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 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS
 
 T H !•: 
 
 TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 AM) UTHER 
 
 EDUCATIONAL PAPERS 
 
 S. S. LAURIE, A.M., F.R.S.E. 
 
 Professor of the histiinics and History of Ediicatioit, Uniz'trsiiy of Edinhtirgh 
 
 ALTIIOR OF " PRIMARY INSTKfCTION IN RKI.ATION TO EDUCATION," 
 "JOHN AMOS COMENILS," ETC., ETC. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 KEGA.X PAUL, TRENCH >k CO., i, rATERNOSTEK .SQUARE 
 
 1SS2
 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The following papers, having been written on different 
 occasions, contain inevitably some repetitions and do 
 not offer a continuous or adequate treatment of any- 
 one Educational topic. They are also somewhat 
 polemical in tone — a defect for which I would 
 apologize were not the questions with which they 
 deal still subjects of debate. In truth, it is simply 
 because the various addresses and papers refer to 
 still vexed questions that I have thought it desirable 
 to reprint them. 
 
 S. S. L. 
 
 University of Edinburgh, 
 jfanuary, 1882. 
 
 P.S. — / have to thank the Messrs. Loiig7nan for permission 
 to reprint the paper 071 Montaigne ajid the article entitled 
 '^''Thc House of Lords and Popular Education " which originally 
 appeared in " Fraser''s Magazine P 
 
 «-l^ ^!^9^a
 
 CONTE NTS. 
 
 TiiF. Traimnc ok the Tkaciier, 
 
 i'AGij: 
 
 1. Inaugural Address delivered on the Occasion of the 
 
 Founding of the Chair of the Institutes and History 
 
 of Education in the University of Edinlnirgh ... 3 
 
 2. The Philosophy of Education in its Relation to the 
 
 School and the Teacher .. . ... ... ... 57 
 
 3. The University Training of Teachers [the Code] ... 92 
 
 Primary Instruction. 
 
 1. The House of Lords and Popular Education ... ... 121 
 
 2. Higher Primary Schools ... ... ... ... 151 
 
 3. The Higher Instruction in Primary Schools as illustrated 
 
 by the Administration of the Dick Bequest... ... 175 
 
 Skcondary or High Schools. 
 
 1. .Secondary Education in .Scotland ... ... ... 187 
 
 2. The (lOvernment of .Secondary or High .Schools ... 200 
 
 3. The Claims of Zr?/?';? as a Subject of Instruction ... 213 
 
 montaic.ne as an educationalist ... ... ... 23i 
 
 The Educational Wants of Scotland ... ... 261 
 
 AuTHORiiY IN Relation to Discipline ... ... 309 
 
 Sketch ov the History of the Education Department 341
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER.
 
 BELL CHAIR OF THE THEORY, HISTORY, 
 AND ART OF EDUCATION.* 
 
 The first occupant of a Chair new to the Universities 
 of Great Britain is placed in a somewhat pecuhar 
 position. It may be fairly expected of him not 
 merely to correlate the new subject with the other 
 studies of a University, but to vindicate for it a right 
 to the promotion which it has obtained, to explain 
 its bearing on the educational interests of the country 
 at large, and to satisfy the sceptical as to its direct 
 utility. Were I, however, to undertake to maintain 
 a thesis so large, I should weary even the well-disposed 
 listener, and probably fail after all to convince or 
 convert the unfriendly. A broad treatment of the 
 subject would involve me in a range of argument, fact, 
 and illustration, so wide and varied, that I think it 
 better to assume very much on the general question. 
 I am entitled indeed to make large assumptions, if the 
 educational movement of the last thirty-five years has 
 had any genuineness and honesty in it ; if education 
 
 * Inaugural Address.
 
 4 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 has been anything more than a pretext for political 
 and ecclesiastical contention. It is not improbable, 
 moreover, that by limiting my range of observation, 
 and confining myself to the objections taken to the 
 foundation of this particular Chair, while at the same 
 time giving some indication of my own point of view 
 with respect to the question of Education, I may do 
 more than could be accomplished by a general treat- 
 ment, to reconcile the hostile and the sceptical to this 
 new event in educational histor}-. But, first, a few 
 words as to the foundation. 
 
 Dr. Andrew Bell was born in St. Andrews, in 
 1753. At the ancient University of that town he was 
 distinguished in most subjects of study, but especially 
 in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. After spend- 
 ing some years as a tutor in the Southern States of 
 America, he returned to this country, took orders 
 in the Church of England, and sailed for Madras. 
 There, he was appointed to an army chaplaincy, and 
 undertook, along with his other duties, the super- 
 intendence of the Military Male Orphan Asylum, 
 which was instituted after his arrival in the Presidency. 
 It was while devoting himself with singular earnestness 
 and assiduity to the work of education in this hospital 
 that he was driven, almost by the necessity of his 
 position, to invent the system of mutual tuition with 
 which his name \v\\\ be ever associated. After Dr. 
 Bell's return to this country he devoted himself to the 
 dissemination of his system, being sustained in his
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 5 
 
 unceasing activity not a little by the rivalry of Joseph 
 Lancaster. Out of the labours of the latter grew the 
 British and Foreign School Society, and out of the 
 labours of the former the National Society in con- 
 nection with the Church of England. 
 
 The principle of mutual instruction of boys by 
 boys was the discovery by which Dr. Bell hoped to 
 regenerate the world. But in truth the invention and 
 application of this method was not his sole merit. He 
 was a genuine teacher, having quick sympathy with 
 the nature of boys, and great readiness of resource 
 in the schoolroom. Many of our established practices 
 were first introduced by him, and some of his improve- 
 ments are only now being adopted. My impression 
 is that prior to his undertaking the charge of the 
 Madras Orphan Asylum in 1789, it was not usual 
 strictly to classify the pupils of a primary school ; and 
 we are all aware that it is only the other day 
 that the leading schools of Scotland began to arrange 
 their pupils in classes according to their progress, and 
 that in some schools of high reputation (incredible 
 as it may seem), classification on this basis has not 
 even yet been attempted ! I shall not on this occasion 
 enter further into Dr. Bell's educational reforms, but 
 content myself with saying that at present, and until 
 better informed, I am disposed to regard him as the 
 founder of the Art of Primary Education in this 
 country, as a conscious art. 
 
 Dr. Bell destined his large fortune mainly for the 
 foundation of specific Educational Institutions, the
 
 6 THE TRAINING OF TExVCHERS. 
 
 residue to be applied to educational purposes, ac- 
 cording to the discretion of his Trustees, enjoining 
 on them always to have due regard to the promotion 
 of his system. The interest of this money was for 
 many years paid away in small grants to various 
 schools throughout the country in connection with the 
 Church of Scotland ; but after the passing of the 
 Education (Scotland) Act, in 1872, which made uni- 
 versal provision for schools, the Trustees, who at 
 present are the Earl of Leven and Melville, .Lord 
 Kirkcaldie, and Mr. John Cook, W.S., resolved to 
 employ a portion of the funds in their keeping for the 
 purpose of instituting Chairs of Education in Edin- 
 burgh and St. Andrews, to be called the " Bell Chairs 
 of the Theory, History, and Art of Education," im- 
 posing on the occupants the duty of expounding, in 
 the course of their prelections. Bell's principles and 
 system. They thereby fulfilled in the most effectual 
 way, under existing circumstances, the objects which 
 Dr. Bell had in view in originally constituting the 
 trust. Certainly no one who has read the " Life of 
 Dr. Bell," by Southcy, will doubt that this resolution 
 of the Trustees would have been in the highest degree 
 pleasing to him. Almost with one voice the teaching 
 profession have hailed the action of the Trustees as a 
 great educational advance. It has been felt that the 
 three gentlemen above named have conferred honour 
 on a department of work which Dr. Bell delighted to 
 honour. They have unquestionably done very much 
 to promote education in Scotland, not only by raising
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. / 
 
 the work of the schoolmaster in public estimation, but 
 also by attracting public attention to education as 
 being not merely a question of national machinery for 
 the institution of schools (essential though this un- 
 doubtedly is), but a question of principles and methods 
 — in brief, of philosoph}-. 
 
 I can do no more on this occasion than make a 
 merely passing allusion to the zealous efforts of the 
 late Professor Pillans to do what the Bell Trustees 
 have now accomplished. 
 
 A Chair of the Theory, History, and Art of Edu- 
 cation having been instituted, we have now to ask 
 what the objects of such a Chair are. There has 
 been much misunderstanding; with regard to these. 
 Some are at a loss to know what there is to say on 
 education within the walls of a University, and what 
 the principles and history of that subject have to do 
 with the schoolmaster's work. Others, who have not 
 to be instructed on these points, dread the competition 
 of an Education Chair with the existing Training 
 Colleges. The latter class of objectors is the more 
 important. They arc at least aware that the necessity 
 of training teachers in methods and in school organiza- 
 tion is not a question to be now for the first time 
 debated. They know that the question has been 
 settled tlicsc thirt)- years by the combined intelligence 
 of the Government of the country and of the Educa- 
 tion Committees of the various Churches. The former 
 class of objectors have nothing to urge against the
 
 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 University training of teachers in the philosophy and 
 niethods of education, which they would not have 
 been prepared with equal readiness and confidence 
 to urge against the institution of the existing Training 
 Colleges thirty years ago. Indeed, I am disposed to 
 think that had the general question of the desirable- 
 ness of training teachers to their professional work 
 been propounded thirty years ago for discussion on its 
 own merits, it would not yet be settled in the affirma- 
 tive. The Parliamentary Philistine, the " Church in 
 danger " men, and above all (strange to say) a con- 
 siderable proportion of those engaged in the work 
 of teaching, would have been opposed to the intro- 
 duction of any such novel idea in practical form. 
 Many as are the evils of centralization, it is unquestion- 
 ably to the centralizing action of the Committee of 
 Privy Council that we owe the full recognition of the 
 efforts which were being made thirty-five or forty 
 years ago in London and Edinburgh to train teachers, 
 and the consequent growth of the Training College 
 system. The work was done t/irottgh the Churches, 
 and accordingly called forth no Church opposition, 
 and as money was freely offered to all who desired 
 training, the rest of the world readily acquiesced. 
 
 The effect of this action on the part of the Privy 
 Council has been most beneficial. Almost all now 
 recognize that there is an art of teaching and of school- 
 keeping, and that teachers should be trained in that 
 art. It is only among that class of teachers and pro- 
 fessors who have never come into close contact with
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 9 
 
 the existing system of training that doubts and objec- 
 tions survive. Quietly, and almost unnoticed, a great 
 new Institution has established itself in the United 
 Kingdom, and has ()\-cri)o\\crcd every possible theo- 
 retical objection to its existence by the practical 
 benefits it has conferred on the country. It is there- 
 fore too late now to discuss the general question. 
 The practical result is before us, and the occupation of 
 teacher has been finally raised into a profession by 
 requiring, as the condition of entering it, a professional 
 discipline. 
 
 Notwithstanding many defects — and I suspect 
 that even in our University system there are defects 
 — the Tra ining College system has been a success. 
 The kind of work done in these institutions, and the 
 extent to which they have taken their place as semi- 
 naries second only to the Universities themselves, 
 would, if inquired into, astonish the few who have 
 hitherto ignored their existence. I am also satisfied 
 that the improvements which have taken place even 
 in secondary instruction have been due largely, if not 
 chiefly, to the indirect influence of the Training 
 Colleges, although these exist for the training of 
 Primary teachers alone. Every manjconnected with 
 education must be so well informed on this the most 
 im portant ^modern movement in educational history 
 that to dwell longer on it would be superfluous. My 
 purpose in referring to it at all is to limit the range of 
 any argument which might naturally be expected 
 from me on this occasion.
 
 lO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 For, the necessity of training the future teacher 
 not only in the subjects which he is afterwards to 
 teach, but in the art which he is to profess, being once 
 for all a settled matter, I am at liberty to confine my 
 remarks to the narrower question of the training of 
 those aspirants to the scholastic profession, w^ho pass 
 through the Universities. Those aspirants are either 
 self-supporting or partly dependent on small bursaries 
 gained in open competition, and their purpose is to 
 prepare themselves for the higher class of Public 
 Schools (which, in their upper departments, are in 
 truth secondary schools), and for purely Secondary 
 or Grammar Schools either in Scotland or other parts 
 of the Empire. As it is at once evident that attend- 
 ing University classes instead of the classes of a 
 Training College has no such great virtue in it as to 
 enable University men to dispense with professional 
 training more than their humbler fellow-teachers, it is 
 superfluous to argue the point. It may be at once 
 assumed that, as the schools for which they are pre- 
 paring themselves, at least those in Scotland and the 
 Colonies, comprehend within them at once primary 
 and secondary instruction, the need of professional 
 training, in the case of University students, is pecu- 
 liarly great. Where are they to get this ? The}- 
 might be required to combine attendance at a Train- 
 ing College with attendance at the University for a 
 degree ; but this, though it might serve as a pro- 
 visional arrangement, would not secure the end we 
 seek. And why would this arrangement not secure
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. II 
 
 the end we seek ? For this reason, and for no other, 
 that a specialist Training College does not answer 
 the same purposes as a Universit}-. The broader 
 culture, the freer air, the higher aims of the latter, give 
 _to ft an educational influence which specialist colleges 
 can never exercise. 
 
 It is impossible within my present limits to elabo- 
 rate this view of the question : it is familiar to all 
 educated men. It would appear however that the 
 moment we ^substitute a distinct practical purpose, 
 such as the production of engineers, officers of the 
 army, ministers of the church, as the exclusive aim of 
 education, and arrange the whole machinery of an 
 Institution to attain any one of these ends exclusively, 
 the mental life of the student becomes at once nar- 
 rowed, and education in the higher sense disappears 
 altogether. We all acknowledge this truth when it is 
 supported by our antipathies and we are called upon 
 for an opinion on such seminaries as Jesuit Colleges. 
 But the objections to be taken to these specialist 
 seminaries are, from an educational point of view, 
 substantially the same in kind as may be taken to 
 colleges which have other and merely secular aims. It 
 is desirable therefore t o maintai n-thc position of . the 
 Universities as. the trainers of all those aspirants to . 
 the teaching profession who arc fitted by their pre- 
 vious education to enter on a University curriculum. 
 This is all that is demanded by those who desire a 
 University training for schoolmasters. Is it an un- 
 reasonable demand ? The preliminary training of all
 
 12 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 female student-teachers, and of the great majority of 
 the other sex, make, and will continue in perpetuity to 
 make, Training Colleges a necessity ; but there are 
 some youths whose greater local advantages or greater 
 native energy of mind is such as to have secured for 
 them a better early training in languages and mathe- 
 matics and to have inspired them with a higher 
 ambition than these seminaries can satisfy. Those 
 better trained intellects, those more ambitious natures, 
 ought to have the University open to them. 
 
 It may be urged, — it is urged by some, — that the 
 students of Training Colleges are welcome to the dis- 
 cipline which the University can give in classics, 
 science, and philosophy, but that the Training Colleges 
 themselves should furnish the purely professional 
 instruction. But the answer to this is, that if the 
 Training Colleges are competent to handle the ques- 
 tion of education as a science and art equally well 
 with the Universities, they are also competent to 
 teach classics, science, and philosophy equally well 
 with the Universities. Latin, I fancy, can be taught 
 ■quite as well in one street of a town as another. 
 What we want is that the student-teac^her shall live 
 in the University atmosphere, and enjoy all those 
 subtle intellectual and moral advantages which belong 
 to that serener._alr. If this be desirable as regards 
 Latin and Mathematics, how much more is it desirable 
 in the case of the principles of education ! Here 
 the student enters into the precincts of Philosophy 
 itself: he has to find the psychological basis and
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 1 3 
 
 relations of methods of instruction, he has to think 
 about Education, and try to ascertain what Education 
 precisely is, and what kind of public duty it is which 
 he has before him as a teacher. He has to investigate 
 the principles of his art, and to expand his thought by 
 studying its history. Is it not at once apparent that 
 whatever advantage belongs to the study of classics 
 and science in a University belongs pre-eminently to 
 studies which ally themselves to philosophy and his- 
 tory? Doubtless there are some minds whose educa- 
 tion is so defective and whose imagination is so weak 
 that they are unable to conceive in what respect a 
 University curriculum should differ, as it does differ 
 in its very essence, from a similar curriculum in a 
 specialist college in which a practical limitation of aim 
 vitiates the whole process of education in the higher 
 sense of that term. To such minds I do not address 
 myself 
 
 Far be it from me to say one word in depreciation 
 of Training Colleges. You will not misapprehend 
 me. I know them too well not to respect them. I 
 have already shown their importance as a part of 
 the educational machinery of the country, their neces- 
 sity as a permanent part of that machinery, and the 
 debt the country owes to them. But they are not 
 Universities — this is all I desire to say — any more 
 than Sandhurst, or Woolwich, or Cooper's Hill, is a 
 University. It is true that certain picked students 
 are now sent from the Training Colleges to certain 
 Universities to attend two of the classes there, and thus
 
 14 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 sniff the academic air ; but this device can never 
 supply the place of a University curriculum and of 
 University life. 
 
 When, further, we consider that for two hundred 
 years all the leading teachers of the parochial schools 
 of Scotland have been supplied by the Universities, 
 and have carried with them into the most remote 
 parishes some University culture, is it too much to 
 ask that a system which has been so beneficial in the 
 past shall be continued and even more fully developed 
 under the new Statute ? At this moment no man can 
 be appointed to a Public School in Scotland — and the 
 term " Public School " includes all schools, with about 
 a dozen exceptions — who does not possess a Govern- 
 ment certificate. A raw lad from the Hebrides is, 
 after nine or ten months' training, and while yet barely 
 able to write an ordinary letter, while wholly ignorant 
 of Latin, and acquainted with the merest elements of 
 other subjects, technically qualified for any Public 
 School, while a graduate of the Universities is dis- 
 qualified until he undergoes a further examination. 
 This seems hardly credible. I have taken opportuni- 
 ties of bringing this fact before authorities in the Uni- 
 versities from time to time since 1872, but it is difficult 
 to believe that they have yet fairly realized the actual 
 state of things. All the new machinery for education 
 will fail to produce the effect expected of it, if this evil 
 be not quickly remedied.* The Education Department 
 is quite entitled to hold that a University curriculum 
 
 * The evil has now (1882) been sul»tanlially remedied.
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 1 5 
 
 .shall be incomplete, so far as the teacher is concerned, 
 if it do not include a knowledge of the principles and 
 practice of education, but to go further than this is 
 an insult to the Universities of Scotland, which these 
 bodies, however, seem slow to feel. The Universities 
 are being dissociated from the teaching profession. 
 The evil might be faced, and we might reconcile our- 
 selves to the infliction of this blow on the University- 
 system of Scotland, especially as the Universities 
 themselves seem to accept their position with the 
 silence which indicates acquiescence, were it not that 
 the education of the country is imperilled, and all that 
 has been distinctive of Scottish school-life is threat- 
 ened. It is to be hoped that we shall have ere long 
 a recognized University curriculum for teachers, and 
 that the impending danger may thus far be obviated. 
 
 Do not imagine that the education of the country 
 can be maintained by Codes, with an array of "specific 
 subjects " to be paid for at so much a head. The 
 higher instruction has been given in the past, not for 
 money, but for love. Teachers, having formed their 
 standard at the Universities, carried that standard 
 down with them into the country, and were proud of 
 the opportunity of forming classes in Mathematics 
 and Latin. They felt that they kept themselves 
 up to a higher level by connecting themselves with 
 University work, and they saw that this higher in- 
 struction told on the intelligence, and above all on the 
 morale, of the whole school. It is by sending out able 
 and ambitious men, not by the manipulation of a
 
 l6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Code (although this too has importance), that true 
 education is promoted. Nor is it only for those who 
 are competent to go direct from, the school to the 
 University that a curriculum is demanded, but also for 
 those Training College students of one or two years' 
 standing, who desire to carry their education further, 
 and to qualify for the higher primary and for secondary 
 schools. 
 
 In brief, a Faculty of Education is in a certain 
 sense already constituted in the Training Colleges of 
 the Empire : we desire to lift this up, and to constitute 
 such a Faculty in the Universities, because we believe 
 that there is a national work to be done which the 
 Universities are alone competent to do. It is true 
 that, if the curriculum which we contemplate is carried 
 out, a certain small proportion of Training College 
 students will pass over the Training Colleges alto- 
 gether. Is this a matter for regret or alarm ? Are 
 the Scottish Universities, which have always been 
 institutions that maintained a close connection with 
 the people, and endeavoured to supply the wants of 
 the various professions, to be excluded now and per- 
 manently from all connection with the profession of 
 Education, because Training Colleges will lose from 
 5 to lo per cent, of their students? The heads of the 
 Training Colleges do not, I am satisfied, share the fear 
 which some have expressed, and the finances of these 
 Institutions are placed far above the reach of injury 
 by any such slight innovation. Those who imagine 
 that Training Colleges will be materially affected.
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 1/ 
 
 except for good, by this new movement, speak in utter 
 ignorance of those seminaries, and the sources of their 
 strength. 
 
 Further, the institution of this Chair, by providing 
 professional instruction for teachers, not only directly 
 benefits the schools of the country, but it increases 
 the importance of the teaching Body. It gives it an 
 academic standing. It makes it possible to institute 
 for the first time in our Universities a Faculty of 
 Education, just as we may be said already to have a 
 Facult}' of Law, of Thcolog}', and of Engineering, It 
 thereby raises the whole question of the Theory and 
 Art of Education, as such, to a higher level, and may 
 serve more than almost any other external influence to 
 aHract into the occupation of schoolmaster men who 
 might othervvise pass it by for occupations which have 
 hitherto ranked higher in the conventional estimate 
 of the world. It promotes the movement, which has 
 been steadily progressing for twenty years, for the 
 recognition of the large body of teachers as a great 
 national institution — an organized profession, looking, 
 as other professions do, to the University as its source 
 and head, and drawing strength and self-respect from 
 that connection. 
 
 Difficulties have been thrown in the way by a few, 
 who are at a loss to know what the movement pre- 
 cisely means. Timid and distrustful, and accustomed 
 to follow precedent as the sole safe guide, they have 
 been groping about to find what other people are 
 thinking. What would they say at Oxford and Cam-
 
 1 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 bridge ? What do they do at Paris and BerHn ? Now 
 for myself I should certainly be glad to find that any 
 educational movement here was supported by the 
 concurrent approval of other learned centres, but I 
 venture to submit that it is to Scotland that other 
 nations may fairly look for guidance on this question. 
 We in Scotland have been the true pioneers in Educa- 
 tion : and do we now lag so far behind that we must 
 be sending out scouts to see what they are doing in 
 the front ? The traditions and accumulated wisdom 
 of three hundred years are behind us, and with all 
 its defects our present educational system is, as a 
 whole, still worthy of our past history. In this 
 matter, as in others, we claim to lead Europe and 
 America. Still I must so far consider the weak 
 brother as to tell him that in England some of the 
 most cultivated minds of the two Universities, being 
 met together at Winchester in the Headmasters' Con- 
 ference of 1873, discussed the question of instituting 
 Chairs of Education in Oxford and Cambridge. The 
 mere fact that the question was seriously discussed 
 by such a conclave, in a country whose whole training 
 and habit of mind is alien to philosophy, is itself most 
 significant. And although there was no very practical 
 issue to the Conference, opinions of weight were re- 
 corded. While desiderating, as was to be expected, 
 arrangements for practical training, as well as for 
 theoretical and historical instruction, the Bishop of 
 Exeter wrote as follows : — 
 
 "... It would be well worth while to provide
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 19 
 
 that men should have the opportunity of seeing some- 
 thing'' of their business, and of reflecting on what 
 they have seen, before they begin to teach. For this 
 purpose the ideal system would be this : to have a 
 Professor of Education, either in London, or in Oxford, 
 or in Cambridge, or to have one in each ; to require 
 the Professor or Professors to give certificates to such 
 B.A. as attended their lectures and passed a good 
 examination in them." 
 
 Then Dr. Kennedy of Cambridge, the eminent 
 (Emeritus), Headmaster of Shrewsbury, says : — 
 
 "... Professional lectures supported by exami- 
 nations and certificates, which should be essential 
 to the function of public-school teaching, though too 
 much must not be expected from them, seem to 
 promise some important good. Especially this, the}^ 
 would give to Education the status of a faculty and 
 profession : they would oblige every master to regard 
 his work as professional, as work to be done on definite 
 principles and with high public responsibility. The}^ 
 would enhance the personal and social dignity of 
 masters, and thereby promote their efficiency, their 
 usefulness, and their happiness. Such professional 
 lectures would, I suppose, be directed to the theory 
 and history of Education, and also to the art and 
 method of teaching : in all which moral and mental 
 science without being directly taught would be assumed 
 and used as principial and regulative." This is well 
 said, and I willingly adopt the words as my own 
 programme.
 
 20 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Having heard all this, do you think that I push my 
 argument too far when I maintain that the subject of 
 Education as such demands, as of right, a place in the 
 University curriculum, with a view to the constituting 
 of a Faculty of Education ? The philosophy of Educa- 
 tion is, in fact, now a distinct subject, and the import- 
 ance and intimate relation of it to the future welfare 
 of the nation require that it shall be held in academic 
 honour, and provided with academic standing-room. 
 Its relation to the Universities, moreover, as a means 
 of bringing them, through some recognized functionary, 
 a functionary controlled by the responsibilities of his 
 position, into close connection with the whole scholastic 
 machinery of the country, thereby extending their just 
 influence, is sufficiently obvious. 
 
 We have, however, still other objections to the 
 founding of an Education Chair to face, proceeding 
 mainly from those who take what might be called an 
 Academic view of the question. Education, they say, 
 is an important subject, we admit, but it is too closely 
 allied with practice to be a fit subject for University 
 teaching. It is a subject rather for the laboratory of 
 the schoolmaster than for the theoretical and historical 
 prelections of a Professor. Now it is to be at once 
 admitted that this is a fair subject for debate ; but I am 
 entitled to insist that it shall be discussed as part of a 
 larger question — this question, namely, Is a University 
 to train for professions at all ? My answer to this is, that 
 the business of a University is to train for the profes-
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 21 
 
 sions, and that there ought to be within a University as 
 many Faculties as there are recognized professions. It is 
 not because of the claims which the Theory and History 
 of Education can make to be regarded as a subject of 
 general University discipline (though not a little might 
 be said on this aspect of the question, beginning from 
 Plato), that it seeks admission to a University curri- 
 culum. It is as a complement to the Faculty of Arts, 
 as completing the preparation of the teachers of the 
 country for their profession, that it rests its claim. 
 That future Educators who are receiving their general 
 instruction in a University should there also study 
 the subject of Education, is to my mind of the nature 
 of a truism. Nor does it seem possible for any to 
 hold another view without including in their con- 
 demnation all University studies which have a direct 
 bearing on special professional preparation for active 
 life. 
 
 That a University should close its doors to all save 
 theoretical studies, or at least to all save those which 
 have to do with the cultivation of a man without 
 regard to his future occupation, — is an intelligible and 
 perhaps tenable opinion ; but in these days it is un- 
 necessary to discuss it. One has naturally much 
 sympathy with that conception of a University, 
 according to which it is constituted of a body of 
 learned men whose sole business it is to pursue science 
 and abstract studies generally, while admitting to their 
 workshop only the select few who desire to spend their 
 lives far from the vulgar crowd. But such an institu-
 
 22 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 tion requires only the collegiate life to make it a 
 secular monastery. All monasteries have a certain 
 sentimental charm, and this kind of nineteenth-century 
 monastery not least. But our modern, especially our 
 Scottish, Universities, are far removed from such a 
 conception. They are compromises between the 
 theoretical and the practical. They aim at one end 
 of their curriculum to meet and welcome the intelli- 
 gence of the youth of the country, and at the other to 
 connect themselves with the duties of active life. And 
 if in thus adapting themselves to the needs of the 
 time, they have thought it wise to constitute or com- 
 plete certain Faculties, is the equipping of the future 
 teacher of the country with the principles, history, 
 and methods of his special task of less moment than 
 the equipping of the future engineer, agriculturist, 
 physician, or lawyer ? 
 
 There is yet another objection taken by a few — 
 an objection which is certainly specious. " We admit," 
 they say, "the importance of the subject in itself; we 
 recognize the desirableness of using the Universities 
 to supply the professions of the country, because we 
 think that we thereby contribute to the strength and 
 dignity of those professions, and send out recruits who, 
 along with their professional knowledge, carry with 
 them a certain portion of University culture, and so 
 contribute to maintain a high standard of social life. 
 This culture we endeavour to give, regarding it as an 
 essential part of the merely professional training, and 
 that whereby we prevent the University from being
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 23 
 
 converted into a mere aggregate of specialist colleges. 
 But, while admitting all this, we shall recognize no 
 subject of instruction in any Faculty which cannot 
 rank itself among the sciences, either in itself or by 
 direct affiliation." There is much vagueness and half- 
 thought about this objection. It seems to be forgotten 
 that very many of the existing Chairs are divorced by 
 their very nature from the category of sciences. All 
 those Chairs which have to do with Humane Letters, 
 not merely the Chairs of ancient tongues, but of 
 Philosophy and Literature, and even Law, have a 
 place in the higher education of youth by virtue of 
 qualities which are, it is not too much to say, antago- 
 nistic to the conception of science. The truth is that 
 the objections urged on the scientific ground are a 
 covert attack on The Humanities, and especially on 
 the Philosophy of Mind in all its branches. The 
 objectors start with the assumption that nothing is 
 worthy of University study save science, and at the 
 same moment they restrict the term " science " to 
 aggregates of fact that can be demonstrated in such a 
 way as not to admit of question. There is no science 
 in this, the strictest acceptance of the term, except 
 Mathematics and those branches of knowledge which 
 rests on Mathematics. 
 
 Botany, for example, is not a science in the re- 
 stricted sense of the term ; it may be one day a 
 science, but as yet it is only a system of classification, 
 and a record of interesting observations and reasonings 
 on the physiology of vegetable organisms — so far as
 
 24 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 they go, correct and verifiable. I may be mistaken, 
 but it seems to me that there is nothing to prevent a 
 discovery in Biology being made, which would revolu- 
 tionize the fundamental conception of Botany in one 
 day. Botany may be held to represent other depart- 
 ments of knowledge to which the name of science 
 is freely accorded. The objectors would not drive 
 such studies as Botany out of the Universities, because 
 they include them (as I think inconsistently) in their 
 notion of science. The fact is that such objectors 
 respect Botany and similar studies because they are 
 at least possible sciences, inasmuch as they deal with 
 what can be seen by the eye of sense, and handled 
 and weighed and measured, and so forth. Their 
 objection to Education as a special branch of study 
 is, when probed to its foundation, this, that it adds 
 another to the list of Humane studies which already 
 disturb their scientific intellects, — to wit Classics, 
 Metaphysics, Logic, Ethics, and, I rather suspect. 
 Political Economy too. To History they may con- 
 descend to give academic standing-room, because 
 after all it has to do with things that did make 
 their appearance as phenomena on the face of the 
 planet, and probably admit of some sort of co-ordi- 
 nation. But as to those other departments of thought 
 which I have named, and all such, the sooner they 
 are despatched to the limbo of ineptitudes the better. 
 It is naturally disturbing to such minds to find sub- 
 jects, which do not admit of exact treatment, assum- 
 ing rank and importance in determining the progress
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 25 
 
 of civilization, and in the regulation of contemporary 
 academical arrangements. The most recent improve- 
 ment in the microscope does not enable them to 
 see the so-called things of mind, — the most delicately- 
 adjusted scales will not weigh them ; their genesis 
 and their modus operandi are invisible and impalpable, 
 and their possible and actual results defy any calculus. 
 It is not only disturbing, but distressing that such 
 things should be — nay, that such things should, in 
 truth, constitute the great forces which in all ages 
 have moved the heart of humanity, and have made 
 the history of man. 
 
 If a science be a synthetic and systematic body 
 of truth regarding a department of knowledge, which 
 starts from certain axiomatic statements, and, by help 
 of a few postulates, builds up its fabric of verity so 
 that each part rises out of another by necessary 
 sequence, then it is well to say at once that Education 
 is not a science, nay, that it never will be a science. 
 But are we to measure its right to a place in a 
 University system by such stringent requirements? If 
 so, what department of study belonging to the Littered 
 Hunianiorcs will stand the test ? Is Metaphysics a 
 science ? In one sense " No," in another it is the 
 scientia scientiaruin — the irpdyT^ ^tXoao^ta. Even in 
 the field of formal Logic do not men still occupy 
 hostile camps ? Of Ethics what shall we say ? For 
 2400 years men have thought, spoken, taught, but 
 with what scientific result ? With this, that even now 
 the criterion of the right and wrong in conduct, the
 
 26 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 nature of conscience, the very existence of the 
 sentiment of duty as an inner power, are still matters 
 of debate. And yet there is a philosophy, if not a 
 science, of Ethics. Is History a science? Some 
 vainly imagine that it is at least a possible science. 
 Given certain conditions, they are prepared, by the 
 help of the Registrar-General, to predict the history 
 of nations. But it is at once evident that the social 
 movements of the whole involve the equally necessary 
 movement of each individual of that whole, and that 
 a science of History demands for its possibility not 
 only an unbending system of physical laws within 
 which man is to work, but also that man himself shall 
 be an automaton ! And yet though there be no 
 science, there is a philosophy, of History. Is Political 
 Economy a science ? Even now the fundamental 
 principles of that department of knowledge are an 
 arena for discussion. The question of supply and 
 demand is still debated ; the difficulties of the 
 currency question are still open to further discussion ; 
 even the principle of Free-Trade versus Protection 
 is still a moot point. Not perhaps in this country ; 
 but we must not let our insular self-complacency shut 
 our eyes to the fact that in the United States and our 
 Colonies, and on the continent of Europe, the principle 
 of Free-Trade is not merely set aside in practice, but 
 impugned by argument. The very theory of Rent, 
 which J. S. Mill considers to be the pons asinorurii 
 of Political Economy, and the discovery of which is 
 held to be the crowning glory of Ricardo, is still
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 2/ 
 
 unsettled. Is Jurisprudence a science ? No ; and 
 yet is there no philosophy of Law ? So with Educa- 
 tion. I am quite willing to hand over the word 
 " science " to those departments of knowledge which 
 have to do with Mathematics, and with things seen 
 and temporal, if only I am allowed to comprehend 
 those other studies which truly constitute the life 
 of man under the term Philosophy. As theory. 
 Education allies itself to Psychology, Physiology, and 
 Sociology. The materials of its teaching it draws 
 from these philosophies, from the practice of the 
 schoolroom, and from the rich domain of History. 
 
 Grant all this, but still those generally well affected 
 to the new study have misgivings. The Chair of 
 Education will be a mere platform for the airing 
 of theoretical views or the enunciation of crotchets. 
 Now I would allay such fears by pointing out, in the 
 first place, that this Chair does not exist for the 
 purpose of talking at large about Education, but of 
 preparing teachers for their profession, and that this 
 practical aim is inconsistent with windy talk. I 
 have some sympathy with the cynical Love Peacock, 
 who, in describing certain social bores in the shape 
 of men of one idea who hold forth in season and out 
 of season, says : " The worst of all bores was the 
 third. His subject had no beginning, middle, nor 
 end. It was Education. Never was such a journey 
 through the desert of mind, the great Sahara of 
 intellect. The very recollection makes me thirsty." 
 Such men are not educationalists in any sense in which
 
 28 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 that term is applicable within these walls. They are 
 men of leisure who have restless minds, and if they 
 have not one fixed idea or crotchet, will find another. 
 An educationalist has no crotchets. That man has 
 crotchets who, having seized on that particular corner 
 of a large and many-sided subject which has some 
 secret affinity with his own mind, or affords the 
 quickest passage to notoriety, pursues it to the death. 
 Now, an educationalist is, by virtue of his very name 
 and vocation, inaccessible to all petty fanaticisms." 
 He has to deal with a subject of infinite variety, 
 and so variously related to life, that he is more apt 
 to be lost in hesitations and scepticisms than to be 
 the victim of a fixed idea. If you wish to meet with 
 educational crotchets, you must go to the specialist in 
 this or that department of knowledge, who is un- 
 fortunate enough to take up the question of Education, 
 as you see he often in moments of aberration takes 
 up other subjects which are outside his own range 
 of intellectual experience. It is only in such cases 
 that you will find the confidence and self-assurance 
 which is born of limited knowledge, and the pertina- 
 cious insistence which flows from these habits of mind. 
 To him whose subject is Education crotchets are 
 prohibited, because his opinions on this or that point 
 are related on the one side to rational and compre- 
 hensive theory, and on the other to the daily practice 
 of the schoolroom and the needs of life. 
 
 Having dealt thus far with what may be called the
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 29 
 
 apologetics of my subject, and arrogated for it a place 
 in our Academic system, whether we regard its in- 
 herent claims or its relation to the well-being of the 
 country, I have, on the other hand, to avoid the error 
 of magnifying too much its importance. The more 
 abstract treatment of the theory of Education is 
 doubtless, if true in its philosophy, of universal appli- 
 cation. It sweeps the whole field. But this will 
 engage our attention only within carefully prescribed 
 limits, and when we leave this portion of our subject, 
 we have to restrict ourselves on all sides. The educa- 
 tion of every human being is determined by potent 
 influences which do not properly fall within the range 
 of our consideration here. The breed of men to which 
 the child belongs, the character of his parents, the 
 human society into which he is born, the physical 
 circumstances by which he is surrounded, are silently 
 but irresistibly forming him. The traditions of his 
 country, its popular literature, its very idioms of speech, 
 its laws and customs, its religious life, its family life, 
 constitute an aggregate of influence which chiefly 
 make him what he is. With these things we have to 
 do only by way of a passing reference ; we have not 
 to deal with them. By their constant presence they 
 mould the future man, himself unconscious. They 
 are the atmosphere of the humanity of his particular 
 time and place, and in breathing it he is essentially a 
 passive agent. Our business is rather with the con- 
 scious and active elements of moral and intellectual 
 growth. We have to make the passive creature of
 
 30 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 circumstance a free, self-conscious, rational agent, 
 endowed with purposes and ideals, and we have to 
 find the means of best doing this. The passive 
 activity of our nature is not to be ignored in our 
 educational methods ; it is to be turned to use as one 
 of our most potent instruments, but it is mainly the 
 self-conscious forces that we have to educe and direct. 
 Even in doing this we are bound by external con- 
 ditions, and must take note not only of the almost 
 irresistible forces around us, but of minor conditions 
 of time, place, and circumstance. 
 
 Each successive century, and the traditions and 
 circumstances of each country, nay, the genius of each 
 people, present to us the educational problem in ever- 
 changing aspects. Educational systems cannot be 
 manufactured in the study. Our theory of the end 
 of all education and the means by which that end 
 has to be attained may be, or rather ought to be, 
 always the same ; but the application of that theory 
 must vary with varying external conditions. What 
 present defects have we here and noiv, and to what 
 dangers are we exposed ? is the form which the 
 practical question must take with us. Now I would 
 say that one of our chief dangers in these days is the 
 over-instruction of willing and ingenuous boys. We 
 are in the very midst of what will afterwards be desig- 
 nated the information-epoch of Education. We are in 
 danger of confounding the faculty for swallowing with 
 the faculty for digesting. To borrow words from 
 biological science, we sometimes proceed as if the
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 3 1 
 
 mind of man grew by accretion and not by intussus- 
 ception. The system of universal examinations has 
 encouraged this. Now a system whereby the teachers 
 of the country are converted into " coaches," is, by its 
 very nature, hostile to the true conception of Educa- 
 tion. No school which converts itself into a coaching 
 establishment is a place of education in the proper 
 sense of that term. There is a repose, a calm, a 
 stability in the steady march of all sound education, 
 which is alien to the feverish spirit that animate the 
 ante-chamber of an examination-room. 
 
 The aim of the educationalist is not the giving of 
 information, nay, not even instruction, though this is 
 essential, but mainly discipline ; and the aim of dis- 
 cipline is the production of a sound mind in a sound 
 body, the directing and cherishing of the growth of the 
 whole nature, spiritual and physical, so as to make it 
 possible for each man, within the limits of the capacity 
 which God has given him, to realize in and for himself, 
 with more or less success, the type of humanity, and 
 in his relation to others to exhibit a capability for 
 wise and vigorous action. This result will not be 
 attained by pressure. By anticipating the slow but 
 sure growth of nature, we destroy the organism. 
 Many and subtle are the ways in which nature avenges 
 itself on the delicate, complicated machinery of man, 
 but avenge itself somehow it will and must. 
 
 It is difficult to say which is the more pernicious, 
 that system which overstrains the active intelligence 
 of the willing and ambitious boy, or that which fills
 
 32 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 his mind, while it is yet mainly passive with the results 
 of mature thought, and endows him with a kind of 
 miniature omniscience. Those who survive such 
 methods of training may, doubtless, be very useful 
 agents, very serviceable machines, but they will rarely 
 initiate. With a few exceptions, their minds will be 
 either exhausted or overlaid. That elasticity of spirit 
 which enables a man always to rise to the level of the 
 varying requirements of the day and hour in the 
 Family and the State ; that free movement of will 
 which is ever ready to encounter more than half way 
 the vicissitudes and exigencies of life, that vivacious 
 intelligence which maintains throughout life an un- 
 ceasing love of knowledge ; that soundness, of brain 
 and muscle which reacts on the inner self by giving 
 steadiness to moral purpose, will assuredly not be 
 promoted by forcing more and more subjects into 
 the school curriculum, and applying the pressure of 
 constant examinations by outside authorities. We 
 want men who will be ready for the crises of life as 
 well as for its daily routine of duty, and who will, by 
 their mere manner of encountering even their ordi- 
 nary work, contribute to the advance of the common- 
 wealth in vigour and virtue. Such men alone are 
 fully competent for all the services which their country 
 may demand from them. Such men may be slowly 
 grown, they cannot be manufactured under a .system 
 of pressure. Great Britain has had many such ; Scot- 
 land has been prolific of them. The intellect, the will, 
 and the arm of Scotsmen, have done, we flatter our-
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 33 
 
 selves, their fair share in creating the British Empire, 
 and they have done it all by virtue mainly of their 
 breed, and by such restricted education as Arithmetic, 
 Latin, and the Shorter Catechism afforded. No super- 
 incumbent load of impossible tasks oppressed their 
 minds while yet immature. 
 
 Do not draw a hasty inference from what has now 
 been said. The requirements of the time in which we 
 live, the industrial competition of one nation with 
 another, the revolution in the arts of war, all demand 
 that the materials of Education should change with 
 changing conditions of life. I am quite alive to this 
 necessity — but the inner form must remain ever the 
 same. For after all that can be said, the main 
 object of our efforts must, on one side at least, be 
 the growth of power in the future man. If we 
 would secure this, the pursuit of it must control and 
 regulate the instruction we give, and the method 
 of giving it. Above all, we must not be in a hurry. 
 Having faith in the quiet processes of nature, we 
 must, as educators, be calm, deliberate, and ever 
 regard the end. 
 
 The power which we desire to foster is the product 
 of Will and of natural force. It is difficult to separate 
 these two elements in any act, but for purposes of 
 thought they may be regarded as distinct. I shall 
 refer again to the element of natural force : our present 
 concern is with power in its intellectual and moral 
 relations, which is Will. It operates in the region of 
 
 D
 
 34 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 intelligence and emotion alike. The ground and root 
 of intellectual and moral activity is ultimately the 
 same, and the end is the same — the Ethical life. If 
 this can be shown analytically, we shall reduce to 
 unity the whole idea of Education in its merely formal 
 aspect, and supply a conception which, while helping 
 us to estimate the value of educational instruments 
 and methods, will, at the same time, exalt and guide 
 our conceptions of duty as educators. 
 
 Power^ however, cannot work on nothing, and we 
 have next to consider it in its concrete relations, in 
 order that we may discern and exhibit the content 
 as well as the form of the Educational Idea. True 
 that our range of discussion is in this place finally 
 limited by the practical object which we have im- 
 mediately in view — the production of the good 
 citizen ; but this, though our primary, is not our ulti- 
 mate aim. Citizenship is not the end of human life, 
 but only a means to an end. For, in a certain sense, 
 the ultimate reference of all thought and action of 
 man is to himself as a personality. Christianity, 
 which teaches the most thorough-going altruism, 
 also teaches this ; and in teaching this, it deepened the 
 foundation of the modern doctrine of culture which 
 had been laid by the Greeks. Speaking quite gene- 
 rall}\ Culture may, for want of a better word, be 
 accepted as the end of all exercise of intellectual 
 and moral power, and therefore in its ultimate result 
 the real cntl, of education, just as power is the 
 formal end.
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 35 
 
 But in accepting " Culture " as a fit expression for 
 the real end of education, we have to examine care- 
 fully the features of this god as they appear on the 
 canvas of modern litterateurs, and distinguish our 
 own conception from theirs. No finality, no perfect- 
 ness is possible for man, and culture therefore must 
 be restricted, vieVved educationally, to the idea rather 
 of a process than of an attained and stable product. 
 It is the harmonious and continuous growing of a 
 man in all that pertains to humanity. Culture in the 
 sphere of education is, I say, a continuous process — 
 the harmonious balancing of all the varied forces that 
 constitute the life of a human soul. Now such a 
 balancing is impossible save round some centre. 
 From this may be deduced two practical conclusions 
 on education in respect of its content. First, that 
 intellectual culture will be most thorough when a man 
 has some leading subject as the centre of his intel- 
 lectual activity ; and seeondly, that moral culture, the 
 harmonious growth of the soul, is possible only where 
 there is a centre round which all the moral and 
 aesthetic elements of our nature turn. That centre 
 is God Himself, round which reality the sentiments, 
 emotions, hopes, and aspirations of the moral life 
 range themselves. In God alone the ethical life has 
 true existence. If for God we substitute Self, we 
 substitute an empty and barren fact in the room of 
 a pregnant and life-giving Idea. 
 
 When I say that it is an essential condition of 
 vigorous intellectual growth that a man should have
 
 S6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 some prime subject of thought and study, I do not 
 of course mean that every man must be a speciahst. 
 A speciahst, in the strict sense of the term, is a man 
 who has so used up both his powers and his mental 
 interests in one specific direction as to weaken his 
 capacity for all other objects, and to narrow his 
 mental range. A study prosecuted so exclusively 
 weakens the judgment for all else. A leading subject, 
 but not an exclusive subject, is wanted, and this will 
 be found to strengthen the judgment for all else. In 
 the moral region, again, the permanent centre of all 
 our thought and activity, which is God, so far from 
 narrowing, expands the growing man. The central 
 idea is like a sun, under which the whole being lives 
 and grows, and from which each individual part draws 
 warmth and strength. Culture without this centre 
 is the depravation of a great idea, and has no object 
 higher than self Self can form no true centre to self 
 Moral Culture, further, must not only find its 
 centre outside of self in God, but it must express 
 itself in action if it is to live. It is a misuse of terms 
 to call f/ia/ culture which, labouring under the baleful 
 influence of self-worship, has forgotten that power 
 can fulfil itself only in action. With some minds of 
 strong aesthetic proclivities, culture issues in a kind 
 of paralysis of judgment. The soul floats in the dim 
 and dreamy potentialities of .sentiment. The man of 
 this kind of culture indulges himself in the perpetual 
 contemplation of himself and his surroundings, is 
 frequently distinguished for a spurious amiability,
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 3/ 
 
 nourishes feeling in a self-imposed retirement from 
 the duties of citizenship, occupies himself with the 
 contemplation of his own refined sensibilities, ever 
 repeating to Himself the words which Cicero puts into 
 the mouth of the god of Epicurus, " Mihi pulchre 
 est : ego beatus sum." This result indeed is the 
 very Nemesis of culture which has lost its way. 
 This is the fate of the literary no less than of the 
 religious recluse. Depend upon it, Nature, which is 
 strong and virile, will have none of this : it demands 
 the active manifestation of such power as we have, 
 in expressed thought or living deed. Thus then only 
 does moral culture reach its true aim by first center- 
 ing itself in God, and next by forgetting itself in 
 action. 
 
 Culture, then, which we may accept as an ex- 
 pression for the sum of the end of Education in 
 respect of content, as distinguished from the end of 
 education with respect to form (which end is Power), 
 is the harmonious growing of all that is in man ; as 
 a harmonious growing of intellect it demands a prime 
 intellectual study, but discourages specialism ; as a 
 harmonious and therefore balanced growing of the 
 moral life, it must have a centre round which it 
 may balance itself other than itself, and that centre 
 of truth and reality is God, the source and sustainer 
 of life, the beginning and the end of human endeavour : 
 finally, as a living and wholesome as well as a 
 harmonious growing, it has to seek the very con- 
 ditions of its existence outside itself in action. It
 
 38 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 finds in the opportunities of life at once its nourish- 
 ment, the conditions of its vitality, and the measure 
 of its soundness. It lives neither from itself, in itself, 
 nor to itself. 
 
 Culture thus interpreted is not, you will at once 
 see, unpractical in its aims in the hands of the 
 educationalist. For we find that it cannot be truly 
 promoted save by ever keeping in view the practical 
 issue of all training — the rearing of a religious people, 
 and the preparation of youth for social duty and 
 for the service of humanity, whereby alone they can 
 truly serve and fulfil themselves. In its practical re- 
 lations to the science and art of education, the term 
 will be found pregnant with instruction as regards 
 method also. For in the intellectual sphere, as we 
 have seen, it enjoins unity of purpose as opposed 
 to fragmentary encyclopzedism, and in the moral 
 sphere the need of the Religious idea and the con- 
 ception of social duty, without which all our moral 
 sentiment and moral discipline would be jointless and 
 invertebrate. 
 
 The educational sceptic will say, " These be brave 
 words : what has this culture to do with the educa- 
 tion of the masses ? " I might reply that I deal Jicre 
 with education, and not merely with the education 
 of those whose school-time ends at twelve or thirteen 
 years of age ; but I do not choose to take refuge in 
 a reply which would involve me in the confession 
 that the education of one class of the community is 
 essentially unlike that of another, and has different
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 39 
 
 aims. Were it so there would be no unity in the 
 idea of education — and this is to say that there is no 
 idea of education at all. The thread of intellectual 
 discipline, of moral purpose, and of culture runs 
 through all education alike. The end is the same 
 and the processes are the same. The seed which we 
 sow in the humblest village school, and the tender 
 plant which there, through many obstacles, forces itself 
 into the light by the help of the skilled hand of the 
 village schoolmistress, are not different in kind from 
 the seed and the plant which in more favourable 
 soil and by force of a higher organization grow up 
 into a Leibnitz or a Bacon. To some extent indeed 
 we may say that education is at every stage complete 
 in its idea and uniform in its methods. It is with a 
 process, not a consummation, that the teacher has to 
 do, and with an unfinished process that he has always 
 to be content. With every individual soul he has to 
 deal as with a being that lives for ever, and that may 
 carry forward its growth and the impulse he gives it 
 after this brief life is past. It is only when we commit 
 the vulgar error of confounding growth of soul with 
 intellectual acquisition that we depreciate the possible 
 results of primary education. The experience of 
 us all testifies to this and justifies and sustains our 
 loftiest hopes. Have we not all seen the highest ends 
 of education attained in lives limited in their scope, 
 brief in their duration, and barren of opportunity ? 
 
 " In small proportions we just beauty see, 
 And in short measures life may perfect be."
 
 40 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Having thus set before you the twofold end of 
 education in respect of form and of content, — power 
 and culture, our next duty, in working out a theory 
 of education, is to follow the secret inner movements 
 of Mind whereby it reaches these ends. 
 
 It is precisely at this point in the process of our 
 thought that a new consideration is forced on us. For 
 we find that the formal processes that tend to discipline 
 and power and the processes that tend to culture cross 
 and recross each other. This is explained by the fact 
 that while it is necessary, for purposes of exact thought, 
 to distinguish the formal and the real, these two are in 
 truth one in a concrete third notion. Culture without 
 the presence of a dominant and regulative inner power 
 is impossible ; on the other hand, an inner regulative 
 power, save as the centre of an abundant material of 
 cognitions and emotions ranged and co-ordinated under 
 supreme and governing principles, is an empty ab- 
 straction. The two unite together in the Ethical life. 
 The more or less of knowledge or of faculty is a small 
 matter ; the Ethical life is all in all. It is because the 
 formal and real are in truth one in their issue that 
 we find it impossible, save in a very rough way, to 
 separate the processes of the growth of power, which 
 are disciplinal, and the steps of the growth of culture, 
 which arc the real in knowledge. By fixing their 
 attention too much on one side or the other, men take 
 a partial view of education, and partial opinions are 
 apt to degenerate into partisan views. The true con- 
 ception of education is a conciliation of both ; but it is
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 4I 
 
 governed by the formal and not by the real element. 
 The distinguishing characteristic of man is that, while 
 he is of Nature, he is also above and outside. Nature. 
 By Will it is that man is what he is. In my estimate, 
 therefore, of the comparative claims of the disciplinal 
 and the real in educating, priority is to be assigned 
 to the former. 
 
 It will be at once evident that the side from which 
 we regard the idea of education will determine the 
 value which we attach to particular studies, and the 
 methods of intellectual and moral training which we 
 shall most affect. But when we pass from the general 
 consideration of the formal and the real elements in 
 education, and the part which each plays in the pro- 
 duction of that unity " of a completely fashioned Will," 
 which is the goal of our labours, and descend to the 
 mental processes themselves whereby intellectual and 
 moral elements are taken into the structure of the life 
 of a rational being and contribute to its organic growth, 
 we are on ground common to all. In this field of 
 inquiry, as in every other, we are but the ministers 
 and interpreters of nature. The subtle processes 
 whereby the moral and intellectual life of man is built 
 up are in truth processes of education. To trace these 
 is a difficult task, and one in which we cannot hope 
 wholly to succeed. But we may go on in full faith 
 that there is a ivay in which Nature works by moral 
 and intellectual discipline to the growth of power, and 
 by knowledge to the growth of culture. The analysis
 
 42 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 which we institute to ascertain this way is not in- 
 fluenced by our philosophical conceptions : it is simply 
 a question of fact. On this analysis rests the whole 
 system of Methods of instruction and of school-keeping, 
 which ought to constitute at least one half of the course 
 of instruction given from this place. In the sphere of 
 the Understanding, for example, by w^hat cunning 
 process does intelligence take to itself the materials of 
 its life ? A matter this of great importance ; for the 
 determination of the different stages of the growth of 
 the understanding determines at the same time the 
 period at which the various subjects of instruction, and 
 the diverse aspects of these, are to be represented to 
 the child, the boy, and the youth respectively, in such 
 a way as to ensure assimilation. For it is by assimi- 
 lation only that true growth is possible ; all else is 
 mere acquisition, and so far from being education, it is 
 not even instruction. On this subject, as indeed on 
 all questions of methodology, we shall learn most 
 from infant schools. It is in the teaching of the 
 elements of knowledge that the art of teaching chiefly 
 reveals itself. The title which Sturm gives to one 
 of his treatises ought to stand at the head of all 
 books on Method, viz., " Dc ludis litcrarum recte 
 apericndis." 
 
 In the Moral sphere, again, we encounter difiiculties 
 of method much more grave. We have here to tread 
 delicately and warily. The question of times and 
 ways is a vital one. We readily perceive the folly of 
 presenting the whole of knowledge in mass and at
 
 THE TRAININ'G OF THE TEACHER. 43 
 
 once to a child's understanding, and yet we do not 
 hesitate to put at once before him the complex sum of 
 moral and religious doctrine and precepts, in the hope 
 of producing thereby a living result. The ideas of 
 religion and the principles and precepts of morality 
 must follow experience, accompany intellectual growth, 
 and wait even on the activity of the imagination. The 
 educator will approach this portion of his task with 
 much earnestness and some fear. He has to shape 
 and to inspire a human soul, full of sensibility, alive to 
 the lightest touch, quickly responsive to every appeal 
 of love and every word of hate. " A mother's scream," 
 says Jean Paul, "w^ill resound through the whole future 
 life of a child ; " and do we not know that the memory 
 of a mother's tenderness lives for ever ? Let not the 
 instructor of youth imagine that he has no concern 
 with what may be called the refinements and subtleties 
 of moral training. If he does so, his psychology is 
 fundamentally unsound. Even in little things the 
 teacher must seek and find his opportunity. Les 
 petites morales of good personal habits and of good 
 manners are to him by no means trivial. They con- 
 stitute frequently the only way in which he can apply 
 to the ordinary acts of the school-room and the play- 
 ground the deeper truths which inspire his teaching ; 
 and they are in the case of many childish natures the 
 only way in which those deeper truths can be brought 
 into consciousness as living and governing forces. 
 They are the outer expression of an inner state, and 
 by the cultivation of the outer expression we always
 
 44 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 sustain the inner life ; nay, we sometimes evoke it 
 when otherwise it would not emerge. Manners seem 
 to be of sHght importance, but they are often of large 
 import, and are not seldom convertible with morals, as 
 the word itself was among the Romans. The Laureate 
 speaks truly when he says : — 
 
 "Manners are not idle, but the fniit 
 Of loyal nature and of noble mixid." 
 
 I have been speaking of intellectual and moral 
 instruction and of intellectual and moral discipline ; 
 but I would repeat that beyond and above both these, 
 constituting the unity in which the two meet, is the 
 Ethical life. This proposition — that the intellectual 
 and moral substance of education, and intellectual 
 and moral discipline, the formal and the real, are 
 fused in the unity of the ethical life — it will be my 
 business to explain and make good in the more 
 philosophical portion of my course. You will then 
 see, I trust, that the ethical function of the teacher 
 cannot be pressed too far. It will appear also that it 
 is the ethical element which is at the root of the manly 
 and generous growth of boyhood, and the sole force 
 which can permanently sustain even purely intellectual 
 effort. All labour of the schoolmaster is of doubtful 
 issue as regards the merely intellectual resultant in his 
 pupils, but every act which is inspired by the ethical 
 spirit has its sure intellectual as well as moral reward. 
 It cannot possibly be wholly lost. Here the spiritual 
 forces are on our side and continually make for us.
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 45 
 
 Indeed, if we have not this faith, we had better give 
 the whole business up. 
 
 Be it observed that the term " Ethical " is here used 
 in the broad sense in which it comprehends Religion. 
 It is the ethics of a religion which justify a creed 
 before the world, and it is the religion of ethics which 
 gives moral teaching a hold on the heart of man and 
 a sure foundation in human reason. The morality of 
 secularism has for its foundation self-interest, and for 
 its sanction coercion ; it may preserve society ; but it 
 is only when ethics are in union with religious con- 
 ceptions, either passing into these or rising out of 
 them, that they promote the true life of humanity. It 
 is religion which affords to ethical science a basis in 
 the infinite, and presents to the ethical life issues in 
 the infinite. 
 
 The question which next most presses for con- 
 sideration is — What instruments or materials are most 
 promotive of the end we propose to ourselves, viewed 
 in the light of their ultimate unity in the ethical life ? 
 \Vc have to select those instruments which by their 
 nature contribute most, and most surely, to the supreme 
 end of all our endeavours. By this measure we must 
 mete the instruments which the present state of know- 
 ledge offers us. It is impossible, and were it possible 
 it would be undesirable, and destructive of all sound 
 discipline, to teach even the beginnings of every sub- 
 ject. But it ought not to be difficult to adjust the 
 rival claims of Literature (including under this head
 
 46 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Languages, Ancient and Modern), Science, and JEs- 
 thetics. The philosophy of education is a poor affair 
 if it cannot, out of the materials which are clamant 
 for attention in the school-room because of their im- 
 mediate use in the work of life, and as essential pre- 
 requisites of ethical activity, find apt instruments for its 
 purpose. Such questions are of great importance to 
 the well-being of society. If primary instruction, for 
 example, must exclude from its curriculum science, in 
 any strict sense of the term, can there be any doubt 
 that our daily instruction should be so contrived as to 
 place a child in intelligent relations with the world in 
 which he lives, and to enable him to look with the eye 
 of reason, and not of the brute, on the phenomena of 
 the physical universe ? Still less is there room for 
 doubt, it seems to me, that the elements and applica- 
 tions of the laws of health and of social economy 
 should enter into every scheme of instruction. It is 
 through these subjects indeed that we shall at once 
 rectify the conceptions of the pupil as to the sphere of 
 duty in which God has placed him, and give direction, 
 significance, and practical force to our moral teaching. 
 In the secondary stage of education, again — that 
 which immediately precedes University discipline, — 
 the place to be assigned to Latin and Greek must be 
 largely determined by what we mean when we name 
 these studies. If such instruction resolves itself into 
 mere memory-work and gerund-grinding, it is even 
 then not without educative uses, but it must make 
 way and that quickly, for other and better disciplines.
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 4/ 
 
 If, however, it is so employed as to be an exercise of 
 the inductive and deductive processes ; if the study 
 of words and sentences be an unconscious study of 
 thought, and if they become, as boys advance, a study 
 of form and an introduction to the pregnant and 
 elevating idea of Art ; if the embalmed thoughts be 
 truly made to breathe and the dead words to burn, 
 then indeed we have here an instrument of unsur- 
 passed and unsurpassable excellence. It is true that 
 the rich records of modern life and literature now 
 yield us much of the culture we seek in antiquity, but 
 we cannot afford to dispel the halo which gathers 
 round the remote past, and the deeds of the men who 
 have gone before us. Imagination here, by idealizing, 
 sustains morality, and is also the spur of the intellect. 
 Still less can we afford to part with the impersonal 
 and objective character of the teachings of Judaea, 
 Greece, and Rome, and to substitute for them the 
 subjective and partisan lessons of modern life. On 
 the whole, I feel wath Jean Paul, who says, " The 
 present ranks of humanity would sink irrecoverably if 
 youth did not take its way through the silent temple 
 of the mighty past, into the busy market-place of life." 
 But even after all this is said, and more than this, it is 
 an anachronism to give such studies exclusive posses- 
 sion of the field. In the present state of knowledge, 
 not more than half the school-time should, it seems 
 to me, be given to ancient studies, even in the upper 
 classes of professedly classical schools ; and not all 
 boys should be even thus far restricted. It is a dis-
 
 48 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 credit to our great Educational Institutions that any 
 boy of seventeen should be in ignorance of such things 
 as the elements of Physics and Physiology. 
 
 As yet, except when alluding briefly to the con- 
 ditions of power, I have been talking of the education 
 of man as if I were speaking of spirits in a world 
 of spirits. From birth to death, however, Man is 
 subject to external circumstances which are for the 
 most part too mighty for him. He seems to rise 
 out of a physical organization : it is the outer w^hich 
 at first evokes his slumbering consciousness at birth, 
 and the outer conquers him in death. With these 
 physical conditions of existence he has to effect a 
 compromise. All his receptivity and all his activity 
 is in and through mortal brain and muscle. All his 
 moral and intellectual activity must therefore be 
 carried on with due regard to the external instrument 
 which he must employ. In the treatment of the 
 subject of education it is not necessary to profess 
 any theory of the relation between mind and body. 
 But this we know, that the former, both in its sensi- 
 bilities and activities, is bound up with the natural 
 laws of the latter, and to those laws it must conform, 
 or fail itself to live. 
 
 The theoretical question of the identification of 
 thought and emotion with nerve-processes is simply 
 one part of a much larger question, the relation of 
 Nature itself to Mind. Evade it as we may, encumber 
 it as wc may with irrelcxant and side issues, the ques-
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 49 
 
 tion is really this : Are thought and personality the 
 product of natural force, or are natural forces them- 
 selves the product of thought and personality ? 
 Spenser says : — 
 
 " Of the soul the body form doth take, 
 For soul is form and doth the body make." 
 
 Now this, as other cognate questions, cannot, of 
 course, be from this Chair treated critically. The 
 critical and historical investigation of all such subjects 
 is otherwise provided for. I must in all such matters 
 assume a purely dogmatic position, and with dogma 
 you must be here content. The advance of Physi- 
 ology into the sphere of Psychology has been viewed 
 by many of the older and purely introspective school 
 with unnecessary alarm. It is a mistake to suppose 
 that the Physiology of Mind necessarily teaches a 
 materialistic theory of intelligence. This is often 
 assumed ; but there is no necessary connection be- 
 tween the two. The ph}-siology of Mind is merely 
 the study of those material processes in which sensa- 
 tion and inteUigence and even moral emotion are 
 involved, and which at once condition consciousness 
 and are conditioned by it. It is an important auxiliary 
 to the study of Mind, but can never occupy the ground 
 of the older Psychology. In every step of its processes 
 it demands a reflection on consciousness, and an 
 analysis of the life and phenomena of consciousness, 
 to give it significance — nay, even to render its results 
 intelligible. If, again, we entirely change our point of 
 departure in self, and look at self and all that we call 
 
 £
 
 50 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Mind from an outside position as a mere product of 
 physical forces, as a function of matter, we are then on 
 longer dealing with a merely psychological question, 
 but, as I have already indicated, with a part of the 
 larger cosmical question — the origination of all things ; 
 and by our conclusions as to this larger inquiry, the 
 subordinate, yet to us all-important subject, must be 
 determined. We shall probably find that the only 
 effectual answer to the proposition " All is Nature," is 
 the counter proposition " All is Mind." He alone can 
 entertain the thought of Mindless man who has first 
 taken to his bosom the withering thought of Godless 
 Nature. 
 
 However this may be, we may, as students of 
 education, assume that Mind works under physical 
 conditions. Every sensation, every emotion, every act 
 of memory, every act of thought, is effected through 
 brain, and involves a certain process and a certain ex- 
 haustion of substance. The proper nutrition of brain, 
 consequently, with a view to the repair of waste, must 
 ever be with educationalists a matter of prime con- 
 sideration. The effects of overstraining or of defective 
 nutritive process arc in their practical relations vital. 
 I am sufficiently well aware of the necessity of fresh 
 air and clean skins, and spacious well-drained school- 
 rooms, but these and other physical questions are all 
 subsidiary to the consideration of the demands which 
 the life of sensibility, emotion, will, and thought make 
 on the brain. Here Physiology holds up the finger of 
 warning. But instructive as the negative teachings of 
 
 I
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER, 5 I 
 
 Physiology are, the positive contributions which it has 
 to make to the philosophy of education are even more 
 valuable. The intimate connection subsisting between 
 states of consciousness and cerebral changes, and the 
 relation of these, when repeated, to what may be called 
 the " set " of the nerve-apparatus, bring to view with 
 a vividness which is beyond the reach of the ordinary 
 psychology, the manner of the formation of habits of 
 feeling, thought, and action. Indeed there is nothing 
 more encouraging to the earnest teacher than the 
 study of the Physiology of Habit. 
 
 It will now be more clearly apparent why I selected 
 the word " Power " to denote the formal end of Edu- 
 cation. It is preferable to Will, because this has to 
 do rather with moral and intellectual relations re- 
 garded purely as such. When an active and free, 
 self-determining, ever-ready will is aided by those 
 physical conditions which determine the healthful 
 activity of all the bodily organs, so that they respond 
 willingly to the demands made on them, we have a 
 complex state before us. There is a natural volition, 
 the issue of mere life and health in our physical frame, 
 which bounds forward to ally itself with the movement 
 of intelligent Will, and gives to the latter a certain 
 steadiness and self-assurance. To this combination of 
 free will with the gladly co-operating volition of the 
 bodily organization we assign the name of Poiver. 
 
 It would appear, from what has been said, that in 
 dealing with Education we touch various departments
 
 52 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 of knowledge, but there is little danger of our wander- 
 ing : for the fixing of the ends of education will at 
 once impose a limit on our studies, and give stability 
 to them. It will protect us both from vague specula- 
 tion and from tedious detail. To enter into questions 
 of philosophy, is so far from being incumbent on us 
 that to do so would be to defeat the specific objects for 
 which this Chair has been founded. The considera- 
 tion of these questions has been already provided for 
 in the University curriculum. But while the Professor 
 must here, as representing a practical subject, avoid 
 all speculation, he must yet find some dogmatic philo- 
 sophic basis as a support for his thought, if his teach- 
 ing is not to be an aggregate of disjointed essays. In 
 Psychology and Physiology he must lay his founda- 
 tions ; but from these departments of knowledge he 
 will select only such materials as have a direct bearing 
 on education, and give significance and the force of 
 law to educational ends, processes, and methods. 
 
 This portion of our course has to be treated in 
 detail as belonging to the Art of Teaching, and will 
 necessarily occupy much of our attention. It will be 
 illustrated by model lessons, and by observation of 
 the procedure of the best schools. The means of 
 obtaining practice in teaching will also, it is hoped, 
 be provided. 
 
 Thus informed as to the ends and philosophy of 
 Education and the rational grounds of pedagogic 
 methods, we shall then find ourselves in a good
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 53 
 
 position for surveying History. As we read the 
 records of the past we shall see that education 
 by and in the family, was early overpowered by 
 the education of the tribe, and finally of the State. 
 In the earliest stages of society, while man was 
 yet struggling for subsistence, education could only 
 mean the fitting of a man to secure for himself the 
 necessary protection and food ; nor is this primary 
 necessity ever to be lost sight of as the basis 
 of all educational systems, even among the most 
 cultivated nations. As society advances, division of 
 labour and the rudiments of professions extend the 
 sphere of human life and the conception which the 
 more thoughtful form of man's capabilities, needs, 
 duties, and destiny. Religion, Law, and Medicine 
 become gateways of speculation ; and through specu- 
 lation it is that humanity has been enabled to rise. 
 Speculation may be said to begin when knowledge 
 for its own sake becomes an object of pure desire, and 
 man becomes an object of interest and wonder to 
 man. As soon as men surmise their own greatness, 
 apprehend that each is valuable not only for what he 
 can do, but for what he is, and that man does not live 
 by bread alone, the idea of Culture enters — which 
 contemplates the growth of man to the full stature 
 of his race. In the educational history of ancient 
 nations, especially of Greece and of Rome, we shall 
 see these ideas take form. The process of historical 
 evolution will thus furnish a continual illustration of 
 the Philosophy of education, and while guarding us
 
 54 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 against the errors of other times, recall to us great 
 ideas which we are apt to push rudely aside with the 
 vulgar self-assurance that distinguishes a mechanical 
 age, oblivious of the debts it owes to the past, and 
 ignoring its moral inheritance. 
 
 We shall find, too, much instruction from the study 
 of the educational organization of other countries, and 
 much encouragement from the study, in their historical 
 connection, of the systems of those who have been 
 eminent as educational reformers. Those systems are 
 generally full of suggestive material, even when their 
 leading ideas must be pronounced partial and in- 
 adequate. 
 
 I have now endeavoured to vindicate, as fully as 
 our limits permit, the position of this Chair in an 
 Academic curriculum, and to indicate the nature of the 
 instruction which it proposes to give to those fitting 
 themselves for the work of the school. It seems to me 
 that if the future teacher of the higher class of public 
 schools be carried through such a course, he will not 
 merely be better fitted for his professional work than 
 now, but be personally benefited by the mental dis- 
 cipline which the curriculum will afford. Going forth 
 to the duties of active life instructed in the ends, pro- 
 cesses, and history of Education, he will not work 
 blindly, but connecting his daily duties with the philo- 
 sophy of man, he will see all methods of instruction 
 in their rational grounds ; and allying himself with the 
 long history of his profession, he will regard with that
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 55 
 
 self-respect, which is alien to self-conceit, his position 
 as the responsible distributor, within his sphere,' of the 
 accumulated knowledge and civilization of his time. 
 Going forth, too, with an inspiring motive suggested 
 by the ethical end towards which all his labour tends, 
 he will carry with him the moral fervour which we 
 demand of a minister of sacred things. All instruction, 
 all discipline will be truly valuable in his eyes only in 
 so far as they subserve that ultimate ethical purpose 
 in which the form and content of education finally 
 unite. Set apart to educate children for the State — 
 whatever instruments he may use, whatever methods 
 he may pursue — this purpose will ever be present to 
 his thought, exalting his Hfe and sustaining his ac- 
 'tivity. It is only by labouring towards this end that 
 he can fitly discharge his special function in society, 
 find a certain reward even in partial success, and, in 
 the words of Milton, " store up for himself the good 
 provision of peaceful hours." What is it to him that 
 he should teach this or that particular subject if he 
 fail to build up and elevate the whole humanity of his 
 pupils ! And should he pursue any other purpose than 
 this, and pursue it even with apparent success, what 
 will be the result in the generations that are to follow ? 
 A mere sharpening of the wits of men, but no wit to 
 find the true way. " What an infinite mock is this," 
 says Shakespeare, " that a man should have the best 
 use of his eyes to see the way of blindness ! " 
 
 In conclusion, let me say that if the teacher can 
 be led to rise to the full conception of his task, and to
 
 56 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 understand that he is in truth one of the great moral 
 forces of society, one of the conservators of civilization, 
 he will be among the first to resist all attempts to 
 divorce his daily work from the ethical and religious 
 life of his time. This follows from the idea of educa- 
 tion and of the educator's function, which I have 
 endeavoured to set forth. He will at once see that so 
 to divorce him is to throw him out of all relation to 
 the true humanity of the past and of the future, and 
 to abrogate that which is at once his highest duty 
 and greatest privilege. He will feel that if he accepts 
 restriction to the secular, he must be content to forego 
 the full measure of the social respect and State-con- 
 sideration which are rightfully his due. Ordained to 
 the priesthood of the school, and held by society to be 
 so ordained, he will not find it necessary to clamour 
 for a social recognition which will be freely accorded 
 to him whose office it is, in the words of Tennyson, 
 
 " . . . to rear, to teach ; 
 Becoming as is meet and fit, 
 A link among the days to knit 
 The generations each with each." 
 
 If men can be sent forth from the University for 
 the service of their country, so equipped and so in- 
 spired, the Chair of Education will have made good 
 its claim to a place in the Academic curriculum, and 
 the objects of the Founders will be attained.
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION IN ITS 
 RELATION TO THE SCHOOL AND 
 THE TEACHER.* 
 
 Now that the external organization of education has 
 made considerable way in most civilized countries, 
 the minds of men are free to consider the uses to 
 which the machinery is to be applied. The mere 
 acquisition of a certain facility in reading and writing 
 and casting accounts can scarcely be held to justify 
 the present large outlay of wealth and energy. It is 
 only if education is deliberately aimed at as essentially 
 an ethical task, that social reformers will find their 
 higlTesI""Tropes of the school realized. Be this as it 
 may, it is evident that the Philosophy of Education 
 now comes to the front and demands consideration. 
 
 I assume that the education of a country is deter- 
 mined by its philosophy ; but I use the word philo- 
 sophy in the larger sense as denoting the beliefs of 
 a period, whether reasoned out or not, regarding man, 
 his nature, his social relations, and his destiny. Philo- 
 sophy in the narrower sense as applied to education 
 * From the Frincctoti Review.
 
 58 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 is, strictly speaking, only psychology, and determines 
 the periods of mental growth in the individual, and 
 methods of instruction as these are indicated by a 
 study of the processes of mind. In this more re- 
 stricted sense also the education of a country is 
 determined by its philosophy. The saying of Aristotle, 
 that it is not in man's option whether he will philo- 
 sophize or not, but that he uuist philosophize, is 
 especially true in the sphere of the school. If this be 
 so, it becomes a matter of no small importance that 
 those concerned with education should deliberately 
 and consciously philosophize, in order that they may 
 define their aim as well as their methods. We hold 
 that a training in philosophy, both in its larger and 
 narrower sense, is necessary for those members of the 
 community whose special function it is to rear and 
 teach the youth of the country : not for all, it may 
 be, but certainly for the more select portion who 
 influence the general body. 
 
 I am well aware that the eminent men who have 
 left their mark on the education of the past have owed 
 their influence mainly to some profound religious or 
 moral impulse and not to any philosophical system. 
 This is true alike of pre-Christian philosopher, Christian 
 pietist, and utilitarian moralist. Nor indeed can any 
 teacher or director of education be held to occupy a 
 place that fits him, if he finds himself discharging the 
 functions of an instructor of youth or a superintendent 
 of schools, unsupported, undirected, and unconsoled 
 in his daily task by a moral or religious purpose.
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 59 
 
 Such a man has missed his vocation. And yet we 
 cannot afford to dispense with the services of many 
 men who lack this professional qualification. We 
 cannot afford to close the ranks of the teaching pro- 
 fession against all save those whose true vocation it is. 
 The ministry of the school, like the ministry of the 
 church, must be content often to use weapons of inferior 
 temper. For every three millions of the population 
 we need about five thousand teachers, excluding those 
 in the higher seats of learning and private governesses 
 and tutors. To expect to find so large a number of 
 devout, zealous, sympathetic, child-loving men and 
 women as this, is a fond imagination. All the more 
 difficult is it to command an adequate supply of this 
 class, that the church attracts into its ranks by a prior 
 claim so large a proportion of the men of enthusiastic 
 temper and ideal aims. Luther's dictum, that had he 
 not been a preacher he would have been a teacher, is 
 still the most that any will say. It showed Luther's 
 penetration that he said even so much at a time when 
 the school was so misunderstood and misprized. " I 
 know," he says, " that this work, next to the office of 
 preacher, is the most profitable, the greatest, and the 
 best. Nay, I know not even which is the better of 
 the two. For it is hard to make old dogs tame and 
 old rogues upright ; at which task, nevertheless, the 
 preacher's office labours and often labours in vain. For 
 young trees be more easily bent and trained howbeit 
 some should break in the effort. Beloved, count it 
 one of the highest virtues upon earth to educate faith-
 
 60 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 fully the children of others, which so few, and scarcely 
 any, do by their own." By these words, by his earnest 
 appeals to the civil magistracy to care for the edu- 
 cation, not of the few but of the many, and by the 
 share he took in reorganizing schools, Luther con- 
 nected the education of the young indissolubly with 
 the aim and method of the Protestant Reformation. 
 Nor were his companions and followers slow to recog- 
 nize the significance of their master's words. Erasmus, 
 Melanchthon, and Knox were full of the enthusiasm of 
 the educator ; and John Sturm practically exhibited 
 at his renowned institution in Strasburg what the 
 school could be made, even with the limited materials 
 then at its command. Ideas, however, are slow of 
 transforming themselves into practical facts. The 
 day is probably still distant when the words of Luther 
 will be reversed, and men who feel called to labour 
 for the moral and spiritual good of their fellow-men 
 will say, " If I must relinquish the office of teacher, I 
 would be a preacher ; " and yet this is, after all, only 
 the logical conclusion of Luther's own argument. As 
 things actually are, however, it is vain, we repeat, to 
 think that we can recruit the ranks of the teaching 
 profession with men and women who are conscious 
 that they have a " message " to children and youths ; 
 and the question accordingly becomes an urgent one. 
 How can we create zeal tempered with judgment, 
 judgment moved by zeal ? how can the ideal aims 
 and the skilled methods of the few be conveyed into 
 the rank and file of the profession — the multitude of
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 6l 
 
 uninspired, but we may presume conscientious, workers 
 who, from various causes, find themselves engaged in 
 the duties of the school-room ? Even second-hand 
 inspiration is a great gain to the community. If we 
 could fill all the teachers of our children with a lofty 
 motive and supply them with a sound method of 
 procedure, we should certainly do more to dignify 
 their own lives, and to sustain the moral vigour and 
 soundness of the whole nation through their agency, 
 than by any other means. This is truly a great 
 question — a question for States and for Councils, and 
 one which it is especially incumbent on Universities, 
 as the teachers of teachers, to take up and carry to an 
 issue. 
 
 The thoughtful student of education in its national 
 relations may at once start an objection to the view of 
 the schoolmaster's function we have indicated, in 
 which there is unhappily some truth. He will say 
 that, " if education, as distinct from mere instruction, 
 be essentially spiritual in its motives and aims, the 
 conflicting views of religious truth and practice that 
 are prevalent make it impossible for any State to give 
 effect to such a conception without trenching on the 
 liberty of individual citizens. The logical issue, in 
 the sphere of practical politics, of such a divided state 
 of opinion is a subversion of education altogether in 
 any true or spiritual sense, and involves the limitation 
 of it to the work of disciplining intelligence and con- 
 veying such information as may be of practical utility 
 in the work of life. To this, it is true, may be added
 
 62 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 such instruction in practical moralities as will rear 
 good citizens : but this is all." Even if we accepted 
 this limited conception of the work of the school, we 
 should still find room for the educational element. 
 But we are not disposed to accept it. It is true that 
 religious differences exist, but they are differences 
 largely ecclesiastical and partly theological. There 
 is little difference of opinion as to what constitutes 
 the Christian life ; and it is the life, not the forms of 
 theological dogma, with which the school-teacher has 
 chiefly to do. In the present state of religious parties it 
 has been found necessary, in some countries at least, to 
 relegate detailed dogmatic instruction to the churches, 
 or to organizations set on foot and controlled by them. 
 But it is not a sound conclusion from this unhappy 
 necessity that a schoolmaster of truly religious temper 
 is not at liberty even in those countries to assume 
 distinctively Christian doctrine, and, by help of this 
 silent assumption, to raise his intellectual and moral 
 teaching into a spiritual sphere. He may animate all 
 he does with the religious principles and aspirations 
 that control his own life, and he will thereby give 
 ethical significance to his daily task. Of this we may 
 be assured, that it is impossible to sustain moral in- 
 struction at a high level or to give to it its true mean- 
 ing in relation to the life and destiny of a human 
 being, if it be not fused into one whole with the 
 emotion and passion which can be drawn from the 
 spiritual and religious life alone. Nay, without this 
 spiritual element it might easily be shown that there
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 63 
 
 can be no true ethical discipline. Even the teacher 
 who finds it necessary to confine himself to bald 
 moralities, because, having lost his own way, he has 
 denied the divine life and taken refuge in agnosticism, 
 has to resort to the " enthusiasm of humanity " as a 
 source of inspiration, if he is to be more than a mere 
 machine. This itself serves as a kind of religion — 
 spurious it is true, but yet giving forth a certain 
 warmth to sustain the worker, and a light which, 
 though flickering and unstable, yet serves in some 
 sort to steady his uncertain steps. At best, it is a 
 light that rules the night and borrows all it has of 
 virtue from the true sun that makes the day. Men 
 of this type of mind, however, rarely take to school- 
 work, either in Great Britain or America ; nor is it 
 desirable they should. An instructor of youth ought 
 to find himself in substantial accord with the religious 
 life of the people among whom he works. Nor is it 
 often otherwise. 
 
 But the spiritual aim is not enough. A certain 
 mould of character is needed. The heaven-born 
 teacher is, like the poet, rare. He must exhibit the 
 authority of law, and this is never arbitrary, but 
 always calm, equable, just. Rigid as maintainer of 
 law, his judgments, and still more his penalties, must 
 yet lean to mercy's side. He must possess that 
 humility of mind which makes him reverence the 
 spirits of children, as purer than his own, and as full 
 of spiritual possibilities, which for himself, it may be, 
 are prematurely foreclosed. He must be endowed
 
 64 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 with a sympathetic power allied to genius, whereby 
 he may be able daily to be himself a child, to under- 
 stand the failures and perversities of unformed wills, 
 and the efforts and blunderings of travailing intelli- 
 gences. His manner must be direct, candid, sincere, 
 and friendly, yet, withal, suggestive of high purpose 
 and unbending law. He must dominate his school 
 as its presiding genius, its spiritual standard, its type 
 of culture ; and yet he must be a child among 
 children, a boy among boys, a youth among youths. 
 Where are we to find men in whom opposites are 
 thus reconciled, and whose hearts at the same time 
 are alive with a love of humanity and glow with a 
 religious zeal — men " moulded by God," as Thomas 
 Fuller says — for a schoolmaster's life? It is precisely 
 because we cannot hope to find them in any large 
 numbers that there is imposed on us the duty of de- 
 vising some means of bringing young men and women, 
 whose habit of mind or tendency of nature leads them 
 to devote themselves to the education of others, under 
 the guiding influence of older men who can inspire 
 them with the true aims of the educator and the 
 methods by which these can best be attained. Aspi- 
 rants of the finer temper will quickly perceive under 
 such guidance the truly spiritual task of the teacher ; 
 and the duller minds will, by the exhibition of the 
 philosophy or rationale of education, be at least 
 intellectually guided, if not also morally inspired, to 
 form an adequate conception of their function in the 
 community. They will go forth furnished with ideals
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 6$ 
 
 and methods which cannot fail to influence and direct 
 their professional activity. It is in the philosophy 
 of human nature as applied to the growth of mind 
 and body, that \vc find not merely a scientific basis 
 for the teacher's work, but also a means of evoking 
 and even creating the true spirit of the educator. 
 Philosophy offers him a rationalized conception of 
 the ends and aims of the life of man which carries 
 conviction as reasoned truth. The possession of this, 
 even if there were nothing else, would be a great gain 
 to future schoolmasters. The practical relation of the 
 philosophy he studies and accepts to the subjects, 
 methods, and organization of instruction, and, above 
 all, to the method of moral training, throws the light 
 of science on what would otherwise be at best em- 
 pirical rules. The instruction of the normal school 
 in methods is good in its place and way, but all 
 empirical methodology, while failing to elevate the 
 teacher, binds him down and makes him a pedant : 
 philosophical methodology, on the other hand, 
 especially if enriched with the history of education, 
 gives him the freedom and liberty of the spirit. 
 
 Any other view than that which we here advocate 
 of the schoolmaster's training rests on the opinion 
 either that teaching is an instinct or knack and that 
 there is consequently neither a science nor a teachable 
 method of education ; or that the schoolmaster's duty 
 is one of instruction only, and that the acquisition of 
 good methods of instruction is a sufficient, and the 
 only practicable, preparation. The former opinion 
 
 F
 
 66 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 we may in these days pass by as dead. The latter is 
 bound up with the larger question of a schoolmaster's 
 vocation. But even assuming that a knowledge of 
 methods of instruction is an adequate preparation, 
 it is easy to show that these must be wooden and 
 inflexible if they rest on empiricism, or are dog- 
 matically taught, and that they are incapable of being 
 rationalized save on the assumption of a definite 
 philosophy of mind. Philosophy tests and checks, 
 while it explains, methods, and thus raises the teacher 
 out of the ruts of traditionalism and the " customs of 
 the trade." It transforms him, indeed, from a trades- 
 man into the member of a profession, and nothing 
 else can do so. If to his philosophical understanding 
 of method he adds that higher view of his calling 
 which entitles him to the name of educator, and 
 endeavours to widen his philosophy so as to cover 
 the larger sphere, the public voice will assign him 
 his true place in the social system ; and that will 
 be a place that will satisfy every legitimate ambition. 
 He will be measured, in truth, by his own standard of 
 his own work. We demur to the opinion that because 
 a master is departmental only, as must generally be 
 the case in high-schools, his sphere is limited by the 
 subjects in which he instructs. To the head-master 
 doubtless specially belongs the general discipline and 
 educative character of the school ; but he will be 
 powerless unless each of his departmental assistants 
 understand his disciplinary aim and assist him in 
 giving effect to it. This thorough accord between
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 6/ 
 
 heads and assistants will certainly be secured when 
 each has studied the philosophy of his art and so 
 found common ground of action, and does not, as now, 
 accept customs and rules that are merely arbitrary 
 and capricious and do not affiliate themselves to 
 sound and rationalized methods. 
 
 The hardness and self-complacency that charac- 
 terize the men whose arbitrary caprice or inherited 
 dogmatism determines what they shall do and how 
 they shall do it, has given us the " dominie " of 
 tradition, and has served to perpetuate the feeling 
 that schoolmaster and slave are still, as in Roman 
 times, almost interchangeable terms. We venture to 
 affirm that it is very seldom that a man of cultivation 
 cares to sustain a conversation with a thorough school- 
 master even in these our days, unless the latter 
 happen to be a man whose original researches or 
 literary occupations have made him something more 
 than a mere schoolmaster. Nothing can change this, 
 we are convinced, save the clear acceptance, by the 
 whole body of schoolmasters, of education and not 
 mere instruction as their function, and such a philo- 
 sophic study of their subject as will justify them in 
 making so high a claim. The whole race of masters 
 in the public schools of England have risen in social 
 estimation since Arnold of Rugby's time. And this 
 not alone by the reflection on the whole body of the 
 fame of Arnold, but because they have largely, through 
 the Rugby influence, been animated by a deeper 
 moral spirit in their work. When they advance still
 
 68 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 further, and, in a spirit of reality, accept the whole 
 education of the boy as their task, and seek to en- 
 lighten their methods with a philosophy which 
 interprets the word education for them, their position 
 will be second to that of no profession. The ablest 
 minds may then, perchance, be attracted to a work 
 so potent in its influence on the destinies of their 
 country. We do not desire to create mere enthusiasts. 
 Undirected and uncontrolled enthusiasm burns out, 
 and leaves only ashes behind. The genuine enthu- 
 siast always subjects himself to law if his work is to 
 be effective and permanent. The fierce heat of the 
 sun itself attains its ends in the domain of nature by 
 working according to the law of each kind. Where 
 it does not do this, it destroys. So with the fire of 
 the educational enthusiast. We desire to see the 
 ardour of the youthful schoolmaster so founded on 
 principle -and controlled by intellectual purpose that 
 it will last a lifetime ; and this is possible only by 
 timely subjection to the order and law which philo- 
 sophy alone can give. 
 
 To the question. How comes it that a subject so 
 important in its bearings on the well-being of the 
 State has received such tardy recognition ? the answer 
 is easy. If the duty of educating the masses of the 
 people has been of such slow growth as to have taken 
 practical shape in a country such as England only 
 within the last few years, we can scarcely be surprised 
 that the philosophy of education has still to struggle 
 for a place. State necessities must long forerun State
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 69 
 
 ideals. The recent institution of chairs of the Insti- 
 tutes and History of Education in the Scottish Uni- 
 versities of Edinburgh and St. Andrew although the 
 work of private hands, indicates an acceptance by 
 these seats of learning of the duty they owe to the 
 education of the people, which must erelong influence 
 other universities, and through them the statesmen 
 who guide national education both in England and 
 America. Already the question has been under the 
 consideration of the ancient University of Oxford, 
 while at Cambridge the founding of lectureships, 
 which will erelong, we hope, become professorships, 
 has been already resolved upon. 
 
 While the primary education of the people was in 
 arrear it was inevitable that the philosophy of educa- 
 tion should stand still. It is only when the machinery 
 of a nation's education has been set up that the 
 question of the best application of that machinery 
 presses. Again, it is in the primary school that 
 educational aim and method most distinctly force 
 themselves on our attention. It is chiefly in the 
 initiation of the human mind to knowledge, and in 
 the formation of the still plastic character of child- 
 hood, that questions of aim and method suggest 
 themselves for solution. When solved in this sphere 
 they are solved also for the higher stages of secondary 
 and university instruction. The upper schools of a 
 country will be insensibly moulded by the aims and 
 methods of the people's schools, and are already being 
 so moulded.
 
 ^0 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Another obstacle in the way of the recognition of 
 the philosophy of education as a subject within the 
 range of practical politics has been the backward state 
 of the science of psychology. A glance at history 
 will satisfy us that a close connection subsists between 
 psychology and solid advances in education. The 
 crude and generalized psychology of ancient Greece 
 was boldly applied by Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle 
 to education. They regarded this subject as a vital 
 part of political philosophy, and they applied their 
 psychology, such as it was, with brilliant success. 
 But their views on education, admirable as they are, 
 were necessarily restricted by their p.sychology, and 
 by their conception of the aim and destiny of man 
 and of the State. Plato's Republic, while containing 
 his most matured views on philosophical questions 
 and on the idea of a State, is also a treatise on educa- 
 tion. It is not, however, a treatise on method, but 
 rather on the general aims of education in which the 
 Doric and Ionic ideas are woven together into a 
 unity by philosophy. For four centuries the opinions 
 of Plato and Aristotle on education governed the 
 civilized world, and it was not till the eminent Roman 
 teacher Ouintilian recorded his experience and practice- 
 that an)^ marked step in advance was taken. Quin- 
 tilian's book is in marked contrast to Plato's. It is not 
 a philosophical speculation, but rather a treatise on 
 method from the hand of a practical schoolmaster. 
 As the first book on method, it marks an epoch. 
 When education again passed into the hands of the
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 7 1 
 
 Christian Church, instructions in the new doctrine of 
 Christ and his apostles became naturally the main 
 end. The individual had now an infinite value in 
 himself as an immortal spirit, and the natural con- 
 sequence of this novel thought would probably have 
 been a great movement in the interests of popular 
 education had the state of society admitted of it. 
 The methods of instruction practised in the monastery 
 schools for a thousand years degenerated grievously 
 because there was no philosophy and no method. 
 We cannot imagine that this would have happened 
 had the " Institutions " of Ouintilian not been, during 
 all that period, lost. It was only at the time of the 
 Reformation that an interest in methods of instruction 
 began again to show itself, among the Jesuits on the 
 one hand, and the Reformers on the other. Even the 
 indifferent and sceptical mind of Montaigne saw that 
 the " greatest and most important problem of human 
 science was the rearing and education of children." 
 But the attention which the Reformers directed to 
 educational method was soon relaxed, notwithstanding 
 the labours of Melancthon, Dean Colet, Roger Ascham, 
 and Sturm. Roger Ascham's " Scholemaster," written 
 in the time of Elizabeth, had not effected much, admir- 
 able as it was as a school guide and as a specimen of 
 literary execution. It was not a philosophical treatise, 
 but, like Ouintilian's " Institutions," a book on method 
 only. It was the application of vigorous English 
 common-sense to the work which the teacher had to 
 do ; and allowing for some defects and for occasional
 
 ^2 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 exaggeration and over-sanguineness of expectation, it 
 still remains a book which is full of instruction for the 
 modem teacher of language. Yet the English peda- 
 gogic world was content to drop it out of mind, and 
 to go on by " rule of thumb," suicidally proclaiming 
 that their work was neither a science nor an art, and 
 that they themselves consequently were only boy- 
 drivers and dominies. With the Baconian movement 
 came a new interest in psycholog}', and education 
 began at last to ally itself formally with philosophy. 
 
 The man who in 1604 gave expression to the 
 commonly felt need of educational reform was Wolf- 
 gang Ratich (Ratke), a native of Holstein, and the 
 impulse which he gave we still feel. The \iews that 
 he advocated, while suggested by a deep consideration 
 of the need of education for the whole people and the 
 consequent necessity of finding a universal method, 
 were the fruit of a reaction against the domination of 
 A\ords over things, and may easily be traced to the 
 influence of Bacon and the " Xo\'um Organon." As 
 knowledge of things was now, in the opinion of educa- 
 tional reformers, to take the place of a knowledge of 
 words, and as the new philosophy taught that it was 
 by induction only that we could interpret nature, the 
 watchwords of Ratich and his followers were, " Omnia 
 per inductionem et experimentum," and again, " Ve- 
 tustas cessit ; Ratio vicit" After the fashion of enthu- 
 siasts, Ratich prosecuted his objects by worr),'ing all 
 in authorit)-, and finally succeeded in getting his 
 scheme remitted by the German Diet to certain pro- 
 
 I
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 73 
 
 fessors in Giessen and Jena, to be reported on by 
 them. The words they used in submitting their 
 report are worth quoting, as containing the first 
 authoritative statement known to us of the close con- 
 nection that subsists between psychology and educa- 
 tion. " It is not enough," they say, " that a man 
 should carry on the work of instructor according to 
 his own fancy and opinion of what is right, or in 
 dependence on his native discretion and natural 
 ability ; but to this work there belongs a special art, 
 viz., the art of instruction, which no less than other 
 arts has its fixed ground and assured rules ; and these 
 arise not only out of the understanding, memory, sense, 
 yea, out of the whole nature of man, but also out 
 of the characteristics of languages, art, and sciences." 
 When Ratich began his educational mission, the 
 internal state of schools seems to have been little 
 better than when ]Melancthon and Sturm effected such 
 great improvements. There had been a relapse. 
 Latin (with here and there a little Greek and arith- 
 metic) was the sole instrument of instruction ; and 
 even this was badly taught. Dreary generalizations 
 of language rules, covering the whole field of grammar, 
 including even exceptions, and all these written in 
 barbarous Latin it>-, had to be committed to memory 
 by the unhappy pupils. This, with the reading of 
 Latin authors, but with little regard to the order of 
 reading and with no attempt even at the literary and 
 historical instruction which ought to have accompanied 
 .the reading of these authors, constituted the school
 
 74 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 curriculum. The literary humanistic culture which 
 now mainly sustains Latin in its time-honoured place 
 in the school does not seem to have been thought of. 
 The wave of the Renaissance seems to have exhausted 
 itself We do not propose to enter here into the 
 system of Ratich, but as it was the first modern 
 attempt at once to philosophize on the subject of 
 education and to furnish a practical method, it is 
 worth our while to summarize his leading positions. 
 These w^ere : i. Everything according to the order 
 and course of nature : for all teaching and learning 
 which is contrary to nature and violent, is hurtful,, 
 and w^-cakens nature. 2. Not more than one thing 
 at a time ; for nothing is more obstructive to the 
 progress of the understanding than learning many 
 things together and at the same time. Therefore 
 treat one thing thoroughly and then go on to another. 
 Every language may be learned out of one author. 3. 
 Repeat one thing often ; for what is often repeated 
 is imprinted on the understanding deeply and 
 thoroughly. Many things crossing one another con- 
 fuse and overload the understanding. Here Ratich 
 borrowed the Jesuit maxim, Repe^itio mater studiorwn. 
 
 4. Everything in the mother tongue first. The ad- 
 vantage of this is, that the young learner has to 
 think only of the things which he lias to learn- 
 
 5. Everything without coercion ; for through com- 
 pulsion and blows we disgust youth with studies, so 
 that they put themselves in an attitude of hostility 
 towards them. It is also against nature. . . . The 
 
 I
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 75 
 
 pupil should not be afraid of the master, but love 
 him and hold him in honour ; and this happens if 
 the master rightly discharges his office. 6. Nothing 
 is to be learned by heart ; for much learning by 
 heart detracts from the intelligence and acuteness. 
 If a thing, being understood, is imprinted on the mind 
 by frequent repetition, memory follows of its own 
 accord. 7. Uniformity in all things, as well in what 
 concerns the learning of an art as in the books used 
 and the rules to be acquired. The grammars of the 
 various languages should be as much alike as the 
 differences of the languages admit of. 8. First, a 
 thing in itself, and then the ivay of a thing. No njles 
 till one has given the matter of the author and of the 
 language. Rules without the materials on which the 
 rules are based confuse the understanding. 9. '' Omnia 
 per inductionem et experimentum." Without sub- 
 scribing to all these canons, we yet recognize in them 
 the outline of a complete scheme of method ; and we 
 may find in them, moreover, the germ of all succeed- 
 ing attempts to methodize the art of instruction. 
 The defects of the Ratichian system consists in its 
 too purely intellectual character, and in the shallow- 
 ness of its philosophic basis. But he did not wholly 
 neglect the educational, as distinct from the in- 
 structional, part of his subject. His innovations in 
 the matter of discipline, indeed, though somewhat 
 whimsical, were in the right direction. To attract to 
 learning rather than to coerce, was his aim ; and he 
 was so anxious to preserve the purity of the intel-
 
 •J^ THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 lectual and moral relation between master and scholar, 
 that one of his plans was to leave the discipline (in 
 the sense of coercion) in the hands of a separate 
 authority, whom he named the scholarch. The 
 misery to which young humanity was in those days 
 subject, and which seemed to be accepted as a 
 necessary accompaniment of all learning, may be 
 learned from many authorities, who confirm the 
 words of Balthasar Schupp, Avritten when Ratich was 
 approaching the end of his disappointed career. " I 
 must confess," says Schupp, " that owing to the vexa- 
 tions, diffuseness, and intricacy, and the scholastic 
 tyranny which prevails in our schools, many a fine 
 spirit is deterred from study. The ancient Latins 
 named a school Lucius ; many schoolmasters have, 
 however, made it a carnificina, or place of torture. If 
 one should perchance pass by a place where such a 
 scholastic tyrant rules, ubi plus nocet guajn docct, one 
 may hear a pitiful howling and lamentation, as if 
 Phalaris himself held his court there, and as if it were 
 a den of the Furies rather than of the liberal arts. 
 If I had a dog ^vh^ch I loved I would not hand him 
 over to these beasts, much less a son." 
 
 Passing from Ratich, who may be held to repre- 
 sent in the field of education the new school of 
 philosophy inaugurated by Bacon, we find the philo- 
 sophy and method of education next taken up by 
 his immediate successor Comenius. The tractate of 
 John Milton, published soon after the appearance 
 of the first works of Comenius, did not aim at
 
 THE TRAINING OF TIIK TEACHER. 7/ 
 
 expounding a philosophy or method of education, 
 but rather at laying down the subjects and order 
 of instruction ; and notwithstanding many exquisite 
 passages, it contributed, we should think, very little 
 to the progress of thought on the subject. Amos 
 Comenius, the pious bishop of the Moravians, in- 
 herited the ideas of Ratich (although the precise 
 extent of his indebtedness is uncertain), but being a 
 man of more systematic mind he was not content 
 with them as they stood. He had pre-eminently an 
 organizing intellect, and the result of his labours w^as 
 the production of a work which we believe to have 
 been the first attempt to work out the whole method- 
 ology of education on the basis of a definite scheme 
 of philosophy. This philosophy was of an eclectic 
 character, and while resting on Christian theology, 
 borrowed not a little from Plato and Aristotle. The 
 leading idea of his system, as indeed it must be the 
 leading idea of all educational method, is that we 
 ought to proceed according to nature. In his prin- 
 cipal treatise, published in 1627, he begins dogmati- 
 cally ab ovo by laying down certain propositions 
 regarding man, from which he instantly proceeds to 
 make deductions. His first proposition, for example, 
 is that man is the last, most complete, and the most 
 excellent of living creatures. His second proposition 
 is that the final end of man lies beyond this life ; and 
 here he points out that man's life is threefold — vege- 
 table, animal, and intellectual or spiritual. The first 
 nowhere manifests itself outside the body, the second
 
 78 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Stretches forth to objects through the operation of the 
 senses, the third is able to exist separately as well as 
 in the body. The third general proposition is that 
 life is only a preparation for an eternal life; the visible 
 world is a seed-plot, a boarding-house and a training- 
 school for man. The fourth proposition is that there 
 are three steps of preparation for eternity : to know 
 one's self and all things, to have power over all things 
 and one's self, and to refer all things to God, the 
 source of all. These requirements are summed up 
 in the words Eruditio, Virtus, Religio. The seeds 
 of all these are in us by nature, and the object of 
 education is to develop them. How is this to be 
 done ? By recognizing a law and order in man's 
 growth, as in the realm of nature. Let us, then, find 
 the law and order of nature, and we shall find the 
 law, order, and method of education. Proceeding on 
 this track, Comenius lays down a large number of 
 general principles of nature, which he at once transfers 
 to the sphere of education, deducing from them rules 
 of method. Moral and religious instruction, questions 
 of school-management and of school-organization, arc 
 all considered in detail from the same point of view. 
 It is scarcely necessary to say that the attempt to 
 carry out a parallelism of process in the operations 
 of nature and in the educating of a mind fails in the 
 hands of Comenius, and leads to a forcing of the 
 argument, and to the propounding of analogies which 
 are not true analogies. This straining of parallelism, 
 while it vitiates the argument as a logical whole, is 
 
 \
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 79 
 
 yet fruitful of many suggestions. It does not always 
 fail. The practical outcome of his philosophic treat- 
 ment is indeed almost always good. There is scarcely 
 a method in teaching or a device in class-manage- 
 ment in the present day accepted as final which may 
 not be found in Comenius. 
 
 Like Ratich, Comenius warred against the mere 
 word-teaching of his time. " Id agendum est," says 
 Seneca, " ut non verbis serviamus sed sensibus." The 
 scholastic maxim, " Nihil est in intellectu nisi quod 
 prius in sensu," was accepted by him as absolute in 
 the school. His great aim was to teach about things 
 — all things in heaven and earth — through language, 
 and language again by the presentation to the mind of 
 all things. 
 
 In moral instruction Comenius gives thirteen 
 canons, and he has a most instructive chapter on the 
 teaching of religion. In all these things he was far 
 ahead not only of his own, but even of the present, 
 time. His philosophical system yielded him thoughts 
 on the organization of schools as well as of the in- 
 struction to be given in them. He was the first to 
 conceive the idea of the infant school under the name 
 of the " mother-school ; " and his gradation of schools 
 was so well devised, that, with very slight modifica- 
 tions, it now constitutes the State system of Germany. 
 
 The merits of Comenius are mainly due to the 
 fruitfulncss of his philosophical ideas, inadequate as 
 these were ; and if we are to mark his defects, it is 
 to his philosophy also we must look as the source
 
 8o THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 and explanation of these. Like many men of his 
 time, he was under the commanding influence of the 
 Baconian Induction, which had directed the attention 
 of men away from grammatical niceties and scholastic 
 subtleties, to the external realities of nature. He 
 was consequently a Realist in education. When he 
 came to deal with method he had not, however, the 
 full advantage of the inductive method as applied to 
 psychology. Inductive psychology, indeed, was in 
 its infancy. He, like many others then and now, was 
 driven by a strong feeling of reaction against word- 
 teaching and logical subtleties, to a belief in the 
 omnipotence of a knowledge of the realities of nature 
 and man to reform [^the human race. Such expecta- 
 tions could lead only to disappointment. Discipline 
 of intelligence simply as discipline, and discipline of 
 will in the moral sphere, were alike subordinated to 
 mere information. Even in the moral sphere, to which 
 Comenius gave more prominence than it has since 
 received, mere instruction (spite of his motto, Agenda 
 agendo) was to accomplish all or almost all. Notwith- 
 standing these defects, we find in the writings of this 
 remarkable man the germ of all succeeding educa- 
 tional reform. 
 
 We have dwelt thus long on Ratich and Comenius, 
 that we may show the close connection that subsists 
 between education and the philosophy of mind. The 
 art of education rest on the methodology, and the 
 methodology of education, again, rests on psychology, 
 while psychology is only a part of our larger philo-
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 8 1 
 
 sophy of man. A system may be thus elaborated ; 
 and it is from systematized and thoroughgoing elabo- 
 rations that we learn most, even when we find it 
 necessary to set aside the system itself as radically 
 defective. The whole history of philosophy is an 
 illustration of this. And it is not surprising that it 
 should be so ; for the moment a man imposes on 
 himself the work of systematizing his reasoned con- 
 victions, he is driven of necessity to find for them 
 some broad and solid foundation ; and, working in- 
 ductively and deductively, to fit his thought into a 
 connected and logical whole. This effort serves as a 
 test of his doctrine applied by himself before it is 
 exposed to the criticism of other minds. 
 
 We have had many excellent essays on education 
 since Comenius's time, of which the most important 
 is that of John Locke ; many schemes of educational 
 organization ; many social treatises on the philosophy 
 of education, such as those of Rousseau and Pesta- 
 lozzi ; many elaborate applications of the German 
 philosophical systems of Kant, Herbart, Hegel, and 
 Beneke, to the subject of education in general ; many 
 treatises on methods, more especially those called into 
 existence by the normal schools of America, Ger- 
 many, France, and Great Britain ; but we have had 
 only partial attempts to lay a psychological founda- 
 tion for education, and to deduce from this, aided by 
 the experiential inductions provided by the actual 
 work of a school, a reasoned and coherent system 
 of methodology and school practice. That we shall 
 
 G
 
 82 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 have such attempts in the future as our knowledge of 
 mind, and of the physiology or material basis of 
 mind, extends, we have no doubt. The conviction 
 will gradually force itself on men's minds, that in the 
 training of a great profession it is only by a well- 
 conceived scientific preparation that we can give 
 method and law to educational genius, while we 
 supply the lack of genius in that large proportion 
 of aspirants who seek to enter the profession, from 
 honourable motives certainly, but without any strong 
 educational impulse. 
 
 Locke's tendencies are all realistic and utilitarian. 
 And it is a remarkable fact that it is this realistic 
 impulse, if we may so name it, which has given us 
 our best and ablest works on education in England 
 and France. Passing over numerous books of great 
 practical value but of unambitious aim and touching 
 only parts of the field, we do not reach an English 
 writer on education of philosophical rank and aim 
 till we come to Mr. Herbert Spencer — himself also a 
 realist, who affects to deal with the whole range of 
 the science. He puts before us in a rational form, 
 frequently commanding our hearty assent, the position 
 of the " modern " school who advocate instruction in 
 realities as of supreme importance. Even the oppo- 
 nent of Mr. Spencer must be thankful to him for it — 
 not merely because of the lucid logic of his reasoning, 
 but for a philosophic statement which, merely because 
 it is philosophic, minimizes the distance between the 
 utilitarian school and its opponents. This is a matter
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 83 
 
 of great importance, because if the education of a 
 country is to be properly organized it is desirable 
 that a mutual understanding should be arrived at by 
 different schools of thought. 
 
 If \vc wish to see how the philosophy of education 
 may influence for better or worse the whole life of a 
 nation, we have only to read Mr. Spencer's book. 
 He tells us that the aim of all sound education is to 
 train to " the right ruling of conduct in all directions 
 and in all circumstances," and is an answer to the 
 question, " How to live ? " He then proceeds to 
 indicate a system of instruction which shall bring 
 youth into an intelligent practical relation with the 
 world in which they have to work. The error here 
 is that which we have found in preceding realists, 
 notably Comenius, viz., that it is by instruction or 
 information that we educate. It is true that when 
 Mr. Spencer comes to deal with method he insists on 
 instruction being determined in its successive stages 
 by the laws of the normal evolution of intelligence, 
 if it is to be effectual for its end ; but still it is 
 instruction and the order of instruction which is the 
 governing idea of his philosophy of education. Not 
 that the discipline of intellect is altogether ignored by 
 him. On the contrary, his chapter on Intellectual 
 Education is one of the most valuable in his book. 
 But even here it is not discipline in the best accepta- 
 tion of that w^ord, but the development of intelligence 
 as based on a training of the senses and proceeding 
 therefrom in orderly evolution, that he urges on his
 
 84 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 reader. We believe that every thoughtful educa- 
 tionalist will accept Mr. Spencer's reasonings so far 
 as they go. Idealists and realists must meet here. 
 The intelligence proceeds inductively in acquiring 
 knowledge, and the teacher, if he be truly an educator, 
 must initiate into all knowledge also inductively. The 
 universal canons are : " From the Concrete to the 
 Abstract," " From the Particular to the General." But 
 this having been done, what then ? The intelligence, 
 by moving in accordance with its laws, is certainly, 
 we freely admit, trained ; but is it, in the true ac- 
 ceptation of the term, disciplined? This throws us 
 back on the further question, What do we mean by 
 the discipline of intelligence ; and when we have dis- 
 ciplined it what have we gained ? Is the game worth 
 the candle ? Such questions belong to the philosophy 
 of education, and they are not idle questions. On 
 the answer depends the subjects taught in our schools, 
 the aim of instruction, the organization of instruction, 
 and the methods of instruction. The philosophy of 
 Herbert Spencer, and we may add of all empirists 
 such as Professor Bain, offers us no adequate solution 
 of the question — is indeed, if consistent, incapable of 
 doing so. In moral education, again, Mr. Spencer's 
 chapter is full of wisdom, and suggests even more than 
 it directly inculcates. His two leading principles — 
 that the educator's object is to rear a self-governing 
 human being and not a being to be governed by others, 
 and that punishment should be the natural conse- 
 quences of acts — are, so far as they go, sound. But as
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 85 
 
 constituting the whole moral aim of education, this, to 
 our thinking, is very defective, while the penalty sug- 
 gested is adequate to the guidance of boyhood and 
 youth only within very narrow limits. 
 
 As water cannot rise higher than the level of its 
 source, so an educational theory cannot rise higher 
 than the philosophy from which it emanates. If we 
 hold that man is a being who seeks after ideals both in 
 the intellectual and in the moral world, then, assuredly, 
 the ideals of holiness, purity, integrity, courage, self- 
 sacrifice, are to be set up before the boy and youth, 
 and our teaching should be so directed as to promote 
 the growth of those ideals. Wherein consists the 
 inner penalty of a failure in purity or integrity if these 
 virtues are to be degraded to the position of being 
 the product of a mere correlation of the individual 
 and his wants with external conditions — a correlation 
 .so adjusted as to secure the most and the best? It 
 is impossible, it seems to us, that an educational 
 system that looks no higher than this of utilitarianism 
 can furnish a motive to the teacher or elevate the 
 human race, although it may suffice to hold society 
 together. The boy, the youth, and the man must 
 have a type of excellence after which they strive — 
 ideas in which to live, and, above all, an ideal to 
 contemplate higher than any that mere prudential 
 morality can furnish. A perfect type of mere pru- 
 dential morality would, in point of fact, be necessarily 
 an insufferable prig and pedant. Our moral ideal 
 must have in it the elements of infinitude that it mav
 
 86 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 call forth an infinite striving, and the characteristics 
 of the perfectly beautiful that it may draw us by the 
 cords of love. 
 
 We have said that the educational theory of Mr. 
 Spencer (and we cite him as representative of an 
 influential school) is inadequate in the aim it proposes 
 to itself, both in the intellectual and the moral sphere, 
 and consequently also in its methods. We say in- 
 adequate, for, so far as they extend, the aims and 
 method are, speaking generally, to be accepted. Edu- 
 cation ceases to be a work of surpassing importance 
 if its aim be not the highest possible for man ; and 
 the educator who abnegates ideals and the spiritual 
 life thereby places himself on a level lower than that 
 on which we should wish to find him. The depression 
 of his aim depresses likewise the methods to be 
 pursued, and his whole function and position in the 
 .social system. The animating forces of his own 
 individual life must also be the aims of his profes- 
 sional activity in the school. His ideal for others, 
 he may rest assured, cannot rise above his ideal for 
 himself 
 
 If we do not accord to man something more than 
 a power of reacting against external impressions and 
 co-ordinating these by virtue of association, we miss 
 the true meaning of his existence. The central force 
 which we call Ego, and of which the essential and 
 connate characteristic is Will, seeks to connect itself 
 with limitless aims and eternal ideas. It will be 
 satisfied with nothing less. Contemplating steadily
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 8/ 
 
 man as distinctively and par eminence a living will 
 among the forces of nature, self-conscious by virtue 
 of that will, and striving instinctively to find God as 
 the end as well as fountain of his being, we are at 
 once supplied with a most fruitful principle. We are 
 furnished with aims and methods of education which, 
 while embracing the whole sphere of knowledge and 
 mere prudential activity claimed by the propounders 
 of a less adequate conception of man's life and destiny, 
 stretch into regions which are of necessity, and by their 
 own showing, an unknown and unknowable world to 
 the sensationalist. 
 
 Let us consider for a moment how the view of the 
 philosophy of man that we have indicated affects the 
 education we seek to give to the young, that we may 
 exemplify still further the close connection that sub- 
 sists between a nation's philosophy and its educational 
 aims and methods. If man be pre-eminently a will ; 
 if it be a capable and completely fashioned will that 
 we as educators desire to help each of our pupils to 
 realize for himself; if year by year our object is to 
 aid this pure spiritual force to risk above the environ- 
 ment of nature and be truly itself, our educational 
 task is at once defined for us. Will, as spiritual force 
 and supremacy over nature (which term of course 
 includes the appetites and desires of our human 
 nature), must in the sphere of intelligence be disci- 
 plined with a view to its easy and ready application to 
 objects of knowledge and to the affairs of life. Dis- 
 crimination, discernment, sustained power of self-ap-
 
 8S THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 plication — these are the qualities of intelligence which 
 we must foster. From the purely practical point of 
 view, is it not the fact that these are the characteristics 
 by which one man excels another in the business of 
 life ? Discipline then is, according to our conception 
 of the philosophy of man, our chief intellectual end 
 as educators. But this discipline of the will which, as 
 the specific characteristic of man, is the basis of in- 
 telligence, is not enough if we regard it merely as 
 pure spiritual force ; it moves, in accordance with 
 certain laws, to the acquisition of knowledge, and to 
 the discrimination of the true and right among the 
 complex materials of our daily life. These laws are 
 sufficiently indicated in the ordinary psychological 
 logic of induction and deduction. We must then in 
 the subjects we teach, and, above all, in our method 
 of teaching, work the intelligence in the line of these 
 laws. This may be called training, as distinct from 
 disciplining, though it is manifestly difficult to intro- 
 duce a distinction here. Mere force will not carry 
 mind to its aim ; it proceeds by a way, and that way 
 is method. The material which we give for this will 
 and method to work in, is a matter of great import- 
 ance doubtless, but the consideration of this must 
 always be governed by the higher object of all educa- 
 tion, which is training and discipline. Starting from 
 this point, we have to consider the material in which 
 each and all of us have to work — the environment of 
 our lives provided for us in the divine order, and to 
 which we must loyally conform. It seems to us that
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 89 
 
 there ought to be little difficulty in determining the 
 subjects of instruction and the order of instruction, 
 if vvc allow the question of intellectual discipline and 
 method to dominate the question of the materials of 
 school-work. 
 
 In the moral sphere, again, Will stands pre-eminent. 
 It is this that we have to cultivate. In the religious 
 sphere we have, following at once Aristotle and the 
 Christian doctrine, to direct the will and to fix it in the 
 contemplation of the divine. It can ultimately find 
 satisfaction for its restless activity only in spiritual 
 ideas and in God. Comparatively little value is to be 
 attached by the educator to moral instruction, save 
 in so far as it is directed and inspired by religion. It 
 is this marriage of the moral and the spiritual that 
 produces what may be denoted by one name — the 
 ethical life. The discipline of the will in mere under- 
 standing and knowing contributes also its share to true 
 ethical discipline. The unity of educational result 
 may be in truth summed up in the single word, ethical. 
 Our aim in the school, therefore, is an ethical aim, and 
 all we do is of true value only in so far as it con- 
 tributes to this — the final cause of all our teaching. 
 By keeping this purpose steadily in view, we alone 
 truly educate a human being. Unity of purpose and 
 method, both in the intellectual and moral sphere, is 
 thereby secured. It is some such unity of purpose 
 and method which the study of the philosophy of 
 education must give if it is to supply the place of 
 native inspiration to the teacher.
 
 90 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 We are aware that the elements of mental science 
 are already taught in some normal schools in England 
 and America. We should desire to see this subject 
 included in the curriculum of every normal school. 
 But even then the philosophy of education in any 
 adequate sense would not be taught. It is only by 
 connecting this subject closely with the philosophical 
 faculty in all our universities, where students are 
 being carried through a higher course of instruction 
 than is practicable at normal schools, that it can re- 
 ceive thorough scientific and historical treatment. 
 It is true that only a small proportion of the teachers 
 of a country would even in that event come under 
 the influence of philosophy ; for only a small pro- 
 portion have the qualifications necessary for a uni- 
 versity career and can find the necessary time to 
 prosecute it. But it is with this subject as with all 
 others. The fact that it was cultivated in the universi- 
 ties would gain for it respect and attention outside the 
 university walls. The few who, after a course in the 
 philosophy of education, might go forth as educators 
 would carry with them an influence that would extend 
 to every corner of the profession. The entire body 
 of teachers would begin to affiliate themselves in spirit 
 to the universities, and seek guidance thence. United 
 by the bond not merely of a common occupation but 
 of a common professional standard of aim and work, 
 the university and the humblest infant-school would 
 join hands. The teaching body thus bound together 
 would become a national institution, in the sense in
 
 THE TRAINING OP^ THE TEACHER. 9 1 
 
 which the church was, and in Great Britain still is, an 
 institution ; an institution, moreover, of great power 
 and importance, because broader in its conception and 
 aims than the church, and commanding, in these days 
 at least, more universal sympathy. The schoolmaster 
 would then take rank with the professions, which at 
 present he can scarcely be said to do, either in Eng- 
 land or America. In this new republican hierarchy 
 (if we may conjoin almost contradictory terms) the 
 civil power would find its best friend and its surest 
 guarantee of law, order, and stability. It is mainly, 
 indeed, in the hope of aiding in the organization of a 
 new institution which shall contribute to order and 
 civilization in the midst of the disorganizing forces by 
 which society is surrounded that we advocate a philo- 
 sophical basis of training for the teacher. And as to 
 the teacher himself ; he can hope to hold the social 
 position which he desires, only when he is a recognized 
 social influence and is a member of a compact organiza- 
 tion which stands prominently before the public as an 
 independent profession. It is in the philosophy and 
 history of education alone that the members of the 
 craft can find a common ground of genuine intellectual 
 professional life, and a true and worthy union of in- 
 terests and aims.
 
 INTRODUCTORY LECTURE DELIVERED 
 IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, 
 IN THE CLASS OF THE " THEORY, 
 HISTORY, AND ART OF EDUCATION." 
 
 I PURPOSE, on this occasion, to confine myself to a 
 few colloquial remarks suggested by the present 
 relation of the Education Department to Scotland. 
 It is impossible for us to have State control of our 
 educational system which will be satisfactory to the 
 country, until we have its centre of activity trans- 
 ferred from London to Edinburgh ; but, meanwhile, 
 we must make the best of our present circumstances, 
 and we shall perhaps do so most effectually by being 
 liberal of complaint and criticism. 
 
 It is a strange, and to those who learn it for the 
 first time, an incredible fact, that while the various 
 Faculties of the Universities of Scotland confer pro- 
 fessional degrees in Law, Medicine, Theology, Science 
 (including even Sanitation), Engineering — all having a 
 practical value in the business of life — the degree of 
 the Faculty of Arts confers no professional privilege on
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 93 
 
 Teachers. Time was when the Arts Degree conferred 
 a licentia docendi within the university itself ; now, it 
 does not give the statutory right to hold a school 
 even of the meanest kind. Nine months' instruction 
 in a Training College secures a privilege which is 
 denied to even the Honours' Graduates of the Scottish 
 Universities ! All that the attainment of an Honours 
 Degree can do for the bearer of it is to give him the 
 privilege of going up to be examined along with the 
 nine months' Training College students ! That the 
 Government should demand of all the graduates who 
 intend to be schoolmasters, however distinguished, a 
 knowledge of the principles and art of Education 
 is right and reasonable ; but surely this addition to 
 the Arts' curriculum should be held to suffice.* 
 
 It is not for the Universities I speak, but for the 
 country ; and the country, I venture to say, demands 
 that not merely the full Degree, but also a minor 
 Diploma attainable after two years' study, and after 
 one year in the case of those who pass the Three 
 Years' Curriculum Examination, should be within 
 reach of tho.se who propose to adopt the profession 
 of public schoolmaster. How else is the standard of 
 Scottish education in the public schools to be main- 
 tained ? Codes will fail to do it ; you must have Mai, 
 and it is the Universities alone which can produce the 
 higher class of men. I do not mean again to argue 
 
 * The necessary reform has since been made by the Education 
 Department ; but I let my remarks stand, in the hope that the Depart- 
 ment may become aUve to the fact tliat it is possible tliat it may be 
 wrong on points not yet conceded.
 
 94 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 the general question here, or to complain of the 
 Government monopoly conferred upon the Training 
 Colleges to the great detriment of education in Scot- 
 land ; but, rather to content myself with adverting to 
 certain aspects of University training which concern 
 teachers as a body, and the country through them. I 
 shall then speak of the present condition and prospects 
 of our public elementary schools. 
 
 On the former subject I would remark — First, that 
 the University training of a certain proportion of the 
 teachers of the country, who by their influence would 
 sustain the level of all the others, is not only of the 
 greatest importance to schools, but is of vital moment 
 to the intellectual character, moral weight, and social 
 standing of the teaching profession as a whole. 
 Secondly, I shall endeavour briefly to show that the 
 Universities provide the only means of affording to 
 the teaching profession a " career : " and a " career " is 
 essential to the life and vigour of every profession. 
 
 As to the first point, it is well known that the 
 Government requirements of Training Colleges are 
 such as tend to restrict rather than to promote mental 
 activity. Although the Education Department has 
 a fair defence to make, yet there can be no doubt 
 that, in Scotland at least, Training College studies 
 might with great advantage be considerably liberalized. 
 The knowledge which the pupil-teachers bring with 
 them from the country schools might easily be in- 
 creased, and the Department would then be justified 
 in relieving the Training College curriculum of the
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 95 
 
 pressure of those studies, which burden the memory 
 at the expense of the reasoning powers, and which, 
 though they certainly do give a considerable amount 
 of discipline, yet restrict the independent thought, the 
 spiritual activity, the fervour, and imagination of youth. 
 Such studies (to use the words of Quintilian), "detinent 
 atque obruunt ingenia." Brain exercise, to be truly 
 disciplinal, must have some outlook beyond the lesson 
 of the hour, and far beyond the next examination day. 
 Love of a subject for itself has at present no time to 
 grow under the pressure of the multifarious demands 
 made on the time of the student. Intellectual aspira- 
 tion is curbed ; and it is only in the minority that it 
 ultimately survives. And I am satisfied that it sur- 
 vives even in the few, only because they see, looming 
 above and beyond their present work, the more liberal 
 studies of the Universities, holding up a more elevated 
 standard and inviting them to a higher and more 
 congenial exercise of their powers. Were the prospect 
 of enrolling themselves on some future day among the 
 cives of a University, as many of them happily do, 
 for ever impossible to them (as is the case with their 
 brethren south of the Tweed), the fire of intellectual 
 ambition, already burning low enough, would, I fear, 
 quite go out. 
 
 It is the culture of a class which ultimately deter- 
 mines the social estimation in which it is held more 
 than any other one fact. For this culture the teachers 
 of Scotland must look to the Universities. Referring 
 to some who desired a reduction of the standard of
 
 96 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 attainment in Training Colleges, the Bishop of Exeter 
 says, in his evidence before the Commission on Popular 
 Education in England in 1861, "I think that it would 
 be far better if you could get schoolmasters with less 
 knowledge and more education, which is commonly 
 what is meant by people who ask for what they call a 
 lower standard" {p. 132). The Royal Commissioners 
 for Scotland, appointed in 1865, and among whom 
 were the Duke of Argyll and Lord Moncreifif, say, 
 " If University apart from Normal School training for 
 Masters is imperfect " [imperfect, that is to say, only 
 in so far as it does not provide for the practical. W^^n- 
 ing of the future teacher], " Normal School training 
 apart from the University seems to be imperfect also. 
 The evidence which we have collected on this point, 
 establishes the conclusion that the most efficient 
 teacher is he who combines both." 
 
 I lay nothing to the charge of the Education 
 Department : the preparation with which the young 
 students come to the Training Colleges and the 
 specific object for which they receive free education 
 and scholarships, make it necessary to retain much 
 of the present narrow curriculum. There are many 
 respects, however, in which the system of instruction 
 might be improved ; and were the studies more liber- 
 alized these seminaries would do better the special 
 work they aim at doing, and which, I willingly con- 
 cede, they alone are fitted to do effectually, and which 
 they must continue permanently to do. I say per- 
 manently, for there can be no doubt that Normal
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 97 
 
 Schools are now permanent national institutions. 
 All I desire is that the minority whose previous 
 education — obtained it matters not where — fits them 
 for the higher and better training of the University, 
 should not only be permitted to take what the 
 University offers, but encouraged to do so in the 
 interests of the education of Scotland. It will be 
 universally admitted that the Training Colleges can 
 never of themselves supply the country with teachers 
 who will take the social position of University men, 
 and so sustain a high, moral, and intellectual level for 
 the profession as a whole. A considerable proportion 
 of men trained at the Universities would give tone to 
 the general body. The whole corporation of teachers 
 is interested in this question. All other professions 
 occupy themselves with the qualifications of their 
 members. The other day even the English solicitors 
 were talking of an University qualification for their 
 profession ; we know that both here and in England 
 the qualification for entrance to Church and Bar is a 
 constant subject of corporate interest. Why, then, do 
 we hear so little of this subject from the Chartered 
 Institute ? This one aspect of a profession, the con- 
 ditions for entering it, is itself sufficient ground, were 
 there no other, for the members who constitute that 
 profession associating themselves. Nay, it would not 
 be difficult to show that it is the chief ground for asso- 
 ciation in the case of those professions to which the 
 State has not given powers of internal discipline. 
 
 There are some who would extend the abolition 
 
 H
 
 98 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 of professional qualifications and privileges to every 
 department of the civil organization, and would leave 
 everything to settle itself after a general scramble, 
 the many-headed public being judge. This extreme 
 opinion, held, however, even by few among the most 
 radical, has no life in it ; it is a mere passing whim 
 occurring to the mind, even of the leveller, only in 
 its most perverse moods. The more widespread and 
 real political equality becomes, all the more does 
 society need the protection and support of organized 
 institutions possessing a certain vitality and standard 
 of their own ; and such an institution is the Scholastic 
 Profession. 
 
 The second aspect of this question to be brought 
 into view is this, that the connection of the Univer- 
 sities with the training of public schoolmasters, con- 
 stitutes the teaching profession a career, and is the 
 only way of constituting it a career. 
 
 If the State had ^50,000 a year to spend on any 
 profession in the shape of salaries to one thousand 
 men, it would secure a far higher class of public ser- 
 vants, both in respect of special training and intellectual 
 capacity, by having twenty places with incomes varying 
 from ^500 to ;^I500 a year, and distributing the 
 remaining ^30,000 unequally, than by giving every 
 man ;!^50 a year from the beginning to the end of his 
 service. This is of the nature of a truism. And yet, 
 somehow, the profession of Teacher is considered to lie 
 outside the motives which are appealed to in every 
 other occupation — even the most sacred. In the
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 99 
 
 earlier days of the Privy Council system, Sir J. P. 
 Kay Shuttleworth was sanguine enough to hope, nay 
 to expect, that men would be found to enter the 
 profession of elementary teacher from missionary 
 motives. Such an expectation was based on a very 
 imperfect appreciation of facts. I should like to 
 know how many men enter the Church desirous 
 to labour in humble spheres, unknown to fame and 
 heedless of reward. There have always been a few ; 
 but even these, while they give to the Church which 
 they serve the reputation of self-denying zeal, receive 
 back, from the first day of their consecration, the 
 social consideration which that Church has made 
 good for itself in the estimation of the whole world, 
 and are, as it were, invested with all its power 
 and dignity. That there may have been one here 
 and there from whose mind even this feeling was 
 wholly absent I am willing to believe ; but that a 
 man should, with similar self-denial, give himself to the 
 mission of teaching would be the greatest of all self- 
 abnegations, because, as yet, that occupation is only 
 very partially supported by social opinion, and is 
 unrecognized and undignified by Church and State. 
 To sacrifice oneself on these terms would be to be a 
 missionary indeed ! A rare man may be found who 
 is capable of it, and who would be content to labour 
 on, poor and unknown, and to die without even an 
 obituary intimation that he had passed away. But we 
 cannot look to such exceptional motives and excep- 
 tional men to do the work of a profession. And it is
 
 lOO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 absurd to suppose that because men look to the 
 attainment of a modest but adequate reward in repu- 
 tation and emolument, that, therefore, they do not 
 bring to their profession a pure love of their work and 
 an earnest desire to promote the Kingdom of Christ 
 in Church or School. There are many degrees of the 
 missionary spirit, and whether a man has it in absolute 
 purity or not is known, I suspect, not even to himself 
 
 Let us, then, take it for granted that the immense 
 majority — ninety-five per cent, shall we say? — even of 
 those professions which, like that of the Educator, 
 have to do with the intellectual improvement and 
 moral elevation of man will be attracted to their work 
 by mixed motives — a natural disposition for the 
 special kind of work which they select, a pure desire 
 to do that work efficiently through mere love of 
 efficiency, and a desire for personal reputation, social 
 esteem, and substantial reward. 
 
 South of the Tweed the complaint has been 
 general, that at twenty-two a Teacher has as much of 
 the last three as he has at sixty-two ; that he attains 
 early — earlier than men in any other profession what- 
 soever — a very fair income, and there remains station- 
 ary. Doubtless there are various kinds of elementary 
 schools, and the young teacher may move from an 
 inferior position to one somewhat better ; but they are 
 all on the same social level. In this respect the 
 Teacher is not a professional man, but rather like an 
 artisan who earns at twenty-two the wages of fifty- 
 two. This is a very undesirable state of things ; not
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. lOI 
 
 for the teacher alone, but, through him, for the nation. 
 Very competent and well-instructed men now enter 
 the profession ; but were there more prospect of pro- 
 motion the quality of aspirants would unquestionably 
 improve, to the great benefit of society : it matters 
 not how humble the beginning is, if the end be an 
 object of ambition. 
 
 Now, it may not at first appear how the privilege 
 of sending out a certain proportion of public school- 
 masters by the Universities would contribute to the 
 constituting of the desired "career." But a little con- 
 sideration will show how it would work in an educa- 
 tional system like that of Scotland. The University 
 training would connect together the different parts of 
 the system. Men going out with a University diploma 
 would naturally look for appointments in those public 
 schools only in which the Boards desired to have a 
 man fit to prepare boys for the Universities ; the best 
 of the graduates, again, going at once into High 
 Schools of the first or second rank. A man who with 
 a University diploma accepted a town or country 
 public school of the kind I refer to, would look for- 
 ward to the best schools of this class as the first object 
 of his ambition, and teach under the spur of this hope. 
 His next object of ambition would be to obtain a 
 place in a High School of the second rank, and finally 
 of the first. If he found that the fact of his holding 
 only the minor University diploma was against him — 
 notwithstanding admitted eminence as a teacher — he 
 would, after he had saved a little money, return to the
 
 I02 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 University for a full degree in Arts or Science. In 
 this way the ordinary public elementary schools of 
 the better class would be connected with the highest 
 positions in the profession, and all ranks be bound 
 together by a common interest. 
 
 But it may be said that the gradation of teaching- 
 rank, of which I have been speaking, does not go 
 down below University men, and that there is a 
 career consequently only for these. But it is not so. 
 Normal School men who go straight from the Training 
 Colleges to serve in public schools are not left out in 
 the cold ; they have excellent opportunities of raising 
 themselves. A few of the more able and vigorous 
 among these generally come to the University after 
 they have served a few years in the country ; and more 
 would come if the University Arts' teaching had any 
 statutory value for them. 
 
 I think I have now shown you that it is through the 
 Universities that the social standing of the teaching 
 profession can alone be sustained ; and also that it is 
 through the same Universities that the profession can 
 alone become a career. No profession, no skilled 
 occupation even, is on a healthy basis unless it afford 
 a career. 
 
 Having spoken thus far of the teaching profession,. 
 I would now say a few words on the present state and 
 prospects of public school education in Scotland. In 
 doing .so I deal with that aspect of the question which 
 touches the " business and bosom " of every resident in
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 103 
 
 the country parishes who have sons and daughters to 
 educate. I deal, too, with an important commercial 
 question, because one of the commodities which this 
 country has been in the habit of taking into the 
 market of the British empire has been " intellect." 
 In this department of "intellect" Scotland, as Mr. 
 Gladstone once remarked, has been an exporter. 
 It would not be fair to attack the Act of 1872. 
 The Act is not responsible for the admitted depres- 
 sion of higher instruction in the country schools. 
 In the 67th clause of the Act the minutes regulating 
 the administration of Parliamentary grants are ordered 
 to be constructed, subject to the provision " that due 
 care shall be taken by the Scotch Education Depart- 
 ment that the standard of education which now exists 
 in the public schools shall not be lowered, and that as 
 far as possible as high a standard shall be maintained 
 in all schools." 
 
 We all know what these words pointed to. They 
 had reference solely to that kind of instruction which 
 prepared country lads for the Universities, — instruction 
 in Latin, mathematics, and the elements of Greek. 
 And my conviction is that, had that clause not been 
 inserted, the Act would never have passed. Faith has 
 not been kept with us. For how has the provision 
 been given effect to ? By informing teachers that 
 after giving an hour's steady daily work where there 
 is one class (and about two hours' where there are two 
 or more classes) to the instruction of a few promising 
 boys and girls who take Latin and mathematics, they
 
 I04 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 will be rewarded at the end of the year with 4^-. per 
 subject for each boy ! We must put the saddle on 
 the right horse, then, and that horse is not the Act, 
 but the Scotch Education Department. The tempo- 
 rary Board appointed to conserve Scottish interests 
 found that its powers of Code-drafting ceased with its 
 first efforts in that direction. 
 
 While, however, we must admit that the Code in 
 its influence on that kind of instruction which prepares 
 boys for the Universities is wholly bad, we are far from 
 wishing to attack the Code indiscriminately. It is our 
 duty, on the contrary, to acknowledge that the Code 
 has great merits, and that in many respects it has 
 been of signal benefit to education in Scotland. We 
 must bear in mind that a Code for public elementary 
 schools must be constructed primarily for the benefit of 
 the many, not of the few. If this be so, we take up an 
 indefensible position if we oppose the Code as a whole. 
 Just let us go back fifteen years, and look into the 
 state of elementary education before the introduction 
 of a Code designed to direct the energies of teachers. 
 The Duke of Newcastle's Commission reported in 
 1 861 that the trained teachers throughout the country 
 were good in every respect but one. That exception, 
 however (they go on to say), is a most " important 
 one. It is that tiic junior classes in the schools, com- 
 prehending the great majority of the children, do not 
 learn, or learn imperfectly, the most necessary part of 
 what they come to learn — reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic." There cannot be the slightest doubt as to
 
 THE TRAINING OP^ THE TEACHER. I05 
 
 the widespread disregard of the simple elements of 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic up to 1861. Even 
 a " good " school meant only a good " highest " class, 
 and as the majority of the children left for work before 
 the age of eleven, the objects of the Parliamentary 
 Grant were clearly not attained. 
 
 The case was not quite so bad in Scotland, but 
 still it was bad enough. The cause of the evil was 
 not in the indifference of the schoolmasters so much 
 as in the want of skill in classification and organ- 
 ization and in the defective teaching staff. Com- 
 paratively few outside the Normal School men could 
 construct a time-table even in the rudest and crudest 
 way ; and nothing more than this one fact is needed 
 to show that they knew little of school organization, 
 and especially of that part of it which is indispensable 
 to the full effect of a teacher's labours — classification. 
 The powers even of a zealous man were wasted 
 through want of skill. With great expenditure of 
 energy, he was merely beating the air. Of course 
 there were many exceptions ; but, speaking generally, 
 I describe the actual state of the case. A remedy was 
 needed, and that a drastic one. A regulator of the 
 great teaching engine had to be introduced. 
 
 The Code then, in so far as it required the teachers 
 to classify with accuracy and to fix a standard of 
 attainment for each successive class — I say reqtih'ed 
 advisedly — was a great boon to the education of the 
 country, and corrected an evil which was simply in- 
 tolerable. Nay rnore, the Code was a boon in so far
 
 I06 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 as it required {^r\6. here again I use the word advisedly) 
 teachers to begin to teach writing and arithmetic on 
 the same day on which they began to teach reading, 
 and also to pay more attention to mere mechanical 
 facility in the use of the mere instruments of education. 
 These were the primary objects of the Revised Code ; 
 so far, it was educationally sound, and so far it will be, 
 I trust, a permanent institution. 
 
 The Privy Council took aim at certain evils, and 
 they hit their mark. But, unfortunately, while curing 
 a particular disease, they set up an unhealthy action 
 in the body scholastic as a whole. The country was 
 resolved to get a substantial commodity in return 
 for its outlay. With this view it concentrated its 
 attention on things which had an admitted value and 
 the aspect of substantiality, and ignored all others. 
 For how could a Code weigh or measure intellectual, 
 moral, or aesthetic results ! Here was a difficulty at 
 the threshold. These evidently were regarded as 
 visionary things. If entertained at all, they were 
 entertained with that supercilious contempt of true 
 education, characteristic of minds which find in Mara- 
 thon and Thermopylae the insignificant records of 
 mere tribal contests.* The " Department " accord- 
 ingly made "grants in aid" turn on attendance at 
 school and on individual passes in reading, writing, 
 and ciphering — all nicasiirablc quantities. Given an 
 arithmetical unit of measure for school work and 
 assign to it the value of a coin of the realm, and you 
 
 * Lord Shcrbrooke's address to tlie Institute of Engineers.
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 10/ 
 
 could express the working result of each school by so 
 many figures. The annual Report of the Department 
 might have consisted of a big iminbcr, and nothing 
 more. Any gentleman could have carried it home 
 from the " House " on his thumb-nails — expenditure 
 on one thumb-nail, "results" on the other. What a 
 triumph of administration was this! The "nation of 
 shopkeepers " had got its quid pro quo. 
 
 Trace the changes made in the Code since 1861, 
 and you will see that they were for the most part of 
 the nature of relaxations of rules, or of concessions to 
 demands for the introduction of this, that, or the other 
 subject into the school with a payment attached to 
 each. Almost all these changes have been improve- 
 ments, and the education of the country unquestion- 
 ably owes much to them. Take for example the 
 introduction of domestic economy for girls, of singing 
 for all, and of composition for the highest class. And 
 yet, notwithstanding all this, the Code was merely 
 patchwork at best, as appeared when England had to 
 be dealt with afresh in 1871, and Scotland in 1873. 
 The Department seemed suddenly to have resolved 
 to satisfy clamorous crotchet-mongers all round by 
 recognizing with one bold stroke everything teach- 
 able, under the designation of "specific subjects," or, 
 as teachers now call them, " specifics." It gathered 
 under its gracious patronage all the arts and all the 
 sciences, and — not it may be without a touch of grim 
 humour — it challenged the whole army of school- 
 masters to teach these, if they could, at 4^. per head
 
 Io8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 per annum ! And now I may presume that the 
 Inspectors travel with a copy of " Chambers' Encyclo- 
 paedia " in their dog-carts, half a dozen grammars, 
 and a tuning-fork. For they are not only exposed 
 to be called on to examine in the ordinary subjects 
 of school instruction, including Music and Drawing, 
 and Sewing and Cutting-out, but they must be ready 
 to test the little boys and girls in Geometry, Algebra, 
 English Literature, Latin, Greek, French, German, 
 Mechanics, Chemistry, Animal Physiology, Light and 
 Heat, Magnetism and Electricity, Physical Geography, 
 Botany, and Domestic Economy ! But this was not 
 all, for Scotland gloried in being an intellectual 
 . country, and was the State-pocket to be buttoned 
 up, when Intellect cried aloud for what is called 
 " pecuniary encouragement ? " Not so : the Depart- 
 ment was equal to the occasion, and gracefully yielded 
 to Scotland Art. 19, c. i, whereby "Intelligence" is 
 rewarded at the rate of 2s. per head : The sum is 
 small perhaps, but it is probable that the authorities 
 were of opinion that Scottish intelligence did not, after 
 all, need much stimulus, and that it could take care 
 of itself pretty well. Wc must then regard the small- 
 ness of the reward as a compliment to our mental 
 superiority. I sometimes wonder if there is, or ever 
 has been, any people on the face of the earth, except 
 the British, who would gauge their educaticjnal work 
 after this patchwork fashion ; and whether, if they did 
 so, they would stop where the Code stops. If in- 
 telligence is worth 2s. a head, what price are we to
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. lOQ 
 
 pay for morality? A morality-schedule, filled up 
 after due inquiry and attestation, is not an adminis- 
 trative impossibility. With columns of the virtues 
 opposite the name of each boy and girl, we might 
 have in such a schedule a great engine for estimating 
 the moral condition of the country. What a valuable 
 record for the future historian, throwing all Memoires 
 pour servir into the shade ! Animal physiology at 
 4^-. per head, intelligence at 2s., integrity at 2s. 6d., 
 truth-speaking at t,s., and a sensitive conscience 
 generally at 4^"., would go quite well into a statistical 
 table, and admit of summation, and of a numerical 
 statement, including even decimals ! 
 
 But to return to the more serious consideration of 
 the Code, I repeat that it has done much for Scottish 
 education : it was needed. But, having once settled 
 the standards and the school classification, and com- 
 pelled attention to the mechanical arts of reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic, it should then, I hold, try, 
 through its of^cials, to go right to the mind and heart 
 of a school. It can do this only by taking a class, not 
 an individual, as the school unit ; and if the mind of 
 that class satisfies the Inspector it should be passed as 
 a whole.* In this way the school organization would 
 become more ela.stic all through, and boys would not 
 be forcibly kept in the same standard in arithmetic as 
 in reading. Let us not forget to congratulate the 
 country on the fact that the Code is now moving in 
 
 * This does not, of course, mean that every boy is not to be ex- 
 amined.
 
 no THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 this direction. It is every year getting rid of some of 
 its youthful crudeness. It is ripening and mellowing 
 with time. A most significant step forward, for ex- 
 ample, was taken in that very recognition of " intelli- 
 gence " to which we have above referred ; and a still 
 more significant one by the insertion of those little 
 words in Art. 19, c. i, — the words "in the classes," — 
 which words require the Inspectors to test " intelli- 
 gence " in the classes as wholes. But, unfortunately, 
 no article has yet attacked the root of the evil ; and 
 the consequence is that the teacher has no time nor 
 heart for the development of the intellectual and moral 
 character of his school. He is repressed on every side 
 by the laggards, and the school is repressed with him. 
 The dullest pupils have to be brought up to a minimum 
 standard, and energies have to be wasted on them 
 which would be much more profitably employed in the 
 quiet but steady cultivation of the mind of the school. 
 Time thus profitably employed would have an effect 
 which, by the nature of things, would be permanent. 
 Labour so directed would give an impulse to the intel- 
 lectual powers, and a training in moral perceptions 
 and moral habits, which the children would never lose. 
 The mental activity thereby engendered would not 
 cease with the school, but be a self-producing energy 
 of a kind that does not expend itself in one cfibrt, but 
 gains fresh force by making effort. It is only, in point 
 of fact, the skeleton of a school that is at present 
 estimated : to use biological language, the morphology 
 is reported on, the physiology is left out of sight — not
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. Ill 
 
 in name, but in truth. One is reminded of the words 
 of Quintihan (substituting the word ediicatiojie for 
 oratione), Prooem. 24 : " Plerumque nudae illae artes 
 frangunt atque concidunt quidquid est in educatione 
 gcnerosius, et omnem sucum ingenii bibunt et ossa 
 detegunt, qua^ ut esse et astringi nervis suis debent sic 
 corpore operienda sunt." The Duke of Newcastle's 
 Commission, which led to the Revised Code, ascer- 
 tained that children did not read after they left school 
 because they couldn't do it — a sufficient reason, certainly ; 
 but another commission will find out, some day, that 
 children can read, but dojit do it, simply because they 
 have not the desire to do it. Their intellectual 
 interests are nothing, and their intelligence is a 
 machine which has never really worked and has con- 
 sequently become rusted and clogged. If called upon 
 to work it will not move at all, or move with such pain 
 and discordant creaking that the process is not likely 
 to be repeated. Some people would seem to think 
 that the intelligence and morality of a people depend 
 on their being able to read with a certain fluency ; but 
 this is a mistake. It depends much more on their right 
 interpretation of daily experience — it depends on their 
 power of observation and of thinking. The Govern- 
 ment should aim, in so far as its influence extends, at 
 producing an observing, thinking, and moral popula- 
 tion, and the reading will take care of itself as one 
 of the instruments whereby the intelligence seeks to 
 extend its knowledge and practise its powers. 
 
 But how is the Government to measure the moral
 
 112 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 and aesthetic elements in the school ? These things, 
 as they are above price, so are they above measurement 
 by means of any article in a Code. I think we must 
 simply trust the Inspectors. Let them be empowered 
 to examine a class mainly with a view to its intelligent 
 mastery of the work of its standard and pass it as a 
 whole for grants, if it as a whole satisfies them ; pro- 
 vided always that, in the mere mechanical power of 
 reading, 85 per cent, of the class can pass. This is 
 the only cure for the evil. What, it will be said, is to 
 be done with the remaining 1 5 per cent. ? The answer 
 is easy. To use the words of Professor Black, of 
 Aberdeen, in an excellent address published by him 
 last April, the dunces are to be driven as far as they 
 '' can go ivithoiit hindering- their ncigJibonrs!' If they 
 cannot go on with their fellows, they must be left be- 
 hind to repeat their work. Even if at the end of their 
 school-life they cannot do mechanical reading and 
 writing so well as they might have done under the 
 present system (which, however, I do not believe), they 
 will have received a far more valuable possession — the 
 habit of exercising, or trying to exercise, such intel- 
 ligence as they possess. Meanwhile, the boys of 
 promise will not be unjustly retarded. I say unjustly, 
 for it is simply not fair that promising boys should 
 have their progress checked and their mental activity 
 restricted in order that the dunces may be taught to 
 spell. This is the worst kind of communistic social- 
 ism, for it is the communistic socialism of the soul. 
 Any incidental evils arising from placing implicit trust
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 113 
 
 in the Inspectors might be checked by organizing the 
 Inspectorate and giving a certain supervision and con- 
 trol to Chief or Diocesan Inspectors, whose duty it 
 would be to harmonize the inspection of large districts 
 of country. The Inspectors would report to their im- 
 mediate chiefs, and these again to the Department. 
 And, I may remark, in passing, that annual reports on 
 large sections of country in which the Inspectors-in- 
 chief made use of the materials furnished to them by 
 the sub-inspectors of their dioceses would be of great 
 public interest and value. 
 
 While speaking of the vexed question of the Code, 
 I wish to separate two of the objections taken to it, 
 which are commonly mixed together in the minds of 
 hostile critics. The one is its discouragement of the 
 higher subjects, in respect of which I hold that the 
 Department has simply not carried out the law, and 
 the character of the Code itself as it touches the whole 
 school and affects the masses of the people. I have no 
 sympathy with those who would sacrifice the mass of 
 a school to the few boys who desire preparation for the 
 professions ; and I agree with a schoolmaster who 
 wrote a few months ago in the Scotsman, in a very 
 healthy, manly way on this subject. There is time for 
 the Code within the five hours of religious and secular 
 instruction, and time before and after these hours for 
 the teaching of the higher subjects, while the pupil 
 teachers are being instructed. If more time is wanted, 
 and that during the ordinary school hours, the School 
 Boards must set free the master for this by the simple 
 
 I
 
 114 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 and cheap expedient of giving him an additional pupil 
 teacher. In many cases, indeed, the master could get 
 the additional monitorial assistance he needs in return 
 for the higher instruction. This question of the higher 
 subjects in schools is a totally distinct question from 
 the educational character of the Code in its main 
 features and primary objects. It is vain for school- 
 masters to ask to be relieved of English, geography, 
 arithmetic, dictation, etc., in order that they may teach 
 Latin and mathematics, and Greek, to five or six boys 
 and girls : nor do the best of them desire this. The 
 practical exclusion of all but the merest elements of 
 these last-named subjects from the ordinary work of 
 the school-day, if the length of that day does not ex- 
 ceed five hours, cannot be reasonably objected to. 
 The true objection to the Code is that its money pay- 
 ments are so awarded as to demand that the teacher 
 — if he would please his Board and maintain his 
 reputation in the eyes of the undiscerning multitude — 
 shall spend his energies on the dunces and laggards of 
 the school in the teeth of Nature and Providence. In 
 consequence of this, the masses are not attended to. 
 The teacher cannot devote himself sufficiently to the 
 slow and careful development of the intellectual and 
 moral power of his pupils — a matter, surely, of pro- 
 found importance to the country. I venture to say, 
 that any teacher who spends ten minutes in an intel- 
 lectual conversation with a class {after the Socratic 
 fashion) on the subject of the day's lesson, is con- 
 tinually haunted b\- the fear that he is losing three
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. II5 
 
 per cent, on account of some dull boy. Not that the 
 three per cent, matters ; but this dull boy, if not 
 attended to, lowers the per centage of Government 
 " passes " and affects the reputation of the teacher with 
 the people and with his Board. Is the attainment of 
 such a result as this promoting the education of the 
 mass of the people ? Is the country so profoundly 
 concerned about its dunces ? Is the bargain, which the 
 State effects in such a case with the schoolmaster, a 
 good bargain .? I think it is not. I think the State 
 is, in this case, after all, a very dull and incompetent 
 trader. 
 
 As regards, now, the " higher " subjects — that is to 
 say, those subjects which prepare boys for the Univer- 
 sities and girls for Training Colleges — this, I would 
 reiterate, is a totally distinct question, and lies outside 
 the main body of the Code. The master has no time, 
 with an ordinary staff, to teach more than the elements 
 of these during the five hours of religious and secular 
 instruction, if he is to do the work which we expect 
 the Public School to do for the public. But by teach- 
 ing the higher subjects above the elements, in the 
 pupil teachers' classes, before and after the ordinary 
 day's work, he can do much without over-straining his 
 powers. If, however, the local Board will allow him a 
 little additional assistance, and if Government will 
 consent to measure his day's work by an intellectual 
 and moral standard, he will have time within the 
 ordinary school-hours to make some substantial pro- 
 gress with advanced English, advanced arithmetic.
 
 Il6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 and the elements of geometry and Latin ; and this not 
 by giving the classes, as a whole, less of his attention, 
 but by giving them his very best. The pupils will 
 thus be prepared, intellectually, for the higher work, 
 and pre-disposcd to seek it ; while the master's spirit 
 will respond more readily to the demands made on 
 him for advanced instruction, when he is treated by 
 the State no longer as a mere machine, but as an in- 
 tellectual and moral force. 
 
 All instruction in the higher subjects, beyond the 
 first year of such instriiction, would have generally to 
 be given before or after the ordinary school-day. For 
 all such instruction it is essential that the master be 
 paid x\o\.pcr capita, but simply for success as a teacher. 
 It is a more exhausting process to teach two boys 
 Latin than to teach ten, and if a master has, owing to 
 local circumstances, only two pupils, it is not un- 
 reasonable to ask that he should be rewarded just as 
 if he had ten, by a fixed Parliamentary Grant. This 
 might be paid on condition that the local Board con- 
 tribute an equal sum, either in the form of additional 
 school assistance or of a direct increase of salary. 
 Already, in the School Board of Canonbic, we have an 
 instance of a Board which, seeing the rapid declension 
 of the higher subjects in a school formerly distin- 
 guished for the good teaching of them, offers a grant 
 from the rates i)i addition to the Government Grant. 
 And, let it be observed, that Boards in acting thus do 
 not pay for the instruction of a few boys and girls 
 only, but for the maintenance of a high standard in 
 
 J
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. II7 
 
 the school, which tells powerfully on every child in it. 
 The mental and moral stature of each individual pupil 
 grows with the mental and moral stature of the school. 
 
 I had hoped to be able to touch on some other 
 points, but time fails me. I should have liked to 
 speak of the desirableness of giving higher grants on 
 account of the fifth and sixth standards than for the 
 third and fourth ; but especially I should have 
 desired to speak of the rural-parish endowments of 
 Scotland, amounting to about ;^24,ooo a-year, as a 
 fund by means of which the higher instruction might 
 be encouraged in the country districts, in conformity 
 with the 46th section of the Scottish Education Act. 
 This would not be a diversion of the money, but a 
 strictly equitable application of it in our altered 
 circumstances ; and I have yet to learn that it would 
 be illegal. 
 
 I omit these things for the present, and some 
 others ; but I would, with a persistency which I trust 
 you will pardon, revert for a single moment to the 
 subject with which I began, and which beyond all 
 doubt is the educational question of the day in Scot- 
 land, viz. the training of teachers. Offer grants even 
 of i^io for every pupil who is being instructed in the 
 higher branches, and you will utterly fail to get what 
 you want unless the teachers have the ability to give it. 
 Let us have the right men ; provide a little additional 
 assistance in the school, and you will get all you 
 want easily. We have the needed money in the 
 counties aided by the Dick Bequest ; but the Bequest
 
 Il8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 would be powerless were it not for the co-operation 
 of the University of Aberdeen, which provides the 
 right men — men of good University attainments, and 
 possessed consequently of the highest scholastic am- 
 bition. How shall we continue to secure such public 
 servants if University diplomas are not recognized by 
 the State just as medical and other diplomas are 
 recognized ? 
 
 To conclude : there is every reason to be hopeful 
 of the future of Scottish education, and of the restora- 
 tion of the higher instruction to our public or parochial 
 schools. The Code, taken as a whole, has laid a good 
 foundation, and on this we can build. We do not 
 ask much from the Government, and we expect much 
 from the country itself It is true that the changes 
 we desire are of a vital character ; but they are easil}- 
 made, and — an important matter — they are in the 
 direction in which the Department has already begun 
 to move. A few minor defects would still remain : I 
 refer especially to the treating geography and history as 
 special subjects, and to the omission to allow a double 
 grant for boys who pass two standards in one year. 
 These subordinate defects time would clear away. A 
 few strokes of the Lord President's pen will do all we 
 who live north of the Tweed can reasonably desire, 
 and do it, I am certain, with the unanimous concur- 
 rence, nay, the applause, of all who arc interested in 
 the education of Scotland, and arc capable of patriotic 
 sentiment.
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
 
 THE HOUSE OF LORDS AND POPULAR 
 EDUCATION.* 
 
 The Function of the Primary School. 
 
 The debate in the House of Lords f on the Educa- 
 tion Code which ended in a majority of forty-eight, 
 virtually condemning the action of the Education 
 Department since 1870 in so far as it had encouraged 
 anything beyond the most elementary instruction, was 
 an event interesting in itself, and significant in the 
 history of education in England. Had the promoters 
 of what was virtually a vote of censure belonged to 
 the Tory party only, the result might have been 
 accepted as little more than a survival of a spirit sup- 
 posed to have been extinct. It was not so, however. 
 The Bishop of Exeter and Lord Sherbrooke ably 
 represented the other side, and were in themselves 
 
 * Fraser's Magazine. 
 
 f Debate of the i8th of June in which llie following motion by 
 Lord Norton was carried : " That a humble address be presented to 
 Her Majesty, praying that Her Majesty would be graciously pleased to 
 direct that the Fourth Schedule be omitted from the New Code of 
 Regulations issued by the Conmiittee of Privy Council on Education."
 
 122 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 evidence that there is a considerable feehng of dis- 
 content with the action of the Department, and a still 
 wider suspicion of its tendencies, if not of its aims. It 
 is worth while to inquire whether there are any 
 grounds for this dissatisfaction. 
 
 It would be (absurd unhappily) in our country to 
 suppose that any abstract educational theories have 
 had anything to do, in the first instance at least, with 
 the wide-spread doubts and dissatisfaction that ulti- 
 mately found confused expression in the House of 
 Lords. The money question is the real starting point 
 of the malcontents. It is the large vote that stirs 
 into activity the educational intelligence of the English 
 people, and leads them to ask the question. What are 
 we paying for, and whither are we tending ? Three 
 millions per annum is a large sum, and might build 
 more than one ironclad. The uneasiness with which 
 many see this expenditure, which, after all, is only a 
 portion of the total which the country pays for edu- 
 cating its poorer citizens, leads them to fasten blindly 
 on a certain class of payments that seem to be super- 
 fluous. In addition to money grants calculated on the 
 average attendance at a school, and the grants for 
 passes in the " three R's," the Department pays for a 
 class of subjects denominated " specific," which in the 
 opinion of the House of Lords are not necessary to 
 the child of the working man — nay, more, in their 
 general effect and social tendency, are positively hurt- 
 ful. These subjects certainly strike one, at the first 
 blush, as out of place in a primary school : they are
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 23 
 
 to be found in the Fourth Schedule attached to the 
 main body of the Code, and include mathematics, 
 English literature, Latin (in Scotland, Greek and 
 Physics), French, German, mechanics, physiology, 
 physical geography, botany, and domestic economy. 
 It may be possible to urge a good educational argu- 
 ment against giving instruction in such subjects in 
 a primary school, but it must be conceded that the 
 purely financial objection breaks down ; for the total 
 sum spent on such subjects (excluding domestic 
 economy for girls, to which we presume no objection 
 will be taken), is comparatively a mere trifle. 
 
 As part of an argument, however, against the 
 alleged tendencies of the Department gradually and 
 insensibly to draw into itself the whole work of 
 secondary education, the financial objection may have 
 weight. Is there any such tendency ? Is it credible 
 that in men depressed by routine the love of power 
 should still survive ? Is it conceivable that fervour in 
 a "cause" should stir the official mind? It is only 
 on the assumption that such things are possible that 
 we can imagine any ground for imputing to the 
 Department a disposition to transgress its limits ; for 
 whatever may be said of other departments of the State, 
 it is in the minds of the permanent officials that we 
 must seek for the motives and aims that determine 
 successive Education Codes, and this, because the 
 subject is one of such infinite detail that the master of 
 the details must, as pilot, control the vessel, whoever 
 may be nominally its captain. For our own part, we
 
 124 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 do not for a moment think the Department open to 
 any such imputation. That the love of power can 
 exist in the official mind, and in certain cases can 
 even flourish under folds of red tape, we might be in- 
 duced to believe ; but we do not think that any case 
 has been made out of a deliberate disposition on the 
 part of the Education Office to exceed its powers. 
 And, indeed, why should they ? They have enough 
 to do. A large and intricate machine is worked with 
 surprising efficiency, and we are satisfied that to work 
 it demands all the energy and ability in the service of 
 the Minister of Education. Since the days of Sir J. 
 P. Kay-Shuttleworth the Department has been gradu- 
 ally absorbing the whole primary education of the 
 country, and it is scarcely any exaggeration to say 
 that it is now (alas !) cognizant of what is going on in 
 every primary school in the country at every suc- 
 cessive minute of the school day. By some this may 
 be regarded as a proud position. To have conquered 
 so great an intellectual empire by means of money, 
 aided by the jealousies and mutual distrusts of 
 churches, is no small triumph. But it is only in a 
 limited and conventional sense, a success ; for, with 
 the advantages, come all the evils of over-centraliza- 
 tion, and these are more to be deprecated in the 
 educational than in other spheres of State administra- 
 tion. The life (jf education is the freedom of the 
 teacher and the school, within certain general restric- 
 tions ; and where this docs not exist, the intellectual 
 and moral evils of centralization far more than
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 12$ 
 
 counterbalance the gain. Every teacher in the country- 
 takes his orders from the Code, studies the Code, and 
 devotes his energies to satisfy or to circumvent it. 
 The power that resides in the Permanent Secretary's 
 pen is probably greater than that wielded by any 
 other official in the empire. Still this centralization 
 has been an unpurposed, though an inevitable, growth ; 
 and there seems no way out of it except by delegating 
 some of the powers to the county governing bodies 
 which we are now promised. County autonomy, con- 
 trolled by a central official Council consisting partly 
 of experts, is not inconsistent with the State's obtain- 
 ing all the best ends of a national system — nay, it is 
 probably the only way of best attaining those ends. 
 
 We say that the power already exercised by the 
 Department, and the many burdens that it has even 
 now to bear, must subject it to a great strain ; and 
 this, among other things, forbids our suspecting it of 
 designs on the secondary education of the country. 
 Were there any indications of such a design, the pro- 
 posed inroad into this new domain would certainly 
 have to be resisted. For, while admitting that 
 secondary instruction is a subject clamantly calling 
 for State organization, the work would have to be set 
 about under very different auspices from that of the 
 present Department, and would have to be controlled 
 by a larger and more liberal spirit. We believe the 
 fact simply to be, that impatient professors of all 
 the " ologies " have been struck with admiration of 
 the mighty instrument which the Queen in Council
 
 126 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 had put into their hands, and have pressed their 
 various pet educational crotchets on the patient and 
 perplexed permanent secretary. The result has been, 
 that round the dry and meagre Code introduced by 
 Mr. Lowe in 1861, there has grown, by inevitable 
 accretion, the list of " specific subjects " which now 
 call forth so much adverse comment. We cannot 
 believe the Department to be insensible to the humour 
 of the situation, and we half suspect that they have 
 with a certain wilful glee given the " modern spirit " 
 full rein just to see what the issue would be. 
 
 We not only acquit the Department of any such 
 ambition as that attributed to them, but we believe 
 that they are only acting on the line of the true 
 Liberal tradition in education, viz. that it is the duty 
 of the State in its own interest to see that all its 
 citizens have at least an opportunity afforded them of 
 being educated, not only up to the level of their 
 existing position in the social scale, but up to the 
 level of their possible position. Nor are we incon- 
 sistent in supporting, at the same time, both the 
 House of Lords and "the Department": the apparent 
 inconsistency is reconciled by a proper understanding 
 of the aims and the social restrictions of popular 
 education. We believe that the more education a 
 man has, if the substance and method of that education 
 be first wisely settled, the better citizen he will be — 
 nay, the better will he do even the humblest work 
 assigned to him. If any discontent arises, it will be 
 due not to the fact of the man's education, but to the
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 12/ 
 
 fact that he is educated beyond the level of his 
 neighbours, and that, while raised by his ability and 
 acquirements out of sympathy with the life of his 
 fellow-labourers, he is nevertheless debarred from 
 finding occupation more suited to his intellectual life, 
 which he yet sees to be easily within the reach of 
 men socially more fortunate than himself while in 
 respect of education they are his inferiors. 
 
 The question put before the country by the House 
 of Lords is not at all whether the Department is 
 trenching on the sphere of secondary education and 
 spending money illegitimately. The Lords do not 
 understand their own difficulty. The term "secondary" 
 education is loosely and inaccurately used. The real 
 point is — and some of the speakers seemed to be 
 vaguely conscious of it — Up to what age is imperial 
 revenue to be burdened with the cost of education for 
 the poor ; and having determined this, how shall the 
 time at the disposal of the child be used ? Are we at 
 present using the time profitably and getting our 
 money's worth .'' As a matter of fact, the school 
 education of the masses of the population ends in the 
 twelfth year ; nor is it likely, while poverty continues, 
 that it will ever be otherwise. But surely it is the 
 function of the State, always presuming that it has 
 any educational function at all, to encourage the con- 
 tinuance of school life as long as the pressing physical 
 necessities of the poorer classes permit. The House 
 of Lords (we refer to the reactionary members) may 
 rest assured that in the present, or indeed any, con-
 
 128 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 stitution of society, the prolongation beyond the 
 twelfth year will not be great. The age of fifteen is 
 not likely in any one case to be exceeded. The 
 longer the period of school life is, the more fruitful 
 is the result of the earlier years of training, and the 
 more certainly will the level of intelligence of the 
 humbler classes be raised — not only of those in- 
 dividuals who benefit by the prolonged instruction, 
 but (and this is the important point) of the whole social 
 class to which they belong. Is it necessary at this 
 time of day to argue that this is a matter of State 
 concern .'' Nations are now industrial communities 
 competing with each other, and the weapon with 
 which they now compete, and must for the future 
 compete, is intelligence. It is no longer an open 
 question whether we are to rely on the intelligence, 
 as well as on the moral and religious upbringings, 
 of the operative classes : we vmst do so. Technical 
 training in the various manufacturing industries can 
 reach only the few, and we believe that infinitel}' 
 more important than any amount of technical training 
 is the general intelligence of the workman as that 
 has been developed in the public school. Given a 
 well-exercised, open mind, and the requisite technical 
 knowledge and aptitude will be very easily acquired. 
 
 A leading aim of the primary school, then, is the 
 cultivation of the human intelligence, and we sincerely 
 believe that this is not attainable under the restrictions 
 which Mr. Lowe devised in the Revised Code of 1861, 
 or those which Lord Shcrbrooke would now rcimpose.
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 29 
 
 The meagre requirements of Mr. Lowe would probably 
 cost as much to the State as a more liberal demand, 
 and would bring back to society little or no return. 
 It might with truth be maintained that the bare 
 technical arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic are 
 of less moment to the individual and the community 
 than the assiduous cultivation of the intelligence, even 
 to the comparative neglect of these arts. It is fortu- 
 nately true that a certain amount of discipline is 
 indirectly given in the course of learning to read and 
 write, especially if good methods are employed ; but 
 would not more of these accomplishments themselves 
 be acquired were the daily instruction made subor- 
 dinate to the training of the spiritual instrument by 
 which they are acquired ? Lord Sherbrooke attempts 
 to strengthen his position by giving us his experience 
 of boys who had passed the sixth standard, and 
 who could not act as his private readers in such 
 a way as to make listening on his part an occu- 
 pation either pleasing or profitable. So then we 
 are to understand, by Lord Sherbrooke's own con- 
 fession, that his policy has been a failure. We 
 should have expected nothing else. Mr. Lowe in- 
 structs boys in the deciphering of printed characters, 
 and then complains that when all is over they cannot 
 read to him satisfactorily blue-books or the " Fort- 
 nightly." Why should they ? Reading aloud in any 
 .sense other than the mere naming of vocables is an 
 act of intelligence, and an act requiring an ever higher 
 intelligence as the subject-matter of what is read 
 
 K
 
 I30 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 grows in subtlety and complexity. Even with the 
 help of more disciplined and better-informed minds, 
 very few of the middle and upper classes can read in 
 a style that satisfies at once the understanding and 
 the ear of a cultivated listener. Probably, no accom- 
 plishment is more conclusive evidence that a boy has 
 been educated than the power of reading well. We 
 are quite ready to agree with Lord Sherbrooke : good 
 reading is more important than a knowledge of the 
 elements of Latin or of electricity and magnetism ; 
 and until the former is done, the latter may be left 
 out of the curriculum of the people's schools. But 
 how is reading, such as Lord Sherbrooke desiderates 
 to be obtained .■' Only by familiarizing the mind with 
 the subject-matter of books, and giving it command 
 over the words of literature, and the ideas which those 
 words denote. The House of Lords would not, we 
 believe, object to this being done, but they are 
 probably not aware that in accepting this as the 
 standard of education, they aim very much higher 
 than the promoters of a smattering of the specific or 
 so-called " secondary " subjects do. Such a result is 
 not to be attained except by a curriculum of in- 
 struction, carefully adapted to the age of the pupils, 
 in the realities of sense and of thought. The Education 
 Code should aim at this, and not at the beggarly 
 knowledge of the vocables of a reading-book which 
 has been carefully restricted in its scope to secure for 
 the pupil a Government " pass." 
 
 l^ we ask next on what materials the intelligence
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I3I 
 
 of the young is to be led to exercise itself, vvc answer 
 again, on the realities of sense and of thought. By 
 the former we mean nature and man's relation to it, 
 without any pretence to science and its (to children) 
 barren terms and empty formulated expressions ; by 
 the latter we mean the ideas and language of moral 
 and religious truth, and of imaginative literature. It 
 is only in this way that wc bring the young mind in 
 direct contact with the substance of the mental life of 
 all who have emerged above barbarism, and thereby 
 prepare them for the future teachings of the lecture- 
 room, the village library, and the church. By such 
 instruction alone we awaken the intelligence and 
 engage the moral affections of the young, and so best 
 fit them for their future lives. Reading must accom- 
 pany, or, at least, closely follow, the movements of 
 the active opening mind ; and then, at whatever 
 stage we have to part with the child, society will be 
 the better for what we have done, and the child him- 
 self will have received a start in a truly rational life, 
 and have such consolations in the toils and vicissitudes 
 of his humble career as an awakened spirit can give. 
 To imagine that a boy so educated will be a worse 
 ploughman or a worse man than if he had been left 
 in the condition of dumb driven cattle, is to suppose a 
 contradiction in thought and to despair of the future 
 of humanity. To imagine, on the other hand, that 
 we attain the human and humane ends of popular 
 education by sprinkling the misunderstood terms of 
 all the sciences through our schoolrooms is the very
 
 132 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 folly and perversity of educational fanaticism. AH 
 that such misapprehension of the relations of science 
 to the work of the people's school can effect is the 
 pretence of knowledge — a pretence as hurtful to the 
 teacher as to the pupil, and certain to bring discredit 
 on the very name of education. 
 
 The training of the intelligence by presenting it 
 with the food suited to its period of growth and which 
 it can readily assimilate, is, however, after all, only a 
 means to a higher end — the moral and religious 
 education of the pupil. This, surely, is the supreme 
 consideration in the case of each individual, and there- 
 fore also in the people's school. We say moral and 
 religious, for though we are far from denying that a 
 certain moral education can be given without religion, 
 we are satisfied that, deprived of the inspiration of 
 religion and of the motives and aspirations of the 
 spiritual life, the morality will be meagre, attenuated, 
 and lifeless. The result, apart from all theological 
 and ecclesiastical considerations, will not be satisfactory 
 so far as the mere humanity of the child is concerned. 
 It is melancholy to think that our religious strifes arc 
 to shut out the child of the poor man (who is pro- 
 foundly indifferent to them) from all that most deeply 
 touches the heart and awakens the sentiment of man- 
 kind. Is it reasonable that the children of the poor 
 should be debarred from all that most surely furnishes 
 consolation and hope in the chances and changes of 
 this mortal life, because a few of the dogmas that 
 have been erected on the broad human basis of our
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 133 
 
 common Christianity arc distasteful to the illuminated 
 and fanatical few ? The poor man and the struggling 
 woman among the poor cannot be expected to find a 
 substitute for religion in that self-complacent sense of 
 superiority which suffices to sustain the heart of the 
 intellectual Agnostic. The moral and religious in- 
 tluencc which should pervade the life of the school, 
 and which is quite compatible with the relegation of 
 dogmatic teaching to a fixed hour, is, we regretfully 
 admit, beyond the power of the State to produce at 
 command. Aloral teaching it can, however, in any 
 case require ; and for the rest it must rely on the 
 general purport of its instructions to teachers and 
 inspectors, but above all on the training which it gives 
 to the teachers zuhoin it rears for the public service, and 
 to the inspectors whom it appoints to supervise them. 
 It may be possible to inspire both these agents. 
 
 We have indicated the true work of the people's 
 school. It does not change its character at any stage 
 of the school curriculum. Whether the child leaves 
 at the age of ten, twelve, or fourteen, the instruction 
 he receives is still substantially the same as at the 
 age of six. We believe that, so far, we carry with us 
 Lord Norton, the Bishop of Exeter, and the majority 
 of those who voted with them ; and we are quite 
 certain that we have the assent of the few who have 
 given time and study to the science and art of 
 education. " Educational enthusiasts," where they 
 have any knowledge of the repressive conditions 
 under which the common school is worked, desire no
 
 134 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 more than has been here sketched, and they will be 
 content with no less. For such results our millions 
 would indeed be well expended. 
 
 But it is evident that to attain such results the 
 Code of the Department must begin and end dif- 
 ferently. It ought to lay down the material of in- 
 struction, and the course of intellectual discipline, 
 through which the child is to be carried from year to 
 year. Infants — that is to say, all under seven years of 
 age — have to be trained to the use of their observing 
 powers, in ways which wc need not here specify in 
 detail, but which are quite well understood. In the 
 course of this training their minds would be brought 
 into healthful contact with sensible objects, and a 
 broad foundation laid for subsequent real studies. 
 Satisfaction should also be given to the cravings of 
 imagination and sentiment by means of child-literature 
 and with the help of music. The moral and religious 
 impressions made on the heart at this early stage 
 would never in future years be obliterated — would 
 never, because they coiUd never. The rudiments of 
 reading, writing, and ciphering would not, of course, 
 be omitted, but they would, we maintain, be more suc- 
 cessfully taught by being held in subordination to the 
 higher ends of intellectual discipline and moral train- 
 ing. The successive years of school life simply repeat 
 and expand and confirm the teachings of the infant 
 school in ascending forms. The gradual additions to 
 real knowledge made from year to year would, by the 
 time the child had reached the sixth standard and the
 
 PRIMARY IXSTRUCTIOX. I35 
 
 age of thirteen, have brought him into intelh'gent 
 relations with nature. Science in any form would be 
 eschewed, but the more practical results of science 
 would be intelligently apprehended. The Nature- 
 knowledge to which we point would find its final 
 expression in the primary school in such admirable 
 statements of what is no\\- covered by the term 
 " physical geography," as that of Professor Geikie, in 
 his little shilling book on the subject ; while the laws 
 of healthy living and the rudiments of an under- 
 standing of social and economic conditions would also 
 find their place. Moral training, conducted in a 
 religious spirit and with a religious aim more or less 
 explicit, arises daily, nay hourly, in connection with 
 such teaching : it finds its opportunity in e\ery act of 
 school-life, when the master is competent for his im- 
 portant and delicate task. All this is quite practicable. 
 Were it not practicable, popular education would be 
 doomed to failure. With such a curriculum specific 
 subjects which bear the illusory appearance of being 
 " secondary " subjects would disappear, and the minds 
 of the Lords would be tranquillized. There are indeed 
 no specific subjects in education. Whatever it is im- 
 possible to work into the ordinary' life of a primary or 
 secondary school belongs to some other kind of 
 institution. Specific subjects are for specific schools. 
 Can any one doubt that a scheme of education such 
 as that sketched above would result in a far more wide- 
 spread intelligence, a far deeper interest in scientific 
 truth and literary expression, and a far finer moral
 
 136 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 spirit, than labouring against the grain in the dry 
 teaching of words and technical details based on text- 
 books constructed so as to teach the minimum which 
 will earn a Government grant ? And how much more 
 acceptable to the true teacher would a code conceived 
 in so liberal a spirit be ! 
 
 If it be said that there is not time for all this, the 
 answer is that it can all be accomplished simply by 
 using properly selected reading books, and by the oral 
 teaching of the master in extension of the suggestions 
 of these books, if he is supplied with proper apparatus, 
 and, above all, properly trained.* 
 
 Consider for a moment how the time is now spent 
 that is not devoted to such studies and training. In 
 " getting up " history so called, and grammar and geo- 
 graphy, in the teaching of which every demand made 
 by the Department is right in the teeth of all sound 
 educational principle. Go into a school where the 
 children are learning histor}', and you will find a huge 
 black-board covered with the names of kings and 
 battle-fields, and an accumulation of dates that would 
 provoke the laughter of every cultivated mind not 
 depraved by working the system. As to grammar, 
 we have more than once met little ragged boys on 
 the road not more than ten years of age with Morell's 
 "Analysis" in their hands, and little girls of seven 
 with their slates covered with lists of nouns ! As well 
 
 * It may be (lilTicult and dangerous ff)r llic .State t<i prescribe rcadinLj 
 books, but it can name books from whicli tiie teacher's oral teaching 
 is to l)e given.
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 37 
 
 might \vc ask them for lists of the fixed stars. This 
 ■cannot be in accordance with sound educational prin- 
 •ciples and method, for it shocks our common sense. 
 It was not by " educational theorists " that Govern- 
 ment got such ideas of school work, but from 
 ■" practical " men. Even where the Department does 
 open a passage for the entrance of an educational 
 principle, it converts it into an absurdity the moment 
 it tries to manipulate it. For example, it is a re- 
 cognized part of educational method that the learning 
 of geography should start with a child's immediate 
 parochial and county surroundings. This the Depart- 
 ment seizes on, and immediately perverts it by re- 
 quiring the children to waste their valuable time in 
 getting up the names of every insignificant locality 
 hi the county, — localities which were unknown to the 
 inspectors themselves, although they had traversed 
 the county again and again in the discharge of their 
 duties, until they specially got them up for the sole 
 purpose of torturing children and turning the study of 
 geography into ridicule. We speak what we do know. 
 This is the way the precious hours of childhood 
 are passed, and this is what we arc paying for. And 
 all to please whom ? We should like to know. Not 
 certainly the school boards, who care only for the 
 Government gold, and watch, lynx-eyed, the teacher 
 lest he should cheat them out of a three-shilling pass. 
 Not the schoolmaster, who, if he be an under-educated 
 drudge, may be content, for he can conceive nothing 
 higher than the mechanical ideal of the Department,
 
 138 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 but who, if he be a true teacher, with a h'ving soul 
 in him, is crushed with the dead weight of official 
 demands ; or, if he smiles at all, smiles the smile of 
 educational despair as he sees the inspector take up 
 his pack and go. Not the children, who not many 
 years ago were beginning to love school, but who 
 now regard it as a task-shop and a thing to be 
 avoided — one of the pains instead of one of the 
 pleasures of their little lives — with what effect on 
 their disposition to learn and obey may be conceived. 
 Not the inspector : he cannot love his life of itin- 
 erating schedule-mongering, for he is an educated 
 man. Not the Department : it only wants to get its 
 honest pennyworth, and docs not see how else to do it. 
 We are very far from being blind to the fact that, 
 spite of all this wasted energy, the mere collecting 
 of children together and subjecting them to organiza- 
 tion, obedience, and discipline, is a distinct gain to the 
 communit}-, and worth a good deal in the shape of 
 taxation ; and we gladly recognize in the Code- 
 improvements which introduce examination by classes 
 and grants for discipline and intelligence, a distinct 
 evidence of right intention. We still more gladly 
 welcome the action of the present Chief-Inspector of 
 Training Colleges in the direction of liberalizing the 
 education of teachens. We arc not blind to the 
 groping good intentions of the Department. But 
 the Code is vitiated throughout : it is rotten at the 
 heart. The supposed necessity of maintaining the 
 leading characteristic of the Revised Code of 1862
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 139 
 
 makes of the Code of 1880 a piece of patchwork. 
 Two shillings a head for intelligence, and is. 6d. for 
 organization and discipline ! As if any school should 
 be regarded as a school at all where these conditions 
 are not fulfilled ! 
 
 So much for the school up to thirteen years of 
 age. Children instructed on the lines which have 
 been (necessarily in this place) very generally in- 
 dicated, would go forth to sow and to reap and to 
 mine and to weave, ignorant of electricity and 
 magnetism, it is true, but with open eyes. They 
 would be ignorant of the precise date of the death 
 of Henry VI. 's grandmother, but they would have 
 in their souls some bright visions of British patriotism 
 and valour, and some inspiring recollections of duty 
 sublimely done. They would be ignorant of botany, 
 but we hope that they would know something of the 
 wayside flowers and trees : they would be ignorant 
 of physiology, but we hope that they would know 
 a good deal about the conditions of physical health : 
 they would be ignorant of mathematics, but we hope 
 that they would know something of weighing and 
 measuring : they would be ignorant of Latin, French, 
 and German, but they would, we hope, be able to read 
 with pleasure, because with mtelligence, the simpler 
 prose and poetical literature of their own country, and 
 to sing its songs. Their whole intellectual and spiritual 
 life would have been started into activity, and the 
 State's duty to the " masses " would have been dis- 
 charged. Note also that if the elementary knowledge
 
 140 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 acquired at school have a direct bearing on the 
 ordinary and daily life of the people, we thereby 
 secure a continuity between the education of school 
 and the education of life ; and it is only in so far as 
 this continuity is established that the boy becomes 
 a wiser, a more intelligent, and more virtuous citizen 
 than he would have been without the school. The 
 material of school work must be of the same stuff 
 as human life is made of 
 
 While the " Lords " then were substantially right 
 in their assault on the Code in its present patchwork 
 form, they were wrong in failing to see that it erred 
 by defect much more than- by excess, and, above all, 
 that it erred by misreading popular education in 
 respect both of matter and method. Neither Lord 
 Norton nor the Bishop of Exeter, while complaining 
 of the promotion by the Department of what are 
 called "secondary" subjects, indicated why those 
 particular subjects were to be reserved for a higher 
 class of schools than the primary. What is suitable 
 in education for the sons of ploughmen is, speaking 
 generally, equally suitable for the sons of noblemen 
 of the same age. Except in so far as foreign lan- 
 guages and mathematics are studied with a view 
 to a profession, they are, as instruments of education, 
 equally good or bad for all. The question is a social 
 one. If boys can continue their education from 
 thirteen to seventeen or eighteen, the subjects we have 
 named arc held, rightly or wrongly, to be the best
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I4I 
 
 discipline for them and an indispensable preparation 
 for the studies of a university. But neither on grounds 
 of discipline nor of utility can the introduction of such 
 subjects be justified, if circumstances prevent their 
 being prosecuted beyond the initial stages ; and as 
 ninety-five per cent, of the pupils of primary schools 
 must cease to attend school at thirteen at latest, it 
 ma\' be fairly argued that their attention should be 
 confined to subjects having a more direct relation 
 to their future lives. But what of the five per cent, 
 of superior organization ? Brains are not confined to 
 a class. It is of far more importance to the well- 
 being of the State and to the position it is to hold 
 relatively to other communities, that the finer spirits 
 should be educated out of the sphere in which they 
 have been born, than it is to the individuals them- 
 selves. The country cannot afford to waste brain- 
 power on hedging and ditching. And there is another 
 and a potent consideration. Social equality is a 
 dream, and communism is an injustice, if not a crime ; 
 but it is not only possible for the State, but incumbent 
 on it, to make a passage from one class to' another 
 and a higher, at least possible. Scotland is liberal in 
 politics, but we cannot imagine it becoming socialistic, 
 and this simply because the finer and more ambitious 
 spirits have a career opened to them. The path they 
 have to traverse may be rough, and it is right it 
 should be so ; but it is at least practicable. The 
 l)otential mental energy of the country is not dammed 
 up. Outlets are provided, and no boy can say that
 
 142 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 he has been unjustly used. Were the stronger spirits 
 among the poor north of the Tweed repressed — 
 crushed down by an educational organization sepa- 
 rating the lower from the upper in perpetuity, the 
 nation would ere long hear of it to its cost. It would 
 have to pay a much higher price than the trifling 
 addition to taxation which education continued in the 
 primary school beyond the age of thirteen demands. 
 On grounds, then, quite apart from that of Christian 
 humanity, provision ought to be made for the con- 
 struction of the " ladder." In primary schools, when- 
 ever the managers are willing, the Department is, we 
 hold, unquestionably right in encouraging more ad- 
 vanced teaching. Whether this encouragement should 
 take the wholesome form of special grants to teachers 
 to meet an equal grant from the local board, or the 
 trading form of capitation payments in accordance 
 with the genius of a nation of .shopkeepers, is not 
 wholly a matter of detail. The curriculum of study 
 would be probably best determined by the local 
 authorities, and should in any case be a curriculian, 
 and continue till a boy is fifteen. By that time the 
 special line of activity for which he is fitted would 
 have declared itself, and if he still gave high promise, 
 an exhibition should carry him to a real or classical 
 high school. Few might get so far ; but none could 
 say that the machinery of society was so contrived as 
 to block the way to the poor and deny them free 
 scope for their powers. What is of much more im- 
 portance, ten would receive the benefit of the more
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I43 
 
 advanced instruction for one who went out of his 
 social class : these would carry into their daily work 
 a higher intelligence, and so leaven the lower stratum 
 of society. 
 
 The establishment of certain exhibitions at county 
 schools, open to country boys, may be of service to 
 the sons of clergymen and medical practitioners, and 
 the larger farmers ; but it can never solve the question 
 of the secondary instruction of the poor. The son of 
 the poor man would soon find these advantages taken 
 out of his hands by the lower middle-class, whose 
 domestic habits and means enable them to prepare 
 their children for competition while the peasant's son 
 is labouring in the fields. Moreover, it is quite open 
 to question whether such a system of connecting 
 country with county schools would be salutary in its 
 effects. It is certainly desirable to open a path for 
 very promising boys and girls ; but even were this 
 path opened and strictly reserved for the peasant poor, 
 only one boy probably in every three or four years 
 would tread it, and the district from which he came 
 would be only indirectly and slightly benefited. The 
 true course, we repeat, is to provide for the intellectual 
 and moral life of the people's schools up to the age of 
 fifteen, wherever local authorities desire it. By such 
 provision the whole parish will be benefited, and a fair 
 proportion of thoroughly intelligent citizens added to 
 the agricultural and artisan class, not removed out of 
 it. In the course of such advanced primary instruc- 
 tion the boy born for what is conventionally con-
 
 144 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 sidered to be a higher Hne of Hfe (In any case a hfe- 
 where mental power is more needed) would mark 
 himself out from his fellows in ways that would be 
 unmistakable. The main purpose of these advanced 
 classes, however, would not be the discovery of such 
 boys or girls, but the promotion of the intelligence of 
 the parish itself and the raising of the body of the 
 people out of their cloddish indifference to all save 
 physical requirements, thereby making them fitter 
 occupants of the church pew and the village reading- 
 room. 
 
 In small towns and populous places the higher 
 classes of the primary school, to which we have re- 
 ferred, naturally separate themselves from the primary 
 school and specialize themselves into High schools 
 which carry the instruction of boys and girls still 
 further ; and this simply because in such localities a 
 larger number of parents can afford to maintain their 
 children after the age of fourteen or fifteen without 
 the aid of their labour. It would be superfluous in 
 these days to argue for the increase and organization 
 of schools of this class. The various occupations of 
 life require the services of men and women who have 
 as boys and girls gone through a much more pro- 
 longed education than can be obtained even at the 
 best primary schools ; and, apart from this, the tone 
 of provincial, and consequently of national, life must 
 always be low, and its aims narrow and contemptible, 
 where such schools do not exist. Permissive power 
 should be given to England, in terms similar to tho.sc
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I45 
 
 of the Scottish Education Act of 1878, to institute 
 such schools. This for a time might suffice until a 
 Minister of Public Instruction or (better) an Educa- 
 tional Council could take the matter in hand. In all 
 localities so provided, the primary school should not 
 carry its instruction beyond the age of thirteen, and 
 this, if for no other reasons, because it would be a 
 waste of power to do so. It will scarcely be main- 
 tained that the encouragement (not the enforcement) 
 of advanced primary instruction in country districts 
 could affect the institution of high schools situated in 
 fit localities. In any case it would scarcely be just to 
 sacrifice the children of the county to those of the 
 county-town. The object is always to get as much 
 educational work done as can be accomplished with 
 the means at our disposal, and without waste of 
 power. 
 
 We often hear it said that the middle classes 
 should pay for their own education, and that they are 
 in many cases now taking advantage of board and 
 other primary schools conducted under the Govern- 
 ment fee-maximum of nincpence per week. But we 
 are not aware that the middle classes themselves com- 
 plain of this. On the contrary, they say, Why are we 
 to pay for the education of the poor, and also for our 
 own schools ? ]\Iay we not share in the educational 
 machinery which our own self-imposed rates and im- 
 perial taxation provide ? Is a child to be excluded 
 from a country school because his father farms 100 
 acres? If not, then 200? Or, at what point are we 
 
 L
 
 146 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 to draw the line ? Is it not enough to rest satisfied 
 with the operation of social causes, feeling well assured 
 that as soon as a man has money enough he will seek 
 to separate his children from the mass ? What is 
 applicable to the country is equally applicable to the 
 town. It is only men who are raised far above the 
 struggle for a livelihood and who have exaggerated 
 notions of the wealth of the middle class, who venture 
 to complain of the small fee paid by those who, they 
 imagine, are quite competent to provide instruction 
 for themselves without the aid of rates. Those fami- 
 lies of the middle class who send their children to 
 board schools do so only because they cannot help it ; 
 and those who talk of the unfair advantage the middle 
 class seem to be taking are really ignorant of their 
 circumstances, and of the bitter secret struggle of the- 
 men and women who bear themselves bravely in the 
 face of the world in the maintenance of what is dear 
 tp them (and fortunately so, because important to the 
 State) — their " position." And who are they that 
 would cast a stone at their poorer neighbours ? The 
 charity of the past provides tJicvi with Eton and 
 Oxford. We may rest assured that if we once have 
 high schools in all our important centres, we may 
 safely leave the relation of the lower middle-class 
 population to State-aided primary schools to settle 
 itself ; and if at present, under shelter of the Educa- 
 tion Department, a few families seek in such schools 
 advanced instruction which would be otherwise quite 
 inaccessible, we should rather be glad of this, and
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I47 
 
 accept it as a clear indication that more is wanted 
 than the State has yet provided. 
 
 Meanwhile we think it would be well to encourage 
 in every way the disposition of the Department to 
 extend the education of primary schools to the age of 
 fifteen, and at the same time to give them powers to 
 refuse grants beyond the sixth standard to schools 
 situated in localities already provided with high schools 
 accessible to the poorer class of promising pupils. 
 The only exception we should make to this would be 
 in the case of Normal or Model schools, and this for 
 obvious reasons. But in all cases where the Depart- 
 ment recognizes instruction to the age of fifteen, they 
 should, we think, simply test the education given, 
 allowing each locality to find out for itself what it 
 most needs or desires. 
 
 We are not prepared to assent to the broad general 
 proposition that the State is bound to educate all its 
 citizens in the sense of promoting the culture of each 
 individual as such. On the contrary, it is more strictly 
 correct to say that the State's function to the indivi- 
 dual as such is discharged if it leaves him as free as 
 possible, and that, in charging itself with education, 
 it does so for State ends alone — in the interests, 
 that is to say, of the commonwealth as a whole. 
 It is quite entitled, therefore, to specify its demands 
 in return for the expenditure it resolves upon. With 
 a view to this it must ultimately, through some 
 machinery or other, however decentralized, control 
 the schools, control the training of teachers, and con-
 
 148 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 trol the inspectors. But it must do this wisely, and 
 on the sure foundation of educational principle. Its 
 Code must not be. an aggregate of dislocated sugges- 
 tions tied together by no unity of purpose, but only 
 by the thread that stitches the leaves together ; nor 
 must it shock the common-sense of the community by 
 a vain show of science falsely so called. 
 
 Neither in the course of instruction we have slightly 
 sketched, nor in the continuance of that course beyond 
 the sixth standard, is there anything beyond the reach 
 of the Department even as it stands. The teachers 
 are, as a whole, quite competent for the task if they 
 are encouraged to undertake it, the inspectors are all 
 men of education and ability, and no one questions 
 the efficiency of the Department itself to do what it 
 thinks worth the doing. The weakest link in the 
 chain of agencies is doubtless the teacher, but this 
 instrument also is under the all-powerful hand of the 
 Whitehall officials. For it is the Department that 
 really controls the training colleges while deftly man- 
 aging to get gratuitous administration and twenty-five 
 per cent, of what is properly State expenditure, out of 
 the pockets of the various denominations in exchange 
 for an illusory right of management. But this is a 
 large question, and we shall not enter on it here. 
 We would only say, that if popular education means 
 what we think it means, the training of teachers 
 is a matter of prime importance. If it means what 
 Lord Sherbrooke thinks it means, then the arguments 
 urged for expending public money on training fall to
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I49 
 
 the ground, the present remuneration given to teachers 
 is absurdly extravagant, and their claim to social 
 recognition, in consequence of their presumed high 
 social function, disappears. Female ex-pupil teachers 
 can do all the national work that Lord Sherbrooke 
 desires to see done ; and if there be difficulty as to 
 their maintaining discipline in boys' schools, this 
 difficulty could be easily overcome by requiring the 
 frequent presence of the local policeman. 
 
 We conclude then that while more advanced 
 teaching and the so-called higher subjects have no 
 place in the primary education either of poor or rich, 
 they have an easily defined place up to the age of 
 fifteen in the primary school, and that, in so far as the 
 Department is feeling its way towards this result, it is 
 in accord with all the best feeling of the country, and 
 promoting the ends which a national educational 
 system is intended to subserve. We are glad to think 
 that there is no fear that the present heads of the 
 Department will fail in carrying out this liberal view 
 of their duties. Both Lord Spencer and Mr. Mundella 
 have at Sheffield strongly expressed their opinion 
 that the spread of elementary education necessarily 
 produces the desire for higher instruction, to which 
 " all the children of the country " have a claim " ac- 
 cording to their needs, capacities, and prospects ; " 
 and further, that it is the duty of the State to provide 
 such instruction, " not only thoroughly, but generously 
 and with an unstinting hand." The Duke of Argyll 
 has shown, moreover, that in Scottish schools attention
 
 150 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 to higher instruction has not resulted in the neglect of 
 the general instruction of the main body of the school. 
 As a mere matter of fact, the blue-books nowhere 
 show so high a percentage in the ordinary subjects of 
 the Code as in those parts of Scotland where instruc- 
 tion is carried furthest. Nay, it is found that the 
 existence of advanced classes in public schools has 
 a stimulating effect on the intelligence of the whole 
 school, and thus all are gainers — master and pupils 
 alike. The same system rightly understood and 
 applied would produce similar results elsewhere. A 
 higher and more intelligent spirit would then arise in 
 all our public schools, and Lord Sherbrooke would 
 have no longer any reason to complain that a boy 
 who had passed the sixth standard could not read 
 satisfactorily. If he and his fellow Peers interested 
 in education would direct their attention to the im- 
 provement of the Code in respect both of substance 
 and form, they would further the cause which they 
 have no doubt at heart far more than by the mere 
 negative and uninstructed criticism in which they 
 indulged during the recent debate in the House of 
 Lords.
 
 ON HIGHER PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 Higher Subjects in Public or Elementary Schools.* 
 
 I HAVE been asked by your committee to deliver an 
 address at this conference on the best way of pro- 
 moting instruction in the Higher Subjects (so-called) 
 in the Primary Schools, with special reference to 
 existing educational endowments. I feel, however, 
 that I cannot deal with this subject under the limita- 
 tions suggested, and that I must take a larger sweep. 
 I propose, accordingly, to consider generally the best 
 way of promoting instruction in the Higher Subjects 
 in Public Elementary Schools generally. 
 
 We have arrived at a critical period of Scottish 
 educational history — the most critical, in my opinion, 
 since the year 1696. The Act of 1872 settled the 
 question of quantity in our educational machinery, 
 and gave the country a complete elementary school 
 organization. Again, Lord Advocate Watson, by the 
 1 8th clause of the Education Act of 1878, has done 
 
 * Delivered before tlie Conference of the Educational Institute of 
 Scotland,
 
 152 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 more for the education of Scotland than perhaps he is 
 aware of. The power of rating for high schools, 
 which he has been the means of conferring on the 
 school boards, completes the work of Lord Advo- 
 cate Young ; and, for the first time, the Reformation 
 ideas of a Scottish educational system are legisla- 
 tively recognized. The work now before the country 
 is one of administration only, and we have to con- 
 gratulate ourselves on the vantage-ground which we 
 at last occupy. The Act of 1872 brought schools, to 
 the people, and, in so far as it failed to bring the 
 people to the schools, it has been during the pa,st year, 
 in this respect also, amended and completed. 
 
 The question of quantity being thus settled, the 
 attention of us all is now naturally directed to that of 
 quality. Is the nation getting full value for its money 
 and labour ? I think it is not. Why it is not, and 
 how it may do so, are subjects which it peculiarly be- 
 comes the educational profession to consider. Their 
 right to a hearing is unquestionable. On the politics 
 of education, it is true, teachers have no right to 
 assume the attitude of specialists; the subject is far too 
 wide and far-reaching in its bearings on the whole his- 
 tory and social organism of a country to be dealt with 
 by any one class. Teachers occupy, in this sphere, 
 the position of (presumably) well-informed citizens, 
 and nothing more, l^ut, in all matters that pertain 
 to education itself, they arc entitled not only to speak, 
 but to a respectful hearing. It is only when their 
 counsels are guided by those who lose sight of educa-
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I 53 
 
 tion, and, in their desire to acquire personal importance, 
 pander to class-interests, flatter class-weaknesses, and 
 feed class-vanity, that the educational body is to be 
 suspected and distrusted. 
 
 My text is the " Higher Subjects in Public or 
 Elementary Schools : " it is a plea consequently 
 for the encouragement of Higher-primary schools. I 
 begin by saying that I dislike — not the term " Higher 
 Subject-s," but the exclusive sense in which that ex- 
 pression is employed. I cannot admit that Latin, and 
 mathematics, and Greek are " higher subjects " in 
 any sense in which advanced English, advanced 
 arithmetic, and economics, and the elements of physi- 
 ology in their practical relations, are not also " higher 
 subjects." A "higher subject" is any subject what- 
 soever pursued beyond its elements. What is really 
 commonly meant in Scotland by the expression, is 
 " University''' subjects. If the Faculties of Arts were 
 to throw over Latin and mathematics to-morrow, and 
 to substitute German and chemistry, then the ex- 
 pression " higher subjects " in Public Schools would 
 change its meaning, and signify, hencefortli, German 
 and chemistry. Understand, then, that while by 
 " higher subjects " I here mean those subjects that 
 fit a boy to enter a Scottish University, I do not re- 
 strict myself to these. 
 
 I am the more anxious to be clearly understood on 
 this subject, because I hold that the leading subject of 
 all discipline and of all culture is our own tongue.
 
 154 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 This is the centre round which all true education of 
 the intelligence turns. It is only the exceeding 
 difficulty of rightly and effectually teaching English 
 beyond the elementary stages, that drives me, as an 
 educationalist, to stand by Latin, and to advocate it, 
 even for those boys whose school-life ceases at fourteen 
 or fifteen. 
 
 We are told that the " higher subjects " of Latin 
 and mathematics are somehow connected, in a special 
 way, with the clerical profession, and it is not the 
 business of the schools to supply the pulpits of the 
 various churches. If the knowledge and discipline ac- 
 quired by the study of the higher subjects had merely 
 a technical bearing on any one profession, then the ob- 
 jection urged might have some weight ; but the facts 
 are notoriously otherwise. Look up our University 
 calendars, and you find set down, as preliminary to a 
 course of study for Master of Arts, Latin and mathe- 
 matics ; as preliminary to study for a Degree in Law, 
 Latin and mathematics ; as preliminary to a Degree 
 of Medicine, Latin and mathematics ; and again, as 
 preliminary to a Degree in Science, Latin and mathe- 
 matics. It appears, then, that Latin and mathematics 
 is the double key that opens the doors of every pro- 
 fession. If this be the fact, and it is the fact, the 
 identification of the Church with those higher sub- 
 jects is henceforth impossible in any honest argument. 
 
 Apart, then, altogether from reasons of a purely 
 educational kind, I stand by the (so-called) higher 
 subjects because they arc the sole avenues to the
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 155 
 
 various professions. Let this be distinctly under- 
 stood ; and let us now expose another fallacy of 
 the enemy. This fallacy may be expressed in brief 
 thus : — " Primary Subjects for Primary Schools ; 
 Higher Subjects for High Schools." In presence 
 of this plausible formula. I am again forced to 
 ask the question, " What are ' primary ' subjects, 
 and what are ' higher ' subjects ? " Is English a 
 " primary " subject only ? Ask Professor Masson, and 
 Professor Nichol, and Professor Spencer Baynes, and 
 Professor Bain. Is Arithmetic a " primary " subject ? 
 Ask Professor Kelland — in asking whom, you ask 
 perhaps the broadest and most enlightened of all 
 Scottish educationalists, though himself an English- 
 man. In short, there is no such thing as a " primary " 
 subject, and no such thing as a " higher " subject. Every 
 subject of instruction has its beginning, its middle, and 
 its end ; and the extent, and time, and mode of teach- 
 ing it is a question of the pupil's age and stage of ad- 
 vancement, and that is all. And if this be so, there 
 cannot be, in any country, a consistent and steady line 
 of demarcation between the primary and secondary 
 school and the primary and secondary teacher, without 
 serious disadvantage to that country, except perhaps 
 where both kinds of school exist in the same locality. 
 But further, if we confine higher subjects in the 
 sense of University subjects to high schools, we 
 thereby confine the Universities and the professions to 
 those boys who have the good fortune to be born 
 within walking distance of town high schools. I ask,
 
 156 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 is this desirable in the interests of the community ? 
 Can a great empire Hke ours continue to subsist if we 
 do not lay under contribution all the best brains in 
 this small, but imperial island ? Assuredly not ; for 
 all the intellectual needs of the State, we require to 
 draw forth the best intellects of the community. Nor 
 is this all ; for what shall we say of the inherent rights 
 of the finer brains ? Is that clever boy — the son of a 
 poor crofter or of a village smith or carpenter, whose 
 spirit is touched to a finer issue than ploughing or 
 sowing — to be told that the State has so arranged the 
 educational machinery of the country that he is 
 doomed to be a hewer of wood and a drawer of water 
 in the teeth of the divine purpose, by virtue of which 
 he is intended for better things ? I ask the Politician 
 — Is this safe for the State ? I ask the " Liberal " 
 newspaper — Is there any Liberalism in this ? I ask 
 the Democracy — Where is true Democracy to be 
 found if not in the recognition of the just claims of 
 each individual son of the soil ? I ask those who 
 tremble before the secret and assured advance of 
 communism, by what counter-theory can they hope 
 to meet it and destroy it, save by the theory of in- 
 dividualism, which involves a free and open field for 
 the intellect of those who have been born poor ? 
 "Granted," say the admirers of paper systems, "but 
 we shall meet the difficulty by providing bursaries in 
 connection with secondary schools in towns ! " Now, 
 the very smallest sum which will provide clothing, 
 board, and education for a poor country boy, who has
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 15/ 
 
 no private resources, is ;^35 a-year, involving an 
 annual expenditure, if the scheme is to be national, of 
 ^70,000 or ^80,000 in Scotland alone. We may rest 
 assured that a golden ladder of learning such as this 
 will never be constriicted. Besides, even if it were to 
 be constructed, it would have to be under the control 
 of a central administration, and would inevitably be- 
 come rigid and inelastic in its rules. Then, at what age 
 are boys to be transferred from their parents' roof? 
 If taken too young, you have many difficulties to face 
 which are insuperable. First, you have this difficulty : 
 that country parents of the poorer class require the 
 labour of their boys at certain seasons of the year — a 
 labour which is of good educational effect on the in- 
 tellect and character of the boys themselves. Secondly, 
 you have the reluctance of parents to part with boys 
 who are mere children — a reluctance to be honoured 
 and to be encouraged in the interests of the family 
 and of society. Thirdly, you have the evil — and a 
 most serious one it is in its moral influence — of 
 separating boys from their own class, and dissociating 
 them from the education of home-influences and 
 worthy poverty. You thereby create a class within a 
 class ; you force into existence a number of bursary 
 prigs, and undermine all that goes to make character, 
 without which knowledge is little better than a curse. 
 Fourthly, you would have to subject boys to the strain 
 of competition at an age so tender as to be hurtful to 
 the boys, and therefore to the community ; for mark 
 that you would injure six boys for every 07ie that you
 
 158 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 would select for special privileges. Fifthly, you would 
 weaken the instruction of the school, and, through it, 
 lower the intelligence of the whole parish by removing 
 from it, prematurely, its finest spirits. Sixthly, you 
 would injure the education of the school by limiting 
 the master's conception of his work, and the ambition 
 of his scholars to a premature bursary limit ; the 
 master's duty being everywhere to carry on the educa- 
 tion of the children of the parish as long as he can 
 induce them to stay with him. A dozen intelligent 
 and educated boys and girls are of more value to the 
 nation than one over-pushed pre-eminent precocity. 
 
 For these reasons, I hold that fourteen is quite the 
 lowest age at which you can safely call for bursary 
 competitors, as it is the lowest age at which the school- 
 master's work in a primary school would naturally 
 cease. 
 
 Let us assume this, and ask next what must be 
 the standard of proficiency in a boy of fourteen who 
 looks forward to one of the professions, or to the 
 public service? What, in other words, are to be the 
 subjects of examination for the secondary school 
 bursaries ? Latin, and mathematics, and English, in 
 any case, I presume ; and such amount of these as 
 will enable the boy to take his proper place in a 
 secondary or high school. If this be so, then it follows 
 that these subjects must enter into the curriculum of 
 the upper classes of the parish school, if we are in 
 earnest about our educational ladder, and are not 
 merely posing before the public as liberal education-
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I 59 
 
 alists, for some personal political object, while all the 
 time we are actuated by social superciliousness, or are 
 the unconscious victims of our own dry inhuman 
 doctrinairism. From all which it appears that the 
 work of the primary-school must overlap, and in rural 
 districts ought to overlap, that of the secondary or 
 high school. 
 
 I say of the secondary or high school — not of the 
 University. I wish to emphasize this, because I think 
 that the University can never properly discharge its 
 duties to society unless it begin its proper work with 
 students in their eighteenth year, and adequately 
 prepared. There can be no objection to a University 
 establishing or retaining (for a time, at least) certain 
 junior or preparatory classes, as a kind of paedago- 
 gium, taught by tutors under the direction of the 
 professors, for lads who are too old or too rustic to 
 be quite comfortable in a city high school, so long as 
 the time spent in the paedagogium does not reckon 
 as an annus acadeviiciis qualifying for a degree. The 
 present system has only one possible defence, viz., 
 that it secures a large income to those professors who 
 are doing the work — an argument which has not so 
 much weight with me as it perhaps would have were 
 I one of these happy professors. If we are to have a 
 University paedagogium at all, I would have the fees, 
 after deducting tutorial expenses, go into the Uni- 
 versity chest, and distributed among those professors 
 whose income necessarily, from the nature of their 
 subjects, falls below a certain amount ; provision being,
 
 l60 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 of course, made for vested rights. It would be neces- 
 sary, also, to take measures to prevent the University 
 paedagogium underselling high schools. But this by 
 the way. 
 
 That University subjects should be taught in the 
 public school, as part of the work of the higher classes 
 of the school, I hold to be not only desirable, but 
 essential to the well-being of the country. The prac- 
 tice is also in the line of the tradition of Scottish 
 education. It has done more directly, and, above all, 
 indirectly, to maintain the tone and thoroughness of 
 the Scottish parochial school than anything else. It 
 has elevated those who have had no direct benefit 
 from it, and has engendered a respect for education 
 which the peasantry of no other country possesses in 
 the same degree. We cannot measure the wide-reach- 
 ing influences of a system by means, of statistical 
 returns of the number of boys who can construe a 
 little bit of Latin. The bonds which sustain the 
 life of a community escape the perspicacity of the 
 clerks in the Registrar-General's office, and decline 
 to figure in the most elaborate of schedules. It is 
 really, after all, a question of little moment whether 
 the percentage of pupils in Latin and mathematics 
 is less now than in the first half of the century. It 
 is better to stand on the general opinion that it ought 
 to be larger than it is. But I am not afraid of 
 statistics, if you will provide an interpreter of them. 
 I have given some attention to the subject, and my 
 conclusion is that six percent, of the pupils of country
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. l6l 
 
 parochial schools used to be taught Latin. We are 
 told that the percentage is steadily increasing ; and 
 the following fallacy is presented to the public by 
 those interested in London centralization, viz., that 
 the records of the Education Department show a 
 steady increase. An increase from what ? From 
 what existed in 1873, when the Code came into opera- 
 tion ? Not at all ; but from the returns of that year. 
 The teachers of the country had temporarily given 
 up Latin and mathematics in their struggle to meet 
 the various requirements of the Code. They had to 
 satisfy their new masters. When they had fitted their 
 shoulders into their new harness they took up Latin 
 ■ again, presented pupils, and satisfied statistics. As 
 schools and the organization of schools became settled, 
 the number of Latin pupils increased, and was certain 
 to increase. But all this furnishes a misleading basis 
 for fact. The question is, What has been the percent- 
 age of increase as compared, say, with 1870? Assume 
 it to have been six per cent, then, what is it now ? 
 Trying to strike a mean between the somewhat con- 
 flicting opinions of the defunct Board of Education 
 and the Education Department, we may set it down 
 at four per cent. So far satisfactory ; but still mis- 
 leading. For, first, the six per cent, of old days was 
 calculated on country schools alone, and of the boys 
 in these ; the present four per cent, includes town 
 schools and girls. Secondly, we all know that the 
 first stage of Latin is mere memory work, and can be 
 taught to large numbers within the ordinary school 
 
 M
 
 l62 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 hours. The testing question we have to ask is — What 
 percentage of pupils is in the third stage — the Ccssar 
 stage, let us say ? For be it observed, the old paro- 
 chial schoolmaster never dreamt of putting all his 
 highest class into the Latin grammar in order to earn 
 4J-, a head. His Latin and mathematical pupils were 
 all boys who meant to go on with their studies ; 
 and, accordingly, you must find the present per- 
 centage of those in the third stage, and add a fair 
 proportion of those in the first and second, if you 
 desire to ascertain whether the University subjects 
 are declining or not. Compare the number in the 
 third stage in 1879 with the number in the same 
 schools who were in the first stage in 1877, and you 
 may work out the number of bona fide Latin pupils ; 
 and if, when you have got this, it yields six per cent, 
 of the boys in country schools, I shall be only too glad 
 to hear it. But, until we hear this grateful news, we 
 must assume that the result and, still more, the. ten- 
 dency of the Code is to crush out the University 
 subjects. If any one doubts it, I ask the explanation 
 of the fact that pupil teachers in public schools, who 
 have had five years' instruction, and arc eighteen years 
 of age, don't know elementary Latin when they come 
 up to compete for entrance into training colleges ? 
 The test was last year more difficult than in 1877, 
 I admit ; but it was more difficult only after due 
 warning given to all concerned. Moreover, it was 
 the Government's own test. The Education Depart- 
 ment fixed the standard and examined the papers ;
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTIOX. 163 
 
 and the standard was certainly not higher than ought 
 to be reached by all students entering the junior 
 classes of our Universities. The Scotsman may 
 sophisticise as it may ; it cannot wipe out this melan- 
 choly fact. Melancholy, for it places beyond question 
 that, of the two hundred students who enter the 
 training colleges next month, not more than thirty 
 will go out to the country two years hence com- 
 petent to instruct in Latin, and, perhaps, a dozen in 
 all fit to instruct in the rudiments of Greek. This 
 has been going on ever since the training colleges 
 came under a Government Code, during which period 
 three-fourths of the existing masters of country 
 schools have been sent out ! 
 
 This brings us to the question — How in these 
 circumstances are we to secure that the University 
 subjects shall be taught in our public rural schools to 
 all who desire instruction in them ? 
 
 I do not complain of the absence of this instruc- 
 tion solely because the State thus filches from the 
 Scottish country school-boy a hereditary right, but also 
 because the masters are less cultivated than they 
 might be ; and, consequently, the intellectual and 
 moral tone of the schools grievously suffer. The 
 quality of education, in the true sense of the word, is 
 lowered for the whole nation. The idea of the 
 Scottish parochial school is departed from. 
 
 Do not suppose that I would sacrifice the majority 
 of a school to the (qw clever boys. Far from it. I 
 sympathize profoundly with the resolve of the Educa-
 
 l64 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 tion Department, that the unquestionable defect of our 
 old • Scottish education shall be removed ; that the 
 flagrant wrong to the many shall be put down ; and, 
 if need be, with a strong hand. All approve of the 
 institution of standards — all approve of very much in 
 the Code. The maligned Code has been in many 
 respects of signal service to us. What we complain 
 of is, that the educational idea has not yet penetrated 
 into the Education Office. The educational idea is 
 an ethical idea. The school aims first of all at the 
 moral and religious life, and all other things are to 
 be subordinated to this. We do not w'ish to make 
 intelligent monkeys, but living men and women. To 
 do this the ethical substance of education, including 
 the elements of the laws of health and of economics, 
 must enter into the ordinary teaching — not be re- 
 legated to the region of specific subjects. These 
 things are in no true educational sense " specific 
 subjects." To constitute, for example, a department 
 of the Code out of scraps of English verse said by 
 heart, and to call that " literature," is at once to mis- 
 conceive the whole significance of the language-train- 
 ing of the school, and to insult the majestic name 
 of English literature. The native literature of a 
 country is the main channel of the educative force of 
 a master. It is the chief weapon in his armoury, 
 whereby he achieves his ethical aim. And what shall 
 we say of Code history ? Small-type condensations of 
 facts and dates — a kind of concentrated soup in three- 
 penny packets, and sixpence off if you take a dozen.
 
 PRI^rARY INSTRUCTION. 165 
 
 And how is it all put into their little heads ? It 
 is not taught, it is injected. Helpless, home-neglected 
 children, with their soft brains and unformed wills, 
 are required, like the slave negroes of the old cotton 
 plantations, to toe the line or feel the lash, lest 3^. 4^/. 
 be lost. And this is education ! On what principle 
 of justice is it that the clever pupils are weighted 
 and dragged down by the dull and slow, or the 
 home-neglected ? The present practice I have else- 
 where called Educational Communism, which is just 
 as much or as little defensible as Political Com- 
 munism. I ask, will not the dull and slow profit more 
 by the raised intelligence and moral spirit of the 
 school to which they belong, than by a successful 
 struggle to read off correctly a few words and recite 
 a few facts at the expense of the intelligence and pro- 
 gress of the whole ? 
 
 I find myself plunged into the middle of the Code 
 when I ought to be speaking of the University sub- 
 jects ; but there is a method in the seemingly per- 
 verse digression. For the first thing that has to be 
 done to make advanced teaching, and consequently 
 the teaching of the University subjects, possible is, 
 that the school shall become an educational institu- 
 tion, and be no longer a Code-mill, between the upper 
 and nether stone of which the souls of the children 
 and the hearts of teachers are ground to dry dust. 
 
 First, then, individual examination must cease, and 
 the Inspector must go right for the intelligence and 
 life of each class. He will keep his eye on the reading
 
 l66 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 and writing and counting of each pupil, of course ; 
 
 but, unless he find that more than fifteen per cent. 
 
 of each class is very backward in technical knowledge, 
 
 he should pass the class as a whole for grants. I 
 
 would substitute a class test for the individual test 
 
 under certain reasonable safeguards, easy to devise. 
 
 The teacher would then have time to bring his own 
 
 mind and heart into personal relation with the mind 
 
 and heart of his pupils. Education would become 
 
 possible. And, with an intelligence aw-akened, and 
 
 love for learning thus inspired, the teacher would 
 
 have no difficulty in giving a whole year of Latin 
 
 and Euclid before his pupils had emerged from the 
 
 sixth standard. Unless you concede this to me, I 
 
 have nothing to say on the higher and University 
 
 subjects, save that they cannot be taught except at 
 
 extra hours and for extra pay. And the truth is, I 
 
 care little for them, except in so far as they rest on 
 
 the sure and happy foundation of the true education of 
 
 the whole school. Given this, and, I repeat, the master 
 
 can give a year's Latin and mathematics before the 
 
 conclusion of the sixth standard. And what after 
 
 that, you will say ? He will in the following year 
 
 form a seventh standard, and the year after that an 
 
 eighth ; and by that time the promising boys will 
 
 be able, after a year in .some high school, to enter 
 
 the junior classes of a University if they choose to do 
 
 so. If they do not, the State is notwithstanding so 
 
 much the wealthier by the accession of a certain 
 
 number of active, intelligent, and educated brains.
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 6/ 
 
 Larger capitation grants for Latin and mathe- 
 matics than for physiology, etc., would not work 
 miracles. Its chief effect would be a moral effect ; 
 it would throw the influence of the State on the side 
 of these subjects instead of on the side opposed to 
 them, as at present. This would, doubtless, be of 
 great importance ; but the true way is to recognize 
 advanced standards by allowing higher grants for 
 them as a whole. To continue boys and girls at 
 school beyond the sixth standard for the mere pur- 
 pose of studying certain specific subjects is, from the 
 true educational point of view, a blunder. Every 
 possible inducement should be offered for their con- 
 tinuing at school, but this for the purpose of continu- 
 ing their general education, of which Latin and 
 mathematics are only a part. If increased grants are 
 made for those who pass in the sixth, seventh, and 
 eighth standards as classes, without regard to whether 
 Latin is part of the school work or not, the question 
 whether Latin shall be part of that work may be left 
 to the school boards and the teachers. Given the 
 reform here suggested, viz., the ' examination and 
 passing of the classes, and rising grants with the 
 rising standards, up to the eighth inclusive, the school 
 boards would have it in their power to do the rest. 
 Remember that the Education Department is under 
 legal obligation to do more than it does for the ad- 
 vanced subjects, and especially for those called 
 "University subjects;" for the terms of the Act of 
 1872 require them to maintain the "standard then
 
 1 68 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 existing ; " and we all know that those words had 
 reference to University subjects, and University sub- 
 jects alojie. Had it not been for this understanding 
 the Act of 1872 would not have passed. 
 
 But how is the teacher to find time for these 
 seventh and eighth standards, including the University 
 subjects as part of them ? This brings me to my 
 second point : — 
 
 2. My second suggestion is obvious to you all : 
 it simply is, that the school boards shall provide 
 additional assistance. A school equipped for six 
 standards may, by means of female teachers, be 
 equipped for eight at a cost of from ^^40 to ^60. 
 This expenditure would be largely met by the in- 
 creased State capitation grants for the sixth, seventh, 
 and eight standards ; and the boards must do the rest. 
 
 3. To attract pupils, those in the seventh and eighth 
 standards should pay no fees, and the needy among 
 them might receive their books from the County 
 Associations of Scotland, which are located in Edin- 
 burgh and Glasgow. 
 
 4. The masters should receive additional remu- 
 neration by the help of local and other endowments ; 
 and it is to this purpose mainly that I would devote 
 local endowments. The trustees of an endowment 
 may say to the school board — " your teachers shall have 
 so much of our money, if you will provide the addi- 
 tional assistance required in the school." 
 
 The national aim, it seems to me, should be to 
 have at least one school in every parish of Scotland
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 169 
 
 where advanced instruction — including, where it was 
 desired and it would almost always be desired, 
 " University " subjects — should be given by a com- 
 petent master ; and this is quite within our power. 
 
 5. Where is the money to be got wherewith to 
 pay the teacher ? The large towns have endowments 
 enough to do all, and more than all, the work ; and 
 if Dundee be an exception, it has the rates to fall 
 back on, not to speak of private contributions.* If 
 we imagine an average of ^35 a year given to each 
 of one thousand masters of country schools who are 
 doing the more advanced work, we need only i^3 5,000 
 a year. The country parochial endowments already 
 amount to i^2 5,000 a year, rapidly, alas, being swal- 
 lowed up to save the ratepayer. There is over and 
 above this, ^^5000 a year in the Ferguson bequest 
 locker in Glasgow, waiting for the Western counties 
 to claim their rights. There is ^^2000 a year of Philp 
 money partially going to waste in Fife. There is 
 ;^2000 a year, at least, asking you to come and spend 
 it in Stirling. The parishes of the shires of Aberdeen, 
 Banff", and Moray, are already provided for by the 
 Dick and Milne bequests (the latter awaiting reform), 
 the total amount spent there being ;^6ooo annually. 
 The sums I have named amount to ;^ 3 5,000 a 
 year. If you want more, I point you to other sources. 
 For example, I can show the Heriot trustees where 
 i^5000 is lying at their feet. They will not stoop 
 
 * No longer an exception in consequence of the Harris and Baxter 
 bequests.
 
 I/O THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 to pick it Up. All this can be done without injuring 
 a single legal beneficiary, or without abstracting a 
 penny from the funds that are destined for high 
 schools, or delocalizing to any appreciable extent a 
 single trust. All that is wanted is organizatioi. I 
 consider that the present government have let slip 
 a great opportunity. Their omission has, however, 
 some apology in the want of union among the Scottish 
 members of parliament, and the philistinism which 
 characterizes so many of them. The suggestion here 
 made is not revolutionary ; it is in the line of clause 
 46 of the Act of 1872, which gives power to school 
 boards to " vary or depart from trusts with a view to 
 increase the efficiency of the parish or burgh schools, 
 by raising the standard of education therein, or other- 
 wise." 
 
 6. And now I come to my sixth suggestion. 
 I have pointed out how the master is to be enabled 
 to do the work which Scotland requires of him, by 
 modifying the Code and giving him an adequate 
 staff ; how he may be remunerated for doing it ; and 
 how i)upils may be induced to take advantage of his 
 .services. I now come to the most important sugges- 
 tion of all, which is this, that the Training Colleges 
 and Universities, and }-ou, the Educational Institute, 
 see to it that teachers sui)plicd to the country arc 
 competent to do the more advanced kind of work. 
 It may not be necessary that all trained teachers be 
 competent ; but it is indispensable that two thirds 
 at least of the 180 sent out annually b}' the training
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I7I 
 
 colleges should be thoroughly competent. A teacher, 
 who is himself a good Latin and mathematical and 
 science scholar, will not require much inducement to 
 dignify himself, and his school by carrying forward 
 his clever boys and girls. He is anxious to do it. 
 I believe that eighty per cent, of them would gladly 
 do it now, without fee or reward, had they sufficient 
 assistance in the lower departments. They recognize 
 the intellectual and moral effect of an advanced class 
 on the intelligence and moral spirit of the whole 
 school, and they feel its elevating influence on the 
 parish. We all know that it was not the money 
 reward that induced the old parochial schoolmaster 
 to teach University subjects. It was his pride in his 
 position, and his sense of the responsibilities of that 
 position. It would be out of place here to enter into 
 details as to the training of teachers. But two things 
 I may say, that, if the end I have in view is to be 
 attained, the pupil teacher's course must be so 
 arranged that candidates shall come up to the train- 
 ing colleges better linguistic and mathematical 
 scholars than they are now ; and that, when they 
 are there, they shall be worked into the system of 
 the Scottish Universities as much as possible. To 
 encourage the movement in this direction, I have 
 placed before the Senate of the University of Edin- 
 burgh a proposal that a minor degree of Literate or 
 Licentiate in Arts shall be granted to all students 
 who have attended two sessions, and have passed an 
 examination in four subjects — the standard in these
 
 172 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 being equal to that required for the degree of M.A. * 
 Those Queen's scholars who take advantage of 
 this will thus go out to the country with a Uni- 
 versity stamp, as well as a Normal school stamp ; 
 and, feeling themselves to be permanent members 
 of the University, will maintain, it is to be pre- 
 sumed, a higher standard of aim and work than 
 they would otherwise do. And, while these students 
 are getting University instruction in Latin, Logic, and 
 Physics, they should also add to the practical methods 
 learnt in the normal school all that the University 
 has to tell them on the philosophy, history, and 
 methodology of their profession, and be sent forth to 
 do the country's work, feeling that they are truly 
 members of a profession, because their work has a 
 root in philosophy and a continuity in history. 
 
 With this last object it was that chairs of educa- 
 tion were founded, the purpose and utility of which 
 certain authorities, who ought to know better, are slow 
 to recognize. The Education Department discourages, 
 them, and the Free Church normal school authorities 
 ignore them. 
 
 7. Seventhly, and finally : It is essential to the suc- 
 cessful working of a Code, reformed in accordance 
 with the educational idea, that inspectors of schools 
 also shall be trained. If teachers need training, on 
 what principle can Inspectors of teachers be ex- 
 empted from it ? You will perhaps think, that those 
 inspectors who have been teachers should be held to 
 
 * Tills Litcratcship is now in operation.
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1/3 
 
 have fulfilled this requirement. But I think other- 
 wise : many teachers go on from year to year and 
 never make progress. It is a common fallacy to 
 suppose that, because a man is always doing the 
 same thing, he is acquiring " experience ; " and on the 
 strength of this he proceeds to dogmatize. But, if 
 it be true (as it is) that that man alone acquires experi- 
 ence who observes, analyzes, compares, generalizes, and 
 reaches valid inductions from the materials that come 
 before him, of what use is the constant repetition of 
 the same work from day to day to an unthinking 
 man, or a man of even average intelligence? It does 
 him positive hurt. . He repeats himself till he begins 
 to identify all that is possible in education with what 
 is possible yc?/' ///;;/. His narrow conceptions become 
 his standard for others as well as for himself He 
 has not the open, liberal, generous soul of the true 
 educator. He has often hardened down into the 
 " dominie," a danger to which those are specially ex- 
 posed who are teachers of departments of study only. 
 The large and complex movement of a Public people's 
 school keeps a man broader. For the inspector- 
 designate, then, even if he has been a teacher, and 
 especially if he has been a teacher of a department 
 — say classics or mathematics — training is needed. 
 He ought to spend six months studying methods 
 and organization in at least two normal schools, and 
 should at the end of that period be examined in his 
 knowledge of these things, and of the theory and 
 history of education. The Department and the
 
 1/4 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 country would be great gainers by this, and teachers 
 would begin to look to the inspectors as friendly and 
 sympathizing counsellors, and not merely as per- 
 ambulating critics and statisticians. In the discharge 
 of their duties they should be instructed, moreover, 
 to promote the highest education possible, and not to 
 look coldly on a teacher's more ambitious efforts, be- 
 cause a few pupils have failed in the lower standards. 
 This is all I have to say at present. If I have 
 spoken with some emphasis on certain points, it is 
 because I am addressing an audience which has in its 
 hands the solution of many questions that, through 
 the school, affect the welfare of the nation. If you 
 prosecute reforms, especially those that bear on the 
 education of your profession, in the spirit of educa- 
 tionalists inspired with a fervent zeal for the highest 
 interests of the young multitudes who pass through 
 your hands, you will assuredly succeed.
 
 THE HIGHER INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC 
 RURAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 As Exemplified by the Administration of the Dick Bequest 
 IN Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray. 
 
 It is specially appropriate to the consideration of 
 the question of higher-primary schools that some ac- 
 count should be given of an educational endowment 
 so important and so beneficial in its effects as the 
 bequest left by James Dick, the Jamaica merchant, in 
 May, 1828. The administration of the Dick bequest 
 contains a practical lesson suited to the present cir- 
 cumstances both of England and Scotland. No ques- 
 tion is more urgent than this : " How are we to foster 
 in public rural schools instruction in those branches 
 which prepare for the upper forms of grammar schools 
 and the junior classes in the universities ? " and the 
 question is one which will one day have to be answered 
 in England as well as in Scotland. The Dick bequest 
 has solved this problem in a way of its own in the 
 three counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray, by the 
 judicious application of an endowment of little more
 
 lyG THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 than i^4000 a year net. You will, of course, under- 
 stand that I do not claim the whole merit of this work 
 for the Dick bequest trustees alone. They simply 
 made use of customs already recognized, and of forces 
 already in operation. The result of their work was to 
 consolidate these forces, and to direct energies which, 
 under the pressure of local necessities, had already set 
 in a certain direction. Without the University of 
 Aberdeen, its system of bursaries and its cheap educa- 
 tion, the bequest could have accomplished compara- 
 tively little. There would have been no standard up 
 to which the schools could have worked, and there 
 would have been no teachers capable of doing the 
 work which has been, and still is, required of them. 
 In the county of Aberdeen, too, the Milne bequest 
 has played an important part. 
 
 The aim of the Dick bequest trustees is to secure 
 at least one school in each parish in which the higher 
 instruction shall be given, so that a pathway to the 
 University shall be open to the poorest. They have 
 secured this by admitting one teacher in each parish 
 (and where there is a large population, two) to share 
 in the fund on the following conditions : — 
 
 I. That the teacher pass a qualifying examination. 
 This examination is held annually, and is attended 
 by recently appointed teachers who aim at holding a 
 high positipn among the teachers of the three counties. 
 When a school board advertises for a teacher of the 
 public school selected by them as that in which the 
 higher instruction is to be given, they limit the candi-
 
 PRIMARY IXSTRUCTIOX. 1 7/ 
 
 daturc to those who think themselves competent to 
 pass the Dick bequest examination; This virtually 
 means that none but University graduates need apply, 
 for the examination is so pitched as to require a quali- 
 fication in Latin, Greek, and mathematics higher than 
 that required for a mere pass degree ; and, in addition, 
 it demands a competent acquaintance with the English 
 language and literature, the elements of physics, geo- 
 graphy (physical and political), and history. The 
 schoolmaster is the key of the whole position, and by 
 directing their attention to his qualifications in the 
 first instance the trustees anticipated and removed 
 many difficulties. 
 
 2. But, it may be asked, how do school boards 
 succeed in attracting graduates as candidates for rural 
 public schools ? The answer is simple. By the sub- 
 stantial inducements which they offer. The trustees 
 at once saw that the endowments and advantages be- 
 longing to the position of a country schoolmaster 
 were a matter of vital moment. They accordingly 
 fixed a minimum salary, without which no school- 
 master is eligible to receive the benefit of their fund, 
 and they thereby protect themselves against what 
 without such protection would have been the inevitable 
 result, viz., the application of their grants to the relief 
 of the statutory local burdens. The sum at present 
 fixed is ;!^8o of stipend, a dwelling-house, and all the 
 fees of the school. The poorest master on the roll of 
 the Dick bequest will have at least £iiO, a house and 
 garden, and his bequest prospects. This sum would 
 
 N
 
 1/8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 not, however, suffice to attract the best men, were it 
 not that it is only the first step in a career. The 
 highest salaries range from ;^200 to ^300 a year, in 
 addition to the bequest. It is the existence of prize- 
 places which secures for the humblest places the 
 services of a first-class man. As things now stand in 
 Scotland generally, there are too many good places 
 in proportion to the very good. No system can be 
 more wasteful both of money and power. 
 
 3. In allocating their free revenue among the 
 teachers the trustees proceed on this plan : — They 
 allow so many marks for the average attendance, so 
 many for the number receiving instruction in the 
 higher subjects, and a few for the scholarship of the 
 teacher, if he be one of those who have distinguished 
 themselves at their examination. Each mark repre- 
 sents a certain proportion of the free fund — generally 
 about 10^. A "Visitor" is then sent to the schools 
 to ascertain the condition of the school in every de- 
 partment, but with powers to have a special regard to 
 the way in which the higher subjects are taught, and 
 to the intellectual and moral character of the school 
 generally. On his report, if approved of by the 
 trustees, it depends whether the number of marks 
 already credited to the teacher on the basis of his 
 school statistics shall be \y.u(\ or not, or how much of 
 it shall be paid or how much shall be added to it. 
 Great power is thus conferred on the Visitor, and on 
 him must always largely depend the successful ad- 
 ministration (jf the trust, and all the more that the
 
 TRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 179 
 
 trustees demand the strongest possible grounds for not 
 sustaining his judgment in each case. They have so 
 invariably sustained it that a body less accessible to 
 complaints or pri\ ate solicitation does not anywhere 
 exist. A great and consistent stringency, and some 
 even think severity, has characterized their administra- 
 tion, the absolute purity of which has never even been 
 questioned. 
 
 4. The visitor is not limited as to the amount of 
 marks he may deduct from the total credited to a 
 teacher on statistical grounds, but the amount he can 
 add is restricted to one-fifth of the total aggregate of 
 marks obtained in any one year by all the teachers 
 collectively. This gives a certain security against the 
 idiosyncrasies of any individual Visitor, and a confi- 
 dence to the teachers, who feel that they are not 
 wholly at his mercy. It practically comes to this — 
 that of the ;^4000 available for distribution the Visitor, 
 subject to the confirmation of the trustees, allocates 
 ;^8oo among the 130 teachers. Those who are put 
 on a reduced scale may receive only ^^5, those who 
 are in the first rank may receive;^ 5 5. This inequality 
 of distribution is the life of the system. 
 
 5. Now, what are the results ? These : — That, in 
 the first place, ninety per cent, of the teachers are 
 graduates of a University, and graduates of more than 
 pass-qualifications. Secondly, that the subjects which 
 prepare for a University are taught in all save a few 
 schools that are peculiarly situated. Seven per cent, 
 of the scholars are learning Latin, two per cent, arc
 
 l8o THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 learning Greek, and five per cent, are learning mathe- 
 matics. But the general disposition to teach the higher 
 branches does not stop here, for a large percentage of 
 girls are learning French (many of these also Latin), 
 and a small percentage have begun German. Thirdly, 
 the pupils thus trained go in a large number of cases 
 to the bursary competitions of Aberdeen University^ 
 some, however, spending from three months to ten 
 months at a grammar school on their way. The girls 
 compete for admission to training colleges. 
 
 6. But a result not less important than this, in my 
 eyes at least, is produced. For the fact that advanced 
 instruciion is al\\"a}\s available secures a prolonged 
 attendance at school on the part of all whose parents 
 can afford it. A larger proportion of well-instructed 
 boys and girls are thus turned out annually than will 
 be found anywhere else. While in other districts the 
 children of even well-to-do parents leave school at the 
 age of thirteen, you find in the three Dick bequest 
 counties an effort to continue at school to fourteen, 
 fifteen, and even sixteen years of age. And all this 
 because there exi.sts a higher department in the 
 schools which by its very existence raises the standard 
 of ivhat is held to constitJitc education in the eyes of the 
 small farmers and tradesmen. This is by no means 
 the least valuable result of the system. 
 
 7. But the question naturally arises, and has been 
 again and again asked — What of the masses of the 
 children in attendance at these schools ? Can the 
 primary subjects be efficiently taught when the teacher's
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. l8l 
 
 powers arc drawn off to subjects which properly belong 
 to the sphere of secondary instruction ? I have again 
 and again answered this in the affirmative, but the 
 answer has been received with incredulity. The Go- 
 vernment returns, however, now afford independent 
 evidence and establish the fact beyond question. An 
 examination of the Blue-book by the Board of Edu- 
 cation for Scotland shows that the Dick bequest 
 schools gain more per head from the Parliamentary 
 grant for the ordinary subjects of the Code than rural 
 .schools in the rest of Scotland. The question, then, 
 is now definitively and officially answered as I have 
 always answered it from my own knowledge. 
 
 8. Still the incredulous, or rather, let us say, those 
 who are convinced against their will, will continue to 
 say, " How is it possible ? " My answer is that the 
 higher class of schoolmaster brings with him a moral 
 and intellectual force to his work which has two re- 
 .sults : (i.) It enables him to predispose the minds of 
 his pupils for more advanced instruction : (2.) It enables 
 him to accomplish more within the same time than a 
 less intellectual and educated man can accomplish : 
 3. When the more elementary stages of Latin and 
 mathematics and French are passed he devotes addi- 
 tional time to the higher subjects. An hour before or 
 after school is set apart for those pupils who are in 
 earnest about the more advanced studies. 
 
 9. It has to be admitted, however, that the pres- 
 sure of the Government Code is such as to tend to 
 discourage the teacher and to deprive him of the time
 
 l82 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 necessary for the higher instruction if he is to meet 
 the ordinary requirements in the best possible manner. 
 This is unquestionably the tendency ; and were it 
 not for the counteracting influence of the Dick be- 
 quest, the power of traditionary custom, and the 
 special qualifications and ambition of the teachers, 
 the Code would inevitably conquer, and reduce the 
 instruction of the three counties to a dead level. 
 Some boards have clearly perceived this tendency, and 
 have met it by allowing one pupil-teacher in excess 
 of the Government requirements, or, what is much 
 better, by appointing a certificated mistress as assis- 
 tant where one or two pupil-teachers would have 
 satisfied the Education Department. The additional 
 cost of such arrangements varies from i^i5 to ^50 
 per annum. And this is the price which the boards 
 have to pay for the preservation of the higher in- 
 struction. So liberal are the Government grants that 
 the example of the few leading boards might well be 
 followed by all. It is in this direction, be)-ond all 
 doubt, that the boards must move. This will be the 
 ultimate solution of the local difficult}' as to teaching 
 power. 
 
 10. Those who have followed this brief account of 
 an important bequest will, I hope, see that if the 
 much-talked-of bridge from the primary school to the 
 university is to be built, the materials and the plan 
 must be similar to those which have constructed the 
 passage in the north-eastern counties of Scotland. 
 Ilif^h schools with bursaries attached to them will
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 83 
 
 suffice for town children, but will wholly fail to meet 
 the wants of country children of promising talent. 
 These must be prepared in loco for the grammar- 
 school bursar-ies, at least up to the age of fifteen ; and 
 to secure this we must have, first, highly accomplished 
 schoolmasters for the rural schools not only of Scot- 
 land but of England — men who know something 
 from their own experience of university work ; and, 
 secondly, inducements by means of local endowments 
 or Government grants, or both, for these men to do 
 the higher kind of work as well as the lower, and to 
 draw pupils to their classes. This I advocate not 
 merely for the sake of the few who get the immediate 
 benefit, but for the sake of the many who are 
 insensibly raised, morally and intellectually, by seeing 
 what their schoolfellows are doing and their teachers 
 aiming at. Nay, there are considerations of an equally 
 vital kind which, were this the fitting place and time, 
 I could insist on — considerations of a political and 
 social character — which in this connection impress me 
 deeply. It is such an educational system as exists 
 in the three north-eastern counties of Scotland which 
 realizes the true, and only true, democratic idea, in 
 presence of which all questions of suffrage are super- 
 ficial and trivial. It makes the clever poor contented, 
 and thus saps the foundations of Socialism.
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS.
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND.* 
 
 There can be no doubt that in pre-rcformation times 
 the number of high schools in Scotland (under the 
 names of grammar and cathedral schools) was larger, 
 in proportion to the population than it is now ; 
 and it is also certain that the influence of the revival 
 of letters was felt in these schools quite as soon as in 
 England. In those days, Scotland was in direct 
 political and intellectual relations with the continent 
 of Europe, and those relations were of a more friendl}- 
 kind than England maintained. Accordingly, it felt 
 the wave of continental life directU', and not only after 
 it had first passed over England. Greek was taught at 
 Montrose in 1534; King James V. was entertained in 
 Aberdeen, in 1540, with orations in Grceca Latinaqiie 
 lingua snviino artificio instructcc ; and John Knox says, 
 in 1 543, that the lay members of the Scottish Parlia- 
 ment knew Greek better than the clergy. It would 
 appear, indeed, that Scotland was in the full tide of the 
 
 * Read at the Social Science meeting in Aberdeen, in 1S79.
 
 1 88 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Humanistic revival — as is evidenced not merely by its 
 advance in education, but by the vigour and originality 
 of its native literature at a time when literature south 
 of the Tweed was comparatively feeble. Barbour, 
 Blind Harry, James I., Henryson, Dunbar, and Lindsay 
 are greater names than any England has to show, from 
 the death of Chaucer down to the Elizabethan epoch. 
 The effect of the Reformation struggles in retarding 
 the higher conceptions of education which had begun 
 to influence Scotland will form an interesting and 
 instructive topic for the future historian of Scottish 
 high schools. My object here is wholly a practical 
 one. I wish to remind you that weak as the 
 secondary school system in Scotland now is, it was 
 not always so ; and that the present circumstances of 
 our country recall us to the national duty of doing 
 what we can to restore and preserve the learning of 
 Scotland under new and suitable forms. This can be 
 done mainly by the revival of our high schools ; for 
 although the universities can do much, they cannot 
 rise high except on the sure basis of a sound high 
 school .system. 
 
 Let us now, as briefly and concisely as possible, 
 consider our present position. 
 
 The Scottish Education Act of 1872 secured for 
 every parish of Scotland an educational machinery 
 adequate to its needs so far as primar)^ instruction 
 was concerned, and the Code of the Education De- 
 partment, which is of the nature of an annual Act of 
 Parliament resting on the statute of 1872, prescribes
 
 SECONDARY OR PIIGH SCHOOLS. 1 89 
 
 the use which is to be made of this machinery in the 
 education of the people. It prescribes, but it does not 
 limit, the range of instruction. 
 
 By the same Act the grammar or high schools 
 were transferred from the hands of town councils to 
 the care of the burgh school boards ; and rightly so, 
 for the management of these high schools was in it- 
 self enough to discredit the whole system of municipal 
 administration. -But while by this transference of the 
 management a distinct benefit was conferred on the 
 secondary education of the country, no means were 
 provided for the improvement of these schools other 
 than they had possessed under town councils. Nay, 
 it may be said that the financial resources of these 
 schools were even curtailed, for, prior to 1872, there 
 was nothing, so far as I know, to prevent the town 
 councils voting additional sums from the "common 
 good " for the better endowment of the schools, 
 whereas the school boards were prohibited from doing 
 this. 
 
 The author of the Act was himself sufficiently 
 sensible of the inadequacy of his measure so far as it 
 touched the high schools, and he accordingly gave 
 the country at the same time a Commission to inquire 
 into educational endowments.* The substantial result 
 of that Commission was to show that Scotland pos- 
 sessed an educational income from endowments of 
 i^ 1 7 5, 000 a year, and that a considerable portion of 
 this might fairly be turned in the direction of the 
 * The Cok'brooke Endowed Schools Commission of 1872.
 
 IQO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 secondary instruction of those who were unable to pay 
 for it, now that pubHc State provision had been made 
 for primary instruction. 
 
 Now, I venture to say with a confidence which 
 rests, not on a general but on a detailed knowledge of 
 the wants of Scotland, that a reorganization of the 
 endowed institutions and a devotion of a portion of 
 certain endowments to secondary instruction would 
 do much to equip Scotland with high schools. I am 
 certain, too, that this could be done in such a way as 
 to command the co-operation of the trustees of the 
 endowments themselves, save those whose personal 
 interests conflicted with the public good. 
 
 In these circumstances and with these facts before 
 the country it was almost inevitable that some move- 
 ment should be made to complete the half-built struc- 
 ture of Scottish education, and so to preserve for our 
 country the place which it had previously held among 
 the nations of Ifuropc. Hence the "Association for 
 the Promotion of Secondary Education in Scotland," 
 whose first report, published in 1876. 
 
 As to the objects of this Association I would point 
 out, in the first place, that it is not an association 
 merely for the setting up of secondary or high schools, 
 but for the promotion of secondary education in every 
 form, in accordance with the traditions of the past ; 
 not because they are traditions, but simply because 
 the .system which these traditions hand down has 
 been found to turn out a larger proportion of well- 
 instructed, well-disciplined and capable Scotsmen for
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 19I 
 
 the service of the country than any other that could 
 have been devised. With this system we are resolved 
 not hastily to break. If it has to go, it will go only 
 because it cannot be helped, and because it is quietly 
 superseded by some other system under the law which 
 determines educational as well as natural evolution 
 — the law of natural selection and the survival of the 
 fittest. 
 
 First, then, the Association aims at reforming the 
 endowed institutions of the country in so far as they 
 need reform. 
 
 Secondly. — It aims at utilizing all endowments, 
 which can fairly and equitably be so utilised, for the 
 promotion of the higher instruction of the clever poor ; 
 and by " poor " we mean those of every rank who, 
 without extraneous aid, could not obtain that higher 
 instruction for which their natural capacities fit them. 
 Until the country is satisfied that the money left to 
 it by past benefactors is rightly used it will not bestir 
 itself to the only kind of voluntary activity which 
 promoters of associations appreciate, the kind which 
 results in liberal voluntary contributions for the im- 
 provement of high schools. The fact is (as the 
 Association has already found) that these endow- 
 ments, so far from promoting, are at this moment a 
 bar in the way of the higher instruction. 
 
 Thirdly. — The Association aims at securing an 
 executive body authorized to deal with the whole 
 question of endowments. The need of this has been 
 so strongly felt that the Association has again and
 
 192 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 again brought the necessity before Government : so- 
 far with a kind of success ; for Government has 
 promised to take action.* 
 
 Fourthly. — The Association aims at reviving and 
 constituting with larger resources, and with a better 
 organization, all the old grammar or high schools of 
 the country, and of adding to the number of these in 
 populous places. What we need, and how the needs 
 are to be met, I endeavoured to show in a paper read 
 before the annual meeting of the Association held last 
 November. In that paper I said : " It is my object 
 to show what supply of high schools at present exists, 
 what number \\e shall need, and what means are now 
 available for the adequate supply of the national 
 wants ; " and I may here be allowed to quote from 
 what I then said : — 
 
 "In Scotland there are 982 civil parishes, including 
 81 burghs. Of the burghs there arc 21 whose popu- 
 lation is under 2000, or which in other respects are of 
 such small importance that they may be classed 
 among rural parishes, and treated for educational 
 purposes as rural. 
 
 " If to the 60 burghs which remain, after deducting 
 these 21, wc add 31 'towns' not burghs, but having 
 more than 2000 inhabitants,! we shall have a pretty 
 complete list of all the places in w hich high schools 
 .should be established — in all 91 localities. 
 
 * A 15111 has been more than once inlioduccil, ami is expected to pass 
 this year (1882). 
 
 t Deducting Ruthcrglcn, which is a suburb of Glasgow.
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. I93 
 
 " It is as impracticable as it would be unnecessary 
 to have schools of the first rank, such as the High 
 School of Edinburgh, in all these places. There are, 
 however, 11 towns which, either because of their 
 population, position, or their educational history, or 
 for all these reasons combined, ought, it seems to me, 
 to have schools of the first rank. These are : Aber- 
 deen, Ayr, Dumfries, Dundee, Edinburgh, Elgin, 
 Glasgow, Greenock, Inverness, Perth, Stirling. 
 
 " Now, it so happens that high schools in these 
 towns already exist, and that the existing endowments 
 and fees are such that the judicious expenditure of 
 ;^iooo a year, and such an interpretation of the 64th 
 section of the Education (Scotland) Act of 1872 as 
 would enable school boards to rate for the repair, 
 cleaning, maintenance as well as for the erection of 
 buildings (which last they are permitted to do), would 
 suffice to place all of them on a perfectly satisfactory 
 footing.* 
 
 " There would then remain 79 burghs and towns 
 to be provided with high schools of the second and 
 tJiird rank. These I would enumerate as follows : — 
 
 Royal and Parliamentary Burghs. 
 
 Airdrie. 
 
 Cupar 
 
 Forfar 
 
 Annan 
 
 Dingwall 
 
 Galashiels 
 
 Arbroath 
 
 Dumbarton 
 
 Haddington 
 
 Banff 
 
 Dunbar 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 Brechin 
 
 Dunfermline 
 
 Hawick 
 
 Burntisland 
 
 Dysart 
 
 Inverurie 
 
 Campbeltown 
 
 Falkirk 
 
 Ii-vine 
 
 Cullen 
 
 Forres 
 
 Jedburgh 
 
 * This power is now given by the Act of 1S7S. 
 
 O
 
 194 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Kilmarnock 
 
 Musselburgh 
 
 Renfrew 
 
 Kirkcaldy 
 
 Nairn 
 
 Rothesay 
 
 Kirkcudbright 
 
 Oban 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 Kirkwall 
 
 Paisley 
 
 Stranraer 
 
 Lanark 
 
 Peebles 
 
 St. Andrews 
 
 Leith 
 
 Peterhead 
 
 Tain 
 
 Linlithgow 
 
 Port Glasgow 
 
 Wick 
 
 Montrose 
 
 Portobello 
 
 Other Tozutts- 
 
 Wigtown — 48 
 
 Aberfeldy 
 
 Dalkeith 
 
 Kirkintilloch 
 
 Alloa 
 
 Dairy 
 
 Lerwick 
 
 Ardrossan 
 
 Dunoon 
 
 Motherwell 
 
 Barrhead 
 
 Dunse 
 
 Newton- Stewart 
 
 Bathgate 
 
 Fraserburgh 
 
 Pitlochrie 
 
 Beith 
 
 Girvan 
 
 Saltcoats 
 
 Blairgowrie 
 
 Helensburgh 
 
 Stonehaven 
 
 Castle Douglas 
 
 Keith 
 
 Thurso 
 
 Coatbridge 
 
 Kelso 
 
 Wishaw 
 
 Coupar-Angus 
 
 Kingussie 
 
 —31 
 
 Dalbeattie 
 
 Kinross 
 
 Total number — 79 
 
 " Now, without going into unnecessary detail, it 
 may be said generally that in all these towns, with 
 about a dozen exceptions, there either already exists 
 a high school of the second or third rank,* or there is 
 the germ of such a high school now at this moment 
 in operation. About half of these towns, too, possess 
 endowments of greater or less amount." 
 
 The general result of the organization of the high 
 schools of Scotland would be that we should have 1 3 
 high schools of the first rank, 53 of the second rank, 
 and 25 of the third rank — in all 91 — in addition to 
 the reformed Endowed schools. This is no great task 
 
 * By a high school of the second rank I mean a school which 
 carries boys as far as say the Medical Preliminary Examinations. A 
 high school of the third rank is simply an advanced department of a 
 primary school.
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 195 
 
 to accomplish. What we want is an organizing body 
 with adequate powers — the same body, perhaps, as 
 that entrusted with the reform of endowments. 
 
 One thing more we need — a permissive power to 
 school boards in burghs, towns, and populous local- 
 ities to impose rates, with a view to raise a fund to 
 meet any grants which might be made by an executive 
 body charged with the general administration.* This 
 body might also be empowered to draw on the 
 Treasury, if necessary, to a limited amount ; this draft 
 on the national exchequer being protected by two 
 conditions : (i) that no sums be allowed to any school 
 in localities where endowments already exist that could 
 be made available ; and (2) that an equivalent should 
 be, in all cases, locally raised. Twenty thousand 
 a year would suffice ! With this paltry sum and the 
 help of existing endowments the whole work could be 
 done. And if we are to have a Board of Educational 
 Supervision for Scotland, which we unquestionably 
 ought to have, this, with the drafting of a Code, the 
 auditing of accounts, and a general supervision of the 
 working out of the clauses of the Act of 1872 in the 
 various parishes, might constitute its work. It might 
 also serve as a Court of Appeal against the unjust 
 dismissal of teachers. 
 
 Fifthly. — The Association aims at preserving 
 
 secondary instruction in public rural primary schools. 
 
 Towns can take care of themselves. The higher the 
 
 aim of the schoolmaster, the better for the education 
 
 * Now given by the Act of 1878 (18th section).
 
 196 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 of the school. Does the boy who leaves the fourth 
 form of an English public school receive no benefit 
 from the mere existence of fifth or sixth forms, although 
 he never attends them ? Those who think this do 
 not, it seems to me, understand what education means, 
 or how the higher work of an institution tells on the 
 lowest work done in it. But, quite apart from the 
 effect which the higher instruction in public schools 
 has on those who do not share it, it is at once manifest 
 that, without the ■ provisions which the Association 
 contemplates, higher instruction generally would be 
 practically confined to those resident in the vicinity 
 of high schools, if it were crushed out of country 
 districts. Once for all, it should be clearly understood 
 that this is not a question of Universities versus high 
 schools, or of primary schools versus high schools. 
 It is not intended by those who urge the preservation 
 of what we may call " University subjects " in the rural 
 public schools that these schools should be in direct 
 contact with the Universities. By all means let pro- 
 mising country lads be drafted into high schools before 
 proceeding to the University ; but inasmuch as this 
 drafting is, generally speaking, impracticable before 
 a boy is about fifteen years of age, it is urged that up 
 to this age the country school should give him his pre- 
 paration.* 
 
 Sixthly. — The sixth object of the Association is 
 suggested by the last — the encouragement of the 
 
 * The Endowed Institutions Commissioners have, since tlic above 
 was written, recommended this to Parliament.
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. IQ/ 
 
 production of teachers for the public rural schools 
 competent to give the instruction necessary to carry 
 a boy at the age of fifteen to a high school. This 
 does not involve the abolition of the existing Normal 
 School system, but merely the institution of a parallel 
 or co-operative training in the Universities.* 
 
 Seventhly. — The Association aims at the institution 
 of bursaries to be held at high schools. There is 
 money enough in the country for this already, and an 
 executive body would know where to find it, with the 
 cordial concurrence even of those now in charge of 
 the funds. The Executive would in this connection 
 work out the 46th clause of the Act of 1872, which 
 provides that " it shall be lawful for the school board 
 from time to time, with the sanction of the Board 
 of Education, to vary or depart from trusts with a 
 view of raising the efficiency of the parish or burgh 
 school by raising the standard of education therein or 
 otherwise." There is ;^20,ooo a year awaiting this 
 application. 
 
 Eightly. — The Association aims not merely at 
 providing money and machinery, but also at improving 
 the airriciiliim of high schools, having due regard to 
 the requirements of different districts. 
 
 These are the aims of the Association. No one who 
 reads the names of its members, comprising leading men 
 of all political parties, can doubt that the programme 
 of the Association expresses the mind of Scotland. 
 
 * This object is now substantially attained by modifications in the 
 Scotch Code.
 
 198 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Nor has the Association been without fruit thus 
 early. Its very existence has called attention to the 
 national needs, and stirred up a strong desire in many 
 localities to do for themselves or what the Association 
 aims at. 
 
 The Association has obtained the consent of Govern- 
 ment to the issuing of an Executive Commission to 
 deal with endowments ; and has, by memorial or 
 deputation, represented the necessity of encouraging 
 the higher instruction in public schools and of pro- 
 viding a more liberally educated class of schoolmasters 
 for these schools. It has also, by the circulation of 
 its report and otherwise, directed public attention to 
 the wants of Scotland. It will continue to prosecute 
 its objects as hitherto until they are attained. 
 
 The movements going on around us show the 
 effect which the report of the Endowed Schools Com- 
 mission and the action of the Association have already 
 had. The trustees of many institutions not only 
 acquiesce in reform but earnestly desire it, and 
 many have already bestirred themselves to the extent 
 of their present limited legal powers. In Glasgow 
 the Mutcheson Hospital trustees have taken a great 
 and important step ; the Buchanan Society has a 
 scheme in type ; and the representatives of other 
 educational endowments in Glasgow, by deputation 
 to the Lord Advocate, have expressed their desire 
 for reforming powers. In Dumfriesshire, Wallace-hall 
 Academy desires reform ; from Elgin a petition has 
 gone up to the Home Secretary ; in Stirling trustees
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 199 
 
 of an annual income of nearly ;^40oo are impatient 
 because of the Government delays ; the same is true 
 of the Spiers trustees, in Ayrshire. The Philp trustees, 
 in Fifeshire, are initiating a scheme of their own ; the 
 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge has 
 already in operation a scheme which will provide 
 bursaries for Highland and Island lads in sufficient 
 number to settle the question of secondary education 
 in the whole of the North-west of Scotland ; the 
 Dundee high school has been thoroughly reorganized, 
 and has started on a new lease of life ; Dunfermline, 
 Haddington, Peebles, Hamilton have raised their 
 schools to high schools ; while in some instances 
 endowments have already been given or promised. 
 All that is needed is action by Government to collect, 
 concentrate, direct, and organize the energy of the 
 country. If we had this, the lapse of a few years 
 would, I am persuaded, see Scotland again at the 
 head of the countries of Europe. 
 
 Note. — Since the above was written many of the objects of tlie 
 Association have been gained ; but mucli still remains to be done.
 
 ON THE GOVERNMENT OF HIGH 
 
 SCHOOLS.* 
 
 The question, which I venture briefly to treat, is 
 substantially this : What is the best governing body 
 for High schools ? It seems to be assumed in Great 
 Britain that there ought to be both local and cen- 
 tralized administration working together ; and this 
 assumption I am willing to accept in a country like 
 our own, where the citizens as a whole are sufficiently 
 enlightened to govern, or at least to share in govern- 
 ment. The question accordingly resolves itself into 
 one as to the nature and limits of the local and 
 central authorities respectively. 
 
 But this question cannot even be approached until 
 we have settled the work which the authorities we 
 propose to set up have to do. To enter into the 
 details of their duties would be here out of place, 
 and I accordingly content myself with the mei-ely 
 general statement that they have to fix, guide, and 
 control the education of youth between the age of 
 eleven and seventeen, and to settle any questions 
 
 * Read to the Social Science Conference in Edinburgh.
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 201 
 
 ■of internal discipline that may be forced before their 
 notice. I limit myself to seventeen, because I am 
 convinced that boys will best prosecute their educa- 
 tion after this age at the universities, the arguments 
 in support of this opinion being here omitted. But 
 this is not all : the governing bodies have to fix the 
 curriculum of schools and the qualifications and re- 
 muneration of teachers, to select teachers, and to 
 govern teachers. 
 
 In the first section of their duties, it would be 
 unreasonable to expect in governing bodies technical 
 knowledge. In all questions of a technical kind, the 
 head-master should be supreme, aided by the special 
 knowledge of the under-masters, each in his own 
 department. But we are entitled to expect in the 
 governing body a clear conception of the aim of 
 school instruction, and of the relative value of 
 studies. It is essential, therefore, that the governing 
 bodies should be composed of intelligent and in- 
 structed men, and that they should belong to the 
 class in society which they are educating ; also 
 that they be fairly well informed in the subject of 
 education and not wholly ignorant of the scholastic 
 machinery of contemporary nations. In the second 
 section of their duties, qualities of a higher kind 
 are needed. There can be no doubt of this, — that 
 the education of youths of the middle and upper 
 classes (and these classes chiefly occupy high schools) 
 can be adequately conducted only by masters who are 
 not merely thoroughly qualified each in his own
 
 202 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 department, but who arc also, in respect of general 
 cultivation and personal bearing, on a level with the 
 parents of the boys they are instructing. The intel- 
 lectual influence of teachers largely depends on this, 
 the moral influence luholly depends on it. Great 
 learning and native capacity will make up to some 
 extent, doubtless, for personal defects, but only to 
 some extent. The governing bodies, accordingly, 
 ought to be so constituted as to put it beyond all 
 question that scholars of ability and learning, who 
 at the same time are men of a good social standing, 
 or who by education have raised themselves to a 
 position of social equality with the parents of their 
 pupils, will feel that their interests are safe, and that 
 their independence and self-respect will be respected. 
 No man is fitted to be a teacher in a high school, still 
 less in a university, by virtue alone of his eminence 
 in a particular branch of knowledge. The poorer 
 classes of the community are, in this respect, fortu- 
 nate, for the great mass of the pupils of the primary 
 schools are below the social class from whom the 
 teachers arc drawn, while none are above the social 
 position which the teacher has legitimately gained for 
 himself In the ordinary English high schools, on 
 the other hand, it is only a small percentage of the 
 teachers who stand in a similar relation to their pupils. 
 It may be otherwise in the great public schools of Eng- • 
 land, but this exception supports my argument; for in 
 these schools, the social position and personal dignity of 
 schoolmasters have been confided to the care of gentle-
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 203 
 
 men, while the emoluments have generally been such 
 as to attract men of the middle and cultivated class. 
 
 Having indicated, in general terms, the function 
 of local governing bodies, the question now is. How 
 are we to get bodies qualified for the discharge of this 
 function ? 
 
 The high school of a county town, let me first say, 
 exists, not for the town alone, but for the county. 
 The county accordingly should be rated for its sup- 
 port, in so far as it may be supported by rates ; the 
 rural districts, however, paying only a modified sum 
 as compared with the town for whose benefit the 
 school mainly exists. That where there is a general 
 rate, there should be general representation, is a 
 settled conviction of the British mind. This general 
 doctrine, it seems to me, has in all cases to be 
 modified by the purpose for which a rate is taken 
 up. In the matter of secondary education, what we 
 have to secure is men competent to discharge the 
 kind of administrative duty with respect to education 
 which has been already briefly sketched above. 
 Hoards elected by the general body of rate-payers 
 are incompetent for the task, — incompetent, if we 
 look merely to the standing and efficiency of the 
 schools and the due protection of the masters. But 
 there is more than this to be considered. All men 
 who really understand what they are talking about 
 desire to see the body of masters in each town or 
 district constituting themselves a kind of college, 
 and directly influencing the whole locality by their
 
 204 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 example of a learned and cultured life. This kind 
 of influence is only second in importance to that of 
 teaching in the schools. 
 
 An adequate conception of the position and 
 function of the high school and its collegiate body of 
 masters is manifestly quite beyond boards elected by 
 the £4 householder. Nay, more, I hold that boards 
 so elected are incompetent even to control the 
 parochial or primary school, wherever it assumes, as 
 it often does in Scotland, a quasi-secondary character 
 and becomes a higher-primary school. The rural 
 boards, I repeat, are unfit to govern these schools ; 
 and this chiefly because the members are brought 
 into such direct relations with the average rate-payer 
 that they must very often be guided by his views. 
 These are contracted in the extreme, — necessarily and 
 inevitably contracted and illiberal. To save a few 
 pounds to the parish to-day, they will sacrifice what 
 would yield to the State, in the sphere of civic action, 
 thousands in the long day. If this be so in the case 
 of higher-primary schools, what can we expect in the 
 case of high schools ? Are the poorer classes to 
 govern the education of the middle and upper classes, 
 simply because they pay an infinitesimal portion of 
 the rate which may go to upper schools ? Is ignor- 
 ance to legislate for knowledge ? Doubtless the 
 boards elected by large burghs will be generally 
 composed — in part at least — of more educated and 
 larger minded men than rural boards contain ; but as 
 they are elected mainly in the interest of primary
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 205 
 
 schools and of the great mass of the population, they 
 are vitiated in their constitution from the beginning. 
 I know such a board, which debated for several meet- 
 ings whether it should pay for certain absolutely 
 necessary apparatus. They were afraid to add a few 
 pounds to the rates (which, by-the-by, gave nothing to 
 the high school), because their poorer constituents, 
 who wrongly thought that they had no immediate 
 interest in the high school, might possibly object, 
 although these poorer constituents have their own 
 schools maintained chiefly by the money of the middle 
 classes. The rate for high schools, it is true, might be 
 taken up only from householders who paid more than 
 £\2 rent, but there are serious difficulties in the way 
 of. making such distinctions in rating for particular 
 purposes. And besides, it would be a most unwhole- 
 some procedure, because it tends to separate classes 
 and class interests, and restrict and degrade a citizen's 
 notions of the community of national interests which 
 it is desirable to foster in each and all. It is not in 
 the interest of the middle or upper classes alone that 
 we have high schools or universities, but in the interest 
 of all classes. The nation needs trained intellects and 
 minds for the public service, and for literature, science, 
 and philosophy ; and this for the sake of the nation, 
 not for the sake of a class. At the same time, I 
 object to governing bodies constituted by the votes of 
 all the rate-payers, for the very good reason that they 
 would defeat the end the State has in view, in pro- 
 moting the higher education. It seems to be a mere
 
 2o6 "the training of teachers. 
 
 political superstition to hold that rate-paying, any- 
 more than taxation, should in all cases involve direct 
 representation. If the simple consideration of rate- 
 paying is to determine the constitution of a represen- 
 tative body, then it surely follows logically that the 
 representation should be regulated by the amount 
 paid by each ; that is to say, if the income of a high 
 school in a large city is ^io,000 a year from fees, 
 endowments, and rates, and the proportion of this 
 contributed by householders rated at less than £\o is 
 one twentieth, their representation on the governing 
 body should be only one twentieth. To this arrange- 
 ment no one would object ; but as it is said to be an 
 impracticable one, the same end should be attained in 
 some other way. 
 
 It might be said that my argument against direct 
 rate-paying representation leads directly to the placing 
 of the whole higher education under a centralized 
 state authority and making it a " public service." 
 This, however, would involve us in a serious evil of 
 another kind, to which reference will be made in the 
 .sequel. Moreover, I thoroughly respect the popular 
 clement, so long as it is not the plebeian element. It 
 is of great value, and we cannot afford to dispense 
 with it. Had the English public schools been under 
 the influence, even partially, of any popular authority 
 in past generations, the minds of those constituting 
 that authority would have been, from time to time 
 inevitably exercised on general questions of education. 
 The action of this authority would have evoked a
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 20/ 
 
 response in the ijencral community which would have 
 so effectually directed attention to the intellectual 
 blunders and moral evils connected with the whole 
 system, that we should have been where we are now a 
 century sooner. Still-existing evils — such as that, for 
 example, of allowing the masters to be practically 
 hotel-keepers and provision contractors — would be 
 blown away by the popular breath. Indeed the 
 breath of the people where they have reached a 
 certain level of intelligence is always healthy ; but 
 the breath of the lowest stratum of voters, where it 
 proponderates or is active, is, in education, at least, 
 pernicious. Parents should take an interest in the 
 education of their children, and should have a proper 
 channel for expressing that interest in a collective 
 way, — that is to say, through governing bodies, — while 
 personal and individual interference should be dis- 
 couraged. Moreover, education in the larger sense is 
 promoted if we engage in its service the thoughts of 
 the people. It ought not to be restricted to school- 
 masters. This public interest reacts on family life, 
 and helps to give to education its due importance in 
 the State. I do not think it can attain its due im- 
 portance in the thoughts of men, if it be left in the 
 hands of a centralized bureau, even if the result of the 
 action of the bureau were to be a theoretically perfect 
 scholastic system. It is better to have some de- 
 ficiencies and many variations, if at this price we 
 engage the mind and heart of the country in the 
 work. Indeed, education in the broader sense is not
 
 208 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 attained for the community until it begins to occupy 
 the thought of individual citizens as at once a private 
 and a public concern. Interest in the education of 
 youth educates the adult himself 
 
 Accordingly, I would place all high schools in a 
 county under a committee or board, elected jointly by 
 the existing town school boards to the extent of one 
 half, the other half of the board being elected by the 
 county boards — when these are constituted — and by 
 one or other of the Universities, since high schools 
 are to a large extent preparatory schools for the 
 Universities. Under high schools should be included, 
 for purposes of supervision, if not control, all endowed 
 educational institutions, simply leaving the charitable 
 part of the administration of these under the trustees 
 appointed by the testator (or such modifications of 
 the trust body as might be absolutely essential). 
 Such a board would be a strong one, and able to 
 resist over-centralization. 
 
 Let us next consider the relation of high schools 
 to the State ; that is to say, to the centralized adminis- 
 tration to which we commonly apply the term " State." 
 
 Why should there be a centralized administration 
 at all ? In very many matters of national concern, 
 and especially in postal, military, and foreign affairs, 
 centralization is by common consent essential. But it 
 is certainly not desirable that centralization should in 
 any department of social administration be pushed 
 further than may be absolutely necessary. In the 
 opinion of many thoughtful statesmen it is even now
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 209 
 
 overdone, and the current of political action ought 
 rather now to run in the direction of decentralization. 
 The majority of thoughtful men hold this doctrine 
 even in matters of ordinary material concern. What- 
 ever can be administered locally should be admin- 
 istered locally, if we are to preserve the spontaneity, 
 independence, and vigour of the citizens, and widen 
 their daily life beyond the narrow business of the 
 shop and the domestic kitchen. If decentralization 
 be desirable in the administration of merely material 
 concerns, how much more in matters that affect the 
 thought and moral life of a community ! In truth, 
 thought and moral life exist only in so far as they are 
 local, individual, free, and spontaneous. Adaptation 
 of a man's opinions and acts to the thought of others, 
 and obedience to the precepts of others, are doubtless 
 acts of intelligence, and suit perhaps the majority of 
 mankind ; but the true life and progress of a com- 
 munity are wrapped up in the individuality and free 
 mental activity of the citizens. It is dangerous, then, 
 to allow the education of a country to fall into the 
 hands of a central bureau. It gives the workers of 
 the state machinery too much power. With a stroke 
 of the pen they can alter the curriculum of education ; 
 by their dominating supervision they can crush out all 
 spontaneous activity, and with this, all true life. 
 Bureaucracy is as opposed to the genius of a free race 
 as is absolutism. A bureaucrat is almost of necessity 
 a doctrinaire. Official minds are apt, with a view to 
 simplicity in administration, to ignore provincial feel- 
 
 P
 
 210 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 ings, habits, and peculiarities, oblivious of the fact that 
 difference is essential to vitality. A dead level of 
 uniformity must inevitably have charms for the 
 bureaucratic eye. At present, in the case of primary 
 instruction in England, the " local authorities " are in 
 point of fact, merely channels for conveying the 
 stream of power which has its source in Whitehall. 
 The liberty of school boards is the liberty to acquiesce. 
 This is not wholesome for the country, and it is de- 
 pressing to the teacher, who, if he be worthy of his 
 vocation, is less of a machine than the members of 
 most professions. If the teacher is to succeed, he 
 must work with the energy that comes from freedom 
 and from a consciousness that he is at liberty to initiate 
 as well as to execute. Centralization, by subduing 
 individuality, stifles originality and paralyzes the will. 
 A system of high schools, all uniform and subject to 
 one central authority would, I believe, be far more dan- 
 gerous to our educational well-being than the control 
 of the humblest class of rate-payers could possibly be. 
 At the same time, we must not lose sight of the 
 fact that without some controlling power, the organiza- 
 tion of a high-school system and the maintenance of 
 that organization arc impracticable. Educational in- 
 formation has to be collected. Money also is wanted 
 from general taxation to subsidize local rating, and 
 with the giving of money comes a certain control. 
 But it is not necessary that much money should be 
 given by the State, and still less is it necessary that 
 there should be much control with a view to see that
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 211 
 
 the money is well spent. Supervision, not govern- 
 ment, is all that is needed, and all that the contribu- 
 tion of the State would justify. All that the State has 
 to care for is, that proper provision is made for the pre- 
 paration of teachers for high schools, and that annual 
 reports from all the high-school governing bodies are, 
 along with the educational statistics of the year, laid 
 before the Government. From time to time, once in 
 four or five years, it might examine the schools. It 
 might further specify the examinations for testing 
 boys when leaving for the universities, and perhaps at 
 other periods of the curriculum. Such should be the 
 limits of the State interference, and they should be 
 defined by statute ; all else, I think, should be in the 
 hands of the local county authorities. 
 
 To the question. Should the present Education 
 Department be the controlling State authority in 
 Great Britain ? I answer, No, so long as it retains 
 its present form. As a department, it is efficient ; in 
 some respects, perhaps, too efficient. A Minister of 
 public instruction, advised by an Educational Council, 
 consisting more or less of paid experts, sitting from 
 week to week, but not changing with the Government 
 of the day, would constitute, I think, a safer adminis- 
 trative body. Control by the present Education De- 
 partment is substantially control by secretaries and 
 clerks, and must always be so. This we all know 
 means that some one assistant secretary — a man, it 
 may be of small capacity and slight interest in educa- 
 tion, and it must be of an official, nay of an office-and-
 
 212 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 desk habit of mind, and with a soul often dry and 
 parched with the dust of filed documents — governs 
 boards and masters who may have a much better 
 conception of what is desirable and practicable in 
 education. Men of this class are notoriously im- 
 pervious to all ideas, and have a self-complacent way of 
 mistaking their own imperviousness for sound, practical 
 common-sense. It is only a very powerful mind 
 that can resist successfully the insidious encroachments 
 of routine and precedent. 
 
 My answer, then, to this question of High School 
 government is : — * 
 
 First, that High schools should be under popular 
 control, but that the controlling body should be so 
 constituted as to guard against ignorance and illiber- 
 ality of view. 
 
 Secondly, that as all organized educational ma- 
 chinery exists, not for the individual, but for the State, 
 State supervision should be exercised with a view to 
 maintain a high standard, and the general carrying 
 out of the law ; but that this supervision should be 
 so strictly defined by statute in respect of its objects 
 as to protect education from the evil of centralization 
 and despotism, and that the supervising body should 
 be a Minister of public instruction advised by an 
 Educational Council consisting of experts partly paid. 
 
 * The subject of this paper was prescribed to the writer of it with a 
 view to its forming a basis for discussion. Hence the somewhat curt 
 and dogmatic treatment.
 
 ON LINGUISTIC VERSUS SCIENTIFIC IN- 
 STRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.* 
 
 In considering this question, it is necessary to clear 
 away from the field of discussion all illusory imagina- 
 tions as to the larger proportion of boys who would 
 benefit by a middle-school system, based solely on 
 scientific training, as compared with the number which 
 might benefit by the discipline afforded through the 
 classical tongues if good methods were employed. 
 Severe and sustained intellectual work, having know- 
 ledge or other mental purposes exclusively in view, 
 is naturally distasteful to the great majority of 
 boys. We must not draw too large an inference from 
 the inquisitiveness and love of knowledge which cha- 
 racterize childhood. The recipient stage of a child's 
 life should be gently and wisely dealt with, and this 
 it is the function of the primary school to do. But 
 in the middle school, receptivity has given place in 
 the boy to force, which seeks not to accept im- 
 pressions, but rather to make them. To break in 
 upon the spontaneous and healthy expression of this 
 
 * i.e. where the pupils are from twelve to sixteen years of age.
 
 214 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 fresh boyish energy with Latin prose composition or 
 classifications of birds and beasts, is, even in the most 
 favourable circumstances, to traverse the natural and 
 genial current of young life, and to call for a painful 
 and self-sacrificing exertion of will. Most boys will be 
 found to make this exertion, when they do make it, 
 not from love of the work itself, but from emulation, 
 or from the moral considerations of respect for au- 
 thority, of personal attachment, or a sense of duty. 
 Of this we may be sure, that when inborn stupidity 
 and rampant boyism have claimed their own, the 
 residue of real intellectual workers, where there is no 
 external motive to intellectual exertion, will always 
 be found numerically disappointing. Nor will the 
 substitution of pneumatics, physiology, and chemistry, 
 for Latin and Greek, draw out a larger amount of 
 talent than these do, or show better on the reckoning- 
 day when stock is taken of the quantity and quality 
 of available knowledge and discipline really acquired. 
 That by means of better books and of methods based 
 on a knowledge of human nature, a larger proportion 
 of boys might be drawn within the circle of school- 
 work, is undeniable ; but this points to the improve- 
 ment of existing practice, not to the subversion of the 
 existing system of studies. 
 
 There are, it seems to us, only two valid objections 
 to the prevalent practice of our public schools : — (i.) 
 The almost entire exclusion from these schools of 
 elementary physics and social economy, which, if 
 properly taught, can be made attractive as well as
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 21 5 
 
 instructive, promoting rather than retarding the magi- 
 stral classical and mathematical studies. (2.) The 
 non-provision of "a course of study for those pupils 
 who do not contemplate a university career, and 
 whose intellects, though repelled by linguistic sub- 
 jects, might possibly be reached by those consecutive 
 and methodical accounts of the external world which 
 we call Science. If the study of Latin and Greek, as 
 the leading subjects of middle-school work, renders 
 once for all inevitable the total exclusion of all in- 
 struction regarding external nature and economic 
 science, the cause of the classicists is, by the admission 
 of this necessity, fatally weakened. As a matter of 
 fact,, however, there is no difficulty in prosecuting the 
 study of the ancient languages concurrently with 
 those subjects which every educated man may be 
 reasonably expected to know in their elementary 
 principles and general purport. This amount of (so- 
 called) realistic scientific knowledge is easy of attain- 
 ment in secondary schools, and as imperative as it is 
 easy. Such subjects as natural history are probably 
 best treated as diversions or recreations. 
 
 It is only after we have assumed a certain amount 
 of realistic instruction in natural science to be given 
 in public secondary schools to all the pupils, and a 
 separate educational provision for those who are by 
 nature disqualified for linguistic discipline, that we 
 properly approach the question of Language versus 
 Science as an educative instrument ; and the question
 
 2l6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 then becomes this : Is formal science, as such, or the 
 classical tongues, when taught with average ability 
 (for it is only on a mediocre teaching capacity that 
 we ever can safely rely in estimating the value of 
 subjects of instruction), more promotive of the forma- 
 tion of a good intellectual habit ? 
 
 To state the question of a classical versus a 
 scientific education as a training in the knowledge 
 of the lifeless signs of speech and their relations, 
 versus a training in a knowledge of living Nature 
 and its manifold operations, is to misrepresent the 
 point at issue. In the University, and in the upper 
 classes of the middle school, the dispute is not be- 
 tween the claims of formal and of real studies. 
 Both studies present the realities of knowledge to the 
 mind of the student — the one the realities of man's 
 nature, the other the realities of physical nature. 
 Again, both Greek and physics exercise and disci- 
 pline the formal powers of intellect, and both admit 
 the student to an unconscious knowledge of the 
 operation and the laws of intelligence. But that 
 the purely formal discipline of language (where we 
 happen to have a highly developed language to work 
 with) is more delicate and subtle, more deep and 
 thorough, than that of physics, is, we think, justly 
 maintained. 
 
 The further superiority claimed for classical train- 
 ing over scientific consists in this, that in the former 
 we have the generalizations of the wisest men on 
 human life and human duty expressed in the most
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 21/ 
 
 artistic forms ; in the latter we have only generaliza- 
 tions on the facts and sequences of the visible world. 
 The realities of moral experience, embodied in forms 
 historical and dramatic, as these are impressed on 
 the acquiring mind by the very effort applied in 
 deciphering a difficult language, are of more value, 
 both in themselves and as giving splidity and perma- 
 nent power to the mental fabric, than a knowledge 
 of the phenomena of heat and electricity. These 
 moral generalizations of the wise are, in truth, an 
 .unsystematic philosophy of human nature, furnishing 
 the learner not only with the experience of the past, but 
 with instruction in the motives and purposes of life. 
 
 To become acquainted with the thoughts and 
 imaginations of the past, through the medium of 
 translation or when transfused through modern litera- 
 tures, is to sacrifice the benefits which we derive from 
 the study of thought produced in circumstances not 
 only different from, but even in some respects antago- 
 nistic to, our own. It is to sacrifiice also the artistic 
 form in which the thoughts are clothed— forms which 
 are the most perfect in literature, and which the 
 structure of the ancient languages forces even upon 
 the negligent student. The peculiar value of the 
 aesthetics of the intellect and of morality, as dis- 
 tinguished from the aesthetics of feeling and emotion, 
 in promoting the discipline and cultivation of mind, 
 and, above all, of the opening mind of youth, has not 
 been adverted to by writers on education, though it 
 must have been experienced by all who have had the
 
 2l8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 benefits of a classical training. It is not simply an 
 aesthetic, but also an intellectual and moral cultivation, 
 which flows from close contact with ideal and artistic 
 forms of utterance. 
 
 Such results in the growth of mind are, it is true, 
 neither ponderable nor commensurable quantities, but 
 they assuredly tend to produce a quality of mind 
 rarely to be attained in any other way, save by men 
 of native genius. Richter has well said, and probably 
 without much exaggeration — " The present ranks of 
 humanity would sink irrecoverably if youth did not 
 take its way through the silent temple of the mighty 
 past into the busy market-place of after-life." 
 
 Let us look at the contending claims of language 
 and science closely in their relation to the growth of 
 intelligence. 
 
 As an intellectual discipline, language makes good 
 its claim to preference on the following among other 
 grounds : — 
 
 I. Words stand for things real or notional. Now 
 it is only in so far as words denote the objects of ex- 
 ternal perception that a training based on science can 
 be said to have advantage over linguistic training. 
 Even in this case, however, language is defined for 
 the pupil onl)' within the narrow limits of the depart- 
 ment, or fragment of departments, which it is possible 
 within a given time to teach, whereas linguistic train- 
 ing, by teaching the value of words, as such, to what- 
 ever department of human knowledge they may
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 219 
 
 belong, educates the intellect to precision in the use 
 of them generally. So true is this, that men trained 
 only in a special department of science, and whose 
 education is limited by it, fail to use the language 
 even of their own department with that accuracy and 
 consistency of signification which would alone satisfy 
 a mind trained on language or philosophy. In the 
 only sense, then, in which physical science, to the 
 extent to %uJiich it can be taught to boys, can affect to 
 do the w^ork of linguistic training, it does not succeed. 
 Even if it succeeded, how small the ground it would 
 cover ! The language of a single department of 
 science or fragments of a few sciences, which, more- 
 over, in so far as they are fragmentary, fail to yield 
 true discipline, would represent the whole range of 
 the vocabulary taught. All those words which are 
 daily in our mouths as denoting the realities which 
 are constantly influencing our lives in all social and 
 moral relations, would be left outside the range of the 
 scientific teaching. It would be superfluous here to 
 dwell either on the pre-eminent importance of this 
 aspect of man's daily existence, or on the immense 
 value of a right understanding of words, and a wise 
 use of them. Every successive inquirer into human 
 nature has descanted on the error, misunderstanding, 
 and consequent misery, into which an abuse of words 
 is constantly betraying mankind. It seems to me 
 that if a linguistic training had no other result than 
 to teach us that words were our servants and not 
 our masters, and that we must question, define, weigh,
 
 220 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 and estimate them, it would require little other 
 defence of its claim to the traditionary prominence 
 in the secondary school which it happily inherits. 
 
 2. When we pass from the consideration of the 
 discipline of language in teaching us the exact use 
 of single terms, to the employment of these in the 
 expression of our thoughts under the necessary opera- 
 tion of mental laws, we find in language a just, though 
 imperfect, reflection of intellectual processes. In this 
 view the study of language is the informal study of 
 the laws of thought. We may assume that few 
 will be prepared to require from boys that reflective 
 grasp of intellectual laws, that effort after a conscious 
 realization of abstract processes, which is implied in 
 any study of logic or psychology worthy of the name. 
 At the same time, all will recognize the paramount 
 importance of exercising the formal powers of mind, 
 and, by a careful method, giving practice in the art, 
 while avoiding the scientific terminology and formulae, 
 of logic. Now, it is precisely in this relation that the 
 distinctive characteristic of language-training reveals 
 itself For language being the body of thought, the 
 student of it is studying concrete mind. While 
 dealing with objective things — with vocables, which 
 are audible and visible, and which, therefore, do not 
 evade his grasp, — he is at the same time unconsciously 
 tracing the operations of intellect in others, and learn- 
 ing the right use of his own faculties ; in other words, 
 he is a student of logic, in the widest sense of that 
 term, without being aware of it.
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 221 
 
 Nor is this position a vague affirmation ; it is 
 capable of illustration in detail : — 
 
 In the first place, the similarities of inflection in a 
 sentence leads the pupil to the clear perception of the 
 concord and partial identity in thought of subject 
 and attribute, whether the attributive appears as an 
 adjective, or a predicative verb. The distinct forms 
 by which inflected languages indicate this mental 
 concord must necessarily give the pupil a clearer 
 notion of what a judgment and an affirmation really 
 are. We do not here speak of the use which might be 
 made of this part of linguistic discipline by a teacher 
 who was himself conscious of the course of logic which 
 his instructions in language were scarcely veiling, but 
 of the inevitable discipline which the average boy 
 receives from the average teacher. And it is not only 
 in simple sentences that the pupil is thus exercised in 
 the concord of thought as expressed in attribution, but 
 he is also led by the help of the same mutual good 
 understanding among the inflections to trace a con- 
 nection between clauses, and to detect the fact that 
 complete assertions, no less than individual words, may 
 be attributive of each other. The tracing out and per- 
 ception of this unity of thought between affirmations 
 is a valuable intellectual exercise. 
 
 We pass over the clearness which must be given to 
 the pupil's perception of time and of government by 
 the resembling, yet differing, terminations of verbs 
 and nouns, to point out the training in syllogistic logic 
 which he necessarily receives when he enters on the
 
 222 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 analysis of an involved complex sentence. The 
 varying inflections of the words before him necessarily 
 lead him to the discrimination of an assertion from 
 its grounds, and of a conclusiom from its causes, 
 motives, or purposes. The forms set apart to denote 
 these qualities of propositions compel his attention, 
 detain it, and thus fix the distinctions in his mind. 
 Again, those qualities of propositions which we ex- 
 press by the words hypothesis and probability, and 
 even so fine a distinction as that between probability 
 and possibility, are forced upon the understanding of 
 the learner, however unconscious the teacher may be 
 of the full meaning and value of the instrument he is 
 using, and however ignorant the pupil of the logical 
 generalizations of propositions and the names by 
 which these generalizations are known. What higher 
 discipline of intellect can be proposed for a boy whom 
 we desire to discipline severely, but whose self-con- 
 sciousness we do not yet wish to evoke, or to force 
 into activity, than to lay before him a mass of words, 
 apparently dead and disjointed signs, and to require 
 that, from a steady consideration of these, the living 
 organism of speech shall be built up — an organism 
 into which all the formal elements of intellect run, 
 and which calls for the discrimination, not only of the 
 various relations in thought of the propositions before 
 him, but of the precise force of many and various 
 vocables, possessing it may be a wide and various 
 connotation .-• 
 
 Nay, I go further, and maintain that for the pro-
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 223 
 
 duction of a scientific habit of intellect we shall best 
 employ some years of boyhood in the study of 
 language. For this study exercises the mind at once 
 subtly and profoundly ; it penetrates all the re- 
 cesses of fallacy, and thereby habituates the mind to 
 the search for exactness and truth — the highest of 
 all qualifications for scientific investigation. By its 
 breadth of reach it widens the conceptions and 
 elevates the intelligence above the dominion of words 
 and phrases. This or that department of science is 
 no longer the master of the scientific intelligence, but 
 its servant. It is seen in its true proportions as only 
 a part of the general truth of life and furniture of 
 the human soul. Comprehension and grasp are thus 
 given, and the man who after linguistic training 
 becomes the thorough master of any one science, is 
 truly a master of it, because he sees it in its true 
 proportions and in its relations to the vast realm of 
 knowledge. Setting aside men of genius, is not the 
 man of one science, or even two, about the narrowest 
 and hopelessly barren of all the educated men one 
 can talk with ? It is true that much of what we 
 desiderate in the pure man of science may be obtained 
 from literature ; but, at a certain stage of education, 
 language properly understood and taught zs literature 
 as an exact study. Language-study then, I maintain, 
 gives comprehension of mind and power of intellect, 
 and is consequently the best of all preparations for even 
 the scientific man ; and further, it gives greater acute- 
 ness of discrimination — a most important attribute of
 
 224 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 the highest scientific minds. And, in short, the 
 formal study of language is the most admirable of all 
 exercises in the analysis and synthesis which con- 
 stitute the whole method of science. 
 
 3. To the reply that the intellectual discipline of 
 which we speak can be equally well obtained from 
 subjects more immediately useful than Latin and 
 Greek, such as natural science, we would rejoin : — 
 
 The instruction of boys, in all subjects in which 
 the real as opposed to the formal is, from the nature 
 of the case, of primary importance, must be dogmatic. 
 Up to the age of sixteen, or, perhaps, even seventeen, 
 even a statement of principles is received by boys as 
 dogma : to suppose anything else is to deceive our- 
 selves. Though they may be occasionally startled 
 into the conscious perception of rational relations 
 under the influence of a teacher of original mind, they 
 do not and cannot, in any adequate sense, realize 
 the reasoning process by which scientific conclusions 
 are reached. Hence, while in the study of natural 
 science, or any branch of it, they arc doubtless 
 taught not only facts, but classifications and laws, 
 and causes in relation to their effects, these are not, 
 and in almost all cases cannot be, elaborated by the 
 pupil himself The teaching of them, accordingly, 
 is apt to degenerate into a statement of fact, and the 
 learning of them into an act of memory 
 
 It is to be at once conceded, that were pupils led 
 by an intelligent and rarely-endowed master in an 
 inquiry into nature, with a view to re-establish, for
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 22$ 
 
 himself, results already known, a training would by 
 this means be given unequalled as a discipline ; but 
 such a method of instruction is on a large scale quite 
 impracticable, and, even if practicable, it would be 
 premature in its demands on the pupil's powers. Those 
 educationalists, who are not mere theorists, feel the 
 necessity of finding an instrument which does not 
 over-strain boys, and which can work fairly well in 
 the hands of no very cunning workmen. Where 
 natural science is that instrument, the method which 
 looks so well in theory must degenerate in actual 
 practice into the most ordinary and vulgar cram. 
 Differences, generalizations, laws, and causes will not 
 be truly apprehended as stick, but will be arranged 
 in the pupil's mind by virtue of association alone, 
 however glibly they may be enunciated at call in 
 their proper places and sequences. It is only the 
 select few, even of those who fairly master the subject 
 taught, that are fully conscious of the reasoning pro- 
 cess involved, and do not simply trust to faithful 
 memor}- and association. 
 
 It is no doubt true that, a few years later, the boy 
 who has been well taught in one or two departments 
 of science may reflect on the results of that teaching, 
 and in this way these results may fructify into a kind 
 of retrospective discipline ; the relation of cause and 
 effect, differences, likenesses, and the elements of gene- 
 ralizations, may be then seen, and the intellectual ends 
 of education be thus attained. But even the pro- 
 duction of this winter-fruit assumes particularly good 
 

 
 226 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 teaching, a good memory, and habits of mind which 
 are naturally more than usually reflective. In lan- 
 guage, on the contrary, the intellectual processes of 
 differentiation, generalization, and reasoning are not 
 only much more fully, delicately, and variously repre- 
 sented than in physics, but they have the signal 
 advantage of not being offered to the learner as 
 scientific results which are capable of being tabulated 
 and acquired by the memory as so many co-ordinated 
 facts. On the contrary, they have in every successive 
 .sentence to be sought out and brought to light a/teiv, 
 and this as the very condition of making a single 
 progressive step. The boy's daily task is the con- 
 structing of a living organism out of a seemingly 
 chaotic aggregation of dead symbols, and in the con- 
 struction of this he brings into play all his intellectual 
 faculties whether he will or not. The discipline is 
 thus obtained independently of the teacher, and we 
 might almost say independently of the will of the 
 pupil also. 
 
 Of no other instrumciit of discipline can this be 
 said except geometry, and the kind of cultivation 
 which it gives is of too narrow a kind to admit 
 of its ever being more than the accessory of other 
 educational instruments. The precision of the defini- 
 tions in geomctr)-, the necessity of constantly referring 
 t:) them, and the purity of the exercise in syllogistic 
 reasoning which it affords, are of great benefit to the 
 intellect. But alone, and unsupported by the higher 
 linguistic training, it would be an unsatisfactory and
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 22/ 
 
 barren discipline in even mere syllogistic logic. Tiic 
 subject-matter of the reasoning is confined within 
 too narrow limits, and the landmarks of the ratio- 
 cinative process are too clearly defined, to admit of 
 geometry ever affording by itself a liberal culture. 
 Both the subject and the discipline which it gives, are 
 alike too monotonous and inflexible. 
 
 In the study of languages the boy either does the 
 work before him or he does not : if he docs it, he can- 
 not, if he would, avoid obtaining the discipline which 
 the work affords ; whereas, in elementary science, the 
 power of mere memory facilitates the acquisition of a 
 semblance of knowledge which may pass muster, but 
 which, I maintain, does not yield a thorough discipline 
 of any faculties save those of memory and association. 
 We shall, perhaps, be told that boys can and do 
 understand the science teaching; but when we examine 
 closely we find that the objectors do not really mean 
 strict science at all, but only Nature-knowledge, and 
 this we have already said ought, as a matter of course, 
 to have its place in every secondary school. 
 
 Accordingly, as in the training to a perception of 
 the force of vocables, so also in the disciplining of the 
 formal and intellectual powers, there seem to be suffi- 
 cient grounds for maintaining that science, as it can 
 he alone taught to boys between tiuelve and sixteen years 
 of age, is a feeble educative instrument as compared 
 with language. 
 
 The kind of discipline above claimed as the almost 
 exclusive property of language in the field of second-
 
 228 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 ary instruction, cannot be so surely obtained through 
 the modern tongues, except in those cases (on which 
 it would be vain to calculate) in which the rare ex- 
 cellence and general philological cultivation of the 
 master supplement the inherent defects of his instru- 
 ments. It is the contrast of the Latin and Greek 
 tongues to our native mode of casting thought, no less 
 than their own perfection of structure, that makes 
 them so valuable as a discipline. The conspicuous 
 devices, moreover, whereby, in these tongues, gram- 
 matical, and therefore thought-relations are indicated, 
 reveal, even to the careless pupil of the most ordinar}' 
 teacher, the logical structure of language. The 
 organic character of thought is thereby more com- 
 pletely exhibited, the relations of its elements more 
 delicately indicated, and the whole rivetted more 
 firmly into a compact living body in the classical 
 tongues than any other.* 
 
 If nature-knowledge and mathematics and modern 
 languages, including our own language, are all admitted 
 to a place in our secondary schools, it is of course 
 impossible to preserve to both Latin and Greek 
 their present practical monopoly. The ship must 
 be lightened or it will never reach its port. Greek, 
 in short, and it is to be said with regret, must 
 give way and stand aside as a subject taught in all 
 
 * The larger literary and a'sthetic arguments in favour of basing 
 secondary education on tlie classical tongues are not here discussed. 
 ( )ur object has been simply to show the nature of the intellectual opera- 
 lions which language on the one hand, and science on the other, calls 
 into I'lay in boys between twelve and sixteen.
 
 SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 229 
 
 secondary schools, but only as a special subject to 
 be taken by those who choose. I do not believe in 
 what are called " modern sides " in classical schools. 
 Education at the secondary stage is a unity, as it is 
 in the primary stage. It is only after sixteen that the 
 process of specialization can be allowed to show itself. 
 To exclude Latin as well as Greek from the obligatory 
 curriculum would be an educational calamity. Being 
 the store-house of a large portion of our own tongue, 
 it yields in quite a peculiar degree an exercise in the 
 history and force of words. In studying Latin wc 
 are studying our native, if not our mother, tongue, 
 and it is hopeless to look for a grasp of modern 
 English if we are ignorant of one of its sources. 
 When we add to this the fact that it is the basis of 
 the Romance languages, and smooths the way to an 
 acquaintance with these, we add the consideration of 
 utility to an already adequate ground of preference.
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST.
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 
 
 Montaigne, the essayist and sceptic, continues, 
 after a lapse of three hundred years, to speak to us 
 with all the freshness of a contemporary. Among 
 mere men of the world he is sovereign. He is original 
 and unique, and at the same time a type of a class. 
 Though the class he represents may not be a large 
 one, he yet gives expression to a way of estimating 
 life which is a passing mood of all thoughtful minds. 
 He thus leads a large constituency — all the larger that 
 he makes no tyrannical demands, and warns the 
 reader not to labour after even him. Few writers 
 say so many wise things as Montaigne does, and no 
 one appears so little solicitous about convincing 
 others that his sayings are wise. His intellectual 
 philosophy is essentially sophistical and sceptical, his 
 morality conventional, and his moral philosophy 
 epicurean. 
 
 We are not disposed, however, to allow to Mon- 
 taigne, and such easy-going sceptics as he, the 
 superiority to limitations that they claim. It is all
 
 234 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 very well to proclaim the impossibility of finding ab- 
 solute truth, and to luxuriate in a cultured indifference, 
 but at the foundation of such talk there in truth lies a 
 philosophical conviction as positive as that of the most 
 ardent zealot. The conviction is that, doomed as man 
 is to nescience, the happiness of each individual is for 
 himself the only solid pursuit, and is to be at all 
 hazards cherished. The standard of happiness will 
 doubtless vary with the idiosyncrasies and circum- 
 stances of each man, but must always, with cultivated 
 men, embrace equability of mind, balance of judgment, 
 a kindly disposition to all with whom they are 
 brought in contact, an indisposition to exertion for any 
 purpose whatsoever as leading to certain disturbance 
 and almost as certain disappointment, a horror of a 
 " Cause," and a strict regard to the comforts of 
 the animal economy generally. Intellectual scepti- 
 cism is itself in truth an implicit dogmatism, and in 
 the field of moral action it is epicurean dogmatism. 
 No man, in truth, holds more tightly to a positive 
 philosophy of life than Montaigne. Doubtless the 
 attitude of inquiry, the que scais-je ? gives a breadth 
 and elasticity of mind and promotes a geniality 
 of nature that have their charms, and are genuine 
 objects of desire to most men. They are, how- 
 ever, the true possession only of those who are not 
 " too sure " of anything. A steady sustained con-* 
 viction that there is nothing admitting of conviction 
 runs through Montaigne's life and writings, and he is 
 in this sense as positive as his neighbours. No man
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 
 
 -^J5 
 
 can build his house on shifting sand. Montaigne may 
 in words defy us to find him desperately in earnest, 
 but he fails : for he never doubts his doubts, and he 
 never loses his grip of his ethical standard such as it 
 is. So far at least he is in sober earnest. 
 
 We should like sometimes to find this arch- 
 philosopher of practical wisdom in earnest about other 
 things than indifference, and we naturally seek for 
 this quality of earnestness in his views of religion and 
 politics — subjects which call forth the passions of men 
 more than any other. But notwithstanding all that 
 has been said and written on these points, I think we 
 shall find that his whole mental attitude was such as 
 to forbid definite conclusions even on those vital sub- 
 jects. His Apology for Sebonde does not throw so 
 much light on his religious beliefs as we should desire. 
 If readers are disappointed in their expectations here, 
 they have themselves to blame, for they search for 
 something which his philosophy has beforehand told 
 them not to expect. The fact seems to be that in 
 religion he was strictly conventional, and in politics 
 he was equally conventional. " For Heaven's sake," 
 he would say, "don't disturb the status quo; things 
 are bad enough, I grant, but in seeking to make them 
 better you will probably make them worse. Let us 
 go on from day to day, quietly meeting little diffi- 
 culties as they arise, and making the best both of the 
 good and of the bad. The practical guidance of life — 
 that is our business." 
 
 If we prosecute our inquiry after the "earnest"
 
 236 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 side of Montaigne's character, we shall find it perhaps 
 most conspicuous in his heartfelt desire to amend the 
 condition of the poor, and in his views on education. 
 It is the latter with which we have to do here ; but 
 of both characteristics I would say that they were the 
 fruit of his positive philosophy. A happy, useful 
 (provided usefulness did not call for too much ex- 
 ertion), practically wise life was his sitimmun boniLni, 
 and it was this aim that unconsciously determined the 
 substance of his educational theory. In considering 
 then his teaching, we must keep Montaigne's theory 
 of life before our minds. For, education as distinct 
 from instruction is a subject on which no man can 
 possibly write without being more or less consciously 
 controlled in all his utterances by his philosophy of 
 man and of human life. 
 
 So much is necessary for the proper understanding 
 of Montaigne on education. But more than this is 
 needed for the proper placing of him in the series of 
 educational writers. We have to understand his 
 historical relations and the circumstances of his life 
 and time, of which receptive men like Montaigne are 
 in a special sense the product and reflection. 
 
 Luther died when Montaigne was thirteen years 
 old. It was during the latter period of Luther's life 
 that the Humanistic movement among the leaders of 
 the thought of Europe began to tell, as all great 
 philosophic and political movements inevitably do, 
 sooner or later, tell, upon the education of youth. 
 The reformation of religion was itself only part of the
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 237 
 
 larger Humanistic movement. For Humanism was 
 simply a rebellion against words and logical forms in 
 the interest of the realities of life and thought. An 
 intellectual movement of this kind could not fail to 
 make itself felt in education as well as in the domain 
 of religious forms and formularies, for it was a philo- 
 sophical movement, and philosophy ultimately deter- 
 mines all such things. Up to the period of University 
 life, and even beyond it, education consisted in the 
 acquisition of Latin words and rules about Latin, and 
 this in time received the addition of logic with all its 
 scholastic subtleties, and such physics as abridgments 
 of Aristotle could supply. Prior to Montaigne's 
 school-days the intellectual life of the school-boy was, 
 as may be supposed, very wretched, but those who 
 survived it and continued to devote themselves to 
 grammar, rhetoric, and logic, certainly acquired an 
 amount of discipline which could not fail to sharpen 
 their wits. Intensity and subtlety of thought were 
 the natural outcome of the educational system, but 
 accompanied with a restricted range of viev/ and a 
 worship of arid terms and phrases. Luther's educa- 
 tional activity was directed to aid the Humanists in 
 reviving in the school a regard for substance as 
 opposed to form. Pure Latinity, the study of the 
 substance of the great Roman writers, and of rhetoric 
 and logic by the perusal of those great products of 
 literary genius out of which the rules of rhetoric and 
 logic were themselves generalized, began to take the 
 place of mere words and of barbarous Latinity. The
 
 238 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 typical schoolmaster of this period was John Sturm, 
 the rector of the High School of Strasbourg, whose 
 course of instruction, severe and mainly linguistic, was 
 yet such as to give genuine culture to all those who 
 were capable of culture, Sturm died in 1589. Already 
 the Humanistic movement in schools had been repre- 
 sented in England by Dean Colet, who died in 15 19, 
 and by Roger Ascham, who died in 1568, and was a 
 correspondent of Sturm. Erasmus, the friend of 
 Colet, died in 1536. Montaigne's position is thus 
 clearly defined. Born in 1533, and dying in 1592, he 
 was in the midst of the full tide of the reaction 
 against, what Milton calls, " the scholastic grossness of 
 barbarous ages," " ragged notions and babblements." 
 Bacon's influence had not yet begun. 
 
 Montaigne's father, a gentleman of private estate 
 in the province of Guienne, had notions of his own as 
 to the education of the young Michel, and whatever 
 we may think of them, the son thought highly of the 
 method, and all through life retained the profoundest 
 affection and respect for " the best father that ever 
 was." He used to ride in his father's old military cloak, 
 " because," he said, " when I have that on, I seem to 
 WTap myself up in my father." His education, under 
 the paternal roof, was directed morally to the cultiva- 
 tion in him of an intense love of truthfulness and of 
 kindliness of feeling and manners towards the poor 
 and dependent. So solicitous was the father to sur- 
 round his child with every beneficent influence, that he 
 had him roused every morning by the sound of music,
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 239 
 
 that there might be no violent disturbance of his 
 nervous system. As regards intellectual education, the 
 main object even with Humanists was Latin (and a 
 little Greek), because Latin represented humane letters. 
 Montaigne himself tells us the novel arrangements his 
 father made for initiating him in this language with- 
 out straining his powers. He gave him a Latin- 
 speaking tutor, and surrounded him with Latin 
 conversation, so that when he was six years old he 
 spoke Latin fluently, much better, indeed, than he 
 could speak his own tongue. The whole household, 
 indeed, became so Latinized that the domestics, and 
 even the peasants on his father's property, began to 
 use Latin words. 
 
 Greek was taught by the invention of a game, 
 but it would appear without much success, for Mon- 
 taigne's knowledge of Greek literature was never 
 much more than he could obtain through a Latin 
 medium. 
 
 He was only six years old when he was sent to 
 the College of Guienne at Bordeaux, an institution 
 of mark, in which the Humanistic culture must have 
 reigned supreme, if we may judge from the names 
 of the teachers — William Guerente the Aristotelian, 
 Muretus the classical Latinist and rhetorician, and 
 our own George Buchanan the historian and Latin 
 poet. At college he lost his familiar acquaintance with 
 colloquial Latin, but largely extended his private read- 
 ing in classical authors ; this, however, only by a breach 
 of school rules in which he was wisely encouraged by
 
 240 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 his masters. At the early age of thirteen he had 
 accomplished his college course, and although he 
 afterwards studied law, it cannot be said that he had 
 any special instruction outside his professional read- 
 ing after he was a boy. Had it not been for the 
 wise connivance of his masters, which enabled him 
 to make acquaintance with the literature of Rome, 
 he would have " brought away from college nothing 
 but a hatred of books, as almost all our young gentle- 
 men do." His father was satisfied with the result 
 of his school life, " for the chief things he expected 
 from the endeavour of those to whom he had delivered 
 me for education was affability of manners and good 
 humour." Montaigne was, to speak the truth, idle 
 and desultory, and he would be the first to admit it. 
 He also complains that he had "a slothful wit that 
 would go no faster than it was led, a languishing 
 invention and an incredible defect of memory, so that 
 it is no wonder," he adds, " if from these nothing con- 
 siderable could be extracted." He was incapable of 
 sustained effort and of taking much trouble about 
 anything. Nor could it be said that witli all the 
 leisure at his command he was ever master of any 
 subject: he had "only nibbled," he himself says, "on 
 the outward crust of sciences, and had a little snatch 
 of everything and nothing of the whole." Even of 
 Latin he was not a master, and Scaligcr speaks with 
 contempt of his scholarship ; to which, however, 
 Montaigne never made any claim. His innumerable 
 classical allusions and quotations were, however, the
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 24 1 
 
 genuine fruit of his own reading ; but he read not 
 as a grammarian or philosopher, but as a man of 
 letters. " I make no doubt," he says, with his usual 
 naivete, " that I oft happen to speak of things that 
 are much better and more truly handled by those who 
 are masters of the trade." ..." Whoever will take 
 me tripping in my ignorance will not in an}' wa}' 
 displease me ; for I should be very^ unwilling to be- 
 come responsible to another for my writings, who am 
 not so to myself nor satisfied with them. Whoever 
 goes in quest of knowledge, let him fish for it where 
 it is to be found : there, is nothing I so little profess." 
 Again, " I could wish to have a more perfect know- 
 ledge of things, but I will not buy it so dear as it will 
 cost. My design is to pass over easily, and not 
 laboriously, the remainder of my life. There is nothing 
 that I will cudgel my brains about ; no, not knowledge 
 of what price soever. ... I do not bite my nails 
 about the difficulties I meet with in my reading, and 
 after a charge or two I give them over. . . . Con- 
 tinuation and a too obstinate endeavour darken, 
 stupefy, and tire m}- judgment." 
 
 The moral result was more satisfactory. Mon- 
 taigne's disposition was naturally kindly, and its 
 kindliness was further fostered by his father's affec- 
 tionate upbringing. If ever there was a man dis- 
 tinguished for that " sweet reasonableness " of which 
 we have heard not a little of late, that man was Mon- 
 taigne. He had the light of culture and also its 
 sweetness. 
 
 R
 
 242 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 I have dwelt a little on Montaigne's own education 
 and character, because they have to be taken into 
 consideration along with the circumstances of his time, 
 to which I have already alluded, in forming a true 
 estimate of his educational opinions. The character 
 of the man also is itself to be regarded as, to some 
 extent at least, the fruit of his education, and retro- 
 spectively his father's method come up for judgment 
 according to the saying, " By their fruits ye shall 
 know them." It is sufficiently clear that of discipline, 
 intellectual or moral, Montaigne had received none, 
 and that his nature was one that stood in some need 
 of it. The love that his father bore him and the 
 gentleness of his treatment unquestionably nurtured 
 the ingenuous spirit of the son and gave him a free- 
 dom of judgment and a fearlessness of intelligence 
 which are among Montaigne's principal charms. His 
 mind was not at any time oppressed with too strong 
 a burden of duty or warped by fear. He grew up 
 into an open-eyed, gentle, bright-souled, and sweet- 
 blooded man, with a sound practical judgment — a wise 
 man, if not a learned one — capable of looking at every 
 side of a question by turns and dallying with each. 
 
 But to follow the example of Montaigne's father 
 would not always succeed. He had a man of genius 
 as his child and pupil, and all he did was felicitously 
 adapted to develop the boy's natural endowments. 
 But the system pursued did not cure the pupil's mani- 
 fest defects of character. I'2ven his natural weakness 
 of memory, so far from being remedied, was probably
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 245 
 
 increased by the father's lax treatment. Perhaps all 
 the better for the world, it may be said. In this 
 particular case it was so ; but we have not young 
 Montaignes to deal with. We have to discipline the 
 intellectual and moral nature of the average boy if we 
 would give energy of will, earnestness of purpose, 
 power of application, and love of truth. 
 
 When Montaigne gives us his own views on the 
 education of the young we find them to be very much 
 a reflex of his own experience and character. Let us 
 look at them for a little as they bear on the end of edu- 
 cation, on the materials of instruction, on method, on 
 intellectual and moral discipline, and on the penalties 
 whereby the work of the school is usually enforced. 
 
 If we were to put in the shortest form Montaigne's 
 idea of the End of education, wc should say that it is 
 this : that a man be trained up to the use of his own 
 reason. " A man," he says, " can never be wise save by 
 his own wisdom." " If the mind be not better disposed, 
 by education, if the judgment be not better settled, I 
 had much rather my scholar had spent his time at 
 tennis, for at least his body would by that means be in 
 better exercise and breath. Do but observe him when 
 he comes back from school, after fifteen or sixteen years 
 that he has been there : there is nothing so awkward 
 and maladroit, '-.o unfit for company and employment ; 
 and all that you shall find he has got is, that his 
 Latin and Greek have only made him a greater and 
 more conceited coxcomb than when he went from
 
 244 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 home. He should bring back his soul replete with 
 good literature, and he brings it only swelled and 
 puffed up with vain and empty shreds and snatches 
 of learning, and has really nothing more in him than 
 he had before." It is true that great men and vigorous 
 natures overcome all this and are none the worse ; 
 but " it is not enough that our education does not 
 spoil us, it must alter us for the better." It is not 
 enough to tie learning to the soul, but to work and 
 incorporate them together ; not to tincture the soul 
 merely, but to give it a thorough and perfect dye ; 
 and if it will not take colour and meliorate its im- 
 perfect state, it were, without question, better to let 
 it alone." . . . Knowledge will not " find a man 
 eyes ; its business is to guide, govern, and direct his 
 steps, provided he have sound feet and straight legs to 
 go ttpony Neither Persia nor Sparta made much 
 account of mere knowledge, and Rome was at its 
 greatest in virtue and vigour before schools were much 
 thought of To train to valour, honesty, prudence, 
 wisdom, justice — these were the aims of the greatest 
 nations. As Agesilaus said when asked " what boys 
 should learn : " " Those things " (he said) " that they 
 ought to do when they become men." 
 
 Montaigne, then, would keep in view the end of 
 education from the very first ; and that end is to train 
 to right reason and independent judgment, to mode- 
 ration of mind, and to virtue. The cultivated and 
 capable man of aftairs, fit to manage his own 
 business well and discharge public duties wisely, is
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 245 
 
 his educated man. This is the antique idea of edu- 
 cation, and is very much what OuintiHan has in view 
 in the training of the " Good Orator." Philosophy- 
 is the highest fruit of education — not the philosophy 
 which has logical formulae for its subject-matter ; but 
 philosophy which has virtue for her end. Virtue and 
 philosophy are not " harsh and crabbed as dull fools 
 suppose," but the " enemies of melancholy and the 
 friends of wisdom : they teach us how to know and 
 make use of all good things, and how to part with 
 them without concern." " Philosophy instructs us to 
 live, and infancy has there its lessons as well as other 
 ages." We are not, however, to force to virtue and 
 to philosophy, but to attract by showing that they 
 alone yield happiness, and by leading the pupil to 
 recognize their essential beauty and charm. It may 
 be that there are youths who are inaccessible to all 
 that is noble and beautiful and ingenuous in thought 
 and action, and turn aside by preference to common 
 pleasures. What is to be done with these .^ " Bind 
 them 'prentice," says Montaigne, " in some good town 
 to learn to make mince pies, though they were the 
 sons of dukes ; " and in a manuscript emendation he 
 recommends that the masters should " strangle such 
 youths if tJicy can do it iintJiont %vitnesscs 1 " 
 
 What now has IMontaigne to say as to the ]\Iaterials 
 of instruction whereby his end is to be attained t 
 " The most difficult and most important of all human 
 arts is education," he says. The differences among 
 children increase the difficulty; but the promise of
 
 246 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 the future is with young children so uncertain that it 
 is better, so far as the matter of instruction goes, to 
 give to all the elements of knowledge alike. In any 
 case, let us begin when they are young, when the clay 
 is moist and soft. 
 
 From the very first, the lessons of philosophy in 
 their simple and practical form can be inculcated. 
 In philosophy Montaigne includes all that we now 
 understand by the religious and moral, and he main- 
 tains, and rightly maintains, that a child's mind is 
 more open to all such lessons than to reading and 
 writing. In selecting other materials of instruction 
 we must bear in mind that a child " owes but the first 
 fifteen or sixteen years of his life to discipline, and 
 the rest to action. Let us therefore employ that time 
 in necessary instruction." At every stage that which 
 constitutes the ultimate aim of education is to appear 
 in some form or other — philosophy, namely, which 
 forms the judgment and conduct. This has a hand 
 in everything. " She is always in place, and is to be 
 admitted to all sports and entertainments because 
 of the sweetness of her conversation. By guiding 
 conduct, as well as by discourse in season, this instruc- 
 tion is to be given and habits thus formed." 
 
 Montaigne is generally classed by educational 
 writers as a realist — as the very founder of realism. 
 Those who so write, write without understanding. 
 Educational realism in our modern sense means the 
 substitution of a knowledge of nature and of the 
 practical ivork of after life for the study of language
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 247 
 
 and literature and all that we include in the Human- 
 ities. Those who advocate the latter are Humanists, 
 and are the true descendants of the Humanists 
 of the Renaissance. All educationalists, however, 
 (except, perhaps, the majority of schoolmasters), are 
 realists in this sense — Montaigne's sense — that they 
 desire to see reality, that is, to see the substance of 
 fact or thought in the education of youth. Montaigne's 
 realism opposed itself merely to verbalism, and he 
 fought a good fight in this. But all this belongs to 
 the past, in the region of educational theory at least. 
 We all now seek reality ; we are all opposed to ver- 
 balism. The difference now consists in this, that one 
 school of philosophy holds by language and literature 
 as introducing youth to the highest and best realities 
 — the realities of feeling and thought if properly 
 handled : the other school holds by facts, the facts of 
 nature and of man's triumphs over nature as yielding 
 the highest and best realities for educational purposes. 
 If we may make a distinction between the real 
 Humanistic and the verbal Humanistic, there can be 
 no doubt that Montaigne belonged to the former class, 
 and not to the utilitarian realists of whom Mr. Spencer 
 and Professor Bain are the best contemporary types. 
 
 Ethical training, then, in the broadest sense is the 
 main purpose of education according to Montaigne. 
 Virtue and wisdom sum him up. The ordinary sub- 
 jects of reading, writing, and casting accounts are of 
 course to be taught. After this, whatever you teach, 
 avoid words simply as words. Most modern Human-
 
 248 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 ists would not go so far as IMontaigne certainly in 
 their opposition to words. They see more in them. 
 But we must bear in mind the state of things at the 
 time Montaigne wrote. The Humanistic revival, which 
 was a revival in the interests of realities, was also a 
 revival of style ; and the tendency was to give pro- 
 minence to art in language. This must always be the 
 case : teachers in their daily work cannot consistently 
 maintain from hour to hour the reality of any subject, 
 be it language, literature, or science. The tendency 
 inevitably is to fall back upon mechanical expedients, 
 on the learning of rules, and on symbolism generally. 
 It is so even with religion and morality. To the end 
 of time, the task of the true teacher who desires truly 
 to educate will be a struggle against the dominion of 
 words and forms, and this quite irrespectively of the 
 subjects he may choose to make the basis of his 
 school-work. The virtues of the educational pro- 
 fession are all summed up in the w^ords — life, reality ; 
 but, like other virtues, they are not always easily 
 practised. 
 
 "The world," says Montaigne, "is nothing but 
 babble. . . . We are kept four or five years to learn 
 nothing but words and to tack them together into 
 clauses ; as many more to make exercises, and to 
 divide a continued discourse into so many parts ; and 
 other five years, at least, to learn succinctly to mix 
 and interweave them after a subtle and intricate 
 manner. Let us leave this to the learned professors ! " 
 Words, grammar, style, or rhetoric in the larger sense
 
 :\rONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 249 
 
 as embracing all these, constituted the main end of 
 school and college instruction in those days, and this 
 was supplemented by logic. Montaigne held that if 
 a man had really anything to say he could manage to 
 say it without all this training. " Let the pupil be 
 well furnished with things," {i.e. thoughts) he says, 
 " words will follow but too fast." People who pretend 
 to have great thoughts w^iich they cannot express are 
 deceiving themselves ; they are not labouring to bring 
 forth, but merely " licking the formless embryo " of 
 their minds. If a man has any clear conceptions he 
 will express them well enough though ignorant of 
 "ablative, conjunctive, substantive, and grammar." 
 "When things are once formed in the fancy, words 
 offer themselves in muster. Ipsiu res verba rapiunt^' 
 says Cicero. " The fine flourishes of rhetoric serve 
 only to amuse the vulgar, who are incapable of more 
 solid and nutritive diet." The attack on mere rhetoric 
 in the sense of style is keen and incisive and has not 
 a little truth in it. " Words are to serve and to follow 
 a man's purpose." He quotes Plato as approving of 
 fecundity of conception rather than of fertility of 
 speech, and Zeno as dividing his pupils into two 
 classes, the philolog'i, who loved things and reason- 
 ings, and logophili, who cared for nothing but words. 
 " I am scandalized," he says, " that our whole life 
 should be spent in nothing else." 
 
 What would he have then in addition to the usual 
 elements of education, and the teaching of philosophy 
 and of virtue } He would have a man learn thoroughly
 
 2 5o thp: training of teachers. 
 
 his own language first, and then that of his neighbour, 
 regarding Greek and Latin, as ornamental merely. 
 Little, however, did Montaigne think that instruction, 
 even in our own language, could degenerate into what 
 it has become in these latter days — verbalism of a 
 kind much more offensive than any to be found in 
 classical teaching. He could not foresee detailed 
 analysis of sentences, and the dreary pedantry of 
 school grammars of our native tongue ! Pedagogic 
 ingenuity had not yet invented such arid substitutes 
 for the substance of our mother-speech — arch-enemies 
 of true Humanistic culture — the logical babblement of 
 the primary school. Truly teachers have an "infinite 
 capacity for sinking." 
 
 Vernacular and modern languages once secured, 
 Montaigne would thereafter limit the course of* study 
 " to those things only where a true and real utility and 
 advantage are to be expected and found. To teach a 
 boy astronomy, for example, instead of what will 
 make him Avise and good, is absurd. After you have 
 done this last, the pupil may be admitted to the 
 elements of geometry, rhetoric, logic, and physics ; 
 and then the science which his judgment most affects, 
 he will generally make his own." * But we must above 
 all teach him " what it is to know and what to be 
 ignorant, what valour is, and temperance and justice ; 
 the difference between ambition and avarice, servi- 
 tude and subjection, license and liberty ; in brief, 
 season his understanding with that which regulates 
 his manners and his sense, that which teaches him to
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 25 1 
 
 know himself, and how both well to die and well to 
 live. Over and above this, let us make a selection of 
 those subjects which directly and professedly serve 
 for the " instruction and use of life." But the direct 
 instruction of the master is not all. " Human under- 
 standing is marvellously enlightened by daily con- 
 versation with men, for we are otherwise of ourselves 
 so stupid as to have our sight limited to the end of our 
 own noses. One asking Socrates of what country he 
 was, he did not make answer, ' of Athens,' but ' of 
 the world.' " We must learn to measure ourselves 
 aright : " whosoever shall represent to his fancy, as in 
 a picture, that great image of our mother nature pour- 
 traycd in her full majesty and lustre, whoever in her 
 face shall read her so universal and constant v^ariety, 
 whoever shall observe himself and not only himself 
 but a whole kingdom no bigger than the least touch or 
 prick of a pencil in comparison with the whole, — that 
 man alone is able to value things according to their 
 true estimate and grandeur." The great world is the 
 mirror wherein we are to behold ourselves, to be able 
 to know ourselves as we ought to do. History 
 naturally suggests itself in this connection as a lead- 
 ing subject of study, for " thereby we converse with 
 those great and heroic souls of former and better 
 ages " — an empty and an idle study as commonly con- 
 ducted, but of " inestimable fruit and value " Avhen 
 prosecuted with care and observation. 
 
 Meanwhile the body is not to be forgotten, for, 
 not to speak of the moral instruction which may be
 
 252 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 conveyed in connection with leaping and riding and 
 wrestling, etc., we have to form the youth's outward 
 fashion and mien at the same time as his mind : for 
 " 'tis not a soul, 'tis not a body we are training only, 
 but a man, and we ought not to divide him." And, 
 as Plato says, " we are not to fashion one without the 
 other, but make them draw together like two horses 
 harnessed to a coach," " It is not enough to fortify 
 the soul : you are also to make the sinews strong, for 
 the soul will be oppressed if not assisted by the bodily 
 members, and would have too hard a task to dis- 
 charge two offices at once." Effeminacy in food or 
 clothes or habits is also to be eschewed. 
 
 So much for the end of education according to 
 Montaigne, and the materials of instruction whereby 
 that end is to be attained. Montaigne's public school, 
 if he had to construct one in these days, would 
 certainly be somewhat after the fashion of a German 
 Real school, and, so far, he is rightly named a realist. 
 But the leading purpose of all his instruction would 
 essentially be ethical and humanistic. The only re- 
 spect in which his curriculum would be realistic in the 
 utilitarian meaning would be in the subordinate place 
 assigned to Latin and Greek. So far is he from being 
 a realist in the modern sense, that he may be rather 
 set down as an enemy of mere knowledge or informa- 
 tion. " The cares and expense our parents are at in 
 our education, point at nothing save to fill our heads 
 with knowledge," he says, "but not a word of judg- 
 ment or virtue. We toil and labour to stuff the
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 253 
 
 memory, and in the meantime leave the conscience 
 and the understanding unfurnished — void." 
 
 It has to be noted that Montaigne, and after him 
 Milton and I.ocke, think only of the education of the 
 few and not of the many — of the sons of gentlemen 
 only : but while the extent to which school instruction 
 goes depends for the most part on the social position 
 of the parent, the principles which regulate a pro- 
 longed education are equally operative in the briefest, 
 if they are worth anything at all as principles. 
 
 Of equal importance with end and means is 
 method. On this Montaigne has less to say, but what 
 he says contains probably the germs of the most im- 
 portant principles of all method. 
 
 " 'Tis the custom of schoolmasters to be eternally 
 thundering in their pupils' ears as if they were pour- 
 ing into a funnel, whilst the business of the pupil is 
 simply to repeat what the teacher has before said. I 
 would have a tutor correct this error, and at the very 
 first he should, according to the capacity he has to 
 deal with, put it to the test, permitting his pupil him- 
 self to taste and relish things and of himself to choose 
 and discern them, sometimes opening the way to him 
 and sometimes making him break the ice himself; 
 that is to say, I would not have him alone to invent 
 and speak, but also hear his pupil invent and speak 
 in his turn. Socrates, and since him Arccsilaus, made 
 first their scholars speak and then they spoke to them. 
 The authority of those who teach is very often an 
 impediment to those who desire to learn. It is good
 
 254 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 to make the pupil, like a young horse, trot before the 
 master, that he may judge of his going and how much 
 he, the master, is to abate of his own speed to ac- 
 commodate himself to the vigour and capacity of his 
 pupil. For want of this due proportion we spoil all : 
 to know how to adjust this and to keep within an 
 exact and due measure is one of the hardest things I 
 know ; and it is an effect of a judicious and well- 
 tempered soul to know how to condescend to the boy's 
 puerile movements and to govern and direct them. 
 Those who, according to our common way of teaching, 
 undertake with one and the same lesson and the 
 same measure of direction to instruct several boys of 
 differing and unequal capacities, are infinitely mis- 
 taken in their method ; and at this rate it is no 
 wonder if, in a multitude of scholars, there are not 
 found above two or three who bring away any good 
 account of their time and discipline." ' Here we have 
 the foreshadowing of the organization of instruction 
 and the classification of pupils. The importance of 
 examination as a part of good method is also insisted 
 on. " Let the master," he says, " not only examine 
 him about the grammatical construction of the bare 
 words of the lesson, but about the sense and meaning 
 of them, and let him judge of the profit he has made, 
 not by the testimony of his memory, but of his under- 
 standing. Let him make the pupil put what he hath 
 learned into a hundred several forms, and accom- 
 modate it to many subjects to sec if he yet rightly 
 comprehend it and have made it his own, taking
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 255 
 
 instruction in his progress from the ' Institutions of 
 Plato.'" "'Tis a sign of crudity and indigestion," he 
 says, " to vomit up what we eat in the same condition 
 it was swallowed down, and the stomach has not per- 
 formed its ofhce unless it have altered the form and 
 condition of what was committed to it to concoct." 
 *' What is the good of having the stomach full of meat 
 if it do not nourish us ? " Here we have what used to 
 be called the " Intellectual method " anticipated, the 
 importance of assimilation enforced, and the dis- 
 tinguishing characteristic of cram well exposed. 
 Montaigne further, in opposition to theories of educa- 
 tion still current, advises that the pupil be made to 
 sift and examine for himself, and to accept nothing 
 on mere authority. " We can say, Cicero says thus : 
 that these were the manners of Plato : that these 
 again arc the very words of Aristotle : but what do 
 we say ourselves that is our ozuu / What do zee do ? 
 What do tc'^ judge ? A parrot would say as much." 
 
 So much for the method of intellectual instruction. 
 The method of moral teaching is summed up in the 
 words that it should " insensibly insinuate " itself in 
 so far as it is direct, as lessons do which are not set 
 and formal, but suggested by time and place. 
 
 Of intellectual and moral discipline, in the true 
 sense of these terms, we find in Montaigne nothing. 
 Nor does religion, in any true sense, enter into his 
 scheme of education. And when we have said this 
 we convict him of having left unwritten the two chief 
 chapters in any educational theory. These grave
 
 256 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 omissions the character and upbringing of the man 
 "ivould lead us to expect, and we must not quarrel 
 with what we have, because it falls short of all our 
 demands. 
 
 With respect to Discipline, in the vulgar school 
 sense — that is to say, the means taken to force boys 
 to do what their masters want them to do — Montaigne 
 takes up a position substantially the same as that of 
 the greater number of eminent writers on education. 
 He is persuaded that, by following a good method, 
 instruction will become pleasant, and that it will not 
 be difficult to allure the pupil to both wisdom and 
 virtue. "If you do not allure the appetite and affec- 
 tion," he says, " you make nothing but asses laden 
 with books, and, by virtue of the lash, give them their 
 pocket full of learning to keep ; whereas, to do well, 
 you should not merely lodge it with them, but make 
 them to espouse it." Physical punishment fails of its 
 aim, and must fail by the nature of the case. If it 
 be necessary at any time to punish a child, it should 
 be done when we are calm. "No one," he says, 
 "would hesitate to punish a judge with death who 
 should have condemned a prisoner in a fit of passion. 
 Why is it allowed any more to parents and masters 
 to beat and strike children in their anger } That is 
 not correction : it is revenge. Chastisement stands 
 to children in the place of medicine ; and should we 
 endure a physician who was angry and violent with 
 his patient .^ " " Education," he says elsewhere, 
 " should be carried on with a severe sweetness, quite
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 257 
 
 contrary to the practice of our pedants, who, instead 
 of tempting and alluring children to letters by apt 
 and gentle ways, do, in truth, present nothing before 
 them but rods and ferules, horror and cruelty. Away 
 with this violence ! away with this compulsion ! than 
 which nothing, I certainly believe, more dulls and 
 degenerates a well-descended nature. If you would 
 have the pupil alive to shame and chastisement, do 
 not harden him to them. . . . The strict government 
 of most of our colleges has even more displeased me ; 
 and peradventure they might have erred less pernici- 
 ously on the indulgent side. The school is the true 
 house of correction of imprisoned youth. . . . Do but 
 come in, when they are about their lesson, and you 
 shall hear nothing but the outcries of boys under 
 execution, with the thundering noise of their peda- 
 gogues, drunk with fury, to make up the concert. A 
 very pretty way this to tempt these tender and 
 timorous souls to love their book — with a furious 
 countenance and a rod in hand ! A cursed and 
 pernicious way of proceeding ! . . . How much more 
 decent would it be to see their classes strewn with 
 green leaves and fine flowers, than with the bloody 
 stumps of birch and willows ! Were it left to my 
 ordering, I would paint the school with the pictures 
 of Joy and Gladness, Flora and the Graces, that where 
 the profit of the pupils is, there might their pleasure 
 also be." 
 
 We are all of Montaigne's opinion nowadays ; for 
 he did not forbid punishment or coercion, in some 
 
 S
 
 258 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 form or other, when all other means failed. Extrema 
 in extremis. He merely protested against the scho- 
 lastic tyranny of his time — a tyranny still existing, 
 and till lately prevalent. Slave-driver and school- 
 master were almost convertible terms. The school 
 and the rod were ideas of inseparable association. 
 Samuel Butler calls " whipping " 
 
 " Virtue's governess, 
 Tutoress of arts and sciences." 
 
 " Oh ! ye " (says Byron) " who teach the ingenuous youth of nations, 
 Holland, France, England, Germany, and Spain, 
 I pray ye flog them upon all occasions, 
 
 It mends the morals ; never mind the pain." 
 
 Thomas Hood, in looking back on his school-days, 
 has before his mind chiefly the place where he was 
 birched ; and yet his pleasant humour can call up 
 some regret :— 
 
 "Ay, though the very birch's smart 
 Should mark those hours again, 
 I'd kiss the rod, and be resigned 
 Beneath the stroke and even find 
 Some sugar in the cane J" 
 
 The subject, however, is too serious for a jest. 
 Before Montaigne's day, and long after it, the brutality 
 of schoolmasters was such as to leave an almost 
 indelible stain on the profession for all time. The 
 whole body should make an annual pilgrimage of 
 penitence for the sins of their predecessors. School- 
 masters are now beginning to understand that it is 
 only by balanced temper and by sound method that 
 they can dispense with physical motives, and out of
 
 MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 259 
 
 the more or less contemptible " dominie " of the past, 
 evolve the educator of the future. In no other way 
 certainly can they make good their claim to that 
 social position which they, often too morbidly, claim. 
 A mere castigator p7icroruin has no claim to anything 
 save his wages, which should be the minimum for 
 \\hich he can be hired. 
 
 Montaigne's educational views w^ere defective cer- 
 tainly, though in substance and in their main purpose 
 sound. The defects, as before observed, may be 
 traced to his own upbringing and character. Ever\'- 
 thing with him is too easy. Wisdom's ways, alas ! 
 are not always ways of pleasantness, nor are her paths 
 always those of peace. The charming way of life of 
 Montaigne is for a few fortunate souls only. We 
 have to train our boys to work hard, to will vigorously, 
 to be much in earnest, to have a high sense of dut}-. 
 Such qualities do not come by wishing. By intel- 
 lectual and moral discipline, by doing what may be 
 disagreeable, by obedience, by enforcement of law, we 
 have to mould our British boy. For all this kind of 
 work Montaigne has little to teach us ; but we can 
 learn much from him, and we part from the wise and 
 kindly Frenchman with gratitude, and even affection.
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS 01- 
 SCOTLAND.
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF 
 SCOTLAND.* 
 
 It is not inappropriate to the object of this Chair- 
 foundation to take a survey from time to time of the 
 educational field, by way of introduction to the severer 
 work of the session. And yet I would not do so did 
 I not find that such a survey affords an opportunity 
 of giving you, indirectly, some slight indications of 
 the nature and purposes of all educational machinery, 
 and inducing you to look at them in the light of prin- 
 ciples and of national aims. 
 
 I have chosen, on this occasion, as my text, " The 
 Educational Wants of Scotland." It would have 
 been a much more pleasant task to review the edu- 
 cational advance of the past thirty years ; and if I 
 do not do this, it is not because I am not alive to the 
 progress we have made. After all has been said that 
 can be said by way of unfavourable criticism, the edu- 
 cational system of Scotland is, when regarded as a 
 whole, and properly understood in its relations to the 
 peculiar genius of the nation, second only to the best. 
 
 * Introductory Lecture to the University Session of 1881-2.
 
 264 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Of the staff of teachers my impression is that it would 
 be vain to look for a body of men in any profession 
 or in any country who understand their duty better, 
 and do it, on the whole, more faithfully. But, while 
 all this is true, we have not yet reached the point in 
 our journey when we arc entitled to "rest and be 
 thankful." There is much still to be done ; and I 
 wish to point out here, and now, though in a some- 
 what summary fashion, the work that is still before 
 us, and indeed urgent, if we are to continue to hold 
 our own. Within the last two or three years we have 
 seen a scheme of Secondary Education and a Royal 
 University inaugurated in Ireland (both on a most 
 vicious system certainly) ; Victoria University insti- 
 tuted in the north of England ; the Mason Science 
 College founded in Birmingham ; a Holloway College 
 for Girls in Surrey ; Colleges for science set agoing in 
 Leeds, Nottingham, Newcastle, Hull, Liverpool, and 
 Bristol ; and large reforms initiated in the Univer- 
 sities of Oxford and Cambridge. Against all this we 
 have to set only the College of Science and Art in 
 Glasgow, and the Baxter foundation in Dundee, pro- 
 claiming to the world, the while, our inability even to 
 pass a Bill for the reform of our existing endowments, 
 and our illiberal reluctance to take advantage of the 
 Act of 1878, which is the new charter of our high 
 schools. It becomes our duty, accordingly, to look 
 our defects in the face, and to ascertain what we still 
 need for the completion of our educational machinery. 
 I do not propose here to speak, except indirectly, of
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 265 
 
 internal reforms or of the vexed question of " studies," 
 but only of external organization. 
 
 I. And, first, of the Universities which stand at 
 the head of our national system : 
 
 The ideas which govern all attempts at the reform 
 of Universities in Scotland are — 
 
 1st. That they should cease to be secondary 
 schools in their classical and mathematical depart- 
 ments, the work of secondary instruction being done 
 elsewhere. If this reform is to be introduced, en- 
 trance examinations for those who come to the Uni- 
 \'ersities with a view to graduation are indispensable. 
 Better than these, doubtless, would be school-leaving 
 examinations ; but for their introduction we must wait 
 till our high school system is more developed. We 
 ask for entrance examinations simply because, as Mr. 
 Mark Pattison has said, " the standard of teaching is 
 ruled by the standard already attained by the taught." 
 
 2nd. The second idea is, that the Universities 
 should be great schools for the advancement of science 
 and the fostering of scientific genius. By science I 
 do not of course mean physical science alone, but 
 every department of human knowledge which is 
 capable of development and co-ordination in relation 
 to ultimate principles. Professor Clifford says that 
 " the domain of science is all pos.sible human know- 
 ledge which can be rightly used to guide human 
 conduct ; " but however this may be, certainly no 
 department of human knowledge is worth}' of a place
 
 266 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 in an University until it fulfils the condition above 
 indicated by me. 
 
 3rd. The third idea is, that the Universities should 
 complete their relation to the professions. The practi- 
 cal character of our nation, and the needs of society, 
 demand of the Universities the production of men who 
 shall practise the professional arts with a University 
 guarantee of fitness. In their relation to human 
 wants and wellbeing, theology, law, politics, educa- 
 tion, and aesthetics are arts no less than medicine. 
 Besides these, we have the arts that bear on indus- 
 tries, which may, for general purposes, be classed as 
 technical. Such, for example, are the mechanical 
 arts, including engineering and the agricultural art ; 
 not to speak of the less important arts of dyeing, 
 weaving, building, etc. A practical race like the 
 British is apt to lose sight of the purely scientific 
 and professional aim of Universities, and, by demand- 
 ing from them technicalists in every department, to 
 forget their true theory and function. The extent to 
 which they may be expected to turn out skilled 
 guides of the various industries is, indeed, one which 
 it is difficult theoretically to determine. We may 
 safely say, however, that the term " professional " 
 indicates very fairly the limit of University action. 
 We must beware of converting our Universities into 
 mere technical colleges. 
 
 4th. There is still another art with which the 
 Universities stand in close relation, and which is the 
 highest of all arts — the art, not of gaining a livelihood
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 26/ 
 
 in the service of society, but the art of living. This is 
 taught through philosophy, history, literature, and 
 aesthetics. This, the last and greatest of the arts — 
 ars Vivendi — requires no special adaptation of Univer- 
 sity machinery ; for it is taught through knowledge, 
 through thought, through habitual converse with 
 humane letters. This art of rational living is summed 
 up in the word "culture," to which the physical sciences 
 may make important contributions, but which they 
 can never of themselves effect. It is by thought on 
 things human that the mind of man is cultured ; 
 thought on the things of sense, in the form of physical 
 science, being never more than subsidiary and contri- 
 butory to true culture. To those who pursue physical 
 knowledge, or indeed any department of study, to the 
 exclusion of the culture which philosophy and litera- 
 ture alone can give, we may fitly apply the words of 
 Seneca : " Dc partibus vitce qinsquc ddibcrat, de sicvnna 
 nnno." But along with this thought on things human, 
 there must be evoked the power, if not of expressing 
 thought artistically, at least of enjoying its artistic 
 expression in language and in the plastic arts. Not 
 knowledge itself then, but thought and aesthetic per- 
 ception, are the essential conditions of culture. This 
 culture, or art of rational living, is the highest aim of 
 University life. It is promoted chiefly through the 
 philosophical faculty, within which are included philo- 
 sophy in its widest acceptation, economics, jurispru- 
 dence, history, literature, aesthetics, and, let me add, 
 the principles of education, which is simply the expo-
 
 268 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 sition of the way in Vv-hich a human soul grows to the 
 full fruition of its powers. The true character and 
 far-reaching influence of humane studies is apt in 
 these days to be lost sight of; but without derogating 
 from the legitimate claims of the physical sciences, 
 the words of the great Humanist, John Sturm, are, 
 and ever will be, true : " Nihil enim est in natura 
 rerum quod ita mores erudiat ut literarum studia ; 
 nihil tam in omnes partes fusas utilitates habet quam 
 humanitas atque doctrina." * 
 
 If, now, we keep in view these the governing ideas- 
 of University life, we begin at once to appreciate the 
 importance of such apparently small things as entrance 
 examinations,! the proper endowment of existing 
 chairs, and the foundation of additional chairs to 
 complete the encyclopaedia of human knowledge. 
 The encouragement of special studies by means of 
 tutor-fellowships is also seen to be essential, if we arc 
 to promote schools of science and learning by attach- 
 ing to our Universities original investigators — men 
 competent to hand on the torch of truth — in ever}^ 
 department. But it is not necessary that fellowships 
 
 * Dc Litci-aram ludis recte apeiiendis. 
 
 f It has been proposed to meet the demand for entrance examina- 
 tions by excluding from Universities all below the age of sixteen, while 
 receiving all above this age, however ignorant. This specious proposal 
 misses the whole point. There is no objection to even ten thousand 
 students in a University, if there be teaching power enough. The 
 educational question is, What attainments shall be required' before a 
 student begins to count an annus acadcmicns for graduation? A veiy 
 simple question, and very easy to answer. Nobody is excluded from a 
 University by a "first examination'' for a degree. .Surely, we must 
 begin somewhere.
 
 ON THE KDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 269 
 
 be numerous ; it is far more to the purpose to found 
 permanent positions of emolument (not of great 
 emolument, for wealth in a professoriate is a great 
 evil) for the benefit of those who have already given 
 proofs of capacity and intellectual ardour. These 
 fellowships should be elective. Need I add that 
 a power of selecting the subjects that are to qualify 
 for University degrees and honours, is a logical con- 
 sequence of a true theory of an University ? Schools 
 of science and learning, every one must admit, arc 
 not possible when men are weighted with many 
 diverse studies. Shallowness is the inevitable result, 
 and the true scientific spirit has not time to generate 
 itself Nor is shallowness less incompatible with true 
 culture : a wider range of subjects for graduation is a 
 necessary and urgently called for reform, because of 
 the unquestioned and unquestionable fact that, after 
 a certain age, intellectual movement, to be truly culti- 
 vating, must ho. free ; and it can be free only when it 
 works in a congenial direction. A youth, for example, 
 who, from whatever subtle causes, has an aversion to 
 mathematical studies, merely wastes his time in 
 attempting to meet University requirements in that 
 department of work. By continuing the present close 
 system we run counter to the laws of nature in slavish 
 subservience to a bad habit which has no rational 
 justification. Education must respect individualities 
 at every stage. The educator is not a drill-sergeant, 
 nor yet a tailor. Most of all must individualities and 
 mental bias be respected at that adolescent stage at
 
 270 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 which the free spirit of man most asserts itself, and 
 when it can live only by freedom — all else being life 
 in death. True, it would be a difficult matter to 
 construct theoretically a better Arts curriculum than 
 the present, were all minds alike ; but all minds are 
 not alike. Our business is, subject to certain general 
 restrictive conditions, to allow each student to select 
 his group of studies for himself, in the firm persuasion 
 that a mind can truly know only when it truly lives ; 
 and that it can truly live only when it is free. 
 
 To accomplish this and other reforms, such as a 
 strengthening of the examining and tutorial elements 
 in our system, we need an Executive Commission. 
 It is not desirable to increase examinations : on the 
 contrary, it is desirable to diminish them, but more 
 power is wanted for the proper conducting of those 
 that exist. To expect from the British Treasury 
 such a sum as would accomplish all that sanguine 
 reformers desire, especially in the founding of new 
 chairs, would be vain ; but very much could be done, 
 and seed sown for the future, by the State offering 
 a public endowment to the extent of one half the 
 necessary sum for every subject approved of by the 
 University itself, as soon as private munificence had 
 contributed the other moiety. The cost of immediate 
 reform would be small, and were this the place to do 
 so, it could be shown that the necessary outlay for 
 placing all the Scottish Universities on a proper foot- 
 ing would not exceed ;^6ooo a year in addition to the 
 maintenance of the buildings.
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OK SCOTLAND. 2/1 
 
 II. The next educational want of Scotland that 
 presses for attention is that of High Schools. There 
 are not more than four or five schools in Scotland 
 under public control which can be assigned a position 
 as high schools of the first class, if we look to their 
 staff, emoluments, and organization. This is a national 
 disgrace. We should have at least nine such schools 
 in Scotland, and about forty high schools of the 
 second class. I have shown on a previous occasion 
 where these should be placed, and in the majority 
 of cases it will be found that there already exists 
 a nucleus or skeleton in the shape of some old 
 foundation, and that the work of completion is 
 by no means so difficult as some suppose. Lord 
 Watson's Act of 1878 gave powers to school boards 
 to rate for the support of high schools ; but they 
 do not do so, either because the boards generally 
 (whatever may be said of individuals among them) 
 are not competent to rise to an adequate concep- 
 tion of the educational needs of the country, or are 
 afraid to impose the necessary tax. Wc should have 
 at least fifty public high schools, with an adequate 
 staff, superintended by rectors with salaries from 
 i^500 to i^QOO a year. Experience has demonstrated 
 that to accomplish this some organizing authority is 
 needed. That authority — call it board or commis- 
 sion — might be a permanent part of the Home Ofiicc 
 working in Scotland, and might discharge other duties 
 in connection with primary schools and training 
 colleges ; subject of course, in this last relation, to the
 
 2/2 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Education Department. We do not want, because 
 we do not need, centralized control, and consequently 
 we must forego grants for so-called " results," which 
 would quickly convert our high schools into mere 
 coaching establishments, and our teachers into cram- 
 mers. But there is no good reason why a Treasury 
 grant of i^20,ooo a year or so should not be assigned 
 to a permanent organizing commission to be applied 
 in stimulating the high school rate and the intelligent 
 application of available endowments. For the admini- 
 stration of this a Scottish Educational Council could 
 surely be trusted, merely reporting its proceedings to 
 Parliament annually. There would be no adequate 
 ground for centralization at Whitehall. Mr. Glad- 
 stone has told us that we need a distribution of the 
 legislative powers of Parliament ; it is of equal im- 
 portance, in the interests of decentralization and of 
 nationality, that we should have a distribution of 
 administrative power. The deadening influence of 
 bureaucracy, it seems to me, must be far more hurtful 
 in its effects on national character than imperial legis- 
 lation can possibly be. Ireland manages for itself 
 its primary and secondary, as well as its University 
 education, but Scotland is held to be incompetent to 
 administer education for itself, even under the con- 
 trolling hand of London ! The uniformity which 
 officialism loves is at the bottom of this. There is a 
 vague idea abroad that what is best for one is best for 
 all, and that Perthshire and Berkshire should turn out 
 precisely the same product from the Government mill.
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 273 
 
 There is greater danger to society in this uniformity 
 of type than we at present see. 
 
 There are two great obstacles in the way of a 
 secondary system. The first is the action — or, if you 
 please, inaction — of the Universities, to which refer- 
 ence has already been made ; and the second is the 
 exi.sting endowments. There exists a popular delu- 
 sion that secondary education in Scotland will some- 
 how be settled by a reform of the endowments. People 
 forget that the endowments, which remain to be dealt 
 with, are situated chiefly in the two large towns of 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow, and that reform can only 
 extend to the improvement of what already exists. 
 No statesman would venture to propose to take from 
 one locality to give to another, or to transfer money 
 from the artisan to the middle class. The endowed 
 institutions must be reformed in loco. When they are 
 reformed, Scotland will have a sufficient number of 
 public secondary schools in country districts ; and 
 Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and (thanks to local 
 munificence) Dundee will all be fully equipped. But 
 the smaller burghs will stand very much where they 
 are. And yet it is impossible to act in the face of a 
 popular delusion, and the " Association for promoting 
 Secondary Education in Scotland," which has already 
 done something, must suspend operations till this 
 endowed schools business is settled. 
 
 And why is it not settled .-• Because the Heriot 
 governors, or at least those who have been allowed to 
 represent them, have been conjuring with a phrase of 
 
 T
 
 274 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 great potency — viz., " popular representation." They 
 fallaciously reason that wherever town councillors 
 have been appointed trustees — even at a time when 
 town councils did not represent the people — they 
 were so appointed with a view to their administering 
 trusts in accordance w^ith the will of the people, as 
 expressed at the ballot-box annually. This, I need 
 hardly say, is entirely to misapprehend the purposes 
 both of trusts and trusters. The Glasgow town 
 council, for example, among other money, holds 
 iJ"iO,000 given by Dr. A. Bell, for elementary educa- 
 tion. Every one who knows anything about Dr. Bell 
 and his educational activity, knows that the State 
 has taken up Jiis work in the primary field, and 
 done it so effectually, that he would never have 
 dreamt of making this bequest in present circum- 
 stances. The best application of the money now 
 w^ould be to carry out one of Bell's great objects, the 
 training of the teacher. He left a little for lectures 
 on education : he would have left much more in these 
 days ; and how could the now useless money be 
 better expended than in founding, in the interests of 
 the great body of the people, a Chair of the Institutes 
 and History of Education in Glasgow .-' Are the 
 Glasgow town councillors to ask the £4 householders 
 how they arc now to apply the bequest ? Would 
 Dr. Bell, the highest of Tories, as well as the most 
 ardent of educationalists, have done so .-• So far as 
 my observation extend.s, the artisan, or, if you please, 
 the trade-union class, is as fair and just in its
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 2/5 
 
 judgments as other classes. But what they beUeve 
 to be their private interests have, it seems to me, 
 misled them on this question of trusts. Still, poli- 
 ticians have to recognize existing facts, and there can 
 be no doubt that popular representation has long 
 existed in connection with the administration of the 
 Heriot trust, and the Government were consequently 
 quite right when they resolved in their Bill of last 
 year to protect it to an " adequate extent " in all 
 future provisional orders. The Heriot Provisional 
 Order is in itself an admirable one, and if the ques- 
 tion of the governing body blocks the way, I do not 
 see why the Government should not go even further 
 than they have done, and direct that, wherever admi- 
 nistrative bodies are now popularly elected, care shall 
 be taken, in revising existing constitutions, that all 
 those at present interested shall be adequately repre- 
 sented. That is to say, turn the clause in the Bill 
 round so as to admit other elements into the govern- 
 ing bodies, while providing that the chief power, to 
 the extent, say, of three-fifths, shall remain where 
 it now is. Such a clause would be best carried into 
 effect in Heriot's, by making the town council elect 
 one-half of the governors ; by leaving a representation 
 of the present clerical element ; by putting on two 
 or three to represent the University, which has a 
 beneficiary interest ; the Merchant Company, which 
 properly represents the higher class of old burgesses ; 
 and the School Board, which is the guardian of 
 primary instruction. To propose, as a certainly highly
 
 2/6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 respected " ex-M.P." does, that all governing bodies 
 whatsoever should be to some extent popularly 
 elected, is a revolutionaiy suggestion — the offspring 
 of democratic fanaticism, and will be accepted by no 
 British Government. Here again we have a total 
 misconception of the purpose and nature of trusts, 
 as well as of the principles of reform. There is, in 
 truth, no reason why any trust should be altered at 
 all, so long as its present constitution is suited to the 
 accurate interpretation and efficient carrying out of 
 the truster's will ; and by the will I mean the letter 
 of the will, except in so far as the letter, owing to 
 change of circumstances, defeats the spirit. To 
 meddle in such cases would be an intolerable and 
 tyrannical act, unless indeed the trustees themselves 
 desired it. If an existing trust is not doing its duty, 
 then the " ex-M.P." is probably right in thinking 
 that there should be an infusion of new blood, and 
 this largely of a popular kind, by secondary or indirect 
 election. 
 
 In connection with the Endowed Schools dis- 
 cussion, the evils of free education have been much 
 exaggerated. Is there a single professor in the 
 University, or a single member in the House of 
 Lords, who has not benefited by education wholly 
 or partially free .'' The only thing we have to look 
 to is that the dispensation of such benefits should be 
 discriminating and just, and that those really get the 
 benefit who most truly need it. I confess I cannot 
 see that any man is disgraced by asking the Heriot
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 277 
 
 governors to educate his child, if he can show an 
 inability to do so himself.* 
 
 Of technical schools as a department of secondary- 
 instruction I shall here, for want of space, say little 
 beyond pointing out that we must beware of con- 
 founding real schools with technical schools or colleges. 
 A technical school or college exists for the mere pur- 
 pose of instructing those whose lives are to be devoted 
 to the various industries by which a nation lives, in 
 the scientific principles of those industries ; and this 
 with or without the help of model workshops. The 
 pupils who attend such institutions are not required 
 to take a complete curriculum : to demand this would 
 be to demand an impossibility. Each studies his own 
 branch or group. The class of society which can 
 alone take advantage of such institutions would be, 
 to a small extent the sons of manufacturing capitalists, 
 but chiefly the more intelligent and aspiring of the 
 working men. It is manifest, therefore, that they 
 must be night-schools, attended mainly by apprentices. 
 There does not exist in the country material for day 
 technical schools, in the strict sense of the word, save 
 
 * As to apprentice allowances. These are dead and gone ; but it 
 would be a perversion of a trust not to put some allowances in their 
 place in the case of fatherless children. 
 
 Then, circumstances have arisen which make it highly desirable that 
 all mortifications, up to the passing of the Education Act of 1872, should 
 be included in the Commissioners' survey. 
 
 In any case it is of pressing urgency that this endowed schools 
 question should be cleared out of the way, in order that operations in 
 connection with the secondary education of Scotland may be vigorously 
 undertaken.
 
 278 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 perhaps in very large centres of industry, such as Man- 
 chester or Glasgow. We must not lose sight of this fact 
 if we are to secure ourselves against disappointment. 
 However important technical schools may be, it is a 
 pure delusion to imagine that the British artisan and 
 British industrial art will ever benefit so much through 
 them as through the cultivation of the intelligence of 
 all alike in the primary and superior-primary schools. 
 I cannot but think, too, that the industrial, like the 
 intellectual, activity of a country is more dependent 
 on the moral spirit of the nation than on any special 
 instruction. In eveiy department of human life the 
 most potent motive forces are ethical — always ethical. 
 However this may be, technical schools may be 
 allowed to take care of themselves. They have so 
 direct a bearing on material interests that they are 
 sure to receive sufficient attention. The ordinary 
 business intellect is capable of comprehending the 
 want, and the business pocket is well capable of 
 supplying it. 
 
 It is otherwise with the Real School. This is a 
 rival of the old type of high school, and draws its 
 pupils from the same classes. There is here a conflict 
 of two theories of education — the old and the new. 
 The antagonism between the two, however, has been 
 much exaggerated. In Scotland at this moment 
 every secondary school which adds the elements of 
 mechanics and physiography to its present curriculum, 
 makes Greek an optional subject to be prosecuted 
 by the few, and gives additional attention to foreign
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 2/9 
 
 languages, becomes a real school in the German 
 sense. The aim is not to make specialists — this is 
 the work of the technical school ; — it is to educate 
 men, simply substituting for Greek the modern 
 languages and some scientific instruction in the later 
 stages of the school curriculum ; that is to say, when 
 the boys are from fifteen to seventeen years of age. 
 In this sense the high schools of Scotland already 
 closely approximate to real schools. There is no 
 need to waste public money in setting up rival in- 
 stitutions to the high schools at present existing. 
 Make Greek optional, and the rest follows. The key 
 of the position, however, is here again in the hands of 
 the Universities. As soon as they substitute French 
 and German optionally for Greek, and demand 
 elementary physics and English in their entrance 
 examinations, the schools will take the hint. 
 
 As regards Universities, this University of Edin- 
 burgh is already to a large extent, a real University. 
 It has adapted itself to the wants of the times in 
 all essential respects, save in the terms on which its 
 Arts degree may be taken, and its entrance ex- 
 aminations, — which last, let me repeat, govern the 
 schools. 
 
 It is vain to look for a commission on secondary 
 education at present, but many valuable years might 
 be saved were either of the proposed Executive Com- 
 missions instructed to inquire into the operation of 
 the Act of 1878, and to report on the existing number 
 of high schools, and the localities where additional
 
 280 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 high schools should be placed. Attention might 
 also be given to existing and possible sources of 
 revenue. The high school question is, be it remem- 
 bered, much more easy of solution in Scotland than 
 in England or Wales, because we not only already 
 have the rudiments of a system, but an Act em- 
 powering boards to rate. 
 
 III. Let us consider, next, primary or "public 
 elementary" schools and their wants. Imperial taxa- 
 tion, apart from rates and fees, gives ^^"45 5,000 a year 
 to these institutions, and yet I believe that ^6000 
 a year to Universities and i^20,ooo to high schools 
 could be extracted from the House of Commons only 
 after a bitter struggle, our legislators forgetting that 
 it is precisely this higher education which, by its 
 mere existence, maintains the standard of culture and 
 the tone of life in a nation, and thus indirectly does 
 as much, by its intellectual and moral influence, for 
 primary education as the Education Department 
 and all its complex machinery. Since the Education 
 Act of 1872 was passed, primary instruction has 
 ceased to be a legislative, and become merely an 
 administrative, question. It is, in brief, a question 
 of the Code, and here the want of Scotland still is 
 an Educational, as distinguished from an Education, 
 Code. 
 
 After much agitation, the administration of the 
 Parliamentary grant was remitted to the last En- 
 dowed Schools' Commission, and_^ their report last
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 28 1 
 
 year entirely confirmed, in almost every particular, 
 the allegations of the agitators, and confirmed their 
 recommendations. We were consequently looking 
 anxiously for a new Code on the basis of these 
 recommendations, when all we received was proposals 
 for the revision of the English Code ! If this be 
 intended as a graceful compliment to Scotland, the 
 Department being desirous to make an experimentum 
 in corpore vili of England before touching our historic 
 soil, we may be flattered into acquiescence. If it be 
 meant as an indication that, while the Department 
 find it necessary to expose to criticism its intentions 
 with regard to England, the changes to be made in 
 Scotland may be sprung on it suddenly, without 
 warning, we cannot be expected to regard the action 
 of the Department with the same equanimity. When 
 we say that what we now want is an Educational 
 Code, we mean a Code constructed with a view to 
 the education of the masses of the people, and not 
 merely to those outside forms and instruments of 
 education which admit of easy measurement and 
 tabulation. We want the substantial instruction, the 
 intelligence, the tone, the morality of the school to 
 form the basis of the inspectorial judgment — all other 
 things being attended to, doubtless, but as secondary 
 and subsidiary to these. Now, for the ascertainment 
 of the genuine educational outcome of a school there 
 is no other way but to trust the inspectors, and this, 
 again, is justifiable only if we first train the inspectors 
 and organize the inspectorate under chiefs, having
 
 282 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 at head-quarters a controller of inspection who shall 
 
 harmonize all. Long ago I put forward this view. 
 
 Is it not an anomaly that teachers should be required 
 
 to study methods and school-keeping, and inspectors 
 
 be allowed to take their chance of finding out all about 
 
 these things .'' Do we ask too much when we ask 
 
 that youthful inspectors-designate should be required 
 
 to study a subject which has engaged the best powers 
 
 of Aristotle, Plato, Xenophon, Plutarch, Cicero, Varro, 
 
 Quintilian, Erasmus, Sturm, Ascham, Comenius, 
 
 Locke, Jean Paul, Kant, Rousseau, and of every great 
 
 constructive statesman ? But, ah ! here lies the 
 
 danger. Our inspectors might begin to think and 
 
 have ideas, and the teachers might follow their 
 
 example. The bureaucrat, like imperial Caesar, fears 
 
 this. 
 
 " Let me have men about me that are fat ; 
 Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep o' nights : 
 Yond' Cassius has a lean and hungry look ; 
 He thmks too much : such men are dangerous. " 
 
 Then again, why should not our future inspectors- 
 designate be required to "stoop to conquer," and spend 
 six months teaching in some model school, and there- 
 after three months in being coached by a senior in the 
 practical work of their inspectorial profession .'' They 
 ought to be the guides, the lights, the friends of the 
 teacher ; and to be all this they need much profes- 
 sional knowledge and some educational enthusiasm. 
 They must be one body with the schoolmasters, they 
 must love the schoolmaster's work, the little children 
 who are the objects of it, and the faithful men who.
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 283 
 
 among many discouragements, spend their days in 
 the service of the young. So equipped for their task, 
 and aided by organization, the inspectors may surely 
 be safely trusted. Mr. Mundella, in introducing the 
 English " proposals," pointed to the organization of 
 the inspectorate, but said nothing of training. 
 
 Of the "proposals," themselves, we gladly recognize 
 that they are, as Mr. Mundella says, an honest effort to 
 give effect to educational principles, and that many of 
 them do so. In some respects, however, they impress 
 me with being constructed from the outside, and after 
 a somewhat patchwork fashion. They seem to be 
 often devised to meet the suggestions of this person, 
 and the objectiojis of that. This has been the mischief 
 of the Code from the beginning. The pathetically 
 well-meaning attempt to cover the Barebones Code 
 of Mr. Lowe with flesh (and Sir Francis Sandford, a 
 man of great native power and eminent as an admini- 
 strator, has done all that man could do in this direction) 
 has not yet succeeded, and this simply because of the 
 failure to take a connected view of the whole question. 
 Hence we may say of the Department what Burke 
 said of the British Government of his time : " They 
 have taken things by bits and scraps — some at one 
 time on one pretence, and some at another, just as 
 they pressed, without any regard to their relations 
 and dependencies." It has gladly to be conceded, 
 however, that though, as a whole, the new " pro- 
 posals " lack educational inspiration and the simplicity 
 and unity of educational method, they in many and
 
 284 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 important respects give effect to educational, as 
 opposed to official, views. In the extension of the 
 requirements demanded from infant schools, in the 
 introduction of payment on class examination instead 
 of individual examination in the first two standards, 
 in the reform of the specific subjects' schedule, in 
 the institution of a seventh standard and the conse- 
 sequent encouragement of superior-primary schools 
 where the population makes these desirable, we note 
 most important changes in the right direction. The 
 increase and improvement of the school staff, again, is 
 a reform which will meet with the approval of every 
 man in the country who thinks of the interests of 
 education, and not merely of his pocket. Mr. Mun- 
 della promises so to distribute the grants that good 
 schools will be as well off as ever. This will doubtless 
 be a difficult act of administration. But even if 
 schools received less, what then .-' Surely imperial 
 grants are liberal enough — too liberal. The proposal 
 also to count as scholars all who have been on the 
 roll of the school for six months, as opposed to the 
 present restriction of 250 attendances, is altogether a 
 good one, and can be objected to only by those who 
 have some other than a merely educational motive. 
 It is impossible, in a brief lecture, to enter into any 
 detailed justification of this proposal, but one good 
 result of its being passed into law will be that boards 
 and schoolmasters will make greater joint efforts than 
 they now do to secure regularity of attendance. But 
 perhaps the greatest improvement of all is contained
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 285 
 
 in proposal 6, which gives power to the inspector to 
 classify schools according to their merit as " fair," 
 " good," or " excellent," and to recommend a special 
 grant to schools above " fair." There are, notwith- 
 standing all this, manifest defects, and to these w^e 
 may refer without, I trust, incurring odium, since we 
 have all been publicly invited to criticise by the 
 president and vice-president themselves. 
 
 Accordingly, I would remark very briefly : first, 
 that it is difficult to reconcile proposals i, 12, and 14. 
 " Payment on the passes of individual scholars " is 
 abolished in proposal 12, but in 14 we are told that 
 though the grant will be calculated on the basis oi 
 average attendance in terms of proposal i, it will be 
 determined by the "proportion of passes actually 
 made, to those that might have been made." Thus, 
 (if I correctly understand the proposal) the chief ob- 
 jections to the present way of estimating a school 
 remain in all the standards above the second. The 
 master must press on the dull and laggard at the cost 
 of the life of the school. He dare not venture to 
 dwell on the substance and teaching of a lesson lest 
 he should miss some individual "pass." In the higher 
 portion of the school, accordingly, the fundamental 
 defect of the Code reveals itself, for we find that intel- 
 lectual and ethical results are there subordinated to 
 those ,of a technical and formal kind. Now, true 
 teaching is the conversation of the instructed with the 
 uninstructed on a graduated series of subjects and 
 lessons. Its aim is the vivifying of the intelligence,
 
 286 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 instruction in the conditions of human well-being, the 
 inculcation of moral and religious truth, the training 
 of the child to tenderness and reverence and to seemly 
 manners. And if this be the true aim of teaching, true 
 inspection is the taking of the measure of these things 
 by a man who has an eye and a heart. For these 
 •things primarily the teacher should labour, and for 
 these things the inspector, as the representative of the 
 Government, should also labour. The teacher is the 
 ordained pastor of childhood, and the inspector is his 
 bishop. The school is the porch of the temple of the 
 Church, and the temple itself is merely the school of 
 adults — too narrow in its present interpretation of its 
 functions perhaps, but gradually being broadened. It 
 is for human life that the teacher is preparing his 
 young charge, and he is himself in some sort an 
 apostle of humanity. His credentials are spiritual 
 credentials as much as those of any high priest. His 
 aim is, in the words of Tennyson — 
 
 "To train to riper growth the mind and will." 
 
 Now, we want the teacher's work estimated from 
 this point of view. 
 
 We shall be told that high intellectual and ethical 
 results are visionary and unattainable, and that we 
 must therefore content ourselves with measuring, by 
 means of government tape, the precise quantity of 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic, even though we there- 
 by convert our schools into mills and our teachers into 
 mechanics. But the answer is, that the ideal is by its
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND, 287 
 
 very nature always unattainable : none the less is it to 
 be held aloft as the aim of school-keeping, as of indi- 
 vidual life. Rest assured that the acquirement of the 
 mere instruments of education can be best secured 
 where the highest ends of the school are striven for ; 
 and to make this possible we must, I am persuaded, 
 content ourselves with eighty-five per cent, of "passes" 
 as the condition of grants, thereby securing freedom 
 to both teacher and taught. 
 
 A class should be tested as a whole, just as it is 
 taught as a whole ; but by this I do not mean that 
 the individuals who compose a class are to be over- 
 looked. Every child in a class will, of course, read to 
 the inspector, and that more than once, and he will 
 note those who fall below the mark. The class will 
 then be examined in the subject-matter and words 
 of the lesson ; if necessary, in detachments of six or 
 seven. The dictation, and composition, and writing, 
 and arithmetic, and geography of eacJi child will be 
 noted. There is no difficulty in all this ; but, to repeat, 
 where eighty-five per cent, of the class are found 
 up to the mark, one hundred per cent, of the grant 
 should be allowed for that class, and so on for every 
 successive class. Nor should the principle vary in 
 Standards I. and II. The inspector, further, should 
 be required to examine through the master as well as 
 independently. This is the only sound method of 
 testing a school, if we are to get at its moral and 
 intellectual character. The mere passing of eighty- 
 five per cent, would secure the inspector's mark " fair ; "
 
 288 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 all above this would depend on the impression each 
 class and the school, as a whole, made in respect of 
 its intelligence, morale, discipline, organization, aims, 
 and methods. 
 
 In connection with this scheme of examination I 
 would retain the present grant for average attendance 
 as a basis, and also the infant grant — this last, however, 
 on the new conditions proposed by Mr. Mundella. 
 
 Secondly. — The introduction of class-subjects into 
 the lower division — that is, up to Standard IV. in- 
 clusive — is a decided advance, and also the require- 
 ment that where only one class-subject is taken at this 
 stage it shall be "literature." But of " literature " 
 which consists merely of saying off by heart a certain 
 number of lines of poetry, who has patience to speak ? 
 And what shall we say of the second class-subject, 
 " elementary science .-' " There is no science possible 
 for children of nine or ten years of age. All that can 
 be done is an extension of the object-lessons of the 
 infant school. Grammar, too, is included under 
 "English" in this, the lower part of the school, to the 
 great waste of the teacher's time and the stunting of 
 the pupil's intelligence. 
 
 TJiirdly. — In all the standards we have history 
 prescribed, and no second reading-book insisted on. 
 Now, if there were a deliberate purpose to defeat the 
 labours of the past, and the prime object of all 
 Education Acts, no surer way could be taken to do 
 so. All the avenues whereby a child comes into con- 
 tact with human life and duty, with nature, and with
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 289 
 
 the products of imagination, are to be choked up 
 with the dry record of kings, dates; and battles : for 
 what else, in point of fact, is primary school history ? 
 
 FoiirtJily. — Among the specific subjects of the 
 upper division we have animal physiology prescribed, 
 but with no indication that this is to be taught with 
 reference to the laws of health. The result of this 
 will simply be that, adorning the school-walls, you 
 will have a series of diagrams of grim and ghastly 
 skeletons and lively pictures of the human intestines. 
 Under such stimulus, the tender bud of the child's 
 soul is to open into flower and to yield a rich fruitage! 
 The aspiring boy is expected to find relief from the 
 • study of dusty chronology (miscalled history) in the 
 analysis of his own processes of respiration and diges- 
 tion. What we want to teach the children of the 
 people is hygiene — not physiology. Through the 
 analytic we discipline mind, but mind grows through 
 the synthetic ; and, up to the age of puberty, the 
 analytic should never be carried further than is neces- 
 sary to the fuller comprehension of the synthetic. 
 This applies to language as well as to physical 
 science. 
 
 Fifthly. — The first two standards, we are all glad 
 to see, are to be tested as classes — glad because it is 
 evidence that the Government is feeling its way to a 
 better system than the present. But, unfortunately, 
 this testing is to be done by the examination of a 
 selected number of individuals. Here we have, it 
 seems to me, the individual pass examination restored, 
 
 U
 
 290 THE .TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 and in a worse form, because the selection of pupils 
 will be necessarily arbitrary and capricious. A class 
 should be examined as a whole, just as it is taught as 
 a whole. It would almost appear as if the confidence 
 of the Department in its inspectors was largely tem- 
 pered with distrust. 
 
 Sixthly. — A decided adv^ance, I have already said, 
 is the addition of a seventh standard, the object being 
 to carry the education of the more active-minded boys 
 and girls further than at present in the primary 
 schools, and thus to approximate the English system 
 to the Scottish practice. But here again, as I have 
 already indicated, we are met by a most disappointing 
 scheme of study. The boy is now to read a passage 
 from Milton or Shakespeare or some history (history 
 again !), but whether he is to read intelligently, ex- 
 pressively, or to understand at all what he reads, is 
 not said. He is further to write a "theme," and work 
 sums in percentages, discount, and stocks ! Do the 
 Government seriously mean to say that this is either 
 discipline or food for the boy of fourteen "i The boys 
 who prolong their stay at the primary schools beyond 
 the ordinary period are presumably boys of ardent 
 and active natures who have begun to feel the work- 
 ings of mind in them, — to be dimly aware that " man 
 does not live by bread alone," but that the human 
 spirit has its needs and its life apart from the getting 
 of food and of clothes for its body. To the boy thus 
 visited with vague previsions of spiritual life, and 
 groping for aliment for the new needs of his soul.
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 29 1 
 
 you open the inner shrine of the child-temple of the 
 Muses and introduce him to what — to discount and 
 brokerage ! Here in this ante-chamber of Mammon 
 you tell him to unfold his soul-wings. He may 
 gain something from Milton if he does not rather 
 (as is probable) prefer the easier " history," and he 
 may acquire some skill in reading "Paradise Lost" 
 even backwards. But this is all. You may reasonably 
 ask me what I should propose at this stage of a boy's 
 intellectual life. The answer is not difficult. The 
 " class-subjects " (so-called) should be thrown into the 
 standard work in every part of the school (for, as I 
 have often said on former occasions, there are, up to a 
 certain age at least, no " specific " subjects in educa- 
 tion), and other improvements made, which would 
 issue in something like the following requirements in 
 the highest class : — 
 
 The reading with intelligence, emphasis, and 
 expression, a book of Milton or a historical play 
 of Shakespeare. 
 
 The study of the said book or play with re- 
 ference to its thought, its logical sequence of 
 development, and its characteristics of style. 
 
 The grammar and general analysis of the 
 book professed. 
 
 The vocables of the book professed with 
 their cognates. 
 
 A piece of good literary prose similarly 
 studied.
 
 292 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Evidence that the boy has read by himself, 
 or cursively with the master, one of the longer 
 poems of Scott and the greater part of Gold- 
 smith ; or, instead of these, selections from the 
 poetry of England. 
 
 The composition of a narrative of any part 
 that may be selected by the inspector from a 
 limited period of British history — the period to 
 be chosen by the boy himself. 
 
 Revision of physical geography with con- 
 tinued map-drawing. 
 
 Problems requiring the exercise of thought 
 in proportion involving fractions treated as 
 vulgar or decimal. 
 
 Drawing, either mechanical or from models. 
 
 One book of Euclid, or mensuration, or the 
 second stage of some foreign tongue, or two 
 or three chapters of Huxley's physiography 
 (adapted by the master). 
 
 Here you have both discipline and food — meal, not 
 sawdust ; bread, not dry bones ; the music of know- 
 ledge, not the hard clanking of its machinery. 
 
 The Education Code then, even as revised, is not 
 yet, it seems to me, an Educational Code ; nor can it 
 become this till the so-called class-subjects, somewhat 
 modified, arc thrown into the ordinary standard work, 
 and the whole scheme of elementary instruction elabo- 
 rated into a unity — which, as a unity, will also have the 
 virtue of such simplicity that he who runs may read.
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 293 
 
 When, indeed, we [contemplate the outcome of 
 seven years' schooling as exhibited in the proposed 
 seventh standard, we cannot but feel that this is not 
 what Wordsworth dreamt of when he sighed for 
 
 " The coming of that glorious time 
 WTien, prizing knowledge as her noblest wealth 
 And best protection, this imperial Realm, 
 While she exacts allegiance, shall admit 
 An obligation, on her part, to teach 
 Them who are born to serve her and obey ; 
 Binding herself by statute to secure 
 For all the children whom her soil maintains 
 The rudiments of letters, and inform 
 The mind with moral and religious truth, 
 Both understood and practised, — so that none, 
 However destitute, be left to droop 
 By timely culture unsustained ; or run 
 Into a wild disorder ; or be forced 
 To drudge through a weary life without the help 
 Of intellectual implements and tools ; 
 A savage horde among the civilized, 
 A servile band among the lordly free ! " 
 
 And yet it is clear enough (now that Lord Sher- 
 brooke and all his works are wiped out), that it is such 
 results as these that the Department honestly and 
 earnestly desires. 
 
 As regards Scotland, there can be no doubt that 
 the true policy at present is to do nothing until " pro- 
 posals " for Scotland have been submitted to Parlia- 
 ment. Better to wait a year than to have our Code 
 still left in a fluid condition.* 
 
 * The purely financial treatment of the truly great question now 
 before the country by the deputations that have besieged Whitehall is 
 most disappointing. But it is by no means so discreditable as the tone 
 of the discussions at teachers' meetings in Scotland. From teachers, at 
 least, if it be true that they belong to a profession, we are surely en- 
 titled to expect educational views.
 
 294 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 IV. Next after an Educational Code, among the 
 wants of Scotland, is protection for the Tenure of 
 Teachers. 
 
 Those who are opposed to some protection of the 
 teachers' tenure of office have formed a wholly in- 
 adequate conception of the sort of men we want for 
 the education of the people. On the other hand, it 
 is equally certain that teachers urge the question of 
 tenure too much as if it were a personal right, and 
 with too little regard for the interests of the com- 
 munity. The question, it seems to me, simply is, 
 " How shall we get the best possible men for the 
 education of our children .-' " And the answer is, " In 
 the same way as we get the best possible men for 
 other professions'/' — viz., by good salaries, class privi- 
 leges, social consideration, and protection from arbi- 
 trary interference, either in the shape of dismissal or 
 in any other form. The day of conferring class 
 privileges is gone, and social consideration cannot be 
 given by Act of Parliament ; it depends on the educa- 
 tion, and character, and aims of the men who compose 
 a class. Where these are high, all the social con- 
 sideration that is worth having will follow. Tenure 
 of office, however, it is in our power to give, and it is 
 quite as efficacious as salary in attracting the better 
 class of minds into any profession. The question is, 
 therefore, one of national importance, if education be 
 of national importance. No one desires to protect 
 men who are either inefficient or immoral, cruel, or 
 even harsh. The sooner masters and mistresses who
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 295 
 
 fall under these designations are swept into the class 
 of day-labourers or policemen the better for our 
 schools, and, for that matter, the better for themselves. 
 No one can defend the old ad vitam tenure. The 
 question, from the side of the schoolmaster, is, " How 
 can masters who are efficient — nay, even zealous in 
 their discharge of duty, be protected from the arbitrary 
 action of men set over them who may be, and often 
 are, ignorant of a teacher's work, and incapable of re- 
 specting his office and his personal independence } " 
 There have been few cases of hardship, it is said ; but 
 this is because people measure the hardship by the 
 actual number of dismissals protested against. The 
 hardship does not lie in this at all. Indeed, were the 
 schoolmasters and those who sympathize with them 
 to rest their whole case on unjust dismissals alone, 
 they would fail in their attempts to alter the law. The 
 hardship lies in the weary months and years that pre- 
 cede dismissal or lead to resignation. It is the daily 
 interference or worrying of ignorant and incompetent 
 superiors that make the teacher's life undesirable, and 
 which in many cases known to me have taken the 
 heart out of the very best men. It is the necessity of 
 being on good personal relations with these superiors, 
 and of humouring them, that degrades and afflicts the 
 teacher, who, through his vocation, touches them on 
 their most sensitive side — their children. Further, it 
 is the disposition, on the part of ignorant superiors, 
 to strain their authority over those under them, espe- 
 cially if these subordinates are intellectually their
 
 296 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 betters, which is the source of the teacher's anxieties 
 and irritations. Now, it is the ultimate power of 
 arbitrary dismissal which is at the bottom of all these 
 evils ; and the teaching- body seem to me to be right 
 in thinking that a check on this is required. I am 
 quite sure that it will sooner or later be obtained, not 
 because it is a teachers' question, but because it is a 
 national question. It is a national question because 
 the law, as it stands, affects vitally the education of 
 the country by turning away the best men from the 
 profession of teacher, and by striking at that indepen- 
 dence and freedom of action which is essential to all 
 good work of an intellectual and moral kind. 
 
 The relations in which bank managers stand to 
 their clerks, often cited against the granting of pro- 
 tection to the teacher, are not to the point at all. 
 The bank manager knows his business so well that he 
 will not dismiss a clerk who ought not to be dis- 
 missed. Moreover, individual responsibility exists in 
 all such cases, and makes the manager pause before 
 dismissing or even censuring ; while the fact that he 
 himself also is responsible to a body of directors must 
 operate as a powerful check on all his actions. The 
 teacher's case would be parallel were he dismissable 
 only by a superintendent of education who had been 
 trained to a schoolmaster's work, who was of mature 
 experience, and who, moreover, had to justify his acts 
 before a board of educational supervision or a council 
 of education. Teachers would be quite satisfied with 
 such protection of tenure as this.
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 297 
 
 While saying so much on one side, I feel, and have 
 always felt, the strength of the position " that there 
 may be other grounds besides inefficiency on which a 
 board may object to a teacher, and may think it de- 
 sirable, in the interests of the school and of the dis- 
 trict, to remove him from office." Nay, one may go 
 even further, and say that a board, while unable to 
 specify any faults against a teacher which could bear 
 public statement, might still honestly think that, for 
 the salary they offered, a better man might be got. 
 Why should the children of a parish be subjected, 
 for example, to the teaching of a man whose per- 
 sonal bearing and moral influence are unsatisfactory, 
 although the inspector's report might show that he, 
 does his work fairly well ? A board, in the discharge 
 of its duty, is quite entitled to say to a, teacher, " You 
 are efficient, but we want somebody more efficient, 
 and we think we can get him." Again, a teacher 
 may be " efficient," but harsh, though not cruel ; he 
 may be " efficient," but may spend his time smoking, 
 lounging, and gossiping about the village when his 
 day's work is done ; he may be " efficient," but he 
 may be a hot fanatic, political or ecclesiastical ; he 
 may be "efficient," yet slovenly in his habits and 
 vulgar in his manners. In all such cases, surely, a 
 school board is justified in making a change. The 
 teachers have not yet fully met this objection to pro- 
 tected tenure ; and until they do so, they will justly 
 be accused (not for the first time) of thinking more of 
 personal rights than of the education of the country.
 
 298 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 For my own part, I think that tenure would be 
 sufficiently protected if boards were required to form 
 themselves into private committees when an}lhing' 
 personal to the teacher was under discussion ; if a 
 month's notice were given of the intention to consider 
 the continuance of the teacher in his post ; if private 
 censure and warning akvays preceded dismissal ; if 
 (warning having failed and dismissal being contem- 
 plated) two months were to elapse between notice of 
 a motion for dismissal and the adoption of it ; if 
 reasons were assigned in writing to the teacher when 
 notice of motion was given, and an opportunity of 
 appearing in his own defence afforded him ; and if, 
 finally, his dismissal could take effect only if voted 
 for by not not less than tivo-thirds of the board. The 
 time which would elapse under such a system of pro- 
 cedure would prevent hasty and immature counsels, 
 and would also afford to a teacher an opportunity of 
 quietly withdrawing. In this way we might secure 
 substantial justice by prescribing a form of process. 
 
 V. Other educational wants might be here referred 
 to if there were time, such as approved school read- 
 ing-books, and, above all, the institution of school- 
 libraries graduated and adapted to the standards of 
 the Code, beginning with " Nursery Rhymes " and 
 " Jack the Giant Killer," and going up to Bacon's 
 "Advancement of Learning." Such libraries are a 
 vital part of a national system. But I hasten to the 
 consideration of a defect of a more important kind
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 299 
 
 Still remaining to be noticed : I mean, the training of 
 schoolmasters. 
 
 VI. The question which yet awaits final settle- 
 ment in Scotland is the Training of the teacher. 
 It is to the action of the Education Department, 
 opening its mind to the (so-called) theories of outside 
 students of national education, and taking under its 
 charge the initial experiments which had been volun- 
 tarily made five-and-forty years ago, that we owe the 
 now universal acceptance of the doctrine that the 
 schoolmaster must be trained for his work. May we 
 not hope, then, that notwithstanding the burden of 
 complex details with which it has to contend, the 
 same Department may yet complete the work which 
 it began in 1839, and without which the Education 
 Act of 1870 w^ould have been impossible.'' I have 
 been too long and too intimately cognizant of the 
 work of training colleges to depreciate their great 
 services to the country, but it was many years ago 
 manifest that the State was gradually monopolizing 
 the training of teachers in Scotland to the exclusion 
 of the Universities, and that a mistake had been 
 made, involving much unnecessary outlay of public 
 money. For this we can scarcely blame the Depart- 
 ment, when we consider that the Universities them- 
 selves became alive to their relation to the general 
 education of the country only (some dare to say) 
 v/hen they saw that it would bring grist to their mill. 
 So long ago as 1861 it was foreseen that the training
 
 300 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 colleges would gradually fill every school in Scotland 
 with students who had only received the benefit of 
 a narrow and illiberal course of training based on an 
 English model, and that the connection that had so 
 long subsisted between the Universities and the teach- 
 ing profession would thus be broken — a result to be 
 deprecated in the national interest, because it was 
 through the parochial teachers that the Universities 
 maintained their relations with the general body of 
 the people. The agitation which began twenty years 
 ago, in consequence of an article written by myself, 
 was ultimately so far successful, that a few years ago 
 the Department recognized the attendance of the elite 
 of the training college students at the Universities, 
 and this has been followed by the University institu- 
 tion in Edinburgh and Glasgow of a Literateship in 
 Arts, which, if taken in addition to the Government 
 Certificate, is evidence that the young teacher pos- 
 sesses a University as well as a training college 
 qualification. These are great steps in advance, but 
 there is something still to do. Do not for a moment 
 suppose that we can do without the training colleges. 
 These must continue to exist, not only for the class of 
 student-teachers who come up from the country with 
 humble acquirements, but for the wJiole class of male 
 and female teachers. But such arrangements should 
 be made as will get rid entirely, in the case of Univer- 
 sity Queen's Scholars, of history, political geography, 
 and ordinary grammar at the entrance examination. 
 The training college work should, for these students,
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 3OI 
 
 be almost entirely done during the summer session, 
 and, after the first year tJiis should be tutorial zuork in 
 the line of the nczv LiteratesJiip in Arts, with the addi- 
 tion of physical geography the first year and physio- 
 graphy the second. A literateship might then be 
 accepted in all such cases by the Department as 
 qualifying for a teacher's certificate, except in the 
 special normal school subjects. During the winter 
 sessions at the Universities the training college 
 authorities would of course continue to exercise a 
 tutorial supervision over their students. 
 
 The Department need not be afraid of deputing 
 this part of their work — the examination for a 
 literateship — to the Universities, for these are national 
 institutions, their courses of study and degrees are 
 from time to time regulated by the State through 
 Orders in Council and by commissions, and the 
 stamp they put on men should be accepted by the 
 State, since it is itself the primary fountain of all 
 academic honours. In the large field of primary in- 
 struction we have at present the " one-portal system " 
 of the Department's examination, which is hurtful to 
 the freedom of education. It cuts all according to 
 one pattern, presumed to be the best, whereas the 
 best for each man is that which gives fullest play to 
 his own intellectual aptitudes ; and for this the lite- 
 rateship provides. The M.A. degree has, as you are 
 doubtless aware, been recognized by the Department 
 as qualifying for a public school, provided the gra- 
 duate has had three months' practical training and
 
 302 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 passes an examination in methods : what we now 
 want is the recognition of the Literateship in Arts, 
 and its incorporation, in some form or other, in the 
 Department's scheme of training. It would certainly 
 be better that, as in the three north-eastern counties, 
 the mastership of our public schools should be more 
 largely recruited from the graduate class ; but to look 
 to this source for a sufficient future supply of teachers 
 is vain. The literateship is a practical object of 
 ambition for at least one-half of our training college 
 students : the full degree is attainable only by a 
 select few. 
 
 You will see, from what has been said, that we 
 have no reason to complain of the Department. Any 
 changes yet desirable are all in the line of those which 
 they have already sanctioned ; no new principle is 
 involved, and we should very soon have all we 
 wanted were the training college syllabus for Scotland 
 issued as a separate document by the Scotch Educa- 
 tion Department, and not by the English. This 
 reform is not too much to ask. Indeed, a Scottish 
 Act and a Scottish Code seem to carry with them, as 
 a logical consequence, a Scottish training system. 
 
 The problem of the training of schoolmasters for 
 high schools is one which has not yet been faced, 
 but, in Scotland at least, it is one very easy of solution. 
 An Educational Diploma should be made the con- 
 dition of employment in all high schools, and this 
 diploma should be granted by the Universities to all 
 who, in addition to a degree in Arts or Science, give
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 303 
 
 evidence that they have studied the principles and 
 methods of education, and have obtained practical 
 training in schools recognized as training schools, 
 such as the high schools at the University seats. 
 It may be objected that this would exclude from 
 high schools foreign teachers of modern languages, 
 but this difficulty might be met by recognizing a 
 foreign diploma, and in the case of those who had 
 it not, the Universities might guarantee their qualifica- 
 tions after examination. My belief, however, is that 
 the modern languages will never take their proper 
 place in Scottish education until they are taught by 
 Scottish graduates who have, by residence abroad, 
 qualified for the teaching of French and German in 
 their native country. 
 
 In conclusion, let me say a further word for my 
 own subject. It is a melancholy reflection that while 
 in the proposals for a new Code in England, Mr. 
 Mundella is prepared to recognize University graduates 
 as public school teachers, and provides for their 
 practical training, he ignores altogether the fact that 
 a Cambridge Syndicate has arranged for courses of 
 lectures in the History and Methods of Education, 
 and does not require a certificate from a University 
 that graduates who are anxious to enter the public 
 service as schoolmasters have attended such lectures 
 and benefited by them. Such an omission as this is 
 to me inexplicable in view of the present agitation for 
 technical instruction. The school may be said to
 
 304 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 correspond to the industrial workshop, and the present 
 ambition of Mr. Mundella is to send into the industrial 
 workshop men who have had technical instruction, 
 which Lord Rosebery, again, in an able speech at a 
 London meeting last summer, defined to be instruction 
 in the principles and history of the various arts. But 
 when we come to education, the highest and most 
 complex of all the arts, technical instruction — that is 
 to say, instruction in the history and principles of 
 education — is ignored ! The Bradford foreman, for- 
 sooth, is to be instructed in a knowledge of the different 
 kinds of wool which he handles, with the scientific 
 principles (if any) that underlie his combing, spinning, 
 weaving, and dyeing ; but the head of a school is not 
 to be required to seek a knowledge of the material in 
 which he works — the delicate organism of the human 
 mind, and of the principles which flow from this 
 knowledge and form the basis of the methods of the 
 school workshop ! I do not complain that a Govern- 
 ment bureau should be slow to initiate this kind of 
 training ; it is too much hampered with the work 
 of keeping its complex machinery supplied with 
 adequate steam-power, and with oiling its various 
 parts with a view to efficiency and good " results." It 
 is to the Universities we are entitled to look as the 
 nurseries of new ideas ; but it is certainly not too 
 much to expect that the Government of the country 
 should recognize what has been already done by the 
 Universities in Great Britain, Germany, and America. 
 A teacher, the Philistines tell us (and there arc
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 305 
 
 Philistines even in our Universities), is born, not 
 made. So they said when normal schools were first 
 instituted, and so they say now when the academic 
 development of the normal school idea is taking 
 philosophical shape. All our schemes of education — 
 all organization, — we may be assured, will fail if we 
 do not educate the teacher in educating, and fix the 
 standard high. 
 
 There is, I freely grant, such a thing as teaching 
 genius, which is independent of training. There are 
 teachers also who, though destitute of this genius, are 
 yet thoughtful men in whose minds the routine 
 methods of the normal schools are vivified into 
 living principles ; but in the vast majority of cases 
 these technical methods of the school-workshop remain 
 merely in the dead form of rules and maxims, and 
 leave the teacher precisely where the apt mechanic 
 now is. It is the insight into philosophical principles 
 that gives a true and never-failing supply of intel- 
 lectual energy to the teacher, it is the apprehension 
 of ideas that ennobles and inspires him, it is contact 
 with the history of past efforts to educate the race 
 that gives to him breadth and humanity. Without 
 the sustaining energy thus supplied, it seems to me 
 that the teacher's vocation is dreary enough ; with it, 
 there is a daily renewal of spiritual life for himself and 
 his pupils. It is a beneficent arrangement of nature, 
 doubtless, that enables so many men to work by rule 
 and routine, " circling like the gin-horse," as Carlyle 
 says, " for \yhom partial or total blindness is no evil, 
 
 X
 
 306 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 round and round, still fancying that it is forward and 
 forward, and realise much — for himself victual, for the 
 world an additional horse's power in the grand corn- 
 mill or hemp-mill of economic society : " but it is 
 not such men we want for the spiritual work of 
 society. If we cannot get genius, we can at least, 
 through a spiritual philosophy, give to all save those 
 whom nature has destined to be hodmen, inspiration 
 either moral or intellectual ; and if the spiritual has 
 caught hold of a man on either the moral or the intel- 
 lectual side he is made. " How," to quote Carlyle 
 again, " can an inanimate, mechanical gerund-grinder, 
 the like of whom will, in a subsequent century, be 
 manufactured at Nlirnberg out of wood and leather, 
 foster the growth of anything ; much more of Mind, 
 which grows, not like a vegetable (by having its roots 
 littered with etymological compost), but like a Spirit, 
 by mysterious contact of Spirit ; Thought kindling 
 itself at the fire of living Thought .'' How should HE 
 give kindling, in whose inward man there is no live 
 coal, but all is burnt out to a dead grammatical cinder .'' 
 The Hinterschlag professors knew syntax enough ; 
 and of the human soul thus much : that it had a 
 faculty called Memory, and could be acted on through 
 the muscular integument by appliance of birch-rods. 
 Alas, so is it everywhere, so will it ever ; till the 
 hodman is discharged, or reduced to hod-bearing ; 
 and an architect is hired, and on all hands fitly en- 
 couraged ; till communities and individuals discover, 
 not without surprise, that fashioning the souls of a
 
 ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 307 
 
 generation by Knowledge can rank on a level with 
 blowing their bodies to pieces by gunpowder." 
 
 " Education," says Cardinal Newman, " is a high 
 word : it is nothing less than the formation of a mind." 
 If this be so, what shall we say of the educators, and 
 their equipment for their great world-task .-' Is the 
 Academic treatment of the subject not a matter of 
 national concern .-' May not the Education Depart- 
 ment condescend to recog-nize it .-'
 
 AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO 
 DISCIPLINE.
 
 AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCI- 
 PLINE, AND THE DANGERS THAT 
 ATTEND THE DISCIPLINE OF GOOD 
 MASTERS.* 
 
 I DO not propose in this address to speak of incom- 
 petent masters — of men, that is to say, who cannot 
 maintain disciphne without constant appeal to cane 
 or laws. Such men ought at once to leave the pro- 
 fession ; they are naturally disqualified for it. What 
 sight more melancholy than to sec a teacher with his 
 book in his hand and the taws hanging under it; 
 hooked over his little finger! What an utter mis- 
 apprehension of the whole aim of school-life does this 
 indicate ! The driving, which is an inevitable result 
 of the Code, makes this necessary, we are told ; and 
 so far we may admit the apology. The chief objec- 
 tion to the " individual pass " system lies, indeed, in 
 this, that it causes the teacher to drive ; and driving 
 too often ends in physical coercion and pain. Even 
 girls are flogged, and the steady progress which Scot- 
 
 * Read at the Educational Congress at Edinburgh, 5th January, 
 1882.
 
 312 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 land was making in the recognition of the fact that 
 moral power is the only truly educational power, 
 has been put back for a whole generation by the 
 Code. 
 
 In this address I have in view only good masters, 
 as you will see from its published title — men who 
 regard physical pain as a rare and final resort in 
 discipline, and who honestly desire to make moral 
 law supreme. I desire to consider, in a philosophical 
 spirit, the dangers to which the two chief kinds of 
 good masters are exposed, and to guard them against 
 these dangers, which, I think, generally arise from 
 their misinterpretation of the word Authority. 
 
 Let me start, then, with the proposition that all 
 sound discipline of the young rests ultimately on 
 authority as its basis, and that authority itself rests 
 on reason. And further, that the object of school 
 discipline, properly understood, is not to secure 
 obedience to school rules and the doing of the daily 
 lessons, but to create in the boy self-discipline. The 
 end is an ethical end ; it has in view the gradual and 
 slow formation of the character of the pupil, through 
 the inculcation of motives and the strengthening of 
 will. These things being assumed, I would say 
 further that the process of all disciplining of un- 
 formed minds by others consists largely in supplying 
 not so much direct motives as collateral motives to 
 the weak, uncertain will, whereby it may be steadied 
 and borne on to its purpose. This has to be done till 
 habit has been formed. A boy or youth, for example,
 
 AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 313 
 
 may have a clear perception of the right in conduct ; 
 he may be intensely sensitive to the influence of those 
 sentiments and emotions which urge him to do the 
 right, but yet he may never do it save by accident. 
 The tendency of the natural man is like the steady 
 pull of a physical force ; it is like gravitation — always 
 there, always certain — dragging the boy's will along 
 without effort on his ^^z.xt, flumine secimdo. 
 
 Now, the most potent of all the collateral aids to 
 the unfashioned will of boyhood is the authority that 
 resides in the parent or master, and is symbolized in 
 their persons ; nay, it may be maintained that all 
 true and genuine discipline whatsoever emanates from 
 authority, and that disciplining of the young is simply 
 authority in action according to time and circum- 
 stances. If we seek then, for the source of all sound 
 and healthy discipline of the pupil, we shall find it in 
 the authority of the master. The master is at once 
 the legislative and executive power. His right to 
 legislate and to execute rest in the authority that is 
 vested in him. 
 
 Now, by what title does he lay claim to that 
 authority at all } The State and the parent, it may 
 be said, delegate to him their authority. True ; but 
 in that very delegation there is something to be in- 
 vestigated. I am not going to inquire into the 
 ultimate grounds of the authority exercised by the 
 State in the name of civil order; but I content myself 
 with saying that authority, in so far as it is not 
 concerned merely with police, i.e., the driving and
 
 314 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 coercing of human beings into the observance of law 
 and order, but with the education of a human soul — 
 the bringing about of that self-discipline to which I 
 have referred above as the aim of the school, has no 
 claim to the exercise of might, except in so far as 
 might is based on right, and therefore on reason. I 
 will put my point in an extreme way for the purpose 
 of bringing out my meaning : — A father has no 
 right to exercise might in inflicting injustice on his 
 child, simply because that child has the misfortune to 
 be his offspring. Nay, I go further, and hold that a 
 father has no right to exercise his might in imposing 
 what is merely unreasonable on his boy — I mean 
 what is in itself, and, apart from the boy's own 
 opinion, unreasonable. Children submit, doubtless, 
 to such inflictions ; but why .'' Because they are too 
 ignorant to understand their rights, and too weak to 
 assert them. The unjust and unreasonable parent 
 takes advantage of this meanly. If these remarks be 
 true of the parent, how much more, then, are they 
 true of the master of a school ? 
 
 Authority, then, which is the foundation of all 
 discipline, is not might or force, as old masters used 
 to think, and as many still think. It is might as 
 based on right, and, in dealing with moral and 
 emotional beings, must always be able to vindicate 
 itself at the bar of right. Where, then, shall we look 
 for the characteristics of authority which constitute it 
 right in might ? I think wc shall find them by intro- 
 spection, — by ascertaining the characteristics of that
 
 AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 315 
 
 inner authority of the moral law, that supremacy and 
 rightful might of conscience under which we all as 
 spirits live and work. Now, I find this inner law of 
 conscience, which is my schoolmaster, which dis- 
 ciplines me to be always just, to be always right 
 and reasonable, to be always the same, to be always 
 bound up with the highest sentiments and aspira- 
 tions of my nature, to condemn only when a real 
 offence has been committed ; to recognize pleas of 
 mercy, to be not equally severe with all offences, 
 but to graduate them ; and finally, to exist in my 
 consciousness clothed with the supreme majesty of 
 the Most High. 
 
 Now, all good masters may be placed under one 
 of two classes, (i.) Those in whom these character- 
 istics of the inner authority of conscience are con- 
 spicuous. They embody in their own character, 
 actions, and manner, the moral law. They are ever 
 exhibiting, consciously or unconsciously, the right of 
 the might of authority. (2.) Those who but dimly 
 recognize the moral ground of the authority. They 
 .wield and consequently embody rather the pure might 
 of authority. 
 
 The former is the just man, who educates ; the 
 latter is the strong-willed man, who, by the exhibition 
 of law and might, with their background of physical 
 force, coerces boys into the doing of certain things, 
 and calls it discipline. The first type of master I 
 would call " The Wise Master ; " the second type 
 I would call " the Captain-Master." As the great
 
 3l6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 object of school is the education of a moral being, 
 not the mere drilling of boys into conformity with 
 certain external rules, it is only the just man who 
 is the wise master, and who really understands the 
 greatness and dignity of his position, and his power 
 as an instrument in human progress. The strong- 
 willed or captain-master may be likened to a head 
 policeman or the captain of a vessel on the high seas. 
 The best of this type have many merits, which I am 
 very far indeed from ignoring, but, at best, they do 
 not look far enough forward. They are content 
 with the immediate results of orders obeyed. The 
 wise and just master, on the other hand, has for his 
 motto, Respice finem. " What am I ultimately aiming 
 at } " is the question he asks himself. And the 
 answer is, "The education of my boys as moral 
 and spiritual beings." All else he will sacrifice to 
 this grand aim. I confess I have great respect for 
 the captain-master, and I am glad to find him when 
 perfect in his kind ; but for the wise master I have 
 a feeling of veneration. I know no position so exalted 
 as his : I know no man so admirable. I can find no 
 professional worker in the world's work who is to be 
 named with him in the same breath. 
 
 Having briefly described the two kinds of masters, 
 I would now dwell for a little, with your permission, 
 on the dangers and weaknesses to which these dif- 
 ferent types of men arc exposed. For it is not to be 
 presumed that we find cither of them in perfection. 
 What we may and do find is honest men striving to
 
 AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 317 
 
 be one or the other, and some coming pretty near the 
 goal they are striving to reach. 
 
 I. — First, as to the wise master, the true educator, 
 what are his dangers } 
 
 I. He is apt to lose sight of the might that 
 resides in the might of authority. He is apt to for- 
 get that while the foundation of his authority is a 
 moral one, yet its effectiveness consists in the might 
 which it exhibits. He is in a governing position : 
 he is a ruler, a monarch. But he may be self-analytic, 
 and so humbly conscious of his own personal short- 
 comings as to have a half misgiving as to the right- 
 fulness of firmly asserting his own authority simply as 
 such. In exercising a firm, though wisely moderate, 
 authority, he may not himself always heartily believe 
 in it. His own sins of omission and commission may 
 be so many, his own failure to lead that perfect life 
 of the wise man up to which he is educating his boys 
 may be so clear to his own secret consciousness, that 
 he half feels himself to be an impostor, and is some- 
 times disposed to smile at his own assumption of 
 autocratic power. He cannot but be aware how 
 much better in many respects is a fine boy than 
 even a so-called good man. The disturbances of 
 his equanimity caused by petty everyday incidents, 
 the irritability caused by work and anxiety, the 
 sense of failure to discharge his responsibilities, the 
 envies, the jealousies, the uncharitableness, the anger 
 which the conflicts of the world engender, the little
 
 3l8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 vanities or the pride which hang on the skirts of 
 his robe of office — all these things and many more 
 disturb his daily thoughts, and make him feel less 
 than the least of those to whom he is to be a 
 model, a guardian, and guide. He feels himself to 
 be a sham, for he has to seem what he is not. If 
 under the influence of such self-analysis he dis- 
 robes himself of the purple of command, he is 
 undone. His estimate of himself and his position 
 are both wrong. He forgets that there is no 
 such thing as the wise man, the perfect character. 
 He has misread the moral teachings of life. He 
 forgets that the highest life of the saint is still a 
 struggle, still a falling and rising again, and that the 
 distinguishing mark of all the wisdom and goodness 
 to which finite man can reach is the continual and 
 continuous effort to be wise and good. He ought 
 to remember the failures of the past only in so far 
 as they strengthen him for the present and the future. 
 He must not therefore allow his self-knowledge of 
 failure and imperfection to weaken his assumption 
 of the authority — the might, of his position. It will 
 always temper the exercise of that authority, but it 
 ought not to detract from the exhibition of it. 
 
 Is not this, however, to maintain relations with 
 the young spirits around him which arc not true and 
 honest, and which therefore have in them the clement 
 of failure, as all untruth necessarily has ? Not so ; 
 for, as his estimate of himself is wrong, so is his esti- 
 mate of his position. He docs not stand there at the
 
 AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 319 
 
 head of these youthful spirits in his personal capacity 
 alone. He is a representative of all that is wise 
 and good, and in that representative and ministerial 
 character he must maintain the dignity of his office. 
 He holds Her Majesty's Commission, so to speak, and 
 is there in the name of the State ; he is the minister 
 of the thought and experience of mankind, and is 
 there in the name of humanity ; he is the sum of the 
 past, and is there in the cause of the future ; he is 
 the representative to the young of the highest spiritual 
 aims and hopes of mankind, and consequently is there 
 in the name of the Most High. Let him think of 
 these things, and whilst he will not thereby lessen 
 his efforts to harmonize his own inner life Avith his 
 high and sacred calling, he will yet maintain authority, 
 by exhibiting the might and dignity which becomes 
 his office. 
 
 2. Again, the clear perception of the ultimate 
 justification of his own authority — the moral justi- 
 fication of it, may lead him to bring that moral jus- 
 tification so much into the foreground as to weaken 
 the expression of authority as law or might on the 
 one side, and of obligation and obedience to au- 
 thority, simply as such, on the other. He may resort 
 to explanations, exhortations, appeals, and persua- 
 sions, instead of to command. Now, a master must 
 always be able to vindicate, if necessary, every order 
 and every authoritative act in the court of common 
 sense and at the bar of justice, but he is not bound 
 to make this always clear to his subjects. By ex-
 
 320 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 planation and persuasion he flatters one kind of boy, 
 and so loses his respect ; he weakens another kind 
 of boy, though retaining his affection, also, however, 
 at the expense of his respect ; he wholly undermines 
 the only motive which guides and sustains another, 
 which is the sense of the power of law. With the 
 boy of finest temper he does not lose much, for such 
 a boy has already in a half-conscious way penetrated, 
 to the secrets of authority and shares the spirit of 
 the master, but even with him he weakens his posi- 
 tion. I am very far from saying that with his boys 
 a master should not sometimes put himself in the 
 position of a persuader and explainer. On the con- 
 trary, he must let all see from time to time the ethical 
 reality of the school forms, and lead them to under- 
 stand the ethical significance of his authoritative 
 acts and words. But he must not dwell on this : he 
 must act his ideas rather than talk them. There 
 are occasions, or, if there are none, they should 
 be made, when the lesson of the day gives room 
 for the sowing of moral seed by clear analysis of 
 the motives of moral action, or the pointed appli- 
 cation of a story, a poem, or historic deed. These 
 opportunities should not only be taken, but sought 
 and created. School life itself, too, will yield, in 
 its ordinary incidents, abundance of material for 
 enforcing the right and noble in thought and 
 action. What I mean is, that he must not rest his 
 authority on explanation and persuasion, but he 
 may, as fit occasion arises, support it with these.
 
 AUTHORITY IX RELATION TO DISCITLINE. 32 1 
 
 A glance of the eye, a frown, a smile, a friendly pat, 
 an encouraging word — these arc the forms which his 
 moral persuasions must take. In fact, a master who 
 habitually tries to exhibit to his boys the ground 
 of all his actions, and to persuade to the right, ab- 
 dicates his authority as such. He does so with the 
 best intentions, relying on the power of truth and 
 goodness, forgetting that the power of these fails 
 even with himself, how much more, then, with the 
 immature mind, which cannot comprehend them in 
 all their depth ! In truth, he calls on the weak and 
 as yet unformed will to do what his own "mature 
 will does not always accomplish. But the worst is 
 this, that he forgets that the moral nature of boys 
 finds its support and strength in authority and law 
 as embodied in him, and that if he substitutes ideas 
 and thoughts and sentiments in room of these, that 
 support is withdrawn. 
 
 I have already said that opportunities are 
 numerous for pointing morals, stimulating to virtuous 
 effort, inciting to the disdaining of sloth, and the 
 suppression of vicious propensities, and of holding 
 up to the boys the standard at which they should 
 aim. These fit occasions the master will gladly seize 
 for bringing into clear daylight the undercurrent of 
 moral and religious principle which guides his con- 
 duct, and is presumed to animate the school life. 
 The boys will thus not merely learn to act rightly, 
 but will get some vision of the beauty and divine 
 charm of goodness and of the dignity of virtue. I^ut 
 
 Y
 
 322 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 with all this, a master must beware of wearing " his 
 heart upon his sleeve for daws to peck at." All talk 
 on his part has to be kept within severe limits, for 
 it has no end save action, and boys must not be led 
 to substitute the dreamy contemplation of the good 
 for the doing of the right. In speaking to boys, 
 moreover, avoid dwelling on the sentimental or emo- 
 tional side of goodness where they themselves are 
 concerned ; they do not understand this. Sentiment, 
 like humour, comes late, save in exceptional cases. 
 It is the manliness, the heroism, the justice, the 
 wisdom, the nobility of goodness and virtue, which 
 can reach the hearts of boys ; and the lowness, the 
 meanness, the unwisdom, the injustice, the weakness, 
 the unworthiness of vice. 
 
 3. In the third place, a weakness which besets 
 the wise master is a certain contempt for his own 
 rules and for his own school order. He feels so 
 deeply his own strength in ideas, he is so confident 
 of the justness of his own sentiments, he is so sure of 
 the truth of his own emotions, he is so strong in his 
 spiritual strength, that he is prepared to suspend, set 
 aside, or override the rules of the school, under the 
 persuasion that his moral resources are so great 
 that he can, when he chooses, restore things to their 
 proper balance. The temptation to do this is great. 
 It is so detrimental to that settled order which con- 
 tributes so largely to the promotion of good habits 
 in the young, that a master must be on his guard 
 against this weakness. "That will do for to-day,"
 
 AUTIIORITV IX RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 323 
 
 " Never mind, it is of little consequence," said in im- 
 patience, trusting to the power of recovering lost 
 ground, is a blunder. Even the wise master, then, 
 has to be watchful over himself with respect to those 
 vices of management which lean to virtue's side. I 
 speak, of course, of a school ; for it may constantly 
 occur in the well-understood relations of a tutor and 
 a single pupil, or of a father and child, that freedom 
 may be taken with rules which both understand. So 
 also, and for the same reasons, such conduct would 
 not affect the boy of finest temper ; but a masler has 
 to deal with various characters, and with these also 
 in various moods, which it is impossible for him to 
 estimate. In dealing with particular faults, too, he 
 is apt to be lenient, where he is himself well assured 
 that the act of the pupil was well meant, or that the 
 impulse that prompted him had a mixture of good 
 in it. Such treatment of the individual case may be 
 quite safe, but its effect on a school is hurtful. It 
 weakens the sense of order and just administration. 
 Morally there may be no fault to find with the treat- 
 ment of the case, in so far as the relations of master 
 and pupil arc concerned ; but in a school there is 
 such a thing as the universal as well as the particular 
 conscience w-hich has to be considered, and which 
 must be in all doubtful cases paramount. The 
 master's personal feeling about the case ought not 
 to govern ; if it does, law is weakened thereby, for 
 the majority of boys can ascribe the course pursued 
 to the arbitrary will of the master alone, and cannot
 
 324 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 be expected to discriminate and note those finer 
 characteristics of an act or incident which justify 
 exceptional treatment. 
 
 It is not merely weak men who break down in the 
 administration of a school system, nor is it their case 
 that we now are specially considering, but that of the 
 strong man — the man so strong in his own moral con- 
 victions and spiritual resources, that he is disposed to 
 treat as of little importance the rules and methods 
 which he has himself in the wisest moments imposed. 
 Such a course of conduct has, moreover, its justifica- 
 tion to the understanding, for it is not desirable to 
 have a hard and fast line of pedantic military rule. 
 There should be some elasticity — some elbow-room — 
 in the school system, just as in the moral code and 
 habits that govern the individual conscience. In this 
 feeling that the organized life of a school should not 
 be wooden and inelastic, there is a sound principle. 
 But this does not justify fitful and capricious admini- 
 stration ; this freedom and elasticity should itself be 
 a visible part of the system. The chief ground 
 on which this opinion rests is, that it is essential to 
 good school-keeping, that the boys should feel that 
 there is a living and human moral force at their head 
 — not an iron mechanism, not a Fate ; that they are 
 not parts of a machine merely, of which the head- 
 master is only a kind of stoker or driver. A human 
 heart must be felt to be beating everywhere under the 
 outer case of rules and methods — a heart which 
 sympathizes and understands. There must be room
 
 AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE, 325 
 
 left for this heart to beat freely, and this can be 
 secured only by having as few rules as possible. 
 Given a limited number of general rules for the 
 guidance of the day, and all else should flow from 
 the inspiration of the hour. The moral life of the 
 school should start fresh every morning. How else 
 can there be that free movement which is essential to 
 the growth of heart and intellect } With the wise 
 master there can be little or no difficulty in bringing 
 about this kind of life. He proceeds on the assump- 
 tion that all are aiming with him to realize a high 
 standard, and if he has acquired the confidence of his 
 boys, no word, or act, or gesture of his Avill be set 
 down to caprice : these things will be too visibly obedi- 
 ence in himself to the best and highest. The boys will 
 recognize this. The larger the school, of course, the 
 more numerous must be the rules ; the more strict, the 
 more system ; and the less potent the influence of the 
 central and governing mind. This is the evil attend- 
 ing large schools, and which weakens their influence 
 as moral seminaries. Recognize this : Day by day 
 the master gives forth the moral power which is to 
 permeate the mass. There is moral freedom on both 
 sides. If under the influence of this free spirit the boys 
 should err, they would, I hope and believe, not be 
 afraid to tell their master that they had done so ; the 
 relations between the two arc candid, for are they not 
 both working together to realize the same community 
 of life } 
 
 So much for the freedom and elasticity which
 
 326 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 belong to the master and the school, as resting on 
 moral sympathy and livingness, as opposed to mere 
 system, and law, and formalism. But in authority 
 itself there is also to be found an element of elasticity, 
 for it has to regulate much that is in itself neither 
 moral nor immoral, and in this field it has a Papal 
 power of dispensation, which it can occasionally exer- 
 cise without damage to itself. Authority as such, 
 apart from the moral grounds on which it itself rests, 
 can frequently suspend a rule or injunction, and by 
 that very act strengthen itself as authorit}-. 
 
 4. Such are some of the errors against which even 
 the wise master has to guard. There are others not 
 worthy of mention. But it may be well to point out 
 that as the master we are describing has a moral 
 affection for his boys, which becomes in many cases 
 a personal affection, he is disposed to become too 
 familiar and friendly. Now, pleasing as it is to be on 
 such relations with well-disposed boys, there are dan- 
 gers attending it. The principle of authority, I again 
 repeat, is the central principle in the relations between 
 a teacher and his pupils, and must not be tampered 
 with. I do not mean to say that the wise master will 
 err, or can err, so far on this virtuous side as seriously 
 to impair the discipline of his school. A vigorous, 
 earnest mind can take great liberties without serious 
 hurt to any, and with possible advantage to a few of 
 the more timid and shy natures. But such famili- 
 arities are apt to engender in the boyish mind, which 
 we must remember is as yet untrained, inexperienced,
 
 AUTHORITY IX RKLATIOX TO DISCIPLINE. 327 
 
 undisciplined, and immature (defects which only time 
 can cure), a sense of equality that docs not, cannot, 
 ought not to exist. The master is so vigorous, so 
 earnest, and so good withal, that there will be no 
 attempt to evade or counteract him, because of his 
 familiar kindness. The discipline will not be seriously, 
 if at all, affected ; but the too great equality will 
 deprive the higher natures of the idea of some 
 standard to attain, and will give to all false notions 
 of their relation to mature minds and to authority 
 generally. This, when we consider the tendency of 
 youth to self-assertion and to practising the art of 
 instructing their grandfathers, is not a desirable result, 
 especially in these times, when the crudities of youth 
 find so easy an avenue to platforms and other pro- 
 minent places. 
 
 II. — If dangers attend the administration of the 
 wise master, they are of the nature, as I have indicated, 
 of weaknesses which^ lean to virtue's side, and which 
 arise out of too amiable a view of human and boy- 
 nature, and too mild a sense of personal dignit}- — -in 
 brief, in a deficiency of pure authority simply as 
 such. 
 
 On the other hand, the captain-master — who 
 relies solely on authority in the sense of law and 
 might, who distrusts all purely moral motives, who 
 has little faith in the nature of boys, and does not 
 believe that they are capable of receiving ideas of 
 life and action, and relies, therefore, on the mainte-
 
 328 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 nance of law as law, and on the preservation of a 
 rigid system — is exposed to dangers much more 
 serious. His duty is (or if this be not his duty, what 
 is ?) to train the boy to an independent perception of 
 the truth of moral ideas, to the majesty of the law 
 which resides in them, and to the habit of self-regu- 
 lation. And yet he abdicates his function altogether 
 when he treats boys simply as parts of a machine, 
 and distrusts the growing good in them, and all 
 the possibilities of virtue and religion as inner 
 growths. 
 
 This man, who rests not merely his claim to rule, 
 but his right to rule and his method of ruling, on 
 authority purely as such, A\ithout regard to the 
 ultimate moral basis of all authorit}- whatsoever, who 
 therefore never lets the light of moral ideas shine 
 through the sable mantle of magistracy', must ever 
 fail to attain to all the highest objects of the school ; 
 and this because he does not consciously propose to 
 himself any such objects. In truth, it will be found 
 he does not even propose to himself any such objects 
 as the aim of his own personal life. He has no 
 hesitations, no self-questionings. His life is like his 
 school, grounded on authority — the authority of 
 Church and State, or of social opinion and conven- 
 tion. He is not a living free soul, he has not attained 
 to the liberty wherewith Christ has made us free. 
 For be it always remembered that as is the man, so 
 is the master, and in describing the wise master, we 
 are only describing the wise man, whose powers have
 
 AUTHORITY IX RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 329 
 
 been set in the particular direction of educating others. 
 He has to find a method, but it is educed from his 
 own character. 
 
 I know it will here be said by some, " Leave things 
 alone, then ; if all depends on the man and the 
 character, he will be a good or a bad master, spite 
 of you and all your teachings." This is a great error. 
 For, in the first place, a master, who is already a wise 
 man, has, when entering on his great and delicate 
 task, to be encouraged to have faith in the moral 
 method which would naturally suggest itself to his 
 nature, which is at once lofty and sympathetic, and, 
 on the other hand, to be guarded against the tendency 
 in that method to run to seed, l^y reflecting on other 
 characters and methods in the course of his studies, 
 moreover, he brings out with distinctness to himself 
 his own, and thereby understands what he is doing. 
 In the second place, it is a superficial view of human 
 nature which classes all as good and bad, or classes 
 them in any way which involves a visible and deep 
 demarcation. Human nature is a complex thing, and 
 at best we can only classify men and masters accord- 
 ing to their leading tendencies. Our duty is accord- 
 ingly to counteract the evil, and strengthen the good ; 
 to oppose and to hold up to aversion the former, and 
 to eliminate what is weak and questionable from the 
 latter. By thus clearing up the conceptions which 
 the young educational aspirant has as to his future 
 work, we confirm the weak and put the strong on 
 their guard, lest they in their strength should fail and
 
 330 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 fall. Preparation for the work of tuition is thus the 
 preparation of the man himself for life. The aspirant 
 to the teacher's office must himself become the wise 
 man, in order that he may be able to become the 
 wise master. The training school for teachers, whether 
 in the Universities or out of it, must, in fact, be itself 
 a school for men, in order that it may be a school for 
 schoolmasters. 
 
 To return : the captain-master, who relies on 
 authority in its aspect of law and might alone, fails, 
 and must fail, for want of faith in boy-nature, to 
 attain the highest ends of school life, which are, as 
 I have said, ethical, always ethical. At the same 
 time, he does not wholly fail ; for obedience to law 
 as law is a great virtue, and if the master is perfect 
 of his kind, and holds himself bound within his own 
 rules, and does not overstrain the personal element in 
 authority, the school is orderly, the boys acquire 
 certain good habits, and they pass from the period 
 of tutelage with a sense of the supremacy of autho- 
 rity, which is a great gain. But the dangers to which 
 such a master is exposed are many : — 
 
 I. Such a man is very apt to overstrain his 
 authority, and, forgetting that he is working a system, 
 he substitutes for system arbitrary will. It is very diffii 
 cult to resist this tcndcnc)'. Love of power is a great 
 snare. This captain-master identifies, ere long, the 
 authority which to him is, in truth, only delegated, 
 and of which he is only the representative and symbol, 
 with his own will, authority passes into arbitrariness,
 
 AUTHORITY IX RIXATIOX TO DISCIPLINE. 331 
 
 and the school quickly feels this. Now, I would ask 
 — Why should boys, who, after all, are little men, 
 submit to this ? Even where the authorit}', though 
 stern, has not yet passed into arbitrariness, why should 
 a boy submit and carry out the system of which he is 
 a part ? There is no answer to this save one — that he 
 is afraid to disobey. Why afraid .' If he disobeyed, 
 what would happen ? The disapprobation of his 
 master. But, mark, it is only the boy who has a 
 strong natural tendency to submission and respect 
 who is open to this motive. The weak, approbation- 
 loving boy is sensitive and timid, and he also submits. 
 The self-sufficing boy may, or may not, obey, accord- 
 ing to his appreciation of the ultima ratio regnni. 
 The lo}'al boy of fine nature may obey, and probably 
 will, not through fear of his master, but because he 
 has in himself and his own perceptions of right, a 
 motive for obedience. But note this, and it is to this 
 I am pointing — the true spiritual life of all these is 
 never reached by the master, and thus he cannot 
 possibly educate. He is in truth driving, not draw- 
 ing ; and this comes out very clearly if we consider 
 what his ultima ratio is. It is physical pain. It does 
 not matter whether it be a pa^na to write, detention 
 in school, deprivation of certain boyish pleasures, or 
 actual flogging — in all alike, physical dis-ease is the 
 essential character of the punishment. A teacher, in 
 answering a question on methods, when asked, "What 
 steps he would take to make an idle or disobedient 
 bo)' work .-* " wrote — " Tell him to do it, and if he
 
 332 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 didn't, lick him ! " This is the whole book of disci- 
 pline with certain masters, summed up in a sentence. 
 If he did not do it after he was licked, I suppose the 
 next step would be to lick him again and harder, and 
 so on, ad infinituin. I do not mean to say that the 
 process would not succeed with many boys, but, at 
 most, only in securing outward conformity. It never 
 did, and never can educate. It is the method whereby 
 slaves are made to toe the line, and bears are taught 
 to dance. It is, however, the grand motive power 
 which lies at the basis of the administration of the 
 arbitrary captain-master. If now the purely authori- 
 tative method, well administered as a system, has this 
 weakness, that it fails to educate, how much is the 
 evil aggravated if the master yields to the tendency, 
 which there must always be, to substitute his arbitrary 
 will for the idea of true authority or might in the 
 sense of right, and of Avhich he ought to be only a 
 passionless symbol, and perhaps persuades himself 
 that he is. 
 
 2. The next weakness in the captain-master is the 
 identifying of his authority with his own personality. 
 Offences are then no longer offences against the law 
 and system which he represents, but against himself 
 personally. Here passion at once enters, and, with 
 passion uncertainty and irregularity of action, and 
 consequent injustice. Authority passes into the mere 
 caprice of despotism. The wise master can afford to 
 exhibit his human emotions of anger and indignation 
 and contempt, so long as he maintains self-control ;
 
 AUTHORITY IX RELATION TO DISCIPLINi:. 333 
 
 the captain-master will find these dangerous tools to 
 play with. They raise the former in the estimation 
 of the boys ; they lower the latter to an equality with 
 them. Mere authority, as law and might and s}-stem, 
 has no right to passions. Wisdom, on the other hand, 
 may be angry and sin not. 
 
 3. The third danger to which the captain-master 
 is subject is over-severity in punishment. This 
 danger arises when he has already yielded to the 
 temptation to confound his own personality with the 
 authority which he wields only as a delegate of the 
 moral law, and which he is not, but only represents. 
 His only means of enforcing discipline being the pro- 
 duction of physical pain, there are no limits to the 
 inflictions he may impose if his personal passions are 
 once aroused. He can become even vindictive. 
 
 4. The fourth danger is a concomitant of perfect 
 coolness and self-control, and consists in his becoming 
 the slave of his own rules, mistaking rules for morality, 
 and so confounding all ethical distinctions. This is a 
 common weakness of w^omen when placed in a posi- 
 tion of command. All offences become alike heinous, 
 because all break some rule. It is by this rule that 
 offences are measured. Authority is thus transmuted 
 into pedantry. 
 
 I might now go on to describe other kinds of 
 masters, but the two classes with which I have been 
 dealing are the chief classes, of which all others are 
 modifications. The weaknesses w^hich beset each of 
 these two classes constitute fresh sub-t}pes when
 
 334 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 they become permanent. Under the first class, for 
 example, falls the sub-type or variety — the sympa- 
 thetic master, he who merges all authority in sym- 
 pathy ; and this, carried beyond certain limits, gives 
 the anarchical master, who is no master at all. Under 
 the second head, again, we have the tyrant master 
 (like Dr. Keate of Eton), who makes a moral desert 
 and calls it peace, the pedantic master, and the cor- 
 poral master or martinet, with all of w^hom external 
 order is the highest and sole result, as it is, indeed, 
 the sole aim. It is enough, how^ever, to indicate these 
 distinctions. 
 
 Let us consider now for a little the effect on boys 
 of the defects of different kinds of masters. 
 
 To carry out in detail the parallel of the effect 
 which each kind of master has upon different kinds of 
 boys, would be a long, though by no means a tedious 
 or unprofitable work. Many and subtle are the influ- 
 ences which mould character. Nor are these exercises 
 in analytic psychology unworthy of the attention of 
 schoolmasters. They convert the life of the mere 
 teacher into the life of the educator and the student 
 of practical psychology. They deepen, at the same 
 time that they broaden, his conceptions of his task, 
 and invest a subject, otherwise barren, and even to 
 some minds repelling, with the perennial charm of 
 philosophy. They transform a mere teacher into an 
 educator. They throw the light o( the highest reason, 
 and the warmth of the life of humanity, on his daily
 
 AUTHORITY IX RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 335 
 
 work, which is thus no longer task-work, but, spite of 
 all its drawbacks, the pleasantest as well as the 
 noblest work in which a man in these days can be 
 engaged. 
 
 Omitting much, then, I would merely at present 
 point out the danger that attends the proper spiritual 
 growth of boys under that species of the wise master 
 who, through the influence of his sympathetic nature, 
 has a disposition to place too great a reliance on the 
 emotions and moral sentiments of his charge. By so 
 doing, as I have said, he obscures the idea of authority, 
 and to that extent weakens his own power, and softens 
 the moral fibre of his pupil. You will find that the 
 purely sympathetic master tends to enfeeble all those 
 boys who live by authority, and are supported by it. 
 and all more or less are dependent on authority. 
 They have their natures disturbed ; an inner anarchy 
 begins to set itself up in their minds ; their mainstay 
 — law — is gone, and emotions, sentiments, ideas, on 
 which the sympathetic master relies, are no substitutes 
 for them. Even the boy of finest breed is, I hold, 
 injured ; for he, as well as the boy w^ho depends on 
 praise, is in special need of the discipline which the 
 recognition of mere authority as such gives. When 
 that is relaxed, he is left to himself, and may become 
 moody and isolated, or if there be too much morali- 
 zing and appeal on the part of the master, his loyal 
 nature, in the attempt to rise to the moral call made 
 on him, strains itself, and becomes mature before its 
 time ; and thus while a boy is yet in his teens, you
 
 336 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 have the most disagreeable of all spectacles, which is 
 described by Goethe as a mature judgment in an un- 
 ripe mind. Where there is at the same time a 
 tendency to self-sufficingness in the mind of the boy, 
 you have the more offensive exhibition of the same 
 moral vices, accompanied by what is called priggish- 
 ness. 
 
 Now, without entering here on that interesting 
 subject — the moral analysis of a prig — I would merely 
 say that every other kind of boy has the possible 
 making of a man in him ; but the prig has to be un- 
 made and taken to pieces, as it were, and made up 
 afresh, before he can be an example of a man. He is 
 narrow and arid, and the human outcome is not 
 pleasing. He is the true moral Philistine. 
 
 What now is the mental attitude of the different 
 kinds of boys to the captain-master, who falls into the 
 sin which most besets him — arbitrariness and its con- 
 comitant severity ? He rules by fear and pain alone. 
 The self-sufficing boy is quick enough to see the 
 necessity of walking warily, and Avill probably escape 
 penalties ; but in what respect is his moral nature 
 affected } Is it not the case that the exhibition of 
 this arbitrariness and severity strengthens in him his 
 own vice of character ? Here before him is the man 
 whom his parents, supported by the action of many 
 other parents, have selected as the guide of his youth, 
 the model of his future manhood. The master has 
 his turn now, but in a few years the pupil's turn will 
 come ; and, meanwhile, the little monster repeats
 
 AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 2)T)7 
 
 among younger boys in the playground and dormitory 
 the lesson which the master himself has already 
 taught. 
 
 That other boy, again, who is dependent on affec- 
 tion, sympathy, and praise, leads, in such circum- 
 stances, a wretched life, for when not bullied by his 
 master, he is bullied by the bigger boys, who expend 
 on him the latent irritation which the system of the 
 school engenders. 
 
 That third boy, again, whose sense of submission 
 to authority is the guiding principle, suffers least in 
 personal comfort ; but he tends to become a slave and 
 a sneak, and we all know what a slave is when he is 
 turned inside out — in other words, when the emanci- 
 pated boy becomes a man. 
 
 The loyal boy, the boy of finest breed, if he is by 
 nature strong, adapts himself, as best he may, to the 
 system under which he lives, perceiving in his master, 
 in a half-conscious way, for it does not take the form 
 of speech, all that he himself ought not to be. There- 
 by he is negatively educated. If his inner strength be 
 not great, either because of his tender years or native 
 want of fibre, even he is taught to skulk, evade, and 
 hate. He is at war, in brief, with his master, and his 
 very moral salvation lies in those rebellious feelings 
 which he rightly cherishes against his governor. 
 
 Meanwhile, where this arbitrary ruler governs, the 
 whole school is, as a matter of fact, divided into 
 hostile camps — the governor on one side, and the sub- 
 jects on the other. To deceive a master, to evade him, 
 
 z
 
 338 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 nay, even to lie to him, to show up false exercises, to 
 call him names when he is not present, to take it out 
 of him in any way which may suggest itself to the 
 ingenious and irreverent minds of boys, are all re- 
 cognized as part of the school institution, on the 
 principle that all is fair in love and war. And can we 
 fairly blame the boys ? Ought we not rather to see 
 in this passive rebellion — or, if active, active only in 
 separate acts, not in combined resistance — the hope of 
 the salvation of the boys ? The youths of a high- 
 spirited nation, like the British, will not, nay, ought 
 not, to submit to arbitrary despotism based on 
 physical coercion. They must find some outlet for 
 their protest, and so long as they do not tell lies — 
 simply keep clear of lies — I for one applaud them. 
 The whole system proceeds on the assumption that 
 there are two codes — a masters' code and a boys' code 
 — of school morality ; nay, the more sagacious of the 
 masters, who accept the system as the only one they 
 feel their capacity to work, deliberately wink hard at 
 breaches of school order. Nay, they must wink hard ; 
 and I need not refer you to your Latin to let you 
 know the connection between the mild physical act of 
 winking and the moral offence of conniving. There 
 should, it seems to me, be only one code, one faith, 
 one school. 
 
 That the history of school-keeping is not enriched 
 (I say deliberately, enriched) Avith a greater number 
 of cases of open rebellion is explained by the fact that 
 boys are ignorant and do not know how far their
 
 AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 339 
 
 mere feelings and emotions are right as opposed to 
 the tyranny above them, partly to the want of power 
 of combination in the young. The practical deduc- 
 tion from what I have just been saying is, that boys 
 are not always wrong, and masters are not always 
 right. 
 
 It may appear that in all I have said I have had 
 in view the master of an English public school, where 
 the head is not only teacher but rector and parent — 
 the prophet, priest, and king of a community. So far 
 this is true ; but the difference between the head- 
 master of such a school and the master of a day 
 school is not in the ends at which they should re- 
 spectively aim, the spirit in which they should work, 
 or the methods which they should pursue. Nor are 
 the remarks that have been made less applicable to a 
 parent, with this difference only, that he may lean 
 much more to the sympathetic and the tender than 
 becomes the wise master, because he is the constant 
 source of all the happiness as well as the unhappiness 
 of the family, and has thus a control of the child's 
 emotions and will which it is impossible for the master 
 of many to have. His opportunities, too, of individual- 
 izing and of allowing for idiosyncrasies of character 
 are great, and this a master of many can only very 
 partially do. 
 
 In conclusion, I would say to the master of a day 
 school or of a class, who doubts the reality of his 
 moral power over those whom he has for a portion 
 only of every day, " Do not underrate your influence.
 
 340 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 It is radiating from you on every side, and is simply 
 incalculable in its possible effects. Work on the side 
 of the ethical forces in the spirit of the wise master, 
 and they will declare for you and help you when and 
 where you least expect. Nothing is lost, least of all 
 true moral power."
 
 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT.
 
 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. 
 
 It has occurred to me that in the present crisis of 
 primary education, a sketch of the history of the 
 Education Department, however shght, may be in- 
 structive as well as interesting. I need scarcely say 
 that I refer only to the educational and not to the 
 political history of the Department. 
 
 Treasury grants were first made for the promotion 
 of education in 1833. In 1839 a Committee of Privy 
 Council on education was formed and entrusted with 
 the administration of any grants that Parliament 
 might make in aid of education. 
 
 When Parliament, in 1839, first voted ^^30,000 to 
 be expended by a Privy Council Committee, with the 
 Lord President as its head, and a permanent secretary 
 (Sir J. P. K. Shuttleworth) as its arm, the only course 
 which suggested itself was to distribute this money in 
 such a manner as to aid the two societies which then 
 represented organized educational effort in England 
 — the National Society, in connection with the Church
 
 344 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS, 
 
 of England, and the British and Foreign School So- 
 ciety." This was done in the form of grants towards 
 the erection of normal schools, in which teachers 
 might be trained, of contributions to the erection of 
 school buildings where there were local subscriptions, 
 and of small grants towards the maintenance of such 
 schools only as were affiliated to the above-named 
 societies. At the same time, the right of inspection 
 was in all cases reserved, and the present system of 
 inspection initiated. This was in June and September, 
 1839. But as early as December following, the claims 
 which were made on the Council office necessitated a 
 more liberal interpretation of its functions. A Minute 
 was accordingly issued, in which the admission of 
 schools under special circumstances, even where not 
 connected with the two societies, was fully recognized, 
 their lordships only requiring to be informed of the 
 grounds on which objection was made "to connecting 
 the intended school with the National Society, or the 
 British and Foreign School Society." Then at once 
 emerged the religious diff.culty, and their lordships 
 had to steer a course requiring some experience in 
 moral and spiritual navigation. Through deference 
 to the declared will of the country the following half- 
 way position was taken up : — 
 
 Resolved, " That . . . their Lordships will limit 
 their aid to those cases in which proof is given of 
 great deficiency of education for the poorer classes in 
 the district, of vigorous effi^rts having been made by 
 the inhabitants to provide funds, and of the indis-
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 345 
 
 pensable need of further assistance ; and to those 
 cases in which competent provision will be made for 
 the instruction of the children in the school — the daily 
 readin^^ of a portion of the Scriptures forming part of 
 such instruction. 
 
 " The Committee will further give a preference to 
 schools in which the religious instruction will be of 
 the same character as that given in schools in con- 
 nection with one or other of the above-named So- 
 cieties ; and to those in which the school committee 
 or trustees, while they provide for the daily reading 
 of the Scriptures in the school, do not enforce any 
 rule by which the children will be compelled to learn 
 a catechism or attend a place of Divine worship to 
 which their parents on religious grounds object." 
 (3rd December, 1839). 
 
 Religious instruction, in so far as Bible reading 
 was concerned, was thus secured, while the liberty of 
 parents to object to the catechetical, without forfeiting 
 the general, instruction, was recognized. It is neces- 
 sary to observe, however, that so far as Church of 
 England Schools were concerned, this rule was subject 
 to modification. The managers were simply allozved 
 by the authorities, with consent of the diocesan, to 
 admit children who did not attend the Church of 
 England, and who did not accept its catechetical 
 instruction. Few religious parties could be wholly 
 satisfied with their lordships' Minute, but none could 
 have solid ground for complaint. 
 
 Passing over the extension of the grants to the
 
 346 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 normal schools in connection with the Church of 
 Scotland, we come to the delicate question of inspec- 
 tion. This subject, after some discussion, received 
 settlement in a manner satisfactory to all parties. By 
 the Order in Council, August, 1840, the Archbishops 
 of Canterbury and York were to be consulted, each 
 for his own province, before the recommendation to her 
 Majesty of any inspector of Church of England schools, 
 and they were further empowered to suggest names. 
 Moreover, they were permitted at any time to with- 
 draw their concurrence, and thus to cancel an appoint- 
 ment, and to draw up instructions to the inspectors 
 having reference to religious teaching, etc. Arrange- 
 ments of a similar nature were afterwards made with 
 other societies, it being arranged that the Education 
 Committee of the General Assembly of the Estab- 
 lished and Free Churches should be consulted before 
 appointing inspectors for Scotland, and that in the 
 case of schools not connected with the Church of 
 England, the British and Foreign and the Wesleyan 
 Committees should have a like privilege. 
 
 The framework of the system was now constructed : 
 the main difficulties were overcome. Future action 
 consisted in the distribution of money in the most 
 prudent way ; and in doing this the recipients at least 
 might be safely calculated on as aiders and abettors 
 of Downing Street ; and even hostile fingers might 
 be expected in time to relax, and accept the offered 
 bribe. The expectation was not a vain one. It soon 
 became necessary to facilitate the working of the
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 34/ 
 
 machine by constructing those regulations for the 
 erection and maintenance of schools, and those trust- 
 deeds for the conveyance of the school-property for 
 educational purposes, with their managers' clauses, 
 which, combined, attained in the course of years to a 
 manifoldness and complication which were the horror 
 of the amateur educator, and even defied the penetra- 
 tion of the most patient member of the " House." It 
 is necessary to a historical survey that we state 
 these conditions in a few words. 
 
 Grants had all along been made for school-build- 
 ings, and for the maintenance of schools. By the 
 Minute of November, 1843, they were extended to 
 school-furniture, teaching apparatus, and teachers' 
 residences. The Privy Council, in the same Minute, 
 specially guarded themselves against aiding normal 
 schools, except in the shape of building grants. These, 
 however, were liberal, being at the rate of £S^ f^or 
 every pupil, for whom it was proposed to provide 
 accommodation. The rate and mode of aid, though 
 in all cases made dependent on local effort, were not, 
 up to this point, it will be observed, definitely fixed, 
 so far as elementary schools were concerned ; and 
 already their lordships began to experience pressure 
 proceeding from poor and populous localities, where 
 might be found the worst classes of the population, 
 but in whose behalf no local subscriber could be got 
 to act, because few or no capable subscribers were 
 found to exist. As we shall have to recur to this 
 most important feature of the subject, we may
 
 348 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 advantageously quote here the Minute of November, 
 1843, issued to meet exceptional cases. 
 
 " Their Lordships are prepared to give full effect 
 to that portion of the order of the 3rd of June, 1839, 
 which contemplates the making of larger grants to- 
 wards the erection of schools in poor and populous 
 places than are required elsewhere ; and they will in 
 all cases -whatever, consider the amount of grant to 
 be made without reference to the plan of any pro- 
 posed school having been drawn by their architect." 
 
 No legislation of any importance characterized 
 the next three years of the Privy Council adminis- 
 tration.* The only point deserving notice, was the 
 gradual but rapid increase of Parliamentary grants. 
 For, silently, schools in receipt of aid were multiplying, 
 and the Committee were doing their work of extend- 
 ing, as well as improving, popular education. 
 
 The first urgent necessities being met, two ques- 
 tions forced themselves into notice : first, the im- 
 portance of securing a higher class of teachers than 
 those then employed ; secondly, the importance of pro- 
 viding, at a small outlay, for schools largely attended, 
 without engaging additional adult assistants. The 
 monitorial system, so much insisted on by Bell and 
 Lancaster in the previous generation, suggested an 
 idea which would attain both the above objects at 
 once, and which lay at the basis of the Minutes of 
 1846, from which the existing system practically dates, 
 
 * If we except the "Minute on Methods of Teaching" issued in 
 1844.
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 349 
 
 SO far as the majority of the recipients of the pubh'c 
 money are concerned. By these Minutes, managers 
 were allowed to select promising boys and girls of 
 thirteen years of age, and apprentice them to the 
 teacher (of the male or female school, as the case 
 might be), to be trained by teaching to the art of 
 teaching, their own progress in elementary knowledge 
 being secured by requiring that for an hour and a half 
 each day, they should receive special instruction from 
 the master or mistress of the school. A programme 
 or scheme of study was drawn out, which has been 
 from time to time modified and defined, but which 
 stands essentially where it did in 1846. The require- 
 ments during the last year of the apprenticeship, in 
 other words, the examination for admission to the 
 normal colleges, sufficiently explain the course of 
 study pursued. These were : — Reading and writing, 
 expected both to be of good quality ; composition of 
 an essay on some subject connected with the art 
 of teaching ; problems in arithmetic : two books of 
 Euclid ; algebra to the end of simple equations, 
 America and the oceans (the other portions of the 
 globe having in previous years formed subject of 
 examination); outlines of British history; the Holy 
 Scriptures ; liturgy and catechism ; free-hand drawing 
 and shading of natural objects from memory, and the 
 elements of the theory of music. 
 
 It was next necessary for their lordships to antici- 
 pate the conclusion of the apprenticeship, and to 
 devise means of securing the apprentices to the public
 
 350 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 service as teachers in elementary schools. The diffi- 
 culty of maintaining the normal schools, which had 
 been instituted, had also been urged on the Privy Coun- 
 cil, and the scheme still substantially in operation was 
 devised. By this it was arranged that those young 
 men and women, who successfully passed the fifth year's 
 examination, should be allowed Queen's scholarships, 
 of the value of ^23 * in the case of males, and £1^ in 
 the case of females, and that those who, at the end 
 of each year's training, passed a satisfactory exami- 
 nation, should receive certificates of merit entitling 
 the holder, when appointed to an elementary school, 
 to augmentation grants varying from ;^I5 tO;^30 per 
 annum, and somewhat less in the case of mistresses. 
 The amount allowed was to be determined by the 
 grade of certificate obtained, and was made dependent 
 on certain conditions as to school premises, and on 
 the receipt from other sources of a sum twice the 
 amount of the Government grant, one-half of which 
 was to be in the form of voluntary contribution from 
 the school-managers. For each of the students who 
 was thus carried through the year's course, and who 
 obtained a certificate, the Privy Council resolved to 
 pay to the authorities of the normal college sums 
 varying from ^13 to £2A^ in the case of males, and 
 two-thirds of these sums in the case of females.f 
 Thus every normal school for each student boarded 
 
 * The sum fluctuated, but for some years it stood as above, 
 t Wo give the average rates, and we omit the allowances for third 
 year's students, as these have been practically inoperative.
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 35 1 
 
 and educated receives from Government an average 
 of i^40 for males, and £^^0 in the case of females. 
 
 The Minutes bearing on elementary and on normal 
 schools, though originally kept apart, were now prac- 
 tically merged : the two institutions were now properly 
 regarded as different parts of the same system. 
 
 Prior to this, the statement of "special circum- 
 stances " in the case of schools applying for public 
 aid, but which were not in a position to affiliate them- 
 selves to the National or British and Foreign School 
 Societies, was dispensed with (28th of June, 1847), 
 and the sole grounds of admission to a share in the 
 Parliamentary grant, became — adequate premises, 
 and the reading of the Holy Scriptures or extracts 
 therefrom in school — the religious peculiarities of the 
 parents being reserved and guarded, as formerly stated, 
 except in the case of National Society (Church of 
 England) schools, where grants might be obtained 
 though the general instruction should include cate- 
 chetical in a/l cases, and might be accompanied with 
 enforced attendance at the parish church. The man- 
 agers of these schools, however, were allowed, as we 
 have already stated, to make exceptions, with the 
 concurrence of the diocesan.* 
 
 The religious principle limiting the area of the 
 Government grants was further strained by the ad- 
 mission of Roman Catholic schools in 1847. The 
 inspectors of such schools were subject to the approval 
 of that body, and, as in the case of Nonconformist 
 * See Sir J. P. K. Shuttleworth's letter of 17th April, 1847.
 
 352 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 schools, they were not 7-eqiiired to report on the 
 rehgious instruction, but might simply state that it 
 was given. In December, 185 1, a further step was 
 taken, and Jewish schools were admitted to participa- 
 tion. Accordingly, quoad religion, the case then sub- 
 stantially stood thus : Any elementary school, taught 
 by a certificated teacher, might claim a portion of the 
 Parliamentary grant, on the inspector being satisfied 
 that the school-buildings were adequate, the instruction 
 and discipline sufficiently good, and that religious in- 
 struction was given ; the Privy Council being satisfied 
 with the modest allowance of a portion of certain 
 extracts from the Old Testament, it might be, in the 
 Douay version. Nay more, if the managers, on re- 
 ligious grounds, refused to report that religious in- 
 struction was given, the Minute of July, 1847, pro- 
 tected them. 
 
 Assuredly the conscience of the State was an 
 elastic one, and it may be a matter of surprise that 
 their lordships should have clung so tenaciously to 
 this last shred of religious principle, and refused to 
 recognize schools in which secular instruction, along 
 with moral instruction, was conveyed. With all respect, 
 we think the country found itself in a very absurd 
 position, and one not permanently tenable. 
 
 We have passed over the resolution to make 
 grants to schools of books and maps, gratuities to 
 teachers for instructing pupil-apprentices, the Minute 
 of 185 1 regarding superannuations, and the establish- 
 ment of Knellar Hall training-school for pauper-school
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 353 
 
 masters (which afterwards Avent to the ground), be- 
 cause these and many other points, though important 
 in themselves, do not enter into the plan of this 
 survey, the main object of which is to sketch the his- 
 tory, not to chronicle the acts, of the Department, 
 and to state the case as it at present stands. 
 
 The reader has now before him a general view of 
 the principles of our national system of education up 
 to 1862, with one notable exception (the Capitation 
 Minute), which will immediately form the subject of 
 remark ; and he will see, that while holding to the 
 original idea of only 'helping those who help them- 
 selves, " my lords " had been compelled by gradual 
 pressure to extend and to expand in other directions 
 beyond their first intention. 
 
 At the date which we have reached in this sketch, 
 the loiucst class of male schools in receipt of Govern- 
 ment aid for their maintenance would have shown the 
 following annual financial statement : — 
 
 Augmentation . . . . ■ £,^S 
 
 Salary required to meet this augmentation . 15 
 
 Fees . . . . . .15 
 
 Payment of }Hipil teacher . ' . . . 15 
 
 Gratuity to the master for teaching the pupil teacher 5 
 Value of dwelling house, say ... 10 
 
 Lis 
 
 For books and apparatus,* say . . ' . 10 
 
 Total . . /'SS 
 
 Thus, the minimum Government grant to small 
 male schools, with an attendance of, say, sixty pupils, 
 
 * Where books and apparatus were claimed. 
 
 2 A
 
 354 TPIE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 and taking full advantage of the Minutes, would be 
 ^45. A female school would show on the whole 
 about £6 or £'j less of Government money. The 
 average emoluments of teachers were much higher 
 than that above indicated. We have selected the case 
 of a school which, at the 1862 stage of the Minutes, 
 received as little as was compatible with its being 
 recognized by the State at all. 
 
 Up to 1849 their lordships had been indebted to 
 Sir J. P. K. Shuttleworth for the energy and admini- 
 strative talent which enabled them to steer their way 
 skilfully through so many storms, and to accommodate 
 themselves to such shoals and hidden rocks as could 
 not be avoided. The management was now trans- 
 ferred to Mr. Lingen,* who seems to have early felt 
 the increasing claims of that class of schools in con- 
 nection with which no local contributions could be 
 obtained, and which, in consequence of their very 
 poverty — a poverty which for the most part was also 
 the measure of their ignorance — were excluded from 
 Government recognition, thus most truly illustrating, 
 in one sense, the text, that " from him who hath not, 
 shall be taken away even that which he hath." We 
 have shown that from the initiation of the Privy 
 Council scheme this class of schools had been an 
 insurmountable obstacle in the way of a fixed and in- 
 flexible system of administration, and the fact was, 
 that under the name of " self-supporting " schools they 
 were frequently allowed to participate. To work a 
 
 * Now Sir R. R. W. Lingen, permanent secretary of the Treasury.
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 355 
 
 code, however, which had an exceptional clause of so 
 large and indefinite a character must have been 
 difficult ; a clause which every year, through fear of 
 an unjust estimate of local capabilities, must have 
 tended to infuse a certain amount of vacillation into 
 the application of the dominant principle of the 
 administration. About the same time the reports of 
 the inspectors had brought to light the weak points in 
 our primary school system ; namely, the irregularity 
 of the attendance, and the early age at which children 
 were withdrawn from school. Accordingly, to supply 
 the need of schools in poor but populous localities, 
 and by the same act to encourage more regular 
 attendance in so far as that could be effected through 
 the efforts of school-managers and teachers, it was 
 resolved (April, 1853) to grant to schools in such dis- 
 tricts an average of 5^". per head for every scholar who 
 had attended 176 days in the course of the year end- 
 ing at the date of inspection.* The managers were 
 required to expend at least seven-tenths of the whole 
 school income, including the grant, on the salary of 
 the teacher and assistant, if such there was ; and the 
 strict requirements as regarded buildings, etc., made 
 in all those cases where aiignicntation of salary was 
 claimed, as under the Minutes up to that date in force, 
 were somewhat relaxed. One condition, however, 
 operated so as to perpetuate the exclusion of the 
 poorest schools, while admitting many others which 
 did not quite fall under this category, namely, that 
 * The details are omitted.
 
 356 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 which required that the " income of the school in the 
 preceding year from endowments, subscriptions, col- 
 lections, and school-pence shall have amounted to 14s. 
 per scholar in schools for boys, and 12s* in schools 
 for girls, without including the annual value of the 
 teacher's house or other school-buildings." A large 
 number of those schools which were already in 
 receipt of book and apparatus grants, augmentation 
 grants to the teacher, stipends to pupil teachers 
 and gratuities to the masters for teaching them, 
 at once hailed this golden advantage, and sent in 
 their claims. Hence it arose that the Capitation 
 Minute was abused: (i.) By the admission of the 
 claims of schools already in receipt of a sufficient 
 amount of public aid. (2.) By managers taking ad- 
 vantage of the clause which recognized seven-tenths 
 of the capitation grant as voluntary contribution, and 
 substituting this for what would otherwise, by a little 
 exertion, have been paid out of their own pockets, 
 and which they would have been well able to pay.f 
 Government money thus became too often a mere sud- 
 stitute for local effort. A rule intended to meet excep- 
 tional cases, threatened to overgrow the fundamental 
 principle on which the public money had been hitherto 
 expended — the principle that it was only a "grant 
 in aid." Nor can it be said that the evil and anomaly 
 which the Capitation Minute was intended to remove 
 
 * This condition to Ijc fulfilled f)nly in the case of those for whom 
 grants were claimable. 
 
 t This clause " was enabling only, not obligatory."
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 357 
 
 Avere more than palliated by its operation. Assuredly, 
 the good done was, in the opinion of many of those 
 most competent to judge, quite counterbalanced by 
 the too great reliance on the public purse for which 
 this Minute gave the opportunity, or rather which it 
 invited. The Minute of July, 1857, which allowed the 
 capitation grant to be expended without reference to 
 the allocation of seven-tenths of the school income to 
 the salary of the teacher, was in its effect a further 
 concession to the pockets of school managers, at the 
 same time that it was a step towards local manage- 
 ment. All were aware that capitation grants were 
 intended for needy schools only. The Minute " was 
 enabling only, not obligatory." But to consider each 
 case on its own merits would have been a task beyond 
 the reach of any department however large. The 
 inevitable consequence was, as any one may see by 
 consulting the Appendix to the Blue-book for 1861, 
 that the same schools were in receipt of all kinds of 
 aid at once. While augmentation money reached 
 ^^98,000, in i860, the capitation grants amounted to 
 ;^63,ooo. It was impossible to administer fairly to 
 the country any system \\hich was based on two 
 collateral and conflicting principles of action ; the one 
 requiring voluntary effort, the other encouraging its 
 absence. As things stood, in i860, an average school, 
 it might be in a wealthy locality, with an attendance 
 of only eighty children, might be in receipt of aug- 
 mentation grant, say ^20 ; stipends to pupil teachers, 
 ^30 ; gratuities to master for instructing them, £(^ ;
 
 358 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 book grants, etc., say £\2 ; capitation grant, say ;^ 12 ; 
 fees, say i^20 ; local contributions only, it may be, iJ"! i 
 or £\2. more, seven-tenths of the capitation grant 
 being substituted by the managers for what would 
 otherwise have been their own subscriptions ; ^83 of 
 the school income thus proceeding from Government, 
 and £\2 at most from local sources: and this, be it 
 observed, in a locality more than competent to pay 
 for the education of its own operative population. 
 At the same time a poor school, struggling in some 
 squalid court or populous lane, could not qualify for 
 one penny of aid. 
 
 Such was the position of the Committee of Privy 
 Council in 1861, their expenditure taking two great 
 channels : grants to normal colleges, including the 
 exhibitions called Queen's scholarships ; and grants 
 to elementary schools, falling under the various heads 
 of building grants, grants in augmentation of salary, 
 stipends to pupil teachers, gratuities to masters for 
 instructing them, book grants, and capitation grants. 
 
 In that year, the total expenditure by the Privy 
 Council, under all heads, was ;^8 13,441 i6s. od., of 
 which ;;6^495,47i os. d>d. was paid to Church of Eng- 
 land schools, and upwards of ^100,000 was expended 
 in Scotland. 
 
 To simplify the above complicated method of 
 administering the public money, which caused too 
 great a strain on the central office, to correct the 
 errors which experience had detected, and to attain 
 other objects which we shall advert to presently, the
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH, 359 
 
 Revised Code was issued on the 9th of May, 1862, 
 under the auspices of Lord Granville, Mr. Lowe, and 
 ]\Ir. (now Sir R. R. \V.) Lingen. Prior to its pre- 
 paration a Royal Commission under the Duke of New- 
 castle, had reported at great length on the state of 
 popular education, and on the working of the Privy 
 Council office. Their discoveries entirely confirmed 
 the opinions of those practically acquainted with 
 popular education in England and Wales. The evils 
 that had to be remedied might be summed up as 
 follows : 
 
 1. The proportion of public money flowing into 
 the coffers of those schools, which, though situated in 
 wealthy districts, were in receipt of public money in 
 all its different forms, had to be lessened. At the 
 same time the poorest schools claimed, or rather 
 demanded, recognition and encouragement. The im- 
 possibility of treating every case on its own individual 
 merits made it impracticable to have two principles 
 of administration working side by side, the one en- 
 forcing, the other dispensing with, local effort. 
 
 2. The results of popular education had been dis- 
 appointing. Poor children whose time at school was 
 limited, were turned out, unable to read, write, or 
 cipher in any serviceable way. Of this there could be 
 no doubt. The teachers were not ignorant of their 
 duties, but they certainly directed too much time to 
 instruction in those branches which, though important 
 in themselves, were less essential to the children of 
 the labouring population.
 
 J 
 
 60 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 3. Pupil teachers were in some parts of the 
 countiy underpaid, in others overpaid. 
 
 4. Irregularity of attendance seemed to be an insur- 
 mountable obstacle in the way of popular education. 
 
 5. The Council office had direct and personal 
 relations with each of the ten thousand schools on its 
 list — relations of a twofold, threefold, fourfold, and 
 even fivefold character, as the case might be, accord- 
 ing to the various kinds of payment enumerated 
 above. No central body could continue to discharge 
 the parochial business of the country. That must be 
 discharged parocJiially. 
 
 6. Many who endeavoured to take a wide view 
 of national education, and had read the lesson which 
 other countries had taught them, dreaded the rapid 
 growth of an educational bureau, which from year to 
 year was manufacturing teachers according to its own 
 pattern — a pattern which had some twice or thrice 
 already changed its colours — and was directing the 
 internal economy of schools even to the pettiest 
 details. They saw in this an element of danger to 
 the country, the sapping of its self-reliance, and the 
 enfeebling of that spontaneous vitality which had 
 always characterized the inhabitants of this island. 
 The necessity for the interposition of the educated 
 and governing classes, in all matters pertaining to the 
 intellectual and moral condition of the masses, was 
 freely admitted so far as legislation was concerned, but 
 not in the form of a standing central executive, which 
 was endowed with practically legislative functions.
 
 KDUCATIOX DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 361 
 
 How was the remedy for all these evils to be found 
 at once ? This was the question which their lordships 
 had to answer, and they answered it by the Revised 
 Code. That they should be bound in perpetuity to all 
 the details of a scheme struck out in the infancy of 
 a department, it would have been preposterous to 
 expect. Having given it a fair trial, their duty was 
 to remedy the acknowledged defects. To transact 
 the business of every village school in Downing Street 
 was as impracticable as it was undesirable. This 
 great and growing evil had to be checked ; and, by 
 the same act, those interested by residence and pro- 
 perty in the various districts were to be taught, before 
 it was too late, to feel that they were mainly respon- 
 sible for the superintendence of the education of the 
 young, and to be urged, for their own advantage, as 
 well as for that of the classes below them, to give this 
 wholesome direction to their philanthropy or sense of 
 duty. The State could not continue a system by 
 which it afforded a substitute for both the money and 
 the management of every parish. 
 
 The course adopted in order to attain these ends 
 might not have been the wisest possible, but we 
 maintain that it was no violent innovation. It was 
 neither more nor less than the Capitation Minute of 
 1853, as modified in 1857, so extended tJiat one single 
 payment to each school should represent all the former 
 allozuances ivJiicJi were distrihnted under the separate 
 and perplexing heads of augmentation, stipends, gratui- 
 ties, book grant, apparatus, capitation. One annual
 
 362 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 grant was now to be made on account of each 
 school, payable to the managers, who were to be- 
 not fewer than three in number. The money so 
 received was to be expended by them for the main- 
 tenance of the school in the way which seemed to 
 them most beneficial ; a j)ower, be it observed, 
 already conceded, and a responsibility already im- 
 posed, in respect of the capitation grants* The 
 managers were to make their own bargain with their 
 teacher, the Privy Council only requiring that, as 
 the number of children attending increased, additional 
 teachers should be engaged — one for every thirty 
 children {enrolled) above fifty, and that these teachers 
 should be certified or probationary, except in the 
 case of pupil teachers who were to be recognized 
 as assistants. 
 
 The new principle whereby the objects of State aid 
 were to be secured, and the remaining defects of the 
 existing system remedied, was payment for resnlts — 
 results in respect of quality of teaching and regularity 
 of attendance. The managers of schools might claim 
 (Art. 40) \d. for every attendance, after the first one 
 hundred days, at the morning or afternoon meetings, 
 and after the first twelve at the evening meetings, of 
 their schools, within the year. Attendances under 
 half-time Acts might be multiplied by two to make 
 up the preliminary number. One-third part of the 
 sum thus claimable was forfeited if the scholars failed 
 to satisfy the inspector in reading, one-third if in 
 
 * Minulcs, 1857.
 
 EDUCATION DErARTMKNT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 363 
 
 writing, and one-third if in arithmetic, rcspectivel}', 
 according to Article 44.* 
 
 To many this "payment for results " seemed to be 
 a bad and unfair principle of administration, and by 
 almost all it was treated as an innovation. The latter 
 view, however, was erroneous. The capitation minute 
 already referred to contained a distinct provision to 
 the same effect, viz. : — 
 
 " That three-fourths of the scholars above seven 
 and under nine years of years, three-fourths of those 
 above nine and under eleven, and three-fourths of 
 those above eleven and under thirteen respectively, 
 pass such an examination before her Majesty's 
 inspector or assistant-inspector, as shall be set forth 
 in a separate minute of details." t 
 
 Nay more, the grouping according to age, which 
 justly formed so strong a subject of complaint, was to 
 a large extent enjoined on the inspectors in the cir- 
 cular letter of 20th August, 1853, which accompanied 
 the Capitation Minute. It is true that these portions 
 of the Minute had ibeen almost, if not wholly, in- 
 operative ; but the fact of their early introduction into 
 the existing system, taken in conjunction with the 
 historical sequence of events which we have shortly 
 sketched, prevents our characterizing the Revised 
 Code as revolutionary. 
 
 Before leaving the historical relation which the 
 
 * This Article also specified the standanl required in the various 
 sections of the school. 
 
 t Condition 8, Minutes, 1852-53.
 
 364 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Revised Code holds to past Minutes, we would advert 
 for a moment to the new attitude in which their 
 lordships v^^ere supposed to have placed themselves 
 with regard to the question of Religions Instruction. 
 It is necessary to turn back a few pages and consider 
 the position into which the Committee had been 
 inevitably led before it had been many years in exist- 
 ence, in the attempt to distribute the Parliamentary 
 grant impartially in aid of every kind of efficient 
 voluntary effort for the education of the people. A 
 report that the Bible was read in a school, with the 
 important modifications that the Douay version was 
 admitted in Roman Catholic, and the New Testament 
 excluded from Jewish schools, was accepted as ade- 
 quate religious qualification for 'participation in the 
 grant. We do not think that this principle of admini- 
 stration could be regarded in any other light than as 
 a miserable shift for the purpose of meeting exigencies 
 which one by one arose. But that the Revised Code 
 still maintained the same requirement, as the indis- 
 pensable condition of aid, is sufficiently evident from 
 Article 8, which runs as follows : — 
 
 " Every school assisted from the Grant must be 
 either {a) A school connected with some recognized 
 religious denomination ; or, {b) A school in which, 
 besides secular instruction, the Scriptures are read 
 daily from the authorized version." 
 
 Nor did the fact that payments were to be hence- 
 forth made in return for results, affect this question. 
 For by Articles 49, 50, 51, and 52, the inspector was
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 365 
 
 required, if words have any meaning, not merely to 
 estimate the discipHne of the school but also to 
 examine into the instruction given over and above 
 •the actual attainment in the three essential subjects. 
 The first additional subject to which he would direct 
 his attention would be, as formerly, religious instruc- 
 tion ; and this article gave him the power, if he found 
 this and other subjects not in his schedule untaught 
 or badly taught, to cut off " not less than one-tenth 
 nor more than one-half the grant " claimed. If 
 religion, therefore, was pushed into a corner in our 
 schools, it was not the fault of their lordships, but of 
 the school-managers themselves ; in other words, of 
 the clergy. It did not at all affect the question that 
 subscription schools, hitherto received under the 
 elastic denomination " British," were now to be 
 admitted under the title " Undenominational." This 
 was simply a Avay of providing headings for official 
 letters, which should preclude misunderstanding. 
 
 The full recognition and encouragement of evening- 
 schools was another benefit proposed to be conferred 
 by the Revised Code, and might here, along with the 
 questions of " Breach of Faith," " Free Trade in 
 Teaching," " Lowering of the Educational Standard," 
 receive consideration, were it worth our while to take 
 up questions now of little practical moment.* 
 
 While sympathizing with the objects which the 
 
 * The instractions to inspectors issued in September, 1S62, aimed 
 at maintaining a high standard of education, but they at once broke 
 down under the influence of "payment for results."
 
 ^66 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 Code sought to secure, we do not defend the way in 
 which it sought to attain them. There were man}- 
 sound objections to the Code, the chief of which was 
 that from first to last it misapprehended the meaning 
 of the word education. And what could be said in 
 defence of those regulations, whereby pupil-teachers 
 were declared competent to conduct a school without 
 any professional training, and those, again, whereby 
 high attainment in teachers was positively dis- 
 couraged ? That direct measures should have been 
 taken to discourage high qualifications in teachers was 
 false in policy and perverse in principle. 
 
 On the representations of teachers and others, 
 certain modifications were made in the Revised Code 
 from time to time, but these were all of a very sub- 
 ordinate character and did not affect the principle 
 and substance of the document. The " Lowe Code " 
 accordingly governed education in England and prac- 
 tically also in Scotland (though not formally applied 
 to the latter country) up to the passing of " the Eng- 
 lish Education Act of 1870 and thereafter." After a 
 reign of more than ten years, Mr. Lowe's throne 
 began to totter, and, under the influence of the awaken- 
 ing caused by Mr. Forster's Act in England, and 
 Lord Young's Act in Scotland, it vv^as subverted. 
 
 The English Act of 1870 gave Parliamentary 
 sanction to all future Minutes of the Education De- 
 partment {formerly Lords of the Committee of Privy 
 Council on PMucation) by section 97. The chief 
 change effected by the Act itself, but one to which
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 367 
 
 the actual practice of the Department almost inevit- 
 ably led, was introduced by a condition inserted in the 
 clause just referred to, that no grant was to be made 
 " in respect of any instruction in religious subjects," a 
 condition of grants which was also extended to 
 training colleges for masters and mistresses. Whereas 
 formerly no grant could be given when religious 
 instruction was omitted, it was now enacted that no 
 grant would be given on account of religious instruc- 
 tion — a very significant change. Although such in- 
 struction was not proscribed, it is quite fair to say 
 that it was now discouraged by the State. 
 
 The improved educational spirit which began to 
 animate the action of the Department, showed itself 
 at once in Art. 21 of the Code of 1871, now called the 
 " New Code." By this article, grants were made on 
 account of instruction in other subjects than read- 
 ing, writing, and arithmetic. These other subjects 
 were called " specific subjects," and in the relative 
 schedule, they were said to be " Geography, History, 
 Grammar, Algebra, Geometry, Natural Philosophy, 
 Physical Geography, the Natural Sciences, Political 
 Economy, Languages or any definite subject of in- 
 struction extending over the classes to be examined 
 in Standards IV., V., and VI., and taught according 
 to a graduated scheme," etc. A great opportunity 
 was at this time lost of reconstructing the whole of 
 primary instruction on an educational basis. A Council 
 of education, even of a temporary character, would 
 have laid down what was essential to the education of
 
 368 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 
 
 the masses of the people on broad Hues and rendered 
 unnecessary the subsequent ten years of laborious 
 groping after some rational programme. The ignor- 
 ance of the subject of education prevailing at head- 
 quarters was doubtless the cause of the feebleness 
 shown in the critical years of 1871-72. The dread 
 which the English mind has of principles makes it fight 
 shy of " theory." It prefers to wander about aim- 
 lessly, and to sneak into the temple of education by all 
 sorts of back doors rather than confidently ascend the 
 front steps. In Code after Code modifications have 
 been made to meet legitimate demands as they arose, 
 the greater number of these modifications being in the 
 right direction. The most important of them was the 
 introduction of " class-examination " in certain sub- 
 jects as opposed to individual examination, and the 
 giving of special grants for "intelligence" and "disci- 
 pline." The general grants were now made on the 
 average attendance and the individual passes of the 
 pupils without regard to local contributions. 
 
 The next important movement in the history of 
 the Department dates from the appointment of Mr. 
 Mundella to the vice-presidency. Mr. Mundella 
 signed his first report in June, 1881, and from that 
 date till now has never ceased to study the position of 
 affairs. Last autumn he laid before Parliament cer- 
 tain " Proposals," which, taken ■along with the improve- 
 ment of the training college syllabus under the head 
 of " Methods of Teaching," mark a new departure in 
 policy. These proposals I refer to in a paper in this
 
 EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 369 
 
 volume on the " Educational Wants of Scotland." 
 Thus, after passing- through the tentative epoch in 
 national education which ended in 1861 and was 
 signalized by the institution of the pupil teacher 
 system and training colleges, the Department entered 
 on what may be fairly called the Philistine epoch of 
 Mr. Lowe which gave way to the well-meaning epoch 
 of Mr. Forster in 1871, now happily evolved into the 
 educational epoch under Mr. Mundella. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 I-RINTED BV WILLIAM CLOWES A.NU SONS, LIMITED, Lo.NUO.N AND UECCI.ES. 
 
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 WRITINGS BY PROFESSOR S. S. LAURIE. 
 
 I. 
 
 THE EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND WRITINGS OF 
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 thorough treatment, the most lofty educational ideas may be conveyed in 
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 and practical knowledge ol his subject, his Essay is of the highest possible 
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 ( 2 ) 
 
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 principles which should guide the methods recommended. It is a book 
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 fidently be asserted that it will do so for all who study it with good-will 
 and intelligence." — Westminster Review, January, 1868. 
 
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 "... Mr. Laurie is the author of a work, ' Philosophy of Ethics,' and 
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 mental and moral nature of the young. He enters into their feelings, 
 luiderstands their wants, appreciates their difficulties, and is fully alive to 
 their dangers. . . . The volume closes with some admirable remarks on 
 classical and scientific education, in which the superior claims of the former 
 are powerfully maintained. " — Atkeiiceum, Nov. 16, 1867. 
 
 IV. 
 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF ETHICS: 
 
 AN ANALYTICAL ESSAY. 
 
 " Mr. Laurie's volume now before us is in substance, though not in form, 
 a reply, to Mr. Mill's 'Utilitarianism." Mr. Laurie has the metaphysical 
 head and the metaphysical training of his countrymen, and has brought 
 both to bear with great force on the problem proposed." — Saturday Review. 
 
 " Dans le traite qui fait I'objet de la prt^sente etude et oil le sujet etait 
 plus en rapport avec les tendances mdtaphysiques de I'auteur, son esprit 
 d'analyse s'est revile dans toute sa force, en faisant jaillir une nouvelle 
 luinifere sur les questions les plus controversees de la morale. Aussi cet 
 ouvrage a-t-il dhs son apparition obtenu les suffrages des organes les plus 
 accr^dit^s de la presse anglaise. . . . 
 
 ' ' A notre avis I'auteur s'est acquitt(5 en vrai philosophe de la tache difficile 
 et delicate qu'il s'est imposde, et nous croyons que son livre fera epoque 
 dans I'histoire des sciences morales." — Revue Popidaire (Paris), May, 1868. 
 
 V. 
 NOTES ON BRITISH THEORIES OF MORALS. 
 
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 views of R^-ntham, Mill, and Bain. He manifests great aptitude in detecting 
 radio il defects, in exposing logical inconsistencies, and in detecting the legi- 
 timate tendencies of pliilosophical systems." — British Quarterly, April, 1868. 
 
 "The book is a model of conscientious and e.xact thinking on ethical 
 sui)jects. His controversial analysis of Professor Bain seems to us parti- 
 cularly successful." — Scotsman, May 6, 18 38. 
 
 VI. 
 
 ON THE FUNDAMENTAL DOCTRINE OF 
 
 LATIN SYNTAX, 
 
 VII. 
 
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 12 
 
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