L^rl. 1 rf. ■•«»?.» .- ^.^v. ,2^^^^^5^ UCSB LIBRARY "^"^ The Peerless Hose Nipple Cap Side View. Cut shows exact size of Nipple Cap. IS PRACTICALLY ANTI-FRICTION. THE SOFT YIELDING END OF THE CAP IN CONTACT WITH THE LINING OR TUBE OF THE HOSE IS VERY ELASTIC AND YIELDING, OVERCOMING THE SWINGING AND MECHANICAL MOTION, DOUBLING THE LIFE OF 90 PER CENT. OF ANY AIR BRAKE HOSE WHEN THIS LITTLE HOSE NIPPLE CAP IS USED. PUT UP IN BOXES CONTAINING ONE GROSS EACH. PUT THE HOSE NIPPLE CAP ON THE END OF THE IRON NIPPLE OR COUPLING FIRMLY, THEN COAT THE END AND OUTSIDE OF THE NIPPLE CAP FREELY WITH PEERLESS RUBBER CEMENT, AND APPLY HOSE TO COUPLING AND NIPPLE AS USUAL, Rl2345678QinilI?. Ino R J 2, 3., 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 \2. ]qq PEERLESS nmBFMwro CO. N.Y. /sm MANtFACTlKED, PATENTED, AND COPYRIGHTED EXCLUSIVELY BY THE PEERLESS RUBBER MANUFACTURING COMPANY, 16 WARREN STREET, NEW YORK. UP-TO-DATE Air-Brake Catechism A COMPLETE STUDY OF THE AIR-BRAKE EQUIPMENT, INCLUDING THE LATEST DEVICES AND INVENTIONS USED. ALL TROUBLES AND PECULIARITIES OF THE AIR BRAKE, AND A PRACTICAL WAY TO FIND AND REMEDY THEM ARE EX- PLAINED Containmg nearly looo Questions with their Answers, intended as examination questions for Engineers a?id Firemen, as well as all other practical railroad meri ROBERT H. BLACKALL Air-Brake Instructor and Inspector on the D. & H. R. R. Fully Illustrated By engravings specially nnade to illustrate the various parts of the Air Brake ; also containing two large folding plates. NEW YORK NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 1899 Copyrighted 1898, BY Norman W. Henley & Co. Dedication* THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFUI.LY DEDICATED TO R. C. BLACKALL, SUPERINTENDENT OF MACHINERY, D. & H C. CO. AS A TOKEN OF APPRECIATION OF HIS EXECUTIVE ABILITY AND INTELLIGENT SERVICE DURING A LONG PERIOD OF PRACTICAL RAILROADING. PREFACE. There is a law compelling railroad companies to have a sufficient number of cars to control trains equipped with air brakes by January i, 1900. In view of this, there is a vast army of railroad employees, especially engine and train crews and air-brake machinists, whose work demands a practical and thorough understanding of that subject. There is no book published which gives a complete study of the air-brake equipment, including the latest devices and inventions used. It is to meet the demand for such a book that the present work is designed. The book includes a complete discussion of all parts of the air-brake equipment, the troubles and peculiarities encountered, and a practical way to find and remedy them. It is written in the familiar st3''le of the class-room, the method of question and answer being adopted, as in that way each point to be enforced may be more definitely and clearly brought out. Train and engine crews will find special and practical as- sistance to their work under the subjects Train Hand- ling and Train Inspection. The aim of the author has been to make the subject matter of such a character as will be readily understood by beginners, and by progression under each topic, to cover also the more intricate work , which will make the book valu- able to those advanced in the subject. ROBERT H. BLACKALL. Air-Brake Inspector, D. & H. C. Co. October, 1898. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Preface. Beginnings of the Air Brake 17-19 Westinghonse Automatic Brake 21 Triple Valve , . , . 22-50 Plain Triple . 22-26 Functions of the Triple . 27-34 Quick-Action Triple . 35-40 Peculiarities and Troubles of the Tripl e . 41-50 Westinghonse Freight Equipment 51-54 Piston Travel , . . . 55-65 Westinghonse Retaining Valve — Operation, Troubles and Benefits 66-73 Main Reservoir .... 74-78 Westinghonse Engineer's Brake Valves . 79-119 F 6 Valve 81-105 Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor 93-97 Little Drum, or Cavity D 98-101 Peculiarities and Troubles 102-105 D 8 Valve ..... 106-117 Operation and Description 106- I 13 Peculiarities and Troubles 114-117 Comparison of F 6 and D 8 Brake Valves 118-119 Westinghonse Pumps .... 120-135 9^-Inch Pump .... 121-132 Operation . , . . 121-125 Peculiarities, Troubles and Care 125-132 8-Inch Pump ..... . 132-135 Operation .... 132-135 Troubles .... 135 Sweeney Compressor 136 Westinghouse Pump Governors — Operations, Peculiarities and Troubles . 137-143 Westinghouse Whistle Signal 144-157 Operation .... . 144-151 Peculiarities and Troubles 152-157 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Westinghouse High-Speed Brake . . r . 158-162 Train Inspection ...... 163-170 Train Handling ...... 171-194 Description of Tests . » . . . 195 Piping . ...... 196-197 M. C. B. Rules ...... 19S-201 Braking Power and Iveverage ..... 202-220 Discussion ..... 202-220 Classes of Levers .... 205-209 Application to Hodge System . . . 209-215 Application to Stevens System . . . 214-215 Sizes of Cylinders to be used -with Different Weights of Cars ...... 216 American Brake Leverage . . 217-219 Cam Brake ...... 220 Formulae and Rules. for Air-Brake Inspectors . . 221-224 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate A. General Arrangement of the Air-Brake Equipment on the Engine, Tender, and Passenger Car. PAGE, Fig. I. Plain Triple .... . = .. 22 Fig. 2. Quick- Action Triple . 38 I^ig- 3- Quick- Action Triple Slide Valve Bushing '. . 39 Fig. 3 A. Quick- Action Triple Slide Valve • • ^ • 39 Fig. 4. Quick- Action Triple, showing Emergency Position 41 Fig. 5. Plain Triple, showing. Service Position ... 42 Fig. 6. Quick-Action Triple, showing Release Position , 43 Fig. 7. Freight Equipment ..... 52 Fig. 8. McKee Slack Adjuster , ^64 Fig. 9. Pressure Retaining Valve .... c . 67 Fig. 10. F 6 Brake Valve .... .0,, 82 Fig: II. F 6 Brake Valve . . . = « , c , 84 Fig. 12. F 6 Brake Valve ,,.,.«. 86 Fig. 13. A View of the Bottom Side of the Rotary 43 , , 90 Fig. 14. Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor . . , : 94 Fig. 15. Leak in Train-Line Governor Gasket . = - , 95 Fig. 16. Little Drum, or Cavity D , , , » . 98 Fig. 17. D 8 Brake Valve .... o o ^ 106 Fig. 18. D 8 Brake Valve ..,.,.„- no Fig. 19. D 8 Brake Valve ..,..». m Fig. 20. Showing Bottom Side of Rotary of D 8 Valve . 112 Plate B. The 9>^-Inch Improved Air Pump. Fig. 21. The 8-Inch Pump. . . . , , » . I33 Fig. 22. Improved Pump Governor ...--- ■^ 138 Fig. 23. Old Style Pump Governor ..,.,- 141 Fig. 24. Location of Signal Apparatus on Engine » 144 Fig. 25. Location of Signal Apparatus on Coach - 146 Fig. 26= Car Discharge Valve -> I47 Fig. 27. Signal Valve .,,..-- I49 Fig. 28, Improved Reducing Valve , - ^ . - 150 Fig. 29. Signal Whistle . . , - .... 151 Fig. 30, Old Style Reducing Valve .,,... 152 LIST OF ILLUSTRATlONSo Fig. 31- Fig. 32= Fig. 33. Fig. 34- Fig. 35- Fig 36. Fig. 37" Fig. 38. Fig. 39- Fig. 40. PAGE. High-Speed Brake Reducing Valve .... 160 Comparative Efficiency of Different Westinghouse Brakes 161 Lever of ist Kind 205 Lever of ist Kind . . . , . . . 205 Lever of 2nd Kind ...... 207 Lever of 2nd Kind ...--.. 207 Lever of 3rd Kind , . . o . . . 208 Lever of 3rd Kind ,.,,;„, 208 Hodge System ^ . = , . - 209 American Equalized Brake . . ~ = • 218 JIPMENT AR. ENGINEERS BRAKE VALVE OUPLINQ y^A Plate A. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE AIR-BRAKE EQUIPMENT ON THE ENGINE, TENDER AND PASSENGER CAR. BEGINNINGS OF THE AIR BRAKE Q. What is an air brake ? A. A brake worked by compressed air. Q. What was the first form of air brake ttsed ? A. The straight air brake. Q. By zuhom and when was it i^ivented ? A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1869. O. What forms of brake did it supplant ? A. The hand and the spring brakes. Q. What parts were necessary to operate tJie straight air brake ? A. An air pump, main reservoir, a valve called the three-way cock used to control the application and release of the brakes, a train pipe, and brake cylinders. Q. What parts were on the engine ? A. A main reservoir, pump, and engineer's valve. Q. What parts were on the car ? h.. The train pipe and cylinder. Q. Where was the braking poiver stored with this system ? A. In the main reservoir on the engine. 1 8 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. How zuere the brakes applied ? A. By changing the position of the three-way cock on the engine so as to allow the main reservoir pressure to flow into the train line. The train line, connected directly with the brake cylinder, allowed air to pass into the cylinder, forcing thepistonout and applying the brake. Q. Why was this brake luisatisfaetory ? A. For several reasons. First, the tendency of the brake was to apply soonest at the head end of the train . If they were applied suddenly the slack running ahead would cause severe shocks and damage. Second, if a hose burst in the train, the brakes could not be set wdth air, as it would pass out the burst hose to the atmosphere. Third, on a long train the main reservoir pressure w^ould equalize with that in the train line and brake cylinders at a low pressure on account of the large space to be filled; before the brakes w^re full set the engineer would have to allow the pump to compress air into the train line and brake cylinders, and before maximum braking power was obtained the train would be stopped. Fourth, the effect of friction on the flow of air from main reservoir through a long train made this brake slower. Q, What was ihe next forvi after the straight air brake ? A. The automatic. Q. By whom and when zvas it invented ? A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1873. Q. What gains over tJie hand brake are made with the air brake ? A. With a train of fifty modern equipped air-brake cars, a full and harder set biake is obtained on the entire train more quickly than a hand brake can be set on one car. Since trains handled on heavy grades have to be Beginnings of the Air Brake. 19 slowed down for the purpose of recharging, by this means the wheels are given a chance to cool. With the hand brakes used on heavy grades, the shoes grind against the wheels down nearly, or quite all of the grade so that often the train is wrecked because the wheels are heated to so high a temperature that they break. Air brakes give us an increased speed of trains with greater safety. THE WESTINGHOUSE AUTOMATIC BRAKE. Q. Where was the difference in the equipment between the straigJit air and automatic brake made ? A. Besides the train line and brake cylinder, a plain triple and an auxiliary reservoir were added to the car. Q. With the cars equipped with the automatic brake, zuhat gain was fnade over the straigJit air brake ? A. (i) The necessary braking power, regardless of the length of the train , was stored in the auxiliary under each car for that car, so that. the brakes could be full set very quickly compared to the action of the straight air brake. (2) If the train broke in two or a hose burst, the triples would automatically apply the brakes, while with the straight air the brakes could not be applied. Q. What was the essential feature of the auto- matic brake ? A. The triple valve known as the j)lai)% triple. Q. Where was it located ? A. On the car, at the junction of the train line, auxiliary, and brake cylinder. Q. Did the pump and three-zuay cock remain on the enoine ? A. Yes ; this was left for later development. PlyAIN TRIPLE. Q, Name the different parts of the plain triple. \ \ Fig. I.— Pi,ain Tripi^e. A. 13 and 15 are the cut-out cock and the handle ; 8, the graduating post ; 9, the graduating spring; m and Plain Triple. 23 n are feed ports; 5 is the triple piston; 6, the slide valve ; 7 is the graduating valve which works inside the slide valve; 12, a piston-packing ring; 18, slide- valve spring ; Y, the port leading to the auxiliary ; A^ leads to brake cylinder ; W leads to train-line pressure. Q. For 7^^ hat are valve ij and handle 75 nsui ? A. They permit the triple to be used as straight air, automatic or cut out entirely, as illustrated by the cut (Fig. i). O. JVhat three positions has the handle i^ {Fig. I)? A. As shown in the cut, by the different positions of the handle : so that the triple would be cut in, as it is with the handle 15 at right angles to the triple ; pointing straight down, in which case, air coming in at W from the train line would go through port e of the plug cock 13 and out into the brake cylinder through X ; or the handle could stand at an angle of 45^, in which posi- tion ports /, a and d would all be blanked. In the first position the triple is cut in as automatic, in the second for straight air, and in the third the triple is cut out entireh'. Q. Can the modern plain triple now sent out be cut into straicrht air ? A. No. a Why not ? A. Because there are lugs cast on the handle 15 which strike and will not allow ic to be raised above its position as shown in the cut, or lower than the position marked " shut off." Q, Why was it necessary to have it so arranged that it could be cnt in as straight air ? A. When the brakes were gradually being changed 24 Air-Brake Catechism. from straight air to automatic, it sometimes happened that only a few cars in the train had the triple applied. In this case the handle 15 was turned so as to cut the car into straight air to be used with the other straight air cars. Q. Of what use are 8 and g {Fig- /) ? A. In applying the brakes, when piston 5 moves out and touches the stem 8, held by the graduating spring 9 (Fig. i), the piston is stopped, if a gradual reduction is being made on the train line, when the piston has drawn the slide valve down far enough to make a port connection between the auxiliary and cylinder. Q. If a quick reductiou is being made 07i the train line, will the spring g stop the triple piston ? A. No; a quick reduction causes the triple piston 5 to move out quickly, and the sudden impact compresses the spring 9, allowing the piston 5 to move out until it strikes gasket 11, to what is known as emergency position. Q. 5 {Fig. i) is called the triple piston. How is it actuated? A. Train-line pressure is on the lower side of the piston and auxiliary pressure on the upper or slide- valve side. It is by changing these pressures that the piston is moved. Q, What are the duties of the piston as it moves ? A. To open and close the feed ports m and n (Fig. i) through which the train-line pressure flows into the auxil- iary, to move the graduating valve 7 and the slide valve 6. Q. What is the duty of the graduating valve 7 {Fig. I)? A. It is the small valve inside the slide valve, and its duty as it is moved backward and forward by the triple piston is to open and close the port j) through which, in Plain Triple. 25 the service application, auxiliary pressure flows to the brake cylinder. Q. Does the graduating valve 7nove every time the triple piston moves? A. Yes, because it is fastened to the stem of the piston by a pin which passes through both the gradu- ating valve and the stem of the triple piston. The pin is represented by the dotted lines running through the lower end of the graduating valve at right angles to it. Q. Could we get along zuithont the gradnatiiig valve ? A. Yes, but the sensitiveness of the triple would be destroyed. Q. How does tJie or^^adiiatincr valve make the triple sefisitive ? A. A reduction of train-line pressure causes the triple to assume servdce position, and after the auxiliary pressure has expanded to a trifle below that in the train line, piston 5 (Fig. i) moves back and closes the graduating valve on its seat. Train-line pressure had simply to overcome the friction on the triple piston-packing ring to do this, but had we no graduating valve the train- line pressure would have had to be strong enough to overcome the additional friction of the slide valve to move it back far enough to close port j:>. When wishing to apply brakes harder, a heavier reduction would be necessary to again move the slide valve to service position. With the graduating valve, the slide valve is moved to service position with the first reduction, where it remains until the brake is released or in case the emergency is used. Q. What are the ditties of the slide valve ? A. In the plain triple, when moved by the triple piston, it serves to make a connection between the 26 Air-Brakr Catechism. auxiliary and the brake cylinder or between the brake cylinder and the atmosphere. Q. Does the slide valve move eve^y tmie the piston moves? A. No ; the slide valve will not move when the piston starts down until it has moved far enough for the lug just above i8 (Fig. i) to strike the valve. The same, if the piston is down full stroke ; when it starts back the slide valve will not move until the piston has gone back far enough to seat the graduating valve. Q. Of zvhat use is the sprijig i8 {Fig. /) f A. Its duty is to hold the slide valve on its seat and to prevent dirt from collecting there when there is no auxiliary pressure to hold the valve on its seat, as when the car is "dry." FUNCTIONS OF THE TRIPLE IN THE OPERATION OF THE BRAKE. Q, Why 2s this valve called the triple valve ? A. Because it automatically does three things : charges the auxiliary, applies the brake and releases it. Q. If an engine couples to a car that is not charged, how does the triple charge the auxiliary on .the car whe^t the hose is coupled and the angle cocks turned so as to allow the compressed air to flow into the train line on this car from the engine? A. A cross-over pipe from the main train line couples to the triple at TF(Fig. i). The pressure from the train line passes into the triple at 11', through port c as indicated by the arrow into cavity B; thence through the feed ports 771 and n into the chamber where the slide valve moves and out into the auxiliary at F. Q. How long does the air continue to flow into the auxiliary ? A. Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater than that in the auxiliary, that is, until the pressures are equal on the two sides of the triple piston 5. Q. How are the two sides of the piston referred to? A. The lower side, having train-line pressure on it, is called the train-line side of the piston, and the upper side, having auxiliary pressure on it, the auxiliary or slide-valve side. 28 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What is necessaiy to cause piston 5 {Fig. /) to move from release position ? A. Any reduction of train-line pressure ; a break in the hose ; the use of his valve by the engineer to make a train-line reduction. O. If a reduction of train-line pressure is made, how does the triple respond ? A. Auxiliary pressure now being greater forces the triple piston down. O. What two things does the piston do when it starts to move down ? A. It closes the feed grooves m and n and moves the graduating valve from its seat. Q. Does the slide valve m.ove as soon as the piston f A. No, not until the lug above 18 (Fig. i) is drawn down far enough to rest against the slide valve. Q. What does the slide valve do as soon as the lug strikes and moves it down ? A. It first closes the exhaust port g which in release position connected the brake cylinder with the atmos- phere through A", c/, e, /, g^ h and k. Q. How far down does the triple piston travel ? A. Until the projecting stem of the piston strikes the stem 8 held by the graduating spring 9 (Fig. i). Q, When these stems touch, how does the slide valve stand ? A. Port p of the slide valve is in front of port /, and, as the graduating valve was pulled from its seat when the piston first moved, the auxiliary pressure is now free to pass into the slide valve through port /, Functions of the Triple. 29 called the service or graduating port, which leads into port p. The air passes through ports l^ J^y fy e^ d, and out through A'' to the brake cylinder. Q. How long does the gradtcating valve remain off its seat so as to allow auxiliary pressure to flow to the brake cylinder ? A. We reduced the train-line pressure to allow the greater auxiliary pressure to move the piston down and open the service or graduating port j) between the auxil- iary and cylinder. Just as long as the auxiliary pressure is greater, the piston will stay down and the graduating valve remain unseated. As the auxiliary pressure ex- pands into the brake cylinder it gradually becomes less until, when the train-line pressure becomes enough greater than that in the auxiliary to overcome the fric- tion on the packing ring 12 (Fig. i), the piston auto- matically moves back and seats the graduating valve. O. Does the slide valve move ? A. No, not now. Q. Why not f A, The train-line pressure was just strong enough to overcome the friction on the packing ring 1 2 , move the piston back, and close the graduating valve. With the ports all closed the piston would also have to com- press the air in the auxiliary to go back any farther. Then, too, the pressure left in the auxiliary acting to force the slide valve on its seat produces a friction, if the valve were moved, that the train-line pressure as it stands is not sufficiently strong to overcome. Q. How do the auxiliary and train-line press- ures now stand ? A. Practically equal, although the auxiliary pressure had to be a trifle less to allow the triple piston to be moved back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. 30 Aip.-Brake Catechism. Q. The brake is now partially applied and on what is termed lap position ; what must be done to apply the brake harder ? A. Another reduction of train-line pressure must be made. Q. How does this set the brake tighter f A. The auxiliary pressure once more being stronger than that on the train line forces the triple piston down until it is again stopped by the graduating post. This movement is just sufficient to unseat the graduating valve, the slide valve remaining where it was with its service port ]) (Fig. i) in front of the brake cylinder. About the same amount of air pressure passes from the auxiliary to the cylinder that was taken from the train line, and the piston once more having a trifle more pressure on the train line than on the auxiliary side moves back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. Q. Hozu lo7ig can these train-line reductions con- tinne to be made and canse the brake to set harder ? A. Until the pressures have finally equalized be- tween the auxiliary and the brake cylinder. Q. After th e a icxiliary and bra ke-cy Under press- ures were equal, would the brake set any harder if all train-li7ie pressure were throzvn to the atmos- phere ? A. No ; when the brakes are full set the auxiliar}' and brake-cylinder pressures are equal, and a further re- duction of train-line pressure would only be a waste of air that the pump would have to replace in order to re- lease the brakes. Q. If a further train-line reduction were made a tcr the brake was full set, would pisto7i 5 {f^ig- i) Functions of the Triple. 31 move any farther than U7itil the piston and gradttating post touched? A. Yes ; the spring 9 could not withstand the auxil- iary pressure, as it is so much in excess of the reduced train-line pressure, and the piston would move down until it seated on gasket 11. In this position there would be a direct connection across the end of the slide valve between the auxiliary and brake cylinder, but the brake would not set any tighter, as the auxiliary and brake- cylinder pressures were already equal. Q. The brake is nozu full set. What is neces- sary to release it? A. It is necessary to get the pressure on the train- line side of the triple piston greater than that on its auxiliary side. Q. Hozu is this done ? A. By moving the handle of the engineer's valve so as to connect the pressure of ninety pounds, stored in the large main reservoir on the engine, with the train line. Air flowing from the main reservoir into the train line causes the pressure on the train-line side of the triple piston to be sufficiently strong to overcome auxiliary pressure and force the triple piston to release position. Q. When the triple is forced to release position the slide and orradnatinz valves are carried with it. What two pjrt openings are made in this position ? A. One between the train line and auxiliary through the feed ports m and a (Fig. i) ; and one from the brake cylinder to the atmosphere through ports c/, e, /, , '-■ bT^ -in TO TRAIN LINE < TO AUXILIARY TO CYLINDER Fig. 6.— Quick- Action Tripi^e, showing Rei^ease Position. suddenness of the reduction, and there is only a slight and gradual reduction on the train line back of the cars cut out. O. What bad effect would foHoiu if the engineer did not contin\ 'k ue ma/cino^ a 1 eduction ? A. The air coming ahead from the back of the train would kick oflf the head brakes. 44 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. Cotdd these brakes in the back of the train be applied ? A. Yes, in service but not in emergency. Q. Water so^netimes collects in cavity ij (Fig. 2) of the triple. Where does it come from ? A. It works back from the pump. Q. What bad effect zuill water have in this place ? A. It is likely to freeze in winter and block the flow of air through the triple. Q. What should be done in such a case ? A. Apply burning waste and when thawed remove the drain plug 26 to remove the water or the trouble will recur. Q. What would be the effect of a weak or broken gradicating spring? A. We would have nothing to stop the triple piston when it reached service position, and it would move on to emergency position. Q. If one triple goes into quick action, will the rest go ? A. Yes, as a sudden reduction is made on the train line through the emergency ports of the triple in this case. This sudden reduction starts the next and that the next and so on. Q. Will a zueak or broken graduating spring always throiv the triples into quick action ? A. No, only on a short train. Q. Why not on a long train ? A. On a short train, with a gradual train-line reduc- tion, air is drawn from the train line faster than the Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple. 45 auxiliary pressure can get to the brake cylinder through the service port of the slide valve. When the auxiliary pressure is enough greater than that in the train line, it forces the triple piston to emergency position, as there is no graduating spring to stop it. On a long train, it takes longer to make a correspond- ing reduction on account of the larger volume of air in the train line. This gives the auxiliary pressure longer to pass into the cylinder, and as a result the train-line and auxiliary pressures keep about equal and the triple piston will not move to emergency position unless a sudden re- duction is made. Q. Hozu many air cars must there be in a train so that a broken or weak graditating spring will not affect the service application ? A. Usually not less than six or seven ; with more than this number, if otherwise the triples work properly, the graduating springs could be removed from all triples and no bad effect be noticed. Q, What tzuo things zuill canse the triples to go into qnick action regardless of the length of the train ? A. A sticky triple or a broken graduating pin. (The one which fastens the graduating valve to the piston stem as shown by the dotted lines. Fig. 2.) Q. Why will a sticky triple throw the brakes into emergency ? A. Because the triple does not respond to a light re- duction. When it does move, it jumps, and the sudden blow compresses the graduating spring and the triple is in the quick-action position. This car starts the rest as before explained. Q. Why will a broken graduating pin throw the brakes into emergency ? 46 Air-Brake Catechism. Ao Because with this pin broken there is nothing- to move the graduating valve from its seat when the triple piston moves and the auxiliary pressure is acting to hold it on its seat. When a train -line reduction is made and the triple assumes service position, no air can leave the auxiliary and pass through the graduating or service port of the slide valve, as the graduating valve is on its seat. When sufficient train-line reduction has been made so that the graduating spring cannot withstand the auxiliary pressure acting on the piston, the triple goes to the quick-action position, and we get the quick action on this car and consequently on the rest as before explained. Q. Which of these tJiree troubles — zueak gradu- ating spring, broken graduating pin or sticky triple — will usually be foitnd to exist if the brakes go into e77tergency zuith service application f A. A sticky triple, and this usually means that the triple causing the trouble has had poor care. Q. Shall zue get the same result regardless of the location of the faulty triple in the train ? A. Yes ; if one starts, all do. Q. What is the probable trouble zuith a brake zuhich, zvhen set in service, zvill sometimes remain set and sometimes release ? A. A dirty slide valve which sometimes seats prop- erly and at others not ; in the latter case auxiliary press- ure escapes to the atmosphere through the exhaust port and allows train- line pressure to force this triple to re- lease position. O. Hozu may this defect be remedied ? A. Remove the triple piston and attached parts, clean carefully, loosen the packing ring without remov- ing and rub a little oil on the slide valve with the finger. Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple. 47 O. Why not poui^ on the oil ? A« Too miicli oil is bad, as it collects dust, which with the oil forms gum. This causes a triple to stick. O. What effect will a leak in the train line have if the bi^akcs are not set ? A. It will simply cause the pump to work to sup- ply it. Q. What effect if the brakes are set ? A. It will cause them to leak on harder. Q, Will the leak caiise only the brake 07i that car to leak on, or all ? A. All, as the train line is continuous through the train. Q. What effect zvill a^ leak in an auxiliary have if a brake is released? A. It will keep the pump at work the same as a train-line leak. Q. What effect if the brakes are applied? A. It will leak the brake off on the car where the leak is and then, drawing air from the train line through the feed ports, it will gradually set the other brakes tighter. Q. There are a number of leaks in the triple which will cause a blow at its exhatcst port. Name the tzvo most likely to produce this effect. A. A leaky slide valve or a leaky rubber-seated valve (Fig. 2). Q. Hoiu can zvc tell which of these is causing the trouble ? A. As the exhaust port on the slide valve is always in communication with the atmosphere, whether the 48 Air-Brakb Catechism. brakes are applied or released, a leak on the face of the slide valve will cause a constant blow= Q. Hozu else can we tell if it is the slide valve that causes the trouble? A. Apply the brake, and if auxiliary pressure is leaking away across the slide valve, the brake will generally release. Q. How can we tell if the trouble is with the rubber-seated valve ? A. The rubber- seated valve will cause a blow at the exhaust only when the brake is released. Q. Why? A. The rubber-seated valve lo (Fig. 2) leaking will allow the pressure to leave cavity xj. The train-line pressure then raises check 15 and passes through cavity 7/ across the rubber-seated valve, through cavity .r, ports C and r, into the exhaust cavity n of the slide valve and out to the atmosphere through port p. When the brake is applied, port n in the slide valve is closed to port r, consequently the blow stops. Q. Where does the air which is leaking across the rubber-seated valve go after the brake is ap- plied? A. Direct to the brake cylinder through C, and this brake continues to set harder. Q, Why is a leaky rubber-seated valve more likely to slide the wheels on a car in a lo7ig train than in a short one ? A. After the brakes are applied, this leak allows the train-line and brake-cylinder pressures to equalize. With a long train line there is a much greater volume of air, and these pressures will equalize higher. Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple. 49 Q. How else ean zue tell if the rubber-seated valve leaks ? A. Turn the cut-out cock in the cross-over pipe from the train line to the triple after everything is charged : if the rubber-seated valve leaks, it will draw air from the train line ; with the cut-out cock closed, this leak is not being supplied, and the reduction will cause the brake on this car to apph'. (J. Give another symptom ivhicJi indieates a leaky rubber-seati d valve. A. The leak above the check 15 caused the check to rise to supply it, and when the cavity is again charged the check closes. It sometimes rises and closes so fast as to make a loud buzzing sound. Q. What is 2tsually the eause of leaking in a rubber-seated valve f A. Dirt on the seat, a poor seat caused by wear, the use of oil on the quick-action part of the triple, or using too much oil in the brake cylinder, which will work into the triple and cause the rubber to decay. Q. If dirt is the souree of the ti ouble, how may it be removed wi: Iiout taking the tnple apart? A. Set the brake by opening the angle cock after closing the cock at the other end of the car. If there is dirt on the valve, it may be blown off in this way. Q. IVJiat besides the slide and rubber-seated valves will cause a blow at the exhaust port of the triple? A. Gasket 14 (Fig. 2) leaking between e and cavity ?/, or the gasket leaking between the brake cylinder and auxiliary where the triple is bolted to the cylinder. On freight equipments there is a pipe which runs inside the auxiliary to the brake cylinder ; this pipe leaking will also cause a blow. 50 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. Ai'e these lea/tS common ? A. On the contrary, they are very uncommon. The blow is ahnost invariaoly due to a leaky slide or emer- gency valve. O. What effect would the leaking of graduating valve y {Fig- 2) have? A. The action produced by such a leak is uncertain and depends greatly on the conditions connected with it. When the brake is applied, the triple assumes lap posi- tion after the auxiliary pressure is a trifle less than that in the train line. If the graduating valve leaks, the auxiliary pressure gradually reduces, and the train-line pressure forces tlie triple piston and slide valve back until the blank on the face of the slide valve between ports z and n is in front of port r. If the graduating valve does leak, no more air can leave port z in this posi- tion, and the slide valve stops. This blank space is only a trifle wider than port r, so if the valve is in good con- dition and works smoothly, the brake should not release ; but if it works hard, it is likely to jump a little when it moves, and open the exhaust port. O. Give a rule by whicJi to tell hozj a leaky graduating valve zvill act. A. If the triple is. in proper condition, a leaky grad- uating valve should not release a brake. If the triple is a trifle sticky, a brake is likely to be released. A leaky s-ide valve or a slight auxiliary leak in combination with a leaking graduating valve will release a brake. A WESTINGHOUSH FREIGHT EQUIPMENT„ Q. Name the different parts of the equipment. A. 3 (Fig. 7) is the piston sleeve and head , 9 the release spring, 4 the front cylinder head, 2 the cylinder body, A the leakage groove, 7 the packing leather, 8 the expander ring, 6 the follower plate which holds the packing leather 7 to its place, B the pipe connecting the triple valve and brake cylinder, and 15 the gasket which makes a tight joint between the auxiliar,', triple, and pipe B leading to the brake cylinder. O. Explain the nse of the release spring g A. When the brake is applied, air is pnt into the cylinder 2 throngh pipe B^ and the piston 3 is forcc^d to the left, compressing the release spring. When the air is released from the brake cylinder, the duty of the release spring is to force the piston to release position as shown in the illustration. O. lJ7iat enters the sleeve j (Eig- 7) ? A. The push rod through which the braking power is transmitted to the brake rigging. O. Of what nse is the expander ring 8 ? A. To keep the flange of the packing leather 7 against the walls of the cylinder. The expandei ring is a round spring. O. Of zidiat nse is t lie packing leather 7 ? Westixghouse Freight Equipment. 53 A As air enters the brake cyiinder, the flange of the packing leather is forced against the v/alls of the cylin- der, thus making a tight joint to prevent the passage of the air by the piston and out to the atmosphere through the open end of the cylinder at the left. If the leather leaks, the brake will leak off. O. Of what 2ise is the leakage groove A {Fig. f) ? A. The piston as shown in the cut is in release position. If on a long train there should be any leak on the train line that would draw a triple piston out far enough to close the exhaust port in the slide valve, and there were a leak into the brake cylinder, the pressure would gradually accumulate and force the piston out, causing the shoes to drag on the wheels were it not for the leakage groove. This wnll allow any small leakage into the brake cylinder to pass through the groove and out of the other end of the cylinder to the atmosphere. If the brake connections are taken up so short that the piston will not travel by the leakage groove when the brake is set, the air v/ill blow past the piston through the groove and release the brake on this car. In this case, were it not for the groove, the wheels would be slid. a What is the dtUy of the pipe B ? A. When the brake is applied, air passes from the auxiliary through the triple and pipe B to the cylinder. When the brake is released, air passes from the cylin- der through pipe B, the triple exhaust port and out to the atmosphere, or, if a retainer is used, it passes from the triple into the retainer pipe, which is screwed into the triple exhaust, and out of the retainer according to the position of its handle. O. Of ivJiat use is the auxiliary lo (l^ig. j) f A. This is where the supply of air is stored with which to apply the brake on this one cat. 54 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What is the valve on top of the auxiliary ? A. It is called the release valve. By lifting on the handle of this valve the pressure in the auxiliary lo may be released. If this valve leaks, after the brake is applied, the reduction of auxiliary pressure thus made will release the brake. O. What 2ise has the plug ii ? A. To drain off any accumnlation of water in the auxiliar}'. Q, U^hat harm ivill ensue if gasket i^ leaks? A. The leak may be from the auxiliary to the atmosphere or from the auxiliary into pipe B leading to th2 brake cylinder. After the brake was applied, the reduction of auxiliary pressure caused by this leak would allow the train-line pressure to force this triple to release position and release this brake. The leak would then draw air from the train line through the triple feed ports, making a train-line reduction that with any other leaks on the train w^ould help to creep on the other brakes. Q Is the freight-car equipment differ eiit from the air-brake eqnfpment oil the passe^iger car? A. It is smaller, but the principle of operation is the same. In a passenger equipment the pipe B does not run through the auxiliary, and the auxiliary and brake c^dinder are not fastened together. The appearance is different, but, aside from size, they are alike. PISTON TRAVEL. Q. What determines the amount of travel a piston 10 ill heave? A. The slack in the brake rigging and any lost mo- tion in the car brought out by the application of the brake. O. Hoio is the piston travel iLsitally adjusted? A. By changing the position of the dead truck levers. Q. JVhieh is called the dead lever of a truck ? A. The one held stationary at the top with a pin. O. U^hat is the other lever on the truck called ? A. The live lever. O. JVhat is the lever fastened to the piston usually called ? A. The piston lever. O. What is the corresponding lever at the other end of the cylinder in a passe^iger cguipme?it called? A. The cylinder lever. O. Are these levers ever spoken of diferently ? A. Yes, sometimes both are referred to as cylinder levers. O, In passenger equipment there is sometimes a lever beiiveen the cylinder levers and truck leverSy one end of zvhich is connected to the hand brake and 56 Air-Brake Catechism. the other to tJie live truck lever. What is this lever usually called? A. The Hodge, or floating, lever ; the latter name is the one more commonly used. Q. We have seen in stiidying the triple valve that a five-pound train-line reduction caused the triple to put five pounds from the auxiliary into the brake cylinder. Hoiv much pressure does this give us in the brake cylinder ? A. It depends upon the piston travel. It may be more or less than five pounds ; it might be five pounds. Q. Explain this anszvcr. A. We notice that the auxiliar}^ is much larger than the brake cylinder, and five pounds taken from the larger space and forced into a smaller will give a greater press- ure than that put in ; but it must be remembered that a small part of the air put into the cylinder goes through the leakage groove before the piston gets by and closes it. There is still another point. If no air were put into the brake cylinder and the piston were pulled out when the exhaust port was closed, a vacuum would be formed. When the air enters the cylinder it must first fill this space to atmospheric pressure before a gauge placed on the cylinder would begin to show any pressure. The longer the travel, the more air it would take to fill the space and the less pressure there would be for the five pounds put into it. Q. Which zvould give a higher pressure for a given reduction, long or short piston travel? A. Short travel. Q. Why? A. Because with a short travel the same amount of air would be expanded into a smaller space. Piston Travel. 57 Q. With the freight equip jjiejit how much drake- cylinder press2ire do zee get for a seven-pound train-line reduction with a 6 and a g-inch travel 7 A. Referring to the table we see that we get seventeen and one-half pounds with the 6 inch, and eight pounds with the 9-inch travel. TRAIN PIPE PISTON TRAVEL AND RESULTANT CYLINDER PRESSURE * REDUCTION 4 ' 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 49 57 * 23 i7f 43 34 56 44 • • 54 13 29 37* 47i 51 23* 33 41J 47 50 8 19* 29 35 40 47i ( PISTON NOT "( ENTIRELY OUT. 17 ' 14 24 20 29 24 36* 32 44 , 39 47 45 25 . . 1 . . *Air Brake Men's Proceeding?. The above table is the result of tests made with a freight equip- ment. Each result is the average of several tests, and the brake was in good condition. There are two spaces where it says "Piston not entirely out," where no brake-c\'linder pressure is given for a seven- pound train-line reduction. This does not mean there was no press- ure there, as there must have been or the piston could not have gone out and compressed the cylinder release spring. The ordinary air gauge does not register any pressure less than five pounds, and \vith a seven-pound train-line reduction the pressure gotten in a ten- or eleven-inch piston travel is less than five pounds. Seventy pounds train-line pressure was used in making these tests. Q. With a sixteen-pound reduction ? A. Fifty- four pounds with the 6 inch, and thirty- five pounds with the 9 inch. Q. Witli a tiuenty-two-pound reduction ? 58 Air-Brakk Catechism. A. After the sixteen-pound reduction, the brake did not set any harder on the 6-inch travel because the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures' equalized at that point, and this brake was full set. With the 9-inch travel the air from the auxiliary had 4 inches more space into which to expand, and the brake was not full set until a twentv-two-pound reduction had been made, giving forty-seven and one-lialf pounds brake-cylinder pressure. Q. What docs this slicu^ ? A . That a brake with a short piston travel is more powerful than one wdth a long travel ; that a brake v/ith the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures equalized can- not be applied any harder by a further reduction of train- line pressure, and that if piston travel varied in a long train, between 4 and 11 inches, there would be no uni- formity in the braking power applied in the different parts of a train. Q. IV li it zuonld be the pressm^e, witJi the travel as given in the table^ were the brakes set in emer- gency ? A. 4 in., 5 in., 6 in., 7 in. piston travel. 62 61 59J 58J emergency pressure. 8 in., 9 in., 10 in., 11 in. piston travel. 57i 56i 55i 55 emergency pressure. Q. Why do the brakes set ha' dtr ivith the quick- action triple in emevgency than in s-rvice? A. Because in the emergency application the quick- action triples put air from both the auxiliary and train line into the brake cylinder. Q. Can full emergency pressure be obiaincd after havino; made a lio^ht train- line reduction in service application ? A. No. Piston Travel. 59 O. Can any gain, be made ? A. Yes, if the reduction has not been too great. By referring to the table we see that a thirteen-pound reduc- tion sets a 4-inch travel brake in full. If emergency were now used this brake would not set any harder, while we might gain a little on the long travel. With a given train-line reduction, vre would gain most on the car with the long travel, but on neither would we get full emer- gen c)^ pressure. O. Can a trairi be handled sniootJily with uneven t7'yvel thro2igho2it the train ? A. Not as smoothly as when the travel is more uni- form. O. What will be the effect with shoi^t travel at the head of the train and long at the rear ? A. Having more braking power at the head would cause the slack to run ahead, causing a jar. O. What if the short travel zvcre at the rear of the train ? A. The tendency would be for the slack to run back and break the train in two, especially if the train were on a knoll. O. How else luoitld the piston travel affect the smoothness of the braking? A. In releasing the brakes. Q. Suppose we had a train half of which had 4- inch travel and the other half g ijich, which brakes wonld start releasing first if the engineer had made a ten-pound train-line reduction and then, wishing to release the bralces, increased the train-line press- ure ? A. Thev should all start about the same time, but 6o Air-Brake Catechism. the tendency is always for head brakes to start releasing first if the travel is about alike, as the air enters the train line from the main reservoir at the front of the train, and the pressure is naturally a little higher here when recharging. Q. Is the same true after a tJiirteen-pound reduction f A. Yes. O. After a tiuenty-two-poimd reduction? A. No ; the long travel brakes will start releasing first. Q, Why ? A. Referring to the table we see that the 4-inch travel was not applied any harder after a thirteen-pound reduction had been made ; but the 9-inch travel con- tinued applying harder until a twenty- tvv^o-pound reduc- tion of train-line pressure had been made. With the brakes full set we have fifty-seven pounds pressure in the auxiliary and cylinder of the 4-inch travel car and forty-seven and one-half on the long. Train-line press- ure has to overcome auxiliary pressure to force the triple pistons to release position, and it is easier to over- come forty-seven and one-half than fifty-seven pounds ; hence the triple piston on the long travel car will go to release position with less of an increase of train-line pressure than will the triple on the short travel car. O. State the general rule in regard to this ques- tion. A. It reductions have not been continued after cars with the short piston travel have been full set, all brakes should start releasing about the same time ; but if the reductions of train-line pressure are continued after the short travel brakes are full set, an increase of train-line pressure will start the long travel brakes releasing first. Piston Travel. 6i Q. If a long and a short travel brake are started releasing at t/ie same time, zu/iieh will get off first and loJiy ? A. The short travel, because the piston has a shorter distance to go and there is a less volume of air to be gotten rid of through the exhaust port of the triple. Q. Jf^e have tzuo ears ivith the same piston travel. What is the trouble if both are started releasing at the same time and one gets off qnicker than flie other ? A. The release spring in one cylinder is weaker or the cylinder corroded. O. ]VIiat Jiarm zuonld it do to take a pistou travel up to j inches ? A. The piston could not get by the leakage groove, and the brake would not stay set. O. IVJiat harm zuonld it do to let the travel out to I J inehes ? A. The piston would strike the head, and we would have no brake on that car. Q. Does having very long piston travel in a train require any more zvork of a pump in descend- ing grades ? A. Yes; the air has to be used more expansively, and the pump will have to supply more air in recharging. O, If zue try the piston travel on a car zvJien standing, zuill zue find it to be the same as zjuhen run- ning? A. No. O. J Thy not :P 6z Air-Brakk Catechism. A. For several reasons: the shoes pull down farther on the wheels when running ; the king bolts being loose allow the trucks to be pulled together ; spring in brake beams, loose boxes in jaws, loose brasses on journals, the give in old cars, and any lost motion that will throw slack into the brake rigging ; all these will cause the piston travel while running to be greater than that while standing. Q. If tJie piston travel is adjusted when a carts loaded, will it remain the same zuhen the car is lio-ht? A. It will, if the brakes are hung from the sand plank, but most brakes are hung from the truck bolster or the sill of the car. When the car is loaded, the truck springs are compressed and the shoes set lower on the wheels. When the car is unloaded, the truck springs raise the bolster and car body, thus raising the shoes so that there is less clearance between the brake shoes and wheels. This shortens the piston travel, as the piston does not have to travel so far to bring the shoes up to the wheels. Q. How could yon tell the piston travel on a car if it had no air in it ? A. This can be told on freight cars where the hand brake and air brake move the push rod in the cylinder in the same direction when applying the brake. To tell the travel, shove the push rod into the cylinder until it bottoms. Make a mark on the push rod and set the hand brake. The distance the mark on the push rod has moved will be, approximately, the piston travel when using air. Q. How much variation is permissible? A. The smaller the amount of variation the better, but in road service it is the aim to keep piston travel between 5 and 8 inches. PisTox Travel. 63 O. Is there any device which will keep a co7istant piston travel on a car ivitJiout any oiUside aid? A. Yes, a slack adjuster. 0. IVhat slack adjuster is in most general use ? A. The McKee Slack Adjuster. O. How does it work ? A. When the brake is applied, if the piston travels by the hole into which the pipe is screwed into the cylin- der, air flows through the pipe to a small cylinder and forces out a small piston in the cylinder, compressing a strong spring. When the brake is released, the air leaves the small piston and the spring moves it back to its original position, carrying with it the stem connecting to the ratchet. The pawl turns the ratchet wheel, which in turn works the screw and takes up the slack 3^3 of an inch at a time. O. Is this better than a Jiand adjustment ? A. Yes, because it does its work when the car is in motion, and true travel is had because all lost motion is brought out when the car is in motion. O. JVhat is the most satisfactory travel for o-eneral use ? A. Between 6 and 7 inches. O. Where ivould a moderately long travel be const de re d bettei^ than a short ? A. In a practically level country where, with short travel and a large number of air cars in a train, the train might be slovv^ed up or stopped with a light train- line reduction, thus causing too frequent releases. O. IJ-^hat harm ivould a too short travel do ? A. The piston might not get by the leakage groove, and the shorter the travel the more danger of sliding the PisTox Travel. 65 wheels on account of the greater braking power de- veloped. A too short travel does not give sufficient shoe clearance, and causes a train to pull hard if the brake shoes drag. O. Oil most passenger cars piston travel can be taken np by winding iip the hand brake a little, as the two brakes zi)07''k in opposition to each other. Is this a gocd practice? A. No ; it is the act of a lazy workman, and is dangerous. O. How is it dangerous ? A. If the brake is set quickly, it is likely to break the brake chain, and if a passenger had hold of a hand brake wheel when the brake w^as applied, if the dog w^ere not caught, the wheel flying round might break his hand or arm. THE WESTINGHOUSE RETAINING VALVE. Q. With what equipnients is the retaining valve used ? A. Throughout the country on freight cars, and on engines, tenders, and passenger cars in mountainous countr}'. Q. Why do they not use it on passenger cars in hilly country ? A. It is not necessary, as the higher braking power used in passenger service is sufficient to run moderate hills with safety. Q. Where is it located on cars ? A. Usually at the end, close to the brake standard on freight cars, and at the end about on the level of the edge of the hood on passenger cars. Q. Why is it placed in inaccessible places S2ich as underneath on some cars ? A. To prevent trainmen from tampering with it in descending mountains if they think the engineer is run- ning the train too slow. O. To zuhat is it connected ? A. To the exhaust port of the triple by means of a f-inch pipe. Q. What is its 21 se ? A. To retain fifteen pounds pressure in the brake cylinder to steady the train, and ksep its speed from in- The Westixghouse Retaixixg Valve. 67 creasing too rapidly while the engineer is recharging the auxiliaries. Q. How does the handle of the valve stand when not in 2ise ? A. Straight down. Q. Hozu does it sta^id zvhen in 2Lse ? A. In the position shown in the cut (Fig. 9). Fig. 9.— Pressure Retaixixg Valve. Q. If tJie brake is not applied, can it be set by turning 2Lp the retainer handle ? A. No; the retainer can be used only to hold air in the brake cylinder that has already been put there. Q, Explain the passage of the air through the retainer when not in use. A. With the retainer handle pointing down, as when not in use, any air coming from the cylinder 63 Air-Brake Catechism. would pass through ports a, 6, and out to the atmosphere through port e. Q. Explain the passage of aij^ through the retainer when in nse, as shown by the cut. A, When the engineer increases his train-line pressure the triple assumes release position, and the air passing from the brake cylinder has to pass out to the atmosphere through the retaining valve. With the retainer handle turned up, the air passes through port h until it strikes the weighted valve 20. Any pressure over fifteen pounds forces this valve from its seat and passes through the restricted port opening c to the atmosphere. When the pressure in the cylinder is reduced to fifteen pounds, it is held back by the valve 20. Q. WJiat is the size of the small end of port c ? A. One-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. O. Why is it made so small? A. To keep the brake cylinder pressure from escaping to the atmosphere too rapidly after valve 20 is lifted. Q. Hoiu long will it take the cylinder pressure to reduce from fifty dozvn to fifteen pounds through this retainer ? A. About twenty or tw^enty-fiv^e seconds, during wdiich time the auxiliaries with an average length of train have become pretty well charged. O. Have all retainers this restricted port c ? A. No ; in some old retainers there are tw^o ports of :|-inch diameter each. O. Will a retainer hold inore pressure with a long or a short piston travel on a car ? l^HE \V::sTiNGHOUSE Retaixixg Valve. 69 A. It holds the same pressure regardless of the travel. The volume held is greater on the long travel car. Q, Hozu do IV e test retainers? A. Have the engineer apply the brakes, and turn up the retainer handles. Then signal the engineer to release, and wait about half a minute, after which walk along and turn down the. handles. If a blow accom- panies the turning down of the handles, the retainer is working properly, otherwise the pressure has leaked away. Q. What troubles luoitld make a retainer inoperative ? A. A leak in the plug valve operated by the retainer handle ; weight 20 (Fig. 9) being gone or dirt on its seat ; a split pipe leading from the triple exhaust to the retainer, or a leak in the packing leather in the brake cylinder which w^ould allow the air to escape to the atmosphere. Q. What conld be the tronble with the retainer if, after the brake was applied and the retainer pnt in 7ise, no air escaped from it when the engineer increased the train- line pressure? A. Port c might be blocked. O. If we ivish to use a retainer in descending a grade, should the handle be turned np be/ore or afti r the brakes are applied ? A. It makes no difference, if everything is in proper condition. O Explain a case where it zvonld not be proper to turn itp tlie retainer handle 2Lntil just before we wish to 2tse it. yo Air-Brake Catechis^i. A. If the rubber-seated or the slide valve in the triple leaked, and we turned up the retainer handle, air would accumulate to a pressure of fifteen pounds in the cylinder if the leakage groove were closed, and set the brake on this car. If the train were just pulling over a summit, the brake being on might stall the train. Q. Give a rule to produce best results in using the retainer. A. In testing retainers while standing, turn up the handles at your convenience before or after the brakes are applied ; but when using them on the road, turn them up after the brakes are applied or a short time before wishing to use them. Q. Is a retainer ever iisecl except to steady a train zuhen recharging? A. Yes; wdien brakes have been applied too hard, a few are sometimes used to keep the slack bunched after releasing, when drifting along preparatory to mak- ing a stop. O. Set a brake with the full service applicatio7i. tJien turn 7ip the retainer handle, release and recharge. After charging the auxiliary in full again, make a full service reduction. Will the brake set any harder one time than another ?. A. Yes, it will set harder the second time. O. Why ? A. When we started to apply the brakes the first time, w^e had seventy pounds auxiliary pressure and nothing in the brake cylinder. The second time we had seventy in the auxiliary and fifteen pounds in the brake cylinder. By comparison we see that we had more air the second time with which to do our braking, and the pressures will therefore equalize higher. The Westinghousp: Retaining Valve. 71 O. Would we gain more the second time over that of the first with a long or a short piston travel 9 A. With the long, because the retaining valve on the long travel car retains the same number of pounds in the cylinder as on the short one, but a larger volume ; having a greater volume the pressures equalize corres- pondingly highei. Q. Do zue gain the zuhole fifteen pounds more the second time over zuhat is obtained the first ? A. No ; we gain from about three to six pounds pressure, according to the piston travel. Q. About hozo much pressure do we get i?i the brake cylinder for a five-pound train-line reduction ? A. It varies from seven to eleven pounds with aver- age piston travel. It may be more or less, but this would be a fair average. Q. After getting the 7tse of the fifteen pottnds that the retainer holds, hozu much press7cre would we then get in the cylinder for a five-pound trai7i- tine reduction zuith an average piston travel? A. Between thirty and forty pounds. Q. Where a twenty-potuid rediiction will set a brake in full zuithout the aid of the retainer , how much reductioji ?s necessary with the fifteen pounds it holds to aid? A. From twelve to fifteen pounds with fair travel. Q. Name another gain after obtaining the use of the retainer. A. If we have to apply the brakes in full, it does not take so long to recharge, as the auxiliary and brake- 72 Air-Brake Catechism. cylinder pressures equalize higher with the retainer to aid. Q. Hozu co2ild we it II if itzuas safe to turn itp a retainer handle before reaching the top of a hill and not have the brakes drag? A. Put the hand over the exhaust port and hold it there a few seconds to see if any air is issuing ; if not, it is safe to turn up the handle. Table. (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Piston Emer- Emergency 5 Lbs.Serv.5 ^^^^^^^- Full Full Serv. travel gency with Ret. Reduction -^, ^*^' Service with Ret. Inches Ebs. Lbs. Lbs. Lb«. Lbs. Lbs. 4 62 65 23 59 57i 61 5 61 63 19I 55 55J 59 6 59i 63 131 51 53 58 7 58* 62 iij 43 52 57 8 57I 62 10 38 50I 56 9 561 61I 8 35 48 55 10 55i 61 + 32 46 54 11 55 60 + 30 45 53 The above figures were obtained by taking an average of four tests for each condition. Each test was made with a train-line and auxiliary pressure of sev- enty pounds. The first column represents the piston travel. The second colnmn represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained in emergency. The third column represents the brake-C3-linder pressure obtained in emergency after the retainer has been used ; that is, there was al- ready a pressure of fi.fteen pounds in the brake cylinder held by the retainer when the emergency was used. The Westixghouse Retaining Valve. /o The fourth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained with a five-pound service reduction. The fifth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obfeiincd with a five-pound service reduction after once obtaining the use of the air held in the cylinder by the use of the retainer. The sixth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained with a full service reduction. The seventh column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained with a full service reduction after getting the use of the retainer. + simply meins that the gauge used registered no pressure less than five pounds. With a ii-inch travel the air is expanded into so large a space that a very small pressure is obtained. The table should be read from the left to the right. MAIN RESERVOIR. Q. Where does the air go when it leaves the pinup ? A. To the main reservoir. O. Where does main reservoir pressure begin and where end? A. It begins where the air leaves the pump and ends at the engineer's valve. Q. What is tJie object of the main reservoir ? A. Its object is to act as a storehouse in which to keep a reserve pressure to throw into the train line to release brakes and recharge auxiliaries. It also acts to collect most of the dirt, oil, and moisture that leaves the pump. Q. How much main reservoir pressure is nsiial- ly carried ? A. Usually ninety pounds, although more is used in mountainous country, or when using the high-speed brake. Q. What size '}nai7i reservoir is considered propel^ for freight service ? A. One whose capacity is not less than 20,000 cubic inches. O. How large sJiould any main reservoir be ? A. In releasing brakes in any service the main reservoir must be large enough so that, when the brakes Main Reservoir. 'j^ are applied and we wish to release them, the main reservoir pressure vvill equalize w^tli that in the train line, when connected with it, at a sufficiently high pressure to insure the prompt and certain release of the brakes. Q. Why IS a larger main reservoir necessary in freight than in passenger service ? A. Because there are a greater number of auxiliaries to charge in freight service and a longer train line to supply. Q. When is a large main reservoir zuith fnll pressure most essential? A. After an emergency application, and especially after a break in two. Q. What results are likely to folloiu tJie ttse of small main reservoirs on engines put ling long trains ? A. A pump is likely to heat, brakes are likely to stick, and we will have a hard handling rotary. Q. Why is a pump more likely to heat with a small main reservoir ? A. Because the smaller the main reservoir, the high- er the pressure has to be carried, and the higher the pressure the more is heat generated in compressing the air ; therefore the pump is more likely to heat and burn out the packing. A second reason is that with a small reservoir, when releasing brakes, the pump has to w^ork faster to charge the auxiliaries before the speed of the train increases too much. The pump working very fast does not have time to take in a full cylinder of air each stroke. The pump then has to make more strokes to compress the same amount of air, than it would were it working more slowly. ^G Air-Brake Catechism. Q. State the gains made by using a large main reservoir. A. Pressure in the main reservoir and train line will equalize higher when releasing, auxiliaries will be charged more quickly, the pump is not so likely to heat, and, not working so rapidly or against so high a pressure, will not wear out so fast, and the brakes are not so likely to stick. Q. What should be the location of a main reser- voir ? A. If possible, at the lowest point in the air-brake system. Q. Why ? A. To have all the dirt and oil possible drained into it and drawn off through the bleed cock. Q. Where is the main reservoir visually located? A. Between the frames back of the cylinder saddle. O. Should it be located there ? A. Yes, when it is possible to place there a main reservoir of the regulation size ; but the size must not be sacrificed for the position. Q. Where else is it sometimes located ? A. Under the foot-boards of the cab and sometimes on the tank. O. Is it right to locate it on the tank ? A. Yes, if the requisite volume can be obtained in no other way ; otherwise, no. Q, Why is it not a desirable position ? A. Oil and dirt will not drain into it as they should, and when it is so located, two lines of hose have to run between the tank and engine, one to carry the air from the pump to the main reservoir, and the other to bring Main Reservoir. 77 the pressure from the reservoir to the engineer's valve. These hose get full of oil and dirt, decay, bur^t, and in the end prove ver^^ expensive. Q, HotU often should the main reservoir be drained ? A. At the end of each trip. O, Where does this luater fonnd in the main reservoir come from ? A. Most of it is drawn from the atmosphere, and given oflF when the particles of air are pressed together. Q. Does any of the condensed steam from the steam end of t lie pump leak by the piston rod and then pass into the main resei^voir with the com- pressed air ? A. A trifle ; but this is an inappreciable amount compared wuth what comes from the atmosphere, especi- ally on rainy days. The following was taken from the '96 Proceedings of the x\ir Brake Association. There were four reservoirs, each with a capacity of 12,200 cubic inches, and they could all be used together or cut out at will. The test was made on a tw^ent}'-five car train, and shows the ad- vantage of having a large volume of air in the main reser\'oir to equalize with that in the train line. Xumber of Initial reservoir Initial pressure Pressure reservoirs pressure in train pipe equalized at cut in. in pounds. in pounds. in pounds. 4 100 50 2 100 35 4 100 50 72 4 90 50 67 2 100 50 68 2 100 50 63* 7, 90 50 61 78 Air-Brake Catechism Main Reser^ -oiR Sizes. nches, outside. Capacity. 22\ X 34 about 11,200 cubic inches 24i X 34 26,V X 34 14,000 " 15,800 ^' ( ( ( ( 20j X 41 12,200 " '' 22J X 41 14,000 " ( ( 24J X 41 17,400 " on nnn ' ' ( ( ( ( 20,000 Note. — Main reservoir capacity for passenger en- gines should not be less than 16,000, and for freight engines not less than 20,000 cubic inches. WBSTINGHOUSE ENGINEER'S BRAKE VAI.VES. Q, What was the first form of valve used? A. That which was known as the old three-way cock. O. IVitJi zuhat eqinpmcnt toas this itsed ? A. With the straight air, with the plain automatic, and for a time, by a good many roads, with the quick- action brake. O. What objection zuas there to it ? A. It was not sufficiently sensitive, and there was great danger of throwing the brakes into emergency. O. Why? A, Because reductions of train-line pressure were made by instinct or sense of sound. An engineer hav- ing a short train to-day and a long one to-morrow could scarcely avoid doing poor braking, as his valve was noth- ing much more than a plug valve. A reduction that was a trifle too heavy would throw the triples into quick action, and on a long train the reduction could not be made too slow, or the air would blow through the leak- age grooves in the brake cylinders. If the escape of air from the train line were suddenly checked, the air from the rear rushing ahead had a tendency to kick off some of the head brakes. O. In changing the valve what was the object ? A. To obtain a valve that would mechanically and 8o Air-Brake Catechism. gradually make the desired reduction of train-line press- ure regardless of the length of the train. Q. Was this done* immediately ? A. No; several forms of valves were made before those now in use. Q. What are the ones nozu in use ? A. The D 8 and the D 5, E 6, orF 6 ; the last three are the same, the different letters simply refer to different catalogues issued by the Westinghouse Company. Q. Which is the one most in ttse and the 07ie sent ont with all modern equipi7ient ? A. The F 6 valve. O. Wliat should be the location of an engineer s valve f A. Within easy reach of the engineer and far enough from the boiler that the heat will not dry out and crack the gaskets. F 6 ENGINEER'S BRAKE VALVE. Q, Explam the different parts of the engineer s brake valve. A. X, F, 7', IF, and R are explained by referring to Fig. lo. 60 and 61 are known respectively as upper and lower body gasket. 43 is tlie rotary valve. 32 a gasket to keep main reservoir pressure from leak- ing to the atmosphere. The space above piston 47 is known as cavity /) ; this cavity is connected with the little drum, by the pipe 50. 47 is the equalizing piston, 51 the train-line exhaust. 33 and 34 are known as the upper and lower valve body. There is a tee in pipe 45 just after it leaves the valve, one branch of which goes to the red hand on the gauge and the other to the pump governor. The other parts need no naming. Q. Of what use is the engineer s valve ? A. To give the engineer complete control of the flow of air. Q. How many positions are there for the en- gineer s valve ? A. Five. Q. Name them. H ^~— To Small flcSERVOrf? Fig. io. - F 6 Bra^e Vai.ve. F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 83 A. Full release, running, lap, ser\dce, and emergencv positions. Q. Describe the use of the different positions. A. Full release is that used for releasing brakes. Running position is the one used when running on the road and when the brakes are inoperative. Lap position is that which blanks all ports in the valve. Service is the position used when the brakes are to be applied gradually. Emergency is the position used when the brakes are to be applied suddenly. Q. What connections do we have with tJie valve in /nil release ?. A. A direct connection between the main reservoir and train line through a large port and between the main reservoir and cavity J)^ or the little drum, through two small ports. Q. Explain the floiu of air from the main reservoir throno-h the engineer s valve in this position. A, In this position the m.ain reservoir pressure enters the valve at A", passes through port -A, port a of the ro- tary 43, port b of the rotary seat 33 (Figs. 10 and 11), up into cavity c of the rotary and through port I into the train line at F. As the air passes through cavity c of the rotary on its way to the train line, it is free to pass through port g (Fig. 11) into cavity 2). In this position, porty of the rotary (Fig. 12) is over port e in the rotary seat (Fig. 11) also leading to the little drum, or cavity B, O. Can main reservoir pressure reach the top of the rotary ^j at all times ? A. Yes. To Pump Governor Qi Gauge -RED HAND- Main Reservoir Pressure To Gauge -black hand- Train Pipe Pressur: Fig. II.— F 6 Brakk Valve. F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 85 Q. How much main 7^eservoir pressure is icsiial- ly carried except in very nwuntaijions country ? A. Ninety pounds. Q. How much pressure luoiild we get on the main reservoir, tJie train line and the little dricniy were the handle of the engineer s valve to be left in fill release position icntil the pump stopped? A. Ninety pounds in each, as tliere is a direct con- nection between the three. O. What is the small blow we hear if the en- giiicers valve is allowed to remain in fill release f A. It is the escape of main reser\^oir pressure through the warning port of the rotary into the emergency ex- haust (Fig. 11) and out to the atmosphere. O. What is this port and its purpose ? A. It is a port, one end of which is about as large as a pin. When the engineer hears this blow it means to him that he must be careful or he will get ninety pounds pressure on the train line if he leaves the handle of his valve in full release position too long. Q. How much pressure is visually carried on the train line and little drum in countiy not mou7i' tainons ? A. Seventy pounds. Q. How does the engineer prevent a ninety- p07cnd pressure getting on the train line and little drtcm ? A. By moving the valve to the second or running position. O. WJiy do we get only seventy pounds pressure on the traiiiline with the valve in r7mni?tg position ? Feed VauvI Fig. 12.— F 6 Brake Valve. F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 87 A. Because in this position all air passing into the train line from the main reservoir has to pass through the feed valve (Fig. 12), and this is adjusted to close as soon as there is a seventy-pound pressure on the train line. Q. In rtinning position we have the position of the rotary as shown in Fig. 12. Explain the pas- sage of air ill this position. A. The main reservoir pressure passes through th^ ports y, / and / ' (Figs. 11 and 12) into the feed valve, or train-line governor as it is more commonly called ; thence through port i (Fig. 11) into port I (Figs. 10 and 11) and out into the train line at F. As the pressure passes through port I into the train line it is also free to pass up into cavity c of the rotary which is still over port I as seen in Fig. 10. Port g is still exposed under cavity c, and at the same time the air passes through the train- line governor into the train line, it also passes into cavity c of the rotary, port g of the rotary seat (Fig. 11) and into cavity D, or the little drum. Q. The train-line governor closes when there are seventy ponnds on the train line with the valve in running position. Hozu much pressure do we get in the main reservoir zuith the valve in this position ? A, Ninety pounds. Q, What stops tJie pu7np iuhe7i there are ninety pounds on the 7nain reservoir ? A. The pump governor, which is connected with main reservoir pressure at 45 (Fig. 10). Q. Is the p2iinp governor always set at ninety poiLuds ? A. No ; only in level and hilly countr}^ In moun- tainous country, it is set much higher, also in level country where exceptionally long trains are handled. 88 Air-Brake Catechism. Q, The red hand on the gauge represents main reservoir pressure, and tJie black hand is said to represent that on the train line. Is the pipe lead- ing to the black hand cormected directly to the train line ? A. No ; it is connected to little drum pressure. (See 46, Fig. 10.) Q. Why is it called train-line pressure if not co7inected to it ? A. Because in full release or running position port g furnishes a direct connection between the little drum and train line, and the pressures must be equal. Q. What is the next position to the right of running position ? A. Lap position. Q. How docs the air flow with the valve in this position ? A. There is no passage of the air as all ports are blanked. The rotary is moved around sufficiently *to shut off port j in the rotary from port / in the rotary seat, and a small lug on the inside rim of the rotary also covers port ^, thus separating the train line from the little drum. In this position the main reservoir, train-line and little drum pressures are each by them- selves. Q. What is the dividing line between the train- line and little drum pressures in this position? A. The equalizing piston 47 (Fig. 10). Q. Do lue still refer to the black hand as repre- senting train-line pressure on lap, knowing the ports are closed between the little dritni and train lijie ? A. Yes. F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 89 Q. If there luer^e a leak on the train line, would the black hand fall back if the valve is on lap ? A. Yes, but slowly. Q. Why ? A. Because in order to have piston 47 work smoothly the packing ring 48 (Fig. 10) must not be absolutely tight. If the train line leaks, the little drum pressure will gradually leak by the packing ring into the train line and equalize with it. Q. What wottld happen if this packing ring were tizJit? A. With the valve on lap all train-line pressure could leak away and the black hand on the gauge would not show it. Q. What is the next position to the right of lap ? A. Service position. O, What is this position tised for? A. To make a gradual application of the brakes. Q. Explain this position. A. In this position, a groove p (Fig. 13) of the rotary connects port e (Fig. 11) leading to the little drum through rotary seat with a groove h (Fig. 11) also in the rotary seat; li leads into the emergency exhaust h (Fig. 11), which is directly connected with the atmosphere as shown by the dotted lines. We then have a direct con- nection from the little drum to the atmosphere through small ports. Q. What is port e called? A. The preliminary exhaust port. This hole is bushed, and the bushing has a small taper hole through it. 90 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What effect does takz7ig air from the little driLni Jiave? A. It reduces the pressure on top of piston 47. The pressures were the same on both sides of it, but when the reduction is made from the little drum in service position, it leaves piston 47 with the greater pressure underneath on the train-line side of the piston. Fig. 13. — A View of the Bottom Side of the Rotary 43. Q. What effect has this ? A. The train-line pressure being greater forces piston 47 from its seat and allows train-line pressure to escape to the atmosphere through the train-line exhaust 51 (Fig. 10). Q. Hozu long does piston 4J remain off its seat f A. Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater than that in the little drum. When the little drum F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 91 pressure is a trifle greater than the train line, piston 47 is forced to its seat. Q. Do zue still speak of the black hand as repre- senting ti^aiu'lijie pressure ? A. Yes. Q. How do we know it is the same as that in the little drzun to which the gauge pipe leading to the black hand is connected ? x\. Because the equalizing piston will take the same amount of pressure from the train line before it closes that the engineer took from the little drum. O. If the engineer zuishes to apply brakes gradu- ally, does he take air from the traifi line ? A. No ; he takes it from the little drum, and piston 47 takes care of the train line. Q. To zuhat else in the brake system is the piston //.J similar in its zuork ? A. The triple piston (Fig. 2). Q. What is the next position to the right of service ? A. Emergency position. Q. Explain this position, A. The rotary is moved around so that the large cavity c (Fig. 13) is directly over the large ports I and k of the rotary seat (Fig. 11). Air passes from the train line at I into cavity c and out to the atmosphere through port h. Q. What is the object of ttsing the large ports ? A. To get a very sudden reduction on the train line to cause the triple valves to go into quick action. 92 Air-Brake Catechism. Q, Is the reduction necessarily heavy to obtain quick action ? A. No ; it is quick. Q. Does the little drttm pressure or the equaliz- ing piston play any part in the emergency applica- tion ? A. None whatever. O. In rimning position when the pump stops we have ninety poiinds in the main reservoir a7id seventy on the train line. What is the difference between the pressure in the main reservoir and the train line called? A. Excess pressure. Q, What is the 7cse of excess pressure f A. It is a reserve power to throw into the train line, when the valve is placed in release position, to force the triple pistons to release position and help recharge the auxiliar>^ reservoirs. Q. If the ptivp lucre started with the handle of the valve 07i lap, hozu 7mich pressure would we get in the main reservoir and hozu mtich in the train line ? A. Ninety pounds in the main reservoir and noth- ing in the train line. FEED VALVE OR TRAIN-UNE GOVERNOR. Q. What is the ditty of the train-lme governor ? A. To keep any desired pressure on tlie train line with the handle of the engineer's valve in running position. Q. Does it play a part in any other than rn7i- ning position ? A. No. Q. Explain the action of the gover^ior zuith the engijteer s valve in running position. A. The spring 68 (Fig. 14) supports piston 74, and the piston holds the valve 63 from its seat. As long as the air pressure on top of the piston is less than the tension of the spring 68, valve 63 is held from its seat, and main reservoir pressure coming in through port / feeds into port i as indicated by the arrow, and on into the train line. When the pressure above the piston is greater than the tension of the spring 68, the piston is forced down, allowing valve 63 to seat. Q. How is the train-line pressure regulated? A. By screwing up on the nut 70 to strengthen the spring and hold valve 63 from its seat longer to gain train-line pressure, and lowering nut 70 to w^eaken train- line pressure. Q. Of zuhat use are the rubber gaskets 7^ and the packing ring dj? 94 Air-Brake Catechism. A. To keep train-line pressure from leaking down through the governor and out to the atmosphere. Q. What governor troubles will allow full main reservoir pressure to go through the governor to train line? Fig. 14. — Feed Vai.ve or Train-Line Governor. A. (i) Dirt or scale on the seat of the valve 63 (Fig. 14). (2) Spring 68 being screwed up too stiff. (3) A leak between the holes of the gasket 56 where the governor is bolted to the body of the engineer's valve. Feed Valve or Traix-Line Governor, 95 (4) The lower body of the governor 69 being screwed up too tight. Q. Explain why the above troubles would pre- vent the governor from shutting off the main reser- voir pressure when the desired amo2C7it of train- line press7cre had been reached. A. (i) Dirt or scale would not allow valve 63 to seat. (2) Spring 68 being too stiff would hold valve 63 from its seat too long. (3) The following sketch showing the gasket between the train-line governor and the engineer's valve will explain the third trouble and its effect. The dotted line represents the leak. O (Z>--G O Fig. 15. (4) The bottom casing 69 being screwed up too tight would crush the rubber gasket 72 at the outer edge. The inside of the gasket, not being injured, would lift the piston so high that valve 63 could not get low enough to seat. In this case the spring 68 could be taken entirely out, and still we could get no excess as our train-line and main reservoir pressures would equal- ize. Q. If we zuish to remove valve 6j to clean it when there is a train coupled to the engine, how should it be done ? 96 Air-Brake Catechism. A. Turn the cut-out cock in the train line under the engineer's valve and place the handle in service position to remove the train-line pressure between the engineer's valve and the cut-out cock. Then remove nut 65 and valve 63. Q. Hozu should valve 6j be cleaned? A. With oil. The seat should never be scraped to re- move any gum, as it is a lead seat and a scratch would ruin it. Q. What should be done befoi-e replacing valve 63? A. The valve should be moved to running position to blow out any loose dirt or scale. Q. Docs the valve 6j begin to close before full train-line pressure is reached? A. Yes ; the spring 68 begins to be compressed a little before full train pressure is reached so that the last few pounds feed more slowly into the train line. O. How ivouldyou remove piston ^4 if it stuck ? A. First remove valve 63 as just described, and then replace the cap nut 65. Next remove the lower body 68. Grasp the stem of the piston 66 with the right hand and move the handle of the engineer's valve to running position with the left. The main reservoir pressure coming in will blow out the piston, after which lap the valve. Never drive the piston out by putting a punch on the stem unless the punch is at least as large as the stem. Q. In replacing piston /^, what care should be exercised ? A. To carefully enter the packing ring of the piston into the brass bushing. Never pound it in as some- thing would be broken or sprung. Feed Valve or Traix-Lixe Goverxor. 97 Q. With the handle of the e7igineers valve on lap, could the train-line governor be removed entirely without losing main reservoir pressure ? A. Yes ; all ports are blocked, and main reservoir pressure could not get through the rotary in this position. Q. What harm would a leak by the packing ring 6 J and throttgh the rubber gaskets y2 do ? A. No harm, except what a;iy small leakage of train-line pressure would do. THE LITTLE DRUM, OR CAVITY D. Fig. i6. — The Little Drum, or Cavity D. Q. How else is the little drum^ or cavity D, some- times spoken of ? A. As the engineer's equalizing auxiliary. Q. Where is the little driun usually located ? A. Under tlie foot-boards of the cab, on either the fireman's or engineer's side, according to which has the most free space. Q^ What is the object of the little drtc7n ? A. To furnish a volume of air on top of the equaliz- ing piston in the engineer's valve. Q, Wozcld not the air in the s7naU cavity over The Little Drum, or Cavity D. 99 the equalizing piston hold air enough to keep the piston on its seat ? A. Yes ; but there is not a sufficient volume there to draw from in making service reductions to make them sufficiently gradual. Q. What luould happen wJien the engineer put the handle of the engineer'' s valve in service position^ if titer e were no little drum to furnish a volume of air on top of the equalizing piston ? A. The air would leave the top of the piston in a flash on account of the small volume, the black hand on the gauge would fall to the pin, the equalizing piston rise full stroke, all train-line pressure would rush to the atmosphere through the train-line exhaust, and the en- gineer would have lost control of the brakes. Q. Hozu would the brakes on the train act? A. If a long train were coupled to the engine, the brakes would go full set in a service application ; but if a train of less than about six or seven cars, the brakes would go into quick action. Q. Why full service on a long traifi and quick action on a short one ? A. On a short train, w^hen the equalizing piston flew up, air from the train line would go to the atmosphere through the train-line exhaust faster than the auxiliary pressure could get from the auxiliary to the brake cylinder through the service port of the triple slide valve. When the auxiliary pressures were enough stronger than that on the train line, they would force out the triple pistons and compress the graduating springs, causing the triples to go into quick action. On a train of any length the train-line pressure, due to the greater volume on the train line, could not get out of the train-line exhaust any faster than the auxiliary loo Air-Brake Catechism. pressure could feed through the slide valves to the brake cylinders, and the auxiliary pressures would not be strong enough to compress the graduating springs, but, losing all train-line pressure, would apply the brakes in full service application. Q. The three-way cock was done away with to get a valve that would mecha^iically make a g7^adual desired train-line reduction regardless of the le7tgth of the train. What is it about the valve now ttsed that allozus this to be done? A. The little drum in conjunction with the equaliz- ing piston. Q. Does an engineer have to leave the handle of the engineer s 'valve in service position any longer to make a train-line redtiction of five poinids on a long train than on a short one? A. No; all little drums are of the same size. If a five-pound train-line reduction is desired, the engineer releases five pounds from the little drum to the atmos- phere, and the equalizing piston takes care of the train- line pressure regardless of the length of the train. Q, If by any chance the pipe leading to the little drum were broken off, con Id we still handle the brakes? A. Yes. Q. How ? A. Plug the broken pipe and also the train-line ex- haust. When wishing to apply the brakes in service, our service position would be of no use as the train- line exhaust is plugged ; so move the valve part -way into emergency position, being careful not to get it too far into emergency position so as to make too sudden a re- duction, and when putting the valve back on lap do not The Little Drum, or Cavity- D. ioi stop the train-line reduction too quickly or the surge of air forward may release some of the head brakes. Q, hi such a case, into what have we trans- formed our efficiejit valve ? A. Practically into an old three-way cock. Q. How do we tell if the preliminary exhaust port e is free from gnm and corrosion? A. Flace the engineer's valve in ser\dce position and watch the black hand on the gauge. It should take about five or six seconds to reduce the pressure in the little drum from seventy to fifty pounds through the preliminary exhaust port. Q. What, besides the fact that the preliminary exhaust port is partially closed^ would cause it to take longer than six seconds to make this reditction ? A. See the engineer's valve (Fig. I o). If the gasket 6i leaked between the main reservoir and little drum, or between the train line and little drum, or if the packing ring 48 were sufficiently loose to allow train-line press- ure to feed by too quickly. Q, If it takes less than five seconds to make this reditction, what is probably the matter ? A. There is a leak somewhere in the connection to the little drum, which helps make the reduction. PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE F 6 VALVE. Q. What two troubles in the engineer s valve aside from those in the train-line governor wonld not permit any excess pressitre luitJi the handle of the engineer s valve in r tinning position ? A. A leak in the lower gasket 6i (Fig. lo) between tlie main reserv^oir and the little drum and a leaky rotary. Q. Why does air leaking from the main reser- voir to the little drnm in running position not per- mit any excess pressnre f A. Because in this position the little drum and train line are directly connected. O. Does gasket 6i leak very often ? A. No ; this is a trouble seldom encountered. Q. What indications are give 7i by sicch a leak? A. In service position it would take longer to make a given reduction on the little drum, as air is feeding in slowly at the same time it is being taken out through the preliminary exhaust. As soon as the valve was placed on lap the black hand would quickly feed up to main reserv^oir pressure. Q. If the air luere leaking into the little drum by gasket 6i as fast as it zuas being removed through the preliminary exhaust port, what zuould happen? Peculiarities and Troubles of the F 6 Valve. 103 A. The equalizing piston could not be raised and the only way the brakes could be applied would be by using the emergency position. Q. Hoiu docs the leaking of the rotary do away zuith excess? A. The air from the main reservoir leaks under the rotary seat directly into the train line. Q. What Iiarni besides that of destroying excess will result front a leaky rotary ? A. We get main reservoir pressure on the train line and consequently in the auxiliaries, and the use of ninety instead of seventy pounds for braking purposes would slide the wheels. After the brakes were applied and the valve was on lap, air leaking into the train line from the main resen^oir w^ould gradually increase train-line pressure and force triples to release position. Without the proper excess it would also be hard to release brakes. Q, How luoiild yoiL test for a leaky rotary? A. Start the pump with the valve handle on lap. If the black hand starts, the rotary leaks. Gasket 61 leak- ing would also cause this, but this leak so seldom hap- pens, it may be disregarded in practice. Q, Give another way of testing for a leaky rotary. A. Put the valve on lap and drain ever}thing but the main reservoir ; open the angle cock at the rear of the tender and put the hose in a pail of water. If bubbles rise to the surface the rotary is leaking. O. Which is the better test ? A. The second is the more delicate test, but the first is sufficiently practical and is easier. I04 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. Why sJiould everything be drained in makijig the water test ? A, Because with all air taken from the train line by opening the angle cock at the rear of the tender, air leaking by the packing ring 48 in the piston 47 into the train line would cause bubbles to rise to the surface of the w^ater. The same thing would result if air from the tender and driver brake auxiliaries leaked by the triple piston-packing rings. The bubbles would seem to indi- cate a leaky rotary, while it was merely an improperly conducted test. Q. Why can zue sometimes get no excess luith the valve in mnning position when the engine is alone, althongh the hands will stand properly at ninety and seventy when the engine is conpled to a train? A. It simply means that when coupled to a train the leaks on the train compensate for the leak through the engineer's valve. Q. What zuill canse a constant leak 021 1 of the train-line exhanst 5/ (Fig. 10), whet Iter the valve is on full release, running, or lap position ? A. Dirt on the seat of the valve at the end of the stem of piston 47. Q. What is the trouble if this leak does not exist in fttll release or running position, but begins as soon as the valve is placed on lap ? A. A leakage of little drum pressure causes piston 47 to rise. Q. Where could this leak be? A. In the little drum itself ; in the pipe leading to it ; in the pipe leading to the black hand on the gauge ; gasket 61 leaking so as to allow little drum pressure to escape to the atmosphere ; a scratch on the rotary seat Peculiarities and TRorBLES of the F 6 Valve. 105 between the preliminary exhaust port e and the groove h leading to the atmosphere. O. Why does it leak on lap anel not oil running or full release position ? A. Because the leak is not fed on lap, as all ports are closed, but it is in the other two positions. Q. If the tzuo hands on tJie geiuge do not shozu the same presstLre zuhen the valve is left in full re- lease position, zuhat is the trouble 9 A. The gauge is incorrect. The main reservoir and train line being directly connected in this position both gauge hands should show the same pressure. Q. What cojtld be the troicble if in running position the red hand showed severity and the black 7iinety pounds ? A. The gauge pipes have been connected to the wrong hands. Q. What shottld be done if piston ^7 does not respond readily to reductio7is and seems to stick ? A. The piston should be removed and cleaned ; but never remove the packing ring 48, as it may be sprung or broken. Get the ring to w^ork free by using kerosene oil to clean it. Q. How would you apply the brakes if the pre- liminaiy exhaust port zuere closed and no rediution could be made in service position ? A. Go carefully toward the emergency position. It might be done by lapping the valve and unscrewing the nut a little that connects the pipe leading to the little drum to the brake valve. OPERATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ' D 8 \^AIvVK. JO GOVERNOR RAIN PIPE PRESSURE ^127 Fig. 17. — D 8 Brake Vai^vk. O. Which valve is most used, the F 6 or the A. The V 6, but the D 8 is also used to quite an extento Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 107 Q. How do tJie huo valves compare with each other in the general principle of operation ? A. They are alike in principle, but the same results are reached by differently constructed valves. Q. Do they have the same positions f A. Yes. Q. Is there any difference in the pipe co7inec- tions of the tzuo valves? A. Yes, with the F 6 valve the pipe carrying air to the pump governor is connected to main reserv^oir press- ure, while with the D 8 valve it is connected to the train line. This will be seen by comparing the cuts of the two valves. O. Explain the full release position of the D 8 valve. A. With the handle 8 of the valve (Fig. 17) in full release position, the air coming from the main reservoir enters the engineer's valve at X^ passes on top of the rotary, through port a of the rotary 13, port h of the rotar}^ seat and into cavity c of the rotary, thence through port I and into the train line at Y. Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. 19) leads to chamber D and is exposed to cavity c of the rotary in this position of the valve so that air passing from the main reservoir into the train line through cavity c is also free to go to the little drum through port g. In this position Fig. 18 shows port ^ open to port 6, and main reservoir pressure passes directly to the little drum through these ports. O. Hoiv many ports lead to the little driim in ficll release ? A. Two ; the same as with the F 6 valve. To8 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. Hoiu many to the train line / A. One large one, as with the F 6 valve. Q. In fnll release the main reservoir, train line, and little clriLnt are conneetcd. How mnch pressure will we get on each if the pitmp is started with the valve iji this position? A. Seventy pounds. Q. Why seventy ? A. Because with this valve, the train-line pressure governs the pump, and the train line usually carries seventy pounds. Q. Do we still have a connection betzveen the main reservoir and trai7t line when the handle is moved to running position ? A. No, not a direct connection as in full release. Q. Do we have a connection betzueen the train line and little drum ? A. Yes. Q. Explain the rnnning position of this valve. A. In this position port ] (Fig. i8) is moved around directly over port / in the rotary seat. The main reserv^oir pressure coming from the top of the rotary feeds through ports j and / and strikes the valve 21, which is held to its seat by the excess pressure spring 20. This spring has a tension of twenty pounds so that when the main reservoir pressure is twenty pounds greater than that back of the valve, or train-line pressure, the valve is forced from its seat and the air coming from the main reserv^oir passes through port/ (Fig. 19) into port I and into the train line at Y. At tlue same time it feeds into the train line through port /, it feeds up under the rotary into cavity c which, as in full release, is ex- posed to port /. Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. 19) is still Op]eRATiox AND Description of the D 8 Valve. 109 exposed to cavity r, and as air passes into the train line it also passes up into cavity c and through port g (See Figs. 17 and 19) into cavity D, or the little drum. O. JVi't/i this valve in riLuning position, how mncJi prcssiLve do we get on the main reservoir and train line ? A. Ninety pounds on the main reservoir and seventy on the train line. O. What stops the picmp ivhcn we have the ninety and severity pounds ? x\. The pump governor, which is actuated by train- line pressure. (See 16, Fig. 17.) Q, What gives ns the excess pressure of tzuenty pounds in the main reservoir ? A. The excess pressure spring 20. Q. Moving the valve to lap, what is done? A. All ports are blanked. Q. What shuts the little drnm off from the train-line pressiLre on lap? A. A lug on the inside of the rotary rim covers port (J (Fig. 19) in this position. Q. Where is air draivn from in service posi- tion ? A. From cavity D, or the little drum. O. Explain this posit io'n. A. In this position, the slot p on the under side of the rotary (Fig. 20) connects port f , which leads through the rotary seat to the little drum, with port h in the rotary seat (Figs. 18 and 19) leading to the atmosphere. PRELIMINARY EXHAUST PORT P^ JST POR T-j ' X jj Y Fig. i8.— D 8 Brake Vai^ve. Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve, hi TO GUAGE RESERVOIR PRESSURE f TO Quag E TRAIN PIPE PHEBSURE Fig. 19.— D 8 Brake VaIvVE. Q. Hoiu docs the reduction of little drum prcss- 2tre affect the equalizing piston ij / A. The same as with the F 6 valve. 112 Air-Brake Catechism. Q, Is there any difference between the emergency position of this and the F 6 valve ? A. No. O. What is the object of the small slot in the rotary seat {Fig ig) leading from port e, which leads to cavity D, towards port f ? A. This port comes into use when moving the rotary into full release position. It is to allow main reservoir Fig. 20.— Showing Bottom Side of Rotary of D 8 Vai.vf. pressure to reach cavity D on top of the equalizing pis- ton through port J a trifle sooner than it reaches the train-line pressure underneath the piston 17. Just as soon as the rotary is moved past running position toward full release, port j in the rotary is connected with the slot in the rotary seat leading to port e, thus allowing main reservoir pressure to reach the top of piston 17 a trifle sooner than it reaches the train-line pressure underneath the piston. JU-U9 UJ Fi».2 Plate B. THE NINE AND ONE-HALF INCH IiIPR( )VED AIR PUMP ^*iN VM.vg Buen.N^ e, rts._. 90 91 92 w ri».i Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 113 Q. What zuould Jiappcn if tJic air from the main reservoir reached the under side of the piston I J {Fig. 18) first ? A. The piston would be forced from its seat, espe- cially on a short train, and there would be an unneces- sary waste of air before the piston would seat. PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE D 8 VALVE. Q. Why is the equalizing piston ly raised nearly every time the handle is throiun to fnll release, on an engine alone, luhile if the engine is conpled to a train of four or more cars this does not Jiappen ? A. In full release two small ports charge the little drum and one large one charges the train line. On an engine alone the volume of air in the train line and the little drum are so nearly equal that charging the train line so much faster through a large port than the little drum is charged through two small ones makes the press- ure greater underneath piston 17 than that above it. The piston is consequently forced from its seat and enough train- line pressure is lost through the train-line exhaust to allow little drum pressure to force piston 17 to its seat. Q. Docs this happen with both valves ? A. Yes. Q, Why does this not happen when the engine is coupled to some air cars ? A. Because in this case the large port used to charge the train line in full release has a large space to supply with air, and the little drum is charged faster than the train line. Q, Which hand should start first if the pu7np is started ivith the valve in fill release position ? Peculiartties and Troubles of the D 3 Valve. 115 A. They should start together and stop at seventy pounds. Q. Which Jiand shoicld start first in riLuning position ? A. The red should go up twenty pounds before the black hand moves. They should then proceed twenty pounds apart and stop Avhen ninety pounds is registered by the red hand and seventy by the black. Q. What is the trouble if both hands start and remain together with the valve in running position ? A. The rotary leaks or there is dirt on the excess pressure valve 21 (Fig. 18). O. How do we tell zuhicJi it is ? A. Try the rotary on lap as described with the F 6 valve, to see if it leaks. If it is tight the trouble is with the excess pressure valve. The trouble will be found to be dirt on the seat of the excess pressure valve nine- teen times out of twenty. Q, Hozu can you remove the excess pressure valve when everything is cJiarged? A. Turn the cut-out cock under the engineer's valve, place the rotary on service position and remove the cap nut 19. Q. After we remove the excess pressiire valve, clean it and the cha?nber in which it zuorks, what should be done ? A. The rotary should be placed in running position to blow out any loose dirt or scale before replacing the valve. O. What causes this gum to collect here? A. The too free use of oil or a poor kind oil the air end of the pump. ii6 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. If the red haiici stands at eighty and the black hand at seventy when the pump stops and. the 1'otary is in rnnning position, what is lurong? A. The excess pressure spring 20 (Fig. 18) is weak. Q. What if the i^ed stands at one Jinndi^ed and the black at seventy ? A. The excess pressure spring is too stiff. Q. What if the red stands at eighty and the black at sixty, or the red at one Jiundred arid the black at eighty f A. The pump governor needs adjusting. Q. What is the trouble if no air luill pass into the train line with the valve in running position ? A. The excess pressure valve is stuck to its seat. Q. What has to be done ? A. The handle of the valve has to be run in full re- lease until the excess pressure valve chamber can be cleaned. Q. Hoiu ni2ich pressure will we get on the main reservoir and hoiu much on the train line if the pump is started with the valve on lap ? A. No pressure in the train line, and boiler pressure in the main reservoir. O. Why boilei^ pressure in the main reservoir ? A. Because the pump continues to work as long as the steam is strong enough to compress the air higher, there being no air in the train line to work the governor and stop the pump. Q. Does the main reservoir pressure run tip this way when the brakes are applied and the valve is on lap ? A. Yes. Peculiarities and Troubles oe the D 8 Valve. 117 Q. Hozu ?s this overcome? A. The engineer watches the gauge and partially closes the pump throttle, or, on some roads, two governors are used, one connected to the main reservoir pressure and the other, as in the cut (Fig. 19), wath the train line. O. What is likely to happen if this high press- tire pets into the train line ? A. The wheels are likely to be slid and the hose burst. Q. If the rotary or excess pressiLre valves leak with the D 8 valve, hozu will the p2inip zuork ? A. After stopping, the pump will not start working again until both train-line and main reservoir pressures have leaked below seventy pounds or that at which the governor is set. Q. Why is it that zuith the valve inidzvay be- tween the service and full emergency positions the black hand shows main reservoir pressure, zuhen we knozu by the position of the valve that there is no air in the train, line ? A. This is a peculiarity of the valve. In this posi- tion port j of the rotary stands over port rj of the rotar>' seat that leads to the little drum. In this case the press- ure represented is what is in the little drum but not in the train line, as the train line is connected to the at- mosphere by a large port. Q. Are the troubles zuith the equalizing pistoji described in the explanation of the F 6 valve ap- plicable to the equalizing piston of the D 8 valve ? A. Yes. A COxMPARISON OF THE F 6 AND D 8 BRAKE VALVES. Q. How iiuLch prcssttre do zuc get in the main reservoir, train line and little drum luith the F 6 and D 8 brake valves, if the pnmp is started with the valves in fnll release and left there luitil it stops ? A. Ninety pounds in each with tlie F 6 valve, and seventy in each with the D 8 valve. Q. Hozu do the hands on the gauge go 2ip zuith the F 6 and D 8 valves, if the pumps are started zuith the valves in running position ? A. With the F 6 valve both hands go together to seventy pounds, when the black hand stops, and the red hand continues until ninety pounds is reached in the main reservoir. With the D 8 valve the red hand goes up twenty pounds before the black moves. They continue to rise twenty pounds apart and stop with ninety on the red and seventy pounds on the black hand. Q. Why is a leak on the train line 7nore likely to creep the brakes 07t zuith the D 8 than with the F 6 valve, zuith the valves in running position ? A. Because in this position air will feed into the train line if the pressure there is less than seventy pounds with the F 6 valve, while with the D 8 no air will feed into the train line unless there is twenty A Comparison of the F 6 and D 8 Brake Valves. 119 pounds more pressure in the main reservoir than in the train line. Q. What is the difference betiueen the tzuo valves in the stopping of the pump ? A. With the F 6 valve, the pump stops when the desired pressure is compressed into the main reserv^oir, regardless of the pressure in the train line, while with the D 8 valve it is exactly the reverse. Q. Hocl' mucJi pressure zuill ive get on the main resej^voir and train line luith these valves, if the pitmp is started zuith the valves on lap ? A. Ninety pounds on the main reser\'oir and nothing on the train line with the F 6 valve ; boiler pressure on the main reser\^oir and nothing on the train line with the D 8 valve. WESTINGHOUSB PUMPS. Q. What tJiree sizes of pjtiups are there? A. The 6,8, and gj-incli pumps. O. Is the 6-incJi piiinp still in 21s e ? A. Yes, but very few are ever seen. Q, What is the 7ise of the p7nnp in the air-brake system ? A. To compress the air used in applying and re- leasing the brakes. Q. Which pump is gradually becoming the standard, and why ? A. The 9|-inch pump, because the number of air cars now used in trains requires a pump of greater capacity to insure recharging the train more quickly in descending grades. Q. How is dry steam obtained for the pump f A. A pipe is screwed into the dome near its top and a pump throttle conveniently located in the pipe, or a dry pipe is run from the top of the dome back through the boiler and coupled to a pump throttle screwed into the top of the boiler inside of the cab. Q. JVhat would happen if this dry pipe leaked inside the boiler ? A. Water would work into the pump and w^ash out the oil, causing the pump to groan and cut. 9i-lNCH Pump. 121 Q. What is placed between the pump tJirottle and the pump ? A. The lubricator and pump governor. O. Hozu are they located? A. The pump governor next to the pump, and the lubricator between the governor and pump throttle. Q. What would Jiappen if the lubricator were placed next the pump ? A. When the pump governor shut oflf the steam, with the lubricator ordinarily used, the steam between the lubricator and pump governor condensing would form a vacuum that would draw all the oil from the lubricator, and there would be a great waste of oil. Q. What is the capacity of a gy^-inch pump in good condition ? A. With one hundred and forty pounds of steam pressure, a 9J-inch pump will compress air from zero to seventy pounds in thirty-eight seconds in a reservoir 26^ X 34 inches, and from twenty to seventy pounds in twenty-seven seconds. Q. What is the capacity of an 8-inch pump in good condition ? A. With one hundred and forty pounds of steam pressure, the 8-inch pump will compress air from zero to seventy pounds in a main reserv^oir 26 J x 34 inches long (outside measurement) in sixty-eight seconds, and from twenty to seventy pounds in fifty seconds. The reservoir contains about 8 J cubic feet. 9 J- Inch Pump. O. What is the office of the parts in the top head of the gY^-incJi pump {Plate B) ? 122 Air-Be AKE Catecijism. A. They with the reversing rod 71 form the valve motion of the pump. a JV/^a^ ?'s Fig. 3 {Plate E) ? A. It is a cnt of the bushing inside of which the slide valve 83 moves when actuated by the movement of the pistons ']'] and 79, because fastened to their connect- ing stem. O. What are ports b, d, and c' {Fi'g, j, Plate B) ? A. They correspond exactly to the ports in the valve seat of a locomotive. In Fig. I (Plate B) we see that h leads to the bottom of the steam cylinder, c' to the top, and d leads to the exhaust pipe at Y . O. Ofzuhat use is port t {Fig. j, Plate B) ? A. It is a port by mxCans of which chamber E at the left of the small piston 79 is connected w^ith the atmos- phere through port (/. Q. If this port zoere not there, would the pnmp reverse ? A. No ; when the main valve pistons 77 and 79 moved to the left, the air in chamber E would be com- pressed, forming a back pressure, which would stop the movement of the pistons. Q. Explain t lie passage of steam after it enters the p7inip at X and its effeet. A. Steam coming from the boiler through the pump governor enters the pump at X, thence passes through ports a, a' and qC (Figs, i and 2, Plate B), into chamber A between the main valve pistons. The area of piston ^1^ being so much greater than that of 79, the steam moves these pistons to the right, carrying the slide valve 83 (Figs, i and 2) with them to the position shown 9 2 -Inch Pump. 123 in Fig. I. Steam in chamber A is now free to pass through ports 6, h^ and h" underneath the main piston 65. Q. What zuoiiid become of any steam above piston 6^? A. Any steam above this piston is free to pass to the atmosphere through ports c, c', the exhaust cavity B of the slide valve, c?, d' , cf, and through the exhaust pipe from Y. O. Hoiu is tJie pttmp revei^sed? A. The main piston 65 is now being forced up by the steam pressure, and just before it reaches the top of its stroke the reversing plate 69 strikes the lug / on the reversing rod 71, lifting the rod. iVs this rod is lifted the reversing slide valve 72 (Fig. 2) is carried up with it, and the pump is reversed. Q. What is the duty of the reve^^sing slide valve J 2 XFig, 2)? A. The duty of this valve is to admit and "exhaust steam from chamber I) (Fig. i) between the piston ']^ and head 84, and, as now shown, it exhausts steam from cavity D through ports li and li' (Figs. 3 and 2), port // of the reversing slide valve, and through ports/, /, f/, d\ d% and out at Y. Q. Hozu does raising the revei^sing slide valve reve7^se the motion of the pnmp ? A. As the reversing valve is lifted by the rod 71, port g in the bushing (Figs. 2 and 3) is exposed to the steami pressure which is alwa}s in chamber C, which is in constant communication with chamber A by means of ports e and e' (Fig. 2). When valve 72 is raised, steam passes through port g (Figs. 2 and 3) into cavity I). We now have equal steam pressure on both sides of piston ']^^ and it is balanced ; but the pressure acting on the right of piston 124 x\iR- Brake Catechism. 79 moves the pistons and the slide valve to the left, connecting the steam pressure in chamber A with the top of piston 65 through ports c' and c, and the under side of piston 65 is connected with the atmosphere through ports b', b\ h, cavity B of the slide valve 83, f/, d\ d% and out at Y. Q. The piston 6^ is now on its dozun stroke ; what brings the stroke to the point from which we started ? A . The reversing plate 69 strikes the button at the bottom of the reversing rod 71 and pulls the reversing slide valve 72 down to its position as shown in Fig. 2. We have now completed one entire stroke of the pump. Q. Which are the receiving valves ? A. Those marked 86 at the left of Fig. i. Q. JVhich are the discharge valves? A. Those marked 86 at the right of the pump. Q. Describe the action of tJie air end of the pump. A. As piston 66 is raised, the air above the piston is compressed and a vacuum would be formed underneath if air from the atmosphere did not enter through the low^er receiving valve 86. The ports are so arranged that the pressure above the piston will strike the receiving valve from above, forcing it to its seat, and the discharge valve underneath, forcing it from its seat, allowing the compressed air to pass down and out into the main reservoir at Z. The suction underneath the piston allows atmospheric pressure entering at W to force the lower receiving valve from its seat and fill the cylinder underneath the piston with air. The lower discharge valve 86 is held to its seat by main reservoir pressure. When the pump is 9|-IxcH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 125 reversed, the opposite valves from those just described are aflfected in the same way. O. Of zuhat iLse is the port in the cap y^ (J^^g- 2, Plate B) ZL^hich leads to the top of the stem ji ? A. This port is connected with the top end of the steam cylinder. Were it not for this port there would be a back pressure on top of stem 71 which would not allow the reversing slide valve to be raised to reverse the pump. This port is connected with the atmosphere through the top end of the steam cylinder, as shown in Fig. 2 , each time this end of the cylinder is connected with the atmosphere. 9J-IXCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. Q. IVhat slwiild be done in packing the pnmp ? A. It should be packed loosely and the gland nuts 96 screwed up only sufficient to prevent a blow. Do not use a wrench if no blow exists when the gland is screwed up by hand. Q. Shonld asbestos or anythijig containing ninch rubber be nsed in packing a pump ? A. No ; asbestos hardens and is hard to remove, and rubber is likely to wear the stem too much. Q. How often shonld the air end of the pump be oiled? A. If a pump groans occasionally, it should be oiled just often enough so that no groan will occur. If a pump never groans, it is not necessary- to oil it more than once a month. Q. Some pnmps have been rnn without ever 126 Air-Brake Catechism. oiling the air end; how did the loiuer cylindc}^ 7'eceive its htbrication ? A. From the swab which should always be placed on the piston -^od, and from the oily condensation that follows down the rod. O. What kind of oil should be nsed in the air end of the pitnip ? A. A good quality of West Virginia oil gives the best results. If other oils are used, it must be those that do not gum. O. What care sJioitld be taken in startino^ a pnnip ? A. It should be started slowly so as to get a pressure of twenty or thirty pounds for the air piston to cushion upon, and the condensed steam should be gotten rid of before the pump attains any speed. Get the lubricator at work as soon as the pump is started. Q. Does any harm result from oiling the air end of the pnmp througJi the suction ? A. Yes ; the suction holes are stopped up, the air valves gummed, and a generally dirty and ineffective pump results. Q. What trouble will cause the pump to blozu ? A. Packing rings in the main steam and reversing pistons leaking, slide valve 83, or a leaky reversing slide valve 72 are the main troubles. Q. What will cause a pump to pound ? A. It will pound if it is not fastened firmly, if the air valves are stuck, or if there is too great a lift of air valves. Sometimes it will pound if the reversing plate is worn too much to reverse the pump quickly enough, or if the nuts on the pistons are loose. 9J-InchPump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 127 Q. What would be the effect if the top discharge valve were stuck open ? A. Main reservoir pressure would always be on top of the air piston ; this would cause a slow up-stroke and a quick down-stroke of the pump. No air would be drawn into the pump on the down-stroke. If the oil cock were opened on the pump, there would be a constant blow at that point as long as there was any pressure in the main reservoir, and no oil could be put into the air cylinder, as it would be blown out by the escaping air. Q. What would be the effect if the bottom dis- charge valve were stiick operi ? A. The same effect as above described, only on the opposite stroke of the pump. In this case the oil cock would not tell us anything. Q. What would be the effect if the top discharge valve were stuck shut ? A. The pump would have a slow up-stroke, and unless the valve were forced from its seat, would stop or go slow enough to allow the pressure above the air piston to leak by the packing rings when the air press- ure above the piston became as high as the steam pressure. Q, What would be the effect if the bottom dis- charge valve were stuck shut ? A. The same effect as just described, but on the opposite stroke. Q. What effect woitld follozv if the top receiv- ing valve zvere stitck open ? A. Air would be drawn into the pump on the down- stroke and blown back to the atmosphere on the up- stroke. By placing the hand on the air inlet and 128 Air-Brake Catechism. watching the piston this trouble may be easily located. The pump would have a tendency to work faster on the up-stroke. Q. What effect would follozv if the bottom i^eceiving valve were stuck open ? A. The same as just described, but on the opposite stroke. Q. What would be the effect wo^e tJie top re- ceiving valve stuck shut ? A. No air would be drawn into the pump on its down-stroke, and a partial vacuum being formed above the piston w^ould cause the pump to have a slower down-stroke, as the vacuum would be working against the steam, and a faster up-stroke, as the vacuum would be working with the steam. Q. What would be the effect if the bottom receiving valve were stuck to its seat ? A. The same as with the top receiving valve stuck shut, but on the opposite stroke. Q. Hozu may a stuck valve iisually be loosened f A. By tapping the valve cage lightly. Q. Hozu will a pump work zuith dirt on the seat of a discharge valve ? A. The same as with a stuck receiving valve. The dirt on the valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed back into the pump and aid the steam on half the stroke, causing one stroke to be quick, and work against the steam on the other stroke, causing the pump to work slow. O. Hozu c 071 Id we tell that a receiving valve zuas stuck shut, or a discharge valve open, besides by the erratic action of the p7tmp ? 9i-lNCHPuMP — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 129 A. The hand placed on the strainer would feel no air drawn in on one-half of the stroke. Q. How can zue tell if the top receiving valve has a- poor seat ? A. Open the cock 98 (Fig. i, Plate B) and air will issue thence constantly if the dirt on the seat of the valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed back into the cylinder. Q. What caused some of the first gy^-inch pumps to stop ? A. The port g (Fig. 3, Plate B) did not extend quite far enough, and the wear of piston ']^ (Fig. i, Plate B) would sometimes allow it to travel far enough to close port g entirely, and the pump could not be reversed. Q. Hoiu may a pump often be started if it stops f A. By jarring lightly on the top head. Q. At luJiat speed are good results obtained from a pump ? A. At about forty-five or fifty strokes a minute on a level, but in handling air trains on a grade this speed should be increased. Q, Why is it best not to run a pump too slow ? A. A pump running too slow will allow the air that is being compressed to leak by the packing rings 67 (Fig. 2, Plate B), and air will not be drawn in at the other end of the cylinder as it should. With sixty strokes to the minute, a pump will make more air than with the same number of strokes spread over three minutes. In the latter case the compressed air has too much time to leak by the air piston-packing rings. 130 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. How can we tell if the packing rings in a pump are loose ? A. Have the pump working at fair speed and put the liand on the air inlet to see if the air is drawn in full stroke. Try this on both strokes, and if air is drawn in only during a part of each stroke, the rings are loose. Q. What lift shoitld the receiving and discharge valves have ? A. 3^^ of an inch. Q. What will canse a pinnp to Jicat? A. Too small lift of air valves, racing a pump, loose air piston-packing rings, using a small main reservoir on long trains, packing the piston rod too tight, or using so much oil on the air end of the pump that the pipe leading from the pump to the main reservoir is partly closed by the oil being baked to it. The pipe gradually becomes so small, that the friction caused by the air being forced through it causes the air to heat. This heat spreads to the pump. O. What should be done to cool a hot pump f A. Ease up on the speed if running fast, remove cap 70, and pour a small amount of good oil into the pump. Q. If the packing burns out of a piiinp, can it still compress air ? A. Yes ; the lower half of the air c^dinder wdll not be affected. Q. Does compressing air cause it to heat ? A. Yes; the higher the pressure the greater the degree of heat, because of the friction due to forcing the air particles closer together. O. What is likely to be the trouble if a pump dances f 9J-INCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 131 A. A leak on the seat of the reversing slide valve or a bent reversing stem ; also a burr being worn on the reversing plate, thus allowing the button on the stem to catch. Q. Hozu should a pump be located? A. It should be where the engineer will notice it if it stops. Under no consideration should it be located lower than the main reserv^oir, as dirt and water would stay in the pump. Q. How 7nay a pump be cleaned ? A. By allowing a solution of lye in hot water to work through the pump. The pump should be worked slowly and the water caught in a pail before it enters the main reservoir. Run the solution through several times ; then run clean hot water through to wash out the lye, or it will eat the leather gaskets throughout the brake system. Q. ]Vlic7^e does the exhaust pipe connected to the pump at Y lead ? A. Usually to the smoke box in the engine, but this practice is gradually giving way to the better one of running the exhaust pipe into the exhaiist passage from the main cylinder to the stack. This latter method almost does away with the draught on the fire caused by the pump exhaust thus saving fuel, and the pump makes very little noise in working. Some engines are piped to carry the pump exhaust up over the cab, but this is awkward, noisy, and keeps the cab dirty. Q. What effect would be pi'oduced if the gasket tinder the top head leaked? A. If the leak were between the two ports, one leading to the top and the other to the bottom of the main piston, the pump would stop. 132 Air-Brake Catechism. The accompanying table shows heat due to compres- sion. This heat depends upon the initial temperature. The rise in temperature is due to the heat of compres- sion. Temperature of air before compression 60° 90° compressed to 15 lbs. 177° 212° 30 " 255° 294° " 45 " 317° 362° 60 " 369° 417° - 75 - 416° 465° " 90 " 455° 507° " 105 " 490° 545° " 120 ''• 524° 580° (( ( ( u 8-Inch Pump. Q, State the principal differe7ice, aside from that of size, betiueen the 8 and the g\-inch pnmps. A. It is in the valve motion ; that of the 9J-inch pump is simpler, easier to get at for repair, and less likely to get out of order. Piston 23 (Fig. 21), called the reversing piston, is not found in the 9J-incli pump (Plate B). Q. Are the air ends of the pun? ps alike? A. In principle, yes ; but the location of the air valves and their size are somewhat different, although the operation is the same. Q. What lift do the air valves of the 8-inch pump have? A. The receiving should have \ and the discharge 3^2 -inch lift. Q. As the steam enters the pump at X {^Fig. 21), where is it free to pass ? A. Into chamber m and also through port h into a port not shown which leads to cavity e, the reversing slide-valve chamber. 20 " ^'t:l' Fig. 21.— 8-Inch Pump. 134 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. Does this chamber ahvays contain the same pressure as chamber m ? A. Always. Q. The pistojis 7 {Fig- 21) are of unequal size, and the topper piston j and piston 2j are the same size. What happens when steam enters chambers in and e zuith the reversing slide valve in its pres- e7it position ? A. Steam is admitted through port a on top of piston 23 ; this pressure balances the upward pressure on the top piston 7, and the pressure acting down on the small piston 7 causes all three pistons to travel down to the positions shown in the cut. Q. Explain the passage of steam luitJi the valve motion in this position. A. Steam passes through small ports in bushing 26 (Fig. 21), just above the small piston 7, underneath piston 10, forcing it up. At the same time the top end of the steam cylinder is connected with the atmosphere through the upper ports of bushing 25, the port /, as shown by the dotted lines, down through g and out at Y. Q. When the piston moves 2ip so that the re- versing plate 18 strikes tJie lug n, the reversing slide valve 16 is forced 7ip. What is done by rais- ino^ this valve ? A. The exhaust port in the slide valve connects port h leading to chamber d with port c which leads into the exhaust port /, and we have no pressure left on top of piston 23. Q. With 710 pressure acting dozvn on piston 2j {Fig. 2/\ zv hat happens? A. On account of the greater area of the upper piston 7, both pistons 7 are raised. 8-Inch Pump. 135 Q. Explain the passage of steam with pistons y 7710V ed tip. A. Steam from chamber m now passes through the lower ports of bushing 25 on top of the main piston 10, forcing it down, and the steam on the under side of piston 10 passes out of the lower holes of bushing 26 into port/ , and out through the exhaust port Y, Q. lVhe7i pisto7i 10 7^eaches the bottoi7i of its st7^oke, hozv is the pii77ip reversed? A. The reversing plate 18 strikes the button at the end of the reversing stem 17 and moves the reversing slide valve 16 down to the position as shown in the cut. Q, What will cause blows iii this p 2177 ip ? A. Loose packing rings in the main steam piston 10, piston 23, or pistons 7, a bad seat on the reversing slide valve, or the top of stem 17 being a loose fit in the cap nut 20 (Fig. 21). Q. What are the other troubles of the pump ? A. They are in principle so nearly allied to those of the 9J-inch pump that a study of them would be prac- tically a review of the work discussed in the study of that pump. In all cases of pump trouble, if one keeps in mind the principle of the operation of the pump, a little thought will suf&ce to locate the defects. THE SWEENEY COMPRESSOR. Q. What is the object of the Sweeney device? A. To recharge a main reservoir quickly in descend- ing very heavy grades when the air pressure is law. Q. Explain the parts. A. It -consists of a pipe running from the steam chest to the main reservoir. In the pipe there is a cut- out cock, a safety valve, and a non-return check. Q. How is it operated ? A. By turning the cut-out cock and reversing the engine when steam is shut off. The main c}'linders and pistons act as compressors, and compressed air is forced into the steam chest and thence through the pipe connection to the main reservoir. Q. What is the objection to this device ? A. It is extremely handy in case of emergency, such as low pressure or the refusal of a pump to work. The objection to it is, that smoke, gas, and heat forced into the main reservoir burn out gaskets and get the brake system very dirty. WESTINGHOUSE PUMP GOVERNORS. The accompanying pump governor cuts represent the new and the old style of governors. Q. Explain the duty of spring ^i {Fig. 22). A. The tension of the spring 41 is regulated by the cap nut 40 and holds down the piston 43, which in turn holds the small pin valve on its seat. The fitting 45 is connected to main reservoir pressure if used with the F 6 brake valve, and with the train line if used with the D 8 brake valve. When the -oiescure entering at 45 and acting on the under side of the piston 43 is greater than the tension of the spring 41, the piston is forced up, thus lifting the pin valve, to which arrow 42 points, from its seat. Q. What effect does tinseating this pin valve have ? A. It allow^s air pressure to reach the top of piston 28 (Fig. 22), forcing it down and closing valve 26. O. What effect does closing valve 26 have ? x\. It shuts off the steam supply and stops the pump. Q. At the same time that air forces piston 2S down, where else does it go and with what effect ? A. It passes out of the small relief port, at which the arrow 37 points, to the atmosphere. This leakage is sufficient to keep the pump working slowly, so that steam will not condense and be thrown out of the stack when the pump starts again. 138 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What is effected by any reduction of tJiemain reservoir presstive ? TO MAIN RESERVOIR CONNECTION 26 ON I ENGINEER'S BRAKE | VALVE Fig. 22.— Improved Pump Governor. Westixghouse Pump Goverxors. 139 A. Any reduction of main reservoir pressure allows the spring 41 to force the pin valve to its seat, and what air still remains on top of piston 28 escapes through the relief port 37, and. with no pressure on top of piston 28, the spring 31 raises the piston 28 and valve 26, allowing steam from the boiler to reach the pump. O. Of what use is the spi'ing render the head of the pm valve? A. To hold the valve up when piston 43 is raised. Were it not for the spring, the pin valve would remain seated. Q. If any air should leak by piston 28, or any steam should leak by the stem of the valve 26 into the eavity inider piston 28^ how zuould it escape ? A. There is a port in the casing 32 connected to a drip pipe which leads to the atmosphere. O. What effect wonld be noticed if this drip pipe became clogged zvith dirt or were frozen shut^ when there zvas a leakage of steam 2ip under the governor piston ? A. Piston 28 could not be forced down, and the pump would not stop working until the main reser\'oir pressure was about equal to boiler pressure. O. What zvould be the effect if the release port J J {Fig. 22^ zuere closed by dirt ? A. The pump would be very slow in starting to work after once stopping. a Why ? A. Because, when the pin valve closed, the cavity above piston 28 would be filled with main reser\'oir pressure, which could escape only by leaking by the packing ring 29 and out to the atmosphere througli the drip pipe. 140 Air-Brake Catechism. Q, What effect ivottld dirt on the seat of the pui valve have ? A. It would make a constant blow out of tlie relief port, and if air could leak in faster than it could get out of the relief port, the pump would either stop or work very slowly, even if the pump throttle were wide open. Q. Why would it zuork sloiuly ? A. Because the pressure on piston 28 may force the valve 26 partly shut and allow only a small amount of steam to reach the pump. If the leak were bad enough, the pump would be stopped entirely. Q. What effect zu 02c Id be noticed if t lie pin valve became gummed so that it would not seat centrally ? A. Air would pass down on piston 28, and the action of the pump would be the same as just described, with dirt on the seat of this valve. Q. What zuould be the effect if the casing in zuhich the governor piston works should become badly zuorn, and a Ziwrn ringsg were replaced with a new one zidthoiit truing the casing? A. When piston 28 was forced down a little farther than usual, it might stick, causing the pump to stop. A jar on the governor might start the pump. O. What is the difference between the improved I and the i-inch governors? A. Their operation is identical, but there is a dif- ference in size, as one is used with the 8 and the other with the 9J-inch pump. Q. Explain the operation of the old picmp crovernor. A. It is the same as that of the improved governor, excepting that, after the pin valve is closed, the air in Westinghouse Pump Governors. 141 the chamber above the piston, instead of escaping to the atmosphere through a relief port, passes by the packing- ring 24 and out to the atmosphere through a drip pipe connected to the port, shown by the dotted lines in the chamber under the piston. mi^5 Fig. 23.— O1.D Styi,e Pump Governor. Q. Are the troubles about the same with the two governors ? A. Yes; but there was much trouble with the 142 Air- Brake Catechism. diaphragm 19 of tlie old governor which is unknown with the new. O. Why was this ? A. Because this governor was used chiefly with the D 8 valve, and train-line pressure operated the governor. With this valve on lap, boiler pressure would be com- pressed in the main reservoir, and when this high press- ure was thrown into the train line to release brakes, the diaphragm 19 would be forced up so high it would buckle. Q. What effect zuozcld this have ? K. It would destroy the sensitiveness of the gover- nor, and the pump would be stopped in a very erratic manner. The train-line pressure would somet'imes be too high and at others too low. Q. How was this defect remedied in the im- proved gov ei' nor ? A. By inspecting the cut of the new governor it wall be seen that the diaphragm can raise only a very little distance when it seats against a brass ring, thus doing away with the chance of its buckling. O. Is tJie new governor more sensitive than the old? A. Yes, because instead of one diaphragm, like 19 (Fig. 23) in the old governor, there are two thin dia- phragms in the new. Q. How much reduction will cause a governor of the improved type to start the pump ? A. About half a pound. Q. Why was the long slot placed iii the stem 16 of the old governor ? A. The governor used to make a buzzing sound, and slotting the stem remedied this trouble. Westinghouse Pump Governors. 143 Q. Does this governor keep the ptcmp working slowly after f^ill press2ire is obtained? A. No, as there is no relief port. WBSTINGHOUSE WHISTLE SIGNAL. Q. What fo7^m of signal zuas tised before the compressed az7^ signaling apparatus was invented? A. The old bell rope and gong signal, sucli as is now used on freight trains. Fig. 24.— Location of Signal Apparatus on Engine. Q. Do all roads 2cse the air signal i?i passenger service ? A. Not all, but most roads do. Q. What parts of the signaling apparatus are fo2ind on the engi7ie f Westinghousk Whistle Signal. 145 A. The reducing valve (Fig. 28 or 30), the whistle valve (Fig. 27), the whistle (Fig. 29), and the pipe con- nections as shown in Fig. 24. O. What parts are found on the car ? A. The discharge valve (Fig. 26), the signal cord running the length of the car, and the signal-pipe con- nections as shown in Fig. 25. Q. Where is the discharge valve {Fig. 26) usual- ly located ? A. As shown in Fig. 25, although it is sometimes found inside the car over the door. Q. Why is it better placed oictside ? A. When it is so placed the noise of the discharge will not affect nervous people. Q. Hoiu does the car discharge valve work? x\. The signal cord is attached to the valve in the hole of 5 (Fig. 26) ; when the cord is pulled, valve 3 is forced from its seat, allowing whistle-line pressure to escape to the atmosphere. O, What is the trouble zuhen there is a constant leak from the discharge valve? A. There is dirt on the seat of valve 3 (Fig. 26). Q. Where is the signal valve {Fig. 2j^ located i^ A. Under the foot-boards of the cab. Convenience determines whether it will be on the fireman's or engineer's side. Q. Where are the reducijtg valves {Figs. 28 and jo) usually placed? A. It was formerly customary to locate them outside, next to the main reservoir, as in Fig. 24, but now good practice locates them inside the cab where they cannot freeze in winter. 146 Air-Brake Catechism. O. Which valve is now beifig seiit otit with all new equipment? A. The valve represented by Fig. 28, as this is the latest, although there are still many like Fig. 30 in use. Q. What is the duty of these valves ? A. To maintain a constant pressure on the whistle line. Fig. 25.— Location of Signai^ Apparatus on Coach. Q. Explain the action of tJie reducing valve {Fig. 28). A. It works exactly like the train-line governor of the F 6 valve already explained. Q. Of wJiat 7tse is the phig valve in tJie 7tpper left-hand corner ? A. To cut out main reservoir pressure in case we wish to take the reducer apart. Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 147 Q. Explain the action of the old reducirig valve {Fig. JO). A. The top spring has a tension determined by the pressure to be carried on the whistle line. This spring holds piston 6 down as long as the tension of the spring is greater than the pressure underneath the rubber diaphragm 7. Fig. 26.— Car Discharge Vai^ve. As long as the piston is down, valve 5 is held from its seat, allowing main reservoir pressure to feed in as indicated. It passes by valve 5, up under the piston, and into the signal line as indicated, until the pressure on the whistle line and underneath the diaphragm 7 is greater than the tension of the spring over the piston 6, when the spring is compressed, allowing piston 6 to travel up, and spring 10 raises valve 5 to its seat, shutting off the further passage of air from the main reservoir to the whistle line. O. llliere is the whistle {Fig. 2g) located ? A. In the cab, as near the engineer as convenient. Q. To zuhat is it connected ? 148 Air-Brakh Catechism. A. To a pipe whicli leads from the signal valve as indicated (Fig. 27). Q. What is its use ? A. As tlie signal or whistle valve (Fig. 27) operates, the air leaving this valve escapes through the whistle (Fig. 29). The blast signals the engineer. O. Where does the air come from that supplies the signal system ? A. From the main reservoir on the engine. Q. Explain the passage of tJie air from the main reservoir through the signal system. A. It first passes from the main reservoir (Fig. 24) through the reducing valve. After leaving the reducing valve there is a tee in the pipe, one branch of which leads to the signal valve (Fig. 27) and the other back into the train. Under each car (Fig. 25) there is a strainer in a tee, and a branch of the whistle line goes to the discharge valve (Fig. 26). Q. ExploJn the operation of the signal valve {Fig. 2f) in charging. A. After the air passes from the main reserv-oir and through the reducing valve, it is free to go back into the train and also enter the signal valve at Y. It then passes through the contracted port d into cavity A on top of the rubber diaphragm 12, and around through port c. The lower half of the stem 10 is three sided, so that the air can pass up to where the stem looks to be tight in the bushing 9. This joint is not tight, but sufficiently so to allow the air to feed by into chamber B very slowly. The reducing valve is adjusted to forty pounds, and if we wait a short time the forty pounds w411 equal- ize on both sides of the diaphragm 12, that is, there will be forty pounds in each chamber A and B, as there is also throug-hout the whistle line on the train. Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 149 Q. What does the condiutor do if he wis lies to signal the e7igineer ? A. He pulls the signal cord in the car. Q. What is effected by this? A. It makes a sudden reduction of whistle-line press- ure through the car discharge valve (Fig. 26). Q. What IS the effect? TO SIGNAL PIPE X N>. TO WHISTLE Fig. 27. — Signal Valve. A. This starts a reduction wave throughout the whistle line, and in the signal valve it is first felt in chamber A, on top of diaphragm 12. The pressure in chamber 5, being unable to equalize quickly with that in chamber A, on account of the snug fit of the stem 10 in bushing 9, is now greater than the pressure in cham- ber A. The diaphragm 12 and the stem 10 attached to it are lifted, uncovering the port in the bushing 7. The stem is lifted sufficiently to allow air from chamber B and the air coming through port c to pass out at e and I50 Air-Brake Catechism. through the pipe to the whistle (Fig. 29), causing a blast as long as the stem 10 is off its seat. The same wave reduction that started the signal valve into operation also opened the reducing valve (Fig. 28 or 30) to allow main reservoir pressure to supply the whistle line. Fig. 28. — Improved Reducing Vai,ve. A wave of increased pressure now takes the place of the reduction wave, and air passing into chamber A of the signal valve forces the diaphragm 12 down, causing the whistle to cease blowing. Q. How long must we. wait before again trying to p2it the signal valve in operation ? A. Until the pressures have had time to equalize in chambers A and B (Fig. 27). Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 151 Q. How viany seconds should we wait f A. Usually two at least, and three is better. O, Give a 7'2ilc by zuhich we can pull the whistle signal cord in tJie ca7^ and gain the best results. Fig. 29.— vSignai, Whisti^e. A. When pulling the cord, make an exhaust of one second, and then wait three seconds to allow the whistle to cease blowing and the pressures to equalize through- out the signal system before making another reduction. Q, In pulling the signal cord, zuhat should al- ways be borne in mind ? A. That it is not the amount of reduction but the suddenness that causes the whistle to blow. PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE SIGNAL SYSTEM. Q. If no air gets into the whistle line when an engine is cotipled to a train^ and we know that the TO MAIN RESERVOIR Fig. 30.— O1.D Styi^e Reducing Vai.ve. cocks in the sigjial line stand properly and the hose are in order, wJiat sJionld we look at first ? A. The plug cock in the reducing valve (Fig. 28) ; Signal System — Peculiarities and Troubles. 153 or, if the weather is cold and the reducer is outside, it may be frozen. Q. What else might cause this trouble with the new reducer {Fig. 28) ? A. It may be that the small taper port in the re- ducer (Fig. 28), where the main reservoir pressure enters, is plugged shut. Q, What will close this port ? A. Oil from the air end of the pump and the corro- sion from the inside of the pipes. Q. What is the trouble if the signal cord is pulled in the car and no air issues from the car dis- charge valve ? A. The cut-out cock (Fig. 25) in the saloon has very likely been closed. Q. Give conditions that would result in the air whistle 7iot responding. A. A dirty strainer in the tee under the car where the branch pipe to the car discharge valve couples to the main signal line ; the strainer in the car discharge valve, as used in the old equipment, being dirty ; port d (Fig. 27) being stopped up ; a too loose fit of stem 10 (Fig. 27) in bushing 9 ; a baggy diaphragm 12 (Fig. 27), or a hole in it ; the bowl of the whistle (Fig. 29) being closed with scouring material, or the bell of the whistle being im- properly adjusted ; a reduction that took enough air from the whistle line but did not take it fast enough, or, as explained before, the reducer might be frozen. Q. Why would the whistle not respond if port d {Fig. 2f) were closed? A. No air could reach the whistle. Q. Why, with a loose fit to stem 10 {Fig. ^7) iii bushing 9, would the whistle not respond ? 154 Air-Brake Catechism. A. If the reduction were not made sufficiently quick with the car discharge valve, especially on a long train, the friction of the air passing through the pipe would tend to decrease the suddenness of the reduction, so that, when the wave reached the signal valve, the reduction might be so weak that, if stem lo were a loose fit in bushing 9, the air in chambers A and B might equalize without raising diaphragm 12 (Fig- 27). Q. Why would a baggy or stretched diaphragm 12 {Fig. 2f) cause the whistle not to respond? A. When the reduction is made on the signal line, a reduction is made in chamber A of the signal valve, leaving the pressure in chamber B greater. If the diaphragm is bagged, the pressure in chamber B lifts the diaphragm, but the stem 10 is not moved. Q. What causes this diaphragm to bag ? A. The use of poor rubber, or oil from the pump working through on the rubber, causing it to decay. A diaphragm is occasionally found with a hole rotted through it, allowing chambers A and B to be directly connected. Q. What may cause a whistle to respoiid only 07ice when the conductor pulls the cord twice ? A. He may have pulled the cord the second time before the whistle stopped blowing the first, thus getting one long blow, or he may have made the second dis- charge before the pressures in chambers A and B had become equalized. Q. What will happen if dirt gets on the seat oj valve 4 (Fi^. 28), or the corresponding valve in Fig. 30? A. The valves cannot close, and we will get main reservoir pressure of ninety pounds on the whistle line. Q. What ejfect has this ? Signal System — Peculiarities and Troubles. 155 A. The whistle is likely to blow, especially on a short train, when the brakes are released ; the air whistle on the engine will screech when used ; and, if the stem 10 in the signal valve is a little loose in bushing 9 (Fig. 27), the whistle is likely to blow two or three times for one reduction at the car discharge valve ; there will be a stronger exhaust from the car discharge valve than usual, and hose are more likely to burst. Q. Why is the whistle likely to blow when the brakes are released, if there is main reservoir press- ure on the whistle li^ie ? A. Because to release brakes the main reservoir pressure is thrown into the train line. This makes the pressure in the main reservoir less than that in the whistle line, and, on account of the dirt on the seat of the valve 4 (Fig. 28), the whistle-line pressure feeds back into the main reservoir, and the reduction thus made on the sio:nal line causes the air whistle to blow. "^to' Q. Why^ with this trouble, is the whistle more likely to sottnd 071 an engine alone than with a train, when the brakes are released? A. With an engine alone there is but a small volume of air on the signal line, and the signal-line pressure feeding back into the main reservoir would cause a more sudden reduction than if the signal line were longer and the volume greater, as on a train. Q, Why zuill the air whistle 07i the engine screech when used? A. Because the bell is adjusted to be used with only a forty-pound pressure instead of ninety. Q. Why is the whistle likely to blow two or three times with one reduction from the car discharge valve, if main reservoir pressure is on the whistle IC6 Air-Brake Catechism. u line and the stem lo is loose in bushing g {Fig- 2j) of the signal valve ? A. Because a reduction at the car discharge valve starts the signal valve in operation, and the reducer can- not feed air into the whistle line properly to cause the signal valve to close until the signal-line pressure is below forty pounds. The tendency for the pressure to fluctuate in chambers A and B^ due to the loose fit of the stem lo, causes the diaphragm to bounce and the whistle to respond two or three times. Q, If an engineer wishes to know how much pressure he has on his signal lijze, and he has no gauge with which to test it, how can he determine it? A. Shut off the pump and open the bleed cock on the main reserv^oir, then get up in the cab and watch the red hand. When the whistle blows, the red hand represents a trifle less pressure than is being carried on the whistle line. Q, Why does the whistle blow ? A. Because, when the main reservoir pressure is drained below the pressure on the whistle line, the press- ure feeds from the whistle line back into the main reservoir, causing a reduction ofthe whistle-line pressure, and this usually causes the whistle to blow. Q. What is likely to 7nake a whistle give one long blast f A. A tight fit in bushing 9 of stem 10 (Fig. 27). Q. Why was the new reducer gotten up ? A. To have one that would be more sensitive than the old one and would feed leaks more promptly, thus doing away with the chance of the whistle being blown by a small leak. Signal System — Peculiarities and Troubles. 157 Q. What zuill cause a whist le to sing constantly f A. Dirt on the seat of stem 10 in bushing 7 (Fig. 27). Q. Why may jars cause a zu his tie to blow ? A. Oil baking upon diaphragm 12 of the signal valve makes it rigid, and ajar will sometimes shake the stem 10 (Fig. 27) from its seat. Q, What would we do to i^icrease or decrease the pressure on the whistle line with the new rediicer ? A. Screw up on the bottom nut to increase it, and down to decrease it. O. What zuith the old reditccr ? A. Put in a stiffer spring or put a washer under the old one. Q ]Vhat arc the tzuo holes for in the 2ipper part of the old reducer ? A. To allow any air to escape to the atmosphere that gets by the diaphragm 7. WBSTINGHOUSE HIGH-SPEED BRAKE. Q. Why was the introduction of the high-speed bi^ake necessary ? A. The call by the traveling public for higher train speed rendered it necessary to insure safety of lives and property. Q. How much more ejjicient is it than the ordinary quick-action brake? A. About thirty per cent. Q. What class of trains uses this brake ? A. The Empire State, Black Diamond, and Con- gressional Limited. Q. What perce7itage of braking pozver to the light weight of a passenger car is generally used with the ordinary quick-actioji brake ? A. Ninety per cent. Q. What percentage is used with the high-speed brake ? A. One hundred and twenty-five per cent. Q. How can such a high braking poiver be itsed without flattening wheels ? A. Because it is only used when the train is moving at very fast speed, and an automatic reducing valve gradu- ally reduces the brake-cylinder pressure so that, when the speed of the train has been slackened, the brake- cylinder pressure has also been gradually reduced to the Westixghouse High-Speed Brake. 159 sixty-pound pressure limit as used with the ordinary quick-action brake. Q. Why is it safe to use a higher braking power on wheels when the train is r2tnning fast ? A. Because the faster the wheels turn, the greater is the inertia of the wheels, which the friction of the brake shoes has to overcome before the wheels will cease revolving. The Westinghouse-Galton tests, made in England in 1878, proved that the faster the tread of the wheel moved against the brake shoe, the less the friction between the two. As the speed decreases the friction increases, the friction between the wheel and the rail remaining about constant, regardless of the speed of the train. Q. What train-line and atixiliary pressures are carried with the high-speed brake ? A. Abouf one hundred and ten pounds. Q, At what p]'essure do the attxiliary a7id brake cylinder equalize when the brake is fill set in einergency, tising one hundred and ten pounds auxiliary pre s stir e ? A. About eighty-five pounds. Q. What reduces this eighty-five poimds to sixty pounds, the safe pressure for sloiv speed? A. The automatic reducing valve shewn in the ac- companying cut (Fig. 31). O. Explain the actioii of the reducing valve. A. When air is in the brake cylinder, it is free to reach the top of piston 6 of the reducing valve. As long as the tension of the spring 1 1 is greater than the brake-cylinder pressure on top of the piston, the slide valve 8 is as shown. When the brake is full set, the pressure in the cylin- i6o Air-Brake Catechism. der being greater than the tension of the spring, the piston 6 is forced down and carries the slide valve with Fig. 31.— High-Speed Brake Reducing Valve. it, thus opening port h into port a, allowing brake- cylinder pressure to escape to the atmosphere. Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. i6i I r f fe 1 62 Air-Brake Catechism. The apex of the triangular port b points up. If the slide valve 8 is drawn down a little, in a service applica- tion, port b has a wide opening into port a, allowing cylinder pressure to escape quickly. The high cylinder pressure in emergency forces piston 4 down full stroke, and cylinder pressure escapes slowly through the small end of port b. As cylinder pressure lessens, spring 11 raises piston 4 and slide valve 8, opening port b wider, thus releasing air faster ; and the slow exhaust ensues with a high, and quick exhaust with low^ train speeds. vSpring 1 1 is adjusted to sixty pounds on passenger cars and fifty on engines and tenders. Q. What is necessary to make a high-speed brake out of the present quick-action eqiiipment ? A. Simply the addition of the reducing valve. . Q. What chanp'e has to be made on eno-ines ? A. A duplex pump governor is added, two train- line governors are used, and reducing valves are con- nected to the tender and driver brake cylinders. Q. Why are tzuo train-line and a duplex pump governor tisedf A. Only two governors are used at a time. They are so arranged with cut-out cocks that the engine may be used with the ' ' high-speed ' ' brake or with the ordinary quick-action brake. The cut (Fig. 32) gives an idea of the advancement in air-brake appliances. The three figures (page 161) represent, by scale, stops made by the same train going at the same rate of speed, but equipped as indicated. It takes about twice as far to stop a train going at forty, three times going at fifty, and about five times going at sixty miles an hour, as it does if the speed of the train is thirty miles an hour. TRAIN INSPECTION. Q. JVIiy is train inspection necessary ? A. To find and remedy ^ before tr^dng to handle the train on a grade, any defects that would render its handling unsafe ; part of the pistons may be out against the cylinder heads \\^hen the brakes are applied, the re- taining valves may be poor, some brakes may not ap- ply, auxiliaries may not charge, leaks may exist, the brakes may go into emergency when tning to make a ser\dce application, and many other defects may exist. Q. Where sho^ild we begin to get a train ready ? A. At the rear. O. Is it lurong to start at the head e7id ? x\. It would not be w^ere the cocks not opened be- tween the tender and cars. If the cocks w^ere opened, the air would blow through and out of a chance open cock, and a loss of time and air would result. Q. Connncncing at the rear, what should be done first ? A. The rear ans'le cock must be closed and the hose hung up. Q. What Jiarni is tJiere in allowing the hose to drag ? A. It collects dirt and cinders, which are blo\vn into the train and help to close strainers, and which work into the triples and cause them to wear faster. In winter, ice getting into the hose may block it. 164 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What should we do as we go towards the engine ? A. See that the retainer handles are turned down, hand brakes released, hose coupled, and cocks turned so that the cars are cut in. Q, How does the cock {71 the cross-over pipe, connecti7ig the train line to the triple, 7iS7tally stand wheii the car is cut in ? A. At right angles to the pipe. See Plate A. Q. Hozu shotdd the angle cocks stand at the end of the car when cut in ? A. Parallel with the pipe. Q. Do the angle cocks and cict-oict cocks always stand as just described ? A. No ; sometimes in just the reverse positions. Q. Why is this ? A. These are cocks used with very old equipment and may be readily recognized, as they differ in shape from those now emplo^^ed. If in doubt, look at the crease in the top of the plug, which alw^ays stands parallel to the opening in the valve. Q. What should zve always do before coupling the hose betzveen the engine and cars ? A. Blow out the train line on the engine to get rid of dirt and water. Q After coupling the hose and turning the angle cocks, are we i^eady to look over the brakes f A. No, not until the pump has charged the train. Q. With a constant pressure of seventy pou7ids on the train lijie, hozv long should it take to charge one auxiliary from zero to seve7ity pouiids with the modern equipment ? Train iNSPEcnoN. 165 A. About seventy seconds. Q, How long does it take to charge a tram of twenty cars f A. This depends on the condition of the pump and the leaks in the train. If the capacity of the pump were sufficient to keep a constant train-line pressure of seventy pounds, twenty cars could be charged as quickly as one. This cannot be done, as twenty feed grooves take air from the train line faster than the pump will supply it. Q. Who should tell when it is time for the test? A. The engineer. He should wait until full press- ure is obtained and then make a twenty-pound service reduction. O. WJiat shotild then be done ? A. One brakeman should go over the train turning up the retainer handles, while the other examines piston travel and looks for leaks. Q. What sJioitld the pisto7i travel be ? A. If no rule exists on your road in regard to this, a piston travel betw^een 5 and 8 inches will be found to give good satisfaction on ordinary grades. Q. What sho2tld be done after the retainer handles are raised and the piston travel adjusted? A. The engineer should be signaled to release, and then there should be a wait of fifteen or twenty seconds, to allow the brake- cylinder pressure to reduce to what the retainer holds. Q. WJiat should then be done ? A. The man on deck should turn down the retainer handles. If a blow issues from the retainer when the handle is turned down, the retainer is working properly. 1 66 Air-Brakh Catechism. A strict count of those working should be kept. The man on the ground should walk along and see that the brakes release when the retainer handles are turned down. Q. What should be done after the inspection is completed? A. A report should be made to the engineer and conductor, giving them a knowledge of the piston travel, the number of retainers in working order, the number of cars, the number of air cars in working order, and any general information concerning the con- dition of the train. Q. In testiitg, would it do for a brakeman to open the angle cock at tJie rear of the traiji to set the brakes ? A. This is decidedly a poor practice ; brakes that cannot be worked from an engine will sometimes w^ork by opening an angle cock. If a hose lining were loose, a brakeman might apply the brakes and an engineer re- lease them all right, while, in making the reduction from the engine, the train-line reduction going ahead might roll up the lining and close the hose. We want to know just how the brakes will work from the engine. Q. If there is a leak in the hose couplings, what should be done ? A. Turn angle cocks, break the coupling, and, if the seat is bad and there is no extra hose gasket, make the seats round, if they are not so, and recouple. If the leak still exists, break the coupling, put a small stick back of each lug, and close the couplings on them. Q. Why should paper never be used to make a joint ? A. It works into strainers, often causing an auxil- Train Inspection. 167 iary to charge slowly, and it may prohibit getting quick action on this car. Q. When inspecting a train, if lue find a brake that does not apply with the rest, zuhat sJiottld be done ? A. See that the car is cut in properly, and try the bleed cock to see that there is air in the auxiliary. If the auxiliary is charged, signal the engineer for a train- line reduction. Q. If the brake applies and then leaks off grad- tially, without any air coming out of tJie triple ex- haust, iL'hat is probably the trouble? A. The air is blowing by the packing leather in the brake cylinder. Q. Hoiu can a brake that does not apply zuhen the rediLction is made be sometimes made to work ? A. By cutting it off from the car ahead and the one behind it and opening the angle cock. The cylinder may be dirty, and setting the brake in the emergency may loosen the dirt and cause it to work properly. Q. If the auxiliary were fonndto contain no air when the bleed cock was opened^ what might be the trotible ? x\. The feed grooves might be corroded shut in the triple ; the strainer where the cross-over pipe joins the main train line, or the one where the cross-over pipe joins the triple, may be filled with dirt and scale. Q. Is it good practice to ponr oil into a hose to make a brake work? A. Decidedly not ; it may occasionally furnish tem- porary relief, but it will decay the rubber- seated -valve and dampen the strainers, pipe, and triples so that dirt will adhere to them and render them stick v. i68 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. Is a S7nall leak, one that the pump will easily overcome, more easily managed in a long or a short train ? A. In a long train. Q, Why ? A. Because there is a much larger volume of air in a long train line, and the reduction causing the brakes to leak on harder after being applied will be much slower on a long than on a short train. Frequently a leak that could not be gotten along with in a train of three or four cars, if cut in with twenty tight cars, would not be noticed. Q. If a retainer were broken off and the pipe phigged, what would result ? A. After the engineer applied the brake, he could not release it, as the exhaust port would have been closed. Q, Would it interfere with applying the brake ? A. No. Q. If a brake sticks, what should be done f A. Look to see that no retainer handle is up, that the hand brake is not set, and that no lever is caught. Then signal the engineer again to release. If he is unable to release it, cut the car out and bleed it. Q. Should a car be bled when cut out ? A. Always ; a leakage of train-line pressure between the cut-out cock and the triple might cause the brake to apply after it was cut out, if any air were left in the auxiliary. Q. If the piston stays oitt 07i a car after we hear the air escape from the triple exhaust port, what is wrong f Train Inspection. 169 A. The release spring is weak probably. Q. Is it necessary to cut such a brake out ? A. No ; the jar of the wheels against the shoes will force the piston in. Q. If two hose co2cp lings are frozen together, how s ho 71 Id they be separated ? A. The ice should be thawed, or the gaskets will be torn. Q. If a triple fails to zuork because it is frozen, what sho2tldbe done ? A. It should be thawed and the drain plug removed in the bottom of the triple, to remove the water and avoid a repetition of the trouble. Q. What three things wotild cause the brakes to go into e7nergency when making a gradual train- line red2tctio7i ? A. A weak graduating spring, a broken graduating pin, and, by far the most likely, a sticky triple. Q^ How woidd we find the triple causing the trouble ? A. On a train of five or six cars we can watch to see which brake grabs first and cut the car out. On a train of over seven cars, the brakes do not usually apply with the first reduction on the car causing the trouble, so, to find the faulty triple, have the engineer make a five-pound train-line reduction, find the car with the brake not set and cut it out. Then try again with all cut in to be sure that the faulty triple has been found. Q. Hoiu wo2Lld we fijid the faulty triple if the brakes went into quick action with the first reduc- tion on a long train ? A. Turn an angle cock in the middle of the train and see which half contains the trouble ; continue in this 170 Air-Brakk Catechism. manner until the trouble is located in a five car lot ; have the brakes applied and watch these five to see which brake goes into quick action first, and cut out the defective triple. Q. If the emergency has beeji used, oi' wc find a car cut out, and, when we cut it m, a strong heavy blow issues from the triple exhaust and at the same time the brake sets on the car and cannot be released, what is the trouble ? A. The emergency piston is stuck doAvn, holding the emergency valve from its seat. Q. Hoiu ca7t we close it 9 A. Tap the triple lightly. If this does not work, turn the cut-out cock in cross-over pipe until the blow stops and then cut it in suddenly ; the sudden flow of air up under the emergency piston may raise it. Q, In trying the brakes on a passenger train, how should the signal be given ? A. From the head car to apply them and from the rear car to release them, to be sure that the whistle-line cocks stand right through the train. On an excursion train the signal should be tested from every car in the train. TRAIN HANDLING. Q, What should we always do deforce coupling to a train ? A. Start the pump and be sure that everything is work- ing properly. Do not wait to discover pump or engineer's valve defects when your train is in and ready to proceed. Q, Hozu should an engineer handle the brake on his e)iglne In coupling to a train ? A. In backing onto a train, especially an empty one, he should make two or three applications of his driver and tender brakes, and leave his valve on lap when coupling to the train. Q. Why Is this done ? A. To couple to the train with reduced auxiliary pressures. When the cocks between the engine and tender are turned, in coupling a train to an engine, the brakes are usually applied on the engine and tender on account of the reduction caused by the air flowing back into the train. If the train line is long and empty, the main reservoir pressure might flow back and equalize with that in the train line at so low a pressure that it might not be able to overcome the tank and driver auxiliar\^ pressures so as to force these triples to release position. In this case the two brakes would be stuck, and if more cars were to be picked up, we would have to wait to pump up, or get down and bleed these two brakes off'. If we had backed onto the train with reduced auxiliary 172 Air-Brake Catechism. pressures on the engine and tender, we would not have met with this trouble, as the main reservoir pressure could then have raised that in the train line sufficiently high to have released the brakes. Q. What sJioitld be done after getting our cars placed in the train ? A. We should wait until everything is fully charged. Q. Hoiu can we tell luhen the train is charged? A. The pump will about stop ; or place the valve on lap, and if everything is charged the black hand will not fall. Q, What should then be done? A. A thorough test of piston travel, leaks, and retaining valves should be made before attempting to handle the train on grades. Q. How mtich reductio7i shoiild be made? A. A gradual twenty-pound reduction. Q. Why is it necessary to make a test ? A. A part of the pistons may be traveling against the cylinder heads, the travel may be too short, the retainers may not be good, or there may be something wrong with a triple that would throw the whole train into emergency when the service application was desired, in which case freight might be shifted or broken, especi- ally in a train partly equipped with air brakes. Q. In testing brakes, froin what point should they always be applied and released? A. From the engine. Q. Hozu could it happen that a brakem,an could ttirn an angle cock at the i^ear of the train and apply the brakes , aiid an engineer could release the7ny but that the ejigineer could not set them from the engine ? Train Handling. 173 A. The lining of a hose might be loose, so that the engineer could throw air back into the train to release the brakes, but when a reduction w^as made, the air flowing in the opposite direction might roll the lining up and close the hose. O. Is this a commo7i occii7're7ice ? A. No, but it is by no means unheard of. Q. What else should always be tested? A. The train line, to see if it leaks, and how much. Q. How should this be done ? A. By making a seven-pound reduction in service position and then placing the valve on lap. Watch the black hand, and the fall of it will show the leak on the train line. Q. Will not a leak on the train line show if the valve is simply lapped without Jirst applying the brakes ? A. It will in time, but not nearly so quickly as by the other w^ay. O. Why not ? A. If the valve is simply lapped, the brakes are not applied, the triples are in release position, and the feed grooves connect the auxiliaries and train line. If there is a leak in the train line with the triples in release posi- tion, the air from the auxiliaries will leak through the triple feed grooves back into the train line, and not only the train-line but the auxiliary pressures will have to be reduced before the black hand on the gauge will register the leak. Q. Why is the other zcay quicker ? A. If the brakes are first applied and the valve then placed on lap, the feed grooves in the triples between the auxiliaries and train line have been closed and the leak 174 Air-Brake Catechism. simply has to reduce the train-line pressure when the black hand will register the leak. With a large volume of air a given leak will reduce the pressure much more slowly than the same leak drawing air from a smaller volume. Q. JtLst as soon as a train tips over the summit of a hill, what should be done? A. A reduction of train-line pressure should be made to be sure that no angle cocks have been turned and that the brakes take hold properly, also to get the use of the retainers as soon as possible. Q. Hozu can we tell if the angle cocks back of the tank are properly t^irned ? A. By the sound of the train-line exhaust. The more cars of air the greater the volume of air on the train line, and the longer the equalizing piston will have to stay up to make a given reduction. Q. What should be done if the brakes do not hold properly, or we knozu by the train-line exhaust that an an^le cock has been closed ? A. Blow brakes before the train gets to moving fast. Q. How much redtution should be made for the fir^st ? A. Not less than five pounds, and after we get over fifteen cars it is better to make a seven-pound reduction. Q. hi a part aii^' train^ zuhat zuould be the harm in startiitg with a ten-potcnd reduction ? A. The brakes setting hard on the air-brake cars would cause the slack on the non-air cars to run up hard, causing a jar that would be likely to damage the car or the contents, to say nothing of the eJBfect on the crew in the caboose. Train Handling. 175 Q. Why is a light reduction liable not to set the brakes, especially on a long train ? A. Because, with a large volume of train-line pressure, reductions are made so slowly that there is a tendency for auxiliar}' pressure to feed through the triple feed grooves into and equalize with that in the train line, in which case the triple pistons would not move; or, if they did, the air going from the auxiliary into the brake cylinder very slowly w^ould blow through the leakage grooves past the pistons and out to the atmosphere. Q. Hozu vmch should be made for the second rednction ? A. This is governed largely by circumstances, but the best results with long trains will be gotten if no very light reductions are ruade. If the reduction is being made on a long train and the packing rings of some of the triples are a little loose, there is a tendency on the part of the auxiliar}^ pressure, that should go to the brake cylinders, to leak back into the train line by the packing ring. Q. We continue onr trairi-line reductions tcntil filially 02Lr brakes are full set, that is, all the atcxil- iary a7id brake-cylinder pressttres have equalized. How much reduction is 7LS7cally necessary to accom- plish this, if t lie piston travel is not over 8 ijiches? A. About tT\^enty pounds, if it is made with one re- duction ; but in handling a train on a grade, if we needed to get all we could, it v\'ould be permissible to make a twenty-five-pound reduction. Q. Give the reason for this last statement. A. In descending a grade, we may have gone two, three, or four miles, while we have been making a twenty- pound reduction. Naturally, some of the air put into the brake cylinders has escaped by the packing leathers 176 Air-Brake Catechism. to the atmosphere in going this distance, and making another train-line reduction will let more auxiliary press- ure to the cylinders. Where the twenty-pound reduc- tion was made with one reduction, the air had no time to leak away by the cylinder packing leathers. Q. Siippose we had aheady made a hventy-five- poitnd reduction and the packing leathers in the brake cylinders were practically tight, if we con- timced taking air from the train line, would the brakes be set any harder f A. No. Q. Would we lose any braking power ? A. Yes. Q. How zuould we lose braking power f A. The brake is already full set, that is, the auxil- iary and brake- cylinder pressures are equal ; with a further reduction of train-line pressure, no more auxil- iary pressure can go to the cylinder ; but just as soon as the auxiliary pressure is enough greater than that in the train line to overcome the resistance of the graduating spring in the triple, the triple piston will be forced to emergency position, and we will have a direct connec- tion between the auxiliary and brake cylinder through the emergency port in the end of the slide valve. The train-line pressure being less than that in the auxiliary and cylinder, both these pressures will begin leaking by the packing ring of the triple piston into the train line. Q. Is there any other way in which we would lose braking power by too heavy a train-liiie re- duction f A. Yes ; the train-line check in the emergency part of the triple is seldom air-tight, owing to corrosion. When the train-line pressure is less than that in the brake cylinder, the brake-cylinder pressure forces the Train Handling. 177 rubber-seated valve from its seat and leaks by the train- line check into the train line. Q. Is there itsiLaJly any warning to let the en- gineer knozu he has made too hcazy a reduction ? A. Yes ; especially on a long train, where there are more packing rings to leak. Q. What is it? A. Under these circumstances the equalizing piston is likely to rise of its own accord, causing a blow at the train-line exhaust. Q. What causes the piston to rise? A. The engineer reduced the little drum pressure in order to cause the equalizing piston to rise and reduce the train-line pressure. It seated when the train line was a trifle less than the little drum pressure. When too heavy a train-line reduction had been made, we saw that the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures fed back into the train line. The train line now being greater than the little drum pressure, the equalizing piston is forced from its seat, and the blow at the train-line ex- haust continues as long as air is feeding into the train line from the auxiliaries and brake c}-linders= Q. Does the eqiLalizi^ig piston always rise and o^ive this warning? A. No ; if the packing ring in the equalizing piston is too loose, the air feeds by and equalizes the little drum and train -line pressures, but the braking power is lost just the same. Q, Is the triple piston supposed to form a joint on the leather gasket between the triple head and the main body of the triple? A. Yes, when the gasket is new, but the gasket dries out so that the surface is not smooth. 178 x\ir-Brake Catechism. Q. What places shouldwe pick 02Lt, if possible in which to recharge ? A. Where the grade lets up a little and on cun^es where a train binds. Q. To release brakes, where should tJie handle of the engineei^'s valve be placed? A. In full release position. Q. How long should it be left Jicre ? A. This is governed entirely by the length of the train. If, in descending a grade, both hands on the gauge show that the train-line and main reservoir press- ures equalize below seventy pounds, the valve should be left in this position until both hands start to go above seventy. If the pressures equalize above seventy pounds when the valve is thrown to full release and stay there, the valve should be moved to running position as soon as the brakes are released, so as not to over- charg-e the auxiliaries. Q. WJiy, on a long train, shottld the valve be left in full release position until both hands start above seventy poztnds ? A. A large port connects the main reservoir and train line in this position and a small one in running position, and we get the benefit of the excess pressure from the main reservoir in recharging ; the pump works faster, and we can charge the train much more quickly, because the train-line pressure being higher forces air into the auxiliaries faster. Brakes are likely to stick and wheels slide, especially on a long train, if we try to release brakes in running position. Q. Why does the pump luork faster f A. Because there is less main reservoir pressure for it to work against. Train Handling. 179 Q. Why do the last thi^ee or fotcr potmds feed more slowly into the train line, if the valve is put in running position ? A. Because when, in running position, the train-line pressure is almost up to that at which the train-line gov- ernor is adjusted, the spring in the governor begins to be compressed and allow the little feed valve to partly close, in which case the pump will compress air faster than it can get through the train-line governor. When the main reservoir is charged to ninety pounds, the pump practically stops, and this is likely to happen be- fore the auxiliaries are fully recharged. Q. Why will sotJte brakes stick in trying to re- lease them in rnnning position ? A. Because the train-line pressure rising slowly may feed by some triple piston-packing rings, and allow auxil- iary pressure to keep equal with that in the train line. Q. Why will the wheels slide in this case ? A. Because the brake on this car has been left full set and the auxiliary fully recharged. A five-pound re- duction wnll probably set this brake in full with a press- ure of sixty-five pounds, and this is more than is safe, especially with a light car. If a brake once sticks it is very likely to remain so, as the auxiliary and brake- cylinder pressures equalize so high that it requires a higher train-line pressure to release this brake, and the train-line pressure increasing slowly, gives the air a bet- ter chance to leak by the triple packing ring. A brake acting this way may be all right if handled properly. Q. In descending a grade after getting the use of the retainer arid having everything recharged, why is a fivepound redztction much more effectual than a fivepound rediLction made withoiU the use of the retainer ? i8o Air-Brake Catechism. A. Because in one case we are putting five pounds from the auxiliary into fifteen pounds in the cylinder, and in the other we are putting five pounds from the auxiliary into an empty cylinder, and a part of that put in blows through the leakage groove before the piston travels far enough to close it. Q. If ci twenty-pound tram-line reduction will apply a brake in fitll wit Jioitt the iLse of the retainer, how nntch reduction ought to set the brake in full after getting its use ? A. Not over fifteen pounds. Q. If alt i^etainers are being itsed, is it necessary after charging 2ip to make a five or seven pound for our first redtiction ? A. Yes, some of the retainers might have been out of order, so as not to hold any air in the cylinder, and less than a five-pound reduction would not catch these brakes again. Q. What should an engineer do, if, when he is not rising the brakes, he feels them applyin.g so as perceptibly to diminish the speed of the train? A. He should place the handle of the engineer's valve on lap. Q. Why ? A. Probably a hose has burst, or the conductor is using the conductor's valve. If the valve is not lapped, the main reservoir pressure will be lost, and there will be no pressure With which to release the brakes and re- charge the auxiliaries. Q. Which is less hurtful, a leak that zuill grad- 2ially slow a train up, or one that will simply keep the traiii running steadily f Train Handling. i8i A. A leak that will slow a train up is much to be preferred. (?. JF/iy ? A. If the Irak simply runs the train steadily and the engineer allows the pressure to gradually leak away be- cause he seems to be making a nice, smooth run, he would have a hard time, stopping the train if necessity demanded it, after the pressure had leaked down to fifty pounds. Q. SJioiild an engineer try to make as smootJi a run with air as can be done zuitJi hand brakes P K. As a rule, no, although on some light grades a few retainers will run them smoothly. On heavy grades and long trains it is necessar\" to slow up to recharge. Q. What sJioidd ahuays be done^ zuhcre possible, in making train-line reductions? A. Watch the gauge. Q. How do yo2t account for the fact that some- times, after a seven-ponnd reduction of little drum pressure is made and the valve lapped^ the gauge records only a fvepound reduction zvhen the train- line exhaust closes / A. The packing ring in the equalizing piston is loose, and train-line pressure has fed by it into the little drum. Q. Is this more likely to happen on a long or a short train ? A. On a long train. a Why ? A. As there is a greater volume of air on the train line of a long train, it takes longer to reduce the press- ure, and the train-line pressure has a longer time to leak in the manner described. 1 83 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. If a quick reduction is made in emergency with the engine alo7ie, and the valve is tJien placed on lap, why is the tank or driver brake likely to kick off after a few secoitds, although they zvould stay set in service application ? A. In emergency position, air is drawn direct from the train line without taking any from the little drum. When the valve is placed on lap, the little drum press- ure leaks by the packing ring of the equalizing piston, raises the train-line pressure, and kicks off one or both brakes. Q. Why will this happen on an engine ajid not on a train ? A. The volume of air on the train line of an engine alone is very small, and a slight leak into it is sufficient to raise the train-line pressure and release the brake. With a train, the train-line volume is so large that the leakage into it from the little drum is not sufficient to aff'ect the triples. Q. The 7^ e lease of the brakes 07i the engine alo7te, after the tise of the e77iergency , is ascribed by so77ze to the surge of air. Is this the cause f A. No ; a surge of air would release the brake almost instantly. The brake does not release sometimes until five or ten seconds have passed. Q. Why will tins happen 07i 07ie e7igi7ie a7id 7iot 071 a7iother f A. This simply means that on one the triple piston- packing rings are looser than that in the equalizing piston, and the train-line pressure feeds by the triple piston and equalizes with that in the auxiliaries. Q. The above 7tsically happe7is zuhen stoppi7ig a7i Train Handling. 183 engine at a water-crane or on a titrntable. How are these stops best made with tJie air ? A. One application is best to use witli an engine alone. If we find that we are stopping three or four feet short, open the throttle, and the engine can be helped along a short distance and a smoother stop be made. Q. What happens every time yoit 7cse the einer- gency on a tttrntable ? A. You strike the table a blow equal to the w^eight of your engine multiplied by the speed at which you are moving, and then, if the turntable breaks down, wonder why the company does not provide a decent table. Q. In making a luater-tank stop with a pas- senger train, how should it be do7ie to avoid a jar to the train and passengers ? A. The stop should be made with two applications of the brake, except the grade is too steep and the press- ure too low for safety. Q. How do we handle the valve to make the first release so that the brakes will respond with the first reduction ? A. When the speed of the train has been reduced to about three miles an hour, throw the valve handle to full release and bring it back on lap immediately. O. Why bring it back on lap ? A. So as not to raise the train-line pressure too high. The feed grooves in the triples are small, and have only three or four seconds in which to equalize the train-line and auxiliar}' pressures. If the valve is left in full re- lease or running position, and the train-line pressure gets to seventy pounds, and there is, say, only fifty-five pounds in the auxiliaries, the triple pistons will not move to serv- ice position until over a fifteen-pound reduction of train- line pressure has been made. By the time we have made this amount of reduction in service position we shall 184 Air-Brake Catechism. have gone by the water- crane, unless we use the emer- gency, and that is what is usually done if the engineer is not up to date. Q. When shoitld brakes be released on a pas- senger train f A. Just before the train stops. Q. What shoztld be done on a grade just heavy enouirh so that the train will start iinth the brakes released ? A. Stop the same as at a water-crane. No jar will be felt with a light application. Q. How about a heavy grade ? A. Our stop will then depend on the grade and our pressure. Safety should be of first importance, even if the stop is a trifle rough. Q. What snakes the jar, if tJie brakes are not released before the train stops ? A. With the brakes set hard, the trucks are dis- torted, and it is the struggle of the trucks to right them- selves that causes the jar. Q. Ca7i brakes be released longei^ before stopping after a light or a heavy reduction f A. After a heavy reduction, as there is more air in the cylinders to be gotten rid of, and the brakes release more slowly. Q. What is ineant by an application f A. It covers all the time from the moment the brake is applied until it is released ; three or four re- ductions may be made during one application. Q. In making a stop zuith a freight train, when should brakes be released? A. After the train comes to a full stop, to avoid Train Handling. 185 breaking the train in two if the slack runs out hard in releasing before stopping. Q. If we have stopped sJiort wiiJi a freight train, and need to release before stopping to pull up farther, what should be done ? A. We should wait for the slack to adjust itself in the train before using steam. Even then the steam should be used very cautiously. Q. In riLnning passenger trains over cross-overs to get around freights, what care sho7ild be take^i ? A. To do this, brakes have to be used when flagged, at the upper cross- over, low^er cross-over, and usually at a station. We should charge up as much as possible after each application. Do not follow the plan of re- leasing and putting the valve on lap in such a case, to be sure the triples will respond quickly. They will respond quickly, but if the station stop is on a grade, you may not have air enough left to make it when you get there. Q. What is the 7isual cause of trains running azuay ? A. Making a great many reductions without oc- casionally charging up, or allowing the pressure to leak away, because the train is running steady, and then when we get ready to recharge, not having enough air left to slo\v up the train. Q. On a fast pa.ssenger run, how may time be saved in using the brake? A. By waiting longer before applying the brakes and then making a ten-pound reduction at the start. Q. Will this not jar the passengers ? A. Not when going fast. Passenger trains are con- tinuous, and there is ver}- little slack to run up. A ten- 1 86 Air-Brakk Catechis:vi. pound reduction made with a train moving ten miles an hour would produce a very unpleasant sensation to pas- sengers, where at forty miles an hour it would not be noticed. This is explained in the subject High-Speed Brake. O. Should bj^akcs be tested z?i takzjio- on cars ? A. Yes, to be sure that the brakes on these cars work properly, and that the brakes back of them can be applied and released through them. Q. When all retamers on a train are not neces- sary, hoiu should they be ztsed ? A. At the head end if the grade is short ; otherwise change them around and use them on every other car, so as not to overheat any v/lieels. Q. If tJie brakes are applied and the engineer wishes to release and drift tzuo or three hundred feet before stoppi^tg, zuhat sJiozild be done ? A. Enough retainers should be put in operation to keep the slack bunched. Q. WJien should hand brakes be used? A. On the rear of a part air train when backing it into a siding, or, if it stands on a knoll, to keep the slack from running back. Q. Should hand brakes arid air brakes be used together on the same car ? A. This is a risky practice. If the tv/o brakes work together, we are very likely to slide wheels, and if they work in opposition, there is danger of a brakeman being thrown from the car, and the hand brake being applied will take up the slack in the brake rigging, so that the piston cannot get by the leakage groove. Q. If hand brakes be itsed back of the air, if Train Handling. 187 there are not enottgh air brakes to control the train, what is likely to happen ? A. This is likely to produce a bad effect when the air brakes are released. If the retainers are poor and allow the slack to run out, the train may be broken in two. Q, If hand brakes are to be used with the air, where should they be applied ? A. Next to the air. Q. Should driver brakes be cnt iri when descend- ing a heavy grade ? A. Always, or so much more work is thrown on the car brakes. Q. If an air-brake train shonld be stalled on a grade, should part of the train be left with air brakes to hold them luitil the engine comes back ? A. No ; the air brakes should be released one at a time, and the hand brakes applied. If left with the air holding them, the air might leak off and allow the train to run away . Q. When brakes are full set, the long travel brakes are easier to release. They may be released and leave the short travel brakes applied. Is this good practice in holding trains? A. No ; it is very bad practice. A train may be broken in two in this way. 0. If brakes stick and zuill not release by placing the valve in full release, zvhat shottld be done ? x\. Make a full service reduction and then, with a full excess pressure, throw to full release. If a release from the engine is possible, this will accomplish it. i88 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What Jiarm is there iii pulling hose apart instead of iLUconpling them ? A. The couplings are likely to be sprung so that they cannot be coupled again, and the train line is likely to be torn from the car or engine. Q. Does it do any Jiarm to lean on the rotary ha^idle when the brakes are applied? A. Yes; if the dovetail piece that fits into the rotary is tight on account of dirt and gum, the rotary may be cocked so as to allow main reser^^oir pressure to feed into the train line under the rotary and release some of the brakes. Q. What is the trouble, when there is a leak on the train line^ if the engine is alone, but coupled to tight cars, the leak does not show ? A. The leak is in the angle cock at the rear of the tender. When coupled to a train, the leak is not noticed as the cock is open. With the engine alone the cock leaking allows air to pass out of the hose to the atmos- phere. Q. I7i double heading, which eiigine should han- dle the brakes ? A. The lead engine. Q. What shotild the second engineer do ? A. Turn the cut-out cock under his valve, and under no circumstance, unless told to, should he cut in and interfere with the work of the lead engine. Q. If the pusher engiiie has no cut-out cock, what sho7Lld be done ? A. The valve should be placed on lap. Q. In this case, why does the eqitalizing piston sometimes rise ? Train Handung. 189 A. Because the lead engineer increases train-line pressure to release the brakes, and the pressure under- neath the equalizing piston is greater than that above it. Q. How may it be seated ? A. By putting the handle in full release position long enough to charge the little drum and seat the pis- ton. Q. In case of eme7^gency , when it is necessary for iLS to leave the engine, what skoitld be done f A. Throw the engineer's valve to full emergency position and leave it there. In our hurry, if we tried to lap the valve, we might get it into running position and release the brakes. Q. Why ongJit we never to bring onr valve back from emergency positio7i too quickly ? A. There might be two or three cars cut out, a couple of plain triples, a contracted passage, or a couple of cars that would not go into quick action on account of dirty strainers. If these cars were together, they would not help to carry the quick action back. Generally a quick-action triple will not send a quick reduction through five cars which are cut out. In this case, if the engineer's valve had been lapped too quickly, the surge of air ahead from the rear end would release the head brakes, and all we would have would be a very light service reduction on the cars back of those cut out. If we leave the engineer's valve in emergency position long enough, we could at least get the full service application on these cars, and the emergency on those ahead of the cars cut out. Q. If we zu ere going into a head end collision, and we thottght we could stop all right and start back^ how should the valve be handled ? A. Set the brakes in emergency and gradually return igo Air-3rake Catechism. ffl <; b •sxojs iv^j ^: •;= o -ID ^ (LI'S CC TJ 1^ cs x ;; is ,4 \s ;j ^ •SDHS NX Hi>;ix w'S^'g 1 •xaHj NI JOiS 30VHHAV ijs^ ^H ~, f-i^ " C (N •sjoxs dO HXONHq O t-^0C>O Sg; «H o H, « w ^ iTiOO •sjoxs dO HXONHq IMniMIXVI\[ •Havj\[SJOxg do'o^ ^vxox o o m t^ •aHHdS if a2 ^3 - "Tj ■ " "«1 £ :1: 5 6f 5 • X- ■ ^ >S.^S.>-^.>i Q ^ P ^ Q P pgP '4, ■ON t^OO OnO w Train Haxdlixg. 191 •sxods -i-va^ d : 9 - .2 d WH 1 C3 d. in J . ga O- - ajO- aJO- -.- ej ij 0- .- 2" - >i^- >i^- --- >i^ >'^" •soas >-. i-i p-i c^OscO-^CTviO Tf'O ro ro -^CO NI HKIX •XH3^ iTioo 1/^, -±iop) t^iouor-M lo in^ n NI JOXS r-io ir, \o r^t---!-N\o t-~^o uo cs r-- « TTiN (N ) r~- " IMflKIXVH •Havi\[ sjoxs 1 woo w r-.^i-c w M i-i Mwi-i ONi-i WI-IW ao -OM ivxox 1 Q Z •j2 X '-'J -: ^ J~" -^ «5 - < ><^>h'2;s;^2-- >^"";z;" Cfi 3 .Q < •aanas u-lOOO 000 Tj-rOtOcOTf^TfcOc^ -^rOri- ro cT) ro co rO J'i :5^ 'i ':i ;^ i^ •-' .^ M :fe ^ d u :c?{ ■;:>! :^ :^ :^ :=a ,^ .-5^ :tn i g^ ^ 2; ^' z u V -O V ■:-> ■iAV.^Zd^::^ :.:...••■...:« rt.dc ^ ir ""' 5 H ft. .Z -^ :^ :^ .^ :^ .oS'^S'^s ^- ' ^^t; ."O I'd :'2 :'C i-o :^£i^£i£3 S S a : a : a : a r a ; a : ^"^ ^rT ^ 0^ ^ - « X « X ci X « jc r. X - X ' -^ . ^ ^ ^ Tj- u 5 K ;^ U - z iiS-nS-gii-Si^oii-gii-gS^ii a-^ a u "2 1c85 8S858S55 3Sxiixiix-g= -x W iJ >-" H 53 ^ -x _x .X ,x .X ,x . - .- ' ^ iJ -z: •- ->a n; n;-^ o'H j^-:: a;-::: a;";: ii'^ iJ 'J cj u JJ cj ^ Ji '-» ii"^ i ^ .5.5 0.5 5.5 0.5 5. H 0.5 c. 5 g. a §.5 g ^ .5 §.H §.a § b/c bc^^ b£^" br._,' b/;^' b£„^ bc^^ be S M o it o -5 : be ^ be Jj t£ d caaaaaaaaabfaas. WW W W W W W '►iJ &J '^" ^ W W '-4 'd : -3 .■■:■■':, > 1 (LI "y ■ • V -; X X • • X TJ u. ;-! ►< iJ ?^ : ?^ ■ • ■ > - - - -^ w : w : : 53 '•■- X u : u : : I- t;^ CO CO ^ CO VO 'X ; •3onB:isip £1 593i" VO •Tf lO "^CO r^co vo M LO i-l CJ cs c^ >- 1 'paads ssiiit «^ cs o .:: 1j r::: c Ph o h4 o >!Jci rt •3UII1 spuooas : : w lo t>> l~^ t^ On On !>. s X i-i s aonB^sip O CO C-l O be missing under fair usage. Sec. 21. Cylinder or triple valve of air-brake cars 1 not cleaned and oiled within twelve months and the I date of the last cleaning and oiling marked on the I brake cylinder with white paint. Owners Delivering Company responsible. f Sec. 22. If i-inch hose and fittings are found on I i>4-inch train pipe. I Sec. 230 Damage to any part of the brake apparatus i caused by unfair usage, derailment or accident. Note.— If the car has air-signal pipes or air-brake pipes, but no air bi'akes, the hose and couplings on the car are at ovi^ner's risk, unless the car is stenciled that it is so equipped. IMPROPER REPAIRS. r Sec. 34, Rui,E 3. An}- company making improper I repairs is solely responsible to the owners, with the I exception of the cases provided for in Section 22 of Company Rnlp 7. making J ^^>^^ V j The company making such improper repairs shall place upon the car, at the time and place that the I work is done, an M. C. B. defect card, which card l^ shall state the wrong material used. repairs responsible The M. C. B. Rules. 199 Sec. 5, RUI.E 4. When M. C. B. couplers of another make are placed upon a car, the uncoupling arrange- ments shall be made operative at the expense of the companj' making the repairs. When M. C. B. couplers, knuckles, metal brake beams, wheels or axles are replaced under conditions which make them chargeable to the owner, it must be plainly stated on the repair card and stub whether the material is new or secondhand. Sec. 4, Rule 5. Bills may be rendered against car owners for the labor only of replacing couplers, draw- bars, brake beams (including their attachments, such as shoes, heads, jaws, and hangers), brake levers, top and bottom brake rods that have been lost on the line of the company making the repairs. Note, Rule 5.— In rendering bills for owner's defects, the fol- lowing should be observed : No ciedit for scrap and no charge for labor shall be allowed in renewing biake shoes. Sec. 10, RUI.E 5. Bills for repairs made under these rules and for material furnished shall be in conformity with schedules of prices and credits for the articles enumerated below : Material. Charge. Credit. Air-brake hose, ij.^ inch, complete with fittings applied $2.00 Air-brake hose, i34 inch, credit for fittings for same Air-brake hose, i inch , complete with fittings applied 1 .75 Air-brake hose, i inch, credit for fittings for same Bolts, nuts, and forgings, finishea . . . per lb. .03 Castings, rough iron ' * I .01 J^ " " malleable iron " I .03 steel " ! .05 Chain .80 .80 He. He. Sec. 18, Rule 5. The folloving table shov.s the 200 Air-Brake Catechism. labor charges allowable, in cents, for the items named in air-brake work : Angle cock, renewing 5 Angle cock, handle, renewing 5 Coupling, dummy, applying 5 Cut-out cock, renewing 15 Cut-out cock, handle, renewing 5 Cylinder body or reservoir, or both, renewing. . . 25 Cylinder and reservoir, tightening when loose. . . 10 Cylinder release spring, renewing 10 Cylinder gasket, renewing 20 Check valve case, renewing 10 Check valve case gasket 10 Gasket, coupling, renewing 3 Pipe, renewing one section '. 10 Pipe, securing to body 10 Pipe nipple on end of train pipe renewed 5 Piston, renewing 10 Piston, packing leather, renewing 15 Pressure-retaining valve, repairing 15 Release valve, repairing 10 Release valve rod, repairing 10 Strainer, renewing 5 Triple slide valve, repairing. . . , 40 Triple emergency valve seat, repairing 10 Triple valve gasket, renewing 10 Triple valve cleaned and oiled 10 Cylinder cleaned and oiled 15 Sec. 19. The settlement prices of new eight-wheel cars shall be as follows, wnth an addition of $36 for each car equipped with air brakes. The road destroy- ing a car with air brakes may elect to return the air- brake apparatus, including such attachments as are usually furnished by the air-brake manufacturer, com- plete and in good condition. BODIES. Note, Rule 5.— An additional charge of 75 cents shall be al- lowed in replacing intermediate or center sills on cars equipped with air brakes. The M. C. B. Rules. 201 No charge to be made for labor of replacing or applying M. C. B. knuckles, knuckle pins, locking pins, clevises, brake shoes or brake-shoe ke\-s. Sec. 20, RcLE 5. Depreciation due to age shall be estimated at six per cent per annum upon the yearly depreciated value of the bodies and trucks only ; pro- vided, however, that allowances for depreciation shall in no case exceed sixty per cent of the value new. The amount, $36, for air brakes shall not be subject to any depreciation. BRAKING POWER AND LEVERAGE. O. WJiat is meant by braking poiucr ? A. The force applied by the shoes against the wheels to stop the motion of a car. Q. What is meant by the percentage of braking pozuer ? A. The total brake- shoe pressure as compared to the light weight of the car. The percentage is found by dividing the total braking power by the light weight of a car. Q. What per cent of the iv eight of a car is iised as braking poiucr on a freigJit car ? A. Usually about seventy per cent or seven- tenths of the light weight of the car. Q. On a passenger car ? A. Usually ninety per cent or nine-tenths of the light weight of the car, excepting with the high-speed brake. Q, Can tJiese percentages be 2ised if the car Jias tzuo six-zuheel trucks, and only tzuo pairs of zvheels on each car are braked f A. No ; the percentages given refer to a certain per cent of the total w^eight on the rail of the braked wheels. Q. What per cent of braking pozuer is used in de si oiling driver brakes ? Braking Power and Leverage. 203 A. Usually seventy-five per cent or three- fourths of the weight on the drivers when the engine is ready for the road. Q. WJiat per cent of braking poiuer is ttsed on tenders ? A. Usually one hundred per cent. Q. Why IS a larger per cent of braking power used on tenders than on enoines or cars ? A. Because tenders are practically always loaded. O. Hozu lucre these percentages determined on as safe ? A. By actual tests in the different kinds of service. Q. What br a Jze-cy Under pressure is used in fig- uring the braking power with the different sizes of cylinders ? A. Sixty pounds where using quick-action triples, and fifty pounds with the plain triples are figured as the cylinder pressure when the brakes are full set. This does not refer to the quick-action triple as used with the reinforced brake. Q. Hozu do we calculate the force acting on the pnsJi rod dice to the pressure in the cylinder acting on the piston ? A. Multiply the diameter of the piston by itself; the product by the decimal .7854, and this last product by the pressure in the brake cylinder. Q. What force luould act ori the push rod of an 8-inch cylinder using a quick-actioji triple ? x\. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 60 = 3015, usually figured as 3000 pounds. Q. With a plain triple ? 204 Air-Brake Catechism. A. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 50 = 2513, usually figured as 2500 pounds. Q. Explain the difference in tJie percentage of braking power of a freight car light, and the same car wJien loaded to its f nil capacity. A. Seventy per cent of the light weight of a freight car is considered safe braking power. If the light weight of a freight car is 25,000 pounds, it is given 17,500 pounds braking power. If the capac- ity of the car is 60,000 pounds, when loaded to its full capacity the total weight of the car and contents is 25,- 000 + 60,000, or 85,000 pounds, but w^e have only the brake-shoe pressure to stop the car loaded that is used when it is light. In emergency, we get about sixty pounds pressure in the brake cylinder and have seventy per cent braking power with a light car, but with the car loaded, when the brakes are set in emergenc}', the braking power is only twenty and one-half per cent of the total weight of this car. Ill ordinary service application we obtain about fifty pounds pressure in the brake cylinder. This reduces the maximum braking power one-sixth, so that we use fifty-eight per cent braking power when the car is light, but when the car is loaded, the percentage of braking power to the total weight of the car and contents is only seventeen per cent. Q. How is the perce7itage of braking power of a passefiger car affected by its load? A. Not very much, because ninety per cent of the light weight of the car is used as braking power, and when loaded, the additional weight is seldom as much as 10,000 pounds. O. ]V!iat forces are figured as acting at the push rod with the different sized cylinders, the cylinder pressure bei?ig figured at fifty poiinds in service and Braking Power and Leverage. 205 sixty in cviergcncy luiih the qitick-action triple, and fifty ponnds with the plain triple in either service or e77iergency ? A. Service application : 6 in. 8 in. 10 in. 1400 2500 4000 Emergency application : 1700 3000 4700 12 m. 5600 6800 14 m. 7700 9200 By using the following cuts and formulae, the brak- ing power on a car with any kind of leverage may be figured. ^. 4 r LEVER OF 1st KIND FORMULA F^ a^ Fxb W F= Wxa b= Wxa Fig. 34.— Lever of ist Kind. There are three classes of levers : I. When the fulcrum c (Figs. 33 and 34) is betw^een the force F and the weight W. II. When the weight W (Figs, 35 and 36) is between the force F and the fulcrum c. 2o6 Air-Brake Catechism. III. When the force F (Vigs. 37 and 38) is between the weight IT and the fulcrum c. Figs. 33 and 34 represent a lever of the first class. O. JVhat brakcsJioe pressure W will result with a force F = 2000 pozLuds, b = 16 inches, a =^ 8 inches ? ^.. F y. h 2000 X 16 ,.. A. \V = or W= or 11 =4000 (1 o pounds. The forces IF and F act in the same direction on the levers, and the force at c acts on the lever in an opposite direction from both and must be equal to their sum, or 6000 pounds. Q. What is the distance a if F = 2000, b = 16 inches^ and W = ^000 ? Fy,b ^ . . , A. a = — -~- ; substitutmg values, 2000 X 16 o • 1 a = or a = 8 inches. 4000 Q, JVhat is the force F, when IF = ^000, a = 8 inches, and b = 16 incJies ? A. F = — - — - ; substituting values, ^ 4000 X 8 -r = ^ or i* = 2000 pounds. Q, How do we find b if IV = ^ouu pounds, F = 2000 pounds, a7id a = 8 inches ? A. 6 = j^ — ; substituting values, 4000 X 8 = or = ID inches. 2000 Braking Power and Leverage. 207 Figs. 35 and 36 represent levers of the second class with the weight between the fulcrum c and the force F. Assume that F = 2000 pounds, a = 8 inches, d = 16 inches, and b c/, or 24 inches. ^ -d— LEVER 0F2ndKIMD Fig. 35. Q. IV/mtis IV:? Fx b A. W ; substituting values, W=~ ^ ^. or W = 6000 pounds. FORMULAE. W= Wxa W Wxa -Lever of 2xd Kind. In this class of levers we see that the forces F and 11 act in opposite directions on the lever, and the force ex- erted at c will be equal to the difference between F and )r, or 4000 pounds. We ma}^ compute values for a, F or 6, as was illus- trated in the first class of levers, if we know the values of the other three. 2o8 Air-Brake Catechism. Figs. 37 and 38 represent the third class of lever with the force F exerted between the weight \V and the fnlcrnm c. Assume that F = 2000 pounds, 6=8 inches, d = 16 inches, a = h -{- rf, or 24. — d-- LEVEROFSrdKIND Fig. 37. FORMULA W Fx b a= Fxb W F _Wxa b ._ Wxa Fig. 38. — Lever of 3RD kind. Q. What is Wf F X h A. W substitutino: values. j|7=l?^^ or IF =6661 pounds. 24 TT'andi^act in opposite directions on the lever in this case, and the force exerted at the fulcrum c will be equal to the difference between F and W or, in this case, 1333J pounds. Braking Power and Leverage. 209 The other three formulae may be used to find the value of a, F, or b when the other three values are known, as already shown. Besides speaking of levers as first, second, and third class, they are known by their proportions as i to i, 2 to I, 2 J to I, etc., according to the amount the force F is raised or diminished, due to the class and propor- tions of the levers employed. To find the proportion of a lever of the first class, divide the distance of the fulcrum c to the force F by the distance from the fulcrum c to the weight IT; or, re- ferring to Fig. ;^T^, it would be : 6-f-aor 16 ^8 = 2. This proportion of lever would be called a 2 to i lever. The force F is multiplied by 2 at W. In the second class, or Fig. 35, the proportion of the lever would be represented by : b ^ a or 2^ ~ 8 = 3, or a 3 to I lever. In the third class, or Fig, 37, the proportion of the lever would be represented by: 6 -^ a or 8 ^- 24 = J, or a J to I lever, in which case the porportion and class of levers reduces the force 3 to i instead of increasing it. 6800 LBS. HODGE SYSTEM Fig, 39. Having studied the classes of levers, we will now 2IO Air-Brake Catechism. make a practical application of their use in figuring the proportion of the levers to be applied to a car of given weight. We wish to design a brake for a passenger car, the weight of which is 60,000 pounds, and use the Hodge system of levers as shown in the sketch. Ninety per cent or nine-tenths of 60,000 pounds is 54,000 pounds. 54,000 pounds will be the safe braking power to apply to the wheels of a passenger car weigh- ing 60,000 pounds. 54,000 H- 4 = 13,500, or the amount of braking power to be developed at each brake beam. The length of the truck levers has to be determined from the truck construction. We will suppose the di- mensions to be — long end, 28 inches ; short end, 7 inches. The truck levers are of the second class and substitut- ing the values in the formula (Fig. 36). F = or i^ = ^^^ 1^ or i^ ^ 2700 ^ 35 That is, to get a power W of 13,500 pounds against the brake beam, a force of 2700 pounds is necessary at the top of the live truck lever. The forces F and W act on the live lever in opposite directions, so the force acting at fulcrum c will be 13,500 — 2700 = 10,800. This power is transmitted to the bottom of the dead lever, which is of the same class as the live lever ; but the force F is applied at the bot- tom instead of the top of the lever. We have from Fig. 36 : TIT F X b ^j^ 10,800 X ^O T-r W = or W= — '- ^ or w = i^.sco a 24 ^'"^ So that, with a force of 2700 pounds acting at the top of the live lever of the dimensions given, a power IF of 13,500 pounds is developed at each truck, brake beam. Braking Power and Leverage. 211 The dead truck lever need not be of the same length as the live lever, but the proportions between the holes must be the same in each. The force of 2700 pounds that acts on the top of the live lever also acts at A^, the end of the floating lever, and we must now determine what force must act on the rod that connects the end of the cylinder lever with the floating lever. This rod is connected at the middle of the floating lever, and the power at this point must be sufficient to develop a force of 2 700 pounds at each end of the float- ing lever. The force exerted at the middle must be 2X2700 or 5400 pounds, as half of this amount is given to each end' of the floating lever. This 5400 pounds acting at the center of the floating lever must also act at the end of the cylinder lever, being connected directly with it. What we now wish to determine is, with any desired length over all, how must the holes be spaced in the cylinder lever that the pressure acting on the push rod will produce a force of 5400 pounds at the outer end of the cylinder lever. A 12-inch cylinder is recommended by the Westing- house Company to be used with this weight of car. The brake set in emergency with a T2-incli cylinder gives us a push at the piston rod of 6800 pounds. We will suppose the distance between the outside holes of the cylinder lever to be 30 inches. The following rule will enable us to locate the mid- dle hole in the cylinder lever to vWiich the tie rod is attached. Multiply the force acting at the piston by the length of the lever between the ontside holes, and 212 Air-Brake Catechism. divide tJie product by the sum of the forces acting at both ends of the cylinder lever. The result will be the distance from the middle hole of the cylinder lever to the hole to which the connection running to the floating lever is attached. Applying this rule to our problem we have 6800 X 30 = 204,000 6800 -h 5400 = 12,200 204,000 -^ 12,200 = 16.72 30 — 16.72 ^ 13-28 The distance between the holes at the short end is 13.28 and the long end 16.72 inches, and, according to the rule, the long end is connected to the connection running to the floating lever. The force exerted at the middle hole of the cylinder lever is also communicated to a hole similarly placed in the other cylinder lever, so that, using the same levers, we will obtain the same braking power on the wheels of the other truck. In figuring the levers for the Stevens system of lever- age, the power desired at the top of the live lever is figured the same as just explained. When we know this force, we know that the same power has to exist at the outer end of the cylinder lever, as the Stevens system has no floating lever. This we figure by the rule already given for spacing the holes in the cylinder levers. To figure the braking power of a car already equipped, we start with the force acting on the piston rod and work towards the truck levers by the aid of the formulae given. To use the formulae, first determine the class of lever with which we have to deal. The foregoing illustrations were a practical applica- Braking Power and Leverage. 213 tion of the formulae, in calculating the proportion of levers that would give a proper braking power on a car of known weight. We will now consider a shorter method of calculating the proportion of levers for a Hodge and for the Stevens systems of leverage for this same car. RULES. To find total power required : Take seventy pei^ cent of light weight for freight brake^ and7iinety per cent for a passenger car. To find leverage required : Divide the total power required by the total pressure on the piston. To find the proportion of the brake beam levers when brake beam is connected to middle hole of lever : Divide total length of lever by the short end. To find the proportion of the brake beam levers when brake beam is connected to bottom hole of lever : Divide the long end of the lever by the short end. To find the total brake beam leverage : Multiply the proportioit of the brake beam levers by 2 for the Hodge, and by 4 for the Stevens system. To find the proportion of the cylinder levers : Multiply the whole length of the lever by the required leverage, and divide the product by the total brake beam leverage plus the required leverage. The result will be the distance between the holes at one end of the lever. How to connect the cylinder lever : If the total push 07i the piston is to be raised at the other end of the cylinder lever, connect tJie piston Rules. 215 to the long end ; if it is to be reduced, connect the piston to the short end. Example — Hodge Syste.al Weight of car . . . 60,000 pounds Ninety per cent of weight 54,000 " Total pressure on piston (12'' cyl.) in emergency . . 6800 ' ' Total length of brake beam levers 35 inches Length of short end of brake beam lever . . . . . 7 " Total length of cylinder levers 30 ' ' Applying preceding rules to above we have : 54,000 -f- 6800 = ^.94 leverage required. 35 -i-7 = 5, 5 X 2 = 10 = total brake beam lever- age. 30 X 7.94 = 238.20. 238.20 -^ (10 -h 7.94) = 13.28 inches — short end of cylinder lever. 30 — 13-28 = 16.72 inches — long end of cylinder lever. Example— Stevens System. Weight of car and dimensions of truck levers same as in foregoing problem, and the cylinder lever the same distance overall. 54,000 -^-68oo = 7.94 leverage required. 35 -^ 7 = 5- 5 X 4 = 20, total brake beam leverage. 30 X 7.94 = 238.20. 238.20 -f- (7.94 -}- 20) = 8.52 inches — short end cylinder lever. 30 — 8. 52 = 21.48 inches — long end cylinder lever. SIZES OF CYLINDERS TO BE USED ON CARS AND TENDERS OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS. 14'^ brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light weight exceeds 70,000 pounds. \2" brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light weight exceeds 50,000 pounds. 10^^ brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light weight is less than 50,000 pounds. 6" brake cylinder on freight cars whose light weight is less than 15,000 pounds. 8'^ brake cylinder on freight cars whose light weight exceeds 15,000 pounds. 10''' brake cylinder on tenders whose light weight exceeds 35,000 pounds. 8^' brake cylinder on tenders whose light weight is less than 35,000 pounds. AMERICAN BRAKE LEVERAGE. Q. Hoiu do you find the brakiiig power 07i an engine equipped with the American equalized brake as shown in sketch, page 218 ? A. ]\Iultiply the cylinder value, or total push on the piston, by the long lever aim, and divide this product by the short lever arm. This result multiplied by 2 gives the total braking power. Q. With the long lever arm 2^ inches long and the short arm 5, what braking power would zue have^ using 12-inch cylinders ? A. 56,000 pounds. Thus : 5600 X 25 = 140,000 140,000 H— 5 = 28,000 28,000 X 2 = 56,000 Q. If any different design of rigging were used than that shoiun in the sketch, how could the braking pozuer be figured? A. First find the power exerted at the bottom of the rocker shaft and use this in connection with the cuts illustrating the different classes of levers. Q. What per cent of the total weight on drivers is used as braking poiver with driver brakes ? A. Seventy- five per cent of the engine's weight on the drivers when readv for the road. 2l8 Air-Brake Catechism. O. What braking power should be tised on an engine whose weight on drivers is go, 666 pounds? A. 90,666 X .75 = 68,000 pounds. O. What weight should be on the drivers for a7i engine to have 68,000 pounds braking power ? A. 68,000 ^r~ .JS = 90,666 pounds. Q. How should the holes be spaced in levers A and D on an engi^ie having tzuo pairs of drivers, to give an equal braking power on each wheel? A. The middle hole in A should be equidistant from the two outside ones. The hole in the lever at D should be so as to have the connection attached at k stand about parallel with the track. The corresponding hole k at the other end of the lever D must be placed the same distance from the other end. A B Fig. 40. — American Equalized Brake. Q. How should the holes be spaced in levers A, B, and D, if on a mogul or engine having three pairs of drivers ? A. The distance e, lever .1, should be one-half the distance/. The distance ,^, lever B, should be equal to Ifi. The hole /:, lever D, should be the same as on an engine having two pairs of drivers. American Brake Leverage. 219 O. How should tJie holes in the levers A, B, C, and D be spaced on a consolidation or engine zuith fv nr pairs of drivers ? A. The distance e in lever ^1 should be one- third of/. The distance f/, lever B, should be one-half of h. The distance i, lever C, should be equal to J. The hole h in lever I) should be the same as with an engine having two or three pairs of drivers. CAM BRAKE. The following simple rule to find the braking power developed by a cam brake is given by Mr. H. A. Wahlert, of the American Brake Company. Take two wires and place them between the brake shoe and the wheel ; one at the top and one at the bottom of the shoe. Apply the brakes fully, and then measure the piston travel. Now release the brakes, re- charge, and then apply fully again. Measure the piston travel again, and note how much more it has increased. Divide the additional travel had upon removing the wires by the thickness of the wire, and multiply this by the value of the cylinder. The result is the braking power on each brake shoe. Four times this power is the total braking power de- veloped on all four shoes. EXAMPLE. Thickness of wires, J inch. Piston travel, with wires inserted according to rule, 3 inches. Piston travel, with wires removed, 3 J inches. Value of 8-inch cylinder, 2500 pounds. 3 J inches — 3 inches = J inch. J inch -^r— J inch = 4. 2500 pounds X 4 = 10,000 pounds on each brake shoe. 10,000 pounds X 4 = 40,000 pounds on all four brake shoes. A FEW PRACTICAL FORMUL-^ AND RULES FOR AIR-BRAKE INSPECTORS. (I) Braking power ^ ^^^^^ ^ ^ Cylinder value ^ (2) (3) i-incli piston travel Shoe movement for Total leverage inch of piston travel. Shoe wear Total increase of piston travel Shoe movement "" to wear out a set of shoes, for I inch of piston travel Illustration of above Formula. Assume : Weight of car = 40,000 pounds ; it is to be braked at ninety per cent of its weight ; lo-inch cylinder used ; shoes I J inches thick. Ninety per cent of 40,000 = 36,000 pounds. The cylinder value, or push on the piston, of a lo-inch cylinder, when the brake is set in emergency with a quick-action triple, is 4700 pounds. Substituting values in the equations - 36^0 _^^^ 4700 7.66 is the total leverage ; that is, the push of 4700 pounds on the piston must be multiplied 7.66 times to give the proper braking power. (2) ^^^.i3''oril ^ ^ 7.66 ^ 100 222 Air-Brake Catechism. Vttu of an inch is the distance that the brake shoes will move for each inch that the piston travels. (3) — -^ or — ^ = II. 5 or Hi •13 -13 II J inches is the distance the piston travel would have to increase to wear out a set of shoes \\ inches thick. To find the distance in which a train should be stopped, all other things being equal, the distance and speed of any one stop being known : Ride : Multiply the known distance by the sgnare of the speed for which proportionate distance is de- sired, a7id divide the product by the square of the speed at zuhich knozun stop was made. For example : If a train at a speed of thirty miles per hour was stopped in two hundred feet, in what distance should it be stopped at a speed of fifty miles per hour ? Square of 30 = 30 X 30 = 900. Square of 50 = 50 X 50 = 2500. 2500 X 200 ^ ^^^, ^^^ 900 To find the area of a piston : Multiply tJie diameter of the piston by itself^ and this prodtut by the decimal ,"/ 8^^. Example : What is the area of an 8-inch piston? 8" X 8 == 64 sq. in. 64 sq. in. X .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. Formula and Rules. 223 50.26 square inches is the area of the piston ; that is the number of square inches in a circle 8 inches in diameter. To find the volume or cubical contents of a cylinder : Multiply the diamctc?^ of the cylinder by itself, this product by the decimal .yS^^, and this product by the length of the cylinder. Example : « What is the volume of a cylinder 8 inches in diameter and one foot long? 8'' X 8 = 64 sq. in. 64 sq. in. X .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. 50.26 sq. in. X 12 = 603.12 cu. in. To find the pressure at which an auxiliary and brake cylinder will equalize with a full service application of the brake using an initial pressure of seventy pounds in the train line and auxiliary : M2iltit)ly the capacity of the auxiliary in cubic inches Oy eighty-five pounds {seventy pounds train- ane pressu7^e pliLS fifteen pou7zds atmospheric press- ure), and divide the prod2ut by the combined capacity of the axillary and brake cylinder. The quotit^it will be^ approximately, the pressure phis fifteen pounds atmospheric pressure. This is not absohitely correct, as it does not take into account the clearance hi the cy Holder back of the piston with the brake released. This ustcally corresponds to about i inch of piston travel. Example : Capacity of freight auxiliary reservoir = 1625 cu. in. Capacity of 8-inch brake cylinder with 8-inch piston travel = 400 cu. in. 224 Air-Brake Catechism. 1625 X 85 = 138,125 138,125 ^ (1625 + 400) = 68 68 lbs. — 15 = 53 lbs. Fifty-three pounds is the pressure obtained in the auxiliary and brake cylinder with the brake full set in service. INDEX. An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. Air brake, straight 17,18 Air brake, Westinghouse Automat- ic IS, 21 Air brakes used with hand brakes, 18B. 187 Air brakes vs. hand brakes . . .181. 194 American brake leverage '217-219 American brake, power developed, 217 American brake, spacing of lever holes 218,219 * American equalized brake 218 Application of brake 184 Area of piston , rule 222 Automatic air brake, Westing- house 18, 21 Auxiliarv, bleeding 16S Auxiliary, charging 27, 31, 32 Auxiliary leaks 47 Auxiliary not charged 167 Auxiliary use 53 Bleeding auxiliary 168 Brake c\iinder pressure 56 59 Brake cylinder pressure, emer- gency 58-60 Brake cylinder pressure table 57 Brake inoperative 167 Brake stuck 16S, 170, 179, 187 * Brake valve. D 8 106, llD, 111 Brake valve. D 8, bottom view of rotary 112 Brake valve, D 8, emergency posi- tion 112 Brake valve, D 8, excess pressure. 115,116 Brake valve, D 8, excess pressure spring ... 116 Brake valve, D 8, excess pressure valve 116, 117 Brake valve, D 8, full release posi- tion 1 C7 Brake valve, D 8, lap position 109 Brake valve, D 8, on lap, main reservoir pressure 116 117 Brake valve, D 8, operation. . . .106-113 Brake valve, D 8, pipe connections. 107 Brake valve, D 8. positions, 107-109,112 Brake valve, D 8, pressure adjust- ment 115,116 Brake valve, D 8, pump governor.. 116 Brake valve, D 8, rotary leaking, 115, 117 Brake valve, D 8, running posi- tion 108, 109 Brake valve, D 8, service posi- tion 109,111 PAGE Brake valve, D 8, slot in rotary seat n-i. 113 Brake valve, D 8, troubles 114-117 Brake valve, D 8, with pump gover- nor 1('9 Brake valve, F 6 61-105 Brake valve, F 6, adjustment of pump governor 87 Brake valve, F 6, and brake valve, D8, comparison 107, 108. 118, 119 Brake valve, F 6, connections.. .. ^1 * Brake valve. F 6 b2, 84, 86 Brake valve, F 6, emergency posi- tion 91 Brake valve, F 6, excess pressure, 94, 95, 102 Brake valve, F 6, lap position 88 Brake valve, F 6, parts 81 Brake valve, F 6, positions. .81, 83. 85, 8S, 89, 91 Brake valve, F 6, release position, 83, So Brake valve, F 6, rotary, bottom view 90 Brake valve, F 6, running po.sition 85, 87 Brake valve, F 6,ser%'ice position, 89, 9J Brake valve, F 6, use 81 Brake valve, location 80 Brake valve, reservoir. Stf Little drum. Brake valves, engineer's 79-119 Brake valves now in use SO Braking power 202 Braking power and leverage — 202-220 Braking power, car light 204 Braking power, car loaded 204 Braking power, cylinder pressure used in figuring 203 Braking power, force on push rod, ........ 203,204 Braking power lost by too heavy reductions 176,177 Braking power, percentage 202 Braking power, percentages deter- mined 203 Braking power, percentage used on freight car 202 Braking power, percentage used on passenger car 202 Braking power, percentage used on tenders 208 Braking power, percentage ui^ed with driver brakes 202, 203, 217 Braking power, to find weight of engine on drivers 218 226 Index. An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. PAGE Brakes applied from engine in testing 1T2, ITo Brakes applied with rear angle cock 166 Brakes, applying, lap valve 180 Brakes, poor, necessary steps 174 Brakes released on grades 1T8, 179 Brakes, releasing 59-61 Broken graduating pin 45 * Bushing, slide valve... 39 Cam brake . . Capacity of pumps Car discharge valve * Car discharge valve Cavity D. See Little drum. Charging of auxiliary 27, 31 Charging train 165, * Comparative efficiency of West- inghouse brakes Cooling of pump Cut of freight equipment Cylinder lever Cylinders, power developed.. . .204, Cvlinders, sizes 220 121 145 147 172 161 13(1 52 55 21 '5 216 D 8 brake valve. See Brake valve D 8. D 8 valve, equalizing piston 117 Dead lever 55 Diaphragm in old style pump governor 142 Discharge valve of pump, stuck ... 127 Discharge valves of pump, poor seats 128 Double heading 1S8, 189 Drain plug 37 Drip pipe in pump governor 1 89 Driver brakes, cut out 1S7 Driver brake release using emer- gency 182 Driver brakes, used with reverse lever 190-192 Dry pipe leak 120 Dry steam 120 Emergency, brake cylinder press- ure 58-60 Emergency check valve 36 38 Emergency' piston 36-38 Emergency port 37, 38 Emergency position, D 8 brake valve 112 Emergenc}' position, F 6 brake valve 01 Emergency position of plain triple 33 Emergency used, loss of driver brake 1S2 Emergency used, loss of tank brake 182 Emergency, use of. 189. 192 Emergency valve 36-3S, 47-49 Emergency with service reduc- tion 169 Engine changes necessary for high- speed brake 162 Engineer's brake valve, location.. 80 Engineer's brake valves in use SO Engineer's brake valves, West- inghouse 79-119 Engineer's D 8 brake valve. See Brake valve, D 8. Engineer's F 6 brake valve. See Brake valve, F6. Equalization between auxiliary and cylinder, rule 223. 224 Equalizing piston, D 8 valve 117 Equalizing piston, will not rise, . 102,103 Excess pressure 92 Excess pressure, D 8 brake valve, 115,116 Excess pressure, F 6 brake valve, 94, 95, 102 F;xcess pressure spring, D 8 brake valve 116 F^xce.ss pressure valve, D 8 brake valve... 116,117 Exhaust port 37, 38 Expander ring 51 K 6 brake valve, leaks 102-105 F 6 brake valve, troubles 102-105 F 6 engineer's brake valve. See Brake valve, F 6. Feed grooves 31, 32, 37, 42 *Feed valve 94 Feed valve 93-97 Feed valve, duty 93 Feed valve, no excess 94, 95 Feed valve, operation 93 Feed valve, removal of. 97 Feed valve, troubles 94-97 Feed valve, when used 93 ♦Freight equipment 52 Freight equipment parts 51, 53, 54 Freight equipment, Westinghou.se, 51-54 Freight service, main reservoir, 74, 75, 78 Freight train, release of bi-akes, 1S4, 185 P'rozen hose couplings 169 Frozen triple 1 61) Full release, gauge hands 105 Full release position, D 8 brake valve 107 Functions of triple valve 27-34 Ga.sket leak, freight equipment. . . 54 Gasket leak, 9i^-inch pump 131 Gauge hand indications 117 Gauge hands, full release 105 Gauge hands, movement 114, 115 Gauge hands, running position, 105,118 Graduating nut 87 Graduating pin, broken 45 Graduating port 37 Index. 227 An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. PAGE Graduating spring 37, 44 Graduating stem 37 Graduating valve 24, 25, 37 Graduating valve leaking 50 Grooves, feed 31, 32, 37, 42 Hand brakes used with air brakes 1S6, 187 Hand brakes vs. air brakes 1>1, lvt4 Heat due to compression 130, 132 Heating of pump .... ISO Heavy reductions at fast speeds,! So, 186 High-speed brake 158-162 High-speed brake from quick- action 162 High-speed brake efficieuc\- 158 High-speed brake on engine 162 High-speed brake, percentage of braking power 158, 159 ♦High-speed brake reducing valve, 160 High-speed brake reducing valve, .^159, 160, 162 High-speed brake, train-line press- ure 159 High-speed brake, use 158 Hodge lever 56 *Hodge system 209 Hodge sj-stem, short method of figuring 214, 215 Hodge SNstem, to figure levers, 209-212 Hose couplings frozen 169 Hose couplings leaking 166, 167 Hose uncoupling 88 Hose, use of oil 167 I^ap position, brakes applj-ing 180 Lap position, D 8 brake valve 109 Lap position, F 6 brake valve 88 Leakage groove 53 Leak, at train-line exhaust 104 Leak at triple exhaust 47-49 Leak, dry pipe 120 Leak from little drum 104, 105 Leak, gasket of 9J^-inch pump.. . . . 131 Leak, hose coupling 16t), 167 Leaks, effect in tram handling... 173 Leaks, F 6 brake valve 102-105 Leaks in auxiliary- 47 Leaks in triple 47 Leaks on slide valve 46 48 Leaks on traitf line, 47, 89, IGS, 180, 181, 1S8 Leakv graduating valve 50 Leaky rotary 102-104 Leverage, American bi-ake. . . . 21 7-2ly Leverage and braking power. .202-220 Lever, first class 205-206 Lever proportions 209 Lever, second class 207 Lever, third class 208, 209 Levers, classes 205. 2t'6 Little drum 98-101 *Little drum 98 Little drum , leak 104, 105 Little drum, location 98 PAGE Little drum, time of five-pound reduction 101 Little drum, use 99 Live lever 5.5 Long travel brakes, kicking oflT. . . 187 Lubrication of pump 125, 1 26 Lubricator, location 121 Main line governor, troubles . . . 94 97 jNIain reservoir 74-78 Main reservoir, capacity 74, 78 Main reservoir, care of 77 Main reservoir, in freight service, 74,75,78 Main reservoir, in passenger serv- ice 74, 75, 78 Main reservoir, location 76 Main reservoir, object 14 :Main reservoir pressure T4 Main reservoir pressure. D 8 brake valve, on lap 116,117 Main reservoir pressure on signal line 154-156 Main reservoir sizes 74-78 Main reservoir, table of efficiency, 77 Main reservoir, too small 75 M. C. B. rules 198-201 McKee slack adjuster 63 * McKee slack adjuster 64 Moisture in brake system 44 Oil used in hose. 167 Packing leather 51 Packing rings, pump 13i» Parts of freight equipment. . .51, 53, 54 Passenger service, main reservoir. 74, 75, .8 Passenger train, release of brakes, 183,184 Percentage of braking power, high- speed brake 158, 159 Pin valve in pump governor 140 Pipe connections, D 8 brake valve, l07 Piping 196. 197 Piston, emergency .36-38 Piston, equalizing, will not ri.se, 102,103 Piston in pump governor 140 Piston lever 5.5 Piston sleeve 51 Piston travel 55-65 Piston travel, adjustment 55, 63, 65 Piston travel, car light 62 Piston travel, car loaded 62 Piston travel, car running 61,62 Piston travel, car standing 61, 62 Piston travel, determination of. . . 62 Piston travel, effect on pressure, 56 61 Piston travel, long 63. 65 Piston travel, proper length.. . . 63 64 Piston travel, rule 221 Piston travel, short 63, 65 Piston travel , uneven 69 Piston travel, variation in 6^. 63 228 Index. An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. PAGE * Plain triple "22 Plain triple -Jl, 22-26 Plain triple, emergency position . . 33 Plain triple, parts ' 22-24 Plain triple, service position 32 Plain triple, use 34 Preliminary exhaust port, closed.. 105 Pressure adjustment, D 8 brake valve 115,116 Pressure, black gauge hand 8S Pressure brake cylinder 56-59 Pressure excess 92 Pressure governed by piston travel, 56-61 Pressure high on train line 117 Pressure in brake cylinder, emer- gency 53-6 Pressure, red gauge hand 88 Pressure, regulation on signal line 15T * Pressure retaining valve 67 Pressure table, brake cylinder. ... 57 Proportions of levers 209 Pump governor, old stj'le.troubles, ... 141,143 Pump governor pin valve 140 Pump governor piston 140 Pump governor relief port 139 Pump governor slot in stem. . . . 142 Pump governor with D 8 brake valve 109-116 Pump, groaning 125 Pump, heating loO Pump, location 131 Pump lubrication 125, 126 Pump , packing 125 Pump packing rings 130 Pump, pounding 126 Pump receiving valves stuck. .127, 128 Pump speed 129 Pump, starting of 126 Pump, steam exhaust 131 Pump, use. 120 Pump valves, stuck,ho\v loosened, 128 Pumps 120-135 Capacity... 121 6-inch pump 120 8-inch pump. See Pu mp, 8-inch. 914-inch pump 121-132 914-inch pump, care 125 132 914-iiich pump, gasket leak. . . . 131 914-inch pump, operation.. 121-125 914-inch pump, Plate B. 914-inch pump, .stopping 129 9V^-inch pump, troubles 125-132 914-inch pump, valve lift 130 Pump, 6-inch 120 * Pump, S-inch 133 Pump, S-inch 132-135 Pump, 8-inch, blows of 135 Pump, 8-inch, lift of valves 1H2 Pump, 8-inch, operation 132-135 Pump, S-inch, troubles 135 Pump, 914-inch 121-132 Pump, 9i4.inch. Plate B. PAGE Pump, 914-inch, care 125-132 Pump, 914-inch, operation 121-125 Pump, 914-inch, stopping 129 Pump, 9f4-inch, troubles 125-132 Pump, 914-inch, valve lift I80 Pump, cleaning ... 131 Pump, cooling 130 Pump, dancing 130,131 Pump discharge valve, stuck 127 Pump discharge valves, poor seats, 128 Pump governor, adjustment with F 6 valve 87 Pump governor, % and 1-inch im- proved 140 Pump governor, diaphragm 142 Pump governor, drip pipe 139 * Pump governor, improved 13S Pump governor, improved, opera- tion 137-139 Pump governor, improved, trou- bles 139,140 Pump governor, location 121 * Pump governor, old style 141 Pump governor, old stvle, opera- tion .'...140, 141, 143 Pump governors 137-143 Quick-action triple, advantages... 35 Quick action changed to high- speed brake 162 *Quick-action triple 38 Quick-action triple in emergency, 37 Quick-action triple, parts 36-38 Quick-action triple, strainer. .36, 38, 42 Quick-action triple, troubles, 41-50, 89. 40, 42. 43, 44 Quick-action Westinghouse triple. 35-40 Receiving valves of pump, .stuck, 127,128 Recharging on grades 174 Reducing valve, high-speed brake, 159.160.162 Reductions, loss of power 176. 177 Reductions of train-line press- ure 174-177,181 Release of brakes on freight trains 184. 185 Release of brakes on grades — 17S, 179 Release of brakes on passenger trains 1S3, 184 Release position, F 6 brake valve, 83, 85 Release spring 51 Release spring, weak . . 169 Relea-se valve 54 Relea.sing brakes 59-61 Relief port in pump governor.. .^ 139 Retainer, gains made with 71-73 Retainer, missing 1 68 Retainer, table of value 72 Retainer, testing 69 Retainer, troubles 69 Retainer, when put in use 69, 70 Index. 229 An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. PAGE ♦Retaining valve 67 Retaining valve, location of 66 Retaining valve, operation 67 69 Retaining valve, use of. .70, 71, 1S5, 1S6 Retaining valve, Westinghouse. .66-73 Retaining valve, where used 66 Revexse lever used with driver brakes 19(i-l!t2 Rotary, leaky KJ2-104 Rotary of D 8 brake valve, bottom view 112 Rotary of D8 brake valve, leak- ing 115, 117 Rotary of F 6 valve, bottom view, 90 Rotary test 103, 104 Rubber-seated valve 36-38, 47-4!i Rule, area of piston 222, 223 Rule, distance in train stops 222 Rule, equalization between auxil- iary and cylinder 223, 224 Rule, piston travel 221 Rule, shoe movement 221 Rule, total leverage 221 Rule, volume of cylinder 223 Rules, M. C. B 198-201 Running position, D 8 brake valve, 1118, 109 Running position, F 6 brake valve, 85, S7 Running position, gauge hands, 105, 118 Service port 37 Service position, D 8 brake valve, 109, 111 Service position, F 6 bi'ake valve, 89,90 Service position of plain triple 32 Shoe movement, rule 221 Signal apparatus on coach 145 *Signal apparatus on coach 146 Signal apparatus on engine. ...144, 145 *Signal apparatus on engine 144 Signal cord. u.se of 150, 151 Signal, improper response 153-157 *Signal improved reducing valve, 150 Signals in testing passenger train, 170 Signal line, lack of air at car dis- charge valve 153 Signal-line pressure, regulation of 157 Signal-line pressure, testing 156 Signal line, with main reservoir pressure. 154-156 *Signal old style reducing valve ..152 Signal pipe, lack of air 152, 153 Signal reducing valves. .. .145 147, 157 Signal system 144-157 Signal system, passage of air 14S Signal svstem, troubles 152 157 Signal valve 148 150 *Signal valve 149 Signal valve, baggy diaphragm... 154 Signal valve, location 145 Signal -iiistle 147, 14S PAGE ^Signal whistle 151 Slack adjuster, McKee 63 ♦Slack adjuster. McKee.. 64 Slide valve 25,26,37 ♦Slide valve 39 *Slide valve bu.shing 39 Slide valve leaks 40-48 Slide-valve spring 37 .Slid wheels 179 Slot in pump governor stem 142 Slot in rotary seat, D 8 brake valve 112,113 Speed of pump 129 Stevens svstem, short method of figuring 214,215 Stevens svstem, to figure levers, 212, 213 Stickv triple 45, 47 Stops on turntable 182. 183 Straight air brake 17, 18 Strainer, quick-action triple, 36, 38, 42 Stuck brake 168,170,179,187 Stuck pump valves, how loosened, 12s Sweeney compressor 136 Taking on cars 186 Tank brake release using emer- gency 182 Test, train-line leaks 173,174 Testing, brakes applied for engine, 172, 173 Testing retainer 69 Testing signal-line pressure 156 Testing, train-line reduction 172 Three-way cock 79, 100, 101 Total leverage, rule 221 Train charging 165, 172 Train handling 171-195 Train handling, effect of leaks ... 173 Train handling, initial steps.. 171, 172 Train inspection 163-170 Train inspection after charging. . . 165 Train inspection, initial steps, 164, 165,172 Train inspection, uecessitj' of. . . 16;? Train inspection, report 166 Train inspection, where begun. . . 163 Train-line check 36 38 Train-line check spring 38 Train-line exhaust, flash at 114 Train-line exhaust leak. 104 Train-line governor 93 97 ♦Train-line governor 94 Train-line governor, dutj- 93 Train-line governor, no excess. . .94, 95 Train-line governor, operation. ... 93 Train-line governor, removal of... 97 Train-line "governor, troubles — 94-97 Train-line governor, when used ... 93 Train-line leaks,47, 89,16S, 180. 181, 18S Train-line leaks, how to test for, 173,174 Train-line pre.ssure, high 117 Train-line pressure, high-speed brake 159 Train-line reductions 174-177, 1^1 230 Index. An asterisk (-) denotes the subject is illustrated. Train-line reduction in testing 172 Train-line reductions with aid of retainers 1T9, 180 Train stops, distance figured 222 Train tests, Westinghouse 194, 195 Travel, piston. £5 65 Triple exhaust leaks 47-4'.) Triple, frozen 169 Triple leaks 47 Triple parts, quick-action B6 38 Triple piston stem 37 Triple, plain 21 , 22-26 * Triple, plain 22 Triple, plain, emergency position.. 33 Triple, plain, parts ' 22-24 Triple, plain, service position 32 Triple, plain, use ... 34 Triple, quick-action, advantages.. 35 * Triple, quick-action 38 Triple, quick-action, in emergency, 37 Triple, sticky 45,47 Triple, Westinghouse quick-action, ::5 40 Troubles, feed valve 94-97 Troubles, improved pump gover- nor 139,140 Troubles of quick-action triple. 39, 40, 41-5), 42-44 Troubles, pump governor, old style 141-143 Troubles, signal system l.o2-157 Troubles, train-line governor. . . .94 97 Troubles, F 6 brake valve 102-105 Troubles, 8-inch pump 135 Troubles, D 8 brake valve 114-117 Troubles. 9]^-inch pump 125-132 Tioubles, with retaining valve. ... 69 Turntable stops 182,183 Valve, emergencv 36-3S, 47-49 Valve, graduating 24,25.37 Valve lift, 9>^-inch pump 130 Valve, rubber seated 36-3S, 47-49 Valve, slide 25,26,37 Volume of cylinder, rule 228 "Warning port 85 Water tank stops, passenger train, 183,184 Weak release spring 169 Weight of engine on drivers, to find braking power 217, 218 Westinghouse brakes, comparative efficiency . . 161 Westinghouse engineer's brake valves 79-119 Westinghouse freight equipment, 51-54 Westinghouse high-speed brake, 158-162 Westinghouse pumps 120-135 Westinghouse pump governors, 137-143 Westinghouse retaining valve 66-73 Westinghouse train tests 194,195 Westinghouse whistle signal svs- tem... 144-157 Wheels, .slid 179 Whistle signal systen. See Signal system. '^J^.^T PUBLISHED. 14TH EDITION, GREATLY ENLARGED, OF Locomotive Catechism, bx ROBKRX. ORIMSHAW. I4th EDITION. PRICE, $2>00. Enlarged by Nearly loo Additional Pages, IMany Illustrations, and Three Large Folding Plates. Containing in all Nearly 450 Pages, over 200 Illustrations, and Twelve Large Folding Plates. This book coinmends itself at once to every Engineer and Fire- man, and to all who are going in for examination or promotion. In plain language, with full, complete answers, not only all the questions asked by the examining engineer are given, but those which the young and less experienced would ask the veteran, and which old hands ask as " stickers." It is a veritable Encyclopaedia of the Locomotive, is entirely free from mathematics, and thoroughly up to date. It contains Sixteen Hundred Questions with their Answers. It has been very highly endorsed by the Journal of the Brother- hood of Locomotive Engineers, Brotherhood of Locomotive Fire- men s Magazine, Locomotive Engineerifig, and other railroad magazines, besides which we have thousands of testimonials from Engineers and Firemen, all speaking in the very highest praise of it. WHAT IS SAID OF IT BY THE RAILWAY JOURNALS. " This book is worth the price asked many times over.'" — Locomotive Engineering. "We recommend the book to all Firemen and Engineers.''''— Locomotive Firemen^s Magazine. " A most practical and useful book, which commends itself to all Locomotive Firemen and Engineers. The book is a veritable encyclopjedia of the Locomotive, and is free from theory and mathematics. We recommend iV''— Journal of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Enginet^m. "The book covers the f^round in a very creditable manner, and is well worth the \ifice.''''— National Car and Locomotive Builder. Nearly 450 Pages, Bouod in Extra MarooD Cloth, Gilt, Over 200 Illustrations, . and 12 Large Folding Plates. PriCe, $2. GO NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., Publishers, 132 NASSAU STEEET, NEW YOEK. *#*0opie8 of this book prepaid to any address on receipt of price. A Complete Electrical Library By Prof. T. O'CONOR SLOANE. THE BEST ELECTRICAL BOOKS. EACH ONE SOLD SEPARATELY. How to Become a Successful Electrician ! Illustrated. $1.00. It is the ambition of thousands of young and old to become electrical engineers. Xoter'rr one is prepared to spend several thousand*dollar3 upon a college course, even if the three or four years requisite are at their disposal. It is possible to become an electrical engineer without this saorifice, and this work is designed to tell " How to Become a Successful Electri- cian " without the outlay usually spent in acquiring the profession. Electricity Simplified. Third Edition. Illustrated. $1.00. This work is the simplest ever published on the subject of Electricity, and does something not hitherto accomplished. Klcctricity is in many respects unexplained by the scientist; to the ordinary man it is all a mystery. The object'of " Electricity .Simplified " is to raak» the subject as plain as possible. Electric Toy-Making, Dynamo BuHdlng and Electric-Motor Ccnstruction. Very Fully Illustrated. $1.00. This work treats of the making at home of Electrical Toys, Electrical Apparatus, Motors, Dynamos and Instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the re? i of yoixng and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. The work is specially designed for amateurs and young folks. Arithmetic of Electricity. Fourth Edition. Illustrated. $1.00. A Practical Treatise on Electrical Calculations of all kinds, reduced to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic ; each rule illustrated by one or more practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. Followed by an extensive series of Tables. We can recommend the work. — Elbctrical Enginkkr. Standard Electrical Dictionary. 624 Pages. 350 illustrations. Cloth, 8vo, $3.00. The work is absolutely indispensable to all in any way interested in " Electrical Science," from the higher electrical expert to the every-day electrical workman. In fact, it should be in the possession of all who desire to keep aijreast with the progress of the greatest science of the times. The dictionary gives evidence of a large amount of painstaking work on the part of the author, and possesses features which must be commended. Among these, the author, wherever occasion required it, has furnished the synonyms of terms, and the book is given an additional value by an alphabetical index, which enables it to be consulted for terms both collectively and individually. The work will prove of value to the reader, whether pro- fessional or non-professional. The definitions are put tersely and concisely, so that th^ inquiring reader can carry away a defined, net impression as to what is meant. Any stu- dent who will spend his leisure hours over the volume will be amply repaid for his time and trouble. The book is very clearly printed in bold type on good paper, and is well bound. — Electrical Engineer. ..special circular, fully describing the above, also our catalogues of books for Electricians, !yiachinists, Engineers, and all otber practical trades, sent free to any address, on request. NORMAN W. HENLEY <& CO., pubushbrs, 132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. JUST PUBLISHED. Second Edition, Revised and Much Enlarged, Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines. By Gardner D. Hiscox, M. E. LARGE OCTAVO. 384 PAGES. PRICE, $2.50. The only Auiericati Book on the subject. A book designed for the general information of every one inter, ested in this new and popular motive power, and its adaptation to the increasing demand for a cheap and easily managed motor requiring no licensed engineer. The book treats of the theory and practice of Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines, as designed and manufactured in the United States. It also contains chapters on Horseless Vehicles, Electric-Lighting, Marine Propulsion, etc. Second Edition. Illustrated by 270 Engravings. Revised and Enlarged. A FEW EXTRACTS OF NOTICES FROM THE PRESS. This book is written in a plain, concise style, which will commend it to practical men. — CoUiej'y Engineer. It is a very comprehensive and thoroughly up-to-date vrnT]s..— American Machinist. Mr. Hiscox's work, devoted to American practice, is practically unique in subject, and this fact, superadded to its merits, and the authority of the widely known engineer who writes it, gives it a value aU its own. —Scientific Ameiican. The subjects treated in this book are timely and interesting, as there is no doubt as to the increasing use of Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Kngines, particularly for small powers. It gives such general information on the construction, operation and care of these engines, that should jirove valuable to any one in need of such motors, as well as those already having them in -a^^e.— Machinery. The author has signally succeeded in his task. This work is one of the most valuable contributions to engineering literature that has come into e.xistence for yrars. Every detail of the subjfct is considered, and the construction of nearly every known gas and oilmotor on the American market is given. — Scientific Machinid. NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., Publishers, 132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. •^•Copies of above book prepaid to any address on receipt of price. JUST RUBLISHED- The Modern flachinist, By JOHN T. USHER, Machinist. PRICE, - - » - $2.50. Specially Adapted to the Use of Machinists, Apprentices, Designers, Engineers and Constructors. A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modern machine-shop practice, embracing the applications of recent improved appliances, tools, and devices for facilitating, duplicating, and expediting the construction of machines and their parts. A NEW BOOK FROn COVER TO COVER. Every illustration in this book represents a new device in machine-shop practice, and the engravings have been made specially for it. 5vo. 3ZZ Pages, 257 Illustrations. Price, $3,50. What is said of " The Modern Machinist." This is a new work of merit. It is on " Modern Machine Shop Methods," as its name implies. It is thoroughly up to date, was written by one of the best-known and progressive machinists of the day, Is the modern exponent of the science, and all its subjects are treated according to latest developments. In short, the book is new from cover to to cover, and is one that every machinist, apprentice, designer, engineer, or constructor should possess. — Scientific Machinist, July 15th, 1895. This book is the most complete treatise of its kind that has yet come under our observation, and contains all that is most modern and approved and of the highest efficiency in machine-shop practice, etc., etc.— Age op Steel, Jv^tb, 1895. There is nothing experimental or visionary about this book, all devices being in actual use and giving good results. It might perhaps be called a compendium of shop methods, showing a variety of special tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many mechanics, from the superintendent to the man at the bench. It will be found a valuable addition to any library, and will be consulted whenever a new or difficultjobis tobedone. — Machinery, July, 1895. NORMAN W. HENLEY & OO.r rubu^^hbrs. 132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. *„* Copies of the above sent prepaid on receipt of price. JUST rUBLISHED. "5H0P KINKS/' BY ROBERT GRIMSHAW. 400 PAGES. 2-22 ILLUSTRATIONS. Price, $2.50. This book is enOrely different from any other on machine shop practice. It is not descriptive of universal or common shop usage, but shows special ways of doing icurk better, more cheaply and more rapidly than usual, as done in Jijty or more leading shops in Europe arid America. Some of its over 500 Items, and ','22 Illustrations, are contributed directly for its pa^es by eminent constructors ; tne rest have been gathered by the author in hie Tk'irty Ye^irs.' Travel and Expenence. It is ihe most u^' ^ .Av.4^: ■.T'v; ?^i '•:^< ','>?• V, '>. w