UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 E. W. HILGARD, DIRECTOR 
 
 OLIVES 
 
 F. T. BIOLETTI and GEO. E. COLBY 
 
 Mission Olive of Califoenia (single olive natural size) 
 
 BULLETIN 123 
 
 BERKELEY 
 
 Ubc "University ipvess 
 
 January, 1899 
 
OLIVES 
 
 CULTIVATION, OIL-MAKING, PICKLING, DISEASES 
 
 By V. T. Bioletti 
 
 VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION 
 
 By Geo. E. Colby 
 
OLIVES. 
 
 CULTIVATION, OIL-MAKING, PICKLING, DISEASES. 
 
 By F. T. Bioletti. 
 
 Nearly all of the publications of this station relating to olives and 
 olive-growing having been destroyed in the burning of the Agricul- 
 tural Building, there are none now available for distribution. The 
 present bulletin, therefore, .has been prepared in answer to the numer- 
 ous inquiries that are continually received. It is not intended as a 
 manual of olive-growing but only as a convenient summary, covering 
 the main points about which inquiries have been received. 
 
 Cultivation. 
 
 Climate. — The olive is a native of Southern Europe and has been 
 cultivated in nearly all the countries surrounding the Mediterranean 
 from time immemorial. From there it has spread to various countries 
 which offer, like California, similar climatic conditions. It requires 
 an average yearly temperature somewhat higher than is required by 
 the vine, and will not withstand so low a temperature as the latter. It 
 is dangerous to plant olive trees in any region where the temperature 
 often falls below 20° F. Some varieties will withstand 15° F., but 
 only for a short time; and the young wood of many varieties is 
 injured even above this temperature. At 10° F. the whole tree is 
 destroyed. In spring, after the new growth has started, much less 
 cold than the above is harmful. On account of its need of an even 
 climate the olive is seldom cultivated successfully more than one 
 hundred miles from the sea, and succeeds best where the mean tem- 
 perature of the coldest month does not fall below 43° F. 
 
 Soil . — The olive needs a light, well- drained soil, and either does 
 not succeed, or gives fruit of poor quality, on heavy, clayey, or ill- 
 drained soils. It is especially suited to sandy or loam soils rich in 
 lime, and will grow in soils so rocky that nothing else but a vine 
 could succeed in. them. It is a mistake, however, to suppose that the 
 olive will give profitable crops in poor soils; such soils must be well 
 fertilized to insure good growth of the young trees and good crops 
 on the old. 
 
 The olive requires less water than most cultivated trees, on account 
 of its light foliage, and of its strong root system which penetrates to a 
 
great depth even in very rocky subsoils, if well drained. Where the 
 rainfall is very light, however, irrigation is necessary. It must not be 
 excessive, and the water level must be kept low, otherwise the quality 
 of the crop will be inferior and the trees more subject to disease. 
 
 Propagation. — Olives are generally propagated by cuttings. There 
 are several different methods, but the following probably gives the 
 best results: — Young shoots, several inches long, are cut from strong, 
 vigorous trees with a sharp knife. They should be cut as soon as 
 their wood is fairly well hardened, but not too late in the season; and 
 all the leaves should be removed, except two or three at the top. 
 They should be planted immediately in shallow boxes of sand, 
 placed in a greenhouse or a warm shady place and kept moderately 
 moist. In three or four months most of them will be well rooted, and 
 should be transplanted to pots or to a nursery where they will receive 
 more sun. Here they should remain for three or four months longer 
 and are then ready to be planted in place. It is best not to plant 
 them too early in the spring, before the soil has been well warmed; 
 and care must be taken during the first year that they do not dry out. 
 
 An olive orchard may be brought into bearing a year earlier by 
 using larger cuttings of old wood, but the trees are seldom so strong 
 and are much more uneven than by the foregoing method. The cut- 
 tings or truncheons in this case are taken in December or January from 
 branches two or three inches thick, and are cut about twenty to thirty 
 inches long. They should be made only from strong healthy wood 
 with sound bark. They should be cut so that they have knots at the 
 base, as this favors the production of roots. Great care should be 
 taken not to bruise them, and all the shoots should be removed, except 
 a few at the top. They should then be planted in a nursery of 
 very light sandy soil, being buried about two-thirds of their length 
 and the soil tightly packed around them. The top ends of the 
 cuttings should be coated with pitch, and, if the weather is hot or dry, 
 the nurses should be shaded until the cuttings begin to throw out 
 shoots. A very thorough watering should be given the ground im- 
 mediately after planting, and the soil must never, be allowed to get 
 dry until the cuttings are well rooted. A certain portion of the 
 cuttings will fail to grow with the best of care, and many will remain 
 dormant for one or two years. Those which grow well, however, are 
 ready for planting-out in the orchard the following season. 
 
 Another method commonly practiced is to cut sections of large 
 branches one or two feet long, split them in two and then to bury the 
 halves horizontally, with the bark up, about three inches deep in the 
 nursery. If the soil of the nursery is warm, light and well drained 
 and kept rather moist, a large number of shoots will in a few months 
 start from the buried sections and come through the soil. When 
 these shoots have become firm, but are still growing, they are cut off, 
 with a sharp knife, as close as possible to the old wood and planted in 
 the same manner as described above for the young shoots taken 
 directly from the trees. 
 
 One of the commonest methods of propagation, used especially in 
 Italy, is by means of "uovoli". This is the name given to the knot- 
 like swellings that occur very plentifully on the trunk of many 
 
varieties, especially near the base, and on the exposed parts of the 
 main roots. They are masses of dormant buds, and receive their name 
 from their resemblance in shape, after removal, to eggs. They should 
 be cut out carefully, and the places from which they are removed 
 painted over with pitch. They are generally removed in November, 
 and in frostless localities may be planted immediately. If necesssary, 
 they may be kept for three or four months in a dark cool place, buried 
 in sand and planted in the nursery when danger of frost is past. The 
 "uovoli" are planted three or four inches deep in a sandy soil, and of 
 the many shoots which start from each, only the strongest is allowed 
 to grow. They are ready to plant out in place in two or three years. 
 This method of propagation, at one time common, is being gradually 
 abandoned, as, besides injuring the trees from which the "uovoli" are 
 taken, it results in poorly rooted, short-lived trees, which are inordi- 
 nately prone to produce suckers. 
 
 The strongest, heaviest-bearing, and longest-lived trees are those 
 grown from seed. Seedlings have a stronger and more deep-seated 
 root system, and grow into more regular and more hardy trees than 
 those grown from cuttings. The only objection to their use is that 
 they require several years longer time before commencing to bear. 
 With care and intelligent cultivation however this delay can be reduced 
 to one or two years, and the larger crops and healthier trees resulting, 
 will more than compensate ultimately for the loss of time. 
 
 The flesh of the olive should be removed before planting the pits. 
 This is commonly done by piling the fruit in heaps and allowing it 
 to decay, after which the pits can be easily removed by washing. 
 Many of the seeds of most varieties will not germinate. These are 
 separated by placing all the pits in water and rejecting those which 
 float. The pits may be planted immediately, or if there is danger of 
 frost, kept in dry sand until spring. The pits must be cracked before 
 sowing, or they will remain two years in the ground before germina- 
 ting. This must be done very carefully, in order not to injure the 
 kernel; special instruments have been made for this purpose which 
 work very well. Instead of cracking the pits they may be placed for 
 twenty-four hours in a lye solution containing half a pound of caustic 
 soda to one gallon of water. This softens the shell so that it soon 
 decays in the soil and allows the young seedling to push through. 
 The pits should then be sown in a sandy bed heavily fertilized with 
 thoroughly rotted manure. They are placed every three inches in 
 little drills which are made six inches apart. Enough well rotted 
 manure should be placed in the drills to cover and surround the pits, 
 and the whole covered with soil to the depth of one inch. The beds 
 should be well watered until the seedlings start ; after which less water 
 should be used. When the seedlings have developed five or six leaves 
 they should be transplanted to the nursery, the roots at the same time 
 being cut back to about half their length. The olive, like all ever- 
 green trees, is likely to suffer from transplanting, unless care is taken 
 to remove the young plant with an adhering ball of earth. This is 
 facilitated by the manure which is placed around the seed when 
 planted. 
 
 The seedlings always revert more or less to the wild plant or type; 
 so that it is necessary to graft or bud them with the variety which it 
 
is desired to propagate. This may, in very favorable cases, be done 
 the spring after planting, bnt usually they are not large enough until 
 after the second spring. Two-year-old wood should be used for graft- 
 ing, and the grafts put in at the neck of the roots, just below the 
 surface of the ground. 
 
 The ordinary wedge- graft is usually used, and the union should be 
 carefully tied up and covered with grafting wax. The soil is then 
 piled up around the graft until only two eyes are exposed. If the 
 seedlings are large and have thick bark they may be budded in the 
 stem just above the ground. One year after grafting or budding, the 
 trees are ready for planting-out in their permanent places in the 
 orchard. 
 
 It is customary to leave the young trees for several years in the 
 nursery before planting them out, but as an old plant suffers from 
 transplanting much more than a young one, it is much better to do it 
 earlier. The greatest attention, however, must be given to the young 
 trees for the first few years. They should be thoroughly cultivated, 
 manured, and whenever necessary, watered. 
 
 Pruning. — Though olive trees are grown in some districts without 
 pruning, there can be no doubt that intelligent pruning increases the 
 regularity, quantity, and quality of the crop. Heavy pruning at 
 intervals of several years is practiced very commonly, but results in 
 irregular bearing and renders the trees more susceptible to disease. 
 The system which gives the best results from all points of view is a 
 moderate pruning every year. Two main objects should be kept in 
 view in pruning: 1. To give the tree the most convenient form. 
 2. To cause it to produce as large a crop each year as is consistent 
 with the quality of the fruit and the health of the tree. 
 
 For the smallest-growing varieties the tree should branch out 
 about 3 feet from the soil, and should be given a spherical bush- like top. 
 For the stronger and larger growers the trunk should be 4 or 5 feet 
 high, and the branches should grow in "goblet" form. The object is 
 to give every part of the tree, as nearly as possible, an equal amount 
 of air and light, and to give it the form that best facilitates gathering 
 the crop. It should always be kept in mind that any part that is 
 unduly shaded will fail to produce fruit. 
 
 All the fruit of the olive is borne on two-year-old wood, and the 
 same wood never bears twice. That is, the crop of this year is borne 
 on the shoots that grew last year, and the next year's crop will be 
 borne on the shoots that develop this year. For this reason a new 
 crop of shoots each year is essential to regular bearing. 
 
 The art of pruning can be learned only by practice and experience ; 
 but it will be found useful to keep the following points in mind : Cut 
 away all dead or diseased twigs or branches; thin out wherever the 
 branches are too close; cut back the branches that tend to grow too 
 long, in order to make them send out side shoots for fruiting wood. 
 It should also be kept in mind that heavy pruning confines the sap to 
 fewer outlets, and results in the production of vigorous sterile or 
 wood-bearing shoots; while light pruning, leaving a larger number of 
 buds, results in a large number of weaker and more fertile shoots. 
 A tree, therefore, which has sent out an inordinate number of sterile 
 
shoots, should not be cut back much, while a tree that has been 
 enfeebled by too large a crop must be heavily pruned. 
 
 When a tree has been properly pruned from the beginning, it is 
 seldom necessary to remove anything but small twigs, or to make 
 large wounds. When, however, on account of improper pruning, or of 
 great age of the tree, all the main branches of the tree have become 
 bare, and all the fruit-bearing wood has disappeared from the center of 
 the tree, it is necessary to cut back even the largest branches. This, 
 however, should be done gradually, or the tree will be injured by a too 
 sudden curtailment of the leaves which are its feeding organs. A 
 heavy pruning should be given the first year, sufficient to force out 
 shoots from the lower parts of the branches. The next year the most 
 vigorous and best situated of these shoots should be chosen to replace 
 the old branches, and the latter cut back still further. A branch of 
 any size should not be cut back too close to the old wood, even when 
 it is intended to suppress it completely, as there is danger of injury to 
 the main branches or trunk by drying out of the wood. Whenever a 
 large cut is made, for any reason, it should be painted over with 
 pitch, or some similar substance, to diminish evaporation and to pre- 
 vent the growth of fungi. 
 
 Grafting and Budding — It has already been stated that when an 
 olive tree is raised from seed, it reverts more or less to the wild form, 
 and produces fruit which is generally unsuited for either oil-making or 
 pickling. To have the desired quality of fruit, therefore, it must be 
 grafted or budded with a better variety. The method of doing this 
 with young trees has already been described under the head of propa- 
 gation. The olive may be grafted by almost any of the methods used 
 for other fruit trees ; but they are not to be recommended except when , 
 as in the case of young seedlings, the graft can be made below the 
 surface of the ground. For large trees, when it is desired to change 
 the variety, budding is to be preferred. 
 
 Budding succeeds well if done at the right time and under the 
 proper conditions. The essential points are that the bud must be 
 taken from good healthy wood, and inserted in a vigorous shoot. Most 
 of the failures in budding result from using a shoot of low vitality as 
 a stock. In order to insure shoots of sufficient vigor to start a bud, 
 the tree which is to be budded should be pruned severely the year 
 before. If the tree is large it is advisable to cut back only half the 
 branches the first year. The following spring the pruned branches 
 will send out a number of vigorous shoots, the best of which may be 
 budded. The following winter the rest of the branches should be cut 
 back and the budding completed the second summer. In this way the 
 tree does not receive so rude a shock as if all the branches were cut 
 back the same year. 
 
 The ordinary T-bud succeeds very well on the olive, though some 
 prefer the shield-bud. For the scion a dormant bud in the axil of a 
 leaf may be taken, as is usually done for other plants. With the 
 olive, however, twig-buds are more successful. The twig- bud is cut 
 from the parent plant as shown in Fig. 1. It must be cut deeply with 
 a sharp knife and part of the wood removed before insertion in the 
 stock. Also about two- thirds of each leaf on the twig-bud should be 
 
8 
 
 cut off to prevent drying ont by too much evaporation. The bud is 
 inserted in the usual way as shown in Fig. 2, and tied by winding a 
 
 Fig. 1.— Twig-Bud as cut. Fig. 2.— Twig-Bud inserted. 
 
 (Dotted lines show manner 
 of tying.) 
 
 cotton string tightly around the stock both above and below the bud 
 so as to cover up all the cut parts. Three or four weeks later the string 
 should be removed and the stock topped. If the union has been 
 effected the bud can be left to itself, simply cutting off the whole of 
 the stock above the bud as soon as the latter has developed sufficient 
 leaves. 
 
 Budding may be done at any time when the sap is flowing freely, 
 but is most successful if done in the early summer or spring. «If done 
 too late the buds fail to start until the following spring, and are apt 
 to dry out. 
 
 Gathering the Fruit. 
 
 Picking Olives. — Whether olives are to be used for pickling or oil- 
 making, it is very important that they should be picked carefully and 
 at the right time. For green pickles they should be picked very soon 
 after they obtain full size, but before they have begun to color or 
 soften. 
 
 For ripe pickles they should be gathered at the same stage of ripe- 
 ness as for oil-making; that is, when they contain the maximum 
 amount of oil. This is soon after they are well colored, but before 
 they have attained the deep black which signifies over-ripeness. If the 
 olives are gathered too green the oil will be bitter, if too ripe it will be 
 rancid. On account of the different degrees of color in different 
 varieties of olives, it is difficult to tell from their appearance when 
 they should be gathered. When they can be easily shaken from the 
 tree they are ripe enough. If thej^ commence to fall without vigorous 
 shaking they are over-ripe. For whatever purpose the olives are to be 
 used they should be carefully gathered by hand. Rakes or sticks should 
 never be used, as they bruise the fruit and break off a great deal of 
 the fruit-shoots needed for the following year. It is well to sort the 
 olives as they are being picked, separating out the bruised, diseased, 
 
9 
 
 or under-ripe fruit. When the olives are for oil-making they should 
 be washed before being crushed or dried, unless they are very clean, 
 for the road dust and sooty mold that often covers them have a 
 deleterious effect on the quality of the oil. 
 
 Oil-Making. 
 
 Drying and Crushing. — The best oil is made by crushing the care- 
 fully-picked olives as soon as possible after they are taken from the 
 tree, and while they are still perfectly fresh. If they are bruised, or if 
 they are in the slightest degree moldy when crushed, the resulting 
 oil will be correspondingly inferior in quality. 
 
 The extraction of oil from fresh olives is, however, somewhat 
 troublesome, and in order to facilitate the work it is customary to 
 deprive them of a certain part of their water before crushing. This 
 partial drying is also useful when it is necessary to keep the fruit for 
 some time before crushing or to ship them to any distance. It is gen- 
 erally done by placing them in layers not more than three inches deep, 
 on trays that are stacked in a dry, well- aired room, protected from the 
 wind and the direct rays of the sun. The olives are turned over daily 
 until they become well wrinkled. This requires about eight or ten 
 days, according to the degree of temperature. If the partially dried 
 fruit cannot then be crushed immediately, it must be stored in a dark 
 room where the temperature does not rise above 60° F. Here it 
 may remain three or four weeks longer without any serious deteriora- 
 tion of the quality of the oil. In order to hasten the drying process, 
 artificial driers, constructed on the same principle as the fruit or hop 
 driers, are sometimes used. The olives are placed in a single layer 
 upon trays, and the drier is kept at a temperature of about 120° F. 
 If the temperature rises over 130° F. the quality of the oil will be 
 impaired. The drying takes about forty- eight hours — more or less — 
 according to the nature of the fruit. The olives must be crushed 
 immediately upon removal from the drier. 
 
 The crushing is still commonly done by means of old-fashioned 
 stone mills. They are slow, cumbersome, and irregular in their 
 action. Moreover, almost all kinds of stone that are used for these 
 mills absorb a certain amount of oil, which it is impossible to remove 
 completely. This oil becomes rancid and taints the olives that are 
 being crushed. Crushers, with corrugated bronze or bronzed metal 
 rollers, are now made that perform their work in a very satisfactory 
 manner, breaking up the flesh and pits very thoroughly. As they are 
 all of metal they absorb no oil and are easily cleaned. It is very 
 essential that the flesh should be crushed thoroughly in order to break 
 up the cells and permit the oil to be pressed out. 
 
 Some oil-makers prefer to pit the olives before crushing, in order to 
 separate the oil in the flesh from that in the pit. Machines for this 
 purpose have been made, but are little used. The amount of oil con- 
 tained in the pit is very slight, and is inferior in quality to that in the 
 flesh, as it is much more prone to become rancid. Many varieties, 
 notably the Mission, contain a particularly minute quantity of oil in 
 the pits, and, as luckily a very small proportion even of this minute 
 quantity can be expressed, there is little danger, usually, in crushing 
 the pits and flesh together. No method, moreover, seems to have 
 
10 
 
 been devised as yet that will at one operation sufficiently crush the 
 flesh while leaving the pit intact. 
 
 Pressing. — As soon as the olives have passed through the mill or 
 crusher they should be pressed. For this purpose an extremely pow- 
 erful screw or hydraulic press 
 is necessary. Fig. 3 shows 
 one that has been used with 
 success at the Experiment 
 Station . The mass of crushed 
 olives should be placed in the 
 press in such a manner that 
 it will constitute a series of 
 layers, each of which can 
 drain off horizontally as the 
 pressure is supplied. This is 
 accomplished, among other 
 ways, by means of wooden 
 gratings and pieces of very 
 strong cloth, or sacking, 
 placed between the layers. 
 Circular grass mats, used 
 extensively in Europe, are 
 very convenient, but as yet 
 too expensive in California. 
 The pressure must be applied 
 very gradually. From the 
 liquid which runs out first, 
 with gentle pressure, is made 
 the very finest oil, known as 
 "virgin oil." The pressure is 
 then increased very gradually 
 until the full power of the 
 machine is reached. This 
 presses out the second quality 
 of oil which is generally 
 mixed with the first. After 
 obtaining all the oil possible 
 by the first pressure, the 
 "cheese" is taken out, thoroughly broken up in hot water, and again 
 pressed. This yields the third quality, which is verj^ much inferior to 
 the first and second. Sometimes the "cheese" from the first pressing is 
 thoroughly broken up with cold water and pressed again before being 
 treated with hot water. In this way a little oil is obtained that differs 
 little from the second quality, and may be mixed with it. After this, a 
 certain amount of oil still remains in the "cheese," but it can be 
 extracted only by very powerful hydraulic presses, or by chemical 
 means, and is then of very inferior quality and suitable only for burn- 
 ing or for soap-making. 
 
 Separation of the Oil. — The liquid that runs from the press contains, 
 besides the oil, the watery juices of the fruit and a considerable amount 
 
 Fig. 3.— Oil Press. 
 
11 
 
 of pulpy solid matter. The separation of the oil is usually effected 
 by allowing the press-liquid to settle in tinned vessels until the oil, 
 rising to the top, can be skimmed off. The use of the apparatus shown 
 in Fig. 4 is a great improvement over this method. It makes the 
 
 Fig. 4.— Oil Separator. 
 
 separation of the oil almost instantaneous, and improves the quality 
 by doing away with the prolonged contact of the oil with the air and 
 the impurities of the liquid. The juices from the press flow into a tube, 
 which opens into a small "drum" near the bottom of the tank which is 
 kept constantly full of water. The drum is perforated at the sides in 
 order to allow the press-liquid to escape horizontally. Immediately 
 below this drum is another larger one, perforated on top, through which 
 water is forced in vertical jets. The water and press-liquid are thus 
 thoroughly mixed in constant agitation. This results in the rapid 
 deposition of the heavy impurities, and the equally rapid rise of the 
 small, light oil-drops. The oil very quickly forms a layer on top and 
 can be drawn off by means of a faucet appropriately placed. The 
 apparatus is continuous in its operation, and the oil is obtained free 
 from all the grosser impurities. It is still, however, very cloudy, owing 
 to the presence of small, light particles of vegetable matter. 
 
12 
 
 Clarification. — The oil must be made as bright as possible before 
 being put upon the market. This can be done by various methods of 
 
 nitration. Filtration, however, dimin- 
 ishes the freshness and aroma of the 
 oil and injures the qualities that dis- 
 tinguish a fine olive oil from the clear, 
 neutral oils extracted from cotton- 
 seed. This is especially true of such 
 filtering media as charcoal, which 
 exert some absorbent influence upon 
 the oil, diminishing its flavor. The 
 best method of clearing, for oil as for 
 wine, is by simple settling and decan- 
 tation. For this purpose a series of 
 settling tanks is made use of. These 
 may be made of well-tinned metal, or 
 of cement lined with glass or other 
 impervious substance. The first set- 
 tling is conveniently made by means 
 of a funnel-shaped apparatus such as 
 that shown in Fig. 5. The steeply 
 conical shape facilitates the rapid de- 
 position of sediment. After standing 
 for twentjr-f our hours in this apparatus 
 the major part of the sediment is de- 
 posited and can be drawn off at the 
 bottom. It is well, before running the 
 oil into the settling tanks, to pass it 
 through two or three inches of cotton 
 wool. This is accomplished by means 
 of a funnel with a perforated, horizon- 
 tal cross-partition, upon which the 
 cotton is placed. It takes, generally, 
 about one month for the oil to settle 
 sufficiently in the first tank, after 
 which it should be drawn off carefully 
 into the second, and so on until it is 
 sufficiently bright. Three rackings 
 are usually sufficient, and if all parts of the process have been well 
 attended to, an oil is obtained almost as bright as can be produced by 
 the most effective method of filtration, and having, besides, the agreeable 
 and distinctive olive flavor and absence of greasiness which is lacking 
 in all filtered oils. 
 
 Fig. 5.— Oil Funnel. 
 
 Precautions. — The best oil can be made only from the cleanest and 
 soundest olives. The most thorough cleanliness must be observed in 
 all operations. Olive oil is particularly susceptible to bad odors, and 
 the presence of a smoky lamp or stove, or of tobacco smoke, will cer- 
 tainly communicate a corresponding taste to the oil. Air and light 
 must be excluded from it as much as possible, as they favor the oxida- 
 tion which is the cause of rancidity. Contact with wood, cloth or any 
 materials of an absorbent nature should be avoided as much as possible, 
 
13 
 
 as it is extremely difficult to free them from the oil which they absorb . 
 This finally becomes rancid, and the taint is communicated to the good 
 oil. For the same reason no oil should be allowed to remain on any 
 part of the work room, and the free use of boiling water and soda, 
 whenever oil is spilled, is essential. Iron has an injurious effect, 
 especially on the unclarified oil, and all iron utensils should be well 
 tinned. It is also very necessary to preserve an even and proper tem- 
 perature in the press and storage rooms. If the temperature is too low 
 the oil becomes too thick, and at very low temperatures it solidifies; 
 this makes it impossible to handle or clear it. If the temperature is 
 too high, oxidation is facilitated. The temperature should, therefore, 
 not be allowed to fall below 50 F. nor to rise above 65 F. and should 
 be kept as even as possible. Water used must be free from all taint. 
 
 Pickling. 
 
 The successful production of pickled olives is a matter of experience 
 and depends almost altogether on the individual judgment and skill of 
 the producer. No method can be given which is suitable to all cases, 
 and the best method must be modified according to the nature of the 
 olives to be treated; The following scheme, therefore, is to be con- 
 sidered as a mere outline, to be carefully adapted and modified by the 
 operator at each stage of the process. 
 
 Lye Process.— 1. Place the olives in a solution, composed of two 
 ounces of potash lye to one gallon of water, for four hours. Repeat 
 this once, or twice if necessary, to sufficiently remove the tartness. 
 
 2.* Rinse the olives thoroughly and replace the lye solution with 
 fresh water. Change the water twice a day, until the potash has been 
 removed from the olive, as judged by the taste. 
 
 3. Replace the water with brine composed of four ounces of salt to 
 a gallon of water and allowed to stand two days. 
 
 4. Put in brine of six ounces of salt to a gallon for seven days. 
 
 5. Put in brine of ten ounces per gallon for two weeks. 
 
 6 . Put finally into a brine containing fourteen ounces of salt to the 
 gallon of water. 
 
 In order to make this process a success the following considerations 
 should be kept in view: 
 
 1. Great care should be taken not to allow the olives to come in 
 contact with anything that will injure their flavor. The vats or other 
 receptacles used for pickling should be perfectly clean, odorless, and 
 tasteless. Earthenware is the best material, but it is usually cheaper 
 and more convenient to use wooden receptacles thoroughly treated with 
 boiling water and soda until they are sterilized and all taste of the 
 wood removed. Any wood (such as pine) with strong taste should 
 not be used. The vats should be provided with a removable wooden 
 grating, fastened one or two inches from the bottom, and a close fitting 
 floating wooden cover to prevent access of air, which spots the fruit. 
 On top of the vats should be placed a cover of thick cloth or of wood 
 
 * Professor Hilgard recommends the use of weak brine from the first, that is as soon as the lye 
 solution is removed. 
 
14 
 
 to exclude light and dust. Each vat should be provided at the bottom 
 with a wooden spigot for drawing off the solutions. 
 
 Cloth Cover. 
 
 Floating Cover. 
 
 — Olives. 
 
 Wooden Grating. 
 
 Fig. 6.— Pickling Vat. 
 
 The thickness of the layer of olives should not be more than two 
 feet, or less with soft varieties. 
 
 2. Only the verj^ best of potash lye should be used. Some of the 
 brands of lye are so impure that it is impossible, without a chemical 
 analysis, to tell within forty per cent, how strong the lye solution 
 actually is when made up. " Greenbank Lye" has been found the most 
 reliable, and may be considered as one hundred per cent, pure when 
 making up the solution. The length of time which the olives should 
 be left in the lye, and the number of times the lye should be renewed, 
 can only be determined by experiment for each variety and each 
 locality. The object is to extract the tartness of the olive, and at the 
 same time to soften the skin sufficiently to allow the tart or bitter sub- 
 stances to be soaked out in the subsequent treatment with pure water. 
 The tougher and thicker the skin of the olive and the more intense the 
 tartness, the longer must the lye treatment be continued. The lye 
 is sometimes made twice as strong as recommended above, and the 
 treatment correspondingly shorter, but the results are not so good. 
 Just enough lye solution should be used to exactly cover the olives, 
 and occasionally, during the soaking, some of the solution should be 
 drawn off below and poured on top to insure an equal treatment of all 
 the fruit. 
 
 3. Only the very purest water should be used, both for the lye 
 solution and for the subsequent soaking. Canal and river water, or any 
 water that contains a great deal of organic matter, should never be 
 used unless it is practicable to boil it first. Distilled water, such as 
 can sometimes be obtained by condensing the waste steam from a 
 boiler, is the best, both on account of its purity and its greater extrac- 
 tive power, provided of course it be free from oily flavors. The 
 length of time during which the soaking in pure water should be 
 continued, varies very much in accordance with the character of the 
 fruit. If the olives are firm and show no signs of becoming soft it 
 should continue until the tartness is sufficiently extracted. This will 
 vary usually between ten and twenty days. The moment that the 
 olives begin to show signs of softening, however, they should be 
 placed in weak brine, even though the tartness has not all disappeared. 
 
15 
 
 What remains can then be extracted by the brine, which should be 
 changed two or three times, as may be necessary. It is not necessary 
 to change the brine quite so often as the pure water, once in two days 
 being generally sufficient. 
 
 If the olives are soft at first, before treatment with lye, or if they 
 are of a kind that softens rapidly in the lye, it is necessary to use 
 brine from the beginning, either immediately after treatment with lye 
 or, in extreme cases with the lye. This method, suggested by Pro- 
 fessor Hilgard, has been used with marked success. The lye solution 
 in this case should be made by adding two ounces of lye and four 
 ounces of salt to each gallon of water. As the lye acts much more 
 slowly when used in combination with salt, it may be allowed to stay 
 on the olives for a longer time without injurj^ eight to twelve hours 
 or even more. In this way the lye solution tends to soften and swell 
 the olives, the brine counteracts this and tends to harden and shrink 
 them. The shrinkage, which occurs when brine is used from the 
 beginning on naturally soft olives, is not a disadvantage if not carried 
 too far, as such olives are generally too watery to be palatable or to 
 keep well. They can, moreover, if shrunk too much, be made plump 
 again by a few treatments with pure water before being put finally 
 into brine. 
 
 The first salting must be done very gradually and carefully in 
 order to prevent shrinkage and wrinkling of the fruit. For this 
 reason, gradually increasing strengths of brine must be used, as 
 described, and the olives left long enongh in each to be thoroughly 
 penetrated. 
 
 In all these operations no sign of scum or slime should be allowed 
 to accumulate on the olives, the vats or the covers. This is of 
 especial importance during the treatment with plain water. On the 
 first signs of sliminess around the sides of the vats, where it appears 
 first, they should be emptied and thoroughly brushed and scalded 
 before replacing the olives. 
 
 Pure- Water Process. — The best pickled olives are made without 
 the use of lye, but this process is only practicable with olives whose 
 tartness is easily extracted, and where the water is extremely pure and 
 plentiful, and even then it is very slow and tedious. It differs from 
 the last process only in omitting the preliminary lye treatment. The 
 olives are placed from the beginning in pure water, which is changed 
 twice a day until the bitterness is sufficiently extracted. This requires 
 from forty to sixty days or more. The extraction is sometimes 
 hastened by making two or three shallow, longitudinal slits in each 
 olive, but this modification, besides requiring a large amount of 
 expensive handling, renders the fruit peculiarly susceptible to bacterial 
 decay and softening. Altogether, the pure-water-process cannot be 
 recommended for California, as it is too expensive and uncertain. 
 
 Green Pickles. — Green pickled olives are made by essentially the 
 same processes as are used for ripe pickles. The extraction of the 
 tartness requires the same care and the same close adaptation to 
 peculiarities of different varieties as already described. The olives 
 are pickled soon after they have attained full size, and before they 
 
16 
 
 have shown any signs of coloring or softening. They contain at this 
 time comparatively little oil, and are in every way much inferior to the 
 ripe pickles in nutritive value. They are not a food but a relish. 
 They are rather more easily made than the ripe pickles, as there is less 
 danger of spoiling. There is, however, very little market for any but 
 the largest sizes. 
 
 Nutritive Value of Olives. — Pickled ripe olives constitute an ex- 
 tremely nutritious and digestible form of food. They contain a large 
 amount of oil, carbohydrates and some nitrogenous matter, and in some 
 countries replace meat to a certain extent. Pickled green olives such 
 as those imported from Spain are on the contrary indigestible and 
 contain much less nutriment. They are made from unripe fruit and 
 are therefore, as far as their use as food is concerned, in no way 
 superior to unripe apples or peaches. They are simply a relish and 
 to be used in very limited quantities, in the same way as pickled 
 walnuts or cucumbers. A meal of bread and ripe olives is not only 
 palatable but nutritious and sustaining, and the amount eaten is to be 
 limited onty by the same considerations as that of any other good 
 wholesome food. 
 
 The following table of analyses, prepared by Professor Jaffa of this 
 Station, illustrates very forcibly the superiority of ripe pickles over 
 green ones in nutritive value. 
 
 Analyses of Edible Part of Ripe and of Green Pickles. 
 
 
 Ripe Pickled Olives from California. 
 
 
 
 Medium-sized Mission. 
 
 Larger, 
 Watery Mission. 
 
 (green) 
 From Spain. 
 
 Water, per cent 
 
 64.72 
 
 25.89 
 
 4.28 
 
 5.11 
 
 65.45 
 
 25.15 
 
 3.22 
 
 6.18 
 
 72.77 
 
 18.81 
 
 2.49 
 
 5.93 
 
 78.41 
 
 Oil, per cent 
 
 Carbohydrates, per cent 
 
 Other matters, per cent. . 
 
 12.90 
 1.78 
 6.91 
 
 
 
 The Queen olives were the best of their kind to be found on the 
 market, and when compared with the first two samples of ripe pickles, 
 which are typical of good ripe Missions, show just half the amount of 
 nutritive material. This does not show the whole difference, for there 
 is no doubt that the nutriment in the ripe fruit is in a much more 
 readily assimilable form than in the green. The third sample was 
 grown on an over- irrigated soil, and while inferior to the first two, is 
 much superior to the green fruit both in quantity and quality of 
 nutriment. 
 
 Grading and Sorting. — It is extremely important that all the olives 
 in each lot of pickles should be as nearly as possible uniform in 
 character, in order to facilitate the process of pickling and to produce 
 an attractive appearance. Olives of different varieties, and even those 
 of the same variety from dissimilar locations, should never be mixed. 
 The first sorting is done while gathering, and the under-ripe, over-ripe 
 and injured fruit separated from that which is to be pickled. The 
 
17 
 
 good fruit is then graded by means of a mechanical grader according 
 to size. In this way the olives are separated into different lots which 
 will each contain fruit on which 
 the different processes of pick- 
 ling will act uniformly. A grader 
 adapted to handling soft fruit, 
 that will not bruise the olives, 
 must be used. That represented 
 by Fig. 7 has been used success- 
 fully. After the pickling pro- 
 cess is finished there will often 
 be a distinct difference of color 
 between different olives of the 
 same lot. Another sorting ac- 
 cording to color is then advis- Fig. 7.— Olive Grader. 
 able. This must be done by hand, 
 
 and either two or three colors may be separated, dark and light or 
 black, medium and greenish according to the variety. 
 
 Diseases. 
 
 Both the olive tree and its fruit are subject to a large number of 
 diseases in Europe. Luckily most of these, and some of the most 
 destructive, have not yet appeared in California. In this bulletin only 
 those which have assumed some importance in the State are described. 
 
 Twig Borer. — The small black or brown insect which bores into 
 the small branches of the olive at the base of a bud or twig is a beetle 
 called Polycaon confertus. No method of extermination has been 
 devised, but luckily it seldom does any great damage. As the twigs 
 which are attacked are weakened, they should be removed at time of 
 pruning and burned. This will prevent the waste of nourishment on 
 weakened twigs, and destroy any borers that remain in the holes. 
 
 Black Scale. — Although other varieties of scale insects are occasion- 
 ally found upon the olive, the black scale is the only one that does 
 serious damage, and is, in fact, the worst enemy of the olive tree in 
 California. The injury done by the insect is due to the extraction of 
 nourishment and water, and, when the insects are plentiful, to the 
 "hide-bound" condition of the tree that ensues, preventing the proper 
 growth and assimilation of food materials. A secondary injury is due 
 to the growth of fungi, induced by the presence of the scale. This will 
 be discussed later under Sooty Mold. The black scale is most prevalent 
 in the orchards near the coast. The extremely dry air, which occurs 
 occasionally for long periods in the interior valleys, usually prevents it 
 reaching injurious numbers. The black scale has many natural insect 
 enemies, but none of them are capable of repressing it sufficiently when 
 other conditions are favorable to its growth and multiplication. 
 
 The small Australian lady-bird ( Rhizobius ventralisj feeds upon 
 this scale, and was at one time looked upon as a certain remedy where- 
 ever it found the proper conditions for its growth and multiplication, 
 i.e., near the coast. At present there is great doubt whether the 
 
18 
 
 diminution of black scale, that seems to have occurred where the 
 Rhizobius was first introduced, is really all to be credited to this insect. 
 The black scale is subject to certain fungous and bacterial diseases, 
 which, under favorable conditions, and especially when the insects 
 have become very abundant, often destroy all of the scale present. In 
 this way orchards that have been thoroughly infested by black scale 
 for several years, will become almost entirely free from them for a long 
 time without any treatment at all. The most effective method of com- 
 batting this scale is certainly the hj^drocyanic acid gas treatment, but 
 it is too expensive. The only remedy that at present seems to be 
 reasonably certain, effective, and economical, is intelligently conducted 
 spraying. The best and cheapest spray for this purpose is a resin- 
 soap wash made of the following ingredients: Resin, 8 pounds; 
 standard caustic soda, 2 pounds; fish oil, 1 pint; water, 40 gallons. 
 
 The resin, soda, and fish oil are placed in a closed kettle with just 
 enough water to cover them, and boiled for two hours. This will form 
 a soap which is to be diluted with hot water, in the proportion 
 mentioned, before use. It is best applied warm. Kerosene emulsion 
 is also effective and convenient, but somewhat more expensive 
 
 A regular annual spraying at a stated time is not to be recom- 
 mended, and is not effective. For the best results the insects must be 
 watched, and whenever the very young insects appear in large num- 
 bers on the leaves and stems, the spray should be applied. This is 
 because the young insects are very much easier to kill than those 
 which are mature and possess a hard protecting shell. In some years 
 two or even three sprayings may be necessary, while for other years 
 spraying may be omitted altogether. 
 
 Sooty Mold. — The black scale excretes a sticky substance that is 
 excellent food for various kinds of fungi, and particularly for that 
 known as Sooty Mold. This fungus appears as a black coating on the 
 leaves, stems, and fruit. It does not penetrate the tissues of the plant, 
 and therefore does not injure them directly like some fungi. By 
 shutting off the light, however, it interferes with the assimilation of 
 food by the leaves, which takes place only in the presence of full light. 
 Some injury is also done to the appearance of the fruit by the coating 
 of black fungus, and the dirt and fungi adhering to the sticky sub- 
 stance on the olives no doubt has a deleterious, effect on the quality of 
 the oil. As the sooty mold grows only upon the excretions of the 
 black scale and not upon the substance of the plant, the repression of 
 the scale will result in the disappearance of the mold. 
 
 Peacock Leaf Spot. — This disease is caused by a fungus called 
 Cycloconium oleaginum, which grows upon the leaves and fruit. It 
 forms spots about one-eighth of an inch in diameter on the leaves, 
 composed of concentric rings of different shades, which give them an 
 appearance resembling the spots on a peacock's tail. On the fruit the 
 spots are smaller and browner. This disease is very prevalent at 
 Berkeley, and has been found in other localities. It usually does little 
 harm, and can be controlled by Bordeaux mixture. It occasionally 
 becomes sufficiently abundant to make the leaves turn yellowish, and 
 injures the appearance of the fruit a little for pickling. 
 
19 
 
 Dry Rot. — Ripe olives are sometimes attacked by a disease which 
 appears as a shriveling- and drying-up of one part, generally the apex, 
 but occasionally the stem end. The disease progresses, especially in 
 warm weather, until a large part of the tissue of the olive is destroyed. 
 After the olives are picked and placed in boxes or on trays, especially 
 the former, the disease progresses more rapidly on account of the 
 greater heat and moisture generally present. The Nevadillo seems 
 particularly susceptible to this disease. Keeping the trees clean 
 and well aerated, and in general the means suggested foi the Sooty 
 Mold, are the most likely remedies to be used for dry rot. The 
 disease is caused by two species of fungus, an Alternaria and a 
 Macro sporium ; the former is most usually found. 
 
 Bacterial Rot. — Certain large, fleshy olives are subject to a disease 
 which attacks the flesh in the immediate vicinity of the pit. Olives 
 attacked by this disease appear at first perfectly healthy, but if they 
 are cut open it will be found that there are black spots in the flesh 
 near the pit. These spots gradually spread until they surround the pit 
 completely, and in the advanced stage of the disease the olive is almost 
 hollow. It is only at this stage that it is possible to tell from the out- 
 side that the olive is not sound. Large numbers of bacteria can be 
 found in the decayed tissue, and it is to them that the disease is due, 
 in all probability. The varieties most subject to this disease are the 
 Polymorpha, Macrocarpa, Columbella, and Obliza. 
 
 Another disease somewhat resembling this in character and prob- 
 ably in origin, often attacks soft, fleshy olives. It appears first as 
 small depressions on the outside of the fruit resembling the results of 
 bruising. These depressions enlarge in size and finally involve a large 
 part of the fruit. If cut open it will be found that the tissue below 
 the depressions is brown and decayed, but not hollowed out as is the 
 case with the decay last described. Olives attacked by either of these 
 diseases will, of course, give an inferior oil, and are very difficult to 
 pickle. They should be used for pickling as soon as possible after the 
 disease is discovered, and treated by Professor Hilgard's method of 
 combined lye and salt solution. The Manzanillo seems to be particu- 
 larly susceptible to this disease. As both of these diseases attack 
 principally large, flesh}' varieties, and especially very juicy fruit, it is 
 very likely that the methods, especially drainage, recommended for 
 Olive Knot, would be effective in restraining its development. 
 
 Olive Knot. — This disease appears as woody tumors on the leaves, 
 branches, stems, and particularly on the small twigs of olive trees of 
 all ages. It is confined to warm localities and especially to rich, over- 
 moist soils. The size of the tumors on the leaves varies from that of 
 a pin-head to that of a pea. On the twigs they are usually about the 
 size of a hazel-nut or walnut. On the main stem they may be large, 
 and they sometimes, especially in the neighborhood of cuts or plough 
 wounds, run together and form large masses of dry, fissured, tumor- 
 like tissue. They are shown in the Plate, on third page of cover, as 
 they appear on the small twigs. The disease is rather slow in its 
 progress, and for one or two years seems to do little damage to the 
 trees. Trees when first attacked may even bear more heavily than 
 
20 
 
 usual. Finally, however, at the end of four or five years, the amount 
 of food material taken up by the knots is so large that the tree suffers 
 from starvation and finally becomes useless. The disease is caused by 
 a certain species of bacterium which commences to grow just under 
 the bark, and lives in the interior of the tumor it produces. It is 
 carried from tree to tree by pruning instruments, also probably by 
 insects which puncture the bark, and perhaps by the wind. It only 
 attacks trees which are vigorous and full of sap. The varieties which 
 are most valuable for their fruit, that is, those most removed from 
 the wild type, are the most subject to attack. 
 
 As the disease cannot occur without infection from the special 
 bacterium which causes it, the greatest care should.be taken to destroy 
 the bacteria and prevent their being taken from one tree to another. 
 Upon the first appearance of the knots, the twigs on which they 
 appear should be cut off and burnt on the spot ; and unless the orchard 
 is naturally well isolated from all others, the whole tree should be 
 destroyed in the same way. No tools used upon an affected tree 
 should be used upon any other until they have been thoroughly disin- 
 fected with boiling water. Heavy pruning should be avoided, as it 
 tends to produce a growth of sappy shoots particularly liable to 
 infection. Finally, under-drainage, whenever practicable, is the most 
 effective method of prevention. 
 
21 
 
 OLIVE VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 
 
 By Geo. E. Colby. 
 
 In the following" pages we give a summary of the physical and 
 chemical analyses of some of the more important and fully tested 
 varieties of olives as grown in the several regions of the State, 
 together with notes on some of the rarer (here) or not yet fully tested 
 ones. By different regions of the State is meant partly geographic 
 and partly climatic regions; thus Sacramento Valley embraces the 
 region from Chico, the northern (apparently) limit of the olive, to 
 Sacramento; the Bay region, all that part of Central California over 
 which the bay climate prevails, including the Santa Clara Valley; the 
 San Joaquin Valley, that part of California drained by the San 
 Joaquin River; the Sierra Foothill region, the low hilly belt bordering 
 the Sierra Mountains east of the Great Valley, including such localities 
 as Auburn, Jackson, and Amador County generally; the Southern Coast 
 Range region includes Santa Barbara, Ventura, and other counties 
 northward; and for the present purpose Southern California is made to 
 include all localities from San Fernando to San Diego. 
 
 The descriptions given of the olives are taken from the reports of 
 this Station for 1892-3 and 1894-5, the copies of which were destroyed 
 in the fire of 1897. 
 
 During the last eight years over seven hundred and forty samples 
 of olives, representing fifty-seven varieties, have been examined here; 
 six hundred and fifty analyses are comprised in the table of averages 
 at the end of this bulletin; sixty to seventy of the remaining samples 
 were received un-named, and their analyses have served the purpose of 
 assisting the interested grower in identifying his fruit; twenty-five 
 specimens were accidentally lost, by fire, before analysis. The detailed 
 results and discussion of this work, up to that relating to the crop of 
 1897, have been published in the California Experiment Station 
 Reports for the years 1892-96; the forthcoming report, 1897-98, will 
 contain the complete record of analyses to date. 
 
 In passing, attention is called to the fact that in this bulletin we 
 deal mostly with facts relating to the size of the fruit, the amount of 
 pit, and amount of oil in the fruit, and not tvith the yield of fruit. 
 This happens because there are at present no sufficiently extensive or 
 accurate data upon the question of yields of fruit by the different 
 varieties . 
 
 It will be noted in the table of averages that the amount of oil con- 
 tained in the pit is comparatively small, even as extracted by chemical 
 
22 
 
 processes. If all of this pit-oil were available and unobjectionable, the 
 actual quantity would not pay for the trouble of extraction ; but these 
 very small amounts are disseminated throughout the hard material of 
 the pits, and this renders their expression by mechanical means a 
 problem of no practical interest. Apart from the uselessness of attempt- 
 ing to extract the pit-oil, the kernel imparts a disagreeable taste to the 
 oil of the flesh with which it comes in contact, and impairs its keeping 
 qualities. 
 
 Discrepancies noted by the reader between this and earlier publi- 
 cations of this Station relating to the olive, may be explained by the 
 fact that there now exists a broader basis for this later work. 
 
 , The Mission Olive. 
 
 This name designates the variety found growing at the old missions 
 in California. (See title page.) It has long been known that the so- 
 called Mission olive embraced several varieties, or sub- varieties, at least. 
 
 Common or Broad-leaved Mission Olive. — This is the commonest 
 form of the Mission olive in California. The fruit is yf of an inch 
 long by If of an inch thick; ovate, oblique — sometimes very much 
 so; the pit straight or slightly curved, \^ of an inch long and fV 
 of an inch thick. The fruit is very variable in size, single or in 
 clusters of two or more. It ripens late in the coast region, sometimes 
 not until February, but generally in December; While in warmer 
 localities it ripens in November. 
 
 Other Mission Varieties. — On the University grounds there are now 
 being studied three apparently distinct varieties of the Mission: 
 (a) Broad-leaved or Common Mission, already described ; (b) Narrow- 
 leaved Mission, a variety from L. A. Gould, of Auburn, described as 
 having a somewhat larger fruit than the broad-leaved variety, and a 
 more straggling habit; (c) Early Mission, from A. A. Wheeler, of San 
 Francisco. It is of the Mission type, but ripens much earlier. 
 Whatever may be the difference, these are of the same type. 
 
 There have been received at this Station during the last eight years 
 one hundred and twelve samples of the Mission olive from sixty-five 
 different and widely separated localities. The outlying culture- 
 stations of the University have supplied seven samples. A study of 
 the results of the physical and chemical analyses of the Mission may 
 be summarized as follows: 
 
 Size of Fruit. — It appears that the Mission, as grown in Southern 
 California (San Fernando to San Diego), is but little larger than that 
 from the Sacramento Valley (Chico to Sacramento) , and neither of these 
 regions produces fruit much larger than that coming from the South- 
 ern Coast Range localities. For these three regions, it takes on the 
 average, respectively, 100.8, 101.6, and 106.7 to make a pound 
 avoirdupois. In the San Joaquin Valley and the Sierra Foothills, the 
 Mission olive is found to be smaller than the fruit from Northern and 
 Southern California; in the Valley, 117.9; in the Foothills, 113.0 
 olives are required to weigh a pound. In the Bay region this olive is 
 found to be, on the average, very much smaller than from other parts 
 
23 
 
 of the State, requiring for a pound as many as 135.2 olives, due 
 probably to the prevalence of heavy (adobe) soils. The average of 
 the Mission variety for the whole State is 111.6 per pound. 
 
 Precentage of Pit. — The Southern California Mission olive, the 
 largest of all, is found to contain the least waste material or pit 
 content, the average being ]5.8 per cent. The next in order are 
 those from San Joaquin Valley and the Southern Coast Range, with 
 respectively, 16.4 and 16.8 per cent, of pit, while the Sacramento Val- 
 ley Mission olive has an average of 17 per cent, of pit. The Foothill 
 olive with 19.2 per cent, is slightly superior to the Bay fruit with 
 20.8 per cent, of pit. These figures do not show great variations from 
 the average pit-percentage of all the Missions, which is 17.2 per cent. 
 
 Oil in the Flesh. — The oil content of the flesh of the Mission olive 
 from the Bay and Foothills regions is greater by more than 2 per cent, 
 than that yielded by the northern and southern grown fruit, for the 
 Bay Missions contain on the average 24.27, the Foothill 25.67 
 and the Sacramento and Southern Missions but 21.3 per cent, of oil in 
 the flesh. The Southern Coast Range and San Joaquin Valley Missions 
 both have nearly 23.0 per cent, of oil in the flesh, or about 1.50 per 
 cent, above the average for all. 
 
 Oil in the Pit (calculated upon whole fruit). — The Mission olive 
 contains, along with the Manzanillo and the Columbella, less (.60 per 
 cent.) oil in the pit than any other olive variety that has been fully 
 tested. This, together with the fact, that little of the pit-oil can be 
 extracted at best, is one reason why the taste of the oil of the Mission 
 variety is not tainted with that of pit-oil. Another reason is that 
 only a small part of the pits of the Mission contain any kernel at all. 
 
 Size. — Among the largely-grown varieties (Rubra, Manzanillo, 
 Redding Picholine, Nevadillo Blanco, Mission, Uvaria, Pendulina, 
 Oblonga and Columbella) which constitute the chief part of the olive 
 orchards of California, the Mission is shown in the table of averages to 
 stand second in size, and to be only slightly inferior to the Manzanillo, 
 which has the largest sized fruit. Again, among these varieties it 
 holds an intermediate position in size of pit; and in the oil content of 
 the flesh, it is superior to most of them and nearly equal to the highest 
 oil producer, the Nevadillo Blanco. 
 
 These results emphasize the commonly accepted opinion that this 
 variety is well suited either for pickling or for oil- making, and that it 
 is, in all the different regions of the State, a good "all around" variety, 
 safe to plant, especially upon new and untried lands. It produces an 
 oil of good quality which keeps well, and is also well adapted to pick- 
 ling; a combination of qualities that further recommends it to the 
 grower. 
 
 Nevadillo Blanco, or Moiral. 
 
 The Nevadillo Blanco came to California from Spain; probably 
 there are importations from other countries also. From the descrip- 
 tions we have, we are led to suppose that it is more vigorous and 
 
. 24 
 
 productive in California than in Europe. But it is first to suffer from 
 frost. 
 
 The tree is a vigorous, large, spreading grower; the bark, gray; 
 suckers, ordinarily numerous; foliage, when young, very vigorous, 
 inserted at an acute angle; color, at first dirty greenish gray on the 
 two-year-old wood; wood, cylindrical, quadrangular only at the 
 extremities of the young branches; eyes, medium prominent. The 
 leaf is medium long and wide (mean length, 6 to 7.5 centimeters, or 
 2fg- to 3 inches, width, 1.25 to 1.75 centimeters, or T V to fi of an 
 inch); superior surface, shining deep green; inferior, with thick de- 
 posit, principal nerve well marked on both faces. The leaves are 
 very plentiful, forming a thick covering to the tree. 
 
 The fruit is regularly distributed along the entire length of the 
 branches, most frequently single, sometimes in pairs; peduncle, 
 short; pedicel, long, inserted in a well-marked depression on the 
 berry; stigma, not apparent in well-marked umbilicus. This is an 
 olive of under the medium size, or small. In California it is larger 
 than in Europe; mean length in Europe is 1.5 to 1.66 centimeters, 
 or It to yi of an inch; width, 1.25 to 1.5 centimeters, or -fi to yf 
 of an inch. Its form is almost perfectly regular, with the exception 
 that it is slightly obtuse at both extremities. The pit is large and of 
 the same shape as the berry, with a groove along its entire length. 
 The skin is of a shining, deep black color, rather thick, with .very 
 little bloom; pulp, abundant, of a white-red color. 
 
 Out of fifty- eight, six samples of this variety were received from 
 the culture stations of the University; thirty-one different localities 
 furnished the remaining fifty samples. 
 
 This variety of olive from Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, 
 and of Southern California shows remarkable similarity in oil content, 
 all ranging between 21 and 22 per cent, of oil in the flesh, or between 
 1 and 2 per cent, lower than the average (22.92 per cent.) for all 
 localities. Those from the Foothill, Bay, and Southern Coast Range 
 contain 25 to 26 per cent, of oil in the flesh, the' Bay fruit showing 
 the highest average amount, 26.04 per cent. In size there seems to be 
 great regularity, with the exception of that of the Bay region which is 
 the smallest, 215.9, and that from Sacramento Valley the largest, 
 136.9 olives per pound. In the fruit from the Sierra Foothills, the 
 San Joaquin Valley, the Southern Coast Range, and Southern Cali- 
 fornia, none vary to any extent from the average of all in size, viz. , 157 
 per pound. 
 
 With the exception of the Bay region fruit with 22 per cent, there 
 is hardly any difference in pit content of the fruit of all the other 
 regions, for the range is only between 16 and 17 per cent. ; the 
 average for all is 17.3 per cent. 
 
 When compared with the Nevadillo Blanco grown in France, that of 
 California is found to be at least twice as large, and to contain only 
 about four-fifths as much pit and nearly two-thirds more oil in the 
 flesh. In Spain the variety attains much greater size, requiring only 
 90.4 olives to weigh a pound; we have no figures for its oil contents 
 in other European countries. 
 
 The high yield of oil (the maximum for the common varieties) 
 and its habit of regular bearing make the Nevadillo Blanco, as 
 
25 
 
 raised on the varying soils of many different localities of California, 
 one of the olives best adapted for oil making. Its size should make 
 it as desirable for pickling as the Pendulina, Uvaria, Oblonga, and 
 Rubra, but the Mission being larger, is considered better adapted for 
 the purpose in question. 
 
 Manzanillo. 
 
 The Manzanillo is found throughout Spain and South France, 
 where we are told it requires frequent regular pruning to insure 
 regular crops. It ripens very early in the San Joaquin Valley, some- 
 times in October; but in the Bay region generally in November, though 
 sometimes as late as January. 
 
 The tree is vigorous and hardy; the branches long, curved, arid light 
 colored. The secondary branches or twigs dry up when the fruit 
 falls prematurely, which is frequent in Spain. The fruit is large and 
 apple-shaped, sometimes slightly elongated. 
 
 The chief difference thus far noted between the various kinds of 
 Manzanillos is that, in some cases, the apple-like depression at the 
 lower extremity of the fruit is more marked thau in others, otherwise 
 there seems to be little real difference. 
 
 Thirty-eight samples of the variety have been examined here; of 
 this number five were received from the culture stations. Taking the 
 average for the several regions of the State, it is found that the fruit 
 of the San Joaquin Valley, while the largest in size, 82.3 to the pound, 
 and carrying the smallest pit, 11.7 per cent., has but little more oil than 
 that from Southern California (16.55 per cent.) and a smaller amount 
 (18.25 per cent.) than the fruit from the Bay region with 20.86, the 
 Southern Coast Range with 21.10, or the Foothills with its 21.57 per 
 cent. 
 
 The Foothill fruit is medium in size, 111.4 olives to the pound, that 
 from the Bay region, being the smallest, averaging 141.3 per pound. 
 There is some little difference in the pit-contents of these fruits, as 
 they have respectively, 17.8 and 16 per cent. 
 
 The Southern Coast Range localities produce a small-sized fruit, 
 123.4, as compared with that from the San Joaquin Valley with 82.3, 
 and that from Southern California, with 105.9 olives per pound. But 
 in yield of oil the Southern Coast Range fruit is superior, showing in 
 the flesh 2.9 per cent more than the Valley and 4.6 more than the 
 Southern California Manzanillo. 
 
 The smallest Manzanillos, like the Missions, come from the Bay 
 region, where upwards of 140 fruits of each of these varieties 
 are necessary to make a pound. However, the Manzanillo contains 
 only 20.86 as against 24.27 per cent of oil in the flesh of the Mission. 
 
 It appears, then, that for oil-making the Manzanillo from the 
 Sierra Foothills reaches the best mark, and this upon a well-drained, 
 light soil. It also seems to do fairly well for oil-making in the 
 Southern Coast Range region, although the Mission olive excels it 
 there by over 2 per cent, of oil, and in being at least one-fifth larger 
 in size. 
 
 For pickling purposes the San Joaquin Valley Manzanillos are 
 superior to all others in size; in pit content, or waste, they contain 
 several per cent less than the others, and within about one-half of one 
 
26 
 
 per cent, of that (11.11) reported for the Manzanillo in its native 
 country (Spain). According to our experiments this olive should, 
 after passing through the pickling process, retain in its flesh nearly 
 as much nourishment (oil) as we have found in the fresh Manzanillo 
 of the south. 
 
 Columbella. 
 [Sometimes called Columella, but Columbella seems to be the proper name.] 
 
 The Columbella was imported from France by John Rock, of Niles. 
 The general form of the fruit is broadly oval, y£ of an inch long and 
 -fg- of an inch thick; very even in size, and remarkable for the peculiar 
 pale yellow color that the fruit assumes before turning purple; pit 
 small, y\ of an inch long and fV of an inch in thickness, straight and 
 sharp-pointed. The pulp in pickling seems to part with its tartness 
 slowly, but when properly prepared has a delicious flavor. It ripens 
 late, sometimes after the broad-leaved Mission. 
 
 Twenty-five samples of this variety have been examined, and of 
 this number four have come from the culture stations of the University. 
 The fruit from the San Joaquin Valley shows the highest average 
 amount of oil in the flesh, 23.39 per cent.; the greatest departure 
 from this being that found in the Sacramento Valley fruit which had 
 only 14.94 per cent, of oil in the flesh. The analyses of Columbella 
 from other regions show the following results : That from the Foot- 
 hills average 22.78 per cent., the Bay region 21.61 per cent., from 
 Southern California 21.37 per cent., and the Southern Coast Range 
 20.62 percent. The southern fruit is the largest; the Southern Coast 
 Range averaging 82.8 and the Southern California 92.8 olives per 
 pound, both being over twice the size of the Bay fruit, which requires 
 163 olives per pound. The Sacramento, Valley, Foothill and San 
 Joaquin Valley fruit range very close to the average for all, viz., 1]4 
 per pound. 
 
 For pickling, the chief use to which the Columbella is put, it seems 
 to improve towards the southern districts, where, especially in the 
 ■Southern Coast Range, it resembles the Valley Manzanillo in as far as 
 its size goes. In localities south of Sacramento, it appears to be best 
 adapted for oil making, although it is not as rich in oil as the Mission 
 by about 3 per cent, on the average. Its oil, however, is of very good 
 quality. 
 
 Rubra. 
 
 The Rubra was imported from France, by John Rock, of Niles. 
 It is somewhat like the Mission in general appearance. Fruit ovate, 
 slightly oblique, smaller than the Mission, T f of an inch long, yV of 
 an inch thick; the pit straight, pointed, ye" of an inch long and i\ of 
 an inch thick; maturity early, ripening from three weeks to one 
 month earlier than the Mission; jet-black in color when allowed to 
 hang on the tree. The tree begins to bear early and is quite prolific. 
 
 Out of thirty-five samples of this variety examined here, three lots 
 were received from the University culture stations. It yields its 
 highest average of oil, 28.47 per cent., in the Sierra Foothills; that 
 from the Southern Coast Range averages 25.66 percent.; from the 
 the Bay, Valley and Southern California regions, the flesh of the fruit 
 averages about 21.0 per cent, of oil, or just about 1 per cent, below 
 
27 
 
 the average for all. The Sacramento Valley Rubras are, on the 
 whole, the poorest in oil-bearing", showing only 18.07 per cent., but 
 in size they stand second, equaling those from the Southern Coast 
 Range, with 170.1 olives per pound. The largest fruit of this variety 
 is produced in the San Joaquin Valley, where 156.3 olives make a 
 pound. The average for all is 196.1. In the Bay region the Rubra 
 is very small, averaging as many as 240.9 olives to the pound. By 
 reference to the small table giving the variations between largest and 
 smallest fruit, etc., it will be seen that the Rubra is not any more 
 variable than most of the fully tested' varieties. 
 
 The Rubra yields an oil of superior quality. Like the Manzanillo, 
 it appears to be best adapted, for oil-making, to the well-drained soils 
 of the Sierra Foothills. In the lower and richer lands of all the other 
 regions, excepting the Coast Range, it does rather poorly, and in 
 these places it never reaches the mark acquired by the Mission. 
 
 Redding Picholine. 
 
 The Redding Picholine. was imported from France by the late 
 B. B. Redding. It was imported for the large pickling olive known in 
 France as the Picholine, and very highly esteemed there for that pur- 
 pose, as well as for the small quantity of high-grade oil it yielded. 
 For a long time it was supposed that the Redding Picholine was, after 
 all, the true Picholine of Europe. Reference to the description of the 
 true Picholine will show that this is an error, the first being very 
 much smaller, as well as different in shape. 
 
 The olive is perfectly oval in shape, i\ of an inch long and y^ of 
 an inch thick; it ripens early, several weeks sooner than the Mission; is 
 dark purple or black in color. In pickling, the pulp looses its bitter- 
 ness quickly, the fruit being pleasant to the taste. 
 
 Out of the forty- two samples of this variety examined, four have 
 come from the culture stations of the University. 
 
 In production of oil, the Bay region fruit leads, as we find its flesh 
 to contain an average of 24.43 per cent., the fruit from the other 
 regions standing as follows: Foothill, 21.79; San Joaquin Valley, 
 21.47; Southern Coast Range, 21.63; Sacramento Valley, 19.51; 
 Southern California, 17.82; the general average being 20.83 per cent, 
 of oil in the flesh. 
 
 The largest specimens, on the average, have been received from the 
 north of Sacramento, those from the Foothill region requiring 322.5 
 olives, and those from the former 341.1 olives to the pound. The 
 Coast region fruit is by far the smallest, especially that from the 
 southern part of the region, where as many as 452 olives are required 
 to weigh a pound. The general average, 398.2 olives to the pound, is 
 pretty closely followed by the Bay region with 416.8, the Southern 
 California with 373.4, and the San Joaquin Valley with 353.3. The 
 Foothill fruit contains the least pit, 20.8 per cent. Excepting this, 
 the variations on either side of the general average — 23.0 per cent. 
 — are between one and two per cent. 
 
 Notwithstanding the rather abundant yield of oil shown by this 
 variety from all over the State (only 1.6 per cent., on the average, less 
 than the Mission) the fact that its oil is very poor in qualitj r , and 
 because of the extreme difficulty in keeping it clear and brilliant, it is 
 
28 
 
 undesirable for oil-making. It is unsuitable for pickling, not alone 
 because it is the smallest of all the commonly- grown olives, but also 
 because it has such a large pit. 
 
 Having gained a place in the olive orchards of the State by being 
 mistaken for the true Picholine of Europe, it only remains to speak of 
 the use it may be made of, and this is best given perhaps in the fol- 
 lowing statement: "The tree is such an excellent grafting stock that 
 it can be readily grafted into just as prolific varieties, which do not 
 possess the same faults." 
 
 Picholine (True Picholine of Europe). 
 
 The tree is of medium vigor and dimensions, spreading grower; 
 trunk, cylindrical; bark detaches easily from the trunk in regular 
 strips; branches grow horizontally, or with a slight upward inclina- 
 tion; very few suckers; foliage, not vigorous, thick, growing at right 
 angles to the main stem, of a yellowish gray color; wood, cylindrical, 
 or slightly flattened; eyes, prominent. 
 
 Leaves oval, frequently wider at the upper part; medium length, 
 and above medium width (5.5 to 6.5 centimeters in length, or 2 ye- to 
 2 It inches, 1.5 to 1.75 centimeters in width, or yf to |i of an inch; 
 upper surface, dull deep green; lower surface, with slight dirty white 
 pubescence; well marked nerves on lower surface; peduncle thick, 
 long, straight. The leaf is flat at the edges. The young branches 
 are heavily covered with leaves. 
 
 The fruit is generally accumulated near the lower part of the wood 
 of the year, single or in bunches of two; pedicels, very short; stigma, 
 persistent in a very slight umbilicus. The fruit is above the usual 
 size (mean length 2.5 to 3 centimeters, or 1 inch to lyV inches; width 
 1 to 1.5 centimeters, or yV to y-g- of an inch. The form is ovoid and 
 elongated, but thickest near the peduncle, coming to a point near the 
 upper extremity. It is very much curved, of a form intermediate 
 between that of the Lucques on one hand, and the Oliviere on the 
 other. The fruit passes from a clear green to a reddish black; very 
 little bloom, thin skin. Pit small, long, and pointed, being of the 
 same shape as the fruit; maturity medium. 
 
 The true Picholine is widely known in France, especially in the 
 neighborhood of Aix, Tarascon, and Marseilles, and throughout the 
 Languedoc. It yields good crops with tolerable regularity. It is a 
 variety of medium hardiness, but stands very heavy pruning. In 
 France it is cultivated chiefly for pickles, although it yields a fair 
 amount of high-grade oil. Its great delicacy makes it highly esteemed 
 for pickles, which are generally sold under the name of Lucques. It 
 and the Verdale are the best eating varieties of that country. 
 
 In California the general belief seems to be that the Picholine is 
 the same variety as the Oblonga. There is certainly a strong resem- 
 blance between the two. Below we give all the comparative data at 
 hand relating to the analysis of the Picholine of Europe and as grown 
 in California ; also the averages for thirty-two samples of Oblonga and 
 forty-two of Redding Picholine : 
 
29 
 
 Analyses of 
 
 PlCHOLINES. 
 
 
 
 
 PICHOLINE. 
 
 Oblonga. 
 
 Redding 
 
 PlCHOLINE. 
 
 
 France. 
 
 California. 
 
 (Average of two 
 
 samples). 
 
 California. 
 
 California. 
 
 Number of olives per pound.. 
 
 Pit, per cent 
 
 Oil, per cent, in flesh 
 
 104.2 
 10.9 
 17.0 
 
 77.00 
 17.50 
 21.18 
 
 179.40 
 18.70 
 15.88 
 
 398.20 
 23.00 
 20.83 
 
 From the above, it seems that there should be no confusion of the 
 true Picholine with either the Oblonga, or the Redding Picholine. 
 We find it here to be of the same size, grown at both extremes 
 (northern and southern) of the regional limits of the olive, and with a 
 difference of only four per cent, of oil in the flesh. As is to be 
 expected, and shown above, the California Picholine is considerably 
 larger than that grown in France, and yields, on the average, some four 
 per cent, more of oil. 
 
 In size, the Picholine, with 77.0 olives per pound, rates favorably 
 with the San Joaquin Valley (Fresno) Manzanillo, which requires 82.3 
 olives per pound. In quantity of oil in the flesh it leads these Manza- 
 nillos by almost three per cent., but in pit it falls behind, having more 
 by 5.8 per cent. — just about the difference recorded above for the Picho- 
 lines of France and California. Compared with the Lucques of 
 California growth, our Picholine is over twice as large, and in nearly 
 every case carries less pit. The only sample out of six Lucques which 
 has more oil than the Picholine is that from Amador with 24.53 per 
 cent. The Lucques is a variety frequently confounded with the 
 Picholine, and is known mostly in Europe in localities where pickling 
 is the chief industry. 
 
 The Picholine with us excels the Verdale in size, for it takes 114.5 
 olives of the latter, on the average, to weigh a pound. But the Ver- 
 dale has a smaller pit and is higher in oil by one per cent in each case 
 than the Picholine. The Verdale is a Languedoc variety found 
 throughout France and highly esteemed for pickles. 
 
 The Sevillano, the largest olive examined here and one of the 
 largest olives known, attains a size double that of the true Picholine; 
 requiring only 36 as against 77 Picholine olives per pound, and this 
 with a materially smaller pit. In oil content there is practically no 
 choice between these two varieties. The Sevillano in Southern Cali- 
 fornia grows to be as large as in Spain. 
 
 The records relating to these preeminently pickling varieties, while 
 meagre, at least offer a sufficient reason for recommending them to the 
 grower for more general trial. 
 
 Oblonga. 
 
 The Oblonga was imported from France by John Rock, of Niles. 
 It is an olive of peculiar club-like shape, being narrow at the stem 
 end, broad at the upper end, rounded and slightly oblique, yf of an 
 inch long and yV of an inch thick. The pit is curved, -fi of an inch 
 long by tw of an inch thick, and generally pointed at both ends. The 
 
30 
 
 pulp loses its tartness comparatively quickly in pickling, and is very 
 pleasant to the taste; this recommends it especially as a pickling 
 variety. It ripens at least two weeks earlier than the common broad- 
 leaved Mission. Its color is dark purple. It is commonly supposed 
 that the Oblonga is the same as the true Picholine of Europe, but there 
 seems to be but little foundation for this belief, as the two varieties 
 are quite distinct. 
 
 Thirty-two lots of this variety have been examined; out of this 
 number five were from the University culture stations. 
 
 In oil the Southern Coast Range fruit leads, with an average of 
 19.05 per cent, in the flesh; but shows little advantage over the 
 Southern California fruit which has an average of 17.99 per cent. 
 Coming north into the San Joaquin Valley region, it is found that the 
 oil content, 12.25 per cent., falls below that noted above. The olives 
 of the Bay region and the Sacramento Valley both show higher con- 
 tents of oil (respectively 16.48 and 15.64 per cent.) than the San 
 Joaquin Valley; the general average is 15.68 per cent. The fruit is a 
 little larger in the Sacramento region than in the San Joaquin Valley 
 or in Southern California, the figures being respectively 135,9, 142 
 and 154 olives per pound; from the Bay region 212, and from the 
 Southern Coast Range 193.5 olives are required for a pound. There 
 is little variation in pit content in the fruit from the different regions ; 
 the average being 18.7 per cent. 
 
 Although the quality of this oil is very good, this variety is not at 
 all well adapted to the Great Valley region for oil-making; and at 
 best is not more than medium for the purpose. For pickling the 
 Valley fruit would be the best if size were alone considered, but its 
 low oil-content would not indicate a very nourishing product; there- 
 fore, all things considered, the Oblonga from the south would appear 
 to be the best. It has the reputation of having a delicately flavored 
 flesh. One of its peculiarities seems to be that the volume of the flesh 
 diminishes very much during the process of pickling; so that when 
 pickled, the precentage of pit seems to be greater than that indicated 
 by analysis. 
 
 Uvaria. 
 
 The Uvaria was imported by John Rock from France. The fruit 
 is oval, regular, and rounded at both ends, if of an inch long and ye 
 of an inch in thickness; pit straight and heavy, xf of an inch in 
 length and yV of an inch in thickness. It ripens later than the 
 common Mission olive; color is dark purple or black when ripe. The 
 name, "grape-like" is well chosen, the fruit growing in clusters, as 
 many as seven together and resemble the grape in shape. The 
 Uvaria is very prolific. 
 
 Twenty-nine samples of this variety have been examined at this 
 laboratory; of these, three were grown at the University culture 
 stations. The Foothill, Southern California and Bay fruits each 
 average 20.5 per cent, of oil in the flesh; Sacramento Valley and 
 Southern California fruits both average 17.5 per cent., and that in the 
 San Joaquin Valley, 15.4 per cent, of oil; the average for the Uvaria 
 from all localities is 18.51 per cent. The largest fruit comes from the 
 Southern Coast Range, 133.6 olives to the pound, the smallest from 
 
31 
 
 the Bay region where 258.9 olives weigh a pound; in the other regions 
 the general average is 205.1 olives per pound. In pit content the 
 Uvaria exceeds all other common varieties, carrying 8 per cent, more 
 than either the average Mission or Nevadillo. 
 
 Its low yield of oil in the San Joaquin Valley would mean that it 
 is a poor variety for oil-making there, and even where it does its best, 
 it never comes up to the Mission. 
 
 Pendulina. 
 
 The Pendulina was imported by John Rock from France. The 
 fruit is of an even oval shape, rounded at both ends, quite variable in 
 size, many fruits remaining small and undeveloped; it is if of an 
 inch long and -re of an inch thick; the pit re of an inch long, T V of 
 an inch thick, exclusive of the small, sharp points often found at both 
 ends. The fruit grows in clusters of two to five; the pulp parts very 
 readily with its tartness. This variety must not be confounded with 
 the Pendoulier, which is somewhat larger and more of an ovate shape. 
 
 Twenty-two samples of this variety have been tested; five from the 
 culture stations of the University. For oil-making the Pendulina is 
 found to reach its best in the southern part of the State, where it 
 averages 23.0 per cent, of oil in the flesh. In the San Joaquin Valley 
 it apparently does not produce a high amount of oil, giving only 
 18.21 per cent, on the average, which is considerably less than is 
 yielded bv the fruit from the Sacramento Valley (21.88) and Southern 
 California (22.11). 
 
 For pickling, the Southern California- grown Pendulina is the best, 
 because of its size; but in this it falls much below the southern Mission, 
 for 141.3 are required to make a pound, while only 100.2 of the Mission 
 are necessary. 
 
 Razzo. 
 
 The Razzo is mainly cultivated in the Province of Lucca and Pisa, 
 together with Mignolo, Moraiolo, and Grossaio. The fruit is round- 
 ish, fleshy, and contains more oil (in Italy) than any of the native 
 Italian varieties, on which account it is called by the peasants 
 "frantoiano," or oil-press olive. The Razzo commences to ripen in 
 November or December. The soils that suit it best are those that are 
 deep, rich, and well-drained. It suffers from the cold, fog, and winds 
 of the lowlands, prefering the protected hillsides. Though it is 
 exceptionally fertile, it drops its fruit very readily, especially when 
 exposed to winds or prolonged hot spells. 
 
 In California this fruit, from seven widely separated localities 
 (from Central to Southern California) shows the highest average yield 
 of oil, 32.82 per cent., from the Santa Clara Valley; at Pomona it 
 averages 30.30; in the Sierra Foothills, 26.76; and at Tulare, in the 
 Great Valley, it produces only 23.48 per cent, of oil. The general 
 average of ten samples is 28.48 per cent, of oil in the flesh. Like most 
 of the Italian varieties grown here, it averages in size about one-half 
 that of the Mission; but it contains more pit than the latter, carrying 
 24.3 per cent. 
 
 As compared with the Grossaio, grown in the Santa Clara Valley, 
 the Razzo produces a little less oil, 1.50 per cent, on the average, 
 
32 
 
 while Pomona-grown Grossaio falls below the average Razzo some 5.0 
 per cent, in oil. 
 
 The Gucco averages at Santa Barbara 34.0 per cent, of oil in the 
 flesh, or 1.3 per cent, more than the best Razzo, i.e., that of the Santa 
 Clara Valley. At Pomona, the Cucco, with 31.7 per cent, and the 
 Razzo, with 30.5 per cent., appear to be very much alike in oil pro- 
 duction. In the Santa Clara Valley it does poorly, averaging only 21 
 per cent. 
 
 The Gorregiolo, at Santa Barbara, averaged, for four different 
 seasons, 32.52 per cent, of oil, a figure very similar to that of the Razzo 
 at its best in California. In the Santa Clara Valley it produces 24 per 
 cent., while at Tulare, in the Great Valley, it attains but 18.81 per 
 cent, of oil. 
 
 The Leccino, a hardy Tuscan variety, which produces in its 
 native home a low-grade oil — one hard to clarify and of inferior taste — 
 gives its highest yield of oil, 35.12 per cent., at Santa Barbara, 
 the average being 30 per cent. Other southern localities, Pomona and 
 Orange, show nearly 31 per cent, of oil. In the North it falls below 
 this some five per cent., carrying but 26 per cent, of oil. 
 
 As far as the record goes, these Italian varieties, away from the 
 Great Valley and especially on the low mesa soils where they have 
 received the most attention, give great promise of becoming of high 
 importance for oil-making. Generally, they yield oil of the highest 
 quality; which should also commend them to the grower for more 
 general and extensive trial. 
 
 Variation in Size of Fruit, Amount of Pit and Oil. 
 
 The following table shows the variation in size, amount of pit and 
 oil in the flesh in some of the common varieties of olives. The figures 
 are so arranged as to indicate the relative differences between mini- 
 mum and maximum with regard to size, amount of pit and percentage 
 of oil in the flesh, in each variety, the minimum being the unit. 
 Ratio of Smallest to Largest Fruit, Pit and Oil in the Flesh. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Mission 
 
 Nevadillo Blanco .. 
 
 Manzanillo 
 
 Redding Picholine 
 
 Columbella 
 
 Pendulina 
 
 Rubra 
 
 Uvaria . 
 
 Oblonga 
 
 Atro-violaeea 
 
 Praecox 
 
 Atro-rubens 
 
 Polymorpha 
 
 Nigerina 
 
 Regalis 
 
 Size of 
 Fruit. 
 
 Amount 
 of Pit. 
 
 1:4.0 
 1: 3.7 
 1: 3.9 
 1: 2.4 
 1:4.0 
 1:2.0 
 1:3.1 
 1:2.8 
 1:3.0 
 1: 1.7 
 
 3.5 
 
 2.7 
 2.5 
 4.2 
 2.6 
 
 2.1 
 1.9 
 2.5 
 2.0 
 2.0 
 2.1 
 1.4 
 2.0 
 1.9 
 1.8 
 1.5 
 1.6 
 1.4 
 2.8 
 1.7 
 
 Oil in 
 Flesh. 
 
 1:2.5 
 1:2.4 
 1: 2.7 
 1: 3.9 
 
 2.2 
 3.1 
 2.9 
 2.5 
 4.3 
 3.5 
 2.5 
 1.7 
 2.2 
 1.7 
 1.9 
 
 From whatever cause these variations arise, lack of harmony of the 
 variety with its locality, or the insufficiency of analytical data, it is a 
 
33 
 
 difficult matter, if not an impossible one, to name the variety which, on 
 the whole, presents the least variations. For example, the best known 
 variety, the Mission, shows comparatively great variation in size of 
 fruit and only medium variation in oil and pit. The Redding Picho- 
 line, on the other hand, reverses the order of variation, and shows a 
 greater variation, comparatively, in the matter of oil-bearing, than in 
 the quantity of pit or size of fruit. 
 
 The selection of proper varieties for planting in California is thus 
 shown to have received as yet only a part of the careful attention that 
 the question demands. The necessity for, and the importance of, the 
 work undertaken by the Station in bringing out and presenting all the 
 various characteristics is forcibly shown. 
 
 The table of averages by varieties, page 34, gives the number of 
 samples, the size of the fruit, the pit content, and the per cent, of oil 
 in the drupe, flesh, and pit of the various olives examined in the 
 Station laboratory. This summary, together with the foregoing 
 record, will afford a guide to the more intelligent use of the detailed 
 record of analyses already in the hands of the interested grower, when 
 studying varieties and making selections suitable to his soil, location, 
 and climate. 
 
 In reviewing the record relating to the Mission, Nevadillo Blanco, 
 Redding Picholine, Uvaria, Manzanillo, Oblonga, Rubra, Columbella, 
 and Pendulina, there are sufficient data to warrant the statement that 
 these varieties as grown in the Bay region are all of smaller size than 
 those from any of the other regions of the State, out generally they bear 
 the largest percentages of oil — in some of them the average is even 
 higher than those of the same varieties in the Sierra Foothills. It 
 would seem, then, that the cool bay climate does not affect the proper 
 functioning of the drupe of these varieties. 
 
 In the Sacramento Valley on the north and in Southern California on 
 the south, these olives have about the same size and the same richness 
 in oil, showing that the climatic influences of the two sections are 
 about alike; and that the natural moisture in the northern soils off- 
 sets that furnished by irrigation in the south. The Southern Coast 
 Range fruit has a more even distribution of the qualities in question, 
 for it produces a fairly large fruit with more oil. In size, the San 
 Joaquin Valley olives (excepting the Manzanillo, the largest fruit of 
 those named,) may be said to resemble the Southern California fruit; 
 with a tendency, on the whole, to yield less oil. 
 
 The records of analyses of the olives of the unusually dry season of 
 1894-95 show that this fruit was poor in size and quantity of oil. 
 The results of the work upon the olives of the present season will 
 undoubtedly furnish some additional interesting information in regard 
 to the influence of a dry season upon the olive. The work will, of 
 course, not be as extensive as formerly, for the reason that many com- 
 plaints of "failure of crop" reach the Station this year. 
 
Averages by Olive Varieties. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Samples 
 Examined. 
 
 Size, 
 
 Number 
 
 of Olives 
 
 Per Pound. 
 
 Pit, 
 
 per 
 
 cent. 
 
 Per cent, of Oil. 
 
 In Whole 
 Fruit. 
 
 In 
 
 Flesh. 
 
 In Pit, 
 referred to 
 whole fruit. 
 
 Varieties Fully Tested. 
 
 Mission 
 
 Nevadillo Blanco 
 
 Manzanillo 
 
 Redding Picholine 
 
 Uvaria 
 
 Kubra 
 
 Oblonga 
 
 Columbella 
 
 Pendulina 
 
 Varieties not yet Fully 
 Tested. 
 
 Atro-violacea 
 
 Praecox 
 
 Polymorpha 
 
 Macroearpa 
 
 Salonica 
 
 Regalis 
 
 Nigerina 
 
 Atro-rubens 
 
 Corregiolo 
 
 Razzo 
 
 Frantoio 
 
 Morinello 
 
 Cucco 
 
 Leccino 
 
 Piangente 
 
 Grossaio 
 
 Palazzuolo 
 
 Morchiaio 
 
 Infrantoio 
 
 Moraiolo 
 
 Lavignano 
 
 Mignolo 
 
 Lueques 
 
 P]eureur de Grasse 
 
 Verdale 
 
 Picholine 
 
 Ascolano 
 
 Caillon 
 
 Obliza Pendulier 
 
 Obliza 
 
 Amellau 
 
 Amygdalina 
 
 Empeltre 
 
 Hervaza 
 
 Bella di Spagna 
 
 Huff's Spanish 
 
 Olea Maria 
 
 Sweet Olive 
 
 Bellamonte 
 
 Dalmatian 
 
 Ascoli 
 
 "<<^ueen 77 
 
 Santa Caterina 
 
 Sevillano 
 
 Attica 
 
 Olivastro 
 
 Rufa 
 
 Evatella 
 
 112 
 57 
 38 
 42 
 29 
 35 
 32 
 25 
 22 
 
 19 
 15 
 14 
 12 
 9 
 12 
 12 
 11 
 II 
 10 
 7 
 8 
 8 
 7 
 5 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 1 
 3 
 4 
 1 
 6 
 7 
 5 
 2 
 5 
 2 
 1 
 5 
 4 
 2 
 3 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 5 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 
 111.6 
 
 157. 
 
 106. 
 
 398. 
 
 205. 
 
 196. 
 
 179. 
 
 114.6 
 
 157.1 
 
 206.6 
 196.1 
 71.9 
 72.8 
 166.2 
 112.5 
 160.0 
 115.4 
 262.7 
 216.5 
 298.9 
 287.9 
 192.9 
 245.5 
 308.0 
 242.3 
 272.1 
 238.2 
 375.0 
 333.4 
 239.6 
 227.0 
 192.9 
 171.2 
 114.5 
 77.0 
 60.6 
 178.5 
 176.3 
 105.2 
 120.0 
 76.9 
 111.4 
 197.0 
 151.4 
 425.8 
 194.7 
 213.9 
 157.1 
 120.0 
 113.2 
 140. 
 100. 
 36. 
 176. 
 160. 
 219. 
 162. 
 
 17.2 
 17.3 
 14.7 
 23.0 
 25.5 
 17.9 
 18.7 
 16.6 
 13.7 
 
 22.5 
 19.2 
 17.1 
 17.5 
 16.1 
 16.3 
 17.5 
 16.9 
 25.8 
 24.3 
 25.9 
 23.1 
 21.1 
 21.7 
 21.4 
 25.7 
 22.2 
 23.0 
 30.0 
 33.0 
 24.2 
 12.0 
 23.0 
 18.5 
 16.7 
 17.5 
 12.0 
 20.0 
 20.0 
 14.6 
 16.5 
 15.0 
 15.7 
 15.0 
 22.5 
 25.0 
 20.5 
 15.3 
 20.0 
 17.5 
 16.0 
 24.0 
 18.2 
 14.5 
 20.0 
 25.0 
 17.0 
 17.0 
 
 17.56 
 19.21 
 16.94 
 16.18 
 13.71 
 18.58 
 13.34 
 15.59 
 18.63 
 
 17.55 
 14.34 
 15.85 
 14.70 
 20.04 
 16.37 
 19.96 
 19.14 
 21.15 
 21.10 
 24.10 
 21.60 
 27.22 
 22.45 
 16.71 
 23.96 
 29.34 
 29.34 
 19.31 
 21.74 
 24.28 
 16.50 
 14.81 
 22.04 
 19.05 
 17.83 
 16.26 
 16.95 
 12.33 
 11.23 
 15.67 
 19.90 
 19.86 
 14.39 
 18.75 
 16.50 
 17.85 
 12.04 
 17.74 
 15.92 
 16.89 
 27.67 
 17.91 
 17.23 
 15.91 
 21.55 
 20.36 
 23.85 
 
 22.51 
 22.92 
 19.73 
 20.83 
 18.51 
 22.01 
 15.68 
 19.54 
 21.36 
 
 22.40 
 17.75 
 18.82 
 20.41 
 23.60 
 19.58 
 26.16 
 25.59 
 27.68 
 28.42 
 33.94 
 28.90 
 34.38 
 28.50 
 21.16 
 32.78 
 37.70 
 37.99 
 27.58 
 32.22 
 31.90 
 18.70 
 17.21 
 26.65 
 22.53 
 21.18 
 18.45 
 21.19 
 15.41 
 13.42 
 16.51 
 23.41 
 22.93 
 17.22 
 23.94 
 21.99 
 22.83 
 13.96 
 20.30 
 18.92 
 19.72 
 36.30 
 20.09 
 20.19 
 19.79 
 28.79 
 24.54 
 28.73 
 
 .61 
 .99 
 .55 
 1.52 
 1.07 
 .75 
 .85 
 .60 
 .96 
 
 1.08 
 .84 
 .88 
 .70 
 .55 
 .96 
 
 1.06 
 .75 
 
 1.24 
 .84 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 .70 
 .95 
 .86 
 
 1.03 
 .67 
 .36 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.09 
 .74 
 
 .65 
 
 .72 
 .57 
 
 .37 
 
 .59 
 
 .75 
 .37 
 
 .99 
 
 .77 
 
 .63 
 .54 
 
 .52 
 .40 
 
.. .JZ 
 
 i 2 :; 
 
 The Olive Knot 
 
 1. — Small knots on under side of leaves. 
 
 '2. — Large knots on small branch, as commonly seen on vigorous trees when first 
 attacked. 
 
 Knot on leaf-stalk