally in combination
with mountain-limestone; while those on the right side, occur
with the older Devonian strata; as otherwise a great analogy
exists in their geological formation, and they must evidently be
regarded as mutual prolongations of each other, only separated
by the broad valley of the Rhine. From this fact also it fol-
lows, that the ores must be of much more recent formation,
than the magnesian limestones with which they occur, and which
only appear from their chemical nature to have exercised a
re-acting influence on the deposits, entirely independent of their
own geological age.
Max Braun distinguishes in this region :
Veins,
Contact deposits,
Pockets, and ^
Beds;
which all principally contain zinc ores, are intimately related,
and were probably formed contemporaneously. The veins fill
fissures in the mountain-limestone, above and beneath which they
appear to continue as barren cracks: hence their being filled
with ores would seem to have been essentially caused by the
nature of the wall-rock. They contain blende, galena, calc. spar,
and at times quartz, in a combed arrangement.
The contact-deposits occur, resembling segregations more
than beds, at the contact of the limestones with the shales,
principally at the upper and lower limits of the mountain-lime-
stone; although they are also found at the upper limits of the
Devonian limestone. The contact-deposits always occur in connec-
tion with veins, fissures, faults, or breaks, in the stratification;
Bouesnel, in same. 1826, vol. XII. p. 243; Kueloux, in Annales d. travaux
publiques d. Belgique, 1840, vol. VII. and 1851, vol.X; Omalius d'Halloy,
in Bullet, geolo. 1841; Bur at, Etudes sur les gites calaminiferes en Bel-
gique, 1846.
186 POCKETS, BEDS.
and appear to have penetrated from
these between the original strata, ex-
tending over unequal areas. At a
depth where still unaltered, they con-
sist of blende, galena, and iron pyrites ;
while near their outcrop they generally
a. Cretaceous Marl and Diluvium. contain calamine, smiths'onite, galena,
b. Carboniferous shales. cerusite, limonite, clay, and sand. The
d CatUne taining galeUa< accompanying two wood-cuts show two
e. Clay and Limonite. sections in the St. Paul mine at Wel-
f. Mountain limestone. fcenradt.
The pockets are only found in limestone and dolomite,
but as well in those of the Subcarboniferous, as of the Devonian
formation. They occur in connection with the veins, or the
contact-deposits. They sometimes occur in rows parallel to the
stratification, and contain principally calamine, galena, and
cerusite.
The beds are confined to particular strata, which they
accompany for a great distance. For example, a clay-slate layer
of the Carboniferous formation contains a bed of blende and
galena for a length of 1300 fathoms; and a layer of magnesian
limestone, 56 feet thick, in the Devonian shales, contains near
Philippeville in Belgium, considerable galena and blende, disse-
minated in it for an extent of two miles. These are evidently
not true beds, but^ bedlike impregnations; and indeed all these
deposits may be termed impregnations, in the broadesf sense of
the word, i. e. as infiltrations in previously existing rocks.
The adjoining zinc-deposits in Belgium are all of a similar
character to these, on which account I pass them over.
COPPER, LEAD, SILVER, NICKEL, AND COBALT-LODES.
116. The Rhenish Devonian district is traversed in nu-
merous places by veins, whose principal gang is quartz, with
which various kinds of ores are combined. These ores are
either copper ores alone; or copper ores, with blende, and
somewhat of argentiferous galena; or . argentiferous galena, with
blende, and small quantities of copper ores ; or a modification of
the preceding combinations, in which nickel and cobalt ores
also occur. All these various kinds of lodes are so intimately
connected by intermediate steps, that they cannot be divided
RHENISH LODES. HOLZAPPEL GROUP. 187
into separate formations. Stifft indeed divided the veins in the
Devonian of Nassau into two classes:
1. Copper ores with iron pyrites, little galena, blende, and spathic iron:
these poor lodes are stated to traverse the slates at an acute angle.
2. Argentiferous 'lead ores with copper ores, blende, somewhat of smal-
tine, iron pyrites, and spathic iron: these are mostly parallel to the strata.
But since they both contain quartz/ as predominating vein-
stone, it appears to me impossible to separate them definitely
from one another.
I will describe a few cases of these widely extended for-
mations, which do not appear to follow any general direction
of strike.
HOLZAPPEL GROUP. 1
117. The group of lodes, extending from Holzappel on
the Lahn to Welmich and Werlau on the Rhine, traverses the
strata of clay-slate and Devonian schist: it is distinguished by
its length, and the,, richness of several of the lodes forming it.
The strata of the intersected Devonian formation strike as
a rule ENE.-^WSW. and dip 30 70 towards SE., exception-
ally also towards NW. caused by saddles and basins. Their
cleavage frequently varies from their stratification, and even at
times forms right angles with it. Talcose clay-slates occur, com-
bined with the common Devonian strata. It would- seem as if
the formation of this talcose slate had some particular connec-
tion with that of the ore-deposits, as it occurs pretty constantly
near the lodes. A second kind of deposit, which traverses the
Devonian clay-slate in various directions, is composed of quartz
beds and veins ; which last mostly intersect the strata at right
angles, and are always intersected by the lodes. Basalt dikes
are only found outside of the group of lodes.
These Devonian- clay-slate strata contain, partly in- beds,
partly in lodes, iron ores, argentiferous lead, copper, and
zinc ores.
The iron ores either form regular beds between the strata,
or surface-deposits in the Diluvium; or else take part, as spa-
'See: Bauer, in Karsten's Arch. 1840, vol. XV. p. 137; Schneider,
in Leonhard's Taschenb. 1813, p. 326, and Jahrb. 1836, p. 520; and in Nog-
gerath's Rheinland-Westphalen, vol. III. p. 216
188 HOLZAPPEL
\
thic iron, in the composition of the silver, lead, copper, and
zinc veins.
The lodes at Holzappel form the most eastern portion of
the whole group, and consist of three leaders, which probably
unite at a greater depth into one lode. Their strike and dip,
like those of all the lodes of- this group, almost coincide with
the strike and dip of the strata of the country-rock. They are
consequently almost bedded veins; and many observers have
supposed them to be true beds.
Two fissures have faulted these lodes, dividing them into
three portions, in the most easterly of which but one of the
three leaders is known, it being perhaps the niveau at which
all three have united.
The matrix is principally composed of quartz and horn-
stone 'with argentiferous galena and blende. Accompanying
these, as originally formed minerals, are tetrahedrite, copper py-
rites, spathic iron, heavy spar, calc. spar, and dolomite. These
partly alternate in ribbons with one another, partly and predo-
minantly are combined in an irregular granular texture. Clay-
slate is also occasionally found in the matrix. Iron pyrites
occur only near clefts, and appear to belong more to these than
to the lodes. Numerous products of decomposition, and altera-
tion, are found in the upper workings: cerusite, pyromorphite,
anglesite, and cerasine, have been formed from galena. The
blende is represented by smithsonite and goslarite, the tetrahed-
rite and copper pyrites by azurite and malachite, the spathic
iron by limonite and ochreous iron.
The matrix of the lode is separated from the country-rock
by selvages, and at times by friction-surfaces. These friction-
v /
surfaces are generally grooved parallel to the dip of the ore-
zones, hereafter mentioned, and the so-called banks. The
matrix contains no geodes, but is frequently traversed by cross
fissures, which do not extend into the wall-rock, and are covered
by drusy crystallized layers, commonly corresponding to the
crystallized minerals on - which they lie: thus, the quartz is
covered by quartz crystals, the galena by crystals of galena, etc.
The distribution of the ores in the lodes is by no means
regular, it being easy to distinguish rich from poor or barren
zones. These zones slope obliquely to the plane of the lodes
at an angle of 14 20, they are tolerably parallel, both to
one another, and to the line, which the stratification of the
GROUPS, AND LODES.
189
country-rock forms with the plane of the v lode. Since the
grooves of the friction-surfaces follow the same gentle inclination,
the dislocation of the fissures must have been sidewards rather,
than in an up and down direction.
The appearance of the oblique sloping of the ore-masses is
apparently not merely accidental, but was probably caused; in
the first place, by the undeniable influence of the wall-rock on
the deposits of ores, and secondly, by the manner in which the
lode intersects the strata. As regards the influence of the wall-
rock, it is true, it cannot be shown, between which strata the
lode is always rich, and in which it is constantly barren. But
the Holzappel miner's proverb: 'the noble (soft, crumbling) wall-
rock makes an ignoble vein', deserves attention. It is, indeed,
certain, that with such a wall-rock the vein is mostly narrow
and much split, it only continues, as barren strings of quartz,
frequently alternating with plates of slate; that in firmer rock-
strata, on the contrary, it regains its former breadth and ores.
This can be partially explained from the lesser capacity of a
soft rock to retain a fissure within it open; but there is pro-
bably also some other reason, why the matrix contains more
ores in some strata than in others, since the lode appears some-
times less rich in a hard, rough rock.
The walls of the fissures are by no means every where even
and parallel to each other, they show numerous bends and dis-
turbances, which are in part called by the miners 'banks'.
These are, as it were, dams or folds of the lode which gently
incline, being parallel to the stratification and plane of the lode.
Bauer has admirably delineated some of these, the two
wood-cuts are copied from his drawings.
Holzappel lode in the Sophien adit, averaging 25
inches broad, in the bank, in part but 14 inches.
190 LODES ACROSS THE RHINE.
In these two cases, as in other
similar ones, the fine concentri-
cal structure of the cylindrical
projections in the wall-rock are
very striking. The fissures inter-
secting and faulting the lode are
generally filled with clay, but
occasionally "contain spheroidal-
shaped masses of ore, identical
with those in the vein. The
Hoizappei lode in the Herminen country-rock has been frequently
level, 1525 inches brOad. . , f !?
impregnated, from these nssures,
with copper and iron pyrites.
The veins of Oberhof are entirely similar to that of Hoiz-
appei, and form the western prolongation of the same ; but they
have a fourth leader, which contains essentially only quartz and
copper pyrites.
At a distance of about 300 fathoms from and in the foot-
wall of the Oberhof lodes occur the, now abandoned, Weinach
lodes, containing quartz and copper pyrites. In the foot-wall of
these are found the Silbach lodes, five in number. They strike
ENE. WSW. and dip 40 45 towards SE., nearly coincid-
ing with those of the Devonian strata. The breadth of these
lodes is 7 10 inches, their gang is quartz combined with a
talcose mass. The ores are galena, blende, copper pyrites, tet-
rahedrite, and spathic iron: in the upper workings the same
secondary minerals occur, as at Hoizappei.
Similar lodes, with but slight modifications, are known to
extend, in large numbers, from here to the opposite side of the
Rhine, and to the Moselle ; for example, at the Rauschenthal mill
near Sieghofen (with a different strike), at Marierifels (with
veinstone of heavy spar) at Hessisch Weyer, Sachsenhausen,
Ehrenthal, Dahlheim (with admixtures of stibnite), Werlau on the
Rhine (where cross courses of quartz 'at times intersect the vein), at
Niederguntershausen, Alterkulz, Blank erath, and Peters walde.
Bauer has described a curious occurrence in the Sachsenhausen
lode, where it is bent like a hook in the first level, as shown
in the wood-cut.
The wall-rock nearly follows the curve in the lode.
All these lodes, more specially described by Bauer, show
such a similarity, that there can be no doubt, as to their rela-
RHEINBREITENBACH. 191
tion to, and connection with each
other. They lie, for the greater
part, in the western prolongation
of the strike of the Holzappel lode.
The total length of this group,
from Holzappel to Peter swalde, is
36 miles; and in the whole extent
there are but few intervals, where
no lodes occur. All the separate
lodes of the group exhibit a great conformity in their outer and
inner deportment. They are generally accompanied by a white
talcose rock; but whether it exerts any influence on the ore in
the lodes, has not yet been discovered.
' .,
% RHEINBREITENBACH. 1
118. On the Firne Mountain at Rheinbreitenbach, a
broad lode traverses the Devonian strata, tolerably parallel to
the stratification or cleavage, so that it has, on this account,
sometimes been regarded as a bed. The same contains quartz
and hornstone as the chief veinstones; the ores originally formed
in the lode are a mixture of copper glance, and erubescite, with
a little copper pyrites, homichlin, iron pyrites, galena, blende,
and spathic iron. In the upper portions of the lode, and to a
considerable depth below the outcrop, a number of minerals
have been formed by the decomposition of the preceding; viz.
native copper, red copper, ehlite, melaconite, azurite, malachite,
chrysocolla, libethenite, sulphat of copper, cerusite, and limonite.
The mass of the lode, in the undecom posed portion, is
solid, without crystals, or geodes. The lode frequently comes
in contact with a basaltic dike, which is altogether decomposed
near the lode, resembling a greenish gray lode, in the clefts of
which are found thin dendritic leaves of native copper. From
this it would appear that the dike is older than the lode; or,
at least, its decomposition has continued after the formation of
the latter.
'See: Noggerath, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1846, p. 457; S'tifft, Geogn.
Beschr. d. Herzogth. Nassau, p. 460; S.andberger, Uebers. d. geolo. Verb,
d. Herzogth. Nassau, 1847, p. 124; Odernheimer, das Berg- u. Hiitten-
wesen im Herzogthum Nassau, 1863.
192 AGGER VALLEY. DILLENBURG.
AGGER VAtLEY. 1
119. In the neighborhood of.4;he Agger valley, northerly
of Siegburg, I observed a large number of lodes in the Lenne
slates, whose breadth varies from 1 inch to 7 feet. Their matrix
is principally quartz, with copper pyrites, and other copper
ores (partly the products of decomposition), together with
blende, and galena, or even nickel and cobalt ores. These
ores occur, partly associated, in part singly. The direction
and distribution of the veins cannot be referred back to any law.
The Walpot mine has been worked, at intervals, for centuries,
on one of the most important of them. Quartz with copper
pyrites, somewhat of pyrites, and very little blende and galena,
occur mingled with one another in an irregular granular tex-
ture ; frequently forming a sort of breccia with fragments of the
wall - rock.
Riviere mentions over 100 blende and galena lodes, as
occurring in the same neighborhood, on the right bank of the
Rhine, between Coblentz and Diisseldorf, which have a common
strike from ENE. to WSW. He takes this opportunity of ex-
pressing the opinion ; as it appears to me not confirmed by facts ;
that the mass, direction, and period, at which the fissures were
filled by the matrix, all stand in the most intimate mutual con-
nection ; that the Rhenish blende-lodes were formed before the
mountain limestone, and that their partial erosion afforded the
material for the calamine deposits combined with the latter. He
thinks, that the copper lodes, on the contrary, are of more recent
formation, on which the products caused by their partial destruc-
tion are found only in later strata than those of the mountain-
limestone.
DILLENBURG. 2
120. The Devonian formation in the Principality of
Dillenburg, containing schalstein, is also traversed by numerous
1 See: Riviere, in Bullet, de la soc. geol. de France, 184849, vol. VI.
P 171 -
2 See: Stifft, Geogn. Beschr. d Herzogt. Nassau, p. 486; Sandberger,
Uebers. d. geolo. Verb. d. Herzogth. Nassau, p. 125; Klipstein, in Gemein-
niitzige Blatter zur Beforderung d. Bergbau u. Hiittenwesens, r849, vol. I.
DILLENBURG. 193
copper lodes ; which bend so much, as to vary in their strike
from N. S. to WNW. ESE. They have a considerable dip,
frequently send out droppers ; possess a breadth of 1 inch to
6 feet, but at times are entirely compressed. Their vein-stones
are quartz, calc. spar, brown spar, heavy spar, and clay ; while
the ores found are: copper pyrites (predominating), copper
glance, red copper, tile ore, malachite, azurite, and chrysocolla.
The pockets of ore have an oblique dip. Stifft found the dis-
similar influence of the different kinds of wall-rock to be very
striking. In greenstone the principal vein-stone is quartz; the
ores are rich, but few; and clay selvages are wanting. In the
schalstein, calc. spar (brown spar and heavy spar) forms the
chief gang, and serves as a support for the quartz; which suc-
cession is reversed in the greenstone. The ores are more fre-
quent, but not of so rich a character; and contain considerable
iron pyrites, which is almost entirely wanting in the greenstone.
The lodes are accompanied by clay selvages. The most favor-
able rock for ores is the ferruginous variety of schalstein.
Considerable impregnations of copper pyrites occur in the schal-
stein, alongside of the lodes; while the rock is here traversed
only by copper and iron lodes, and veins of heavy spar free of
ores. In the common Devonian strata but little ore occurs in
the lodes, and the predominating quartz is intimately combined
with the wall-rock.
Von Klipstein has also described the lodes around Dillen-
burg, in which quicksilver ores occasionally occur. He states
that the tetrahedrite lodes of the Aurora, Isabella, and other
mines, stand in most intimate connection with the greenstones,
which appear to be the ore-carriers. A group extends from
Rossbach to Roth, which contains tetrahedrite holding mercury
and silver. Cinnobar also occurs in a copper pyrites lode of
the Neuermuth mine at Nanzenbach, while traces of the same
are found in the hematite occurring in the schalstein of the
neighborhood.
Twenty five lodes have, up to the present time, been dis-
covered at Donsbach near Dillenburg, which contain, in a gang
of quartz and calc. spar; copper pyrites, erubescite, coppor
pp. 19, 44, 58, 87; and 1859, vol. II; for other deposits, see also, von Dechen,
in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1856, p. 81; and, Cauchy, in Bullet, de la soc. ge"olo.
de France, vol. III. p. 321.
13
ANTIMONY
glance, covelline, azurite, malachite, tile ore, and somewhat of
iron pyrites. They vary from 3 inches to 5 fathoms in breadth,
strike NNE.-SSW., dip ,60 80^ in SE., but seldom the
reverse; and traverse clay-slate, sclialstein, and hematite beds.
The calcareous hematites evidently exert the most favorable
influence, somewhat less favorable the ferruginous schalsteins,
and the siliceous iron-stones; while the common schal steins, and
clay-slates, are in this connection much less favorable.
The Devonian strata in the neighborhood of Dillenburg *
are traversed by greenstones and pyritous dikes of serpentine.
About 20 veins, resembling one another, have been opened by
the Hilfe-Gottes mine at Nanzenbach, having different directions
of strike; one of these contains nickel ores in sufficient quan-
tities to be exploited. While all the fissures contain a matrix
of calc. spar, and a mineral resembling calc. spar, this one
vein contains an ore-matrix 5 inches broad, consisting of copper
pyrites, riicolliferous iron pyrites, a mineral substance resembling
chrysotile. The amout -of nickel is 3 per-cent, that of copper
12 15 per-cent. Arsenic and cobalt have not been found in
the preceding minerals, but occur at the junction of the lode
with one of the non-metalliferous veins. The junction contains
copper nickel, chloanthite, smaltine, and cobaltine ; similar min-
erals recur at the junction with another vein.
The ores appear to be confined to that portion of the lode,
which traverses a glauconitic rock resembling greenstone, while
they are wanting in the common sandy micaceous slate. This
favorable influence appears to be confined to this single lode,
since the other veins also traverse such rocks without containing
any ores.
ANTIMONY ORE -DEPOSITS.
121. The Rhenish Devonian contains in several locali-
ties, deposits of antimony ores, which occur independently of
all other ore- deposits. I will here describe two cases,
1". Between Wintrop' 2 and Uentrop, a few miles from
1 See: Von Klip stein, Gemeinn. Blatter z. Beford. d. Bergb. u.
Huttenw. 1849, vol. I. pp. 18, 104; Koch, in Cotta's Gangstudien, vol. III.
p. 246; Sandberger, Uebers. d. geol. Verb. d. Herzogth. Nassau, p. 126.
2 See: Buff, in Karsten's Arch. 1827, vol. VI. p. 54, and 1833, 2nd. series,
vol. VI. p. 439; Arndts, in the same, 1824, vol. VIII. p, 272.
ORE-DEPOSITS. 195
Arnsberg, strata of tabular limestone, J /2 I 1 /* ^ eet thick, alter-
nate with clay-slate, alum shale, and siliceous slate. They are
overlaid by the millstone grit of the Carboniferous formation,
and belong to the Subcarboniferous formation. These strata
are, some of them, penetrated by stibnite, as well the bituminous
limestone, as some of the slate layers. The penetration, 2 6
inches thick, occupies chiefly the middle of the strata, and
disappears towards the hanging- and foot-walls, as decreasing dis-
semination. The rocks are less compact, and of a darker color,
so far as the penetration reaches. The massive portions of ore,
in the middle of the strata, enclose at times small fragments of
rock, and the ores penetrate into cracks in the strata. Anti-
mony ochre is found near the surface, as a product of decom-
position. The rock also occasionally contains somewhat of iron
pyrites, blende, calc. spar, and fluor spar. The Caspari mine
had in 1827 opened up 7 of the metalliferous strata; in 1833
already 11. Near these, but without any apparent connection
with them, occur veins of heavy spar, containing copper pyrites,
and bismuth ores; while near Meschede there is a vein con-
taining heavy spar, and calc. spar, with galena, copper pyrites,
and tetrahedrite.
I am not able to decide, from Buff's description, which I
have borrowed, whether this occurrence of antimony ores should
be termed a bed or veins. In the one case, it would be only
a bedlike impregnation; in the other bedded veins; which latter
view indeed is favored by the fragments of wall-rock surrounded
by ores, and the occurrence in limestone and slate.
2. The Hoffnung l antimony mine occurs near Briick on
the Ahr, in the Circle of Adenau. The Devonian slates strike
nearly N. S. and dip 45 in W. The antimony ores form a
zone in these 80 120 feet broad, coursing N. S. which had
been opened up, as being metalliferous, for a length of 560 feet,
in 1827. This zone is only distinguished, besides its containing
ores, from the common Devonian slate, by being somewhat more
fissured.
The ores, consisting of stibnite, with somew 7 hat of iron
pyrites, quartz and brown spar; are found partly in true veins,
partly as impregnations between the planes of stratification, or
the fine cleavage-fissures.
1 See: Erbreich, in Karsten's Arch. 1827, vol. VI. p. 44.
13*
196 COMMERN LEAD-ORE.
The lodes, 6 inches broad, form among themselves a
parallel group, striking ENE. WSW. and dip 40 50 in
South.
.*'
The impregnation-fissures contain only quartz with the ore,
but no iron pyrites.
Erbreich says of the occurrence; that veins occur so near
each other (at distances of 1 7 feet), that the formation of the
fissures at the same time lifted the strata so, that a portion of
the matrix of the lodes penetrated between the layers.
LEAD ORE DEPOSIT NEAR COMMERN. 1
122. The remarkable lead ore deposit of the Bleiberg
(Lead Mountain), near Commern in the Prussian Rhenish
Province, belongs to the Variegated Sandstone formation, which
there immediately overlies the Devonian. The strata of the
former have a gentle dip towards N.; the lowest, immediately
over the Devonian, consists of a coarse conglomerate of com-
pletely rounded Devonian boulders, with a gray quartzose
binding medium. Over this follows a fine, metalliferous sand-
stone, white or yellowish, loosely united, and having pretty
thick strata. These sandstones often contain some irregular
layers of conglomerate, which soon wedge- out.
The sandstones contain ores, for a distance of about 2 miles,
but are less rich towards their outer limits; the same commence
near the surface, and extend with the strata to a depth as yet
unknown; it is stated, that the metalliferous strata are at times
more than 45 fathoms thick. The sandstone is filled, throughout
its whole mass, with grains of galena, varying in size from a
pinhead to that of an apple, the coarser grains being the most
rare, which are distributed with most surprizing regularity.
Larger grains are extremely rare : more commonly they decrease
in size, so as to be barely visible. The interior of these grains
nearly always contains fine sand, cemented together by the
galena. From which it appears to me clear, that the grains
are not found in secondary deposits, which, like a kind
1 See: Von Carnal 1, in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch. 1853,
p. 242; Dartiques, in Journal des mines, 1807, vol. XXII. p. 341; Breit-
haupt, in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1856, p. 7; C. Haber. in Berggeist. 1866,
No. 66; and 1867, Nos. 19, 20, and 22.
GOLD-DEPOSITS. 197
of alluvial deposit, have been only accidentally washed to-
gether with the sand; but that the ore was either formed
contemporaneously with the sandstone, or penetrated it sub-
sequently by a process of impregnation. From the form of
the occurrence, it would appear to be an impregnation. The
grains are here and there changed into cerusite; and Dartiques
states, that they frequently also contain somewhat of blend e, or
are colored green or blue by small amounts of copper. The
percentage of silver they contain, is 1 / 230 oo to Vasoo-
Ore also occurs, though in smaller quantities, in the layers
of conglomerate, within the sandstone, as small threads of pure
galena, without admixtures of sand, evidently deposited in small
cracks, or cavities; consequently, of secondary origin.
The friction-surfaces of the sandstone are curious, the more
so, since the rock is so friable, and since the dislocations,
which have taken place, can only have been for very short
distances. - r -.v .
C. Haber has very recently described this lead ore deposit.
He explains its formation by impregnations, which have pene-
trated from numerous fissures traversing the sandstone. These
fissures appear to be connected with true veins of galena, occur-
ring in the Devonian strata beneath the sandstone.
GOLD-DEPOSITS.
. 123. The oldest account o the occurrence of gold, on
the Eisenberg (Iron Mountain) near Corbach, 1 is to be found
in Agricola: he speaks of gold veins. Bruckmann states, that
gold was obtained from veins only so recently as 1560; but
that Charlemagne opened the first gold-mine near Frankenberg.
Von Eschwege has lately attempted to wash-out the gold in the
river alluvium of the Edder. He obtained the gold in scales,
without finding any particles of rock, to which the same was
attached; proving the existence of gold, but that it was in such
small quantities, as to render its extraction unprofitable.
Dieffenbach was the first, who satisfactorily proved the
1 See: Noggerath, in Karsten's Arch. vol. VII. p. 143; Dreves, in
Leonhard's Jahrb. 1841, p. 553; Gutberlet, in same, 1854, p. 15; and
1857, pp. 513, and 672-, v. Dechen, in same, 1856, p. 81; Dieffenbach,
in same, 1854, p. 3-24.
198 GOLD-DEPOSITS IN
original occurrence of the gold; while Gutberlet has attempted
to give a very singular explanation. As Dieftenbach's description
is very interesting, at least scientifically, I extract from it the
following abridgment.
The Eisenberg near Goldhausen is formed of siliceous and
clay-slates. The first is thinly stratified, much folded, fissured,
and dislocated. Earthy or stalagmitic copper ores occur in its
fissures, especially malachite, azurite, chrysocolla, and earthy red
copper (tile ore). The siliceous slate is much decomposed around
these ores, is soft, and impregnated with carbonate of lime ; the
clefts are often covered with incrustations of calc. spar, dolomite,
or spathic iron; which are at times crystallized. The brown
fragments of the siliceous slate, which are in many places covered
with earthy copper ores, almost have the appearance of a cellular
limestone, and effervesce in acid, although a kernel of siliceous
slate remains. Such fragments are the richest in the percentage
of metal. In other places the siliceous slate forms quartz or
hornstone-like ferruginous masses, of a reddish, yellowish, or
even grayish color; which are traversed by quartz veins. Thin
clay strata of a ferruginous red or brown color occur, here and
there, between the strata of siliceous slate. In other places
large cavities in the slate are filled with melaconite, which can
be obtained in large quantities. The siliceous slate has a very
cellular appearance, especially near the deposits of melaconite;
from which it is probable, that the latter, as well as the
copper salts, and the peroxide of iron, were formed by the
decomposition of iron and copper pyrites. The gold oc-
curs partly in the clefts of the quartzose siliceous slate in
thin dendritic incrustations; or, (and this is the most common
occurrence,) it encrusts the very small rhombohedrons of spathic
iron, which are found on the limestone incrustations of the clefts ;
these consequently have the appearance of gold crystals. The
gold is here evidently of more recent formation. Over these
occasionally occur small rhombohedrons of calc. spar with rounded
edges. The incrustation of gold is at times so thin, that the
crystals have a dull brownish-red color. From attempts at
amalgamating, it has been found, that the entire rock, especially
the red clay % contains gold.
This gold-occurrence tends to show, that the copper ores
are of secondary formation, during which process the gold was
separated. Dieffenbach was unable to find any traces of veins
THE RHINE-DISTRICT. 199
in the siliceous slate, although greenstones occur at a distance
of about two miles. As Dieffenbach was not permitted to make
a more careful examination of the Eisenberg, he was unable
to determine, whether the siliceous slate was at a former period
covered by the copper slates, which are still found in place on
the sides of the mountain, and whose metalliferous stratum
surrounds the mines at Goddelsheim; and, whether similar
relations exist, as 'at Stadtberg, where siliceous slates, fissured
in a precisely similar manner, are still covered by the Zech-
stein formation. It is at least not improbable; and perhaps the
large amount of lime in the siliceous slate comes from the rocks
of the Zechstein. Here and there, perhaps, in the fissures of
the slate, occur fragments of the more recent formation, which
have, in cabinet specimens, a very striking resemblance to the
metalliferous magnesian limestone.
The siliceous slates, of the Subcarboniferous formations, are
frequently metalliferous at the localities mentioned, containing
pyrolusite, iron- and copper-pyrites. Widely extended strata of
the same are indeed nothing else than white or reddish rho-
donite, which when exposed to the air turns as black as coal,
since it becomes encrusted by a very thin layer of manganite.
A portion of these strata is altered into manganite and pyro-
lusite, while a larger portion has been converted into psilomelane.
In other cases the pyrolusite has been more purely concentrated
in. the planes of stratification, or it fills fissures obliquely
traversing the siliceous, or even the clay-slate. But these rocks
every where contain traces of iron and copper pyrites, so that
it is in the highest degree probable, that the siliceous slates will
prove to be the original locality, where the gold of this region was
deposited.
In the sands of the Goldbach, 1 a branch of the Moselle,
gold has only been found, which originated from quartzveins in
the clay-slate of this region. The amount of gold is so small, as
to render its exploitation unprofitable.
'See: Noggerath's Rheinland-Westphalen, vol. 1. p. 141.
200 PALATINATE
VI. THE PALATINATE.
QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS. '
124. Ores of mercury are found, in the eastern portion
of the Saarbriick coal-basin, in lodes, and as impregnations; in
the rocks of the Carboniferous formation, in porphyry, melaphyr,
and amygdaloid.
Von Dechen has given such an excellent synopsis of his
description of these deposits on the Potz Mountain, at Rathsweiler,
Erzweiler, Baumholder, Wolfstein, Katzenbach, Obermoschel,
Bingart, Kreuznach, Weinsheim, Munsterappel, Morsfeld, Nack,
Spitzenberg, and Kirchheim-Bolanden, that I shall confine myself
to extracts from the same.
The quicksilver ores of this district occur in lodes, and as
impregnations which have penetrated from these, in the strata
of the Carboniferous formation, and such igneous rocks as tra-
verse them. These lodes are found, at the Potz Mountain, in
Carboniferous sandstone, and argillaceous shale; at Morsfeld,
in melaphyre-conglomerate, claystone-conglomerate, and clay-
stone; at Rathsweiler, Erzweiler, and Baumholder, in melaphyre
and amygdaloid, frequently much split up into leaders; on the
Konigsberg (Kings Mountain) near Wolfsberg, in quartz porphyry ;
on the Lemberg (Lem Mountain), as irregular branches, and
fissures, in quartz porphyry. They are at times accompanied
by claystones and hornstones of the carboniferous formation,
not found in this region; thus, at Landsberg, Rosswald, Stahl-
berg, and Kellerberg. These horn- and clay- stones pass into com-
mon argillaceous shale, and sandstone. Since they only retain
their peculiar character near the lodes, they may have been
transformed by some peculiar process, which came from the veins
still fragments of the shale and sandstone are occasionally found
in them.
l See: v. Oeynhausen, in Noggerath's Rheinland-Westphalen,
vol. I. p. 256; Burkart, in same, vol. IV. p. 185; v. Dechen, in Karsten's
Arch. 1848, vol. XXII. p. 375; Giimbel, die Quecksilbererze in dem Kohlen-
gebirge der Pfalz.
QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS. 201
No particular connection has yet been discovered between
the veins and melaphyres, although they frequently come in
contact.
The lodes traversing the claystones and hornstones are metal-
liferous, only where these form the country-rock, being destitute
of ores in the shales and sandstones they penetrate. The lodes,
which traverse the common rocks of the Carboniferous formation,
contain ores only in sandstone and conglomerate, and are
destitute of the same in the shales. The veins are accom-
panied by numerous branches, and leaders, which also contain
ores, as well in the common rocks of the Carboniferous, as
in the claystones and hornstones (Potz Mountain, Stahlberg,
Landsberg).
When the sandstone (in part conglomerate), claystone, and
hornstone, form the walls of the veins, they are impregnated
for some distance; while the common argillaceous is not thus
impregnated. A single exception to this last is at Miinsterappel,
where somewhat of cinnabar occurs on impressions of fish in the
shales.
This impregnation occurs in both walls of the fissures,
appearing to be controled by the rock-fissures, and cracks : it
extends to a distance of several fathoms from the lodes. Sandstone-
strata, impregnated with ores, have even been found, which have
no apparent connection with any veins; thus, on the (Forst-
berg) Forest-Mountain near Miinsterappel, and at Waldgrehweiler.
Quicksilver ores have also been found, in the jointings of porphy-
ries, without any apparent connection with true veins; thus
on the Lem Mountain.
The quicksilver lodes of this district form groups, but not
distinctly separable, several lodes occurring at times alongside
of and behind one another, and having a common direction of
strike.
The majority of the ores, both in the veins and country-
rock, are only found to a moderate depth; they have not been
followed to a greater depth than 120 fathoms, but the decrease
with the depth is very perceptible. This decrease is at times
combined with a more gentle dip of the lodes.
The gang of the veins is principally clay, in which the
ores occur disseminated. By far the most frequent of these is
cinnabar in small threads, branches, or geodes, more rarely in
bands, or combs; also, native mercury, amalgam, and calomel.
202 PALATINATE QUICKSILVER-LODES.
Mercuriferous tetraliedrite .is only found in the Sehwarz lode
on the Landsberg. Of other ores are found, although mostly
rare; iron pyrites (in part argentiferous), limonite, compact he-
matite, specular iron, psilomelane, galena, native silver, tetrahed-
rite, copper pyrites, malachite, azurite, chrysocolla, stibnite,
pyrolusite, spathic iron, calc. spar, heavy spar, quartz, hornstone,
red and yellow ferruginous quartz, chalcedony, and asphaltum.
These vein-stones generally form only threads, or crystalline
incrustations of geodes and the sides of clefts. Gumbel observed
the following successions:
1. Hornstone heavy spar iron pyrites cinnabar native mercury.
2. Hornstone semi-opal quartz cinnabar asphaltum.
3. Hornstone fluor spar calc. spar quartz -iron pyrites.
4. Iron pyrites cinnabar heavy spar quartz.
In the district, containing quicksilver lodes, but few others
are .found. Copper lodes occur northerly of Baumholder; near
Berschweiler, Keichenbach, Frauenberg, and Hammerstein; con-
taining copper pyrites, native copper, copper glance, and
malachite. Similar ones occur, in melaphyre, on the Lem
Mountain, and the Redder Mountain near Niederhausen. The
occurrence of tetrahedrite, copper pyrites, and galena, on the
Landsberg, appears to stand in intimate connection with the
quicksilver ores.
The general character of these quicksilver lodes, and the
fact that the ores are almost only found at a moderate depth,
distributed in the numerous fissures of the rock; would seem
to prove, that most of the ores, especially those of mercury,
have penetrated into the fissures by a process of sublimation;
and that a tolerably extended district was subjected for a
considerable period to these sublimations, in such a manner,
that the same penetrated, wherever a possibility existed for
their doing so, and were deposited at a certain level (by a
certain temperature), having some choice as to the rocks which
they selected.
BLACK FOREST. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 203
VII. THE BLACK FOREST.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
125. The Black Forest rises somewhat steeply, above
the plane of the Rhine valley, to a height of about 2000 feet
(being 3000 above the sea, on the Feldberg 4600 feet). Towards
the East it gradually descends to the plateau of the Swabian
sedimentary formations. It consists principally of granite, and
gneiss; which frequently alternate with, and at times pass into
one another, so that a line can hardly be drawn between the
two. For although the granite forms at times distinct and
clearly defined dikes in the gneiss, exactly similar granite
dikes occur in the granite itself. Both of these rocks are com-
paratively seldom traversed by quartz porphyries, and still more
rarely by greenstones and serpentines. Daub states, that the
quartz porphyries lie nearly parallel to two belts of lodes, which,
commencing in the southerly mountainous region, cross each
other near Baden-Baden, at least according to their directions.
A small region of clay-slate, probably belonging to the
Silurian Age, comes into such intimate connection with the gneiss
near Todtenau, that at their contact they often imperceptibly
pass into each other. Only slight remains of the Carboniferous
formation occur, in part with unconformable strata, in the Black
Forest; thus, at Schramberg, and at Offenburg, where seams of
anthracite are also found. The Rothliegend.es (red beds) is only
extensively developed in the - northern portion of the district,
in the neighborhood of Baden-Baden, where it lies in thick
strata directly over the crystalline rocks, but has been partially
again destroyed; it gradually disappears towards the South. In
the southern portion the Buntsandstein (variegated sandstone)
coming from the East, extends, with its thick strata, on to the
granite heights of the Black Forest, and covers these, in the
form of isolated caps, between the indentations of the valleys,
having its strata slightly tilted towards East: On the western
edge of the mountains, which descend steeply towards the Rhine
Valley, whole successions of sedimentary rocks occur tilted on
end; they belong to the Jurassic and Triassic periods.
Lodes containing silver, lead, copper, cobalt, nickel, and
204 LIMONITE, PEA-IRON, SMITHSONITE, DEPOSITS.
antimony ores in heavy spar, with somewhat of fluor spar, quartz,
and carbonates of lime, are frequent; but the majority are very
poor, only containing rich .pockets, or streaks, at wide intervals;
and hence cannot be worked with profit. Daub states, that the
percentage of silver in the galena, which averages 4 oz. to the
hundredweight, decreases, the more recent the age of the country-
rock traversed; the veins themselves belong to the age of the
Jurassic formation. These lodes are also said to owe their origin to
the porphyries, which they always intersect, when they come in
contact with them ; but in these they are narrower, and poorer
in ores, than in granite or gneiss. In spite of their supposed
division into two belts, their directions of strike are very variable :
of 100 lodes, 31 strike N. S., 46 SE. NW., 12 E. W., and
11 SW. NE. These lodes somewhat resemble the argentiferous
barytic veins of the Erzgebirge, and to a great degree those of
the Rhine district, containing only quartz and copper ores.
A second, less extensive, group are the limonite lodes, at
times containing manganese ores, and frequently considerable
heavy spar; I pass them over as unimportant.
Very important and interesting deposits of pea iron ore are
found on the western, outer edge of the mountains, especially in
the neighborhood of Kandern.
I must also take this opportunity of mentioning the smith-
sonite deposits of Wiesloch in Baden, and the gold alluvium of
the Valley of the Rhine.
LODES OF THE KINZIG VALLEY. '
126. The Kinzig Valley, with its ramifications, is mostly
formed of granite, and gneiss; while Buntsandstein lies only on
the mountain-tops. The granite and gneiss are but rarely tra-
versed by porphyries, which last do not here have any direct
connection with the lodes.
The granite and gneiss in this valley are traversed by
numerous lodes; whose vein-stones are heavy spar, brown spar,
1 See: Braun, in Annal. d! mines, 1843. vol. XVIII. p. 115; Marignac,
in same, 1840, vol. XV. p. 153; Leonhard, Beitrage z. mineral, u geognost.
Kenntniss d. Grossherzogth. Baden, 1854, III. p. 98; Sandberger, in Leon-
hard's Jahrb. f. Mineralog. 1865, p. 584; also Sandberger, Beitrage zur
Statistik u. innere Verwaltung d. Grossherzogthums Baden, 1862.
KINZIG-VALLEY LODES. 205
calc. spar, and quartz ; while the predominating ores alternately
contain silver and lead, or else cobalt, nickel or copper. They
occur in such a manner, that the various kinds of lodes cannot
well be separated into distinct groups, and in fact form trans-
itions one into another; while at times all the various kinds of
ores occur in a single vein. Notwithstanding the large* number
of lodes, that have gradually been discovered, only a small
number, and even these but locally, can be advantageously ex-
ploited. Mining has consequently never prospered in this region,
although very rich ores have occasionally been found. It appears,
that a sufficient quantity of ore was always wanting, even
though of a poorer quality, to give a sufficient guarantee for
the future. Rich ores, occurring at considerable intervals, can
but seldom sustain vein-mining for any length of time. A few
cases will farther illustrate the general remarks.
The Wenzel mine, in the Wolfbach district, gave large
dividends for a long succession of years in the preceding cen-
tury. The Wenzel lode, which descended in a zigzag form,
contained, with a breadth of 6 inches to 2 feet; heavy spar,
brown spar, calc. spar, and fluor spar with galena, copper pyrites,
spathic iron, argentiferous tetrahedrite, ruby silver, dyscrasite,
silver glance, and native silver. The dyscrasite occurred, in
masses, by the hundredweight; and Selb saw, in 1787, a mass
of native silver, weighing 75 pounds, and surrounded by silver
glance, and ruby silver.
The Alter St. Joseph mine, in the Wittich district, was
mined, in the commencement of the preceding century, for native
silver, silver glance, and smaltine : the rare wittichite also occur-
red here.
The Sophie mine, in the same district, was one of the
most celebrated in the whole Kinzig Valley, and also deserves
especial notice from a geological point of view. The lode itself
consisted of heavy spar (predominating), fluor spar and brown
spar (spathic iron?) with smaltine, silver glance, ruby silver,
native silver, and native bismuth, bismuthine (partly cupriferous),
realgar, and copper nickel. By oxidation of these, there were
formed near the surface; earthy cobalt, erythrine, annabergite,
pharmacolith, and uranite. Most curious were - the great and
extended impregnations in the granite forming the wall-rock.
Kapf has described an interesting case. About 35 fathoms
below the surface a branch of heavy spar, but a few inches
206 KINZIG-VALLEY LODES.
broad, containing native silver, was followed in the hanging-
wall of the, otherwise barren, lode. After it had been followed
for a few inches, the branch wedged^out, and the formerly white
arid very firm granite was found changed to a reddish-brown
and less firm condition, in which threads of native silver could
be seen. On this account the work was prosecuted in the
reddish-brown granite in a neighboring hollow, and discovered,
after digging for a few fathoms, a broad leader of silver, which
continued so long as the granite retained this color and softness.
In addition to this leader, the entire wedge of granite was so
impregnated with silver, that it was removed and dressed.
A hundredweight of dressed ore gave 10 13 pounds of silver.
This is a very decided case of the influence of the country-rock ;
which here consists both in the favorable character of the matrix
of the lodes, and in impregnations.
Other similar lodes are known in this district, in some of
which copper ores pccurred. Braun states, that these lodes also
penetrate into the Bunt sand stein, and mentions one belonging
to the Gute-Gottes mine, which had granite as foot-wall, and
Buntsandstein as the hanging-wall.
The Friedrich-Christian mine in the Schapbach district ex-
ploited until recently a lode, 114 feet broad, in dark, fine
granular gneiss. The lode consists principally of fluor spar and
heavy spar, the last at times forming pockets in the first, and
occurring in a sandy condition. In this lode are found, in
pockets or indistinctly combed; quartz, calc. spar, brown spar,
galena, copper pyrites, and bismuthic silver (Schapbachite).
Numerous decomposed fragments of the country-rock occur in
the lode. At the Leopold, formerly Prosper, mine occur native
silver, native copper, red copper, and copper glance, in quartz
and heavy spar.
Many mines occur scattered, on similar lodes, in the Kinzig
Valley. Daub, as before mentioned, states that similar lodes,
only with a less percentage of ores, which decrease in propor-
tion to the more recent formation of the rocks traversed, occur
in the formations overlying the gneiss and granite ; namely, clay-
slate, Carboniferous sandstone, Buntsandstein, Muschelkalk-, and
even into the Jura, but in the last their only matrix is heavy spar.
SOUTHERLY BLACK-FOREST LODES. 207
LODES IN THE SOUTHERLY PORTION ' OF THE
BLACK FOREST.
127. Granite and gneiss predominate here also, and are
accompanied by rocks of the Silurian age, gradually passing into
gneiss, which are traversed by lodes of the same character, as
those in the Kinzig Valley. Remains of the Buntsandstein for-
mation occur in the heights.
The neighborhood of Sulzburg appears to be especially rich
in lodes. The Riester mine was exploited on a lode l 1 ,^ feet
broad, containing argentiferous galena in heavy spar and quartz.
At the Himrnelslehre, tetrahedrite and blende were found in ad-
dition to the preceding. A cobalt mine furnished cobalt ores,
galena, iron pyrites, and mispickel, together with heavy spar and
hornstone. At the Amalia, quartz occurred with copper ores;
at the Lamberts'weg, galena and copper pyrites; in the Schwei-
zergrund (clay-slate district), stibnite, blende, and spathic iron.
The most interesting mine of all is the Haus Baden (and Carl)
mine nearBadenweiler; the lode here exploited, at times 2 fathoms
broad, is a contact-vein between granite and Buntsandstein;
but Selb states, it is separated from the granite by a porphyry
mass, 7 8 fathoms thick, itself containing galena, heavy spar,
and fluor spar. The gang of the lode is heavy spar (predomi-
nant), fluor spar, and quartz; which contain argentiferous
galena, copper pyrites, and copper glance; these are frequently
altered near the outcrop into cerusite, pyromorphite, mimetene,
wulfenite, malachite, and azurite.
The lodes of the Miinster Valley are very similar to those
around Sulzburg. They traverse the gneiss, occurring here in
four different varieties, as also the dikes of quartz porphyry
occurring in it.
The Schindler lode strikes nearly N. S. and dips 70 90
East or West, being but seldom as slight as 50. Its width
encreases from 5 inches to, exceptionally, 5 feet. The predomi-
1 See: Selb, in Leonhard's Taschenbuch, 1815, p. 320; Leonhard,
Beitrage z. mineral, u. geogn. Kenntniss d. Grossh. Baden, 1854, III. p. 105 ;
Daub, in same, 1853, I. p. 115, and. II. p. 106, as extracts from Leonhard's
Jahrb. 1851, and Karsten's Arch. 1846; Fournet, in same, II. p. 94 (on
the formation of crystals in the geodes of Teufelsgrund lode).
208 PISOLITHIC, OR PEA-IRON, AT KANDERN.
nating vein-stones are heavy spar, and fluor spar; towards the
selvages also quartz, calc. spar, and brown spar ; the ores occur-
ring are argentiferous galena (chiefly occurring with the fluor
spar, less frequently with the heavy spar), blende, and pyrites.
The arrangement of these minerals is but indistinctly symmet-
rical. At times numerous horses of gneiss occur. Greodes, fre-
quently 15 feet long, occur mostly in the middle of the lode,
while nssures traverse it in an oblique direction. The Teufels-
grund lode strikes WNW. ESE., dips 80 90, but seldom
only 45, in NW. Its medium breadth is 15 inches, its extreme
breadth 45 inches. Its matrix is the same, as that of the
Schindler lode; but there occur additionally, arsenic, native sil-
ver, ruby silver, and cerusite. It also contains horses, and
geodes, and is traversed obliquely by nssures. Other lodes in
the neighborhood also contain copper ores.
Similar lodes recur in the Hofsgrund, on the Erzkasten,
and in the neighborhood of Todtenau. At St. Blasien nickel-
ores have been found in serpentine.
Daub has attempted to group the most of the lodes here
mentioned into two zones; of which the one (the Schindler zone)
has a length of 75 miles, extending from Wiesenthal near Hofen,
through St. Ulrich, Prinzenbach, Baths of Sulzbach, to Neu-
weiler near Steinbach; while the second (the Bernhard zone)
is quite as long, commencing at Grorwil in the lower portion of
the Alb Valley, and passing through St. Blasien, Hornberg,
Hausach, and Petersthal, to Baden-Baden.
The southerly and higher portions of both these groups con-
tain, according to Daub, ores and vein-stones, while the northerly
and lower portions have on the contrary given rise to thermal
springs. He also supposes the existence of a near relation be-
tween the quartz porphyries and the lodes of the Black Forest.
THE PISOLITHIC IRON DEPOSIT * AT KANDERN.
128. Extensive deposits of pisolithic iron ore are found
in the Jura formation around Kandern, Stockach, Mohringen,
and Jestetten. Similar ones occur somewhat northerly in the
Musclielkalk also, at Dietlingen, Stein, and Gondelsheim near
Pforzheim, also in the Baier Valley near Schatthausen.
1 See: Hug, in Leonhard's Beitrage z. mineral, u. geogn. Kenntniss d.
Grossh. Baden, I. p. 19; Walchner, in same, p. 104 (from the 2nd edit, of
KANDERN, OR 'ORE-MOUNTAIN' DEPOSITS. 209
The most important, and longest worked of these is that of
Kandern. The ore occurs here in a clayey sandy deposit, its
thickness varies from one to one hundred feet; which mostly
occurs over the coral rag of the Jura formation. This deposit,
the so-called 'Ore-Mountain', crops partly out to the surface,
is partly covered by Diluvial deposits (Loess), but is principally
overlaid by a tertiary limestone conglomerate, the so-called
4 8teingang\ About forty mines are worked around Kandern,
&nd thirty eight in the Kleingau; this district has been exploited
for about 1000 years. Walchner describes the deposit of Moss-
kirch nearly as follows. It lies on the upper Jura limestone,
resting against the base of a hill. The single layers of the
deposit, from the top to the bottom, are the fdllowing:
1. Arable soil;
2. Sand, several inches thick;
3. Pisolithic ore, several inches thick, mixed with sand, boulders, and
sharks' teeth;
4. Sand, 2 inches thick;
5. Chief ore-deposit, 3'/ a feet thick, mixed with boulders, snail-shells,
sharks' teeth, bones of tertiary animals, and fossils of the Jura formation;
6. Fissile sandstone, with somewhat of ore, and a little limestone, 4
inches thick;
7. Sand, 2 feet ;
8. Fissile sandstone, tolerably firm, 4 inches;
9. Sand, a few inches ;
10. Limestone conglomerate, with disseminated ores;
11. Pebbles, varying in size, from that of an apple to that of a man's
head, mostly consisting of white upper Jura limestone, mingled with sand,
flints, and hornstones.
The boulders, particles of ore, and animal remains, are
firmly cemented together by the hydrated peroxide of iron.
The boulders are principally quartz, accompanied by white mica
Concretions of flints occur at times, similar to those so frequently
found in the pisolithic iron deposits of the Jura; while angular
or rounded fragments, of Molasse sandstone, and granite, are
by no means rare. The fossils belong partly to the Jura, partly
to the Molasse formation.
Hug, who has described these deposits very completely, is
his Geology, p. 843), and in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1832, p. 433; Leonhard,
in same, III. p. 118; Merian, in same, I. p. 96 He considers the iron
deposit to belong to the Jura formation. (This may have belonged to such,
but through partial erosion tertiary strata were formed.)
14
210 REIN-ERZ AND BOHN-ERZ.
unfortunately not always clear, owing perhaps to the complex
condition of the matter.
The miners in this region distinguish two kinds of ore, so-
called 'Reinerz' (pure ore) and 'Bohnerz' (ptisolithic, or pea-ore).
The Reinerz is a lamellar, compact, or fibrous ironstone; which
occurs, either disseminated, or in nodular concretions. The no-
dules and globules occur, either scattered or together, in nests,
beds, or segregations. These nodules ' but seldom attain a dia-
meter of 2 feet, they have an earthy, yellow, or brownish-red
incrustation. When broken open, they are found to be either
composed of concentric layers, or radially fibrous, or compact,
or even porous. Their interior is nearly always hollow, or
filled with a kernel of clay and sand. The hollow interior con-
tains incrustations of hematite, fibrous limonite, or crystalliza-
tions of calc. spar, brown spar or spathic iron. Even fossils
of the upper strata of the Jura formation are occasionally found
in these nodules of clay ironstone, viz. spines of the Cidaris
family.
The Bohnerz also forms connected nests, or beds; but occurs
also occasionally with the ' Reiner z. The single globules, or
grains, varying in size from that of a pea to that of a walnut r
are always formed of concentric layers, more or less firmly ce-
mented together by ferruginous clay. Those found at Alting
mostly have an olive-green color, while those from Augen are
yellowish or reddish-brown.
Jasper occurs with both varieties of ore. It is always gray
in the nests of Reinerz, gray or red with the Bohnerz. The
jasper occurs in the most varied forms; globiferous, elliptical,
wound in spirals ; etc. varying from an inch to a foot in dia-
meter. The surface of these nodules is always covered by a
thin white or greenish crust. In the interior they generally
possess variegated, gray, yellow, brown and red colors, ar-
ranged in concentric layers parallel to the outer surface. They
often contain cavities, which are covered with crystals of calc.
spar, gypsum, or quartz. They frequently also contain fossils-
of the Jura and, according to Hug, even Nummulites (?).
This deposit is one, whose separate members; Reiner z no-
dules, Bohnerz, and jasper; evidently belong to the Jurassic
period, but were deposited in their present position during the
Tertiary age, as shown by the bones, sharks' teeth, and boul-
ders of Molasse sandstone, occurring with them. The nodules
DEPOSITS AT WIESLOCH. 211
of ore, and jasper, cannot be boulders ; as otherwise their inner
structure would not coincide so strikingly with their outer
rounded form. The problem is certainly a difficult one to solve.
SMITHSONITE DEPOSITS l AT WIESLOCH IN BADEN.
129. The Maschelkalk at Wiesloch consists of the fol-
lowing members:
1. Dolomitic banks, traversed by veins of brown spar;
2. Gray cellular limestone, with Ceratites nodosus]
3. Two Encrinite layers, consisting almost entirely of stems of
Encrinus, with an intermediate layer of compact limestone;
4. Dolomite, with Buccinum turbilinumi
5. Limestone.
The Smithsonite deposits occur in the upper members of
this series. According to old records, mines of argentiferous
galena were worked, in the range of hills between Nussloch and
Wiesloch, as early as the llth century, numerous remains of
which still exist. The smithsonite, combined with the galena,
was at that time partly won, but not being recognised as an
ore, was used to fill up exhausted workings, and thrown
away at the mouths of the shafts. Its existence has been but
recently known, and has given rise to important mining opera-
tions. The ores are principally found in two layers, where the
Encrinite layers join the compact limestone. They fill irregu-
lar enlargements of vertical fissures, which intersect the strata,
as shown in the following ideal wood-cut.
The smithsonite is mostly gray, crystalline, and compact,
colored red and brown by iron and manganese; no calamine
occurs here. Hoffinger says: 'An impregnation by exchange
of bases may have essentially contributed to the formation of
these deposits ; which is confirmed by the occurrence of numerous
fossils converted into smithsonite, and pseudomorphs of the same
for crystals of calc. spar. The compact fossiliferous limestone
1 See: Leon hard's Beitrage z. mineralog. u. geognos. Kenntn. des
Grossh. Baden, I. p. 70 (Holzmann,), p. 75 (Hoffinger), II. p. Ill (Rohatzsch),
III. p. 122 (Leonhard); Holzmann, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1852, p. 907;
Car nail, in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch. 1853, vol. V. p. 5; Walch-
ner, in same, 1851, p. 359; Clauss, in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. i860, p.
495; and in 26th Jahresbericht d. Mannheiiner Vereins f. Naturkunde, I860
p. 36; also Ludwig, in his 'Journey through the Urals', 1862.
14*
212
GOLD-DEPOSITS IN
a. Grayish-blue limestone, 14 feet;
b. Encrinite bed, 3 feet;
c. Compact, dark blue, non-fossiliferous limestone,
12 to 25 feet;
d. Encrinite bed, 3 feet;
e. Compact limestone, 4 feet;
f. Blue, fissile limestone, 3 feet;
g. Hard, gray limestone, 30 feet, beneath which is
dolomite, 34 feet, also containing traces of
smithsonite in pockets.
The shaded portions represent the pockets of ore
connected by vertical fissures.
has offered more resistance to this transformation, than the po-
rous Encrinite limestone.'
The vertical fissures, but a few lines broad, are filled with
ferruginous clay. Limonite and galena occur, irregularly com-
bined with the smithsonite, as in Belgium, and Upper Silesia.
Similar deposits occur at Bruchsal, Durlacli, and Grotz-
ingen; in which places galena was also formerly exploited.
GOLD DEPOSITS * IN THE RHINE VALLEY.
130. In all probability the ancient Gauls washed-out
gold from the sands of the Rhine. In the Middle Ages a
1 See: Daubree, in Bullet, de la societe geol. 1846, vol. III. p. 458,
and in Compte rendu. vol. XXII. p. 639; Dufrenoy, in Compt. rend. 1849,
p. 193; Leonhard, in his Beitrage z. miner, u. geogn. Kenntn. d. Grossh.
Baden, III. p. 129.
THE RHINE VALLEY. 213
very active gold-washing was carried on, between Mannheim
and Bale. At the present time about 400 persons are occasion-
ally engaged in gold-washing in the Grand-duchy of Baden.
The gold is found in the masses of boulders and debris of
the Rhine Valley, chiefly where the bed and banks of the
stream consist of a mixture of boulders, pebbles, and sand.
Grains of ilmenite, and rose-colored quartz, are the chief mine-
rals accompanying it. The percentage of ilmenite in the sand is
said to be about equal to that of the gold. The gold does not
occur in nuggets, and grains, as elsewhere ; but always in very
fine rounded, massive scales, never exceeding a millimeter in
diameter. The scales are larger, between Bale and Breisach,
than farther down the stream.. The gold of the Rhine contains
93,4 per cent of gold and 6,6 per cent of silver. The entire
bed of the river is auriferous, but the sand is, only in certain
localities, rich enough to be washed with profit. Such are
generally found, where the river has washed away the banks,
or islands, and consequently subjected the sand to a repeated
concentration. The sand washed-away is re-deposited, as a
sandbank, at some distance, that portion richest in gold lying
up stream. The richest sand generally occurs between larger
boulders and at slight depths. The gold localities are worked,
after every flood, and are found so much the richer, the more
gradually the water has fallen.
The gold-washings commence below Bale, near Istein and
Altbreisach; but the richest localities are between Kehl and
Dachslanden, especially opposite the village of Helmlingen.
Some washings also occur below Philippsburg, but their produc-
tiveness is exceedingly small. The separate localities do not,
according to Daubree, extend over an area of more than 200
to 300 square metres, and are not more than 20 centimeters
thick. The average percentage of gold in the sands of the
Rhine, in Siberia, and in Chili, appear to be in the ratio of
1 : 20 : 74. In Siberia a sand cannot be profitably washed,
containing less than 0,00001 gold, while on the Rhine a sand
7 times poorer than this is washed to advantage. One cubic
meter of Rhine-sand contains about 0,0146 grammes of gold.
Rengger states, that the gold of the Rhine appears to
come from the Aar, the Reuss, the great and little Emmen, and
the Lutter. These rivers evidently obtain the same from the
Molasse strata, and not from the original deposits. These last
214
SUABIAN, AND FRANCONIAN, JURA,
are probably to be looked for among the crystalline rocks of
the Alps. In this way the Rhine-gold has been subjected to a
repeated concentration; which, commencing with the period when
the Molasse strata were deposited; has continued to the present
time.
Dufrenoy has made the following comparison between the
different gold alluvium deposits. According to which, are found,
in the gold sands of
California.
South
America
Urals.
Rhine.
60
34
23
2
Magnetite ;
16
15
50
3
Ilmenite, specular
iron and
9
20
3
?
Zircon ;
[manganese ;
14
25
14
90
Quartz ;
' :<?: t-V
1
:
Corundum ;
10
Chrysoberyl ;
0,3
5
0,00001
traces.
Gold (in part with quartz and
iron pyrites).
VIII. THE SUAB1AN AND FRANCON1AN
JURA.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
131. I consider, as belonging to this district; the broad
chain, which commences by Schaffhausen on the Rhine, and
continues through Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria, to the neighborhood
of Staffelsteiii. Its highest point is called the SuabianAlp: this
gradually rises from the South to a height of 4000 feet above
the sea, while its eastern and northern continuation, the Fran-
conian Jura, forms .a broad plateau, only about 1000 feet high,
here and there intersected by river-valleys.
This chain is principally composed of members of the Jura
group, overlying one another in regular succession. Igneous rocks
(basalts arid phonoliths) occur but to a very subordinate degree,
and have no essential part either in its exterior or interior
formation.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 215
The members of the Jura group in this district, commencing
with the upper strata, are the following:
I
1. White or light yellow, thinly stratified compact Jura limestone;
that found in the County of Pappenheim is used as lithographic stone ;
2. Bluish clay, containing Pentacrinites ;
3. Limestone and dolomite, very thick, forming cliffs, and containing
numerous cavities;
4. Sponge bed:
5. Oolithic limestone, with clay;
6. Bluish clay, containing numerous corals, and Radiates;
7. Impressa limestone of Quenstedt: alternating with clay, and contain-
ing numerous Terebratula, and Ammonites:
8. Ornaten Clay of Quenstedt: brown clay, and iron oolith, containing
many Ammonites;
9. Ostreen limestone of Quenstedt: marly limestone, and clay, with
numerous oysters ; .
10. Blue limestone ;
11. Yellow and brown s'andstone, with iron ores;
12. Opalinus clay of Quenstedt; containing many Ammonites:
13. Jurensis marl of Quenstedt;
14. Posidonia clay, dark bituminous marl-slate, full of Posidonias;
15. Amaltheen clay of Quenstedt, with numerous Ammonites;
16. Davoi limestone of Quenstedt; dark bituminous Lias limestone;
17. Nummismalis marl of Quenstedt: with numerous Terebratels ;
18. Rarikestaten bank of Quenstedt;
19. Stone banks of compact marl-stone;
20. Turneri clay of Quenstedt: clay, and bituminous marl-slates;
21. Astarten limestone of Quenstedt: dark bituminous limestone;
22. Malmstein and Thalassiten sandstone of Quenstedt;
23. Psilonotus bank of Quenstedt.
Below this commences the Keuper formation. The principal
ore-deposits are those of iron, of which two in particular deserve
mention. One consists of parallel beds of ironstone, found in
the Brown Jura ; the other of surface-deposits of oolithic limonite,
which have often penetrated, for a considerable distance, into
fissures and cavities of the White Jura. Iron-ore-deposits have
also been found in lower divisions of the Jura (at Amberg and
Ratisbon) on the eastern borders of the district.
216
IRON-DEPOSITS.
THE IKON-DEPOSITS.
132. The Brown Jura contains, in its whole extent in
Southwestern Germany, parallel bedsVof ironstone. These have
been exploited for a long time at Aalen and Wasseraltingen r
where they crop out at the northern base of the Suabian Alp,
More recently the prolongations of these beds have been found
extending, with but slight modifications, through the whole of
Bavaria, at the northern, western, and even northeastern, limits
of these strata; and have already begun to be worked. Their
horizontal extent is therefore immense.
Their bedding in Wiirtemberg has been very accurately
examined and described by Count v. Mandelsloh. It is the
following:
Thickness
in feet.
1. Calcareous iron oolith 40
2. Gray, sandy limestone, with nodules of iron ore, and
remains of Fucoids 35
3. Grayish-black bituminous slate 20
4. Bluish-gray limestone . ,. 8
5. Soft yellowish sandstone . .; .^-. . ,t .:- ; .' 7 if
6. Gray, sandy slate . . ..; v : . r '.;.' V: Lv> -;*>,, ;
7. Soft yellowish sandstone -,,.J. * . . 10
8 Gray sandy slate %,,.. . . 5
9. Granular clay ironstone >...'........ 1
10. Gray sandy slate
11. Clay ironstone (exploited at Wasseralfingen) ...
12. Gray sandy slate 16
13. Soft yellow sandstone 1
14. Clay ironstone 1
15. Alternating strata of slate and sandstone, as between
4 and 9 31
16. Clay ironstone 2
17. Alternating strata of sandy slate with gray and reddish
sandstone '..-. " "; - . 52
18. Clay ironstone (exploited at Aalen) . !:.'." . v . ; ..v.. 6
19. Gray sandy slate .... ~. ->' .^ . ; > 4. ; .
20. Grayish-black clayey sandstone 12
21. Lias-slate, alternating with layers of marl and limestone.
^ee: Count Mandelsloh, Sur la constitution geologique de PAlpe de
Wiirtemberg, 1834 (also, a German edition); Voith, in v. Moll's Neuen
Jahrb. d. Berg- u. Hiittenkunde, 1824, vol. V. p. 1. He describes the con-
tinuation of these deposits in the Upper Palatinate.
BOHEMIAN FOREST. 217
The calcareous iron oolith (1) alternates with slaty marls,
and is full of oolithic grains of limonite about the size of a
millet. The bed 2 is similar, which contains larger globules;
by whose destruction secondary oolithic deposits might be
formed.
The ferruginous strata, at the same time, frequently con-
tain numerous fossils changed into limonite. It is possible,
that the material, forming the neighboring tertiary deposits, came
from these.
The upper thick strata of limestone, or dolomite, of the
Suabian Alp l contain, both in fissures, hollows, and funnel-shaped
cavities, as also in slight depressions of the surface, a quantity
of irregular deposits of oolithic iron ore. These are exploited
not only in Suabia, but also in the County of Pappenheim
and its neighborhood. The iron ore occurs in the fissures and
cavities, partly alone, or only mixed with clay, partly with
lignite, fragments of limestone, and all manner of such like
additions; which all indicate that these deposits have been
washed together by water.
IX. THE BOHEMIAN FOEEST AND
BOHEMIA.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
133. Under the above title I comprise the Bavarian and
Bohemian Forest, the mountains between Bohemia and Moravia,
and the portion of inner Bohemia which principally consists of
old plutonic crystalline and Silurian rocks. That portion of
Northern Bohemia adjoining the Riesengebirge will be described
with it.
No where, in the whole of Germany, do the old crystalline
massive and schistose rocks; granite, gneiss, and mica-schist;
occur so extensively and continuously, as in this region. No
1 See: Jager, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1853, p. 377.
. 218 GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
where is, on this account; an exact, and at the same time synop-
tical, geological description more difficult, than here; since only
the lithological condition of many Crocks, passing into one
another,, can be used for their distinction and classification;
where organic remains are entirely wanting, and the borders of
the rock-masses are often* very indistinct.
In a large basin-shaped depression of these crystalline rocks,
whose principal axis (i. e. of the basin) extends from Prag to
Pilsen, occur very extensive Silurian formations, regularly
stratified, and conforming to the depression. These are repeatedly
broken through by greenstones, and are locally covered by
strata of the Carboniferous group.
The number of ore-deposits occurring is very small, and
their distribution a scattered one, in comparison with the great
extent of this region, consisting almost entirely of ancient rocks,
the more striking as contrasted with the neighboring Erz-
gebirge.
It is remarkable, that the lodes in Bohemia, occurring in
several districts entirely separated from each other, have a
N. S. strike. This fact, in which I do not attempt to find
any general law, does not well agree with Riviere's hypothesis,
that the lodes in Europe, containing blende, have a predominant
strike from ENE.- WSW.
I shall describe the principal ore-deposits occurring in this
region as follows:
i. on the Bavarian side,
1. Bodenmais ;
.2. Erbendorf.
ii. in Bohemia,
3. Schlackenwald, tin-deposits in granite and gneiss ;
4. Przibrara, lead and silver lodes in Silurian rocks;
5. Mies, lead-lodes in clay-slate;
6. Horzowitz, ores of iron and mercury in clay-slate ;
7. .Glashiitte (Radnitz) iron-deposits in Silurian rocks ;
8. Adamsthal and Rudolstadt, silver-lodes in gneiss;
9. Kuttenberg, silver-lodes in gneiss;
10. Copper-lodes in Bothliegendes near Bohmischbrod.
BODENMAIS.
134. The Bavarian Forest can, neither topographically,
nor geologically, be separated from the Bohemian Forest; it
BODENMAIS. 219
only forms the southeastern portion of this last, belonging to
the Kingdom of Bavaria.
The district is composed chiefly of granite, gneiss, and mica-
schist; while granulite, hornblende rocks, diorite, serpentine,
quartz rock, and granular limestone, or dolomite, occur to a
more subordinate extent.
Of special geological interest in this district is a thick quartz
bed, which can be followed from Bruck to Thierlstein, about
35 miles, as it overtops with its rocky pointed surface the ad-
joining, more destructible rocks. This rock, known under the
name of Pfahl, which strikes NW. SE. tolerably parallel to
the low mountains, was long considered to be the outcrop of a
broad lode. But it is stated, from recent investigations, to possess
a bedlike nature.
Winneberger l has classified the granite of this region, as :
gneissic granite, porphyritic granite, and more recent granite.
Considerable deposits of iron pyrites and pyrrhotine occur
at Unterried, on the Silberberg near Bodenmais, and on the Red
Koth near Zwiesel; the occurrences of ore at Klautzenbach,
Lirdberg, and on the Rachel, appear to be connected with these,
since they lie nearly in one line of strike.
The Silberberg near Bodenmais consists principally of gneiss,
which towards the South passes into granite. The ore-deposits,
which Rust asserts to be true beds, have a most irregular strike
and dip in gneiss. They generally strike, as this does, NW. SE.
and dip 35 50 in NE. Two deposits are known. The lower
of these is about 6 feet wide, and occasionally widens into a few
larger hollows, which are upwards of 7 feet long and almost as broad.
This deposit consists of iron pyrites ; with which frequently occur
pyrrhotine, and blende; more rarely magnetite, and somewhat of ga-
lena. Besides these, greenish feldspar generally accompanies the ore.
The second and principal bed occurs 60 feet northwesterly
of the other: it varies from a few inches to 20 feet in breadth.
It consists principally of pyrrhotine; associated with which are
pyrites, blende, magnetite, and galena. The last contains 72
grammes silver to the kilogramme. These sulphurets are generally
decomposed, and altered to limonite, at the outcroppings of both
the beds.
1 See: Winneberger, Beschreibung des bairischen Waldgebirges, 1851,
pp. 62, and 97; Hausmann, in Gottinger gel. Nachrichteu, 1853, p. 33, and
in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1853, p. 283.
220 ERBENDORF.
Hausmann ; who considers, in common with Rust, that this
is a bed in gneiss; while I am inclined to consider it to be an
irregularly bedded vein; enumerates the following additional
minerals as occurring; iolith, actinolith, garnet, and a pyroxene
mineral. While Winneberger mentions the following minerals
as occurring on the Silberberg; quartz, amethyst, chalcedony,
fibrolith, red and brown garnet, iolith, heulandite, feldspar,
kreittonite, serpentine, mica, pinite, talc, cyanite, actinolith, calc.
spar, aragonite, gypsum, chrysocolla, copper pyrites, galena,
magnetite, limonite, copperas, pyrrhotine, iron pyrites, vivianite,
stilpnosiderite, spherosiderite, thraulith, blende, sordavalith, ficinite,
and a sulphate of alumina.
From the descriptions it appears, that the ore-deposits of
the Silberberg are very like the bedded veins occurring in the
mica-schist around Schwarzenberg, already described in 85;
but that they contain less amphibole, and do not so much
resemble greenstones.
Of a similar character, and in part probably continuations
of these deposits, are several other ore-deposits in the neigh-
borhood of Bodenmais and Zwiesel ; which have for the most part
long been abandoned, and are therefore less known. Thus at
Maisried, where auriferous silver has been obtained, and at
Lamm, where copper, silver, and alum were obtained, and in
the rubbish at the mine-mouth, are found calc. spar, fluor spar,
quartz, copper pyrites, galena, blende, chrysocolia, and ruby
silver.
ERBENDORF.
135. Erbendorf lies at the southwesterly base of the
Bohemian Forest, where the crystalline schists of this last are
overlaid by the Carboniferous 'and more recent formations. The
lodes at Erbendorf occur in gneiss; they are five in number,
of which but two are now exploited. They contain quartz, calc.
spar, and heavy spar, with galena, blende, and copper pyrites.
G iimb el 1 states that a similar vein-formation, but con-
taining hornstone and fluor spar, occurs at Schwarzenfeld,
Weiding, and Altfalter. He also states, that the fluor spar veins
1 See: G iimb el, im Correspondenz-Blatt des zoolog. mineralogischen Ver-
eins, at Ratisbon, 1854, p. 20.
SCHLACKENWALD. 221
of Welsenberg, which continue, in the form of hornstone-veins,
through the Freuden Mountain to Hirschau, the fluor spar and
heavy spar in the porphyry of Pingarten and Bodenwohr, and
that of Bach, known for its beautiful crystals of fluor spar, all
belong to this formation.
SCHLACKENWALD NEAR CARLSBAD.
136. The district around Schlackenwald l consists of
gneiss, which is traversed by granite. Numerous dikes branch
out, from the principal mass of the Hohenstein granite, into the
gneiss, which have a peculiar composition. Jantsch distinguishes
a fine granular, quartzose, stanniferous granite, containing but
little mica, from the common variety. He says, that the tin ore
occurs principally at the contact of the granite and gneiss, as
can best be seen in the large Klinger Stockwerk-cavity, on the
edge of the Hohenstein granite, and in the Kaspar-Pflugen mine.
He found the granite dikes in the gneiss, consisting of
coarse granular quartz, and feldspar with steatite, fluor spar,
apatite, wolfram, molybdenite, cassiterite, iron pyrites, copper
pyrites, and mispickel. According to Sternberger, the tin-ore is
principally found at the selvages of these veins; which consist
of quartz, and are 2 12 inches broad. The same minerals, as
occur in the veins, are also found in the fine granular stanni-
ferous granite, only more finely and rarely distributed. A stan-
niferous greisen, consisting of a talcose micaceous quartz-rock,
sometimes occurs alongside of the veins: Sternberger found the
ores concentrated in pockets.
The regular lodes of tin ore, of which the best is worked at
Schonfeld in the hanging-wall of the granite, strike ENE. WSW.
and dip in NW. They cut the strata of gneiss very distinctly,
and are intersected and faulted by cross fissures, striking near
N. S., which contain traces of silver and cobalt ores.
Gliickselig describes the following minerals, as having
occurred in the tin-ore deposits of Schlackenwald :
1 Jantsch, in Zeitschr. des montauistischen Vereins im Erzgebirge, 1856,
Nos. 7, 8, 9; Sternberger, in osterreichischen Zeitschr. f. Berg- u. Hiitten-
wesen, 1857, p. 62; Gliickselig, im amtlichen Bericht d. Versamralung deut-
scher Naturforscher u. Aerzte zu Wien: Vienna, 1858, p. 66.
222 PRZIBRAM
1. Cassiterite, always in twin forms :
2. Quartz, at times as cap quartz;
Topaz, in greisen;
Physalite, quite common; -
5. Beryl, rare;
6. Fluor spar, always crystallized in geodes;
7. Apatite, crystallized;
8. Phosphorite, reddish, not rare ;
9. Gypsum, sitting on phosphorite;
10. Calc. spar, granular, rare;
11. Scheelite, in fine crystals;
12. Spathic iron, in rhombohedrons ;
13. Orthoclase, rare in greisen;
14. Lithomarge, probably a product of decomposition of the orthoclase;
15. Carpholith;
16. Triplite;
17. Mica, several varieties, in part lepidolith;
18. Wolfram, common in small crystals, also tungstite ;
19. Iron pyrites, raie;
20. Mispickel, common;
21. Scorodite, rare;
22. Blende, in fine large crystals near Schonfeld;
23. Molybdenite, common;
24. Bismuthine;-
25. Emplectite:
26. Copper pyrites, very common;
27. Erubescite, rare;
28. Digenite;
29. Azurite, malachite, euchroite, olivenite, tile-ore and native copper,
probably from the decomposition of the preceding minerals:
30. Lampadite, formerly found;
31. Pitchblende, found but once;
32. Chalcolith;
33. Smaltine,
34. Erythrine,
35. Millerite,
rare, and probably found only in the
cross-fissures.
36. Silver and lead ores,
PRZIBRAM.
. 137. The neighborhood of Przibram l consists of Silurian
strata, bounded by granite, and traversed by dikes of green-
1 See: Vogelgesang, in Cotta's Gangstudien, vol. I. p. 305; Li lien-
bach, in Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1858, p. 184; Reuss, in Leonhard's Jahrb.
1860, pp. 578, and 712; Babaneck, in Sitzungsber. d. geolog. Reichsanst.
1864, p. 6: and in osterreich. Zeitsch. f. Berg- u. Hiittenwesen, 1864, pp. 194,
and 205; Faller, Uebersicht des Silber- u. Bleibergbaues bei Przibram, in
Berg- u. hiittenm. Jahrb. d. k. k. Bergacademien, 1864, vol. XIII; Grimm,
in same, 1865. vol. XV.
STRATA AND LODES. 223
stone. The Silurian rocks consist of sandstone, quartzite, and
slate. The last is separated from the two first by a clay-fissure,
which is nearly parallel to the strike of the strata; it seems to
have been caused by a large fault. The lodes were for a long
time supposed to exist only in the sandstone and quartzite,
where they are constantly accompanied by greenstone dikes,
which are also cut off by the clay-fissure.
It was long supposed, that the clay-slates contain only
traces of veins and ores ; but Babaneck discovered in 1864, that
the lodes continued in the slates, preserving the same mineral
character, and were as rich in ores, as in the other rocks.
The lodes form, in common with the greenstones, a large
belt, striking N. S., which obliquely intersects the Silurian strata.
The majority of the lodes dip in West, from which there are
four exceptions.
In the Anna mine thirteen lodes have been found, in the
Adalberti eight, and in the Dokolnow four; but some of these
may really be but different portions of one vein. Their breadth
is very changeable, varying between 1 inch and 14 feet; be-
sides which the lodes are much bent in their course. Their
matrix resembles much that of the pyritous lead-formation in
Freiberg, but differs in containing no mispickel, in whose place
'are found considerable spathic iron and antimony ores. The
vein-stones are principally; spathic iron, calc. spar (in the geodes
in the middle of the vein), brown spar, quartz, and rarely heavy
spar. The ores that occur are; iron pyrites, brown, and more
rarely red, blende (containing up to 400 grammes of silver in
a kilogramme), galena (containing 165 to 800 grammes of sil-
ver), tetrahedrite (partly very rich in silver), ruby silver, native
silver, limonite, gothite, stibnite, and very rarely copper pyrites,
stephanite, polybasite, and greenockite. The ores are much
decomposed, from the surface to a depth of 60 70 fathoms;
they have a gossan distinguished by the predominating limo-
nite, with which are mixed much decomposed wall-rock, calc.
par, quartz, little galena, and more pyromorphite and cerusite.
Pitchblende and vanadinite (?) occur as great rarities in the
gossan. The amount of iron in the upper workings is at times
so great, that they can be worked as iron veins; and it would
appear, as if a larger percentage of iron, perhaps as spathic
iron, had originally existed in the upper portions of the veins,
than at greater depths.
224 MIES.
The texture of the lodes is an irregular granular one ; and
they are firmly attached to the wall-rock; still the selvages are
often characterized by threads of galena or blende. The
Schefczin lode is the only one whicn shows a distinct symme-
try of the layers ; at the selvages occur spathic iron, and brown
spar; next to these galena, copper pyrites, blende, and tetra-
hedrite; in the middle and generally crystallized in geodes,
quartz, calc. spar, and heavy spar.
The ores are generally, at least in the sandstone and
quartzite, quite equally distributed.
The relationship of the Przibram lodes to the greenstone
dikes is very interesting. As a rule, they not only coincide
in their extension and direction, but the lodes often occur for
considerable distances as true contact-lodes between the green-
stones and Silurian rocks. They are then frequently much
narrower, being compressed by the greenstones, but they remain
qualitatively the same. They also send leaders into the green-
stones, or traverse these. A considerable influence, in the for-
mation of the lodes, must be ascribed to the somewhat older
greenstones; since they were the direct cause of the fissures,
and have thus given the first impulse to the formation of
the veins.
MIES.
138. The district around Mies l is composed of Silurian
clay-slate, which in a more southerly direction, near Kladrau,
is limited, and even broken through, by granite. This clay-
slate is traversed by numerous lead-veins striking .N. S., the
number discovered already exceeds 60. A small number of
the lodes strike NE. SW. The most important of these, the
Frischgluckauf lode, averages a fathom in breadth, but splits
into numerous branches, which at times again unite, and then
attain a breadth, with the horses they enclose, of seven fathoms.
These branches are generally the richest, and at times contain
masses of compact galena 1 3 feet broad.
1 See: Hellmich, in oesterr. Zeitschr. f. Berg-u. Hiittenw. 1855, p. 267;
Von Hauerand Fotterle, Uebersicht der Bergbaue, 1855, p. 23; Rocker,
'The ore-deposits of Mies', in Sitzungsbericht der geolog. Reichsanstalt,
1867, No. 7. p. 137.
HORZOWITZ. RADNITZ. 225
The general matrix of the lodes is composed of quartz,
fragments of slate, galena, a little blende, iron pyrites, and
heavy spar. From the decomposition of these have been formed
considerable quantities of cerusite and pyromorphite. Large
geodes have been found in the lodes, at times exceeding
three cubic fathoms in area. Their walls are incrustated with
crystals of galena, over which occur crystals of quartz or crys-
talline cerusite; and in them are found fragments of galena
encrusted with quartz. It is curious, that these lodes are often
intersected, and split up, by so-called alum-slate beds, J / 2 inch
to 2 fathoms broad; which must themselves of course be the
matrices of fissures. These, as well as the lodes, are also in-
tersected by fissures 1 2 fathoms broad, containing fragments
of rock, sand, clay, limestone, and calc. spar.
HORZOWITZ.
139. The neighborhood of Horzowitz [ (Horowicz), nor-
therly of Przibram and westerly of Beraun, belongs to the Silu-
rian epoch. Oolithic hematite beds, 1 4 fathoms thick, and con-
taining upwards of 50 per cent of iron, occur in the quartzose
clay, and siliceous slates. The same are exploited in numerous
localities, and several of them are remarkable for being tra-
versed in various directions by numerous perpendicular fissures
containing cinnabar. Rosenbaum states, that these fissures ex-
tend, only 14 to 35 feet beyond the beds, into the clay-slate.
These fissures occasionally attain a breadth of one foot; their
matrix is chiefly heavy spar, in which cinnabar occurs disse-
minated, and in dendritic forms, with iron pyrites. Only traces
of cinnobar are found in the iron bed itself; massive iron py-
rites is frequently its precursor.
MAGNETITE IN THE LORDSHIP OF RADNITZ.
140. A perpendicular vein of magnetite, 30 feet broad,
crops almost out to the surface, at the junction of the Silurian
l See: Noggerath, Ausflug nach Bohmen, 1839, p. 384; Lipold, in
Jahrb. d. geolog. Reichsanstalt, 1863, p. 147; Rosenbaum, Bergbaukunde,
1789, vol. II. p. 200.
15
226 ADAMSTADT, AND RUDOLSTADT.
and Azoic slates, northerly of the village of Glashiitten ] in
the Lordship of Radnitz.
The magnetic iron-ore-is enclosed, towards the surface, by
limonite, and hematite, with layers of slate ; and is generally
so intimately combined with the clay-slate, that it might be
called a clay-magnetite. It is a very remarkable fact, that
this ore, near the surface, attracts and is polar; at a depth of
14 feet, it only repels; and at a depth of 30 feet, is no longer
magnetic. From this it would appear, as if the magnetic force
had first been excited by the influence of the atmosphere.
ADAMSTADT AND RUDOLSTADT 2 IN
SOUTHERN BOHEMIA, NORTHEASTERLY OF BUDWEIS.
141. Gneiss is the predominant rock in this region,
which passes into mica-schist, hornblende-schist, and granulite;
it is also traversed by granite dikes. A group of lodes tra-
verses these rocks in the direction N. S., the separate mem-
bers of which are partly lodes, partly only quartz and clay
veins or fissures. The principal lodes are the Lazar and
Widersinnige.
The Lazar lode is 1 4 feet broad, strikes nearly N. S.
and dips 75 in West. Its matrix consists of a quartzose mag-
nesian limestone; which is compact, in the most quartzose por-
tions; and crystalline granular, where it contains less silica.
This mass is frequently much decomposed, and penetrated, by
a kaolin substance at the selvages, occasionally in the middle.
This principal gang contains, in layers, or irregularly distri-
buted, argentiferous blende, argentiferous galena, and iron py-
rites. Blende and galena are intimately combined ; the last
frequently enclosing the first. Such combinations frequently
occur as angular fragments in the matrix. Crystallizations also
of galena, quartz, brown spar, and filiform native silver, are
found in geodes. The veinstone next to the ores is the richest
in silica, being often composed almost entirely of quartz.
^ee: Micksch, in Corresp. Blatt d. zool. mineral. Verein of Ratisbon,
1847, p. 39.
2 See: Jokely, in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1854, p. 107, and in
Leonhard's Jahrb. 1856. p. 717.
KUTTENBERG. 227
The Widersirmige lode averages three fathoms in breadth,
strikes also nearly N. S. and dips 45 in E. It traverses and
faults the Lazar. Its matrix is chiefly quartz with fragments
of the wall-rock (gneiss, and granite, often much decomposed).
It thus varies from the matrix of the Lazar, and much resembles
the Braunsdorf lodes near Freiberg. In the veinstone occur
argentiferous galena, argentiferous blende, and iron pyrites, the
last partly altered to limonite.
The succession of minerals in both the lodes is:
1. The principal matrix,
2. blende and galena,
3. iron pyrites,
4. quartz in geodes,
5 brown spar in geodes.
The unequal influence of the country-rock on the distri-
bution of the ores is here very perceptible. The lodes are the
richest, where the gneiss contains only subordinate strata of
mica-schist; while the same are much poorer, where the gneiss
and mica-schist alternate regularly with one another, or where
the latter predominates.
KUTTENBERG.
142. The gneiss, which is the principal rock at Kutten-
berg, 1 passes into garnetiferous granulite towards Petschkau.
Diorite occurs to a subordinate degree, not being distinctly de-
fined at its limits; in the neighborhood of which the gneiss is
altered, its quartz being finely granular, its feld-spar more crys-
talline, and its mica darker colored. At the same time the
diorite appears to pass over into a kind of aphanite. In addi-
tion to these a few serpentine veins, 5 7 fathoms broad, tra-
verse the gneiss, which near these becomes chloritic. The
gneiss itself occurs in two varieties; one of which is charac-
terized by light gray quartz, yellowish, often compact feldspar,
and white or light gray mica; which are uniformly mixed, or
distributed in layers. The other, a very hard variety, has
'See: Grimm, in Kraus' Jahrb. f. den Berg- u. Huttenmann, 1849,
p. 58. Wy soky states, that the old mines at Kuttenberg have by no means
the depth formerly ascribed to them. The deepest shaft only attained a
depth of 346 fathoms.
15*
228 EOTHLIEGENDES COPPER-ORES NEAR
dark crystalline quartz, dark feldspar, and brown chloritic mica
passing into hornblende (?). Grimm calls this last 'dioritic gneiss ';
it acts in the same manner towards the lodes, as the green-
stone and serpentine.
The lodes, which traverse this region, form a network con-
taining numerous rich points of intersection. Their veinstones
are feldspar, quartz, and calc. spar, in which are found iron
pyrites, copper pyrites, galena, and blende fall argentiferous),
with silver ores proper.
These lodes contain ores, principally in the lighter variety
of gneiss, and in granulite. They are very poor in the dioritic
gneiss, greenstone, and serpentine; this unfavorable influence
can be noticed to a distance of 20 30 feet from these rocks.
Within the same the veins lose their distinct selvages, and the
matrix is firmly joined to the wall-rock. The fissures become
narrower, so that frequently but a small cleft remains. The
combed texture of the lodes disappears; galena, and silver ores,
no longer occur; and frequently only iron pyrites, and blende,
are left; this deportment is very constant.
COPPER ORES IN THE EOTHLIEGENDES NEAR
BOEHMISCHBROD.
143. According to Reuss * the Rothliegendes, in the
neighborhood of Bohmischbrod and Schwarzkosteletz, forms two
subdivisions not distinctly divided from one another.
The upper, most extensive, and thickest, consists of red-
dish-brown, micaceous, distinctly stratified hardened clay, pass-
ing into argillaceous sandstone, alternating with greenish strata.
The lower consists chiefly of coarse conglomerates, containing
boulders of quartz, and gneissic granite.
Slight secretions of malachite were observed in 1851, in a
reddish gray conglomeritic sandstone of the lower subdivision,
at the mill of Chrast near Schwarzkosteletz. Trenches and
workings, induced by this discovery, have shown, that these
sandstones, with boulders of quartz, gneiss, and granite, are
^ee: Reuss, in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1852, p. 96; in Sitzungs-
bericht d. Wiener Akademie d. Wissenschaften, XXV. p. 557; in Leon-
hard's Jahrb. 1859, p. 81; Berggeist, 1860, No. 88.
BOEHMISCHBROD, AND SCHWARZKOSTELETZ. 229
penetrated in irregular zones by copper ores. These consist of
malachite, azurite (always as incrustation on the first), ferrugi-
nous and manganiferous melaconite, without any traces of py-
rites. The sandstone is often entirely impregnated by these
ores, they penetrate into all the fissures, even into those of the
boulders, and locally form the. cementing medium for the grains of
quartz and feldspar composing the sandstone. In the intervals,
between the zones, but traces of ores are found; while in the
red clay, above the sandstone, they are entirely wanting.
Reuss has regarded the Rothliegendes ofBohmischbrod, Schwarz-
kosteletz, and other localities in Bohemia, to be an equiva-
lent of the Weissliegendes of the Zechstein formation; since the
remains of fish and plants are found in both (without any
special statements as to which species), and copper ores
occur. I can only remark, that at Hohenelbe ( 145), where
the Rothliegendes is developed in a similar manner to that of
Bohmischbrod, the organic remains found entirely agree with
those of the lower subdivision in other parts of Germany, and
not with those of the Zechstein formation.
Especially the Walchia pinnata^ which occurs here, is ge-
nerally regarded as most characteristic for the lower Rothlie-
gendes. It is self-evident, that the occurrence of copper-ore
impregnations, consequently subsequent formations, cannot be
regarded as proofs of the contemporaneous deposit of the strata.
It is probable that the Zechstein formation is entirely wanting
in Bohemia.
Numerous ore-deposits occur in Bohemia, in addition to those men-
tioned, but of far less importance and interest than those mentioned. I would
refer those persons, desirous of fuller details and historical information
concerning such deposits, to Count Sternberg's 'History of Bohemian Mining' ;
Von Lichtenfels, ' Essay towards a History of Bohemian and Moravian Min-
ing'; Yon Hauer's and Fotterle's 'Review of Mining in the Austrian
Monarchy'; and to the 'Jahrbuch der geologischen Reichsanstalt'.
230 RIESENGEBIRGE. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
X. THE RIESEN0EBIRGE.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
144. The central portion of the Riesengebirge (Giant-
Mountains) consists of a large granite district surrounded by crys-
talline schists, which ; towards the outer portions of these
mountains, pass into clay-slates. The granite forms dikes in
the schists, which are otherwise but little broken through by igneous
rock ; and perhaps as a consequence of this, contain but few lodes.
This predominantly crystalline district is outwardly surrounded
by the Carboniferous and Rothliegendes formations; which
last is northerly overlaid by Zechstein, Buntsandstein, and
Muschelkalk -, while to the South it is covered by Quader-
sandstein.
The Riesengebirge, whose highest peak, of mica-schist,
attains a height of 4900 feet above the sea, is joined to the
East by the Waldenburg-Glatz coal-basin; which is broken
through by various porphyries and melaphyres, like the
southerly Rothliegendes. Following this are the Sudeten Moun-
tains, which, in the Altvater peak, attain a height of 4600 feet
above the sea.
Crystalline rocks predominate in the higher portions of this
last mountain-chain; namely, granite, gneiss, mica-schist, etc.
Towards the East, their gentle slope consists almost entirely
of Devonian strata, combined with somewhat of Mountain-
limestone.
COPPER ORES IN THE ROTHLIEGENDES OF
NORTHERN BOHEMIA, * AND IN THE CRYSTALLINE
SCHISTS AT ROCHLITZ.
145. The Rothliegendes, in the neighborhood of Hohen-
elbe and Starkenbach, where lying on the crystalline schists
^ee: Forth, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1857, p. 347; Herter, in same,
1858, p. 831; Zippe, in same, 1860, p. 612; Gurlt, in Berg- und hiitteum.
Zeitimg, 1859, p. 35; Polak, in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1858, p. 243;
Herter and Forth, in same, 1859, p. 10.
COPPER ORES IN N. BOHEMIA, AND AT ROCHLITZ. 231
(clay-slate and mica-schist) forming the base of the Kiesen-
gebirge, is tolerably steep. It consists, commencing at the top,
of the following subdivisions:
1. Speckled sandstone with silicified plants;
2. Argillaceous sandstone with Calamites;
3. Bituminous shale (BrandscMefer) with numerous remains of plants
and fish, in which is somewhat of copper ore;
4. Argillaceous shale and marl;
5 Argillaceous sandstone, like 2 ;
6. Red argillaceous shale with copper ores;
7. Sandstone, with copper ores, at Starkenbach;
8. Bituminous shale, with copper ores;
9. Sandstone;
10. Conglomerate with copper ores, lying on crystalline schists.
This succession is not always constant, at the various locali-
ties; and the copper ores only occur locally in the strata.
Their peculiar distribution rendered it impossible to exploit them
profitably. Nevertheless it is of geological interest, like that
already mentioned in the interior of Bohemia.
It was found by trenching, that here, as in the Eoih-
liegendes at Bohmischbrod, principally the sandstone, and also
the conglomerate, the marl, and the bituminous slate, contained
the ore in different localities between the Elbe and the Iser.
The ores are essentially malachite, azurite, and chrysocolla;
only slight traces of sulphurets are found near bituminous
portions. Besides these, pockets of native copper, malachite,
and copper glance, are frequent in the numerous melaphyres of
this neighborhood.
According to Forth, the whole occurrence of these copper
ores has the character of an infiltration, and appears to be
dependent, with the single exception of the pockets in conglo-
merate and melaphyre, on the presence of organic substances.
The sandstone No. 7, which is quite rich in the carbonised
remains of plants, contains the largest quantity of ores. The
most of these accur surrounding the threads of coal, and trunks
of trees, whose bark is carbonised. The bituminous shales, and
the marls immediately adjoining these, appear to be next richest
in ores. All the other strata appear to contain merely traces
of ores. The influence of organic remains was very distinctly
seen in an old shaft near Starkenbach, which had caved in.
Bones, probably of animals who fell into the shaft, were found
232 COPPER-ORES IN EOTHLIEGENDES OF N. BOHEMIA,
beneath the rubbish entirely impregnated with malachite; while
the rubbish itself contained no traces of ore.
Forth mentions the following facts, as favorable to a for-
mation by infiltration:
1. The percentage of copper is always greater in the friable portions of
the sandstone, than in the firm portions ;
2. All cracks are filled with ores;
3. Traces of ore are never found in fresh cross-fractures of the shales r
but only in the cleavage-fissures and fine cracks;
4. The percentage of ore is the greatest, in all these strata, at the-
outcrop ; and diminishes with the depth ; the impregnation must consequently
have taken place from above ;
5. The principal concentration of the ores around organic remains, in
immediate contact with which copper-sulphurets have occasionally been
formed.
0. Polak stated subsequently, that the coal and strata
enclosing it; argillaceous shales, bituminous slates, etc. in the
neighborhood of Radowenz, southeasterly of Trautenau, contain
somewhat of malachite, azurite, tetrahedrite, and copper glance.
Forth states, that the original copper deposits must be looked for
in the older rocks of the Riesengebirge. There are several localities
in these mountains, where considerable copper-deposits exist. One
of the most interesting is worked by the Ribnitz copper-mine.
This mine exploits a siliceous argillaceous deposit, at times resembling
hornstone, 34 fathoms broad, at the junction of the clay-slate and
the conglomerate of the RotTiliegendes. This deposit averages
3 5 per cent of copper. The copper is obtained, partly in the
mass of the deposit as copper glance, partly as malachite and
hydrous silicate filling all the fissures and cracks. This deposit
occurs, as stated, at the junction of the Rothliegendes, but is still
entirely in the clay-slate, and parallel to its cleavage.
Nests and disseminations of copper-ores occur in various
places near the larger deposits. This occurrence of copper
appears to be especially combined with an augitic rock (malacolith),
which frequently occurs within segregation's of crystalline lime-
stone; for example, near Hiittenbach, and Ober-Rochlitz. At
these localities, Gurlt states, that copper, zinc, lead and iron
ores occur in banks of malacolith, which alternate with lime-
stone.
Herter and Forth have described these curious deposits
nearly as follows: 'The predominating rocks near Rochlitz are
mica-schist, passing into quartz-schist containing beds of clay-
AND IN CRYSTALLINE SCHISTS AT ROCHLITZ. 233
slate and granular limestone. The granular limestone forms
very irregular beds, having almost the appearance of segre-
gations. In this occur, as still more subordinate layers, and
also of a somewhat irregular and lenticular shape, metalliferous
beds and pockets of malacolith. The, at times fibrous, malacolith
forms alternate layers with talc-schist and limestone, which have
the appearance of a lime-talc schist. Talc and feldspar occur
implanted in the malacolith, the last also crystallized in calc.
spar. Cyanite occurs as a rarity in the cracks of the mala-
colith.
The ores ; which especially occur combined with the malacolith,
are sulphurets of copper, lead, zinc, and iron. They are distri-
buted, finely disseminated, over large areas, and form fine threads
and fillings of fissures. The blende alone, occasionally forms
more compact concretions. The whole occurrence resem-
bles that of the Kongsberg Fallbands. At one locality, where
the Huttenbach flows into the Iser, a concentration of the ores
was observed, and the following minerals found; copper glance,
erubescite, tetrahedrite, copper pyrites, stibnite (rare), native
silver (very rare), galena, blende, and iron pyrites. The
majority of these ores contain silver, the blende up to 28 grammes,
the galena 100 to 280 grammes, the copper-ores up to
1666 grammes, in 100 kilogrammes.'
At another locality, alongside of the road leading to
Starkenbach, the metalliferous malacolith occurs in very thick
beds at the limits of the limestone. From these beds
extend, for a considerable distance, into the country-rock,
ore-impregnations; which partly penetrate the mass of the rock,
partly occur collected in fissures. The impregnating ores are
mostly hydrous silicates, less frequently carbonates and oxides,
very rarely sulphurets. According to Reuss, the deposits of
malacolith are traversed by irregular quartz-veins, which contain
considerable masses of erubescite, copper pyrites, malachite, tet-
rahedrite, etc. Reuss is of the opinion, that the ores in the
malacolith come from such quartz veins.
Herter and Forth found altogether the following minerals in
the Rochlitz ore-deposits; a hydrous silicate of copper, bol,
allophane, neolith, malachite, azurite, melaconite, tile ore, a still
undetermined antimony mineral, stibnite, tetrahedrite, cerusite,
pyromorphite, minium, anglesite, calamine, native silver, galena,
234 SUCCESSION OF ROCKS AT
erubescite, copper pyrites, copper glance, earthy copper, quartz,
calc-spar, and gypsum. Many of the copper minerals contain
antimonic acid.
There is an unmistakable analogy between the ore-impreg-
nations first described in Rothliegendes at the .base of the
Riesengebirge, also those at Bohmischbrod, and the copper-ore
impregnations described by Murchison, in the grits of the lower
Permian, at the western base of the Ural Mountains. Even the
geological age of the impregnated rocks in these three localities,
appears nearly coincident. But it would be rather bold, to
attempt from this to infer any nearer connection between the
deposits in Bohemia and Russia. We must consider, that these
impregnations have occurred at places very far apart, only
locally, and evidently long subsequent to the formation of the
rocks. How much later, we do not know; but there is no po-
sitive ground for supposing, that the impregnations took place
contemporaneously. Their contemporaneous occurrence could
only be accidental, as it is an accident that they are found in
parallel strata.
KUPFERBERG IN SILESIA.
146. Websky states the following to be the succession
of rocks, occurring around Kupferberg, l commencing with the
lowest :
1. Granite, belonging to the principal mass of the Riesengebirge;
2. Dichroit gneiss, only at one locality (the Ochsenkopfj, perhaps as
contact-formation, between mica-schist and granite ;
3. Lower diorite slate, frequently called hornblende schist; a mixture of
hornblende and oligoclase, often with somewhat of mica, and fine particles
of iron pyrites, pyrrhotine, and copper pyrites; also lenticular pockets of
a mixture of quartz and oligoclase;
4. Lower Dolomite, embedded in the lower diorite slate;
5. Mica-schist, but little developed;
6. Quartz-schist, frequently containing feldspar, but little developed;
7. Upper diorite slate, exactly like 3;
1 See: Websky, in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch. 1853, p. 373;
Manes, in Anna! des mines, 1825, vol. XI. p 19.
KUPFERBERG IN SILESIA. 235
ft. Green-slate, gradually passing into the upper diorite slate: this is
a compact mixture of a mineral resembling asbestos, and feldspar; it is fre-
quently accompanied by talc and fine plates of chlorite, having a silky lustre,
and linear parallelism. It encloses pockets of dolomite, quartz, and oligoclase;
and is traversed by numerous fissures filled with thin needles of tremolith,
quartz, plates of mica, and specular iron, crystals of albite, pistacite, or dolo-
mite: near Kohnau this slate contains a succession of talc-schist segre-
gations, with lenticular masses of quartz, and nearly 15 per cent of iron py-
rites, which are used for the manufacture of iron vitriol;
9. Clay-slate, merely a local modification of the green-slate;
10. Upper dolomite, and limestone, embedded in the green-slate; for
example, on the Bleiberg.
These rocks are generally tilted on end, and stand nearly
perpendicular alongside of each other. Websky even thinks,
that the recurrence of similar rocks may have been caused by
foldings, the upper portions of which have been removed by
denudation. They are intersected by various kinds of igneous
rocks : in the neighborhood of granite, by granite dikes ; near
Kupferberg, and at the foot of the Bleiberg, by dikes of quartz
porphyry: the clay-slate, by a gray ; much decomposed por-
phyry-dike northwardly of Buchwald, and by an uralite rock,
which is very subordinate among the cliffs of the Rohrig Mountain.
The lodes of this district are found principally in the lower
diorite slate near the dikes of porphyry; they are also found in
the green-slate, mica-schist and clay- slate. The granite cuts them
off. Their average breadth is 2 3 inches, but seldom 15 inches,
and very exceptionally 7 feet. They can be classified, according
to their matrices, into
1. copper lodes,
2. lead lodes, and
3. heavy spar veins
The copper lodes occur almost exclusively in the diorite
slate, but can be divided into four groups according to their
strike and matrix:
1. Lodes striking NW. SE. and consequently parallel to
that of the country-rock, but dipping in an opposite direction
towards S. They are the oldest, being even older than the
dikes of red porphyry, but more recent than those of granite :
the ores occurring in the Schwarz Adler, Frohe Erwartung,
Erwiinschte Zukunft, and other lodes, are; copper pyrites, iron
pyrites, pyrrhetine, mispickel, erubescite, tetrahedrite, and copper
glance; with numerous minerals formed by the decomposition
of these. Their gang consists of a frequently much decom-
236 CLASSIFICATION OF LODES.
posed chloritic or amphibolic rock, with friable quartz and
specular iron.
The Einigkeit lode varies from this, its matrix possessing
a fourfold character:
a. a compact mass of actinolith, tremolith, or hedenbergite,
mixed with compact or crystallized prase or quartz, and a chlor-
itic mineral, in which matrix occur; magnetite, pyrrhotine, iron
pyrites, copper pyrites, and erubescite: it is possible, that a
portion of this matrix was formed by alteration from lievrite,
traces of which still occur;
b. a compact or granular mass, consisting of a dark colored
mineral, in which fine particles of pyrites are disseminated;
c. a branch of yellow ferruginous quartz, with plates of
specular iron ;
d. Quartz firmly fastened to the wallrock, occurring only
at junctions.
2. Lodes striking N. S. They appear to contain but little
ore, among others nickel and cobalt minerals: six are known to
exist near Kupferberg, but have hardly been even examined;
they traverse the slate, and before mentioned lodes, at a con-
siderable angle.
3. Lodes striking NNW. SSE. They occur scattered through
the whole district; ten of them are known, the most character-
istic of which is the Neue-Adler: its matrix, from the selvages
towards the middle, is first a thin incrustation of drusy quartz,
this is followed by massive copper pyrites with mispickel, then
not rarely by a white or flesh-colored feldspar: the succession
is closed by calc-spar, fluor spar, and brown spar. Consequently
a symmetrical arrangement of the layers; and containing
feldspar !
4. Lodes striking E. W. They form the most developed
group, especially between those of group 1. Sixteen of
these are known, of which one appears at the same time
to be the principal faulting fissure. Their principal vein-stone is
quartz, with fragments of the country-rock. Calc-spar occurs
but rarely in the geodes of quartz. Of the ores found, the
older are ; copper glance, erubescite, copper pyrites, and blende,
occurring in pockets surrounded by quartz and hornstone ; more
recent are tetrahedrite, and copper pyrites in geodes.
The lead-lodes occur exclusively in the green-slates of the
Bleiberg (Lead Mountain), and form a belt entirely apart from
REMARKS, AND CONCLUSIONS. 237
the copper-lodes: they are no longer worked; but from the
remains of former mining it may be concluded, that they were
nearly conformable to the strike and dip of the slates; also,
that their vein-stone was quartz, in which occurred pockets of
galena, and copper pyrites, with the minerals formed by their
decomposition: the galena is argentiferous.
The veins of heavy spar, like those of Freiberg, are the
most recent in this vein-district. They occur, as independent
lodes, only in the Rudolstadt group, where they strike
NW. SE. parallel to the porphyry-dikes, traversing the diorite-
slate. The heavy spar occurs sporadically in other veins, as
the most recent formation. The most common matrix of these
lodes is heavy spar, fluor spar, and quartz, with somewhat of
galena and copper pyrites. On the other hand a variety of
beautiful minerals were found combined with heavy spar (spora-
dical) in the Alt-Adler lode, at a depth of 125 fathoms; viz.
calc-spar, native silver, copper pyrites, erubescite, silver glance,
stromeyerite, argentiferous copper glance, tetrahedrite, polybasite,
smaltine, proustite, chloanthite, copper nickel, harmotome,
heulandite, and brown spar.
In addition to this abridgment of Websky's observations,
some of his general remarks, on the lodes of the Kupferberg
district, may be added:
1 The copper-lodes often show slight changes in their direction
of strike; and each such change appears to be connected with
an apparent forking of the lodes: these forks are evidently
the result of two somewhat varying directions of strike.
The lodes intersecting one another frequently produce faults,
which appear to be sometimes also caused by sideward dis-
locations.
The ores are by no means equally distributed through the
lodes, but are, as is common, locally concentrated in the veins/
In regard to the distribution of the ores, the following were
the apparent conclusions arrived at from observations :
1. In each separate group of lodes, the ore is principally
concentrated in the central region.
2. The quartz-schist and mica-schist have always proved, as
wall-rock, unfavorable to the deposit of ores.
3. The junctions of two groups of lodes have shown them-
selves, especially under the town of Kupferberg, where the
copper groups Nos. 1 and 4 meet ; to be generally rich points:
238 EISENKOPPE. VOIGTSDORF, QUERBACH.
this however cannot be always recognised for the special junc-
tion of two lodes.
4. No certain results could be obtained, as to variations in
richness at different depths, from the -works now open.
5. The influences of air and water have considerably chan-
ged the original condition of the outcrop, and have given rise
to numerous products of decomposition. The country-rock has
been frequently much changed by the same causes. On the
copper-lodes ; there have been formed ; tile ore, red copper,
native copper, malachite, chrysocolla, covelline, azurite, phosphoro-
chalcite, chalcophyllite, volborthite, wulfenite, etc.
EISENKOPPE NEAR ALTENBERG.
147. On the Eisenkoppe l Mountain near Altenberg,
northerly of Kupferberg, occurs a contact-lode. It is found
between porphyry and clay-slate, strikes E. W., dips towards
N. and is 2 3 feet broad. The porphyry generally forms the
foot-wall, and the clay-slate the hanging-wall of the same. But
the lode sometimes leaves the line of contact, and is found
entirely in the porphyry, or altogether in the clay-slate*, it also
sends leaders into these. From this it would appear, that the junction
of the rocks was more easily fractured, than the rocks themselves.
The lode consists principally of quartz, in which are found
iron pyrites, galena, somewhat of tetrahedrite, and stibnite. It
generally possesses very distinct selvages, which sometimes dis-
appear in the side of the porphyry.
VOIGTSDORF QUERBACH.
148. The mica-schist, which is embedded in gneiss on
the northern slope of the Riesengebirge, surrounds, at Voigtsdorf
near Warmbrunn, according to Manes, 2 a broad zone (or a bed)
containing numerous veins of garnet, quartz, and calc. spar;
and a very broad bed of tin and cobalt ores. This zone,
5 17 feet broad, which is in turn composed of several single
layers, consists of quartz or mica-schist, containing iron pyrites,
pyrrhotine, mispickei, specular iron, galena, blende, smaltine,
and cassiterite. Cobalt and tin are the metals, which were
obtained from these minerals. The cobalt-ore occurs in two
1 See: Manes, in Annal. d. mines, 1825, vol. XI. p. 19.
2 Manes, in Annal. des mines, 1825, vol. XI. p. 15.
SCHM1EDEBERG.
239
ways: in part perceptibly crystallized on quartz, or impregnating
this; in part imperceptible, mixed in extremely fine particles with
the schist, garnet or pyrites.
The cassiterite is as a rule imperceptible, being mingled
with the slate, or garnet, or even combined with the sulphuret
of iron.
The distribution of the ores, with regard to their direction
of strike, is a very unequal one. Near Giehren considerable
tin, and but little cobalt was found; while at Querbach there
was considerable cobalt, and but little tin.
Websky 1 states, that the principal ore was a cobaltiferous
mispickel, with which were found epidote, and an automolith,
resembling the Swedish variety.
IRON ORE DEPOSITS NEAR SCHMIEDEBERG.
149. There occurs at Schmiedeberg 2 a small zone,
between gneiss, passing into mica-schist, and granite; which is
formed by the transitions of gneiss, mica-schist, and hornblende-
schist ; and contains numerous deposits of magnetite. These iron
deposits were already worked in the 15th century, then long
abandoned, and have recently again been taken up.
This metalliferous zone consists properly of rocks forming
subordinate layers in the gneiss; these are hornblende-schist,
garnet-rock, magnetic iron, granular limestone, quartz, serpentine,
chlorite-schist, and mica-schist.
Granite. Granitic gneiss.
a. Greenstone, probably corresponding to the
hornblende-schist of Wedding.
1 Websky, in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch. 1851, p. 12.
2 See: Cordelia, in Berg- und hiittenm. Zeit. 1858, p. 21; Wedding,
in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellschaft, 1859, p. 399.
240 SCHMIEDEBERG IRON-ORE-DE POSITS.
Cordelia states the bedding of the rocks to be ; as shown
in the preceding woodcut; which differs somewhat from the later,
and here principally followed, description of Wedding.
Ten paying deposits of magnetite"' are known to exist, be-
sides which there is a number of thin layers, or lenses.
The term bed is in general correct, for these magnetite
deposits ; since they are subordinate layers parallel 'to the outer
rocks. But each of these beds consists of a number of larger
and smaller lenses, at times 14 feet thick; which are indeed
mostly joined, but frequently only by small threads of the ore.
These changes occur principally, where the strata are much
folded. The thickness of the beds is extremely variable. The
magnetic iron occurs but seldom pure, being generally mixed
with and contaminated by a number of other minerals, which
at times nearly altogether supplant it. Wedding says: 'The
four lower beds are distinguished by a richness in chlorite; the
chlorite frequently penetrating through the entire mass of ore:
it occurs in the seventh bed, principally in the floor, in con-
siderable layers, chiefly where folds occur. This mineral also
occurs, as a layer, in the garnet-rock. Innumerable crystals of
iron pyrites occur in the chlorite of the seventh bed. While
calc. spar is not very abundant in the lower beds, it frequently
traverses the ore of the seventh bed, in veins, generally having
epidote at its selvages; while garnet and tremolith occur disse-
minated through it. Where the ore ceases, fibrous hornblende
occurs, as a substitute, intimately combined with pyrrhotine, and
iron pyrites. The hornblende is distinguished by its beautiful
radiate structure.
The variety of minerals is much encreased in the upper
beds, where the iron ore has a much coarser texture. In one
of these hornblende and garnet predominate ; the first is dark
green or black, always radiated (actinolith) ; the garnet is mas-
sive, green, and traversed by veins of red garnet, the last often
crystallized. These crystals are generally trapezohedrons, having
the faces much striated ; they are of a brownish-red or red color,
being frequently in the last case transparent.
Iron pyrites frequently occurs, massive, and in crystals.
The epidote is mostly crystalline or crystallized, always having
distinct cleavage-planes: its crystals are simple, and have much
striated faces. The finest crystals of epidote occur in the veins
of calc. spar, which repeatedly traverse the green garnet. Black
GABLAU. 241
mica is scarce, occurring in thin curved plates. One of the beds,
which has been reached by a cross-cut, appears, in addition to
similar ores, and a like quantity of garnet, to contain more
hornblende than the bed just mentioned.
The upper bed contains coarse granular ore, which is at
times somewhat foliaceous. Where the calc-spar veins occur,
it is always more or less distinctly crystallized. The particles
of iron ore have a very brilliant lustre at the selvages. Calc-
spar is the principal mineral in this, and so completely supplants
the ore at times, that the last frequently occurs, only as particles
in the former, having a great tendency to crystallization. Iron
pyrites is very common in cubes within the calc-spar, still more
frequent is pyrrhotine. Chlorite occurs but rarely, in threads,
or disseminated through the ore ; it is more common in the calc-
spar; which also contains red garnet, in veins, and as crystals.
Green garnet forms veins at times in the massive ore. Actinolith
is here much rarer than in the lower beds.
All the iron ores are very magnetic, but generally only
possess simple magnetism. But few specimens are polar, even
after being long exposed to the air. This may be explained
by the numerous breaks caused by the distribution of foreign
minerals. Smaller fragments, which are not polar, become so
immediately, if brought, but for an instant, in contact with a
magnet.'
All the rocks parallel to, and alternating with each other,
are frequently traversed, and in part faulted, by fissures and
dikes. The last consist partly of a granite very rich in ortho-
clase, partly of a very micaceous crystalline limestone containing
serpentine. Their breadth is very variable. The granite veins
have mostly a gentle dip.
The magnetite is frequently altered, near the surface, into
hematite, and specular iron of a dark color ; which were the
principal minerals exploited in former times.
GABLAU 1 WESTERLY OF WALDENBURG.
150. Lead and argentiferous lodes occur here in clay-
slate, which has been broken through by quartz-porphyry in the
neighboring Sattel Forest. Four of these have been recently
1 See: Mil Her, in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1856, p. 211.
16
242 ZUCKMANTEL.
examined, and work commenced on them. They are mostly
double lodes; of which one portion consists of compact heavy
spar with tetrahedrite, copper pyrites, brownish blende, and more
rarely fluor spar, quartz, calc-spar^ radiated marcasite, and
polybasite (?). The other portion is characterised by granular
quartz, with iron pyrites, galena, blende, and copper pyrites.
They consequently resemble the Reinsberger-Gluok lode near
Freiberg.
The Fridolin lode strikes nearly N. - 8. and dips 80 in E.
The breadth of the double lode varies, between 1 inch and 7 feet.
The two portions separate at times, and then form a quartz and
a barytic lode. A junction with the Bernhard lode was found
very rich in tetrahedrite.
The Bernhard lode strikes NW. SE. and dips 70 in S.
It also is a double lode, but generally only 2 8 inches broad.
The barytic portion occasionally intersects the quartz portion,
passing from the hanging- to the foot-wall, and the reverse.
The quartz portion completely wedges-out at times, which cir-
cumstance is generally combined with an empoverishment of the
barytic portion, for which it was a favorable wall-rock. The
quartz portion also occasionally receives tetrahedrite by the
union. The country-rock itself is frequently much impregnated
with iron pyrites, and tetrahedrite. A soft and conglomerate-like
nature of the same appears to have had locally a very favorable
influence on the contents of the lode. Certain narrow clay-
fissures, between the nearly horizontal strata, throw the lode,
for distances of 4 to 22 inches. Where the Bernhard lode forms
junctions with the Fridolin, it is split up into small threads
containing calc-spar and tetrahedrite.
The Caroline lode was found richest in tetrahedrite near
small intersecting veins of quartz and heavy spar.
ZUCKMANTEL.
151. The Hackel l Mountain at Zuckmantel, northwesterly
of Jagernhof, consists of mica-schist, passing into chlorite, and
1 See: Oeynhausen, Geognost. Beschreibung v. Oberschlesien, 1822,
p. 54; Honiger, in Jahrb. d. geolog. Reichsanst. 1856, vol.. III. p. 91, and
in Kraus' Jahrb. fur d. Berg- u. Hiittenmann, 1849, p. 138; L. W. in same,
1852, p. 125; Glocker, in Poggendorf's Annalen, 1853, vol. 88, p. 297.
UPPER SILESIA. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 243
quartz-schists, with subordinate strata of limestone. The same
attains a height of 2840 feet above the sea, and is covered with
the rubbish from former mining operations. A large portion of
the workings is open, and forms immense areas, in which sul-
phates frequently occur. The sides of the rocks, in the open
quarries, are often covered to a thickness of half an inch with
sulphates.
The deposit, which gave occasion to these mining workings,
is a quartzose mica, or quartz-schist, impregnated with ores.
The impregnated zone attains a breadth of '3 7 feet, strikes
NW. SE. and dips 60 70 in NE. The disseminated ores
are; auriferous pyrites (iron pyrites, marcasite, pyrrhotine, mis-
pickel, copper pyrites), blende, auriferous and argentiferous
galena; more rarely, hematite, and magnetite. Other minerals
occurring with these ores are; hornblende, asbestos, actinolith,
tremolith, feldspar, serpentine, epidote, garnet, calc-spar, brown
spar, and somewhat of stilpnomelane. Other impregnated zones,
of less breadth and extent, occur in the hanging- and foot-wall
of the principal impregnation.
This deposit resembles in many respects that of Reichen-
stein (which is consequently omitted in the translation), but
shows also considerable similarity to the Fallbands in the Scan-
dinavian mica-schists; it is also very like the Schwarzehberg
deposits in its mineral composition. Its contents do not appear
to be sufficient for any extensive mining operations.
XL THE ELEVATED PLATEAU OF
UPPER SILESIA.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
152. This elevated, but almost level, plateau, bordering
to the East on Russian Poland, is covered superficially by dilu-
vial deposits. Under these occur the following formations, with
generally but slight undulations:
16*
244 CLAY-IRONSTONE OF CARBONIFEROUS,
1. Tertiary Strata;
2. Cretaceous Strata;
3. Jura Strata;
4. Keuper, with beds of clay-ironstone;
5. MuschelJcalk (fossiliferous limestone), accompanied by
deposits of zinc, lead, and iron, ores;
6. Buntsandstein ;
7. Carboniferous formation, containing beds of spherosiderite.
Since these formations extend into Poland, in "part containing
similar ore-deposits, I will describe both together, without regard
to political boundaries; the more so, as this portion of the Rus-
sian Empire contains otherwise no deposits worth mentioning.
The large extent of country enclosed between the Carpathian
Mountains, the Urals, and the Finnish Mountains, forms a remark-
ably sterile field for our observation; it is almost equally
wanting in mountains, crystalline rocks, and ore-deposits.
The elevated plateau of Upper Silesia contains the following
ore-deposits, worth noticing:
1. Ironstones in the Carboniferous formation;
2. Ironstones in the Keuper formation;
3. Smithsonite, galena, and iron-ore, deposits in the
district of the Muschelkalk.
CLAY-IRONSTONE OF THE CARBONIFEROUS
FORMATION.
153. Beds of clay-ironstone (spherosiderite) are tolerably
common in the Carboniferous 1 strata of Upper Silesia, and
Poland ; they occur principally in those localities, where numerous
and thin coal seams alternate with argillaceous shales. This
clay-ironstone appears to be confined to the upper strata of the
Carboniferous, and near thin coal-seams. It is entirely wanting,
where thick coal-beds occur. It is to be accepted, as a prac-
tical rule, that these ironstones generally occur in the foot-wall
of thin seams, and in the hanging- wall of broad coal-beds.
Still this rule has many exceptions.
The ironstones are either found singly, scattered as nodules
and ellipsoids in the argillaceous shales ; or they form regular beds,
which are mostly composed of separate nodules or ellipsoids
united in layers. They contain 30 35 per cent of iron, and
melt easily.
1 See: Von Oeynhausen, Geogn. Beschr. v. Oberschlesien, 1822, pp. 120,
150, and 164; Cotta, in Berg- u. hiitten*. Zeitung," 1860, p. 122.
AND OF THE KEUPER, FORMATION. 245
Entirely similar spherosiderite beds recur in the adjacent
portions of Poland. At Por^bka near Dombrowa I observed
such a layer, 1 3 feet thick, in the hanging-wall of the prin-
cipal coal-bed, 24 feet thick. The spherosiderite contains the
distinct remains of plants belonging to the Carboniferous Age,
and lies 19 20 feet below the surface, being covered by the
following strata:
1. Soil, y a foot;
2. Red plastic clay, 34 feet;
3. Black carbonaceous clay, 34 feet;
4. Argillaceous shale, with impure seams of coal, 2 feet;
5. Gray marl, 1012 feet;
6. Argillaceous shale, l /^ foot;
7. Spherosiderite, 13 feet;
8. Argillaceous shale.
CLAY-IRONSTONE 1 OF THE KEUPER FORMATION.
154. The Keuper formation, whose strata were formerly
supposed to belong to the Jura, occupies a considerable area
in the northern portion of Silesia (northeasterly of Malapane),
and in the adjoining portion of Poland. Its strata commencing
with the upper ones are:
1. Limestone of Lublinitz;
2. Variegated clay;
3. Gray clay, and sand; in which occurs
clay-ironstone, corresponding to the Keuper.
The clay, alternating with strata of sand or sandstone, con-
tains the deposits of ironstone in a gray and unctuous variety,
partly as scattered, nodules, partly as coherent strata, or beds.
A complete transition takes place between these two manners
of occurrence. While on the one side, the ironstone-beds are
traversed by clay, in such a. manner separated, and altogether
so intermissive, that they consist as it were of separate masses,
having the most variable extent and thickness; so on the other
hand, the largest nodules are combined into beds, which are
united by a light gray ferruginous clay. This clay contains
carbonate of iron.
1 See: Von Car nail, in Kalender f. d. Oberschlesischen Bergmann,
1847, p. 1; Von Oeynhausen, Geogn. Beschr. v. Oberschlesien, p. 364, and
in Karsten's Arch. 1832, vol. IV. p. 350; Pusch, Geognost. Beschreibung
von Polen, 1833.
246 KEUPER-FORMATION DEPOSITS.
These deposits consist, partly of argillaceous spherosiderite,
partly of argillaceous limonite; which are both called clay-iron-
stone. It is possible, that the latter .has been formed by altera-
tion from the former. Argillaceous hematite, or red clay-iron-
stone, occurs to a subordinate degree.
The spherosiderite proper contains, on account of its impuri-
ties, only 45 per cent of iron. The largest nodules attain a
diameter of 1 ! / a feet. These always contain a purer, more mas-
sive kernel, than their outer crust, consisting of concentric layers.
Ammonites occasionally occur in the kernels, or they have a
honeycombed appearance (septaria). Small crystals of spathic
iron, blende, and galena, occur in the fissures. The smaller
masses are less regular than the large ones, being merely
rounded nodules; they are also enclosed in gray, ferruginous
clay, in such a manner that they touch one another. Such
nodules occur in the hanging- wall, for 3 4 fathoms beyond the
bed proper.
Argillaceous spherosiderite, with 25 30 per cent of iron,
forms somewhat more compact beds, 1 20 inches in thickness,
but traversed by numerous cross-fissures, which attain their
greatest breadth in the middle of the strata. They often wedge
suddenly out, or cease very suddenly in the clay, without
having been dislocated. They are also accompanied by scattered
nodules of ore.
Siliceous spherosiderite is the term applied to the quartzose
varieties of this ironstone. They are also compact, but some-
what harder than the others. They afford at the most 30 per
cent of iron. In many, a mixture of sand can be recognised,
from their decomposition; and these then pass into true sphero-
siderite sandstones. These beds are 1520 inches thick.
The limonite also occurs in three modifications; as nodular,
argillaceous, and sandy limonite.
The first forms concentric nodules, 312 inches thick, fre-
quently hollow, and containing stalactites of limonite, or with
a kernel of spherosiderite, or even with sand in their interior.
They occur, commonly, scattered in the sand.
The argillaceous limonite, with 20 30 per cent of iron,
forms beds a few inches to 3 feet thick; it is however often
rendered impure, and unfit to smelt, from mixtures of clay
and sand.
MUSCHELKALK FORMATION DEPOSITS. 247
The blackish-brown sandy limonite is not smelted, there
being no lack of better ores.
The red clay-ironstone, a mixture of hematite and clay,
forms earthy, compact, or even somewhat slaty beds, 1 inch to
2*/2 fathoms thick. It is generally very poor, from the large
mixtures of clay.
Similar deposits to these occur in many localities of the
adjoining portion of Poland.
SMITHSONITE, GALENA, AND LIMONITE DEPOSITS
IN THE MUSCHELKALK FORMATION. l
155. The fossiliferous limestone formation of Upper Silesia
and Poland consists, commencing with the uppermost, of the fol-
lowing strata:
1. Limestone of Opatowitz, but little extended, and without relation to
the ore-deposits;
2. Dolomite, and magnesian limestone, widely extended, and principally
connected with the ore deposits;
3. Floor limestone, corresponding to the lower Muschelkalk, or Wellen-
kalk, of western Germany.
The ore-deposits, which appear combined with this forma-
tion, occur in part separated from one another, but are all
evidently most intimately connected, have probably one origin,
and are found at times associated together for considerable
distances.
The smithsonite deposits are found principally at the junc-
tion of the dolomite and the Floor limestone, but occasionally
occur altogether in the dolomite.
The lead-ores occur altogether in the dolomite, or intimately
combined with the smithsonite, or in pockets of the overlying
tertiary strata, as if washed together.
The limonite, the most common, is combined with the smith-
sonite, or as large pockets embedded in depressions of the dolo-
mite or Floor limestone.
1 See: Von Oeynhausen, Geogn. Beschr. v. Oberschlesien, pp. 203.
205; Pusch, Geogn. Beschr. v. Polen, 1833, vol. I. p. 225; Carnall, in
Bergmannischen Taschenbuch f. Oberschlesien, 1844, p. 100, and Zeitschr.
d. deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch., 1850, p. 177; Krug von Nidda, in same,
1850, p. 206, and postscript to same in Leonhard's Jahrb., 1851, p. 710;
Rivot and Lejeune, in Annal. d. mines, 1843, vol. XIII. p. 271.
248 SMITHSONITE, GALENA, AND LIMONITE, DEPOSITS
All these deposits are very common in the neighborhoods
of Tarnowitz, Beuthen, Bendzin and Olkusz, the iron ore also
near Twardowice.
The manner of occurrence at Bendzin in Upper Silesia is the
following.
The dolomite forms basin-shaped deposits in gentle depres-
sions of the Floor limestone. Since these are the thickest in
the middle of their area, their shape may generally be assumed
to be lenticular. Krug von Nidda represents them as being like
that in the accompanying woodcut, and says respecting them:
c
'The borders of the lenses, the angles (c) between the do-
lomite (a) and the Floor limestone (&), consist partly of the
richest zinc-ore and limonite deposits, partly of tertiary strata:
the ores partly penetrate the mass of the dolomite.'
But, as already mentioned, all the ores do not occur in com-
bination with the dolomite; and precisely those, which are not
combined with it, serve as key to their comprehension. Near
Eadzionkau, two miles distant from the dolomite, where white
smithsonite and limonite occur together, the bedding is as shown
in the woodcut.
a. Floor limestone, b. Bed of white smithsonite, 30 inches to 14 feet. c. Roof
of Clay. d. Limonite. e. Yellow clay. f. Tertiary sand and clay. g. Surface soil.
IN THE MUSCHELKALK FORMATION.
249
The strata of the Floor limestone, which generally lie
horizontally, frequently have their upper surface not parallel to
the strata; and it appears as if eaten by acids, so that fossils,
and some harder ledges of the strata, are prominent. The
separate layers 6, c, are very inconstant, nearly every one of
them locally disappearing, or becoming very thick; from which
circumstance an irregularity in thefr formation arises. This irregu-
larity becomes much more distinct from the presence of nume-
rous cylindrical pipes filled by the same materials, and which
Krug von Nidda considers to be the pipes of springs, which
have had a close relation with the formation of the ores.
One of these tubular pipes was well opened at the Severin
Zinc-mine at Bobrek, and appeared, as seen in the woodcut.
a. Floor limestone.
b. Zinc ore.
c. Roofing clay.
d. Sand with boulders.
Fissures occur quite frequently alongside of these pipes,
which -continue for quite a long way beneath the surface of the
Floor limestone. The majority of limonite deposits, near Naklo
and Radzionkau, occur in such fissures. The smithsonite is then
generally wanting.
250 SMITHSONITE, GALENA, AND LIMONITE, DEPOSITS
One of the most important smithsonite deposits is that of
Scharlei, at present exploited by several mines and quarries.
Its geological character can best be understood from the accom-
panying woodcut.
111
Sr
T. Tertiary clay and sand; D. Dolomite; S. Floor limestone;
b. S. Buntsandstein; St. F. Carboniferous formation.
Since galena also occurs here, with smithsonite ; and in ter-
tiary clay; all the various kinds of ores, mentioned in this pa-
ragraph, are represented in this section, though not all the va-
rious manners of occurrence.
A vertical section of the quarry at Scharlei ; which is about
18 fathoms deep, and 290 fathoms long, has nearly the follow-
ing profile.
S. Floor limestone, with irregular, undulating surface.
W. Beds of white calamine, a few inches thick, which do not extend regu-
larly, and are generally separated, by a thin layer of clay, from
r. G. the red smithsonite, which is colored, yellow or red, by much peroxide
of iron, and at times encloses irregular masses of Dolomite (D) ; which are not
sharply defined, and appear to be impregnated by considerable peroxide, of iron,
and smithsonite. They are also traversed, like the beds of red smithsonite, 5 to
6 fathoms thick, by irregular strings of galena a few inches broad. This depo-
sit of smithsonite appears to extend in a wedgelike form: at least it is much thin-
ner, in this direction, in the underground workings; and it is, therefore, supposed
that it will soon wedge-out, so that then the roof
IN THE MUSCHELKALK FORMATION. 251
D. of Dolomite will lie immediately on the floor limestone, as shown in
the preceding section. This Dolomite is much impregnated by peroxide of iron, and
smithsonite, immediately over the ore-deposit, and occasionally contains strings
of galena.
T. Tertiary clay and sand, overlaid at the surface by alluvium. In this
clay lie scattered pockets of
X galena in small fragments, formerly exploited by small shafts. This ga-
lena has been evidently swept together in secondary deposits.
This immense quarry at Scharlei shows the most common,
I might almost say normal, bedding of the zinc-deposits in
this region. At the bottom, a very thin layer of calamine;
over this, red smithsonite, very thick and irregular, hardly pos-
sible to separate distinctly from the dolomite, and penetrated by
lead ores. In some of the mines West of Beuthen, limonite
occurs over the smithsonite, between it and the dolomite; it
also occurs independently in irregular depressions of the Floor
limestone and dolomite, covered by somewhat of tertiary clay
and sand, beneath which it is exploited in innumerable localities.
The galena-deposits occur, somewhat more apart, in the
dolomite of the same district. They consist of strata of this
rock locally penetrated by galena; since the strata do not con-
tain the lead-ore throughout their whole extent, but locally
alone, they cannot be regarded as beds proper, but rather as
recumbent segegrations, or impregnations. Krug von Nidda
says : i The galena deposit of the Friedrich's mine, which has
been exploited over a large area, occurs in one of the lower
layers of the dolomite, at a height of 3 10 feet above the
Floor limestone. As this layer consists of a hard or soft do-
lomite, or a ferruginous clay, the miners distinguish a hard-,
soft-, and clay-ore layer. The hard-ore layer is undoubtedly
the original one, from which the two others were formed by
the action of air and water. On this account the hard-ore lay-
ers are found most frequently in the deepest, the soft- and clay-
ore layers in the upper workings, which are more exposed to
the action of the elements.' One of the most instructive points
is the long-wall-working near the Hamster-shaft, by which
three layers of the dolomite are exploited; viz. the metalliferous
layer, and those immediately above and below it, in order to
obtain the requisite room for working.
The upper layer (a) in the following woodcut consists of a rough,
gray, irregularly fissured dolomite of considerable firmness; the
ore-layer (), of an argillaceous dolomite, colored dark gray by
bitumen, which contains the galena, partly and chiefly in the
252 SMITHSONITE, GALENA, AND LIMONITE, DEPOSITS
a. Dolomite."
b. Bituminous dolomite, containing galena.
c. Argillaceous dolomite.
neighborhood of the upper fissure of stratification, partly in
subordinate fissures, partly disseminated. The lower layer (c)
consists of an argillaceous, but non-bituminous dolomite, which
is an admirable material for cement.
Pusch classified the occurrence of ore in the neighborhood
of Olkusz in Poland, as follows:
1. A chief bed of smithsonite, and a principal galena-deposit lying im-
mediately over it.
2. Smithsonite, and iron-ore deposits in basin- and kettle-shaped de-
pressions of the foot-rock.
3. Very irregular smithsonite and galena-deposits, in the brown, drusy
hanging-rock (dolomite).
4. Youngest lead-ore formation, in dolomite, or in the white, sandy,
hanging-rock.
Pusch states, that 3, and 4, do not occur in Silesia. Since
the smithsonite was formerly not worked, the same is m>w ex-
tracted from old mines, formerly exploited for lead, where it is
found, generally 1 3 feet thick.
Similar deposits are exploited in the district around Kra-
kau, especially at Lgota.
These examples will suffice to explain, to some extent, the
still more undetermined masses, resembling segregations, of the
whole district.
IN THE MUSCHELKALK FORMATION. 253
Krug von Nidda says: 'From the succession of the plum-
biferous roofing clay and limonite, overlying the smithsonite,
one might be led to arrange these ore-formations into a group
corresponding to their relative Age ; so that the smithsonite
would be the oldest, the lead-ore in the middle, and the limo-
nite the most recently formed. Such a succession, with regard
to their age, is not ; however, verified by facts; they must all
be regarded as contemporaneously formed aggregations of ores,
which have separated, in regard to extent, according to their
nature, and under the influence of the wall-rock. Still this
separation has remained so incomplete, that there is no iron-ore
of these deposits, which does not contain more or less zinc
and lead, and no zinc-ore which does not also contain iron and
lead. With regard to the smithsonite and lead-ore, there is no
doubt, that they have penetrated into the surrounding plastic
clay, and have procured themselves space for the formation of
geod^s, crystals, and concretions. The clay, lying immediately
on the floor-rock, served for the accumulation of the smithson-
ite; since, without a doubt, the finely distributed carbonate of
lime in this marl caused the separation of the carbonate of zinc
from aqueous solutions. This action is unmistakable on the
original masses and strata of the Floor limestone, which are
altered into smithsonite. The silicate of zinc is easily explained,
by the action of dissolved silicic acid on the carbonate of zinc ;
that the former mineral springs, however, which have caused
the ore-deposits in question, contained considerable silicic acid
in solution, is proved by the formation of flints and hornstones,
the frequent silicification of masses of clay, which are changed
into hard rocks resembling hornstone, and the frequent occur-
rence of halloysite in pure, milk-white and opaline secretions,
filling fissures and forming concretions. The lead-ore was dis-
solved in water, as chloride of lead, and altered into carbonate
of lead by the action of some carbonic acid salt, probably car-
bonate of lead.
The hydrated peroxide of iron is, without a doubt, a de-
posit from springs, which like many of the still active springs
rich in carbonic acid, contained carbonate of iron in solution,
which was precipitated as hydrated peroxide, by the action of
the atmospheric air/
Krug von Nidda thus considers all the ore-deposits of Up-
per Silesia to be deposits from springs, which were precipitated
254 CAUSES, MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL, OF ORE-FORMATION.
by the reducing influence of the adjoining wall-rock. He says,
however, that the circumstances causing their formation were,
partly of a chemical, partly of a mechanical nature.
To the mechanical causes, aidig the formation of ores,
are to be assigned the flat basins which are filled with dolo-
mite, the impervious clay-strata, which occur at the contact of
the dolomite and Floor limestone, and the numerous fissures in
the dolomite. To the chemical causes belong the amount of
carbonaceous, bituminous substances in the lower layers of the
dolomite, and the chemical composition of the dolomite itself
(the combination of carbonate of lime with other carbonates,
principally carbonate of magnesia and iron).
An unbiased examination of the manner, in which the ores
of Upper Silesia are embedded in the dolomite, can leave no
doubt, that they are more recent than the dolomite itself; con-
sequently they must ha^e penetrated subsequently to its for-
mation ; and that they stand in undoubted connection with the
above-noticed metallic deposits, which have been recognised, as
productions of, and deposits from mineral springs. Such a con-
nection may have also occurred, where it cannot be directly
proved, and all traces of it subsequently destroyed by changes
in the surface.
The large springs, containing salts of zinc, lead, and iron,
flowed into flat basins filled with dolomite, were collected by
the projecting walls of dolomite, and penetrated into the nu-
merous fissures of the rock, without losing themselves in the
Floor limestone, which is separated from the dolomite by strata
impervious to water. The bituminous lower layers of the dolo-
mite exerted a reducing influence on the metallic sulphates,
carried to these by the aqueous solutions, and as a consequence
galena, iron pyrites, and blende, were formed. These have
been found, over 11 feet thick, at a depth of 47 fathoms, in
a borehole on the Gritz Mountain near Miechowitz.
BOG-IRON ORE, NEAR COTTBUS, etc. 255
XII. THE NORTH GERMAN PLAINS.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
156. The surface of the North German plains is princi-
pally composed of alluvial and diluvial deposits. Older rocks
and formations crop-out but rarely beneath these, and where they
do so ; contain no ore-deposits worth mentioning. We have,
therefore, here to do with the most recent deposits of the earth's
crust, which contain some deposits of bog-iron ore.
COTTBUS.
157. Deposits of bog-iron ore are found in all the depres-
sions of the surface throughout the lower Lausitz, but especially
around Cottbus. 1 They never occur on the gentle, dry eleva-
tions, but only in the, mostly, moist depressions, where their for-
mation is still going on in places. They generally form the
upper stratum of the soil, or are covered by a layer of earth,
which is then very barren of vegetation. More recent strata
overlie them but very rarely; the thickness of these deposits
varies from 10 36 inches.
They do not form continued strata, extending over large
areas, but numerous, small deposits separated from one another,
300450 feet long and 1590 broad.
They commonly occur in peat-bogs, beneath brown, ferru-
ginous grass-turf; more rarely in sandy soil, or beneath sandy
peat. A fine moist quicksand, commonly, lies beneath the iron-
ore ; at times, however, a fine sandy clay ; more rarely, a firm
clayey bottom.
Where the bog-iron ore occurs purer and thicker, as in the
Busch Meadow near Peitz, it shows a kind of stratification
caused by dissimilar beds. Elsewhere it only forms scattered
nodules, or loose grains; or is mixed, as sand-ore, with consid-
erable quantities of quartz-sand; and even passes from this into
a quartz conglomerate, with a cementing medium of hardened
hydrate of iron. Vivianite occurs now and then.
The formation of bog-iron ore, where it is still going on,
is very instructive. It is formed by deposits from water, which
See: Freiesleben. Geognostische Arbeiten, vol. VI. p. 216.
256 N. GERMAN PLAINS. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
frequently contains very small quantities of iron dissolved in
it. The long continuation of the process of deposit, here, com-
pletely, replaces a greater energy of action; and it is probably
the same in the formation of -many other ore-deposits.
The iron-content of the water evidently originates in the
rocks from which the springs rise, even the most sparing and
finely disseminated iron-contents of the rocks are gradually dis-
solved and carried away by the water. When this water
reaches low and marshy land, stagnating under circumstances
where it is exposed to a strong evaporation, or where living or
decomposing organic bodies .exercise a peculiar reaction on it,
the deposit of oxide of iron takes place, and with this the con-
centration, in a special deposit, of a formerly, perhaps widely,
disseminated content of iron. A similar event may take place
somew r hat more rapidly, where springs arise from very ferrugi-
nous deposits, or even from certain iron ore-deposits 5 but, as a
rule, the formation of bog-iron ore has no such special cause.
According to Ehrenberg, small living Infusia, also, occa-
sionally take part in the formation of the hydrated peroxide of
iron, since they construct their shells of it, as do many species
of Gaillonellce. After their death, their shells remain, as collec-
tions af a fine ochreous iron, which perhaps subsequently hard-
ens, and becomes a firm mass.
Unquestionably a certain analogy can be recognised be-
tween the formation of bog-iron ore, and that of the limonite
combined with zinc-ore deposits. Even the smithsonite deposits
themselves appear, as we have seen, to have been formed by
precipitation from mineral waters. The waters must then
contain some salt of zinc in solution, which need not be more
considerable than in the case of the bog-iron ores, provided it
is only renewed for a long period. For the local deposition of
the smithsonite, in addition to the nature of the surface-profile,
the re-acting nature of certain dolomitic limestones have also
been necessary. That is the essential difference between the
two ; and in consequence of this the zinc-solutions have penetrated
deeper beneath the surface than the iron solutions, pene-
trating between strata of already existing rocks, and altering
these. In addition to this, the first presuppose the destruction
of not far distant rocks or strata containing zinc, which are in-
deed much rarer than those containing iron.
IRONSTONE-BEDS IN SANDSTONE. 257
THE CARPATHIAN COUNTRIES. ;
Xlll. THE NORTHERN CARPATHIANS.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
158. The Carpathian Mountains form a serai-circle around
the great Hungarian basin, and send out spurs into this. We
shall first only consider the northern chief-range, which sepa-,
rates Hungary from Galicla. It forms a crescent, open towards
the South, from Teschen to the Bukowina and Moldavia, whose
principal axis is from WNW. to ESE.
This mountain-chain, more than 370 miles long, is com-
posed almost entirely of sedimentary rocks belonging to the age
of the Carpathian sandstone, which is mostly a sandy deposit,
replacing the Jura and Cretaceous of other regions, and
probably still older strata. The subdivisions of this large deposit
have only been determined in a few, small, districts; among
others in the Lordship of Teschen, where they have been
examined by Hohenegger. For the rest, it is only known, that
sand and argillaceous clay strata alternate with calcareous ones,
which last are partly designated as Klip penkalk stein-, without its
being possible to determine with any certainty, to what niveau
these rocks belong. Crystalline schists and igneous rocks are
found, to any considerable extent, only in the southeastern
portion of the chain; with which we shall become better ac-
quainted, when speaking of the ore-deposits found there. This
long chain of mountains appears to contain but few ore-deposits,
especially lodes, in its northern portion. This circumstance is
most simply explained by the total want of igneous rocks in
the same: where these occur farther to the South, lodes are
found in greater numbers and variety.
IRONSTONE BEDS IN CARPATHIAN SANDSTONE.
159. Beds of spherosiderite, probably connected together,
are found along the whole extent of the Carpathians, from the
Bukowina to the Lordship of Teschen: they are exploited in
numerous localities.
17
258 KIMPOLUNG IN
In the Bukowina I examined them quite carefully at
Kimpolung: those in the Lordship of Nadworna were described
by Lipold, those near Skole by A. Schneider, and those
around Teschen, by Hohenegger, * who also succeeded in satis-
factorily determining their geological age.
I shall describe these localities in the order mentioned,
merely remarking, that the same strata may very probably be
associated with similar beds of iron-ore, in the almost equally
large intervals of these, between the localities examined. If
this is really the case, then this belt, of iron-ore-deposits, extends
for a length of, at least, 370 miles, and is one of the most
extensive known.
It is not here meant to be so understood, as that the single
beds, or layers, which frequently wedge-out very rapidly, con-
tinue thus associated; but only strata which every where contain
such beds, whose number and quality vary, just as the condition
of the enclosing strata is somewhat altered. These last are much
more bituminous in the western portion, than in the eastern.
Near Kimpolung in the Bukowina, the Carpathian sand-
stone consists principally of gray and yellow argillaceous shales,
with numerous subordinate layers of a hard, gray sandstone, of
magnesian and ferruginous limestone, of spherosiderite, and
clay-iron-ore, as well as thin seams of coal. Impressions of
Fucoids, which occur occasionally in the shale and clay-iron-
ore, indicate a marine formation of this group of strata, which
overlie, and are, in turn, covered by thick strata of gray
sandstone.
These argillaceous strata, with their numerous subordinate
layers, are several hundred feet thick, and form a large basin
near Kimpolung, whose longest axis extends from SE. to NW. ;
its northeastern side exhibits a somewhat greater inclina-
tion of the strata, than the southwestern, while in the
middle occurs a succession of overlying sandstone-caps. At
least 20 layers of iron-stone are known on each side of this
basin, and are some of them already worked. The separate
1 See: Cotta, in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanst. 1855, p. 28; Hohenegger r
in same, 1852, p. 140; 1855, p. \ ; and in Amtliche Bericht d. 32. Versammlung
deutscher Naturforscher zu Wien, 1858, p. 136; Lip old, in Haidinger's
Berichten, IV. p. 99, and Leonhard's Jahrbuch, 1851, p. 721; Schneider^
in Karsten's Arch. 1834, vol. VII. p. 369; Beudant, Voyage en Hon-
grie, 1822.
THE BUKOWINA.
259
beds have a thickness of 6 inches to 3 feet, and the amount of
iron they contain varies from 10 to 48 per cent. The richest
consist of true spherosiderite ; the poorest, of clay-iron-ore.
Those which consist of spherosiderite, are frequently composed
of separate lenticular masses, whose greatest diameter varies,
from 1 to over 20 feet. The lenses are found, partly adjoining
and touching one another, partly following each other at short
intervals, within a very ferruginous, yellow, soft stratum of
argillaceous shale, which serves as a guide for following them.
They sometimes lie somewhat obliquely in this layer, so that
like the tiles of a roof they overlap one another, or would do
so, if they could be pushed nearer to one another, without
altering their relative positions. This threefold manner of oc-
currence is represented by the following ideal sketch.
a. Bed of compact clay-ironstone;
b. Parallel lenticular masses of spherosiderite ;
c. Lenticular masses of spherosiderite lying obliquely;
d. Gray argillaceous shale;
e. Gray sandstone strata;
f. Strata of limestone and dolomite, often ferruginous.
The district of the Lordship of Teschen consists, according
to Lipold, almost exclusively of strata of Vienna sandstone
(Carpathian sandstone), with subordinate beds of limestone, horn-
stone and ironstone, conglomerate, etc. Klippenkalkstein is
only found in the neighborhood of Pasieczna in single masses,
while small Tertiary deposits occur in the Bitkow Valley. The
strata of the Vienna sandstone course SW. KE. and dip in
SE. The subordinate ironstone and other layers occur par-
allel and within these, cropping- out to the surface in
small, tolerably parallel, ribbons. The iron-ores are of three
kinds: First, spherosiderites : they are encrusted by a thick
black shell, which becomes thicker, the longer it is open to the
action of the atmosphere: Second, clay-iron-ores always form
the middle bed: Third, marl-iron-ores are on the top, and
17*
260 SKOLE. TESCHEN.
generally develop the greatest thickness. The only fossils found
in these are Fucoids.
Near Skole the Carpathian sandstone consists of sandstone,
argillaceous shale, bituminous ,marl-slaj;e, bituminous shale, clay,
calcareous marl, bituminous limestone, and thin seams of coal
and hornstone.
The dark argillaceous shales, bituminous marl-slates, and
bituminous shales, here contain thin beds of clay-marl-iron ore,
and lime-iron ore; nodules of spherosiderite, outwardly brown,
also occur. Schneider observed the following succession in the
mines at Skole :
1. Sandstone containing fragments of coal, outside of the mines;
2. Dark gray argillaceous shale;
3. Ironstone, 3-5 inches;
4. Argillaceous shale, 18 inches:
5. Ironstone, 810 inches;
6. Argillaceous shale, 12 15 inches;
7. Ironstone, 34 inches;
8. Greenish gray argillaceous shale.
In the Lordship of Teschen, the subdivisions and succession
of the sedimentary strata are stated by Hohenegger to be the
following, commencing at the top:
1. Neogene Tertiary deposits, corresponding to the Viennese Tegel (tile
or brick earth);
2. Eocene nummulitic strata;
3. Upper Cretaceous strata, about corresponding to the Planer of Saxony ;
4. Sandstone of the higher North- Carpathians, probably corresponding to
the Gault and Albian;
5. Wernsdorf strata (Urgonian and Aptian): black, bituminous marl-
slate, which, especially in Moravia, but in the Teschen Lordship also, contain
a belt of spherosiderite;
6. Upper Teschen slates, about corresponding to the Superior Neocomian
and Hils-conglomerate : black, bituminous slates with a thick interbedding
of sandstone, containing the principal deposits of spherosiderite above and
below this sandstone;
7. Teschen limestone consisting of two subdivisions, which both about
correspond to the Westphalian-Hils formation;
8. Lower Tesehen slate (Hils): marl-slate of a lighter color than the
upper ones, and containing no deposits of spherosiderite worth exploiting.
Hohenegger has thus tixed the geological age of the strata
containing the beds of ironstone. They belong to the lower
division of the Cretaceous Period, and are of marine origin.
The manner, in which they were formed, is not indeed explained.
Beds of iron-ore have been contemporaneously deposited by the
sea over an area more than 370 miles long, between, in part,
COPPER-ORE-BEDS. 26 1
bituminous and carboniferous clay-strata: who is able to de-
cide; whether originally as carbonate of iron, or as hydrated
peroxide of iron? The concretionary form of most of these
ferruginous strata, as well as the scattered occurrence of ellip-
soidal concretions, appears to indicate, that changes in their form,
and contractions of the similarly composed parts, have taken
place subsequently to the deposition of their substance. Can
this have possibly been combined with an alteration of the
hydrated peroxide of iron into carbonate of iron? What has
here been said of these widely distributed beds of spherosiderite,
is, with the same right, equally true for all others, whatever the
formation in which they occur.
COPPER-ORE-BEDS NEAR POSCHORITA,
AND DOMOKOS. l
160. In the mica-schist-district of the southern Buko.wina,
near its northeastern limit, which courses parallel to the general
strike, occurs a layer of chloritic schist, embedded between
two zones of very quartzose schist. The chloritic schist has a
very variable thickness, being at times more than 100 feet, and
contains a bed of iron and copper pyrites in its middle portion.
The schist generally has a considerable dip, which frequently
changes from NE. to SW. The ore-bed consists, partly of
massive, flattened, and not sharply defined lenses of pyrites,
partly of a pyritous chlorite schist only, in which the pyrites
locally disappear in the prolongation of the bed. But in general
this embedding can be followed continuously, for a length of
13 18 miles, and even, if Domokos is included, with some interrup-
tions, for a length of 90 miles. The same has been opened- up
by numerous mines around Poschorita and Fundul Moldowi.
The amount of ore, especially that of copper, being locally
distributed in unequally rich streaks, and the mass of the bed
being often faulted by fissures, have given rise to numerous
trial-workings, in which the chloritic schist with its quartzose
walls always serves as guide. The mass of the bed consists
essentially of copper and iron pyrites only, with quartz and
1 See: Cotta, in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanst. 1855, p. 17, and his Erz-
lagerstatten in Ungarn u. Siebenbiirgen, 1862, p. 218.
262 POSCHOBITA, AND DOMOKOS.
chlorite schist. Other minerals, particularly such as are formed
by the decomposition and alteration of those mentioned, are
very rare. The compact lenticular masses of pyrites, 1 inch to
2 feet thick, lie singly, or several parallel to one another, in
the chlorite schist; which then generally contains pyrites in their
immediate vicinity, either in thin parallel threads, or as im-
pregnating particles and crystals.
Similar deposits of pyrites, but of less importance, are said
to occur in the common mica-schist, forming the hanging- and
foot-walls of the chloritic schist zone. This occurrence somewhat
resembles the Fallbands in the crystalline schists of Norway, but
differs in having the pyrites somewhat more concentrated than
is there the case. It is hardly conceivable, that an impregnation,
taking place after the formation of the rocks, should have been
confined to such a narrow belt, which is over 90 miles long.
Besides which, the very simple composition would lead to the
supposition that this is a true bed.
This bed of pyrites is again found in the southeastern
prolongation of its strike, under similar conditions of bedding,
at Balan near Domokos; the only difference being, that at Do-
mokos, four such beds are found alongside of (originally, over)
one another.
All four beds have the same strike as the enclosing schist,
from SSE. to NNW. and dip 70 75 in E. They follow one
another, at the following distances, from the hanging-wall to the
foot- wall :
1. Pyritous bed,
2 4 fathoms of schist;
2. Parallel bed,
4 5 fathoms of schist;
3. Brucks bed,
1012 fathoms of schist;
4. Prokopi bed:
beyond, and under this last, traces of three other, similar beds
have been discovered.
Above the pyritous bed, first lies a very dark schist, pro-
bably containing chlorite; then a very quartzose zone, with
somewhat of feldspar and chlorite ; over this common mica-schist,
which passes, farther to the East, into gneiss.
The breadth of the single beds varies here between 1 and
8 feet. They consist chiefly of several parallel beds of pyrites
of x / 4 to 6 inches thick, of impregnations of the schist, and of
LEAD, AND SILVER, AT KIRLIB \BA. 263
compact lenticular masses of pyrites, which are often combined
with lenticular quartz, from which the texture of the schist
becomes very irregular. Iron pyrites generally predominates,
but is every where associated with much copper pyrites, which
at times, especially where combined with quartz, occurs so
massive, and pure, that it can be separated in large pieces
by hand-sorting. It appears to me very remarkable, that the
schist, which is considerably impregnated with copper pyrites,
or contains very thin parallel beds of pyrites, should at times
be traversed by cross-courses, which are filled in such a manner
with copper pyrites, that it appears to be very firmly and in-
timately united with the parallel pyritous beds. Hence it would
seem, as if the sulphurets had subsequently penetrated, and in
consequence formed a very long zone of impregnation. There
are but few other minerals accompanying those mentioned : here
and there slight traces of galena and magnetite have been found,
the last especially in the upper workings. The pyrites have
been decomposed in a few points of the outcroppings. The
relatively somewhat large proportion of quartz, in the schist im-
mediately in contact with the beds, often causes a quartzose
outcrop, which on this account projects above the common
schistose surface.
LEAD AND SILVER ORE-DEPOSITS AT KIRLIBABA.
161. At Kirlibaba, in the southern Bukowina, have been
exploited, for several decennials, so-called ore-beds, which occur
in mica-schist, and consist of argentiferous galena, with spathic
iron, blende, somewhat of pyrites, and quartz. A careful
examination of the deposit had the following result. The mica-
schist contains, together with limestone, a bed of black, bituminous
schist, nearly 50 fathoms thick, resembling many alum shales.
In this are found very flat lenticular masses, or thin beds, of
but slight extent, parallel to the cleavage, but irregularly
distributed as shown in the following woodcut.
Each of these lenticular masses is exploited by itself; and
it is impossible to tell with certainty, whether the succeeding one
lies directly in the line of strike of that last worked, or not.
It is therefore necessary to drive cross-courses, to open-up the
black schist to its hanging- and foot-walls, and thus find all
264
KIRLIBABA ORE-DEPOSITS
G. Mica-schist.
S. Black-schist
K. Limestone,
g. Lode.
1. Lenticular ore-masses.
the masses, of which many indeed are not exploitable. Along-
side of this black-schist occurs the so-called 'old bed' in com-
mon mica-schist, which has been opened-up by mining opera-
tions. This is, however, decidedly no bed, but a lode, which
is composed of the same ores and minerals, as the lenticular
masses in the black-schist; the only difference being, that the por-
tions of the lode, as yet opened, are not so rich in lead and
silver. The lode lies, according to its strike and dip, nearly
parallel to the mica-schist; and might easily, from this circum-
stance, be mistaken for a bed. But it shows in some places a.
decided symmetrical arrangement of its matrix, as shown in the
woodcut.
B. Brown blende, with somewhat of galena and
quartz; on the clefts, at times, greenockite.
E. Spathic iron, with somewhat of pyrites.
Q. Quartz.
GOLD-VEINS AT BORSA: TIMAZITE 265
From the general character of the workings on this lode,
it would appear, that it does not remain exactly parallel to the
foliation, but approaches the black-schist, and intersects it at a
very acute angle. There are probably several such lodes.
From the conformity of the minerals in the lode and bed,
I would suppose, that the last is really nothing else, than the
consequence of an impregnation, taking place from one or
more intersecting vein-fissures, whence has developed a richness
in lead and silver, principally in the black, coaly schist, parallel
to the texture of the same. If this hypothesis be correct, we
have a very fine example of a bedlike impregnation, formed
from a lode-fissure, which follows principally but one rock, and
that a coaly one; like that in which the quicksilver ores of Idria
occur, and also similar to that of Braunsdorf near Freiberg,
which exerts such a favorable influence on the lodes traversing it.
VEINS OF AURIFEROUS PYRITES AT BORSA.
162. Borsa-Banya 1 lies on the Viso River in the Mar-
maros, near the boundaries of the Bukowina. The upper por-
tion of the Viso valley consists of a mica-schist, which is a con-
tinuation of that in the Bukowina. This is frequently covered
by Carpathian sandstone and Klip yenkalk stein, and often tra-
versed by igneous rocks. From this circumstance the surface
of the country is much more varied, than farther East, where
these overlying and traversing rocks are wanting. The moun-
tains, which are some of them quite high, are surrounded by
hills, so that the broad Viso Valley has a character entirely
similar to the large and broad valleys of the Alps. To the
South the mountain-chains of Inien and Pietros rise to a height
of 7000 feet above the variegated alternation of the fore- ground.
Those igneous rocks, which traverse the mica-schist and
the overlying Carpathian sandstone, are, partly trachytes, which
appear to have no connection with the auriferous veins, partly
a greenstone containing labradorite (timazitej This timazite
consists principally of labradorite, with somewhat of horn-
blende (gamsigradite) ; throughout which are scattered iron
pyrites. It mostly possesses a granular texture, but at times
1 See: Cotta, in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanst. 1855, p. 24; Strippel-
mann, in Oester. Zeitsch. f. Berg- u. Hiittenwesen, 1855, p. 157.
266 TROJOKA MOUNTAINS. SEKO-VALLEY LODES.
almost passes into a compact condition. It traverses, in large
masses and dikes, both the mica-schist and Carpathian sandstone,
of which last it contains fragments. The subordinate strata, of
argillaceous shale in the Carpathian,* sandstone, are converted
into a jaspery condition, wherever they come in contact with
the greenstone.
The large mass of rock forming the Trojoka Mountains,
on the right side of the Seko Valley, which opens into the Viso
Valley at Borsa-Banya, is principally composed of this timazite.
On its sides, which are at least 2000 feet high, and quite steep,
a number of veins crop-out tolerably parallel to one another,
whose hanging- and foot-walls are formed by the greenstone.
The veins are essentially composed of iron and copper pyrites,
with which but little quartz occurs. The iron pyrites occurs
partly in fine crystallizations; the copper pyrites is but crystal-
lized, generally massive. Both kinds of pyrites contain gold, the
copper pyrites generally the most, but in variable quantities in
the different lodes. The breadth of the lodes varies from 1 12
inches. Horses frequently lie in the lodes, or the lodes branch
into the rock; which is often somewhat decomposed, and parti-
cularly rich in pyrites, alongside of the veins.
Only six such lodes have been found, which all strike parallel
to one another, and to the principal axis of the Seko Valley,
and are nearly perpendicular. Eight barren, parallel fissures
have been opened-up between these lodes; consequently there
are altogether 14 fissures. The Katharina lode, cropping-out
1600 feet above the bottom of the valley, has been exploited
to the greatest distance. It continues in a straight line for
about 2 1 / 2 miles, extending beyond the greenstone into the
mica-schist; a sufficient proof, that these lodes are true veins,
and not merely gash-veins in the greenstone. It has not yet
been ascertained, what amount of ore it contains in the mica-
schist.
This occurrence of lodes is of considerable scientific interest :
in the first place it follows, that these auriferous veins, like
those of Vorospatak, in Transylvania, are of more recent for-
mation, than the Carpathian sandstone; since they occur in green-
stone, itself traversing the sandstone. Secondly, a certain ana-
logy can be recognised with those of Beresowsk, in the Ural
Mountains, where the gold-veins traverse the so-called Beresite,
likewise a feldspathic rock containing iron pyrites, as the timazite
TRANSYLVANIA, OR SIEBENBUERGEN. 267
is. Finally, we shall hereafter see, that nearly all the auriferous
veins of Hungary occur in rocks containing hornblende.
XIV. TRANSYLVANIA.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
163. Transylvania (Siebenburgen) forms a large basin
surrounded by mountains, the interior of which is filled with
Tertiary deposits, and no ore-deposits worth noticing. These
are found, so much the more frequently, in a portion of its moun-
tainous walls. We have already become acquainted with the
North Carpathians. These extend towards the South to the
boundaries of Moldavia, forming a broad, but slightly examined,
mountain-chain, here principally composed of crystalline schists
and trachytic rocks. In the neighborhood of Kronstadt this
chain turns completely to the West, composed in its course towards
the Banat of crystalline schists and sedimentary limestones,
occasionally enclosing small Tertiary basins, and, as it appears,
containing but few ore-deposits. The mountain-chain, extend-
ing from the Banat to the boundaries of Hungary and Tran-
sylvania, which does not quite meet with the chain of the North
Carpathians, is on the contrary quite rich in ore-deposits. It
consists of granite, crystalline schists, clay-slate, greenstone, por-
phyry, trachyte, melaphyre, basalt, sedimentary limestone, and
Carpathian sandstone. The great variety of the geological for-
mation appears to have some relation to the great richness in
ore-deposits.
Already Beudant remarked, that the great district of crystal-
line schists contained relatively fewer ore-deposits, than was
elsewhere the case, these appearing to be chiefly combined with
more recent igneous rocks. Only the most interesting, of the
large number of deposits known, will be described.
SINKA NEAR KRONSTADT.
164. The great district of crystalline schists; which,
extending from the Banat, forms the boundary, between Transyl-
268 GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
vania and Wallachia, to the neighborhood of Kronstadt; and
near Negoi reaches a height of 8000 feet above the sea; is,
according to all the examinations that have been made, but
rarely broken through by igneous rocks, and appears in con-
sequence of this to contain but few metalliferous deposits. Por-
phyries are only known to exist in its eastern portion, in the
parish of Pojana-Morului near Sinka; l and here' alone (a fact
worthy of attention) are found very remarkable deposits of argen-
tiferous galena.
Common mica-schist, with gray mica, predominates, and
passes farther East into gneiss, partly into porphyritic gneiss.
A few layers, with silver white, perhaps lithion, mica, occur to
a very subordinate degree within the common schist. This last
is much more commonly traversed by a feldspathic, in part
only, by a distinctly porphyritic rock. This rock forms over a
hundred layers in the mica-schist, which are in general parallel
to the foliation, with a strike from SSW. to NNE. with a con-
siderable dip in NW. and whose breadth varies from 1 30 feet.
They recur at distances of 4 100 paces, are separately not
always exactly parallel to the foliation, and at times even form
very distinct indentations and ramifications in their country-rock.
They are consequently not beds, but bedded dikes. Their
matrix every where consists of a feldspathic, compact or granular
mass; occasionally as pure as quartz-porphyry, containing
crystals of feldspar and quartz ; at times, however, without these,
but with an admixture of chlorite, from which it receives a
greenish color, while the predominant color, when fresh, is brown.
Hence, it may be considered as belonging to the quartz-por-
phyries, which are the chief causes of the occurrence of ores,
or their constant companions, in the Saxon Erzgebirge.
The deposits of argentiferous galena occur between five
such dikes of quartz-porphyry, which are several feet apart,
they are worked from the narrow gorge of Pareu-Dracului
(Devil's .Gorge).
These deposits of galena form neither lodes, nor beds, nor
even what are generally called segregations ; although they
have the greatest resemblance to the last. Consequently they
do not crop-out like a lode, or bed, in a narrow belt, but only
at one point, comparatively small ; and have no strike.
1 See: Cotta, Erzlagerstatten in Ungarn u. Siebenbiirgen, 1862, p. 214.
S1NKA NEAR KRONSTADT. 269
It appears, from the past exploitations, that this deposit
consists of, relatively, small masses of ore, having the form of
segregations; which succeed one another, although not in a per-
fectly straight line. These have a dip of 25 30 in SSW.
within the belt of mica-schist, which occurs, a few fathoms broad,
between five neighboring bedded dikes of porphyry: in one
point more nearly approaching one, again another dike of por-
phyry, or between two of them; and consequently having, at
times, the porphyry as the hanging- or foot- wall, or separated
from both the dikes by mica-schist. The perpendicular height,
of the obliquely penetrating zone, in which the ore occurs, is
about 120 feet, although in places much less. This somewhat
curvilinear succession of ore-masses, which occur singly or
several together, is here and there accompanied by impregnations
of the very quartzose schist; otherwise it appears to be entirely
secluded. In none of the workings, that I visited, could I per-
ceive an extension in any direction resembling a vein. Where
the ore has been entirely removed, there remains only more or
less decomposed schist or porphyry, in the roof, as well as in
the floor, and on all sides. It is said however, that clay-fissures
quite frequently occur in the mica-schist, between the deposits
of ore, but containing no traces of galena, and very rarely of
iron pyrites. Every time that new ore is being sought for,
drifts must be made in the direction of the inclined zone, in
order to open-up new masses; since the discovery of this pecu-
liarity, the above method has been always attended with suc-
cess, though at variable distances.
I know of no deposit, of this form and manner of exten-
sion, at any other locality; the lenticular galena-deposits in the
black schist of Kirlibaba, bear only a slight resemblance. But
there very similarly composed lodes, and consequently fissures,
are known to exist, from which the mineral matter, forming these
very lenticularly shaped deposits, may have penetrated into the
schist. Although the opening-up and exploitation of the Sinka
mines, which penetrate the mountain-ridge, and a small portion
of a declivity opposite to it, do not permit any certain conclu-
sions on the constancy of this curious distribution of ore; still
the results, already obtained, appear most remarkable, and
worthy of attention.
The principal portion of these aggregations of ore generally
consists of a coarse crystalline, or, also, fine granular galena,
270 W. TRANSYLVANIA GOLD-DISTRICT.
occasionally containing over 1300 grammes to the kilogramme.
This galena occurs in cellular quartz, or decomposed schist,
with earthy cerusite. In a few cases, fragments of galena were
found entirely covered with an incrustation of cerusite. This
and anglesite occur, also, in geodes of the galena. Black and
greenish blende, (red is much rarer,) also rarely liriarite, crocoite,
copper pyrites, azurite, and calc-spar, occur with the galena;
more apart, iron pyrites. A single specimen of the supersul-
phuretted lead, Haidinger's Johnstonite, has been found. Hence
the original minerals in this deposit are; galena, blende, some-
what of copper and iron pyrites, considerable quartz, and very
little calc-spar. By the decomposition of these have been formed;
cerusite, anglesite, linarite, crocoite, calamine (frequent, in cracks),
and azurite.
I am unable to express any opinion, on the manner in
which these deposits were formed; as I cannot comprehend it,
so long as channels, through which the mineral solutions can have
penetrated, remain undiscovered. Then the form of these depo-
sits does not even seem like the pipe of a mineral spring, which has
been filled up. In this respect, their form most nearly resembles
the so-called ' badger holes', in the Devonian slate, at Ems.
WESTERN TRANSYLVANIA.
165. A mountainous district rises, northwardly of the
Maros, out of the horizontal Tertiary deposits, from which spring
the sources of the Aranios, Samos, and Koros. Crystalline
schists, as the oldest formations; are covered by secondary
limestones and Eocene sandstones; both being frequently
broken through by trachytic, basaltic, and porphyritic rocks,
which often form beautiful cones.
The trachytic rocks are here of the same varieties, as
around Schemnitz and Nagybanya, mostly containing hornblende,
and corresponding to Breithaupt's timazite.
This mountain-district contains numerous metalliferous de-
posits, and among them so many auriferous ones, that the whole
may be termed a gold-district. The gold-deposits occur, as
veins, and impregnations from these. From the partial decom-
position alluvial deposits have been formed. Here also the
gold-lodes appear dependent on trachytic or feldspathic, quartz-
ose igneous rocks, or to have been caused by their breaking
VOEROESPATAK GOLD-DEPOSITS. 271
out. The veins traverse, however, clay-slates and Eocene sand-
stones in their neighborhood; from which circumstance, as well
as from the Tertiary age of the trachytic rocks, it is very evi-
dent, that their formation, like that of Schemnitz and Nagy-
banya, is more recent than the Eocene period.
The gold occurs in these lodes, partly, apparent to the
eye, in a native .state, partly, imperceptible, in sulphurets (espe-
cially iron pyrites), in what condition has not yet been deter-
mined, partly in combination with tellurium. The last-mentioned
manner of occurrence is very characteristic for this region,
while elsewhere it is one of the greatest rarities.
VOEROESPATAK.
166. This Eldorado of Transylvania lies in a deep val-
ley, about f> miles northeast of Abrudbanya. The gold-deposits
of Vorospatak ] belong to the most remarkable geological ones
which exist, and are in addition very important to Austria, from
the large amount of gold which is accumulated in the mani-
fold ways of its occurrence. Although not distinguished by a
great variety of minerals, it is still mineralogically interesting,
from the fact, that the gold always occurs crystallized, or with
a tendency to crystallization, and from the circumstance that it
occurs, in some of the beds, implanted in dialogite.
No examination of the district has as yet succeeded in dis-
covering the mutual relations between the nature of the rocks
and deposits which occur together at Vorospatak; and I am
only able to add a contribution to what has previously been
written on the subject.
The village of Vorospatak (in English, Red Brook) lies in
a tolerably deep valley on sandstone, which has been recog-
nised by the Viennese geologists as belonging to the Eocene,
consequently the oldest, of the Tertiary deposits. This valley
is closed in towards the West by a crescent-shaped mountain
ridge, which consists of a rock containing much hornblende,
generally considered as belonging to the trachytes (Breithaupt's
timazite). This rock appears to have no connection with the
*See: Cotta, Erzlagerst. in Ungarn u. Siebeiibiirgen, 1862, p. 66;
Hauer, in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanst. 1851, No. 4, p. 64; Grimm, in same,
1852, p. 54.
272 GOLD-ORE STAMPING-MILLS.
metalliferous deposits, and to be of more recent age, than the
Tertiary sandstone, which it has probably broken through. To-
wards the South rises a bare and rocky mountain-ridge, whose
mass is composed of a still doubtful, "but probably igneous rock ;
its western peak is called Csetatye (castle). If Vorospatak is
approached from the North (from Offenbanya), the view from
the tolerably high pass, on the western side of the trachytic or
timazitic mountain, is surprising, from the very peculiar and, in
a mining sense, grand prospect. The opposite declivity of the
Csetatye, 600 feet high, or of the Kirnik, is covered, nearly
from top to bottom, with white burrows and quarries, between
which the small sheds covering the shafts can only with diffi-
culty be recognised. When however the descent into the val-
ley is begun, it will be remarked, that this declivity, consisting
of sandstone, has been nearly every where burrowed through
by miners. At a still greater descent a continuous stamping will
be heard, which comes from the numerous small stamping mills ;
which are distributed throughout the entire valley. Over 800
such mills belong to Vorospatak alone, and with those belong-
ing to the neighboring valleys there are over one thousand in a
district of ten square miles. Many have but three stamps, their
number being a consequence of the peculiar mining regulations.
There exist at Vorospatak about 300 companies with 900 stock-
holders, each of which receive their dividends from the mine,
not in money, but in stamping-stuff and free gold, so that each
stockholder is compelled to dress and concentrate his own ore.
This peculiar relation was originally caused by the nature,
and extraordinary number, of the auriferous deposits. Their
number is not determinable, as there is no general mining chart
of the older workings, and it is in many cases, at present, im-
possible to determine, what workings exist on the same veins.
Over 300 clefts have been traversed, and numbered, by the
deep principal-adit with its branches, which is united by a
tramway with the imperial stamping-mill at Abrudbanya; the
majority of these strike K. S. but many are not worked at
the present time. More to the South an E. W. strike of the
clefts is said to predominate. The lodes, as yet traversed by
the adit, 800 fathoms long, occur nearly altogether in sand-
stone; which is frequently very indistinctly stratified; and alter-
nates with conglomerate, and formations resembling tufa, more
rarely with argillaceous shales. These fissures, or lodes, evi-
CS&TATYE LODES. 273
dently encrease in number with the near approach to the Cse-
tatye; while the first 6001000 feet from the mouth of the
adit are entirely free of them. The adit has but recently
reached the igneous rock of the Csetatye.
An auriferous sandstone can thus be distinguished from the
common widely extended Tertiary sandstones of the region.
The auriferous sandstone surrounds the mass of the Csetatye,
extending to unequal distances from it, and is distinguished
from the common sandstone, in addition to its containing gold,
by the greater frequency of conglomerate- or tufa-strata, which
occasionally contain fragments of the Csetatye-rock, and boulders
of a dark and partly schistose rock: also by more indistinct
stratification, the strata being considerably tilted on the southern
declivity of the Csetatye.
These lodes, or fissures, only attain a width of about a foot,
have partly a vertical, partly a gentle dip ; intersect, and then
generally enrich one another. Their matrix is principally quartz,
calc-spar, or iron pyrites. They seldom contain gold, percepti-
bly to the outward eye ; it generally occurs very finely dissemi-
nated in iron pyrites, and together with this has penetrated
from the fissures into the country-rock in certain portions, so
that the gang, together with the sandstone or conglomerate,
can be profitably exploited for a breadth of several feet. It is
said, but I will not vouch for the fact, that the lodes are the
richest between rocks of a medium degree of consistence, poorer
between very firm or very soft ones. The pyritous fissures
contain at times an argentiferous tetrahedrite ; and in the so-
called e Silver fissure', somewhat of copper pyrites, and stalactitic
pyrites- sinter have been formed, which frequently cover large
areas on the sides of the fissure. These stalactitic incrustations
cover both sides of thin sandstone slabs with layers of pyrites.
The fissures have been seldom followed to a greater length,
than 600 feet in the direction of strike, or 150 feet in that of
dip. These fissures (gash-veins), which are frequently faulted,
traverse the whole sandstone around the Csetatye-rock, and
northwardly to the neighborhood of the trachytic mountains.
The very quartzose rock of the Csetatye appears to be
much richer in gold, than the sandstone; whose junction has
been reached by the principal adit, but has never been observed
sharply defined. The line of contact is covered at the surface
by the tailings from the stamping-mills. Grimm has called the
18
274 CSTATYE-ROCK. DEEL AND KLAM.
rock of the Csetatye, feldstone-porphyry. This term has been
objected to; since the large grains of enclosed quartz have, as
a rule, their edges and solid angles rounded, though generally
crystallized in double pyrariiids. T&is fact would of itself be
no proof against the true nature of porphyry, for quartz-crys-
tals sometimes occur similarly rounded in distinct quartz-por-
phyries with very characteristic felsitic matrix; this is especially
the case in the Thuringian Forest. But then the matrix of the
Csetatye-rock is not compact and distinctly felsitic: it is partly
very quartzose, with crystalline-granular quartz, in which par-
ticles of feldspar are sparingly scattered: partly, and predomi-
nantly felsitic, but in a somewhat decomposed condition, con-
taining considerable quantities of small grains of quartz. It also
exhibits traces of the crystalline-granular texture of the feldspar-
or rather, remains oi dissimilar directions of cleavage can be
observed, and even of two kinds of feldspar mingled together,
which have decomposed unequally. The whole mass is impreg-
nated by a mass of small crystals of iron pyrites, pentagonal
dodecahedrons, and cubes, as well as granular aggregations of
the same. The quartzose varieties of the rock are frequently
very drusy, or traversed by veins of quartz. The miners call
the half-d-ecomposed condition of the rock 'Drei'; the entirely
decomposed, argillaceous condition, 'Klam 7 . It is certainly
questionable, whether the rock can be rightly termed a por-
phyry. The compact, felsitic matrix is wanting; and on this
account it resembles a granite without mica, rendered porphy-
ritic from rounded crystals of quartz. I consider the rock to
be in any case igneous, and not belonging to the sandstone for-
mation; and will on this account for the sake l of conciseness
call it Csetatye-rock (pronounced Tsetatye). This at times con-
tains fragments of a dark rock, undetermined, probably older
and broken-through, similar to that already mentioned, under
the conglomerate and tufa rocks.
The prominence of the Csetatye-rock, as a rocky mountain,,
may possibly be a consequence of its generally greater hard-
ness. The form of its inclination 'beneath the surface, which
has been partially opened-up by underground workings ; the
manner in which the sandstone surrounds it; as well as the
existence of portions of the same, as fragments, or boulders, in
the conglomeratic or tufalike sandstone; all go to prove that
this mountain existed, before the Tertiary strata were deposited,
KATRANZA, NETWORK OF VEINS, AND CAVES. 275
and was overlaid by these. It seems, however, as if the rock
had been subsequently raised, so as to have partly tilted, partly >
fissured the neighboring sandstone strata; which perhaps oc-
curred at the same time as the gold emanation. Whether these
elevations were predecessors, or consequences, of the trachytic
eruption, it is difficult to determine. The deposit of sandtsone,
as already said, evidently does not belong to the mass of the
Csetatye-rock ; I am strongly inclined to consider it as a much
altered, partly silicified, partly decomposed igneous rock, which
was originally felsitic. The silicification, and decomposition,
may well have been the consequences of one and the same
cause; by which the gold of this region, together with its gang,
reached the places of deposit. The same occurs mostly in the
Csetatye-rock; and here, as in the sandstone, partly in an in-
numerable and altogether irregular network of fissures or
veins, and passing from these, as' impregnations, into the rock
itself.
In ancient times large masses were obtained from quarries
in the Csetatye-rock, partly by the aid of fire. On the summit
of the Csetatye is a large pit, which was only excavated
for the gold of the rock, probably in the time of the Roman
domination.
Underneath this, in the interior of the mountain, lies the
renowned network of veins, which has been called 'Katranza 7 ,
from its resemblance, though very faint, to the dress of the
Wallachian women. Caves have here been excavated, so colossal,
that an ordinary mining-lamp does not reveal their extent, and
reaching to so great a depth, that a stone thrown in, takes
several seconds to reach the bottom. It is stated, that the cave
is over 70 fathoms long and 20 broad : it is, any how, of much
greater height, than breadth. It represents a former network
of gold-veins, which were perpendicular, and irregularly colum-
nar. An attempt is now being made to open this Katranza, at
a still greater depth, by means of the chief adit.
Not far from thi, and perhaps connected with it, a similar
network, or a branch of this, has been opened by the Rakosi
mine, also in the Csetatye-rock. Here numerous irregular veins
branch out through the gray rock ; which is somewhat more
porphyritic than usual, and contains considerable iron pyrites,
disseminated through it in crystals. These veins essentially
consist of a beautiful red dialogite, with somewhat of yellow
18*
276 CONCLUSIONS.
blende. These veins of dialogite, 1 2 inches broad, are here
and there entirely permeated by crystalline gold ; so that, when
cut and polished, they have a splendid appearance.
It is remarkable, that these veins are not only irregu-
lar, but suddenly cease at times with a rotundity; and entirely
enclose or surround small fragments of the porphyry.
Up to the present time I have only mentioned the ore in
place. In the bed of the Vorospatak, and of the Aranios, into
which it empties, the tailings that have been swept away, and
the refuse from the imperfect concentration, are washed out in
many places.
From my own observations, from the views of von Hauer
and Grimm, and from the communications of the mining officials,
I concluded:
1. that the oldest rock, which comes to the surface, in the
neighborhood of Vorospatak, is the Csetatye-rock;
2. the Eocene sandstone was next deposited; which appears,
from the tufa-layers it contains, to have had some connection
with the porphyritic eruption;
3. the impregnation of gold and pyrites, and the formation
of the minerals in the veins and fissures, took place after the
sandstone had been formed;
4. still later occurred the upheaval of the trachytes (or
timazites), and the basalts; of which the Detonata is celebrated
for its beautiful columns;
5. the present valleys are of much more recent formation.
The gold, with the minerals accompanying it; pyrites,
blende and tetrahedrite, quartz, dialogite, calc-spar; has pene-
trated into the fissures and rocks, in the interval, between the
formation of the Eocene sandstone, and the eruption of the
trachyte or timazite, perhaps during its eruption. It did not
penetrate from above, but from below in what form of
solution? Here as little known as elsewhere, it evidently
arose principally within the limits of the Csetatye-rock, and
spread itself out from this as from a centre, penetrating also
into the neighboring sandstone. Was the penetration of this
solution a consequence of the previous eruption of the Csetatye-
rock, or a consequence of the subsequent upheaval of its mass,
already hardened, occurring about the period of the trachytic
eruption?
Since in the neighborhood, as in Hungary, gold-ore-beds
OFFENBANYA ROCK. 277
frequently occur together with trachytic or timazitic rocks, it might
be supposed, that the gold-region of Vorospatak was in some
way connected with the neighboring trachytes, or timazites;
still this cannot be recognised from any outward circumstances.
It is however probable, that the peculiar, partly silicified, partly
decomposed, condition of the Csetatye-roqk, is also a consequence
of the penetration of mineral waters or vapors.
OFFENBANYA.
167. Near Offenbanya 1 a mountain-chain rises out of
the Tertiary sandstone district of the upper Aranios, which is
principally composed of mica-schist. This schist contains,
southwardly of Offenbanya, subordinate layers of granular
limestone; and is traversed by a porphyritic rock, which I no
where found in a fresh and distinctly recognisable condition.
Bielz, who took part in the geological survey of the Viennese
Reichsanstalt in this region, called it greenstone-trachyte; and
thus placed it in the group of igneous rocks, which Breithaupt
has called timazites. Where I was able to observe the rock,
especially on the rubbish-heaps at the mouths of the shafts, it
was every where in a decomposed state, frequently bleached
almost white, commonly containing pyrites disseminated through
it. Those portions appeared the freshest, which, curiously
enough, occur in the neighboring limestone of the mica-schist,
and are entirely enclosed by this 5 while in the workings of the
mines I visited, the limestone never comes directly in contact with
the greenstone-trachyte, but is separated from it by the mica-schist.
It appears to me very difficult, and from the few observa-
tions lying before me impossible, to explain these enclosures in
the limestone. When the porphyritic rock, as it appears to do,
traverses the mica-schist, it must necessarily be more recent
than this and the embedded limestone. How then can this last
contain fragments and even large masses of the same? The
only explanation is, that the limestone was softened and in
motion during, or after, the eruption of porphyry; so that it
was able to separate and enclose fragments of the greenstone-
trachyte (timazite). This is certainly a hypothesis, which
1 See: Cotta, Erzlagerstatten in Ungarn und Siebenbiirg. p. 81; Bielz,
in Verhandlungen u. Mittheilungen d. Siebenbiirg. Vereins f. Naturwissen-
schaften z. Hermannstadt, 1860, p. 167; Hauer u. Fotterle, Uebersicht
der Bergbaue, 1855, p. 59.
278 TELLURIC VEINS, OR 'CLEFTS,'
cannot be farther confirmed by the local conditions, to which
I have been led by the analogous case at Miltitz in Saxony,
where granular limestone, embedded in mica and hornblende-
schist, contains fragments of the ^granite dikes traversing the
schists. At Offenbanya the analogous igneous rocks of the
neighborhood are of more recent origin, than the Eocene sand-
stones ; so that ; if the igneous rock of Offenbanya belongs to the
same period of formation, the limestone may first have been
softened in the Miocene period. It is useless to trouble oneself
with the explanation of geological relations, which are so little
known as these; and for which some future more accurate
examination may reveal a simple explanation. On this account
I pass to the metalliferous deposits, which occur under very
peculiar geological conditions. There are two kinds, which
occur: telluric veins in igneous rocks, and segregated
masses in granular limestone.
1. The telluric veins (called locally 'Clefts') are in reality
almost only clefts. Fifteen are known, within the ground be-
longing to the Franzisci adit, which are tolerably parallel to
one another, strike E. W. and dip 30 40 in N. They have
an average breadth of one inch, and contain locally sylvanite,
and at times somewhat of native gold. Other small veins in-
tersect these, containing pyrites, or quartz and which generally
occasion an enrichment at the point of intersection. The telluric
ores are so sparingly distributed, that their exploitation is ren-
dered much more difficult, than it otherwise would be. Accord-
ing to the statement of the mining-officials, the state of de-
composition of the country-rock always has a certain relation to
the contents of the lodes: they are the richest in a medium-hard,
and but slightly decomposed rock, less rich in a slightly, or
very much decomposed, condition of the wall-rock. Both can
be explained, if it be assumed that the slight decomposition
comes from a re-action of the metalliferous solutions, which
could no longer penetrate, where an extensive decomposition had
already taken place. The principal matrix is quartz and dialogite ;
in which occur, as the principal ores, nagyagite, sylvanite, and
native gold; associated with which are iron pyrites, galena,
blende, stibnite, native silver, and pyrargyrite.
Similar telluric veins are said to occur in the neighboring
property of the Barbara adit, which strike N. S. and dip
in W.
AND SEGREGATIONS. 279
2. Segregations. The same adit, which has opened-up
the tellurium veins, has also opened the neighboring granular
limestone, in which two segregated masses are known to occur.
Their form is very irregular, with a curious contour of surface.
The so-called pyrites segregation consists predominantly of iron
pyrites, with somewhat of galena, tetrahedrite, and blende;
w r hich are accompanied by quartz, and calc-spar, as vein-stones.
It surrounds a large rounded mass of porphyry, on the borders
of which the galena has principally collected, being at times a
foot broad. On this account the mass of porphyry, several feet
wide, is operied-up, and laid free, on nearly its whole circum-
ference, at least in its upper portion.
It appears to be an entirely separated mass of porphyry,
like the smaller ones, which are occasionally found here, com-
pletely surrounded by the common limestone, and then surrounded
also by narrow zones of pyrites, galena, and blende.
The second, or so-called 'Old ore-segregation', consists prin-
cipally of dialogite with considerable galena, containing but little
silver, blende, manganblende, iron pyrites, and tetrahedrite ;
it occasionally also contains copper pyrites. Quartz and calc-
spar occur, crystallized, in large geodes. The minerals fre-
quently show a combed texture in such a manner that the
combs form irregular ellipses; portions of which occasionally
penetrate the limestone in such a manner, that small handpieces
of the same might be easily mistaken for portions of a sym-
metrically banded vein in granular limestone, being yet in reality
portions of irregular cockade ores. I observed on such a hand-
piece, the following entirely regular arrangement of the layers,
from the exterior limestone towards the interior:
1. dialogite, with particles of manganblende;
2. three thin bands of light gray quartz, separated from
each other by still thinner layers of pyrites, and blende;
3. dialogite, like 1;
4. a very thin band of pyrites and blende;
5. white calc-spar, also but a line thick;
6. Pyrites, and blende, like 4 ;
7. dialogite, forming the nucleus, with a little pyrites,
blende, and galena.
This so peculiarly composed ore-deposit, upwards of 16
fathoms thick, which is entirely surrounded by limestone, en-
closes, like the previously mentioned segregration, a broad mass
280 NAGYAG ROCKS,
of porphyry; which does not, however, appear to have exerted
any special influence on the distribution of ore.
The facts, about these peculiar and irregular collections of
ore, are too little known, to enaWe me to express a definite
opinion, or explanation concerning them. These segregations,
appear to be entirely independent of the entirely differently
composed telluric veins.
NAGYAG.
168. The mining town of Nagyag J lies in a valley-
gorge on the southern edge of the great trachytic mountain-
district, which is here known by the name of Csetraser Moun-
tains. All the surrounding mountains are here, also, composed
of the trachytic-greenstone, Breithaupt's timazite. These rocks,
around Nagyag, were formerly called greenstone-porphyries.
Baron von Hingenau separated these into several varieties
and alterations of porphyry and trachyte: and also mentioned
the occurrence of melaphyre, and quartz-porphyry. He states,
that the greenstone-porphyries occupy the under, or inner
portion of the mountains, and pass in an upward, and outward
direction, into trachytes. He sought, in a more recent memoir,
to maintain the trachytic nature of these rocks, against the ob-
jections of Grimm ; and proposed the name, which originated
with G. Rose, of diorite-trachyte, to do away with the very in-
definite name of greenstone-porphyry. The cabinet-specimens,
which I brought with me from Nagyag, all correspond very
decidedly with Breithaupt's timazite. In my opinion the name
is of little importance, it being only essential that they should
be recognised as igneous rocks, composed of feldspar and am-
phibole, which have broken through eocene sandstones, and argil-
laceous shales. They recur in a similar manner, traversed by
lodes, at Kapnik, Felsobanya, Nagybanya and Schemnitz ; while
similar rocks are found at Vorospatak, but having no apparent
connection with the gold-veins. These rocks occur in many
varieties, probably caused by the conditions under which they
1 See: Cotta, Erzlagerst. in Ungarn u. Sieberbtirg. p. 85; Hingenau,
in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanst. 1857, p. 82; Grimm's Geognosie f. Berg-
manner, 1856, p. 72, and following; Zerrener, in Oesterreich. Zeitschr. f.
Berg- und Hiittenw. 1855.
AND LODES. 281
hardened; but it is not always possible to show, what these
special causes were.
Red shaks and yellow sandstones, most probably Eocene,
crop-out beneath these rocks in the valley-gorge of Nagyag.
The Franz adit has opened these up, for a long distance,
under the summit of the timazitic Calvary Mountain, until they
are cut off by the timazite, whose limits dip very steeply
towards N.
Since the adit has not intersected any prolongation of the
Calvary-Mountains timazite, which may be regarded as having
been the special channel of eruption; it must therefore be pre-
sumed, that this beautiful cone, together with many other similar
ones in the neighborhood, were not each formed by separate vol-
canic action, but are the conical denuded remains of one im-
mense overflow of lava. The crater was opened by the adit
somewhat farther to the North.
The lodes of Nagyag are only known to exist in the igneous
rocks, and essentially only in the deeper varieties, called by
Von Hingenau greenstone porphyries; they do not exist, at
least not so as to be exploitable, in the upper, more trachytic
rocks.
The lodes are auriferous tellurium ones. They strike prin-
cipally N. S. or NW.~ SE., and in such a manner, that they
converge somewhat in their course. Their dip is generally very
great. The lodes are said to contain more gold, near the sur-
face, than in the depth; a circumstance, which agrees with the
manifold experiences on this subject, which have been made
in this relation with gold-veins. 1 Their breadth is gener-
ally a few inches, exceptionally it attains 5 6 feet. They
are very commonly accompanied by a breccia in their
hanging- or foot-walls, very peculiar in its occurrence, which
is called 'Glauch' by the miners. It consists of a dark matrix,
formed of triturated or decomposed particles of rock, containing
numerous angular fragments of various kinds of clay-slate; more
rarely, rounded (perhaps by friction) boulders of the wall-rock
are also found in it. Whence came the fragments of clay- slate?
is a question asked in vain. This breccia attains a breadth of
1 It appears to be generally the case, but is not always so, that gold-
veins decrease in richness with the depth. Exceptions are, many of the mines
in the Grass- Valley-district in California. Trans.
282 NAGYAG LODES.
over 6 feet, and branches into widely extended and irregular
side-fissures, often but 1 2 inches broad ; this is a very remark-
able manner of occurrence, for a mechanically formed breccia,
containing numerous fragments, and j&ere and there boulders.
The matrix of the lodes proper is dialogite, or brown spar and
calc-spar, or hornstone and quartz; this varies in the different lodes,
and in the different portions of the same lode. Through these vein-
stones are scattered auriferous telluric ores : the most common after
these are, manganblende, and iron pyrites; the last has frequently
impregnated the country-rock for a considerable distance. The
following are the chief ores exploited : nagyagite, sylvanite,
native gold, auriferous iron pyrites, argentiferous tetrahedrite,
native silver, and galena. Associated with these are : hessite,
bournonite, jamesonite, heavy spar, blende, stibnite, arsenic,
realgar, orpiment, silver -glance (rare), copper pyrites, marcasite,
native copper, malachite, pyrrhotine, sulphur; the following also
are said to have occurred formerly, but it is not certain: ara-
gonite, altaite, erythrine, eucairite, asbolan, pyrolusite, smaltine,
and scorodite. The following secondary minerals occur: agal-
matolith, kaolin, gypsum, calamine, pharmacolith, copperas; and
(doubtful) cerusite, smithsonite, keramohalite, and plumbo-resinite.
No combed texture can be observed; very commonly, however,
small geodes, in which are found crystallized quartz, and dialogite.
The tellurium-lodes of Nagyag evidently have a considerable
analogy with those of Offenbanya: they occur, in both places,
as nearly parallel, narrow fissures in an igneous rock containing
hornblende : the essential difference between the two is, that
the gang of Nagyag consisting of dialogite, brown spar, or
quartz, occurs somewhat more massively; but this quality is
wanting at Offenbanya.
Von Hingenau relates, that according to a manuscript of
Debreczenyi, a former local official, very remarkable intersec-
tions and Enrichments of the Nagyag lodes occur; which, as I,
unfortunately, had no opportunity myself of seeing them, I can
neither confirm nor deny. Von Hingenau himself does not seem
to have observed them, although staying at Nagyag for two
weeks. The officials, who accompanied me on my visits to the
mines, expressed the opinion, that such appearances occurred ;
but could give me no particulars regarding them. If I rightly
understand von Hingenau's memoir, the following are the most
important phenomena he observed:
ENRICHMENT, AND INTERSECTION. 283
1. The country-rock, like that of Offenbanya, has exerted
an unequal influence on the distribution of ores in the veins,
according to its greater, or less solidity (freshness, or decom-
position): the lodes appear to be much contracted between firm
walls, and then consist of barren fissures; between less firm
ones, they widen out and contain ores; in a soft (much decom-
posed) rock, they branch, contain many horses, and are poorer.
2. The intersections, and junctions, are just the contrary
of those at Offenbanya, as a rule containing but little ore, even
though both lodes were rich before their intersection. The
curious circumstance occurs, that small side-branches connect,
alongside of the junctions, the rich portions of the lodes.
3. These side-veins branch off, very rich in ores, from the
champion-lode, and again unite with it, while the lode itself
contains no ores for the whole extent of these side-branches.
4. When the tellurium-lodes are intersected by clay-dikes,
as is often the case; they are often faulted by them, and have
the peculiar relation of retaining their whole breadth, in the
foot- wall of the dike, up to the point of Contact ; in the hanging-
wall, on the contrary, they consist for several feet merely of a
thin cleft, and only regain their full breadth at a considerable
distance.
The clay-dikes appear to correspond to the curious breccia
1 observed; although 1 find no mention of this in von Hingenau's
paper.
These phenomena of enrichment, and intersection (especially
2 to 4), mentioned by von Hingenau, are partly of such a
peculiar kind, that they are, up to the present time, isolated
cases, appearing even to contradict all previous experience on
this subject. I would, on this account, regard them as the
result of an imperfect examination, if I had any right to do so.
But I have the less right, as the .veins of breccia, which I ob-
served, belong to one of the most abnormal. appearances, which
I have ever seen in nature ; since they contain in fissures, fre-
quently but a few inches broad, fragments of a clay-slate, which
has not been observed in place, together with a few, boulder-
like, rounded portions of . the adjoining country-rock; although
Grimm, indeed, mentions the cropping-out of clay-slate, with
embedded layers of limestone and gypsum near her, at the
village of Vermaga.
284 BANAT, AND SERVIA.
XV. THE BANAT, AND SERBIA.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
169. The geological formation of the Banat, and that
portion of Servia adjoining it, is very manifold ; but has not yet
been sufficiently examined.
Crystalline schists, and granitic rocks, rising to high moun-
tains, are surrounded by crystalline schists, sandstones, lime-
stones, and argillaceous rocks of the Carboniferous, Jurassic,
Cretaceous Periods. Thick Tertiary deposits are found in the
broad valley-basins, partly containing lignite, partly marine
fossils. The crystalline schists, and the secondary formations,
are traversed by porphyries, syenites, greenstones, melaphyres,
and basalts; while they contain coal-deposits of very different
ages.
The geological forriTation of Servia is still less known, than
that of the Banat: it is only certain, that the Danube, though
a political boundary, is not here a geological one.
LUNKANY.
170. The neighborhood of the Baths ofLunkany, in the
northern Banat, consists of mica-schist passing into chlorite
schist, and clay-slate; which contain numerous crystalline lime-
stones, quartzites, and siliceous slates, embedded in them. In
this district excellent hematite, and limonite, partly containing
manganese, are exploited; which are principally combined in a
peculiar manner with the limestones ; since they form altogether
irregular beds, in which they are found, as irregular nodules,
or masses, in brown clay or ochreous iron.
Although in some places they only fill depressions in the
surface, in others they occur, in a very analogous manner,
irregularly embedded between crystalline schist and limestone.
As these ore-pockets evidently fill cavities washed-out in the
limestone, they must, of course, be of a more recent origin than
this, and the schist enclosing it; but, of what age they are, I
am unable to decide.
LUNKANY.
285
The two accompanying woodcuts represent two cases of
this diverse manner of occurrence, which is found repeated
with innumerable modifications.
S. So-called silk-slate, midway between clay-slate and mica-schist.
K. Fine-grained limestone.
E. Iron ore; a ferruginous clay containing nodular masses of limonite
and hematite.
i The ironstone is at times more brownish-red in the neigh-
borhood of the schist, nearer black and containing considerable
manganese near the limestone. In addition to the nodular iron,
fragments of schist occasionally occur in the clay; and on the
borders of the limestone the deposit frequently passes into a kind
of breccia, of limestone fragments, cemented together by iron-
ore and calc-spar. Some of these irregular deposits are 60 70
fathoms broad, and over 300 long. They must generally be
called secondary contact-deposits; being secondary in so far,
that they only fill cavities washed-out, which have been induced
by the rock-limits.
286 ORE-SEGREGATIONS.
THE BANAT ORE-SEGREGATIONS.
171. The mountain-chain, traversing the Banat l from
North to South, is mostly composed of deposits belonging to the
Jurassic, and Cretaceous Periods; which overlie crystalline schists,
and are broken through, on the almost straight western wall of
the mountains, by igneous rocks ; which are geologically united,
but are lithologically very different. We will name them all
collectively Banatite, for the sake of conciseness, without under-
standing by this any determined rock.
The Jurassic and Cretaceous strata are mostly of a cal-
careous character; but the lowest members (corresponding to the
Lias) contain the coal-basin of Steierdorf; while at Reschitza,
somewhat farther North, the true Carboniferous formation crops-
out for a short distance.
The Banatites most nearly resemble the greenstones; but
at times approach the syenite, or a hornblendic quartz-porphyry.
Their separate eruptions lie in the Banat, one behind another,
in a straight line from North to South, nearly 50 miles long,
on the western mountain-wall. They can be followed in a
southerly direction over the Danube to beyond Kuczaina in
Servia; to the North, with a slight change in their direction,
a far as Rezbanya in Hungary. Throughout their whole extent
they are accompanied by irregular, segregated contact-ore-
deposits ; which consist of cupriferous pyrites, galena and blende,
or magnetic iron, locally alternating, and accompanied by
numerous other minerals,.
Where these Banatites have broken through the Jura, or
Cretaceous limestones; these last are generally converted, at the
junctions, into crystalline, granular marble, with considerable
admixture of garnets, at times almost entirely altered into garnet-
rock. Their stratification is also partly destroyed, and the
segregations of Neu Moldova, Szaszka, Csiklova, Oravicza,
Dognacska, Moravicza and Petris in the Banat, also that of
1 See: Cotta, Erzlagerstatten im Banat u. Serbien, 1864, p. 100;
Schrockenstein, Geognostische Notizen aus dem Banat, 1863; Peters,
Geologische u. mineralogische Stjidien aus dem sudostlichen Ungarn, 1861;
Von Berg, Aus dem Osten der osterreich. Monarchic, 1860; Von Zepha-
rovich, Mineralogisches Lexicon, 1859, and in Oesterreich. Zeitschr. f. Berg-
u. Hiittenwesen, 1857, p. 12 ; Brei thaupt, in Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit., 1857, p. 1.
CONCLUSIONS. 287
Rezbanya in Hungary, and Kuczaina in Servia, are principally
found at the limits of the metamorphosed limestone.
It would occupy too much space to describe in detail all
the contact-deposits of the Banat; the translator, therefore, refers
those persons, desirous of more special information, to the
Author's work on the same, which was published in Vienna in
1864, under the title 'Erzlagerstatten im Banat und Serbien 7 ;
and confines himself to extracts from the chief conclusions
arrived at.
1. A zone of igneous rocks, 150 200 miles long, can be
followed in a N. S. direction through the whole of the Banat,
and extending into Hungary, and Servia: they do not every
where reach the present surface, but still in many places.
2. The separate localities, where they occur, appear to form
the fillings of an uncompleted fissuring, and consequently to repre-
sent, in common, a broad igneous dike, whose separate portions
are not connected at the level of the present surface.
3. These igneous rocks are certainly of more recent origin,
than the Jura formation, and probably also than the Cretaceous
deposits of this region : they have broken through, and frequently
much metamorphosed the same in many places.
4. The nature of these igneous rocks, which I have com-
prised under the common name of Banatite, is very variable.
They vary, in their composition,- between syenite, diorite (tima-
zite), minette, granitic porphyry, and feldstone ; in their texture,
between crystalline granular, porphyritic with granular or com-
pact matrix, and almost entirely compact. In the amount of
silicic acid they contain, they form a transition from distinctly
basic to acidic igneous rocks, but only attain the level of gray
gneiss.
Geologically all these various kinds of rocks belong together;
they are only modifications of one igneous mass.
5. It appears in the Banat, as in many other localities;
that the mineralogical, like the chemical composition, and
the texture, of the igneous rocks, is very independent of the
period of their origin ; that many rocks might be contempora-
neously formed from the same mass by peculiar subordinate cir-
cumstances, which are distinguished from one another by their
texture, mixture, and chemical composition ; while, on the other
hand, almost entirely similar igneous rocks have been formed
288 BANATITE.
at similar epochs. This is a point to which I have frequently
, called attention in my lithology.
6. It is not improbable, that the Banatites belong geologically
.to the variety of diorites, or greenstones, called by Breithaupt
timazite, which occurs very widely extended in Servia, Tran-
sylvania, and Hungary. It is frequently accompanied by ore-
deposits; and where it comes in contact with Tertiary deposits,
generally traverses them.
7. These igneous rocks (Banatites) are generally, though
not always, accompanied at their limits, especially where they
traverse limestone, by striking contact-phenomena, which consist
in changes in their condition of aggregation, or in the formation
of certain minerals (garnet-rock): besides this they are accom-
panied by ore-deposits of irregular form, rich in sulphurets,
magnetite, and their products of metamorphosis.
8. The character of these ore-deposits is in many respects
a uniform one, but dissimilar ores and minerals predominate in
different localities.
9. We must separate the contact-formations proper, consist-
ing of mixtures of garnet, calc-spar, wollastonite, vesuvianite,
and amphibole (which I call garnet-rock), from the ore-deposits,
which are of more recent and other origin. The ore-deposits
are subdivided into original (chiefly sulphurets), and products of
decomposition and metamorphosis (limonite, calamine, etc.).
10. These three categories of deposits are evidently of
very dissimilar, and not contemporaneous formation; still they
pass into one another. The original ores are ramified in the
true contact-formations. The regions of decomposition are not
distinctly limited, but have penetrated to very variable depths, and
have advanced unequally, with regard to the separate minerals.
They are also not the result of a simple event, but the result
of a metamorphosis, now more catogene, then more anogene, 1
extending over a long period.
11. Since the numerous minerals, which occur in these
three kinds of deposits, all belong together geologically, I will
1 Catogene signifies the transmutations which have taken place in the
interior of the earth with exclusion of the atmospheric air (for which defi-
nition Lyell's hypogene has really priority); anogene means the transmutations,
which proceed from the exterior towards the interior under the influence of
air and water. Trans.
BANATITE MINERALS. GARNET-ROCK. 289
comprise the minerals observed at the various localities together,
arranged according to the threefold nature of the deposits, in
order to give a general mineralogical and, to a certain degree,
also chemical view of the composition of the same.
12. The true contact-deposits contain, as original minerals,
that is ; probably by the contact of the Banatites with the
limestone :
1. Garnet;
2. Wollastonite ;
3. Malacolith, as substitute for 2;
4. Tremolith, and asbestos;
5. Actinolith;
6. Vesuvianite;
7. Mica (green);
8. Calc-spar (frequently blue):
according to G. Leonhard, also hypersthene; and, as doubt-
ful in regard to the manner of formation, analcime, apophyllite,
and stilbite.
These minerals form irregular crystalline masses, which I
have called garnet-rock; they are, probably, for the most part,
the results of the combination of the lime in the limestone with
the silicates of the Banatites, by melting under a high pressure,
and subsequent very gradual cooling-off in enclosed places.
These minerals contain the following chemical elements : silicium,
calcium, magnesium, aluminium, iron, carbon, and oxygen.
With the preceding, occur as secondary penetrations, or
products of metamorphosis, in the true contact-deposits ; epidote,
quartz, agalmatolith, steatite, serpentine, chlorite, szaibelyite,
magnetite, pyrites, galena, blende, and their products of decom-
position.
13. The ore-deposits, which were evidently deposited, after
the Banatites had solidified, from solutions in accidentally exist-
ing cavities; or such as were excavated by the solutions them-
selves; contain, as probably belonging to their original condition:
290
MINERALS OF ORE-DEPOSITS, AND
Minerals .of the
Ore-Deposits. 1
1
N
&
J-i N
(**\ ert
M
Oravicza.
Csiklova.
ii
33
M
1
||
Kuczaina.
i*
oS a.
Gold
4_
4.
J?
Arsenic ...
I
i
( Bismuth)
,, V
I
Tetradymite
4-
Bismuthine
4-
1
,
-
Silver Glance
**"
"^
Galena
4-
4_
4.
4-
i
Stromeyerite .....
+
~^~
'
Copper Glance . ,V"i-,
Digenite
Molybdenite
4-
4-
+
4.
4-
4-
4.
4-
Stibnite
,
4_
Hessite
4_
~^~
Erubescite
Copper Pyrites . .
Iron Pyrites . . ..'';>
Pyrrhotine . . . .' .
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4.
4-
4-
4-
Blesde
4_
4_
-4-
I
Mispickel
i
4.
Tetrahedrite .
4.
+"
4.
f-i-l
,
i
Rezbanyite
4-
Realgar .
.
Orpiment
_L
Glaucodote
Copper Nickel ....
Magnetite .... ."
Hematite
4-
4-
4_
+
4-
ff)
(+)
f^-i
:
4-
1-
Psilomelane
Pyrolusite
-
+
Quartz ...... *;%.*
Calc-spar .
4-
4-
4-
4-
J_
4-
+
4-
4-
4_
4-
_(_
4-
4_
4-
-I-
Dolomite 'v -
4-
'
Spathic Iron
Heavy Spar
Fluor Spar
4-
4-
(Orthoclase) .
(4-)
The mixture of these minerals is very irregular: generally
one or two, of those printed in coarser type, locally predominate,
and determine the technical character of the deposits. The fol-
lowing ; are the essential chemical elements they contain:
1. Iron,
2. Copper,
3. Lead,
4. Zinc,
5. Arsenic;
6. Silver;
7. Gold;
8. Bismuth ;
predominant ;
9. Cobalt;
10. Nickel;
11. Tellurium ;
12. Manganese;
13. Antimony;
14. Molybdenum ;
15. Sulphur (considerable) ;
16. Selenium (traces);
1 A 4- denotes the presence, a the absence of the mineral; when in
parenthesis, it signifies, only mentioned in Schrockenstein's manuscript.
IN REGIONS OF DECOMPOSITION.
291
17. Carbon;
18. Oxygen;
19. Hydrogen;
20. Silicium;
21. Calcium;
22. Magnesium;
23. Barium;
24. Fluorine:
Consequently, about one third of the elements known to
exist. In those portions of the ore-deposits, where decomposition
had taken place, were found:
Minerals in the
Regions of Decomposi-
tion of the Ore-Deposits.
Rezbanya.
^ a
II
aO^
o g
Q
Oravicza.
Csiklova.
Szaszka.
c*
3 o
*1
Kuczaina.
J*
Silver v . . . . ; . .; . .
Copper .
Tile Ore
+
+
4-
+
-h
+
4-
+
+
Red Copper
Covelline .......
+
+
+
i
Hematite . .
4-
4-
Limoni te . . .
4-
4_
4_
4_
4-
4_
l_
i
Melaconite
4_
+,
Minium
-4-
Bismuth Ochre ....
Psilomelane ...
H-
_
4-
Pyrolusite .
Wad
+
4-
Quartz
4-
4__
-J.
4-
(Chalcedony)
(4.)
(4-y
(+)
Bole
4-
(4-i
Calamine
4-
1
4-
4-
f-h)
i-
Chrysocolla .
4_
. i...
4.
Opal
-|-
4-
Calc-spar
4-
|_
4-
4-
4-
L.
Aragonite
-j_
T4-)
+'
Smithsonite
_4_
Cerusite
4-
4.
4-
j.
Malachite
4-
+'
4_
_1_
4.
+ L
Azurite
-4-
1
i
4_
+'
(Plumbic Ochre) . . .
Buratite
_i_
(+)
Wulfenite .
_i_
4.
Crocoite
_i_
Pyromorphite . . .
_u
4_
4_
Thrombolith
4_
Phosphorchalcite . . .
Tyrolite
+
-1-
^ '
Gypsum
\.
+'
i_
Brochantite . . .
4,
Cyanosite
+'
(\\
/4_\
1
+ :
Copperas
\ 1 /
+'
+.
Goslarite
Linarite
Caledonite
_|_.
Leadhillite
_|_
Anglesite
_i_
4_
Allophane
4.
Lettsomite
_i_
4.
4-
4-
Erythrine
..
+
19*
292
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.
Minerals in the
Regions of Decomposi-
tion of the Ore-Deposits.
Rezbanya.
o N
, d
faJC-*
O g
a
Oravicza.
Csiklova.
I
.
1
Neu
Moldova.
Kuczaina.
Q
Marcasite
-4-
Kaolin
_
_
,
(Talc)
__
/i-v
_
Lithomarge
-j-
Steatite
-\-
Chlorite
Epidote * .
~
+
~
-
Apophyllite . . . . T;
Chabazite . . .' .
~
__
( + )
-\-
,
Stilbite .'" . "i.
(4-)
(Analcime) .
_
(-H
These minerals contain, in agreement with the original ore-
deposits, the following chemical elements:
1. Iron;
2 Copper;
3. Lead;
4. Zinc;
5. Silver;
6. Arsenic;
7. Bismuth;
8. Cobalt;
9. Manganese;
10. Molybdenum;
11. Sulphur (much less);
12. Carbon;
13 Oxygen (more);
14 Hydrogen (more);
15. Silicium;
16. Calcium; ^
17. Magnesium.
From this it appears, that gold, tellurium, selenium, nickel,
barium, and fluorine, are wanting.
To these have been added:
18. Aluminium; j 21. Chlorine;
19. Strontium (in aragonite?); 22. Phosphorus:
20. Chromium;
which were probably, in part, concealed in the original minerals,
or in the country-rock.
14. All these ore-deposits occur, in irregular forms, on the
borders, or at least near the limits, of the igneous rocks; in
great part in the limestone, but also at the contact of the lime-
stone and mica-schist. Impregnations are frequently combined
with these. Regular beds and lodes are entirely wanting.
15. The irregular form was here, also, evidently caused by
the predominance of peculiar circumstances. These were pro-
bably: first, irregular cavities and fissures, which were formed
by mechanical forces at the period the Banatites broke through ;
secondly, local dissolutions and excavation of the limestone, by
the same solutions from which the ores were deposited; and
CHARACTERISTICS. 293
thirdly, subsequent upheavals and subsidences, by which breccias
were formed.
16. The solutions (in their underground courses, probably
warm mineral springs) may have been subsequent effects of the
same plutonic action, by which the Banatites were forced to the
surface.
17. The commencement of their formation can, at the earliest,
have been during the Cretaceous Period 5 their completion, pro-
bably, took a long period of time, and during this the alterations
and decompositions had already begun in many places, from
which it becomes difficult to sharply separate the original
minerals from those formed by alteration.
So much the more difficult is it, when, during the period
of formation, changes of level, overlyings, and erosions, continued
in such a manner, that the same region was subjected, now to
catogene, then to anogene transmutations; as Peters has
shown to have been probably the case at Rezbanya.
18. The geological connection of all these deposits, in a
zone over 150 miles long, is not without practical importance.
It may be supposed from this, that the intervals, between the
ore-districts of the Banat already discovered, also contain ore-
deposits at some depth, and in all probability less altered, pre-
dominantly composed of sulphurets. Whether they are attainable
for mining purposes is a question, that can only be answered
by practical experience in the various cases.
19. The characteristics of these ore-deposits may be con-
cisely described as follows:
a. Form: irregular (segregations and impregnations), neither
beds nor veins;
b. Contents: sulphurets predominate, combined with quartz
and calc-spar; heavy spar and fluor spar are very rare; near
the surface numerous products of decomposition;
c. Occurrence: at the contact of dissimilar rocks,
especially of the limestone;
d. Predominant direction: North-South;
e. Age: Cretaceous or Eocene Period.
20. The ore-deposits, here described, agree in their geolo-
gical occurrence, their form and composition, most nearly with
those of Bogoslowsk in the Urals; somewhat less exactly with
those of Schwarzenberg in the Saxon Erzgebirge, Rochlitz in
Bohemia, Offenbanya in Transylvania, Chessy near Lyons, Rio-
294 HUNGARY. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
Tinto in Spain, the Apuanian Alps, Christiania in Norway, and
Tunaberg in Sweden. These may properly all be considered
as forming a class of contact : deposits.
XVI. HUNGARY.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
172. Hungary forms a large basin surrounded, to the
East, North, and West, by the Carpathian Mountains, and to
the South by spurs of the Alps. It is composed of the Neu-
rader Mountains, and the Bakony Forest; and is divided by
a range of heights, whose axis is from NE. to SW. into two
unequal portions; the larger of these is the great Theis-basin,
the smaller, the basin of Comorn. The flat bottom of both
these basins, only slightly undulating towards the edges, consists
of recent, Diluvial, and Tertiary strata, without ore-deposits.
Numerous ones, on the contrary, are found in the northern
mountainous portion, united to the North Carpathians, which
has a very varied composition, consisting of crystalline schists,
silurian strata, granites, greenstones, porphyries, trachytic and
basaltic rocks: an unequally greater variety, than is shown by
the principal chain of the Carpathians, of which this is a spur.
We have already become acquainted with the Eastern edge of
the basin, as belonging to Transylvania, and the Banat. The
mountains rising southerly of both the basins, consist in great
part of sedimentary limestones, without igneous rocks; they have
only been very slightly examined, but appear to contain but
few ore-deposits.
SCHEMNITZ. 1
173. The mining town of Schemnitz, which lies in the
upper portion of the valley of the. same name, is surrounded by
1 See: Cotta, Erzlagerstatten in Ungarn und Siebenbiirg. p. 28;
Breithaupt, in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1861, p. 51; Faller, in Berg- u.
Hiittenm. Jahrb. d. k. k. Schemnitzer Bergakademie, vol. VIII. p. 1;
SCHEMNITZ. 295
tolerably high mountains. These mountains consist of a crys-
talline rock, which is commonly called greenstone, and has in
fact much in common with the greenstones of other regions.
The Schemnitz greenstone passes, towards the North and South,
so gradually into a trachytic rock containing hornblende, that
a sharp line cannot be drawn between the two. On this account
the Schemnitz rock is generally called a trachytic greenstone,
or a trachyte resembling greenstone. This occurs repeatedly in
Hungary, and Transylvania: we shall become better acquainted
with similar rocks near Nagybanya, Felsobanya, and Kapnik;
at those places, as at Schemnitz, and Kremnitz, traversed by
gold-veins.
Breithaupt has rather lately discovered, that the Hungarian
greenstone, that of Schemnitz also, generally contains, instead
of the common hornblende, a new species of black amphibole,
which he has called gamsigradite, from the locality where
first discovered (Gamsigrad in Servia). This hornblende occurs
intimately combined with a feldspar, probably labradorite or
albite ; somewhat of mica, magnetite, and iron pyrites, occur as
subordinate minerals. He called the rock Timazite, from the
Roman name for Gamsigrad (Timacum minus). This timazite
must be joined to the diabase, diorite, hyperite, and gabbro,
which are collectively called greenstones, and whose compact
varieties are generally called aphanite and melophyre. Baron
Richthofen thinks, that all the more recent igneous rocks of
Hungary can be most suitably divided into three groups: viz.
1. Trachytes resembling greenstone, corresponding to Breit-
haupt's timazite;
2. Basic trachytes, or trachytes proper, frequently containing
oligoclase in place of sanidine;
3. Trachytic porphyries, containing the most silicic acid*,
and, according to Richthofen, the most recent of these rocks.
These distinctly crystalline greenstones, or timazites, of
Schemnitz are bounded to the Southeast, according to von
Pettko's map and description, by greenstone- and trachyte-tufa
and Oesterreich. Zeitschr. f. Berg- u. Huttenw. 1861, p. 5; Richthofen, in.
Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanst. vol. X. p. 67; Pettko, in Abhandlungen d. geo-
logisch. Reichsanst. 1853, vol. II. No. 1; Hauer and Fotterle, Ueber-
sicht d. Bergbaue, p. 53; Rivot, and Duchanoy, in Annales des mines,
1853, vol. III. p 68.
296 GROUPS OF LODES IN
deposits, which contain^ near Kibnik and Steplitzhof, imprints
of the leaves of Dicotyledons, as well as traces of lignite; while
near Eisenbach they overlie. a limestone-conglomerate containing
nummulites; consequently they musf* be more recent than the
Eocene. Since the greenstones are most intimately combined
with their tufa-deposits, and both are very probably of contempo-
raneous origin; while, also, the Schemnitz lodes 'traverse the
greenstone (timazite); it follows, that these lodes must also be
of more recent age than the Eocene. This result is more
completely confirmed by the lodes at Felsobdnya, Kapnik, and
Nagyag; where like greenstones, traversed by the lodes, have
evidently burst through the Eocene series ; near Olahlaposbanya,
where a broad lode traverses Eocene sandstone; and at Voros-
patak, where a portion of the gold-veins also occurs in Eocene
sandstone. All these lodes, of Hungary and Transylvania,
appear therefore to belong to the Tertiary Period, and Miocene
Epoch.
At Schemnitz the trachytic greenstone overlies a "district
consisting of granite, syenite, and gneiss; and surrounds it
on nearly every side, like a ring, while it is surrounded and
overlaid in turn by trachyte. The central granite-region is tra-
versed by the Hodritsch lodes. In addition to these, sedimen-
tary limestones, and slates, of probable Triassic age, occur in the
neighborhood of Schemnitz, as well as trachytic porphyry, pum-
ice, and tripoli ; which do not come in contact with the lodes.
A few caps of basalt occur scattered through the region.
Two groups of lodes occur in the Schemnitz district: viz.
1. at Schemnitz, in greenstone (timazite);
2. at Hodritsch, in gneiss granite syenite.
The Schemnitz lodes all strike almost parallel to one
another, SW. NE., and, with but a single exception, dip toward
SE. The Hodritsch lodes have no such constancy of strike and dip.
The Schemnitz lodes are mostly quite broad, attaining in
some places a breadth of 20 fathoms. When of such consider-
able breadth, they principally consist of more or less decom-
posed wall-rock, or, more correctly expressed, of a series of
fissures and branches, between which the country-rock is often
changed into a soft, even claylike, mass. But the separate
leaders of the lodes, consisting of gangstones and ores, also,
often attain a considerable breadth, being occasionally over a
fathom broad. The decomposed rock between the related fis-
SCHEMNITZ-DISTRICT. 297
sures, which are considered as forming a lode, is frequently so
impregnated with ores, that it can be worked in the stamping-
mills; thus justifying its being considered a portion of the vein.
The matrix of the separate champion-lodes is not always the
same, but in ajl of them the predominating vein-stone is quartz
in its various forms; while the ores are principally silver glance,
galena, and pyrites.
The separate lodes, following them from SE. to NW. are
the following: I have filled out my personal observations with
Faller's concise description.
The Griiner lode strikes NE. SW., dips 80 in SE. and
is 6 fathoms broad. Its matrix is principally an adhesive white
clay, which probably originated from decomposed country-rock,
and quartz. Both frequently have iron pyrites disseminated
through them, which probably contain somewhat of gold. This
matrix is penetrated by irregular threads of quartz, containing
iron pyrites, silver glance, argentiferous galena, and somewhat
of ruby silver. Fragments of the country-rock are occasionally
found, surrounded by crystalline quartz: which contains, at
slight distances from the fragment, and parallel to its general
contour, small ribbons of ore, or impregnations, having the
appearance of ring-ores. The same quartz frequently fills the
smaller cracks in the fragments, and cements them together.
In other places, the very irregularly distributed quartz contains
silver glance, galena, and pyrites, unequally divided through it.
These ore-strikes form chimneys, which are nearly perpendicular.
The Griiner lode is accompanied by four small veins, which in
part intersect and fault it. The same passes southwesterly, out
of the greenstone, into a Tertiary coal-deposit; where, being
barren, it has not been followed for any distance.
Faller has recently described an interesting occurrence
of quartz-pebbles in this lode. They appear to occupy a very
confined portion, from the surface to a depth of at least 155
fathoms, attain a diameter of 4 inches, and consist of quartz;
in which, remarkably enough, traces of galena and blende
occur. These ores are foreign to the Griiner lode, but occur
in the Spitaler and Theresia veins, which crop out to the surface
higher up the mountain sides. From which it appears, as if
the pebbles came from a partial erosion of these veins, and
have been washed from the surface into open portions of the
fissures in the Griiner lode. If this be true, great changes, in
298 SEPARATE LODES.
the contour of the surface, must have taken place since the for-
mation of the lodes ; and the present outcroppings cannot be the
original ones.
The Stephan lode ; lies 150 fathdms northwesterly of the last,
strikes nearly parallel to it, and is almost perpendicular. It
contains clay and quartz, in which occur: polybashe, silver
glance, silver, and argentiferous iron pyrites; which last has at
times impregnated the country to a considerable extent.
The Johann lode is like the preceding, and contains:
amethyst, calc-spar, brown spar, dialogite, polybasite, and some-
what of galena. Its mass frequently contains geodes. The
galena is said to en crease towards the Southwest.
The Spitaler lode, strikes nearly parallel to the preceding
lodes, but dips only 45 at the surface, at a greater depth 70
in SE. It is known to extend a distance of 4 l / 2 miles. It
attains a breadth of 18 fathoms. Within this considerable length
its matrix does not remain constant. To the Northwest, reddish
quartz, hornstone, amethyst, and auriferous (so-called) Zinopel,
with galena, blende, iron and copper pyrites, predominate ; which
frequently enclose decomposed fragments of the country-reck.
To the Southwest the matrix is more argillaceous, containing
auriferous silver-ores. It is stated, that the quantity of gold
decreases, while that of galena encr eases, with the depth.
It appears, that the gold chiefly occurs in the so-called
Zinopel; which is a brownish-red mass consisting principally of
silicic acid and peroxide of iron, and deserves a more exact
chemical examination. According to the accounts of some of
the mining officials, a green auriferous substance frequently ac-
companies the Zinopel. Cinnabar occurs, as a rarity, in py-
ritous quartz. A peculiar fibrous, yellow alum has been found
in the amygdaloidal cavities of the greenstone impregnated
with ores.
The Theresia lode occurs in the highest mountain-ridge of
the greenstone, where its outcrop is distinctly seen in old
quarries. It courses parallel to the other veins, and dips
75 90 partly in SE., partly towards NW. The lode attains
a breadth of 3 fathoms, but forks and branches off. Its matrix
appears to be quartzose, and frequently brecciated.
In the upper workings its three leaders, especially the foot-
leader, contain auriferous stamping ore, and rich silver-ores,
combined with dialogite, and quartz; these decrease with the
KREMNITZ. HERRENGRUND. 299
depth, and the amount of lead-ores encrease. Beautiful ring-ores
occur, whose kernel consists of galena, with somewhat of pyrites ;
this is surrounded by a thin drusy crust of quartz, over which
follows a thin pyritous layer of Zinopel, and lastly radiated quartz.
More recent cross-fissures, which traverse the quartzose vein-
breccia, show, at times, a symmetrical arrangement of the layers;
as outer layer, a white crystalline band of quartz, on this
Zinopel with pyrites, then again white quartz, again Zinopel
with pyrites, each of these layers only a line thick, and
then, in the middle, crystallized white quartz with con-
siderable iron pyrites, the last, occasionally, in pentagonal
dodecahedrons. Crystallized, columnar brown spar, and dialogite,
occur in the quartz geodes of the lode.
I omit here the Hodritsch lodes; as they are neither re-
markable, nor interesting.
It is striking, that the Schemnitz lodes are barren; and,
probably, do not perceptibly extend into the rock, that sur-
rounds the greenstone, and which is called trachyte, although no
sharp line between it and the greenstone can be drawn.
KREMNITZ.
174. At Kremnitz l there occurs one champion-lode,
30 90 feet broad, which occurs in greenstone (timazite) sur-
rounded by trachyte, in three leaders, besides numerous smaller
branches. The matrix of the lodes consists of decomposed
greenstone, and quartz; in which are disseminated, native gold,
silver-ores, iron pyrites and stibnite; while the same ores have
often impregnated the country-rock to such an extent, that it
can be profitably extracted; the greenstones being often
especially rich in gold between two fissures. Brown spar and
heavy spar are, at times, found with the ores, and the crystals
of stibnite are very rarely, encrusted with chalcedony.
HERRENGRUND.
175. Herrerigrund 2 lies in a deep ravine of the high
mountain-chain, separating the district of Leptau from that of
Sohler, and which reaches its highest point at Gumbir, with a
1 See: Hingehau's Zeitschr. f. Berg- und Hiittenwesen, 1^56, p. 209;
Hauer and Fotterle, Uebers. d. Bergbaue, p. 55.
2 See: Cotta, Erzlagerstatten in Ungarn u- Siebenbiirg. p. 41.
300 MAGURKA.
height of 6000 feet above the sea. The central axis of this
chain consists, from Gumbir to Herrengrund, of Granite; at the
last named place it is surrounded and covered by gneiss, mica-
schist, and clay-slate; which last^much resembles the Silurian
slate, and, also, alternates with strata of sandstone and conglo-
merate. The geological age of this has not yet been determined,
no fossils having been found in it. The red, and partly sandy,
strata, which immediately overlie this, are also undetermined,
they have been compared to the Rothliegendes, and, also, the
Bunt sand stein-, they could not well belong to a more recent
period, as limestones overlie them, which have been recognised
as belonging to the Triassic. The strata of all these rocks are
somewhat, though but slightly, tilted; and their strike and dip
appear to be very variable.
The ores are principally found in the clay-slate, although
they also occur in the gneiss and talcose mica-schist combined
with it. They form deposits, containing tetrahedrite and py-
rites, of indefinite form, in part decidedly veinlike, in part
bedlike with veinlike branches, in part flat lenticular masses,
soon wedging-out. Their distribution, and mineral composition,
are almost as irregular as their form. It can only be stated,
that a certain zone, in the partly crystalline, partly sedimentary
slates and schists, contains ore-deposits of unlike form and
composition, in which tetrahedrite is the most important ore.
These deposits do not appear to extend into the red sandstones
and slates, but appear to be cut off by these ; which would in-
dicate a great age. The irregularity, in the occurrence of these
deposits, renders their exploitation quite difficult. Quartz is the
principal gang, associated with which are occasionally; gypsum,
spathic iron, calc-spar and heavy spar. The principal ores are
tetrahedrite, and copper pyrites; with which are found: native
copper, erythrine, liroconite, tyrolite, iron pyrites, sulphur,
malachite, azurite, chrysocolla, copperas, cyanosite, aragonite,
coelestine, epsomite, and steatite.
MAGURKA.
176. On the northerly slope of the granite-chain of the
Gumbir lies the mining village of Magurka, 1 about 2500 feet
1 See: Cotta, Erzlagerstatten in Ungarn u. Siebenbiirg. p. 45.
DOBSCHAU. 301
above the sea. The granite is here, where it occurs normal,
composed of orthoclase, quartz, and dark-colored mica; on the
joints of which epidote is often found. It is intersected by an
auriferous antimony-lode. Near this lode, which has been
opened-up at several levels by an adit, the normal lode is altered
in a very remarkable manner. Reddish or greenish quartz is
irregularly mingled with feldspar and a greenish-yellow, talcose,
waxlike mineral. Mica occurs in it but scantily, and irregularly
distributed; and is not the dark -brown variety, as in the fresh
rock, but silver-white. That this change in the^texture, as well
as the mass of the rock, has been caused by the formation of
the lode; appears probable from the fact, that pyrites and traces
of antimony-ore are found in the altered rock, both of which
seem to be the result of impregnation. To how great a
distance in the rock this impregnation has continued, cannot be
determined; but it appears to extend for a very considerable
distance. The vein of antimony is frequently interrupted in its
course by faults, which have at the same time altered its direc-
tion. Four chief faults^ and several smaller ones, are known,
by which the vein is divided into five parts. Its breadth varies,
between a few inches and several feet. The matrix of the lode
consists of stibnite, and quartz, with horses of granite. Com-
bined with these is a finely distributed argentiferous gold; also,
iron pyrites, yellow blende, brown spar, and fine threads of
argentiferous galena; the last, chiefly in the country-rock. In
the richest point, thus far reached, almost pure stibnite was found
over a fathom broad; but this breadth of pure ore soon de-
creases; and it is mingled * with much ore and country-rock,
or the fissure becomes narrower. This is the finest known
example in Europe of the occurrence of antimony-ores in lodes.
DOBSCHAU.
177. It was formerly supposed, that all the ore-deposits
around Dobschau 1 were formerly closely connected with the
gabbro occurring there. This does not appear to be the case
with all, but* certainly is so with the ore-deposits containing
nickel and cobalt. The surrounding country is composed of
clay-slate and mica-schist, through which protrudes a small
1 See: Cotta, Erzlagerstatten in Ungarn und Siebenbiirg. p. 48.
302 CLASSES OF DEPOSITS.
mass of greenstone, alongside of which is somewhat of gar-
netiferous serpentine. I only saw the greenstone in a compact
condition; but, according to Kiss, it consists of a mixture of
labradorite and dialoge, which lasf is mostly altered to chlorite.
Somewhat of mica, quartz, and iron pyrites, occasionally dis-
seminated in its mass, which is repeatedly traversed by veins of
ankerite, and calc-spar, at times containing copper pyrites. Kiss
has determined the rock to be gabbro. The same is traversed,
northwardly of Dobschau, by several lodes, distinguished by
their containing cobalt and nickel; and is overlaid by broad masses
of spathic iron; whose lower portions, also, contain cobalt and
nickel ores. Huss, with whose description my own observations
agree, has divided the deposits into three classes. He distinguishes:'
1. a champion-lode, striking E. W., with numerous parallel
leaders, near the junction of the gabbro and clay-slate ;
2. several lodes, dipping in N., at the southern limits of
the gabbro, near the clay-slate; principally containing nickel
ores with calc-spar and spathic iron, but only attaining a slight
breadth ;
3. a thick deposit of spathic iron, with ankerite, lying on
the gabbro; and containing, near its contact with the last, co-
balt and nickel ores, with calc-spar and quartz.
This spathic iron is exploited by means of large quarries,
and attains the immense thickness of 18 fathoms. It appears,
that this somewhat irregular, perhaps lenticular, bed-mass shoots-
in, towards the South, under the clay-slate, and that its proper
position is between the gabbro and clay-slate; but this bedded
relation has, in no place, been distinctly opened to view.
Since the lodes, also, contain spathic iron, and ankerite, in
addition to the ores; the following conclusion may be drawn:
viz. that the metalliferous solutions have penetrated through the
fissures from below to the level of the irregular bed; from which
the cobalt and nickel ores were principally deposited in the
fissures ; the spathic iron, on the contrary, principally over them.
It will remain a difficult question to decide, whether the openings,
through which the solutions poured out, were at the surface, or
between the gabbro and clay-slate.
I became acquainted with the veinlike occurrence only
in the Zenberg mine. The champion-lode varies in breadth
from a few inches to one fathom; in the last case, prin-
cipally consisting of horses, which are traversed and cemented
SCHMOELLNITZ. 303
together by parallel threads of ore. These threads extend into
the wall-rock for a distance of 20 fathoms. The principal ore
they contain is a compact mixture of nickel and cobalt ore
(containing 4 14 per cent cobalt, and 4 16 per cent nickel);
besides which, in separate leaders, tetrahedrite combined with
spathic iron. Besides these are found (many as rarities) : copper
pyrites, erubescite, red copper, gersdorffite (dobschauite), copper
nickel, mispickel, native copper, erythrine, annabergite, malachite,
azurite, vivianite, and chrysocolla. Curiously enough, heavy spar
has never been observed.
SCHMOELLNITZ.
178. Schmollnitz l lies in a deep valley. The mountains
consist of clay-slate passing into mica-schist, in which quartz
is here and there embedded. These rocks strike E. W. and
dip 60 80 in S. They contain, eastwardly of the town, (in
a belt, 182 fathoms broad, of gray clay-slate embedded in a black
variety,) iron pyrites with copper pyrites; partly in bedlike im-
pregnations, partly in lenticular segregations, which have been
opened in the direction of strike for 2400 fathoms. There are
three chief segregations, of lenticular shape, which gradually
wedge-out in the direction both of strike and dip. They 'con-
sist of a massive pyrites, so finely granular, that it is impossible
to distinguish the iron from the copper pyrites. Even in these
solid masses a parallelism of the more or less pure layers can be
recognised, corresponding to the general strike. These segre-
gations are accompanied by shales, more or less impregnated
with pyrites. Two principal zones of impregnation are known,
one of which connects two of the segregations. These consider-
ably impregnated zones attain a greater depth than the segre-
gations; but pass, without any sharply defined limits, into the
common, less impregnated, gray slate. So that the whole may
be designated, as a pyritous deposit, in which the pyrites are
unequally distributed, at times forming an extremely fine gra-
nular mixture, at times somewhat more distinctly crystallized;
so that the iron and copper pyrites can be distinguished, and
somewhat separated, at times in considerable quantities, at times
much scattered through the mass.
1 See: Cotta, Erzlagerstatten in Ungarn u. Siebenbiirg. p. 53.
304 TRACHYTE. MOUNTAIN-DISTRICT.
Near the outcrops the pyrites are partly altered to limonite,
while erubescite and native copper also occur. In the eastern
portion of the zone traces of galena ; blende, and cobalt ores,
have been discovered.
The pyritous segregations of Schmollnitz have a great
similarity with those of the Rammelsberg in the Hartz, and
Agordo in the southern slope of the Alps : also a certain
resemblance to those of Rio-Tinto in Spain, and Fahlun in
Sweden, cannot be denied ; while, on the contrary, the deposits
of Borsabanya in the North Carpathians, of Poschorita and
Domokos, form more regular beds. It is very difficult to explain
satisfactorily the origin of such wide local accumulations of
pyrites. The continuation of traces of the cleavage, even
through the most compact masses of pyrites of the three segre-
gations at Schmollnitz, would argue in favor of contemporaneous
deposit, or subsequent impregnation. At least the supposition
would be excluded, that irregular fissures, or hollows, could have
been filled with pyrites. Whence came the quantity of mineral
matter forming the sulphurets, during or subsequent to the
deposit of the rock? How could this matter, in the one case
remain unchanged during the subsequent alteration of the rock ;
or, in the other, find a channel and cause for such massive
impregnations? These are questions, I will not attempt to
answer.
NAGYBANYA, FELSOEBANYA, KAPNIK,
AND OLAHLAPOSBANYA.
179. In the eastern corner of the Szathmar District, 1
and the northernmost extremity of Transylvania, where both join
the Marmaros, rises a magnificent mountain-district of trachyte,
for the most part luxuriantly wooded. The trachytic rocks, like
those of Hungary in general, are of the most various kinds.
Nearly the same varieties occur, similarly combined with one
another, as around Schemnitz; viz. trachytic greenstones (tima-
zites), trachytes and trachytic porphyries. All these igneous
rocks have burst through Tertiary formations, in which sand-
stones and argillaceous shales predominate, and according to the
1 See: Cotta, Erzlagerstatten in Ungarn u. Siebenbiirg. p. 56.
NAGYBANYA. 305
geological examination of the Viennese Reichsanstalt, belong to
the Eocene Period. Beneath these, and at a greater distance
from the mountains, Cretaceous strata crop-out, which have not
jet been observed in the district of the ore-deposits. The ore-
deposits, chiefly distinct lodes, occur almost entirely in the
timazite, having but rarely been observed in the trachytes or
Tertiary sandstones. From their occurrence in igneous rocks,
which have broken through Tertiary strata, and even, exception-
ally, between Eocene sandstones and argillaceous shales; it is
certain, that they were formed subsequently to the Eocene epoch.
In all these relations, they completely resemble the Schemnitz
lodes, and their mineralogical composition shows much similarity
with these.
I comprise together a large number of single lodes or groups,
which occur in the neighborhood of Nagybanya, Felsobanya,
Kapnik, and Olahlaposbanya; though great differences between
them may be recognised ; because they belong to a common
geological district, occur under nearly like circumstances, and
appear to have been formed at about the same time. Quartz is
common to them all, as predominating gang, in the form of
veins, often very crystalline; it traverses the older members of
the lodes in various directions, from which a repeated formation
of quartz must be concluded.
Nagybanya. This mining village lies at the base of
the luxuriantly wooded Kegel Mountain, which rises precipitously
7 800 feet above the surrounding country. The plains, and
slightly advanced hills, consist of drift and fragments of Eocene
deposits. The dome of timazite rises out of these, and is tra-
versed by lodes. The rock is generally so much decomposed,
that fragments are but seldom found, whose nature can be
determined. The Kreuzberg lode traverses the mountain of the
same name, from its crest to its base, and must continue to a
considerable distance beneath. The matrix of the lode is prin-
cipally quartz; in which the chief ores are: auriferous iron
pyrites, somewhat perceptible native gold, and some silver ores.
Its immediate wall-rock is a very much decomposed, white,
felsitic mass, impregnated with iron pyrites; and appears to be
a much altered condition of the timazite. Southerly of this
occurs the Evangelist lode; whose veinstones are quartz, amethyst
and hornstone, partly with cellular or drusy, partly with banded
20
306 FELSOEBANYA.
texture. This lode is more auriferous than the last, but free gold
is rare.
The finest fragment I saw, was from a lode at Vivisa,.
somewhat to the North of Nagybatfya. The following was the
order of occurrence;
1. wall-rock;
2. quartz;
3. brown spar;
4. iron pyrites;
5. mixture of quartz and calc-spar,
6. impregnation of gold, in the middle of preceding;
7. mixture of quartz and calc-spar;
8. iron pyrites;
9. brown spar;
10. quartz ; and
11. wall rock.
The arrangement is very symmetrical, but the central quartz
appears pure only on one side, being intimately combined with
calc-spar on the other. In addition to those already mentioned, the
following minerals have been found at Nagybanya; ruby silver, tetra-
hedrite, stephanite, silver glance, galena, native silver, blende, copper
pyrites, realgar, orpiment, native arsenic, stibnite, and marcasite.
Felsobanya. But one lode is here exploited, which is
traversed by numerous others. This lode entirely traverses
a mountain, which it cuts through from East to West: it is of
great breadth, and dips steeply in N. The breadth of the lode
is very variable; it encreases from a few inches to 12 fathoms.
Not only the breadth, but the mineral matter filling the vein, is
extremely variable. Even the quartz, hornstone, and heavy spar,,
forming the chief veinstones, are most unequally distributed.
Veins of crystallized quartz, or amethyst, only J /2 to 2 inches
broad, traverse the lode, and the horses in the same, partly
parallel to one another, partly in undetermined directions. This
younger vein-formation, within an older, is very common in this
district. The ores are still more unequally distributed, than the
lodes. It is asserted, that the rich silver-ores are principally
collected near the surface, and auriferous pyrites are character-
istic of greater depths; but this distribution is not found to be
constantly the case. The richest mass, I saw, when visiting
the mine in Sept. 1860, was a place, three feet broad, consisting
of almost pure galena, with but little pyrites, in the lowest work-
ing. The coarse granular contains here but 100 grammes in 100
kilogrammes, the fine granular in other places up to 265 grammes.
KAPNIK. 307
It is extremely difficult to more exactly characterize the
motley mixture of cellular quartz, hornstone, banded or brecciated
heavy spar, large fragments of wall-rock, large geodes, galena,
blende, and various kinds of pyrites ; with here and there stib-
nite, heteromorphite, valentinite, bournonite, realgar, orpiment,
ruby silver, polybasite, native gold, silver, arsenic, miargyrite
(kenngottite), freieslebenite, felsobanyite, kermesite, wad, pyro-
lusite, sulphur, anthracite, etc. One is inclined to say, that all
lies topsy turvey, while frequently fragments of the country-rock,
or some of the older portions of the lode, are radially surrounded
by more recent. The quartz-veins alone, traversing the whole,
have a constant character. The lode traverses a considerable mass
of schist enclosed in the greenstone, in which it appears particu-
larly to lose its breadth and ores. It is accompanied by numerous
side-branches, which have been chiefly observed near the surface.
Both this, and the Kreuzberg lode at Nagybanya, traverse,
as we have seen, mountains, 6 700 feet high, from the crest
to the base. This fact appears to me especially important, as
the mountains consist of a, relatively, recent Tertiary igneous
rock. With fissures averaging so considerable a breadth, it
appears impossible to assume, that the same can have been filled
by solutions; since the mountain-cones stood free, and, con-
sequently, the fissures were open at the sides. The matrix must,
therefore, have been deposited at a time, when the mountains
still formed a coherent plateau, not yet intersected by valleys,
or they were surrounded on all sides by Tertiary strata. The
formation of the valleys, or the laying free of the peaks, appears
to have here taken place at a more recent date, than the filling
of the fissures.
Kapnik. In this district the only fact worth noticing is,
that the outer members of the metalliferous belt contain galena,
and are auriferous; while the central lodes contain galena,
and but little gold. They have been formed by a repeated
tearing-open and filling of the fissures. The vein-stones are :
quartz, calc-spar, dialogite, and heavy spar; associated with which
are the following ores ; tetrahedrite, galena, copper pyrites, gold,
silver, silver glance, ruby silver, stephanite, polybasite, and copper
glance. The following minerals have also been found: blende, iron
pyrites, stibnite, bournonite, dyscrasite, realgar, orpiment, arsenic,
pyromorphite, kermesite, smithsonite, hornstone, amethyst, fluor
spar, gypsum, anhydrite, sulphur, and talc.
20*
308 OL AHL APOSB AN YA.
Olahlaposbany a. This small village lies in the extreme
northwestern corner of Transylvania, where it borders on Hun-
gary and the Marmaros. Near it can be seen, in a steep ravine,
a reiterated alternating bedding (ft clay, shale, and sandstone ;
all frequently so firmly united, that it is easy to knock off hand-
specimens consisting of several layers joined together. These
very irregular strata contain subordinate deposits of magriesian
limestone, and a variety of greenstone, which last, as igneous rock,
must have penetrated between them; according to the Viennese
geologists, they all belong to the lower Tertiary deposits of the region.
A few steps northwardly of the greenstone, occurs a broad
lode, the Vorsehung-Gottes, in sandstone : it is accompanied
by numerous subordinate quartzose veins, and, at times, even
traversed by them : it appears to have been formerly exploited
by means of quarries. The lode courses E. W., parallel to the
strata of sandstone, and dips like these in N., but at a much
greater angle. Its breadth is, occasionally, as much as 6 8
fathoms, but it then contains numerous horses. The vein-stones
are principally hornstone and quartz, also somewhat of heavy
spar, in which are found various kinds of pyrites. Among the
last, copper pyrites is the most important, often occurring of
great breadth, and entirely compact. The same is locally mixed
with considerable galena, and this is also found alternating in
bands with the copper pyrites and heavy spar, or spathic iron.
It has been stated, that the ores occur more in the foot- wall
of the lode, but the ore is very irregularly distributed. Large
geodes occur in the matrix, in one of which, 14 feet long and
QVs feet broad, massive aggregations of stalactitic iron-pyrites
were found. It is stated, that where the vein enters the pre-
dominating slates, it decreases in breadth and contents.
The sandstone of the country-rock is often much changed
in color, and is, in places, penetrated by iron pyrites, which
form small crystalline grains. The sandstone is traversed, prin-
cipally in the foot-wall of the lode, by numerous quartz-veins,
J / 4 to 2 inches broad. The quartz, or even amethyst, is distinctly
crystallized, from the selvages towards the middle of the lode;
and frequently forms beautiful geodes, in which curved rhom-
bohedrons of ankerite lie on the quartz, at times somewhat
of filiform native gold is found in both of these. The netlike
combination of many such veins sometimes causes a sort of
breccia, whose cementing medium is quartz- veins, while the
THE ALPS. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 309
fragments consist of very quartzose sandstone, or argillaceous
shale.
The copper pyrites contain 30 32 kilogrammes of copper,
and 6585 grammes of silver, to the hundred kilogrammes.
The silver contains 133 / 100 o gold 5 and the pyrites are said to
be richer in gold, where they contain the least silver. Perhaps
the fact is, that the gold is more equally distributed, than the
silver ; and that, therefore, in an equal amount of matrix, a small
quantity of silver contains relatively more gold, than a large
quantity does.
XVII. THE ALPS.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
180. In the eastern portion of this long and high moun-
tain-chain, a central ridge can be distinguished from two parallel
side-ridges, which are at times all three separated from one
another by deep and broad valleys. The central ridge is chiefly
composed of crystalline schists and granitic rocks, overlying
which are Palaeozoic strata, to which deposits of the Carboni-
ferous Period are added on the southern slope.
The two parallel side-ridges are mostly composed of lime-
stones, long called 'Alpine limestones 7 , while their subdivisions
were still undetermined, but which have been recently divided
into numerous epochs, belonging to the Triassic, Jurassic, and
Cretaceous Periods. The outer edges, and hills, consist of Ter-
tiary strata; which are mostly divided into Eocene Nummulitic
deposits, and Neogene Molasse deposits; these last frequently,
however, penetrate into the depressions of the principal ridges.
The, thus concisely described, formation of the Alpine-chain
is, as it were, only the normal or ideal one, in reality the same
is frequently much disturbed, even to a subversion of all the
original relations of bedding. The central ridge, in particular,
is eastwardly divided into two arms; which, as they advance,
become more indistinct, and farther apart from one another;
while towards the West the entire mountains become broader,
310 GOLD-DEPOSITS OF THE ALPS.
so that but little of the original formation can be recognised.
It bends, as a high and broad mountain- belt, from its original
East-west axis more and more towards the South, until it reaches
the sea at Nice.
It would occupy too much space, were I to attempt a
detailed description; I would, therefore, only call attention to the
fact, that the Alpine chain was raised at a comparatively recent
period; that is, from the Jurassic to the end of the Tertiary Period;
and that but few igneous rocks have been found in it. Basalts
and trachytes are entirely wanting ; greenstones are not common ;
porphyries and melaphyres are confined to a single district on
the southern flank. By far the most common igneous rocks are
granite and protogine, which are often difficult to distinguish
from the neighboring gneiss.
Perhaps this want of igneous rocks is one of the reasons,
why so few lodes- have been found in this, the most extensive
mountain-chain in Europe, in comparison to many smaller moun-
tainous districts.
In describing the separate ore-districts I shall more fully
treat those portions of the chain belonging to Austria and Ba-
varia, those in Switzerland and France.
THE GOLD-DEPOSITS OF THE ALPS.
181. The central ridge of the Alps, consisting chiefly of
crystalline schists, contains, in numerous places, very poor gold-
deposits, which occur as beds, impregnations or lodes, but still
appearing to have a general relation to one another. To these
must be added a few other, in part secondary, gold-deposits in
more recent formations. From their general relation to one
another, I subjoin a short table of the best known of the gold
occurrences, which will be followed by more special descriptions
of the more important localities.
TABLE OF THE OCCURRENCES OF GOLD IN THE ALPS.
Auriferous Beds.
1. At Wale hern, southeast of el barn in Styria: a quartz-bed, in
argillaceous schist, contains auriferous and argentiferous pyrites and other
sulphurets, especially iron and copper pyrites, mispickel, tetrahedrite, and
cobalt ores;
2. Fusch, westwardly of Gastein: Chlorite-schist, containing auriferous
quartz, accompanied by iron and copper pyrites, mispickel, and argentiferous
BEDS. VEINS, AND ALLUVIUM DEPOSITS. 31 1
galena; it seems to be a bedlike impregnation: also near Mosen in the
Kauris, occurs an auriferous quartz-bed in clay-slate;
3. On the Heinz en Mountain at Zell in the Tyrol: auriferous quartz-bed,
in argillaceous mica-schist: similar beds on the Rohn Mt. at the same place;
4. At the Radlgraben, northwest ofVillach: lenticular quartz-masses
containing gold with somewhat of wulfenite;
5. AtUntersulzbach, southwardly of Miihlbach, in the Salzburg district,
occurs an auriferous bed of copper pyrites in chloritic mica-schist;
6. At Schwaig and Lengholz, northwesterly of Villach in Carinthia:
auriferous pyrites, with silver ores, in chlorite schist : probably beds or bed-
like impregnations;
7 . R a d e r mine, at We i s s b r i a c h in Carinthia : gold in Palaeozoic clay-
slate: it is uncertain, whether in beds, or veins;
8. The Lias limestone of Grave (hautes Alpes) contains, according to
Oueymard, almost every where finely disseminated gold, perhaps combined
with the iron pyrites occurring in the rock: or is it perhaps a gold-deposit
formed during the Lias Period?
9. The green slates of the Jura-formation, at Felsberg in Graubiinden,
contain somewhat of native gold, perhaps only in veins; auriferous pyrites
were also formerly exploited in the crystalline schists of Graubiinden.
Auriferous Veins.
10. On the Rathhaus Mountain, in the Sieglitz, in Rauris, and in the
Fusch (neighborhood of Gastein), occur numerous auriferous veins : probable
continuations of the same are found at Ober-Villach in the Moll valley;
11. On the Calanda, in Graubiinden, auriferous veins occur in the Jura-
formation-,
12. Auriferous veins of pyrites occur in the crystalline schists of
Pest arena, and Macugnaca, east of Monte Rosa;
13. In the Ligurian Alps, Balddracco observed auriferous veins of
quartz in the Valleys of Cella and of Tana;
14. Gold veins occur in protogine, at Gardette in the Department of
the Isere:
15. Lodes containing a small percentage of gold are found in the Cha-
lanche Mts. near Allemont (Dauphiny).
Gold Alluvium Deposits.
16. In the Salza-valley near Lend, in the valleys of the Moll and the
Drau, evidently coming from the neighboring central ridge: on the Ens, the
Mur, the Isar, the Inn, and the Danube, from the same source;
17. On the Aar, and the Emme. in Switzerland: the gold here originates .
from the Molasse deposits, into which it was probably swept from the Central
Alps during the Tertiary Period;
18. In Cheron near Chateland;
19. In the hills of Saint-Georges, near Chivas in Piedmont; also in the
sands of the Po, and of the Dona Despine.
If we examine the more original of these Alpine deposits,
we find that they may be divided into beds or bedlike impreg-
nations, and into lodes in the region of the crystalline schists.
312 DISTRIBUTION, AND ORIGIN, OF GOLD-DEPOSITS.
Possibly the beds, or impregnations, are the original depo-
sits, from which the lodes have received their gold. At least
it is certainly very remarkable, that the majority of the auri-
ferous veins in the Alps, and as it ^eems to me in many other
localities, appear to be only workable in their upper portions ;
from which the idea may arise, that the gold has penetrated
into them either out of the wall-rocks, or from - above out of
other, now destroyed, rocks. Lieber 1 has expressed the same
idea in regard to the gold-veins of both the Carolinas; and
Genth has mentioned chlorine, as the most probable solvent of
gold. In some cases even a mechanical washing into the fissures
does not seem to be impossible.
Even if we may assume, the gold of the -veins originated
in older beds or impregnations; the problem still remains to be
solved, how and when the gold came into those metamorphic
strata? Was it already in them before their alteration, or did
it penetrate during the same? .In the first case, from whence
did it come into those older sedimentary deposits, out of which
the crystalline schists were formed? Probably from the erosion
of still older igneous rocks, in which it was distributed with
the various other elements composing the earth's crust.
The results of Gueymard's 2 careful researches are of con-
siderable scientific interest. He found traces of gold, and
platinum, in numerous veins of the western Alps, of which no
one had previously had an idea. The amounts were certainly too
small to allow of the deposits being worked, but the scientific
worth of their discovery was not in the slightest degree affected
by this.
It appears from these researches, that gold is one of the
most widely distributed elements; but this must be qualified by
saying, that its original distribution is so finely disseminated,
that it cannot be profitably extracted. Such an extraction could
only be profitable, when it had been locally concentrated by
chemical or mechanical causes, as in some quartz-veins, or allu-
vium-deposits. Is not this the case with all the metals.? The
greater the advances that are made in analytical chemistry, the
more widely are traces of the different elements, even the ab-
solutely rare ones, found to be distributed in the various pro-
ducts of nature.
1 See: Cotta's Gangstudien, vol. III.
2 See: Annales des mines, 1852, vol. I. p. 345.
RATHHAUSBERG. 313
GOLD-VEINS IN THE SALZBURG TAUERN CHAIN.
182. The central ridge of the Alps consists, in the neigh-
borhood of the Rathhaus Mountain, 1 near Gastein, chiefly of
gneiss, which passes into mica- schist; and both contain subor-
dinate beds of granular limestone. To the North of this gneiss
and mica-schist district, occur repeated alternations of chlorite
schist, mica-schist, talc schist, black schist, serpentine (more like
a segregation), and slaty limestone. The gold veins occur for
the most part in the gneiss and mica-schist district, but also
traverse the previously mentioned alternation in the Fusch valley.
Their predominant strike, on the Rathhaus Mountain, is NE. SW.,
but is, in the Siglitz and on the Rauris Gold-Mountain, more
NNE. SSW. and in the Fusch valley entirely N. S. From
this it would appear, that there was a general convergence of
these veins in the direction of Dollach, where however a junc-
tion has not been observed. Cross-courses, containing little or
no gold, intersect the principal course of the others, on the
Rathhaus Mountain, and in the Ketschach valley.
On the Rathhaus Mountain there have been distinguished
lodes, which dip E., and barren argillaceous veins, dipping W.
The last very rarely contain gold ; frequently, however, quartz,
and molybdenite.
The nature of these veins is a peculiar one: they do not
have the appearance of distinctly opened fissures, which have
been filled with mineral matter ; but essentially consist of several
clefts parallel to one another, between which lies, more or less
altered, often impregnated, country-rock, whose foliated texture
sometimes continues uniformly between these clefts, sometimes
has assumed another direction. The clefts widen, indeed, in
places, and are then predominantly filled with quartz, which
also appears to have penetrated from these into the rock. Such
enlargements, filled with quartz and other minerals, then
resemble other lodes. But the veins of the Rathhaus Mt. are
essentially only systems of parallel clefts, between which lies
1 See: Whitney's Metallic Wealth, 1854, p. 93; Cotta, Geol. Brief e
aus den Alpen, 1850, p. 144; Ehrlich, nordostlichen Alpen, 1850, p. 72;
Reissacher, die goldfuhrenden Gangstreichen cler Salzburger Centralalpen-
kette, 1848; Russegger, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1832, p. 89; 1835, pp. 182,
203, 379, 505; and 1836, p. 199; Riepl, in Bulletin geologique, 183233,
III. p. 142, and 183536, VII. p. 13.
314
SECTIONS OF THE ELISABETH-ADIT.
the wall-rock. Their true cha-
racter can be best seen from
the following four woodcuts,
whiten are copied from Reis-
sacher's work. They represent
four consecutive sections of the
Elisabeth adit. In the first a
and c are gneiss, containing
but little gold, b, on the con-
trary, which is separated by
the principal cleft AB from a,
and by a less constant one
from c, consists of a quartzose
and auriferous gneiss. The
second cut represents the same
adit 7 feet farther. The chief
cleft AB has preserved the
same position, containing some-
what more clay: a and b are
almost entirely quartz, between
which a wedge of chlorite
schist has penetrated : b and d
are only poor stamping-stuff,
a and b' both rich enough for
hand-sorting. The third figure
represents the adit at a farther
distance toward SW. of 36 feet.
The principal cleft AB was
here enclosed, on both sides,
by auriferous, gneissic quartz
b and 6', b 1 richer than b : the
two chloritic portions m and
m were particularly rich. The
gneiss a had curved around
the quartz 6; e was the con-
tinuation of the barren portion
of gneiss observed in the pre-
ceding figure The fourth
woodcut represents the adit 83
feet farther SW. The cleft AB
contains a soft clay d, alongside
ERZWIESER CHAMPION-LODE.
315
of it auriferous quartz b,
and on the other side en-
riched gneiss a ; while c and
e consist of barren granitic
.gneiss.
Frequently several parallel
subordinate clefts occur,
alongside of the principal
one (which is chiefly followed
in the exploitation). Some
of these are at a consi-
derable distance apart; and
the intervals between them
are then occasionally traversed in various directions by cross-
fissures. Where many of these last occur, the amount of gold
is said to encrease, which is easily comprehended; since each
fissure acted as a channel for dissemination of the metal. The
whole occurrence has some resemblance to that of Goldkronach
( 92).
The gold penetrated from the clefts, especially the principal
one, to unequal distances in the wall-rock on both sides. As
a rule, its amount gradually decreased with the distances from
the fissures.
Besides the native gold, which is often imperceptibly dis-
seminated in the snow-white, compact quartz, there also occur:
so-called glaserz, a mineral resembling tetrahedrite, containing
a large percentage of auriferous silver; somewhat of copper
pyrites, erubescite, iron pyrites, mispickel, galena, and blende,
(according to Riepl, also stibnite, calc-spar, fluor spar, and
lazulite, and, according to Russegger, dyscrasite). The copper-
ores chiefly occur in the chloritic gneiss; the others, like the
gold, in common gneiss and in quartz: these ores are finely
disseminated. It is considered a favorable sign, when the quartz
contains small particles of dialogite, and decomposed or fresh
iron pyrites.
The Erzwieser champion-lode, some miles to the West of
the Rathhaus Mi, can be followed 3200 fathoms in a straight
line, between gneiss, chloritic gneiss, and mica-schist; it is
lost sight of in the Anger valley, under a considerable quan-
tity of Alluvium, and southwardly under the Rauris Gold-Mt.
under the glacier of the high Schareck. Traces of ancient
316 KAURIS, FUSCH, SALZBURG.
mining are found in Carinthia, on the other side of this
mass of snow and ice, in the prolongation of the same line of
strike. The vein intersects granular limestone in its course,
in which it shows a remarkable change of character, which can
be distinctly recognised in the heaps of rubbish at the mouths
of old shafts. It is here evidently very broad, essentially con-
sisting of spathic iron, and calcareous spathic ir6n, in which
argentiferous galena is disseminated. The auriferous quartz-
vein, or system of clefts has suddenly become converted into a
broad spathic iron lode, containing lead and silver; which,
beyond the limestone, again contains gold between the gneiss,
in the same manner as already described of the Rathhaus Mt.
In Kauris, where the veins strike like those of the Rath-
haus Mt., there are but two circumstances worth noticing.
Firstly, the veins exhibit a concentration and enrichment near
the so-called black achist, which they entirely lose, when they
intersect the same, and appear to be much compressed. Secondly,
certain fissures which frequently intersect the veins produce very
peculiar appearances of intersection and faulting, which can
however be explained by natural laws.
In the Fusch valley, where about 40 veins are known,
though only 3 have been opened-up, these show an analogous
relation to those on the Rathhaus Mt., although they here tra-
verse a repeated alternation of talc-schist, mica-schist, chlorite
schist and slaty limestone. The ores consist of gold, so-called
glaserz, iron and copper pyrites, galena and blende, which occur
in all the rocks but the so-called black schist. In the slaty
limestone the quartz, as in the Erzwieser lode, is replaced by
impure spathic iron, and the argentiferous galena is more com-
mon*, but native gold is not entirely wanting, implanted on the
spathic iron.
All these gold veins, in the crystalline central ridge of the
Alps, which essentially coincide in their nature and strike,
must have had a common origin. The fissures are the conse-
quences of mechanical forces, caused by movements in the moun-
tains, which can be recognised from the faults, and friction-sur-
faces. In what manner did the metallic and non-metallic
minerals penetrate? It is highly improbable, that these, especially
the last, originated from the wall-rock; while we have found
this to be very probable as to some of the Hungarian and Tran-
sylvanian gold-veins in greenstone. It is the more improbable;
HEINZENBERG. . 317
as, according to Reissacher, whose statements are founded on
very careful experiments in the concentration-works, the amount
of gold in the wall-rock decreases, and soon ceases, with the
encreasing distance from the clefts, especially the chief fissure.
The country-rock also contains no pyrites, which might be
regarded as containing the gold. This, and the other metals
have, therefore, evidently penetrated from some direction in a
dissolved condition into the fissures, and have penetrated from
these into a portion of their wall-rock. Of what sort the solu-
tions, especially that of the gold, were, is still a problem. From
the manner in which the gold occurs, chiefly in the upper por-
tions of the veins, it might be supposed, that the gold pene-
trated from above. In this case it could only have come from
the rocks, which formerly overlay those now at the surface.
But there actually occur, as we have seen, auriferous beds, or
belts of impregnations, in the clay-slates and chloritic schists of
the Tyrol, which overlie the gneiss and mica-schist of the cen-
tral ridge, whose destroyed prolongation may in reality have
formerly covered the central chain at Salzburg. I will not
attempt to pursue this train of thought any farther, as I merely
wished to notice the same once more. The striking difference
in the contents of the lodes, when within the limestone, is one
of the most distinct cases of the influence of the country-rock.
GOLD-DEPOSITS ON THE HEINZEN MOUNTAIN.
183. The Heinzen 1 Mt. near Zell in the Tyrol, consists
of mica-schist, which dips 70 in S. The mass of the bed, in
which the gold occurs disseminated, is a quartzose slate more
or less impregnated with pyrites, whose thickness encreases from
a few inches to 5 6 fathoms. This bed is by no means auri-
ferous enough, throughout its whole extent, to be profitably
exploited; on the contrary certain portions are very poor or
barren, between which lie richer zones, 30 40 fathoms broad,
which dip obliquely to the plane of the bed 30 40 in SW.
Up to the present time three such belts have been opened and
exploited. In these, which occur at about equal distances apart,
there appears a progressive encrease in the amount of gold from
1 See: Trinker, in Jahrb. d. geolog. Reichsanst. 1850, p. 213; linger,
Einfluss des Bodens, 1836, p. 39.
318
CALLANDA GOLD-VEINS.
East to West ; the reason of this is entirely unknown. A varia-
tion in the country-rock, as is so often the case in lodes, can here
have exercised no influence,, as the wall-rock remains the same.
It must also be remembered that the' oblique inclination of ore-
chimneys can by no means always be explained. Nature some-
times resists the attempts of our interpretations; or rather our
knowledge of the same is in many ways still very imperfect.
Unger states, that the Heinzen Mt. contains six similar beds
to those now worked, and the Tauern Mt. four.
GOLD -VEINS ON THE CALLANDA IN GRAUBUENDEN.
184. The southern slope of the Callanda ! in Graubiin-
den, from which the renowned landslip of Felsberg took place,
consists, according to Deicke, of the following strata:
CalUtnda,
a. Red sandstone of the Alps; Buntsandstein;
b. Yellow limestone, / m .
c. Dolomite, j TnaSS1C '
d. Red schist,
e. Yellowish schist,
f. Chloriticschist (containing the gold veins),
g. Schist containing magnetite,
h. Slaty limestone,
i. Limestone containing Belemites,
Jurassic;
1 See: Deicke, in Berg- u. htittenm. Zeit. 1860, p. 119.
LA GARDETTE GOLD-VEINS.
319
k. Slaty dolomite, ( Turas<sic .
1. Massive dolomite, ( J
m. whose eastern prolongation is the mass which formed
the landslide;
n. Rubbish formed by the landslide.
In the chloritic schist f occur veins 1 3 inches broad,
which course NE. SW. and dip considerably in NW. The
separate veins have only been followed about 20 feet in their
course, the whole group about 400 feet; while a continuation
is found, near Tamins, at the limits of the rock, about 8000 feet
off. These veins, which appear to belong only to the Jura for-
mation (and are therefore gash-veins), but traverse much meta-
morphosed chlorite schist; consist of quartz and ealc-spar, in
which somewhat of native gold occurs, in part imperceptibly
disseminated, in part in scales and masses weighing several
ounces, also auriferous iron pyrites, and iron ochre. The gold
is mostly found in the hanging selvage. The wall-rock of the
veins also contains considerable quantities of iron pyrites dissemi-
nated through its mass ; which do not, however, contain gold.
Deicke gives the following
section of one of these veins,
which has been opened-up
by two adits.
He thinks, these veins must
have been filled in the wet
way. It is quite curious,
that they only occur in the
chlorite schist, and that the
f. CMoritic schist. iron pyrites in this contains
p. Gold vein.
q. and r. Adits. J
GOLD -VEINS OF LA GARDETTE.
185. At La Gardette, 1 near Bourg d'Oisans in the Isere
Department, a gold-vein crops-out, in protogine, 4200 feet above
the sea. The same strikes WNW. ESE. and dips 70 80
in S. Its breadth is 3 24 inches, and the principal vein-stone
quartz, exhibiting curious phenomena. The matrix of the vein
1 See: Graff, in Annal. des sciences phys. et naturel. Published by the
Lyons' Agricultural Soc. III. p. 153.
320 KLAUSEN COPPER- AND LEAD-DEPOSITS.
is divided into 10 different layers; which do not occur double,
and are not arranged symmetrically from the walls to the middle,
but must be regarded as the result of the same number of
openings and fillings of the fissure ^combined with dislocations.
These separate layers are commonly separated from one another
by distinct friction-surfaces with horizontal grooves ; the last have
been found to extend symmetrically for a length of 1300 feet
and depth of 250 feet. The first bed, which is probably the
oldest, as traces of the same are observed both on the hanging-
and foot-wall, consists of quartz with somewhat of galena, tetra-
hedrite, iron and copper pyrites. The second layer contains in
its quartz, especially in its geodes, native gold and somewhat
of galena, also somewhat of calc-spar, and specular iron, occa-
sionally even fragments of the wall-rock, or first layer, which
are never larger than the breadth of this layer, and lie altogether
separated from one another, at times completely enclosed in
spathic iron. The remaining layers appear to consist only of
quartz, the second one containing the greater part of the gold.
The nearly horizontal direction of the grooves, in all the
friction-surfaces, between the separate layers, is very remarkable.
Graff does not think, that the dislocations were originally hori-
zontal, but supposes that, after the completion of the lode and
the friction-surfaces, the entire mass was turned over on one side ;
by which the grooves, from lying in the direction of dip, came
into that of strike. This is the more easily supposable in the
Alps, since such mechanical changes of the original relations
have been frequently proved by other facts.
COPPER AND LEAD DEPOSITS AT KLAUSEN IN
THE TYROL.
186. The crystalline schists, and subordinate granular
limestones embedded in them, of the eastern Alps, contain beds
and veins of the above ores in several localities ; which are not
confined to particular rocks, nor, probably, to particular geolo-
gical niveaus. I shall here only mention the Pfundrer Moun-
tain near Klausen, 1 which I have personally examined.
The predominating argillaceous mica-schist of this district is
pierced on the Pfundrer Mt. by a broad mass of diorite ; at whose
1 See: Cotta, in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1862, p. 377; Hauer and
Fotterle, Uebers. d. Bergbaue, p. 31.
KLAUSEN IN THE TYROL. 321
limits occurs a peculiar rock called by the miners 'Fieldstone'.
All three of these rocks are traversed by lodes, which have
been worked for a long time, on the steep flanks of the moun-
tain mentioned, about 3000 feet above the sea. The contents
of these lodes are very variable in the different rocks; so unlike,
that the ores occurring in the diorite are separated in the mine,
as containing lead, from those found in the fieldstone, or
argillaceous mica-schist, only consisting of iron and copper
pyrites.
The argillaceous mica-schist consists of repeated alter-
nations of common argillaceous mica-schist, mica-schist proper,
very quartzose schist containing large lenticular masses of quartz,
and quartz-schist; which all frequently pass into one another.
At the junction with the fieldstone, it partly passes into this,
and Bichthofen even considers the fieldstone to be merely schist
altered by the influence of the diorite; still I observed, at one
place in the mine, a quite clearly defined line of demarcation
between the fieldstone and schist, while in the Vildar valley
large boulders occur, perhaps originally at the junction, con
sisting of a very coarse breccia, in which fragments of schist,
in part, indeed, resembling the fieldstone, are cemented together
by a binding medium; which corresponds to the common field-
stone, and appears to consist of a reddish-yellow intimate mixture
of feldspar and quartz.
The greenstone generally occurs compact in the mine, con-
sequently aphanitic, while at the surface large masses are found
very distinctly fine to middle granular, consisting of a mixture
of actinolithic hornblende and oligoclase, and may therefore be
called diorite. The lodes, of which three exist, strike E. W.
with a slight convergence towards W., so that they may be
properly considered, as three leaders of one lode. Subordinate
leaders, of a like course, occur here and there between these;
and a few cross-courses of a different character, whose matrix
consists of a sort of breccia, containing fragments of fieldstone,
cemented together by spathic iron, somewhat of ankerite, calc-
spar and pyrites; also clay -fissures, which intersect obliquely,
and in part produce faults. The dip of the lodes is 60 80
in N. Their breadth encreases to several fathoms; but when so
broad, they by no means entirely consist of vein-mass, but
essentially of wall-rock, traversed by numerous clefts, generally
following the principal direction of strike, but frequently forming
21
322
KLAUSEN COPPER AND LEAD.
a network, and then having separately a breadth of one line to
two feet. These irregular fissures are then filled with ores,
which are only here and there accompanied by quartz and cale-
spar as vein-stones. (See woodcut.)
A, Je
Jc e
G. Wall-rock.
g. Wall-rock in the lode.
k. Clefts.
e. Ore.
The peculiarity of these lodes consists in the fact, already
mentioned; that the ores in each of them only consist of iron
and copper pyrites, when they lie in the argillaceous mica-schist
and fieldstone; while in the greenstone there is found with these
galena, containing 2 14 oz. of silver, and blende; also that
they are generally most productive in the greenstone, somewhat
less so in the fieldstone, and poorest in the schist. This differ-
ence is not confined to single streaks of ore, but to the occur-
rence of ore in general; that is, that there are many more and
larger exploitable masses of ore, within the greenstone and
fieldstone, than in the schist. Another curious, but rare ore-
occurrence is that of lenticular concretions, 2 10 inches in
diameter, having within a concentric structure. One of these
shows an irregular amphibolic or chloritic kernel, containing
cubes of iron pyrites. This is surrounded by five concentric
layers, alternately composed of pyrites and galena-blende. These
layers are not altogether sharply defined ; so that a little blende
or galena is occasionally found in the bands of pyrites, and the
reverse.
AGORDO COPPER. 323
From the above-described nature of these lodes is explained
the intermission of the ore-masses. At times every trace of
vein disappears, the wall-rock only extending, somewhat more
fissured than usual, in the direction of strike, until the fissure
again opens ? and contains ore. It also seems to me, that the
very evident influence of the peculiar character of the wall-
rock on the qualitative and quantitative nature of the ore in
the lodes, has been supported by its mechanical nature ; a great
encrease having been caused, by this means, in the surface of
the rocks. The other minerals found, in addition to those
already mentioned, are: chrysocolla, cyanosite, native copper,
native silver, cerusite, and antimony.
COPPER DEPOSIT AT AGORDO.
187. The village of Agordo l lies in a beautiful moun-
tain-basin, surrounded by high peaks of limestone and dolomite;
which rise perpendicularly, as precipitous peaks, to a height of
6, 7, and even 8,000 feet above the sea. In the interior of this
basin, the surface consists of argillaceous mica-schist, which forms
low hills and mountains with gentle slopes. This is overlaid
by red sandstone (Werfner beds) corresponding to the German
Bunt sand stein. Over this follows, to the North, Guttensteiner
limestone (fossiliferous limestone); southerly in the Imperina valley,
on the contrary, Dachstein limestone (Keuper), both being con-
siderably tilted in the beginning. At a greater distance, and
farther removed from the argillaceous shale, the strata have a
more gentle slope, and from the predominance of limestones and
dolomites, it is not always easy to recognise the subdivisions of
the Alpine Triassic: viz.
Dachstein limestone,
St. Cassian beds,
Guttensteiner limestone, and
Werfner beds (Grodner sandstone).
All these Triassic strata appear to be in no way connected
1 See: Cotta, in Berg- u. hiittenni. Zeit. 1862, p. 425; Oesterreich.
Zeitschr. f. Berg- und Hiittenwesen, 1860, p. 173; Schmidt, in Berg- und
hiittenm. Zeit 1867, p, 240; Bauer, in Kraus' Jahrb. f. d. Berg- u. Hiitten-
mann, 1852, p. 231; Hauer and Fotterle, Uebersicht d. Bergbau. p. 37;
Fuchs, Beitrage z. Lehre v. d. Erzlagerstatten, 1846, p. 14.
21*
324
IMPERINA VALLEY.
with the copper- ore-deposits of the Imperina valley, although
they, at times, almost come in contact with them. These last
are found altogether in the argillaceous mica-schist. They occur
as large segregated masses of ore, : which appear to have been
formerly enclosed on all sides by the schist, and to have been
partly laid free by subsequent erosions. It is, therefore, only a
consequence of subsequent denudations, that the Triassic sandstones
or limestones, at times, almost or quite touch the ore-deposits.
Horizontal Projection.
Vertical Section.
The principal pyrites segregation of the Imperina valley,
which is said to be accompanied by some other smaller ones,
has an irregular elongated form (see woodcuts). Its longest
axis is almost horizontal, inclining but about 20 in NE.
parallel to the narrow bed of the Imperina brook, whose bed
usually follows the course of the pyrites segregation from SW.
to NE., in such a manner, that it may be supposed the decom-
position of the pyrites has caused the washing-out of the same,
or at least aided it. Where the pyrites does not crop-out in
the bed of the brook, it is only a consequence of being sub-
sequently covered by stream- deposits. The strike, like the dip,
of the two greatest dimensions of this mass, corresponds to the
strike, and about to the dip ; of the enclosing shales. All the
dimensions of this segregation are very great, so that there is
enough ore to last for several centuries. It has been opened-
up for a length of 286 fathoms, a height of 4550 fathoms, and
COPPER-ORE-DEPOSITS. 325
a breadth of 11 22 fathoms; which are of course much less,
near its extremities, from gradually rounding off. The mass
is, however, known to have a total length of 957 fathoms. It
is very difficult to observe within the mine the relations of the
bedding of such a large mass, whose outer limits are so seldom
distinctly opened-up by the workings. It would appear, from
the plan of the mine, that there are many inequalities, irregu-
larities, and even indentations at the limits; which appear to
be generally rounded on all sides, especially in the lower portion.
The mass of pyrites is almost everywhere surrounded by a light-
colored talcose, at times also quartzose shale r which "corresponds
to the Skolars of Fahlun in Sweden; it occasionally also forms
irregular ramifications in the pyrite mass, and is often pene-
trated by iron pyrites. Its thickness is very variable, being at
times a few inches, and again several feet, or even fathoms.
Beyond the white shale commences the dark argillaceous miea-
schist, containing numerous masses .of quartz, also containing
impregnations of pyrites; it passes at a farther distance from
the segregation into a more grayish-green slate.
Somewhat of gypsum has been found below the pyrites,
southwest of the Pizzini-shaft and above the Barbara-adit, con-
cerning whose relations of bedding I was, unfortunately, unable
to obtain nearer particulars. According to the vertical section
of the mine (Fig. 2) the gypsum must belong to the argillaceous
shale. Bauer, however, considers it as belonging to the red
sandstone; and says, it occasionally contains crystals of rock-
salt. According to this observer, it lies between the slate and
limestone, which does not agree with the map of the mine.
The mineralogical composition, of this immense mass of ore,
is simple and uniform. The original ores are sulphurets, accom-
panied by a little quartz. Iron pyrites predominates, containing
somewhat of copper, probably arising from an intimate mixture
with somewhat of copper pyrites. At times, especially near the
quartz, somewhat of distinct copper pyrites is added, and in a few
places, also very quartzose, are mixed in argentiferous galena
and blende. From older reports, argentiferous tetrahedrite has
also occurred; and from the accurate analyses of the ores, and
smelting products, small quantities of cobalt, arsenic, antimony,
and tin, are present, whose ores it is impossible to recognise.
Von Zepharowich mentions goslarite as a product of decom-
326 SLICKEN-SIDES.
position. The pyrites crop-out very distinctly at one point in
the bed of the Imperina brook, and even form a waterfall.
There are numerous friction- surfaces, or slickeri-sides, tra-
versing this mass of pyrites in various*directions, which mostly ex-
hibit very distinct grooves, and are, according to Fucks, sometimes
covered with somewhat of the friction-powder. They are particu-
larly interesting, from often exhibiting on cabinet-specimens
various directions of the parallel scratches; and from the fact,
that the amount of copper is frequently very different on the two
sides. Fuchs has attempted to prove, in his peculiar manner,
that these slicken-sides were not formed by dislocations, but are
rather the result of a peculiar property of the pyrites; as reasons
for this view, he states:
1. that their directions are too varied for friction-surfaces;
2. that they suddenly cease at times in the mass of the
pyrites; and
3. that quartz, galena, and blende, are never found on their
surfaces, but only pyrites.
With regard to the first reason, it is to be remarked, that
the single separated portions, here masses of pyrites, can be
moved by an immense pressure in the most different directions,
as is seen in other cases of this kind; thus in serpentine, alum
shale, coal, and even in argillaceous shales.
The second reason may rest on insufficient observations.
Mining-captain Somariva, who accompanied me in the mine, has
not observed a single case of this sudden cessation.
The same is much more true for the third reason; since
the principal mass of the segregation consists of pyrites, the
appearance of quartz, galena, etc. on the friction-surfaces must
necessarily belong to the exceptions. Mr. Stelzner has observed
such an exception, where galena occurs on a friction-surface.
Not only the circumstance, that there is no other satisfactory
explanation for the parallel-grooved slicken-sides, between which
the powder produced by the friction is occasionally observed, is
in favor of their having been formed by dislocations ; but also
the fact, so prominantly mentioned by Bauer, that the amount of
copper in the pyrites is different on both sides, and that they
intersect and cut off the lamina? of talc-schist penetrating into
the pyrites. Both facts can be most simply and satisfactorily
explained by faults, of which these slicken-sides were the planes
of dislocation and friction.
BRIXLEGG SILVER AND COPPER. 327
SILVER AND COPPER DEPOSITS IN ALPINE LIMESTONE
AT BRIXLEGG IN THE TYROL.
188. Near Brixlegg l the lowest division of the Alpine
limestone, the so-called Guttensteiner limestone, forms a rocky
ridge on the right side of the Inn-valley. Its stratification
appears to be much disturbed, since it projects to the surface
between the red sandstone of the Werfner beds, properly be-
longing beneath it, and the crystalline clay-slate of the central
ridge itself containing similar beds of limestone, often difficult
to distinguish from the fine granular, and mostly magnesian,
Guttensteiner limestone. Pichler recently stated, that the metal-
liferous limestone of Schwatz (and Brixlegg) was older than the
Triassic Period. The same belt of limestone extends to beyond
Schwatz, and there also contains similar deposits.
On the Kleinkogel numerous but irregular veins occur,
which often contract to small clefts or form branches in the
common joints, mostly striking N. S. and dipping 55 in S. in the
much fissured limestone, they at times attain a breadth of several
feet. They consist of irregular mixtures of heavy spar, quartz,
calc-spar, argentiferous tetrahedrite, and copper pyrites, with
azurite and malachite. These last ores occur in the reddish lime-
stone, the sulphurets chiefly in the gray limestone, which rela-
tion, with regard to the color of the limestone, may also be a
consequence of the decomposition. The ores are very irregularly
distributed in the veins, which often contain little or none at all.
Trinker states, that the distribution of the ores follows a certain
law, the so-called 'Adelsvorschub'. This is still an enigma;
and it appears to me entirely incomprehensible, that the same
mysterious cause should have produced this peculiar distribution
of the ore, under so very different relations, as on the Heinzen
Mt. ( 183) and on the Kleinkogel; although I by no means
intend to doubt the fact -of such a distribution, which I was not
sufficiently able to observe.
The lodes of the other mines around Brixlegg are similar
to these, except that on the Grosskogel still other, even cobalt
and nickel, ores occur.
1 See: Stapff, in Bergr u. Mttenm. Zeit. 1862, p. 134; Cotta, in same,
1858, p. 107; Trinker, in Jahrb. d. geolog. Reichsanst. 1850, p. 213;
Hauer and Fotterle, Uebersicht d. Bergbau, p. 39.
328 SCHWATZ, TYROL. CHALANCIIES, IS&RE.
SILVER AND COPPER DEPOSITS IN ALPINE LIMESTONE
AT SCHWATZ IN THE TYROL.
189. In the western prolongation of the same limestone-
belt, which contains the ores, mentioned in the preceding para-
graph, similar ores occur at Schwatz, 1 only in a somewhat dif-
ferent form. They here form segregated masses, whose chief
ores also occur in a so-called 'Adelsvorschub'-, that is, they lie in
and alongside of a plane, which dips in W. at an angle of 27.
These curious aggregations of ore form, according to von
Gumppenberg, prismatic chimneys, which are no where over
7 feet in diameter, but have been followed 60 120 fathoms in
a perpendicular direction. The ore here, as at Brixlegg, pre-
dominantly tetrahedrite, containing, in part, considerable quan-
tities of mercury, appears to be firmly united to the wall-rock.
The tetrahedrite occurs, combined with calc-spar and heavy spar ;
while azurite, malachite, and chrysocolla, have been formed by
its decomposition.
SILVER DEPOSITS OF CHALANCHES NEAR ALLEMONT,
DEPT. OF ISERE.
i
190. The probably Jurassic-limestone-district (according
to Schreiber a crystalline schist-district) is traversed at Cha-
lanches 2 by numerous veins, which are in part lodes. Guey-
mard, and Graff, distinguished five varieties of veins:
1. Diorite, or diabase dikes, partly bedded, upwards of
12 A / 2 fathoms broad: they are the oldest;
2. Veins; striking N. S. and dipping in W., consisting of
limestone with argentiferous iron ochre;
3. Champion-lodes; partly also striking N. S., but dipping
in E.; partly striking E. W., and dipping towards N.: their
principal vein-stones are calc-spar and dolomite; which are
1 See: Pichler, Beitrage z. Geoguosie Tyrols, 1859, p. 10; Hauer
and Fotterle, Uebers. d. Bergbau, p. 40; Trinker, in Jahrb. d. geolog.
Reichsanst. 1850, p. 219; Von Gumppenberg, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 18H6,
p. 50.
2 See: Gueymard, and Graff, in Bullet, de la societ. de Stat. des
sciences natur. du Dept. de FIsere, I. p. 27; Schreiber, in Kohler's berg-
mannisch. Journal, 1788, p. 22.
LEAD AND ZINC OF CARINTHIA. ;/..;- 329
accompanied by argentiferous cobalt, nickel and antimony ores,
iron ochre, and some other minerals; such as, native silver,
galena, blende, cinnabar, and iron pyrites: sometimes a sym-
metrical arrangement of the minerals can be observed, consisting,
from the selvages towards the middle, of:
1 Quartz;
2. Spathic iron;
3. Dialogite, with cobalt and antimony ores ;
4. Cobalt, nickel and antimony ores.
Breithaupt has observed the following successions on cabinet-
specimens :
Smaltine erythrine ganomatite ;
Copper nickel chloanthite ;
Smaltine native silver erythrine.
Fragments of limestone also occur in the veins and appear
to have been subsequently penetrated by ores ;
4. Broad fissures, upwards of 2 '/a fathoms broad, filled with
large fragments of rock; and between these with micaceous clay:
they contain no ores: Schreiber calls them 'filons sauvages' ;
5. Still more recent and narrower fissures, also filled with
rock-fragments and clay: they intersect the fissures No. 4, and
are, therefore, of course younger.
THE LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS OF CARINTHIA
191. Certain limestones of the Carinthian l Alps contain
lead and zinc deposits in various localities ; which, notwithstand-
ing slight differences in detail, are so analogous to one another,
and have so many common characteristics; that there can be
no doubt of their being geologically united.
The principal localities, where these ores are exploited, are,
going West : Bleiberg, Kreuth, Raibl, Windisch-Bleiberg, Kappel,
1 See: Cotta, in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1863, pp. 9, 33, 41 , 53; Peters,
in same, 1863, p. 13:3, and in Jahrb. d. geolog. Reichsanst. 1856, p. 67;
Hauer and Fotterle, Uebers. d. Bergb. p. 41; Niederrist, in Leonhard's
Jahrb. 1852, p. 769; Morlot, in Jahrb. d. geolog. Reichsanst. 1850, p. 255;
Melling, in Haidinger's Berichten, 1843, vol. V. p. 31; Fuchs, Beitrage
z. Lehre d. Erzlagerstatten, pp. 19, 22; von Buch, in Leonhard's Taschenb.
1824, p. 408; Mohs, in Moll's Ephemeriden d. Berg- u. Huttenkunde, 1807,
vol. III. p. 201; Potiorek, in Oesterreich. Zeitsch. f. Berg- u. Hiittenw.
1863, pp. 373, 382; Phillips, in Annal. d. mines, 1845, vol. VIII. p. 2395
Boue, in Memoires de la societ. geolog. de France, 1835.
330
TABLE OF ALPINE TRIASSIC STRATA.
Miss, and Schwarzenbach near Bleiburg. They occur in a belt
of Alpine limestone, about 75 miles long and a few broad ; in
which, according to the examinations of the Viennese geologists,
the Alpine Triassic is -represented, from the Werfner beds
upwards to the Dachstein limestone.
For the information of the reader, it seems proper to give
the subdivisions of the Alpine Triassic strata, now generally
used, since its separate members will be repeatedly mentioned.
I extract the subjoined table from Gumbel's t Bayerische Alpen-
gebirge', 1861, p. 116.
Subdivisions.
Names.
Synonyms and parallel Strata.
Upper
Upper Keuper limestone,
Lithodendron limestone.
Keuper
or Dachstein limestone,
(Lias of the
containing
Viennese), j- Megalodon triquater.
Upper Muschelkeuper,
Kossener beds, upper St.
containing
Cassian beds, Gervillia beds,
Avicula contorta.
Bonebed.
Middle
Principal dolomite
Dolomite of the Dachstein
Keuper.
of the Alpine Keuper.
limestone.
J
Gypsum and cellular
1
limestone.
i
Lower Muschelkeuper i Raibl beds, St. Cassian beds,
M
of the Alps, containing
Esino limestone.
Cardita crenata.
Lower
. .
Lower Keuper limestone,
Hallstatter limestone,
Keuper. and dolomite of the Alps,
Arlberg or Wetterstein
containing Monotis sa-
limestone, Wenger beds,
linaria and Ammonites
St. Cassian beds, Partnach
globrus. Clay-Keuper of
beds. Cardita beds.
the Alps, containing Pte-
rophyllum longifolium
and Halobia Lommeli.
" !
Fossiliferous
containing
Virgloria limestone,
11
limestone
Encrinus liliiform is .
Guttensteiner limestone.
3
Haselgebirgs
containing
Roth.
_d
strata
gypsum and rock-salt.
A q^
a to
Werfner beds
=3 T3
*1
Variegated
containing containing rock-salt.
5
sandstone
Meyophoria vulgaris&nA.
Myacites Fassaensis. Verrucano.
BLEIBERG-KREUTH DEPOSITS. 331
1. B lei berg and Kreiith. The metalliferous deposits
occur here in a group, coursing N. S., and about 5 miles long,
within thick beds of limestone. The separate ore- deposits,
although they belong to a common group, show slight differences
of form, and even of composition, in the eastern, western, and
middle portion of the entire group.
The metalliferous limestone is very pure, with but slight
admixtures of extremely line crystallized quartz. It is not very
distinctly stratified, but somewhat more so at the surface than
in the mines.
Its strata, or planes of stratification, incline 30 80 towards
8. Their tilting gradually encreases from East to West All
of the ore-deposits, worked by the mines, lie in the same lime-
stone; while none of them have been followed out of this into
another rock, although the slate and stinkstone have been pierced
by numerous adits. Until recently the metalliferous limestone
has been commonly supposed to belong to the Dachstein lime-
stone, since it often contains casts of the interior of so-called
Dachstein bivalves. These have been subdivided by Giimbel,
in his recent examinations, into several species, of which Mega-
lodon triquater and M. columbella have been found in the Blei-
berg metalliferous limestone. Both kinds do not seem, in the
southern Alps, to be exclusively confined to the Dachstein
limestone, but reach down to the Hallstatter limestone; their
presence cannot therefore altogether decide for the Dachstein
limestone. The metalliferous limestone is overlaid by a dark
bituminous, clayey marl-slate, containing comparatively few and
small beds of so-called l fossiliferous marble ' ; in which are found
Ammonites floridus, A. Jarbas and A. Johannis Austrice, causing
a beautiful play of colors.
D. Dachstein limestone, containing the metalliferous deposits.
L. Black slate. S. Bituminous limestone. a. Alluvium.
332 BLEIBERG, KREUTH, FUGGERTHAL.
Potiorek has represented the bedding, as seen in the preceding
woodcut, the local repetitions of the black slate being omitted.
Lipold on the contrary has represented the bedding, as in
the following woodcut:
D. Dachstein limestone.
L. Black slate.
-~f[ S. Bituminous limestone.
a. Alluvium.
SL
The majority of the metalliferous deposits in all three of the
sub-districts, Bleiberg, Kreuth, and Fuggerthal, are long-extended,
irregular, and pipe-shaped, without definite limits. These ore-
pipes, or chimneys, extend locally in the depth at a determined
angle; their direction is dependent on the junction of certain
fissures with the stratification-fissures of the limestone, the prin-
cipal axes of these deposits following such lines of junction.
The fissure-junctions form the ideal axes of the deposits, without
the strata being themselves filled with ore.
In the Fuggerthal, and in the western portion of the Kreuth
sub-district, the strata of limestone, and consequently the strati-
fication-fissures, course SE. NW , and dip 60 80 in SW.;
while the cross-fissures, whose lines of intersection the deposits
generally follow, strike NNW.SSK, and incline but 50 in SW.
Every junction is not accompanied by a metalliferous deposit,
nor is it possible to distinctly recognise the fissure-junction in
every deposit; the presence of these last can sometimes only be
recognised from the general conditions.
In the eastern portion of the Kreuth sub-district, the strata
course ESE. WN W., and have an average dip of 52 in S.; while the
cross-fissures strike NNE.-SSW., and incline 60--70 in E. The
inclination of the deposits is therefore here a south-easterly one.
In both the divisions of this sub-district, 18 such chimneys
are known, whose diameter, or breadth, varies between 1 -- 15
fathoms, and whose lengths are known to extend for more than
200 fathoms in the direction of dip.
Within the Bleiberg sub-district the stratification of the lime-
stone changes its direction, so that the fissures of stratification again
strike N W SE. ; but only dip about 30 in S W. They are traversed :
FORM, AND COMPOSITION, OF DEPOSITS. 333
1. by veins ; which strike E. W., and have a considerable
dip in N. or S. ;
2. by, so-called, Dr ei er fissures, which strike NE. SW.; and
3. by other fissures, which strike NNE. SSW.
The ore-chimneys here usually follow the line of junction
of the veins with the stratification-fissures, and dip in SW.;
they also follow other lines of junction, and then dip in S. :
they exist in greater numbers, but are smaller than in the
western sub-districts. Besides these, the veins striking E. W.
also contain ores, especially galena, as true fissure-fillings, 1 6
inches broad. Seven of these larger veins are known to exist,
besides several smaller ones.
The Dreier fissures fault not only the strata, but also tire
ore-deposits, at times upwards of 20 fathoms. Potiorek states,
that the fissures coursing NNE. SSW. encrease the richness of
the deposits, where already existing.
I have thus far only attempted to describe the form of the
Bleiberg-Kreuth deposits; from" which it appears that they are
partly irregular, but often very massive, impregnations, following
certain fissure-junctions; partly true fissure-veins.
I now pass to their mineralogical composition: this is for
the most part very uniform. The principal ore is every where
galena, containing either very little or no silver ; while only in
the western subdivision, called the Fuggerthal, does enough
smithsonite occur with it to render the same an object of exploi-
tation. This zinc-ore is perhaps merely an alteration from blende,
which is found in small quantities in the other subdivisions com-
bined with the galena. Pyrites occur but in small quantities,
and the gang-stones found are; calc-spar, heavy spar, flu or spar,
and a very little quartz. Von Zepharowich enumerates the fol-
lowing minerals, as having been found at Bleiberg:
1 Anglesite, in geodes of smithsonite, accompanied by yellow ochre ;
2. Asbestos (mountain leather), in fissures of the metalliferous
limestone ;
3. Asphaltum, in the Asling mine;
4. Heavy spar, with calc-spar and brown spar;
5. Blende, yellowish-brown, with cerusite, wulfenite, fluor spar,
calc-spar, and iron pyrites;
6. Calc-spar;
7. Cerusite;
8. Dolomite, in geodes;
9. Fluor spar;
10. Galena;
334 COMPOSITION OF BLEIBERG,
11. Gypsum, in slate;
12. Calamine;
13. Zinc bloom;
14. Anhydrite; graiiular, blue,^masses ; with gypsum, blende, and
galena, in metalliferous limestone';
15. Naphtha (mineral oil), in bituminous shale, and limestone;
16. Iron pyrites, with galena;
17. Smithsonite; globular, reniform, botryoidal; stalactitic, concen-
tric, and in small crystals;
18. Wulfenite, as tabular crystals, in geodes.
As a rule, the ores mentioned have penetrated in such a
manner into the limestone, that they traverse it in the most
irregular manner. They form irregular strings, spots, or grains;
surround fragments of the limestone, but fill no regular connected
fissures in it, except in the eastern subdivision. The ores occur
only alongside of the fissures, or rather alongside of their lines
of junction, enclosing them on one or both sides; not alongside
of all fissures or junctions, but only alongside of some of them,
and even of these not always constantly. Their entire occur-
rence gives the impression of impregnations from fissures.
It is worth noticing, that the ores, in these irregular, and
by no means sharply defined metalliferous deposits, occasionally
have a concentric structure, as if they had been successively
deposited, one over another. This structure is often of such a
kind, that an irregular kernel of galena is surrounded by a
layer of brownish-yellow blende, a few inches thick ; over which
follows calc-spar; which last, at the same time, cements the
former .together.
Friction-surfaces, or slicken-sides, frequently occur in these
deposits. They are also here distinctly the result of friction,
and occur not only in the galena, blende, and pyrites, but very
frequently also on the fissure-planes of the limestone. They
even occur in the stratification-fissures ; which circumstance
caused Mohs to assert, that these could not be fissures of strati-
fication; but there can be no doubt that subsequent dislocations
followed the fissures of stratification, leaving friction-planes
behind them.
That very considerable dislocations must have taken place
in the Bleiberg district, is evident; not only from the faults
observed, but also from the jagged projections, which the marl-
slate has formed in the metalliferous limestone.
I would call attention to the fact, that the ores by no means
KREUTH, AND FUGGERTHAL, DEPOSITS. 335
occur at every junction of two fissures ; but it can be only said,
that these junctions are often metalliferous, and that ore-chim-
neys, thus far discovered, follow nearly all the recognisable
lines of junction, frequently even several at the same time, or
in succession; in the last case springing over from one line of
junction to the other. A farther rule for this peculiar distribu-
tion of the ore cannot be given.
Mohs ; wh6 considered, in accordance with the then know-
ledge of the Alps, the metalliferous limestone as belonging to
the transition-rocks; thought, that the ore-deposits in this origi-
nally formed a continuous bed. This bed was subsequently inter-
sected, and faulted, by numerous, mostly parallel, fissures. He
explains the true veins in the eastern portion, as fissures filled
during the original formation of the bed.
Phillips explained the metalliferous limestone, as probably
corresponding to the Muschelkalk ; the ores, as distinctly of more
recent formation.
Fuchs asserts, that somewhat of galena occurs in all the
magnesian Alpine limestones, often indeed imperceptibly, and
that the Carinthian lead-deposits were deposited contemporane-
ously with the limestones, being only local concentrations of this
general ore-content. He appears to consider the very constant
connection with the fissures, as being altogether unessential,
or accidental.
Lipold, from the verbal statements made by him, considers
the Hallstatter limestone contained the ore when deposited;
although locally this was unequally distributed. The exploitable
deposits, he considers to be of secondary origin, from the con-
centration of the ore in certain points, either by chemical, or
mechanical action.
With regard to myself (Von Cotta), it appears to me; the
influence of the various fissures, and their junctions, on the
distribution of the ores, is so evident; that I cannot but think
these were deposited by solutions, which have penetrated these
fissures, and their adjoining wall-rock, for a long period, in
such a manner that the ore-deposits have taken place, partly in
the fissures as true lodes (at Bleiberg), partly as impregnations,
on a grand scale, in the wall-rock of the fissures: of course, most
frequently at those points, where the means of circulation were
rendered more easy by numerous fissures; which at the same
time encreased the surface of rock, that could be attacked.
336
MISS, SCHWARTZENBACH, etc.
2. Neighborhood ofBleiburg. (Miss, Schwarzenbach,
etc.) According to the examination of the Viennese geologists,
the metalliferous limestone is here every where the Hallstatter;
in which the separate deposits da not form a continuous group,
as at Bleiberg; which may arise from the fact, that it is here
much more disturbed, than there.
In the Friedrich-mirie, at Miss, there are numerous so-called
Dreier fissures; which are partly vertical, partly dip about 40
in "NW. The last appear to be stratification-fissures, and are
intersected by other fissures striking NE. SW., E. W., and
N. S. The ore is foijnd, as at Bleiberg, collected at the junc-
tions thus formed; it always ceases, where the slate in the
hanging-wall commences.
(The form of the workings is indicated by the shaded portions.)
The preceding woodcut shows the manner in which the ore-
deposits are distributed in the limestone of the Friedrich-mine:
the following altogether ideal representation, the manner of ore-
distribution in the limestone of the deposit. In this mine, be-
sides the ore-deposits following
the lines of junction, there also
occur some more horizontal
_ ones, which have no distinct
4^"*^ connection with the fissures.
The only ore is galena, with some of the minerals already men-
tioned under the Bleiberg deposits.
In the Herz-Jesu mine, the intersecting fissures are wanting;
and the collections of ore here follow the Dreier fissures, dip-
ping about 40 in SE., at times having very smooth and parallel
RAIBL
337
grooved friction-surfaces. The ores generally occur irregularly
distributed in the limestone below these fissures, as shown in
the woodcut.
-6'
a, a. Fissures frequently covered with friction-scratches,
b. A very ferruginous bed.
c. Bunches of ore.
%
These zones of ore do not extend into the overlying stink
stone, but suddenly stop, as shown in the woodcut.
3. Raibl. The ore-deposits of Raibl, south of Tarvis ; in
Carinthia, are also found in Triassic limestone ; which, according
to the recent examinations of the Viennese geologists, corre-
sponds to the Hallstatter limestone, like the metalliferous lime-
stone of Bleiburg, and perhaps also of Bleiberg. Niederrist says
of these deposits: 'They occur in Alpine limestone, strike E. W.,
dip in S. not altogether parallel to the strata, but are still to
be regarded as beds (?), having the Alpine limestone as floor,
and the slate as roof.
A peculiarity of these beds consists in their being accom-
panied by veinlike formations; so that the ore- occurrence
22
338 RAIBL, WINDISCH-BLEIBERG, AND
appears, as a combination of veins and beds. If the ore-bed
is followed from East to West, it is found : *^>
1. That a calamine^ and a lead-belt can be recognised;
which join one another, and occur together;
2. That the same do not consist of continuous masses of
ore, but several portions, or masses, separated by barren or
unexploitable intervals ;
3. These separate masses not only differ in regard to breadth,
extent, and enrichment; but are arranged in a row.
The lenticular form is seen in the separate deposits, and
in their masses of ore: it is even found in the smallest portions
of ore, down to the individual crystals of galena.
The bed- and vein-formations differ, both in strike ancj dip,
as well as breadth and extent: the former strike about E. W. and
dip 10 50 in SSW., the latter course nearly N.~- S. and incline
60 80 towards- SE. or S.
The beds vary in breadth, from a few feet to several
fathoms, readily splitting up in the hanging- and foot-bedis : they
are much more confined in the direction of length, than that
of depth.
The extent of the thickness is partly occupied by ores,
partly by barren rock. The composition of the ores is very
simple. The proper and, so to speak, only lead-ore is galena;
while cerusite only occurs in the geodes of the upper portions,
already penetrated by calamine. The galena occurs crystal-
lized, only in octahedrons, in these same geodes; otherwise
massive, disseminated and as incrustation, frequently presenting
a graphic or mosslike appearance. The minerals accompanying
the galena are : blende, calc-spar, dolomite, heavy spar, and
iron pyrites. Mixed with the galena, or separated in ribbons,
they mostly appear to have a pipe-form, with a kernel of barren
rock; which is a clear proof of the consistency of Nature in
her formations, from the least to the greatest, even in the first
stages of the structure of the elongated octahedral crystals.
The deposits, forming the belt of calamine, are clefts ; which
course NE. SW., dip at decreasing angles (45 35) in NW.
or SE. and are so arranged, in a certain zone, as to form a len-
ticular whole. The breadth of the fissures is very variable ;
they decrease from a fathom to a few inches; contractions and
expansions are by no means rare; the ores occur as short
masses, extending much farther in the depth than in length,
SIMILAR ORE-DEPOSITS. 339
like the lead-deposits: the ores are calamine, more rarely
smithsonite/
From this description, there is a certain resemblance to the
deposits of Bleiberg.
4. Windisch-B leiberg. According to von Hauer, and
Fotterle, the lead- ores occur in Hallstatter limestone. A greater
or less subdivision of its strata is metalliferous, and is limited,
both in the roof, and floor, by barren limestone. This contains
galena, disseminated in greater, and smaller masses; but the
principal richness in ore occurs in the vertical veins, or fissures,
striking E. W., which traverse the metalliferous limestone
without extending into the barren roof, or floor. These gash-
veins are filled with a brown clay, often mixed with numerous
angular fragments of limestone: they contain the galena, partly
in strings about 3 inches broad, partly in nests, or pockets, at
times attaining a diameter of several feet, and lying isolated in
the clay. The veins but seldom extend through the entire
thickness of the metalliferous limestone without any break. The
ore is argentiferous galena.
The metalliferous rock is again the Hallstatter limestone, i-n
which a zone of ore occurs together with gash- veins.
5. Similar Deposits in the northern Alpine lime-
stone. The most important localities are, the lead mines in
the Hollen valley near Garmisch, the calamine mines on the Sil-
berleithan near Bieberwirr, and the lead-zinc mines on the Fei-
genstein near Nassereit.
Gtimbel says of these: 'all the localities, where the lead
and zinc ores occur, so entirely agree with one another, that a
description of one suffices for all ; the amount of ores, and their
mutual mixture, is however variable at each point, so that poor
and rich spots can be distinguished.
The principal ores are galena, and calamine ; nearly every
where accompanied by cerusite and blende, more rarely by
wulfenite (in the Hollen valley near Garmisch, as at Bleiberg).
The ores, when in their original condition, occur, without
gang-stones, or with calc-spar, in pockets distributed in beds
of the Wetterstein limestone. By subsequent decomposition
they have united, as threads and strings, in fissures and clefts
of the limestone; and their occurrence then has both a veinlike
and bedlike appearance.'
22*
340 X- ALPINE DEOPSITS.
It is worth noticing, that the lead and zinc deposits, of the
northern Alpine limestone, occur, like the southern deposits, in
the Hallstatter limestone;., so that, if the metalliferous limestone
of Bleiberg also belongs to this subdivision, as Lipold supposes,
all these Alpine deposits occur in the same subdivision of the
strata : a circumstance, which must lead to the idea, that these
ore-deposits must in some manner be connected with this special
formation, and are not merely accidental subsequent penetrations.
Such a combination can be explained in two ways : either the
metallic deposits were originally deposited contemporaneously
with the limestone, and have afterwards, following certain fis-
sures, merely been re-distributed and concentrated; or the
metallic solutions penetrating from without have, caused by some
peculiar property of the rock, been distributed especially in the
Hallstatter. This particular property of the rock must then,
indeed, have been extended over the whole extent of the
eastern Alps, from southern Bavaria to Carinthia, in such a
manner, that wherever the metallic solutions came in contact with
the limestone, they had a favorable reception. These deposits
cannot have been formed originally, and in the limestone, in
their present form and distribution. The form and distribution
of the same are much more the result of an event subsequent
to the deposit of the limestone named; whether the metalliferous
solutions have penetrated from without, or have been formed by
dissolution from the rock itself.
The copper and silver deposits, between Schwatz and Brix-
legg, in the Tyrol, belong to Alpine deposits, of a similar form
and manner of occurrence, but different composition. Here the
ores are chiefly copper pyrites, and tetrahedrite ; which form
irregular aggregations alongside of the fissures in a limestone;
commonly supposed to belong to the Guttensteiner limestone;
but which, Pichler states, probably belongs to an older formation.
These deposits bear a certain resemblance to those in
Muschelkalk, of Wiesloch in Baden, and of Tarnowitz-Beuthen
in Upper Silesia, in the Devonian limestone of Westphalia,
in the mountain-limestone of Eupen near Aix-la-Chapelle, in the
Chalk of the Province of Santander in Spain; also to those of
Derbyshire and Cumberland in England.
When all these analogous cases are compared ; which belong
to such different geological periods, and in some of which the
subsequent penetration of the metallic solutions has been most
COBALT, AND NICKEL, DEPOSITS 341
clearly proved; it is found to be probable, that only the special
chemical, and perhaps mechanical, properties of the magnesian
limestone were the cause of this class of lead- and zinc-deposits.
These also differ in a very marked manner from the lead-
deposits of other regions, by the extremely small amount, or
absence, of silver, in the galena they contain. Their origin
evidently appears to be entirely independent of the geological
age of the limestone, in which they occur. This is in favor of
the view, that the solutions have penetrated the limestones sub-
sequent to their formation, and impregnated them from fissures;
depositing sulphurets, in place of the carbonate of lime dissolved,
in such a manner that these deposits may be regarded as pseu-
domorphs by replacement on the largest scale. It is under these
circumstances easily comprehensible, that such kinds of deposits
chiefly followed fissures, and their lines of junction, without
forming true lodes.
It is as difficult to say, whence the solutions came that
formed these deposits, as in other cases. But we must not
forget, that only very dilute solutions (mineral springs) were
necessary to deposit particle after particle, if we suppose the
period of their activity to be sufficiently great, against which
there is nothing to object. \
From the preceding remarks, it is evident, that these metal-
liferous deposits belong to a common group, or class, which
are chiefly united to magnesian limestones; whose ores are, ga-
lena (containing very little silver), blende, smithsonite, or cala-
mine; but whose forms vary according to local circumstances.
COBALT- AND NICKEL-DEPOSITS, AT SCHLADMING
IN STYRIA, ON THE NOECKEL MOUNTAIN IN THE
LEOGANG VALLEY, AND IN THE VAL D'ANNIVIERS
IN THE CANTON OF VALAIS.
192. The mica-schist in the neighborhood of Schladming 1
contains zones, upwards of 8 fathoms broad : which are impreg-
nated with iron pyrites, in a similar manner to the Scandinavian
Fallbands. These fallbands, or zones, of pyrites are intersected,
on the zinkwarid, and in Wettern, by veins; which contain, at
1 See: Hauer and Fotterle, Uebers. d Bergb. p. 34; Ehrlich, Nord-
ostliche Alpen, 1850, p. 84; Tunner, in his Jahrbuch, 1841, p. 220.
34^ QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS' OF
their junctions with these, cobalt and nickel ores, with mispickel,
and tetrahedritc. Khrlich mentions especially smaltine, and
copper nickel. This occurrence offers another interesting contri-
bution to the peculiar influence otVthe wall-rock on the metal-
liferous contents of lodes.
The Leogang r valley is one of the largest side-valleys of
the Mitterpinzgau. The Nockel Mt. rises on th north side of
the Schwarzleo valley, one of the side-gorges of the Leogang
valley, and consists of Devonian strata. The Sebastian-Michael
adit has been driven into the mountain, through the black
Devonian slate, to the hanging-wall of a ferruginous dolomite,
at a height of 1000 feet above the bottom of the valley. This
dolomite, in which greenish talcose and black graphitic schists
occur, contains the ore-deposits. They are irregular threads,
branches, or lenses, of ore, entirely surrounded by the dolomite ;
and consist of quartz or bluish-gray dolomitic ankerite, with
niccoliferous, and other ores. The principal one is ullmannite,
with which occur copper nickel, erythrine, iron and copper
pyrites. The iron pyrites, which occurs implanted on quartz-
geodes, has also penetrated into the fine cracks of the wall-rock.
Rich cobalt and nickel ores occur in chloritic mica-schist
high up on the mountains in the region of perpetual snow, especially
in the mountain-ridge, which separates the Val d'Anniviers 2 from
the Turtmann valley. They form ; according to Girard, veinlike
pockets striking about ENE. WSW. They consist of gersdorf-
fite, with somewhat of copper-nickel, iron pyrites, and a variety of
tetrahedrite, in which the antimony is partly replaced by bismuth,
called annivite. A similar occurrence is repeated at the edge of
the Duran glacier; while at a distance of 9 miles, a vein of mis-
pickel with cobaltine and aikinite (?) crops out, on the slope of
the Reschi valley, above the hamlet of Painsec.
QUICKSILVER DEPOSITS OP IDRIA IN CARNIOLA.
193. The high mountains, in which the valley of Idria 3
lies, mostly consist of limestones, whose age has not been deter -
1 See: Hauer and Fotterle, Uebers. d. Bergb. p. 30; Lipold, inJahrb.
d, geolog. Reichsanst. 1854, p 148; Ehrlich, Nordost Alpen, pp. 49, 79.
2 See: Deicke, in Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1859, p. 177; Girard, in
Leonhard's Jahrb. 1851, p. 332.
3 See: Huyot, in Annal. d. mines, V. p. 7; Lipold, in Oesterreich.
IDRIA IN CARNIOLA.
mined. Still less determined, than the limestones, are the strata
containing the quicksilver-ores, which crop-out in the valley.
The Viennese geologists have recently considered these strata to
belong to the Carboniferous, or still older period; since the
Werfner beds occur in their hanging-wall, while they .were
formerly considered to be more recent.
The following is the descending succession of the, partly
metalliferous, strata :
1. Variegated sandstone (Werfner beds);
2. Dark gray to black slates, so-called 'silver-slates', containing ores
of mercury;
3. Lime-breccia, impregnated with cinnabar;
4. Black, lustrous, bituminous shales, so-called 'bed- shales', con-
taining crystals of gypsum: these contain the greatest richness in ores of
cinnabar, which are known under the names of corallinerz, stahlerz, ziegel-
erz, lebererz, idridlith, homers, etc.; according to Huyot, a green, partly
fissile, sandstone containing pyrites, follows beneath these; then
5. Limestone, passing into a light-colored sandstone, often marly, with
traces of cinnabar; and
6. Brownish-gray limestone.
All these strata are inclined 30 50 in E. or SE., but
strike and dip very irregularly ; their thickness is also very
variable. Both the black ones, 2 and 4; which are to be regarded
as true or impregnated ore-beds, and are strata principally ex-
ploited; are very irregular; their thickness varies between 1 and
28 fathoms ; Huyot states, the silver-slate even attains 47 fathoms.
Lipold states, that a similar formation of quicksilver ores
occurs near St. Anna in the Laibel valley, correspondiug in
age to the Carboniferous Period. All the strata here are almost
tilted on end, and course E. W. The succession begins, on
the side originally on top, with Gruttensteiner limestone; under
this (in reality alongside of it) follow the Werfner beds, then
the Gail-valley beds. The last consist of upper limestone; of
black metalliferous limestone, traversed by veins of calc-spar;
and of gray, brownish, ferruginous marls, and slaty limestones.
The cinnabar occurs in the middle limestone; partly dissemi-
nated in the white calc-spar; partly as pockets, in the black
limestone, or as fillings of its fissures of stratification ; principally,
however, in one fissure, hence called the metalliferous crack.
Zeitsch. f. Berg- u. Hiittenwesen, 1855, p. 364; Hauer and Fotterle.
Uebers. d. Bergb. p. 38; Von dele ben, in Leonhard's Taschenb. 1819,
p. 25, and 1822, p. 235.
344 IRON-DEPOSITS IN
IRON-DEPOSITS IN THE CRYSTALLINE SCHISTS
OF THE EASTERN ALPS.
194. Of the numerous iroBs-ore-deposits l in the crystal-
line schists, Carboniferous, Triassic, Post-Triassic, Tertiary, and
Post- Tertiary, strata of the eastern Alps; none are so remarkable,
or interesting, as to need description. There is^ one exception
to this, that of Pitten in Austria.
The iron ores here form a bed in gneiss, which is overlaid
by limestone and mica-schist. It has a considerable dip at the
outcrop, which becomes somewhat more gentle at a greater depth
towards W. The deposit is subdivided into two portions sepa-
rated by a bed of gneiss, 4 5 feet thick; their thickness is
very variable, attaining 12 feet in the upper, but only 4 feet in
the lower bed.
The upper subdivision consists of mostly decomposed spathic
iron, passing into hematite; in which are found traces of mag-
nesia, iron and copper pyrites. The lower subdivision consists
of spathic iron, hematite, and magnetite ; which seem to pass
one into another, and are so intimately combined, that cabinet-
specimens sometimes contain all three kinds of iron-stone; which
indeed renders the explanation, by alteration, much more dif-
ficult. In the upper portions, hematite and specular iron pre-
dominate ; at a depth of 70 fathoms below the surface, very fresh
spathic iron occurs, passing into magnetite. As accessory
minerals, are found: iron and copper pyrites, azurite, chryso-
colla, and traces of cinnabar. The bed is frequently separated
from the country-rock by thin layers of clay, and is also inter-
sected and faulted by clay-fissures with friction-surfaces. Calc-
spar and quartz occur in geodes.
IRON-DEPOSITS OF THE LOWER PALEOZOIC
IN THE EASTERN ALPS.
195. The strata of the lower Palaeozoic Era, in the
eastern Alps, which are principally Devonian, although partly
1 For further information on the iron-deposits, in the above mentioned
formations, see: Munichdorfer, in Jahrb. d. geolog. Reichsanst. 1855,
p. 619; Hauer and Fotterle, Uebers. d. Bergb. p. 72; Leithe, in Kraus'
Jahrb. f. d. Berg- u. Huttemnann, 1852, p. 234; Haidinger, in Leonhard's
Jahrb. 1848, p. 63.
THE EASTERN ALPS. 345
also Silurian., contain a large number of extensive iron * deposits.
The most of these are composed of spathic iron, and form long
groups of beds, locally of very variable thickness ; besides these,
also veins. Von Co.tta then gives a list of 60 of these deposits;
and states, that 52 of them lie in a zone from E. to W., whose
length is about 185 miles. With one exception, they all appear
to lie between the same strata, or members of the Devonian
formation, near to its junction with the Werfner beds, and
Alpine limestone The majority of these deposits are belonging
to a certain niveau of the Devonian, as von Schouppe has
proved, contrary to the former views, which considered them
to be igneous segregated masses. But these beds, even when
locally very thick, are often very irregular in their shape,
forming as it were a number of lenticular bodies, within the
level of the same strata, like the spherosiderites in the Carpa-
thians ( 159), the only difference being that their breadth is
often much greater. These lenticular beds ; which, if observed
separately, would be often mistaken for recumbent segregations ;
are also accompanied by veins of spathic iron, which obliquely
intersect their wall-rock.
The spathic iron, of which these beds and veins, ^re com-
posed, is at times, partially, or altogether altered into limonite
or hematite ; it is contaminated by an intermixture of limestone,
or slate; and contains besides these, as accessory minerals;
specular iron, iron pyrites, galena, copper, and traces of cinnabar,
also quartz, and heavy spar.
The best known, and most important of all, is the Erzberg
(Ore Mountain). This mountain, between Eisenerz and Vordern-
berg in Styria, rises, as a large cone, about 1000 feet above
the Erzbach valley into which it projects. It consists, on its
northwest flank, from its peak almost to its base, of more or less
pure spathic iron. Still the entire mountain does not consist of
ironstone, but only a thick outer shell. The depth to which the
1 For further information, see: Kudernatsch, in Jahrb. d. geolog.
Reichsanst. 1852, p. 4; Von M or lot, in same, 1850, pp. 104, 118; Von
ScLouppe, in same, 1854, p. 369; Tunner, in Jahrb. f. d. osterreich. Berg-
u. Jliittenmann, 1843 184(i, p. 388, and 1851, p. 91; Haidinger, in Leon-
hard's Jahrb. 1849, p. 209; Pichler, Beitrage z. Geognosie Tyrols (2 series).
1859, p. 7; linger, Einfluss d. Bodens, p. 39; Von Miller considers these
ironstones, as belonging to the Triassic. in Berg- u. Huttenmann. Jahrb. d.
k. k. Bergakademien, 1864, No. 12.
346
KRZHERG.
Ij
11
ironstone penetrates the mountain is, measured horizontally, 700
feet, or the thickness of its shell 630 feet. Beneath this follows
limestone, or Devonian slate. The limestone, sometimes con-
taining the remains of Crinoids, is not
sharply defined at its junction with the
ironstone, but, as it were, passes into the
same by an admixture of spathic iron.
Limonite, or at least a brownish coloring
of the spathic iron, has been formed by
alteration; the mass also contains in
S | places, quartz and calc-spar, more rarely
J specular iron, mispickel, iron arid copper
^ g pyrites ; while stibnite, and cinnabar, are
if-J extremely rare. The coralloidal aragonite,
j? | which occurs very finely in cavities, is of
.>>J secondary formation.
J bb Von Schouppe, who first distinctly
%^ showed the bedded character of this de-
a | posit, has given the following profile of
1 1 the Erzberg. We there see the ironstone,
1 1 towards Reichenstein, embedded between
& two limestones; towards Eisenerz, on the
* -S contrary, where limestone is wanting,
S " immediately between Devonian slate, over
| J which the Werfner beds soon follow.
J j| Von Schouppe has recognised the same
J ^ relations of bedding in numerous other
localities of the same region, in which the
ironstone, sometimes, immediately overlies
limestone-breccia. From the uniformity
in these relations of bedding, it follows
that these masses of ironstone belong to
a particular niveau of the Devonian for-
/^ ^H^ "II mation, corresponding to the limestone in
which the Crinoids are found; conse-
quently, these iron-deposits must be ir-
regular beds.
Q
a I
The origin of these deposits is still very enigmatical. In
so far as they form true beds, the mineral matter composing
them must have been deposited, during the Devonian Period,
between the beds enclosing them. But in what condition?
ITALY. 347
hardly as crystalline spathic iron. It might be supposed, that
they were formerly spherosiderite, and had become crystalline,
through a long continuing period of pressure and warmth. Such
a hypothesis would also allow the consideration, that the neigh-
boring veins of spathic iron had been pressed in a softened
condition from the veins into the fissures. But where do such
thick beds of spherosiderite occur? and, in any case, the manner
in which the spherosiderite was formed still remains an unsolved
problem.
When spathic iron has once been formed, it is then easy
to explain the formation of limonite, hematite, and even mag-
netite, by alteration. These occur in the eastern Alps, under
similar relations of bedding. It would not be strange, if analo-
gous ironstones were found in lower strata of the Silurian and
Devonian formations, or even in the crystalline schists; since the
same process of formation may have been repeated several times.
I T A L Y,
PRELIMINARY REMARK.
196. Italy contains much fewer metalliferous deposits
than Germany, and those which do occur have been much less
opened up. I shall only notice the more interesting of those
known.
XVill. MOUNTAINS OF MODENA AND
TUSCANY.
CINNABAR DEPOSITS AT RIPA IN MODENA.
197. The mountains at Ripa, ' near the small town of
Pietra Santa, consist of crystalline schists; mica-schist, chlorite
1 See: Russegge-r, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1845. p. 565; Coquand, in
Bulletin geologique, vol VI. p. 102.
348 CINNABAR, LEAD, AND COPPER,
schist, and talc-schist. Within the common mica-schist, occurs
a white silky variety, passing into talc-schist, containing
numerous layers of quartz. In these last cinnabar is found,
which penetrates the entire massy especially the fissures of
foliation.
The cinnabar has probably penetrated the rock long sub-
sequent to its formation; so that the deposit must be regarded,
as an impregnation, in the fullest sense of the term. The dif-
ferent character of the mica-schist containing the cinnabar, from
that free of the same, is possibly a consequence of the same
process by which the impregnation was formed.
LEAD AND COPPER ORES IN THE APUANIAN ALPS.
198. The Tamburra, 1 a portion of the highest central ridge
of the Apuanian Alps east of Carara, mostly consists of granular
limestone, or white marble; and the schists, observed here and
there, are probably only subordinate contemporaneous rocks.
A fine lead-lode occurs close under the crest, near the so-called
Campanelli di Garfagnana; it strikes NNE. SSW., dips in SW.,
is several feet broad, and contains argentiferous galena.
Crystalline schists crop-out, southerly of this marble district,
in which the deep valley of the Versitia is excavated. In this
valley, somewhat to the south of Ruosina,'- is a mass of chlorite
schist, entirely penetrated by fine threads, and pockets, which
consist of quartz with sulphurets. Argentiferous galena and
blende predominate; but stibnite, iron and copper pyrites also
occur. These threads of ore are, in turn, traversed by strings,
and veins, of specular iron; while the same schists contain, in
the neighborhood, broad veins of hematite, specular iron, and
magnetite. Hoffmann states, they all appear as injections, and
sublimations. The last may be true for the veins of specular
iron ; but those containing sulphurets, seem to be rather the
results of infiltration.
The rock at Val di Castello 3 is mica-schist and limestone.
The schist, near its junction with the latter, contains parallel
1 See: Russegger, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1845, p. 565.
2 See: Hoffmann, in Karsten's Archiv, 1833, vol. VI. p. 238.
3 See: Fiedler, in Poggendorfs Annalen, 1846, vol. 67, p. 428, and in
Leonhard's Jahrb. 1848, p. 600; Russegger, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1845,
> 566.
ORES OF MODENA. - 349
beclded-veins, essentially consisting of argentiferous galena. At
times several of them unite to form a so-called Stockwerk; from
which it would seem, that they are not beds, as Russegger
thought, but bedded veins.
Not far from these deposits, at Castello on the Angina canal,
occurs a limestone with indistinct organic remains. This is tra-
versed by veins, a few inches broad, consisting of heavy spar,
calc-spar and flu or spar, with tetrahedrite, and iron pyrites.
Very remarkable is the fact, that the masses of the veins are at
times separated by empty fissures, resembling selvages, from the
wall-rock, so that it stands free. This is the same case, which
Fiedler once described, and thought the cavity, traversed by the
lode, had existed previous to the formation of the vein. It is
evident, that the easily assailable wall-rock has been washed
awav on both sides of the firmer lode.
COPPER ORES IN THE SERPENTINE OF MODENA.
199. The mountain masses, on both sides of the Roz-
zena, consist, at Ospitaletta, l of serpentine; which here traverses
Maciyno and Alberese and appears to have considerably meta-
morphosed them. Within the serpentine are found great irregu-
lar masses, of red and green jasper, and a talcose slaty clay;
which are much decomposed, and in part reduced to argillaceous
variegated masses. In these decomposed masses occur small
masses, of native copper, and psilornelane; which both appear
to penetrate the jasper and clay in irregular strings, but so
unequally and irregularly, that no idea of working them can be
entertained. Russegger thinks, the jasper-clay masses are altered
portions of Cretaceous marl and Macigno slate.
The Monte Nero at Rochetta consists of serpentine, sur-
rounded by crystalline schists. Large segregations of red and
green, compact or slaty jasper, occur in the serpentine, on its
northern flank. These are traversed by peculiar lenticular veins,
which swell out to a breadth of 3 feet, and are united by small
empty fissures. These lenticular bodies consist of manganite,
with native copper, and malachite; a very peculiar combination
of minerals.
1 See: Russegger, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1S44, pp. 771, 773, 781, 782.
350 COPPER, AND LEAD,
THE COPPER AND LEAD DEPOSITS OF TUSCANY.
200. The metalliferous mountain-districts of Tuscany *
consist of sedimentary strata, traversed and upheaved, by ser-
pentine, gabbro, and feldspathic rock (quartz-porphyry, etc.).
The eruptions of serpentine appear to have preceded the Ter-
tiary Period ; those of the feldspathic rocks, to have followed it.
These sedimentary strata, whose stratification is very frequently
destroyed, consist, in descending order, of:
I. Tertiary deposits:
1. Subapennine marl;
2. Pliocene limestones; alternating with ophiolithic conglomerates:
II. Cretaceous (or eocene?) deposits:
1. Macigno, thick clayey and micaceous sandstones;
2. Alberese, thick limestones and marl shales:
III. Jurassic (and Triassic?) Deposits:
1. Red limestones, and variegated slates;
2. White granular limestone (marble of Carara);
3. Verrucano, sandstones, and slates; the last partly crystalline.
The ore-deposits, which are in part very intimately com-
bined with these rocks, form irregular veins, and segregated
masses, consisting of hematite, copper pyrites, erubescite, blende,
galena, cinnabar, and various argentiferous sulphurets. Some
of them are intimately combined with the serpentines, others
with amphibolic rocks, and still others with the metamorphic
sedimentary rocks.
1. Copper Deposits associated with serpentine.
They form irregular veins, in serpentine, or at the limits of the
rocks it has pierced; especially on the Monte-Catini, Monte- Vaso,
Monte-Castelli, and in the Rocca-Tederighi. They chiefly consist
of copper pyrites, and erubescite, with somewhat of native copper,
melaconite, and tetrahedrite.
The best known, and most interesting, of these occurrences,
is that of Monte-Catini. The Cretaceous strata are here broken
through, and much metamorphosed, by gabbro and serpentine.
The champion-lode, which occurs in gabbro, courses E. W. and
is extremely narrow at its outcrop, being about an inch broad;
but it constantly encreases, with the depth, to 6, 9, 12, and
1 See: W. Paget Jervis, in Mining Mag. Jan. 1861, pp. 55, 198; Burat,
Traite du gisement et de 1'exploit. des mineraux utiles, 1858, p. 357;
Pilla, in Compte rendu, 1845, vol. XX, p. 811 ; Caillaux, in Berg- u. hfittenm.
Zeit. 1858. pp. 372, 421 ; Von Rath, in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch.
1865, vol. XVII. p 2^2.
ORES OF TUSCANY. 351
even, exceptionally, 30 feet. Its dip is about 45. It is mostly
composed of a talcose rock, resembling serpentine, with frag-
ments, and even great horses, of gabbro. The ores occur, scat-
tered through the serpentine rock, consisting of erubescite, and
copper pyrites, very pure and almost free of other admixtures.
They form small nodular masses, or even large ones, of several
cubic feet content, and encrease in number with the depth.
They are frequently found collected at the foot- wall of the lode,
there filling irregular depressions, and fissures in the country-
rock ; while the hanging-wall is much more regularly defined.
Nodular masses of ore occur scattered, even in the middle of
the lode; while, from irregular bends of the vein, the foot-wall
occasionally becomes the hanging one, but is still chiefly accom-
panied by the ores, in such a manner, that the aggregation of
ore appears to have essentially been a one-sided one.
Some pockets of ore, while having a less thickness, are
longer and higher, being 30 100 feet ; and then form a sort of
continuous selvage, at the foot-wall. Other ore-sheets of this
kind occur more in the middle of the lode.
The lode frequently branches, and sends out, especially at
right angles to its general strike, droppers, which cannot be
regarded as cross-courses.
Experience has shown, that the ore encreases, not only
qualitatively, but also quantitatively, with the depth; and that
those places are particularly rich, where ramifications branch
into the wall-rock. At such points, native copper sometimes
occurs, in clefts. As accessory minerals also, occur somewhat of
mispickel, tetrahedrite, and quartz.
Burat is of the opinion, that the fissure in the gabbro was
first filled with serpentine which received fragments of the wall-
rock; and that the ores came subsequently through emanations,
which were consequences of the serpentine eruption. The cavi-
ties containing the ores might have been formed by the contrac-
tion of the serpentine.
Similar lodes recur at Eocca-Tederighi, where serpentine
and gabbro occur between quartz-porphyries; the veins encrease
here also, in richness and breadth, with the depth. Entirely
analogous are also the ore-occurrences on the Monte- Vaso and
Monte-Castelli; there is likewise a considerable analogy with
the ores mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Serpentine appears
in numerous localities to be generally a carrier of copper-ores.
352 ORES WITH HORNBLENDE.
2. Ores associated with hornblende. A second very
interesting group is that of Combigliese. The rock, of which
the Monte-Calvi consists, is ,for the most part granular limestone,
belonging to the Jura group, and perhaps also less metamor-
phosed Alberese. In these occur very irregular lodes, cropping-
out with but slight breadth and extent*, they ramify irregularly
in the limestone, and often wedge-out very suddenly.
According to Burat, they appear to encrease, with the depth,*
in breadth and extent, often uniting; from which he concludes,
that they represent the frequently ramified upper portions of
two igneous veins. Their composition is locally different; am-
phibole and lievrite, with somewhat of quartz, every where form
the chief mass, the amphibole sometimes forming radiated nodules :
towards the outcrop, both are much decomposed, and altered to
an earthy mass. In this occur, near Rocca-San-Sylvestre chiefly
iron pyrites, near Temperino principally copper pyrites, at Cava
del Piombo mostly blende and galena. These ores are not locally
distributed in equable masses, but occur in rich streaks, 15 30
feet broad and three times as long, which appear to extend
principally in the direction of depth. The mass of the lodes is
often firmly joined to the wall-rock, and so intimately combined,
that it is difficult to state, where the limits are : they appear to
have melted together. Spheroidal secretions, with concentric
structure, are often found, consisting of alternating layers of ores
and vein-stone, or having kernels of pyrites, surrounded by
radiated hornblende. No trace of a symmetrical arrangement,
parallel to the walls, can be seen. The masses of ore are
irregularly distributed, and from the manner of their dissemina-
tion, especially of the concentrical spheroids, it is evident that
they were formed contemporaneously with the rest of the matrix.
Burat concludes, from all the circumstances, that these are
igneous dikes, formed like other similar dikes, containing no
ores. He states, that where .parallel zones occur, they are only
consequences of an elongation caused by the upward movement.
It must be conceded, that this view has much in its favor;
although, from a chemical point of view, it appears very dif-
ficult to concede, that all the minerals, occurring in the veins,
were formed by solidification from an igneous-fluid condition.
The nature of these deposits can be very distinctly seen in a
quarry in the Cava del Piombo, represented in the woodcut.
The irregular dark veins here traverse white marble; the
CAVA DEL PIOMBO.
353
concentrical spheroids, of which they are principally composed,
at times appear in the country-rock, as if separated from the
vein. A complete penetration of the mass appears to have taken
place. At this point the amphibolic rock, essentially mixed with
only blende and galena, appears almost black ; where only blende
is mixed with it, the same appears more yellowish; and where
copper pyrites predominate, of a more greenish color.
Pilla mentions a greater variety of minerals, than Burat, in
the lodes just described; viz. foliated sahlite, epidosite, compact
melaphyre, and lievrite, as principal ingredients, accompanied
by quartz, calc-spar, aragonite, limonite, epidote, iron pyrites,
marcasite, mispickel, copper pyrites, malachite, euchroite, blende,
buratite, galena, and allophane, as accessory minerals. At Rocca
San-Silvestre spheroidal masses occur in the veins, composed of
alternating concentric layers of pyroxene, and calc-spar; and
contain quartz-crystals.
354 ISLAND OF ELBA.
XIX. THE ISLAND OF ELBA.
rf .
CAPE CALAMITA, AND RIO.
201. The eastern portion of the Island of Elba, 1 contain-
ing the renowned iron-deposits, consists principally of mica-schist,
with subordinate layers of granular limestone, and dolomite,
overlaid by slates, sandstones and limestones, generally, called
Macigno and Alberese, and belonging either to the Cretaceous
group, or to the Eocene strata. Dioritic rocks, in part passing
into serpentine, have broken through these strata.
The iron-deposits are essentially combined with the mica-
schist, but come, also, in contact with the serpentine. They are
especially developed in four localities; viz. on Cape Calamita,
on Cape Bianca at Terra nera, at Rio, and at the mouth of the
Rio Albano. These all lie in a line drawn from North to South.
The largest, and most developed, are the deposits of Cape Cala-
mita, and Rio; and as the conditions of bedding are every where
the same, I shall confine my description to these two localities.
The woodcut represents an exterior view of the deposit at
Cape Calamita (from Burat). The dark mass is specular iron,
1 See: Krantz, in Karsten's Archiv, 1840, vol. XV. p. 347; Burat,
Theorie des gites metalliferes, 1845, p. 247, and Geologic appliquee, 1858,
p. 354; Annales d. mines, 1852, vol. I. p. 608; von Rath, in Leonhard's
Jahrb. 1865, p. 98.
CAPE CALAMITA, RIO.
and limonite ; the light-colored strata over-arching it, crystalline
dolomite; over which follows mica-schist.
Burat describes this deposit almost as follows. The Monte
Calamita rises 218 fathoms above the sea, and consists of
schistose strata with calcareous beds. These strata are supposed
to have been formed by the metamorphosis of Alberese and
Macigno (which Naumann however doubts), and form an arch.
The centre of this arch consists of hematite, and magnetite:
these are accompanied, near the junction with the limestone, by
green amphibole, and lievrite. The overlying strata are meta-
morphosed in the most different manners. Magnetite and
hematite penetrate the dolomite, render it crystalline granular,
and surround fragments of the same of all sizes. Burat thinks,
the iron-ore must here have penetrated upwards, precisely in
the same manner as igneous-fluid rocks. This supposition, he
thinks, solves the whole enigma of the origin. Against which
indeed many important doubts may be raised.
Krantz says, on the contrary: 'The iron-ore-deposit, occur-
ring on Cape Calamita, rises, where most extended, to a height
of 900 feet above the sea. The bed is mostly limonite, and
iron-ochre, at the surface; but, at a slight depth, passes into
specular iron. Large fragments, partly in place, partly detached,
designate the entire extent of the deposit; on whose southeast
side native magnets are found near the sea. I observed, so far as
was possible, that the magnetic iron forms a bed on the eastern
limit of the iron-deposits ; in which, as at Rio, though less fre-
quently, lievrite occurs having a brown incrustation. Semiopals,
less frequent near the surface, but there of a brownish and
reddish color, probably also owe their origin to this 'bed for-
mation.'
Krantz says of the renowned mine at Rio: 'The rocks,
altered to mica-schist, occurring immediately over the Marina
di Rio, crop- out, in a much altered condition, from the influence
of igneous rocks; then, while specular iron occurs higher up,
the base is serpentine. This occurrence is important, as allowing
the most certain conclusion (?), that the formation of the serpen-
tine preceded that of the specular iron ; then, while the elevated
mica-schist contains much specular iron at its limits, the serpen-
tine is always free from it. The following woodcut represents
this occurrence.
-
23*
'*' v "' :i: <p tmTfted ^rtftfteqa
356
RIO LA MARINA.
Mica-schist containing specular
iron.
The mica-schist occurs, at its junction with the serpentine,
as a very soft, now clayey, now calcareous, fissured rock, con-
taining quartz secretions. The nearer it approaches the specular
iron penetrating it, so much the softer does it become, until it
is changed to a yellow clay. It is frequently, however, very
hard near the specular iron.
Finely crystallized iron pyrites, frequently occurs with the
specular iron, and in its neighborhood lievrite. Krantz gives
the following instructive profile of an occurrence of this last.
M. S. Mica-schist.
H. u. A. Hornblende and Actinolith.
G. L. Granular limestone.
The mica-schist here contains a widely extended bed of
actinolith, full of geodes, whose walls are covered with prismatic
crystals. Single crystals of lievrite occur here and there in the
same, coming from the chief mass, which traverses the actinolith,
as a bed, nearly in the middle. The lievrite is here black,
reticulated, and stellated. It contains iron pyrites, and mispickel,
in its upper portion. In the foot-wall, of the bed of amphibole,
occurs a wedge of granular limestone.
Burat says, of Rio la Marina; which was the only locality,
where iron was exploited in 1845; that this largest and richest
iron-deposit of the island has penetrated, parallel to the strati-
fication, between quartzose schist and limestone. The centre of
FRANCE. GENERAL REMARKS. 357
the same consists of crystalline specular iron and compact
limonite, the former contains concretions of iron pyrites. The
limits, towards the hanging- and foot-walls, are rendered indis-
tinct by intermixtures, and transitions. The enclosing strata
have also become very crystalline near the deposits, and contain
amphibole and lievrite. All the relations tend to show a subli-
mation, or eruption. When we call to mind, that on Vesuvius
newly formed fissures have been filled, in the course of a few
weeks, with specular iron by sublimation , this manner of for-
mation becomes very probable for the iron-deposits of Elba,
although the island does not belong to the truly volcanic ones.
The apparently massive occurrence of the specular iron can be
probably traced back to a repeated fissuring and penetration of
the rocks.
Both these accounts are unfortunately so contradictory, and,
in part, so incomplete, that no judgment of the reader can be
founded on them.
FRANCE,
GENERAL REMARKS.
202. Six mountainous districts occur on the borders and
in the interior of France, consisting of older, mostly igneous
or metamorphic rocks ; the broad intervals between which, partly
basins, are filled with Secondary and Tertiary deposits. These
six mountain districts are :
1. The western portion of the Alps;
2. The Vosges;
3. The Ardennes;
4. The Central District of France;
5. Brittany;
6. The Pyrenees.
Of these, only (4, 6, 5) the Central District of France, the
Pyrenees, and Brittany, will be more fully spoken of; the others
having been partly already described with other districts, partly
containing nothing of particular importance.
358 IRON, AND OOLITHIC, DEPOSITS
Metalliferous deposits, other than those of iron, are not found,
outside of these mountainous districts, arid their borders ; but
within these occur many veins extending from the older rocks
up to the Jura.
The intervals between the mountain-districts, mostly con-
sisting, at the surface, of recent and horizontal strata, only con-
tain iron-deposits, partly as beds in the Jura group, partly as
less regular aggregations of oolithic ore, nodular ore, and
bog-ore.
I shall first mention the sedimentary iron-ore-deposits, of
France and the Swiss Jura, in common ; and then pass to the
mountainous districts; the general character of whose metalli-
ferous deposits, or some particularly well known cases, I shall
attempt to describe.
XX. IRON-DEPOSITS OF FRANCE.
OOLITHIC ORES, AND IRON-DEPOSITS IN THE
JURASSIC GROUP.
203. The Jurassic strata, and, in part, also the Neoco-
mian beds, contain, in numerous parts of France, similar deposits
of ironstone to those, with which we have already become
acquainted in Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria. From which follows,
not ; indeed, a general connection of the separate beds, but a
great conformity in the general lithological character, throughout
the whole of central Europe during the Jurassic Period, extend-
ing from the Alps to the Pyrenees, the Scottish and Scandina-
vian elevated plateaux.
Secondary aggregations of iron-ores occur, in the form of
pebbles, nodular masses, or concentric masses (oolithic ores);
together with the parallel beds of limonite, hematite, and clay
ironstone; at numerous places, both in France and Germany;
between the strata of the Jura group. These fill cavities, fis-
sures, and surface-depressions, of the Jurassic and Triassic lime-
stones; or occur in separate Tertiary beds.
These, partly at least, secondary iron-deposits are in many
respects still obscure occurrences.
IN THE SWISS, AND FRENCH, JURA. 359
<tut\^'- -Vfi
OOLITHIC DEPOSITS IN THE SWISS AND FRENCH JURA.
204. The chain of the Jura, consisting for the most part
of much tilted limestones, contains in many places oolithic iron-
ores embedded in irregular cavities and fissures of the limestone ;
which bear a great analogy to those, with which we have
already become acquainted in the Suabian Alp ( 132).
Grossly l has described these deposits very completely. The
ores occur in a variegated, mostly red or yellow, clay; which
is at the same time mixed with earthy limonite, and contains
sand and boulders. They consist of grains, nodular, and ellip-
soidal masses, of very variable size; which are sometimes united
in a very loose manner.
They occur, either in fissures or irregular cavities of the
Jura limestone, or form very irregular deposits on the same,
on older or on much more recent rocks. Fossils are rather
scarce in the deposits, of these not a single specimen appears
to belong to the period of their formation, but all belong to
Jura, Cretaceous, or Tertiary deposits of a greater age; while
the remains of mammals also occur among them, which appear
to belong to a very recent period. Nevertheless they are fre-
quently overlaid by Cretaceous and Molasse strata; from which
Gressly concludes, that they are, in general, more recent than
the Jura formation, but older than the Cretaceous. Which it is,
indeed, difficult to reconcile with the occurrence of the more
recent fossils.
The surfaces of the limestones, on which they lie, every
where exhibit a certain conformable character, being uneven,
as if attacked and eaten by acids. Frequently a breccia, with
fragments and boulders of the Jura limestone, occurs immediately
under them, also appearing as if it had been attacked by acids.
Such deposits occur in innumerable localities of the Jura-
chain, principally near the great valleys, and on their bottoms,
but also in fissures and cavities at the most different levels of
the mountains; so that they might be regarded as the remains
of a general stratum, did not other important reasons exist
against this view.
1 See: Gressly, Sur le Jura souleurois, in the Neuen Denkschriften
der allgeraeinen Schweiz. Gesellschaft der Naturwissenschaften, Neufchatel,
1841, p. 251.
360 THIONVILLE
Gressly finally considers the oolithic ore-deposits in the
Jura, to be at once contemporaneous with, and substitutes for,
the Neocomian ; but also local consequences of the upheaval of
the chain, and in particular of ho^* mineral springs, which owe
their origin to plutonic upheavals. When he terms them 'semi-
plutomV formations, and places other plutonic iron-lodes at their
side, this is certainly a somewhat uncommon Use of the term
plutonic. He also speaks, in the same uncommon manner, in
his memoir, of craters and elevation-craters in the Jura-chain.
He thinks, that the formation of the oolithic ores has continued,
from the Neocomian Period probably into the Tertiary; and that
in this manner, as well as by subsequent washing-in, may be
explained the tolerably rare occurrence of fossils more recent
than the Jurassic or Neocomian. Nevertheless, it appears to
me, that, in the Jura, as in the Black Forest and Suabian Alp,
iron-ores, originally formed at some previous period, were again
deposited, by repeated denudations, at various points, and under
various conditions.
Gressly's work is, however, the most complete extant on
the oolithic iron-deposits, and is accompanied by numerous
instructive plates.
IRON-DEPOSITS NEAR THIONVILLE.
205. In the Ottange valley, especially at Thionville,
various iron-deposits occur in the Jura and Lias formations,
which somewhat resemble those of the Suabian Alp ( 132).
Eugene Jacquot 1 distinguished in this region the following
varieties of iron deposits, whose occurrence, and bedding, will
be best understood from the accompanying three woodcuts.
According to the profile, at least three kinds of iron-deposits
occur ; one parallel bed e, between the Jura and Lias formations,
corresponding to the iron-ore-beds in the Brown Jura of the
Suabian Alp ; a parallel overlying deposit of oolithic iron ore i;
and the fillings of irregular, or funnel-shaped, cavities by oolithic
ore in the Jura formation, also very analogous to that mentioned
in the Suabian Alp.
1 See: Jacquot, in Annales d. mines, 1849, vol. XVI. p. 427; Langlois
and Jacquot, in same, 1851, vol. XX. p. 109; Levallois, in same, 1849,
p. 241 ; and Memoires de la societe de Nancy, 1850, p. 810.
OOLITHIC IRON-DEPOSITS.
361
a. Oolithic iron-ore.
b. Coral limestone, containing Ostrea Marshii.
c. and d. Slaty, sandy limestone, with interbeddings of marl,
which frequently contain considerable oolithic limonite.
e. Oolithic limonite; the small grains lie in a brownish-red,
clayey, calcareous, ochreous mass | the upper portion
passes into gray, micaceous marl.
f. Upper Lias sandstone, brown from strings of limonite.
g. J^larl, containing concretions of limestone and spherosi-
derite, the last surrounded by incrustations of limonite.
These concretions often contain fossils. In the upper por-
tion a more quartzose marl.
h. Fissile marl, with nodular masses of pyrites and crystals
of gypsum.
i. Oolithic iron-ore.
In the group of strata, corresponding to that of the Brown
Jura in Suabia, several iron- ore-beds frequently occur, one above
another, as can best be seen in the accompanying woodcut.
c. Limestone, like c. and d. in the preceding woodcut.
d. Gray, micaceous marl.
e. Upper, oolithic bed of limonite, like e. in the former woodcut.
362 TERTIARY IRON-ORKS.
' 3k '
f. Marly and sandy limestone,
g. Sandy limestone and oolithic limonite.
h. Limestone, containing nodular masses of limonite.
i. Upper Lias sandstone.
The peculiar occurrence of the oolithic ores, in depressions
or holes in the surface of the Jura limestone, is particularly
characterized by the following occurrence near Ville Houdlemont :
It is not improbable, that the oolithic ore-deposits of this
district, like those in many other places, have been partly formed
by ore being washed out of the Jurassic strata, and afterwards
redeposited.
TERTIARY IRON-ORES IN THE DEPARTMENT
OF THE LOT.
206. Very peculiar iron-deposits occur, with the Ter-
tiary strata, in the Lot valley. They are compact masses in
red clay, nodular masses or grains united by an argillaceous
cement, which fill fissures in limestone, or occur on its surface.
I extract the following from Coquand's * description. A bed
of brown clay with quartz-pebbles, ferruginous sandstone, and
ochreous iron, overlies the plateau of Jura limestone north of
Montbrun; which bed has also penetrated into the fissures of
the limestone, and filled all its irregular depressions. The bed
contains, in addition to the quartz-pebbles of 13 pounds, a
1 See: Coquand, in Bulletin de la societe geologique de France,
1848-49, vol. VI. p. 340.
CENTRAL FRANCE. GENERAL REMARKS. 363
large quantity of much larger rounded masses of limonite in-
cluding some of 20 pounds, which at tirst sight might easily
be mistaken for boulders. A more careful examination soon
shows, that they cannot be such. They not only at times con-
sist of the botryoidal or reniform combination of several rounded
masses, but their interior texture is also radially filiform, and
has at the same time a concentric banded structure. The
interior texture corresponds to the outer form, and, in the
botryoidal ones, shows as many interior central points, as there
are outer protuberances. This cannot possibly be the result of
a process, like that by which boulders have been rounded; but
the masses must have been formed, in their present positions,
by the concentration of limonite. Besides these reniform masses,
there are others, outwardly resembling river-boulders; they con-
sist of compact limonite, with small cavities; and, when larger
than a fist, contain near their surfaces grains of quartz, sand,
and clay; while their interior is free from these impurities;
which fact is also opposed to their being boulders. They are
very frequent in many fissures of the Jura limestone.
XXI. CENTRAL DISTRICT OF FRANCE.
GENERAL REMARKS.
207. With regard to this district, I shall first reproduce
the principal portions of a memoir; in which Baron von Beust 1
mentions the results of Grr uner's 2 examinations, and compares
them with those made in the Saxon Erzgebirge. I reproduce
the views advanced in this memoir, without any comments; but
shall return to this subject at the end of the book. Baron von
Beust says: ' The Central Plateau of France, with its immediate
neighborhood; being the district enclosed between the Pyrenees,
the Alps, the Vosges, and the Paris basin; has a very compli-
1 Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeitung, 1860, p. 73.
2 Essai cl'unc Classification des principaux filons du plateau central de
la France, in Annales de la soc. impe'riale de Lyon, 1856, vol. VIII. p. 168.
364 VEIN-FORMATIONS,
cated geological composition. In which not only all the plutonic
rocks from the oldest to the most recent, as well as the old
crystalline schistose rocks, and Carboniferous formation; but
also all the sedimentary strata, up 4o and including the Jura
limestone, are represented: of the last the Lias appears to be
the most developed, while the Triassic, on the contrary, is less
extensive in comparison to its great development in Germany.
Gruner shows the occurrence of the following vein-formations
within this district, passing from the oldest to the more recent:
1. Lenticular masses and strings of quartz in mica-schist,
recognisable as having penetrated, and in so far veinlike forma-
tions, but nowhere found as true fissure-veins ; containing no
ores, or at the most somewhat of iron pyrites;
Period of formation : the outbreak of the igneous garnite :
2. Quartz-veins containing stibnite, also tin and wolfram;
Period of formation : eruption of the pegmatites :
3. Narrow quartz-veins, partly containing argentiferous ga-
lena, as in the Lozere Department;
Period of formation: occurrence of the granitic porphyries
at the close of the Subcarboniferous Period:
4. Large vein-like and segregated masses of quartz, in im-
mediate succession to the eruption of the quartz-porphyries;
5. Quartz-veins, containing rich argentiferous galena;
Period of formation: outbreak of the eurites.
In this classification of the older vein-formations of France,
a certain analogy can, in many ways, be recognised with the
positions of the older vein-formation in the Saxon Erzgebirge.
Here, as there, the occurrence of lenticular quartz, barren of
ores, appears, as the oldest formation, in the older schistose
rocks; then follow the tin, and wolfram veins; finally the quartz-
veins, with rich argentiferous galena. Especially analogous is the
occurrence of large segregated quartz-masses, immediately fol-
lowing the outbreak of the quartz-porphyries ; which in Saxony
probably preceded the formation of the so numerous and mani-
foldly composed formations of older silver-veins.
But the principal portion of Gruner's memoir is devoted to
6. the group of the barytic veins; which occur exten-
sively developed in central and southern France; and whose
comparison with the like-named vein-formation in Saxony is
interesting in more ways than one.
I (von Beust), 28 years ago, characterised the chalcedonic
^FRENCH, AND SAXON, SIMILAR. 365
masses; traversed by heavy and fluor spar and galena, poor in
silver; which cement the Arkose in the neighborhood of Avallon;
as an equivalent of the Halsbriicke vein-formation; and am
convinced, every one would have recognised this conformity
at first sight ; so distinctly does it occur. But what I did not
know at that time, and which is so fully treated of in Gruner's
memoir, is the circumstance, that this very characteristic vein-
formation is extensively developed at many points in the large
Central Plateau of France; which has given rise, in several
localities, to a lasting and by no means unimportant exploitation.
One learns in this connection; that, besides the mines which
Count de Forez exploited on such veins, the family de Blumen-
stein alone extracted almost 250,000 hundredweight of lead
during the preceding and commencement of the present century,
by the exploitation of the barytic lead-veins in the county of
Forez; partly as product from the smelting- works, partly as
glazing ore.
Such a production, even though it should only be the result
of a robbing of the mines for a long period, is still too consi-
derable, for the deposits from which it came to be called other
than true lodes ; and there appears in this connection also to be
no great difference between tke likenamed formations in France,
and in Saxony. When it is also considered, that this French
exploitation was confined to very slight depths, without machin-
ery, and apparently even without a washing of the ores (which
is so particularly important for this class of veins); it is by no
means impossible, that many, of the now abandoned French
mining points of this class, might give good results by an active
exploitation; although the generally dissuasive and very prac-
tical remarks of Gruner deserve full attention.
With particular regard to the similarity of this vein-forma-
tion, so widely extended in France, with that in Saxony; it is
really not asserting much too, when it is said, that the same are
related to one another, like the original to a very good photo-
graph; so great is in all ways the similarity.
A partly sandy crystalline, partly chalcedonic quartz forms
the gang combined with heavy and fluor spar; more rarely
spathic iron, brown spar, and calc-spar; with which plumose
galena (poor in silver) occurs as a characteristic, and never-
failing ore; it contains but 0,0002, 0,0003 to 0,0010 per cent of
silver ; besides this, brown blende, at times in 'considerable quan-
366 SIMILARITY OF FRENCH, AND
titles, more rarely a rich argentiferous tetrahedrite, and copper
pyrites. Can a greater conformity be well found between two
vein-formations, so far apart, than is here the case ?
Another conformity is, that in France, as in Saxony, these
barytic lead-veins occur as true, widely extending fissure-veins ;
and thus form a contrast to the older lodes, which do not bear
so distinct a stamp of widely extended geological action. Ac-
cording to Gruner, some of these veins can be followed for a
distance of 14,000 fathoms; and he also mentions belts full of
veins, 10,500 fathoms long, and 2,300 fathoms broad.
If it can be accepted as certain ; under such circumstances,
and by the undoubted coincidence of the most important geolo-
gical periods in both countries; that the same event has caused
the same vein-formations in France and Saxony ; then the proofs,
which Gruner brings forward with regard to the epochs of for-
mation of those veins in the former country also have a special
interest for the latter. The Lias Period, including the lower
Jura limestone, is named with great certainty, as being that
within which the barytic lead-veins were formed in France.
And in fact, if it be considered, that, as every where in France,
where such veins occur near the Lias strata, the latter are tra-
versed by the former, partly as true fissure-veins, partly as ore-
deposits passing from the vein-fissures into the country-rock (in
the arkoses of Burgundy, in the Lias of the Aveyron Department,
as also in that of the Alps [Argentiere near Brian9on] ) ; and, if
the same veins do not extend into more recent strata, than those
of the lower Jura, one must concede the determination of the
age to be a very exact one.
This determination of the age attains, for the similar veins
of the Saxon Erzgebirge, a so much greater importance ; as a
direct means for such is here wanting, since the corresponding
more recent sedimentary formations, within which such a proof
were perhaps possible, do not exist. One might certainly expect
to see the barytic lead-veins well developed in the Thuringian
Muschelkalk: which might be regarded as being a favorable
wall-rock, and shows besides, in many localities, distinct traces
of very considerable vein-fissures. It would, however, be scarcely
possible to conclude; from the circumstance, that the barytic
veins are wanting; that these last are of so much greater age.
On the other hand, it might well be imagined, that the broad
masses of plastic clay, which every where underlie the Muscliel-
SAXON, VEIN-FORMATIONS. 367
kalk of Thuringia, as well as the clay-masses in the lowest
member of the Bunts and stein, and even the plastic iron-clays
of the Rothliegendes, could have been such impediments to the
formation of the veins, that these last were unable to penetrate
up to the MuschelkaJk. It appears, on the contrary, to be an
advantage of the conditions of bedding in France, that the Lias
strata lie almost directly on the old crystalline schists, so that
the continuation of the veins, from these into those, had no
difficulties to contend with.
Gruner designates the upheaval of the Morvan Mountain
in France, and the Thuringian Forest in Germany, as the com-
mencement of the period, in which the barytic lead- veins were
formed; and states, the certainly curious coincidence, that the
axes of both these mountain systems NW. SE is repeated in
the general strike of the veins mentioned, both in France and
Germany. He supports this assertion, with regard to France,
by numerous cases; and, as regards the Saxon Erzgebirge, k
must certainly be conceded to be, for the most part, fully
grounded. This is especially true for those lodes of this forma-
tion, in Saxony, which occur independently; while, in those
cases, where they appear as a more recent filling of older veins,
deviations naturally occur.
If it be considered, in what extraordinary frequence, and
at what a number of localities, in the Central French Plateau,
the barytic veins occur; and if it be also remembered, how con-
siderably this vein-formation is represented in Saxony (where
the Halsbriicke vein perhaps represents the most considerable
lode now known on the continent), the idea naturally presents
itself, that there may still be many points in the Saxon Erz-
gebirge, where metalliferous and exploitable veins of this kind
exist, which have not yet been discovered.
A remarkable case of this kind is the Drei-Prinzen lode,
at the Churprinz-mine near Freiberg. This lode was, 40 years
ago, still unknown, although the exploitation on the champion-
lode of the mine, 187 fathoms off, had reached a depth of 230
fathoms. It was only with considerable trouble, that its course
could be discovered at the surface. Now it has been followed
to a depth of 200 fathoms, with a breadth of 24 fathoms,
and ores worth 400,000 dollars have been extracted from it
within the last 25 years. There may still be many cases of
this kind/
368 FRENCH, AND SAXON, VEINS COMPARED.
The writer then mentions the fact, that mining was exten-
sively carried on in the granulite district of Saxony; and thinks,
there may still be many undiscovered veins in the same. He thinks,
that the occurrence of rich argentiferous tetrahedrite and fine
granular galena, together with the common galena of these veins,
in a mine at Schonborn, may have been caused by the favor-
able influence of mica and hornblende schist, at their junction
with the granulite. He then continues: 'The hypothesis, that
the barytic lead -veins were formed during the Lias and Lower
Jurassic Epochs, is conformable, both for the older, and more
recent vein-formations, in Saxony, with those which have been
deduced from the actual examination of these other vein-forma-
tions. There is no sort of doubt, that the barytic lead-veins
stand, in regard to age, between the numerous older vein-for-
mations, principally containing massive quartz, and various car-
bonates, as gangs (pyritic lead-veins, brown-spar-veins, noble-
quartz-veins), and the evidently much more recent veins of the
Upper Erzgebirge, which contain cobalt, nickel, and rich silver
ores, in a quartzose, hornstone matrix, resembling recent spring
deposits.
Those older vein-formations are traversed by the barytic
veins, which sometimes enclose fragments of the first; while the
more recent age of the silver veins of the Upper Erzgebirge,
distinguished by their cobalt and nickel ores, as well as that of
the lodes of ironstone and psilomelane in that region, is shown
by pseudomorphs, after heavy spar and fluor spar, being found,
on a large scale, in those veins. So that the hypothesis seems
to be confirmed, that they are altered veins of the barytic type.
But the period, of the above-mentioned older veins, hardly
began before the epoch of the Rothliegendes ; this is recognised,
both from the fact, that the eurite dikes (quartz-porphyry)
around Freiberg are traversed by them; as also from the cir-
cumstance, that the lodes of Erbendorf in Bavaria, stated to be
analogous to the pyritous lead-veins of Freiberg, extend into
the strata of the Carboniferous (according to a verbal communi-
cation of Capt. Giimbel). It is true, that the possibility, of a
more recent formation of these veins, is not refuted; but it can
hardly be assumed, that the period of their formation extended
beyond the commencement of the Triassic Period; since at least
one case is known, in the Freiberg district, of one of these
lodes being traversed by a younger quartz-porphyry, and since
LEAD-LODES OF THE FOREZ. 369
a geological connection, of the, so very important, period of the
red porphyries, with the lodes, may be regarded as very probable.
In any case, there are no facts opposed to the hypothesis,
that the groups of the older Freiberg-lodes occupy the above
designated geological niveau. . '
Miiller has, with great probability, shown, that the younger
lodes of the Upper Erzgebirge are closely connected with the
eruption of basalt. If we must distinguish, in Saxony, three
principal periods of vein-formations (the tin-lodes being left out
of account, which are the oldest of interest to a miner), of which
the barytic veins occupy the middle position, there is nothing
against the supposition, that these last were formed in the epoch
of the Lias, and consequently were formed contemporaneously
with the like lodes in France.'
LEAD-LODES OF THE FOREZ.
208. The granitic chain of Forez, and its immediate
neighborhood, is traversed by numerous barytic lead-lodes, which
Gruner 1 has described in the just mentioned memoir. According
to the maps accompanying the same there are two vein-districts:
1. The district of St. Julien, between the Mount Pilat
and the Rhone. The Mount Pilat consists of granite joined at
the SE. by gneiss, traversed in several places by serpentine.
About 40 veins are known, generally striking WNW. ESE.
These converge in their strike towards a point in the granite,
north of St. Julien, which appears to be actually reached by but
one of the lodes, that of Mizerieux. The majority of these are
only known to extend for short distances, partly in granite, but
a far larger number in gneiss; while those occurring in granite
have been followed, in part, to its limits, but not into the gneiss.
Those in the gneiss do not extend to its junction with the
granite.
One of the most important of these; and the only one,
which Gruner has described mineralogically, while the others
appear to resemble it; is the vein of la Pause in granite.
The same consists of two leaders, which at times unite, but
1 See: Gruner, Anciennes mines de plomb du Forez, in Annales de
la societe imperiale de Lyon, 1857, vol. VIII; and Annales d. mines, 1841,
vol. XIX. p. 150.
24
370 AVEYRON ORE-DEPOSITS.
are occasionally 6 feet apart. Both consist, predominantly, of
quartz, with but little heavy spar. Argentiferous galena occurs in
the quartz, with somewhat of blende and pyrites, distributed in
pockets or chimneys; which can bie followed 30 80 meters in
a horizontal or perpendicular direction. Each of these leaders
is 1 8 inches broad; and when they unite, their maximum
breadth is 18 inches. The, so-called, white loader consists of
white, somewhat chalcedonic quartz, with very little heavy spar;
the so-called red leader, of quartz, colored red by peroxide
of iron.
2. The district of St. Just, and St. Germain, lies between
these two places and the Bois de 1'Hermitage, a granitic spar
of the Forez chain. The granite is joined, in a nearly north-
west-southeast line, by granitic porphyry, mountain-limestone,
and sandstone containing anthracite; which are traversed by
numerous dikes of quartz-porphyry. The Tertiary deposits, and
a few basaltic domes, have no connection with the lodes. These
last occur especially, as contact-veins, at the junction of the
granite, as well with the porphyry, as also with the limestone and
sandstone. They also occur altogether in these last-mentioned rocks,
much more rarely in the granite. The composition of the veins
is very similar to that of the lodes in the St. Julien district.
ORE-DEPOSITS IN THE AVEYRON DISTRICT.
209. The Aveyron, 1 with its branches, drains, between
the Lot and the Tarn, a district of old crystalline rocks, partly
overlaid by Triassic and Jurassic strata. The old crystalline
rocks are partly metamorphic schists; as gneiss, mica- and talc-
schist; partly igneous rocks; as granite, diorite, serpentine, eurite,
and quartz-porphyry. The Carboniferous is but slightly repre-
sented ; and Tertiary strata are very subordinate.
A large number of various kinds of ore-deposits occur in
this region ; which should, according to Fournet and Boisse, be
co-ordinated, in part, with certain plutonic rocks. Boisse has
separated the ore-deposits into the following classes:
1 See: Fournet, Essai suf les filons metallif. d Depart, de 1' Aveyron;
Boisse, Annales d. mines, 1852, vol. II. pp. 489, 501, 507, 519; Coquand,
Bulletin de la Soc. Geol. de France, 184849, vol. VI. p. 328; Elie de Beau-
mont, Explicat. de la carte geol. de la France, 1841, p. 124.
VILLEFRANCHE, NAJAC. 371
1. Manganese lodes;
2. Magnetite lodes;
3. Veins, or segregations, of hematite;
4. Limonite lodes, usually forming merely the outcrop (gossan) of
other lodes;
5. Spathic iron lodes;
6. Mispickel, iron and copper pyrites, combined with other ores and
vein-stones in lodes;
7. Chronic iron, with magnetite, irregularly distributed in the
serpentine ;
8. Blende, and calamine, with lead-ores in lodes;
9. Lead-lodes, very common, and mostly argentiferous;
10. Copper-lodes, often argentiferous;
11. Antimony lodes;
12. Nickel-ores, only found in one lode.
Besides which, several rocks are somewhat metalliferous;
and iron ores occur in beds.
1 shall here confine myself to the lead, silver, and copper
lodes, in the neighborhoods of Villefranche, and Najac, Asprieres,
Corbieres and Milhau.
1 . V i 1 1 e f r a n c h e ; and N a j a c. The neighborhood of
Villetranche consists, to the West, of granite traversed by por-
phyries, extending to the valley of the Aveyron. This granite-
region is eastwardly bounded by gneiss and mica-schist, and is
also traversed by porphyries; while, still farther east, Triassic
deposits overlie these rocks. The mica-schist surrounds, in some
places, masses of diorite, and serpentine ; while a small fragment
of the Carboniferous formation, which stands in no connection
with the ore-deposits, overlies the gneiss near Najac.
The ore-deposits of this district are lodes ; which, according
to Fournet, are intimately related, partly to eruptions of euritic
porphyry, partly to serpentines ; or, in other words, which seem
to owe their formation to these igneous rocks. These lodes, in
the majority of cases, occur in mica-schist, and strike SE. NW.
almost at right angles to the limits of the granite, extending
from NNE. to SSW., into which but few of them extend. Some
of them penetrate into the Trias, and traverse its strata. A few
of them appear to have a considerable deviation from the general
strike, coursing N. S.
Fournet states, that the veins, to be co-ordinated with the
euritic porphyries, consist predominantly of quartz, mostly sac-
charoidal crystalline; partly also hyaline. The non-metallic
minerals, combined with it, are heavy spar, red and yellow
24*
372 ASPRIERES. CORBIERES.
jasper, and traces of carbonates The ores are argentiferous
galena, bournonite, mispickel, copper nickel, iron and copper
pyrites. As products of decomposition, occasionally forming a
gossan, occur limonite, -cerusite, jind anglesite. The galena,
forming the principal ore, is finely disseminated in the saccharo-
idal quartz, and at times so intimately combined with it, that
the quartz appears as if colored by the galena. The bournonite,
and various pyrites, form small particles or crystals scattered
through the mass; a combed texture is very rarely perceptible.
The veins, to be co-ordinated with the serpentines and
diorites, occur, partly in the serpentines, partly in veined mica-
schist. A characteristic example of this class is the Maillors lode,
in the diorite of the Cassagne plateau. It strikes NW. SE. ;
its breadth is about 7 feet; its matrix chiefly cryptocrystalline,
waxlike quartz, jasper, and hornstone, traversed by strings of
calc-spar, and spathic iron, which last often predominates. The
original ores are copper pyrites, bournonite, and blende, with
but slight traces of galena. By the decomposition of these have
been formed, malachite, azurite, and limonite; which occur
especially in the clefts of the calc-spar. The other veins, in
the serpentine, are quite similarly composed; in such a manner,
that they are all distinguished by a more waxlike quartz, more
frequent occurrence of carbonates, and by the predominance of
copper ores from the veins, combined with the euritic porphyry.
The distribution of the ores is also a much more unequal one,
both in the various lodes, and in different portions of the
same lode.
2. Asprieres. The numerous veins of this region have,
in general, the same character as those of Villefranche, the only
difference being that heavy spar is more predominant. Their
principal matrix is quartz and heavy spar, frequently almost
entirely the latter; in which are found galena, and pyromorphite ;
to a more subordinate degree, blende, cupriferous iron-pyrites,
copper-pyrites, and carbonates of copper. The lodes mostly course
NW. SE. and appear to be combined with granites, feldspar-
porphyries, diorites, and other amphibolic rocks. Their wall-rock
is at times much impregnated with pyrites.
3. C o r b i e r e s. The mountainous region of Corbieres con-
sists principally of talcose clary-schist, of the Cambrian forma-
tion, and of gneiss, in which granular limestone is embedded.
These rocks are traversed by porphyritic granite, quartz-por-
MILHAU ON THE TARN. 373
phyry, euritic porphyry, basalt, and numerous lodes. Triassic
strata overlie the edges, and numerous mineral springs occur
in the same region.
The lodes are mostly very irregular. They consist princi-
pally of quartz, and heavy spar, with copper, lead, antimony,
and iron ores; the copper ores predominate. Where the lodes
traverse igneous rocks, the vein-stones are, at times, entirely
wanting; in other places the quartz often predominates, and forms
a wall-like, projecting outcrop, which can be readily traced.
They lie, for the most part, in a belt extending from N. to S. ?
but the strike of the separate veins is frequently very irregular
and variable. The veins usually traverse calcareous slates and
porphyries within these, but also penetrate into the Triassic
strata.
4. Milhau on the Tarn. The Levezou Mountain rises
west of Milhau, consisting of mica-schist, granite, and amphibolic
rocks. Bordering on, and overlying these crystalline rocks, is
first a zone of Buntsandstein, about 3 miles broad, whose lower
subdivisions consist of black slate; this is overlaid, to the east,
by Muschelkalk-, and over this follow, still farther east, near
Milhau, Lias deposits.
The lodes of this region are divided into two groups ; near
Minier in the black slates belonging to the Bunt sand stein, and
near Gales in the Muschelkalk. Fournet even thinks, they may
have first been formed during the Jurassic Period; as the neigh-
boring Lias exhibits corresponding tiltings. But the veins them-
selves have not, according to the same observer, been traced
into these strata.
Several veins exist near Minier; of which two, however,
are the champion-lodes which intersect each other. They con-
sist of quartz with fine granular galena, often finely disseminated;
more rarely of heavy spar. Fournet observed the following
combed texture, without a symmetrical arrangement, in the vein
of Douziliencques :
1. Quartz, galena, and pyromorphite ;
2 Galena, and blende;
3. Pure quartz;
4. Galena, bournonite, and quartz.
The three principal veins, near Gales and Creissels, occur
in the Muschelkalk, whose strikes form a triangle: viz.
The lode of Gales strikes NNW.-SSE.
The lode of Fons courses NW. SE.
374 RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION.
The lode of Limasette generally strikes E. W , but, in portions
of its course, often strikes WNW. ESE.
The matrix, in all three veins, is quartz, and heavy spar;
with which are combined galena, ^copper-pyrites, and blende.
As products of alteration are here and there found cerusite,
azurite, and limonite; but the ores are very unequally distri-
buted; and only scattered bunches appear to be exploitable,
^ing-ores are very common in the vein of Gales-, either, a kernel
of limestone is surrounded by concentric layers of quartz; or line
granular galena forms a binding medium for a limestone breccia ;
or finally, a quartz kernel is concentrically surrounded, first by
blende, and then by quartz.
Fournet not only thinks, that these veins are more recent
than the Jura formation, and have caused the local tilting of its
strata ; but he even supposes them to have been formed shortly
previous to the Diluvial Period. It seems to me to be only
certain, that they are more recent than the Muschelkalk.
Boisse maintains the following principles, as the results of
his investigations.
The nature of the igneous rocks, and their local obtrusion,
exerted an influence on the filling of the vein-fissures, and the
distribution of the minerals in the same.
The veins containing copper ores appear to be principally
associated with the serpentines and amphibolic rocks.
The lodes containing lead and zinc ores, with but little
copper ores, accompany the euritic rocks.
The same ores occur in the igneous rocks, partly dissemi-
nated through the mass, partly as fine strings, or even as true
veins, but without vein-stones.
Similar phenomena also occur in the other rocks near
the igneous ones ; but here the vein-stones accompany the ores,
and encrease in quantity with the distance from the igneous
rocks.
The breadth, continuance, and regularity, of the veins
appear to depend on the firmness of the country-rock.
The ores generally occupy the middle of the lodes. They
are seldom regularly distributed throughout their whole extent.
The richest portions appear to form chimneys, which follow the
direction of dip.
The most frequent vein-stone is quartz ; it usually contains
but little ore, where compactly filling the broad fissure; while
PONT-GIBAUD LODES NEAR CLERMONT. 375
a combed texture, -and the occurrence of geodes, are regarded
as favorable signs of an encreased abundance of ore.
It will scarcely be necessary to remark, that these veins
are evidently of the same character, as the barytic and quartz-
ose veins of the Erzgebirge, and many other localities in Ger-
many; and that this type of lodes appears to be altogether the
most common.
LODES IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF PONT-GIBAUD
NEAR CLERMONT.
210. The district around Pontgibaud consists of gneiss,
and granite, traversed by porphyries and basalts; which last
have also partly overflowed, as slaggy lavas.
The numerous lodes, which traverse this district, strike
NE. SW., from which there are some exceptions; and they
are frequently bent and branched. They do not penetrate into
the basaltic rocks, and are, therefore, probably older than these.
The chief ore is argentiferous galena. Rivot and Zeppenfeld l
distinguish two kinds of vein-formations. Only one vein is com-
posed entirely of quartz with a little disseminated galena; this
strikes almost N. S. The rest consist of mixtures of feldspar,
varying but little from the enclosing granite. This mass, as well
as the enclosing granite, is much decomposed to a depth of 150
feet, being almost reduced to clay ; and the rock, in each deeper
gallery opened, also decomposes very rapidly. The indistinct
mixture consists of quartz, and feldspar, with a little mica ; in
which occur argentiferous galena, somewhat of blende, iron-
pyrites, tetrahedrite, and in some veins also heavy spar. The
galena is generally distributed as small crystals or grains, rarely
arranged in layers or strings. Iron-pyrites is principally found
near the numerous intersecting veins of pyrites. Near Vernede
somewhat of fluor spar also occurs in the lodes.
The ores are distributed in chimneys, extending 150 180,
at the outside 450 feet in a horizontal direction, but descending
in the depth like columns. The barren portions of the veins
are generally more distinctly separated from the country-rock
1 See: Rivot and Zeppenfeld, in Annales d. mines, 1850, vol. XVIII.
p. 137; Gueniveau, in Annal. d. mines, 1822, vol. VII. p. 163; Kosmann,
in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1865, p. 281.
376 MANGANESE OF ROMANECHE.
by selvages, than those portions containing ores. All these lodes
are occasionally traversed, near Pontgibaud, by clay-fissures
containing but traces of galena.
The chief mines are at Pranal in the Sioule Valley, where
twelve champion- lodes occur, and near Roure, where there are
eight veins ; both groups lie in the same direction of strike, and
thus appear to belong to the same group, which has only not
been exploited in the intermediate region.
The circumstance is certainly very remarkable, that the
principal mass of these lodes consists of a granite-like and, there-
fore, possibly igneous rock. The ores and minerals accom-
panying them perhaps subsequently penetrated these.
MANGANESE DEPOSITS OF ROMANECHE IN THE
DEPT. OF SAONE-ET-LOIRE.
211. Dolomieu 1 first designated the deposits, as segrega-
tions lying on granite: they were afterwards considered to be
broad veins in granite. Bonnard has described them nearly as
follows:
The neighborhood of Romaneche is composed of granite,
partially overlaid by a granitic arkose, probably formed by the
decomposition of the former. The chief deposits occur in this
arkose, they strike N. S., dip about 45 in E., and their breadth
alternates between 7 10 fathoms. Their immediate foot-wall
is a more porphyritic arkose, while their direct hanging-wall is
composed of a marly clay, containing nodular masses of man-
ganese ores, and traversed by strings of such. The deposit
itself consists of compact manganese ore, intimately combined
with quartz, fluor and heavy spar; and surrounds numerous
nodules and fragments of clay, hornstone, the hanging-rock,
granite, grains of quartz, etc. ; so that the entire mass represents
a breccia, cemented together by manganese ore. This deposit is
known to extend a length of 150200 fathoms. To the South
of, and in the prolongation of its strike, occurs a true vein of
manganese in granite, one fathom broad.
1 See: Dolomieu, in Journal d. mines, 1796; Bonnard, in Annales d.
sciences naturelles, 1829, p. 285; and Leonhard's Jahrb. 1833, p. 562.
CHESSY COPPER-DEPOSITS.
COPPER-DEPOSITS AT CHESSY NEAR LYON.
377
212. These ore-deposits, so well known to all mineralo-
gists, for the splendid specimens of azurite formerly obtained
from them, are also very interesting in a geological point of
view, and give a certain insight into the manner of the forma-
tion of a whole class of metalliferous deposits. Raby 1 has
described these deposits quite completely; and the following is
condensed from what he says.
Old crystalline rocks are here immediately in contact with
Buntsandstein and more recent formations, which recline on
them with a steep southeasterly dip. The crystalline rocks are ;
granite, gneiss, mica-schist, clay-slate, and an aphanitic rock.
The last-mentioned predominates near the metalliferous deposits.
The various kinds of copper-ores occur in the* following
manner :
a, called 'mine jaune', represents a segregation of pyrites
surrounded by aphanite: it consisted of a mixture of iron and
copper pyrites, and blende ; the irregular, lenticular mass dipped,
tolerably parallel to the enclosing strata, about 60 in SE. ; its
greatest thickness, at a depth of 10 fathoms, was 7 l / 2 fathoms;
its extent, in a horizontal direction, 60 fathoms, and in that of
dip, about 100 fathoms. This was evidently the original manner
of the ore-occurrence in this region, from which the others have
been formed by alteration:
Vertical section.
Buntsandstein.
1 See: Raby, in Annales d. mines. 1833, vol. IV. p. 393; Cordier, in
same, 182, vol. VI. p. 16; Gueniveau, in Journal d. mines, 1806, No. 118;
Fournet, in Plnstitiit. 1837, p. 246.
378
COPPER-MINES AT
Horizontal section.
Ancient rocks.
Lias
The accompanying woodcuts represent a vertical, and a
horizontal section, of the relations of bedding, in so far as they
have been opened-up by the mines at Chessy:
b, and c, the 'mine grise', and 'mine noire', were rounded
masses, consisting of intimate mixtures of iron and copper py-
rites, melaconite (?), silica, and some other substances, forming
a sort of contact-deposit, between the crystalline rocks and the
Buntsandstein or, more clearly expressed, in a wedge-shaped
intermediate bed, upwards of 10 fathoms broad, consisting of a
grayish-white rock of undetermined character; which appears
on one side to pass into aphanite, on the other to be separated
from the sandstone by clay, containing ramifications of this un-
determined rock. This mass has perhaps been formed by meta-
morphosis from aphanite. The largest of the ore-masses occur-
ring in it, had a length of 6, breadth of l T / 2 , and depth of 2 1 / a
fathoms :
d y the 'mine rouge', a vertical bed of red clay, 1 2 fathoms
broad, containing angular fragments of quartz, and aphanite, pene-
trated by red copper. This bed seems to be a kind of contact-
vein ; i. e. the mostly mechanical filling of a fissure, between
the aphanite and Buntsandstein.
The layers of the Bnntsandstein locally contain, alongside
of this bed d } a fourth kind of ore, called 'mine bleu', repre-
sented in the woodcuts by zigzag lines. This consists of azurite
with somewhat of malachite; and forms a kind of impregnation
CHESSY NEAR LYON. 379
in the sandstone. The ore forms, partly parallel beds in sand-
stone, a few inches thick, at times containing grains of sand,
and passing into sandstone cemented together by azurite; partly
geodes, covered with crystals of azurite; partly round balls
of azurite, hollow within. The distribution of these ores in
sandstone occupies a space about 200 fathoms long in the
direction of strike, 2 fathoms broad in the direction of dip,
and 10 fathoms thick. Beyond this ores are barely traceable
in the sandstone, and cannot, therefore, be properly regarded
as having been formed contemporaneously. These blue, as
well as the red, copper-ores have evidently been formed by
the decomposition of pyrites, and are of much more recent for-
mation than these, probably also than the Buntsandstein] since
traces of them can be found in the fissures of the Lias-limestone,
overlying the sandstone. The sandstone strata are also locally
much impregnated by peroxide of iron; to so great an extent,
that one of the beds of sandstone gave 30 per cent of iron on
being smelted. It is very comprehensible, that this iron also
came from the decomposition of the pyrites.
It may therefore be accepted, that in the neighborhood of
Chessy a number of pyrite segregations, rich in copper, first
existed in the older crystalline rocks: these have been partially
decomposed with their enclosing rock, while remaining in place ;
from which action have been formed the black and gray masses,
b and c, occurring in the problematical contact-rock. After
this the Buntsandstein and Lias formations were deposited. The
decomposition of the pyrite segregations still continued ; perhaps
during, and certainly after the deposit of these formations, by
which the red and blue copper-ores were formed ; these are
found to contain fewer admixtures of pyrites, the farther removed
they are from the crystalline rocks. Perhaps the upheaval and
tilting of the strata were still later occurrences. The red vein-
like contact-bed cf is the most difficult to explain. The entire
occurrence of these copper-ore impregnations in the sandstone
somewhat resembles those of Bohmisch-Brod ( 143) and Hohen-
elbe ( 145); except that here their origin is much more evident,
the original ore-deposit lies nearer, and the impregnation is lo-
cally more concentrated. Ferret 1 has found 1 per cent of gold
in the copper obtained from the Chessy ores.
1 See: Compte rendu, 1849, vol. XXIX. p. 700.
380 BRITTANY. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
The mixtures of iron and copper pyrites near Sain-Bel occur
in the continuation of the same geological conditions, but here
as numerous veins in a talcose schist.
XXII. BRITTANY.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
213. Brittany, the westernmost, mountainous portion of
France, projecting into the ocean like a peninsula, consists prin-
cipally of granite, crystalline schists, and Palaeozoic strata ; which
are irregularly distributed, and do not rise to distinct mountain-
chains. .
Tin and lead deposits are known to occur in the old
crystalline rocks of this district; of which a few will be here
described. Iron ores also occur; but I pass them over, as in no
way particularly interesting.
TIN-DEPOSITS.
214. Durocher 1 has divided the tin-deposits into five
classes: occurring in the gneiss-granite portion, 'or on its borders;
which all lie in a belt, lying N. S., whose northern prolongation
touches the tin-district of Cornwall:
1. Stanniferous quartz- veins, which also contain white mica,
beryl, tourmaline, and mispickel; on the edge of a granite district
between the valleys of the Oust and Claye;
2. Stanniferous quartz-veins, with tourmaline, and mispickel,
near Questembert ; partly in granite, partly in mica-schist : they
strike WNW. ESE. and appear to be richest in the mica-
schist, and in this, chiefly near granite dikes;
1 See: Durocher, in Compte rendu, 1851, vol. 32, p. 902, and 1857,
vol. 45, pp. 502, 522; Mallard, in same, 1866, vol. 62. p. 223; Simonin, in
same, p. 364; Elie de Beaumont, Explicat. de la carte geol. de la France,
1841, pp. 202, 204; Audibert, in Amiales des mines, 1845, vol. VII. p.
181; Daubre"e, in same, 1841, vol. XX. p. 96; Blavier, and Lorieux,
in same, 1834, vol. VI. p. 381; Dufrenoy, in same, 1828, vol. III. p. 55.
TIN-DEPOSITS. 381
3. Stanniferous quartz- veins, with feldspar : they traverse the
granite, and mica-schist on the borders of the granite, near
Piriac; and form a network of veins intersecting in various
directions ;
4. Tin-ore-impregnations, resembling Fallbands, in horn-
blende-schist, which also contains epidote and garnet: the tin-ore
is distributed in strings, parallel to, or intersecting the foliation :
the impregnated rock is also traversed by quartz-veins containing
tourmaline ;
5. Tin-placers, nearly always containing somewhat of gold ;
near the deposits in place.
The principal deposits are those near Piriac, at the mouth
of the Loire ; and near Villeder, in the Dept. of Morbihan. I
have in the following description mostly followed the memoirs
of Elie de Beaumont, arid Blavier; which do not, however, al-
together coincide with the more recent, but shorter memoir of
Durocher.
The tin-deposits at Piriac are very irregular, and occur in
gneiss and mica-schist near their junction with granite.
The ores occur in two ways:
1. in veins of hyaline milk-quartz;
2. as pockets in gneiss.
The cassiterite forms isolated and irregularly distributed
masses in the quartz-veins; all of which veins do not Contain
tin-ore, but only those which are parallel to the foliation; while
those at right angles do not contain any ore. The question
may, therefore, arise, whether they should not be considered as
ore-beds.
The pockets occur in a decomposed gneiss, whose feldspar
is altered to kaolin. The cassiterite forms small concretions in
this kaolin, occasionally crystallized; while no crystals occur in
the quartz-veins.
Near these deposits, but only in valleys, or basins, with
which the granite-gneiss district is connected, occur numerous
tin-placers; in which are also found crystals, or rounded frag-
ments, of zircon, spinel, tourmaline, beryl, and magnetite.
There is one champion-lode, in particular, in the granite
near Villeder, which strikes NW. SE. and dips 60 in NE.
The same attains a breadth of 13 feet, and consists of white
hyaline quartz, having a somewhat greenish color where it con-
tains tin-ore. This quartz is generally very free from foreign
382 TIN-PLACERS.
admixtures, but shows, in places, the imprint of destroyed acieu-
lar crystals. Near the tin-ore, on the contrary, it contains
small pockets of clay, with mispickel, and crystals of beryl, and
topaz. Threads of limonite, traversp it, parallel to the selvages.
It is also somewhat divided into layers, which are separated
from one another by thin layers of sand. The vein is only
found in granite, and does not pass into the surrounding schist.
The still older description of Blavier does not altogether
agree with this of Elie de Beaumont; without its being perfectly
clear, whether they do not refer to two different lodes. The vein,
near the mill, of Villeder, strikes, according to Blavier, N'NW.
SSE., dips but 25 in NNE. aud attains a breadth of 2633
feet. It consists of quartz with somewhat of cassiterite, mispickel,
beryl, tourmaline, and limonite.
To these deposits must be added a more recent discovery,
described by Audibert.
To the South of Ploermel the granite joins the somewhat
metamorphosed Silurian slates in the Oust valley, forming a
projection into the slates; in which projection it is inter-
sected, near its limits at Maupas, by 5 or 6 stanniferous
quartz-veins. They strike NE. SW. and have a considerable
dip in NW. ; their breadth, between 9 and 18 inches; while
they frequently split up into branches, often again uniting. They
can only be followed for a distance of 4 fathoms (a single case
11 fathoms) in the direction of strike, when they disappear in
the granite, which is medium-grained and very micaceous. The
white hyaline quartz, of which they consist, contains here and
there somewhat of cassiterite, in small bunches, or isolated crys-
tals, at times so little, that it is almost impossible to recognise
it, being collected in considerable quantities at one of the sel-
vages in but a single lode. The granite, alongside of these
veins, also contains, in places, somewhat of cassiterite, porphy-
ritically disseminated; while, contrary to the usual manner of
occurrence, it is in these places particularly rich in feldspar,
and contains but little quartz, as if the last had been displaced
by the tin-ore. The cassiterite is accompanied by considerable
mispickel, occasionally, also, by mica, beryl, and limonite. These
lodes are not rich enough to be exploited, but appear to be con-
nected with those at Villeder.
Tin-placers are found along, almost, the whole extent of
coast, between the mouths of the Loire and the Vilaine, they
LEAD-LODES. 383
are, also, frequent between the Oust and the Claye; finally,
southward of Josselin in Morbihan, on granite and around the
district it occupies. The cassiterite forms partly crystals, partly
rounded pebbles. These pebbles lie in the lowest portion of
the Alluvium, immediately on the granite, or crystalline schists.
They originated in the veins, or impregnations, within these
rocks. Curiously enough, somewhat of tin-ore is also washed
out of the Miocene strata, with which it must have been con-
temporaneously deposited, in a similar manner to the tin-ores in
the more recent placers. This is especially the case, on the
coast of Penestin, southerly of the mouth of the Vilaine. This
is a similar case to that, with which we have already become
acquainted in the gold of the Rhine, which has been formerly
deposited in the Molasse strata of Switzerland.
The following minerals are commonly found in the tin-pla-
cers of Brittany : magnetite, ilmenite, micaceous iron, garnet, spinel,
zircon, and native gold in scales; thus near Piriac, Penestin,
and Josselin. Durocher found in the Haie valley somewhat of
native mercury, partly in fluid drops, partly amalgamated with
gold and silver. The original deposit of these metals has not
been discovered.
Tin-ore is found in three localities, in the granite, near
Vaury and Puy-les-Vigner. According to De Cressac, quartz-
veins, a few inches broad, occur in granite passing into greisen,
which contain: tin-ore, wolfram, molybdenite, mispickel, copper-
pyrites, domeykite, melaconite, native copper, fluoritic mica, and
fluor spar. The country-rock is also somewhat impregnated by
these minerals. This is a mode of occurrence very analogous
to that of Zinnwald in the Erzgebirge.
THE LODES OF POULLAOUEN AND HUELGOAT.
215. The broad and rich argentiferous lead-lodes of Mor-
laix 1 occur in Silurian clay-slate. In addition to several less
important ones, two champion-lodes are known, those of Poul-
laouen, and Huelgoat.
1 See: Daubuisson, in Journal des Mines, 1806, No. 119, p. 347 ; 1807,
No. 122, p. 81; Elie de Beaumont, Explicat. de la Carte geolog. de la
France, p. 237.
384 POULLAOUEN AND HUELGOAT.
The lode of Poullaouen has been opened, for a length of
more than 750 fathoms, and depth of about 100 fathoms; it forms
a- curve, coursing NW. SE. and dips 45 in NE. ; while the
clay-slate, containing quajtzite and. greenstone, which forms its
wall-rock, strikes ENE. WSW. ad dips 40-50 in S.
The breadth of this lode is very variable, it widens in places
to 25 fathoms, and contracts in others to a few inches, averaging
about 1 fathom. Its real breadth is very difficult to determine ;
since distinct selvages are wanting, and it is often split into side-
branches, which can be regarded ad libitum', as forming a por-
tion of the lode, or not; since the matrix is mostly a sort of
clay-slate, mixed with quartz; which frequently passes into sili-
ceous slate, or black hornstone ; frequently traversed, in turn,
by quartz-strings.
The principal ore is argentiferous galena, combined with
somewhat of blende, and iron-pyrites. The ores, like the quartz,
form a network of threads, or strings, in which the galena is
but rarely combined with the quartz, generally with the clay-
slate ; the separate threads are only a few lines to several inches
broad, they often separate, and again unite. Grains of ore are
sometimes found, through the slate forming the matrix; and even
the wall-rock is often somewhat impregnated. The lode is con-
sidered rich, when the galena forms l / 10 of the total mass.
The ores are by no means equally distributed; but are
collected in chimneys, 4050 fathoms long, and extending at
variable angles in the depth. Whether the wall-rock, in these
portions, is of a peculiar kind, is not stated. The similarity of
this lode, with those of Clausthal, is very great.
The champion-lode of Huelgoat is much more regular, than
that of Poullaouen. It has been developed for a length of 500
fathoms, and depth of 135 fathoms. It strikes NW. SE. and
dips 70 in SE.; its country-rock is a black clay-slate. Its
breadth averages l 1 /^ 2 fathoms, but occasionally reaches 13
fathoms. The same contains, besides, argentiferous galena, some-
what of native silver, and kerargyrite in a kind of iron ochre.
The principal matrix of the lode is quartz, besides which are
found: pyrites, blende, pyromorphite, cerusite, plumbo-resinite,
and laumontite ; blende and quartz sometimes form ring-ores, the
kernel consisting of blende. Fragments of the wall-rock, and
even rounded portions, are very frequently found in the mass
of the lode.
PYRENEES. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 385
XXIII. THE PYRENEES.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION '
216. Granitic rocks, combined with crystalline schists, crop-
out, especially in the eastern portion of the chain ; while, towards
the West, they form more isolated central points, in a large
district of Paleozoic rocks, extending throughout the whole
mountain-chain. Triassic deposits also occur in the interior of
the mountains; while strata of the Jurassic and Cretaceous
Periods occur in the outer portions.
The granites, in part porphyritic from large crystals of
feldspar, are frequently traversed by fine-grained, or very coarse-
grained dikes of granite. Similar dikes also frequently traverse
the Palaeozoic strata. Certain granitic rocks have even penetra-
ted into the limestones of the Jurassic group ; and others appear,
according to Durocher, to have, at least, altered the adjoining
Cretaceous deposits.
The Paleozoic slates, and limestones, are every where much
altered, to considerable distances from the granites. The slates
contain chiastolith, and pass into mica-schist, talc-schist, etc., with
numerous accessory minerals. The limestones have become crys-
talline, and contain numerous silicates.
Traces, of at least six successive upheavals, can be recog-
nised. Durocher called attention to the fact, that the metalli-
ferous deposits, like those of Brittany, are mostly found near the
limits of igneous rocks. In the Pyrenees, the ore-deposits gener-
ally occur, at the junctions of the igneous with the stratified
rocks; occasionally also in the granites.
Thus iron-ores, often consisting of mixtures of hematite and
limonite, occur very commonly, with quartz, at the junctions of
granite with Palaeozoic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous limestones.
They occur in these last, but owe their origin to the granite,
although it is older than these ore-deposits, which were formed
1 See: Durocher, in Aim des mines, 1834, vol. V. p. 307; 1844, vol. VI.
p. 15(93); Dufrenoy, in Ann. des sciences naturelles, 1833, vol. 30, p. 59
Baron de Dietrich, Gites de mineral des Pyrenees, 1806; de Charpentier,;
Constitution go'ognost. des Pyrenees, 1823.
25
386 MANGANESE IN HAUTES-PYRKN&ES.
between the Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods, and are said to be
connected with the principal upheaval of the Pyrenees.
It is the same with the majority of the other ore-deposits.
The veins of copper-pyrites at Fos^occur between granite, and
black marl-slate of the Cretaceous; into which last extend rami-
fications of the granite ; the copper-deposit of Canavilles, between
granite, Palaeozoic slate, and limestone ; the veins of copper-pyrites
and galena at Vicdesos, at the limits of granite and granitic in-
jections. The iron-deposits of Rancie, the lead-deposits of Ar-
gentieres, Laquore, and Castelminier, as well as the copper-de-
posits of Escanerades in Palaeozoic limestone at the limits of
granite. The veins of argentiferous galena, of the Luchon-
valley, in Palaeozoic slate, near the granite mass of the Cra-
biules ; the galena-lodes of the Essera-valley in Palaeozoic slate
and limestone traversed by granite dikes ; the arsenical cobalt-
deposits of the Gistain-valley in Palaeozoic slate and limestone,
overlying the granite; the argentiferous and cupriferous veins
of iron-pyrites in the granite of the Esterry valley, etc. Be-
sides these, numerous less regular gash-veins of iron-ores occur
in the Pyrenees, as in Brittany, between sedimentary strata, only
near the surface, without extending to any depth. Finally these
same granite limits are characterised by the very frequent oc-
currence of sulphur-springs.
I shall only describe a few of the metalliferous deposits in
the Pyrenees, which have been very completely examined and
described.
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE DEPT. OF
HAUTES-PYRENEES.
217. The district between the valleys of the Luchon
and Campan; in which the manganese deposits 1 occur, in
a zone about 8200 fathoms long, lying E. W. ; consists
of argillaceous, marly, and by no means metamorphic,
slates; with numerous thin, embedded layers of limestone, both
belonging to the Palaeozoic. The strata course regularly enough,
WNW. ESE. ; except that in the zone, where the manganese-
ores are found, disturbances of the bedding have every where
See: Gruner, in Annal. d. mines, 1850, vol. XVIII. p. 61.
CULERA IN CATALONIA. 387
taken place; so that it would appear as if this zone were the
line of a dislocation of large dimensions.
The manganese-ores are not combined among themselves,
but form irregular masses at the surface, or fill irregular de-
pressions, fissures, cavities, or pockets in the strata; in the same
manner as oolithic ores in many other localities. Probably these
variously shaped cavities have been formed by the same causes,
which have so essentially disturbed the regularity of the
stratification of the zone in question. The minerals filling these
cavities are, chiefly, a black, anhydrous ore of manganese; in
compact, cellular, or earthy condition ; mingled towards the edges
with ferruginous clay, and accompanied at some depth by dia-
logite, which is implanted on the walls of limestone. Unaltered
fragments of limestone occur in these, near Soulan, entirely sur-
rounded by ore.
The entire manner of occurrence appears, according to
Gruner, to indicate, that these ores have been deposited by
mineral' springs, containing bicarbonate of manganese in solution,
which have penetrated to the surface, through the numerous fis-
sures in the zone of dislocation, and deposited a portion of their
metalliferous contents, under an escape of carbonic acid, either
near or at the surface.
This explanation has undoubtedly a great degree of proba-
bility; and even the anhydrous condition of the ores cannot be
regarded as contrary proof; although the warm springs, in other
regions, generally deposit hydrated oxide of manganese. The
conditions, under which the deposit took place, may have been
different; or the water, at first present, may have subsequently
disappeared, by one of the processes of alteration, so common
in ores of manganese. Nothing definite can be stated concerning
the age of the deposit.
The principal localities where the ores are exploited are :
Vielle, Germ, and Soulan.
CULERA IN CATALONIA.
218. The village of Cul^ra, 1 in the easternmost portion
of the Pyrenees, lies on the southern slope of the spur forming the
1 See: Mil Her, in Cotta's Gangstudien, vol. II. p. 321; Resales, in
Revista minera, Madrid, 1851, vol. II. p. 725.
25*
388 LODES OF GOLD, AND LEAD.
Cap de Cerbera, between the small town of Llanza and the
boundaries of France. The neighboring mountains consist of
Palaeozoic rocks, while granite and quartz-porphyry are the only
igneous rocks occurring in the neighborhood. The Paleozoic rocks
are often traversed by veins of calc-spar, and lenticular veins,
and masses of quartz. These quartz-masses form ; in their shape
and composition, transitions into the auriferous quartz ; they,
also, occasionally contain traces of copper pyrites.
These rocks contain two kinds of lodes: viz. auriferous
quartz-veins; and, more recent, lead-lodes. The gold-veins strike
KE.SW. and dip in SE., more rarely in NW. Their breadth
varies from a few inches to one, or even two, fathoms. They
are very irregular in regard to their length, and even pass into
the subordinate lenticular veins above-mentioned. They consist
mostly of a white to dark gray, greasy quartz, in which some-
what of mispickel, iron-pyrites, copper-pyrites, galena, brown
blende^ and native gold, are finely disseminated. The quartz
sometimes contains, besides these, fragments of the wall-rock,
and is but rarely traversed by strings of calc-spar. It is firmly
attached to the wall-rock; but the line of demarcation between
the two is distinctly defined, being, at times, separated by
friction-surfaces : white mispickel is the most common, among
the minerals above-mentioned, and contains argentiferous gold.
The galena, and blende, also contain somewhat of gold and silver.
The gold generally forms extremely thin incrustations, or small
grains, most commonly associated with galena, blende, and mis-
pickel. These ores are nowhere equally distributed through the
gang; the dark gray, greasy quartz being the richest. No law
could be recognised with regard to the distribution of the ore.
Numerous veins of this kind have been found, the most impor-
tant of which seems to be that in the Carolina mine. The Veta
blanca, on the contrary, which protrudes as a high rock- wall,
2030 feet high, and strikes NNW. SSE., appears to belong
to another, non-auriferous, quartz- formation, in which only traces
occur of copper and iron pyrites, and spathic iron.
The lead-lodes of the same district have a very irregular
strike, attain, a breadth of 2 inches to 3 feet, and are, for the
most part, composed of decomposed country-rock, with calc-
spar, fluor spar, spathic iron, black or brown blende, galena (con-
taining but little silver and no gold), iron and copper pyrites. The
ores and vein-stones are irregularly intermingled with one another.
SPAIN. GENERAL SUMMARY. 389
XXIV. SPAIN. ;;
GENERAL SUMMARY.
219. It is known, that under the dominion of the Ro-
mans, and even until the discovery of America, a profitable
metal-mining existed in many parts of Spain. The discovery of
America was the cause of a general decline of the mining interests
of the country, nearly all the forces being turned across the
ocean to the deposits, in part still richer, there discovered.
It is principally since 1820, that the Spaniards have recom-
menced looking for the traces of the old works, and developing
the natural treasures of their own country.
The iron-deposits of this land exhibit nothing, either new
or interesting; so that I shall confine myself to those deposits,
whose description appeared reliable, in those French and Ger-
man works to which I had access. Ezquerra del Bayo's map
in Leonhard's Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie for 1851, on which the
most important mining localities are marked, gives a very good
idea of the geological topography. Without grouping the de-
posits into districts, I shall describe the zinc-deposits of San-
tander, the silver lodes of Hiendelencia, the silver and lead
lodes of the Sierra Carthagena, of the Sierra Almagrera, and of
the neighborhood of Linares ; the copper-deposits of the Province
of Huelva, and the quicksilver-deposits of Almaden. I pass
over the Kingdom of Portugal, although it is not wanting in
metalliferous deposits.
CALAMINE DEPOSITS IN THE PROVINCE OF
SANTANDER.
220. A very considerable deposit of zinc- ores occurs in
the Province of Santander, 1 on the north coast of Spain, between
the western portion of the Pyrenees and the sea. They do not
extend continuously and without interruption 5 but occur in many
localities at a certain niveau, between the strata of the Upper
1 See: Fel. Banza, in Mining Magazine, 1861, p. 73; Sullivan, and
O'Reilly, in Revue de Geologie, II. p. 102; Schonichen, in Berg- und
huttenm. Zeit. 1863, p. 163; Riviere, in Compte rendu, 1858, p. 728.
390 CALAMINE IN SANTANDER.
Jura, in a very similar manner to the zinc-deposits of Upper
Silesia, the Ruhr district, and Belgium, in older strata. The
separate deposits, which are not every where rich enough to be
exploited, form near Santander, partly recumbent segregations,
partly bedlike impregnations; partly refill irregular fissures, even
in the form of oolithic grains, in such a manner, that they cannot
be termed true beds, although they resemble such in their
general geological extension. They always occur at the contact
of ferruginous clayey shales and dolomites; the first forming
their floor, the last their roof. At times separate portions of
these are altered into calamine and smithsonite, while inwardly
still consisting of dolomite.
The strata, which are conformable with one another, although
not every where present, consist, in descending order, of:
1. Dolomite, and magnesian limestone, very thick;
2. foe-deposits, consisting of blende more or less altered to calamine.
or galena, combined with dolomite;
3. Ochreous clay, hematite, and limonite, cupriferous clay, etc.
4. Argillaceous limestone;
5. Argillaceous, slaty limestone;
6. Sand, and sandstone;
7. Argillaceous shale, and stratified sandstone, with lignite;
8. Stratified limestone.
Above the dolomites, immediately overlying the ore-deposits,
more recent ones occasionally occur, also, containing strings, and
pockets, of white calamine, and zinc-bloom.
According to Riviere, distinct fossils of the Cretaceous
group occur in the limestones of this group; while Schorii-
chen and O'Reilly consider the same as belonging to the Jura
formation.
It has already been remarked, that the ores were not
equally distributed through the dolomite-belt, . but were grouped
in irregular deposits, of unequal richness, although of similar
composition. The zinc-ores are generally very predominant,
among these even the blende (near Cumillas), which usually oc-
cupies the lower portions in the thicker deposits. The other
zinc-ores are smithsonite, calamine, and zinc-bloom. After the
zinc-ores, galena is the most important; besides these ores, are
also found oxides of manganese, carbonates of copper, arsenates
of nickel, etc., which cause numerous changes of color.
These zinc-deposits evidently correspond, in general, with
those with which we have already become acquainted, near Aix-la-
HIENDELENCIA LODES IN GUADALAJARA. 391
Chapelle, at Wiesloch, and in Silesia. Their manner of occur-
rence, combined with dolomite, is also entirely analogous, even
though belonging to a much more recent formation; the only slight
difference is the occurrence of blende, and the presence of zinc-
bloom, copper and nickel ores. Their origin will certainly prove
to be an analogous one, and not to belong to the period, during
which the dolomites were formed, but a subsequent one.
THE LODES OF HIENDELENCIA IN THE PROVINCE
OF GUADALAJARA.
221. Hiendelencia 1 lies, 180 kilometers northeast of
Madrid, on a spur of the Guadarrama mountain-chain. The
rock in the neighborhood is principally gneiss, whose different
varieties alternate with other crystalline schists and quartzites.
These schists are traversed by two different systems of lodes, the
one of which courses NE. SW., the other N.- S. The lodes of
the first are composed of heavy spar, those of the last of quartz :
both contain silver ores; but the first, the most.
The best known, and, as yet, most important of the barytic
lodes, is the Santa-Cecilia or Canto-Bianco. Its real breadth
never exceeds 2 inches, but it sends out numerous and, in part,
important branches on both sides, which frequently re-unite with
the principal vein. It is generally almost perpendicular, but
occasionally has but a very gentle dip. The gang of heavy
spar contains silver glance, as the chief ore, distributed through
it. From this last ruby silver, native silver, as well as chloride,
bromide and iodide of silver, appear to have been formed by
decomposition. Some portions of galena, and stibnite, both very
argentiferous, also occur.
A decomposed bed-layer in mica-schist, occurs near Con-
gostrina, only 10 kilometers distant from the just mentioned
veins; which contains small masses or grains of silver-glance and
ruby silver. Ezquerra del Bayo thinks, that this layer has been
formed by the denudation of the above lodes, and that it is
consequently a true bed, and so a sort of ancient placer. I
1 See: Ezquerra del Bayo, in Cotta's Gangstudien, vol. II. p. 309,
Leonhard's Jahrb. 1851, p. 46; Ruyz y Leon, in Tlnstitut, 1845, XIII.
p. 381, Bulletin gcolog. 1846, III. p. 648; Breithaupt, in Berg- u huttenm.
Zeit. 1854, p. 9; De Aldama, in Revista ininera, 1851, II. p. 184.
392 SIERRA DE CARTHAGENA.
must confess, that this explanation appears to me scarcely
probable; but reserve any positive opinion, with regard to a
fact, of which I know so little. Bayo goes still farther, since
he supposes the silver (probably in the form of silver glance)
found in a Tertiary clay near Hita, 50 kilometers from Hien-
delencia, to owe its origin to a similar erosion, and subsequent
deposit.
LODES JN THE SIERRA DE CARTHAGENA.
222. The Sierra de Carthagena 1 forms a coast-branch
of the Sierra Nevada, in an East- West line. It consists of Silurian
slates and limestones, traversed by trachytes and basalts, sur-
rounded at the base by Tertiary strata.
The Silurian rocks and trachytes are traversed near Alma-
zarron on the Monte-Rajado, east of Carthagena, by a number
of lodes having a predominant N. S. and E. W. strike, and
commonly vertical. Where they traverse the Silurian rocks they
occur, according to their nature, partly as regular fissure- veins
intersecting the strata obliquely to their course, partly separating
into branches, which strike parallel to the strata. In the last
case they often form very narrow branches, or broader lenticular
masses. They often enclose fragments of slate or trachyte, and
are consequently of more recent age than this last. Their matrix
is, according to Fournet, of especial geological interest. It
consists of an irregular mixture of a ferruginous silicate with
galena, iron and copper pyrites, mispickel, magnetite, calc-spar,
heavy spar, and quartz. These ingredients penetrate one another
in a peculiar manner, in fine strings, threads, nodular masses,
dendrites, etc., also forming small geodes.
In the broader veins, or at the broadest points of the same
lode, the ferruginous siliceous mass predominates, while the
narrower branches and strings are almost exclusively filled with
sulphurets. Fournet thinks, that the mass of the vein has pene-
trated in an igneous-fluid condition, in which the siliceous and
1 See: Sauvage, in Annal. d. mines, 4th series, vol. IV. p. 113;
Gruner, in same, 1842, vol. I. p. 712; Pernolet, in same, 1846, vol. IX.
p. 42; Fournet, in Compte rendu, 1S57, vol. 44, p. 12^3; Lasala, in Re-
vista minera, 1852, vol. III. p. 551; Von Hingenau, in Oesterreich. Zeit-
schrift f. Berg- u. Hiittenw. 1861, p. 385; Berggeist, 1862, p. 414.
SIERRA ALMAGRERA. 393
earthy portions were prevented, by their viscous condition, from
penetrating into the finer clefts with the more thinly fluid sul-
phurets. Although I cannot coincide in this view, I also refrain
from expressing any positive opinion, on geological facts, which
I have not had the opportunity to examine personally.
Pernolet describes two other kinds of lead- deposits. The
one seem to form impregnations of galena, pyrites, and blende,
in a compact green rock; the other form beds or bedded veins
in limestone. In the last galena occurs, apparently unaccom-
panied by either pyrites or blende.
LODES IN THE SIERRA ALMAGRERA.
223. The Sierra Almagrera 1 rises in the northern portion
of the Province of Almeria, immediately on the coast of the
Mediterranean Sea, and about 1000 feet above its surface. The
Small Cordillera (the coast-chain) is, at the most, 15 miles long,
and 3 broad. While rising rather precipitously out of the sea,
towards the Southeast, it declines very gradually, at an angle
of about 6, on its northwestern slope, towards the plains of
Cuevas and Pulpi. Both slopes are intersected by deep gorges
(Barrancos). The principal strike of its crest is NE. SW., it
consists entirely of mica-schist passing into clay-slate. An igneous
rock is nowhere seen, but the schist is traversed by numerous
veins, the most important of which has been called Jaroso after
one of the gorges. This at times splits up into numerous branches,
especially towards the N., so that at last an exploitation of the
narrow droppers has to be given up; while southwardly a. great
fault appears to cut off the lode. The exploitable portion, between
the two, is about 18002100 feet long. The strike of the vein
is almost due N. S., it, therefore, crosses the mountain-crest
somewhat obliquely, the dip averages 60 in E., near the sur-
1 See: Riidiger, in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit 1843, p. 457; Breithaupt,
in same, 1852, p. 65; Ezquerra del Bayo, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1841,
p. 354, 1843, p. 787, 1851, p. 46; Pellico and Maestro, in Annal. des
mines, 1841, vol. II. p. 124; Revista minera, 1851, vol. II. p. 592; Pellico,
in same, vol. III. p. 1; Lambert, Proceedings of the roy. geol. soc. of
London, 1840, vol. III. p. 318; Gruner, in Annal. d. mines, 1842, vol. I.
p. 713; Paillette, in same, 1842, vol. II. p. 287; Pernolet, in same, 184fl,
vol. IX. p. 35 (71 J.
394 MINERALS, AND LODES, OF
face somewhat more, at a greater depth somewhat less. The
leaders also dip somewhat more, while the schist inclines 45 in
NE. The breadth of this fine lode gradually encreases from the
surface to a depth of 35 fathoms, being about 3 J /2 fathoms at its
maximum; at a still greater depth/* it decreases, and only aver-
ages about 5 feet at a depth of 82 fathoms. According to Rii-
dinger, the contents of the lode show a similar encrease and
decrease with the depth. The same is chiefly composed of
limonite with argentiferous galena, an amorphous white substance
called 'Molinera', and copper pyrites. Breithaupt has recognised
the following minerals:
1. Spathic iron, upwards of 40 separate bands have been counted;
2. Gelestine:
3. Heavy spar, mostly massive;
.V 4. Steinmannite (antimonial galena), containing 1 l l / a per cent
of silver;
5. Common galena, argentiferous, partly very fine granular;
6. Crystals of bournonite in spathic iron;
7. Brown blende, forming thin bands, or disseminated in
spathic iron;
8. Copper pyrites, disseminated in spathic iron.
The following minerals have been formed by the decompo-
sition of the preceding:
9. Hematite, from spathic iron:
10. Limonite, from spathic iron;
11. Anglesite, from galena;
12. Ochreous antimonate or antimonite of lead and copper, from
bournonite :
13. Jarosite, from sulphurets;
14. Zinkosite, from blende;
15. Zinkazurite from copper pyrites and blende.
-Fragments of the country-rock are not wanting. These
minerals often exhibit a very fine combed texture.
As a rule, only decomposed clay-slate, heavy spar, limonite,
and hematite, occur from the surface to a depth of 18 fathoms;
the last probably formed by the decomposition of spathic iron
and pyrites. Beneath this follows the richest zone, containing
much rich argentiferous galena, also somewhat of kerargyrite in
the iron ores. Below the depth of 82 fathoms, the amount of
silver appears to decrease, while heavy spar and a variety of
hornstone become predominant; but at the time Riidinger wrote,
the greater depths had not been sufficiently opened-up ; so that
it is possible the ores may again encrease both in quality and
quantity. The rich zone, below the depth of 18 fathoms, might
SIERRA ALMAGRERA.
395
possibly be explained by the hypothesis, that the metallic por-
tions, dissolved and washed out of the gossan, were concentrated
in this zone.
The combed texture of this lode is very remarkable, in
those portions which are still fresh and undecomposed. The two
following woodcuts are copied from Riidinger.
1 hJiM
S-g.g'S ^ "g.g .2 "2
T^ ^ ^ ^O >. f-O C pQ pC r^ rC pJ^
s s-^^s^a^s^s-s a
*L ja o ,* o o .5r o CL o
o BaB2OWoooccQai
II 1
>.
a
I
x
si
SI
> ^ I J 22 ^
5 a^a^a^sts
0^00)00,0
Eo>HC)!UO( 02
It appears, from these drawings, that the arrangement of the
single layers is by no means a symmetrical one, and cannot
therefore be the result of successive deposits in a fissure having
396 LINARES. LEAD-LODES.
the present breadth of the lode. It must, therefore, be concluded
from this want of symmetry, that the fissure has been repeatedly
widened, and then the repeated filling produced only one or,
at the most, two layers.. This can be more particularly seen
from the horses in the middle of the lode, which probably
formed a wall of the adjoining layer, at a certain period in the
formation of the lode. The fragments of heavy spar, in one of
the layers of spathic iron, probably come from the partial de-
struction of a former layer of heavy spar. The fissure may have
been torn open 12 times in order to receive the various layers
successively, as separate veins.
Pernolet thinks the dark, non-fossiliferous limestone, which
here overlies the mica-schist, can be designated, in particular,
as metalliferous limestone ; since it contains, in numerous locali-
ties, deposits of galena (poor in silver), which rarely crop-out
to the surface.
LEAD-LODES NEAR LINARES, IN ANDALUSIA.
224. The plateau of Linares 1 consists of nearly hori-
zontal ferruginous sandstones, which overlie granite for a thick-
ness of 26 to 32 feet; these beds of sandstone appear to belong
to the Trias.
Lan has distinguished two classes of lead-lodes, traversing
the sandstone and granite:
1. A large number occurring close together, which strike
partly NE. SW., partly ENE. WSW. These are the most
important;
2. A small number of much broader, and more complicated
veins, usually coursing E. W., and which occur, for the most
part, northward of Linares; on the slopes of the Sierra Morena.
Those of the first group are the principal object of the former
and present exploitation near Linares. Old piles of rubbish show
the existence of 45 such veins, which are distributed over an
area of 4000 4500 fathoms. The ferruginous quartz, of which
their outcrop, often 2 feet broad, chiefly consists, frequently
forms projecting crests. In this quartz only scattered grains of
galena are observed; at a greater depth the galena becomes
more frequent; and at but a slight depth, these lodes contain
1 See: Lan, in Annal. d. mines, 1857, vol. XII. p. 623.
HUELVA COPPER-DEPOSITS. 397
considerable galena (poor in silver), blende, iron and copper
pyrites, carbonates of lime, iron and lead, as well as linarite,
in a predominantly quartzose gang, with but little heavy spar.
The cerusite sometimes extends to a depth of 40 fathoms. The
blende is stated to encrease in quantity with the depth in the
'la Crux d'Arrayanes' lode. No decrease in the breadth
of the veins had been observed, at the depth of about 80 fathoms,
reached in 1857; the ore-chimneys extend almost vertically
The veins appear to be relatively richer, the broader they are.
Narrow points are often very poor; while such as are 1 iy 2
fathoms broad, frequently contain pure masses of galena. Since
these lodes often split up into branches and again unite, rich
junctions are formed containing compact masses of galena. They
are traversed by a number of barren fissures which strike E. W.
or ESE.-WNW.
The veins of the second class consist of quartz and heavy
spar, with iron pyrites, copper pyrites, and galena, containing
but little silver : from their firmness, the outcrops frequently
project, as walls of rock above the sandstones,' to a height of
one or more fathoms. The ores are distributed, in these veins,
in strings, and not collected in chimneys.
COPPER-DEPOSITS IN THE PROVINCE OF HUELVA,
IN ANDALUSIA.
225. The Province of Huelva ' is composed, for the most
part, of clay-slates belonging to the Silurian Age; which are
frequently traversed by dioritic igneous rocks ; while some green
metamorphic, also occurring with these, might be easily mistaken
for them; also by some quartz porphyries (Eurites quartziferes).
The dioritic greenstones form irregular, lenticular masses, gene-
rally coursing parallel to the clay-slates, with a predominant
E. W. direction. Intersections of the stratification can be but
rarely observed. The quartz-porphyries, which are accompanied
1 See: Figeroa, in Revista minera, 4852, vol. III. p. 513; Ezquerra
del Bayo, Memorias sobre las minas nacionales de Rio Tinto, 1852; Lan,
in Annal. d. mines, 1857, vol. XII. p. 609: Hausmann, in Leonhard's
Jahrb. 1859, p. 9; Schonichen, in Berg- u. hiittenm Zeit. 1863, p. 176;
Bellinger, in Odernheimer's Berg- u. Huttenwesen v. Nassau, 1864, No. 2,
p. 291.
398 COPPER DEPOSITS IN ANDALUSIA.
by petrosilex ; and jasper, usually form veins, and bedded veins,
in the green metamorphic schists.
Lan distinguished three kinds of copper-deposits 'in this
Province:
1. Segregated masses of iron and copper pyrites, very broad;
for example, at Eio Tinto;
2. Veins united to floors (stockwerks), containing oxides,
carbonates, and sulphurets;
3. Veins containing copper pyrites and tetrahedrite.
The segregations of pyrites principally occur in the green
metamorphic schists near the quartz or diorite porphyries; at
times, as contact deposits, immediately on their limits. They
form irregular masses of lenticular shape, generally parallel to
the stratification, and also having an inward parallel stratifica-
tion, at times sending gut vein-like branches.
Such segregations occur at Rio Tinto, Poyatos, Tharsis,
Calanas and San-Telmo (Sant-Elmo). They are surrounded by
broad selvages which are characterised by certain peculiarities;
either by particular hardness and a large amount of ferruginous
quartz; or by numerous interspersed grains of pyrites, causing
a slight decomposition ; or, finally, by decomposition of the schist
into a white soft, argillaceous mass. The outcrop of the pyrites
segregations is often most easily recognised from these selvages;
and in some of the segregations, these can be continuously fol-
lowed for a distance of 1000 fathoms.
The deposits consist of a pretty compact iron-pyrites, con-
taining somewhat of copper, or of an intimate mixture of iron
and copper pyrites, with somewhat of quartz and clay ; while
somewhat of blende, mispickel, and galena, occurs to a very
subordinate degree, and a small percentage of silver occurs locally.
They generally contain 49 50 per cent of sulphur, 43 44 per
cent of iron, 3 4 per cent of copper, and 2 3 per cent of
quartz, sand, and clay. Near the selvages, and in them, strings
of melaconite sometimes occur, especially near Tharsis.
Some changes are found to take place, with encreasing
depth; which appear to have been caused by decomposition from
the surface. The upper 2 -5 fathoms usually consist of an
earthy ferruginous mass, or of ferruginous quartz, consequently
a very characteristic gossan. Beneath this the pyrites is gener-
ally much fissured and possesses a sort of stratification parallel
to the selvages; firm masses, pockets, or zones, of pyrites alter-
QUICKSILVER IN ESTREMADURA. 399
nate with pulverulent varieties, which resemble a stamped ore.
Still deeper, the entire mass is uniformly compact, and very hard.
It is only near the selvages, exceptionally intersected, by white
argillaceous veins, or masses, resembling the white variety of
the selvages; also by jasper, and quartzose argillaceous shale.
It has not, as yet, been determined, whether the breadth and
quantity of ore decrease with the depth, or not. The former is-
often very great: Lan states, it is sometimes as much as 75
fathoms. Hausmann estimates the Breadth of the segregation, at
Rio Tinto, to .average 40 fathoms, in some places even 100 150
fathoms. He found, in addition to the principal mixture of iron
and copper pyrites, more rarely somewhat of galena, blende^
copper glance, tetrahedrite, and mispickel; and designates the
wall-rock, as clay-slate passing into talc and mica-schist; but
porphyries also occur.
There is evidently a great similarity, between these segre-
gations of pyrites, and those of Goslar in the Hartz, Agordo in
the Alps, and Fahlun in Sweden; the most of which, like the
Spanish ones, occur in rocks belonging to the Palaeozoic era,
and are surrounded by a kind of selvage.
Portions of these broad pyrites deposits have been exten-
sively exploited by the Romans as is seen from the large quar-
ries and immense piles of slag. The ancient workings are
especially extensive near Rio Tinto.
Less important than these broad segregrated masses, are the
veins forming floors ; which contain oxides, carbonates, and sul-
phurets, traversing, as a group, rocks of the Palaeozoic era, in
the northern portion of the Province; whose principal course is-
WSW. ENE. The veins containing tetrahedrite are found
more in the central portion of the Province ; they occur singly
with a predominant strike of NNE. SSW.
In the same region occur extensive deposits of ores of
manganese.
QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS AT ALMADEN
IN ESTREMADURA.
226. The views, with regard to the nature of these famous
quicksilver-deposits, are much divided. Willkomm ' and Ez-
1 See: Hawley, in American Journ. of Science. II. Series, vol. XLV.
p. 9; Le Play, in Annal. d mines, 1834, vol. VI. pp. 319, 333, 362, 369 r
400 ALMADEN QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS.
querra del Bayo consider them to be true veins; de Prado and
Hawley, to be bedlike impregnations, comparable to those of
Idria. The strata, in which the deposits occur, belong to the
Upper Silurian ; the immediate walj^-rock is usually a black car-
bonaceous slate, and quartzite; with which hard, fine-grained
sandstones, and slates, alternate, but contain no ores. The
deposits incline, at the surface, 60 70, then dip almost ver-
tically; they had been opened, in 1851, to a depth of 1050 feet.
They strike E. W. The two broadest of the deposits are the
San Francisco and San Nicolas, each having an average breadth
of 21 feet; which occur so near to one another, that they are,
in places, only separated by a soft bed of slate, 34 feet thick.
Their breadth encreases considerably, with the depth, to nearly
40 feet. At a depth of 135 fathoms the space for both, exploited
in common, has a width of 67 '/2 f eet - These deposits consist
almost entirely of quartz, and compact or earthy cinnabar;
which traverses the quartz, and also forms large compact masses.
At times fine geodes of calc-spar occur in the ore; or the chief
mass is traversed by clefts, or cavities, containing native mer-
cury; de Prado also found somewhat of galena in them. Ac-
cording to this la'st-mentioned observer, the deposits follow the
strike and dip of the Silurian slates, on which account he calls
them beds; but remarks, that veins of cinnabar, also, occur, to
a subordinate degree, in the neighborhood; and considers, that
the ores have penetrated between the slates from below with a
sort of choice of way. The designation as bed, would, accord-
ing to this view, hardly be a proper one. Le Play states, that
the veinlike character appears, for other reasons, to be very
evident; since he observed distinct quartz-selvages; which sepa-
rate the veins, on both sides, from the country-rock; and con-
tain merely a little iron -pyrites, and cinnabar. He also found
fragments of ophite (a tolerably compact diorite) in the lodes;
which rock occurs in the neighborhood, and with whose erup-
tion he believes the lodes to be connected.
The uncommon breadth or massiveness of this quicksilver
occurrence is very remarkable. It is not very strange to find
489; De Prado, in Bullet, ge'ol. 1855, b. vol XII. p. 24; Willkomm, in
Bergwerksfreund, 1849, vol XIII. p. 72, Leonhard's Jahrb. 1850, p. 497; Ez-
querra del Bayo, inLeonhard's Jahrb. 1851, pp.47, 675; Noggerath, in
same, 1863, p 479; Klemm, in Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1861, p. 418. 1867, p. 18.
BRITISH ISLES. SUMMARY. 401
ores, which occur as frequently in the earth's crust, as those of
iron, copper, lead, or zinc, locally aggregated in massive depos-
its; but in the case of a metal, such as mercury, and its ores,
which relatively occur so rarely, and in so few localities; such
& massive aggregation is certainly astonishing. If the localities,
where ores of mercury occur, or are exploited, be enumerated
and compared; it will be found, that after platinum, mercury is
the rarest metal used in the arts and manufactures. It may be
asked, how could it then happen, that this metal is collected
in such masses at some localities; as for example, Almaden,
New Almaden, and, to a certain extent, Idria; while it is gener-
ally altogether wanting in most of the geologically examined
regions? Even platinum is not so unequally distributed, the least
so gold and silver. Innumerable deposits, in which these metals
occur, are known; but none so metalliferous, as those of quick-
silver.
Tin occurs, in Spain, only in granite, and crystalline schists.
It has been discovered in three localities in Galicia, 1 and two
in Asturia; also in the Province of Aimer ia.
GEEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
SUMMARY.
227. This kingdom contains numerous metalliferous de-
posits, especially in the districts composed of older sedimentary,
or metamorphic rocks. In the sedimentary formations, from the
Carboniferous Period upwards, only beds of iron-ore occur.
This country is richly blessed with iron-deposits of the most
various kinds, whose value is in part much encreased by the
immediate neighborhood of rich and excellent coal-fields. The
description of these iron-deposits, in so far as they were acces-
1 See: Schulz, and Paillette, in Bullet, geol. vol. VII. p. 16; Revista
minera, 1821, vol. I. pp. 148, 333.
26
402 CORNWALL. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
sible, contained nothing either particularly important or inter
esting, on which account I shall pass them over. Especially
important, as may well be imagined, are the iron-ores of the
Carboniferous Period; which occur under like circumstances to
those in Westphalia, Saarbriick, and Silesia, only thicker and
richer; partly as the so-called ' black bands', partly as sphero-
siderite, or clay ironstone.
While passing over many less important metalliferous depo-
sits, especially those of Scotland, I shall mention those of Corn-
wall, Derbyshire, Cumberland, and Wicklow in Ireland.
XXV. CORNWALL.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
228. The peninsula of Cornwall 1 consists principally of
so-called killas; by which the Cornish miners understand every
slaty rock not belonging to either granite, or elvans; which
1 See: Berger, in Trans, of the geol. soc. 1811, vol. I. pp. 93, 158, 161;
Mc'Culloch, in same, 1814, vol. II. p. 110; J.Williams, in same, 1817 r
vol. IV. p. 138; E. Smith, in same, p. 404; Hawkins, in Trans, of the roy.
geol. soc. of Cornwall, 1818, vol. I. 1822, vol. II. pp. 29, 223, 232, 284;
1827, vol. III. p. 115; 1832, vol. IV. pp. 1, 135; Carne, in same, 18-22, vol.
II. pp. 49, 290; 1827, vol. III. p. 74; 1832, vol. IV. pp. 47, i)5; Rashleigh,
in same, 1822, vol. II. p. 282; 1832, vol. IV. pp. 47, 59; H. Boase, in same,
1827, vol. III. p. 17, vol. II. p. 383, vol IV. p. 438; Henwood (the most
complete on the subject), in the same, 1843, vol. V, Philosoph. magaz. 1831,
vol. X. p. 358; 1846, vol. XXIX. p. 359; Trans, roy. geol. soc. of Cornwall,
vol. IV. p. 57; Proceedings of geol. soc. of London, 1832, p. 405; Colenso, in
Trans, roy. geol. soc. of Cornwall, 1832, vol. IV. p. 29; Davey, in same,
p. 484; Thomas, Report on a survey of the mining distr. of Cornwall, from
Chasewater to Camborne, 1819; De laBeche, Report on the Geology of
Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset, 1839; Johnston, in Mining Almanac,
1852; Bonnard, in Journ. d. mines, vol. XIV. No. 84, p. 443; Combes, in
Annal. d. mines, 1834, vol. V. p. 109; Dufrenoy, Elie de Beaumont,
Coste, and Perdonnet, Voyage metallurgique en Angleterre, 1839, vol.11,
p. 177, Annal. d. mines, vol. IX. p. 827, vol. X. p. 331, vol. XI. p. 211;
Daubree, in Annal. d. mines, 1841, vol. XX. p. 89; Moissenet, in same,
XIV. p. 87, 1863, vol. III. p 161, Compte rendu, 1862, vol. LV. p. 759;
Pattison, in Quart. Journ. of the geol. soc. 1854, vol. X. p. 247.
KILLAS. 403
consequently includes hornblende-schist, varieties of green-
stone, etc. The age of these rocks cannot be more specially
determined, than that they belong to the Palaeozoic era; since
only very rare ajid poorly preserved fossils have been found in
them; from which it is indeed probable, that the majority belong
to the Devonian Age.
This extensive slate-district encloses five large, and several
small, masses of granite; which, without rising, in a predominant
manner, above the common level, protrude as 'islands of granite
out of the sea of slate'. The slate, as well as the granite, is
traversed by numerous dikes of porphyry, called elvans; by
some trap-dikes, by numerous copper and tin lodes, occasionally
by veins of ferruginous quartz, and by fissures filled with clay.
All these veins are, among themselves of unequal age, and most
commonly near the granite, or in it. Near these, and, especially,
at some distance from the granite masses, occur still other ares
than those mentioned, especially those of lead.
This geological formation is very characteristic for the whole
of Cornwall, and a portion of Devonshire ; being, with but slight
modifications, every where the same. Considerable masses of
serpentine occur in the western portion; while, on the other
hand, the lodes appear to be wanting in this region.
Before passing over to the delineation of the so frequently
and carefully described metalliferous deposits of Cornwall, I con-
sider it desirable to preface the same with more special remarks
on the principal rocks just mentioned.
1. The killas is predominantly composed of greenish clay-
slate, passing into many varieties of this rock, and with sub-
ordinate layers of a sandy nature. It is often more compact,
near the granite masses, than elsewhere; and there contains,
without any sharp line of demarcation, a number of subordinate
layers of, partly crystalline, schistose rocks, whose special de-
scription would occupy a much greater space than appears ad-
apted to this work. These schistose rocks ; united by transitions
with the predominant clay-slate, and found, for the most part,
near the granite; are: chlorite schist, mica-schist, gneiss, tour-
maline schist f felsite schist containing tourmaline, and hornblende
schist, or greenstone schist, containing numerous subordinate
minerals, especially garnet, actinolith, or axinite. These schists
are also frequently traversed by veins, and unconnected masses
of quartz, which also contain tourmaline.
26*
404 GRANITE.
The planes of slaty cleavage almost universally dip from
the granite; and the various layers of slate thus irregularly
mantle round the flanks of the granite hills. The dip of their
lamination is seldom so rapid, as that of the line of junction
with the granitic mass beneath; as it is seldom more than 30,
and is mostly less than 20; while that of the granite usually
exceeds 40. This dip seldom, however, continues the same for
considerable distances, and is even reversed within small tracts ;
owing, perhaps, to the irregular thickness of the laminae in dif-
ferent places ; as there is little or no appearance, that they have
undergone mechanical displacement. The slates are not only
generally altered near the granite limits; but also occasionally,
as accessory minerals, thin veins or layers containing quartz,
feldspar, mica, chlorite, actinolith, garnet, axinite, prehnite,
epidote, topaz, and cassiterite (Crown-Rock near Cape Cornwall).
Fossils are found, but very rarely, in these rocks ; and when
they do occur, are so imperfect, that they were not adapted to
a more accurate determination of the strata : thus near St. Austel.
2. The granite is, for the most part, coarse-grained, at
times, however, very fine-grained, often porphyritic, containing
twin-crystals of feldspar. The mica is sometimes replaced in
the same by tourmaline, chlorite, or talc. These varieties alter-
nate very irregularly with one another ; one variety partly form-
ing veins in another, or ramifications in the slates. The granite-
masses enlarge, and spread out, under the slates, as they
descend, and it is probable that they all unite at great depths.
Their dip, as stated, is also greater than that of the slates.
That these granite-masses are more recent than the slates
mantling, and obliquely overlying them; is rendered evident,
by the numerous vein-like and bedded ramifications, which the
granite forms in the slate, as well as from the fragments of slate
it contains. These ramifications are most frequent near the
lines of junction, frequently but a few inches thick, and soon
wedging-out; while exceptionally broader, even bedded, ones,
extend into the slate. Similar granite strings or dikes traverse
the granite itself, and are then usually very fine-grained, quartz-
ose ; and containing but little mica; they not rarely contain, as
accessory minerals, pinite, beryl, topaz, tourmaline, apatite, cop-
per-pyrites, etc. The ramifications frequently also intersect the
quartz-veins in the slates, and are in turn traversed by others,
which contain tourmaline, topaz, mica, apatite, beryl, cassiterite,
ELVANS. 405
wolfram, and even somewhat of red copper (St. Michael's Mount).
Veins of tourmaline; associated in some places with quartz, in
others with feldspar, and often containing tin ore; traverse the
granite: they are, in general, far more abundant near its junc-
tion with the slate.
3. The Elvans are porphyry-dikes, which vary in the
number, and proportions, of their constituents; they traverse
both the slates and granite. Their principal mass is always a
compact felsite, like that of all quartz-porphyries, in which
crystals or crystalline grains of feldspar, quartz, amphibole, mica,
tourmaline, etc. are porphyritically distributed. These last are
generally wanting near the selvages, the rock then consists
merely of the compact matrix. Fragments of the wall-rock also
occasionally occur in these elvans. Henwood states, that the
mass of these elvans is somewhat different when traversing the
granite, clay-slate, or greenstone-slate ; in clay-slate usually com-
posed of feldspar and quartz, in granite of feldspar and mica.
The elvans have been extensively worked, in different places,
for the metallic minerals which they contain in irregular and
disconnected masses, or in beds, or in small irregular veins;
viz, iron and copper pyrites, and tin-ore (the last taking the
place formerly occupied by crystals of feldspar). Their breadth
varies between a few feet and 70 fathoms : the single veins are
frequently very variable at different points. Their strike is
NE. SW., for long distances parallel to the joints of the rocks,
but, in general, not parallel to the laminae of the schistose rocks :
some of them have exceptionally a different direction of strike.
Their dip is, in general, 40 60: many more of them incline
toward the North, than to the South. According to the Ord-
nance geological map of Cornwall, some of the elvans
appear to be only ramifications of the granite-masses; thus at
Blistand. They are vein-like branches of the chief granite-mass;
which, perhaps from a more rapid cooling off, have hardened
porphyritically with a compact matrix; while the majority of the
same, indeed, extend out of the slate, through the granite, with
well defined limits. These are evidently somewhat younger than
the chief mass of granite: the difference in age need not have
been very great; and it is possible, that they were all, like the
granite-dikes, formed from a still-fluid lower granite-region, at
a period when its upper portion had already solidified; while
those passing into the granite are, perhaps, contemporaneous
406 SUMMABY OF ORE-DEPOSITS.
ramifications. Dufrenoy and Elie de Beaumont state, that the
elvans are older than the Carboniferous formation, but more
recent than a certain class of tin-lodes; since these last are in-
tersected, and, in part faulted, by a majority of the elvans, and
by all the other lodes.
The slate is often strikingly hardened, and compact, along-
side of the lodes; some of which have been followed for a
distance of 5 miles.
4. Trap-dikes are found, in general, only in the laminated
rocks, which they partly traverse, like beds, parallel to the strati-
fication.
SUMMARY OF THE ORE-DEPOSITS IN CORNWALL.
229. The ore-deposits, and barren veins accompanying
them, which occur in Cornwall, may be divided (according to
Carne, Dufrenoy, and Elie de Beaumont), into the two great
classes of tin and copper ore-deposits. A distinct line of de-
marcation cannot well be made between these two classes; since
the former often contain copper-ores, and the latter, tin-ores;
besides which veins, entirely destitute of ores, occur.
The tin-deposits may be subdivided into:
1. Tin-floors: these are portions of the rocks, or strata,
traversed by stanniferous beds, or veins; which have been con-
sidered by some persons to have been formed contemporaneously
with the enclosing rocks; but are probably, more correctly, to
be regarded as, in part bedded impregnations, in part filling
joints between the rocks: they can be very finely observed in
the slate between St. Ives and Cape Cornwall: in the Grills-
bunny mine they form a zone, about 70 feet broad, in horn-
blende-schist : in the Botallack-mine there is a tin-floor 18 inches
broad :
2. Tm-stockiverks: these are combinations of numerous
smaller strings, or threads, forming a network: the granite in
a quarry of the Carclace mine, near St. Austel, is traversed by
a large number of threads or strings, upwards of 6 inches broad ;
consisting of quartz, with tourmaline, and cassiterite: they all
course E. W., but are partly vertical, partly dip 70 in S. ;
which last intersect the first, without faulting them: crystals of
tourmaline, radiating from both sides, meet in their middle
portion, frequently enclosing fragments of granite near their
TIN, AND COPPER. 407
selvages, and are consequently true veins (gash veins?) of but slight
extent: the veins in St. Michael's Mount near Penzance (al-
ready mentioned), which contain various other minerals with the
tin-ore, belong to this class: such networks of veins occur still
more frequently in the elvans, than in granite; thus, in the
Wherry mine, between Penzance and Newlin; where an elvan,
several feet broad, is intersected by numerous strings, 1 9
inches broad, consisting of quartz and cassiterite, more rarely
of tourmaline: also in the Madron mine near Trewiddenball,
where younger quartz-veins, containing tourmaline, and without
cassiterite, traverse the stanniferous ones:
3. Tin lodes: these traverse the killas, granite, and elvans,
especially near the limits of the granite-districts; and are most
common in the neighborhood of Truro, St. Agnes, Gwennaps
(Redruth and Camborne), Breage (Marazion and Gwinear),
St. Just (and St. Ives): the tin-lodes vary in age among themselves:
I shall describe them more fully in the next paragraph :
C- 4. Streamworks, or placers, on the gentle slopes, and in
valleys, near St. Just and St. Austel: they will be more fully
described by and bye.
The copper-ores occur, in sufficient quantities to be exploited,
only in veins, or networks of veins, within the elvans: other
ores sometimes occur with these: with regard to their age, and
course, three classes of copper-lodes can be distinguished :
1. Copper-lodes, coursing E. W.
2. Contra- copper-lodes, striking SE. NW. or NE. SAY.
3. Younger copper-lodes :
In addition to the lodes proper, other veins often occur, in
the same district, filled with clay or quartz ; which have received
the following names:
4. Cross-courses: these are for the most part composed of
quartz, striking N. S. or NW. SE., intersecting all lodes they
meet, except the youngest copper-lodes: since they occasionally
contain ores, they will be more fully described in the next pa-
ragraph :
5. Flucans, or cross-veins, at times 10 feet broad, are
veins almost entirely filled with clay: sometimes they are but
narrow clefts, which course N. S. and usually dip in E. ; they
intersect all other veins, and fissures, but the slides: Henwood
considers them to be only a variety of the cross-courses :
6. Slides: these never exceed a foot in breadth; they have
408
FLOORS, CROSS-COURSES, FLUCANS, SLIDES.
x
m
'
mm
$&
only been observed in the slates, and only
intersect schistose rocks; elvans, and other
veins, intersecting these: not a single well-
marked case of a slide, in the granite or the
massive rocks, has been, as yet ; found in
Cornwall; they are entirely filled with soft
clay, similar, in general composition, to the
rocks which they traverse.
The relative age of all the rocks and
veins here mentioned would form the following
succession :
1. Killas, the oldest rocks in Cornwall;
2. Granite;
3. The majority of the elvans;
4. Some tin-lodes intersected by elvans (?) :
5. Some of the elvans;
6. The majority of the tin-lodes;
7. The majority of the copper-lodes;
8. Cross-courses; which, according to De
la Beche, intersect Cretaceous deposits in
Devonshire ;
9. Younger copper-lodes;
10. Cross-flucans (according to Carne);
11. Slides;
12. Tin Streamworks, or placers.
After this general review of the various
rocks and ore-deposits of Cornwall, I pass over
to the more special description of the kinds
most important to the miner, preceding it by
the accompanying ideal representation of the
various relations of bedding.
THE LODES OF CORNWALL.
230. There occur in Cornwall, as we
have seen, in addition to the independent
lodes, tin and copper ores disseminated in thin
strings, or netlike veins; these deposits are,
however, but rarely exploitable; on which
account I confine myself, with regard to them,
to what has already been said in the last
paragraph ; the more so as, from the descrip-
tions before me, I could scarcely add anything essential.
INDEPENDENT LODES.
409
The independent lodes of Cornwall can be separated, as we
have seen, into tin and copper lodes; but it is impossible to draw
a sharp line of demarcation between the two; since many pre-
dominantly tin-lodes contain copper-ores, and the reverse; and
since there is no characteristic difference betw.een the gang in
both.
The lodes, in which the tin-ores predominate, are certainly
older than those, in which the copper-ores are most frequent^
and are intersected by these. But the tin-lodes, like those of
copper, are of unequal age among themselves; older and younger
tin-lodes are distinguished, like older and younger copper-veins.
Perhaps, both kinds of lodes may be divided into three different
classes, as regards age:
Polgooth mine.
Z. Tin-lodes, faulted by an
E. Elvan. F. Flucan.
The case exceptionally occurs, in the Polgooth mine, that
tin-lodes are faulted by an elvan ; which, however, De la Beche
considers to be only apparent, and attempts to explain by the
resistance, which the harder elvan offered to a prolongation of
the fissure, while as a rule the reverse takes place by their
junction; as, for example, in the Peever mine.
410
PEEVER MINE
E. El van.
Z. Tin-lode.
K. Copper-lode.
S. Slides.
Peever mine.
In this last mine the following relations of intersection,
faulting, and dislocation, were observed; from which there would
seem to be a threefold age of the tin lodes; while, here also,
Peever mine.
Z. Oldest tin-lodes. Z 2 . Younger tin-lode.
K. Copper-lodes.
Z 3 . Youngest tin-lode.
Z. Tin-lode. K. Copper-lode.
S. Slides.
the youngest tin-lode is inter-
sected and faulted by a copper-
lode. The normal relation of
age is, however, represented by
the adjoining woodcut.
Oarne states, that some of
the copper lodes even intersect
the cross-courses; of which one,
according to De la Beche, has
dislocated the chalk and green
sand, between Combe Beac and
Combe St. Nicholas, and has
STRIKE, DIP, AND AVERAGE BREADTH. 41 1
approached them more than 200 feet to one another ; as a rule,
however, the first are intersected by the last. But since the
oldest tin-lodes, at times, contain somewhat of copper-ore, the
sharp line of demarcation is always again annulled; if these
copper ores cannot be regarded as having subsequently pene-
trated into long previously existing tin-lodes. The accurate
descriptions before me do not, unfortunately, suffice to completely
explain these relations, and in default of a sufficient demar-
cation I shall, like Henwood, treat that which is peculiar to
both the tin and copper lodes, in common.
The strike of the older lodes of Cornwall is very conformably
E. W. or WSW. ENE. ;. but when examined in detail, nu-
merous exceptions to these principal directions of strike occur,
partly local, partly, and exceptionally, for single veins, or for
portions of curved veins. The majority dip 20 50 in N., but
few being vertical, or dipping S.-ward. Carne states, that the older
lodes dip toward N., the more recent toward S. Those in the
slates generally dip towards the neighboring granite masses. The
angle varies very much, both in the strike and dip of the same
lodes, i. e. they do not represent planes, but undulated faces.
Generally several of them occur together, forming a group, often
found near the lines of junction of the granite with the slates;
as in Cornwall these contact-regions are usually very rich in
ores, in that not only the lodes are the^ most numerous and
richest, but in them are found the, already mentioned, tin-floors
and network of veins. Attempts have been made to prove, that
the tin-lodes occur chiefly in granite, the copper-lodes in the
slates; but there are many exceptions to this, and both kinds
of lodes often cut through both kinds of rock, without any
perceptible alteration having taken place in them from the
transition.
The breadth of the lodes is extremely variable, both in the same
vein, and in the various individual ones. They frequently extend
as metalliferous clefts; while they are, in extreme cases, upwards
of 40 feet broad. Henwood calculated, from a large number of
observations, the following, as their average breadth:
the tin-lodes 3,06 feet.
the copper-lodes 2,93
those containing both metals 4,70
the lodes in granite 3,18
the lodes in slate 3,75
412 PREDOMINANT MINERAL COMPOSITION.
Where the average breadth of the fissure is surpassed, it
generally contains numerous horses of ground-, and it is then
often doubtful, whether these are to be considered, as fragments
of rock enclosed in the lode ; or portions of the wall-rock sur-
rounded by numerous leaders.
No real cessation of these veins has been observed, either
in the strike or dip; and some of the lodes have been partially
exploited for a length of two miles, single copper-lodes even
seven miles.
In regard to the predominant mineral composition of both
the tin and copper lodes, the accounts are somewhat conflicting.
Game, Dufr^noy, and Elie de Beaumont, state, that it pre-
dominantly consists, in all the lodes, of quartz with chlorite,
tourmaline, or mica, particularly in the following combinations;
quartz with chlorite and tourmaline, quartz with tourmaline,
quartz with mica. Tourmaline and mica appear to mutually
exclude one another. At times, considerable decomposed granite,
or somewhat of fluor spar, occurs with these combinations.
Kenwood states, that feldspar plays an important part in the
matrix, being combined with the above-mentioned minerals. He
also states the nature of the veinstones to be somewhat depen-
dent on that of the wall-rock. In granite the lodes which are
most productive of tin-ore are, for the most part, composed of
a pale greenish feldspar, of a confusedly crystalline structure,
but seldom containing distinct crystals, with radiating groups of
tourmaline and some quartz; through which form the tin-ore is
interspersed in the form of crystalline granules. In a few cases
the lode is very quartzose, and then the particles of tin-ore are
generally larger. Occasionally the lodes consist almost wholly
of quartz, with now and then some tourmaline diffused through
it; in such cases they are seldom rich in ores of any kind.
The lodes which yield copper-ore in granite almost always,
according to Henw r ood, contain a gossan near the surface. Their
quartz is not always so soft, or so minutely divided, as in slate ;
but opens in small irregular masses, which yield to a slight
pressure: a coating of earthy limonite appears to pervade the
small and innumerable cavities, which penetrate this slightly
coherent mass. Large quantities of feldspar abound, and the
whole is often encrusted with a thin and almost impalpable coating
of earthy black copper-ore ; the proportion of this last mineral
ACCESSORY MINERALS. CAPEL. 413
often encreases in depth, and passes into copper-glance, and
sometimes into copper-pyrites.
Henwood states, that in slate the tin-lodes are generally
composed of a very hard quartzose slate (locally called capel);
sometimes intimately mixed with tourmaline, occasionally with
feldspar, and frequently with chlorite : the tin-ore is interspersed
amongst the earthy materials even more minutely than in
the granite, and is almost invariably mixed with a. much larger
proportion of impurities: with the tin-ore is often associated
wolfram with earthy red and jaspery iron-ores. The most
characteristic mineral is, however, a variety of tourmaline-rock,
consisting of alternate layers of tourmaline and feldspar; and
both of these mixed with quartz : the laminae are almost always
much curved, and sometimes the layers of tourmaline are replaced
by tin-ore. This substance sometimes forms a sort of transition
between the lode and the country-rock.
He also states, that the lodes, which yield copper-ores in
slate, contain large quantities of gossan of a pale hue, soft and
drusy. In them also ore frequently occurs in small quantities,
and blende is very plentiful, while iron-pyrites is constantly
present. Their earthy minerals are mostly quartz ; which, in the
most favorable situations, is generally friable, sometimes mixed
with small quantities of decomposed feldspar. Near the surface
these are spotted with earthy black copper-ore; and lower down
this is succeeded by copper-glance, and at length by copper-
pyrites: fluor spar is occasionally mixed with them, and now
and then chlorite occurs.
Dufrenoy and Elie de Beaumont enumerate, in addition to
the ores already mentioned, and which are the chief objects of
the exploitation, the following minerals, as being found in the
tin-copper lodes : tin-pyrites, always associated with copper-
pyrites, wolfram, mispickel, arseniates of .iron and copper, phos-
phates of copper, uranite, and bismuth. In the ancient copper-
lodes they found, tetrahedrite, tennantite, red copper-ore, native
copper, malachite, azurite, phosphates of copper, arseniates of
copper, iron pyrites, mispickel, and blende.
Carne states, that many minerals occur in small quartz-threads
which traverse the mass of the lodes ; thus wood-tin-ore in the tin-
lodes, silver-ores in the copper-lodes.
Henwood has reduced the order of position to a tabular
form; which is here subjoined, and in which the first column
414
KENWOOD'S TABLE OF
denotes the country-rock 5 the second, the mineral next to the
side or wall of the lode; the next, that which is attached to it;
and so on: the crystallized minerals are in italics.
M
Substance
next ad-
joining rock
Substance next^^ adjoin l n those
to that which Locality,
adjoins rock.
Quartz. j Quartz.
Almost every v/here.
Amethyst. Quartz.
Wheal Bellon.
Quartz. Opal.
N
Wheal Cairn.
Quartz. j Quartz.
Chalcedony.
Pedn-an-drea.
Quartz. Quartz.
Arseniate of iron.
Wheal Corland.
Quartz. Quartz.
Wolfram.
St. Michael's Mount.
Quartz. Quartz.
Arseniate of copper.
Wheal Unity.
Quartz. ; Quartz.
Uranite.
Gunnis lake.
J
Quartz. Cassiterite.
Scheelite.
Wheal Friendship.
Quartz. 'Native Copper.
Red copper.
Wheal Gorland.
&
Quartz. Mineral pitch.
Carharrack.
Quartz. Malachite.
Gunnis lake
Feldspar. Earthy phos-
Park Noweth.
phate of iron.
Fluor spar.
Fluor spar. Quarts. Wheal Gorland.
Fluor spar. Stibnite. Quartz. Wheal Gorland.
Cassiterite. Bismuthine. Balleswidden.
Hematite. \Specular iron. Park Noweth.
Limonite. Copper-glance. Earthy black copper-ore.
Wheal Jewel.
Quartz.
Stalactitic
Quartz.
Wheal Edward.
quartz
Quartz. Quartz.
Aragonite. Levant.
Quartz.
Quartz.
Wolfram
Poldice.
Quartz.
Quartz.
Arseniate of copper.
Wheal Unity.
Quartz.
Quartz.
Mimetene.
Wheal Unity.
03
Quartz.
Chlorite.
Cassiterite.
Wheal Vor.
a
3
Quartz.
Chlorite.
Mimetene.
Wheal Unity.
|
Quartz.
Arsenic pyrites.
Arsenic pyrites.
Wheal Unity Wood.
0}
2
Quartz.
Fluor spar.
Fluor spar.
Wheal Unity Wood.
O-
Quartz.
Limonite.
Pitchblende.
Wheal Edward.
Quartz.
Limonite.
Uranite.
Wheal Edward.
Quartz.
Limonite.
Copper -glance.
Botallack.
Quartz.
Spathic iron.
Spathic iron.
Botallack.
Quartz.
Copper glance.
Aragonite.
Levant.
Quartz.
Chlorite.
Copper-pyrites, mineral
North Roskear.
pitch.
Quartz. Quartz. Quartz. Wheal Friendship(Marazion).
^ Quartz. \ Quartz.
Quartz, copper -pyrites. [East Crennis.
Quartz. Quartz. \Heavy spar. United Mines.
MINERALS IN CORNWALL.
415
Substance
next ad-
^ joining rock.
Substance next
to that which
adjoins rock.
Minerals adjoining those
in last column.
Locality.
Quartz.
Quartz.
Copper-pyrites, and
United Hills.
cryst. copper-pyrites.
Quartz.
Quarts.
Stibnite.
Pengelly Mine.
I Quartz.
Chlorite.
Anatase.
Virtuous Lady.
Quartz.
Quartz. Blende, fluor spar.
Polberrow.
Quartz.
Quartz. Celestine. Binner Downs.
Quartz.
Fluor spar. Galena. Wheal Penrose.
Quartz.
Iron-pyrites. Quartz.
West Pink.
Quartz.
Iron-pyrites. \Spathic iron.
Virtuous Lady.
Quartz.
Iron-pyrites. Pharmacosiderite.
Wheal Falmouth.
Quartz.
Iron-pyrites. Silver-glance.
Dolcoath.
Quartz,
Limonite. Red copper-ore.
Wheal Charlotte.
Quartz.
Limonite. Cerusite.
Pentire-glaze.
Quartz.
Limonite. Anglesite.
Mellanear.
Quartz.
Limonite. Pyromorphite.
Wheal Alfred.
Quartz.
Hematite.
Oxide of manganese.
Restormel.
Quartz..
Wood-tin.
Polberrow.
1
Quartz.
Cassiterite.
, *{>.
In all tin-lodes.
53
Quartz.
Native silver.
' + . ,
Herland.
Quartz.
Silver-glance.
__
Wheal Brothers.
Quartz.
Ruby silver.
Dolcoath.
Quartz.
Native copper.
In all copper-lodes.
Quartz.
Copper-glance.
Red copper-ore.
Providence Mines.
Quartz. Copper-glance.
Copper -glance.
Wheal Speed (Germoe).
Quartz. Erubesdte.
Wheal Falmouth.
Quartz. Copper-pyrites.
In all copper-lodes.
Quartz. [Copper- pyrites.
Bismuthine.
Fowey Consols.
Quartz. Tennantite.
Fowey Consols.
Quartz. Copper-pyrites.
Fluor spar. - Polberrow.
Quartz . Bed copper-ore.
In almost all copper-mines.
Quartz.
Galena.
Galena, quartz. \ Wheal Rose.
Quartz.
Blen de. \ Gale-spar.
Union Wines.
Quartz. \Blende. Fluor spar.
West Pink.
jQuartz. Mineral pitch.
South Wheal Towan.
Chlorite. Cassiterite. iMost tin-mines in claty-slate.
;
r Cassiterite.
Cassiterite. , Wherry Mine,
Silicate of \
Whel Coates.
tin (?).
H
j> Quartz. Limonite. Azurite, Malachite. Ting Tang.
W 'Quartz. Copper-pyrites. Ting Tang
Limonite. Native copper. "Wheal Buller.
j Limonite. Redcopper-ore.l Ting Tang.
From this table may be learned, what minerals Henwood
observed in the lodes of Cornwall.
416
CASES OF PECULIAR TEXTURE.
The copper lodes are at times accompanied by clay-selvages,
or clay-veins, partly at both walls, partly at one only. In the
last case the clay traverses the lode obliquely, from one side to
the other ; or is separated^. for a certain distance, from the wall-
rock, forming a vein of clay traversing the wall-rock. These
are evidently the consequences of a repeated forcing-open and
filling of the fissures.
The texture of maiiy of the
lodes in Cornwall shows in the
clearest manner the repeated
opening and filling of fissures;
by which processes they have
gradually become broader: for
example, the following vein-
texture was observed in the
W heal- Cathedral mine, in the
granite near Redruth.
When taken strictly, these d
are evidently six parallel
quartz-veins alongside of one
another, and which have been formed one after the other. The
quartz in each is crystallized from the selvages towards the middle,
and the accessory minerals are also somewhat different.
The accompanying, still
a. Quartz with somewhat of fluor spar.
b. Quartz with somewhat of copper-pyrites.
c. Quartz with considerable copper-pyrites.
Quartz with somewhat of fluor spar.
e. Quartz.
f. Quartz with somewhat of copper-pyrites.
a
more complicated, case was
observed in the Godolphin
mine.
Here are but three veins
formed alongside of one an-
other; but of a much more
dissimilar texture, and
position, than in the preced-
ing case: b and c
form one vein in common.
Such a combed texture is, however, by no means common
to these lodes. Some of them have a predominantly brecciated
structure, from the masses of wall-rock, or older portions of veins,
which they enclose ; in some even pebbles occur. As in the
Wheal-Badger mine near Relistran, where boulders of granite,
slate, and quartz, were found at considerable depths. In still
others the principal matrix is traversed, in all directions, by
com-
a. Quartz.
b. Agate.
evidently c. Quartz, crystallized towards the middle,
d. Copper-glance.
DISTRIBUTION OF ORES IN CORNWALL. 417
more recent strings (fillings of cracks) ; which, at times, penetrate
for some distance into the country-rock.
The most recent copper-lodes are distinguished, from the
older ones, by the predominance of argillaceous substances in
their matrix; and the lodes of Newlin probably belong to this
class.
The cross-courses (locally also called guides and trawns)
sometimes contain ores ; which are but rarely found in the vici-
nity of the lodes. They strike NW. SE. or N. S. and dip,
for the most part, in E. Their average breadth is about six
feet, but it sometimes encreases to 36 feet. That of Forth Towan
is said to traverse the entire peninsula from coast to coast, and
every where accompanied by faults, which are 20 60 fathoms
broad. The mass of these cross-courses consists almost entirely
of quartz, which is crystallized in the middle ; quartz frequently
encloses masses of the country-rock. Many are very argillaceous,
and are called cross -flucans, which Kenwood does not distinguish
from the other flucans.
The ores, locally occurring in the cross-courses, are most
commonly those of iron and lead. Many are exploited as lodes
of limonite, and furnish the greater part of the iron produced
in Cornwall-, thus, near Ledock and Roche. The two broad
veins, striking N. 8., which are exploited in the Beer Alston
mine for argentiferous galena, are cross-courses. In those con-
taining argentiferous galena are sometimes found bournonite,
silver-glance, native silver, stibnite, and ores of cobalt, especially
near Redmoor, Penhale, Wheal-Golden.
Copper ores occur in the Tiddys cross-course, in that of
North Downs blende and fluor spar. In the Polgoath district a
cross-course contains considerable tin- ore. The cross-courses often
intersect and fault all the tin-lodes, and the older copper-lodes.
De la Beche recognised them in Devonshire, as being more
recent than the. Cretaceous. They are sometimes intersected by
the most recent copper-lodes.
DISTRIBUTION OF ORES IN CORNWALL
231. The tin and copper ores are very unequally distri-
buted, both in general, and in the separate lodes; so that in
Cornwall, as commonly in vein-mining, portions occur almost
barren of ores, alternating with exploitable portions, and rich
27
418 RULES UNCERTAIN.
pockets. Great pains have been taken in Cornwall to become
acquainted with the causes, or laws, of this unequal distribution;
but these efforts have hitherto been but partially successful. The
rules formed by the miners, and founded on their experience, do
not always hold true; and the presumed causes are in part
contradictory. I subjoin the most important facts, which have
been collected on this subject, by Henwood (H), Dufrenoy and
Elie de Beaumont (DB), in Karsten's Archiv (K], and Voyage
metallurgique ( V) ; but it is certainly much more difficult for
me to arrange the same in a conformable connection, than for
the observers on the spot.
1. The entire mineral wealth occurs within a distance of
two or three miles on each side of the line of junction of the
slate and granite. Yet no part of this line itself appears to have
been more productive, than any other spot of equal extent
within the distance mentioned; and though the lodes not un-
commonly run, for several fathoms, with granite on one side,
and slate on the other; or with either of these rocks forming
one wall, and elvan the opposite one; yet the portions, so con-
tained between dissimilar rocks, are not generally the richest.
The lead-ores occur more removed from the granite. (H.D.B. V.)
2. By the passage of the veins, from one rock into another,
a change usually takes place in the amount of ore, in which
the portion of the lode at the junction is often the richest; for
example, near Botallack. (D. B. V. K.)
3. The tin- lodes occur more frequently in the granite, than
in the killas; but possess a greater average richness in the latter,
than in the granite. (D. B. F.) The tin-lodes predominate near
St. Just; the copper-ones at Redruth.
4. The lodes, essentially containing but copper ores, often
contain tin-ore near or in the granite. (D. B. F.)
5. The copper-lodes occurring in the tin-district are the
richest of their kind. (D. B. K.)
6. Whether the rocks be granite, slate, or elvan; their
hardest portions are always quartzose, and in these the lodes
are seldom rich. On the other hand, if the rock be neither
very fine, nor particularly coarse-grained ; the embedded crystals
of feldspar of a greenish, pink, or brown hue, and their bound-
ing-planes rather indeterminate, or passing gradually into the
basis of the rock ; and if further, that basis consist of greenish
feldspar besides the other usual ingredients, viz. quartz, mica,
FACTS IMPORTANT. 419
and sometimes tourmaline; then the character of the rock is
considered a very favorable one, especially for tin-ore. (H. D. B. V.)
A porphyritic texture is considered unfavorable, both in the
granite and elvans.
7. The lodes, when they intersect the elvans, are very
variable; they either remain the same, or they split up into
innumerable strings containing but little ore, or they become
broader and richer, at times accompanied by rich side-feeders.
(D. B. K.) De la Beche states, that they are much more favo-
rably developed, in such districts as are traversed by numerous
elvans, than in those where they do not occur.
8. In elvan, the hard, fine-grained quartzose varieties, which
also contain some tourmaline, often diffused as coloring matter,
and sometimes in groups of radiating crystals, are considered
uncongenial; as the lodes are frequently split into innumerable
irregular and small veins, whilst they traverse that kind of elvan ;
but which re-unite, when they approach softer and more feld-
spathic varieties of the same rock. (H.}
9. The killas, in the neighborhood of the St. Just copper-
mines, is a greenstone slate, in general tolerably fine-grained
and lamellar; in which both tin and copper ores occur. The
axinite, actinolith, and garnet-rocks, which are associated with
the greenstones, do not seem favorable to the presence of metallic
substances in the lodes which traverse them. (H.)
10. Kenwood states, that many varieties of the clay-slate
exert partly a favorable, partly an unfavorable influence on the
ores in the lodes; but their description is so indefinite, and their
influence apparently so contradictory, that I am not able to lay
any particular stress on them. De la Beche also speaks of such
differences; but they can only be learned by practical experience.
Tin and copper ores are stated to act differently in this respect;
and lead ores only occur in gray-slates distant from the granite.
11. Whether the rock be granite, slate, or elvan; when the
joints, which are parallel to the lodes in their directions, fall
toward the lodes in descending, it is considered a favorable in-
dication; whilst, if similar joints separate from them, as they
descend, it is considered an index of poverty. In all these cases
many transverse joints seem to exercise an unfavorable influence
on the produce of the lodes. (//.)
12. The cleavage-planes of the schistose slates are almost
invariably curved and contorted, whenever the rock is quartzose,
27*
420 STREAM WORKS OF CORNWALL.
and in such cases it is usually very fissile, and the laminae are
highly inclined : either of these conditions is accounted unfavorable.
On the other hand, when the cleavage-planes are regular and
moderately inclined, and when the rock exhibits a thickly la-
mellar structure, the lodes traversing it are generally productive.
Yet all these appearances are but local, and confined within
very narrow limits; and in the same rock there is frequently
an alteration in the lodes, as soon as the character of the rock
is changed. (//.)
13. The junctions of two lodes always cause an enrichment,
if the angle of intersection be less than 45, if it be, however,
greater, sometimes an empoverishment. (D. B. V.)
14. The older copper-lodes are generally enriched by con-
tact with the younger ones, especially on the side of contact,
which very probably took place from a subsequent impregnation.
(D. B. K.)
15. The intersecting cross-courses generally cause an em-
poverishment. (D. B. V.)
16. The breaking up of lodes into leaders is generally
accompanied by empoverishment: the leaders re-uniting with the
lodes are called l feeders'. (D. B. V. and K.)
17. When a lode contains both tin and copper ores at the
same time; the tin-ores generally occupy an upper, the copper-
ores a lower level, as at Seifen in the Erzgebirge; still the
reverse exceptionally occurs (near Dolcoath); or both ores occur
at the same level; in which case the two kinds of ore occur at
the opposite selvages. (D. B. V.) Thomas states, on the contrary,
that such lodes generally contain more tin-ores in the narrow
portions, more copper-ores in the broad portions.^
18. The majority of the lodes are said to encrease in rich-
ness for some depth, then to remain the same for some distance,
after which they begin to decrease in productiveness. (D. B. V.)
19. The gossans of the copper-lodes are often argentiferous.
(D. B. V.)
20. Where the lodes have a variable dip, their most per-
pendicular portions are the most productive. (H.D.B. V.)
STREAM WORKS OF CORNWALL.
232. The alluvial deposits in Cornwall, as elsewhere,
arise from the partial destruction of older deposits in place ; and
SUCCESSION OF STRATA.
421
this origin is more readily perceived in tin alluvial deposits, as
a rule, than in gold-placers.
The erosion and re-deposit of the tin-ores, in all the alluvial
deposits of Cornwall, has taken place at a very late geological
period, being subsequent to the Tertiary, and partly during the
historical.
The majority appear to have been formed during a general
submergence at the Diluvial period; while a few owe their origin,
or alteration, to subsequent rain-floods or river-freshets.
The first occur on gentle slopes or in valleys, the last alone
in valleys. Human bones, trunks of oaks, and beds of peat,
are sometimes found in the freshwater strata of the Diluvial
period; in those deposited by saltwater, shells, such as still occur
in the neighboring sea. But few, so-called, stream-works are now
worked in Cornwall. The tin, which the Phoenicians exported
from Cornwall, was probably all obtained from stream-works.
Dufrenoy and Elie de Beaumont found but three stream-
works at work, in one of which, the Sandrycock, the stratifica-
tion is, according to Rashleigh, the following: r
Feet. | Inches.
1. Vegetable mould, about ; vVr>... . . 3
2. Gravel, and micaceous sand, mixed with fine loam I
in alternate beds of various depths j 8 3
3. Light-colored clay, ^jth a little mica ...... r 5 3
4. Black peat 4 1
5. Light-colored clay 1 4
6. Stiff clay of a brown color with vivianite .... 1 3 10
7. Sea-sand and clay mixed | 3
8. Fine sea-sand, containing mica and fragments of
shells 4
9. Coarse* sand without shells . 6
10. Solid black fen 2 10-
11. Tin-ground and loose sand of all sorts 1-6
12. Killas, on which the tin-ground rests i
44 10
The succession at Pentowan, near St. Austel, is a very
similar one. There, under the second light-colored clay, follows :
Feet. Inches.
Hardened clay 3 jo
Argillaceous sand 3
Fragments of slate and shells of recent mollusca . 4
Coarse sea-sand 6
Sandy clay, with recent shells 8
Sea-sand, with pebbles 6
All sorts of pebbles, with tin-ore 6
422 THEORETICAL REMARKS ON
Deer-antlers and buffalo-horns have also been found in
these deposits.
These are, therefore, for the most part, very recent marine
deposits. Their total thickness varis between 20 and 70 feet.
They every where contain the tin-ore in the lowest bed, as
small crystalline grains, or rounded pebbles (wood tin), free
from all the other metallic minerals, which are usually associ-
ated with the tin-ore in place; on which account they produce
a very pure metal. Curiously enough gold is found in some
of these stream-works; from which circumstance, as well as from
the presence of varieties of tin-ores uncommon in the lodes,
and from the absence of the other ores, it has been supposed
that the alluvial deposits were not formed from the erosion of
the neighboring lodes. Nevertheless, Carne has altogether refuted
this hypothesis; and it has been subsequently found, that, near
Davidstowe in North Cornwall, the quartz-veins traversing the
Devonian strata contain iron-pyrites and somewhat of gold,
which last is only perceptible after the decomposition of the
pyrites to a gossan. De la Beche also mentions gold occurring
in quartz at North Tawton in Devonshire ; while Murchison
speaks of its occurrence in the gossan of the Pattimore mine
at North Molton in Devonshire.
THEORETICAL REMARKS ON TOE CORNWALL
ORE-DISTRICT.
233. It is very evident, that the metalliferous deposits
of Cornwall owe their origin to the granite; which has broken
through the great primary sedimentary district, and partly
altered it. These deposits appear as accessory ingredients in the
granite; and, therefore, occur in or near it. The porphyries,
or elvans, belong to the granite, being mere modifications of its
texture and form.
A confirmation is thus found, in these deposits, for the
almost universal observation, made on the Continent of Europe,
that the tin-deposits almost altogether occur with granitic rocks.
We have already become acquainted with this paragenesis l in
the Erzgebirge, at Schlackenwald in Bohemia, in Brittany, etc.,
as being every where the same, with but slight modifications.
1 From naQccytv7]Gi$ } association.
THE CORNWALL DISTRICT. 423
Hence, it is very probable, that the tin-ores always occur asso-
ciated with such igneous rocks, rich in silica, as have solidified
at great depths (deep plutonic); and thus, when they occur at
the present surface, in consequence of erosion, they belong to
the very ancient rocks. The tin-deposits (with exception of the
alluvial deposits belong, wherever they occur, to the oldest ore-
deposits. They are almost every where older than the Carbo-
niferous period. From the above statement, some persons have
concluded, that the formation of these deposits belongs to a fixed
and very ancient period. This view appears to me illegitimate;
after reviewing the facts I incline to the conviction, that they
belong to the deep underground and, in so far, plutonic forma-
tions. As regards mining operations, this view is synonymous
with the first, since the tin-deposits are only to be looked for
in granitic rocks. This view does not, however, exclude their
being exceptionally formed in these at a more recent geological
period, and that they may then be found, if the erosion of the rocks
originally overlying them takes place, more rapidly than usual.
I see no reason, why they may not now be forming in the in-
terior of the earth.
That the tin-deposits observed are not absolutely the oldest
metalliferous deposits, but only locally and relatively so; and
that consequently it is incorrect, to suppose certain metals, or
ores, to have been formed during fixed geological periods; has
been proved by Lyell; l who shows, that the lead and copper
ores of Wexford, in Ireland, are far older than the tin-deposits
of Cornwall. At Wexford granite occurs traversed by granite
dikes, which dikes also intrude themselves into the Silurian
strata. These Silurian rocks, as well as the dikes, have been
denuded, before the Devonian strata were superimposed. Next,
we find in the same county, that elvans have cut through the
granite and the dikes before-mentioned, but have not penetrated
the Devonian rocks. Subsequently to these, veins of copper
and lead were produced, being of a date posterior to the Silurian,
and anterior to the Devonian; for they do not enter the latter;
and, what is still more decisive, streaks or layers, of derivative
copper, have been found near Wexford in the Devonian, not
far from points, where mines are worked in the Silurian strata.
These lead and copper lodes must consequently be older than
1 See his Elements of Geology, 1865, p. 768.
424 RELATIVE AGE OF LODES, ORES, etc
the Devonian; and as the Cornwall tin-lodes traverse Devonian
strata, they must undoubtedly be, not only more recent than
these, but younger than those lead and copper lodes. Lyell even
considers the Cornwall tin-rlodes, as being more recent than the
coal-measures of that part of England. In Cornwall the copper-
lodes are, as we have seen, decidedly younger than the tin-
lodes; if tin-lodes also existed at Wexford, they would probably
be older than the copper and lead lodes. The relative, but not
the absolute, age of the various lodes may remain the same for
every region. They are the results of events, which have taken
place at unequal depths below the surface, in which the absolute
period of formation of like or similar deposits varies much in
different regions; that is, the succession of one locality may
belong to a very different period, from the analogous succession
of another locality.
Apart from these general remarks, it follows, from what has
been observed in Cornwall, that the tin-lodes are here evidently
of more recent age, than the granites which have traversed the
Devonian strata. The majority of the Cornish tin-lodes too are
undoubtedly more recent than the elvans; which also traverse
the granite and Devonian rocks, and are consequently younger
than these. But here some doubts are met with, whose complete
elucidation would be very instructive, and of great importance.
Some of the elvans appear to be but ramifications of the larger
granite-masses, and of a like age to these. This is very pos-
sible, and does not exclude others from traversing the granite.
We need merely suppose that here, too, the frequently observed
phenomena of dissimilar, and non-contemporaneous products, of
the solidification of the same principal mass, are repeated. The
large granite masses sent-out ramifications into the slates, which
had a somewhat different texture; and thus, in part, completely
resemble the independent elvans; they themselves (the granite-
masses) first became solid at their surface, while the fluid interior
again penetrated into fissures, and filled these, both in granite
and slate. In this manner more recent granite or porphyry
dikes, or elvans, were formed in the granite and slate. The
second doubt concerns the relation of the tin-lodes to the elvans.
According to many and reliable observers, some of the tin-lodes
are traversed by elvans, and are consequently older than these;
JDe la Beche denies the last, and attempts to explain the in-
disputable appearances of the intersection in another manner.
PERIOD OF VEIN-FORMATION. 425
This observer states, that all the elvans are older than the tin-
lodes. Those persons who, like myself, have not observed the
facts, can, naturally, express no opinion on the subject; but I
would call attention to the fact, that altogether analogous cases
occur, at Freiberg, to those asserted by Game, Henwood, and
others. The Freiberg lodes are in general more recent than
the porphyry-dikes (much resembling the elvans), which here
traverse the gneiss; still a lode of one of the oldest lode-
formations is undoubtedly intersected and thrown by a porphyry-
dike; and the first observation of this kind has been confirmed
by two more recent and similar ones. From this we may con-
clude, that the porphyry-dikes, like the lodes, are of somewhat
dissimilar age among themselves; and that both processes of
vein-formation, extending through a long period, have interlaced,
but in such a manner, that generally the formation of the
lodes first began, as that of the porphyry dikes was almost
completed.
Should the case in Cornwall be similar, it may naturally be
concluded, that the formation of the tin-lodes immediately followed
that of the granite and elvans.
With regard to the copper-ores in the Cornish lodes, it
may be questioned, whether they have actually been formed
contemporaneously with the principal vein-material in all the
lodes. Where tin and copper ores occur separated from one
another in the lodes of this district, the copper-lodes are always
more recent than the tin-veins. Might not the same process,
which caused the deposit of the copper-ores in the more recent
veins, have also affected the older, long-existing fissures, in such
a manner, that copper-ores penetrated into the older, partly
stanniferous lodes, long subsequently to the period, when their
vein-matter first penetrated ? In order to answer such a question,
it would be necessary to examine these veins once more, very
carefully, from this standpoint. At a distance, and without new
observations, nothing can be decided.
The period of vein-formation in Cornwall was a very long
continued one; this is proven from the frequently repeated
opening and filling of the same fissure. We have seen, that this
has taken place six times in one fissure at Redruth: each of
these fillings undoubtedly took a long time, and they must have
been completely finished and solidified, as the wall of the fissure
was separated anew. The repeated opening was also the cause
426 MANNER OF FORMATION.
of an encreasing breadth of these lodes, which in reality consist
of the intimate union of several separate veins.
Let us now turn our attention to the manner of formation,
especially that of the tin-deposits.
We have seen ( 75) that at Altenberg in the Erzgebirge
the tin-ore has penetrated, with some associated minerals, into
the granite, after its solidification, through innumerable clefts;
and has converted it into Zwitter. Such a subsequent rock-
penetration and impregnation has also undoubtedly taken place
in Cornwall, but in a somewhat different form. Not only has
the tin-ore (with the silicates, tungstates, borates, and fluorides,
usually accompanying it), penetrated into the narrow clefts and
joints of the killas, granite, and elvans; but the feldspar-crystals,
in the interior of somewhat decomposed elvans, are destroyed,
and their place occupied by a mixture of cassiterite and quartz ;
while in the granite tourmaline has, in a similar manner, sup-
planted the feldspar. Daubree concludes, from these and similar
cases, as well as from successful experiments in the artificial
formation of cassiterite; that this metal, and its normal accom-
panying minerals (quartz, wolfram, topaz, tourmaline, fluor spar,
apatite, mica [containing fluorine], beryl, etc.), have penetrated
the rock from below, as volatile fluorides and borates in a
gaseous state, perhaps combined with steam; and have been
deposited in their present state under favorable conditions. Even
the possibility of aqueous solutions is not by this althogether
excluded; and when I called the tin-ore-deposits in a certain
sense plutonic, I by no means meant to indicate that they owed
their origin to a solidification from the igneous-fluid condition.
De la Beche has attempted to combine, not merely the
formation of the fissures, but also the matter filling them, into
intimate connection with the eruption and solidification of the
granite; in that he supposes the formation of the veins to have
taken place, after the upper portion of the granite had hardened,
but the lower portion was still in an igneous-fluid condition.
Fissures, which extended from the bottom of the ocean, or the.
then, surface of the land, through the slate and solidified granite,
to the still igneous-fluid matter, were filled with water. This
was heated below under very great pressure, converted into
steam, and held in continual circulation by the differences in
temperature above and below ; it also penetrated the rock for
considerable distances from the fissures, dissolving many sub-
WALES. LODES. 427
stances at a great depth, which it re-deposited nearer the sur-
face at a lower temperature, or exchanged for others, merely
bringing the last residue to the surface. He takes this opportunity
for mentioning a very interesting memoir, which Pryce published
in 1778 in his 'Mineralogia Cornubiensis', on the filling of veins
through such an exchange of the ingredients dissolved.
De la Beche's hypothesis has much in its favor: still it
seems to me necessary to add, that the surface at that time was
high above the present one, so that the granite, killas, and elvans,
which we now see, did not attain the former surface, but were
covered by immense rock-formations, which were subsequently
eroded and destroyed.
There can hardly be a doubt, with respect to the origin of
tin-placers. They are the products of a denudation and re-
deposit of rocks and ores in place, which have been deposited on
the present surface of the land, partly by salt water, partly by
fresh-water. It is a most interesting fact, that a large majority,
if not all, of these deposits have been formed during the most
recent geological periods, even during that of man, since the
remains found in them are those of existing species.
Considerable changes of level, and transformations in the
form of the surface, must, therefore, have taken place during
the historical period. It is further interesting, that the ore
is only found in the lowest and oldest beds of the marine
deposits.
XXVI. WALES.
THE LODES OF CARDIGANSHIRE.
234. Cambrian clay-slates, and related rocks, predomi-
nate on the west coast of Wales. These slates are not disturbed
by igneous rocks, and contain numerous lodes at the boundaries
of Cardiganshire 1 and Montgomeryshire. The district containing
1 See: W. W. Smyth, in Memoirs of the geol. survey of Great Britain,
1848, vol. II. pt. II. p. 655; Keeper, in same, p. 643; Francis, in Mining
Almanac, 1852.
428 CARDIGAN AND MONTGOMERY.
them is about 40 miles long and 5 to 22 miles broad, extending
NNW. to SSE.; and the lodes, as a rule, strike ENE. WSW.,
consequently almost at right angles to the longest axis of the
entire belt. Their relative age cannot be accurately determined ;
and their composition is so simitar, that they cannot well be
separated into vein-formations. Traces of the continuation of
these veins also occur in the eastern prolongation of their course,
at a considerable distance, in Montgomeryshire.
From their somewhat unequal distribution into belts they
may be classified in six groups:
1. Of these groups the first is designated by the Tal-y-
Bont, Penybontpren, Llancyfelyn, and Trerddol mines : the lodes
of this group contain argentiferous galena, somewhat of blende,
and occasionally copper-pyrites: they are contracted, dip some-
what to the West, and only traverse finely laminated clay-
slate ;
2. The second group, called l Welsh Potosi', contains
the Coginan, Cwm Symlog, Daren, Pen y Cefn, and other mines:
the lodes attain a breadth of 20 feet in the rock, somewhat more
compact than in the previous group, and contain very argenti-
ferous galena;
3. The third group lies between Ystrad Meyric, and Devil's
Bridge, along the Rheidol River: the great number of lodes
found here vary, to some extent, in their character with the
nature of the country-rock: they contain galena (very rich in
silver), blende, iron-pyrites, and manganese ores ;
4. The fourth group extends from Llanbedr to the central
chain of Plynlimmon : argentiferous galena, blende, and calc-spar,
are the characteristic minerals of this group;
5. The fifth group extends along the Plynlimmon chain,
and contains, among others, the rich mine of Cwm Ystwyth:
the lodes contain much copper-pyrites;
6. The sixth group comprises the mines around Llanidloes:
the galena is, here, associated with heavy spar, and witherite;
which are not found in the other groups.
To these must be added the vein-district of Llangynnog, in
which are found feldspar-porphyries; while the districts above-
mentioned are strikingly free from igneous rocks.
The predominating vein-stone, in all these lodes, consists
of fragments of slate, combined with different varieties of quartz.
Besides these, calc-spar, and (exceptionally) heavy spar, and
GROUPS OF LODES. * MAIN FACTS. 429
witherite, are found; fluor spar is unknown. The ores are;
galena, in part very argentiferous, cerusite, pyromorphite, copper
and iron pyrites, spathic iron, and manganese ores. The matrix
is but rarely arranged in symmetrical layers or bands; in the
Nant-y-Creiau, for example, blende occurs at both selvages, on
this galena, and quartz, with geodes of the same in the middle.
These minerals usually possess an irregular granular texture,
or traverse one another in a network of strings. The following
unsymmetrical succession was observed in the Tyn-y-fron level
of the Estymteon lode, passing from the hanging- to the foot-
wall :
1. Iron-pyrites;
2. Galena;
3. Iron-pyrites;
4. Blende, with somewhat of galena;
5. Quartz;
6. Copper-pyrites, at the foot-wall.
This succession can only be the result of a repeated opening
and filling of the fissure. This conclusion is proved by the
frequent friction-surfaces within the lodes, fragments of older
vein-masses enclosed in more recent ones, and a distinct double
lode in Taylor's shaft at Groginaii. The lode proper is there ac-
companied, and, in a parallel direction, partly intersected, by a
vein of slight breadth; which, at the outcrop, is found altogether
within the foot-wall, and has gradually reached the hanging-
wall, at a depth of 26 fathoms; it then again passes to the foot-
wall, and finally, at a depth of 100 fathoms, forms the hanging-
wall for a short distance.
These lodes are often intersected, and thrown a few feet,
by clay-fissures. The ores are by no means equally distributed
in the lodes. The following facts have been established:
1. Where two lodes intersected at an acute angle; there,
with but one exception, an enrichment had taken place;
2. Junctions, more nearly at right angles to one another,
also act favorably, but only to a slight degree;
3. The union of several vein-branches is almost always ac-
companied by enrichment;
4. The majority of the ore-masses, not dependent on the
causes mentioned, slant toward the West. At times this cor-
responds to the line of intersection of the stratification (by the
lode) ; but it is not always the case. In other cases it cor-
responds to the line of intersection of the cleavage, which is
430 DERBYSHIRE. % ORDER OF STRATA.
different from that of the stratification, and dips, at times, in an
opposite inclination;
5. The distribution of the ores differs in one respect from
that in the Cornish lodes, in which an enrichment takes place
by the transition from a harder to softer rock : in this district
the reverse takes place ; a hard wall-rock is favorable, a soft or
decomposed one unfavorable. All the ores, particularly around
Goginan, are found between hard, compact rock, whose strati-
fication is only recognised by darker stripes; where the lodes
pass into softer masses, the ores no longer occur.
A portion of Merionethshire, 1 in North Wales, consists of
Cambrian and lower Silurian slates and sandstones, frequently
broken through by greenstones. A portion of the slates, which
belongs to the subdivision of the Lingula-flags, is of a talcose
nature, and passes into a sort of talc-schist. The slate is tra-
versed, in addition to the greenstones, by numerous and, in
part, metalliferous quartz-veins, which contain galena, blende,
iron and copper pyrites. Some of them are exploited for copper.
Several, and particularly those which occur in the talcose schist,
also contain a little gold.
XXVII. DERBYSHIRE.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
235. The ore-district of Derbyshire occurs, essentially, in
the Subcarboniferous formation (mountain limestone), which is
therefore here called metalliferous limestone. The succession of
the strata, in a descending series, is as follows:
1. New-red-sandstone, mantling the ore district, but containing
no metalliferous deposits;
2. Coal-shales and Millstone-grit: the lodes occur but rarely
in the latter; they are unknown in the coal-shales;
3. Carboniferous limestone (mountain limestone), in part mag-
1 See: Ramsay, in Quarterly Journal of the geol. soc. 1854, vol. X., pt.
I. p. 242.
VARIETIES OF LEAD-DEPOSITS. 431
nesian; containing cavities, and alternating with calcareous shales and
with beds of an igneous rock, resembling greenstone (locally called
toadstone).
The greenstone (toadstone\ in part amygdaloidal, forms
tolerably regular layers between the more or less thick lime-
stone-strata; and it is doubtful, whether these greenstone-layers
are to be regarded, as submarine streams of lava contempora-
neous with the deposits of limestone, or as subsequent injections
into fissures, parallel to the stratification. De la Beche con-
siders them to be contemporaneous streams: Sedgewiek, as sub-
sequent injections or igneous bedded dikes. It is probable, that
both occur in the same district; for our purpose this is a question
of no importance. It is in the district, occupied by these pe-
culiar alternations, of very fossiliferous limestone with a distinct
igneous rock, that the aggregations of lead-ore-deposits are found,
both in Derbyshire, and Cumberland.
THE LEAD DEPOSITS.
236. Three varieties or forms of lead- deposits are recog-
nised in Derbyshire: 1
1. Rake -veins; which are the lodes proper, filling distinct
fissures;
2. Pipe-veins; which are masses or sheets of ore, generally
parallel to the stratification, but quite irregular;
3. Flat-veins; these are thin layers in the fissures of strati-
fication.
Besides these, the cross-fissures of the limestone are often metal-
liferous, and are called skrins.
De la Beche has attempted to show the manner in which
these differently formed, but similarly composed, ore-deposits occur,
by the following idealised woodcut.
1 See: De la Beche, Geological Observer, 151, p. 784; Brochantfde
Villiers, in Annal. d. mines, vol. XII. p. 339, 401; Elie de Bea.umont
and Dufrenoy, Voyage metall. en Angleterre, vol. II. p. 514.
432 SUCCESSION OF STRATA.
The white, only shaded near the surface, is mountain-
limestone: the dark layer, A, is greenstone (toadstone), which,
De la Beche thinks, has flowed over the lower layer of limestone,
and over which the tipper one was subsequently deposited: I b
are cross-fissures (skrins) in theT* limestone, and sometimes
contain small quantities of ore: cc are rake-veins, true veins
filling fissures, through which the material composing the other
veins may also have penetrated: dd are pipe-veins, 1 irregular
expansions filled with ores, at the intersections of the lodes with
the fissures of stratification: the fissures of the stratification, a a,
are often filled with thin sheets of ore, and then form the flat-
veins.
It is evident, that the whole mass of limestone is traversed,
in all accessible fissures and cavities, by ores and veinstones,
which have penetrated subsequent to its formation; but in the
greenstones either these substances have found but little space
for deposit, or its mass did not re-act in the same manner on the
solutions, as did that of the limestone.
All three or four kinds of ore-deposits are essentially com-
posed of galena, heavy spar, fluor spar and calc-spar; quartz,
pyrites, blende, and products of decomposition, are more rare.
The only veins, now generally exploited in Derbyshire,
are the rake-veins: at least the half of these course WSW. ENE.,
while the remainder appear to have no predominant direction of
strike.
-Their dissimilar condition, in the various strata they traverse,
is very remarkable. The last succeed one another in the
following order:
1. Millstone-grit;
2. Slates of the Subcarboniferous ;
3. Limestone, containing thin be'ds of slate. 25 fathoms thick;
4. Trap, or toadstone;
5. Magnesian limestone, .containing cavities, 25 fathoms thick;
6. Trap, or toadstone;
7. Limestone, with layers of slate, 35 fathoms thick;
8. Trap, or toadstone;
9. Limestone, with layers of slate, over 42 fathoms thick.
But few veins are found to be metalliferous in the Millstone-
grit (1) and in the upper slate (2); the great majority are only
exploited in the limestone district, and here only in the limestone
1 They might with great propriety be called junction-segregations.
DERBYSHIRE LEAD-LODES. 433
strata. As soon as a lode has been followed, from the surface
to the first layer of greenstone; it either ceases, or only con-
tinues as a narrow cleft (containing no ores) through the
greenstone. Beneath this the veinstone is at times found to
have resumed its former condition in the next limestone-bed.
Still, most of the mines are only exploited within one zone of
limestone. Brochant de Villiers, Dufrenoy, and Elie de Beaumont,
state> that out of 180 cases, 161 showed a complete disappear-
ance of the lode in greenstone; while there were but 19 cases,
where the vein was observed to continue, in the form of
parallel fissures. These results cannot be regarded as altogether
reliable; since, from a practical mining view, the vein would
probably be considered to have ceased, though it actually con-
tinued through the trap in the form of barren fissures. A
careful examination would almost always find traces of the
continuation, since such continuations have been several times
recognised; and consequently it cannot be supposed, that the
greenstone has penetrated, subsequently to the lodes, in the form
of dikes.
The Carboniferous limestone, in Derbyshire and Cumberland,
only contains lead-lodes and their branches, when it also contains
beds or dikes of greenstone. Similar lodes occur in a narrow
belt of Carboniferous limestone, commencing in the north of
Flintshire, between the upper Silurian Wenlock strata and
Millstone-grit, and extending, without containing greenstone dikes,
to the neighborhood of Llangollen. The lodes generally strike,
at right angles to the course of the belt in which they lie, being
either E. W. or NW.SE., but rarely N. S. They are
generally confined to the Subcarboniferous formation; but a
small portion of them having been followed into the Mill-
stone-grit, and two or three of them into the underlying Wen-
lock beds. Not one of them reaches into the Carboniferous
formation proper. From this fact, they might be older than
this last formation; but it cannot be proved with certainty,
especially as some of them extend into the Millstone-grit. Were
it the case, we should here have an interesting case of the
unusually great age of a vein-formation, which extremely re-
sembles the Freiberg barytic lead-formation, and belongs to
the same combination, which in many regions extends into the
Jurassic or Cretaceous, perhaps even into tertiary rocks.
28
434 CUMBERLAND LEAD-LODES.
'Conybeare and Phillips 1 state, that in some of the
veins in the Carboniferous limestone of Derbyshire, the veinstuff,
which is nearly compact, is occasionally traversed by (what may
be called) a vertical crack passing down the middle of the vein.
The two faces in contact are friction-surfaces, sometimes covered
by a thin coating of lead-ore. When one side of the veinstuff
is removed, the other side cracks, especially if small holes be
made in it, and fragments fly off with loud explosions, and
continue to do so for some days. The miner, availing himself
of this circumstance, makes with his pick small holes, about six
inches apart, and four inches deep ; and on his return, in a few
hours, finds every part ready broken to this hand. These pheno-
mena and their causes (probably connected with electrical action)
seem scarcely to have attracted the notice which they deserve/
The isolated portion of limestone forming the peninsula of
Great Ormes-head in the north coast of Wales, contains vein&
coursing N. S. So that, on the whole, the British Carboniferous
may fairly be entitled metalliferous, though not originally
such, by depositions subsequent to its formation.
C. Moore 2 has found numerous fossils in lodes in Moun-
tain limestone ; they belong partly to the Subcarboniferous, partly
to the Jurassic and Triassic periods.
XXVIII. CUMBERLAND.
LEAD-DEPOSITS.
237. The geological formation of the ore-district of Cum-
berland 3 is entirely similar to that of Derbyshire, being a con-
tinuation of the same general conditions. The lead-deposits also
occur in the Carboniferous or metalliferous limestone.
1 Conybeare and Phillips' Geology, p. 401; and L yell's El. of Geol.
1865, p. 762.
2 See: The Mining Journal, No. 1418, vol. XXXII.
3 See: Wallace, Description of lead-ore in Veins of Alston Moor, 1861:
Bro chant de Villiers, in Annal. d. mines, vol. XII, pp. 339, 401; Dufrenoy,
and Elie de Beaumont, Voyage metall. vol. II. p. 502; Mave, in Von
Moll's Annalen, vol. V. p. 259.
RAKE-, PIPE-, AND FLAT- VEINS. 435
This Carboniferous limestone consists of alternate strata of
thick limestone-beds with subordinate layers of argillaceous shale
and sandstone. In Cumberland this group of strata is also tra-
versed by a compact or amygdaloidal greenstone (called trap
or whin-sill); which extends, with varying thickness, between
the strata, and parallel to these; from which Sedgewick con-
cludes, that it has penetrated, as igneous rock, between the
sedimentary strata, subsequently to their formation. The thick-
ness of this greenstone is at times more than sixty-four feet. In
Derbyshire we found several such layers of trap one above the
other, in Cumberland there appears to be but one such.
Since the several limestone-strata have each its own pecu-
liar mining value, each one has received its separate name from
the miners. Of special importance are the two thickest, the so-
called great limestone, 64 feet thick, and the scar limestone,
upwards of 125 feet thick ; each of which, however, properly con-
sists of several separate beds. The remaining limestones attain
a thickness of but 1520 feet, being separated from one another
by argillaceous shales or sand. In Cumberland, as in Derby-
shire, the Millstone-grit overlies the Carboniferous limestone,
&nd the lodes in it are not exploitable.
The ore-deposits are classified in Cumberland as rake-veins,
pipe- veins and flat-veins.
The rake-veins are the most common and important. They
traverse the Subcarboniferous formation from top to bottom, but
with very variable breadth and character between the separate
layers of the formation. Their matrix is in general precisely
the same as in Derbyshire. Their breadth averages 1 4 feet,
but is, in the Huldgillburn lode, within the great limestone
17 feet, while it decreases in the sandstone beneath this to 3 feet.
The same is frequent in the other lodes; they being only broad
and productive within the limestone. Their course is irregular ;
their dip, as a rule, vertical; but, still, resembling a flight of
stairs. For while the veins are broad, and almost perpendicular,
within the limestone; they often have a very gentle dip, with
but slight breadth, and chiefly clayey matrix, in the intermediate
schistose rocks; and again continue vertical, and broad, in the
next limestone-bed. The veins are also poor in the sandstone,
while in greenstone, or amygdaloid, they split up into unwork-
able strings. They are, therefore, only exploited in the lime-
stone; and it is stated, that experience has shown, that the
28*
436 IRELAND.
upper strata are generally far more favorable, than the lower
ones. On this account the greater part of the lodes are only
exploited to the fifth bed of limestone; which lies about 150
fathoms beneath the Millstone-grit f beneath which, and above
the first limestone-bed, follows slate, 1 10 fathoms thick, in which
the mines are not worked. There thus remains a zone of but
40 fathoms, in which the mines are exploited. At Alston Moor,
however, the lodes have been found workable, as deep as the
eleventh limestone-bed, which lies 210 fathoms below the Mill-
stone-grit; by which the zone of exploitation is encreased to
100 fathoms. The several limestone-beds are found to vary
somewhat in their influence, the most favorable being the great
limestone. This influence of the wall-rock is so striking, that
a perceptible difference occurs, even in those places, where, by
reason of faults, the one side of the fissure is bounded by lime-
stone, the other by slate or sandstone.
The pipe -veins seem generally to be local and irregular
enlargements, of veins or vein-fissures, caused by the fissures of
stratification, like the segregated masses of calamirie in the
Muschelkalk at Wiesloch in Baden, and segregations of lead-
ores at Bleiberg in Carinthia. They are much less common than
the rake-veins, and are only worth working when very broad.
The f 1 at- veins correspond, in form, to thin beds between
the strata, but appear to be merely side-branches of the lodes
in the stratification-fissures. They too are seldom exploited.
Hence it may be asserted, as already stated in the preced-
ing , that the metalliferous limestone was by no means origi-
nally metalliferous, but only presented a good opportunity or
cause for the subsequent depositions of ore in its fissures and
cavities; as did other magnesian limestones on the continent of
Europe.
XXIX. IRELAND.
WICKLOW.
238. The ore-deposits of Wicklow, on the East Coast
of Ireland, are the richest and most important of all those as
WICKLOW GROUPS OF LODES. 437
yet discovered on this island. The County of Wicklow A is
generally composed of lower Silurian slates, cut through by
granite masses, porphyry- and greenstone-dikes. The clay- slate,
in the neighborhood of the granite, is usually altered to mica-
schist and quartzite; these being often intersected by ramifica-
tions of the granite. It appears, that the metalliferous deposits
of this district occur, for the most part, near the limits of the
granite, either within this, or in the adjoining schist. They may
be separated into three groups, according to their nature of
occurrence :
1. Lead-lodes in granite ;
2. Deposits of iron and copper-pyrites in Silurian slates;
3. Gold- placers, near the granite mountain of Croghan
Kinshella :
All of these deposits occur in the basin of the Ovoca river,
which empties into the sea near Arklow.
1. Lead-lodes in granite. The most important are those
exploited by the Glenmalure and Luganure mines. The broadest
of these, that of the Old Glenmalure mine, is 20 feet broad.
At one point, where it had penetrated the schist, it showed the
following unsymmetrical arrangement:
a. A narrow layer of ore;
b. Quartz, containing particles of ore, very broad;
c. Fragments of schist;
d. Galena and blende, very broad; following which is the hanging-
wall of slate.
In these lodes, the galena has been found, in places, three
feet broad.
2. The copper and iron-pyrites mines of Ovoca may be
passed over, as not especially interesting.
3. A deposit of clay, sand, and boulders, 20 50 feet thick,
occurs in the Ballin Valley on the Croghan Kinshella mountain.
This deposit contains scales, grains, and larger pieces of gold,
occasionally also crystals. This is associated with quartz, mag-
netite, specular iron, iron-pyrites, iron-mulm, cassiterite, wolfram,
pyrolusite, and chlorite. Sometimes are found united together;
1 See: The mines of Wicklow, 1857; Murchison's Siluria, p. 435;
Weaver, in Philos. Magaz. 1835, vol. VII. p. 1; and Trans, geol. soc. 1819,
vol. V., pt. I. p. 208; Henry, in Philos. Trans. 1753, vol. 47; Sanders, in
Jahrb. f. Mineral. 1865, p. 245.
438 SCANDINAVIA. FALLBANDS.
quartz, and chlorite; quartz, and gold; quartz, magnetite, wolf-
ram, and gold. In some of the pieces the wolfram is traversed
by limonite and gold.
XXX. SCANDINAVIA,
GENERAL REMARKS.
239. Norway, Sweden, and Finland, consist, for the
greater part, of old crystalline rocks, partly igneous and plu-
tonic, partly metamorphic. Gneiss and granite are particularly
prevalent; and, according to the investigations of Kjerulf and
Dahll, the first is, also in part, of igneous origin, and has broken
through the other schistose rocks; of which it sometimes contains
fragments.
This igneous gneiss greatly resembles granite, it exhibits
no alternation with other schistose rocks, -but forms uniform
districts. The metamorphic variety, on the contrary, forms fre-
quent transitions into, or alternates with, mica-schist, quartzite,
chlorite-schist, talc-schist, hornblende-schist, felsitic schist, crystal-
line limestone or dolomite; or contains, to a more subordinate
degree, all sorts of metalliferous deposits, and other peculiar
varieties of rocks; or is traversed by porphyries, greenstones,
and gabbro. Overlying the gneiss are Silurian and Devonian
strata; in places, covering large areas. More recent sedimentary
strata are only found in the southernmost portion of Sweden.
These last contain no metalliferous deposits. Diluvial deposits
cover large areas of country to the North. Of the igneous rocks,
there occur, in addition to granite and gneiss, syenite, porphyries,
greenstones, and basalts.
There are but few true fissure-veins among the ore-deposits
of Scandinavia. The majority of the deposits form irregular,
segregated, and bedlike masses, or so-called Fallbands; i. e. im-
pregnated zones of rock. Scandinavia is properly the home of
segregations and Fallbands. Iron and copper-ores are the most
richly represented; after these silver, and cobalt; far less fre-
quently lead, zinc, nickel, gold, and tin ; the last is only found,
ORE-DISTRICTS OF NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND FINLAND. 439
In any quantity, at Pittkaranda in Finland. The manner of
occurrence at this last locality is very striking; since the tin-
ores so constantly occur elsewhere with the oldest crystalline
rocks.
It cannot appear strange, that the iron-deposits of Sweden
are mostly composed of magnetite ; if it is remembered, that they
occur in crystalline schists, which have probably been altered
to their present state by catogene metamorphosis. The Devo-
nian belt of the Eastern Alps, so rich in spathic iron, would
probably have furnished like results under similar circumstances.
Daubre*e gives a general summary of the ore-districts in
Norway and Sweden; which I here transcribe, making a few
alterations, and completions, as regards Finland.
Norway.
1. District of Christiania: numerous contact-deposits
at the junction of granite: silver-lodes of Kongsberg: cobalt-
deposits of Skutterud;
2. District of Arendal on the South coast: belt of
magnetic iron;
3. District of Tellemark: 1 numerous copper-'and iron-
deposits, in part argentiferous; e. g. near Omdal, and Bygland;
4. District ofTrondhjem: deposits of iron- and copper-
ores; e. g. at Roraas;
5. District of North Cape: copper-deposits of Kaafjord,
and Reipas.
Sweden.
6. District of Tornea and Lulea-Lappmark: numerous
deposits of iron-ore: near Gellivara an entire mountain of mag-
netic iron; the like at Kjerunavara and Luosanavara: copper-
deposits with argentiferous galena at Sulitelma;
7. District of Herj edalen: the deposits ofTrondhjem
appear to continue to this point ;
8. District of Dalecarlia and Westmanland: this
is the richest district in Sweden: to it belong; Falun, the iron-
and copper-deposits of Grangjarde, Grarpenkerg, Nylshyttan with
magnetite, Loos with cobalt and nickel ores, Lo'fas with lead
and silver ores in the limestone of the mica-schist, Elfdalen
with argentiferous lead-lodes in porphyry, Norberg with rich
1 See: Scheerer, in Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1863, p. 157.
440 CONTACT-DEPOSITS
copper-ores containing lead-ores, Bisperg with magnetite in gneiss,
and Sala;
9. District of Wermland and Nerik'e: neighborhood
of Philipstad, Carlstadt with hemajite in gneiss, Vena with
Fallbands of cobalt-ores in gneiss, : much resembling those of
Skutterud ;
10. District of Upland: Dannemora;
11. District of Westmanland: Nora, Nyakopparberg,
and Nydarhytta, containing copper-ores; Hellefors, and Guld-
meshyttan with argentiferous galena in Fallbands;
12. District of Sodermanland: Tunaberg, island of
of Utoe, Ferola, Sjosa, and Scotrang, with deposits of magnetic
iron, cut through by granite-dikes;
13. District of East Gothland: near Atredaberg are
rich copper-deposits in mica-schist;
14. District of Sm aland: at Taberg, and Adelfors, are
bog iron-ores, and copper- and cobalt-deposits in the gneiss of
Gladhamar.
Finland.
15. District of Helsingfors: numerous deposits of mag-
netic iron in hornblende-schist, always accompanied by diorite,
frequently cut through by granite-dikes: in the deposits garnet,
augite, epidote, mica, chlorite, talc, etc. are often found: at
Oryarfvi are segregations of copper-ores in mica-schist at its
junction with granite;
16. District of Pittkaranda near Imbelax.
Only the most important of the above localities will be
mentioned in the following.
CONTACT-DEPOSITS IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD
OF CHRISTIANIA.
240. The district around Christiania l consists of Silurian
strata (clay-slate, alum-slate, sandstone, and limestone), broken
through by granite, syenite, greenstone, and porphyry. No
metalliferous deposits, worth mentioning, are found removed from
the junctions of the sedimentary with the igneous rocks, but
merely admixtures of iron- pyrites, or beds of hematite. On the
1 See: Keilhau, Gaea Norvegica, Christiania, 1838, vol. I. pp. 61, 73,
107, 109, 125.
NEAR CHRISTIANIA. 441
other hand very numerous, if not very important, iron-deposits,
of very manifold composition, are found at the junctions of the
granite and syenite with Silurian strata ; which deposits, accord-
ing to Daubree, are irregularly shaped, and are therefore contact-
segregations. They do not always occur precisely at the junc-
tions, as partitions of the heterogeneous rocks, but always in
the neighborhood of these last, and as it were within the sphere
of the influences of plutonic activity; for example, in the Silu-
rian districts, which are not broken through by large granite-
masses, but by granite-ramifications. Keilhau has also established
the fact of this manner of occurrence by numerous examples,
although he attempted to explain the phenomenon by a very
uncommon hypothesis; viz. that of the metamorphosis of the
rocks; and considered these crystalline rocks not to be igneous.
These contact-deposits are mainly composed, either of mag-
netite; of copper pyrites, or argentiferous galena, and blende;
or of combinations of these. In addition to the above, they
contain iron -pyrites, mispickel, smaltine, bismuthine, molybdenite,
calc-spar, fluor spar, apatite, garnet, epidote, datolith, axinite,
helvine, etc. Magnetite, argentiferous galena, and copper-pyrites,
are often associated together in the same deposit.
The iron-mines of Aaserud near Eidsfoss; and those in the
parishes of Lyer, and Asker ; and those of Vedelsja, near Dram-
men; as well as the copper-mine of Gjellaback, are all worked
on contact-deposits. The most frequent veinstones are garnet
and calc-spar; helvine is quite common in the Horte mine.
I will take, as examples, the mines of Aaserud and Nar-
verud, and describe them concisely. At the first-named locality,
Horizontal section.
Vertical section.
the iron-ore m occurs in the hanging- and foot-wall of a horn-
blende-rock d, which last forms veins in crystalline limestone c;
as the ore recedes from the dike it passes into carbonate
of lime.
The ore-deposit at Narverud occurs at the junction of
442
KONGSBERG.
the granite g and slate s; the last-named rock has
become very hard, from the influence of the granitic
mass. The ore, which consisted at the outcrop of
magnetite with garnet, contained such considerable
quantities of iron- and copper-pyrites, at a depth of
4 to 5 fathoms, that the mine had to be abandoned.
Vertical section.
More than sixty deposits of this kind have
been found. Keilhau states, that the conditions
of bedding in 53 of them have been deter-
mined: 19 were found at the junctions of
the plutonic with the Silurian rocks; the
remainder, at short distances from this junc-
tion: Four were found to be entirely in
granite or syenite; twelve in hardened slate
or limestone: all were found to be only
workable to a slight depth.
Horizontal section.
KONGSBERG.
241. The district around Kongsberg 1 is composed of
crystalline schistose rocks; predominating among which are
quartzite and mica-schist, passing into gneiss; and hornblende
schist, which occasionally passes into talc and chlorite schist.
These are the oldest rocks in the whole of Norway. All of
these schistose rocks alternate with one another; and the
quartzite sometimes passes into a variety of sandstone, or con-
glomerate ; from which, as well as from the frequent alternation
of the strata, their original sedimentary and subsequent meta-
morphic origin can be recognised. Dahll and Kjerulf state,
that these schists are traversed by large and small masses of a
gabbro containing much labradorite; and border westwardly on
an extensive district of igneous granite and gneiss-granite; which
also contain fragments of the schists, at the junctions, and are
1 See: Hausmann's Reise d. Skandinavien, vol. II. p. 8; Bobert, in
Karsten's Archiv, vol. XII. p. 267; Scheerer, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1853,
p. 720; and Berg- u. huttenra. Zeit. Suplmt. to 1846, p. 73; 1866, pp. 171,
250; Kjerulf and Dahll, Ueber d. Erzdistrict Kongsbergs, I860; Durocher,
in Annal. d. mines, 4ser. vol. XV; Crowe, in Mining Almanac, 1852.
ROCK-GROUPS OF SOUTH-NORWAY. 443
consequently more recently formed than these last. Dahll and
Kjerulf group all these rocks of Southern Norway as regards
their age into the following groups:
1. Metamorphic schists, Azoic;
2. Granite and Gneiss-granite, igneous;
3. Slates of Osterdalen, Pre-Siluric;
4. Silurian formation;
5 Devonian formation;
6. Younger granite and syenite, at the fjords of Christiania; igneous,
and more recent than the Devonian formation.
The age of the gabbro is not determined. All the meta-
morphic schists are somewhat garnetiferous ; they strike N. S.
and dip almost vertically toward E. In these, and less dis-
tinctly in the gabbro, there are certain belts impregnated with
sulphurets, and called Fallbands. These belts, or zones, strike
and dip parallel to the schists, not retaining an equal breacith,
but at times wedge-out, and recommence in the direction of
strike; they diverge at acute angles, or even form side-leaders
called 'Springbands'. These conditions must suggest the
idea, that the sulphurets were not originally deposited with the
matter forming the schists, but have penetrated by a subsequent
impregnation. The sulphurets, which they contain, very finely,
often almost imperceptibly disseminated, are particularly iron-
pyrites, somewhat of copper-pyrites, and pyrrhotine ; also blende,
and even traces of native silver, and silver-glance. Owing to
the decomposition of these sulphurets, the Fallbands can be very
distinctly recognised from the non-impregnated rock, since the
peroxide of iron gives them a rusty appearance. Two principal
Fallbands are recognised westwardly of Kongsberg, the Unter-
berger and the Oberberger, as well as a large number of thinner
and less widely extended ones, parallel to the above-mentioned.
The Unterberger Fallband attains a breadth of 200 feet, the
Oberberger 1000 to 1200 feet. Since the impregnation of the
Fallbands does not lie exactly parallel to the stratification; but,
on the other hand, their geographical distribution about corre-
sponds to that of the gabbro ; and since too altogether analogous
impregnations of pyrites have been found in the gabbro itself,
as well as in the fragments of schist it contains ; Dahll and
Kjerulf considered these impregnations to have been caused by
the gabbro. The Kongsberg silver-lodes have only been found
exploitable within these Fallbands; between all other rocks they
are, generally, altogether barren. Even within the Fallbands,
444 KONGSBERG SILVER-LODES.
their contents do not remain constant, but are in places very
meagre; without, as yet, any law for this unequal distribution
within the Fallbands having been discovered. The enrichment
within the Fallbands is one of the most striking cases of the
influence of the country-rock ; and it fs by no means necessary
to conclude, that the ores must have been secretions from the
Fallbands. Dahll and Kjerulf are of the opinion, that the enrich-
ment is not so exclusive, as is generally supposed.
The lodes, of which there are many around Kongsberg,
course E. W. almost at right angles to the strata and Fall-
bands : they generally have a considerable dip toward S., a few
toward N. They are, as a rule, but a few lines or inches broad,
and but rarely attain a breadth of a few feet. Their narrower
portions average a greater richness in silver, than the broader
ones; which are generally more filled with veinstones. Haus-
mann states, that those portions about an inch broad are the
richest. Their breadth is stated, in general, to encrease for a
certain depth, and then again decrease. In addition to the
Fallbands, but within them, junctions of the lodes exert a fa-
vorable influence. The mineral matter, forming the lodes, is
firmly attached to the wall-rock, without forming selvages; and
the rock is often impregnated for some distance with silver.
Hausmann remarks, however, that the lodes are most firmly
attached to the wall-rock in thinly cleavable talc-schist, the
richest in mica-schist, and mostly clearly defined in hornblende-
schist. The predominant ores are native silver, and silver-glance:
the former has been repeatedly found in large masses, at times
somewhat auriferous. More rarely found are; ruby silver, ke-
rargyrite (found only in the out-crop), galena, native arsenic,
brown blende, copper-pyrites, pyrrhotine, and iron-pyrites. The
veinstones are ; calc-spar, fluor spar in octahedrons, heavy spar,
and quartz ; more rare are, magnesite, dolomite, heulandite,
prehnite, harmotome, laumontite, anthracite, mountain-cork, moun-
tain-leather, actinolith, axinite, adularia, and albite; Daubree
also mentions leucite and epidote. The anthracite forms small
spheres in calc-spar.
This association greatly resembles that of Andreasberg
( 104), even to the predominance of calc-spar scalenohedrons.
Dahll and Kjerulf distinguish an older and a younger portion
of the matrix; to the older portion they consider quartz, fluor
spar, calc-spar and heavy spar, with native silver, to belong; to
SKUTTERUD AND SNARUM COBALT-ORES. 445
the younger portion, calc-spar, more recent quartz in geodes,
zeoliths, a little native silver, ruby silver, silver-glance, pyrrhotine,
galena, and iron-pyrites.
The question has been raised; whether in this case the
metalliferous contents of the lodes have been derived from the
Fallbands ; or whether the ores in the Fallbands are impreg-
nations, which have found their way from the vein-fissures.
Dahll and Kjerulf are of the opinion, that neither view is correct,
but that the impregnations of the Fallbands, as well as the
mineral matter filling the lodes, are consequences of the gabbro
eruptions, which took place in such a mariner, that the Fallbands
were formed previously to the lodes.
As proofs, that the presence of gabbro, in this district, is
the principal cause of the metalliferous deposits, K. and D.
adduce- two examples, from among many like cases, where mix-
tures of niccoliferous pyrrhotine, copper-pyrites, and cobaltiferous
iron-pyrites, together with interspersed crystals of hornblende,
form contact-deposits between gabbro and crystalline schists.
One of these cases is furnished by the JMeinkjaer mine in Bamble,
the other by the Steenstrups pyrites-mine near Kongsberg.
FALLBANDS OF COBALT-ORE AT SKUTTERUD AND
SNARUM.
242. The district around Skutterud 1 and Snarum, in the
Parish of Modum, consists of crystalline schists, whose nature
varies between gneiss and mica-schist, and through the presence
of amphibole passes into hornblende-schist. Garnet, tourmaline,
graphite, etc. occur as accessory minerals. These schists course
N. S. and dip almost perpendicularly. They contain metalli-
ferous zones (Fallbands) similar to those of Kongsberg; the
difference being, that the cobalt-ores predominating in them are
finely disseminated, and pay for the exploitation; while the
Kongsberg Fallbands, impregnated with sulphurets, are only im-
1 See: Hausmann's Reise d. Skandinavien, 1812, pt. II. p. 85; Nau-
mann's Beitr. z. Kenntn. Norwegens, 1824, pt. I. p. 8; Bobert, in Kar-
sten's Archiv, 1832, vol. IV. pp. 277, 280; 1847, vol. XXI. p. 207; Schmid-
huber's Bericht u. d. Kobaltwerk Snarum, 1847; S cheer, er, in Leonhard's
Jahrb. 1853, p. 720, Poggend. Annal. vol. 42. p. 546; M tiller, in Berg- u.
hiittenm. Zeit. 1858, p. 334; Durocher, in Annal. d. mines, 4 series.
vol. XV.
446 ORE-BANDS, AND ROCK-BANDS.
portant, as zones of enrichment for the silver-lodes. Lodes are
altogether wanting at Skutterud.
These ore-zones generally follow the strike and dip of the
schists, and attain, according to Schmidhuber, a breadth of 2 / 2
to 6 fathoms 5 three to four of them coursing alongside of one
another. The breadth of these zones, or belts, cannot well be
accurately determined ; since a gradual transition takes place,
from the Fallband or impregnated rock, into the non-impreg-
nated. The distribution of the ores within the Fallbands is not
equable, richer and poorer or even barren layers being recog-
nised. The first are called 'Erzbander' (ore-bands), the last
'Felsbander' (roc k-bands) ; and their breadth varies from a few
feet to two or three fathoms. In addition to the above, 'Reich-
erzbander' (Rich ore-bands) are distinguished, whose breadth
generally amounts to a few inches, and which course parallel
to, and within the ore-bands. All these dissimilar zones, or
belts, are indistinctly defined. A similar alternation, of barren
and impregnated rock, is thus repeated within the Fallbands,
as is characteristic, on a large scale, of the district. On the
outer edges of this cobaltiferous Fallband district, are a few Fall-
bands containing mispickel, without any cobalt-ores being per-
ceptible. The formerly current acceptation, that the cobalt-ores
in the Fallbands did not extend to a greater depth than 9 fa-
thoms, has been completely refuted by Bobert. He has shown,
that poorer or barren portions, which occur at every level, have
given rise to this false view; while in reality the ore is merely
irregularly distributed in the Fallbands; this is a fact strongly
opposed to a contemporaneous deposit of the ores and the rocks,
and in favor of a subsequent impregnation.
The predominant rock of the Fallbands is a quartzose, finely
granular, foliated, mica-schist; which forms transitions into quartzite,
quartzless mica-schist, and gneiss.
The ores and other minerals finely disseminated in these
rocks are; cobaltine, skutterudite, cobaltiferous mispickel, leuco-
pyrite, copper-pyrites, molybdenite, pyrrhotine, iron-pyrites,
amphybole, tremolith, anthophyllite, sahlite, graphite, ittro-
titanite, and some other rare minerals. Hausmann has par-
ticularly mentioned, also ; magnetite, tourmaline, scapolith, and
serpentine: to which Bobert adds; galena, native copper, mal-
achite, chrysocolla, copper-glance, actinolith, epidote, amian-
thos, rutile. talc, garnet, titanite, and smoky quartz. The last
ARENDAL MAGNETITE. 447
quoted authority also found a small percentage of nickel
in the ores; while it is certainly very remarkable, that so few
and unrecognisable nickel-ores are found associated with the
cobalt-ores at Skutterud. ^The cobalt-ores, viz. cobaltine, cobaltic
mispickel, and skutterudite, are the object of exploitation: of
these the last is the most rare.
The principal Fallband now worked, which is known to
extend about six miles, is bounded to the East by an amphi-
bolic rock (diorite containing somewhat of quartz), which pro-
trudes into the Fallband with clearly defined bunches, from
which small dikes or threads traverse the same in a zigzag
course. This Fallband is also intersected by coarse-grained
granite-dikes, which contain no ores, and whose branches pene-
trate the amphibole-rock.
MAGNETITE-DEPOSITS OF ARENDAL.
243. The district of Arendal 1 consists of crystalline schists,
particularly gneiss, which is at times almost mica-schist, or contains
blende; and contains some beds of limestone. These schists strike
NW. SE., dip 60 80 toward SE., and contain a large num-
ber of segregated deposits of magnetite, in a long belt, which is
parallel to the coast, and extends from Oyestad to Flackstad.
These deposits are bedlike, irregular, and lenticular segregations,
accompanied by irregular ramifications. The irregular lenticular
form may be seen from the accompanying woodcuts.
Vertical section, Horizontal sections,
of the worked-out portion of the A slocks mine in
Naeskilen.
1 See: Hausmann's Reise d. Skandinavien, pt. II. p. 138; Scheerer,
in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1843, p. 631 ; Wei bye, in same, 1847, p. 697; Aall's
om Jermnalmleier og. Jerntiloirkningen i Norge, 1806; Kjerulf andDahll,
in Nyt Mag. f. Naturvidenskaber, vol. XI, and Leonhard's Jahrb. 1862, p.
557; Durocher, in Annal. d. mines, IV. series, vol. XV.
448 SECTIONS OF MAGNETITE:
KERNEL AND SHELL.
In the horizontal section, the mass of ore is 9 l / 2 f eet broad,
and has been exploited for a length of 35 fathoms. The ore-
masses often exhibit, in their interior, a somewhat foliated texture,
Horizontal section of the
Thorbjorns mine near Arendal.
parallel to that of the enclosing gneiss; which also corresponds
to their longest axis. Scheerer states that they are occasionally
intersected by granite-dikes. The magnetite is usually mixed
or combined with augite or coccolith, hornblende, garnet, epidote,
calc-spar, and some of the minerals composing the gneiss. Still,
this is not every where the case. Where the calc-spar is wanting
the silicates of lime are also absent; and, besides those men-
tioned, there are many minerals which are
found in and alongside of these ore-deposits;
so that this locality has acquired quite a
mineralogical celebrity.
There is often a purer kernel of the magne-
tite, forming the principal mass of the deposit ;
which is followed by a sort of shell, particularly
rich in minerals. This shell is sometimes pene-
trated by ramifications of the purer ore-kernel.
The accompanying woodcuts are intended to
show this relation.
m
The upper figure represents a vertical section, from which
the deposit might easily be mistaken for a lode with distinct
selvages ; but this does not correspond to the general conditions.
In both of the woodcuts, m denotes magnetite, g l the outer
shell (chiefly composed of garnet, hornblende, epidote, etc.),
MINERALS, MENTIONED BY WEIBYE.
449
g", lenticular masses of these ores in gneiss gn m , and r, ramifi-
cations of the kernel through the shell.
Hausmann states, that these deposits, as well as the enclosing
gneiss, are traversed by three other kinds of vein-formations; viz.
1. veins, whose composition is the same as that of the ore-
deposits ;
2. veins composed of feldspar and calc-spar with somewhat
of titanite; these only occur within the ore-deposits;
3. coarsely granular granite-dikes, about one foot broad.
The minerals, mentioned by Weibye, are subjoined in
alphabetical order; those occurring in the gneiss ; apart from
the ore-deposits, being designated with an asterisk:
Actinolith,*
Adularia,
Albite,
Amethyst,
Amphodelite,
Analcime,
Apatite,*
Apophyllite,
Asbestos,
Augite,
Axinite,
Azurite,
Babingtonite,
Beryl,
Blende,
Botryoiith,
Bucklandite,
Calc-spar,*
Chalcedony,
Chlorite,
Coccolith,*
Colophonite,*
Copper-pyrites,*
Copper-nickel,
Datolith,
Ekebergite.
Erubescite,
Fluor spar,
Gahnite,
Garnet,*
Grossular,
Heulandite,
Hornblende,*
Limonite,
Lithomarge,
Magnetite,*
Malachite,
Melanite,
Mica,*
Milky quartz,*
Molybdenite,*
Oerstedite,
Oligoclase,*
Pistacite,*
Prehnite,
Pyrrhotine,*
Quartz,*
Rose quartz,*
Sahlite,
Scapolith,
Serpentine,
Skutterudite,
Sphene,*
Spinel,
Stilbite,
Talc,
Tetrahedrite,
Zircon :
In the gneiss, outside of the mines, occur;
Anthracite, Hessonite,
Euxenite, Keilhauite,
Gadolinite,
450 COPPER-DEPOSITS OF RCERAAS,
Hausmann has called attention to the fact, that many of
the minerals in these deposits have peculiarly curved surfaces,
almost as if they had been melted; which last I by no means
intend to assert. This appearance is particularly distinct in
garnet, eolophonite, augite, and apatite ; particularly when im-
planted in calc-spar.
COPPER-DEPOSITS OF RQERAAS IN NORWAY.
244. The rock, containing the copper-deposits at Roraas, 1
is a talcose schist, passing into chloritic schist, containing much
garnet and little quartz or mica; it is traversed by numerous
quartz-veins. Hausmann calls the deposits beds; Daubree
segregations; and Durocher Fallbands. They strike parallel to
the schist ; and dip, like this, gently (about 10) toward ENE.
In the Storvartz mine the deposit is 1 2 fathoms broad;
and consists of nodular masses of ore ; which are most frequent
when the schist is chloritic, more rarely when it is quartzose
and micaceous, most rarely in the garnetiferous schist. The
ores also penetrate into the quartz-veins traversing the schist,
are hence more recent than these, and, consequently, younger
than the schist. Copper-pyrites occurs in the quartz-veins, but
without iron- pyrites. The entire deposit varies between '/ a and
3 fathoms in breadth; and traces of the impregnation may be
followed for a considerable distance from Sognefjord in Norway
to Areskuttan in Sweden. Copper-pyrites is the principal ore,
mingled with iron-pyrites, somewhat of pyrrhotine, blende, galena,
quartz, chlorite, mica, talc, garnet, actinolith, grammatite, and
amiantos.
Several similar deposits occur in the neighorhood.
Besides these copper-deposits, there are several of chromic
iron associated with serpentine.
COPPER-DEPOSITS OF KAAFJORD AND RAIPAS IN
NORWAY.
245. Formerly copper-ores were exploited, and smelted,
1 See: Hausmann's Reise d. Skandinavien, pt V. p. 268; Durocher,
in Annal. d. mines, IV. Ser. vol. XV; Duchanoy, in same, V. Ser. vol. V.
p. 181.
KAAFJORD, AND RAIPAS, IN NORWAY. 451
at the 70 North latitude, around Kaafjord and Raipas 1 near
Hammerfest.
The country consists of Silurian rocks overlying crystalline
schists, which are intersected by greenstones (diorites and
euphotides): thick beds of limestone occur to a subordinate
degree.
The lodes at Kaafjord occur in a broad dike of diorite,
which is about 5 miles long, and strikes N. S. They course
SW. NE. and generally dip toward NW., more rarely toward
SE. Their breadth varies between 1 and 15 feet. Netto states,
that the matrix of these lodes is, for the most part, a breccia
of quartz, calc-spar, iron- and copper-pyrites, united by finely
comminuted and decomposed particles of diorite. Purer masses
of quartz in the same occasionally contain specular iron, den-
dritic copper, and geodes of calc-spar. Iron-pyrites, containing
selenium also occurs, and somewhat of blende at the Miihlstrom.
According to Russegger, the lodes are traversed by quartz-veins,
and are, like the diorite, much faulted. Ihle observed eighteen
faults in a single shaft, and almost every where friction-surfaces
in the fissures of the diorite.
The lode near Raipas occurs, according to Durocher, in a
Silurian limestone-bed, 60 feet thick. The former dips vertically,
and strikes NE. SW., at right angles to the limestone, and is
only metalliferous in this last; while, where penetrating the
schists, it divides into barren clefts. The bed of limestone also
contains layers of jaspery clay-slate, in which the lode is often
but a cleft, while having a breadth of 8 10 feet in the
limestone. Its matrix varies locally: Netto describes the
following:
1. Fragments of quartz and clay-slate united by limestone
containing copper-pyrites disseminated through it;
2. Red siliceous and yellow limestone, and brownish-red
heavy spar, impregnated with copper- pyrites ;
3. Fragments of quartz, limestone, and clay-slate, united by
erubescite ;
1 See: Russegger, in Karsten's Archiv, vol. XV. p. 759; Keilhau's
Gaea Norwegica, 1844, p. 285; Ihle, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1844, p. 369;
Netto, in same, 1847, p. 143; Durocher, in Annal. d. min. IVth Series
vol. XV.
29
452
FALUN COPPER-DEPOSITS.
4. Erubescite, with fragments of limestone, or yellow
limestone containing erubescite. These are the richest points.
Sidebranches passing out of the champion-lode contain
chalcedony, brownish-red heavy spar, and copper-pyrites; here
and there with somewhat of erubescite; copper-glance, malachite,
azurite, decomposed concretions of iron-pyrites, and traces of
erythrine.
Russegger states, that the limestone is silicified near the
lodes, and almost altered into hornstone.
COPPER-DEPOSITS AT FALUN (SWEDEN).
246. The renowned segregations of copper-ores at Falun 1
are found in gray quartz occurring in thinly foliated mica-
schist, which last is said to form but a subordinate layer in
gneiss. These segregations are in part very broad, irregularly
lenticular masses; which contract on all sides at some depth,
and, in part, even wedge-out. The broadest and principal
segregation of the Stor mine shows the following exploited di-
mensions (expressed in fathoms), determined by the limits of the
quarry, which are exactly the limits of the deposit:
Depth below
surface.
EW.
NS.
NW. SE.
NE. SW.
50
110
140
180
110
90
77
50
120
60
60
40
140
100
84
50
160
100
72
43
It appears from this, that the form of the segregation is an
irregular semi-ellipsoidal; and Hausmann is inclined to believe,
that there originally existed an upper portion, which has been
destroyed and washed away with the enclosing rock:
Stapff, that at other localities in Sweden, for example at
Kafvelstorp in the parish of Nya Kopperberg, the upper portions
of similar deposits have been distinctly polished by glacial
1 See: Hausmann's Reise d. Skandin. pt. V. p. 55; Hisinger's
Mineral. Geogr. v. Schweden, 1826, p. 36; Russegger, in Leonhard's Jahrb.
1841, p. 82; Stapff, in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1861, p. 195; Tjader, Karta
ofver Fahlueller Stora Kopparbergs Gruvor. 1845; Durocher, in Annal. d.
min. IV. ser. vol. XV-
LAYERS OF SCHIST, CALLED 'SKO LARS'.
453
action. This large mass of ore, in the Stor mine, is essentially
composed of a mixture of quartz, iron- and copper-pyrites, tra-
versed by talcose schist. The copper-pyrites is somewhat more
common near the outer limits, than in the middle ; and is occa-
sionally combined with galena. Several smaller masses, of a
similar character, occur alongside of this principal segregation;
and they now form the chief object of exploitation. They are
often intersected, in various directions, by peculiar layers of
schist; which the miners call 'Skolars 7 , and which are mostly
composed of talcose and chloritic minerals. The breadth of these
454 FALUN ORES CLASSIFIED.
Skolars encreases from a few inches to twenty-four fathoms,
generally between 1 and 11 fathoms. They strike and dip very
irregularly, several of them uniting in their course and again
separating; they occasionally contain, small pockets or masses
of ore : in some of the Skolars nodular masses and beds of
limestone occur, whose influence on the ore-bearing character of
the segregations is still undetermined.
The vertical section, copied from Tjader, of the irregular
relations of bedding and connections in the Drotting, Konung
Fredrik, Adolph Fredrik, and Ulrica mines, represents an
ideal view of the Southern portion of the already exploited
deposit. The ore-segregations, represented in this section, do
not appear to be every where workable.
The Skolars sometimes contain in their talcose, chloritic
mass; serpentine, grammatite, garnet (only in the Erik Matts
mine), automolith, gypsum (of secondary formation), iron and
copper pyrites, galena, and blende. In the segregations there
have been found, in addition to the principal ores mixed with
quartz; marcasite, pyrrhotine, magnetite, automolith, serpentine,
chlorite, talc, mica, iolith, falunite, garnet, malacolith, apophyllite,
grammatite, actinolith, calc-spar, dolomite, andalusite, anhy-
drite, and gypsum. Hausmann also mentions goslarite and
epsomite.
The Falun miners classify the ores, as follows:
I. Copper ores; admixtures of iron- and copper-pyrites with galena and
blende;
1. Hardmalm, pyrites with much quartz;
2. Segmalm, pyrites with talc, chlorite and mica, rarely workable;
3. Blotmdlm, pure pyrites;
a. Gronmalm, much copper-pyrites, with but little iron-pyrites ;
b. Blekmalm, iron-pyrites, and pyrrhotine, with but little
copper-pyrites ;
c. Wendmalm, pure copper-pyrites:
II. Silver ores; galena with but little pyrites and blende, containing
traces of gold and selenium;
III. Pyrites; pure iron-pyrites.
SALA 1 (SWEDEN).
247. In the district of the crystalline schists, mostly
1 See: Hausinanir s Reise d. Skandinavien, pt. IV. p. 268 ; Hisinger's
mineral, geograph. Schwedens, p. 124; Durocher, in Annal. d. mines, IV.
ser. vol. XV; Daubree, Skand. Erzlagerstatten, p. 41,
ORES OF SALA, SWEDEN. 455
gneiss, are found thick bedded masses of crystalline limestone;
which, Hausmann states, partly pass into a felsite-schist, and
are traversed by schistose layers (Skolars). Lead- and silver-
deposits are found of a somewhat problematical nature.
Trap-dikes, a few inches broad, cut through the limestones,
without appearing to affect the metalliferous contents. In ad-
dition to these, the limestone and trap are traversed by the
Storgrufva vein, which, coursing NW. SE. separates the limestone-
masses into two portions. This vein, which is considered by some
persons as belonging to the Skolars, is 10 to 12 fathoms broad at
the surface, but soon decreases below to a few yards. Its
matrix is principally composed of nodular masses of hard
limestone mixed with serpentine; the interstices between which
are grayish-green, foliated talc. The lode sometimes has sel-
vages, consisting of talcose limestone, with actinolith, and gram-
matite.
The beds, or Skolars, traversing the limestone, consist
chiefly of talcose minerals; talcose schist, foliated talc, and
asbestos; associated with which are somewhat of quartz, calc-
spar, malacolith, actinolith, amiantos, dolomite, galena, blende,
iron-pyrites, and mispickel. These Skolars are of very variable
breadth, and usually follow the general direction and incli-
nation of the strata; but often differ from these, and split up
into branches, which again unite.
The ores, of which argentiferous galena is the most impor-
tant, are found in the limestone, and usually collected near the
Skolars and the Storgrufva vein. There still appears to be some
uncertainty about the manner in which the ores occur. Hausmann
designates the deposits, as rich beds in crystalline limestone, which
at times divide and diverge: Daubree describes them, as indi-
stinctly denned lodes, often serpentine in their course, which tra-
verse the limestone almost at right angles to its strike : Durocher
calls them ribbons, which are mostly vertical, and close to one
another: Hisinger terms them metalliferous layers of limestone,
mostly impregnated from the Storgrufva vein-fissure. As all
these different views are the result of personal observations, it
is impossible for non-observers to pronounce judgment.
Hisinger's description, of the mineral character of these
deposits, seems to be the most reliable. Argentiferous galena
is the principal ore, associated with which are, according to
Hisinger; native silver (rarely on galena or serpentine), native
456 DEPOSITS NEAR PHILIPSTA^
antimony in limestone, stibnite (disseminated in galena), silver
amalgam (very rare), cinnabar (very rare), blende, mispickel,
iron-pyrites, pyrrhotine, argentiferous tetrahedrite, compact feld-
spar, black mica, chlorite, serpentine^ talc, asbestos, actinolith,
grammatite, sahlite, bredbergite (lime : garnet) implanted in galena,
gypsum, calc-spar, dolomite, and heavy spar.
DEPOSITS AROUND PHILIPSTAD (SWEDEN).
248. This portion of Wermland 1 consists of granitic
gneiss, which passes into mica-schist, and contains beds of
felsitic schist, dolomite, hornblende-schist, and chloritic schist.
Several deposits of magnetic iron occur in these mica-schistose
rocks; thus in the mines of Presberg, Age, Nordmarken, Ta-
berget, and Langbanshytta ; which course partly N. S. partly
SE. NW. and attain a breadth of one to nine fathoms. These
iron-deposits occur in the schist, and parallel to its course; they
are accompanied by numerous minerals: thus at Persberget, by
limestone, calc-spar, epidote, hornblende, asbestos, malacolith,
soapstone, serpentine, garnet, compact feldspar, talc, quartz,
iron-pyrites and bismuthine: in the Nordmark-mines, by argen-'
tiferous galena, blende, native silver, crystalline limestone, calc-
spar, dolomite, mica, chlorite, garnet, serpentine, mountain- cork,
epidote, actinolith, grammatite, hornblende, apatite, pyrosmalith,
axinite, and apophyllite: in the Taberget mines, by blende,
calc-spar, iron-pyrites, sphene, chondrodite, talc, dolomite, soap-
stone, asbestos, serpentine, chlorite, hornblende, epidote, ac-
tinolith, garnet, mica, compact feldspar, gadolinite (in gneiss
alongside of the magnetic iron), malacolith, and fluor spar: in
the Langbanshytta mines, where the deposits are enclosed in
limestone or ferruginous and manganiferous dolomite, there
occur specular iron, quartz, serpentine, mountain- cork, epidote,
garnet, malacolith, dolomite, dialogite, aragonite, heulandite, calc-
spar, gypsum, anthracite, asphalt, and iron-pyrites.
The recently observed occurrence of native lead, at Paisberg
1 See: Hausmann's Reise d. Skandin. pt. V. p. 132; Hisinger's
Mineral, geograph. v. Schweden, p. 165; Durocher, in Annal. d. mines,
IV. ser. vol. XV; Igelstrom, in Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1866, p. 21.
AND PAISBERG, IN WERMLAND. 457
(or Pajsberg) in Wermland, is of special interest. I therefore
subjoin an extract from a "memoir by Igelstrom :
'At Paisberg there are ten mines worked on deposits of
iron and manganese in crystalline dolomite: both kinds of ores
are mixed in such a manner, that each can be extracted by
itself; the iron-ore, for the production of iron 5 the manganese-
ore, as flux in the blast-furnaces, so as to produce a good
manganiferous iron.
The iron-ores of Paisberg consist, partly of magnetite, partly
of specular iron: both of these ores are generally intermixed r
the specular iron predominating.
The manganese-ore is hausmannite, first discovered (1866)
three years ago. It is precisely like that found in Germany;
and I have satisfied myself, by numerous analyses, that it really
is hausmannite. I have, as yet, found this ore in but four locali-
ties in Sweden ; viz. at Paisberg (in large quantities), at Nord-
mark, at Langbar, and in the parish of Grythyttan. The man-
ner of occurrence is the same at all these localities, the haus-
mannite being found in crystalline dolomite. It would appear,
as if the dolomite was an essential condition for the occurrence
of the hausmannite, the latter having been sought for in vain
in other rocks.
The hausmannite occurs in the dolomite, partly as scattered
grains, which take an almost essential part in the composition
of the rock, partly as granular masses : in this form it has been
often mistaken by the miners for iron-ore.
The dolomites, so rich in hausmannite, form thick beds
between the rocks containing iron-ores, which are here called
'hallejlinta' (felsite-schists). The dolomites are 20 to over
100 fathoms thick, and extend for a distance of over two miles.
The hausmannite, together with the specular iron and magnetite,
forms beds 6 to 18 feet thick, and 2CO feet long, in the manga-
niferous dolomites. The grains of hausmannite do not occur every
where in the latter, but in spots or belts within the strata,
while the ore-beds show selvages. Braunite is occasionally found
with the hausmannite, forming veins, strings, or beds, in the
dolomite, as at Nordmark.
I considered these remarks necessary ; as the native lead is
only found with the hausmannite, and, therefore, the principal
cause for the formation of the same is to be looked for in the
hausmannite. This is the more obvious, if it be considered, that
458 IGELSTROM ON THE LEAD AT PAISBERG.
the native copper at Nordmark is also associated with the Haus-
mannite, and that the occurrence of both the native metals is
under similar circumstances.
At Paisberg the native lead is,, only found within the bed
of iron and manganese-ores, and not outside of this. The lead
has filled all kinds of fissures, clefts, and other cavities in the
bed ; even such as intersect the crystallized rhodonite (pais-
bergite). Since the clefts and cracks, in which the lead occurs,
are extremely fine, it can only be supposed that it has pene-
trated in vapor-form, or as an aqueous solution. Still some of
the clefts filled with lead have a breadth of several lines.
The native lead occurs in almost all the ore-beds at Paisberg ;
it fills clefts or cracks in the manganese-ores, in the , iron-ores,
in the intermixture of heavy spar, rhodonite, and garnet, in the
pyrochroite, in the serpentine, in the silicate of manganese con-
taining oxide of lead, and in the dolomite, but in this last only
within the ore-bed.
The lead forms thin cuticles or layers, thin foil-like plates
or thicker sheets, upwards of */ 4 inch thick. It appears filiform,
as wire ; and globular, acicular, or like a galvanized incrustation
on crystals of paisbergite. It commonly appears white, like a
fresh surface of metal, very soft and ductile, so that it can be
scratched with the finger nail. Thicker sheets of the same are
sometimes oxidized at the surface, being altered into cerusite
and minium. According to my analysis, and one made by Prof.
Nordenskjold, it is very pure, and contains but 2 per cent of
impurities.
As I have already remarked, the native copper at Nord-
mark occurs in an entirely similar manner; it forms sheets and
wires weighing upwards of 900 grammes; while the largest
piece of lead found, weighed but 50 grammes. At Nordmark,
galvanic action, so to speak, can also be recognised; thus mica
occurring in the metalliferous limestone is often found to be as
beautifully encrusted with copper, as if it had been done arti-
ficially.
1 consider a detailed description of the occurrence of native
lead at Paisberg, as very difficult. It appears to me, however,
certain, that the hausmannite was the real and principal cause
for the same. The salts of the protoxide and sequioxide, or
even of the protoxide alone, have had a reducing influence.
DANNEMORA MAGNETITE-DEPOSITS. 459
The material, for the deposit of native lead, possibly carne from
galena; this last is found but very rarely at Paisberg.'
MAGNETITE DEPOSITS AT DANNEMORA (SWEDEN).
249. The predominating rock around Dannemora l is
coarsely foliated gneiss passing into granite. The former con-
tains, on the banks of the Dannemora, Gruf, and Film lakes,
a broad belt of felsitic schist together with subordinate layers
of chloritic schist, granular limestone, and magnetite.
The renowned and very thick deposits of magnetite at
Dannemora consist, according to Erdmann's description, of sepa-
rate lenticular masses of various sizes ; which are partly in rows,
partly parallel to one another, and in this manner form a segre-
gated whole ; whose principal course, like that of the surrounding
rocks (chloritic schist, limestone, and felsitic schist), varies be-
tween N. S. and SW. NE., and dips 65 80 in W.
The large quarry, in which the deposit is worked, has
attained a depth of over 400 feet ; and the thickness of the chief
lenticular mass is, according to Hausmann's statement, 180 feet
in the centre, but narrows in both directions of strike: its
length is over a mile at the outcrop. This colossal mass essen-
tially consists of fine-grained magnetite, with intimate and slight
mixtures of chlorite, somewhat of calc-spar and brown spar,
which can only be recognised in places; it is the purest in the
middle. The pure masses of ore are cut through by some beds
of chloritic schist (Skolars), which attain a breadth of 14 feet,
and mostly dip in S. hence they are not parallel to the deposits.
The ore-masses are also intersected by some narrow veins con-
taining calc-spar and brown spar.
. There' have been found, as rarer admixtures, particularly
near the limits, or .at the outcrop; iron and copper pyrites, mis-
pickel, galena, garnet, quartz (whose crystals sometimes contain
small pieces of mineral pitch), anthracite, actinolith, grammatite,
and heavy spar, which last is very rare in other parts of Sweden.
1 See: Hausmann's Reise d. Skand. pt. IV., p. 69; Hisinger's Mineral,
geogr. von Schweden, p. 107; Erdmann's Dannemora Jermalmsfalt, 1851;
Durocher, in Annal. d. mines. IV. ser. vol. XV.
460 TUNABERG ORE-DEPOSITS, AND
ORE-DEPOSITS OF TUNABERG (SWEDEN).
250. The district around Tunaberg l is, for the most part,
composed of gray and red gneiss. The first contains numerous
subordinate beds of granular limestone, dolomite, and eulisite; 2
but both varieties are cut through in many places by granite.
Numerous segregated deposits occur in the gray gneiss
district, partly in the crystalline limestone, partly at the junc-
tions of the same with the gray gneiss; of which, according to
Erdmann (1848), 22 were exploited. The same are principally
composed of limestone, with admixtures of hornblende, mica,
and serpentine; and have a very heterogeneous composition;
from them lead, silver, copper and cobalt ores are obtained.
Copper-pyrites and cobaltine, are the principal ores obtained.
Erdmann found, in addition to the preceding, the following ores
and minerals; galena, erubescite, copper-glance, pyrrhotine,
molybdenite, smaltine, iron-pyrites, native bismuth, blende,
amphodelite, anorthite, apatite, calc-spar, chlorite, chondrodite,
coccolith, diallage, epidote, garnet, graphite, hedenbergite, his-
ingerite, hornblende, iolith, labradorite, malacolith, oligoclase,
olivine, orthite, orthoclase, polyargite, pyrargillite, pyrorthite,
quartz, scapolith, serpentine, sphene, spinel, and tourmaline.
These minerals do not all occur in the same deposit; but
some in one, some in another. Svanberg noticed, that the
crystals of cobaltine, implanted in copper-pyrites, are very free
from impurities ; while those found in the limestone, contain a
kernel of smaltine. The conditions of bedding, and the junctions
of these deposits, are very peculiar. They often contain and
enclose fragments of the adjoining rocks, not only of the lime-
stone and gneiss, but also of the granite; which intersects the
gneiss and limestone in dikes, but d.oes not penetrate into the
ore-deposits. These last have at times penetrated into the fis-
sures of their wall-rock, and even into the granite-dikes. Erd-
mann has given interesting drawings of these. The following is a
copy of the horizontal and vertical sections of Tunabergska mine.
1 See: Erdmann's Beskrifning ofver Tunabergs Socken, 1849, and in
Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit. 1850, p. 631; Hi singer's Mineral geogr. v. Schwe-
den, p. 97; Durocher, in Annal. d. mines, IV. ser. vol. XV.
a Eulisite is the name given by A. Erdmann to a compound composed
of protoxide of iron, resembling olivine, green pyroxene, and brownish-red
garnet; it occurs, as a thick bed, in the gneiss of Tunaberg.
LAKE- AND BOG-ORES, OF SWEDEN,
Ground plan.
461
A. The ore-deposit containing numerous fragments of lime-
stone, gneiss, and granite D.
B. Gneiss, forming the hanging-wall.
C. Limestone, forming the foot-wall.
D. Fragments in the deposit,
e. Granite-dikes.
Vertical plan of the same mine.
It is curious, that the enclosed fragments of granite mostly
lie in the prolongations of the interrupted veins; and that even
a fragment of limestone, traversed by a granite-dike, occurs
in the prolongation of the first granite-dike on the left-hand side.
It almost seems from this, as if the fragments were not really
such, that is, not formed by energetic action, but by a gradual
change of position. Even if a partial solution is just as imagin-
able here, as in the calamine-deposits of Silesia or Westphalia;
the same fluid could scarcely be regarded as the solvent of the
gneiss and granite.
The deposits of Hakansboda in Westermanland resemble,
to some extent, those of Tunaberg.
THE LAKE- AND BOG-ORES OF SWEDEN.
251. Many lakes and morasses of Sweden contain iron-
ores, which have been formed in the most recent geological
462 PITTKARANDA IN FINLAND.
period, or are still forming. 1 The formation of the lake-ores (Sjo-
malm) is very interesting, in so far as they exhibit a great analogy
to the oolithic iron-ores. In Smaland and Wermland such ores
occur in more than 200 lakes, but always deposited rather towards
their banks, than in the middle. The ores essentially consist of
hydrated peroxide of iron, together with somewhat of protoxide
of iron, oxide of manganese, silica, alumina, lime, magnesia,
sulphuric and phosphoric acid. The amount of peroxide of iron
varies, between 35 and 60 per cent. The ore forms small rounded
grains, which according to their more pulverulent, pea-like,
bean-like, lenticular, or reniform shape, are called * Krutmalm,
Pdlemalrrij Penning emalm, Straggmalm, or Purlmalm?
Hausmann thinks, that the iron in most of these deposits
originated from decomposed iron-pyrites in greenstones; and con-
siders it probable, that many of the ores in the lakes have been
formed by the decomposition of neighboring bog-ores.
The remaining iron-deposits of Scandinavia either resemble
those already described, or contain nothing of interest; on which
account I pass them over.
DEPOSITS OF PITTKARANDA (FINLAND).
252. The northern bank of Lake Ladoga is, for the most
part, composed of granite, containing here and there deposits
of crystalline schists; which occur in irregular belts, and are
frequently cut through by more recent granite-dikes. The ore-
deposit of Pittkaranda 2 appears to occur joined to such a belt
of hornblendic schist, which has been exploited for a length of
1150 fathoms, and can be traced for a still greater distance.
It consists of a number of different beds, distinctly separated from
one another. Bobert calls the deposit a Fallband. Its principal
mass seems to consist of malacolith, epidote, and compact
chlorite. The chief ore is copper-pyrites, with which somewhat
1 See: Hausmann's Reise d. Skandinavien, pt. I. p. 152; Stapff,
in Berg- u. huttenm. Zeit, 1866, p. 72.
2 See: Pusch, in Karsten's Archiv, and in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1836,
p. 195; Durocher, in Annal. d. mines, I\ . ser. vol. XV ; Von Helmersen's
das Plorezer Bergrevier, 1861.
URAL MOUNTAINS. 463
of cassiterite often occurs, sporadically distributed. The latter
ore also appears to be distributed (imperceptible to the eye)
throughout the whole mass of the bed; and when crystallized
only occurs in simple crystals. Besides the above ; the following
ores and minerals have been found; iron-pyrites, pyrrhotine,
magnetite, galena, blende, wolfram, somewhat of molybdenite,
heavy spar, garnet, actinolith, hornblende, quartz, mica, feldspar,
fluor spar, and calc-spar. The form of this deposit is that of a
parallel embedded layer; but, from the very unequal distribution
of the ores in it, from the complex composition, as well as from
the occurrence of distinct veins of a similar nature; it would
appear to be a bedded lode, similar to the deposits at Breiten-
brunn in the Erzgebirge ( 85). The unequal distribution of
the ores occurs in such a manner, that richer workable belts can
be distinguished in the entire deposit ; these dip, at a gentle angle,
from East to West, and recur in this manner parallel to each
other. The entire deposit strikes E. W., and dips 25 45
toward S. Blode compares this deposit to that of Oryarfvi in
Finland. This comparison is incorrect, since at Oryarfvi a
thick segregration of quartz, within crystalline schists, contains
pockets of cupriferous pyrites.
THE URAL MOUNTAINS.
GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
253. The Ural Mountains, extending over 20 degrees
of latitude, form the natural eastern boundary of Europe. Their
interior formation corresponds to this prominent trend ; the limits
of the rocks, their stratification, and even the great majority of
the lodes, having a N. S. course.
The geological formation of this long mountain-chain is a
very regular, almost symmetrical one. Crystalline schists, and
granitic rocks, form the central axis. Mica-schist, chlorite schist,
and talc-schist, must be particularly mentioned, as belonging to
the former, together with subordinate strata of gneiss, horn-
blende-schist, crystalline limestone, etc. Outside and next to
464 GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
this crystalline axis, which often forms the highest crest, are
found siliceous schists, and jaspery rocks; over which lie, on
both mountain slopes, Silurian strata which are particularly rich
in limestones in their upper layers. Devonian rocks overlie
these, chiefly on the Western slope; while on both sides are
found thick strata of the Carboniferous Age, particularly such
as correspond to the Subcarboniferous. Thus far the formation
of the chain is symmetrical; and, although, in Murchison's
map, the succession of metamorphic and sedimentary rocks is
much thicker and more completely developed on the West side
of the crest, than on the more precipitous Eastern slope ; still
the more recent examinations, of Antipoff and Meglizky, have
shown, that strata of the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous
periods, are not wanting.
A wide district of thick Permian rocks overlies the Car-
boniferous strata of the Western slope, forming a hilly fore-
ground; while eastwardly the Carboniferous, or still older, strata
are overlaid by Tertiary or Post-Tertiary deposits, extending
over the immense Siberian Steppes, and from beneath which the
older rocks occasionally crop-out. Hence it would appear, as
if the Ural Mts. formed even in the Permian period a watershed,
though much lower than at present, and separated two great
marine districts.
The igneous rocks are less evenly distributed than the
sedimentary, although their distribution usually corresponds to
the general trend of the chain. They chiefly occur on the
Eastern slope ; and appear, alternating with crystalline and old
sedimentary strata, to form for a considerable distance the base,
on which rest the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary deposits. The
principal igneous rocks are; granite, syenite, various porphyries,
diorite, and serpentine.
Cretaceous strata occur in the Southern portion of the chain,
but only to a slight degree; and they are found overlapping the
older rocks.
A large number of quartz- veins, often very broad, occur
on the Southern East slope; these sometimes contain gold, and
sometimes project over the more easily destructible rocks, like
walls; their general direction is N. S.
Of the great number of metalliferous deposits existing in
the Urals, I shall only describe the following, as being the most
important and interesting:
GUMESCHEWSKOI. 465
1. Copper-deposits at Gumeschewskoi, Bogoslowsk, and in
the Permian formation ;
2. Gold and platinum deposits at numerous . localities,
especially at Beresof, Katharinenberg, Nijny Tagilsk, Bisersk,
and Miask.
COPPER-DEPOSITS OF GUMESCHEWSKOI.
254. The peculiar geological conditions, under which the
copper-ores occur at Bogoslowsk, and Nijny Tagil sk, are repeated
at several points in the middle and Southern Urals, so that a
great uniformity and agreement can be proved as regards the
copper-formation in the Urals. In addition to other deposits,
as yet but little examined, are the renowned copper-deposits
of Gumeschewskoi l and Soimanowsk.
The well known mine of Gumeschewskoi, 35 miles South
of Katharinenberg, occurs in a valley on the western side of
the Urals,, but near its crest. This valley is parallel to the
trend of .the mountain-chain, about 2 J / 2 miles broad; and its
slopes consist of metamorphic schists, with serpentine. There is
a broad zone of crystalline, and compact limestone, at the bot-
tom of this valley, which is traversed through the middle, in
the direction of its course, by a dike of diorite, frequently
associated with garnet-rock. This dike dips 40 50 in E., has
a very variable breadth, and has been opened for a length of
about 350 fathoms by mining operations ; still traces of the same
have been followed for more than 1200 fathoms. In its known
length this does not come into direct contact with the limestone
traversed, but is separated on both sides, like the dike of diorite
at Nijne Tagilsk, by a broad deposit of ochre-yellow, ferruginous
clay, 90 120 fathoms broad at the surface, which decreases
with the depth. The dike, itself, often contains, where still
undecomposed and fresh, large and small pockets of a mixture
of iron- and copper-pyrites, containing but little copper. In the
upper portions, where a partial decomposition of the rock has
taken place, oxydized copper-ores are found ; particularly mala-
chite, chrysocolla, and red copper; more rarely azurite and
brochantite. These ores most frequently occur, in considerable
1 See: G. Rose's Reise n. d. Ural, 1842. vol. I. p. 242; Muller, in
Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1866, p. 252.
30
466 BOGOSLOWSK
quantities, within the adjoining clays, especially collected, at
the junctions of these with the limestone, in the hanging- and
foot-wall of the diorite-dike. As yet only the oxidized ores have
been extracted, while no attention has been paid to the sul-
phurets. Malachite has occasionally-'" occurred, at this locality,
in very large and beautiful masses: among others a block of
malachite weighing about 60 hundredweight was found at a
depth of 21 fathoms: limonite and clay-ironstone 'are the usual
gang-stones to the copper-ores in the clays; less frequently quartz,
hornstone, and jasper: the ores obtained average 3 4 per cent
of copper.
COPPER-DEPOSITS OF BOGOSLOWSK.
255. The copper-mines of Bogoslowsk l occur about 110
miles north of Nijny-Turinsk, and 33 miles from the Ural Mts.
Diorite and diorite-porphyry predominate in the neighbor-
hood of these mines: there are also some insulated masses of
limestone, which must be regarded as fragments of the Upper
Silurian (according to Murchison, Devonian) strata. These last
have been torn off by the crystalline rocks mentioned, surrounded
by them, or traversed by dikes upwards of 50 fathoms broad.
The diorite-porphyries traverse all these rocks, and appear to
be even more .recent than the dikes.
The lithological character of the diorite is very variable:
feldspar, or hornblende, locally predominates in the homogeneous
matrix; the rock occurs compact, or striped from the parallel
arrangement of the minerals. The limestones are partly crystal-
line and white, partly gray and compact; they occasionally con-
tain fossils. In addition to the preceding, there is also garnet-
rock, which is, perhaps, to be regarded, as the consequence of
metamorphic action.
The copper-deposits, of importance in mining, occur devel-
oped at the junctions of the various rocks; they have a general
course of NNW. SSE., parallel to the axis of the Urals; and
1 See: G. Rose's Reise n. d. Ural, I. p. 381 ; Beger, in Gornoi Journal^
1826, pt. II. p. 3; Protassoff, in same, 1830, pt. III. p. 75; Erman, in
Archiv f. wissensch. Kunde Russland's, 1850, vol. VIII. p. 380; Von Hel-
mersen, in Leonhard's Jahrb. 1860, p. 573; Muller, in Berg- u. hiUtenm.
Zeit. 1866, p. 160; Murchi son's Russia and the Ural Mts.
PERMIAN FORMATION. 467
occur, either at the junction of diorite with diorite-porphyry, or
between diorite and limestone, or between diorite and garnet-
rock. The ore-deposits, following the contours of these rock-
junctions, appear either as veins or beds, or they are segregated
in form, and to be compared to pockets branching out of one
another.
The chief ore is copper-pyrites, partly in large pure masses,
partly finely disseminated and mixed with calc-spar, garnety
actinolith, and quartz. In addition to copper.-pyrites, there also
occur; copper-glance, erubescite, and tetrahedrite ; and in the
upper workings red copper, malachite, azurite, chrysocolla, and
native copper. Iron-pyrites is the most regular associate of the
copper-ores; it is so predominant in places, that the deposit is
then more correctly a cupriferous mass of iron-pyrites. Mag-
netite is also present.
The oxydized ores greatly predominate an the upper levels,
accompanied by limonite, stilpnosiderite, and iron ochre; while
the diorite is often, particularly in the immediate neighborhood
of the ores, decomposed to clay.
Pure copper-pyrites occurs but rarely for several consecutive
cubic fathoms: it is more commonly found in pockets, or finely
disseminated. ^. .
COPPER-DEPOSITS OF THE PERMIAN FORMATION.
256. The Permian formation, thus named by Murchison
from the Government of Perm, occupies a large area, on the
west side of the Ural chain, about twice as large as France.
This -formation corresponds in age to the German Zechstein. and
Roihliegendes, or the interval between Carboniferous and Trias-
sic. Its lithological character is, however, entirely different from
that of the contemporaneous strata in Germany; and even the
fossils found in them vary much, although agreeing in general
character, and some of the species found are identical.
The lithological composition, or succession of strata in the '
Permian formation, does not remain precisely the same within
the large area they cover. In many localities near the Urals,
copper-ores occur in the lower strata of this formation.
The chief subdivisions of this formation are, according to
Stchurowski and Von Qualen, the following: j'V/.
1. Upper Division; not thick, often forming elevated
30*
468 DIVISIONS, AND CHARACTER.
plateaux, consisting of marly, tufa, siliceous, or chalky lime-
stones: without copper-ores,, and almost barren of fossils: pro-
bably corresponding in age to the German Zechstein formation:
2. Middle Division; .chiefly consisting of thinly stratified
clay, and sandy marl ; with subordinate beds of limestone, marl
shale, variegated marl, gypseous marl, sandstone, and bituminous
shale : these beds contain but few copper-ores, and numerous
fossils about equivalent to those in the T^echstein formation:
3. Lower Division; it is composed of red, brown, and
gray sandstone, brown argillaceous marl, marl-shale, limestone,
.and conglomerate ; with thin beds of bituminous shale, or thick
masses of gypsum and rock-salt : this subdivision contains many
copper-ores and numerous fossils, particularly in the sandstones
and marl-shales near the Urals: the fossils in part correspond
to those of the German RotJiliegendes formation; they are
remains not only of land-plants but also of sea-shells and Sau-
rians: some of 'the fossil plants, particularly the Calamites, bear
2o considerable similarity to those of the older Carboniferous or
Subcarboniferous formation of Western Europe.
It appears, from the above, that the copper-ores of the Per-
mian essentially occupy a much lower horizon (in older strata), than
that in which the copper-slates of Thuringia occur. Their man-
ner of distribution is also different, they form separate concre-
tions, and are usually associated with sandstones, hence called
copper-sandstones : the geological horizon in which these copper-
ores occur can be better compared to that of the copper-are
impregnations in the Rothliegendes of Bohemia ( 143, 145)
than to that of the Thuringian copper slates.
The character of these ore-deposits can be best shown by
concise descriptions of some of the localities: I foll'ow, for the
most part, Murchison's description.
I. In the neighborhood of Yugofski and Motovilika, the
strata, which are pierced by shafts 35 to 100 feet deep, consist
of thick, flaglike grits of gray and dingy color, rarely ferrugin-
ous, sometimes of a greenish hue, and occasionally slightly cal-
careous, with layers of red and gray ribboned marl and shale.
The ores of copper are disseminated through all the beds; but
in this district the sandstones are most cupriferous : the ores are
principally malachite, also red copper, copper-pyrites, tetrahedrite,
and azurite. Plants of various species occur, and in some of
the lower strata they are so numerous, as to have given rise
MURCHISON'S DESCRIPTIONS. 469
to thin seams of coal, exceptionally 23 feet thick. Concretions r
often cupriferous, occur here and there; and they have been
generally formed around carbonized stems of plants. Besides-
the copper-ores described by Murchison 1 Planer mentions vol-
borthite, as being very common in the cupriferous sandstone, it
partly occurs in the green coloring matter, partly in dendritic
forms within the joints of the grit: copper-glance and van-
adinite are more rarely found. All the strata mentioned are:
horizontal, and consist, in ascending, order, of;
1. gray and dark-colored shale, with plants and coal,
2. gray sandstone and ribboned shale,
3. red and greenish shales, and
4. argillaceous marl.
II. The intimate connection of copper-ore with the fossil
vegetation is most instructively displayed at the mines of Klut-
chefski 2 near Biebelei, and at Kargala in the Steppes north
of Orenburg : so general in fact is the connection of fossil-wood
and copper-ore, that the discovery of the outcrop of the silicified
trunk of a tree often induces the miner to follow it into the
rock, and thereby to detect valuable cupriferous masses : some-
times the copper-ore interlaces with all the fibres of the silicified
wood; at other times it is continuous through a mass of leaves,
matted in sand, sandstone, or marl; and thus a small nucleus
of vegetable matter has often proved a source of considerable
wealth. Where the copper-ore permeates the coaly fibre, it is
usually as azurite. As a general rule it may be said, that the
sandstone and shale beds, in which plants occur, are the great
matrix of the copper-ore; and that this is much more rarely
found in the white and green marls never indeed in the
same quantity, and never, so far as is known, in the pure
limestone.
III. Between the Ik and Bugulma 3 occur copper-grits and
sandstones beneath white and yellow limestones, containing corals
and minute fossils, which are referred to Cytherinse.
4. In receding from the Ural chain, from Perm 4 to Kazan,
1 See Murchison's Russia in Europe and Ural Mts. 1845, p. 144.
2 See the same, p. 154.
3 See the same, p. 156.
4 See the same, p. 160.
470 GOLD AND PLATINUM IN THE URALS.
9
occurs a great cupriferous region, the western limits of which
are about 66 miles, east of the latter city.
The portion of the Permian strata, which is cupriferous,
extends for a distance of only 265 to 330 miles to the west of
the Ural chain. In all the Permian tracts, more distant from
these mountains, no trace of copper-ore is to be found. These
circumstances alone would naturally lead to the belief, that the
Ural mountains had afforded the sources, from whence the mineral
matter proceeded.
The Ural chain was in remote periods the seat of intense
metamorphism, during which copper-ores were abundantly formed
in the older palseozoic rock. Hence Murchison is led to con-
clude, that such may have had some connection with the deposit
of the adjacent copper sands and marls: not that they were
formed by the erosion of pre-existing copper-lodes, and by the
dissemination of their particles in the adjoining sea; for in no
place do fragments occur indicating such an event: the fact
being that beds composed of similar materials are so impreg-
nated with the mineral in one spot, and so void of it in a con-
tiguous locality, as to exclude the hypothesis, that this locally
saturated mineral condition can have resulted from the grinding
down of the detritus of other cupriferous rocks. Murchison is
therefore inclined to the belief, that, when the Permian deposits
were accumulating in the adjacent sea, springs charged with
salts of copper were flowing into it from the neighboring Ural
chain, then undergoing a peculiar change of composition; and
that such springs deposited the greater part of their metallic
contents in those portions of the bottom of the sea, which afforded
them the strongest points of attraction. In support of this view,
he cites the case of a peat-bog in Wales, whose ash was found
to contain considerable copper. This explanation has much in
its favor; but the question might be asked, whether an^impreg-
nation were not possible in this manner, subsequent to the
deposit of the strata, as is the case in Bohemia;
DEPOSITS OF GOLD AND PLATINUM IN THE URALS.
257. Gold has been found in rock, in but few localities
in the Urals, 1 platinum not at all. Gold is at the present time
1 See: Liboschitz, in Gilbert's Annal. d Physik, 1823, vol. XIV. p. 429 ;
Somoinoff, and Fuchs, in same, vol. XV. p. 226; Ton Engelhardt,
CHIEF LOCALITIES. 471
obtained from deposits in place, at Beresof alone, while platinum
is only obtained from alluvial deposits. These two metals occur,
partly together, partly separated, at numerous localities on both
slopes of the Urals, principally the eastern flank of this long moun-
tain-chain, in alluvium-deposits, the washing of which is in places
very remunerative. The nature of these alluvium-deposits, or
placers, is notwithstanding certain common lineaments, by no
means a conformable one, as can best be seen from the description
of some cases.
I preface such a description, by the enumeration of some
of the principal localities, where gold and platinum are obtained
in the Urals. The majority of these are washings, and lie on
the eastern slope, or base, of the mountains. Passing north-
wardly they occur at the following places:
1. On the river Tanalyk which empties into the Ural at
Tanalysk ;
2. Placers, at numerous localities, on the Steppes east of
the southern end of the mountains, in the basin of the Tobol,
where auriferous quartz-masses crop-out here and there;
3. At the upper portion of the Kizil and Zangelka, and on
the Mindyak, rivers;
4. In the district west of Kuizokowa;
5. At Soimonowsk;
6. In a district southerly of Miask;
7. On the Kyalim near Kavassi;
8. On the tributaries of Lake Uveldi, east of Kischlinsk;
9. Above Elisawetsk, southerly of Ekatharinenburg ;
10. Near Beresof, northeast of Ekatharinenburg;
11. Above Mostowsk north of Ekatharinenburg;
d. Lagerstatten d. Goldes u. Platins im Ural, 1828; Hoffmann and v.
Helmersen, geogr. Untersuchungen d. Siid-Ural-Gebirges, 1831, p. 70;
Rose's Reise n. d. Ural, I. pp. 152, 175, 227, 252, 281, 303; II. pp. 20,
386, 402, 583; Erman, Archiv. f. wissensch. Kunde v. Russland, 1843, vol.
III. p. 120; 1K9, vol. VII. p. 34; 1851, vol. IX. p. 183, 53,8; Zerrener's
Anleitung z. Gold-, Platin- u. Diamanten-Waschen, 1851 ; Ssablin, in Berg-
u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1852, p. 529; Cotta, in same, 1860, p. 495; Breithaupt,
in Cotta's Gangstudien, vol. II. p. 114; Ne bo Is in; hist. Uebersicht d. Gold-
waschversuche im russ. Asien; de Marui, in Bergwerksfreund, 1857, vol.
XXI. p. 96; de Teploff, in bulletin d. 1. soc. geol. d. France, 1833, vol.
IV. p. 371; Murchison's Russia in Europe, etc. and Siluria, 1854, pp.
431, 436.
472 BERESOF GOLD-DEPOSITS.
12. In the neighborhood of Nijny Tagilsk;
13. Southeast of Blagodat, near Turinsk;
14. West of Nijny Turinsk ;
15. At Bisersk, and Krestowosdwischensk, on the west slope
of the central chain; -*
16. At Peschanka near Bogoslowsk; and
17. North of Petro-Pawlowsk.
Platinum is common only at Nijny Tagilsk, and there with
scarcely any gold; it occurs less frequently in the gold-washings
at Bisersk, and Bilimbayewsk, on the west side of the mountains;
as well as at Bogoslowsk, Kuschwinsk, Newyansk, Wereh-Yssetzk,
Kischtimsk, and Miask, on the east side. Platinum sometimes
occurs in the washings of Nijny Tagilsk, associated with chromic
iron in serpentine fragments; and since serpentine is also known
to be present near most of the other platinum washings, it
appears, as if this were the rock, in which this metal is
present in the Urals.
GOLD-DEPOSITS AT BERESOF.
258. Beresof ' lies ten miles NE. of Katharinenburg in
an undulating wooded district.
A broad belt of fine grained granite cuts through the zone
of crystalline schists (chlorite, talc, quartz, and clay-slates)
forming the Urals. The broad belt of granite is supplanted,
near this mining village, by dikes of a very fine grained granite.
These dikes are important, as containing gold. The separate
dikes are 3 25, mostly 10 15 fathoms broad, are usually ver-
tical and often split into branches in their direction of strike,
which is parallel to the mountain-chain. They consist, especially
in contact with the lodes, of a rock containing iron-pyrites,,
altered and decomposed to limonite, a variety of granite which
has been called Beresite.
At right angles to these beresites, occur innumerable quartz-
veins, 1 15 36 inches broad; which are sometimes found
so close together, that two or three of them occur within a length
of one fathom in the beresites.
The quartz-veins are the ore carriers proper of the gold;
\ * See: Mii Her, In Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1866, p. 108.
CHIEF PLACERS. 473
and even though they are as a rule only found to be metal-
liferous and exploitable within the beresites, they often extend
into the schists. The ores are native gold, and iron-pyrites;
which last is often altered to limonite, and occurs particularly
at the selvages of the quartz-veins, and is somewhat auriferous
in this, as in the undecomposed state. Besides these, there
occur, in small pockets, and irregular aggregations 5 copper-py-
rites, argentiferous galena, and tetrahedrite 5 also phoenicite,
jossaite, vauquelinite, cerusite, pyromorphite, and bismuth ochre.
Tourmaline, talc, p^rophyllite, and dolomite, are the veinstones.
The mines have at present attained a depth of 12, to at the
most 24, fathoms; the granite is said to be harder, and the per-
centage of gold smaller, in the lower workings.
Miiller thinks, these lodes must be regarded as veins of secretion.
The quartz is then derived from the granite, the gold from the crys-
talline schists; which is the more probable, as the chlorite schist
of the Urals is often somewhat auriferous, and beds of serpentine
often occur, in the crystalline schists of these mountains, also con-
taining a little gold. The chrome of the fuchsite observed in the
wall-rock is also favorable to the hypothesis, that certain elements
have penetrated from the wall-rock ; since the chromic acid,
becoming free by decomposition of the fuchsite, gave rise to the
formation of phoenicite, jossaite, and vauquelinite.
In general, these gold-deposits of Beresof are rather poor,
and their exploitation has been stopped since 1860, as the
working of the placers is much more profitable.
. It is supposed, that the richest upper portion of these lodes
has been destroyed and re-deposited in the placers which occur
at Beresof, partly at outcrop of the deposits in situ, partly near
other rocks.
The most important of these placers in the neighborhood
of Beresof are, according to G. Rose, the following:
.1. The placer of Petro-Pawlowsk occurs in a flat basin, im-
mediately on the outcrop of the auriferous quartz-veins; but is
by no means generally the richest over these, being rather
poorer than usual: it consists of a clayey mass containing frag-
ments of quartz, chlorite schist, talc-schist, granite, and crystals
of specular iron, magnetite, garnet and zircon : the stratum,
washed for gold, is 9 18 inches thick:
2. The placer of Marienskoi lies on euphotide: the stratum
is 5 feet thick, of which but 1 1'/ 2 feet contain gold enough
474 OTHER GOLD-PLACERS.
to be worked: the clayey mass contains fragments of euphotide,
clay-slate ; and chlorite schist, as well as crystals of the above-
mentioned minerals:
3. The placer of Nagorni overlies clay-slate : the clayey
mass is about 14 feet thick, but only the lower stratum, 1 S 1 /^
feet thick, is washed for gold: it contains pebbles of talcose
schist, and limonite ; also crystals of pyrolusite, and specular
iron:
4. The placer of Klerowskoi is covered by peat: since
the upper stratum only contains sufficient *old to be washed,
the lower beds have not been opened: pebbles of talc-schist,
quartz, chlorite schist, and crystals of specular iron, mag-
netite, decomposed iron-pyrites, garnet, and zircon, occur in the
placer :
5. The placer of Kalinowskoi lies on serpentine, which is
cut through by granite dikes: of the 5 11 feet thick clayey
mass, only the lower 1 2 feet are workable.
a. Beresite containing gold quartz-veins.
b. Auriferous detritus containing remains of mammoth.
c. Overlying clay.
d. Humus and bog.
Murchison has given the above profile of a placer near
Beresof, of which he says nothing.
OTHER GOLD-PLACERS IN THE URALS.
259. After having become acquainted, in the preceding
paragraph, with the occurrence of gold in placers and veins at
Beresof; it will suffice to add a few observations on some of
the other gold and platinum placers in the Urals, partly in a
few remarks, partly in a table.
An undulated district of Steppes extends on the Asiatic
side of the Urals ; in which the older rocks only here and there
crop-out from beneath the Post-tertiary deposits. Crystalline
schists, Silurian, Devonian, and Subcarboniferous are here, ac-
cording to Antipoff, often traversed by quartz-veins striking
N. S. parallel to the Urals, which here and there contain
ACCESSORY MINERALS.
475
small quantities of gold, but so little that it cannot be profit-
ably extracted. Gold- placers occur near these, which overlie the
much tilted rock-strata unconformably, and from which gold is,
in many places, obtained. Antipoff has drawn one of these
placers, of which the following is a copy:
Gold-placer.
G. T.
G. Auriferous quartz-vein.
K. Beds of bituminous limestone.
T. Clay-slate, alternating with
S. Layers of sandstone.
The following profile of a gold-placer at Solmanofsk, copied
from Murchison, is also very interesting :
a. Beds of tilted limestone.
b Igneous and serpentine rocks.
c. Gold shingle or gravel.
o. Bed of the rivulet before the works were commenced.
n. The present bed of the rivulet.
The highly uneven surface of the limestone a, is here evi-
dently the result of erosion prior to the deposit of the alluvium ;
which has, however, been the principal cause for the unequal
distribution of the gold occurring most richly in the depressions
of the limestone.
In addition to the minerals already mentioned, some others
have been found, especially native metals, in the platinum- and
gold-placers. According to G. Rose, the minerals found in the
placers of the Urals are as follows:
1. Gold,
2. Platinum,
3. Iridium,
4. Iridosmine,
5. Native Copper,
6. Diamond,
7. Cinnabar,
8. Iron-pyrites,
9. Specular Iron,
10. Ilmenite,
11. Magnetite,
12. Chromic Iron,
13. Rutile,
14. Anatase,
15. Pyrolusite,
476 ORIGIN OF DEPOSITS
16. Corundum, 19. Quartz, 22. Epidote,
17. Spinel, 20. Garnet, 23. Diallage,
18. Barsowite, 21. Zircon, 24. Hypersthene.
and 25. Malachite.
According to von 'Engelhardt, scales of native iron occur
with platinum ; while Zerrener mentions, in addition to the
above; brookite ; palladium, copper-pyrites, copper-glance, haus-
mannite, native lead, galena, crocoisite, tourmaline , actinolith,
and diaspore.
The gold is generally more or less argentiferous, the amount
varying, according to G. Rose's examination, between 0,16 and
38,74 per cent. It has been sometimes thought, that the placer-
gold was purer (less argentiferous) than that extracted from de-
posits in situ; but Rose has shown, than such is not the case
in the Ural Mountains. He found, that the amount of silver was
very variable in both cases 5 although the highest amount of
silver was found in gold from veins, which contained, even
in the same lode, very variable quantities. These combinations of
gold and silver are merely alloys, and not true chemical com-
binations in fixed proportions.
The origin of the primal deposits of gold, and of platinum,
in the Ural Mts. is different* although both are frequently found
together in surface-deposits. The gold here, as in most localities,
usually originates in quartz- veins which traverse the rocks; it
is at least doubtful, whether a portion of the gold, as sup-
posed by some persons, proceeds from eroded rocks (from granite
at Bogoslowsk. from greenstones, from clay-slates, or even from
limestones).
The platinum, on the contrary, appears to have been here
chiefly associated with serpentine, in which it has been observed
together with chromic iron. Von Engelhardt states, that the
greenstones and syenitic rocks in the Urals also contain a little
platinum.
If, however, both these metals often occur together in allu-
vial deposits, and certain other mineral grains with these (as
quartz, garnet, magnetite, zircon, etc.), this paragencsis may
possibly be a consequence of the resistance offered by these
metals and minerals to chemical and mechanical agents. Were
they existing in any district subjected to denudation, even
though under very dissimilar circumstances, and but sparingly
disseminated ; it would not be surprising, if they have been
OF GOLD, PLATINUM, etc. 477
deposited together by the great processes of concentration in
nature. Besides, gold and platinum do not occur every where
associated in the alluvial deposits of the Ural Mountains; nor
are the accompanying minerals, quartz excepted, always present.
Osmium and iridium, which generally occur together with the
platinum, probably also came from the serpentine.
The lithological character of the gold-placers, in the Urals,
is a very dissimilar one, every where corresponding to the local
geological conditions; and it has not yet been possible to deter-
mine the greater or less amount of gold from these; the pres-
ence of much magnetite may, however, be regarded as a favor-
able sign. The amount of gold appears to be always depen-
dent on the richness of and distance from the original deposits,
as well as the mechanical conditions of the deposit. No law
can be laid down, either in regard to level, or in regard to
the horizontal distribution of the gold; although indeed the gold
is often found in the level immediately over the rocks, being
covered by alluvium.
Gold-placers are found, at intervals, for a distance of 500
miles, chiefly on the eastern slope, and base; some, however,
near the highest crest, and on the west flank. They lie at the
base of the mountains, covering plains and undulating hill-
country, on the sides of broad valleys, in narrow gorges, or on
gentle slopes. They are every where but the product of local
erosion and denudation, and contain only fragments of such
rocks as occur in the neighborhood; they do not bear the
character of a general or Diluvial drift. The greater part are
generally extended in one direction. Their rocky base is variable;
the more uneven it is, so much the more favorable is the
influence it has had on the deposit of gold.
Murchison states, that the deposits of gold, in the Urals,
occur only in those rocks in situ, which are older than the
Permian formation. But Murchison considers the gold they
contain to be of far more recent N origin, than the rocks them-
selves; and thinks, the gold penetrated the fissures during the
last elevation of the mountain-chain, shortly before the Diluvial
period. During the formation of the Permian, no elevated chain,
according to this observer, could have existed; since masses of
the rocks on the eastern slope, o'ccur as boulders in this for-
mation, in which there are no traces of gold and platinum. The
upper portions of the original deposits are the richest in gold;
478 THEORETICAL RETROSPECTS.
and Murchison thinks, they must have been still more so, pre-
vious to their partial destruction.-
The denudation, which afforded the material for the allu-
vial deposits, is considered by all observers to have taken place
at a, geologically, very recent period, more recent than the Cre-
taceous: Murchison is of the opinion, that it must have been
but shortly before the Diluvial period: Zerrener and de Marni
state, that at least two periods of denudation, anil re-deposit, may
be distinguished: in the first one, bones of now extinct mam-
mals (Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorinus, Bos, Equus,
etc.} were deposited at the same time : the more recent one
may still continue; and de Marni has observed, over the older
placers, more recent ones, which have tilled crevices in the
former. The older, deposits, according to Zerrener, are thicker,
and also more thickly covered.
Numerous other deposits occur in the Urals, in addition to
those here described, which seem to me to be too unimportant,
or uninteresting, to need mention.
THEORETICAL RETROSPECTS.
260. A retrospect, of the somewhat tedious collection of
facts in the descriptions of the ore-deposits (but few of which
I have been able personally to visit), may be permissible, and
even be advisable, in order to deduce some theoretical results.
I do not attach any great value to such crude theories; and
regret, that they offer rather negative, than positive results. Yet
these theories may serve to excite further investigation, and
are perhaps in part adapted to open-out new points of view
for such research.
DIVERSITIES, DIFFERENCES, AND GROUPING OF
ORE-DEPOSITS.
261. While the rock-masses, of which the earth's crust
is composed, can be quite easily separated into igneous, sedi-
DIVISIONS, AND GROUPINGS, OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 479
mentary, and metamorphic 5 the mode of bedding of which, and
manner of origin, can in general be explained by very simple
means; and whose mutual conditions of bedding can often be
easily determined; the ore- deposits, on the contrary, offer a far
greater variety, both in their form and mode of deposits, as
well as in their composition, and conditions of age; and con-
sequently far greater difficulties, as regards their interpre-
tation'.
Simple as the divisions' into beds, lodes, segregations, and
impregnations, may appear at first sight; there still arise a
number of doubts, on a more careful examination, for the
formal division, as also for the explanation of the condition.
The forms, like the masses, undergo extraordinary modifications,
and transitions into one another. Like masses occur in entirely
dissimilar forms, and like forms are often found of very dissi-
milar composition of the masses. It seems as if the normal
forms were rarer to find, than their numerous modifications ;
which are of such a kind, that the first question must often
remain unsettled; viz. as to the form of the deposit. Beds
swell out to segregrations, segregrations branch into lodes, lodes
widen to segregations, form brecciated segregrations, or follow
the stratification like beds. Very broad lodes have generally
been formed, either through repeated tearing-open of fissures,
and these having been filled; or they contain large masses of
the wall-rock between their walls, so that they in reality con-
sist of several separate lodes, or branches, united to one another.
Impregnations accompany defined ore-masses, these pass into
impregnations, or the impregnations form independent bedlike
zones. Defined lines of demarcation are often entirely wanting,
leaving free room for speculation to the observer. The causes
of these inequalities, manifold diversities, and irregularities of
form, depend, for the most part, on collateral and accessory
circumstances; also on relations of structure, or other contin-
gencies of the enclosing rock. On this account the forms of but
few ore-deposits can be accurately compared; the majority al-
ready exhibit, in this respect, special peculiarities. Still many
of them form similar associate groups entirely conformable to
nature.
What has been said, with regard to the form of the ore-
deposits, is also true, as to their mineral composition, age, and
manner of formation. With regard to their mineralogical com-
480 CHIEF GROUPS, THREE.
position, they can be united or separated into very few or
very many groups. In any case three chief groups suffice.
These are,
1. Tin-deposits, commonly associated with quartz and
wolfram ;
2. Gold, silver, zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, an-
timony, and quicksilver deposits associated with quartz,
carbonates, heavy spar, fluor spar, etc.
3. Iron and manganese deposits.
They all three form numerous transitions into one another,
and cannot be distinctly or sharply separated from one another.
Iron-ores occur in almost all of them ; and even the most
characteristic tin-deposits contain at times copper, silver, lead,
or zinc-ores.
If they are more carefully separated, according to the
distinctive metals; there is this difficulty, that a metal, or ore,
hardly ever occurs alone; and that it is often difficult 'to deter-
mine, which is to be considered the more important, or the most
characteristic. Even if this difficulty is overcome by the con-
ventional value of the metal, there still remains the dissimilarity
of the predominant or characteristic gang accompanying each
metal, or ore; which are Jocally often very different, and may
with at least the same right, as do the useful minerals, give rise
to classifications. Hardly any two neighboring ore-deposits are
altogether alike in composition; and frequently a lode is very
variable at different points. Consequently the inducements to
subdivision and classification have no limit; while clearly defined
differences, without transitions, are entirely wanting. Nature
does not accommodate itself to any system. The many difficulties,
which have already suggested themselves respecting the crystal-
line rocks, are still greater as regards special deposits contain-
ing ores.
Their form, as well as their mineralogical composition, is
dependent on the most varied local conditions.
Nevertheless it is evident, that the ore-deposits can be
arranged into natural groups according to their composition.
To the accustomed eye certain characteristic combinations of
minerals are apparent; which are either only locally predomi-
nant, like the tellurides of gold in southwestern Transylvania;
or are repeated with numerous slight modifications, in various
localities on the globe; for example, the' barytic lead and silver
TIN-FORMATION. 481
lodes, in which, however, other ores occur, or in which the cha-
racteristic heavy spar becomes more and more subordinate.
In the same manner, as it is often possible to distinguish
the same minerals coming from various localities by means of
unimportant, but constant peculiarities; it is also, at times, pos-
sible, to distinguish from one another cabinet specimens of ore-
deposits which are very similar, by means of slight differences,
so that they are known to come from decidedly different
formations.
There are differences so trifling, as not to be easily ex-
plained, whose recognition is only possible through great practice ;
but which ought not to deter us from combining them in groups.
The distinctions gradually encrease to a total difference; and a
certain intuitive tact, not possessed by every observer, is then
necessary, to distinguish the essential from the nonessential
differences. All such groupings and separations, as in a mea-
sure depend on this kind of individual tact, must remain un-
certain; these recognitions depending on the knowledge of the
individual making them. The most certain method is, to take
typical examples, to be called central points, around which
other modes of occurrence may be grouped, approaching nearer
now to one point, now to another. I shall attempt, in the fol-
lowing pages, to represent by examples some such natural groups
of ore-deposits.
As it would, however, occupy too much space, were I to
attempt to describe them in detail; I shall, instead, frequently
refer to the proper authorities. I commence with the so-called
ore- or lode-formations already long known in the Erzgebirge.
TIN-FORMATION.
262. The stanniferous deposits in the Erzgebirge form
partly lodes, partly impregnations in granitic, or also porphy-
ritic rocks, in gneiss or in mica-schist. The peculiar mineral
combinations occur most distinctly in the veins. Quartz is un-
questionably the most common of these; this is every where
so common, that it cannot be regarded as being characteristic
of any particular manner of occurrence. On the contrary,
wolfram and its products of decomposition, as well as some
minerals containing boron and fluorine, such as tourmaline,
31
482 TIN-FORMATION IN
and topaz, are very characteristic accompaniments of cassi-
terite. In addition to these the following minerals are fre-
quently found accompanying the tin-ore; viz. beryl, arsenical
pyrites, molybdenite, lepidolith, and a peculiar species of feld-
spar, which Breithaupt calls Felsties paradoxites. When, in
addition to these, calc-spar, fluor spar, galena, blende, etc.
occur in the stanniferous deposits, they must not be regarded
as characteristic of these, and are in part evidently of sub-
sequent formation; as in many ore-deposits the products of very
different periods are often intimately combined with one another.
The mineral matter, filling the geodes lying in crystallizations
one over another, often indicates a very long period; toward
whose close the conditions for the formation and grouping of
particular minerals were entirely different, from those at its
commencement. In a scientific examination such as are evi-
dently of subsequent formation must of course be separated, as
much as possible, from those originally belonging together.
At the separate localities in the Erzgebirge, where tin-
deposits are known to exist, the form of their occurrence is, as
remarked, somewhat different ; but the mineralogical character,
and geological position, are every where the same.
At Graupen narrow veins, accompanied by impregnations,
intersect the gneiss; which for the most part consist of quartz
and mica; in places, however, they contain much massive crys-
tallized cassiterite. Somewhat beyond Graupen, there occurs a
curious breccia in a quarry, in which gneiss, quartz-porphyry,
and so-called syenite-porphyry, appear to have been forcibly
kneaded into one another; and this breccia contains smaller
pockets, and well formed geodes, of tin-ore, irregularly scattered
through it.
At Zinnwald the mass of the greisen, which rock is so charac-
teristic of many tin-districts, is intersected by broad, gently
sloping, and more recent, narrower perpendicular, tin-lodes,
which are both accompanied by- impregnations. The first con-
sist of lepidolith and quartz, symmetrically arranged, at <times in
the middle of red orthoclase (paradoxite); between which occur
wolfram and cassiterite, together with some other minerals.
At Altenberg a fine grained granite is locally altered into
a dark stanniferous rock, in which none of the ingredients can
any longer be distinctly recognised. I have shown in a former
memoir that the Altenberg Zwitter-rock is nothing but a granite,
THE ERZGEBIRGE. 483
metamorphosed from innumerable thin clefts, and impregnated
with tin-ore. The chemical analyses subsequently made, by
Dr. Rube at my suggestion, entirely confirmed this view. It
may also be questioned, whether the greisen may not be merely
a granite altered by the formation of the tin-lodes.
At Seifen tin-lodes were formerly exploited which contained
copper-ores. At Marienberg the tin-lodes accompanied by im-
pregnations occur in gneiss; at Ehrenfriedersdorf they contain
much mispickel, in mica-schist.
The so-called Stockwerke at Geyer consists of a granite
mass in mica-schist, traversed by numerous parallel tin-lodes,
from which the ores and other minerals have penetrated into
the joints of the granite. It is true, that the same veins extend
into the surrounding mica-schist; but they appear to contain
less ore. Stelzner has very ably shown this in the 'Contribu-
tions to a geological knowledge of the Erzgebirge' (Freiberg,
1865).
At Eibenstock, Johanngeorgenstadt, and Flatten, the tin-
ore again occurs in true veins; these traverse the granite and
mica-schist, but appear, in the last, to be chiefly stanniferous in
the immediate neighborhood of the granite. The matrix of the
narrowest veins consists merely of clay and quartz, with more
or less chlorite or tourmaline; that of the broader ones is a
mineral mixture, resembling granite. The cassiterite occurs
finely disseminated in these veins, or merely as an impregnation
in the wall- rock, which then assumes a character resembling the
Altenberg Zwitter. Tourmaline schist occurs at the same time,
and this is also penetrated by impregnations of tin-ore. This
is the case with the topaz-rock of the Schreckenstein, which
appears to be connected in some manner with the tin-ore-deposits
of this region. At Breitenbrunn a bedded vein, resembling
greenstone, in the mica-schist, contains, in addition to numerous
other minerals, more or less cassiterite ; and traces of this last
have been found even in the silver-lodes around Freiberg.
At some distance from the Erzgebirge occurs the tin-ore
locality of Schlackenwald ! in Bohemia, with the same character-
istic mineral combination, as lodes and impregnations, in a
district of gneiss and granite, which last cuts through the first.
From all this it follows, that in this portion of Germany
1 See: 136; Riicker, in Jahrb. d. geol. Reichsanst. vol. XIV. p. 8.
31*
484 OTHER TIN-DEPOSITS
a broad belt, of old plutonic and metainorphic rocks, has been
impregnated in different ways by stanniferous solutions, which
produced mineral deposits and alterations.
Outside of this region tin-ores are found in Germany only
on the northern slope of the Rieseugebirge ; where they occur
sparingly, as an impregnation, at Querbach l and Voigtsdorf, in
a belt of mica-schist which is embedded in gneiss. The minerals
usually associated with cassiterite are for the most' part wanting.
In their places appear iron-pyrites, a peculiar specular iron,
galena, blende and cobalt ores occur in the same bedlike
impregnation.
The occurrence of tin-ore at Querbach somewhat resembles
in shape that of Pittkaranda in Finland ; it is a zone of impreg-
nation in hornblende-schist lying between granite. The charac-
teristic wolfram and molybdenite are not wanting; but in addi-
tion to these copper-ores, iron-pyrites, pyrrhotine, magnetite,
galena, blende, garnet, actinolith, malacolith, etc. are also present.
This is the only locality of tin-ore known to exist in the
Eastern portion of Europe, none having been found in the Urals,
or even in Scandinavia so rich in granite.
In addition to those mentioned, workable tin-deposits are
only found on the European continent in Brittany, in the Haute-
Vienne, in Western Spain, and in Portugal.
At Ploermel, Villeder, Piriac, Questembert, and in the Ouste
Valley, the tin-ore occurs in quartzose veins within the granite,
together with tourmaline, beryl, topaz, and mispickel; in addition
to which, however, impregnations occur in the same neighbor-
hood within hornblende-schist, together with garnet and epidote.
At Vaury, and Puy-les-Vignes ( Haute- Vienne), lodes occur
in granite and greisen, with wolfram, mispickel, molybdenite,
and copper-pyrites.
At Penouta and Romilio, near Verin, and in the Montes and
Avion mountains (Spain), lodes and pockets occur, in granite
and mica-schist, containing hornblende, which also contain wolf-
ram and beryl.
In Cornwall 2 the miners distinguish regular lodes, which
traverse granite, killas, and elvans, irregular tin-floors in granite,
and impregnations in granite and hornblende-schist. Wolfram
1 See 148.
2 See 231.
IN, AND OUT OF, EUROPE. 485
is found among the accessory minerals, while more recent cop-
per-ores are often combined with it.
Tin-placers, or stream-works, have been also worked in the
majority of these European tin-districts, which alone would not
afford any sufficient explanation of the nature of the original
deposits. This is also the case, to a great extent, at the tin-
mines on the Islands of Banca, Billiton, Malacca, and Carimon,
which appear to be the only tin-localities worth noticing outside
of Europe, although tin- ores have been found in a few localities
in North and South America. 1 From the mineral fragments,
which occur together with the tin on these islands, and from
the rocks which crop-out to the surface, according to De Groote's
account, in the neighboring mountains (granite, greisen, gneiss,
etc.) there appears to be a great general resemblance with the
manner in which tin occurs in Europe. From the Island of
Billiton only have I seen fragments of a tin-lode in argillaceous
mica-schist, which consisted, at its out-crop, chiefly of quartz,
and limonite ; and in which I was unable to find the character-
istic minerals generally accompanying the cassiterite.
;,t In. general the mineralogical, as well as the geological rela-
tionship of all these occurrences of tin-ore is evidently very
great ; and they appear, from what has been said, to be almost
entirely found in true plutonic, granitic rocks. The converse
cannot, however, be asserted, that the tin-ores are constant
companions of these rocks; for the number of granite dis-
tricts, which contain no tin, far exceed those, where it is to
be found.
The distribution of tin-ore in the earth's crust, so far as
we know, is remarkably unequal.
In some regions it is uncommonly frequent, while in very
large districts on the other hand no trace of it has as yet been
found. How does it happen that so much tin-ore is found pre-
cisely in the Erzgebirge, Brittany, Castile, Cornwall, and some
East India islands, adjacent to one another, while outside of
these localities it is rarely met with?
It may well be asserted, that even gold is much more
equally distributed, and is, in so far, more common; although
it has in no single locality been found to such an extent as tin ;
1 It does not yet seem to be a solved problem, whether the tin-mines
of Tenniscal in California can be profitably worked.
486 FREIBERG OLDER SILVER-LODES.
it also appears/ that wolfram takes part in this unequable
distribution.
Hardly another group of ores and their accompanying
minerals can be found recurring in such a constant manner, with
and under such analagous geological conditions, with varying
form of the deposits, as that of the tin-ores.
FREIBERG OLDER SILVER-LODES.
263. Quartz and carbonates occur combined with galena,
blende, pyrites, and rich silver-ores. The following three forma-
tions of these lodes are distinguished around Freiberg, and have
been already described :
1. Noble Quartz Formation, is the name given to the
matrix of certain lodes, which consist for the most part of
quartz or hornstone; and which contain, disseminated through
this gang, or in geodes, here and there, rich silver-ores, argen-
tiferous mispickel, more or less galena and blende. The minerals
already mentioned under this head, in the paragraph on Freiberg,
occur in addition to the quartzose principal matrix ; which are,
however, by no means all of contemporaneous formation, and
of which only a few are characteristic.
2. Pyritous Lead-Formation. The matrix of the lodes
of this formation, chiefly consists of sulphurets with quartz.
Galena and blende, with but little pyrites, locally predominate;
in some lodes on the contrary copper-ores prevail, and are then
classed together as the Copper Formation. The principal
minerals are in general irregularly mingled together, signs of a
parallel combed structure being but exceptionally observed in
the lodes.
3. Noble Lead- For mat ion. The essential minerals til-
ling these lodes are quartz, brown spar or dialogite, galena, and
blende. Rich silver-ores often occur, in geodes, and strings.
A parallel combed structure occurs more commonly than in the
last mentioned formation.
For the totality the following may be taken as examples
of other occurrences: in Bohemia, the lodes of Przibram in the
Silurian formation, those of Bleistadt in mica-schist, those of
Adamstadt, Kultenberg, Ratiboritz, and Michelberg, in gneiss:
in Silesia, the older copper and lead lodes in the green schist
of Kupferberg: in the Carpathians, the lodes, accompanied by
BARYTIC LEAD-FORMATION. 487
impregnations, of Kirlibaba (Bukowina), those in the Tertiary
greenstone (timazite) of Kapnik, Turcz, Porpatak, Kremnitz,
and Schemnitz: in the Alps, the lodes in the clay-slate of the
Pfundrersberg, numerous ones in the mica-schist of the neigh-
borhood of Mont Blanc, and at Allemont: in Brittany, the lodes
in the clay-slate of Poullaouen and Huelgoat: in Wales, the veins
in the clay-slate of Cardiganshire. These all possess a common
character, and especially a scarcity of heavy spar, which occurs,
at the most, only as an accessory mineral.
Possibly the auriferous quartz-veins ^ of Culera in Spain, as
well as those in the Salzburg Alps, and numerous veins of
various districts containing copper, nickel, and cobalt ores, may
be considered as belonging to this class.
BARYTIC LEAD-FORMATION.
264. The lead and silver lodes around Freiberg, con-
taining considerable amounts of heavy spar, can be easily and
distinctly separated from the others. They are decidedly of more
recent age; and if in the older lodes somewhat of heavy spar
or fluor spar occasionally occurs, it is only in geodes. The
characteristic marks of the barytie veins is the predominant
heavy spar; this is -combined with fluor spar, quartz, galena,
blende, and various kinds of pyrites. Their structure is at times
a very distinctly combed one, and their geodes often contain
beautiful crystallizations.
With slight modifications, especially as to the sort of ore
they carry, these lodes, characterised by heavy spar, recur in
numerous portions of the globe, and under tolerably dissimilar
geological conditions. The periods of their formation also
appear to have been very different. It is at least certain, that
some of those known were first formed toward the end of the
Tertiary Period.
The heterogeneousness of their wall-rock and of the kind of
metal they contain, may be seen from the subjoined table, in
which, though very incomplete, the essential metals are men-
tioned.
488
VARIETY OF METALS, AND WALL-ROCK,
District.
Locality.
Wall-Rock.
Characteristic Metals.
V : "*
Erzgebirge.
Marienberg.
Gneiss. ,*
Lead, silver, copper,
cobalt, and nickel.
Ehrenfriedersdorf.
Mica-schist.
Silver, and copper-ores.
Annaberg.
Gneiss.
Silver, cobalt, nickel,
- j ' ' " ~*
and bismuth.
Weipert.
Gneiss.
Lead, and silver ores.
Joachimsthal (with
Mica-schist, quartz-
Lead, silver, copper,
but little heavy
porphyry, and ba-
cobalt, nickel, and
spar).
salt.
bismuth.
Schneeberg (a por-
Clay-slate, and mica-
Lead, silver, cobalt,
tion of the lodes).
schist.
nickel, and bismuth.
Hartz. Clausthal. Subcarboniferous
Lead, silver, and copper.
Formation.
Rhenish Mts.
Holzappel (with but
little heavy spar).
Clay-slate.
Lead, silver, and copper.
Black Forest.
Wolfach.
Wittich.
Schappachthal.
Sulzburg.
Badenweiler.
Miinsterthal.
Gneiss, and granite.
Gneiss, and granite.
Gneiss.
Gneiss, and granite.
Granite, and varie-
gated sandstone.
Gneiss, and por-
phyry.
Lead, silver, and copper.
Lead, silver, cobalt,
nickel, and bismuth.
Lead, silver, copper,
and bismuth.
Lead, and silver.
Lead, silver, and copper.
Lead, and silver.
Riesenge-
birge.
Kupferberg.
Diorite slate.
Lead, silver, copper,
cobalt, and nickel.
Hungary. |Felsobanya. |Tertiary greenstone. Lead, silver, gold, and
1 ;
antimony.
Alps.
Stubegg.
Clay-slate.
Lead, and silver.
Brixlegg.
Guttenstein lime-
Silver, and copper.
stone.
Schwatz.
Guttenstein lime-
Silver, and copper.
stone.
Italy.
Val di Castello.
Mica-schist. Lead, and silver.
Massetano.
Strata of the Cre-
Lead, and silver.
taceous Period.
IN LEAD- AND SILVER-LODES OF EUROPE.
489
District.
Locality.
Wall-Rock.
Characteristic Metals,
The Vosges.
Urbeis.
Gneiss, and granite.
Lead, silver, and copper.
Lembach.
Sandstone.
Lead, silver, and zinc.
Giromagny.
Porphyry.
Lead, silver, copper.
and gold.
Central
St. Julien.
Granite, and gneiss.
Lead, and silver. . ,
France. |St. Just, and St.
Granite, .porphyry,
Lead, and silver.
. -^
Germain.
and Carboniferous
Formation.
* _ ,-',- '. * '
Villefranche and
Gneiss, porphyry,
Lead, silver, copper,
Najac. j and Triassic strata and nickel.
Asprieres.
Gneiss, granite, and Lead, silver, and copper.
diorite.
Corbieres. Clay-slate, and Lead, silver, copper,
gneiss.
and antimony.
Milhau. Granite, mica-schist,
Lead, silver, and copper.
Trias and Lias.
Spain. Hiendelencia.
Crystalline schist.
Lead, silver, and an-
timony.
Carthagena
Silurian strata and Lead, silver, and copper.
trachyte?
Sierra Almagre'ra.
Mica-schist, and Lead, and silver.
clay-slate.
Linares.
Granite, and Trias- Lead, and silver.
sic sandstone.
Great Britain Llanidloes.
Clay-slate.
Lead, and silver.
and Ireland.
Derbyshire.
Mountain-limestone.
Lead, and silver.
Cumberland.
Mountain-limestone.
Lead, and silver.
Wicklow.
Granite.
Lead, and silver.
These examples, only taken from Europe, will suffice to
show the great distribution of the vein-formation, characterised
by heavy spar, but otherwise very unequally developed. The
same is known to exist in nearly all countries, where vein-
mining is carried on.
Since the older silver-lodes and the more recent barytic ones-
occur together in the same district around Freiberg, an enume-
ration of the chemical elements found in them, either in common
or separately, may be of interest. I have endeavored, as far as-
possible, to arrange them according to the frequency, or the
quantity, of their occurrence.
490 VEINS OF IRONSTONE.
There have been found, common to the older and more
recent lodes; silicium, sulphur, iron, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen,
calcium, magnesium, lead, zinc, arsenic, copper, silver, antimony,
manganese, chlorine, bismuth, gold, cobalt, uranium, tungsten,
cadmium, aluminum, and indium. Phosphorus belongs to both,
but probably not as an original ingredient. In the older lodes
alone, occurs tin; in the more recent ones alone, as originally
present, barium, fluorine, nickel, titanium, and selenium. (?)
The conformity of both is thus very great; particularly as
we may assume that it is merely accidental, that nickel, tita-
nium, and selenium, have not yet been discovered in the older
lodes; since barium and fluorine also occur in the drusy cavities
of the older veins.
About a half of all the known elements are therefore repre-
sented in the Freiberg lodes; they differ, however, from those
which predominate in the widely distributed rocks of whatever
kind.
The entire absence of potassium and sodium is most strik-
ing, as also the very subordinate occurrence of aluminum.
Even this great chemical difference teaches us, that the for-
mation of the Freiberg, like all similar, lodes must have been
a different one from that of the igneous, sedimentary, or meta-
morphic rocks. The absence of potassium, sodium, and alumi-
num, throws some light on the manner of formation. The com-
pounds of aluminum were probably too slightly soluble to reach
the vein-fissures in solutions; the alkalies, however, remained,
as being most easily soluble in the solution, and flowed off with
this as mineral springs.
VEINS OF IRONSTONE.
265. These, consisting of hematite and limonite, with quartz,
hornstone, and ferruginous quartz; appear to be in the Erzgebirge
every where the youngest. They often contain, besides the
minerals mentioned, ores of manganese, calc-spar, heavy spar,
and many other minerals; among the latter also ores, such as
chiefly occur in the older veins. Their separation from these
is by no means a sharp one. In southern Saxony they are
joined by veins of spathic iron containing copper-ores, which
are at their out-crop almost entirely altered to veins of limonite.
These and similar conditions found in other countries (as the
GREENSTONE ORE-DEPOSITS NEAR SCHWARZENBERG. 491
so-called 'gossan' of numerous lodes etc.) may have given rise
to the idea, that many of the veins of ironstone are possibly
but the upper portions of other kinds of lodes. In this manner
the average recent age of most veins of limonite and hematite
would be explained; since it is certain, the like have been formed
during all periods.
It might, if the idea was proved, act similarly with them,
as with the volcanic and plutonic rocks; i. e. the upper portion
of the older veins rich in iron, which corresponds to the vol-
canic portion of the igneous masses^ is destroyed and washed
away in the most cases; and then only the lower portions are
found, which chiefly contain other ores, and in part altogether
different minerals. Only in the younger veins has that upper
portion commonly been retained; and possibly for this reason
the veins of limonite and hematite are observed, on an average,
as the most recent of the lodes. There is, however, much
wanting in support of such a hypothesis, which must not deter a
farther examination.
In fact copper-ores occur at a considerable depth beneath
limonite, hematite, and magnetite, in the bedded veins of Berg-
gieshiibel in Saxony. At Przibram the out-croppings of some
lead-silver lodes have been worked as veins of ironstone. Near
Katzenthal in the Vosges only iron-ores were obtained in the
upper workings; at a greater depth also argentiferous galena
with blende, calamine, and heavy spar.
These are a few examples, which may be pointed to, as
favoring the preceding hypothesis; though it must be confessed,
they afford but slight proof.
I will here remark, that the manganese lodes of the Thu-
ringian Forest, and around Ilfeld in the Hartz, must be included
in this group. The manganese-ores only happen locally to pre-
dominate in them.
THE METALLIFEROUS GREENSTONES IN THE
NEIGHBORHOOD OF SCHWARZENBERG.
266. In addition to these lode-formations, and impreg-
nations accompanying them, another special group of ore-depo-
sits occurs in the Erzgebirge, which differs from the ordinary
vein-deposits, and is also mineralogically somewhat differently
composed. This group is that mentioned in the heading. They
492 GREENSTONE ORE-DEPOSITS.
were formerly termed bedded veins in mica-schist; I showed in
1838, l that they are joined to rocks of a greenstone character,
which traverse the mica-schist tolerably parallel to its foliation;
and are consequently bedded veins. The ores are locally inter-
woven with these rocks in such a manner, that they may be
termed local impregnations in the same. Breithaupt in his
Paragene'sis 2 distinguished this occurrence, as the Pyroxene
garnet-pyrites-blende-formation. By this, however, only some
of the principal minerals of these deposits (very rich in minerals)
are mentioned, which while possessing a common general charac-
ter are locally quite differently composed. It is not here neces-
sary again to mention all the minerals which have been found
in these deposits, the following may be regarded as particularly
characteristic; pyroxene, hornblende, actinolith, idocrase, garnet,
axinite, helvin, epidote, prase, pyrrhotine, iron-pyrites, copper-
pyrites, galena, blende, lolirigite, mispickel, specular iron, and
cassiterite.
The greenstones, which locally contain these peculiar mineral
aggregations, very frequently accompany embedded masses of
granular limestone, evidently belonging to the mica-schist.
This is of itself an enigmatical phenomenon, since there is
no apparent reason, why the penetration of the igneous green-
stones so frequently followed the lime-beds. This is the case,
however, not only in the district of the crystalline schist ; but
the same is repeated in the Silurian strata of southern Saxony,
where certain diorites principally occur with limestone.
It would appear as if some of the peculiar minerals in the
neighborhood of Schwarzenberg owe their origin to the contact
of such heterogeneous rocks, although not, I think, to the in-
fluences of igneous-fluid eruptive masses alone, but also to the
subsequent effects of solutions under the influence of such
heterogeneous rocks.
The garnet predominates in places to such a degree, that
the mass may be termed garnet-rock ; in other places masses of
magnetite occur, while in still others various kinds of pyrites,
or zincblende, predominate. Erlanite 3 also occurs, combined
with these peculiar deposits.
1 See: Erlauterungen z. geognost. Karte von Sachsen.
* See: Breithaupt, die Paragenesis der Mineral! en, Freiberg, 1849, p. 134.
3 See : 85, and Erlauterungen z. geogn. Karte v. Sachseri, II. 1838, p. 219.
TRANSYLVANIA TELLURIC AND AURIFEROUS LODES. 493
Some foreign occurrences may be joined to these deposits
in the Erzgebirge, as being more or less closely allied to them ;
still the variations are so great, that it is not possible to form
a determined group.
I would designate the following deposits as belonging here:
1. Those in the gneiss of Bodenmais l in Bavaria, which
consist of irregular mixtures of pyrrhotine, blende, galena, mag-
netite, iron-pyrites, copper-pyrites, iolith, actinolith, garnet, pyr-
oxene, feldspar, quartz, amethyst, serpentine, etc.
2. The contact-deposits which occur, in the Banat and Ser-
via, between 'granular limestone and banatite, or also between
granular limestone and mica-schist. They consist of similar
irregular mixtures of pyrites, galena, blende, magnetite, etc. and
are also combined with garnet-rock and its related minerals;
and even though the garnet-rock is here evidently of another
and older origin than the ores; still the whole occurrence is a
tolerably similar, and locally changing one, as at Schwarzen-
berg. From their geological position much more distinctly
opened, and in so far more instructive, than those of Schwar-
zenberg, are the deposits of the Banat; in which it might be
possible to distinguish minerals actually formed by contact, from
such as have been formed by subsequent infiltrations.
3. Belonging- to the same class, as the contact-deposits of
the Banat and Servia, as being in every way analogous, are
those of Rezbanya in Hungary and Offenbanya in Transylvania ;
and both resemble, according to the descriptions of H. Miiller
and G. Rose, the copper-deposits which occur near Bogoslowsk
in the Urals, accompanied by garnet-rock, between greenstone
and limestone. Both the copper-ores of Chessy near Lyons,
and of Rio Tinto in Spain, occur at the contact of greenstones.
All these form in common a not clearly defined group, but
still belonging together.
THE TELLURIC AND AURIFEROUS LODES OF
TRANSYLVANIA.
267. Returning to the lodes proper, and no longer start-
ing from the Erzgebirge as the normal type, we can distinguish
1 See 134.
494 SILVER-LODES IN THE HARTZ.
the telluric and auriferous lodes of Transylvania as a particular
group.
The tellurium, as the single element with which gold is
found mineralized, is the characteristic of these lodes; and this
element belongs to the peculiarly jAre/ ones. Up to the present
time, but very few regions are known, in which ores of tellurium
occur. The Tertiary greenstones in the neighborhoods of
Nagyag, Zalathna and Offenbanya 1 are traversed by nssures in
which ^auriferous tellurium-ores have been deposited together
with quartz, brown spar, and some other minerals.
This was, until recently, the single important occurrence
of the kind; while, on the contrary, the tellurium-ores of Sawo-
dinsk in the Altai Mountains, of Spottsylvania, Fluvanna and
Stafford Counties in Virginia, of Davidson County in North Caro-
lina, and of Dahlonega in Georgia appear to be inconsiderable.
Very recently rich tellurium-ores, containing gold, silver,
and lead, have been found in Calaveras County, California,
forming lodes which traverse metamorphic schists.
THE SILVER-LODES OF ANDREASBERG IN THE
HARTZ.
268. These, together with those of Knngsberg in Nor-
way, form a separate group. The sulphurets, elsewhere so
common to lodes, are here very subordinate. The most com-
mon ores are rich silver ones, from which native silver has
frequently been formed, combined with calc-spar, quartz, and
all sorts of zeoliths, which elsewhere occur but rarely in lodes.
SEGREGATIONS OF PYRITES.
,269. The copper-deposits of Goslar, Agordo, Schmollnitz,
and Falun, form a fine group. They consist, for the most part,
of large aggregations of pyrites in clay-slate or mica-schist.
Their forms approach the lenticular, almost parallel to the strata ;
outwardly, they are surrounded by, or are connected with, im-
pregnations of pyrites in the slate ; inwardly they show, in part,
traces of parallel structure, corresponding to the enclosing slate:
1 See: Cotta's Erzlagerstatten Ungarns u. Siebenbiirgens, 1862, p. 65;
Berg- u. htittenm. Zeit. 1865, p. 374.
SEGREGATIONS OF PYRITES. 495
they contain in places friction-surfaces. Iron-pyrites predomi-
nates in all of them; copper-pyrites is mixed with the preceding
to a subordinate degree ; while galena, blende, quartz, and heavy
spar, occur locajly ; traces of other ores, impossible to distinguish
with the eye, are mixed with them; containing gold, silver, cobalt,
nickel, and even some tin.
I have shown, that the broad pyrites-mass, of the Rammels-
berg near Goslar, consists properly of a combination of smaller
irregular lenses grouped together. This can be recognised at
Schmollnitz 1 in Hungary, while at Agordo in the Alps, and
Falun in Sweden, the mass at least contains layers of slate.
It is possible, that these immense segregations of pyrites are
also thus divided into smaller masses, which may be easily
overlooked in the ordinary methods of working them.
In all of them the origin of such immense aggregations of
'sulphurets remains unintelligible. They can in no case be
regarded as subsequent fillings of cavities so large, as the space
they now occupy. Since their composition, and their being
completely enclosed on every side, is not compatible with the
supposition of an igneous-fluid injection ; there only remains the
choice between contemporaneous deposit, and subsequent impreg-
nation-; which last, however, like pseudomorphs by replacement,
must have been combined with the partial destruction and car-
rying away of the schistose rock. The pyrites-masses of Rio
Tinto, and of the Province of Huelva, in Spain generally,
resemble those here mentioned in form and composition ; but
their geological position appears to be different. According to
Lan's description, they occur at the junction of igneous rocks
with clay-slate ; consequently they resemble much more the con-
tact-segregations in Servia and the Banat.
The classes of the products of nature, which we form for
a readier review and comparison, all carry more or less the
stamp of incompleteness, or even of arbitrariness; they do not
suffice for the totality of the phenomena.
Certain of nature's bodies may be capitally classed together;
but others occur, which may be joined less well together, which
unite in themselves the properties of two natural groups, and
1 See: Cotta's Erzlagerstatten in Ungarn u. Siebenbiirgen, p. 53; Berg-
u. huttenm. Zeit. 1861, p. 195, 1862, p. 452; Oesterreich. Zeitsch. 1803,
pp. 101, 235.
496 LEAD AND ZINC IN LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE.
consequently can be placed between them as uniting members;
or even such as vary quite considerably from all. In this manner
the pyrites-segregations are joined by the pyrites-beds, which
themselves appear at times to consist of irregular lenticular
bodies ; or which locally extend infco mere impregnations. Ex-
amples of these are the cupriferous pyrites-beds in mica-schist at
Poschorita and Domokos in the Bukowina, and in Transylvania,
in chloritic schist of Kitzbiihel in the Tyrol, and in clay-slate
near Mitterberg in the Salzburg Alps, also those in the talcose
chloritic schist of Roraas in Norway.
LEAD AND ZINC DEPOSITS IN LIMESTONE
AND DOLOMITE.
270. Irregularly formed, more rarely veinlike, in part
very massive aggregations of galena, blende, calamine, and smith-
sonite, occur in limestones and dolomites, of very dissimilar age,
in Upper Silesia, in Westphalia and Belgium, at Wiesloch in
Baden, in the Carinthian Alps, near Anduze in France, in the
Spanish Province of Santander, as well as in the States of Wis-
consin, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri; they are all of a similar,
but by no means contemporaneous origin. Great districts must
have been penetrated by metalliferous solutions; from which the
precipitation of the above ores took place, for the greater part,
only in dolomite or limestone, frequently at their expense.
To be more clear, the solution traversed the considerably
fissured rock; and this re-acted in such a way on it, that car-
bonate of lime and magnesia were dissolved, the ores being
deposited in their place. These are pseudomorphs by replacement,
on the grandest scale, and without crystal form, whose forma-
tion must have occupied a long period. At the same time
existing cavities or fissures were filled up.
It is altogether inadmissible to suppose, that the deposition
of the ores occurred, in these cases, contemporaneously with
those of the limestone or dolomite ; the whole manner, in which
the ore is distributed, is opposed to this; entirely apart from
the fact, that these rocks belong to very dissimilar formations,
and that occasionally the marine fossils are even entirely mine-
ralised; the animals consequently would have been compelled to
have lived in a metalliferous solution, if the formation of the
ores was a contemporaneous one. The ores occur partly in the
LOCALITIES OF ORE-DEPOSITS TABULATED.
497
rock and intermixed with it, partly in vein -fissures or on the
clefts of stratification; and have penetrated from these to a
greater or less distance in the rock. The deposits, in the fis-
sures and clefts of the stratification, are decidedly of more recent
origin than the rock; they are, however, entirely of the same
condition as the other ores. This is most evident in the lead-
deposits in the mountain-limestone of Derbyshire and Cumber-
land; which chiefly fill vein-fissures, in part with very regular,
symmetrical combed texture, in which the ores are combined
with considerable heavy and fluor spar, from which these rake-
veins assume the character of the Freiberg barytic lead-formation^;
while the same ores occur combined with them in the fissures
of stratification (flat-veins), and in irregular spaces (pipe-veins) ;
from which fact they join most closely on the above-mentioned
deposits. It is worth noticing, that the most of these deposits,
rich in galena, contain an uncommonly small amount of silver,
much less than is commonly found in the galena occurring in
true fissure-veins. Whether the limestone re-acted less on the
silver, or whether these solutions contained but a very small
percentage of the same, is a still open question.
It appears to me proper, for the sake of convenience, to
tabulate the different localities in which these ore-deposits occur.
Locality.
Formation.
Nature of Deposit
Where Described.
Santander in
Spain.
Magnesian limestone
of the Jura or
Cretaceous Period.
Segregated and bed-
like impregnations
of calamine, ga-
lena, and blende;
with copper-nickel
and arsenic ores.
.': j -'- ,
Compt. rend. 1858, vol.
47, p. 728; and 185$,
vol. 49, p. 553 ; Min-
ing. Mag. 1861, p. 73;
Berg- u. htittenm.
Zeit. t863, p. 163;
Jahrb. f. Mineral.
1864, p. 849.
Pallieres near Magnesian limestone Segregations of ga-|Anu. d. mines, 1859 T
Anduze in of the Black Jura, lena, blende, and! vol. 15, p. 47.
France. calamine; with
pyrites, quartz,
calc-spar, and
fluor spar.
32
498
TABLE OF THE LOCALITIES, etc.
Locality.
Formation. ! Nature of Deposit. -Where described.
Bleiberg in
Carinthia.
Hallstatter limestone
(Upper Triassic).
Segregations, and
, lodes, gf galena,
blende, and cala-
mine.
Berg- u. hiittenm. Zeit.
1863, p. 9, et seq.
Jahrb. d. geol. Reichs-
anst. 1855, p. 169;
1856, p. 369; 1861-62,
p. 292; and 1863, p.
25.
Windisch-
Bleiberg in
Carinthia.
Hallstatter lime- Impregnations of ga-
stone. lena and blende
alongside of clefts.
Miss near
Bleiburg in
Carinthia.
Hallstatter lime-
stone.
Segregated impreg- Oesterreich. Zeitschr.
nations, pockets, 1863, pp. 52, 173, 373,
and masses, of ga- 382.
lena and blende.
Raibl in Ca-
rinthia.
Dolomite of the Gut-
tenstein limestone
(Lower Triassic).
Bedlike impregna-
tions and matrices
of fissures.
Hollenthal,
etc., in the
Wetter-
stein dis-
Hallstatter lime-
stone.
Impregnations of
lead and zinc ores,
alongside of fis-
sures.
Gtimbels BayrischesAl-
pengebirge, p. 245
trict of the
Alps.
-
Wiesloch in Trochyten limestone j Segregations of ga-,Jahresbericht d. Mann-
Baden, of the Muschel-j lena, blende, and; heimer Vereins f. Na-
kalk formation.
calamine.
turkunde, 1860, p. 36;
Ludwig, Reised.Russ-
land, 1862, p. 9.
Tarnowitz
and Beu-
then in Up-
per Silesia.
Dolomite of the'Mu-
schelkalk forma-
tion.
Bedded segregations
of calamine, and
pockets of galena.
Jahrb. f. Mineral. 1864,
p. 482; Berg- u. hiit-
tenm. Zeit. 1864, p.
353.
Oskusz in Po-
land.
Dolomite of the Mu-
schelkalk forma-
tion.
Similar to Upper
Silesia.
Derbyshire Mountain-limestone. iLodes, bedded fis-| Wallace, Lead-ore of
and Cum-
berland in
England.
i
sures, and segre-
gations ; galena,
blende, pyrites,
heavy & fluor spar.
Alston Moor, 1861;
Berg- u. hiittenm.
Zeit. 1862, p. 447.
OF ORE-DEPOSITS.
499
Locality.
Aix-la-Cha-
pelle and
Belgium.
Formation.
Nature of Deposit.
Where Described.
In mountain-lime-
stone, at its junc-
tion with Carbo-
niferous or Devo-
nian Slate.
Segregations and im-
pregnations of ga-
lena, blende, and
calamine.
Ruhr district At the junction of; Segregations, rami-
in West-
phalia.
the magnesian
limestone of the
fications, and im-
pregnations, in
Devonian forma- limestone; galena,
tion with the blende, & pyrites, j
Lenne slates.
Bergisch
Gladbach.
At the junction
the Devonian lime-
stone with the
overlying Lignite
formation.
of Incrustations, and
pockets, of galena,
blende, and cala-
mine.
Wisconsin, j Magnesian limestone 'Segregated masses,
Whitney's Rep. of a
Illinois, of the Silurian for- 1 and matrices of fis- Geol. Surv. of the Up-
lowa, and mation. sures; consisting per Mississippi lead-
Missouri, of galena, blende, region, 1862; Berg-
calamine, and py- u. hiittenm. Zeit. 1863,
rites. p. 310; Journ. d.Min.
1864, vol. VI. p. 479.
In this table, arranged according to the age of the enclosing
formations, under calamine, are included both the carbonate and
silicate of zinc, as is in common use among miners. In addition
to the principal ores characteristic gangstones alone have been
mentioned. Books of recent date are alone cited.
In addition to the localities mentioned, I might add one
other, that of Kuczaina in Servia ; and although this occurrence
of calamine does not altogether agree with the preceding ones,
it is one of the most instructive cases. The compact Jurassic
limestone is broken through near Kuczaina by a porphyritic
rock, which contains crystals of quartz, feldspar, hornblende,
and mica, in a compact matrix. At the junction with the por-
phyry, there are found in the limestone irregular aggregations
of argentiferous galena, blende, and pyrites; these correspond
with the remarkable contact-segregations, which traverse the
Banat from South to North, and also with those of Maidenpek.
The unaltered Jurassic limestone contains, at Kuczaina, in ad-
32*
500 FALLBANDS.
dition to the contact-segregations (consisting of sulphurets),
enclosed pockets, and open eroded depressions, consisting to a
great extent of calamine without a trace of sulphurets. These
evidently stand in some connection to the contact-segregations.
They are either products of alteration of the same, or they
were deposited from the same solutions as these, but nearer the
surface, under different conditions, and only in limestone, not
as contact-segregations at the junctions with the porphyritic and
siliceous rock.
The granular deposits of galena in sandstones, as those of
Commern in Rhenish Prussia, are to some degree related with
the irregular lead-ore-deposits in limestone and dolomite; they
are evidently to be regarded as impregnations penetrating into
the rocks from innumerable clefts.
The nine groups of ore-deposits already mentioned can be
easily distinguished and separated relatively, at least where they
have been characteristically developed. This is more difficult
with those now to be mentioned; material and form vary more
and more ; and the theme would not be solved, were a grouping
of all the known ore-deposits to be attempted in this manner.
FALLBANDS.
271. Certain zones in the mica-schist, at Kongsberg in
Norway, were first called Fallbands; which contained small
particles of pyrites and other sulphurets: they are themselves
not exploited, but appear to have exerted a considerable in-
fluence on the distribution of the silver-ores in the vein-like
deposits which traverse them. It appears doubtful, whether these
particles of ore belonged originally to the rock, or whether they
penetrated into it by subsequent impregnation. Their form and
manner of distribution correspond to zones of impregnation.
Other ore-distributions of the same character, especially in
crystalline rocks, were subsequently called Fallbands; for
example, those containing ores of cobalt at Snarum and Skut-
terud in Norway, those containing ores of copper and tin at
Pittkaranda in Finland, those containing tin-ore and pyrites at
Querbach in Silesia. They thus form less a determined group,
than a determined form of occurrence.
COPPER-ORE IMPREGNATIONS. 501
IMPREGNATIONS OF COPPER-ORES IN MECHANICAL
SEDIMENTS.
272. Probably the earliest known were those in the sand-
stones and argillaceous shales of the Permian formation along
the western edge of the Urals.
Malachite, azurite, and volborthite ; more rarely also red-
copper, copper-pyrites, and tetrahedrite ; occur unequally dis-
tributed, for the most part in sandstone.
They traverse its. mass like a cement, they cover its clefts,
and especially occupy the places of fossil plants, which are in
part completely mineralised.
From the entire nature and manner of distribution of these
ores in originally mechanical sediments, it follows without doubt, that
they penetrated, as impregnations, subsequently to the formation
of the rocks. The solutions, from which they were deposited,
appear to have proceeded from the partial destruction of original
copper-deposits occurring in place in the Ural Mountains, which
essentially consisted of sulphurets; on which account the impreg-
nations occur only near the edge of the mountains ; while the
same mechanical deposits, mostly sandstones, extend for a great
distance into the flat hill-country, but entirely barren of ores.
Remarkably enough similar impregnations of copper-ores
were found in two separate portions of Bohemia, in strata of
about the same age, and lithologically closely related. They
occur in the Rothliegendes, which occurs at the southerly base
of the Riesengebirge, at Hohenelbe, Starkenbach, etc., and at
Bohmisch-Brod in the interior of the country. The sulphurets
are more completely absent, than in the Permian district, the
impregnations are generally poorer, and more irregularly dis-
tributed in certain strata of sandstone or bituminous argillaceous
shale. The general conformity of . the ore-occurrence, and the
almost like age of the rocks in which it occurs; has given rise
to the supposition, that this presence of copper is the product
of a particular geological period, in which copper-ores were
especially deposited; some persons have even gone so far as to
suppose, that the copper-slates of Thuringia were deposited by .the
same cupriferous sea of the period. But the copper-slate is not
only altogether differently composed, it also belongs to a some-
what more recent period of deposit. The ores appear to have
actually been deposited contemporaneously with the strata of
502 DEPOSITS OF
mud; as a consequence of which they are much more equally
distributed through these last.
On the other hand the impregnations in the Buntsandstein,
at Twiste near Arolsen in Tyrol, very much resemble those in
the government of Perm, and in Bohemia; only the strata, in
which they occur, are much more recent; from which it becomes
very evident, that one does not have to do with the common
result of a contemporaneous general deposit of feopper-ore, but
with the subsequent local impregnation of certain rock-strata;
whose formation, with regard to the ores, as well as to the rocks,
may possibly belong to very different periods.
The manner of occurrence is similar at all these localities,
and can be properly united into a natural group. It would
even appear, as if the native copper of Lake Superior partly
occurred in a similar manner. Mr. Hague recently sent speci-
mens from the Albany and Boston mining-company, among which
were red sandstone and conglomerates containing copper, partly
disseminated, partly almost as cementing medium; while the
copper in that region was formerly almost exclusively worked
in igneous rocks.
DEPOSITS OF SPATHIC IRON.
273. The Palaeozoic slates of the eastern Alps are par-
ticularly rich in deposits of Spathic Iron, some of which attain
very large dimensions : similar deposits extend down into the
Azoic, in .part already metamorphosed schists; and others occur
in a much higher geological horizon between Triassic, or even
still more recent deposits. The frequent irregularity of their
form, and their, locally, often immense dimensions, have given
rise to their being considered, partly as masses segregated in
form, partly as the matrices of fissures. They have even been
explained, as being eruptive or (better) injected rock-formations.
Von Schouppe has proven, in the best known and probably
most extensive occurrence of this kind, that of the Erzberg
near Eisenerz in Styria; and for some of the neighboring ones;
that they form irregular, but evidently contemporaneous deposits
in a particular horizon of the Devonian 1 slates. According to
1 Baron Adrian subsequently supposed that the iron-ores of the Erz-
berg belonged to a higher geological horizon, that of the Werfner slates.
SPATHIC IRON. 503
this, they are true bedded segregations, or beds of irregular
extent, often approaching a lenticular shape. It is very probable
that the greater portions of the spathic iron-deposits in the
eastern Alps form such bedded segregations between deposits
of a somewhat dissimilar age; still true fissure-deposits occur in
the same region. It would be difficult to clearly separate these
occurrences one from the other; quite as difficult, however,
satisfactorily to explain a like origin for both. Accurate exami-
nations are here wanting. Spathic iron forms the principal in-
gredient in all; but this is. combined with ankerite, dolomite,
calc-spar, specular iron, pyrites, and some other minerals, which
only occur sporadically, and possibly only in veins. In any
case these deposits form a group x in the eastern Alps, to which
may be joined some more or less analogous occurrences in other
localities; thus the very thick spathic iron, on or between clay-
slate, near Dobschau in Hungary ; the masses of spathic iron in
the Zechstein of the Mommel and 'Stahlberg, in the southwestern
edge of the Thuringian Forest, which from Danz' description
are very irregularly embedded; the spathic iron in Zechstein
on the Hiiggel southerly of Osnabriick; and even broad veins
of spathic iron in the Rhenish Devonian, whose chief represen-
titive is exploited at the Stahlberg near Miischen. This group
is united, however, by such veins, to numerous other lodes, in
which spathic iron predominates more or less as the chief ore;
while various other ores accompany itj as in the southern part
of Saxony.
Since spathic iron is often converted near the surface into
limonite, it is a matter of course, that the deposits here men-
tioned generally also contain much limonite. Others seem, so
far as they have been examined^ to have been entirely altered
into limonite; for example the thick bed in mica-schist, at Arz-
berg near Wunsiedel in Bavaria; and the very extraordinary
aggregation of pure limonite, at Gyalar near Hunyad in
Transylvania; which appears to be in fact but a continuation
of the iron-stone bed, partly still consisting of spathic iron, in
the same mica-schist at Ruszkiza in the Banat.
Spherosiderite is merely a compact condition of the spathic
iron; it is remarkable, however, that this condition inclining to
the formation of spheres, has every where been found under
similar geological conditions; viz. in the Carboniferous formation,
or between bituminous shales, entirely independently of their
504 MODES OF OCCURRENCE OF THE CHIEF
age. It is rarely altogether wanting in such deposits, while it
is hardly ever found between other rocks. It is not indeed
found in sufficient quantities, to render its exploitation a pro-
fitable one in all coal-formations or bituminous shales; but single
masses of the same are not often entirely wanting.
In the preceding grouping of ore-deposits according to their
general relations, the kind of metal, from which they become
important in practice, could be but partially noticed, and then
only in those cases, where a metal is combined with a particular
manner of occurrence.
Very commonly, howerer, the ores of several useful metals
occur combined in the same deposit. It is of especial interest
to the miner, to clearly understand, under what different condi-
tions the same metals--are found, especially in such combinations,,
and under such circumstances, that their exploitation appears to
be profitable. This last condition excludes a large number of
occurrences, particularly of the cheaper metals, which science
cannot leave unnoticed. A review to this end, though very in-
complete, is still of scientific interest.
I shall therefore try to sketch the manner, in which some
of these metals occur, as concisely as possible ; often merely re-
ferring to the preceding groups, thus calling attention simply to
what is characteristic.
I. Gold: occurs native, visible to the eye, or invisibly
mixed with various sulphurets, by whose decomposition an
auriferous ochre is sometimes formed : it occurs mineralised only
by tellurium:
1. in lodes, which occur in crystalline schist, plutonic
igneous rocks, clay-slate, quartzite, sandstone, and very rarely r
also, limestone: the lodes are predominantly quartzose, but also
contain various sorts of pyrites, silver, lead, copper, and anti-
mony ores, as well as carbonates, heavy spar, and fluor spar:
when they are much decomposed near the surface, then a porous,
cellular, or drusy quartz often contains an auriferous ochre or
recognisable gold.
The lodes in which gold occurs mineralised by tellurium
form a separate group.
Auriferous lodes are known to exist in great numbers, but
containing very variable amounts, in Vermont, Virginia, North
METALS: GOLD, SILVER, LEAD, 505
and South Carolina, Georgia, California, Colorado, and many
other States of the Union ; Canada, Mexico Central America,
Peru, Chili, Brazil, Australia, New Zealand, Alaska, China,
Hungary, Ural Mountains, arid in small quantities in Great.
Britain, Sweden, Thuringian Forest, Bohemia, the Alps, Py-
renees, etc.
2. in bedlike zones, perhaps as impregnations, most
commonly in quartzose, talcose or chloritic schists; at Salzburg,
Carinthia, and Tyrol, South Carolina: as impregnations in
sandstones along with lodes, at Vorospatak in Transylvania :
3. in surface-deposits, as placers, very common; mostly
very pure gold.
II. Silver: mineralised by sulphur, antimony or arsenic,
frequently also native; and, still more commonly, imperceptibly
distributed in galena, somewhat more rarely in tetrahedrite,
blende, pyrites, or the like; also, as amalgam, as chloride,
bromide, iodide, selenide or telluride. All these silver- ores
occur combined with all sorts of other ores, with quartz, carbo-
nates, heavy spar, and fluor spar :
1. in lodes; which are found traversing crystalline schists,
plutonic igneous rocks, or sedimentary strata, as recent as the
Tertiary: the best known localities are Colorado, Montana,
Idaho, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada in the United States; Chili
and Peru in South America; the Erzgebirge, Bohemia, Silesia,
the Hartz, Westphalia and Black Forest in Germany ; the Vosges,
Alps, Brittany, and Central France; Hungary, and Transylvania,
the Pyrenees, and Southern Spain; Wales, Derbyshire, and
Cumberland; and Kongsberg in Norway: while in the Urals,
silver-lodes proper are scarcely known to exist:
2. as a true bed, exploitable silver is only found in the
copper-slates of Thuringia:
3. segregated or irregularly shaped"; the argentiferous
ores occur as such in the Banat, at Kuczaina in Servia, and at
Sinka in Transylvania; probably also, at Schwatz in the Tyrol,
and in some mines of Derbyshire and Cumberland: it is stated,
that the ores form a large segregation at Schlangenberg in
the Altai Mountains:
4. impregnations occur., frequently alongside of lodes.
Surface-deposits, from which silver is extracted, are not
known, nor do they probably exist.
III. Lead: most commonly as sulphuret (galena) ; arid then,
506 ZINC, COPPER,
as a rule, also somewhat argentiferous, and combined with blende :
oxidized, and combined with various acids, especially at the
outcroppings of deposits; sometimes, but very rarely, native;
as at Pajsberg in Sweden, and Northwest of Lake Superior.
These ores occur with those of* various other metals, espe-
cially of silver, copper, cobalt, and nickel ; as well as with those
minerals, which form characteristic vein-stones of the silver-
ores. As a rule, lead and silver are extracted' from the same
deposits :
1. in lodes like the silver-ores;
2. in true beds, scarcely any- where exploitable;
3. segregated, often together with zinc-ores;
4. grains, and small bunches, in the variegated sandstone
of Commern in Rhenish Prussia, and in the Keuper sandstone
of Franconia.
IV. Zinc: as calamine- (silicate or carbonate), and blende
with galena, etc. segregated in limestones or dolomites, of
various formations: also in numerous lodes, from which other
metals are obtained.
V. Copper: native, as sulphuret, or combined in an oxidized
condition with various acids, together with other ores, quartz,
carbonates, heavy arid fluor spar:
1. in lodes; which occur in crystalline schists, plutonic
igneous rocks, or sedimentary strata, as far up as the Tertiary :
very common:
2. as bed, finely disseminated in the copper-slates of Thu-
ringia: the beds, or impregnations, of copper-pyrites in mica and
chloritic schists: the bed, rich in copper-pyrites, in the horn-
blende-schist of Pittkaranda in Finland, is probably an impreg-
nation :
3. segregated; irregular lenticular segregations of py-
rites, in clay -slate or mica-schist;
4. contact-segregations, containing much copper ore,
at the junctions of. igneous rocks, especially with limestones.
5. irregular strings of tetrahedrite, and copper-pyrites,
combined with gypsum, in clay-slate at Herrengrund in Hungary,
and irregular pockets and impregnations in decomposed
igneous rock at Parad in Hungary;
6. oxidized copper-ores, rarely with sulphurets of copper;
TIN, COBALT & NICKEL, MERCURY, IRON. 507
as impregnations in sandstones, conglomerates, and argil-
laceous shales:
7. Masses, and pockets, of native and oxidized copper, in
serpentine and its accompanying rocks.
VI. Tin: almost only as oxide (cassiterite), rarely as sul-
phuret, in various formed deposits; which however all belong
to a geological group of great age: not found in limestones.
In addition to this, surface-deposits (placers) are common; from
which the tin is alone obtained in the islands of Banca, Billiton,
and Carimon.
VII. Cobalt, and Nickel: the ores of these metals occur,
as a rule, together ; commonly also with silver, lead, and copper
ores; with quartz, hornstone, calc-spar, spathic iron, heavy spar,
and numerous other minerals:
1. Lodes; in crystalline schists, plutonic igneous rocks,
and sedimentary strata up to the Tertiary:
2. Impregnations; in crystalline schists, at Skutterud
and Snarum in Norway (almost free from nickel):
3. Segregated masses; in granular limestone, or between
this and gneiss; at Tunaberg in Sweden, where a large number
of minerals occur with them.
VIII. Mercury: most commonly, as cinnabar; but also
native, as amalgam, or as chloride (calomel):
1. in lodes; which occur in crystalline schists, clay-slate,
the strata of the Carboniferous formation, and also some igneous
rocks, together with tetrahedrite, pyrites, brown spar, calc-spar,
heavy spar, and quartz: found at New Almaden and elsewhere
in California, Moschlandsberg in the Palatinate, Almaden in
Spain, Szclana in Hungary, in Transylvania, and South
America :
2. Bedded; but probably as impregnations, with but few
accessory minerals ; in the bituminous shales of Idria and St. Anna
in Austria, Vallalta near Agordo, in the talcose schist of Ripa
in Northern Italy, also traces in clay-slate at Hartenstein in
Saxony.
IX. Iron: we must here consider the various ores separately;
still the most of them occur together:
1. Spathic iron; forms lodes, beds, and bedded segre-
gations, in clay-slate, Zechstein, etc.
2. Spherosiderite, and clay-ironstone; form beds,
or lenticular masses, parallel to the foliation, in almost all coal-
508 VAKIOUS IRON-ORES.
deposits, and bituminous shales; also, as grains, in an Eocene
sandstone, on the northern edge of the Alps:
3. Magnetite; very frequently with somewhat of specular
iron, chlorite, amphibole, garnet, quartz, and numerous other
minerals; forms beds, lodes, segregated masses, and impregnations
in crystalline schists, near their junctions with granular limestone,
or of basic igneous rocks:
4. Chromic iron; almost every where associated with ser-
pentine or gabbro; a small admixture of chromic iron is pro-
bably never altogether wanting in these rocks, but the same
sometimes forms masses, . segregations, or the tilling of fissures
in the same, which can be mined:
5. Specular iron; forms lodes in crystalline schists, and
igneous rocks, even in lavas; at times associated with quartz,
lievrite, etc. As beds of micaceous iron-schist, between chloritic
schist, itacolumite, or granular limestone, combined with quartz :
6. Hematite; compact, ochreous, or fibrous; more rarely
oolithic; frequently with ores of manganese, quartz, hornstone,
or clay; more rarely with carbonates, heavy and fluor spar;
forms beds, lodes, and contact-segregations, for the most part
in crystalline schists, or at least in old sedimentary formations;
often at the limits of crystalline limestone, or also at the limits
of plutonic igneous rocks, at the same time forming lodes in
these : the hematite in the Erzgebirge appears to be principially
associated with granite or quartz-porphyry:
7. Limonite; compact, ochreous, or fibrous; with the
same accessory minerals as hematite, also under the same
conditions of bedding, but extending into the most recent sedi-
mentary strata: the accompanying limestone is as frequently
compact as - granular, the igneous rocks, at whose limits contact-
deposits occur, are also volcanic; as for example, basalt.
In addition to these modes of occurrence, which the limo-
nite possesses in common with hematite ; very recent deposits
of hydrated peroxide of iron also occur, as ochre, at the mouth
of springs; in marshy regions, as bog-ore; also in many lakes,
as sea-ore ; also filling all kinds of cavities, .in limestone and
dolomite, which are near the surface:
8. Pea- ore; round grains, which consist, either of hydrated
peroxide of iron, or silicate of iron; they fill depressions, fissures,
or real cavities in limestones : particularly common in Jurassic
limestones.
MANGANESE. 509
X. Manganese: as wad, manganite, varvicite, hausman-
nite, braunite, polianite, pyrolusite or psilomelane ; often accom-
panied by iron-ores, or the accessory minerals usually with them :
these ores form beds, lodes, pockets, segregations; contact-
segregations, etc. in crystalline schists, and sedimentary forma-
tions; frequently occurring in limestone or dolomite, as well as
in, and on, various kinds of plutonic igneous rocks.
DISTRIBUTION OF ORE-DEPOSITS.
274. Many attempts have been made to discover fixed
laws, with regard to the geographical distribution of ore-deposits,
but as yet in vain.
When they are examined in their generality, or in their
separate natural groups; they do not appear to change toward the
equator, or the poles, either in frequency or richness ; they occur
just as frequently in the interior of continents, as on their coasts
or on islands ; similar deposits have been found beneath the level
of the sea, and in the highest mountains. Ore-deposits are more
commonly found in mountains, than in plains ; as these last
generally consist, at the surface, of very recent sedimentary
deposits, in which ore-deposits are found as an exception.
After a full examination of the facts, it cannot be said, that
in Europe there is a northern, and a southern region, in which
ore-deposits occur: a southern one extending from the Iberian
Peninsula to the Caucasus; and a northern one comprising
Great Britain, Scandinavia, and the Ural Mountains.
These distributions are only consequences of the mountain-
ous districts in both the European elevated plateaux, subject
to be missing where the mountains are wanting.
One cannot speak of ore-belts correctly on such a vast
scale. But mountainous regions do not always, nor every where,
contain ore- deposits. Nor are these deposits governed by any
known law.
Those mountains contain the least, in which all igneous
rocks are wanting; for example, the Jura and the Northern
Carpathians.
There is consequently no recognised law for the geographical
distribution of the ore-deposits.
But the answer is different, when we ask after the geolo-
510 DISTRIBUTION OF
gical distribution. Ore-deposits, in general, occur more fre-
quently in older, than in the recent rocks; and are more com-
mon at the junction of various kinds of rocks, than in the midst
of large, districts of a uniform rock: these rules are much more
characteristic in regard to lodes, : segregations, and impreg-
nations, than as applied to beds; but we have already become
acquainted with the probable reasons for this in the General
Part.
The question has been raised, as to the distribution of the
ore-deposits; and especially of the lodes, segregations, arid
impregnations of the separate ores ; whose individuals were,
according to their nature, confined to relatively small extents,
and not, like the beds, spread over large districts.
In order .to more thoroughly discuss the question, and not
merely to decide from a general valuation, I have attempted
to draw the principal ore-districts on charts, by means of various
colors. The work was a laborious one, but led to no satis-
factory, or rather to an almost negative result. No particular
law of the distribution of ore-deposits could be recognised on
the map of Europe; neither a grouping in very long belts, nor
one around a central point, about corresponding to rows of or
central volcanoes.
At times a recognisable predominant direction of distri-
bution, or belt, could be seen for separate districts; but in no
case, of such a considerable length, that it could be used in a
general terrestrial relation. There was always shown merely
local belts, or districts corresponding to the general geological
character; for example, that of the Erzgebirge. The broad, but
indefinitely limited silver-belt extends, as Baron von Beust has
long since shown, from the neighborhood of Meissen obliquely,
v at an acute angle over the ridge of the Erzgebirge, to Blejstadt
in Bohemia, the principal towns passed over being Scharfenberg,
Freiberg, Marienberg, Annaberg, Schneeberg, Johanngeorgen-
stadt, and Joachimsthal. This belt can, however, in no manner
be brought into an assignable, or even probable connection with
any other special geological phenomenon of the Erzgebirge.
Neither particular varieties of rocks, nor their limits, nor any
conditions of texture of the same, can be proved to be parallel
to this belt. The belt strikes predominantly through large
districts of gneiss, mica-schist, and clay- slate; although indeed
dikes of quartz-porphyry occur in the same, especially at or
ORE-DEPOSITS. 511
near Freiberg, Oederan, Marienberg (rock difficult to determine),
Annaberg, Joachimsthal, and Bleistadt.
The silver-lodes are not every where accompanied by dikes
of porphyry ; nor the porphyry-dikes, or masses, every where by
silver-lodes; the porphyries also branch, on both sides, to a
considerable distance beyond the ore-belt, without showing any
particular direction of the distribution.
Even where the dikes of x porphyry occur within the belt,
no fixed, or in any way constant relation to a special fre-
quency, or particular richness of the lodes, can be recognised.
I, myself, am much inclined to believe, that tKe presence of
these porphyries has locally a certain connection with the
formation of the silver-lodes in the Erzgebirge, whose special
conditions are not yet sufficiently known. This opinion or sup-
position cannot, however, cause me to ignore the fact; that
neither the distribution, nor the direction of the porphyry-dikes,
exhibits any constant parallelism with the belt of silver-lodes,
or with the separate lodes, which themselves strike within the
belt in tolerably variable directions: only the extents of their
distribution partially coincide.
If this silver-belt in the Erzgebirge is followed still farther
North-East, or South- West, in its direction of strike; plumbi-
ferous silver-lodes are met with at Erbendorf, beyond the
granitic Fichtelgebirge, resembling some of those around Frei-
berg, in whose neighborhood, as in the latter, quartz-porphyries
are also found: but between these is a large district containing
no ores.
The continuation is still more doubtful toward North-East.
In the syenite-granite hills beyond the Elbe the traces of ore
are .much scattered and uncertain.
The most distinct are those in the Kupferberg at Gros-
senhain.
The total length of this silver-belt, from Grossenhain to
Erbendorf, is but 130 miles, and by thus extending it we con-
sequently cover even uncertain traces.
This cannot be called a geographical belt of general im-
portance; t. e. one of importance for the entire earth. Still this
district is one of the most interesting of all those known, since
it does not follow the principal trend of the Erzgebirge ; but
rather intersects this, with a certain independence, obliquely;
arid since the gaps in the same appear to be mostly caused by
512 DISTRIBUTION OF LODES.
granitic rocks (granite, syenite, and red gneiss), which, in this
district at least, seem to have been unfavorable to the formation
of silver-lodes.
Silver lodes occur in the Hartz, at Harzgerode, Andreasberg,
and Clausthal, about corresponding 'to its axis of elevation ; with
which the course of most of the separate lodes also coincides.
It almost appears, as if the fissures they occupy, were conse-
quences of one of the elevations of this mountain-ellipse, whose
longest axis is only 45 to 50 miles long: beyond this no trace
of a prolongation can be found, at least I should consider it
very much forced, were it attempted to combine them in any
way with the lodes of Kupferberg and Eisenkoppe near Alten-
berg in Silesia ; since these (although without any relation as to
direction) are much nearer to the silver-lodes in the Erzgebirge
and Bohemia. These last are particularly instructive, from the entire
irregularity of their distribution. The separate localities, where
the lodes occur, can in no manner be united into a belt; although
curiously enough a North-South course of the separate lodes greatly
predominates. They are irregularly distributed over a broad
surface like the crystalline rocks of Southern Bohemia; whose
limits, however, the lodes exceed, penetrating into the Silurian
strata.
The silver-lodes of Holzappel, about parallel to ihe strike
of the slates, form a belt about 40 miles long; closely allied to
which are the copper, nickel, and cobalt lodes; which, irre-
gularly distributed over the whole Devonian formation, without
any recognised cause, attain in places a sufficient richness to
render them exploitable; as at Dillenburg, Siegen near Siegburg,
and at Rheinbreitenbach.
In the great Central district of France no other law of
distribution can be recognised, than that which arises from the
cropping-out of the older rocks in a very irregular form ;
although a majority of the lodes strike from North- West to
South-East.
In Spain we find a silver-belt on the southern coast between
Carthagena and Malaga; it ceases with the Sierra Nevada, and
is consequently dependent on the upheaval of this range.
Similar, much isolated, groups of lodes occur at Linares
and near Hiendelencia in the interior of the country.
SILVER-MINES OF CHILI. 513
According to Pis sis/ 'all the silver-mines of Chili o,ccur in a
small belt, which extends from 26 30' to 34 South Latitude
in the valley-depression, which accompanies the western base
of the Andes, and is called in the Southern Provinces Llano
Longitudinal. The stratified rocks in this region are every
where much altere'd, principally by the effect of the trachytes,
which have broken through. The ore-deposits do not occur
equally distributed over the entire belt, but appear principally
in the neighborhood of those places, where the trachytes crop-out
to the surface.
. Since this last takes place more frequently to the North,
the silver-ores occur more frequently in the North, especially in
the province of Atacama. Thus the province of Santiago pos-
sesses only four mines of slight importance. The province of
Aconcagua, in which the trachyte is very rare, contains but
one mine. In the province of Coquimbo occurs the mine of
Arqueros, much more important than any of the preceding;
while the Province of Atacama possesses the mines, from which
come almost all the silver exported from Chili. In this last-
mentioned province the ore occurs partly in somewhat tilted
strata, which are here traversed in all directions by small me-
talliferous strings, and are called by the miners mantos. The
rock traversed by the strings of ore varies, in the various lo-
calities both in age and composition; in many places it belongs
to the Silurian formation, as in Tres-Puntas, where a string of
ore occurs in gneiss; in other places, to the Devonian formation,
as at Zapalar, Romero, and Cabeza de ,Vaca ; or to the red
{Sandstone or the Lias, as at San Antonio, Chanarcillo, and
Agua Amarga. The lodes are poor, when in contact with many
rocks ; and become strikingly richer, the nearer they approach
rocks otherwise composed. The variety of the -ores also varies
according to the nature of the wall-rock : chloride, bromide, and
iodide of silver, occur in considerable 'quantities only in lime-
stone; sulphurets and ruby-silver belong to the red Sandstone or
the Devonian formation; finally, galena occurs in gneiss or
schist. These changes can be most distinctly represented ; if it
be supposed, that a. lode traverses the whole succession of strar
tified rocks from the Lias to the gneiss: chloride of silver and
native silver would occur in the 'Lias ; in the lower layers of
1 See: Neumann's Zeitschrift fur Erdkunde, 1860, p. 251.
33
514 DISTRIBUTION OF THE SILVER-BELT:
this formation, and in the Redstone, would commence pyrar-
gyrite (? el rosicler}; following this would be proustite with
cobalt-ores, and finally galena. Some of the mines at Chanar-
cillo, which have reached, a depth of more than 650 feet, con-
firm this supposition; while at TreVPuntas, where the Lias is
wanting, ruby-silver predominates; and the mines of Zapalar,
which occur in the Devonian formation, chiefly contain galena.
The percentage of silver in the ores consequently decreases with
the depth; and since the ore-strings .of the mantos only come
from the fact, that the upper portion of a lode has split up in
a porous layer, the uncommon richness of the same is easily
explained; as for example, the mantos of Mandiola and Ossa
in Chanarcillo, and the Manto de la Presidents in Cabeza de
Vaca.' - :
The distribution of this very long belt is not an independent
one, but evidently dependent on mountain elevations, or certain
igneous rocks.
The farther it is attempted to extend such belts, and
districts of lodes ; the more undefined, or the more dependent
on other circumstances, do they become. With a slight power
of imagination it is easy to discover fancied belts of this kind;
which, on a more careful examination, are soon found to be
very defective ; and very frequently altogether different directions
of strike might equally well be claimed.
Necessarily therefore much more uncertainty and arbitra-
riness occur in the determination within the limits of the ore-
deposits, than 'in the following-up of mountain-elevations; being,
as a rule, much more dependent on phenomena of a scattered
and disconnected nature.
On a close examination of the gold-deposits in the Alps,
yielding a very small percentage of gold, there may be found
a sort of so-called gold-district, which extends from La-Gardette,
with numerous gaps, to the Rathhausberg near Gastein.
This district is composed, partly of auriferous veins,
partly of beds, in which quartz forms the principal veinstone.
The axis of the Alpine chain splits in its eastern portion;
its northern branch passing through Pressburg, forms the con-
nection with the Carpathians. Nevertheless the geologists of the
Viennese Reichsanstalt think, they can prove a geological con-
tinuation of the Alps, somewhat more southerly, through the
mountains at Neusohl. At Schemnitz and Kremnitz, consequently
GOLD-BELT? OBJECTIONS. 515
more southerly, again occur auriferous lodes; is it attempted to
unite them as a sort of continuation of the Alpine gold-belt,
itself very incomplete, there is opposed to it;
1. The difference of the geological axis, according to the
results of the Reichsanstalt;
2. The entire dissimilarity of the wall-rock; in the Alps
crystalline schists, at Schemnitz and Kremnitz greenstones or
timazites, which belong to the Tertiary Period, rocks which do
not occur in the Alps;
3. The entire variation in the course of the individual
lodes, in the Salzburg Alps N. S. and NW. SE., at Schemnitz
NE.-SW.;
4. The very dissimilar composition of the gold-deposits at
Schemnitz, and in the Alps;
5. The much greater geological conformity of the Schem-
nitz deposits with the gold-deposits of Nagybanya, Felsobanya,
Offenbanya and Nagyag, which do not for the greater part
occur in the same direction;
6. The very similar deposits of Eule, Tok, and Bergreichen-
stein in Bohemia, lie much nearer to the Alpine gold-deposits,
than those of Schemnitz and Kremnitz; while the quite dif-
ferently composed ones of Baza, Magurka, etc. occur in their
geological axis.
If, however, the mountainous borders of the great Hunga-
rian basin are reduced, there already follows a gold-enclosure,
much interrupted, but more in accordance with nature.
There remains at least a common geological relation of
the gold at Schemnitz, Kremnitz, Nagybanya, Felsobanya,
Kapnik, Borsabanya, Olalaposbanya, OfFenbanya, Vorospatak,
and Nagyag. These deposits occur every where in certain rela-
tions to trachytic or timazitic greenstones, porphyries, or Tertiary
sandstones.
I do not lay much importance on this fact, but still some-
what more than on the apparent direction of strike of a gold-belt
under such dissimilar geological conditions.
In the Urals there occurs a long belt of gold-deposits and
their remains in placers; but this is essentially a consequence
of the long extended mountain-elevation, whose general geological
character is every where a consonant one.
The result of our examination is: that ore-districts have
merely an extent and importance corresponding to mountain
33*
516 RELATIONS OF ROCKS TO ORE-DEPOSITS.
districts, but beyond this are entirely independent of each other.
This also agrees with a sound theory, according to which lodes,
segregations, and impregnations, are the consequences of local,
not general geological occurrences; v as is more and more recog-
nised for the igneous rocks. No conclusion can be drawn from
their mineralogical similarity ; these are consequences of general
chemical laws, modified by local conditions or events ; precisely
as geologists no longer consider the much more conformable
mineralogical composition of the igneous rocks, as a reason for
their contemporaneous formation in all parts of the world.
RELATIONS OF THE ROCKS TO THE ORE-
DEPOSITS.
275. The relations between the rocks and ore-deposits,
already referred to, deserve special attention. They may be con-
sidered both as general contact-phenomena, and as particular
relations of certain rocks to certain ore-deposits.
Experience shows that lodes, segregations, and impregnations,
are usually found at or near the junctions of igneous rocks
with sedimentary or metamo'rphic ones.
From the many cases of this kind, which occur, the con-
clusion may be drawn; that lodes, segregations, and impregna-
tions, generally are the direct or indirect consequences o'f the
junction of dissimilar rocks, -and especially of the penetration of
igneous rocks between others ; they, therefore, like many mineral
springs, are the consequences of plutonic action. It is not, how-
ever, to be assumed, that ore-deposits every where occur where'
igneous rocks have penetrated, since the contrary can easily be
shown. '
The ; conditions of formation were not everywhere fulfilled.
Consequently the igneous rocks are by no means in all cases
accompanied by the presence of ores ; while, on the other hand
relatively few lodes, segregations, or impregnations, are known,
which cannot be brought into a certain connection with neigh-
boring igneous rocks.
In truth the conclusion, when so generally considered, is of
but slight practical value.
The facts encrease, however, in importance; if we arrange
them according to natural groups. For this purpose I will
classify the rocks into:
GROUPING OF ROCKS, AND ORES. 517
I. Igneous:
1. Rich in -silica, or acidic; granites, trachytes, etc.
2. Poor in silica, or basic; greenstones, basalts, etc.
II. Metamorphic:
1. Crystalline schists composed of silicates,
2. Crystalline limestones and dolomites;
III. Sedimentary:
1. Siliceous; sandstones, etc.
2. Magnesian; clay-slate, etc.
3. Calcareous; limestone, dolomite, etc.
The ore-deposits I separate according to their composition
in the three natural groups already mentioned (I entirely pass
over the true beds, as being altogether sedimentary deposits):
I. Tin-lodes, segregations, or impregnations;
II. Gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, antimony,
and quicksilver lodes, segregations, or impregnations; which may
be also regarded according to the separate predominating or
characteristic metals;
III. Iron- (and manganese-) lodes, segregations, or impreg-
nations-.
The demarcations of these groups, from rocks and deposits,
are not always distinct and fixed; nevertheless this grouping
appears to me a very natural one. In order to avoid repeti-
tions, and uncertainties, I shall comprehend lodes, segregations,
and impregnations (here with exclusion of the beds), under the
common name of ore- deposits, and only make exceptions,
when a particular value is to be given to. the form of the oc-
currence.
Iron-ore-deposits occur very often, at the limits of acidic,
or basic, igneous-rocks, as immediate or indirect contact-
formations ; thus, in many parts of the Erzgebirge (especially at
the limits of granite), in the Thuringian Forest, in the Hartz, in
Westphalia, in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, in the Banat, in
Italy, in the Vosges, in Brittany and the Pyrenees, in Norway
and Sweden.
Magnetic iron-ore occurs very often under very peculiar
relations of contact; in numerous regions especially , with em-
bedded masses of granular limestone or dolomite, between crys-
talline schists, or at the edges of granitic rocks or greenstones :
thus, around Schwarzenberg, and Oberwiesenthal, in the Erz-
gebirge; in the Banat; at Dannemora, Nora, and on the Island
518 IRON, AND MAGNETITE, ORE-DEPOSITS.
of Utoe, in Sweden. It is then associated with numerous other
ores, and certain minerals, which can be partly explained by
combinations of lime with silicates. To the common occurrence
of granular limestone with, magnetite, also join-on ; other ore-
deposits in which magnetite is frequently but subordinate 5 thus,
at Schwarzenberg, and Kupferberg, in the Erzgebirge ; near
Oravitza in the Banat, at Offenbanya in Transylvania, near
Christiania in Norway, at Sula and Tunaberg in' Sweden, and
near Bogoslowsk in the Urals; so that these contact-deposits of
the limestone again form in common a sort of natural, but among
themselves very varied, subordinate group.
Since these deposits chiefly occur between and with such
rocks, as the majority of geologists consider to be metainorphic ;
the question arises, whether, in the succession of the sedimen-
tary rocks, combinations do not already occur, through whose
alteration they might be formed. This is in fact the case:
compact limestones occur combined with deposits of spathic iron,
limonite, or hematite, in sedimentary rocks, which have not yet
become crystalline; for example, in the Devonian of Southern
Saxony, of the Hartz, and of the Ehine; in the brown Jura of
Wiirtemberg, and of Bavaria; in the Muschelkalk and Jurassic
of Upper Silesia, in the Devonian of the Alps, etc. Also, the
very constant occurrence of oolithic ore in fissures, funnels, and
cavities of limestones, in the Swabian Alp, in the Jura, near
Thionville, etc., must be considered as belonging here. These
are, indeed, in part true beds, but still often of very irregular
shape, which by the occurrence of alterations might easily
become still more irregular, and thus assume more the form of
segregations. A sort of transition occurs, near Arzberg in the
Fichtelgebirge, where the limestone between the mica-schist is
altered to crystalline limestone, the iron-ore remaining in the
condition of spathic iron (or decomposed from this into limonite).
Many of the segregations of magnetite, especially the
Swedish; exhibit forms, which much resemble irregular beds;
and the numerous minerals, which they contain besides the
iron-ore, can mostly be explained by the possibility, that by the
alteration numerous combinations of lime, silica, magnesia, and
iron, were formed.
I must confess, that I am inclined to consider these segre-
gations of ore combined with granular limestone, as more or
less altered sedimentary beds, which partly altered their shape
RELATIVE POSITION OF GOLD-ORE. 519
in a semi-fluid condition, and whose mass at times would have
penetrated into the adjoining fissures of the less softened wall-
rock. It is remarkable, that they are frequently traversed by
more recent granite dikes ; which is also the case in the granular
limestone of Miltitz near Meissen, and of Kothigen Biebersbach
in the Fichtelgebirge.
Should the proposed hypothesis prove correct, there would
still remain unanswered the question, why carbonate of lime,
and hydrated oxide of iron or other ores, should have originally
been so often deposited immediately alongside of, or over, one
another ?
Somewhat different is the very constant ocurrence of bedded
spherosiderites in such sedimentary deposits, which also contain
coal, no matter what their age may be.
Gold is, in its original position, mostly combined with such
rocks, as contain but little lime. We must not, however, while
considering the rule, forget. the exception. I am only aware of
the following: the somewhat auriferous Liassic limestone of
Grave in the Western Alps; according to de Marni the auri-
ferous limestones of Kameno-Pawlowsk in the Ilmen mountains;
the auriferous chromic dolomite of Russia, described by Breit-
haupt; and the auriferous quartz-veins, in mountain-limestone,
of the Tobol district. Could the gold in the limestone at Grave
be considered as an extremely fine mechanical deposit, this
occurrence would then form no exception as contradicting the
rule ; the presence of gold in the limestone of Kameno-Pawlowsk
is only a supposition, and I am ignorant under what conditions
it occurs in the chromic dolomite. The lodes in the mountain-
limestone of the Tobol certainly vary altogether from the rule-
while on the other hand this law finds a sort of direct confir-
mation in the gold-lodes of the Salzburg Alps, which, where
they continue in limestone, contain silver-ores instead of gold.
Characteristic of the occurrence of gold is, also, its frequent
combination with quartzose, talcose, or chloritic rocks; thus, in
the Alps, in Merionethshire (England), in the Urals, in Brazil, in
California, Georgia, North and South Carolina, and Nova Scotia.
Still a fixed law cannot be deduced from these cases; since the
number of gold occurrences known not to be combined with
such rocks, may be just as great, as those where they are.
It appears to me, therefore, impossible to deduce hopes of the
presence of gold a priori from general lithological analogies.
520 RELATIVE POSITIONS OF SILVER, COPPER,
Rich silver-ores, and very argentiferous lead-ores, occur
more commonly in siliceous or argillaceous rocks, than in lime-
stones or dolomites; more frequently than gold in these last.
While galena, when in immediate contact with limestones, con-
tains but little if any silver, and i^ commonly associated with
blende, smithsonite, or calamine. For example, in Iowa, Wis-
consin, Illinois, and Missouri, in the neighborhood of Aix-la-
Chapelle and Liege, near Wiesloch in Baden, in 'Upper Silesia,
the Carinthian Alps, the Bavarian Alps, at Pallieres in France,
in the Province of Santander in Spain, in Cumberland and
Derbyshire in England. In all these localities the ores appear,
as it were, to have been deposited at the expense of dissolved
magnesian limestone, which they, in part, permeated.
It is worth noticing, that silver-lodes have been much more
commonly found in grey gneiss and mica-schist, than in granite
and red gneiss. In several districts, where these various rocks
occur together, they appear to avoid the granite and red gneiss ;
being either entirely wanting, or in such small quantities, as not
to be exploitable; thus, for the most part, in the Erzgebirge,
partly also in the Black Forest, in Bohemia, near St. Julien in
France and at Kupferberg in Silesia; where, however, the rock
is, for the most part, a schist rich in hornblende.
Copper-ores are found especially in chloritic schists, in horn-
blende-schist, or in greenstones and serpentines, as well as com-
bined with granites. Beds of copper-ore occur most frequently
between- those schists. Besides the above, two peculiar modes
of occurrence of copper-ores are to be mentioned ; viz. first, the
impregnations in the older rocks, mostly sandstones or schists,
containing the remains of plants; as near Twiste, Starkenbach,
Hohenelbe, in the Permian district of Russia, and in Chili,
where (according to Philippi's Journey through the Desert of
Atacama) a copper-sandstone occurs of the same age as the Per-
mian. The copper-ores in Thuringia occur probably as an im-
pregnation.
Secondly, the broad segregated masses composed of copper
and iron pyrites, which occur in like manner in the Devonian
slates near Goslar, in clay-slate near Schmollnitz, Agordo, and
Rio Tinto, as well as in mica-schist or quartzite at Falun; in
several of these localities, immediately surrounded by talc-
schistose layers.
It is incomprehensible, under what peculiar circumstances
COBALT, NICKEL,. QUICKSILVER, AND TIN-ORES. 521
such broad masses of these sulphurets can have been locally
aggregated; scarcely at the s*ame time with the deposit of the
enclosing rock; but it is almost as difficult to explain their sub-
sequent penetration in any satisfactory manner; still the occur-
rence of the segregations near Schmollnitz, within a belt of
schist containing disseminated pyrites, would tend to indicate a
peculiar manner of subsequent impregnation.
Cobalt and Nickel ores, these almost constant mutual com-
panions, scarcely appear united with particular rocks. We find
them forming lodes at Schneeberg (Saxony) in clay-slate and
mica-schist; at Saalfeld, Schweina, and Riegelsdorf (inThuringia),
in the copper-slate ; near Friedrichsroda, in the Rothliegendes ;
near Dobschau (Hungary) in a rock resembling gabbro, as also
above the gabbro as pockets in spathic iron; at Schladming
(Styria), like a Fallband within a belt of mica-schist; on the
Nockelberg (Alps), in magnesian limestone; in the Annivaer
Valley, in chloritic mica-schist; and at Skutterud, Norway (ex-
ceptionally almost altogether cobalt-ores without nickel), as im-
pregnation in mica-schist.
It would be still more difficult to lay down laws for the
occurrence of antimony-ores, than for those of cobalt and nickel.
Quicksilver-ores occur under various forms and geological
conditions, but rarely in exploitable quantities. They occur, as
lodes, and as impregnations, in old metamorphic schists, in rocks
of the Carboniferous formation, as well as in more recent ones;
thus, in the Tihu Valley in Northern Transylvania. It might
appear important, that the strata containing deposits of mercury
in the Alps are recognised to be about, but not quite, of the
same age, as those traversed by quicksilver-lodes in the Pala-
tinate. These are but two cases, of the agreement in age of the
country-rock, and difference in the nature of their deposits; they
cannot consequently be used as the starting point of a law.
The tin-ores exhibit, on the contrary, a strikingly constant
relation of their geological occurrence. They have been found
in place only in plutonic, and more or less metamorphosed rocks
of great age, never with limestones or dolomites, most frequently
in granite districts, or at their junctions with metamorphic rocks,
or very old sedimentary ones. Their combination with granitic
rocks really occurs so often, that it may be correct to regard
them as local contact-formations in the broadest sense of the
term.
522 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ORES
We find the tin-ores at the junctions of granite, very charac-
teristically, in the deposits of Alteriberg, Zinnwald, Ehrenfrieders-
dorf, Geyer, Eibenstock, Johanngeorgenstadt, Joachimsthal (all
in the Erzgebirge), Schlackenwald (Bohemia), Brittany, and
Cornwall. At Graupen and Marierffoerg the granites are some-
what more distant, or replaced by porphyries; the geological
relations of the deposits in Spain are not sufficiently known.
At Pittkaranda (Sweden), the cassiterite occurs, Vith the other
ores and minerals, as a bedded lode, or belt of impregnation,
in hornblende-schist traversed -by granite dikes, under similar
conditions as at Breitenbrunn (Erzgebirge). From what is known
of the occurrence of tin-ore on the islands of Banka and Bil-
liton, the original deposits occur there between granitic rocks.
No other metal appears to be so constant in its occurrence:
I shall return to the possible cause of these phenomena.
From what precedes it would appear, that the ores of the
various metals occur, for the most part, combined with certain
rocks, although there are 1 exceptions to this.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE ORES IN THE DEPOSITS.
276. Ores generally occur in true beds equally distri-
buted. The number of real beds, however, will greatly diminish;
if we omit those which, though called beds, are properly bedded
veins, .or impregnations. In the case of lodes, segregations, and
impregnations, the distribution of ores is, as a rule, found much
more unequal than in beds.
Inasmuch as no other causes of distribution ca be recog-
nised, for segregations and impregnations, than those which most
distinctly occur in the lodes; I confine myself to what is stated
in the general part, adding some remarks suggested by a review
of the examples mentioned in this part.
Differences of depth, which are partly original, partly secon-
dary, caused by alteration from above, occur in many localities.
It is believed, that original differences of depth combined with
secondary ones have been observed at Freiberg, Berggieshiibel,
Seiffen, Joachimsthal, Clausthal, Przibram, Felsobanya, Schem-
nitz, in the Salzburg Alps, on the Monte Catini, in the Katzen-
thal, in the Sierra Almagrera, neai Linares, in Cornwall, at
Beresow, in South Carolina, at Oruro in Potosi, and near Caravella
IN THE DEPOSITS. 523
in Peru. I consider the cases especially important, in which
the upper portions of lead, silver, or copper lodes are actually
more ferrugineous, and mostly free from other ores; as at
Przibram, Berggieshiibel, and Katzenthal ; as well as the pyritous
lead-veins at Freiberg, and many lodes in Nassau, which appear
to be actually more ferrugineous, and to contain less lead, at
the surface, than at greater depths.
The idea, that gold-veins are richer near the surface than
at considerable depths, must now be given up, at least as being
a universal law ; the lodes at Grass Valley in California, being
as rich 1000 feet below, as at the surface.
Natural causes for the constant original differences of depth
might be easily found in the dissimilar degrees of pressure and
heat. Here theory has preceded observation, and is prepared
to explain phenomena which have not yet been satisfactorily
observed; which is for the greater part explained by the fact,
that mines have mostly not attained sufficient depth for this
i purpose. The secondary differences of depth may be still more
easily explained by decompositions and alterations, which occur
so commonly, that I consider examples unnecessary.
Where chlorides, bromides, and iodides, of silver occur near
the surface ; it may be supposed that, during or after the formation
of the lodes, they were covered by the sea.
Influence of the breadth on the distribution of ores, natu-
rally leaving the encreased volume out of account, and only
noticing the relative percentage, has been but slightly observed :
broader portions contain richer ores at Geldkronach and Linares ;
the narrower portions are stated to be richest at Andreasberg,
Clausthal, Carthagena, and Kongsberg.
The influences of the wall-rock have as yet been most fre-
quently observed: in these we are obliged to distinguish modi-
fications varied by their nature; viz. intersection by other ore-
deposits or metalliferous rocks, original disparities of the rocks,
disparity in their state of decomposition, and finally mechanical
influences of the wall-rock on the formation of fissures. Here
must also be considered the frequent occurrence of contact-
deposits at the junctions of two different rocks, and especially
of aggregations of ores at such junctions.
Intersected ore-deposits or metalliferous belts of rocks (Fall-
bands) occasion enrichment; as at Freiberg, Ehrenfriedersdorf,
Johanngeorgenstadt, Schneeberg, Camsdorf, Schweina, Riegels-
524 INFLUENCE OF WALL-ROCK,
dorf, Dillenburg, Horzowitz, Kupferberg in Silesia, Schladming;
in Cornwall, and Cardiganshire, and at Kongsberg: at Nagyag,
on the contrary, the junctions of the telluric gold-veins appear
to be, for the most part, poor.
The original difference ol thff country-rock shows itself to
exert an influence on the metalliferous contents of the lodes at
Freiberg, Graupen, Geyer, Joachimsthal, Johanngeorgenstadt,
Eibenstock, Schneeberg, Tilkerode, Lehrbach, Harzburg, Zorge,
Pfaffenberg, Andreasberg, Clausthal, Dillenburg, Wetzlar, Ober-
moschel, Wittich in the Kinzigthal and Miinsterthal, at Schlag-
genwald, Przibram, Adamstadt, Kuttenberg, Starckenbach, Roch-
litz, Kupferberg, Vorospatak, Offenbanya, Felsobanya, Schemnitz,
Dobschau, in the Salzburg Alps, on the Callanda and Miirtsch-
en-Alp, in the district of the Aveyron, in Cornwall, Derbyshire,
and Cumberland, at Kaafjord, Reipas, Sala, in the Urals, on
Lake Superior, in South Carolina, at Piedad in Mexico, and in
Chili.
A decomposed condition of the wall-rock has had a favor-
able influence at Nagyag, Offenbanya, and in Cornwall; an
unfavorable one at Holzappel, and in Cardiganshire. Both can
be explained, if it be admitted that the solution of the ingre-
dients of the wall-rock (for example, the alkalies), taking place
during the formation of the lode-matrix, has exercised some in-
fluence on the deposition of the ores. And thus a decomposition
taking place, before the formation of the lode, must have in-
fluenced in a different manner (probably more unfavorably) the
deposition of the ores, than if the same had taken place during
the formation of the lode.
Decomposed wall-rock, as is well known, is a very common
occurrence alongside of most lodes ; the observation, with regard
to the influence of this condition on the constitution of the lode,
is but slight. Where all the wall-rock is decomposed, no such
observations are possible; these can on the contrary, be only
made in the more rare cases, where only certain portions of the
wall -rock exhibit locally more decomposition; and these have
been properly attended to in the process of mining. I come,
finally, to the unequal distribution of ores, for which no deter-
mined causes, or rather no constant connection with other pheno-
mena, have as yet been recognised.
It is a very old experience in vein-mining, that the masses
of ore are not only distributed unequally in the lodes, but also
AND COUNTRY-ROCK. 525
extend with a certain local regularity through the same. Very
often they extend with an almost regular breadth, consequently
ribbonlike, either obliquely towards one side of the direc-
tion of s-trike, or parallel to .the <Jip> in the direction of
depth. This manner of occurrence is called in America
'Chimney', in France Colonne. On horizontal plans this condi-
tion is often clearly seem from the form and distribution of the
workings. This mode of the ore-distribution often coincides,
indeed, with the corresponding bed of the rock-alternation and
its limits; and then the consequences are most probably to be
regarded, as caused by the unequal influences of the country-
rock; though their proper reason cannot be farther proved.
Still, in many cases, such a relation has not yet been recognised,
either from want of observation, or because not actually present.
Such examples are those of Schneeberg, Holzappel, Heizenberg,
Kleinkogel, and Schwatz in Tyrol, Ahrn, La Pause, Aveyron
district, Pontgibaud, Poullaouen, Linares, Cardiganshire, and
Pittkaranda.
It is to be regretted, that the observations in this connec-
tion often leave much to be desired; but it is very natural that
the practical miner should only follow and extract his mass of
ore, without troubling himself about slight changes in the wall-
rock; especially where the lodes are so broad, that it is not
necessary to remove any of the country-rock. I therefore sup-
pose, that a portion of those still enigmatical chimneys of ore
could be traced back, by more careful observation, to influences
of the wall-rock, or perhaps also to unequal conditions of breadth;
but there still remain some carefully examined cases, in which
as yet no material causes have been recognised.
In most localities the ore-chimneys are parallel to one
another, but at Poullaouen in Brittany they diverge in their
course, which renders their explanation still more difficult.
Durocher has attempted to explain such like phenomena by
currents of vapor.
The most enigmatical are those in the Tyrol, stated to
recur at equal distances apart ; once in lodes of tetrahedrite in mag-
nesian limestone; a second time in an auriferous bed or clay-slate.
I do not attempt to offer any opinion of such peculiar phe-
nomena, for which there is no explanation. So long as they
occur so rarely, they may still be regarded as merely accidental,
and at least must not have too much value attached to them.
526 CONDITIONS OF AGE
CONDITIONS OF AGE OF THE ORE-DEPOSITS.
277. The conditions of bedding, the enclosure oi' fossils,
of fragments, and of pebbles, serve us for ascertaining and
determining the relative age of the* rocks essentially composing
the earth's crust These aids can only partially, or in an
indistinct degree, aid us in the case of the ore-deposits.
The determination of the age of true ore-beds is still
the easiest, their formation coincides with that of the rock en-
closing them. Is the age of the last known, so is also that
of the beds they contain; thus, the period of the formation of
the copper-slates of Thuringia belongs, beyond a doubt, to that
of the Zechstein formation.
The determination of the age, in the case of lodes, segre-
gated aggregations, or impregnations, is entirely different, and
far more difficult.) I shall attempt to discuss this question some-
what more closely in regard to the lodes, as the most common
and most distinctly stamped of these forms.
These is no doubt that lodes are always more recent than
the. rocks which they traverse ; since it is unnecessary to attend
to the possibility that an outcrop, rendered projecting by erosion,
may subsequently be enclosed by a new rock, as in the outcrop
of a bed of copper-ore on the Schatten Mount near Kitzbuhel ;
such exceptional cases may be always recognised, by a careful
examination, to be what they really are.
From this, however, we merely ascertain, that all lodes are
more recent than their wall-rock. How much more recent they
are, does not appear. The difference of age may be very great,
or very small ; besides, a result obtained in this manner, at one
locality, cannot, without something farther, be used for another
locality, where similar lodes occur.
There can be no doubt, that lodes are always older than
those veins or rocks, by w r hich they are distinctly in any manner
intersected. The difference in age is, here too, undeterminable;
and it is necessary to avoid the possible delusion, that the inter-
section is but an apparent one, perhaps caused by a fault,
which does not coincide in age with that of the apparently
intersecting mass, but arose from a subsequent fissure. Distinct
intersections are, however, always decisive of the relative age.
Less certain are the conclusions, drawn from the overlaying
of the outcrops of lodes, by rocks into which the lodes do not
OF THE ORE-DEPOSITS. 527
extend. Only by greater positiveness and distinctness of the
relations, is it possible to draw a certain conclusion as to the
relative age. The want of continuation oT narrower lodes; or
such as split up in this direction, in rocks of another "character
over, alongside, or beneath ; can easily find an explanation from
the fact, that one rock was not inclined in a similar degree to
be fissured that the other was; since it possibly possessed a
certain plasticity, by which the formation of fissures, which would
remain open, was hindered.
Fragments of lodes in other rocks decide with the greatest
certainty concerning the greater age of the lodes in comparison
to the rock which contains portions of these. Such phenomena
are as yet but seldom distinctly observed ; which is very na-
tural, if we consider the slight solidity, and easy decomposition,
of the ores forming the lodes.
Fossils belonging to their period of formation do not occur
at all in lodes. Where organic remains have exceptionally been
found in them, they always proceeded from the wall-rock, and
only accidentally fell into the fissures.
Consequently, the possibility of a certain determination of
the age of lodes is confined to the above few cases, in so far
as these are from their nature distinct. Beyond this, only hy-
potheses can be made, which depend on accompanying pheno-
mena, on the similarity of the composition, on the direction of
the strike, and such like; or which proceed from general the-
oretical views. These are, however, arguments, which cannot
be carelessly used, but need a particularly careful examination.
After Werner's constantly asserted doctrine, of the successive
formation of the rocks, rising from granite and gneiss to the
basalt and the most recent deposits, had obtained a commanding
influence; it was supposed, that the age of the rocks could be
determined from their mineralogical composition. This opinion,
subsequently recognised as erroneous, was still to a certain
extent retained; after the incorrectness of many of Werner's
theories, as to the manner in which rocks were formed, was
admitted. Long subsequently it was generally believed, that the
formation of the separate kinds of rocks belonged to determined
geological periods; for example, a period of the formation of
granite, of the formation of porphyry, of the formation of
greenstone, trachyte, or of basalt, as well as a period of the
formation of mica-schist or clay- slate, could be recognised;
528 RELATIVE AGE OF ORES, AND ROCKS.
that the age of the rocks could be ascertained from the
rocks themselves. Many repeated disillusions were necessary,
before this convenient method of determining the age of rocks
was abandoned. By an examination of the mineralogical struc-
ture of the rocks it may be determined, whether they possess more
or less of a plutonic character, and whether a less or greater
alteration has taken place in them; but not whether they were
formed or metamorphosed at a very early or at 'a later period.
The character of the rocks can hence be used, as an aid
in the determination of age, in but very confined geological
limits, within the extent of associated geological events; thus,
in districts composed of igneous or sedimentary rocks, and even
there not a priori, but only after the succession of the forma-
tions has been recognised at some one point. Beyond this it
too easily misleads to uncertain conclusions. In districts sepa-
rated from one another, the lithological conformity can only
serve as a proof, that certain events of the formation, and con-
ditions, have repeatedly recurred both in extent and time; the
similarity or equality of the rocks does not show their equal;
nor their dissimilarity, their unequal age. Like rocks may as
well belong to like, as to different periods of formation; and
just the same reversed. This well recognised truth does not,
however, exclude certain rocks, wherever they are observed, from
being as a rule of a very old, and others of a very recent
formation. This fact is no contradiction of the preceding rule;
and is easily understood, if it be admitted, that certain kinds
of rocks are only formed in the interior of the earth (plutonic),
or by metamorphosis; whereas others were products of the earth's
surface.
It is known with certainty, that some granites are older
than neighboring Silurian strata; whilst others, with no essen-
tial difference from the former, have broken through and altered
Triassic or Jurassic strata. That true clay-slates occur widely
distributed in the Swiss Alps, which formation belongs to the
Cretaceous or to the Eocene; yet so similar as to be easily
mistaken for the finest Silurian or Devonian roofing-slates of
the Hartz or the Thuringian Forest; is so well known, as to
prevent any value from being attached to such similarity in
rocks, as determining their age; unless they occur in immediate
connection, or at least in districts geologically united. Precisely
the same is true, however, for all other igneous and sedimen-
RELATIVE AGE OF ROCKS. 529
tary rocks, as well as for stlch as are metamorphic; this could
be proved by numerous examples.
If nevertheless the granitic rocks for example, wherever
they have been found, are of greater age than the trachytic or
basaltic, and perhaps older than the Tertiary period; it by no
means follows, that the formation of the granites ceased with
the Tertiary period, and every where belongs only to a very
early, though long continued geological age. That fact finds
just as satisfactory explanation in the supposition, that all gra-
nites are true plutonic, igneous, or metamorphic rocks; which
during the period of their formation never attained the surface,
but became, or still become, what they are, under great pres-
sure in the interior of the earth. Are they, as is very probable,
eruptive masses formed by hardening from an igneous-fluid con-
dition? If so, their original outcrop under a less pressure, and
by a quicker cooling off, may have taken and still take another,
perhaps more trachytic character. Such rocks, formed at some
depth, can only attain the surface, and become accessible to
observation, through considerable alterations, elevations, and
erosions of the surface; which must necessarily occupy a long
period. What, therefore, is seen of them must always be toler-
ably old. Precisely the same is true of the syenites, and their
related rocks; and very simply explains the entire want of all
true volcanic phenomena on such rocks.
It appeared necessary, that the preceding remarks should be
made; though the idea of determining the age of rocks, by their
nature, or by analogy, has long been abandoned ; for this aban-
donment has not become universal respecting lodes, segrega-
tions, and impregnations. In this last case one often, at this
day, meets with the attempt to establish the contemporane-
ousness of their formation from their mineralogical character,
even where the geological districts are widely separated. If the
last be proved from other causes, then the homogeneousness
may always be rendered prominent. But it cannot then itself
give a new support to the proof; just as little as would be the
case in two occurrences of granite, which have been recognised
as of contemporaneous age in districts altogether separated from
one another; while, in many other places, granites quite like
these are known to be of very different age.
The more widely extended, and more frequent, certain
mineral combinations of the lodes are ; as for example those, of
34
530 LIKE COMPOSITION, NO PROOF.
heavy spar and quartz, with lead, sifoer, and other ores ; so much
the less do they authorise the conclusion, that they are of con-
temporaneous age, so much the more must it be assumed, that
the chemical condition for this combination was a very general
terrestrial one, which has frequentl/ recurred both in extent and
time, furnishing similar results modified by local conditions.
In completing this law, I fear it may in so far be misunderstood,
as if I wished to regard the rarer mineral combinations, as still
belonging to determined geological epochs. The terms 'the more
frequent', 'the more rarely' have in fact merely the meaning,
that mineral formations, which are very frequently found, and
which have been observed in many localities, and under very
various conditions, were probably formed, very often, at very
different periods; while many rarer mineral combinations arose
under altogether peculia rlocal circumstances; and consequently,
perhaps accidentally, are only known in one period.
One reason why, particularly in relation to the lodes, the
preconceived opinion, that like composition betrays like age,
could be longer maintained, than in respect to the rocks ; is, that
in the former an actual proof of age is often impossible to find ;
and this has naturally led to an adhesion to the preconceived,
even though erroneous, opinion on this subject. This but ren-
ders it the more desirable to use all possible negative or positive
aids for establishing the period of formation, and the equality
or non-equality in age of some lodes.
To aid in this will now be my effort.
The lodes of the Central District of France; especially
characterised by heavy spar and galena, often, however, very
quartzose; reach, according to Gruner, upwards to between the
lower strata of the Jurassic, but nowhere in this region into
the upper strata of this formation. Gruner and Baron Beust
conclude, from this, as well as from other subordinate circum-
stances, that the formation of these veins (in that district) be-
long to the Jurassic period.
The barytic lodes of the Black Forest containing silver,
lead, cobalt, and nickel ores, occasionally intersect, according
to Daub, the Jurassic limestone, which is the upper division
of this formation in Swabia; hence they must be of more recent
formation than the similar ones in Central France.
Lodes, very similarly composed to those just mentioned,
intersect deposits near Massetano in Tuscany; which are cer-
RELATIVE AGE OF LODES. 531
tainly much more recent than the Jurassic, and belong either
to the upper divisions of the Cretaceous, or even to the Eocene.
The broad champion-lode of Felsobanya in Eastern Hungary,
also consists in part of heavy spar, quartz, and galena. It
traverses a greenstone or timazite, which has evidently broken
through strata of the Eocene, and is consequently more recent
than these: the lode is naturally still more recent than the
greenstone.
It appears from Daubree's researches, that the mineral water
of Plombieres still deposits minerals, which are characteristic of
the variety of lodes mentioned; and it is by no means impos-
sible, that there, at a corresponding depth below the surface,
such lodes are still forming.
We have thus become acquainted with the lodes charac-
terised by heavy spar and quartz, which were most probably
formed during the Jurassic period ; and others of a very similar
composition, which are much more recent, perchance are still
forming. For older periods of formation, indications, if not
proofs, are found.
The lodes of Derbyshire consist, for the most part, of
heavy spar, quartz, fluor spar, and galena. They traverse the
strata of the mountain-limestone, as well as the lowest sandstone-
layers of the Carboniferous formation; but they have nowhere
been found in the upper strata of the Carboniferous; which is
extensively represented in this district. I admit, that it is very
difficult to arrive at a positive decision from these facts; since
it is possible, that these upper layers, through their clayey and
plastic nature, have (as is the case to a less degree in the
embedded argillaceous layers of the mountain-limestone) offered
a mechanical obstacle to the formation of the veins. The fact
is, however, entitled to as much attention, as some opposed the-
oretical views, or as the similar occurrences in other countries,
in which so little agreement in age is apparent ; thus in France,
Swabia, Northern Italy, and Eastern Hungary.
Ezquerra del Bayo remarks, on the very argentiferous
barytic lodes in the neighborhood of Hiendelencia (Spain), that
torn- off fragments of the same are found in an adjoining layer
of mica-schist. I grant, that this fact needs a more accurate
examination, before positive conclusions can be based on it.
For the barytic iodes in the neighborhood of Freiberg, very
similar to the above, it can only be determined, in regard to
34*
532 RELATIVE AGE OF LODES,
their age, that they are younger than the other silver-lodes of
this district; which must themselves be for the greater part more
recent than the quartz-porphyries; which last, on the other hand,
are older than the conglomerates of the adjoining Rothliegendes,
in which pebbles of the porphyries are found. There are no
measurable observations, to determine how much more recent the
barytic lodes around Freiberg are than the other veins; if it
be not concluded, from the mutual occurrence in one and the
same district of veins, and from the occasional presence of heavy
spar occurring sporadically in geodes of the older lodes, that
the formation of all those veins may belong to one and the
same great geological period, and are connected in a certain
manner with one another. No great value can indeed be placed
on such a conclusion; but, on the other hand, a determination
of the age, from the similarity with a corresponding district of
veins, would be still less authorised.
Many circumstances render it probable, that the process of
the vein-formation at Freiberg stands in a certain connection
with the upheaval of the quartz-porphyries. H. Miiller has
even proved, of the oldest lodes at Freiberg, that they are in
some cases intersected and heaved by porphyries, that they
are therefore older than these; which does not contradict the
fact, that, as a rule, all the lodes around Freiberg intersect the
porphyries. Then neither the porphyries nor the lodes were all
formed contemporaneously around Freiberg; and it might thus
well have happened, that the last irruption of porphyry found
some of the lodes already completed. But precisely this cir-
cumstance renders it very probable, that at least a portion of
the Freiberg lodes about corresponds to the period of the por-
phyry-irruption, or the last portion of this great period); and
consequently about coincides with the period of the Rothliegendes,
with whose deposits the porphyries are so intimately connected
by tufas and conglomerates. If, however, the silver-lodes around
Freiberg, so productive in quartz, pyrites, and carbonates;
whose difference in age has been recognised to be but slight ; once
belong to about the period, in which the porphyries were formed ;
it then appears to me most probable, that the, somewhat younger
it is true, barytic silver-lodes of the same district, are also not
far removed from this period, and must be regarded as the last
products of a great process in the formation of the veins; until
some facts are observed, supporting different views.
HOW, AND HOW FAR, DETERMINED. 533
The probable determined geological age of the quartzose,
pyritous, and carbonaceous silver-lodes, or the so-called 'noble
quartz-, pyritous, and noble lead-formations' around Freiberg,
again give rise to a new series of comparisons. We have seen,
that these must be considered as about of like age with the
Rothliegendes.
Near Schemnitz, we find lodes, on the contrary, whose
composition is so similar, partly with the noble quartz-veins,
partly with the pyritous lead-veins of Freiberg; that single
cabinet-specimens from the two localities might certainly be con-
founded. Both combinations cannot be separated at Schemnitz
according to their age, both traverse trachytic greenstones or
timazites, which evidently belong to the Tertiary period. The
veins are naturally younger than the rocks.
A similar case recurs in the ore-district of North-eastern
Hungary. The composition of the lodes at Kapriik extraor-
dinarily resembles, partly those of the pyritous lead-veins, partly
those of noble lead-veins, rich in dialogite, around Freiberg.
They again traverse, however, trachytic greenstones, or timazites,
which have broken through strata of the Eocene. We find,
westwardly of Kapnik, under entirely analogous geological con-
ditions, between the same Tertiary country-rock, the broad lode
of Felsobanya, which contains in part much heavy spar, and
shows in many parts a great similarity with the barytic lead-
veins of Freiberg; while in other parts its composition more
nearly approaches the pyritous lead-veins. Still farther to the
west, we find then again, near Nagybanya, under precisely the
same geological conditions, lodes which consist predominantly
of quartz with gold and a little galena, Eastwardly of Kapnik,
at Olalaposbanya in Transylvania, joins on a vein chiefly con-
sisting of quartz, copper-pyrites, argentiferous galena, blende,
and iron pyrites; consequently similarly, composed to the pyri-
tous lead-formation of Freiberg, which traverses an Eocene
sandstone.
All these various veins of Northeastern Hungary are, there-
fore, more recent than the Eocene, and probably belong to the
second half of the Tertiary period. In their totality they
tolerably represent all four of the Freiberg vein-formations;
but there occurs no reason to transpose the time of their for-
mation to very different periods. Only in their age in general
do they appear to be very different from that of the Freiberg lodes.
534 AGE OF METALS.
The Cornwall tin-lodes are certainly of more recent origin,
than the Devonian slates which they traverse ; according to
Lyell ] they are even younger than the Carboniferous epoch.
Apart from containing copper-ore themselves, they occur together
with copper-lodes, which are here* always of more recent age
than those of tin; how much more recent, is not known. At
Wexford in Ireland, not very distant from Cornwall, but in a
different geological district, Silurian slates are cut through by
lodes of copper and lead; which, according to the as yet
undoubted examination of the Government-Geologists of Ireland,
are older than the Devonian strata overlying them, in which
streaks or layers of derivative copper occur. These copper-lodes
of Wexford are consequently older than the tin-lodes of Corn-
wall, and much older than the copper-lodes of the same. Unfor-
tunately they have not been mineralogically compared with them ;
at any rate the preceding fact, its correctness being granted,
contradicts the very usual supposition; founded, it is true, on
many observations; that tin-veins are generally the oldest of all
lodes.
This presupposition may possibly be correct for each region,
but not for two dissimilar geological districts, when compared
together. To be more explicit, if tin-lodes also occurred in
Wexford, it is very probable, from previous observations, that
they would be older than the above mentioned copper-lodes.
AGE OF METALS.
278. The preceding leads me to an allied subject; viz.
to the supposition of determined geological periods for the for-
mations of the different metals. Such a hypothesis has not,
it is true, been logically argued by any one ; but corresponding
ideas are frequent; t and it cannot be denied, that many facts
may be given such an interpretation, that it would seem as if
certain metals had been, for the most part, deposited during
certain periods.
Especially in the case of tin, gold, and copper ore-deposits,
has the idea at times arisen, that they belong for the most part
to certain geological periods.
1 See: L yell's Elements of Geology, 6th Ed. p. 768.
RELATIVE AGE OF METALS. 535
Tin-ores in place, are in fact only found in very ancient
rocks. From this, however, it by no means follows, as I have
already indicated, that tin-ores were formed only in very early
geological periods. If the formation of the granitic rocks, with
which they are as a rule combined, is only possible deep in the
interior of the earth, and if the same is perhaps true for tin-
ores; it is then very comprehensible, that we can only observe
these last, where such true plutonic formations have been laid
bare by elevations and denudations requiring great periods of
time. Under this supposition, the observable ones, and such as
are accessible for mining, must always be of great age. In this
it is, however, easily imaginable, that granites and deposits of
tin-ore are still forming in the interior of the earth, and that
the same have been formed in all periods under corresponding
circumstances.
For gold, Sir Roderick Murchison and Oscar Lieber in par-
ticular, have expressed the opinion, that its formation, or depo-
sit, essentially belongs to one or two determined geological
periods. Murchison says, in his 'Siluria', that the original occur-
rence of gold is almost exclusively confined to Palaeozoic, or
still older rocks; that it occurs in the mostly metamorphic rocks
of this early period, partly disseminated in crystalline schists,
partly in quartz-veins which cut through these schists in the
neighborhood of igneous rocks. This assertion contains, however,
another interpretation, than might at first be expected; in that
Murchison farther concludes, the gold might first have got into
these rocks and veins, at least in the Urals, subsequently to the
Permian formation, and even only after the formation of the
older Tertiary strata; since in these, as in those, nowhere has
the slightest trace of gold, but very many fragments of older
rocks, been found. Murchison is of the opinion, that the for-
mation of the gold-deposits in general belongs to a particular,
and that a very recent, geological period. The formation of the
original gold-deposits has, according to him, only shortly pre-
ceded the denudation, and collection, in Recent or Post-tertiary
placers. Lieber, on the contrary, expresses much more defini-
tively the opinion, that the formation of the original gold-deposits
essentially belongs only to a very early period, which about
corresponds to the Silurian epoch. He regards the occurrence
at Vorospatak as an exception, which he does not further
explain. It is not to the point, that he considers the gold to
536 GOLD-PERIODS OF
have been deposited contemporaneously with the old rocks, and
from these to have subsequently penetrated into the veins cut-
ting through them.
The gold-periods of Murchison and Lieber are consequently
very dissimilar: this circumstance /-must occasion doubts. Let
us now see, how the gold-occurrences, described in this volume,
suit the one or the other view; no regard of course being had
to the quantity of gold in the different localities'* since this is
even in the richest gold-deposit so small, in comparison with
the chief mass of the lode, that a distinct trace has almost the
same geological importance, as one worth mining.
In the Tyrolese and Salzburg Alps, we have become ac-
quainted with auriferous slates, and in or near these auriferous
veins, which would, for the most part, be compatible with Lie-
ber's hypothesis. Still there remains a doubt with regard to the
veins; viz. they also cut through granite, which appears in the
Alps to be of a relatively recent age. In order to satisfy Lie-
ber's hypothesis, the penetration of the gold into the veins must
have taken place much later, than its first deposit. On the
Callanda in Switzerland we have seen, that an auriferous vein
occurred even in Jurassic strata, the presence in which of gold,
it would be difficult for this hypothesis to explain. The same
is true of the auriferous slates of California; which appear to
belong to the Jurassic and Triassic age. Murchison's hypo-
thesis, of impregnation, is still applicable to all these cases, so
soon as it is conceded to be admissible.
But near Graves in Westphalia the Lias limestone is some-
what auriferous; is this presence of gold explicable, either by
fine mechanical washing-in, or by precipitation? if so, it is not
compatible with Murchison's hypothesis, nor with Lieber's view,
which expressly remarks, that the erosion and deposit of gold
first took place at a Post-tertiary period. His gold-period of
itself would not indeed contradict such a washing-in.
Traces of gold have also been found in the Miocene sand-
stones and conglomerates of the Valley of the Aar. These, like
those of Graves, presuppose, even when they have merely been
mechanically washed-in, the presence of gold-deposits more
ancient than the Miocene, and probably in the Alps, from which
the majority of boulders in the Miocene arose. This is opposed
to Murchison.
But the majority of the Hungarian and Transylvanian auri-
MURCHISON AND LIBBER. 537
ferous deposits are altogether opposed to Lieber's gold-period,
They cut through Tertiary rocks ; and must therefore have been
formed in, or subsequent to, the Tertiary age. In these districts,
however, older auriferous rocks are wanting, from which the
gold might have been transported into the lodes. The majority
of the auriferous lodes cut through trachytic greenstones or
Timazites of Tertiary age, while at Vorospatak and Olalapos-
banya the gold-veins traverse Tertiary sandstones. This would
appear to be a confirmation of Murchison's hypothesis. As a
rule it is difficult to bring facts contradictory of this last hypo-
thesis; which, if theoretically correct, explains almost all gold-
occurrences. It is therefore hardly possible to oppose this hypo-
thesis by any other, than logical and physical reasons.
According to Murchison, gold occurs almost exclusively in
very old rocks, and has only penetrated these at the close of the
Tertiary period. The first assertion is incorrect ; since we have
shown, that gold occurs repeatedly in Jurassic and Tertiary
rocks. The last assertion appears to me, not only without a
motive, but also theoretically inadmissible: in so far without
a motive, that the not finding of gold in Permian rocks, and
in Siberian Tertiary strata, gives no reason to assert, that it had
not yet existed in rocks up to the period of their deposit, espe-
cially as it has been found in Alpine strata of the Lias and
Miocene, besides which very slight and finely disseminated
quantities might easily be passed over: inadmissible, in so far,
as there is no reason to see, why impregnations of such an
extent; as they must necessarily have been, in order to render
the old rocks of the Urals, Brazil, Carolina, and even the Alps,
auriferous ; should not also have touched the more recent rocks,
and deposits, in the same regions; especially since the older
rocks do not generally and essentially differ lithologically from
the more recent ones. A gold-impregnation, so comprehensive
on the one side, and again so capriciously limited on the other,
in such a recent period of gold-emanation ; appears to me to be
in every way an unnecessary and highly verturesome hypothesis;
which in addition supposes, without a sufficient reason, a limita-
tion of the period for the formation of gold, which we know
to exist for no other metal, nor for any other mineral; which
would consequently form a total exception. It is difficult to
oppose such a hypothesis by facts, since the former would be
prepared, for example, to explain the existence of gold in the
538 COPPER-ORES IN
Lias, or Miocene, by a subsequent impregnation, but for the
fact, that pebbles of the conglomerate (Nagelfluhe) of these for-
mations are traversed by auriferous threads.
From all this I cannot consider a particular period, for the
formation of gold, to have T^een either proved, or probable. Ac-
cording to Gahn, there is scarcely any iron-pyrites, in which,
by a careful analysis, slight traces of gold may not be proved ;
and how extended is iron-pyrites in almost all rtocks and for-
mations.
It is certainly striking, that in Europe the sedimentary
deposits of a particular, though very great, period often con-
tain copper-ores. The most important cases are the following:
1. The lower sandstones of the Russian Permian;
2. The lower Rothliegendes, and probably also the strata of
the Carboniferous formation, at the base of the Riesengebirge ;
3. The Rothliegendes near Bohmiseh-Brod in Bohemia;
4. The Rothliegendes near Zwickau in Saxony;
5. The copper-slates in Thuringia, and Hesse;
6. The Buntsandstein at Tweste near Arolsen (Tyrol);
7. The Buntsandstein at Chessy in France.
Should we be justified in concluding from this, that an
emanation of copper-ores took place, which includes the period
from the Carboniferous to the Muschelkalk?
Let us examine the preceding cases somewhat more closely,
and then add others for comparison.
The lower layers of the Permian formation contain copper-
ore-impregnations only in the neighborhood of the Ural chain,
evidently springing from these. Murchison believes, that the
metallic solutions have streamed from the fissures of the moun-
tains, into the material composing those strata, during their
deposit. This is possible; but it is also conceivable, that the
solutions have penetrated the layers at some period subsequent
to their deposit. We will leave this question here undecided.
The copper-ore-impregnations, at the southerly base of the
Riesengebirge, have evidently, according to Porth's description,
subsequently and locally penetrated the strata of the Rothliegen-
des and Carboniferous formations. How long after they were
deposited, cannot as yet be determined; it may just as well have
been in the Cretaceous or Tertiary, as in the Zechstein period.
The age of the strata, and their impregnation, do not here
SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS. 539
stand in any determined 'relation to one another. Th-e case
appears to be similar at Bohmisch-Brod.
At Zwickau sheets of native copper have only been found
very locally in one of the numerous coalshafts, in the fissures
of the red argillaceous shale which occurs with porphyries and
amygdaloids. These are also evidently of subsequent formation
to the rock enclosing them; still it may be, that they belong
nearly to the period of its deposit; and their formation is in-
timately connected with the upheaval of those igneous rocks.
The copper-ores in the lower subdivision of the Zechstein
formation, especially that of the copper-slates in Thuringia and
Hesse, undoubtedly appear to have been deposited contempo-
raneously with the copper-slate; since its distribution is a far
too regular one, for a subsequent impregnation. This is there-
fore a characteristic case for the determination of the age of
the ore-deposits, no matter how the metal may have been formed,
nor how often its chemical conditions may have subsequently
been altered. It is, however, the single characteristic case in
all the seven.
The copper-ore, in the Buntsandstein near Arolsen again,
bears the character of a subsequent local impregnation, whose
true age is not as yet by any means determined; and the cop-
per-ores in the Buntsandstein of Chessy are products of decom-
position, or are impregnations caused by the decomposition and
alteration of pyrites-segregations, which have been chiefly deve-
loped at the rock-junctions, but also reach up into the strata of
the Lias-formation, and are consequently of a more recent age
than these.
As it now appears, of the seven occurrences of copper-ores
belonging to the same great period, there is but little support
found to fix a copper-period; and it other deposits of copper-
ores are noticed, such a period would either be completely ob-
literated, or extended through all geological ages.
The copper-lodes of Wexford in Ireland are, as we have
seen, older than the neighboring Devonian. Gr. Breuner gives
an account of an altogether analagous condition of lodes of
copper-pyrites, at Snowdon in Wales, which cut through gneiss
and clay-slates, but are overlaid by Palaeozoic rocks.
Near Poschorita, in Hungary, copper-pyrites forms, together
with iron-pyrites, a true bed in chloritic mica-schist; near Unter-
sulzbach, in the Pietschgau, in chloritic clay-slate. Similar beds
540 NEITHER METALS, NOR ORES, CONFINED
recur more than once in the Devonian, Silurian, or still older
slates of the Alps; especially in the neighborhood of Kitzbiihel;
these can hardly be regarded as subsequent impregnations.
The segregated masses of Goslar, Schmollnitz, Agordo, Rio
Tinto, and Falun, in part accompanied by impregnations, may
be somewhat more doubtful, as regards their age and origin ;
but it still remains most probable, that their formation belongs
to an older period than the Carboniferous. Thu& the copper-
period extends downwards into the Silurian period. Cases of
a decided character, and much more recent age than the Trias -
sic, also occur. The broad lode of Olalaposbanya, so rich in
copper-pyrites, and the cupriferous lodes of Felsobanya, are both
more recent than the Eocene; since they cut through Tertiary
rocks. By these cases, the copper-period extends upwards into
the Tertiary. Therefore there is nothing remaining as a defined
copper-period; but we must recognise the fact, that the ores of
this period were deposited at all geological ages, only locally at
different times.
The idea might also have easily been formed; especially
from the occurrence of calamine and smithsonite with lead-ores,
as in Upper Silesia; that they belong to a particular period of
formation ; since these ores occur under similar conditions in the
Musclielkalk near Tarnowitz, at Wiesloch, and repeatedly in the
Alps; had it not soon been seen, that these ores occur every
where, only combined with magnesian limestones as secondary
products ; which recur similarly also in the magnesian limestones
of the Subcarboniferous formation near Aix-la-Chapelle, of the
Devonian near Iserlohn, of the Lias near Pallieres, and of the
Jura formation in the Province of Santander ; while similar ores
occur in numerous lodes of the most various age.
I think, from the above it has been sufficiently shown, that
neither the separate metals, nor their ores, nor the metals
generally, belong to particular geological epochs. The relations,
as to the age of the separate ores and minerals within the
deposits, are of course entirely independent of this, and are to
be recognised through their deposit on one another. These last
are consequences of chemical processes, which have been re-
peated in the most various geological periods, and which it is
chiefly the task of the chemist to investigate; we already owe
much in this relation to chemistry, and to the researches of
Gustav Bischof. I speak here merely of the geological age- of
TO ONE AGE OR PERIOD. 541
the variously composed ore-deposits, and assert that the homo-
geneous ones do not all belong to the same, nor the heteroge-
neous ones to dissimilar geological epochs ; but that rather, in
general, all to all periods. Still, I will not deny, that the common
occurrence of ore-deposits permits certain differences of age to
be recognised.
All known tin-deposits are very old.
Deposits of gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel,
and bismuth ores, are known of very dissimilar ages; but none
are decidedly more recent than the Tertiary, none in true vol-
canic rocks, none between Post-tertiary or Recent deposits; with
the single exception of the secondary superficial deposits, or
placers.
Deposits of iron-ores, on the contrary, occur between the
oldest and the most recent formations and rocks ; only they vary
somewhat according to their relative age.
Deposits of magnetic iron are only found in very ancient
rocks, deposits of hematite and spathic iron between somewhat
more recent ones, limonite in the oldest and most recent. Bog-
iron-ore is still formed in marshy districts, iron ochre at the
mouths of springs, and specular iron in the fissures of volcanic
rocks.
Do these facts rest on a real difference of age? Did the
formation of tin-deposits first cease, and did this take place
about the Carboniferous period? Have no deposits of the second
class, and only such as contain iron and manganese, been formed
since the Tertiary period? Such views might be put forward;
but, as it appears to me, they would prove erroneous. These
apparent differences of age, could, as remarked, be traced back
to differences of geological horizon.
Tin-deposits were only formed at a great depth ; they would
therefore be only open to observation after a long process of
denudation, and preceding elevation; those observed are, for this
reason, always old.
Gold, silver, lead, copper, cobalt, nickel, and bismuth ores
were also never formed on the outer surface of the earth, but
always at a certain, though slight, depth below the same. It
has not been determined, at what depth the possibility of their
formation commences; perhaps it is not considerable; but as
they are generally observed only when elevations and denuda-
542 THREE MAIN GROUPS OF ORE-DEPOSITS,
tions have occurred subsequent to their formation, some time
since which having passed, antediluvial ones alone are known.
Iron-ores, on the contrary, are deposited on the earth's sur-
face ; and, on this account, iron-deposits of very recent forma-
tion are found. Since they, however, like the previously men-
tioned ore-deposits, were at all times formed here and there ;
such occur belonging to the most various ages. But as the
older deposits of iron-ores were frequently subjected to the cato-
gene influence of a considerable covering of rocks, we often find
them consisting of magnetite, hematite, or spathic iron; while
the more recent almost exclusively contain hydrated peroxide
of iron. Still the older ones were often, after their catogene
alteration, subjected, through elevation and denudation, to
anogene influences, and by this means placed in the condition
of the more recent.
In this manner are formed three principal series of ore-
deposits, which we have distinguished in another paragraph: viz.
1. Tin-deposits, occupying the lowest formation, therefore
appearing as the oldest;
2. Gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, and bis-
muth deposits, belonging to an intermediate formation;
3. Iron-deposits (including those of manganese) originally
formed in an upper formation, occurring therefore in the most
recent rocks, but not wanting in the older ones.
As the iron and manganese ores have been subjected to
many changes, in a catogene or anogene sense, through oxyda-
tion and reduction, hydration, and dehydration, absorption or
loss of carbonic acid ; so their condition differs in a degree
corresponding to their age and geological horizon.
The three groups of ore-deposits are, like all such natural
groups, not sharply separated from one another. The ores of
one group rather occur sporadically in the deposits of another.
Especially are the widely distributed iron-ores rarely wanting
in any deposit: this is very natural, since already the original
influence of level caused no defined demarcation; still, after
change of horizon had taken place, posterior intermixture might
follow. Besides, I am far from intending to convey the idea,
that all the separate minerals of these deposits could only be
formed in certain horizons, under particular conditions of pres-
sure and temperature. That would be in contradiction to
evident facts, especially to the natural and artificial formation
NOT SHARPLY SEPARABLE. 543
of numerous minerals on the surface of the earth ; as for example,
galena, iron-pyrites, blende, copper-pyrites, heavy spar, calc-spar,
etc. The especial grouping in deposits seems to me to be par-
ticularly caused through certain conditions of level. When there-
fore, in tin-lodes for example, other ores of a higher horizon
often occur; these might have been formed contemporaneously
under peculiar conditions, or have penetrated subsequently after
a change of level. In fact they are recognised, as subsequently
formed, at Zinnwald, Marienberg, and in Cornwall. It is cer-
tainly striking, that in Cornwall, at Seiffen, and Marienberg,
copper-ores, where they occur in the same lodes with cassiterite,
for the most part occupy a lower level than the latter ; as Hum-
boldt l states, that in the Veta d'Estanno at Potosi tin-ores
occur at the surface, while at a greater depth rich silver-ores
are found. Such apparent contradictions may find their expla-
nation, through their formation at different periods, under essen-
tially changed conditions.
That the completion of lodes has occupied very great geo-
logical periods, is seen from their texture, from the succession
of minerals, and especially also, from the transformation of the
minerals, which at times occurred between the periods of for-
mation. During such great periods of formation the level, and
the other conditions, may have been manifoldly altered. Besides,
I do not attempt to estimate, even approximately, the amount
of difference in level, which favored the formation of the one or
the other mineral, in case the necessary matter was present. The
existence of the mineral matter in a suitable state (in solution,
as gas, or the like) is of course the first condition for the for-
mation of the heterogeneous ore-deposits: the remaining condi-
tions for the formation may all have existed; if, however, this
matter was wanting, then of course no lodes would be formed.
From this cause we are not a priori to expect, that all three
groups of ores were formed above one another in every vein-
fissure : it is a possible, but not therefore a necessary case. The
question may well be asked, with what were the fissures filled
(especially at their outcrop) at the levels unfitted for the preci-
pitation of the ore-solution present? The limits of possibility are
here very great. The fissures may have remained open cracks,
or have been filled with any other matter, even have been
1 See: Humboldt's Statistik von Mexico, vol. IV.
544 HYPOTHESIS OF HORIZON.
mechanically filled up ; and these differing upper portions of the
lodes may still exist, or they may have been destroyed by sub-
sequent erosion. I would here call to mind, that the so common
gossan of numerous lodes appears, in many known cases, not
only to be the result of decomposition, but actually to contain
more iron in different conditions, than the deeper portions of
the lodes; thus, at Przibram argentiferous lead-ores are said to
be entirely wanting in the upper portions. Vogelgesang states,
that the lodes at Berggieshiibel (Erzgebirge) contain almost only
iron-ores in their upper portions; while at a greater depth cop-
per and other ores are associated with these. Near Katzenthal,
in the Vosges, there is a vein of limonite, in whose lower por-
tions argentiferous lead-ores, blende, calamine, and heavy spar,
were very unexpectedly met with.
These appear to be special positive confirmations of the
hypothesis of horizon ; which rests more on the dissimilar manner
of occurrence of various ore-deposits, than on such rare special
cases.
Probably a much greater number of such cases would be
known, were it not that vein-mining, owing to the difficulties
encreasing with the depth, is confined to a relatively slight
distance : and, as a consequence, where the bounds of two groups
of ores do not accidentally lie near the surface, the miner com-
monly opens-up only the level of one group. This incompleteness,
in the possibility of observation, must not be used as a reason
against this hypothesis. Another circumstance in its favor, to
which I will draw attention, is the extremely rare occurrence
of true ore- beds of the same composition as the two lower ore-
groups, while true beds of iron-ore are very frequent. By far
the greater number of the so-called ore-beds, which contain other
than iron-ores, have on more careful examination been found to
be impregnations, bedded lodes, or in some manner later than
the enclosing rock ; consequently formed under some covering.
After such a sifting, there only remain some beds of pyrites,
and the copper-slates, as true beds, whose present condition no
longer appears to be the original one.
If this hypothesis of horizon should be correct, only iron-
ores could in fact be deposited, bedlike, on the surface ; and
not the combinations of ores, which demand a somewhat lower
level for their formation, without excluding scattered mineral
formations formed under peculiar circumstances. Should such
COMPARED WITH FACTS, etc. 545
combinations be exceptionally found as true-beds; as for example,
the copper-slates; it may be supposed, that the metallic sub-
stances were here deposited at the surface, contemporaneously
with the rock; but that their present condition is a consequence
of a long continuing subsequent covering. Original beds of
magnetite, or hematite, have certainly never been deposited on
the earth's surface by water; but this condition is the conse-
quence of subsequent alterations.
I think I must here mention an objection, which might be
made against the hypothesis of horizon. The mineral matter
of the lodes may at times have, as it were, overflowed the fis-
sures, and been deposited alongside of them.
I know of no distinct case of this kind. At Dobschau in
Hungary there occur, it is true, concretions of cobalt and nickel
ores above the outcropping of cobalt and nickel lodes, in the
lower portion of a thick deposit of spathic iron; while those lodes
also contain spathic iron, as gang. It might there be supposed,
that an overflow of the matter in the lodes had taken place.
But apart from the fact, that an actual connection with the lodes
at Dobschau has not been found, it is there very probable, that
the thick deposit of spathic iron was formerly overlaid by clay-
slate, which occurs near at hand, bedded in such a manner, that
such a supposition is credible; and which besides repeatedly
contains beds of spathic iron in the neighborhood. In this case,
then, an overflowing at the open surface would not have taken
place.
Let us once more concisely review, in how far the hypo-
thesis of horizon, as developed, coincides with the facts observed,
and the general probabilities or analogies.
1. It corresponds to the general occurrence of the three
natural groups of ores.
2. It corresponds to the frequent occurrence of iron- ores in
beds, very recent veins, and vein-outcroppings ; as well as to
the rarity of other true ore-beds.
3. It corresponds to the probable supposition, that the
elements were originally quite equally distributed in the earth;
and renders superfluous the otherwise inadmissible hypothesis
of metallic periods; since, according to this, all kinds of ore-
combinations could be formed at all periods under certain
circumstances; just as all sorts of rocks.
35
546 MANNER OF FORMATION
4. It corresponds to the fact, that like ore-combinations are
often of unequal, and unlike ones of equal age.
5. It does not exclude the possibility, that the periodical
succession of certain minerals, mineral combinations, or deposits,
in the various parts of the earth, v^as a similar one, but at un-
equal geological periods. The events in the formation may have
been similarly repeated, as regards time and place, in such a
manner, that their results follow, as consequences of similar
geological and chemical processes, in similar or like succession.
6. Finally, it explains (with the assistance of elevations,
depressions, erosions, or overlyings) all kinds, conditions, and
associations, of ores in their deposits. In entire districts upper
deposits may be wanting, or lower ones be covered, and con-
sequently inaccessible ; in others, on the contrary, in consequence
of elevations, and erosions, upper and lower deposits may occur
together ; since, according to this hypothesis, all the processes of
formation are being continually repeated, though riot every
where alike.
MANNER OF FORMATION OF THE ORE-DEPOSITS.
279. A principle, common to all ore-deposits, consists
in the union of metalliferous minerals. If it be assumed, as
most probable ; that originally, and during the first period in the
formation of the earth, the metals, like all the other elements,
were quite equally distributed through its fluid mass, though in
what condition remains as yet undetermined; and that the
heavier metals were somewhat more aggregated, toward the
centre of gravity, than at the surface ; it follows, that subsequently,
from certain causes, they were otherwise grouped, and for the
most part collected in especial deposits of different forms. What
the causes, and the peculiar circumstances, may have been of
this new grouping, is the question to be answered. A question,
which must necessarily, for the various forms and kinds of ore-
deposits, be to a certain degree examined, and answered
separately.
True beds have evidently been formed, in a manner analo-
gous to that of the strata enclosing them, through mechanical
or chemical precipitation from water. Other ores than those of
iron occur, as we have seen, but exceptionally in real beds,
and in these in such a manner, that a subsequent penetration
OF THE ORE-DEPOSITS. 547
is excluded. The copper-slates form such an exception. In the
latter the chief mass of the bituminous marly slate contains
copper, silver, lead, cobalt, nickel, bismuth, antimony, and arse-
nic ; finely disseminated, for the most part, as sulphurets. Their
ingredients were evidently deposited contemporaneously with the
enclosing rocks ; this is apparent from their uniform distribution ;
whether, however, they were deposited in their present condition,
is indeed still doubtful. The rock was subsequently overlaid
by other strata, and was probably subject, for a long period,
to the influence of a considerable pressure, by which it was
compressed; and the present condition of the ores might also
have been developed by the same influences.
Limonites are deposited before our eyes on the earth's sur-
face from ferrugineous waters, from which beds of hematite and
magnetite could be formed under the influence of heat and
pressure; as well as from these latter beds, near the surface,
limonite might again be formed.
The deposit of carbonate of iron is far more difficult to
explain; for example, the spha3rosiderites of various formations,
or strata containing coal; since, in the presence of the atmosphere,
carbonate of iron is never precipitated from a carbonic-acid
solution; but, owing to the rapid decomposition of the same,
always hydrated peroxide of iron. Only when covered (prevent-
ing the influence of the atmosphere) can sphserosiderite, or
spathic iron, be deposited. Therefore their formation, in the depths
of a vein-fissure, is easily explained; but it will not apply to
beds at the surface; these were perhaps formed under a con-
siderable depth of water.
It appears to me, therefore, questionable ; whether these last-
named ores, where they occur as beds, were every where origi-
nally formed, as such ; or whether occasionally oxidised deposits
have not first subsequently absorbed carbonic acid. The interior
cracks of their concretions often contain calc-spar, heavy spar,
galena, blende, and various kinds of pyrites; consequently hold-
ing the ingredients of many lodes, which have subsequently
penetrated, probably after the concretions had been already
covered up. It is certainly remarkable, that the like concretions
often contain well preserved organic remains ; and that even the
galena, which has subsequently penetrated, permits the fine net-
work of Neuropteris to be recognised on its surface.
Just as compact limestone has been converted to marble,
35*
548 FORMATION OF LODES.
so could crystalline spathic iron have been formed, in an ana-
logous manner, from beds or masses of compact sphserosiderite,
through a subsequent crystallisation of the mass, of course under
the long continued effects of pressure, heat, and moisture. Per-
haps on this account beds of spathic iron are always found
only in older deposits, never in very recent ones.
It is an ascertained fact, that limonite is formed from
spathic iron, or spha3rosiderite, through the effects bf atmospheric
causes. Under other circumstances, beneath a considerable
covering, hematite and magnetite appear to have been formed
from the limonite.
Let us now turn to the far more difficult problem of the
formation of lodes. The fissures are, beyond a doubt, the con-
sequences of mechanical causes, even if they have perhaps been
essentially widened by the force of crystallisation of the mineral
substances. The mineral matter forming the lodes has generally
penetrated into the fissures from below, or from the country-
rock, be it through solution from the immediate wall-rock, or
from greater depths. In the great majority of lodes, it has not
all penetrated at the same time, and certainly not in an igneous-
fluid condition, but as aqueous or gaseous solution. Chiefly
water, perhaps in combination with numerous gases, was the
medium, which dissolved the scattered particles of the metals
and other substances, absorbed them, and again deposited them,
in a far more concentrated form, in the fissures, by a long con-
tinued process of precipitation. That is about all, that can be
said in a general manner, as an explanation of the lodes; in
detail there still remains, it is true, much that is doubtful. The
unequal distribution in the fissures, the occasional symmetrically
combed texture, and the composition of the lodes, varying to
such an extent from that of the common rocks, all tend in
the highest degree to show the correctness of the above
explanation. Particularly striking and distinguishing, in com-
parison with the igneous rocks, is especially the rare or very
slight amount of alkalies in the great majority of lodes; while
their wall-rock, where it had contained alkalies, has frequently
lost these for the most part in the neighborhood of the veins.
They have been dissolved and carried off in solutions, while
oftier substances have been precipitated from the solutions in
their stead. The solution of the alkalies may often, re-acting,
have aided the precipitation of the vein-materials; and it is
CHEMICAL EXPLANATIONS. 549
therefore no wonder, if it be found, that lodes are particularly
rich between decomposed rocks. The decomposition through the
solution of the alkalies, during the deposit of the materials com-
posing the lode, exerted a favorable influence on the precipita-
tion; had the decomposition, on the contrary, taken place before
the formation of the lode, such a decomposed rock must have
been unfavorable to the formation of the lode, partly from
mechanical causes, partly from the want of a reaction. Hence
the local opposed conditions of the lodes between decomposed
wall-rocks.
Of what kind the solutions were, from which the various
ores and minerals were precipitated, what various causes (reac-
tions) influenced the precipitations, are questions more of a
chemical, than of a geological nature; though their explanation
is of the greatest importance to geology.
We may thank G. Bischof for having explained many mat-
ters in this department, which were obscure ; though we may
consider many of the geological consequences, which his com-
pendious work on geology contains, as less satisfactory. It is
not my purpose to go more in detail into this chemical portion
of the formation of lodes; since I do not consider myself fully
competent to do this. It is sufficient to say, that the possibility
of solutions, from which the various ore-combinations could be
precipitated, has been shown by Bischof. He has shown, how
(through numerous reactions) metalliferous precipitates, and sub-
sequent alterations of the same, might take place in vein-fissures ;
and that small quantities of the various metals are contained,
in a soluble condition, in the most different kinds of rocks. It
is not essentially to the point, whether the solubility was great,
or but very slight; since even the weakest solutions, or the
slightest traces of a metal in a solution, could, during unmeasured
periods, effect considerable deposits. The small amount of metals,
proved to exist in numerous mineral springs, suffices to furnish,
in time, the material for broad lodes; even so would the small
percentage of metals in rocks suffice to furnish the material for
the solutions.
In the examination of each particular case, it will be always
necessary to consider the local relations; for the explanation will
certainly not always be the same for the separate vein-districts;
since a greater part of the dissimilarity of lodes is essentially a
consequence of the local conditions, while another portion will
550 ORE-SEGREGATIONS
be dependent on the local or periodical variation of the solu-
tions circulating in the fissures, which last are also locally dif-
ferent. It must never be forgotten, that the totality of the lodes
shows, from their entire condition, that they are not the result
of a quickly completed process, bu rather that of a long con-
tinued or periodically repeated one, with certain modifications.
How much there still remains to do, especially with the
assistance of chemistry, is evident, not only from what has already
been done; but also, for example, from the certainly striking
fact, that it is not yet known, in what condition silver occurs
in galena, or gold in pyrites; but much less, in what state of
solution these noble metals may once have been, before they
were deposited in the lodes.
With regard to the condition of solution, however, it is to
be considered, as already remarked, that the same in a long
continued process, needs merely to be extremely diluted; and
that with the progess of accuracy and certainty in analytic
chemistry, it is continually more recognised, that in many
mineral waters, are contained very small quantities of all sorts
of mineral substances, which were formerly neither discovered
nor supposed to exist. Sea-water contains in solution 29 of
the as yet discovered elements; among these, for example,
silver, copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel, iron, manganese, and
arsenic; while in spring-water have been found arsenic, antimony,
lead, copper, cobalt, nickel, tin, zinc, etc.
The segregated ore-deposits; which are not merely forced
mechanically into accidental cavities, but rather consist of crys-
talline aggregates, which at times (as the segregated deposits
of lead and zinc, the segregations of magnetic iron, irregular
aggregations of pyrites, etc.) show certain relations to their
wall-rock, or to the contact of two rocks ; offer in part still greater
obstacles in their formation to a satisfactory explanation, than
the lodes; since in these the form and the frequently great
breadth are to be considered as essential points. Some, as the
aggregations of zinc-ores and galena in magnesian limestone,
may possibly be but pseudomorphs by replacement on a large
scale; the limestone being dissolved, and the ore substituted for
it. With others it should be observed, that they are probably
no longer in the original condition, in which they were formed,
but have rather been essentially altered by catogene or anogene
influences; and therefore, in order to explain them, it is neces-
ORE-IMPREGNATIONS. 551
sary to go back to their probable original condition, and that
of the rock enclosing them; >as for example in magnetic iron-
ore. During the alteration, changes in form might also have
occurred, and many so-called ore-segregations are in fact nothing
else than very broad and irregular lodes, concretionary beds,
or very thorough impregnations.
In the case of the ore-impregnations, their explanation is in
a measure evident from their name. It is assumed, that the
ore-particles have penetrated a rock, subsequent to its formation,
either only in its finest cracks and pores, or in the mass of the
rock itself. Illusions are indeed possible; the ores distributed
in the rock may have been formed contemporaneously with it,
and have been afterwards altered with it. In such varied forms
do the possibilities present themselves, as to require a particular
judgment in almost every case. If we assume the subsequent
penetration of the ores as proved, there still remain the questions,
to be answered; as to the kind of solution, as to the causes of
the precipitation, and as to the time of the occurrence.
In the case of the dependent or accessory impregnations,
alongside of ore-deposits of another form, we find a portion of
these questions comparatively easy to answer. Impregnations
alongside of lodes were probably, as a rule, caused by the same
solutions, by the same causes, and at the same time, as the lode;
this is not essentially necessary, and cases the reverse of this
are known. Thus, Gatschmann and Plattner have proved, that
the impregnations of mispickel in the decomposed gneiss, along-
side of the Freiberg lodes, are probably still taking place, caused
by the decomposition of portions of the lodes. Daubree has, in
his 'Etudes sur le Metamorphisme', termed the ore-deposits,
peculiar phenomena of metamorphism, in that he says, p. 74:
l les depots metalliferes ne sont que des cas particuliers de
phenomenes metamorphiques .' A principal result of these ex-
aminations is, that the majority of the ore-deposits, especially all
those which do not essentially consist of hydrated peroxide of
iron, were formed, not on the earth's surface, but at some depth
beneath the same; or have become through transformation, what
they now are; and that for this reason, as well as from the
common participation of water in their origin or transformation,
they may be termed hydro-plutonic formations.
I close this effort, composed of suggestions as to the for-
mation of ore-deposits, with the conviction, that the only posi-
552 DETERM INATION OF THE
tive result has been, to raise questions, not to answer them ;
but I am consoled by the reflection, that to induce enquiry will
not be useless; as the want of knowledge of facts, combined
with the state of chemistry, has rendered, up to the present time,
the satisfactory solution of such involved and manifold pheno-
mena difficult and unreliable.
DETERMINATION OF THE VALUE OF ORE-DEPOSITS.
280. A determination of the value of true beds will
never offer serious difficulties, after they have once been pro-
perly opened. Their average thickness, and an average per-
centage, can be determined, which in all probability will not
be far below, or much beyond the reality; since thickness and
percentage of ore generally continue in true beds for great
distances with tolerable uniformity.
It is entirely different in the case of lodes, segregations, or
impregnations. Neither the breadth, nor the percentage of metal,
remains the same for any distance; at least it is but excep-
tionally the case. Both of these important points are, in general,
so extremely variable, that an estimate of their value, in any
degree reliable, must be left entirely out of account. It is almost
a necessity of existence, to the calling of the vein-miner, that
he should live in good hope, and expect from day to day a
rich find; which no one can predict. It is true, that vein-
mining has in recent times gained somewhat in reliability,
through the ever encreasing attention which is paid to the
mutual relations of the veins, the influences of the wall-rock,
and other especial phenomena. It is to be hoped, that this will
find still more support on some scientific basis ; but no geologist,
or vein-miner of much experience, will at present claim, that
he can predetermine with any certainty the conditions of lodes.
Were that possible, such a knowledge would in many places
afford the best opportunity of becoming a rich man; since the
possibility of cheaply buying shares or stocks in a mine are not
wanting, so long as rich streaks are still undiscovered. These
occur for the most part unexpectedly, if not unhoped-for. A
share, in the Himmelfahrt mine at Freiberg, could have been
purchased thirty years since for twenty five cents, which now
(1868) are worth eleven thousand dollars; with a few such shares
the purchaser would soon have become a rich man.
VALUE OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 553
Any certainty as to the results, in such ore- districts as that
of Freiberg, can only be attained through the multitude of trial-
workings on as many hopeful lodes as possible. This encrease
in the opening of workings is so expensive, that it is rare to
iind a mining-company in a position to bear such an insurance-
tax on the results. The consequence of this is a sort of lottery,
i. e. with but a small deposit'; the possibility, but no certainty, of
a large prize. Are the lodes of such a kind, that in their poorer
portions, by the greatest realisation possible, they afford some
profit, even though but small, this is already a great advan-
tage; it is then possible, to await the rich finds, like great
prizes, without becoming bankrupt through the great number
of blanks. Such a condition exists in many of the Freiberg lodes:
they are as a rule poor, but contain in places rich ores, thus
offering a premium for continued industry. This condition is
one of the chief causes for the extraordinary completeness in
mining and metallurgy, which has given celebrity to Freiberg.
It has long been necessary to realise on poor ores, and for this
purpose to improve all the machinery as much as possible. So
much thought and trouble is, as a rule, not used, where rich ores
render it unnecessary.
If, as we have already seen, it is very difficult to prede-
termine the percentage of ores in lodes, segregations, or impreg-
nations, there must also be many other facts considered in deter-
mining their value; for example, the greater or less difficulty,
and consequently cost, of exploitation, of the transportation, of
the smelting (rendered easier, or more difficult, by associated
minerals, and other circumstances), as well as the variations in
the value of metals in the markets. These last circumstances
do not of themselves properly come within the bounds of a
treatise on ore-deposits; but since the general value is often
asked of an expert in ore-deposits, they are at least worthy of
mention.
INDEX OF PLACES.
N.B. Places, without epithet, are towns (or mountains); in sm. caps.
kingdom, state, or mt. chain: numbers refer to pages; thick, to chief
of many; second, & third (i. e. ten, & hundred] place of figures, is under-
stood, not repeated: e. g. 304,23,99 = 304,323,399; 402,31,3,4-8, =402,431,
433,434-438.
Abbreviations: n. e. w. s. North-, East-, West-, South-era; b. berg, bis, circ.
circle, GO. county, cont. continent, ct. canton, dp. department, dist. district, for.
forest, fr. France, french, geb. gebirge, glac. glacier, grp. group, gr. grand,
gt. great, h. high, isl. island, It. little, mar. maritime, mi. mine, mt. mount,
-tain, mth. mouth, n. note, oc. ocean, pr. province, r. river, s. see, sh. shire,
sp. Spain, Spanish, sra. sierra, (ridge, saw) t. town, tw. between, up. upper,
vol. dale or valley, wk. work, so. zone.
Aachen: s. Mx-la-Chapelle.
Aalen (Wiirtemb.) 216.
Aar, r. (Switz.) 213,311; vol. 5M6.
Aaserud, by Eidsfoss (Norw.) 441.
Abertham (Erzgeb.) 119,20,4.
Abrudbanya (Transylv.) 271,2.
Aconcagua, prov. (Chili) 513.
Adamstadt (s. Bohem.) 226; 486; 524.
Adamsthal (Mahren) 218.
Adelfors (Smaland) 440.
Adenau (on Ahr): circ. 195;
AFRICA, cont. s. Algiers.
Age, mine (Philipstad) 456.
Agger, val (Rhin. dist.) 192
Agnes, St.-, (Cornwall) 407.
Agordo (Tyrol, s. Alps) 163 ; 304,23-6,
399; 494, 5; 507, 20, 40.
Agua Amarga (Chili) 513.
Ahr, r. (Rhin. dist.) 195.
Ahrn (Tyrol) 525.
Mx-la-Chapelle = Aachen (Rhin. dist.)
89, 173, 84 ; 340, 90 ; 499 ; 520, 40.
Alaska, prov. (n. America) 505.
Alb, val (Black for.) 208.
Albano, r. (Elba) 354.
Albany (N.York, state) 502.
Alberese, 349,50,2,4,5.
Albian (?) 260.
Alfingen: s. Wasser-A.
Algiers, prov. (n. Africa) 63.
Allemont (Dauphine) 311, 28; 487.
Allendorf (Nassau) 177.
Almaden (Estremadura , Sp.) 389,99;
401; 507; new, (California) 401; 507.
Almagrera,sra.(Sp.) 389,93,6; 489 ; 522.
Almazarron (on mt. Rajado) 392.
Almeria, prov. (Spain) 393; 401. [518.
Alp, Suabian, 214,5,6,7; 359,60 (Swa-)
Alpine, chain, 310 ; 514 ; limestone, 327, 8;
strata, 537 ; Triassic, 323, (strata) 30.
ALPS, the, (mt. chain of cent. Europe)
95; 214,65,94; 309-44,58,C6,87; 487,8;
505,14,5,8,9,21,36,7,40 ; northern, 339,
50; 508, 14; southern, 331; eastern,
85, 93 ; 320, 40, 4-7 ; 439 ; 502 ; western,
312, 57; 519, 36; central, 310,1,3,6;
high (hautes, dp.) 311: s. Apuanian,
Bavarian, Carinthian, Ligurian, Salz-
burg, Suabiau, Swiss, Tyrolese.
Alsbach (Thuring. for.) 169. [Beer-A.
Alston Moor (Cumberland) 436,98: s.
ALTAI, mts.(w?.Sibiria, & China) 494; 505
556
INDEX OF PLACES.
Alt-Breisach (Rhin. vol.} 213.
Altenau (Hartz) 153,4,5.
Altenberg(Erzgeb.)97, 106 ; 426, 82 ; 522 ;
(list 105-12; Pinge, 107; stockwerk,
117; zwitter-rock, 482,3.
Altenberg (Silesia) 238; 512.
Altenbriick (Rhin. dist.) 183,4.
Altenbiihren (Westfal.) 182.
Altenburg (Sachsen) 29,522.
Alterkiilz (Rhin. dist.) ISO.
Altfalter (Bavaria) 220.
Alting (Baden) 210. [230.
Altvater, peak, 4640 ft. (Sudeten, mts.)
Amargua: s. Agua.
Amberg (up. Francon.) 215.
AMERICA, cont. 389; north, 525; south,
214; 505, 7 ; central, 505 ; n. & s., 485.
Ammelsdorf (Erzgeb ) 104.
Andalusia, pr. (Spain) 39K-9.
Ander, Sant-: s. Sant-Ander. [513.
ANDES (or Cordilleras) mts. western,
Andreasberg (Hartz) 48; 146,7,9,50-3;
Anduze (Fr) 496,7. [444,94; 512,23,4.
Anger, val. (Rathhausberg) 315.
Angina canal (Modena, n. Italy) 349.
Anna, mi. (Przibram) 223.
Anna, Santa-, (Carniola) 343; 507.
Annaberg (Erzgeb.) 97 ;118;488; 510,11.
Annivier, vol. (Switz. ct. Valais) 341,2;
Antonio, San-, (Chili) 513. [521.
Apuanian Alps (n. Italy) 294 ; 348.
Aranios (or Gold-) r. (to Maros, w.Tran-
sylv.) 270,6,7.
Ardennes, the, mts. (France) 357.
Arendal, 448; dist. (Norway) 93, 439, 47.
Areskutan (Sweden) 450.
Argentiere, &?/Briangon, dp. h.Alps) 366 :
or Argentieres (tw. h. & mar. Alps) 386.
Arizona (U. S.) 505.
Arklow (Ireland) 437. [Burgundy, 366.
Arkose (by Avallon) 365; arkoses of
Arnsberg (Westfal.) 195.
Arolsen (Tyrol) 502,38,9.
Arqueros, mi. (Coquimbopr. Chili) 513.
Arrayanes: s. Crux (la) d'A.
Arzberg (Fichtelgeb.) 131,4; 503,18.
Aschbach (Thur. for.), up. Francon. 145.
ASIA, cont. s. China, India, Malacca,
Sibiria; Altai, Caucasus, Urals.
Asiatic side of Urals, 474.
Asker (Norway) 441.
Aslocks, mi. (Arendal dist.) 447.
Asprieres (by Villefranche) 371,2; 489.
Asturia, prov. (Spain) 401.
A taicama, prov. (Potosi) 513 ; desert, 520.
Atredaberg (e. Gothland) 440.
Auerhammer (Erzgeb.) 129.
Auersberg (Erzgeb.)<125.
Augen (Baden) 210.
Aurora, mi. (by Dillenburg) 193.
Austel, St.-, (Cornwall) 404,6,7,21.
AUSTRALIA, cont. (s. Ocean) 505.
AUSTRIA (Oestreich) 271; 310,44; 507.
Austrian monarchy, 229, n.
Avallon (dp. Yonne. Fr.) 365.
Aveyron,dp.(Fr.)63;366;r.(oTarn)370;
Avion, w.(0rense)484. [u.371; dfo's.524,5.
Bach (Bavaria) 221.
BADEN, gr. duchy, 204,1 1,13 ; 340 ; 496,8.
Baden-Baden 203,8.
Badenweiler (Black for.) 207,488.
Barenburg (Erzgeb.) 111.
Baier, vol. (by Schatthausen) 208.
BAIERN, Bayrisch, Bavari-a, -an.
Bakony, for. (Hungary) 294.
Balan (Bukovina) 262.
Bale, or Basel (Switz.) 213.
Ballenstadt (Hartz) 166.
Ballin, val (Wicklow, co. Irl.) 437.
Balve (Westfal.) 182.
Bamble (by Kongsberg) 445.
BANAT, the, 84,95 ; 267,84 93,4 ; 493,5,9 ;
Banatite, 286. [503,5,17,18; n. 284.
Banca, isl (Ind. oc.) 485; 507,22.
Banya: s. Abrud, Borsa, Felso, Nagy,
Baumholder (Palat.) 200,2. [Offen.
BAVARIA (Baiern), 214,6 ; kingdom, 219;
310, 58; 493; 503,18; southern, 340;
Rhenish, 48: s. Palatinate. [520.
Bavarian (Bayrisch) forest 217,8 ; Alps,
Baza (Hungary) 515.
Beer-Alston, mi. (Cornwall) 417.
Bel: s. Sain-Bel.
BELGIUM 184,6; 212; 390; 496,99.
Bendzin (up. Silesia) 248.
Bensberg (Rhin. dist.) 183,84.
Beraun (Bohem.) 225. [471,2,3,4; 522.
Beres(of, or)ov, t. &co. (pr. Tobolsk) 465,
INDEX OF PLACES.
557
Beres-ow (or -vvsk), plateau (Urals )2G6.
Berg-: s. Giesshtibel, Reichenstein.
Bergisch Gladbach (Rhin. dist.) 499.
Bermsgriin (Erzgeb.) 122. [for.) 208.
Bernharcl, Zode(Riesengeb.)242; zo. (Bl.
Berschweiler (Palat.) 202; or Borsch.
(by Saarbriick) 170.
Beuthen (up. Siles.) 248,51; 340; 498.
Bianca, cape (Elba) 354. [134; 519.
Bibersbach, kothigen- , (Fichtelgeb.)
Biebelei (Ural mts.) 469.
Bieber (Hesse) 172.
Bieberwirr (or Biberweyer, Tyrol) 339.
Bilimbayevsk (Ural mts.) 472.
Bilkov, vol. (Bukovina 259.
Billiton, isl. (Ind. oc.) 485; 507, 22.
Bingart (Palat.) 200.
Bingen (on Rhine) 173.
Birnbanm, grp. (Hartz) 149.
Bisersk (w. Ural mts.) 465,72.
Bisperg (Sweden) 440.
Bitkow, vol. (Carpathians) 259.
BLACK FOREST 49 ; 203-8 ; 360 ; 488 ; 505,
Blagodat(Uralmts.)472. [520,30; s, 207.
Blanc, mt. (Swiss Alps) 487.
Blankenburg (Thur. for.) 137.
Blankerath (Rhin. dist.) 190.
Blasien, St-, (Black for.) 208.
Bleiberg (Carinthia) 329,31-9; 436,98;
(Rhin.pr.) 196; (Siles.) 235,6: s. Win-
Bleiburg (Karnth.) 330,2,6,7. [disch-B.
Bleistadt (Bohm. Erzgeb.) 98; 130; 486;
Bleiwasche (Westfal.) 182. [510,11.
Blistand (Cornwall) 405.
Bobrek (up. Siles.) 249.
Bobritzsch, r. (Erzgeb.) 98.
Bochum (Westfal.) 175.
Bockau: s. Rothen-B. [158.
Bockswieser, grp. (Hartz) 154,6; lodes,
Bodenmais (Bavaria) 218-20; 493.
Bodenwohr(Bavaria) 221. [379; 501,38,9.
Bohmischbrod (Bohem.) 218,28,9,31,4;
Bohmsdorf, ober-, (Voigtland) 133.
B6'rsch-(s. Bersch-).
Bosenbrunn (Voigtl.) 133. [476,93; 518.
Bogoslovsk, mi. (Urals) 293; 465,6,72,
BOHEMIA (l?d&mm)41,96; 217-29,34,93;
422,68,86; 501,5,17,20,2,38,9; north,
230,4; south, 226; 512: s. Przibram
Bohemian, forest 130; 217,8,20; slope of
Erzgeb. 114; side, ib.
Bois de I'Hermitage (Forez) 370.
Bolanden: s. Kirchheim-B.
BOLIVIA, state, (s. America) 41.
Bonn (Rhin. dist.) 173,6,80. [515.
Borsa-Banya (n. Carpath.) 265, 6; 304;
Boston (Massachusetts) 502.
Botallack, mi. (Cornwall) 406,18.
Bourg d'Oisans (dp. Isere) 319.
Braunsdorf (&i/Freib.) 46,50,1 ; 100 ; 227,
Braunsdorf er, formation, 99. [265.
Brand (fyFreib.) 15,97,8,9 ; lodes, 101,4.
Brandholz (Fichtelgeb.) 135.
BRAZIL (s.America) 505,19,36,7.
Breage (Cornwall) 407.
Breisach (on Rhine) 213: s. Alt-B.
Breitenbach, Rhein-, (ow Rhine) 191; 5 12.
Breitenbrunn (Erzgeb.) 121; 463,83; 522.
Brian$on (dp. h. Alps) 366.
Brilon (Westfal.) 177,82.
BRITAIN: s. Great. [485,7; 505,17,22,5.
BRITANY (Bretagne) 357,80-6; 422,84,
British,carboniferous,metalliferous,434.
Brixlegg (Tyrol. Alps) 327, 8, 40; 488.
Brocken, mt. (Hartz) 146.
Bruchsal (Baden) 212.
Bruck (Bavaria) 219.
Bruck (on Ahr) 195.
Buchelbach (Hesse) 172.
Buchholz (Annab. dist.) 118.
Buchwald (Siles.) 235.
Budweis (Bohem.) 22P.
Bugulma, t. & r. (Urals) 469. [96; s. '261,3.
Bukovina, pr.(Austr.) 91,3; 257,65 ; 487,
Burgstadter grp. (Hartz) 154,5,6.
Burgundy, arkoses, 366.
Bygland (Tellemark, dist.) 439.
Cabe(za, =)a de Vaca (Chili) 513,4.
Calamita, cape, (Elba) 354, 5; monte,355.
Calanda, mt. (Swiss ct. Grisons) 311,8;
Calaiias (Andalusia) 398. [524,36.
Calaveras, co. (California) 494.
CALIFORNIA, state, U.S. 41 ; 214 ; (n.281 ;
n. 485) 494; 505, 7, 19, 36.
('allanda (Graubiindten) : s. Calanda.
Calvary, mt. timazit. (Carpathians) 281.
Calvi, monte (Tuscany) 352.
Gamborne (Cornwall) 407.
558
INDEX OF PLACES
Campan, vol. (dp. h. Pyrenees) 386.
Campanelli di Garfagnana (Italy) 348.
Cams(or 46, Kams)dorf (Thur. for.) 46;
CANADA (n. America) 505. [168; 523.
Canaveilles, or -villes (dp. e. Pyrenees)
Canto-bianco, mine: s. Cecilia." {386.
Cap, Cape, Capo: s. Bianca, Calamita,
Cornwall, de Cerbera, North.
Carara (by Massa, Italy) 348,50.
Caravella (Peru) 522.
Carclace, mi. (St. Austel) 406.
Cardigan, sh. (s. Wales) 427,87; 524,5.
Carimon,esZ.(Ind.oc.)485; 507. [498; 505
Carinthia (Kdrnthen) 311,6,29,37; 436,
Carintliian Alps 329; 496; 520.
Carlsbad (Bohem.) 221.
Carlstad (Sweden) 440
Carniola, (Krain, Austr.) 342.
Carolina, mi. (Culera, e. Pyr.) 388.
CAROLINA, U.S. 49 ; 537 ; n.40 ; 494 ; s.49 ;
505,22; n. & s. 40; 505,19; -nas,312.
Carpathian, countries, 95 ; 257-67 ; sand-
stone, 93; 266; mountains (round
Ungarn) 244,57,94; =
Carpathians, 294; 345 ; 486 ; n. (tw. Ungar.
& Galiz.) 257-60,7,94; 304 ; 509, 14.
Carthagena (Spain) 485,9; 512,22,3.
sierra de, 389,92.
Caspari, mi. (Westfal.) 195.
Cassagne, plateau (Aveyron, dist.) 372.
Cassel, s. Hesse.
Castelli, monte (Tuscany) 350,1.
Castello (n.Italy) 349; val di, 348; 488.
Castelminier (fr. Pyrenees) 386.
Castile, pr. (Spain) 485.
Cata(luna)lonia, pr. (Spain) 387.
Catini, monte (Tuscany) 122; 350; 522.
CAUCASUS, mts. (w. Asia) 509.
Cava del Piombo (Tuscany) 352,3.
Cecilia, Sta.-, mi. (Hiendelenciaj 391.
Cella, val. (Ligur. Alps) 311.
Central: s. America, France.
Cerbera, cap de, (Catalonia) 388.
Chalanches, mts. (dp. Isere) 311,28.
Chanarcillo (Chili) 513,4.
Charlemont (Rhin. dist. France) 173.
Charlottenburg, mi. (Westfal.) 175.
Chemnitz (Sachsen) 105.
Cheron lij Chateland (Alps) 311.
Chessy(%Lyon)293; 377-9 ; 493; 538,9.
CHILI (S.America) 218,4; 505,13,20,4.
CHINA, empire, (e. Asia) 505.
Chivas (Piedmont, Alps) 311.
Chrast, mill (by Kosteletz) 228.
djfistgriin (Voigtl.) 132. [dist. 439.
Christiania, (Norway) 294; 440-3; 518;
Christoph, St.-, mi. (Schneeb.) 127.
Clausthal, dist. (Hartz) 28; 146,7,9,52.
153-8; 384; 488; 512,22,3,4.
Claye, r. (to Oust > 383 ; val. (Britany) 380.
Clermont (-Ferrand, dp. Puy de Dome)
Coblenz (on Rhine) 192. [37f>.
Coginan, mi. (s. Wales) 428.
Cologne, Koln, (Rhin prov.} 183.
COLORADO, state, U. S. 505.
Combe, Beac, & St. Nicolas (Cornw.) 410.
Combigliese (Tuscany) 362.
Commern (fo/Aachen)89 ; 175,96; 500,6.
Comorn, basin, (Hungary) 294.
Congostrina (Guadalajara) 391.
Continent, of Europe, 422,36.
Coquimbo, prov. (Chili J 513.
Corbach (in Waldeck) 197. [489.
Corbieres (dp. Aube) 371; mi. dist. 372 ;
Cordillera (chain), small, (Spain) 393.
Cordilleras: s. Andes. [lodes, 424.
Cornish, miners, 402; lodes, 425,30; -tin
Cornwall, co. (England) 47; 109; 380;
402-27,84,5,97; 522,4,34,43, north,422;
Cottbus (Lausitz) 255. [cape, 404,6.
Crabiules (Pyrenees) 386.
Creissels (dp. Aveyron) 373. [437.
Croghan Kinshella, mt. (Wicklow, co.)
Crown-rock, cape (Cornwall) 404.
Crux (la) d' Array anes,Zo^e( Linares) 39 7.
Cse(=Tse)tatye (i. e. Castle) -rock, 274;
peak (w. Transylv.) 272-7.
Cse(Tse)traser, mts. (Transylv.) 280.
Csiklova (Banat) 286,90,1,2.
Cuevas, plain, (prov. Almeria) 393.
Culera (Catalonia) 3*7; 487.
Cumberland, co. 45,7; 340; 402,31,3,4-8,
489, 97. 8; 505, 20, 4.
Cumillas (pr. Sant-Ander) 390.
Cwm Symlog, mi. (s. Wales) 428.
Cwm Ystwith, mi. (s. Wales) 428
Dachslanden (on Rhine) 213,
Dahlheim (Rhin. dist.) 190.
INDEX OF PLACES.
559
Dahlonega (Georgia U. 8.) 494.
Dalecarlia, dist. (Sweden) 93, 439.
Dannemora, lake (Upland, dist.) 440,59
Danube (Donau), r. 284, 6; 311. [517
Daren, mi (s. Wales) 428.
David, kg , lode (Schneeb.) 127.
Davidson, co. (n. Carolina) 494.
Davidstowe (n.Cornwall) 422. [20,4,31
Derby,s/*.45,7; 340; 402,30-4,89,97,8;505
Detonata, mi. (Tsetatye rock) 276.
Devil's Bridge, mi. (s. Wales) 428.
Devon, sh. 403,8,17,22.
Dietlingen (Baden) 208. [dist. 192.
Dillenburg (Nassau) 176,92-4; 512,24:
Dippoldis \valde (Erzgeb.) 104.
Dobschau (Ungarn) 301-3; 503,2 1.4,45.
Dollach (Styria) 313.
Dognacska (Bariat) 286.
Dolcoath, mi. (Cornwall) 420.
Domberg, nit. (Thur. for.) 140.
Dombrova (Poland) 245.
Domokos (Bukovina) 163 ? 261 ; 304 ; 496.
Dona-d'espine, r. (n. Italy, to Po) 311.
Donau, r. (Europ , HI. for. to Bl. sea): s.
Donsbach (Rhin. dist.) 193. [Danube.
Dortmund (Rhin. dist.) 173.
Douziliencques (dp. Aveyron) 373.
Drammen (Norway) 441.
Drau, r. & val. (Salzb. Alps) 311
Drei Prinzen lode (Freib.) 367 ; vein, 1 1.
Diiren (Rhin. prov.) 173,4.
Dlirnberg (Erzgeb.) 119.
Diisseldorf (on Rhine) 192.
Duisburg (Rhin. dist.) 173.
Duran, glac. (ct. Valais) 342.
Durlach (Rhin. val. Baden) 212.
Edder, r. (Hessen-Cassel) 197.
Edelleuter, ruschel (Hartz) 150.
Eger (Bohem.) 134. [483,8; 522,3.
Ehrenfriedersdorf (Erzgeb.) 97,8 ; 115;
Ehrenthal (Rhin. dist.) 190.
Ehrlich, lode (Voigtl.) 134. [522,4.
Eibenstock (Erzgeb.) 97; 112,23,9; 483;
Eidsfoss, or -fors, (Norway) 441.
Eimerode (Rhin. dist.) 181.
Eisenbach (Hungary) 296.
Eisenberg (Rhin. dist.) 178; (by Cor-
bach) 197; (by Goldhausen) 198,9.
Eisenerz (Styria) 345,502
Eisenkoppe, mt. (by Altenberg, Siles.)
Eisleben (Hartz) 167. [238; 512.
Ekatharinenburg (Ural mts.) 471.
Elba, isl. (w. of Italy) 354-7.
Elbe, r. (Bohm. to Germ, oc.) 231; 51 1.
Elberfeld (Westfal.) 182.
Elbingerode (Hartz) 146,8.
Elfdalen (Sweden) 439.
Elgersburg (Thur. for.) 139,40.
Elisabeth adit (Rathhausb.) 314.
Elisavetsk (Ural mts.) 471.
Elster, r. 133; val. (Voigtl.) 132.
Emme, rs. gt. & It. (Switz.) 213; 311.
Ems, on Lahn (Nassau) 270.
ENGLAND, 340; 424,98: s. Great Britain.
Ens, r. (Austr. to Donau, r.) 311.
Erbendorf (Bavaria) 218,20; 368; 511.
Erbisdorf (by Freib.) 98 ; 102.
Erzbach, val. (Styria) 345.
Erzberg (ore-mt.) by Kandern (Bl. for.)
209 ;&2/Kreuth,331; (Styria)345-7;502.
ERZGEBIRGK, 52,96-129,31 ; 204, 18,68;
375; 422, 6, 63, 81- 1, 5, 8, 90, 1,2; 505,8,
10,20,2,7,41; upper, 132,3; 368,9.
Erzkasten (Black for.) 208.
Erzweiler (Palat ) 200.
Erzwieser lode, (Salzb. Alps) 315,6.
Escanerades (fr. Pyrenees) 386.
Eschig, lode (Erzgeb.) 114.
Eschweiler (Palat.) 200.
ssen (on Ruhr) 175. [nees) 386.
Essera. r (to Cinea, Sp.) & val. (Pyre-
Isterry, val. (Pyrenees) 386.
Istremadura, prov. (Spain) 399.
stymteon, lode, (s. Wales) 429.
lule (co. Prag, Bohem.) 515.
upen (by Mx-la-Chapelle) 340.
UROPE, cont. 95 ; 2 18; 301,10,23,99 ;
422,36,63,85,9; 509,10; central, 358;
eastern, 484; western, 468.
uropean, continent, 484 ; plateaux, 509 ;
tin-districts, 485: s. Russia.
Pallband, dist. (Norway) 446: unter-
& oberberger(Kongsberg) 443; -bands,
(Kongsb.) 500. [439,52-4,94,5; 520,40.
Fa(or Fah)lun (Swed.) 163 ; 304,25,99 ;
astenfeer^, mt. (Erzgeb.) 123,6.
aule-Butter, village (Rhin. dist.) 179.
eigenstein, mt. (by Nassereit) 339,
560
INDEX OF PLACES.
Feldberg (Black for.) 203.
Felicitas, lode (Hartz) 151,2.
Felsberg (ct. Orisons) 311,18.
Felsobanya(e. Hungary) 280,95,6; 304-6;
488; 515, 22, 4, 3 1,3, 40.
Ferola (Sodermanland) 440.
FlCHTELGEBIRGE 130-6,78 ; 519.
Film, lake (Sweden) 459. [484; 500,0.
FINLAND (Scandinav.) 48 ;438,9,40,62,3,
Finnish, mts. (Russia) 244.
Firne, mt. (Rhin. diet.) 191.
Fischbach (Thur. for.) 169.
Flackstad (dist. Arendal) 447.
Flint, sh. (n. Wales) 433.
Fluvanna, co. (Virginia) 494.
Fons, lode (by Creissels, Fr.) 373.
Forez, co. (c. France) 365, 9; chain, 370.
Forstberg, mt. (Palat.) 201.
Fos (Pyrenees) 386.
FRANCE 95; 310,31,57-84,8; 467,96; 507,
25,31 ; & Saxony, alike, 36C-9 ; central,
357,65 ; 489 ; 505, 12, 30 ; & southern,
364; & Germany, 367. [214.
Franconia, 506; -an forest, 130; Jura,
Frankenberg (Hesse) 170,1,97.
Frauenberg (Palat.) 202.
Frauenstein (Erzgeb.) 97; 104.
Freiberg (Sachsen) 11,15,28,33,41,5,50,
61,5, 74,89,90,7,8;425,86,90, 522,3,4,3 1,
2,3,52 ; d*s.100,3;223,37,65; 367,8; 425,
3 1,83,6,7,9; 510,11,23,4,31,2,3; lodes,
73; 369; 425,90; 551. [367.
French, Jura 359,63; central plateau,
Freuden&m/, mt. (Bavaria) 221.
Friedberg (Rhin. dist.) 173.
Friedrich, mine (Miss) 336.
Friedrichsroda (Thur. for.) 140; 521.
Frischgliickauf, lode. (Mies) 224.
Ftirstenberg (Erzgeb.) 122.
Fuggerthal, dist. (Carinthia) 332,3.
Fundul Moldovi (Carpathians) 261.
Fusch, vol. (w. to Gastein) 310,1,3,6.
Gablau (Riesengeb.) 241.
Gail, vol. (Carniola) 343.
Gales (dp. Aveyron) 373,4.
Galicia (-gia, Spain) 401.
Galicia (-zia, Austria) 95; 257. [265.
Gamsigrad, Timacum, (Servia) 295 ; -ite,
Gangjarde (Sweden) 439,
Gardette, La, 4'200 ft. (dp. Isere) 311,9;
Garfagnana: s. Campanelli di G. [514.
Garmisch (n. Alps, Karnth.) 339.
Garpenberg (Sweden) 439.
Gastein (Salzb. Alps) 310, 1,2; 514.
Ga*ls, anc. 212; Gault, (?) 260.
Geising (Erzgeb.) 107.
Geister lode (Erzgeb.) 120.
Gellivara (Sweden) 439.
Georges, St -, hills by Chivas (Alps) 311 .
GEORGIA, state, U.S. 40; 494; 505, 19.
Gerbstadt (Hartz) 167. [-ans, 80,8.
Germain,St.-,d*s.(cent.France)370;489;
German, north, (n.Deutsch) plains 255,6.
GERMANY,29,38,96; 2 17,47,58; 347,64,76;
457,67,83,4 ; s.w. 2 16; w. 247 ;483; 505.
Germe, St.-, (dp. Gers, fr. Pyr.) 387.
Gersdorf (by Freib.) 100.
Geschieber lode (Erzgeb.) 119.
Geyer (Erzgeb.) 98; 108,15-17; 483;
Gibaud: s. Pont-G. [522,4.
Giehren (Silesia) 239. [522,3,44.
Giesshiibel, Berg-, (Erzgeb.) 112; 491,
Giromagny (Vosges) 489.
Gistain, vol. (sp. Pyrenees) 386.
Gjel- (s. Gyel-)laback. [s. Bergisch-G.
Gladbach (by Coin) 183; (by Bensberg),
Gladhamar (Smaland) 440.
Glas(-hiitte, 2l8,or)hiitten (Bohm.) 226.
Glatz: s. Waldenburg-G.
Glemnalure, mi. (Wicklow, Irl.) 437.
Gliicksbrunn (Thur. for.) 169.
Goddelsheim (Rhin. dist.) 199.
Godolphin, mine (Cornwall) 416.
Gorwil (Alb val. BL for.) 208.
Gogiuan (s. Wales) 429,30.
Goldbach, r. (to Moselle) 199.
Goldhausen (Rhin. dist.) 198. [523.
Goldkronach (Fichtelgeb.) 13 1,5; 3 15;
Goldlauter (Thur. for.) 140.
Gold-Sithney (Cornwall) 47.
Gondelsheim (Baden) 208. [520,40.
Goslar (Hartz)85; 146,7,53,8 ; 399; 494,5 ;
Gothland, east, dist. (Sweden) 440.
Gottesgabe (Erzgeb.) 119; (Thur. for.)
Grafenthal (Thur. for.) 137. [339.
Grass-valley, c?*'stf .(California)n.281; 523.
Graabiindten (fr. Orisons, it. Grigioni)
Graul (Erzgeb) 122. [ct. Swiss 311,8.
INDEX OF PLACES.
561
Graupen (Erzgeb.) 97; 105,11 ; 482; 522,4.
Grave-en-Oisans, la-, (dp. h. or w. Alps)
311; 519, 36. [401,89.
GREAT BRITAIN, 95; 505,9; and IRELAND,
Great Ormes-head (n. Wales) 434.
Greifenstein, rock (Erzgeb.) 115.
Grillsbunny, mi. (Cornwall) 406.
Gritzberg, mt. (up. Siles.) 254.
Grotzingen (Baden) 212.
Gross-, s. Kogel, Pohla, Voigtsberg.
Grossenhain (Sachsen) 511.
Griin-Schild, mine (Schneeb.) 127.
Grime-Tanner, lode (Voigtl.) 133.
Griiner, lode (Schemnitz dist.) 297.
Griinthal (Erzgeb.) 113.
Gruf, lake (Sweden) 459.
Gruna, ober-, (by Freib.) 100.
Grund (Hartz) 153,4.
Grythyttan (Wermland) 457.
Guadalaja(or xa=kha)ra (Spain) 391.
Guadarrama, mts. (Spain) 391.
Giintersberg (Hartz) 146.
Guldmeshyttan (Westmanland) 440.
Gumbir, mts. 6000 ft. (Hungary) 299; 300.
Gumeshevskoi (Ural mts.) 465.
Guntershausen, nieder-, (on Rhine) 190.
Gwennaps (Cornwall) 407.
Gwinear (Breage) 407.
Gyalar (Transylv.) 503.
Gyellaback (Norway) 441. [242.
Hackelfcer#, mt. 2840/fc. (a* Zuckmantel)
Hahnenklee (Hartz) 157.
Hakansboda (Westermanland) 461.
Hallstatter limestone 330,6,40.
Halsbrucke formation, 93 ; 365 ; vein, 367.
Halsbruckner lode (by Freib.) 102,3.
Hammerfest (Norway) 451.
Hammerstein (Palat.) 202.
Hartenstein (Erzgeb.) 97; 127; 507.
HARTZ, mts. 28,85 ; 145-08,72; 488,91,4;
605,12,7,8,28 ; e. 147,9 ; w.155,7 ; or up.
Harzburg (Hartz) 153 ; 524. [149; s.e. 168.
Harzgerode (Hartz) 146, 9; 512.
Haselgebirge strata (Alps) 360.
Hasselfeld (Hartz) 146.
Hausach (Black for.) 208.
Haute: s. Vienne.
Hautes: s. Pyrenees.
Hedder6er#, mt. (Palat.) 202.
Hemzen&r#,mt. (Tyrol) 311, 7,8,27 ; 525.
Heizen(= Heinzen-)berg 525.
Reliefers (Westmanland) 440.
Helmlingen (on Rhine) 213.
Helmrich (by Freib.) 100.
Helsingfors, dist. (Finland) 440.
Herges (Thur. for.) 142.
Herje(= ye)dalen (Sweden) 439.
Herkenrath (Rhin. dist.) 184.
Hermitage, de 1', s. Bois. [300; 506.
Herrengrund by neu-Sohl (Ungar.) 299;
HESSE 164,9;538,9;-Cassel 46.
Hessisch-, s. Weyer,
Hettstadt (Hartz) 167.
Hiendelencia (Spain) 389,91; 489; 512,31.
Hils, Westfal. conglomerate, (?) 260.
Hirschau (Bavaria) 221.
Hirschenstand (Erzgeb.) 119.
Hirschler pond (Hartz) 155.
Hita (Guadalajara) 392.
Hodritsch, lodes (Schemnitz) 296,9.
Hockendorf (Erzgeb.) 100,4.
Hollen, vol. (Bair. n. Alps) 339 ; 498.
Horde (Westfal.) 175.
Horte, mine (Norway) 441.
Hof (n. Bavar.) 132,3.
Hofen (Bl. for.) 208.
Hofsgrund (Bl. for.) 208. [501,20.
Hohenelbe (n. Bohem.) 229, 30; 379;
Hohenstein (Hartz) 221.
Hohnstein (Erzgeb.) 98.
Holzappel,onLahn,188;#rp.l87-91;488;
Hornberg (Bl. for.) 208. [512,24,5.
Horsowitz (Horowicz, Bohem.) 218, 25 ;
Houdlemont, ville- (France) 362. [524.
Huelgoat (Britany) 383, 4; 487.
Huelva, prov. (Andalusia) 389,97,9; 495.
Httggel, mt. (by Osnabriick) 503. [233.
Htittenbach (n. Bohem.) 232; r. (to Iser)
Huldgellburn lode (Cumberland) 435.
Hundsruck, mts. (Rhin. dist.) 173,9.
Hungarian,basin257;5l5;goldveins316.
HUNGARY (Ungarri) 95; 257,67,76,86,8,
294; 308, 9 ; 488, 93; 503, 5, 6, 7, 21 ;
east, 531; n.e. 533.
Hunyad (Transylv.) 503. [154,6.
Hutschenthal,wwe (Hartz) 156; -ergrp.
lago: s. Sant-Iago. [Portugal.
Iberian Peninsula, 509: s. Spain &
36
562
INDEX OF PLACES.
Idaho, U. S, 505.
Idria,wrf. (Carniola) 265; 342; 400,1; 507.
Ik (to Kama), r. (Ural mts.) 469.
Ilfeld (Hartz) 147, 8; 491.
ILLINOIS, state, U. S. 496, 9; 520.
Ilmen-^re6. mts. & lake, (Kuss. fo/Novgo-
Ilmenau (Thur. for.) 140,fi9. [rod) 519.
Imbelax (Pittkaranda, dist.) 440.
Imperina, brook, 324, 5 ;mZ. (Tyrol) 323,4.
INDIA, East, islands, 485: s. Banca.
Inien, mt. chain (Marmaros, co.) 265.
Inn, r. (Tyrol, to Donau) 311; vol. 327.
Innerste, vol. (Clausthal) 155,7.
IOWA, state, U. S. 496,9; 520.
IRELAND 401, 23,36 8;534:s.Gt.Britain.
Isabella, mine (Dillenburg) 193.
Isakstammer grp. lodes (Hartz) 154.
Isar, r. (Tyrol, to Donau, r.) 311.
Iser, r. (to Elbe) 231,3.
Isere, r. & dp. (France) 319,28.
Iserlohn (Westfal.) 182; 540.
Istein (on Rhine) 213.
ITALY, 95; 347,53; 488; 51 7; north,507,31.
Ives, Saint, (Cornwall) 406,7.
Ja(= Yae)gernhof (Siles.) 242.
Ja(=Kha)roso(sraAlmagrera)#ew,393.
Jestetten (Baden) 208.
Joachimsthal, dist. (Erzgeb.) 97; 114;
488; 510, 11, 22, 4; town, 119.
Johanngeorgenstadt (Erzgeb.) 97; 123;
483, 8; 510, 22, 3, 4.
Josselin (Britany) 383. [489; 520.
Julien, St.-, dist. (cent.France) 369,70;
JURA, 518 ; formation, 49 ; brown & white,
215; group, 358-63; chain, 214; mts.
206, 8; 509: s. Franconian, Suabian,
Swiss & French, [(cent. Fr.) 370.
Just, St.-, (Cornwall) 407, 10,8,9,89 ; dist.
Kaafjord (Finmark) 48; 439,51; 524,
Kafvelstorp (nya Kopparbg.) 452*
Kalinovskoi, placer (Ural mts.) 474.
Kameno-Pavlovsk (Ilmen mts.) 519.
Kamsdorf 46 : s. Camsdorf.
Kandern (Black for.) 204,8,9.
Kanekuhl-er mi. (by Goslar) 159.
Kapnik (Ungar.) 280, 95, 6 ; 304, 7 ; 487 ;
Kappel (Carinthia) 329. [515,33.
Kargala (Ural mts.) 469.
Karl-Leopold lode (Erzgeb.) 130.
Katharina, by Raschau (Erzgeb.) 122;
lode, (Trojoca, mts.) 266.
Katharinenberg (Erzgeb.) 98; 113.
Kath(= Ekath)arinenberg (Ural mts.)
Katharinenburg (Ural mts.) 472. [465.
Katranza, mi. (Tsetatye, mt.) 275.
Katterfeld (Thur. for.) 169.
Kattowitz (up. Siles.) 250.
Katzenbach (Palat.) <200.
Katzenellenbogen (Nassau) 177.
ftatzenthal (Vosges) 491 ; 522, 3,44.
Kavassi (Ural mts.) 471.
Kazan (Ural mts.) 469.
Kegel, mt. 800 ft. (Ungarn) 305.
Kehl (on Rhine) 213.
Kellerberg (Palat.) 200.
Keppel, vol. (by Goslar) 159.
Ketschach, vol. (Salzb. Alps) 313.
Keuper formation (Siles.) 245-7; strata,
(Alps) 330 ; sandstone (Franconia)506.
Kje(Kye-)runavara (Sweden) 439.
Kiffhauser, mt. (Thur. basin) 168.
Kimpolung (Bukovina) 93 ; 258.
Kinzig, vol. 49 ; 204-6, 7 ; 524.
Kirchheim-Bolanden (Palat.) 200.
Kirlibaba (s.Bukovina) 263, 9; 487.
Kirnik, mt. (Siebenbilrgen) 272.
Kischlinsk (Ural mts.) 471.
Kischtimsk (Ural mts.) 472.
Kitzbtihel (Tyrol) 496; 526, 40.
Kizil, r. (Ural mts.) 471.
Kladrau (Bohem.) 224.
Klausen (Tyrol) 320-3.
Klautzenbach (Bavaria) 219.
Kleingau by Kandern (Baden) 209.
Kleinkogel, mt. (Brixlegg, Tyr.).-327;
Klein-Linden (Lahn-yaZ.) 181. [525.
Klerovskoi, placer (Ural mts.) 474.
Klinge, the, by Lauterbach, 143.
Klmger-stockwerk (Schlackenwald) 221.
Klobenstein (Erzgeb.) 121.
Klostergrab (Erzgeb.) 114.
Klutchevski (Ural mts.) 469. [200. .
Konigsberg, mt. by Wolfsberg (Palat.)
Koros, r. (to Theiss, w. Transylv.) 270.
Kossener beds (Alps) 330.
K6tLigen-(wm/)B.: s. Bibersbach.
Kogel, mt. Gross-, & Klein-, 327.
INDEX OF PLACES.
563
Kongsberg (Norw) 46,93 ; 233 ; 439,42-5
494; 500, 5, 23, 4.
Kopparberg, nya, (Sweden) 440,52.
Kosteletz, schwarz-, (Bohem.) 228,9.
Koth: s. Rothen (red) K.-berg.
Krakau, Cracov (Poland) 252.
Kramenzel (Westfal.) 177.
Kremnitz (Ungarn) 295, 9; 487; 514,5.
Krestovosdvishensk (w. Ural mts.) 472.
Kreutli (Carinthia) 329,31,2.
Kreuzberg, mt. & lode (Ungarn) 305, 7.
Kreuznach (Palat.) 200.
Krokenstein, mt. (Hartz) 148.
Kronstadt (Transylv.) 267,8.
Krux, mines black, red, & yellow, 138 :
s. Arrayanes, la crux d'. [505.
Kuc(t)zaina (Servia) 286,7,90,1,2; 499;
Kuizokova (Ural mts.) 471.
Kupferberg (Siles.) 235,7; mt. 234-8;
486,8; 512,8,20,4; dist. 237; by
Grossenhain (Sachsen) 511.
Kushvinsk (e. Ural mts.) 472.
Kuttenberg (Bohem.) 218,27; 480; 524.
Kyalim, r. (Ural mts.) 471.
Ladoga, lake (Finland) 462.
Lahn, r. (to Rhine) 187; vol. 181.
Lai(or Loi)bel, val. (Carniola) 343.
Lake: s. Ladoga, Superior, Uveldi.
Lamm (Bavaria) 220.
Landnoden (Thur. for.) 169.
Landsberg (Palat.) 200,1,2.
Langbanshytta, mi. (Wermland) 450.
Langbar (Wermland) 457.
Langenau (by Freiberg) 97 ; 103.
Langenstriegis (Erzgeb.) 98.
La-Pause: s. Pause, la.
Laquore (Pyrenees) 386.
Laubhiitte (Hartz) 1 54 ; -er#rp, lode. ib.
Lauenstein (Erzgeb.) 98. (255.
Lausitz, Lusatia, lower,jpr.(n. Germany)
Lautenbach (Thur. for.) 143.
Lautenthal (Hartz) 153,4; -er#rp.!54-7.
Lauterberg, dist. (Hartz^ 164.
Lazar, lode (s. Bohem.) 226,7.
Ledock (Cornwall) 417.
Lehesten (Thur. for.) 137.
Lehrbach (Hess. Darmstadt, Hartz) 148,
Lembach (Vosges) 489. [153,4,76 ; 524.
Lemberg, mt. (Palat.) 200,1,2.
Lend (Salzb. Alps) 311.
Lengholz (Carinthia) 311.
Lenne, slate (Rhin. dist.) 174,7,82.
Leogang, val. (Salzb. Alps) 342.
Leopoldst. lake (Styria) 346.
Leptau, dist. (Ungarn) 299.
Levezou, mt. (w. Milhau, cent. Fr.) 373.
Lgota (by Krakau) 252.
Liebstadt (Erzgeb.) 98.
Liege (Belgium) 173; 520.
Ligurian Alps 311.
Limasette, lode (by Creissels, Fr.) 374.
Linares (Andalusia) 389,96; 489; 512,
Lindberg (Bavaria) 219. [522,3,5.
Llan(Hlan-)bedr (Wales) 428.
Llancyfelyn, mi. (Wales) 428.
Llangol(goh)len (n. Wales) 433.
Llangynnog, dist. (Wales) 428.
Llanidloes, plain, (Wales) 428,89.
Lla(Lya-)no, longitudinal, (Andes,
Llanza (Catalonia) 388. [Chili) 513.
Lofas (Sweden^) 439.
Lohr, mt. (Rliin. dist.) 177.
Loire, r. (France) 381,2,3: s. Saone.
Loo's (Sweden) 489.
Lorenz, mi. (Erzgeb.) 125. [370,
Lot, val. dp. (Fr. ) 362 ; r. (to Garonne)
Lozere, dp. (France) 364.
Lublinitz (up. Siles.) 245.
Luchon, val. (Pyrenees) 386.
Luganure, mi. (Wicklow) 437.
Lulea-Lappmark, dist. (Sweden) 439.
Lunkany, baths, (n.Banat) 284.
Luosanavara (Sweden) 439.
Lusatia: s. Lausitz.
Lutter, r. (to Rhine) 213.
Luxemburg (Rhin. dist.) 173,4.
Lyer (Norway) 441.
Lyon (France) 293; 377; 493.
Macigno, slate, 349,50,4.
Macugnaca (e.Mte-Rosa, Alps) 311.
Madrid, cap. (Spain) 391.
Madron, mi. (Trewiddenball) 407.
Magurka, ml. 2500 /fc. (Ungarii) 300, 1;
MAHREN, == Moravia. [515.
Maidanpek (Servia) 290, 1,2; 499.
Maillors lode (Villefranche) 371.
Mais-Ried (Bavaria) 220.
Malacca (Ind. oc.) 485.
36*
564
INDEX OF PLACES.
Malaga (s. Spain) 512.
Malapane (n.Siles.) 245.
Mandiola (Chanarcillo) 514.
Mannheim (Baden) 213.
Mansfeld (Hartz) 165,8; co. 166.
Manto de la Presidente(Cabeqa, de Vaca)
Marazion (Cornwall) 47, 407. [510,1,4.
Marienberg (Erzgeb.) 97; 114; 483, 8;
Marienfels (Rhin. dist.) 190. [511,22,43.
Marienskoi, placer (Ural mts.) 473.
Marina, la: s. Rio.
Marina di Rio 355.
Marmaros, co. (Ungarn) 265; 304,8.
Maros, r. (w. Transylv.) 270.
Marter, mt. (Marienb. dist.) 114,5.
Martinshaart, mi. iRhin. dist.) 179.
Massetano (Tuscany) 488; 530.
Maupas (Britany) 382.
Maurozi, mi. (Erzgeb.) 119.
Meinkja, mi. (Kongsberg) 445.
Meisen, mt. (Hartz) 149.
Meissen (Sachsen) 97; 510,9; adit, 71:
Meji(= Mekhi)co: s. Mexico.
Merioneth, sh. (n. Wales) 430 ; 519.
Meschede (Westfal.) 182; 95.
MExi(or Ji)co (h. America) 48:505,24.
Meyric: s. Ystrad.
Miask (e. Ural mts.) 465,71,2.
Michael(St.-)'s mt. (Penzance) 405,7.
Michaelis, St.-, mi. (Schneeb.) 127.
Michelberg (by Freiberg) 486.
Michicacan, state (Mexico) 48.
Miechowitz (up. Siles.) 254.
Mies, dist. (Bohem.) 218,24. [373; 489.
Mil(lau, or)hau on Tarn (dp, Aveyron)
Miltitz (by Meissen) 278; 519.
Mindyak, r. (Ural mts.) 471.
Minier (cent. France) 373 : s. Castel-M.
Miss (Carinthia) 330, 6; 498.
Mississippi, r. upper, dist. (U. S.) 499.
MISSOURI, state, U. S. 496, 9; 520.
Wittelberg, mt. (by Elgersburg) 139.
Mitterberg (Salzb. Alps) 496.
Mitterpinzgau (Styrian Alps) 342.
Mittweida (Erzgeb.) 98.
Mizerieux, lode, (Forez) 369.
Modena (n. Italy 1 ) 347,9.
Modum (Norway) 445.
Mohringen (Baden) 208.
Moll, r. & vol. (Salzb. Alps) 311.
Morsfeld (Palat.) 200.
M6ss(Mess)kirch (Baden) 209.
Molasse formation (Baden) 209,10.
MOLDAVIA (Moldau) 257,67.
Moffiova, neu, (Banat) 286,90,1,2.
Moldovi: s. Fundul.
Molton, north, (Devon) 422. [503.
M.ommelberg, mt. & mi. (Thur. for.) 142;
Mont: s. Blanc.
Montana, U. S. 505.
Montbrun (dp. Lot, France) 362.
Monte : s. Calvi, Castelli, Catini, Nero,
Montes,m. (Orense) 484. [Rajado, Vaso.
Monte-rosa (Alps) 311.
Montgomery, sh. (n. Wales) 427,8.
MORAVIA (Mdhren) 217, 60; 517.
Moravic(t)za (Banat) 286,90,1,2.
Morbihan, dp. (Britany) 381,3.
Morena, sierra, (Andalusia) 396.
Morlaix, lead-lodes, (Britany) 383.
Morolui, 268: s. Pqjana.
Morvan(vant), mt. (dp. Cotes d'or) 367.
Moschel, ober-, (Palat.) 200 ; 524 ; -lands-
berg, 48 ; or Moschlandsberg (Palat.)
Moselle, r. (Rhin. dist.) 190,9. [507,
Mosen, by Rauris (Salzb. Alps) 311.
Mostovsk (Ural mts.) 471.
Motovilika (Ural mts.) 468.
Mount: s. Pilat.
Muckenthurmchen (Erzgeb.) 111.
Miihlbach (Erzgeb.) 98; (Styria) 311.
Wltihlberg, mt. (by EimerouV) 181.
Miihlstrom (Norway) 451.
Miinchberg (Fichtelgeb.) 131. [524.
Minister, vol. (Black for.) 49; 207; 488 ;
Muusterappel (Palat.) 200,1.
Miirtschen-(stock,)Alp (Switz.) 524.
Miis(or Miissjen (Rhin. dist.) 178; 503.
Mulde, r. (by Freib.) 103.
Munzig (Erzgeb.) 98.
Mur, r. (Austr. to Drau, I.) 311.
Muschelkalk formation, 247.
Nack (Palat.) 200.
Nadvorna, pr. (Carpathians) 258.
Naeskilen (dist. Arendal) 447.
Nagorni, placer (Ural mts.) 474.
Nagyag (Transylv.) 280-3,96; 494; 5 1 5,24;
val. 281.
INDEX OF PLACES
565
Nagybanya (Ungarn) 270,1, 80,95,6 ; 304,
Naila (Voigtl.) 134. [305; 515, 33.
Najac (cent. France) 371; 489.
Naklo (up. Siles.) 249.
Nant-y-Creiau, lode, (s. Wales) 429.
Nanzenbach (Rhin. dist.) 193,4.
Narverud (Norway) 441. [523.
Nassau, dist. (on Rhine) n. 176 ; 177,87 ;
Nasse(or sen)reit (by Imst, Tyrol) 339.
Negoi, 8000 ft. (Transylv.) 268.
Nera: s. Terra.
Nerike, dist. (Sweden) 440.
Nero, mte, (Modena) 349.
Neudorf (Hartz) 149.
Neuermuth, mi. (Nanzenbach) 193.
Neufanger, ruschel (Hartz) 150,1.
Neuhammer (Erzgeb.) 119.
Neu-: s. Moldova, SohL
Neurader, mts. (n. Ungarn) 294.
Neusohl: s. Sohl, neu.
Neustadt (Thur. for.) 138.
Neustadtel (Erzgeb.) 126,8.
Neuweiler (Black for.) 208. [392; 512.
NEVADA, state, U.S. 505; sierra, (Spain)
Nevyansk (e.Ural mts.) 472.
New: s. Almaden, Zealand.
Newlin (Cornwall) 407,17.
Nice, Nizza, (w. end of Alps) 310.
Nieder-: s. Guntershausen.
Niederhausen (Palat.) 202.
Nijny (new) : s. Tagilsk, Turinsk.
Nockelfcm?, mt. (Salzb. Alps) 342; 521.
Nora (Westmanland, dist.) 440; 517.
Norberg (Westeras-Lan) 439.
Nordmark (Wermland) 457,8.
Nordmarken, mi. (Pliilipstad) 456.
North: s. Carolina, German, Molton,
Tawton.
North-Cape, dist. (Norw.) 439. [417.
North-Downs, cross-course (Cornwall)
NORWAY, 46,85; 29 1; 438,9,52,94,6; 500,
507,1 7,8,21; south, 439,43; fallbands,
Nossen (Sachsen) 98; 104. [262; 500.
NovA.-ScoTineuSchottland(n. America)
Nussloch (Baden) 211. [519.
Nya (= new): s. Kopparberg.
Nydarhytta (Westmanl.) 440.
Nylshyttan (Sweden) 439.
Ober-: s. Bohmsdorf, Gruna, Moschel^
Rochlitz, Schlema, Villach, Wiesen-
Ober-berger, s. Fallband. [thai.
Oberhof, lodes (Rhin. dist.} 190.
Ochsenkopf, mt. (in Kupferberg) 234.
Oederan (Erzgeb.) 97,8; 104; 511.
Oelbarn (Styria) 310. [493,4; 515,8,24.
Offenbanya (Transylv.) 272,7,80,2,3,93 ;
Offenburg (Black for.) 203.
Oisans, Bourg d', (dp. Isere) 319.
Ola (296 ; 304, 5, Olah) laposbanya (n. w.
Transylv.) 308; 515, 33, 7, 40.
Olkusz (Poland) 248, 52; 498.
Orndal (Tellemark, dist.) 439.
Opatowitz (up. Siles.) 247.
Oravic(t)za (Banat) 286,90,1,2; 518.
Ore-mountain, 209: s. Erzberg.
Orenburg (Ural mts.) 469.
Oruro, 12,400 ft. (Bolivia) 41 ; 522.
Oryarfvi (Finland) 440,63.
Osnabriick (Hannover) 503.
Ospitaletta (Modena) 349.
Ossa, in Chanarcillo (Chili) 514.
Ossola, prov. (Spain) 40.
Osterdalen (s. Norway) 443.
Ottange, vol. (France) 360.
Oust, r. (to Vilaine) 380,3; & vol. (Bri-
Ovoca, r. (Ireland) 437. [tany) 484.
Oyestad (dist. Arendal) 447.
Paffrath (Westfal.) 183.
Painsec (Reschi vol. Alps) 342.
Pais-, or Pajs-berg (Werml.) 456-9; 506.
PALATINATE (Pfalz, Ellen. Bavar.) 200-2;
507,21: up. 216, n.
Pallieres (France) 497; 520,40.
Pappenheim, co. (Bavaria) 215,7.
Parad (Ungarn) 506.
Pareu-Dracului(5i/Kronstadt,Transylv.)
Paris, cap. France; basin, 363. [268.
Pasiec(t)zna (Bukovina) 259.
Pause, la, vein (St. Julien dist.) 525.
Pavlovsk : s. Kameno-, Pervo-, Petro-, P.
Peever, mi. (Cornwall) 409,10.
Peitz, by Cottbus, (Lausitz) 255.
Penestin, coast (Britany) 383.
Penhale (Cornwall) 417.
Penouta, by Verin, (Spain) 484.
Pen-towan, by St.Austel, (Corn wall) 421.
Pen-y-bont-pren (s. Wales) 428.
566
INDEX OF PLACES.
Pen-y-Cefn, mi. (Wales) 428.
Penzance (Cornwall) 407. [502,3.
PERM, pr. & t. (w.Urals, Europe) 467,9 ;
Permian dist. 501,20 ; lower,234; forma-
taw,464,5,7 ; 50 1 ,35,8 ; sandstone, 520 ;
Persberget (Philipstad) 456. [rocks, 537-
PERU, state (s. America) 505,23.
Pervo-Pavlovsk, by Miask (Urals) 473.
Peshanka, by Bogolovsk, (Ural mts . ) 472
Pestarena (e. Monte-rosa) 311.
Petersthal (Baden) 208.
Peterswalde (Rhin. dist.} 190,1.
Petris (Banat) 286.
Petro-Pavlovsk (Ural mts.) 472.
Petschkau (Bohem.) 227.
Pfaffen&mjr, mt. (Hartz) 149; 524.
Pfahl, rock (Baiern) 219.
Pforzheim (Baden) 208. [Alps) 320; 487.
Pfun4rers&e?v/, mt. by Klausen (Tyrol.
Philippeville (Belgium) 186.
Philippsburg (on Rhine) 213.
Philipstad (Wermland, Swed.) '440,56.
Phoenicians in Cornwall, 421.
Piedad (Mexico) 524.
Pietra Santa (Modena) 347.
Pietros(z, or Petroza), mt. 6882 ft.
(Marmaros, co. Ungarn) 265.
Pilat, mt. (cent. France) 369.
Pilsen (Bohem.) 218.
Pindad, mi. (Michicacan, Mexico) 48.
Pingarten (Bavaria) 221.
Pinzgau (Salzburg) 539.
Piombo: s. Cava del P.
Piriac (mth. Loire) 381, 3; 484.
Pirk (Voigtl.) 133.
Pitten (e. Alps, Austria) 344.
Pittkaranda, dist. (Finland) 439,40,62,
484 ; 500, 6, 22, 5. [Styria) "46.
Flatten (Erzgeb.) 97; 119; 483; (Erzbg.
Plauen (Voigtl.) 132,3.
Ploermel (Britany) 382; 484.
Plombieres (dp. Vosges, France) 531.
Plynlimmon, mt. (Wales) 428.
Po (Padus) r. (n. Italy) 311.
Pobel (Erzgeb.) 97; 105, 11.
Pohl, mt. (by Annab.) 118.
Pohla, gross-, (Erzgeb.) 122. [268.
Pojana-Morolui (by Sinka, Transylv.)
POLAND, 244,5,7,8,52; 498; Russian,243.
Polgoath (Cornwall) mi. 409; dist. 417.
Ponte grande, (Ossola, Spain) 40.
Pont-Gibaud, dist. (by Clermont) 375,6
Porabka (Poland) 245. [525!
Porpatak (Ungarn) 487.
Portli Towan (Cornwall) 417.
PORTUGAL, 389,91)484.
PoschoritafBukov.)91;261;304; 496; 539.
Potosi 'Bolivia) 522,48; Welshr, (Wales)
Potschappel (Erzgeb.) 9(5. [42s.
Potzberg, mt. (Palat.) 200,1.
Poullaouen (Britany) 383,4; 487 ; 525.
Poyatos (Andalusia) 398.
Prag, cap. (Bohem,) 218.
Pranal (in Sioule vol.] 376.
Presberg, mi. (Philipstad) 456.
Presnitz (Erzgeb.) 98.
Pressburg, Pozsony, cap. (Ungarn) 514.
Prinzenbach (Black for.) 208.
Prossen (Styria) 34C.
PRUSSIA (Preusseri), Rhenish, 500,6.
Prussian, Rhen.prov.196. [491; 522-4,44.
Przibram (Bohem.) 41,8; 218,22,4 ; 486,
Pulpi, plain, (Almeria, pr. Sp.) 393.
Pusch meadow by Peitz, 255. [383 ; 484.
Puy-les-Vignes (dp. h. Vienne, France)
PYRENEES (tw. Fr. & Sp.) 357,8,63,85,8;
Quenstedt, 215. [505,17; dp. h. P. M86.
Querbach (Siles.) 238,9; 484; 500.
Questembert (Britany) 380; 484.
Rachel, mt. (Bohm. for. Baiern) 219.
Rackelmann (Schwarzenb. dist.} 120,1.
Radlgraben (Carinthia) 311.
Radnitz (Bohem.) 218,25,6.
Radovenz (n. Bohem.) 232.
Radzionkau (up. Siles.) 248,9.
Rader, mi. (Carinthia) 311.
Raibl (Carinthia) 329, 30, 7, 8; 498.
Raipas (Norway) 439,51; 524.
Raj ado, monte (Carthagena) 392.
Rakosi, mi. (Tsetatye-rock) 275.
Ramfor#, mt. (Hartz) 146. [495.
Rammels&m/r, mt. (Hartz) 158-64; 304;
Rancie, mt. (fr. Pyr. dp. Ariege) 386.
Raschau (Erzgeb.) 122. [313, 15; 514.
Rathhaus&er^, mt. (Salzb. Alps) 39 ; 311,
Rathsweiler (Palat.) 200.
Ratiboritz (Bohem.) 486.
Ratisbon (Bavaria): s. Regeusburg.
INDEX OF PLACES
567
Raurieser Tauern, 39.
Kauris, gold mt. (Salzb. Alps) 39; 311-16.
Rauschenthal, mill (by Sicghofen) 190.
Red:(s. Rothen)Koth.
Redmoor (Cornwall) 417.
Redruth(Cornwall)407,16,8,25.[ern)215.
Regensburg (Ratisbon), wi.Regen (Bai-
Rehhiibel (Erzgeb.) 125.
Reichenbach (Palat.) 202.
Reichenstein (Siles.) 243: (Styria) 346;
Berg-, (Bohem.) 515. [104; 242.
Reinsberger-gliick, lode (&?/Freib.) 100,
Reipas: s. Raipas.
Relistran (Cornwall) 416.
Reschi veil. (Switz. ct. Valais^ 342.
Reschitza (Banat) 286.
Reuss, r. (to Rhine) 213.
Rezbanya (Ungarn) 286,7,90-3; 493.
Rheidol, r. (Wales) 428.
Rhenish, mts. 488; blende-lodes, 192;
Devonian, 194 ;jpnw.Preussen, 196: s.
Prussia, Bavaria.
Rhine, r. (Rhein), dist. 173-99 ; 204 ; 383 ;
518; left, 179,85; right, 192; 1. & r.
bank, 185; vol. 203,4,12-14: s. Brei-
Rhone, r. (France) 369. [tenbach.
Ribnik (Ungarn) 296.
Ribnitz, mi. (n. Bohem.) 232.
Ried: s. Mais-, Unter-. [521,3.
Riegelsdorf (Hessen-Cassel) 46; 169;
RIESEN GEBIRGE [Giant - Mountains]
4900 ft. (n.Bohem.) 217,30,8; 484,5,8 ;
501,38. [bano, Tinto.
Rio (Elba) 354,5 ; la Marina, 356 : s. Al-
Ripa, mts. (Modena) 347; 507:
Rocca: s. San-Sylvestre, Tederighi.
Roche (Cornwall) 417.
Rochetta (Modena) 349. [ober-R. 232.
Rochlitz (n. Bohem.) 230-3, 93 ; 524 ;
Rohrig (Hesse) 172; (Siles.) 235.
Roraas (Trondhjem, dist.) 439,50,96.
Rosenbeck (Westfal.) 182.
Rosteberg by Grand (Hartz) 154.
Rohnau (in Kupferberg) 235.
Rohn6er#, mt. (Zell, Tyrol) 311.
Roman, domination, 275; name of
Gamsigrad, 295.
Romaneche (dp. Sa6ne-et-Loire) 376.
Romans, dominion of, Spain, 389; mi-
Romero (Chili) 513. [ning, 399.
Romillo, by Venn, (Spain) 484.
Rosa: s Monte-R.
Rosenhofer grp. (Clausthal) 154.
Rossbach (Rhin. dist.) 193.
Rosswald (Palat.) 200.
Roth (Rhin. dist.) 193.
Rothberg, lode (Erzgeb.) 129.
Rothen-Bockau, r. (Marienb. dist.) 114.
Rothen-Kothberg, by Zwiesel, 219.
Roure (dp. mar. Alps) 376.
Rozzena (Modena) 349.
Rudolstadt (s. Bohem.) 218,26 ; grp. 37.
Riickenbach, mi. (KinzigmZ.)49. [499.
Ruhr, r.( Westfal.) 93; dist. 175,6,390;
Rumpelsbmjr, mt. (by Elgersburg) 139.
Runcie (Pyrenees) 386.
Ruosina (Italy) 348.
RUSSIA, 234; 519, 20; European, 95.
Russian, Permian, 538; empire, 244:
Ruszkiza (Banat) 503. [s. Poland.
Saalfeld (Thur. for.) 168; 521.
Saarbrtick (Palat.) 175; basin, 200; 402.
SACHSEN: s. Saxony.
Sachsenfeld (Erzgeb.) 122.
Sachsenhausen (Rhin. dist.) 190.
Sai(or Say)da (Erzgeb.) 98; 113,4.
Sain-Bel (France) 380.
Saint- : s. Agnes, Anna, Austel, Blasien,
Christoph, Georges, Germain, Ives,
Julien,Just,Michael,Michaelis,Ulrich.
Sala (Sweden) 440,54,6; 518,24.
Salza, val. (by Lend, Alps) 311.
Salzburg, 317; 505; Alps 39,48; 487,96;
515,9,22,4,36.
Samos, r. (w. Transylv.) 270.
Samson, lode (Hartz) 151,2,3.
Sandrycock, streamw'k. (Cornwall) 421.
Sangerhausen (Thur.) 166,7,8. [352,3.
San-Syl(or Sil)vestre, Rocca (Tuscany)
Sant-Ander, 390 ;pr. (Sp.) 340,89 ; 496,7;
Sant-Elmo (prov. Huelva) 398. [520,40.
Sant-Iago, pr. (Chili) 513.
Saone & Loire, dp. (France) 376.
SattelwaZd, for. (Riesengeb.) 241.
Sauberg, mt. (Erzgeb.) 115.
Sauersack (Erzgeb.) 119.
Savodinsk (Altai mts.) 494.
568
INDEX OF PLACES.
Saxon, 268, 93; 363: s. Erzgebirge.
Saxon, metal, deposits, 72.
SAXONY (Sachsen) 28,9,96 ; 260,78 ; 364,5,
367,8; southern, 490,1,2; 503,7,39.
Sayda: s. Saida.
SCANDINAVIA (Norw. Swed. Finl.) 21,
89,95; 438-63,84; 509.
Scandinavian fallbands, 341; mica-
schists, 243 ; plateau, 358.
Schaffhausen (on Rhine) 214. [val. IBS.
Schap(pach, or)bach, dist. (Bl. for.) 206 ;
Schareck, high (by Kauris mt.) 315.
Scharfenberg (Erzgeb.) 98 ; 510.
Scharlei (up. Siles.) 250,1.
Schatten&m?, mt. (Kitzbiihel) 526.
Schatthausen (Baden) 208.
Schefc(t)zin, lode (Przibram) 224.
Schellerhau (Erzgeb.) 111.
Schemnitz (Ungarn) 270,1,80,94-9 ; 304;
487; 514,5, 22, 4,33; lodes, 305; val
Schindler, mi. & so. ( Bl. for.) 207,8. [294.
Schlack(524, -agg)enwald (by Carlsbad)
2 18, 21; 422, 83; 522.
Schladming (Styria) 341; 521, 4.
Schlaggen(s. Schlacken)wald.
Schlangenberg (Altai mts.) 505.
Schleiz (Voigtl.) 133.
Schlellen, r. (Marienb. dist.) 114.
Schlema, ober-, (Erzgeb.) 129.
SCHLESIEN: s. Silesia.
Schmiedeberg (Siles.) 239.
Schmiedefeld, by Grafenthal, 111,37,8.
Schmollnitz (Ungarn) n. 162, 3; 303, 4;
494,5; 520,1,40. [510,21-5.
Schneeberg (Erzgeb. ) 9 7 ; 1 12,26-9 ; 488 ;
Schonborn (Sachsen) 368.
Schonfeld (Bohem.) 221,2.
Schramberg (Black for.) 203.
Schreckenstein (Erzgeb.) 483.
Schiitzenhaus (Erzgeb.) 122.
Schwaben, mi. (Rhin. dist.) 179.
Schwaig (Carinthia) 311. [s. Kosteletz.
Schwarz, Zo<fe,(owLandsb.)202: (black)- :
Schwarze, r. (to Saal, Thur. for.) 137.
Schwarzenbach (by Bleiburg) 330,6.
Schwarzenberg (Erzgeb.), dist. 117,20,
124, 9; 220, 43, 93; 491,2,3; 517,8.
Schwarzenfeld (Bavaria) 220.
Schwarzleo, val. (Leogang) 342.
Schwatz (Tyrol) 327,8,40; 488; 505,25.
Schweina (Thur. for.) 46; 169; 521,3.
SCHWEITZ, Suisse, Switzerland, 359, n.
SCOTIA: = SCOTLAND, 402: s. NovA-S.
Scotrang (Sodermanland) 440.
SCOTTISH plateau, 358.
Sedan (Rhin. dist. France) 173.
Seegrunde (Erzgeb.) 111.
Seemauer, mt. (Styria) 346.
Seesen (Thur.) 166. [522,43.
Seif (or Sei-)fen(Erzgeb.)41, 97,8; 420,83;
Seko, val. (Marmaros, co. Ung.) 266.
Selbitz (Voigtland) 134. [495, 9; 505.
SERVIA (Serbien) 95 ; 284, 6, 7, 95 ; 493,
Severin zinc-mi. (Bobrek) 249.
SIBIRIA (n.Asia) 213.
Sibirian steppes, 464; strata, 537.
SIEBENBURGEN, 267: s. Transylvania.
Siebenlehn (Freib. dist.) 97; 100.
Siegburg (Rhin. dist.) 192; 512.
Siegen, 179; 5 12; co. (Rhin. dist.) 178.
Sieghofen (Rhin. dist.) 190.
Sieglitz (Salzb. Alps) 311,13.
Sierra (ridge, saw): s. Almagrera, de
Carthagena, Morena, Nevada.
Silbach, lodes (Rhin. dist.) 190.
Silberberg (by Bodenmais) 219,20.
Silberberger, ruschel (Hartz) 151. [339.
Silberlei(ten, or)than, mt. (by Biberwirr)
Silbernaaler grp. (Clausthal, Hartz) 155.
SILESIA (Schlesien) 234; 391 ; 402,61,86 ;
500,5,17; upper, 93; 212,43-54; 380;
496, 8; 517, 8, 20, 4, 40; n. 245.
Simmern, co. (Hundsriick) 179. [505.
Sinka, by Kronstadt (Transylv.) 267,8;
Sioule, r. & val. (dp. Puy de Dome) 376.
Sjb'-malm (lake-ores) in Sma- & "Werm-
Sjo(Syo-)sa (Sodermanl.) 440. [land, 462.
Skole (Carpathians) 258,60.
Skutterud (Norway) 439,45-7; 500,7,21
Smaland, dist. (Sweden) 440,62.
Snarum (Norway) 445; 500, 7.
Snowdon, mt. (Wales) 539.
Sodermanland, dist. (Sweden) 440.
Sognefjord (Norway) 450.
Sohl, co. Neu-, cap. (Ungarn) 514.
Sohlcr, dist. (Ungarn) 299.
Soimonovsk (Ural mts.) 465,71.
Solmanofsk (Ural mts.) 475.
INDEX OF PLACES.
569
Sonnenberg (Thur. for.) 137. [205.
Sophie, mi. Wittich dist. (Kinzig vol.]
Soulan (dp. Gers, fr. Pyr.) 387.
Souleur-ois (Solothurn) Jura (Schweitz)
South, s. America, Carolina. [359, n.
SPAIN, 95; 294; 340, 89-401, 87, 9, 95, 7;
507,31; south, 505,12,22; west, 484.
Spaniards, 389. [496.
Spanish, segregations, 399; province,
Spessart, nit. ridge (Hesse) 171.
Spiegelthaler grp. (Clausthal) 154,6.
Spitaler lode (Schemnitz) 297,8.
Spitzenberg (Palat.) 200.
Spottsylvania, co. (Virginia) 494.
Stadtberg (Westfal.) 199.
Stadtberge (Hesse) 170.
Staffelstein (up. Francon.) 214.
Stafford, co. (Virginia) 494. [200,1.
Stahlberg, mi. (Thur. for.) 503; (Palat.)
Stahlberg (steel) mt. (by Miisen) 178;
Stammasser, mines (Erzgeb.) 122. [503.
Starkenbach (n.Bohem.) 230-3 ; 501,20.
STATES 496; of the UNION, n. America,
Steben (Voigtland) 134. [505.
Steenstrups (by Kongsberg) 445.
Steier: s. Styria.
Steierdorf (Banat) 286.
Stein (Baden) 208.
Steinach, Steinhaida (Thur. for.) 137.
Steinbach (Black for.) 208.
Stenn (by Zwickau) 132.
Steplitzhof (Ungarn) 296.
Stockach (Baden) 208.
Stockhausen (on Lahn) 177.
Stollberg (Hartz) 146.
Stor, mi. (Falun) 452,3.
Storgrufva, vein (Sala, Swed.) 455.
Striegis, r. (Freib. dist.} 103.
Stubegg by Arzberg, Bair. (e.Alps) 488.
Styria (Steiermark) 310, 41, 5; 521.
Sua(530, Swa- 531)bia, 217; 361.
Suabian, Alps, 84; Jura, 214.
SUDETEN, mts. (Bohem.) 230.
Suhl (Thur. for.) 140,69.
Sulitelma (Sweden) 439.
Sulzbach, baths (Black for.) 208;
unter-, (Salzb. dirt.) 311.
Sulzburg (Black for.) 207 ; 488.
Superior, lake (n. America) 48; 502,6,24.
Swabian, Alp, 518; plateau (Bl. for) 203.
SWEDEN, 84,5 ; 294 ; 438, 9, 52, 62 ; 605, 6,
507,17,8,22; south, 438,
Swedish magnetite, 518.
Swiss Alps, 528; Jura 84; 358, 9.
Switzerland, 310,1,83; 536: s. Schweitz.
Szaszka (Banat) 286,90,1,2.
Szathmar, dist. (Ungarn) 304.
Szclana (Ungarn) 507.
Taberg (Smaland, dist.) 440.
Tabeyet (Wermland) 456.
Tagilsk, nijny-, (Ural mts.) 465,72.
Tal-y-Bont (Wales) 428.
Tamburra, mt. (Alps, Italy) 348.
Tamins (cant. Orisons) 319.
Tana, vol. (Ligur. Alps) 311.
Tanalyk, r. (to Ural, r.) 471.
Tanalysk (Ural mts.) 471.
Tanne (Hartz) 149.
Tarn, r. (to Garonne, France) 370.
Tarnowitz (up. Siles.) 248 ; 340 ; 498 ; 540-
Tarvis (Carinthia) 337. [Raurieser, 39.
Tauern, mt. chain, (Steiermark) 313,8:
Taunus, mts. (Rhin. dist.) 173.
Tawton, north, (Devon.) 422.
Tederighi, rocca, (Tuscany) 350,1.
Tellemark, dirt. (Norw.) 439.
Tellnitz (Erzgeb.) 114.
Telmo, San-: s. Sant-Elmo.
Temperino (Tuscany) 352.
Tenniscal (California) 485, n.
Terra-nera (Elba) 354.
Teschen, dist. (Oestreich) 93; 257-60.
Teufelsgrund (Kinzig vol.) 49; 208; w.207 .
Teufelsstein, mt. (Erzgeb.) 122.
Tharsis (Andalusia) 398.
Theis, basin, (Ungarn) 294.
Theresia lode (Schemnitz) 297,8.
Thierlstein (Bavaria) 219.
Thionville (France) 360 ; 518.
Thorbjorns, mi. (by Arendal) 448.
THURINGIA (Thuringen) 21,91; 130,64,
170 ; 367 ; 468 ; 501, 5, 6, 17, 20, 5, 38, 9.
Thuringian forest 136-45,8,67,8,72 ; 274 ;
367; 491; 505,17,28 ; s.e. 136 ; n.w. 138 ;
s.w.503 ; basin, 168 ; muschelkalk, 366.
Tiddys cross-course (Cornwall) 417.
Tihu, val. (n. Transylv.) 521.
Tilkerode (e. Hartz) 147; 524.
570
INDEX OF PLACES.
Timacum minus, 295, = Gamsigrad.
Tinto, r. (prov. Huelva) 163; 294; 304,
398, 9; 493, 5; 520, 40.
Tobol,r. (Uralmts.) basin, 471 ; dist. 519.
Todtenau ( Black for.) 203,8.
Tok (co. Arad, Ungarn) 515.
Tornea, dist. (Sweden) 439.
Towan, Cornwall: s. Pen- & Porth-T.
TRANSYLVANIA (Sicbenburgen) 63,95;
267-83, 8,93,4; 493,6; 503, 5, 7, 18, 33;
north, 304; 521; s. w. 480.
Trautenau (n. Bohem.) 232.
Trerddol, mi. (Wales) 428.
Tres-Puntas, mi. (Chili) 513,4.
Trewiddenball (Cornwall) 407.
Trondhjem, dist. (Norw.) 439.
Trojoka (or -jaga), mts. 2000 ft. (Mar-
Truro (Cornwall) 407. [maros,co.)266.
Tse-: s. Cse-tatye.
Tuna (Dalecarlia) 93.
Tunaberg (Sweden) 84,93; 29 4; 440,60,
461; 507, 18; -ska, mi. 461.
Turc(t)z (Ungarn) 487.
Turinsk (Ural mts.) 472; nijny-,466, 72.
Turtmann (Tourtemagne), r. (to Rhone)
vol. (Swiss, ct. Valais) 342.
TUSCANY (Toscana) 347,50-3; 530.
Twardovice (Poland) 248.
Twiste, by Arolsen (Tyrol) 502,20,38.
Tyn-y-fron, level (Estymteon lode) 429.
TYROL, 311,17,27,8; 496; 502,5,25,36.
Tyrolese Alps 536.
Uentrop (Westfal.) 194.
Ulrich, Saint-, (Black for.) 208.
UNGARN, = Hungary.
UNION, UNITED STATES (n. America) 505.
Unter-berger, s. Fallband.
Unter-ried, or -rieden (Bavaria) 219,
Unter-: s. Sulzbach, Wirrbach.
Unverhofft-Gliick (Erzgeb.) 122,3.
Upland, dist. (Sweden) 440. [509,15.
Ural, r. 471; mts. 234,66; 463-78; 505,
URALS, 214,44,93; 464,84,93; 505,15,8,24,
Urbeis (Vosges) 489. [535,7; s.465; w.501.
UTAH, state, U. S. 505.
Utoe, isl. (Sodermanland) 440; 518.
Uveldi, lake (Urals) 471.
Val: s. Anniviers, di Castello.
Vallalta, by Agordo (Tyrol) 507.
Vaso, mte, (Tuscany) 350,1.
Vaury (dp. Creuse) 383; 484.
Vedelsja (Norway) 441.
Vena (Werml. dist. Sweden) 440.
Verin (Spain) 484.
Vermaga (Transylv.) 283.
VKRMONT, state, U. S. 494; 504.
Vernede (dist. Pont-Gibaudj 375.
Versitia, vol. (Italy) 848.
Vesuvius, mt. (s. Italy) 357.
Veta blanca, mi. (Culera, e. Pyr.) 388.
Veta d'Estanno (Potosi) 543.
Vicdesos (Pyrenees) 386.
Vielle (dp. Gers, fr. Pyr.) 387.
Vienna,287; (=Carpath.) sandstone 259;
-nese lias, 330; tegel, 260; geologs,
271 ; 308, 35, 43 ; Reichsanstalt , 277;
Vienne, h. (dp. France) 484. [305 ; 514.
Vignes: s. Puy des V, [mth. 383.
Vilaine, r. (dp. Morbihan, to Atl. oc.) 382;
Vildar, vol. (Tyrol) 321. [veil.) ib.
Villach (Carinthia) 311; ober-, (Moll
Ville: s. Houdlemont.
Villeder (dp. Morbihaii) 381,2; 484.
Villefranche (dp. Tarn) 371; 489.
VIRGINIA, state, U. S. 494; 504.
Viso, r. 265; vol. 265,6; (Marmaros)265.
Vivisa (by Nagybanya) 306.
Vorospatak, ml. (Transylv.) 63; 266,71,
276,7,80,96; 505,15,24,35,7 ; r. (toAra-
Voigtland (Sachsen) 130,2,78. [nios) 276.
Voigtsberg, gross- (Erzgeb.) 100.
Voigtsdorf (by Warmbrunn) 238 ; 484.
Vordernberg (Styria) 345.
VOSGES, the, mts. (France) 357,63; 489,
Walchern (Styria) 310. [491 ; 505,17,44.
Waldeck (Rhin. dist.) 173. [coalbed, 230.
Waldenburg (Riesengeb.) 241; -Glatz,
Waldgrehweiler (Palat.) 201.
WALES, 427,70,87; 505,39 ; n. 430; s.
s. Cardigan; w. 427. [275.
WALLACHIA, Vlachei, 268 : -an women,
Walpot, mi. (Agger vol.. Rhin.) 192.
Warmbrunn (Siles.) 238.
Wasser-Alfingen (Wiirtemb.) 216.
Weiding (Bavaria) 220.
Weinach, lodes (Rhin. dist.) 190.
Weinsheim (Palat.) 200.
Weipert (Erzgeb.) 488.
INDEX OF PLACES.
571
Weissbriach (Carinthia) 311.
Weissenstadt (Fichtelgeb.) 131
Weitisberga (Thur. for.) 137.
Welkenradt (by K\*-la-Chapelle) 186.
Welniich (on Rhine) 187.
Welseuberg (Bavaria) 221.
Welsh: s. Potosi.
Weulock (England) 433.
Wenzel, mi. (Black for.) 205.
Werch-Yssetzk (e. Ural mts.) 472.
Werlau (on Rhine) 187,90.
Wermland, dist. (Sweden) 410,56,7,62.
Wernsdorf, strata (Carpath.) 260.
West, the, (of Europe) 89.
Wester-Forest (Rhin. dist.) 174.
Westermanland (Swed.) 461.
Westmanlaud (Sweden) 439,40.
Westphalia (Westfalen) 175,82; 340;
402,61,96,9; 505,7,17.
Westrich (Westfal.) 182.
Wetterau (Hesse) 171; 511.
Wettern (by Schladming) 341.
Wetterstein dist. (Bair. n.Alps) 498.
Wetzlar (Rhin. dist.) 176.
Wexford (Ireland) 423, 4; 534, 9.
Weyer, Hessisch-, (Rhin. dist,) 190.
Wheal-Golden, mi. (Cornwall) 417.
Wicklow, co. (Ireland) 402,36,8,89.
Widersinnige , lode (s. Bohem.) 226,7.
Wiesenthal, vol. (Black for.) 208.
ober-, (Erzgeb.) 517. [498; 520, 40.
Wiesloch (Baden) 204,11; 340,91; 436,96,
Wilde, mt. (Marienb. dist.) 114.
Wildemann (Hartz) 156.
Wildenau (Erzgeb.) 122; (Hartz) 146.
Wildewiese, mts. (Rhin. dist.) 179.
Windisch-Bleiberg (Carinthia) 339; 498.
Wintrop (Westfal.) 194.
Wir: s. Wiirtemberg.
Wirrbach, unter-, by Blankenburg,137.
WISCONSIN, state, U. S. 496, 9; 520.
Wissenbach (Rammelsberg) 158,9,62.
Wittenberg er grp. (Clausthal) 154.
Wittich, dist. (Bl. for.) 205;48S;524.
Wohnhiittenstein (Erzgeb.) 122. [488.
Wolf-ach, or bach, dist. (Black for.) 205;
Wolfsberg,w. (Hartz) 147,9; (Palat.)200.
Wolfshagen-er grp. (Clausthal) 154.
Wolfstein (Palat.) 200.
Wolkenstein (Erzgeb.) 97.
Wunsiedel (Fichtelgeb.) 134; 5()3.
WUR(=WIR)TEMBEKG, 214,6; 358; 518.
Yssetzsk: s. Werch-Y.
Ystrad-Meyric (Wales) 428,
Yugovsky, or Jugowskij (Ural mts.) 468.
Zalathna (Transylv.) 494.
Zangelka (to Ural) r. 471.
Zapalar (Chili) 513,4.
ZEALAND, new, isles (s. Pacific) 505.
Zechstein ,n Thur. for.) 136,45,64,5,6,8;
Zell, co. (Hundsruck) 179. [229.
Zell (Tyrol) 311,17. [154,6.
Zellerfeld (Hartz) 149,54,6; -er grp.
Zenberg, mi. (Dobschau) 302.
Zinnwald (Erzgeb.) 29,9 7; 105-9, 10; 383;
Zorge (Hartz.) 148; 524. [482; 522, 43.
Zschopau, r. (Marienb. dist.) 114.
Zuckmantel (Silesia) 242.
Zwickau (Sachsen) 132; 539.
Zwiesel (Bavaria) 219,20.
INDEX
OF
SOME TECHNICAL or UNUSUAL WORDS,
EXPRESSIONS & DEFINITIONS.
A.
acidic, igneous-rocks, 517.
adelsvorschub, 328.
air -saddles, 19.
alpine limestones, 309.
anogene, 38; 288,93; 542,
anticlinal, 20. [550.
ascension-theory, 71.
asche, 166.
B.
fcacfcs, 165,7,8,71.
badger -holes, Ems, 270.
banatite, 286,7 ; -te,8,9.
banks, 188,9.
basic, igneous-rocks, 517.
feed, 240; -s, 93; 110,60,2;
400 ; wMe, c #rai/, 166.
-masses, 81 ; shales, 343.
beresite, 472.
bivalves, dachstein, 331.
black-band, 175.
bohn-erz (pea-ore], 210.
bonanzas, 36.
bunch(5l)es, ore-, 50,89.
buntsandstein , 169,74;
C.
413. [Jww, 6.
capping-rock, 168; sra-
catogene, 81,91 ; 147; 288,
changes, 170. [293; 542,50.
c/*er, 112. [75,84.
chimneys, 36; 297; 328,^2,
278.
; 102 ; 279.
colonne, fr. == chimney,
colorados, 38,9. [525.
columnar structure, 67.
contact- deposits, 132.
contemporaneous forma-
tion, 71. [524.
country, 26,45,59; -rocfc,
cracks, 110,15. [26.
cross-courses, 417 ; -veins,
D.
dachstein limestone, 323,
330,1.
descension-theory, 11.
dikes, 49; 118; of wacke,
dip, 19, 2G. [115,9.
direction, 19, 29, 60.
dm, 274.
dreier- fissures, 333, 6.
drusy, 1 00.
E.
electrodes, 58.
ellipso-ids; -idol, 261.
efoows, 47; 403, 5, 6, 7.
emanations, motrices, et
erlan, 122. [fixatrices,l.
eulisite, 460.
P.
fallbands, 46,89,93; 233;
438,43; 523.
/VwZte, 19,29,65 ; '223; 301.
feeders, 420.
fieldstone, 321.
sauvages, 329.
, 36. [form of, 54.
fissures, 34; formation, 64;
flat-veins, 431,6.
, 19,84; (= stocfc-
rfc) 398; 406.
, 26; 11 7, 6; 407.
, 184,9.
footwall, 19. [334.
friction-surfaces, 33,66;
fucoids, 258,60.
a.
gabbro, 98.
gaillonellcB, 256. [33.
#aw#, 2,36,86; 282; -,sr^,
garnet-rock, 288,9. [319.
gash-veins , 27, 36; 273 ;
geodes, 43; 208; 308.
glas-erz, 315,6.
alauch, 281.
gneiss, red, gray, 52.
gossan, 38,9,41; 101, 12;
223; 398; 413, 91.
gray-bed, 166.
graywacke, 146.
groups, 59, 65 ; 103.
H.
halle-flinta, 457.
hanging-wall, 19,61.
hauben-guartz, 110.
heave,W. [208,83; 351; 412.
109,17,30,9,48;
574
INDEX OF TECHNICAL WORDS.
hydro -plutonic , forma-
tions, 551.
hypogene, 288, n.
I.
impregnations, 87, 93.
infiltration, 7 1 , 3 ; 1 1 3 .
infusia, 256.
injection-theory, 71,5.
iron-hat, 38,9.
J.
junctions, 29.
Jwra, brown, 93.
K.
, 121; rotfie, 129.
, 47/402-4,8.
, 274.
klippenkalkstein, 257,9.
&m'es, 160.
L.
lateral-secretion, 71,2.
Zeader, 26,89; 127,57; 321.
Zea/"j leaves, 135.
lime-chimneys, 166.
lixiviation, 125. [99; 266.
Zode, 26,36,76,80; -es,93,
-fissures, 65,90.
M.
magnetite, kernel & shell,
448.
malm, Swed. ore, 454,62.
mantos, 513,4.
melirt, ores, 160,1,3.
metalliferous deposit, 2.
molasse, 309.
molinera, 394.
N.
negrillos, 39.
neste, 36,99; 132.[260; 309.
nummul-ites, 210; -ifa'c,
O.
ore, ores, 13.
-bands, 446.
-bed, 171; feeds, 17,22.
-carrier, 51, 3; 472.
-chimneys , 318, 33, 5, 97 ;
-deposits, 517. [525.
-district, 67; -cte, 92.
- or Zo$e- formations, 481.
outcrop, 19,26,38**
P.
^acos, 38,9.
paragenesis, 422.
pea-ore (bohn-erz), 508.
pipe-veins, 431,6. [210.
pisolith, 208; -iftc ore,
placers, 23; 1 18; 407,71,3;
505, 7.
pockets, 11 1,24,32,86; 206.
B.
rake-veins, 431,5,97. [81.
recumbent segregations,
reinerz, 210.
ribbons, 124;297;-ow-ore,
ring-ores, 12; 297. [156.
rock-bands, 446.
roo/", 19.
rothliegendes, 22^.
ruscheln, 150-3.
S.
saddle, 98: s. air-,9.
sand-ore, 167,9.
schalstein, 176,7,92,3;
schlechten, 150 [-ems, 194.
schwarzen-geb. 100.
schwebende, 126.
segregations, 81,93.
selvages, 13,26.
shorts, 27.
silver-slates, 343.
skolars, 325; 453, 4.
s/m'ws, 431,2.
slicken-sides, 33 ; 326, 34;
-slides, 140,64.
, 30; sZ^es, 407.
ein, 121.
springbands, 443.
steingang, 209
steinscheiden, 160.
stockwerk , 1 78 ; 349 , (=
/Zoor)398;406;-fce,488.
streamivorks, 407,20,2,7,
sin'fce, 19,26. [85.
sublimation,' 'l 1, 4.
surface-deposits, 23
symmetry, 11.
synclinal, 20.
T.
taube-ruschel, 155.
threads, 111.
timaz-ite (Timac-ww, *',
295)265,71,80, 1,8 ;-#ic,
tin-placers, 427. [277.
toadstone, 47; 43 1.
*rop, 432,5; -dto, 406.
trawns, 417.
triimerstock, 29.
V.
vem-s, 26,7,31,69; (rake-,
pipe-, &flat-} 431, 5,97.
-clay-slate, 157 ; -fissures,
69; -masses, 81.
vertical segregations, 82.
W.
wacke-s, 96; 114.
, 19; -roefc, 26; 127,
189; (hanging -<& foot-)
61,88,91; 135.
washings, 23.
weissliegendes, 229,
M?e way, 124.
whin-sill, 4:i5.
white-bed, 166.
Z.
zechstein, 136,7, 42,C>6,70,
199; 503, 7, 25.
zinkivand, 341.
zinopel, 298.
, 106, 7; 426.
E 11 R A T A
The following occur repeatedly :
.For encrease
read increase.
" gnng
" gangue.
" gaugstones
" veinstones.
" amiantos
' ' amianthus.
" niveau
" horizon.
" cinnobar
' ' cinnabar.
Page. Line.
4, 25.
For Abn
5, 35.
" Lb
7, 30.
" Sercarmontite
8, 22.
" CO
9, 32.
" Co O
10, 16.
' ' dimonite
27, 7.
" shorts
38, 9.
" separated
39, 26.
' ' apparently
40, 6.
' hardly
46, 27.
* ' hardly
51, 10.
" contribute
73, 37.
" seeing
76, 2.
Insert the
79, 38.
For some
102, 21.
" singuite
24.
" chloranthite
120, 31.
Insert schist
132, 30.
For of
139, 14.
" have
148, 29.
is
151, 5.
" Cath rina
153, 32.
" striking-out
164, 6.
" schicken
180, 16.
" seem
189, 4.
" an up and down
196, 6.
" that
201, 16.
Insert shale
244, 3.
For Jura
245, 18.
" Jura
252, 22.
" Krakau
256, 18.
' Infusia
22.
" af
read Mn.
" Sb.
" Senarmontite.
" C0 2
" CaO.
" limonite.
" shoots.
" distinguished.
" apparent.
' ' scarcely.
" scarcely.
" contributes.
" since.
after that.
read same.
" pinguite.
" chloanthite.
after mica.
read or.
" contain.
" are.
" Catharina.
" outcrop.
" slicken.
" a vertical.
" the.
after argillaceous.
read Jurassic.
" Jurassic.
" Cracow.
" Infusoria.
<{ of.
11
EEEATA.
Page.
Line.
265,
8.
For whence
read which.
266,
15.
After but
insert rarely.
270,
1.
" grammes
" of silver, and"
" kilogrammes ^
" of lead.
39.
For breaking out
read eruption.
280,
6.
" entirely
" very.
281,
10.
" Mountains
" Mountain.
288,
1.
" similar'
" different.
295,
24.
" melophyre
" melaphyre.
301,
5.
" lode
" granite.
302,
4.
" dialoge
" dialage.
5.
Insert are
after pyrites.
310,
21.
" than
" Bavaria.
315,
40.
For under
read at.
318,
bottom of pag(
a " Belemites
" Belemnites.
319,
35.
Insert is
after stone.
324,
Pyrites Stock in wood-cut, should read Pyrites Segregation.
330,
Table, for A. globrus read A.
glabrus, and for Meyophoria
read Myophoria.
343,
24.
Insert the
before strata.
345,
9.
For are belonging
read belong.
364,
14.
" garni te
" granite.
27.
" formation
" formations.
370,
12.
' ' spar
" spur.
382,
22.
Insert is
after breadth.
397,
27.
11 schists
" metamorphic.
398,
23.
For from
read by.
401,
1.
" as
" so.
403,
27.
" is
" are.
405,
1.
" of
" somewhat.
434,
12.
" this
" his.
16.
" in
" on.
458,
39.
" sequioxide
' sesquioxide.
470,
12.
" rock
" rocks.
471,
4.
Insert on
after principally.
472,
11.
For Wereh-Yssetsk
read Werch-.
483,
29.
" Schreckenstein
" Schneckenstein.
484,
32.
" Eomilio
1 ' Komillo.
498,
" Oskusz
" Olkusz.
499,
" Maidenpek
" Maidanpek.
503,
22.
' ' Muschen
" Miisen.
518,
8.
" Sula
" Sala.
523,
27.
" Geldkronach
" Goldkronach.
533,
30.
" joins on
' occurs.
536,
27.
" Westphalia
" the Western Alps..
537,
35.
" highly venturesome
" very rash.
538,
19.
" Tweste
" Twiste.
539,
41.
" Pietschgau
" Pinzgau.
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THE PRINCIPLES OF STRATEGY AXD GRAND TACTICS.
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H
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" EDWIN M. STANTON,
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"WASHINGTON, D. C., Oct. 20, 1862. f
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" EDWIN M. STANTON,
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EVOLUTIONS OF FIELD BATTERIES OF ARTILLERY.
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U. S. Engineer Department, No. 9, containing Reports of numerous
experiments conducted in New York City, during the years 1858 to
1 86 1 inclusive. By Major-General Q. A. GILLMORE, U. S. Volun-
teers, and Major U. S. Corps of Engineers. With numerous illus-
trations. One volume, octavo. Cloth. $4.
C YSTEMS OF MILITARY BRIDGES, in Use by the United States
^ Army ; those adopted by the Great European Powers ; and such
as are employed in British India. With Directions for the Preserva-
tion, Destruction, and Re-establishment of Bridges. By Maj.-Gen.
GEORGE W. CULLUM, Lieut. -Col. Corps of Engineers, United States
Army, i vol., octavo. With numerous illustrations. Cloth. $3.50.
Military Books. 9
MILITARY BRIDGES : For the Passage of Infantry, Artillery,
and Baggage-Trains ; with suggestions of many new expedients
and constructions for crossing streams and chasms ; designed to
utilize the resources ordinarily at command and reduce the amount
and cost of army transportation. Including also designs for Trestle
and Truss-Bridges for Military Railroads, adapted especially to the
wants of the Service of the United States. By HERMAN HAUPT,
Brig. -Gen. in charge of the construction and operation of the U. S.
Military Railways, Author of ''General Theory of Bridge Construc-
tion, &c." Illustrated by sixty-nine lithographic engravings. Oc-
tavo, cloth. $6.50.
"This elaborate and carefally prepared, though thoroughly practical and simple work, is
peculiarly adapted to the military service of the United States. Mr. Haupt has added very much
to the ordinary facilities for crossing streams and chasms, by the instructions afforded in this
work." Boston Courier.
BEN^T'S MILITARY LAW. A Treatise on Military Law and the
Practice of Courts-Martial. By Col. S. V. BENET, Ordnance De-
partment, U. S. A., late Assistant Professor of Ethics, Law, &c.,
Military Academy, West Point, i vol., 8vo, sixth edition, revised
and enlarged. Law sheep. $4. 50.
" Captain Benet presents the army with a complete compilation of the precedents and decisions
cf rare value which have accumulated since the creation of the office of Judge- Advocate,
thoroughly digested and judiciously arranged, with an index .of the most minute accuracy.
Military Law and Courts-Martial are treated from the composition of the latter to the Finding
and Sentence, with the Revision and Execution of the same, all set forth in a clear, exhaustive
style that is a cardinal excellence in every work of legal reference. That portion of the work
devoted to Evidence is especially good. In fact, the whole performance entitles the author to
the thanks of the entire army, not a leading officer of which should fail to supply himself at once
with so serviceable a guide to the intricacies of legal military government."^. Y. Times.
JUDGE-ADVOCATE GENERAL'S OFFICE, (
October 13, 1862. f
* * * So far as I have been enabled to examine this volume, it seems to me carefliU/ and
accurately prepared, and I am satisfied that you have rendered an acceptable service to the ?rmy
and the country by its publication at this moment. In consequence of the gigantic pr /portions
so suddenly assumed by the military operations of the Government, there have been n';cresarily
called into the field, from civil life, a vast number of officers, unacquainted, from their previous
studies and pursuits, both with the principles of military law and with the course rf judicial
proceedings under it. To all such, this treatise will prove an easily accessible etOichouse of
knowledge, which it is equally the duty of the soldier in command to acquire, as H is to draw
his sword against the common enemy. The military spirit of our people now being 'horoajrhly
aroused, added to a growing conviction that in future we may have to depend quite u umch upon
the bayonet as upon the ballot-box for the preservation of our institutions, cannot fe.il to secure
to this work an extended and earnest appreciation. In bringing the results of iej^islation and
of decisions upon the questions down to so recent a period, the author has added greatly to the
interest and usefulness of the volume. Very respectfully,
Your obedient servant, J. HOLT.
HALLECK'S INTERNATIONAL LAW ; or, Rules Regulating the
Intercourse of States in Peace and War. By Maj.-Gen. H. W.
HALLECK, Commanding the Army. I vol., 8vo. Law sheep
$6.
10 D. Van Nostmnd's Publications.
R
EPORT OF THE ENGINEER AND ARTILLERY OPERA-
TIONS OF THE ARMY OF THE POTOMAC, from its Or-
fnization to the Close of the Peninsular Campaign. By Maj.-Gen.
G. BARNARD, and other Engineer Offkers, and Maj.-Gen. W. F.
BARRY, Chief of Artillery. Illustrated by numerous Maps, Plans,
&c. Octavo. Cloth. $4.
" The title of this work sufficiently indicates its importance and value as a contribution to tho
history of the great rebellion. Gen. Barnard's report is a narrative of the engineer operations
of the Army of thet Potomac from the time of its organization to the date it was withdrawn
from the James River. Thus a record is given of an important part in the great work which
the nation found before it when it was first confronted with the necessity of war, and perhaps
on no other point in the annals of the rebellion will future generations look with a deeper or
snore admiring interest." Buffalo Courier.
HTHE "C. S. A.," AND THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN. (A
J- Letter to an English friend), by Major J. G. BARNARD, Colonel
of Engineers, U. S. A., Major-General and Chief Engineer, Army
of the Potomac. With five maps, i vol., Svo. Cloth. $2.
T
HE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN AND ITS ANTECEDENTS,
as developed by the Report of Major-General GEO. B. MCCLELLAN,
and other published Documents. By J. G. BARNARD, Colonel of
Engineers arid Brevet Major-General Volunteers, and Chief En-
gineer in the Army of the Potomac from its organization to the close
of the Peninsular Campaign, i vol., I2mo. Paper. 30 cents.
NOTES ON SEA-COAST DEFENCE: Consisting of Sea-Coast
Fortification ; the Fifteen-Inch Gun ; and Casemate Embrasure.
By Major-General J. G. BARNARD, Col. of Corps of Engineers,
U. S. A. i vol., Svo. Cloth. Plates. $2.
M
ANUAL FOR ENGINEER TROOPS : Consisting of Part I.
Ponton Drill ; II. Practical Operations of a Siege ; III. School
of the Sap ; IV. Military Mining ; V. Construction of Batteries.
By General J. C. DUANE, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, i vol.,
I2mo. Half morocco. With plates. $2.50.
" I have carefully examined Capt. J. C. Duane's 'Manual for Engineer Troops, 1 and do not
hesitate to pronounce it the very best work on the subject of which it treats.
" H. W. HALLECK, Major-General U. S. A."
"A work of this kind has been much needed in our military literature. For the Army's
eake, I hope the book will have a wide circulation among its officers.
" G. B. McCLELLAN, Major-General U. S. A."
A TREATISE ON MILITARY SURVEYING. Theoretical and
Practical, including a description of Surveying Instruments. By
G. H. MENDELL, Major of Engineers, i vol., I2mo. With nu-
merous illustrations. Cloth. $2.
"The author is a Captain of Engineers, and has fur his chief authorities Salneuve, Lalobre,
and Simms. He has presented the subject in a simple form, and has liberally illustrated it with
diagrams, that it may be readily comprehended by eveiy one who is liable to be called u v on to
furnish a military sketch of a portion of country." JV. Y. Evening Post.
Military Books. 1 1
ABBOT (H. L.) Siege Artillery in the Campaign against Richmond,
with Notes <fti the 1 5-inch Gun, including an Algebraic Analysis
of the Trajectory of a Shot in its ricochet upon smooth Water. Il-
lustrated with detailed drawings of the U. S. and Confederate rifled
projectiles. By HENRY L. ABBOT, Major of Engineers, and Brevet
Major-General U. S. Volunteers, commanding Siege Artillery, Armies
before Richmond. Paper No. 14, Professional Papers, Corps of
Engineers. I vol., Svo. Cloth. $3.50.
A UTHORIZED U. S. INFANTRY TACTICS. For the Instruc-
*~* tion, Exercise, and Manoeuvres of the Soldier, a Company, Line
of Skirmishers, Battalion, Brigade, or Corps d'Armee. By Brig.-
Gen. SILAS CASEY, U. S. A. 3 vols., 24mo. Vol. I. School of
the Soldier ; School of the Company ; Instruction for Skirmishers.
Vol. II. School of the Battalion. Vol. III. Evolutions of a Bri-
gade ; Evolutions of a Corps d'Armee. Cloth, lithographed plates.
$2.50.
MORRIS'S INFANTRY TACTICS. Comprising the School of
the Soldier, School of the Company, Instruction for Skirmishers,
School of the Battalion, Evolutions of the Brigade, and Directions
for Manoeuvring the Division and the Corps d'Armee. By Brig.-
Gen. WILLIAM H. MORRIS, U. S. Vols., and late U. S. Second In-
fantry. 2 vols., 24mo. Cloth. $2.
US. TACTICS FOR COLORED TROOPS. U. S. Infantry Tac-
tics, for the Instructfon, Exercise, and Manoeuvres of the Soldier,
a Company, Line of Skirmishers, and Battalion, for the use of the
COLORED TROOPS of the United States Infantry. Prepared under the
direction of the War Department, i vol., 24 mo. Plates. Cloth.
$1.50.
" WAR DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, March 9, 1S68.
"This system of United States Infantry Tactics, prepared under the direction of the War
Department, for the use of the colored troops of the United States Infantry, having been
approved by the President, is adopted for the instruction of such troops.
" EDWIN M. STANTON, Secretary of War."
FIELD TACTICS FOR INFANTRY. Comprising the Battalion
movements, and Brigade evolutions, useful in the Field, on the
March, and in the presence of the Enemy. The tabular form is
used to distinguish the commands of the General, and the com-
mands of the Colonel. By Brig. -Gen. WM. H. MORRIS, U. S. Vols.,
late Second U. S. Infantry. i8mo. Illustrated. 75 cents.
IGHT INFANTRY COMPANY AND SKIRMISH DRILL.
The Company Drill of the Infantry of the Line, together with the
Skirmish Drill of the Company and Battalion, after the method of
General LE LOUTEREL. Bayonet Fencing ; with a Supplement on
the Handling and Service of Light Infantry. By J. MONROE, Col.
22d Regiment, N. G., N. Y. S. M., formerly Captain U. S. Infantry,
i vol., 3 2 mo. 75 cents.
SCHOOL OF THE GUIDES. Designed for the use of the Militia
of the United States. Flexible cloth. 60 cents.
L
12 D. Van No strand's Publications.
STANDING ORDERS OF THE SEVENTH REGIMENT,
NATIONAL GUARD. For the Regulation fnd Government of
the Regiment in the Field or in Quarters. By A. DURYEA, Colonel.
New Edition. Flexible cloth. 50 -cents.
HETH'S SYSTEM OF TARGET PRACTICE : For the use of
Troops when armed with the Musket, Rifle-Musket, Rifle, or Car-
bine. Prepared, principally from the French, b^- Captain HENRY
HETH, loth Infantry, U. S. A. i8mo. Cloth. 75 cents.
SWORD-PLAY. The Militiaman'* Manual and Sword-Play without
a Master. Rapier and Broad-Sword Exercises, copiously Explained
and Illustrated ; Small-Arm Light Infantry Drill of the United States
Army ; Infantry Manual of Percussion Muskets ; Company Drill of
the United States Cavalry. By Major M. W. BERRIMAN, engaged
for the last thirty years in the practical instruction of Military Stu-
dents. Fourth edition. I vol., I2mo. Red cloth. $i.
PATTEN'S INFANTRY TACTICS. Containing Nomenclature of
the Musket ; School of the Soldier ; Manual of Arms for the
Rifle Musket ; Instructions for Recruits, without regard to Arms ;
School of the Company ; Skirmishers, or Light Infantry and Rifle
Company Movements ; the Bayonet Exercise ; the Small-Sword Ex-
ercise ; Manual of the Sword or Sabre. I2mo. 92 Engravings.
Paper. 50 cents.
T)ATTEN'S INFANTRY TACTICS. Contains Nomenclature of the
Jt- Musket ; School of the Company ; Skirmishers, or Light Infantry
and Rifle Company Movements ; School of the Battalion ; Bayonet
Exercise ; Small-Sword Exercise ; Manual of the Sword or Sabre.
I2mo. 100 Engravings. Paper. Revised edition. 75 cents.
NEW BAYONET EXERCISE. A New Manual of the Bayonet,
for the Army and Militia of the United States. By General J.
C. KELTON, U. S. A. With Forty beautifully-engraved Plates.
Fifth edition, revised. Red cloth. $2.
This Manual was prepared for the use of the Corps of Cadets, and has been
introduced at the Military Academy with satisfactory results. It, is simply the
theory of the attack and defence of the sword applied to the bayonet, on the
authority of men skilled in the use of arms.
The Manual contains practical lessons in Fencing, and prescribes the defence
against Cavalry, and the manner of conducting a contest with a swordsman.
" This work merits a favorable reception at the hands of all military men. It contains all the
instruction necessary to enable an officer to drill his men in the use of this weapon. The
introduction of the Sabre Bayonet in our army renders a knowledge of the exercise more im-
perative." New York Times.
RHYMED TACTICS, BY "GOV." i vol., i8mo. Paper. With
portraits. 25 cents.
HINTS TO COMPANY OFFICERS ON THEIR MILITARY
DUTIES. By Gen. C. C. ANDREWS, Third Regt. Minnesota
Vols. i vol., iSmo. Cloth. 60 cents.
"This is a hand-book of good practical advice, which officers of all ranks may study witb
advantage. 11 Philadelphia Press.
Military Books. 13
A USTRIAN INFANTRY TACTICS. Evolutions of the Line as
practised by the Austrian Infantry, and adopted in 1853. Trans-
lated by Captain C. M. WILCOX, Seventh Regiment U. S. Infantry.
i vol., 1 2 mo. Three large plates. Cloth. $i.
lELE'S HAND-BOOK. Hand-Book for Active Service, contain-
ing Practical Instructions in Campaign Duties. For the use of
Volunteers. By Brig. -Gen. EGBERT L. VIELE, U. S. A. I2mo.
Cloth. i.
V
THE BATTLE-FIELDS OF VIRGINIA. Chancellorsville, em-
bracing the Operations of the Army of Northern Virginia. From
the First Battle of Fredericksburg to the Death of Lt.-Gen. S. J.
Jackson. By JED. HOTCHKISS and WILLIAM ALLAN, i vol., 8vo.
Cloth. Illustrated with Maps and Portrait of Stonewall Jackson.
$5.
" Though written from a Confederate stand-point this is a valuable accession to the military
history of the country. It embraces the operations of the rebel army of Northern Virginia from
the first battle of Predericksburg to the death of Stonewall Jackson." Washington Star.
/CAMPAIGN OF MOBILE, including the Co-operation of General
V* Wilson's Cavalry in Alabama. By Brevet Maj-Gen. C. C. AN-
DREWS. With Maps and Illustrations. 8vo. Cloth. $3. 50.
" This is an elaborate account of a memorable campaign conducted by General Canby with
great skill, and resulting in a great success. That success, owing to the fact that it occurred at
the time the rebellion collapsed in Virginia, has not occupied in the public mind the place due to
its intrinsic importance and the generalship which made it possible. To military readers,
however, the campaign must be of more than ordinary interest." Boston Transcript.
RIFLES AND RIFLE PRACTICE. An Elementary Treatise on
the Theory of Rifle Firing ; explaining the Causes of Inaccuracy
of Fire and the manner of correcting it, with descriptions of the
Infantry Rifles of Europe and the United States, their Balls and Car-
tridges. By Captain C. M. WILCOX, U. S. A. New edition, with
engravings and cuts. Green cloth. $2.
" Although eminently a scientific work, special care seems to have been taken to avoid the
nse of technical terms, and to make the whole subject comprehensible to the practical inquirer.
It was designed chiefly for the use of Volunteers and the Militia ; but the War Department has
evinced its approval of its merits by ordering from the publisher one thousand copies for the
use of the United States Army." Louisville Journal.
RIFLED ORDNANCE : A Practical Treatise on the Application of
the Principle of the Rifle to Guns and Mortars of every calibre.
To wnich is added a new theory of the initial action and force of
Fired Gunpowder. By LYNALL THOMAS, F. R. S. L. Fifth edition,
revised. One volume, octavo, illustrated. Cloth. $2.
"An important contribution to a branch of military science, which is just now a subject
of warm discussion in America as well as England. Mr. Thomas's conclusions are based on a
large number of careful experiments, and are entitled to careful consideration. In regard
to the famous Armstrong guns, while considering their inventor as entitled to the honor
of suggesting the only successful method of constructing wrought-iron guns, he disagrees with
him in nearly all that relates to the projection of the shot, and holds that the Armstrong must
etill be an experimental gun particularly objectionable as breech-loaders. Its asserted over.
coming of the scientific and mechanical difficulties of other guns, is based wholly on its revival
of breech-loading a method generally considered obsolete and objectionable."
14 D. Van Nbstrand's Publications.
HTHREE YEARS IN THE SIXTH CORPS. A concise narrative
J- of events in the Army of the Potomac from 1861 to the Close of
the Rebellion, April, 1865.* By GE. T. STEVENS, Surgeon of the
yyth Regt. New York Volunteers.' Illustrated with seventeen en-
gravings. New revised edition. 8vo. Cloth. $3.
HPHE VOLUNTEER QUARTERMASTER. Containing a Collec-
J- don and Codification of the Laws, Regulations, Rules, and Prac-
tices governing the Quartermaster's Department of the United States
Army, and in force March 4, 1865. By Captain ROELIFF BRINKER-
HOFF, Assistant Quartermaster U. S. Volunteers, and Post Quarter-
master at Washington, i vol., I2mo. Cloth. $2.50.
This work embraces all the laws of Congress, and all the orders and circulars
of the War Office and its bureaus, bearing upon the subject. It also embodies
the decisions of the Second Comptroller of the Treasury, so far as they affect the
Quartermaster's Department. These decisions have the force of law in the
adjustment of accounts, and are therefore invaluable to all disbursing officers.
M
ANUAL FOR QUARTERMASTERS AND COMMISSARIES.
Containing Instructions in the Preparation of Vouchers, Ab-
stracts, Returns, &c., embracing all the recent changes in the Army
Regulations, together with instructions respecting Taxation of Sal-
aries, &c. By Captain R. F. HUNTER, late of the U. S. Army.
I2mo. Cloth. $1.25. Flexible morocco. $1.50.
HTHE WAR IN THE UNITED STATES. A Report to the Swiss
1 Military Department. Preceded by a Discourse to the Federal
Military Society assembled at Berne, Aug. 18, 1862. By FERDINAND
LECOMTE, Lieut. -Col. Swiss Confederation. Author of " Relation
Historique et Critique de la Campagne dTtalie en 1859," " L'ltalie
en 1860," and "Le General Jomini, sa Vie, et ses Ecrits," &c., &c.
Translated from the French by a Staff Officer. i vol., i2mo.
Cloth. $i.
T^ODLEBEN'S (GENERAL) HISTORY OF THE DEFENCE
1 OF SEBASTOPOL. By WILLIAM HOWARD RUSSELL, LL.D., of
the London Times, i vol., i2mo. Cloth. $2.
/^UNNERY IN 1858. A Treatise on Rifles, Cannon, and Sporting
VJT Arms. By WM. GREENER, R. C. E. i vol., 8vo. Cloth. $4. Full
calf. $6.00.
MANUAL OF SIGNALS, for the use of Signal Officers in the
Field, and for Military and Naval Students, Military Schools,
&c. A new edition, enlarged and illustrated. ByBrig.-Gen. ALBERT
Y. MYER, Chief Signal Officer of the Army, Colonel of the Signal
Corps during the War of the Rebellion. With 31 Plates. I2mo.
Roan. $5.
M
Military Books. 15
ANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR MILITARY SURGEONS,
in the Examination of Recruits and Discharge of Soldiers.
With an Appendix containing the Official Regulations of the Pro-
vost-Marshal-General's Bureau, and those for the formation of the
Invalid Corps, &c., &c. Prepared at the request of the United
States Sanitary Commission. By JOHN ORDRONAUX, M. D., Pro-
fessor of Medical Jurisprudence in Columbia College, New York.
1 2 mo. Half morocco. $1.50.
H
INTS ON THE PRESERVATION OF HEALTH IN AR-
MIES. For the use of Volunteer Officers and Soldiers. By JOHN
ORDRONAUX, M. D. New edition, i8mo. Cloth. 75 cents.
SIEGE OF BOMARSUND (1854). Journals of Operations of the
Artillery and Engineers. Published by permission of the Minister
of War. Illustrated by Maps and Plans. Translated from the
French by an Army Officer. I2mo. Cloth. $i.
PATTEN'S ARMY MANUAL. Containing Instructions for Officers
in the Preparation of Rolls, Returns, and Accounts required of
Regimental and Company Commanders, and pertaining to the Sub-
sistence and Quartermaster's Departments, &c., &c. i vol., 8vo.
Cloth. $2.
A
TREATISE ON THE CAMP AND MARCH. With which is
connected the Construction of Field-Works and Military Bridges ;
with an Appendix of Artillery Ranges, &c. For the use of Volun-
teers and Militia in the United States. By Captain HENRY D. GRAF-
TON, U. S. A. i vol., i2mo. Cloth. 75 cents.
AUTOMATON REGIMENT; OR, INFANTRY SOL-
DIERS' PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR. For all Regimental
Movements in the Field. By G. DOUGLAS BREWERTON, U. S. Army.
Neatly put up in boxes, price $i. When sent by mail, $1.40.
The "Automaton Regiment" is a simple combination of blocks and counters, so arranged and
design.'itcd by a carefully considered contrast of colors, that it supplies the student with a perfect
miniature regiment, in which the position in the battalion, of each company, and of every officer a.,d
man in each division, company, platoon, an J soctioa, is clearly indicated. It supplies the studioi-s
soldier with the means whoreby he can consult his " tactics," and at the same tiina joiu practica to
theory by manoauvring a mimic regiment.
THE AUTOMATON COMPANY ; OR, INFANTRY SOLDIERS'
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$1.25. When sent by mail, $1.95.
HTHE AUTOMATON BATTERY ; OR, ARTILLERISTS' PRAC-
1 TICAL INSTRUCTOR. For all Mounted Artillery Manoeuvres
in the Field. By G. DOUGLAS BREWERTON, U. S. A. Price, in
boxes, $i. When sent by mail, $1.40.
L
M
i
L
16 I). Van Nostrand j s Publications.
SERGEANT'S ROLL BOOK, FOR THE COMPANY, DETAIL,
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McCLELLAN (GENERAL). Report of the Army of the Potomac,
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Plans. 8vo. Cloth. $i.
ES ECRIVAINS MILITAIRES DE LA FRANCE. Par THEO.
KARCHER. Illustrated. 8vo. Cloth. $3.50.
ILITARY MEASURES OF THE UNITED STATES CON-
GRESS, 1861-65. By Hon. HENRY WILSON. Svo. Paper.
50 cents.
IEBER ON GUERRILLA PARTIES. Guerrilla Parties consid-
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the request of Major-General HENRY VV. HALLECK, General-in-Chief
of the Army of the United States. By FRANCIS LIEBER. 121110.
Paper. 25 cents.
UNION FOUNDATIONS. A Study of American Nationality, as a
Fact of Science. By Captain E. B. HUNT, Corps of Engineers,
U. S. A. i vol., Svo. 30 cents.
TEXAS, AND ITS LATE MILITARY OCCUPATION AND
EVACUATION. By Captain EDWIN D. PHILLIPS, ist Infantry,
U. S. A. Svo. Paper. 25 cents.
NSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF ARMIES OF
THE U. S. IN THE FIELD. Prepared by FRANCIS LIEBER
LL.D., and revised by a Board of Officers, and approved by the War
Department, in General Order No. 100. 12 mo. Price 25 cents,
paper covers.
RMY REGISTER OF THE UNITED STATES FOR 1869.
1 2 mo. Paper. $2.
PORTRAIT GALLERY OF THE WAR, CIVIL, MILITARY,
AND NAVAL. A Biographical Record. Edited by FRANK
MOORE. Illustrated with sixty fine portraits on steel, i vol., Svo.
Cloth, $6 ; cloth, full gilt, $7. 50.
NOTES ON HORSES FOR CAVALRY SERVICE, embodying
the Quality, Purchase, Care, and Diseases most frequently en-
countered, with lessons for bitting the Horse, and bending the neck.
By Bvt. Major A. K. ARNOLD, Capt. 5th Cavalry, Assistant Instructor
of Cavalry Tactics, U. S. Mil. Academy. iSmo. Illustrated. Clo. 75cts.
REPORT TO THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES
ON THE MUNITIONS OF WAR exhibited at the Paris Univer-
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VALENTINE, Esq., U. S. Commissioners. With 80 Illustrations, i vol.,
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I
A
Military Books. 17
T IPPITT. A Treatise on the Tactical Use of the Three Arms:.
J * Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry. By FRANCIS J. LIPPITT, Ex-
Colonel Second Infantry, California Volunteers, &c., &c. I2mo.
Cloth. $1.25.
" The formation, the manner of use, and the general handling are very practically presented,
and we are glad to pee that, while many of the illustrative examples are taken from the
Napoleonic wars, our own war has not been neglected. We recommend this book for use as a
fimple, accurate, and brief- manual in military institutions, and for instruction in militia
organizations. 1 " United States Service Magazine.
LIPPITT. A Treatise on Intrenchments. By FRANCIS J. LIPPITT,
* Ex-Colonel Second Infantry, California Volunteers, &c., &c.
Illustrated by 41 engravings. I2ino. Cloth. $1.50.
"It is a brief but comprehensive statement of all that needs to be known upon the subject by
any except professional engineers. All the principles of the art of fiejd fortification are clearly
explained, with copious illustrations, drawn from military history, especially from the opera-
tions of our late war, the whole made plain by diagrams. 1 ' Army and Navy Journal.
T IPPITT. The Special Operations of War : comprising the Forcing
J' and Defence of Denies ; the Forcing and Defence of Rivers, and
the Passage of Rivers in Retreat ; the Attack and Defence of Open
Towns and Villages ; the Conduct of Detachments for Special Pur-
poses, and Notes on Practical Operations in Sieges. By FRANCIS J.
LIPPITT, Ex-Colonel Second California Infantry, &c., &c. With
illustrative cuts. I2mo. Cloth. $1.25.
41 In the illustration of the principles set forth by the writer, he makes frequent and impor-
tant use of the movements in the late war of the Rebellion, as well as of operations in the wars of
Napoleon, and other European campaigns. The work thus assumes, in some sense, the charac-
ter of a historical commentary on celebrated military actions, and becomes of interest to the
general reader, as well as to the student of the art of war." New York Tribune.
LIPPITT. Field Service in War : comprising Marches, Camps, and
Cantonments, Outposts, Convoys, Reconnaissances, Foraging,
and Notes on Logistics. By FRANCIS J. LTPPITT, Ex-Colonel Second
California Infantry, &c., &c. i vol., I2mo. Cloth. $1.25.
HEAD. A New System of Fortifications. By GEORGE E. HEAD,
A. M., Capt. 29th Infantry, and Bvt. Major U. S. Army.
4to. Illustrated. Paper $1.00.
SERVICE MANUAL for the Instruction of newly appointed Com-
missioned Officers, and the Rank and File of the Army, as com-
piled from Army Regulations, The Articles of War, and the Customs
of Service. By HENRY D, WALLEN, Bvt. Brigadier-General U. S.
Army. i2mo. Clo. $1.50.
In my estimation, Gen. Wall tin's Sbrvice Manual is a book of great value. It contains not only ex-
tracts from the rogalatioas, but a'so includes, in a concise form, the customs of service at well-regu-
lated Posts, as well as i i Regime.us, th,z uniorittin, law, which takes so long to learn, and which is
so soon forg)tten <>r over look jJ. Icoasider it :i v3-y useful c >mo3adium for Junior Officers, and a
good book lor the instruction of Non-C >mmissi >mcl OIBsers in their duties. I havj prescribed that it
be taught in my reginuat an 1 at tiie Post w -lore I command.
J. VOGDES,
Colonel 1st Artillery, Bvt. -Brig. Genl. U. S. A.,
Fort Hamilton, New York Harbor.
18 D. Van Nostrancfs Publications.
REBELLION RECORD. A Diary of American Events. 1860-
1864. Edited by FRANK MOORE. Complete in 12 Volumes.
Illustrated with 158 finely engraved^steel portraits of distinguished
Generals and Prominent Men, together with numerous Maps and
Plans. The work can now be supplied complete in 12 volumes at
the following prices, viz. : Green cloth, $60.00 ; library sheep,
$72.00; half calf, antique, $78.00; half morocco, $78.00; half
Russia, $84.00.
This work is a compendium of information, made up of special correspondence, official re-
ports, and gleanings from the newspapers of both sections of the United States and of Europe
Of these latter, over five hundred are used in its preparation.
The REBELLION RECORD has now become so firmly established as the standard authority ol
the war that individuals in all departments of the Army, Navy, and Government are constantly
referring to it, for narratives of important events, and official reports unpublished elsewhere.
In addition to this, most of the speeches, narratives, &c., elsewhere published, have been re-
vised by their authors, specially for the RECORD.
The editor has aimed at completeness, accuracy, and impartiality. Completeness has been
secured by the fullest possible sources of information. Accuracy has been attained by deferring
publication of all matter long enough after events for the accounts of them to be sifted. Im-
partiality has been a special object. Every authority from the Southern side has been sought
for without regard to labor or expense, and all statements and documents have been inserted as
originally found, without editorial comment of any kind.
The REBELLION RECORD is already the main source of history of the war. Most of the histc-
rles of the war yet published have been, in a great measure, compiled from the REBELLION
RECORD. This is proved by the fact that documents cited in those works are quoted in the phra-
seology of the copies revised by their authors specially for the Record, and published iwwhere else.
This work is of special value to statesmen, inasmuch as the course and policy of all prominent
men are fully traced in it.
It is indispensable to lawyers. A large and increasing amount of litigation is arising on sub-
jects connected with the war, and the REBELLION RECORD is the only complete repository of
evidence and authority. All important Laws and leading Decisions arising out of the war are
reported in it ; and it has already be^n received as authentic evidence in trial for Piracy and
Treason in the United States Courts of Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and San Francisco.
The Philadelphia Press, of October 26, 1861, thus speaks of it :
" During the trial, which terminated yesterday, for piracy, of one of the crew of the Jeff.
Davis, a great deal of evidence was offered by the counsel for defence taken from FRANK
MOORE'S REBELLION RECORD, and received by Judges Grier and Cadwallader, who presided.
This is a remarkable compliment to the work in question ; but not higher than it merits, from
the fulness and fairness of its various information respecting the rebellion. It is the first time
in legal and literary history that a book not yet completed has been so stamped with authen-
ticity as to be admitted as evidence in a court of law, and on a trial for a capital offence."
" We presume that there can be no question that there never was so complete a body of me-
moires pour servir published as this, and at least that it is destined to be the resort of all those
who wish to study, from a political, social, or military point of view, the events of the years
1860-65. That no libraries fit to be called such, whether public or private, can dispense with it
is certain. The portraits of prominent officers and politicians which have generally accompa-
nied each monthly part, have been of a high order of excellence, and add materially to the valu
and attractiveness of the RECORD." T/t Nation.
NAVAL BOOKS.
A
TREATISE ON ORDNANCE AND NAVAL GUNNERY.
Compiled and arranged as a Text-Book for the U. S. Naval Acad-
emy, by Commander EDWARD SIMPSON, U. S. N. Fourth edition,
revised and enlarged, i vol., Svo. Plates and cuts. Cloth. $5.
"As the compiler has charge of the instruction in Naval Gunnery at the Naval Academy,
his work, in the compilation of which he has consulted a large numher of eminent authorities,
is probably well suited for the purpose designed by it namely, the circulation of infor-
mation which many officers, owing to constant service afloat, may not have been able to col-
lect. In simple and plain language it gives instruction as to cannon, gun-carriages, gun-
powler, projectiles, fuses, locks and primers ; the theory of pointing guns, rifles, the practice
f gunnery, and a great variety of other similar matters, interesting to fighting men on sea and
land." Washington Daily Globe.
G
UNNERY CATECHISM. As applied to the service of Naval Ord-
nance. Adapted to the latest Official Regulations, and approved
by the Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department. By J. D. BRANDT,
formerly of the U. S. Navy. Revised edition, i vol., i8mo.
Cloth. $1.50.
" BUREAU OF ORDNANCE NAVT DEPARTMENT, I
Washington City, July 30, 18(54.
11 MR. J. D. BRANDT,
" SIR: Your ' CATHECHISM OP GUNNERY, as applied to the service of Naval Ordnance,' having
been submitted to the examination of ordnance officers, and favorably recommended by them,
is approved by this Bureau. I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
"H. A. WISE, Chief of Bureau."
ORDNANCE INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE UNITED STATES
NAVY. Part I. Relating to the Preparation of Vessels of War
for Battle, and to the Duties of Officers and others when at Quarters.
Part II. The Equipment and Manceuvre of Boats, and Exercise of
Howitzers. Part III. Ordnance and Ordnapce Stores. Published
by order of the Navy Department, i vol., Svo. Cloth. With
plates. $5.
THE NAVAL HOWITZER ASHORE. By FOXHALV A. PARKER,
Captain U. S. Navy, i vol., Svo. With plates. Cloth. $4.00.
Approved by the Navy Department.
THE NAVAL HOWITZER AFLOAT. By FOXHALL A. PARKER,
Captain U. S. Navy, i vol., Svo. With plates. Cloth. $4.00,
Approved by the Navy Department.
N
20 D. Van Nbstrand's Publications.
GUNNERY INSTRUCTIONS. Simplified for the Volunteer Officers
of the U. S. Navy, with hints to Executive and other Officers. By
Lieutenant EDWARD BARRETT, U. . N. , Instructor of Gunnery,
Navy Yard, Brooklyn. I vol., I2m'o. Cloth. $1.25.
'It is a thorough work, treating plainly on its subject, and contains also some valuable hint*
to executive officers. No officer in the volunteer navy should be without a copy." Boston
JSvening Traveller. t.
CALCULATED TABLES OF RANGES FOR NAVY AND
V^ ARMY GUNS. With a Method of finding the Distance of an
Object at Sea. By Lieutenant W. P. BUCKNER, U. S. N. i vol.,
8vo. Cloth. $1.50.
AVAL LIGHT ARTILLERY. Instructions for Naval Light Ar-
tillery, afloat and ashore, prepared and arranged for the U. S.
Naval Academy, by Lieutenant W. H. PARKER, U. S. N. Third
edition, revised by Lieut. S. B. LUCE, U. S. N., Assistant Instructor
of Gunnery and Tactics at the United States Naval Academy, i
vol., 8vo. Cloth. With 22 plates. $3.'
T? LEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN NAVAL ORDNANCE AND
J-' GUNNERY. By JAMES H. WARD, Commander U. S. Navy,
Author of "Naval Tactics," and "Steam for the Million." New
Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo. Cloth. $2.
" It conveys an amount of information in the same space to be found nowhere else, and given
with a clearness which renders it useful as well to the general as the professional inquirer."
XT. T. Evening Post.
MANUAL OF NAVAL TACTICS ; Together with a Brief Critical
Analysis of the principal Modern Naval Battles. By JAMES H,
WARD, Commander U. S. N. With an Appendix, being an extract
from Sir Howard Douglas's "Naval Warfare with Steam." i vol.,
8vo. Cloth. $3.
NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. Prepared for
the use of the U. S. Naval Academy. By Prof. J. H. C. COFFIN,
Fourth edition, enlarged, i vol., 121110, Cloth. $3.50.
SQUADRON TACTICS UNDER STEAM. By FOXHALL A.
PARKER, Captain U. S. Navy. Published by authority of the Navy
Department. I vol., Svo. With numerous plates. Cloth. $5.
" In this useful work to Navy officers, the author demonstrates by the aid of profuse diagrams
and explanatory text a new* principle for manoeuvring naval vessels in action. The author
contends that the winds, waves, and currents of the ocean oppose no more serious obstacles to
the movements of a steam fleet, than do the inequalities on the surface of the earth to the
manoeuvres of an army. It is in this light, therefore, that he views a vast fleet simply as an
army ; the regiments, brigades, and divisions of which are represented by a certain ship or
phips." Scientific American.
SBON'S HAND-BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY.
Being a compilation of all the principal events in the history of
every vessel of the United States Navy, from April, 1861, to May,
1864. Compiled and arranged by B. S. OSBON. i vol., I2mo.
Cloth. $2. 50.
O
H
Naval Books. 21
ISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY.
With Biographical Sketches, and the names of all the Superin-
tendents, Professors, and Graduates ; to which is added a Record of
some of the earliest votes by Congress, of Thanks, Medals, and
Swords to Naval Officers. By EDWARD CHAUNCEY MARSHALL, A. M.
i vol., 1 2 mo. Cloth. Plates. $i.
NAVAL DUTIES AND DISCIPLINE : With the Policy and Prin-
ciples of Naval Organization. By F. A. ROE, late Commander
U. S. Navy, i vol., I2mo. Cloth. $1.50.
"The author's design was undoubtedly to furnish young officers some general instruction
drawn from long experience, to aid in the hetter discharge of their official duties, and, at the
same time, to furnish other people with a book which is not technical, and yet thoroughly
professional. It throws light upon the Navy its organization, its achievements, its interior
life. Everything is st tted as tersely as possible, and this is one of the advantages of the book,
considering that the experience and professional knowledge of twenty-five years' service,
are crowded somewhere into its pages." Army and Navy Journal.
MANUAL OF THE BOAT EXERCISE at the U. S. Naval Acad-
emy, designed for the practical instruction of the Senior Class in
Naval Tactics. i8mo. Flexible Cloth. 75C.
MANUAL OF INTERNAL RULES AND REGULATIONS
FOR MEN-OF-WAR. By Commodore U. P. LEVY, U. S. N.,
late Flag-Officer commanding U. S. Naval Force in the Mediter-
ranean, &c. Flexible blue cloth. Third edition, revised and en-
larged. 50 cents.
" Among the professional publications for which we are indebted to the war, we willingly give
a prominent place to this useful little Manual of Rules and Regulations to be observed on board
of ships of war. Its authorship is a sufficient guarantee, for its accuracy and practical value ;
and as a guide to young officers in providing for the discipline, police, and sanitary government
of the vessels under their command, we know of nothing superior." N. Y. Herald.
TOTTEN'S NAVAL TEXT-BOOK. Naval Text-Book and Dic-
tionary, compiled for the use of the Midshipmen of the U. S.
Navy. By Commander B. J. TOTTEN, U. S. N. Second and revised
edition, i vol., izmo. $3.
"This work is prepared for the Midshipmen of the United States Navy. It is a complete
manual of instructions as to the duties which pertain to their office, and appears to have been
prepared with great care, avoiding errors and inaccuracies which had crept into a former edition
of the work, and embracing valuable additional matter. It is a book which should be in the
hands of every midshipman, and officers of high rank in the navy would often find it a useful
companion." Boston Journal.
LUCE'S SEAMANSHIP : Compiled from various authorities, and
Illustrated with numerous Original and Selected Designs. For
the use of the United States Naval Academy. By S. B. LUCE, Lieu-
tenant-Commander U. S. N. In two parts. Fourth edition, revised
and improved. I vol., crown octavo. Half Roan. $7.50.
T ESSONS AND PRACTICAL NOTES ON STEAM. The Steam-
J ' Engine, Propellers, &c., &c., for Young Marine Engineers, Stu-
dents, and others. By the late W. R. KING, U. S. N. Revised by
Chief-Engineer J. W. KING, U. S. Navy. Twelfth edition, enlarged.
8vo. Cloth. $2.
22 D. Van Nostrand's Publications.
STEAM FOR THE MILLION. A Popular Treatise on Steam and
its Application to the Useful Arts, especially to Navigation. By J.
H. WARD, Commander C. S. Navy^ New and revised edition. I
vol., 8vo. Cloth. $i.
THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR, and the Improved Mano-
meter Steam and Vacuum Gauges : Their Utility .and Application.
By PAUL STILLMAN. New edition, i vol., i2mo. 'Flexible cloth.
$i.
SCREW PROPULSION. Notes on Screw Propulsion, its Rise and
History. By Capt. W. H. WALKER, U. S. Navy, i vol., 8vo.
Cloth. 75 cents.
POOR'S METHOD OF COMPARING THE LINES AND
DRAUGHTING VESSELS PROPELLED BY SAIL OR
STEAM, including a Chapter on Laying off on the Mould-Loft
Floor. By SAMUEL M. POOK, Naval Constructor, i vol., 8vo, with
illustrations. Cloth. $5.
HARWOOD'S LAW AND PRACTICE OF UNITED STATES
NAVAL COURTS-MARTIAL. By A. A. HARWOOD, U. S. N.
Adopted as a Text-Book at the U. S. Naval Academy. Svo. Law
binding. $4.
FLEET TACTICS UNDER STEAM. By FOXHALL A. PARKER,
Captain U. S. Navy. 181110. Cloth. Illustrated. $2.5-;
NAUTICAL ROUTINE AND STOWAGE. With Short Rules in
Navigation. By JOHN McLEOD MURPHY and WM. N. JEFFERS,
Jr., U. S. N. i vol., Svo. Blue cloth. $2.50.
NAVY REGISTER OF THE UNITED STATES FOR 1869.
Svo. Paper. $2.
SYSTEM OF NAVAL DEFENCES. By JAMES B. EADS. With
illustrations. 4to. Cloth. $5.
HTREATISE ON THE MARINE BOILERS OF THE UNITED
1 STATES. By H. H. BARTOL. Illustrated. Svo. Cloth. $1.50.
DEAD RECKONING; Or, Day's Work. By EDWARD BARRETT,
U. S. Navy. Svo. Flexible cloth. $1.25.
O UBMARINE WARFARE, DEFENSIVE AND OFFENSIVE. Com-
v3 prising a full and complete History of the invention of the Torpedo,
its employment in War, and results of its use. Descriptions of the
various forms of Torpedoes, Submarine Batteries and Torpedo Boats
actually used in War. Methods of ignition by Machinery, Contact
Fuzes, and Electricity, and a full account of experiments made to
determine the explosive Force of Gunpowder under Water. Also a
discussion of the offensive Torpedo system, its effect upon Iron-Clad
Ship systems, and influence upon Future Naval Wars. By Lieut. -
Commander JOHN S. BARNES, U. S. N. With illustrations, i vol.,
8vo. Clo. $5.00.
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
FRANCIS' (J. B.) Hydraulic Experiments. Lowell Hydraulic Ex*
periments being a Selection from Experiments on Hydraulic
Motors, on the Flow of Water over Weirs, and in Open Canals of
Uniform Rectangular Section, made at ISbwell, Mass. By J. B.
FRANCIS, Civil Engineer. Second edition, revised and enlarged, in-
cluding many New Experiments on Gauging Water in Open Canals,
and on the Flow through Submerged Orifices and Diverging Tubes.
With 23 copperplates, beautifully engraved, and about 100 new
pages of text. I vol., 4to. Cloth. $15.
Most of the practical rules given in the books on hydraulics have been determined from ex-
periments made in other countries, with insufficient apparatus, and on such a minute scale, that
In applying them to the large operations arising in practice in this country, the engineer cannot
but doubt their reliable applicability. The parties controlling the great water-power furnished
by the Merrimack River at Lowell, Massachusetts, felt this so keenly, that they have deemed it
necessary, at great expense, to determine anew some of the most important rules for gauging
the flow of large streams of water, and for this purpose have caused to be made, with great care,
several series of experiments on a large scale, a selection from which are minutely detailed in
this volume.
The work is divided inlo two parts PART I., on hydraulic motors, includes ninety-two experi-
ments on an improved Fourneyron Turbine Water- Wheel, of about two hundred horse-power,
With rules and tables for the construction of similar motors : Thirteen experiments on a model
of a centre-vent water-wheel of the most simple design, and thirty-nine experiments on a centre-
vent water-wheel of about two hundred and thirty horse-power.
PART II. includes seventy-four experiments made for the purpose of determining the form of
the formula for computing the flow of water over weirs ; nine experiments on the effect of back-
water on the flow over weirs ; eighty-eight experiments made for the purpose of determining
the formula for computing the flow over weirs of regular or standard forms, with several tables
of comparisons of the new formula with the results obtained by former experimenters ; five ex-
periments on the flow over a dam in which the crest was of the same form as that built by the
Essex Company across the Merrimack River at Lawrence, Massachusetts ; twenty-one experi-
ments on the effect of observing the depths of water on a weir at different distances from the
weir ; an extensive series of experiments made for the purpose of determining rules for gaug-
ing streams of water in open canals, with tables for facilitating the same ; and one hundred and
one experiments on the discharge of water through submerged orifices and diverging tubes, the
whole being fully illustrated by twenty-three double plates engraved on copper.
In 1855 the proprietors of the Locks and Canals on Merrimack River, at whose expense most
of the experiments were made, being willing that the public should share the benefits of the
scientific operations promoted by them, consented to the publication of the first edition of this
work, which contained a selection of the most important hydraulic experiments made at Lowell
up to that time. In this second edition the principal hydraulic experiments made there, subse-
quent to 1855, have been added, including the important series above mentioned, for determin-
ing rules for the gauging the flow of water in open canals, and the interesting series on the flow
through a submerged Venturi's tube, in which a larger flow was obtained than any we find re-
corded.
FRANCIS (J. B.) On the Strength of Cast-Iron Pillars, with Tables
for the use of Engineers, Architects, and Builders. By JAMES B,
FRANCIS, Civil Engineer, i vol., 8vo. Cloth. $2.
24 D. Yan Nostrand's Publications.
HOLLEY'S RAILWAY PRACTICE. American and European
Railway Practice, in the Economical Generation of Steam, in-
cluding the materials and construction of Coal-burning Boilers,
Combustion, the Variable Blast, Vaporization, Circulation, Super-
I heating, Supplying and Heating Feed-water, &c., and the adaptation
j of Wood and Coke-burning Engines to Coal-burning ; and in Por-
f manent Way, including Road-bed, Sleepers, Rails, Joint Fastenings,
* Street Railways, &c., &c. By ALEXANDER L. HOLLEY, B. P. With
77 lithographed plates, i vol.-, folio. Cloth. $12.
*' This is an elaborate treatise by one of our ablest civil engineers, on the construction and use
of locomotives, with a few chapters on the building of Railroads. * * * All these subjects
are treated by the author, who is a first-class railroad engineer, in both an intelligent and intelli-
gible manner. The facts and idas are well arranged, and presented in a clear and simple stytej
accompanied by beautiful engravings, and we presume the work will be regarded as indispens-
able by all who are interested in a knowledge of the construction of railroads and rolling stock,
or the working of locomotives." Scientific American.
HENRICI (OLAUS). Skeleton Structures, especially in their Appli-
cation to the Building of Steel and Iron Bridges. By OLAUS
HENRICI. With folding plates and diagrams, i vol., 8vo. Cloth.
WHILDEN (J. K.) On the Strength of Materials used in En-
gineering Construction. By J. K. WHILDEN. i vol., izmo.
Cloth. $2.
" We find in this work tables of the tensile strength of timber, metals, stones, wire, rope,
hempen cable, strength of thin cylinders of cast-iron ; modulus of elasticity, strength of thick
cylinders, as cannon, &c., effects of reheating, &c., resistance of timber, metals, and stone to
crushing; experiments on brick-work; strength of pillars; collapse of tube ; experiments on
punching and shearing ; the transverse strength of materials ; beams of uniform strength ; table
of coefficients of timber, stone, and iron ; relative strength of weight in cast-iron, transverse
strength of alloys ; experiments on wrought and cast-iron beams: lattice girders, trussed cast-
iron girders ; deflection of beams ; torsional strength and torsional elasticity." American Ar-
ti
C AMPIN (F.) On the Construction of Iron Roofs. A Theoretical
and Practical Treatise. By FRANCIS CAMPIN. With wood-cuts and
plates of Roofs lately executed. Large 8vo. Cloth. $3.
BROOKLYN WATER-WORKS AND SEWERS. Containing a
Descriptive Account of the Construction of the Works, and also
Reports on the Brooklyn, Hartford, Belleville, and Cambridge
Pumping Engines. Prepared and printed by order of .re Board of
Water Commissioners. With illustrations. i vol., folio. Cloth.
$15-
ROEBLING (J. A.) Long and Short Span Railway Bridges. By
JOHN A. ROEBLING, C. E. Illustrated with large copperplate en-
gravings of plans and views. Imperial folio, cloth. $25.
f LARKE (T. C.) Description of the Iron Railway Bridge across
\^ the Mississippi River at Quincy, Illinois. By THOMAS CURTIS
CLARKE, Chief Engineer. Illustrated with numerous lithographed
plans, i vol., 8vo. Cloth. $7.50.
Scientific BooJcs^ 25
WILLIAMSON (R. S.) On the Use of the Barometer on Surveys
and Reconnaissances. Part I. Meteorology in its Connection
with Hypsometry. Part II. Barometric Hypsometry. By R. S.
WILLIAMSON, Bvt. Lieut. -Col. U. S. A., Major Corps of Engineers.
With Illustrative Tables and Engravings. Paper No. 15, Professional
Papers, Corps of Engineers. I vol., 4to. Cloth. $15.
" SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., Feb. 27, 1867.
" Gen. A. A. HUMPHREYS, Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army :
" GENERAJy I have the honor to submit to you, in the following pages, the results of my in-
vestigations in meteorology and hypsometry, made with the view of ascertaining how far the
barometer can be used as a reliable instrument for determining altitudes on extended lines of
survey and reconnaissances. These investigations have occupied the leisure permitted me from
toy professional duties during the last ten years, and I hope the results will be deemed of suffi-
cient value to have a place assigned them among the printed professional papers of the United
States Corps of Engineers. Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
"K. S. WILLIAMSON,
"Bvt. Lt.-Col. U. S. A., Major Corps of U. S. Engineers.*'
*T^UNNER (P.) A Treatise on Roll-Turning for the Manufacture of
-L Iron. By PETER TUNNER. Translated and adapted. By JOHN B.
PEARSE, of the Pennsylvania Steel Works. With numerous engrav-
ings and wood-cuts, i vol., 8vo., with i vol. folio of plates. Cloth. $10.
SHAFFNER (T. P.) Telegraph Manual. A Complete History and
Description of the Semaphoric, Electric, and Magnetic Telegraphs
of Europe, Asia, and Africa, with 625 illustrations. By TAL. P.
SHAFFNER, of Kentucky. New edition, i vol., 8vo. Cloth. 850 pp.
$6.50.
MINIFIE (WM.) Mechanical Drawing. A Text-Book of Geomet-
rical Drawing for the use of Mechanics and Schools, in which
'the Definitions and Rules of Geometry are familiarly explained ; the
Practical Problems are arranged, from the most simple to the more
complex, and in their description technicalities are avoided as much
as possible. With illustrations for Drawing Plans, Sections, and
Elevations of Buildings and Machinery ; an Introduction to Isomet-
rical Drawing, and an Essay on Linear Perspective and Shadows.
Illustrated with over 200 diagrams engraved on steel. By WM
MINIFIE, Architect. Seventh edition. With an Appendix on the
Theory and Application of Colors, i vol., 8vo. Cloth. $4.
* It is the best work on Drawing that we have ever seen, aud is especially a text-book of Geo
metrical Drawing for the use of Mechanics and Schools. No young Mechanic, such as a Ma-
chinist, Engineer, Cabinet-Maker, Millwright, or Carpenter should be without it." Scientific
American.
" One of the most comprehensive works of the kind ever published, and cannot but possess
great value to builders. The style is at ouce elegant and substantial." Pennsylvania Inquirer
" Whatever is said is rendered perfectly intelligible by remarkably well-executed diagrams on
steel, leaving nothing for mere vague supposition ; and the addition of an introduction to iso-
metrical drawing, linear perspective, and the projection of shadows, winding up with a useful
index to technical terms." Glasgow Mechanics' Journal.
^- The British P^vernment has authorized the use of this book in their schools of art at
Somerset House, London, and throughout the kingdom.
MINIFIE (WM.) Geometrical Drawing. Abridged from the octavo
edition, for the use of Schools. Illustrated with 48 steel plates.
Fifth edition, i vol., I2mo. Half roan. $1.50.
"It is well adapted as a text-book of drawing to be used in our High Schools and Academieg
where this useful branch of the fine arts has been hitherto too much neglected." Boston Jour0r
26 D. Van NostrancPs Publications.
pEIRCE'S SYSTEM OF ANALYTIC MECHANICS. Physical
m. and Celestial Mechanics, by BENJAMIN PEIRCE, Perkins Professor
of Astronomy and Mathematics in^ Harvard University, and Con-
sulting Astronomer of the American Ephemeris and Nautical Al-
manac. Developed in four systems of Analytic Mechanics, Celestial
Mechanics, Potential Physics, and Analytic Morphology, i vol.,
4to. Cloth. $10. .
ILLMORE. Practical Treatise on Limes, Hydraulic Cements, and
Mortars. Papers on Practical Engineering, U. S. Engineer De-
partment, No. 9, containing Reports of numerous experiments con-
ducted in New York City, during the years 1858 to 1861, inclusive.
By Q. A. GILLMORE, Brig. -General U. S. Volunteers, and Major U.
S. Corps of Engineers. With numerous illustrations. One volume.
octavo. Cloth. $4.
ROGERS (H. D. ) Geology of Pennsylvania. A complete Scien-
tific Treatise on the Coal Formations. By HENRY D. ROGERS,
Geologist. 3 vols., 4to., plates and maps. Boards. $30.00.
BURGH (N. P.) - Modern Marine Engineering,- applied to Paddle
and Screw Propulsion. Consisting of 36 colored plates, 259
Practical Woodcut Illustrations, and 403 pages of Descriptive -Matter,
the whole being an exposition of the present practice of the follow-
ing firms : Messrs. J. Penn & Sons ; Messrs. Maudslay, Sons, &
Field ; Messrs. James Watt & Co. ,- Messrs. J. & G. Rennie ; Messrs.
t R.. Napier & Sons ; Messrs. J. & W. Dudgeon ; Messrs. Ravenhill
& Hodgson ; Messrs. Humphreys & Tenant ; Mr. J. T. Spencer,
and Messrs. Forrester & Co. By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. In one
thick vol., 4to. Cloth. $30.00. Half morocco. $35.00.
KING. Lessons and Practical Notes on Steam, the Steam-Engine,
Propellers, &c., &c., for Young Marine Engineers, Students,
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