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SIR MICHAEL SADLER
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I
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS
T H !•:
TRAINING OF TEACHERS
AM) UTHER
EDUCATIONAL PAPERS
S. S. LAURIE, A.M., F.R.S.E.
Professor of the histiinics and History of Ediicatioit, Uniz'trsiiy of Edinhtirgh
ALTIIOR OF " PRIMARY INSTKfCTION IN RKI.ATION TO EDUCATION,"
"JOHN AMOS COMENILS," ETC., ETC.
LONDON
KEGA.X PAUL, TRENCH >k CO., i, rATERNOSTEK .SQUARE
1SS2
PREFACE.
The following papers, having been written on different
occasions, contain inevitably some repetitions and do
not offer a continuous or adequate treatment of any-
one Educational topic. They are also somewhat
polemical in tone — a defect for which I would
apologize were not the questions with which they
deal still subjects of debate. In truth, it is simply
because the various addresses and papers refer to
still vexed questions that I have thought it desirable
to reprint them.
S. S. L.
University of Edinburgh,
jfanuary, 1882.
P.S. — / have to thank the Messrs. Loiig7nan for permission
to reprint the paper 071 Montaigne ajid the article entitled
'^''Thc House of Lords and Popular Education " which originally
appeared in " Fraser''s Magazine P
«-l^ ^!^9^a
CONTE NTS.
TiiF. Traimnc ok the Tkaciier,
i'AGij:
1. Inaugural Address delivered on the Occasion of the
Founding of the Chair of the Institutes and History
of Education in the University of Edinlnirgh ... 3
2. The Philosophy of Education in its Relation to the
School and the Teacher .. . ... ... ... 57
3. The University Training of Teachers [the Code] ... 92
Primary Instruction.
1. The House of Lords and Popular Education ... ... 121
2. Higher Primary Schools ... ... ... ... 151
3. The Higher Instruction in Primary Schools as illustrated
by the Administration of the Dick Bequest... ... 175
Skcondary or High Schools.
1. .Secondary Education in .Scotland ... ... ... 187
2. The (lOvernment of .Secondary or High .Schools ... 200
3. The Claims of Zr?/?';? as a Subject of Instruction ... 213
montaic.ne as an educationalist ... ... ... 23i
The Educational Wants of Scotland ... ... 261
AuTHORiiY IN Relation to Discipline ... ... 309
Sketch ov the History of the Education Department 341
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER.
BELL CHAIR OF THE THEORY, HISTORY,
AND ART OF EDUCATION.*
The first occupant of a Chair new to the Universities
of Great Britain is placed in a somewhat pecuhar
position. It may be fairly expected of him not
merely to correlate the new subject with the other
studies of a University, but to vindicate for it a right
to the promotion which it has obtained, to explain
its bearing on the educational interests of the country
at large, and to satisfy the sceptical as to its direct
utility. Were I, however, to undertake to maintain
a thesis so large, I should weary even the well-disposed
listener, and probably fail after all to convince or
convert the unfriendly. A broad treatment of the
subject would involve me in a range of argument, fact,
and illustration, so wide and varied, that I think it
better to assume very much on the general question.
I am entitled indeed to make large assumptions, if the
educational movement of the last thirty-five years has
had any genuineness and honesty in it ; if education
* Inaugural Address.
4 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
has been anything more than a pretext for political
and ecclesiastical contention. It is not improbable,
moreover, that by limiting my range of observation,
and confining myself to the objections taken to the
foundation of this particular Chair, while at the same
time giving some indication of my own point of view
with respect to the question of Education, I may do
more than could be accomplished by a general treat-
ment, to reconcile the hostile and the sceptical to this
new event in educational histor}-. But, first, a few
words as to the foundation.
Dr. Andrew Bell was born in St. Andrews, in
1753. At the ancient University of that town he was
distinguished in most subjects of study, but especially
in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. After spend-
ing some years as a tutor in the Southern States of
America, he returned to this country, took orders
in the Church of England, and sailed for Madras.
There, he was appointed to an army chaplaincy, and
undertook, along with his other duties, the super-
intendence of the Military Male Orphan Asylum,
which was instituted after his arrival in the Presidency.
It was while devoting himself with singular earnestness
and assiduity to the work of education in this hospital
that he was driven, almost by the necessity of his
position, to invent the system of mutual tuition with
which his name \v\\\ be ever associated. After Dr.
Bell's return to this country he devoted himself to the
dissemination of his system, being sustained in his
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 5
unceasing activity not a little by the rivalry of Joseph
Lancaster. Out of the labours of the latter grew the
British and Foreign School Society, and out of the
labours of the former the National Society in con-
nection with the Church of England.
The principle of mutual instruction of boys by
boys was the discovery by which Dr. Bell hoped to
regenerate the world. But in truth the invention and
application of this method was not his sole merit. He
was a genuine teacher, having quick sympathy with
the nature of boys, and great readiness of resource
in the schoolroom. Many of our established practices
were first introduced by him, and some of his improve-
ments are only now being adopted. My impression
is that prior to his undertaking the charge of the
Madras Orphan Asylum in 1789, it was not usual
strictly to classify the pupils of a primary school ; and
we are all aware that it is only the other day
that the leading schools of Scotland began to arrange
their pupils in classes according to their progress, and
that in some schools of high reputation (incredible
as it may seem), classification on this basis has not
even yet been attempted ! I shall not on this occasion
enter further into Dr. Bell's educational reforms, but
content myself with saying that at present, and until
better informed, I am disposed to regard him as the
founder of the Art of Primary Education in this
country, as a conscious art.
Dr. Bell destined his large fortune mainly for the
foundation of specific Educational Institutions, the
6 THE TRAINING OF TExVCHERS.
residue to be applied to educational purposes, ac-
cording to the discretion of his Trustees, enjoining
on them always to have due regard to the promotion
of his system. The interest of this money was for
many years paid away in small grants to various
schools throughout the country in connection with the
Church of Scotland ; but after the passing of the
Education (Scotland) Act, in 1872, which made uni-
versal provision for schools, the Trustees, who at
present are the Earl of Leven and Melville, .Lord
Kirkcaldie, and Mr. John Cook, W.S., resolved to
employ a portion of the funds in their keeping for the
purpose of instituting Chairs of Education in Edin-
burgh and St. Andrews, to be called the " Bell Chairs
of the Theory, History, and Art of Education," im-
posing on the occupants the duty of expounding, in
the course of their prelections. Bell's principles and
system. They thereby fulfilled in the most effectual
way, under existing circumstances, the objects which
Dr. Bell had in view in originally constituting the
trust. Certainly no one who has read the " Life of
Dr. Bell," by Southcy, will doubt that this resolution
of the Trustees would have been in the highest degree
pleasing to him. Almost with one voice the teaching
profession have hailed the action of the Trustees as a
great educational advance. It has been felt that the
three gentlemen above named have conferred honour
on a department of work which Dr. Bell delighted to
honour. They have unquestionably done very much
to promote education in Scotland, not only by raising
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. /
the work of the schoolmaster in public estimation, but
also by attracting public attention to education as
being not merely a question of national machinery for
the institution of schools (essential though this un-
doubtedly is), but a question of principles and methods
— in brief, of philosoph}-.
I can do no more on this occasion than make a
merely passing allusion to the zealous efforts of the
late Professor Pillans to do what the Bell Trustees
have now accomplished.
A Chair of the Theory, History, and Art of Edu-
cation having been instituted, we have now to ask
what the objects of such a Chair are. There has
been much misunderstanding; with regard to these.
Some are at a loss to know what there is to say on
education within the walls of a University, and what
the principles and history of that subject have to do
with the schoolmaster's work. Others, who have not
to be instructed on these points, dread the competition
of an Education Chair with the existing Training
Colleges. The latter class of objectors is the more
important. They arc at least aware that the necessity
of training teachers in methods and in school organiza-
tion is not a question to be now for the first time
debated. They know that the question has been
settled tlicsc thirt)- years by the combined intelligence
of the Government of the country and of the Educa-
tion Committees of the various Churches. The former
class of objectors have nothing to urge against the
8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
University training of teachers in the philosophy and
niethods of education, which they would not have
been prepared with equal readiness and confidence
to urge against the institution of the existing Training
Colleges thirty years ago. Indeed, I am disposed to
think that had the general question of the desirable-
ness of training teachers to their professional work
been propounded thirty years ago for discussion on its
own merits, it would not yet be settled in the affirma-
tive. The Parliamentary Philistine, the " Church in
danger " men, and above all (strange to say) a con-
siderable proportion of those engaged in the work
of teaching, would have been opposed to the intro-
duction of any such novel idea in practical form.
Many as are the evils of centralization, it is unquestion-
ably to the centralizing action of the Committee of
Privy Council that we owe the full recognition of the
efforts which were being made thirty-five or forty
years ago in London and Edinburgh to train teachers,
and the consequent growth of the Training College
system. The work was done t/irottgh the Churches,
and accordingly called forth no Church opposition,
and as money was freely offered to all who desired
training, the rest of the world readily acquiesced.
The effect of this action on the part of the Privy
Council has been most beneficial. Almost all now
recognize that there is an art of teaching and of school-
keeping, and that teachers should be trained in that
art. It is only among that class of teachers and pro-
fessors who have never come into close contact with
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 9
the existing system of training that doubts and objec-
tions survive. Quietly, and almost unnoticed, a great
new Institution has established itself in the United
Kingdom, and has ()\-cri)o\\crcd every possible theo-
retical objection to its existence by the practical
benefits it has conferred on the country. It is there-
fore too late now to discuss the general question.
The practical result is before us, and the occupation of
teacher has been finally raised into a profession by
requiring, as the condition of entering it, a professional
discipline.
Notwithstanding many defects — and I suspect
that even in our University system there are defects
— the Tra ining College system has been a success.
The kind of work done in these institutions, and the
extent to which they have taken their place as semi-
naries second only to the Universities themselves,
would, if inquired into, astonish the few who have
hitherto ignored their existence. I am also satisfied
that the improvements which have taken place even
in secondary instruction have been due largely, if not
chiefly, to the indirect influence of the Training
Colleges, although these exist for the training of
Primary teachers alone. Every manjconnected with
education must be so well informed on this the most
im portant ^modern movement in educational history
that to dwell longer on it would be superfluous. My
purpose in referring to it at all is to limit the range of
any argument which might naturally be expected
from me on this occasion.
lO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
For, the necessity of training the future teacher
not only in the subjects which he is afterwards to
teach, but in the art which he is to profess, being once
for all a settled matter, I am at liberty to confine my
remarks to the narrower question of the training of
those aspirants to the scholastic profession, w^ho pass
through the Universities. Those aspirants are either
self-supporting or partly dependent on small bursaries
gained in open competition, and their purpose is to
prepare themselves for the higher class of Public
Schools (which, in their upper departments, are in
truth secondary schools), and for purely Secondary
or Grammar Schools either in Scotland or other parts
of the Empire. As it is at once evident that attend-
ing University classes instead of the classes of a
Training College has no such great virtue in it as to
enable University men to dispense with professional
training more than their humbler fellow-teachers, it is
superfluous to argue the point. It may be at once
assumed that, as the schools for which they are pre-
paring themselves, at least those in Scotland and the
Colonies, comprehend within them at once primary
and secondary instruction, the need of professional
training, in the case of University students, is pecu-
liarly great. Where are they to get this ? The}-
might be required to combine attendance at a Train-
ing College with attendance at the University for a
degree ; but this, though it might serve as a pro-
visional arrangement, would not secure the end we
seek. And why would this arrangement not secure
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. II
the end we seek ? For this reason, and for no other,
that a specialist Training College does not answer
the same purposes as a Universit}-. The broader
culture, the freer air, the higher aims of the latter, give
_to ft an educational influence which specialist colleges
can never exercise.
It is impossible within my present limits to elabo-
rate this view of the question : it is familiar to all
educated men. It would appear however that the
moment we ^substitute a distinct practical purpose,
such as the production of engineers, officers of the
army, ministers of the church, as the exclusive aim of
education, and arrange the whole machinery of an
Institution to attain any one of these ends exclusively,
the mental life of the student becomes at once nar-
rowed, and education in the higher sense disappears
altogether. We all acknowledge this truth when it is
supported by our antipathies and we are called upon
for an opinion on such seminaries as Jesuit Colleges.
But the objections to be taken to these specialist
seminaries are, from an educational point of view,
substantially the same in kind as may be taken to
colleges which have other and merely secular aims. It
is desirable therefore t o maintai n-thc position of . the
Universities as. the trainers of all those aspirants to .
the teaching profession who arc fitted by their pre-
vious education to enter on a University curriculum.
This is all that is demanded by those who desire a
University training for schoolmasters. Is it an un-
reasonable demand ? The preliminary training of all
12 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
female student-teachers, and of the great majority of
the other sex, make, and will continue in perpetuity to
make, Training Colleges a necessity ; but there are
some youths whose greater local advantages or greater
native energy of mind is such as to have secured for
them a better early training in languages and mathe-
matics and to have inspired them with a higher
ambition than these seminaries can satisfy. Those
better trained intellects, those more ambitious natures,
ought to have the University open to them.
It may be urged, — it is urged by some, — that the
students of Training Colleges are welcome to the dis-
cipline which the University can give in classics,
science, and philosophy, but that the Training Colleges
themselves should furnish the purely professional
instruction. But the answer to this is, that if the
Training Colleges are competent to handle the ques-
tion of education as a science and art equally well
with the Universities, they are also competent to
teach classics, science, and philosophy equally well
with the Universities. Latin, I fancy, can be taught
■quite as well in one street of a town as another.
What we want is that the student-teac^her shall live
in the University atmosphere, and enjoy all those
subtle intellectual and moral advantages which belong
to that serener._alr. If this be desirable as regards
Latin and Mathematics, how much more is it desirable
in the case of the principles of education ! Here
the student enters into the precincts of Philosophy
itself: he has to find the psychological basis and
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 1 3
relations of methods of instruction, he has to think
about Education, and try to ascertain what Education
precisely is, and what kind of public duty it is which
he has before him as a teacher. He has to investigate
the principles of his art, and to expand his thought by
studying its history. Is it not at once apparent that
whatever advantage belongs to the study of classics
and science in a University belongs pre-eminently to
studies which ally themselves to philosophy and his-
tory? Doubtless there are some minds whose educa-
tion is so defective and whose imagination is so weak
that they are unable to conceive in what respect a
University curriculum should differ, as it does differ
in its very essence, from a similar curriculum in a
specialist college in which a practical limitation of aim
vitiates the whole process of education in the higher
sense of that term. To such minds I do not address
myself
Far be it from me to say one word in depreciation
of Training Colleges. You will not misapprehend
me. I know them too well not to respect them. I
have already shown their importance as a part of
the educational machinery of the country, their neces-
sity as a permanent part of that machinery, and the
debt the country owes to them. But they are not
Universities — this is all I desire to say — any more
than Sandhurst, or Woolwich, or Cooper's Hill, is a
University. It is true that certain picked students
are now sent from the Training Colleges to certain
Universities to attend two of the classes there, and thus
14 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
sniff the academic air ; but this device can never
supply the place of a University curriculum and of
University life.
When, further, we consider that for two hundred
years all the leading teachers of the parochial schools
of Scotland have been supplied by the Universities,
and have carried with them into the most remote
parishes some University culture, is it too much to
ask that a system which has been so beneficial in the
past shall be continued and even more fully developed
under the new Statute ? At this moment no man can
be appointed to a Public School in Scotland — and the
term " Public School " includes all schools, with about
a dozen exceptions — who does not possess a Govern-
ment certificate. A raw lad from the Hebrides is,
after nine or ten months' training, and while yet barely
able to write an ordinary letter, while wholly ignorant
of Latin, and acquainted with the merest elements of
other subjects, technically qualified for any Public
School, while a graduate of the Universities is dis-
qualified until he undergoes a further examination.
This seems hardly credible. I have taken opportuni-
ties of bringing this fact before authorities in the Uni-
versities from time to time since 1872, but it is difficult
to believe that they have yet fairly realized the actual
state of things. All the new machinery for education
will fail to produce the effect expected of it, if this evil
be not quickly remedied.* The Education Department
is quite entitled to hold that a University curriculum
* The evil has now (1882) been sul»tanlially remedied.
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 1 5
.shall be incomplete, so far as the teacher is concerned,
if it do not include a knowledge of the principles and
practice of education, but to go further than this is
an insult to the Universities of Scotland, which these
bodies, however, seem slow to feel. The Universities
are being dissociated from the teaching profession.
The evil might be faced, and we might reconcile our-
selves to the infliction of this blow on the University-
system of Scotland, especially as the Universities
themselves seem to accept their position with the
silence which indicates acquiescence, were it not that
the education of the country is imperilled, and all that
has been distinctive of Scottish school-life is threat-
ened. It is to be hoped that we shall have ere long
a recognized University curriculum for teachers, and
that the impending danger may thus far be obviated.
Do not imagine that the education of the country
can be maintained by Codes, with an array of "specific
subjects " to be paid for at so much a head. The
higher instruction has been given in the past, not for
money, but for love. Teachers, having formed their
standard at the Universities, carried that standard
down with them into the country, and were proud of
the opportunity of forming classes in Mathematics
and Latin. They felt that they kept themselves
up to a higher level by connecting themselves with
University work, and they saw that this higher in-
struction told on the intelligence, and above all on the
morale, of the whole school. It is by sending out able
and ambitious men, not by the manipulation of a
l6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Code (although this too has importance), that true
education is promoted. Nor is it only for those who
are competent to go direct from, the school to the
University that a curriculum is demanded, but also for
those Training College students of one or two years'
standing, who desire to carry their education further,
and to qualify for the higher primary and for secondary
schools.
In brief, a Faculty of Education is in a certain
sense already constituted in the Training Colleges of
the Empire : we desire to lift this up, and to constitute
such a Faculty in the Universities, because we believe
that there is a national work to be done which the
Universities are alone competent to do. It is true
that, if the curriculum which we contemplate is carried
out, a certain small proportion of Training College
students will pass over the Training Colleges alto-
gether. Is this a matter for regret or alarm ? Are
the Scottish Universities, which have always been
institutions that maintained a close connection with
the people, and endeavoured to supply the wants of
the various professions, to be excluded now and per-
manently from all connection with the profession of
Education, because Training Colleges will lose from
5 to lo per cent, of their students? The heads of the
Training Colleges do not, I am satisfied, share the fear
which some have expressed, and the finances of these
Institutions are placed far above the reach of injury
by any such slight innovation. Those who imagine
that Training Colleges will be materially affected.
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 1/
except for good, by this new movement, speak in utter
ignorance of those seminaries, and the sources of their
strength.
Further, the institution of this Chair, by providing
professional instruction for teachers, not only directly
benefits the schools of the country, but it increases
the importance of the teaching Body. It gives it an
academic standing. It makes it possible to institute
for the first time in our Universities a Faculty of
Education, just as we may be said already to have a
Facult}' of Law, of Thcolog}', and of Engineering, It
thereby raises the whole question of the Theory and
Art of Education, as such, to a higher level, and may
serve more than almost any other external influence to
aHract into the occupation of schoolmaster men who
might othervvise pass it by for occupations which have
hitherto ranked higher in the conventional estimate
of the world. It promotes the movement, which has
been steadily progressing for twenty years, for the
recognition of the large body of teachers as a great
national institution — an organized profession, looking,
as other professions do, to the University as its source
and head, and drawing strength and self-respect from
that connection.
Difficulties have been thrown in the way by a few,
who are at a loss to know what the movement pre-
cisely means. Timid and distrustful, and accustomed
to follow precedent as the sole safe guide, they have
been groping about to find what other people are
thinking. What would they say at Oxford and Cam-
1 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
bridge ? What do they do at Paris and BerHn ? Now
for myself I should certainly be glad to find that any
educational movement here was supported by the
concurrent approval of other learned centres, but I
venture to submit that it is to Scotland that other
nations may fairly look for guidance on this question.
We in Scotland have been the true pioneers in Educa-
tion : and do we now lag so far behind that we must
be sending out scouts to see what they are doing in
the front ? The traditions and accumulated wisdom
of three hundred years are behind us, and with all
its defects our present educational system is, as a
whole, still worthy of our past history. In this
matter, as in others, we claim to lead Europe and
America. Still I must so far consider the weak
brother as to tell him that in England some of the
most cultivated minds of the two Universities, being
met together at Winchester in the Headmasters' Con-
ference of 1873, discussed the question of instituting
Chairs of Education in Oxford and Cambridge. The
mere fact that the question was seriously discussed
by such a conclave, in a country whose whole training
and habit of mind is alien to philosophy, is itself most
significant. And although there was no very practical
issue to the Conference, opinions of weight were re-
corded. While desiderating, as was to be expected,
arrangements for practical training, as well as for
theoretical and historical instruction, the Bishop of
Exeter wrote as follows : —
"... It would be well worth while to provide
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 19
that men should have the opportunity of seeing some-
thing'' of their business, and of reflecting on what
they have seen, before they begin to teach. For this
purpose the ideal system would be this : to have a
Professor of Education, either in London, or in Oxford,
or in Cambridge, or to have one in each ; to require
the Professor or Professors to give certificates to such
B.A. as attended their lectures and passed a good
examination in them."
Then Dr. Kennedy of Cambridge, the eminent
(Emeritus), Headmaster of Shrewsbury, says : —
"... Professional lectures supported by exami-
nations and certificates, which should be essential
to the function of public-school teaching, though too
much must not be expected from them, seem to
promise some important good. Especially this, the}^
would give to Education the status of a faculty and
profession : they would oblige every master to regard
his work as professional, as work to be done on definite
principles and with high public responsibility. The}^
would enhance the personal and social dignity of
masters, and thereby promote their efficiency, their
usefulness, and their happiness. Such professional
lectures would, I suppose, be directed to the theory
and history of Education, and also to the art and
method of teaching : in all which moral and mental
science without being directly taught would be assumed
and used as principial and regulative." This is well
said, and I willingly adopt the words as my own
programme.
20 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Having heard all this, do you think that I push my
argument too far when I maintain that the subject of
Education as such demands, as of right, a place in the
University curriculum, with a view to the constituting
of a Faculty of Education ? The philosophy of Educa-
tion is, in fact, now a distinct subject, and the import-
ance and intimate relation of it to the future welfare
of the nation require that it shall be held in academic
honour, and provided with academic standing-room.
Its relation to the Universities, moreover, as a means
of bringing them, through some recognized functionary,
a functionary controlled by the responsibilities of his
position, into close connection with the whole scholastic
machinery of the country, thereby extending their just
influence, is sufficiently obvious.
We have, however, still other objections to the
founding of an Education Chair to face, proceeding
mainly from those who take what might be called an
Academic view of the question. Education, they say,
is an important subject, we admit, but it is too closely
allied with practice to be a fit subject for University
teaching. It is a subject rather for the laboratory of
the schoolmaster than for the theoretical and historical
prelections of a Professor. Now it is to be at once
admitted that this is a fair subject for debate ; but I am
entitled to insist that it shall be discussed as part of a
larger question — this question, namely, Is a University
to train for professions at all ? My answer to this is, that
the business of a University is to train for the profes-
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 21
sions, and that there ought to be within a University as
many Faculties as there are recognized professions. It is
not because of the claims which the Theory and History
of Education can make to be regarded as a subject of
general University discipline (though not a little might
be said on this aspect of the question, beginning from
Plato), that it seeks admission to a University curri-
culum. It is as a complement to the Faculty of Arts,
as completing the preparation of the teachers of the
country for their profession, that it rests its claim.
That future Educators who are receiving their general
instruction in a University should there also study
the subject of Education, is to my mind of the nature
of a truism. Nor does it seem possible for any to
hold another view without including in their con-
demnation all University studies which have a direct
bearing on special professional preparation for active
life.
That a University should close its doors to all save
theoretical studies, or at least to all save those which
have to do with the cultivation of a man without
regard to his future occupation, — is an intelligible and
perhaps tenable opinion ; but in these days it is un-
necessary to discuss it. One has naturally much
sympathy with that conception of a University,
according to which it is constituted of a body of
learned men whose sole business it is to pursue science
and abstract studies generally, while admitting to their
workshop only the select few who desire to spend their
lives far from the vulgar crowd. But such an institu-
22 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
tion requires only the collegiate life to make it a
secular monastery. All monasteries have a certain
sentimental charm, and this kind of nineteenth-century
monastery not least. But our modern, especially our
Scottish, Universities, are far removed from such a
conception. They are compromises between the
theoretical and the practical. They aim at one end
of their curriculum to meet and welcome the intelli-
gence of the youth of the country, and at the other to
connect themselves with the duties of active life. And
if in thus adapting themselves to the needs of the
time, they have thought it wise to constitute or com-
plete certain Faculties, is the equipping of the future
teacher of the country with the principles, history,
and methods of his special task of less moment than
the equipping of the future engineer, agriculturist,
physician, or lawyer ?
There is yet another objection taken by a few —
an objection which is certainly specious. " We admit,"
they say, "the importance of the subject in itself; we
recognize the desirableness of using the Universities
to supply the professions of the country, because we
think that we thereby contribute to the strength and
dignity of those professions, and send out recruits who,
along with their professional knowledge, carry with
them a certain portion of University culture, and so
contribute to maintain a high standard of social life.
This culture we endeavour to give, regarding it as an
essential part of the merely professional training, and
that whereby we prevent the University from being
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 23
converted into a mere aggregate of specialist colleges.
But, while admitting all this, we shall recognize no
subject of instruction in any Faculty which cannot
rank itself among the sciences, either in itself or by
direct affiliation." There is much vagueness and half-
thought about this objection. It seems to be forgotten
that very many of the existing Chairs are divorced by
their very nature from the category of sciences. All
those Chairs which have to do with Humane Letters,
not merely the Chairs of ancient tongues, but of
Philosophy and Literature, and even Law, have a
place in the higher education of youth by virtue of
qualities which are, it is not too much to say, antago-
nistic to the conception of science. The truth is that
the objections urged on the scientific ground are a
covert attack on The Humanities, and especially on
the Philosophy of Mind in all its branches. The
objectors start with the assumption that nothing is
worthy of University study save science, and at the
same moment they restrict the term " science " to
aggregates of fact that can be demonstrated in such a
way as not to admit of question. There is no science
in this, the strictest acceptance of the term, except
Mathematics and those branches of knowledge which
rests on Mathematics.
Botany, for example, is not a science in the re-
stricted sense of the term ; it may be one day a
science, but as yet it is only a system of classification,
and a record of interesting observations and reasonings
on the physiology of vegetable organisms — so far as
24 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
they go, correct and verifiable. I may be mistaken,
but it seems to me that there is nothing to prevent a
discovery in Biology being made, which would revolu-
tionize the fundamental conception of Botany in one
day. Botany may be held to represent other depart-
ments of knowledge to which the name of science
is freely accorded. The objectors would not drive
such studies as Botany out of the Universities, because
they include them (as I think inconsistently) in their
notion of science. The fact is that such objectors
respect Botany and similar studies because they are
at least possible sciences, inasmuch as they deal with
what can be seen by the eye of sense, and handled
and weighed and measured, and so forth. Their
objection to Education as a special branch of study
is, when probed to its foundation, this, that it adds
another to the list of Humane studies which already
disturb their scientific intellects, — to wit Classics,
Metaphysics, Logic, Ethics, and, I rather suspect.
Political Economy too. To History they may con-
descend to give academic standing-room, because
after all it has to do with things that did make
their appearance as phenomena on the face of the
planet, and probably admit of some sort of co-ordi-
nation. But as to those other departments of thought
which I have named, and all such, the sooner they
are despatched to the limbo of ineptitudes the better.
It is naturally disturbing to such minds to find sub-
jects, which do not admit of exact treatment, assum-
ing rank and importance in determining the progress
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 25
of civilization, and in the regulation of contemporary
academical arrangements. The most recent improve-
ment in the microscope does not enable them to
see the so-called things of mind, — the most delicately-
adjusted scales will not weigh them ; their genesis
and their modus operandi are invisible and impalpable,
and their possible and actual results defy any calculus.
It is not only disturbing, but distressing that such
things should be — nay, that such things should, in
truth, constitute the great forces which in all ages
have moved the heart of humanity, and have made
the history of man.
If a science be a synthetic and systematic body
of truth regarding a department of knowledge, which
starts from certain axiomatic statements, and, by help
of a few postulates, builds up its fabric of verity so
that each part rises out of another by necessary
sequence, then it is well to say at once that Education
is not a science, nay, that it never will be a science.
But are we to measure its right to a place in a
University system by such stringent requirements? If
so, what department of study belonging to the Littered
Hunianiorcs will stand the test ? Is Metaphysics a
science ? In one sense " No," in another it is the
scientia scientiaruin — the irpdyT^ ^tXoao^ta. Even in
the field of formal Logic do not men still occupy
hostile camps ? Of Ethics what shall we say ? For
2400 years men have thought, spoken, taught, but
with what scientific result ? With this, that even now
the criterion of the right and wrong in conduct, the
26 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
nature of conscience, the very existence of the
sentiment of duty as an inner power, are still matters
of debate. And yet there is a philosophy, if not a
science, of Ethics. Is History a science? Some
vainly imagine that it is at least a possible science.
Given certain conditions, they are prepared, by the
help of the Registrar-General, to predict the history
of nations. But it is at once evident that the social
movements of the whole involve the equally necessary
movement of each individual of that whole, and that
a science of History demands for its possibility not
only an unbending system of physical laws within
which man is to work, but also that man himself shall
be an automaton ! And yet though there be no
science, there is a philosophy, of History. Is Political
Economy a science ? Even now the fundamental
principles of that department of knowledge are an
arena for discussion. The question of supply and
demand is still debated ; the difficulties of the
currency question are still open to further discussion ;
even the principle of Free-Trade versus Protection
is still a moot point. Not perhaps in this country ;
but we must not let our insular self-complacency shut
our eyes to the fact that in the United States and our
Colonies, and on the continent of Europe, the principle
of Free-Trade is not merely set aside in practice, but
impugned by argument. The very theory of Rent,
which J. S. Mill considers to be the pons asinorurii
of Political Economy, and the discovery of which is
held to be the crowning glory of Ricardo, is still
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 2/
unsettled. Is Jurisprudence a science ? No ; and
yet is there no philosophy of Law ? So with Educa-
tion. I am quite willing to hand over the word
" science " to those departments of knowledge which
have to do with Mathematics, and with things seen
and temporal, if only I am allowed to comprehend
those other studies which truly constitute the life
of man under the term Philosophy. As theory.
Education allies itself to Psychology, Physiology, and
Sociology. The materials of its teaching it draws
from these philosophies, from the practice of the
schoolroom, and from the rich domain of History.
Grant all this, but still those generally well affected
to the new study have misgivings. The Chair of
Education will be a mere platform for the airing
of theoretical views or the enunciation of crotchets.
Now I would allay such fears by pointing out, in the
first place, that this Chair does not exist for the
purpose of talking at large about Education, but of
preparing teachers for their profession, and that this
practical aim is inconsistent with windy talk. I
have some sympathy with the cynical Love Peacock,
who, in describing certain social bores in the shape
of men of one idea who hold forth in season and out
of season, says : " The worst of all bores was the
third. His subject had no beginning, middle, nor
end. It was Education. Never was such a journey
through the desert of mind, the great Sahara of
intellect. The very recollection makes me thirsty."
Such men are not educationalists in any sense in which
28 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
that term is applicable within these walls. They are
men of leisure who have restless minds, and if they
have not one fixed idea or crotchet, will find another.
An educationalist has no crotchets. That man has
crotchets who, having seized on that particular corner
of a large and many-sided subject which has some
secret affinity with his own mind, or affords the
quickest passage to notoriety, pursues it to the death.
Now, an educationalist is, by virtue of his very name
and vocation, inaccessible to all petty fanaticisms."
He has to deal with a subject of infinite variety,
and so variously related to life, that he is more apt
to be lost in hesitations and scepticisms than to be
the victim of a fixed idea. If you wish to meet with
educational crotchets, you must go to the specialist in
this or that department of knowledge, who is un-
fortunate enough to take up the question of Education,
as you see he often in moments of aberration takes
up other subjects which are outside his own range
of intellectual experience. It is only in such cases
that you will find the confidence and self-assurance
which is born of limited knowledge, and the pertina-
cious insistence which flows from these habits of mind.
To him whose subject is Education crotchets are
prohibited, because his opinions on this or that point
are related on the one side to rational and compre-
hensive theory, and on the other to the daily practice
of the schoolroom and the needs of life.
Having dealt thus far with what may be called the
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 29
apologetics of my subject, and arrogated for it a place
in our Academic system, whether we regard its in-
herent claims or its relation to the well-being of the
country, I have, on the other hand, to avoid the error
of magnifying too much its importance. The more
abstract treatment of the theory of Education is
doubtless, if true in its philosophy, of universal appli-
cation. It sweeps the whole field. But this will
engage our attention only within carefully prescribed
limits, and when we leave this portion of our subject,
we have to restrict ourselves on all sides. The educa-
tion of every human being is determined by potent
influences which do not properly fall within the range
of our consideration here. The breed of men to which
the child belongs, the character of his parents, the
human society into which he is born, the physical
circumstances by which he is surrounded, are silently
but irresistibly forming him. The traditions of his
country, its popular literature, its very idioms of speech,
its laws and customs, its religious life, its family life,
constitute an aggregate of influence which chiefly
make him what he is. With these things we have to
do only by way of a passing reference ; we have not
to deal with them. By their constant presence they
mould the future man, himself unconscious. They
are the atmosphere of the humanity of his particular
time and place, and in breathing it he is essentially a
passive agent. Our business is rather with the con-
scious and active elements of moral and intellectual
growth. We have to make the passive creature of
30 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
circumstance a free, self-conscious, rational agent,
endowed with purposes and ideals, and we have to
find the means of best doing this. The passive
activity of our nature is not to be ignored in our
educational methods ; it is to be turned to use as one
of our most potent instruments, but it is mainly the
self-conscious forces that we have to educe and direct.
Even in doing this we are bound by external con-
ditions, and must take note not only of the almost
irresistible forces around us, but of minor conditions
of time, place, and circumstance.
Each successive century, and the traditions and
circumstances of each country, nay, the genius of each
people, present to us the educational problem in ever-
changing aspects. Educational systems cannot be
manufactured in the study. Our theory of the end
of all education and the means by which that end
has to be attained may be, or rather ought to be,
always the same ; but the application of that theory
must vary with varying external conditions. What
present defects have we here and noiv, and to what
dangers are we exposed ? is the form which the
practical question must take with us. Now I would
say that one of our chief dangers in these days is the
over-instruction of willing and ingenuous boys. We
are in the very midst of what will afterwards be desig-
nated the information-epoch of Education. We are in
danger of confounding the faculty for swallowing with
the faculty for digesting. To borrow words from
biological science, we sometimes proceed as if the
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 3 1
mind of man grew by accretion and not by intussus-
ception. The system of universal examinations has
encouraged this. Now a system whereby the teachers
of the country are converted into " coaches," is, by its
very nature, hostile to the true conception of Educa-
tion. No school which converts itself into a coaching
establishment is a place of education in the proper
sense of that term. There is a repose, a calm, a
stability in the steady march of all sound education,
which is alien to the feverish spirit that animate the
ante-chamber of an examination-room.
The aim of the educationalist is not the giving of
information, nay, not even instruction, though this is
essential, but mainly discipline ; and the aim of dis-
cipline is the production of a sound mind in a sound
body, the directing and cherishing of the growth of the
whole nature, spiritual and physical, so as to make it
possible for each man, within the limits of the capacity
which God has given him, to realize in and for himself,
with more or less success, the type of humanity, and
in his relation to others to exhibit a capability for
wise and vigorous action. This result will not be
attained by pressure. By anticipating the slow but
sure growth of nature, we destroy the organism.
Many and subtle are the ways in which nature avenges
itself on the delicate, complicated machinery of man,
but avenge itself somehow it will and must.
It is difficult to say which is the more pernicious,
that system which overstrains the active intelligence
of the willing and ambitious boy, or that which fills
32 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
his mind, while it is yet mainly passive with the results
of mature thought, and endows him with a kind of
miniature omniscience. Those who survive such
methods of training may, doubtless, be very useful
agents, very serviceable machines, but they will rarely
initiate. With a few exceptions, their minds will be
either exhausted or overlaid. That elasticity of spirit
which enables a man always to rise to the level of the
varying requirements of the day and hour in the
Family and the State ; that free movement of will
which is ever ready to encounter more than half way
the vicissitudes and exigencies of life, that vivacious
intelligence which maintains throughout life an un-
ceasing love of knowledge ; that soundness, of brain
and muscle which reacts on the inner self by giving
steadiness to moral purpose, will assuredly not be
promoted by forcing more and more subjects into
the school curriculum, and applying the pressure of
constant examinations by outside authorities. We
want men who will be ready for the crises of life as
well as for its daily routine of duty, and who will, by
their mere manner of encountering even their ordi-
nary work, contribute to the advance of the common-
wealth in vigour and virtue. Such men alone are
fully competent for all the services which their country
may demand from them. Such men may be slowly
grown, they cannot be manufactured under a .system
of pressure. Great Britain has had many such ; Scot-
land has been prolific of them. The intellect, the will,
and the arm of Scotsmen, have done, we flatter our-
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 33
selves, their fair share in creating the British Empire,
and they have done it all by virtue mainly of their
breed, and by such restricted education as Arithmetic,
Latin, and the Shorter Catechism afforded. No super-
incumbent load of impossible tasks oppressed their
minds while yet immature.
Do not draw a hasty inference from what has now
been said. The requirements of the time in which we
live, the industrial competition of one nation with
another, the revolution in the arts of war, all demand
that the materials of Education should change with
changing conditions of life. I am quite alive to this
necessity — but the inner form must remain ever the
same. For after all that can be said, the main
object of our efforts must, on one side at least, be
the growth of power in the future man. If we
would secure this, the pursuit of it must control and
regulate the instruction we give, and the method
of giving it. Above all, we must not be in a hurry.
Having faith in the quiet processes of nature, we
must, as educators, be calm, deliberate, and ever
regard the end.
The power which we desire to foster is the product
of Will and of natural force. It is difficult to separate
these two elements in any act, but for purposes of
thought they may be regarded as distinct. I shall
refer again to the element of natural force : our present
concern is with power in its intellectual and moral
relations, which is Will. It operates in the region of
D
34 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
intelligence and emotion alike. The ground and root
of intellectual and moral activity is ultimately the
same, and the end is the same — the Ethical life. If
this can be shown analytically, we shall reduce to
unity the whole idea of Education in its merely formal
aspect, and supply a conception which, while helping
us to estimate the value of educational instruments
and methods, will, at the same time, exalt and guide
our conceptions of duty as educators.
Power^ however, cannot work on nothing, and we
have next to consider it in its concrete relations, in
order that we may discern and exhibit the content
as well as the form of the Educational Idea. True
that our range of discussion is in this place finally
limited by the practical object which we have im-
mediately in view — the production of the good
citizen ; but this, though our primary, is not our ulti-
mate aim. Citizenship is not the end of human life,
but only a means to an end. For, in a certain sense,
the ultimate reference of all thought and action of
man is to himself as a personality. Christianity,
which teaches the most thorough-going altruism,
also teaches this ; and in teaching this, it deepened the
foundation of the modern doctrine of culture which
had been laid by the Greeks. Speaking quite gene-
rall}\ Culture may, for want of a better word, be
accepted as the end of all exercise of intellectual
and moral power, and therefore in its ultimate result
the real cntl, of education, just as power is the
formal end.
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 35
But in accepting " Culture " as a fit expression for
the real end of education, we have to examine care-
fully the features of this god as they appear on the
canvas of modern litterateurs, and distinguish our
own conception from theirs. No finality, no perfect-
ness is possible for man, and culture therefore must
be restricted, vieVved educationally, to the idea rather
of a process than of an attained and stable product.
It is the harmonious and continuous growing of a
man in all that pertains to humanity. Culture in the
sphere of education is, I say, a continuous process —
the harmonious balancing of all the varied forces that
constitute the life of a human soul. Now such a
balancing is impossible save round some centre.
From this may be deduced two practical conclusions
on education in respect of its content. First, that
intellectual culture will be most thorough when a man
has some leading subject as the centre of his intel-
lectual activity ; and seeondly, that moral culture, the
harmonious growth of the soul, is possible only where
there is a centre round which all the moral and
aesthetic elements of our nature turn. That centre
is God Himself, round which reality the sentiments,
emotions, hopes, and aspirations of the moral life
range themselves. In God alone the ethical life has
true existence. If for God we substitute Self, we
substitute an empty and barren fact in the room of
a pregnant and life-giving Idea.
When I say that it is an essential condition of
vigorous intellectual growth that a man should have
S6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
some prime subject of thought and study, I do not
of course mean that every man must be a speciahst.
A speciahst, in the strict sense of the term, is a man
who has so used up both his powers and his mental
interests in one specific direction as to weaken his
capacity for all other objects, and to narrow his
mental range. A study prosecuted so exclusively
weakens the judgment for all else. A leading subject,
but not an exclusive subject, is wanted, and this will
be found to strengthen the judgment for all else. In
the moral region, again, the permanent centre of all
our thought and activity, which is God, so far from
narrowing, expands the growing man. The central
idea is like a sun, under which the whole being lives
and grows, and from which each individual part draws
warmth and strength. Culture without this centre
is the depravation of a great idea, and has no object
higher than self Self can form no true centre to self
Moral Culture, further, must not only find its
centre outside of self in God, but it must express
itself in action if it is to live. It is a misuse of terms
to call f/ia/ culture which, labouring under the baleful
influence of self-worship, has forgotten that power
can fulfil itself only in action. With some minds of
strong aesthetic proclivities, culture issues in a kind
of paralysis of judgment. The soul floats in the dim
and dreamy potentialities of .sentiment. The man of
this kind of culture indulges himself in the perpetual
contemplation of himself and his surroundings, is
frequently distinguished for a spurious amiability,
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 3/
nourishes feeling in a self-imposed retirement from
the duties of citizenship, occupies himself with the
contemplation of his own refined sensibilities, ever
repeating to Himself the words which Cicero puts into
the mouth of the god of Epicurus, " Mihi pulchre
est : ego beatus sum." This result indeed is the
very Nemesis of culture which has lost its way.
This is the fate of the literary no less than of the
religious recluse. Depend upon it, Nature, which is
strong and virile, will have none of this : it demands
the active manifestation of such power as we have,
in expressed thought or living deed. Thus then only
does moral culture reach its true aim by first center-
ing itself in God, and next by forgetting itself in
action.
Culture, then, which we may accept as an ex-
pression for the sum of the end of Education in
respect of content, as distinguished from the end of
education with respect to form (which end is Power),
is the harmonious growing of all that is in man ; as
a harmonious growing of intellect it demands a prime
intellectual study, but discourages specialism ; as a
harmonious and therefore balanced growing of the
moral life, it must have a centre round which it
may balance itself other than itself, and that centre
of truth and reality is God, the source and sustainer
of life, the beginning and the end of human endeavour :
finally, as a living and wholesome as well as a
harmonious growing, it has to seek the very con-
ditions of its existence outside itself in action. It
38 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
finds in the opportunities of life at once its nourish-
ment, the conditions of its vitality, and the measure
of its soundness. It lives neither from itself, in itself,
nor to itself.
Culture thus interpreted is not, you will at once
see, unpractical in its aims in the hands of the
educationalist. For we find that it cannot be truly
promoted save by ever keeping in view the practical
issue of all training — the rearing of a religious people,
and the preparation of youth for social duty and
for the service of humanity, whereby alone they can
truly serve and fulfil themselves. In its practical re-
lations to the science and art of education, the term
will be found pregnant with instruction as regards
method also. For in the intellectual sphere, as we
have seen, it enjoins unity of purpose as opposed
to fragmentary encyclopzedism, and in the moral
sphere the need of the Religious idea and the con-
ception of social duty, without which all our moral
sentiment and moral discipline would be jointless and
invertebrate.
The educational sceptic will say, " These be brave
words : what has this culture to do with the educa-
tion of the masses ? " I might reply that I deal Jicre
with education, and not merely with the education
of those whose school-time ends at twelve or thirteen
years of age ; but I do not choose to take refuge in
a reply which would involve me in the confession
that the education of one class of the community is
essentially unlike that of another, and has different
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 39
aims. Were it so there would be no unity in the
idea of education — and this is to say that there is no
idea of education at all. The thread of intellectual
discipline, of moral purpose, and of culture runs
through all education alike. The end is the same
and the processes are the same. The seed which we
sow in the humblest village school, and the tender
plant which there, through many obstacles, forces itself
into the light by the help of the skilled hand of the
village schoolmistress, are not different in kind from
the seed and the plant which in more favourable
soil and by force of a higher organization grow up
into a Leibnitz or a Bacon. To some extent indeed
we may say that education is at every stage complete
in its idea and uniform in its methods. It is with a
process, not a consummation, that the teacher has to
do, and with an unfinished process that he has always
to be content. With every individual soul he has to
deal as with a being that lives for ever, and that may
carry forward its growth and the impulse he gives it
after this brief life is past. It is only when we commit
the vulgar error of confounding growth of soul with
intellectual acquisition that we depreciate the possible
results of primary education. The experience of
us all testifies to this and justifies and sustains our
loftiest hopes. Have we not all seen the highest ends
of education attained in lives limited in their scope,
brief in their duration, and barren of opportunity ?
" In small proportions we just beauty see,
And in short measures life may perfect be."
40 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Having thus set before you the twofold end of
education in respect of form and of content, — power
and culture, our next duty, in working out a theory
of education, is to follow the secret inner movements
of Mind whereby it reaches these ends.
It is precisely at this point in the process of our
thought that a new consideration is forced on us. For
we find that the formal processes that tend to discipline
and power and the processes that tend to culture cross
and recross each other. This is explained by the fact
that while it is necessary, for purposes of exact thought,
to distinguish the formal and the real, these two are in
truth one in a concrete third notion. Culture without
the presence of a dominant and regulative inner power
is impossible ; on the other hand, an inner regulative
power, save as the centre of an abundant material of
cognitions and emotions ranged and co-ordinated under
supreme and governing principles, is an empty ab-
straction. The two unite together in the Ethical life.
The more or less of knowledge or of faculty is a small
matter ; the Ethical life is all in all. It is because the
formal and real are in truth one in their issue that
we find it impossible, save in a very rough way, to
separate the processes of the growth of power, which
are disciplinal, and the steps of the growth of culture,
which arc the real in knowledge. By fixing their
attention too much on one side or the other, men take
a partial view of education, and partial opinions are
apt to degenerate into partisan views. The true con-
ception of education is a conciliation of both ; but it is
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 4I
governed by the formal and not by the real element.
The distinguishing characteristic of man is that, while
he is of Nature, he is also above and outside. Nature.
By Will it is that man is what he is. In my estimate,
therefore, of the comparative claims of the disciplinal
and the real in educating, priority is to be assigned
to the former.
It will be at once evident that the side from which
we regard the idea of education will determine the
value which we attach to particular studies, and the
methods of intellectual and moral training which we
shall most affect. But when we pass from the general
consideration of the formal and the real elements in
education, and the part which each plays in the pro-
duction of that unity " of a completely fashioned Will,"
which is the goal of our labours, and descend to the
mental processes themselves whereby intellectual and
moral elements are taken into the structure of the life
of a rational being and contribute to its organic growth,
we are on ground common to all. In this field of
inquiry, as in every other, we are but the ministers
and interpreters of nature. The subtle processes
whereby the moral and intellectual life of man is built
up are in truth processes of education. To trace these
is a difficult task, and one in which we cannot hope
wholly to succeed. But we may go on in full faith
that there is a ivay in which Nature works by moral
and intellectual discipline to the growth of power, and
by knowledge to the growth of culture. The analysis
42 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
which we institute to ascertain this way is not in-
fluenced by our philosophical conceptions : it is simply
a question of fact. On this analysis rests the whole
system of Methods of instruction and of school-keeping,
which ought to constitute at least one half of the course
of instruction given from this place. In the sphere of
the Understanding, for example, by w^hat cunning
process does intelligence take to itself the materials of
its life ? A matter this of great importance ; for the
determination of the different stages of the growth of
the understanding determines at the same time the
period at which the various subjects of instruction, and
the diverse aspects of these, are to be represented to
the child, the boy, and the youth respectively, in such
a way as to ensure assimilation. For it is by assimi-
lation only that true growth is possible ; all else is
mere acquisition, and so far from being education, it is
not even instruction. On this subject, as indeed on
all questions of methodology, we shall learn most
from infant schools. It is in the teaching of the
elements of knowledge that the art of teaching chiefly
reveals itself. The title which Sturm gives to one
of his treatises ought to stand at the head of all
books on Method, viz., " Dc ludis litcrarum recte
apericndis."
In the Moral sphere, again, we encounter difiiculties
of method much more grave. We have here to tread
delicately and warily. The question of times and
ways is a vital one. We readily perceive the folly of
presenting the whole of knowledge in mass and at
THE TRAININ'G OF THE TEACHER. 43
once to a child's understanding, and yet we do not
hesitate to put at once before him the complex sum of
moral and religious doctrine and precepts, in the hope
of producing thereby a living result. The ideas of
religion and the principles and precepts of morality
must follow experience, accompany intellectual growth,
and wait even on the activity of the imagination. The
educator will approach this portion of his task with
much earnestness and some fear. He has to shape
and to inspire a human soul, full of sensibility, alive to
the lightest touch, quickly responsive to every appeal
of love and every word of hate. " A mother's scream,"
says Jean Paul, "w^ill resound through the whole future
life of a child ; " and do we not know that the memory
of a mother's tenderness lives for ever ? Let not the
instructor of youth imagine that he has no concern
with what may be called the refinements and subtleties
of moral training. If he does so, his psychology is
fundamentally unsound. Even in little things the
teacher must seek and find his opportunity. Les
petites morales of good personal habits and of good
manners are to him by no means trivial. They con-
stitute frequently the only way in which he can apply
to the ordinary acts of the school-room and the play-
ground the deeper truths which inspire his teaching ;
and they are in the case of many childish natures the
only way in which those deeper truths can be brought
into consciousness as living and governing forces.
They are the outer expression of an inner state, and
by the cultivation of the outer expression we always
44 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
sustain the inner life ; nay, we sometimes evoke it
when otherwise it would not emerge. Manners seem
to be of sHght importance, but they are often of large
import, and are not seldom convertible with morals, as
the word itself was among the Romans. The Laureate
speaks truly when he says : —
"Manners are not idle, but the fniit
Of loyal nature and of noble mixid."
I have been speaking of intellectual and moral
instruction and of intellectual and moral discipline ;
but I would repeat that beyond and above both these,
constituting the unity in which the two meet, is the
Ethical life. This proposition — that the intellectual
and moral substance of education, and intellectual
and moral discipline, the formal and the real, are
fused in the unity of the ethical life — it will be my
business to explain and make good in the more
philosophical portion of my course. You will then
see, I trust, that the ethical function of the teacher
cannot be pressed too far. It will appear also that it
is the ethical element which is at the root of the manly
and generous growth of boyhood, and the sole force
which can permanently sustain even purely intellectual
effort. All labour of the schoolmaster is of doubtful
issue as regards the merely intellectual resultant in his
pupils, but every act which is inspired by the ethical
spirit has its sure intellectual as well as moral reward.
It cannot possibly be wholly lost. Here the spiritual
forces are on our side and continually make for us.
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 45
Indeed, if we have not this faith, we had better give
the whole business up.
Be it observed that the term " Ethical " is here used
in the broad sense in which it comprehends Religion.
It is the ethics of a religion which justify a creed
before the world, and it is the religion of ethics which
gives moral teaching a hold on the heart of man and
a sure foundation in human reason. The morality of
secularism has for its foundation self-interest, and for
its sanction coercion ; it may preserve society ; but it
is only when ethics are in union with religious con-
ceptions, either passing into these or rising out of
them, that they promote the true life of humanity. It
is religion which affords to ethical science a basis in
the infinite, and presents to the ethical life issues in
the infinite.
The question which next most presses for con-
sideration is — What instruments or materials are most
promotive of the end we propose to ourselves, viewed
in the light of their ultimate unity in the ethical life ?
\Vc have to select those instruments which by their
nature contribute most, and most surely, to the supreme
end of all our endeavours. By this measure we must
mete the instruments which the present state of know-
ledge offers us. It is impossible, and were it possible
it would be undesirable, and destructive of all sound
discipline, to teach even the beginnings of every sub-
ject. But it ought not to be difficult to adjust the
rival claims of Literature (including under this head
46 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Languages, Ancient and Modern), Science, and JEs-
thetics. The philosophy of education is a poor affair
if it cannot, out of the materials which are clamant
for attention in the school-room because of their im-
mediate use in the work of life, and as essential pre-
requisites of ethical activity, find apt instruments for its
purpose. Such questions are of great importance to
the well-being of society. If primary instruction, for
example, must exclude from its curriculum science, in
any strict sense of the term, can there be any doubt
that our daily instruction should be so contrived as to
place a child in intelligent relations with the world in
which he lives, and to enable him to look with the eye
of reason, and not of the brute, on the phenomena of
the physical universe ? Still less is there room for
doubt, it seems to me, that the elements and applica-
tions of the laws of health and of social economy
should enter into every scheme of instruction. It is
through these subjects indeed that we shall at once
rectify the conceptions of the pupil as to the sphere of
duty in which God has placed him, and give direction,
significance, and practical force to our moral teaching.
In the secondary stage of education, again — that
which immediately precedes University discipline, —
the place to be assigned to Latin and Greek must be
largely determined by what we mean when we name
these studies. If such instruction resolves itself into
mere memory-work and gerund-grinding, it is even
then not without educative uses, but it must make
way and that quickly, for other and better disciplines.
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 4/
If, however, it is so employed as to be an exercise of
the inductive and deductive processes ; if the study
of words and sentences be an unconscious study of
thought, and if they become, as boys advance, a study
of form and an introduction to the pregnant and
elevating idea of Art ; if the embalmed thoughts be
truly made to breathe and the dead words to burn,
then indeed we have here an instrument of unsur-
passed and unsurpassable excellence. It is true that
the rich records of modern life and literature now
yield us much of the culture we seek in antiquity, but
we cannot afford to dispel the halo which gathers
round the remote past, and the deeds of the men who
have gone before us. Imagination here, by idealizing,
sustains morality, and is also the spur of the intellect.
Still less can we afford to part with the impersonal
and objective character of the teachings of Judaea,
Greece, and Rome, and to substitute for them the
subjective and partisan lessons of modern life. On
the whole, I feel wath Jean Paul, who says, " The
present ranks of humanity would sink irrecoverably if
youth did not take its way through the silent temple
of the mighty past, into the busy market-place of life."
But even after all this is said, and more than this, it is
an anachronism to give such studies exclusive posses-
sion of the field. In the present state of knowledge,
not more than half the school-time should, it seems
to me, be given to ancient studies, even in the upper
classes of professedly classical schools ; and not all
boys should be even thus far restricted. It is a dis-
48 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
credit to our great Educational Institutions that any
boy of seventeen should be in ignorance of such things
as the elements of Physics and Physiology.
As yet, except when alluding briefly to the con-
ditions of power, I have been talking of the education
of man as if I were speaking of spirits in a world
of spirits. From birth to death, however, Man is
subject to external circumstances which are for the
most part too mighty for him. He seems to rise
out of a physical organization : it is the outer w^hich
at first evokes his slumbering consciousness at birth,
and the outer conquers him in death. With these
physical conditions of existence he has to effect a
compromise. All his receptivity and all his activity
is in and through mortal brain and muscle. All his
moral and intellectual activity must therefore be
carried on with due regard to the external instrument
which he must employ. In the treatment of the
subject of education it is not necessary to profess
any theory of the relation between mind and body.
But this we know, that the former, both in its sensi-
bilities and activities, is bound up with the natural
laws of the latter, and to those laws it must conform,
or fail itself to live.
The theoretical question of the identification of
thought and emotion with nerve-processes is simply
one part of a much larger question, the relation of
Nature itself to Mind. Evade it as we may, encumber
it as wc may with irrelcxant and side issues, the ques-
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 49
tion is really this : Are thought and personality the
product of natural force, or are natural forces them-
selves the product of thought and personality ?
Spenser says : —
" Of the soul the body form doth take,
For soul is form and doth the body make."
Now this, as other cognate questions, cannot, of
course, be from this Chair treated critically. The
critical and historical investigation of all such subjects
is otherwise provided for. I must in all such matters
assume a purely dogmatic position, and with dogma
you must be here content. The advance of Physi-
ology into the sphere of Psychology has been viewed
by many of the older and purely introspective school
with unnecessary alarm. It is a mistake to suppose
that the Physiology of Mind necessarily teaches a
materialistic theory of intelligence. This is often
assumed ; but there is no necessary connection be-
tween the two. The ph}-siology of Mind is merely
the study of those material processes in which sensa-
tion and inteUigence and even moral emotion are
involved, and which at once condition consciousness
and are conditioned by it. It is an important auxiliary
to the study of Mind, but can never occupy the ground
of the older Psychology. In every step of its processes
it demands a reflection on consciousness, and an
analysis of the life and phenomena of consciousness,
to give it significance — nay, even to render its results
intelligible. If, again, we entirely change our point of
departure in self, and look at self and all that we call
£
50 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Mind from an outside position as a mere product of
physical forces, as a function of matter, we are then on
longer dealing with a merely psychological question,
but, as I have already indicated, with a part of the
larger cosmical question — the origination of all things ;
and by our conclusions as to this larger inquiry, the
subordinate, yet to us all-important subject, must be
determined. We shall probably find that the only
effectual answer to the proposition " All is Nature," is
the counter proposition " All is Mind." He alone can
entertain the thought of Mindless man who has first
taken to his bosom the withering thought of Godless
Nature.
However this may be, we may, as students of
education, assume that Mind works under physical
conditions. Every sensation, every emotion, every act
of memory, every act of thought, is effected through
brain, and involves a certain process and a certain ex-
haustion of substance. The proper nutrition of brain,
consequently, with a view to the repair of waste, must
ever be with educationalists a matter of prime con-
sideration. The effects of overstraining or of defective
nutritive process arc in their practical relations vital.
I am sufficiently well aware of the necessity of fresh
air and clean skins, and spacious well-drained school-
rooms, but these and other physical questions are all
subsidiary to the consideration of the demands which
the life of sensibility, emotion, will, and thought make
on the brain. Here Physiology holds up the finger of
warning. But instructive as the negative teachings of
I
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER, 5 I
Physiology are, the positive contributions which it has
to make to the philosophy of education are even more
valuable. The intimate connection subsisting between
states of consciousness and cerebral changes, and the
relation of these, when repeated, to what may be called
the " set " of the nerve-apparatus, bring to view with
a vividness which is beyond the reach of the ordinary
psychology, the manner of the formation of habits of
feeling, thought, and action. Indeed there is nothing
more encouraging to the earnest teacher than the
study of the Physiology of Habit.
It will now be more clearly apparent why I selected
the word " Power " to denote the formal end of Edu-
cation. It is preferable to Will, because this has to
do rather with moral and intellectual relations re-
garded purely as such. When an active and free,
self-determining, ever-ready will is aided by those
physical conditions which determine the healthful
activity of all the bodily organs, so that they respond
willingly to the demands made on them, we have a
complex state before us. There is a natural volition,
the issue of mere life and health in our physical frame,
which bounds forward to ally itself with the movement
of intelligent Will, and gives to the latter a certain
steadiness and self-assurance. To this combination of
free will with the gladly co-operating volition of the
bodily organization we assign the name of Poiver.
It would appear, from what has been said, that in
dealing with Education we touch various departments
52 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
of knowledge, but there is little danger of our wander-
ing : for the fixing of the ends of education will at
once impose a limit on our studies, and give stability
to them. It will protect us both from vague specula-
tion and from tedious detail. To enter into questions
of philosophy, is so far from being incumbent on us
that to do so would be to defeat the specific objects for
which this Chair has been founded. The considera-
tion of these questions has been already provided for
in the University curriculum. But while the Professor
must here, as representing a practical subject, avoid
all speculation, he must yet find some dogmatic philo-
sophic basis as a support for his thought, if his teach-
ing is not to be an aggregate of disjointed essays. In
Psychology and Physiology he must lay his founda-
tions ; but from these departments of knowledge he
will select only such materials as have a direct bearing
on education, and give significance and the force of
law to educational ends, processes, and methods.
This portion of our course has to be treated in
detail as belonging to the Art of Teaching, and will
necessarily occupy much of our attention. It will be
illustrated by model lessons, and by observation of
the procedure of the best schools. The means of
obtaining practice in teaching will also, it is hoped,
be provided.
Thus informed as to the ends and philosophy of
Education and the rational grounds of pedagogic
methods, we shall then find ourselves in a good
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 53
position for surveying History. As we read the
records of the past we shall see that education
by and in the family, was early overpowered by
the education of the tribe, and finally of the State.
In the earliest stages of society, while man was
yet struggling for subsistence, education could only
mean the fitting of a man to secure for himself the
necessary protection and food ; nor is this primary
necessity ever to be lost sight of as the basis
of all educational systems, even among the most
cultivated nations. As society advances, division of
labour and the rudiments of professions extend the
sphere of human life and the conception which the
more thoughtful form of man's capabilities, needs,
duties, and destiny. Religion, Law, and Medicine
become gateways of speculation ; and through specu-
lation it is that humanity has been enabled to rise.
Speculation may be said to begin when knowledge
for its own sake becomes an object of pure desire, and
man becomes an object of interest and wonder to
man. As soon as men surmise their own greatness,
apprehend that each is valuable not only for what he
can do, but for what he is, and that man does not live
by bread alone, the idea of Culture enters — which
contemplates the growth of man to the full stature
of his race. In the educational history of ancient
nations, especially of Greece and of Rome, we shall
see these ideas take form. The process of historical
evolution will thus furnish a continual illustration of
the Philosophy of education, and while guarding us
54 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
against the errors of other times, recall to us great
ideas which we are apt to push rudely aside with the
vulgar self-assurance that distinguishes a mechanical
age, oblivious of the debts it owes to the past, and
ignoring its moral inheritance.
We shall find, too, much instruction from the study
of the educational organization of other countries, and
much encouragement from the study, in their historical
connection, of the systems of those who have been
eminent as educational reformers. Those systems are
generally full of suggestive material, even when their
leading ideas must be pronounced partial and in-
adequate.
I have now endeavoured to vindicate, as fully as
our limits permit, the position of this Chair in an
Academic curriculum, and to indicate the nature of the
instruction which it proposes to give to those fitting
themselves for the work of the school. It seems to me
that if the future teacher of the higher class of public
schools be carried through such a course, he will not
merely be better fitted for his professional work than
now, but be personally benefited by the mental dis-
cipline which the curriculum will afford. Going forth
to the duties of active life instructed in the ends, pro-
cesses, and history of Education, he will not work
blindly, but connecting his daily duties with the philo-
sophy of man, he will see all methods of instruction
in their rational grounds ; and allying himself with the
long history of his profession, he will regard with that
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 55
self-respect, which is alien to self-conceit, his position
as the responsible distributor, within his sphere,' of the
accumulated knowledge and civilization of his time.
Going forth, too, with an inspiring motive suggested
by the ethical end towards which all his labour tends,
he will carry with him the moral fervour which we
demand of a minister of sacred things. All instruction,
all discipline will be truly valuable in his eyes only in
so far as they subserve that ultimate ethical purpose
in which the form and content of education finally
unite. Set apart to educate children for the State —
whatever instruments he may use, whatever methods
he may pursue — this purpose will ever be present to
his thought, exalting his Hfe and sustaining his ac-
'tivity. It is only by labouring towards this end that
he can fitly discharge his special function in society,
find a certain reward even in partial success, and, in
the words of Milton, " store up for himself the good
provision of peaceful hours." What is it to him that
he should teach this or that particular subject if he
fail to build up and elevate the whole humanity of his
pupils ! And should he pursue any other purpose than
this, and pursue it even with apparent success, what
will be the result in the generations that are to follow ?
A mere sharpening of the wits of men, but no wit to
find the true way. " What an infinite mock is this,"
says Shakespeare, " that a man should have the best
use of his eyes to see the way of blindness ! "
In conclusion, let me say that if the teacher can
be led to rise to the full conception of his task, and to
56 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
understand that he is in truth one of the great moral
forces of society, one of the conservators of civilization,
he will be among the first to resist all attempts to
divorce his daily work from the ethical and religious
life of his time. This follows from the idea of educa-
tion and of the educator's function, which I have
endeavoured to set forth. He will at once see that so
to divorce him is to throw him out of all relation to
the true humanity of the past and of the future, and
to abrogate that which is at once his highest duty
and greatest privilege. He will feel that if he accepts
restriction to the secular, he must be content to forego
the full measure of the social respect and State-con-
sideration which are rightfully his due. Ordained to
the priesthood of the school, and held by society to be
so ordained, he will not find it necessary to clamour
for a social recognition which will be freely accorded
to him whose office it is, in the words of Tennyson,
" . . . to rear, to teach ;
Becoming as is meet and fit,
A link among the days to knit
The generations each with each."
If men can be sent forth from the University for
the service of their country, so equipped and so in-
spired, the Chair of Education will have made good
its claim to a place in the Academic curriculum, and
the objects of the Founders will be attained.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION IN ITS
RELATION TO THE SCHOOL AND
THE TEACHER.*
Now that the external organization of education has
made considerable way in most civilized countries,
the minds of men are free to consider the uses to
which the machinery is to be applied. The mere
acquisition of a certain facility in reading and writing
and casting accounts can scarcely be held to justify
the present large outlay of wealth and energy. It is
only if education is deliberately aimed at as essentially
an ethical task, that social reformers will find their
higlTesI""Tropes of the school realized. Be this as it
may, it is evident that the Philosophy of Education
now comes to the front and demands consideration.
I assume that the education of a country is deter-
mined by its philosophy ; but I use the word philo-
sophy in the larger sense as denoting the beliefs of
a period, whether reasoned out or not, regarding man,
his nature, his social relations, and his destiny. Philo-
sophy in the narrower sense as applied to education
* From the Frincctoti Review.
58 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
is, strictly speaking, only psychology, and determines
the periods of mental growth in the individual, and
methods of instruction as these are indicated by a
study of the processes of mind. In this more re-
stricted sense also the education of a country is
determined by its philosophy. The saying of Aristotle,
that it is not in man's option whether he will philo-
sophize or not, but that he uuist philosophize, is
especially true in the sphere of the school. If this be
so, it becomes a matter of no small importance that
those concerned with education should deliberately
and consciously philosophize, in order that they may
define their aim as well as their methods. We hold
that a training in philosophy, both in its larger and
narrower sense, is necessary for those members of the
community whose special function it is to rear and
teach the youth of the country : not for all, it may
be, but certainly for the more select portion who
influence the general body.
I am well aware that the eminent men who have
left their mark on the education of the past have owed
their influence mainly to some profound religious or
moral impulse and not to any philosophical system.
This is true alike of pre-Christian philosopher, Christian
pietist, and utilitarian moralist. Nor indeed can any
teacher or director of education be held to occupy a
place that fits him, if he finds himself discharging the
functions of an instructor of youth or a superintendent
of schools, unsupported, undirected, and unconsoled
in his daily task by a moral or religious purpose.
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 59
Such a man has missed his vocation. And yet we
cannot afford to dispense with the services of many
men who lack this professional qualification. We
cannot afford to close the ranks of the teaching pro-
fession against all save those whose true vocation it is.
The ministry of the school, like the ministry of the
church, must be content often to use weapons of inferior
temper. For every three millions of the population
we need about five thousand teachers, excluding those
in the higher seats of learning and private governesses
and tutors. To expect to find so large a number of
devout, zealous, sympathetic, child-loving men and
women as this, is a fond imagination. All the more
difficult is it to command an adequate supply of this
class, that the church attracts into its ranks by a prior
claim so large a proportion of the men of enthusiastic
temper and ideal aims. Luther's dictum, that had he
not been a preacher he would have been a teacher, is
still the most that any will say. It showed Luther's
penetration that he said even so much at a time when
the school was so misunderstood and misprized. " I
know," he says, " that this work, next to the office of
preacher, is the most profitable, the greatest, and the
best. Nay, I know not even which is the better of
the two. For it is hard to make old dogs tame and
old rogues upright ; at which task, nevertheless, the
preacher's office labours and often labours in vain. For
young trees be more easily bent and trained howbeit
some should break in the effort. Beloved, count it
one of the highest virtues upon earth to educate faith-
60 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
fully the children of others, which so few, and scarcely
any, do by their own." By these words, by his earnest
appeals to the civil magistracy to care for the edu-
cation, not of the few but of the many, and by the
share he took in reorganizing schools, Luther con-
nected the education of the young indissolubly with
the aim and method of the Protestant Reformation.
Nor were his companions and followers slow to recog-
nize the significance of their master's words. Erasmus,
Melanchthon, and Knox were full of the enthusiasm of
the educator ; and John Sturm practically exhibited
at his renowned institution in Strasburg what the
school could be made, even with the limited materials
then at its command. Ideas, however, are slow of
transforming themselves into practical facts. The
day is probably still distant when the words of Luther
will be reversed, and men who feel called to labour
for the moral and spiritual good of their fellow-men
will say, " If I must relinquish the office of teacher, I
would be a preacher ; " and yet this is, after all, only
the logical conclusion of Luther's own argument. As
things actually are, however, it is vain, we repeat, to
think that we can recruit the ranks of the teaching
profession with men and women who are conscious
that they have a " message " to children and youths ;
and the question accordingly becomes an urgent one.
How can we create zeal tempered with judgment,
judgment moved by zeal ? how can the ideal aims
and the skilled methods of the few be conveyed into
the rank and file of the profession — the multitude of
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 6l
uninspired, but we may presume conscientious, workers
who, from various causes, find themselves engaged in
the duties of the school-room ? Even second-hand
inspiration is a great gain to the community. If we
could fill all the teachers of our children with a lofty
motive and supply them with a sound method of
procedure, we should certainly do more to dignify
their own lives, and to sustain the moral vigour and
soundness of the whole nation through their agency,
than by any other means. This is truly a great
question — a question for States and for Councils, and
one which it is especially incumbent on Universities,
as the teachers of teachers, to take up and carry to an
issue.
The thoughtful student of education in its national
relations may at once start an objection to the view of
the schoolmaster's function we have indicated, in
which there is unhappily some truth. He will say
that, " if education, as distinct from mere instruction,
be essentially spiritual in its motives and aims, the
conflicting views of religious truth and practice that
are prevalent make it impossible for any State to give
effect to such a conception without trenching on the
liberty of individual citizens. The logical issue, in
the sphere of practical politics, of such a divided state
of opinion is a subversion of education altogether in
any true or spiritual sense, and involves the limitation
of it to the work of disciplining intelligence and con-
veying such information as may be of practical utility
in the work of life. To this, it is true, may be added
62 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
such instruction in practical moralities as will rear
good citizens : but this is all." Even if we accepted
this limited conception of the work of the school, we
should still find room for the educational element.
But we are not disposed to accept it. It is true that
religious differences exist, but they are differences
largely ecclesiastical and partly theological. There
is little difference of opinion as to what constitutes
the Christian life ; and it is the life, not the forms of
theological dogma, with which the school-teacher has
chiefly to do. In the present state of religious parties it
has been found necessary, in some countries at least, to
relegate detailed dogmatic instruction to the churches,
or to organizations set on foot and controlled by them.
But it is not a sound conclusion from this unhappy
necessity that a schoolmaster of truly religious temper
is not at liberty even in those countries to assume
distinctively Christian doctrine, and, by help of this
silent assumption, to raise his intellectual and moral
teaching into a spiritual sphere. He may animate all
he does with the religious principles and aspirations
that control his own life, and he will thereby give
ethical significance to his daily task. Of this we may
be assured, that it is impossible to sustain moral in-
struction at a high level or to give to it its true mean-
ing in relation to the life and destiny of a human
being, if it be not fused into one whole with the
emotion and passion which can be drawn from the
spiritual and religious life alone. Nay, without this
spiritual element it might easily be shown that there
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 63
can be no true ethical discipline. Even the teacher
who finds it necessary to confine himself to bald
moralities, because, having lost his own way, he has
denied the divine life and taken refuge in agnosticism,
has to resort to the " enthusiasm of humanity " as a
source of inspiration, if he is to be more than a mere
machine. This itself serves as a kind of religion —
spurious it is true, but yet giving forth a certain
warmth to sustain the worker, and a light which,
though flickering and unstable, yet serves in some
sort to steady his uncertain steps. At best, it is a
light that rules the night and borrows all it has of
virtue from the true sun that makes the day. Men
of this type of mind, however, rarely take to school-
work, either in Great Britain or America ; nor is it
desirable they should. An instructor of youth ought
to find himself in substantial accord with the religious
life of the people among whom he works. Nor is it
often otherwise.
But the spiritual aim is not enough. A certain
mould of character is needed. The heaven-born
teacher is, like the poet, rare. He must exhibit the
authority of law, and this is never arbitrary, but
always calm, equable, just. Rigid as maintainer of
law, his judgments, and still more his penalties, must
yet lean to mercy's side. He must possess that
humility of mind which makes him reverence the
spirits of children, as purer than his own, and as full
of spiritual possibilities, which for himself, it may be,
are prematurely foreclosed. He must be endowed
64 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
with a sympathetic power allied to genius, whereby
he may be able daily to be himself a child, to under-
stand the failures and perversities of unformed wills,
and the efforts and blunderings of travailing intelli-
gences. His manner must be direct, candid, sincere,
and friendly, yet, withal, suggestive of high purpose
and unbending law. He must dominate his school
as its presiding genius, its spiritual standard, its type
of culture ; and yet he must be a child among
children, a boy among boys, a youth among youths.
Where are we to find men in whom opposites are
thus reconciled, and whose hearts at the same time
are alive with a love of humanity and glow with a
religious zeal — men " moulded by God," as Thomas
Fuller says — for a schoolmaster's life? It is precisely
because we cannot hope to find them in any large
numbers that there is imposed on us the duty of de-
vising some means of bringing young men and women,
whose habit of mind or tendency of nature leads them
to devote themselves to the education of others, under
the guiding influence of older men who can inspire
them with the true aims of the educator and the
methods by which these can best be attained. Aspi-
rants of the finer temper will quickly perceive under
such guidance the truly spiritual task of the teacher ;
and the duller minds will, by the exhibition of the
philosophy or rationale of education, be at least
intellectually guided, if not also morally inspired, to
form an adequate conception of their function in the
community. They will go forth furnished with ideals
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 6$
and methods which cannot fail to influence and direct
their professional activity. It is in the philosophy
of human nature as applied to the growth of mind
and body, that \vc find not merely a scientific basis
for the teacher's work, but also a means of evoking
and even creating the true spirit of the educator.
Philosophy offers him a rationalized conception of
the ends and aims of the life of man which carries
conviction as reasoned truth. The possession of this,
even if there were nothing else, would be a great gain
to future schoolmasters. The practical relation of the
philosophy he studies and accepts to the subjects,
methods, and organization of instruction, and, above
all, to the method of moral training, throws the light
of science on what would otherwise be at best em-
pirical rules. The instruction of the normal school
in methods is good in its place and way, but all
empirical methodology, while failing to elevate the
teacher, binds him down and makes him a pedant :
philosophical methodology, on the other hand,
especially if enriched with the history of education,
gives him the freedom and liberty of the spirit.
Any other view than that which we here advocate
of the schoolmaster's training rests on the opinion
either that teaching is an instinct or knack and that
there is consequently neither a science nor a teachable
method of education ; or that the schoolmaster's duty
is one of instruction only, and that the acquisition of
good methods of instruction is a sufficient, and the
only practicable, preparation. The former opinion
F
66 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
we may in these days pass by as dead. The latter is
bound up with the larger question of a schoolmaster's
vocation. But even assuming that a knowledge of
methods of instruction is an adequate preparation,
it is easy to show that these must be wooden and
inflexible if they rest on empiricism, or are dog-
matically taught, and that they are incapable of being
rationalized save on the assumption of a definite
philosophy of mind. Philosophy tests and checks,
while it explains, methods, and thus raises the teacher
out of the ruts of traditionalism and the " customs of
the trade." It transforms him, indeed, from a trades-
man into the member of a profession, and nothing
else can do so. If to his philosophical understanding
of method he adds that higher view of his calling
which entitles him to the name of educator, and
endeavours to widen his philosophy so as to cover
the larger sphere, the public voice will assign him
his true place in the social system ; and that will
be a place that will satisfy every legitimate ambition.
He will be measured, in truth, by his own standard of
his own work. We demur to the opinion that because
a master is departmental only, as must generally be
the case in high-schools, his sphere is limited by the
subjects in which he instructs. To the head-master
doubtless specially belongs the general discipline and
educative character of the school ; but he will be
powerless unless each of his departmental assistants
understand his disciplinary aim and assist him in
giving effect to it. This thorough accord between
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 6/
heads and assistants will certainly be secured when
each has studied the philosophy of his art and so
found common ground of action, and does not, as now,
accept customs and rules that are merely arbitrary
and capricious and do not affiliate themselves to
sound and rationalized methods.
The hardness and self-complacency that charac-
terize the men whose arbitrary caprice or inherited
dogmatism determines what they shall do and how
they shall do it, has given us the " dominie " of
tradition, and has served to perpetuate the feeling
that schoolmaster and slave are still, as in Roman
times, almost interchangeable terms. We venture to
affirm that it is very seldom that a man of cultivation
cares to sustain a conversation with a thorough school-
master even in these our days, unless the latter
happen to be a man whose original researches or
literary occupations have made him something more
than a mere schoolmaster. Nothing can change this,
we are convinced, save the clear acceptance, by the
whole body of schoolmasters, of education and not
mere instruction as their function, and such a philo-
sophic study of their subject as will justify them in
making so high a claim. The whole race of masters
in the public schools of England have risen in social
estimation since Arnold of Rugby's time. And this
not alone by the reflection on the whole body of the
fame of Arnold, but because they have largely, through
the Rugby influence, been animated by a deeper
moral spirit in their work. When they advance still
68 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
further, and, in a spirit of reality, accept the whole
education of the boy as their task, and seek to en-
lighten their methods with a philosophy which
interprets the word education for them, their position
will be second to that of no profession. The ablest
minds may then, perchance, be attracted to a work
so potent in its influence on the destinies of their
country. We do not desire to create mere enthusiasts.
Undirected and uncontrolled enthusiasm burns out,
and leaves only ashes behind. The genuine enthu-
siast always subjects himself to law if his work is to
be effective and permanent. The fierce heat of the
sun itself attains its ends in the domain of nature by
working according to the law of each kind. Where
it does not do this, it destroys. So with the fire of
the educational enthusiast. We desire to see the
ardour of the youthful schoolmaster so founded on
principle -and controlled by intellectual purpose that
it will last a lifetime ; and this is possible only by
timely subjection to the order and law which philo-
sophy alone can give.
To the question. How comes it that a subject so
important in its bearings on the well-being of the
State has received such tardy recognition ? the answer
is easy. If the duty of educating the masses of the
people has been of such slow growth as to have taken
practical shape in a country such as England only
within the last few years, we can scarcely be surprised
that the philosophy of education has still to struggle
for a place. State necessities must long forerun State
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 69
ideals. The recent institution of chairs of the Insti-
tutes and History of Education in the Scottish Uni-
versities of Edinburgh and St. Andrew although the
work of private hands, indicates an acceptance by
these seats of learning of the duty they owe to the
education of the people, which must erelong influence
other universities, and through them the statesmen
who guide national education both in England and
America. Already the question has been under the
consideration of the ancient University of Oxford,
while at Cambridge the founding of lectureships,
which will erelong, we hope, become professorships,
has been already resolved upon.
While the primary education of the people was in
arrear it was inevitable that the philosophy of educa-
tion should stand still. It is only when the machinery
of a nation's education has been set up that the
question of the best application of that machinery
presses. Again, it is in the primary school that
educational aim and method most distinctly force
themselves on our attention. It is chiefly in the
initiation of the human mind to knowledge, and in
the formation of the still plastic character of child-
hood, that questions of aim and method suggest
themselves for solution. When solved in this sphere
they are solved also for the higher stages of secondary
and university instruction. The upper schools of a
country will be insensibly moulded by the aims and
methods of the people's schools, and are already being
so moulded.
^0 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Another obstacle in the way of the recognition of
the philosophy of education as a subject within the
range of practical politics has been the backward state
of the science of psychology. A glance at history
will satisfy us that a close connection subsists between
psychology and solid advances in education. The
crude and generalized psychology of ancient Greece
was boldly applied by Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle
to education. They regarded this subject as a vital
part of political philosophy, and they applied their
psychology, such as it was, with brilliant success.
But their views on education, admirable as they are,
were necessarily restricted by their p.sychology, and
by their conception of the aim and destiny of man
and of the State. Plato's Republic, while containing
his most matured views on philosophical questions
and on the idea of a State, is also a treatise on educa-
tion. It is not, however, a treatise on method, but
rather on the general aims of education in which the
Doric and Ionic ideas are woven together into a
unity by philosophy. For four centuries the opinions
of Plato and Aristotle on education governed the
civilized world, and it was not till the eminent Roman
teacher Ouintilian recorded his experience and practice-
that an)^ marked step in advance was taken. Quin-
tilian's book is in marked contrast to Plato's. It is not
a philosophical speculation, but rather a treatise on
method from the hand of a practical schoolmaster.
As the first book on method, it marks an epoch.
When education again passed into the hands of the
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 7 1
Christian Church, instructions in the new doctrine of
Christ and his apostles became naturally the main
end. The individual had now an infinite value in
himself as an immortal spirit, and the natural con-
sequence of this novel thought would probably have
been a great movement in the interests of popular
education had the state of society admitted of it.
The methods of instruction practised in the monastery
schools for a thousand years degenerated grievously
because there was no philosophy and no method.
We cannot imagine that this would have happened
had the " Institutions " of Ouintilian not been, during
all that period, lost. It was only at the time of the
Reformation that an interest in methods of instruction
began again to show itself, among the Jesuits on the
one hand, and the Reformers on the other. Even the
indifferent and sceptical mind of Montaigne saw that
the " greatest and most important problem of human
science was the rearing and education of children."
But the attention which the Reformers directed to
educational method was soon relaxed, notwithstanding
the labours of Melancthon, Dean Colet, Roger Ascham,
and Sturm. Roger Ascham's " Scholemaster," written
in the time of Elizabeth, had not effected much, admir-
able as it was as a school guide and as a specimen of
literary execution. It was not a philosophical treatise,
but, like Ouintilian's " Institutions," a book on method
only. It was the application of vigorous English
common-sense to the work which the teacher had to
do ; and allowing for some defects and for occasional
^2 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
exaggeration and over-sanguineness of expectation, it
still remains a book which is full of instruction for the
modem teacher of language. Yet the English peda-
gogic world was content to drop it out of mind, and
to go on by " rule of thumb," suicidally proclaiming
that their work was neither a science nor an art, and
that they themselves consequently were only boy-
drivers and dominies. With the Baconian movement
came a new interest in psycholog}', and education
began at last to ally itself formally with philosophy.
The man who in 1604 gave expression to the
commonly felt need of educational reform was Wolf-
gang Ratich (Ratke), a native of Holstein, and the
impulse which he gave we still feel. The \iews that
he advocated, while suggested by a deep consideration
of the need of education for the whole people and the
consequent necessity of finding a universal method,
were the fruit of a reaction against the domination of
A\ords over things, and may easily be traced to the
influence of Bacon and the " Xo\'um Organon." As
knowledge of things was now, in the opinion of educa-
tional reformers, to take the place of a knowledge of
words, and as the new philosophy taught that it was
by induction only that we could interpret nature, the
watchwords of Ratich and his followers were, " Omnia
per inductionem et experimentum," and again, " Ve-
tustas cessit ; Ratio vicit" After the fashion of enthu-
siasts, Ratich prosecuted his objects by worr),'ing all
in authorit)-, and finally succeeded in getting his
scheme remitted by the German Diet to certain pro-
I
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 73
fessors in Giessen and Jena, to be reported on by
them. The words they used in submitting their
report are worth quoting, as containing the first
authoritative statement known to us of the close con-
nection that subsists between psychology and educa-
tion. " It is not enough," they say, " that a man
should carry on the work of instructor according to
his own fancy and opinion of what is right, or in
dependence on his native discretion and natural
ability ; but to this work there belongs a special art,
viz., the art of instruction, which no less than other
arts has its fixed ground and assured rules ; and these
arise not only out of the understanding, memory, sense,
yea, out of the whole nature of man, but also out
of the characteristics of languages, art, and sciences."
When Ratich began his educational mission, the
internal state of schools seems to have been little
better than when ]Melancthon and Sturm effected such
great improvements. There had been a relapse.
Latin (with here and there a little Greek and arith-
metic) was the sole instrument of instruction ; and
even this was badly taught. Dreary generalizations
of language rules, covering the whole field of grammar,
including even exceptions, and all these written in
barbarous Latin it>-, had to be committed to memory
by the unhappy pupils. This, with the reading of
Latin authors, but with little regard to the order of
reading and with no attempt even at the literary and
historical instruction which ought to have accompanied
.the reading of these authors, constituted the school
74 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
curriculum. The literary humanistic culture which
now mainly sustains Latin in its time-honoured place
in the school does not seem to have been thought of.
The wave of the Renaissance seems to have exhausted
itself We do not propose to enter here into the
system of Ratich, but as it was the first modern
attempt at once to philosophize on the subject of
education and to furnish a practical method, it is
worth our while to summarize his leading positions.
These w^ere : i. Everything according to the order
and course of nature : for all teaching and learning
which is contrary to nature and violent, is hurtful,,
and w^-cakens nature. 2. Not more than one thing
at a time ; for nothing is more obstructive to the
progress of the understanding than learning many
things together and at the same time. Therefore
treat one thing thoroughly and then go on to another.
Every language may be learned out of one author. 3.
Repeat one thing often ; for what is often repeated
is imprinted on the understanding deeply and
thoroughly. Many things crossing one another con-
fuse and overload the understanding. Here Ratich
borrowed the Jesuit maxim, Repe^itio mater studiorwn.
4. Everything in the mother tongue first. The ad-
vantage of this is, that the young learner has to
think only of the things which he lias to learn-
5. Everything without coercion ; for through com-
pulsion and blows we disgust youth with studies, so
that they put themselves in an attitude of hostility
towards them. It is also against nature. . . . The
I
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 75
pupil should not be afraid of the master, but love
him and hold him in honour ; and this happens if
the master rightly discharges his office. 6. Nothing
is to be learned by heart ; for much learning by
heart detracts from the intelligence and acuteness.
If a thing, being understood, is imprinted on the mind
by frequent repetition, memory follows of its own
accord. 7. Uniformity in all things, as well in what
concerns the learning of an art as in the books used
and the rules to be acquired. The grammars of the
various languages should be as much alike as the
differences of the languages admit of. 8. First, a
thing in itself, and then the ivay of a thing. No njles
till one has given the matter of the author and of the
language. Rules without the materials on which the
rules are based confuse the understanding. 9. '' Omnia
per inductionem et experimentum." Without sub-
scribing to all these canons, we yet recognize in them
the outline of a complete scheme of method ; and we
may find in them, moreover, the germ of all succeed-
ing attempts to methodize the art of instruction.
The defects of the Ratichian system consists in its
too purely intellectual character, and in the shallow-
ness of its philosophic basis. But he did not wholly
neglect the educational, as distinct from the in-
structional, part of his subject. His innovations in
the matter of discipline, indeed, though somewhat
whimsical, were in the right direction. To attract to
learning rather than to coerce, was his aim ; and he
was so anxious to preserve the purity of the intel-
•J^ THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
lectual and moral relation between master and scholar,
that one of his plans was to leave the discipline (in
the sense of coercion) in the hands of a separate
authority, whom he named the scholarch. The
misery to which young humanity was in those days
subject, and which seemed to be accepted as a
necessary accompaniment of all learning, may be
learned from many authorities, who confirm the
words of Balthasar Schupp, Avritten when Ratich was
approaching the end of his disappointed career. " I
must confess," says Schupp, " that owing to the vexa-
tions, diffuseness, and intricacy, and the scholastic
tyranny which prevails in our schools, many a fine
spirit is deterred from study. The ancient Latins
named a school Lucius ; many schoolmasters have,
however, made it a carnificina, or place of torture. If
one should perchance pass by a place where such a
scholastic tyrant rules, ubi plus nocet guajn docct, one
may hear a pitiful howling and lamentation, as if
Phalaris himself held his court there, and as if it were
a den of the Furies rather than of the liberal arts.
If I had a dog ^vh^ch I loved I would not hand him
over to these beasts, much less a son."
Passing from Ratich, who may be held to repre-
sent in the field of education the new school of
philosophy inaugurated by Bacon, we find the philo-
sophy and method of education next taken up by
his immediate successor Comenius. The tractate of
John Milton, published soon after the appearance
of the first works of Comenius, did not aim at
THE TRAINING OF TIIK TEACHER. 7/
expounding a philosophy or method of education,
but rather at laying down the subjects and order
of instruction ; and notwithstanding many exquisite
passages, it contributed, we should think, very little
to the progress of thought on the subject. Amos
Comenius, the pious bishop of the Moravians, in-
herited the ideas of Ratich (although the precise
extent of his indebtedness is uncertain), but being a
man of more systematic mind he was not content
with them as they stood. He had pre-eminently an
organizing intellect, and the result of his labours w^as
the production of a work which we believe to have
been the first attempt to work out the whole method-
ology of education on the basis of a definite scheme
of philosophy. This philosophy was of an eclectic
character, and while resting on Christian theology,
borrowed not a little from Plato and Aristotle. The
leading idea of his system, as indeed it must be the
leading idea of all educational method, is that we
ought to proceed according to nature. In his prin-
cipal treatise, published in 1627, he begins dogmati-
cally ab ovo by laying down certain propositions
regarding man, from which he instantly proceeds to
make deductions. His first proposition, for example,
is that man is the last, most complete, and the most
excellent of living creatures. His second proposition
is that the final end of man lies beyond this life ; and
here he points out that man's life is threefold — vege-
table, animal, and intellectual or spiritual. The first
nowhere manifests itself outside the body, the second
78 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Stretches forth to objects through the operation of the
senses, the third is able to exist separately as well as
in the body. The third general proposition is that
life is only a preparation for an eternal life; the visible
world is a seed-plot, a boarding-house and a training-
school for man. The fourth proposition is that there
are three steps of preparation for eternity : to know
one's self and all things, to have power over all things
and one's self, and to refer all things to God, the
source of all. These requirements are summed up
in the words Eruditio, Virtus, Religio. The seeds
of all these are in us by nature, and the object of
education is to develop them. How is this to be
done ? By recognizing a law and order in man's
growth, as in the realm of nature. Let us, then, find
the law and order of nature, and we shall find the
law, order, and method of education. Proceeding on
this track, Comenius lays down a large number of
general principles of nature, which he at once transfers
to the sphere of education, deducing from them rules
of method. Moral and religious instruction, questions
of school-management and of school-organization, arc
all considered in detail from the same point of view.
It is scarcely necessary to say that the attempt to
carry out a parallelism of process in the operations
of nature and in the educating of a mind fails in the
hands of Comenius, and leads to a forcing of the
argument, and to the propounding of analogies which
are not true analogies. This straining of parallelism,
while it vitiates the argument as a logical whole, is
\
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 79
yet fruitful of many suggestions. It does not always
fail. The practical outcome of his philosophic treat-
ment is indeed almost always good. There is scarcely
a method in teaching or a device in class-manage-
ment in the present day accepted as final which may
not be found in Comenius.
Like Ratich, Comenius warred against the mere
word-teaching of his time. " Id agendum est," says
Seneca, " ut non verbis serviamus sed sensibus." The
scholastic maxim, " Nihil est in intellectu nisi quod
prius in sensu," was accepted by him as absolute in
the school. His great aim was to teach about things
— all things in heaven and earth — through language,
and language again by the presentation to the mind of
all things.
In moral instruction Comenius gives thirteen
canons, and he has a most instructive chapter on the
teaching of religion. In all these things he was far
ahead not only of his own, but even of the present,
time. His philosophical system yielded him thoughts
on the organization of schools as well as of the in-
struction to be given in them. He was the first to
conceive the idea of the infant school under the name
of the " mother-school ; " and his gradation of schools
was so well devised, that, with very slight modifica-
tions, it now constitutes the State system of Germany.
The merits of Comenius are mainly due to the
fruitfulncss of his philosophical ideas, inadequate as
these were ; and if we are to mark his defects, it is
to his philosophy also we must look as the source
8o THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
and explanation of these. Like many men of his
time, he was under the commanding influence of the
Baconian Induction, which had directed the attention
of men away from grammatical niceties and scholastic
subtleties, to the external realities of nature. He
was consequently a Realist in education. When he
came to deal with method he had not, however, the
full advantage of the inductive method as applied to
psychology. Inductive psychology, indeed, was in
its infancy. He, like many others then and now, was
driven by a strong feeling of reaction against word-
teaching and logical subtleties, to a belief in the
omnipotence of a knowledge of the realities of nature
and man to reform [^the human race. Such expecta-
tions could lead only to disappointment. Discipline
of intelligence simply as discipline, and discipline of
will in the moral sphere, were alike subordinated to
mere information. Even in the moral sphere, to which
Comenius gave more prominence than it has since
received, mere instruction (spite of his motto, Agenda
agendo) was to accomplish all or almost all. Notwith-
standing these defects, we find in the writings of this
remarkable man the germ of all succeeding educa-
tional reform.
We have dwelt thus long on Ratich and Comenius,
that we may show the close connection that subsists
between education and the philosophy of mind. The
art of education rest on the methodology, and the
methodology of education, again, rests on psychology,
while psychology is only a part of our larger philo-
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 8 1
sophy of man. A system may be thus elaborated ;
and it is from systematized and thoroughgoing elabo-
rations that we learn most, even when we find it
necessary to set aside the system itself as radically
defective. The whole history of philosophy is an
illustration of this. And it is not surprising that it
should be so ; for the moment a man imposes on
himself the work of systematizing his reasoned con-
victions, he is driven of necessity to find for them
some broad and solid foundation ; and, working in-
ductively and deductively, to fit his thought into a
connected and logical whole. This effort serves as a
test of his doctrine applied by himself before it is
exposed to the criticism of other minds.
We have had many excellent essays on education
since Comenius's time, of which the most important
is that of John Locke ; many schemes of educational
organization ; many social treatises on the philosophy
of education, such as those of Rousseau and Pesta-
lozzi ; many elaborate applications of the German
philosophical systems of Kant, Herbart, Hegel, and
Beneke, to the subject of education in general ; many
treatises on methods, more especially those called into
existence by the normal schools of America, Ger-
many, France, and Great Britain ; but we have had
only partial attempts to lay a psychological founda-
tion for education, and to deduce from this, aided by
the experiential inductions provided by the actual
work of a school, a reasoned and coherent system
of methodology and school practice. That we shall
G
82 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
have such attempts in the future as our knowledge of
mind, and of the physiology or material basis of
mind, extends, we have no doubt. The conviction
will gradually force itself on men's minds, that in the
training of a great profession it is only by a well-
conceived scientific preparation that we can give
method and law to educational genius, while we
supply the lack of genius in that large proportion
of aspirants who seek to enter the profession, from
honourable motives certainly, but without any strong
educational impulse.
Locke's tendencies are all realistic and utilitarian.
And it is a remarkable fact that it is this realistic
impulse, if we may so name it, which has given us
our best and ablest works on education in England
and France. Passing over numerous books of great
practical value but of unambitious aim and touching
only parts of the field, we do not reach an English
writer on education of philosophical rank and aim
till we come to Mr. Herbert Spencer — himself also a
realist, who affects to deal with the whole range of
the science. He puts before us in a rational form,
frequently commanding our hearty assent, the position
of the " modern " school who advocate instruction in
realities as of supreme importance. Even the oppo-
nent of Mr. Spencer must be thankful to him for it —
not merely because of the lucid logic of his reasoning,
but for a philosophic statement which, merely because
it is philosophic, minimizes the distance between the
utilitarian school and its opponents. This is a matter
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 83
of great importance, because if the education of a
country is to be properly organized it is desirable
that a mutual understanding should be arrived at by
different schools of thought.
If \vc wish to see how the philosophy of education
may influence for better or worse the whole life of a
nation, we have only to read Mr. Spencer's book.
He tells us that the aim of all sound education is to
train to " the right ruling of conduct in all directions
and in all circumstances," and is an answer to the
question, " How to live ? " He then proceeds to
indicate a system of instruction which shall bring
youth into an intelligent practical relation with the
world in which they have to work. The error here
is that which we have found in preceding realists,
notably Comenius, viz., that it is by instruction or
information that we educate. It is true that when
Mr. Spencer comes to deal with method he insists on
instruction being determined in its successive stages
by the laws of the normal evolution of intelligence,
if it is to be effectual for its end ; but still it is
instruction and the order of instruction which is the
governing idea of his philosophy of education. Not
that the discipline of intellect is altogether ignored by
him. On the contrary, his chapter on Intellectual
Education is one of the most valuable in his book.
But even here it is not discipline in the best accepta-
tion of that w^ord, but the development of intelligence
as based on a training of the senses and proceeding
therefrom in orderly evolution, that he urges on his
84 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
reader. We believe that every thoughtful educa-
tionalist will accept Mr. Spencer's reasonings so far
as they go. Idealists and realists must meet here.
The intelligence proceeds inductively in acquiring
knowledge, and the teacher, if he be truly an educator,
must initiate into all knowledge also inductively. The
universal canons are : " From the Concrete to the
Abstract," " From the Particular to the General." But
this having been done, what then ? The intelligence,
by moving in accordance with its laws, is certainly,
we freely admit, trained ; but is it, in the true ac-
ceptation of the term, disciplined? This throws us
back on the further question, What do we mean by
the discipline of intelligence ; and when we have dis-
ciplined it what have we gained ? Is the game worth
the candle ? Such questions belong to the philosophy
of education, and they are not idle questions. On
the answer depends the subjects taught in our schools,
the aim of instruction, the organization of instruction,
and the methods of instruction. The philosophy of
Herbert Spencer, and we may add of all empirists
such as Professor Bain, offers us no adequate solution
of the question — is indeed, if consistent, incapable of
doing so. In moral education, again, Mr. Spencer's
chapter is full of wisdom, and suggests even more than
it directly inculcates. His two leading principles —
that the educator's object is to rear a self-governing
human being and not a being to be governed by others,
and that punishment should be the natural conse-
quences of acts — are, so far as they go, sound. But as
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 85
constituting the whole moral aim of education, this, to
our thinking, is very defective, while the penalty sug-
gested is adequate to the guidance of boyhood and
youth only within very narrow limits.
As water cannot rise higher than the level of its
source, so an educational theory cannot rise higher
than the philosophy from which it emanates. If we
hold that man is a being who seeks after ideals both in
the intellectual and in the moral world, then, assuredly,
the ideals of holiness, purity, integrity, courage, self-
sacrifice, are to be set up before the boy and youth,
and our teaching should be so directed as to promote
the growth of those ideals. Wherein consists the
inner penalty of a failure in purity or integrity if these
virtues are to be degraded to the position of being
the product of a mere correlation of the individual
and his wants with external conditions — a correlation
.so adjusted as to secure the most and the best? It
is impossible, it seems to us, that an educational
system that looks no higher than this of utilitarianism
can furnish a motive to the teacher or elevate the
human race, although it may suffice to hold society
together. The boy, the youth, and the man must
have a type of excellence after which they strive —
ideas in which to live, and, above all, an ideal to
contemplate higher than any that mere prudential
morality can furnish. A perfect type of mere pru-
dential morality would, in point of fact, be necessarily
an insufferable prig and pedant. Our moral ideal
must have in it the elements of infinitude that it mav
86 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
call forth an infinite striving, and the characteristics
of the perfectly beautiful that it may draw us by the
cords of love.
We have said that the educational theory of Mr.
Spencer (and we cite him as representative of an
influential school) is inadequate in the aim it proposes
to itself, both in the intellectual and the moral sphere,
and consequently also in its methods. We say in-
adequate, for, so far as they extend, the aims and
method are, speaking generally, to be accepted. Edu-
cation ceases to be a work of surpassing importance
if its aim be not the highest possible for man ; and
the educator who abnegates ideals and the spiritual
life thereby places himself on a level lower than that
on which we should wish to find him. The depression
of his aim depresses likewise the methods to be
pursued, and his whole function and position in the
.social system. The animating forces of his own
individual life must also be the aims of his profes-
sional activity in the school. His ideal for others,
he may rest assured, cannot rise above his ideal for
himself
If we do not accord to man something more than
a power of reacting against external impressions and
co-ordinating these by virtue of association, we miss
the true meaning of his existence. The central force
which we call Ego, and of which the essential and
connate characteristic is Will, seeks to connect itself
with limitless aims and eternal ideas. It will be
satisfied with nothing less. Contemplating steadily
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 8/
man as distinctively and par eminence a living will
among the forces of nature, self-conscious by virtue
of that will, and striving instinctively to find God as
the end as well as fountain of his being, we are at
once supplied with a most fruitful principle. We are
furnished with aims and methods of education which,
while embracing the whole sphere of knowledge and
mere prudential activity claimed by the propounders
of a less adequate conception of man's life and destiny,
stretch into regions which are of necessity, and by their
own showing, an unknown and unknowable world to
the sensationalist.
Let us consider for a moment how the view of the
philosophy of man that we have indicated affects the
education we seek to give to the young, that we may
exemplify still further the close connection that sub-
sists between a nation's philosophy and its educational
aims and methods. If man be pre-eminently a will ;
if it be a capable and completely fashioned will that
we as educators desire to help each of our pupils to
realize for himself; if year by year our object is to
aid this pure spiritual force to risk above the environ-
ment of nature and be truly itself, our educational
task is at once defined for us. Will, as spiritual force
and supremacy over nature (which term of course
includes the appetites and desires of our human
nature), must in the sphere of intelligence be disci-
plined with a view to its easy and ready application to
objects of knowledge and to the affairs of life. Dis-
crimination, discernment, sustained power of self-ap-
8S THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
plication — these are the qualities of intelligence which
we must foster. From the purely practical point of
view, is it not the fact that these are the characteristics
by which one man excels another in the business of
life ? Discipline then is, according to our conception
of the philosophy of man, our chief intellectual end
as educators. But this discipline of the will which, as
the specific characteristic of man, is the basis of in-
telligence, is not enough if we regard it merely as
pure spiritual force ; it moves, in accordance with
certain laws, to the acquisition of knowledge, and to
the discrimination of the true and right among the
complex materials of our daily life. These laws are
sufficiently indicated in the ordinary psychological
logic of induction and deduction. We must then in
the subjects we teach, and, above all, in our method
of teaching, work the intelligence in the line of these
laws. This may be called training, as distinct from
disciplining, though it is manifestly difficult to intro-
duce a distinction here. Mere force will not carry
mind to its aim ; it proceeds by a way, and that way
is method. The material which we give for this will
and method to work in, is a matter of great import-
ance doubtless, but the consideration of this must
always be governed by the higher object of all educa-
tion, which is training and discipline. Starting from
this point, we have to consider the material in which
each and all of us have to work — the environment of
our lives provided for us in the divine order, and to
which we must loyally conform. It seems to us that
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 89
there ought to be little difficulty in determining the
subjects of instruction and the order of instruction,
if vvc allow the question of intellectual discipline and
method to dominate the question of the materials of
school-work.
In the moral sphere, again, Will stands pre-eminent.
It is this that we have to cultivate. In the religious
sphere we have, following at once Aristotle and the
Christian doctrine, to direct the will and to fix it in the
contemplation of the divine. It can ultimately find
satisfaction for its restless activity only in spiritual
ideas and in God. Comparatively little value is to be
attached by the educator to moral instruction, save
in so far as it is directed and inspired by religion. It
is this marriage of the moral and the spiritual that
produces what may be denoted by one name — the
ethical life. The discipline of the will in mere under-
standing and knowing contributes also its share to true
ethical discipline. The unity of educational result
may be in truth summed up in the single word, ethical.
Our aim in the school, therefore, is an ethical aim, and
all we do is of true value only in so far as it con-
tributes to this — the final cause of all our teaching.
By keeping this purpose steadily in view, we alone
truly educate a human being. Unity of purpose and
method, both in the intellectual and moral sphere, is
thereby secured. It is some such unity of purpose
and method which the study of the philosophy of
education must give if it is to supply the place of
native inspiration to the teacher.
90 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
We are aware that the elements of mental science
are already taught in some normal schools in England
and America. We should desire to see this subject
included in the curriculum of every normal school.
But even then the philosophy of education in any
adequate sense would not be taught. It is only by
connecting this subject closely with the philosophical
faculty in all our universities, where students are
being carried through a higher course of instruction
than is practicable at normal schools, that it can re-
ceive thorough scientific and historical treatment.
It is true that only a small proportion of the teachers
of a country would even in that event come under
the influence of philosophy ; for only a small pro-
portion have the qualifications necessary for a uni-
versity career and can find the necessary time to
prosecute it. But it is with this subject as with all
others. The fact that it was cultivated in the universi-
ties would gain for it respect and attention outside the
university walls. The few who, after a course in the
philosophy of education, might go forth as educators
would carry with them an influence that would extend
to every corner of the profession. The entire body
of teachers would begin to affiliate themselves in spirit
to the universities, and seek guidance thence. United
by the bond not merely of a common occupation but
of a common professional standard of aim and work,
the university and the humblest infant-school would
join hands. The teaching body thus bound together
would become a national institution, in the sense in
THE TRAINING OP^ THE TEACHER. 9 1
which the church was, and in Great Britain still is, an
institution ; an institution, moreover, of great power
and importance, because broader in its conception and
aims than the church, and commanding, in these days
at least, more universal sympathy. The schoolmaster
would then take rank with the professions, which at
present he can scarcely be said to do, either in Eng-
land or America. In this new republican hierarchy
(if we may conjoin almost contradictory terms) the
civil power would find its best friend and its surest
guarantee of law, order, and stability. It is mainly,
indeed, in the hope of aiding in the organization of a
new institution which shall contribute to order and
civilization in the midst of the disorganizing forces by
which society is surrounded that we advocate a philo-
sophical basis of training for the teacher. And as to
the teacher himself ; he can hope to hold the social
position which he desires, only when he is a recognized
social influence and is a member of a compact organiza-
tion which stands prominently before the public as an
independent profession. It is in the philosophy and
history of education alone that the members of the
craft can find a common ground of genuine intellectual
professional life, and a true and worthy union of in-
terests and aims.
INTRODUCTORY LECTURE DELIVERED
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH,
IN THE CLASS OF THE " THEORY,
HISTORY, AND ART OF EDUCATION."
I PURPOSE, on this occasion, to confine myself to a
few colloquial remarks suggested by the present
relation of the Education Department to Scotland.
It is impossible for us to have State control of our
educational system which will be satisfactory to the
country, until we have its centre of activity trans-
ferred from London to Edinburgh ; but, meanwhile,
we must make the best of our present circumstances,
and we shall perhaps do so most effectually by being
liberal of complaint and criticism.
It is a strange, and to those who learn it for the
first time, an incredible fact, that while the various
Faculties of the Universities of Scotland confer pro-
fessional degrees in Law, Medicine, Theology, Science
(including even Sanitation), Engineering — all having a
practical value in the business of life — the degree of
the Faculty of Arts confers no professional privilege on
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 93
Teachers. Time was when the Arts Degree conferred
a licentia docendi within the university itself ; now, it
does not give the statutory right to hold a school
even of the meanest kind. Nine months' instruction
in a Training College secures a privilege which is
denied to even the Honours' Graduates of the Scottish
Universities ! All that the attainment of an Honours
Degree can do for the bearer of it is to give him the
privilege of going up to be examined along with the
nine months' Training College students ! That the
Government should demand of all the graduates who
intend to be schoolmasters, however distinguished, a
knowledge of the principles and art of Education
is right and reasonable ; but surely this addition to
the Arts' curriculum should be held to suffice.*
It is not for the Universities I speak, but for the
country ; and the country, I venture to say, demands
that not merely the full Degree, but also a minor
Diploma attainable after two years' study, and after
one year in the case of those who pass the Three
Years' Curriculum Examination, should be within
reach of tho.se who propose to adopt the profession
of public schoolmaster. How else is the standard of
Scottish education in the public schools to be main-
tained ? Codes will fail to do it ; you must have Mai,
and it is the Universities alone which can produce the
higher class of men. I do not mean again to argue
* The necessary reform has since been made by the Education
Department ; but I let my remarks stand, in the hope that the Depart-
ment may become aUve to the fact tliat it is possible tliat it may be
wrong on points not yet conceded.
94 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
the general question here, or to complain of the
Government monopoly conferred upon the Training
Colleges to the great detriment of education in Scot-
land ; but, rather to content myself with adverting to
certain aspects of University training which concern
teachers as a body, and the country through them. I
shall then speak of the present condition and prospects
of our public elementary schools.
On the former subject I would remark — First, that
the University training of a certain proportion of the
teachers of the country, who by their influence would
sustain the level of all the others, is not only of the
greatest importance to schools, but is of vital moment
to the intellectual character, moral weight, and social
standing of the teaching profession as a whole.
Secondly, I shall endeavour briefly to show that the
Universities provide the only means of affording to
the teaching profession a " career : " and a " career " is
essential to the life and vigour of every profession.
As to the first point, it is well known that the
Government requirements of Training Colleges are
such as tend to restrict rather than to promote mental
activity. Although the Education Department has
a fair defence to make, yet there can be no doubt
that, in Scotland at least, Training College studies
might with great advantage be considerably liberalized.
The knowledge which the pupil-teachers bring with
them from the country schools might easily be in-
creased, and the Department would then be justified
in relieving the Training College curriculum of the
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 95
pressure of those studies, which burden the memory
at the expense of the reasoning powers, and which,
though they certainly do give a considerable amount
of discipline, yet restrict the independent thought, the
spiritual activity, the fervour, and imagination of youth.
Such studies (to use the words of Quintilian), "detinent
atque obruunt ingenia." Brain exercise, to be truly
disciplinal, must have some outlook beyond the lesson
of the hour, and far beyond the next examination day.
Love of a subject for itself has at present no time to
grow under the pressure of the multifarious demands
made on the time of the student. Intellectual aspira-
tion is curbed ; and it is only in the minority that it
ultimately survives. And I am satisfied that it sur-
vives even in the few, only because they see, looming
above and beyond their present work, the more liberal
studies of the Universities, holding up a more elevated
standard and inviting them to a higher and more
congenial exercise of their powers. Were the prospect
of enrolling themselves on some future day among the
cives of a University, as many of them happily do,
for ever impossible to them (as is the case with their
brethren south of the Tweed), the fire of intellectual
ambition, already burning low enough, would, I fear,
quite go out.
It is the culture of a class which ultimately deter-
mines the social estimation in which it is held more
than any other one fact. For this culture the teachers
of Scotland must look to the Universities. Referring
to some who desired a reduction of the standard of
96 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
attainment in Training Colleges, the Bishop of Exeter
says, in his evidence before the Commission on Popular
Education in England in 1861, "I think that it would
be far better if you could get schoolmasters with less
knowledge and more education, which is commonly
what is meant by people who ask for what they call a
lower standard" {p. 132). The Royal Commissioners
for Scotland, appointed in 1865, and among whom
were the Duke of Argyll and Lord Moncreifif, say,
" If University apart from Normal School training for
Masters is imperfect " [imperfect, that is to say, only
in so far as it does not provide for the practical. W^^n-
ing of the future teacher], " Normal School training
apart from the University seems to be imperfect also.
The evidence which we have collected on this point,
establishes the conclusion that the most efficient
teacher is he who combines both."
I lay nothing to the charge of the Education
Department : the preparation with which the young
students come to the Training Colleges and the
specific object for which they receive free education
and scholarships, make it necessary to retain much
of the present narrow curriculum. There are many
respects, however, in which the system of instruction
might be improved ; and were the studies more liber-
alized these seminaries would do better the special
work they aim at doing, and which, I willingly con-
cede, they alone are fitted to do effectually, and which
they must continue permanently to do. I say per-
manently, for there can be no doubt that Normal
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 97
Schools are now permanent national institutions.
All I desire is that the minority whose previous
education — obtained it matters not where — fits them
for the higher and better training of the University,
should not only be permitted to take what the
University offers, but encouraged to do so in the
interests of the education of Scotland. It will be
universally admitted that the Training Colleges can
never of themselves supply the country with teachers
who will take the social position of University men,
and so sustain a high, moral, and intellectual level for
the profession as a whole. A considerable proportion
of men trained at the Universities would give tone to
the general body. The whole corporation of teachers
is interested in this question. All other professions
occupy themselves with the qualifications of their
members. The other day even the English solicitors
were talking of an University qualification for their
profession ; we know that both here and in England
the qualification for entrance to Church and Bar is a
constant subject of corporate interest. Why, then, do
we hear so little of this subject from the Chartered
Institute ? This one aspect of a profession, the con-
ditions for entering it, is itself sufficient ground, were
there no other, for the members who constitute that
profession associating themselves. Nay, it would not
be difficult to show that it is the chief ground for asso-
ciation in the case of those professions to which the
State has not given powers of internal discipline.
There are some who would extend the abolition
H
98 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
of professional qualifications and privileges to every
department of the civil organization, and would leave
everything to settle itself after a general scramble,
the many-headed public being judge. This extreme
opinion, held, however, even by few among the most
radical, has no life in it ; it is a mere passing whim
occurring to the mind, even of the leveller, only in
its most perverse moods. The more widespread and
real political equality becomes, all the more does
society need the protection and support of organized
institutions possessing a certain vitality and standard
of their own ; and such an institution is the Scholastic
Profession.
The second aspect of this question to be brought
into view is this, that the connection of the Univer-
sities with the training of public schoolmasters, con-
stitutes the teaching profession a career, and is the
only way of constituting it a career.
If the State had ^50,000 a year to spend on any
profession in the shape of salaries to one thousand
men, it would secure a far higher class of public ser-
vants, both in respect of special training and intellectual
capacity, by having twenty places with incomes varying
from ^500 to ;^I500 a year, and distributing the
remaining ^30,000 unequally, than by giving every
man ;!^50 a year from the beginning to the end of his
service. This is of the nature of a truism. And yet,
somehow, the profession of Teacher is considered to lie
outside the motives which are appealed to in every
other occupation — even the most sacred. In the
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 99
earlier days of the Privy Council system, Sir J. P.
Kay Shuttleworth was sanguine enough to hope, nay
to expect, that men would be found to enter the
profession of elementary teacher from missionary
motives. Such an expectation was based on a very
imperfect appreciation of facts. I should like to
know how many men enter the Church desirous
to labour in humble spheres, unknown to fame and
heedless of reward. There have always been a few ;
but even these, while they give to the Church which
they serve the reputation of self-denying zeal, receive
back, from the first day of their consecration, the
social consideration which that Church has made
good for itself in the estimation of the whole world,
and are, as it were, invested with all its power
and dignity. That there may have been one here
and there from whose mind even this feeling was
wholly absent I am willing to believe ; but that a
man should, with similar self-denial, give himself to the
mission of teaching would be the greatest of all self-
abnegations, because, as yet, that occupation is only
very partially supported by social opinion, and is
unrecognized and undignified by Church and State.
To sacrifice oneself on these terms would be to be a
missionary indeed ! A rare man may be found who
is capable of it, and who would be content to labour
on, poor and unknown, and to die without even an
obituary intimation that he had passed away. But we
cannot look to such exceptional motives and excep-
tional men to do the work of a profession. And it is
lOO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
absurd to suppose that because men look to the
attainment of a modest but adequate reward in repu-
tation and emolument, that, therefore, they do not
bring to their profession a pure love of their work and
an earnest desire to promote the Kingdom of Christ
in Church or School. There are many degrees of the
missionary spirit, and whether a man has it in absolute
purity or not is known, I suspect, not even to himself
Let us, then, take it for granted that the immense
majority — ninety-five per cent, shall we say? — even of
those professions which, like that of the Educator,
have to do with the intellectual improvement and
moral elevation of man will be attracted to their work
by mixed motives — a natural disposition for the
special kind of work which they select, a pure desire
to do that work efficiently through mere love of
efficiency, and a desire for personal reputation, social
esteem, and substantial reward.
South of the Tweed the complaint has been
general, that at twenty-two a Teacher has as much of
the last three as he has at sixty-two ; that he attains
early — earlier than men in any other profession what-
soever — a very fair income, and there remains station-
ary. Doubtless there are various kinds of elementary
schools, and the young teacher may move from an
inferior position to one somewhat better ; but they are
all on the same social level. In this respect the
Teacher is not a professional man, but rather like an
artisan who earns at twenty-two the wages of fifty-
two. This is a very undesirable state of things ; not
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. lOI
for the teacher alone, but, through him, for the nation.
Very competent and well-instructed men now enter
the profession ; but were there more prospect of pro-
motion the quality of aspirants would unquestionably
improve, to the great benefit of society : it matters
not how humble the beginning is, if the end be an
object of ambition.
Now, it may not at first appear how the privilege
of sending out a certain proportion of public school-
masters by the Universities would contribute to the
constituting of the desired "career." But a little con-
sideration will show how it would work in an educa-
tional system like that of Scotland. The University
training would connect together the different parts of
the system. Men going out with a University diploma
would naturally look for appointments in those public
schools only in which the Boards desired to have a
man fit to prepare boys for the Universities ; the best
of the graduates, again, going at once into High
Schools of the first or second rank. A man who with
a University diploma accepted a town or country
public school of the kind I refer to, would look for-
ward to the best schools of this class as the first object
of his ambition, and teach under the spur of this hope.
His next object of ambition would be to obtain a
place in a High School of the second rank, and finally
of the first. If he found that the fact of his holding
only the minor University diploma was against him —
notwithstanding admitted eminence as a teacher — he
would, after he had saved a little money, return to the
I02 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
University for a full degree in Arts or Science. In
this way the ordinary public elementary schools of
the better class would be connected with the highest
positions in the profession, and all ranks be bound
together by a common interest.
But it may be said that the gradation of teaching-
rank, of which I have been speaking, does not go
down below University men, and that there is a
career consequently only for these. But it is not so.
Normal School men who go straight from the Training
Colleges to serve in public schools are not left out in
the cold ; they have excellent opportunities of raising
themselves. A few of the more able and vigorous
among these generally come to the University after
they have served a few years in the country ; and more
would come if the University Arts' teaching had any
statutory value for them.
I think I have now shown you that it is through the
Universities that the social standing of the teaching
profession can alone be sustained ; and also that it is
through the same Universities that the profession can
alone become a career. No profession, no skilled
occupation even, is on a healthy basis unless it afford
a career.
Having spoken thus far of the teaching profession,.
I would now say a few words on the present state and
prospects of public school education in Scotland. In
doing .so I deal with that aspect of the question which
touches the " business and bosom " of every resident in
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 103
the country parishes who have sons and daughters to
educate. I deal, too, with an important commercial
question, because one of the commodities which this
country has been in the habit of taking into the
market of the British empire has been " intellect."
In this department of "intellect" Scotland, as Mr.
Gladstone once remarked, has been an exporter.
It would not be fair to attack the Act of 1872.
The Act is not responsible for the admitted depres-
sion of higher instruction in the country schools.
In the 67th clause of the Act the minutes regulating
the administration of Parliamentary grants are ordered
to be constructed, subject to the provision " that due
care shall be taken by the Scotch Education Depart-
ment that the standard of education which now exists
in the public schools shall not be lowered, and that as
far as possible as high a standard shall be maintained
in all schools."
We all know what these words pointed to. They
had reference solely to that kind of instruction which
prepared country lads for the Universities, — instruction
in Latin, mathematics, and the elements of Greek.
And my conviction is that, had that clause not been
inserted, the Act would never have passed. Faith has
not been kept with us. For how has the provision
been given effect to ? By informing teachers that
after giving an hour's steady daily work where there
is one class (and about two hours' where there are two
or more classes) to the instruction of a few promising
boys and girls who take Latin and mathematics, they
I04 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
will be rewarded at the end of the year with 4^-. per
subject for each boy ! We must put the saddle on
the right horse, then, and that horse is not the Act,
but the Scotch Education Department. The tempo-
rary Board appointed to conserve Scottish interests
found that its powers of Code-drafting ceased with its
first efforts in that direction.
While, however, we must admit that the Code in
its influence on that kind of instruction which prepares
boys for the Universities is wholly bad, we are far from
wishing to attack the Code indiscriminately. It is our
duty, on the contrary, to acknowledge that the Code
has great merits, and that in many respects it has
been of signal benefit to education in Scotland. We
must bear in mind that a Code for public elementary
schools must be constructed primarily for the benefit of
the many, not of the few. If this be so, we take up an
indefensible position if we oppose the Code as a whole.
Just let us go back fifteen years, and look into the
state of elementary education before the introduction
of a Code designed to direct the energies of teachers.
The Duke of Newcastle's Commission reported in
1 861 that the trained teachers throughout the country
were good in every respect but one. That exception,
however (they go on to say), is a most " important
one. It is that tiic junior classes in the schools, com-
prehending the great majority of the children, do not
learn, or learn imperfectly, the most necessary part of
what they come to learn — reading, writing, and arith-
metic." There cannot be the slightest doubt as to
THE TRAINING OP^ THE TEACHER. I05
the widespread disregard of the simple elements of
reading, writing, and arithmetic up to 1861. Even
a " good " school meant only a good " highest " class,
and as the majority of the children left for work before
the age of eleven, the objects of the Parliamentary
Grant were clearly not attained.
The case was not quite so bad in Scotland, but
still it was bad enough. The cause of the evil was
not in the indifference of the schoolmasters so much
as in the want of skill in classification and organ-
ization and in the defective teaching staff. Com-
paratively few outside the Normal School men could
construct a time-table even in the rudest and crudest
way ; and nothing more than this one fact is needed
to show that they knew little of school organization,
and especially of that part of it which is indispensable
to the full effect of a teacher's labours — classification.
The powers even of a zealous man were wasted
through want of skill. With great expenditure of
energy, he was merely beating the air. Of course
there were many exceptions ; but, speaking generally,
I describe the actual state of the case. A remedy was
needed, and that a drastic one. A regulator of the
great teaching engine had to be introduced.
The Code then, in so far as it required the teachers
to classify with accuracy and to fix a standard of
attainment for each successive class — I say reqtih'ed
advisedly — was a great boon to the education of the
country, and corrected an evil which was simply in-
tolerable. Nay rnore, the Code was a boon in so far
I06 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
as it required {^r\6. here again I use the word advisedly)
teachers to begin to teach writing and arithmetic on
the same day on which they began to teach reading,
and also to pay more attention to mere mechanical
facility in the use of the mere instruments of education.
These were the primary objects of the Revised Code ;
so far, it was educationally sound, and so far it will be,
I trust, a permanent institution.
The Privy Council took aim at certain evils, and
they hit their mark. But, unfortunately, while curing
a particular disease, they set up an unhealthy action
in the body scholastic as a whole. The country was
resolved to get a substantial commodity in return
for its outlay. With this view it concentrated its
attention on things which had an admitted value and
the aspect of substantiality, and ignored all others.
For how could a Code weigh or measure intellectual,
moral, or aesthetic results ! Here was a difficulty at
the threshold. These evidently were regarded as
visionary things. If entertained at all, they were
entertained with that supercilious contempt of true
education, characteristic of minds which find in Mara-
thon and Thermopylae the insignificant records of
mere tribal contests.* The " Department " accord-
ingly made "grants in aid" turn on attendance at
school and on individual passes in reading, writing,
and ciphering — all nicasiirablc quantities. Given an
arithmetical unit of measure for school work and
assign to it the value of a coin of the realm, and you
* Lord Shcrbrooke's address to tlie Institute of Engineers.
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 10/
could express the working result of each school by so
many figures. The annual Report of the Department
might have consisted of a big iminbcr, and nothing
more. Any gentleman could have carried it home
from the " House " on his thumb-nails — expenditure
on one thumb-nail, "results" on the other. What a
triumph of administration was this! The "nation of
shopkeepers " had got its quid pro quo.
Trace the changes made in the Code since 1861,
and you will see that they were for the most part of
the nature of relaxations of rules, or of concessions to
demands for the introduction of this, that, or the other
subject into the school with a payment attached to
each. Almost all these changes have been improve-
ments, and the education of the country unquestion-
ably owes much to them. Take for example the
introduction of domestic economy for girls, of singing
for all, and of composition for the highest class. And
yet, notwithstanding all this, the Code was merely
patchwork at best, as appeared when England had to
be dealt with afresh in 1871, and Scotland in 1873.
The Department seemed suddenly to have resolved
to satisfy clamorous crotchet-mongers all round by
recognizing with one bold stroke everything teach-
able, under the designation of "specific subjects," or,
as teachers now call them, " specifics." It gathered
under its gracious patronage all the arts and all the
sciences, and — not it may be without a touch of grim
humour — it challenged the whole army of school-
masters to teach these, if they could, at 4^. per head
Io8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
per annum ! And now I may presume that the
Inspectors travel with a copy of " Chambers' Encyclo-
paedia " in their dog-carts, half a dozen grammars,
and a tuning-fork. For they are not only exposed
to be called on to examine in the ordinary subjects
of school instruction, including Music and Drawing,
and Sewing and Cutting-out, but they must be ready
to test the little boys and girls in Geometry, Algebra,
English Literature, Latin, Greek, French, German,
Mechanics, Chemistry, Animal Physiology, Light and
Heat, Magnetism and Electricity, Physical Geography,
Botany, and Domestic Economy ! But this was not
all, for Scotland gloried in being an intellectual
. country, and was the State-pocket to be buttoned
up, when Intellect cried aloud for what is called
" pecuniary encouragement ? " Not so : the Depart-
ment was equal to the occasion, and gracefully yielded
to Scotland Art. 19, c. i, whereby "Intelligence" is
rewarded at the rate of 2s. per head : The sum is
small perhaps, but it is probable that the authorities
were of opinion that Scottish intelligence did not, after
all, need much stimulus, and that it could take care
of itself pretty well. Wc must then regard the small-
ness of the reward as a compliment to our mental
superiority. I sometimes wonder if there is, or ever
has been, any people on the face of the earth, except
the British, who would gauge their educaticjnal work
after this patchwork fashion ; and whether, if they did
so, they would stop where the Code stops. If in-
telligence is worth 2s. a head, what price are we to
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. lOQ
pay for morality? A morality-schedule, filled up
after due inquiry and attestation, is not an adminis-
trative impossibility. With columns of the virtues
opposite the name of each boy and girl, we might
have in such a schedule a great engine for estimating
the moral condition of the country. What a valuable
record for the future historian, throwing all Memoires
pour servir into the shade ! Animal physiology at
4^-. per head, intelligence at 2s., integrity at 2s. 6d.,
truth-speaking at t,s., and a sensitive conscience
generally at 4^"., would go quite well into a statistical
table, and admit of summation, and of a numerical
statement, including even decimals !
But to return to the more serious consideration of
the Code, I repeat that it has done much for Scottish
education : it was needed. But, having once settled
the standards and the school classification, and com-
pelled attention to the mechanical arts of reading,
writing, and arithmetic, it should then, I hold, try,
through its of^cials, to go right to the mind and heart
of a school. It can do this only by taking a class, not
an individual, as the school unit ; and if the mind of
that class satisfies the Inspector it should be passed as
a whole.* In this way the school organization would
become more ela.stic all through, and boys would not
be forcibly kept in the same standard in arithmetic as
in reading. Let us not forget to congratulate the
country on the fact that the Code is now moving in
* This does not, of course, mean that every boy is not to be ex-
amined.
no THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
this direction. It is every year getting rid of some of
its youthful crudeness. It is ripening and mellowing
with time. A most significant step forward, for ex-
ample, was taken in that very recognition of " intelli-
gence " to which we have above referred ; and a still
more significant one by the insertion of those little
words in Art. 19, c. i, — the words "in the classes," —
which words require the Inspectors to test " intelli-
gence " in the classes as wholes. But, unfortunately,
no article has yet attacked the root of the evil ; and
the consequence is that the teacher has no time nor
heart for the development of the intellectual and moral
character of his school. He is repressed on every side
by the laggards, and the school is repressed with him.
The dullest pupils have to be brought up to a minimum
standard, and energies have to be wasted on them
which would be much more profitably employed in the
quiet but steady cultivation of the mind of the school.
Time thus profitably employed would have an effect
which, by the nature of things, would be permanent.
Labour so directed would give an impulse to the intel-
lectual powers, and a training in moral perceptions
and moral habits, which the children would never lose.
The mental activity thereby engendered would not
cease with the school, but be a self-producing energy
of a kind that does not expend itself in one cfibrt, but
gains fresh force by making effort. It is only, in point
of fact, the skeleton of a school that is at present
estimated : to use biological language, the morphology
is reported on, the physiology is left out of sight — not
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. Ill
in name, but in truth. One is reminded of the words
of Quintihan (substituting the word ediicatiojie for
oratione), Prooem. 24 : " Plerumque nudae illae artes
frangunt atque concidunt quidquid est in educatione
gcnerosius, et omnem sucum ingenii bibunt et ossa
detegunt, qua^ ut esse et astringi nervis suis debent sic
corpore operienda sunt." The Duke of Newcastle's
Commission, which led to the Revised Code, ascer-
tained that children did not read after they left school
because they couldn't do it — a sufficient reason, certainly ;
but another commission will find out, some day, that
children can read, but dojit do it, simply because they
have not the desire to do it. Their intellectual
interests are nothing, and their intelligence is a
machine which has never really worked and has con-
sequently become rusted and clogged. If called upon
to work it will not move at all, or move with such pain
and discordant creaking that the process is not likely
to be repeated. Some people would seem to think
that the intelligence and morality of a people depend
on their being able to read with a certain fluency ; but
this is a mistake. It depends much more on their right
interpretation of daily experience — it depends on their
power of observation and of thinking. The Govern-
ment should aim, in so far as its influence extends, at
producing an observing, thinking, and moral popula-
tion, and the reading will take care of itself as one
of the instruments whereby the intelligence seeks to
extend its knowledge and practise its powers.
But how is the Government to measure the moral
112 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
and aesthetic elements in the school ? These things,
as they are above price, so are they above measurement
by means of any article in a Code. I think we must
simply trust the Inspectors. Let them be empowered
to examine a class mainly with a view to its intelligent
mastery of the work of its standard and pass it as a
whole for grants, if it as a whole satisfies them ; pro-
vided always that, in the mere mechanical power of
reading, 85 per cent, of the class can pass. This is
the only cure for the evil. What, it will be said, is to
be done with the remaining 1 5 per cent. ? The answer
is easy. To use the words of Professor Black, of
Aberdeen, in an excellent address published by him
last April, the dunces are to be driven as far as they
'' can go ivithoiit hindering- their ncigJibonrs!' If they
cannot go on with their fellows, they must be left be-
hind to repeat their work. Even if at the end of their
school-life they cannot do mechanical reading and
writing so well as they might have done under the
present system (which, however, I do not believe), they
will have received a far more valuable possession — the
habit of exercising, or trying to exercise, such intel-
ligence as they possess. Meanwhile, the boys of
promise will not be unjustly retarded. I say unjustly,
for it is simply not fair that promising boys should
have their progress checked and their mental activity
restricted in order that the dunces may be taught to
spell. This is the worst kind of communistic social-
ism, for it is the communistic socialism of the soul.
Any incidental evils arising from placing implicit trust
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. 113
in the Inspectors might be checked by organizing the
Inspectorate and giving a certain supervision and con-
trol to Chief or Diocesan Inspectors, whose duty it
would be to harmonize the inspection of large districts
of country. The Inspectors would report to their im-
mediate chiefs, and these again to the Department.
And, I may remark, in passing, that annual reports on
large sections of country in which the Inspectors-in-
chief made use of the materials furnished to them by
the sub-inspectors of their dioceses would be of great
public interest and value.
While speaking of the vexed question of the Code,
I wish to separate two of the objections taken to it,
which are commonly mixed together in the minds of
hostile critics. The one is its discouragement of the
higher subjects, in respect of which I hold that the
Department has simply not carried out the law, and
the character of the Code itself as it touches the whole
school and affects the masses of the people. I have no
sympathy with those who would sacrifice the mass of
a school to the few boys who desire preparation for the
professions ; and I agree with a schoolmaster who
wrote a few months ago in the Scotsman, in a very
healthy, manly way on this subject. There is time for
the Code within the five hours of religious and secular
instruction, and time before and after these hours for
the teaching of the higher subjects, while the pupil
teachers are being instructed. If more time is wanted,
and that during the ordinary school hours, the School
Boards must set free the master for this by the simple
I
114 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
and cheap expedient of giving him an additional pupil
teacher. In many cases, indeed, the master could get
the additional monitorial assistance he needs in return
for the higher instruction. This question of the higher
subjects in schools is a totally distinct question from
the educational character of the Code in its main
features and primary objects. It is vain for school-
masters to ask to be relieved of English, geography,
arithmetic, dictation, etc., in order that they may teach
Latin and mathematics, and Greek, to five or six boys
and girls : nor do the best of them desire this. The
practical exclusion of all but the merest elements of
these last-named subjects from the ordinary work of
the school-day, if the length of that day does not ex-
ceed five hours, cannot be reasonably objected to.
The true objection to the Code is that its money pay-
ments are so awarded as to demand that the teacher
— if he would please his Board and maintain his
reputation in the eyes of the undiscerning multitude —
shall spend his energies on the dunces and laggards of
the school in the teeth of Nature and Providence. In
consequence of this, the masses are not attended to.
The teacher cannot devote himself sufficiently to the
slow and careful development of the intellectual and
moral power of his pupils — a matter, surely, of pro-
found importance to the country. I venture to say,
that any teacher who spends ten minutes in an intel-
lectual conversation with a class {after the Socratic
fashion) on the subject of the day's lesson, is con-
tinually haunted b\- the fear that he is losing three
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. II5
per cent, on account of some dull boy. Not that the
three per cent, matters ; but this dull boy, if not
attended to, lowers the per centage of Government
" passes " and affects the reputation of the teacher with
the people and with his Board. Is the attainment of
such a result as this promoting the education of the
mass of the people ? Is the country so profoundly
concerned about its dunces ? Is the bargain, which the
State effects in such a case with the schoolmaster, a
good bargain .? I think it is not. I think the State
is, in this case, after all, a very dull and incompetent
trader.
As regards, now, the " higher " subjects — that is to
say, those subjects which prepare boys for the Univer-
sities and girls for Training Colleges — this, I would
reiterate, is a totally distinct question, and lies outside
the main body of the Code. The master has no time,
with an ordinary staff, to teach more than the elements
of these during the five hours of religious and secular
instruction, if he is to do the work which we expect
the Public School to do for the public. But by teach-
ing the higher subjects above the elements, in the
pupil teachers' classes, before and after the ordinary
day's work, he can do much without over-straining his
powers. If, however, the local Board will allow him a
little additional assistance, and if Government will
consent to measure his day's work by an intellectual
and moral standard, he will have time within the
ordinary school-hours to make some substantial pro-
gress with advanced English, advanced arithmetic.
Il6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
and the elements of geometry and Latin ; and this not
by giving the classes, as a whole, less of his attention,
but by giving them his very best. The pupils will
thus be prepared, intellectually, for the higher work,
and pre-disposcd to seek it ; while the master's spirit
will respond more readily to the demands made on
him for advanced instruction, when he is treated by
the State no longer as a mere machine, but as an in-
tellectual and moral force.
All instruction in the higher subjects, beyond the
first year of such instriiction, would have generally to
be given before or after the ordinary school-day. For
all such instruction it is essential that the master be
paid x\o\.pcr capita, but simply for success as a teacher.
It is a more exhausting process to teach two boys
Latin than to teach ten, and if a master has, owing to
local circumstances, only two pupils, it is not un-
reasonable to ask that he should be rewarded just as
if he had ten, by a fixed Parliamentary Grant. This
might be paid on condition that the local Board con-
tribute an equal sum, either in the form of additional
school assistance or of a direct increase of salary.
Already, in the School Board of Canonbic, we have an
instance of a Board which, seeing the rapid declension
of the higher subjects in a school formerly distin-
guished for the good teaching of them, offers a grant
from the rates i)i addition to the Government Grant.
And, let it be observed, that Boards in acting thus do
not pay for the instruction of a few boys and girls
only, but for the maintenance of a high standard in
J
THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER. II7
the school, which tells powerfully on every child in it.
The mental and moral stature of each individual pupil
grows with the mental and moral stature of the school.
I had hoped to be able to touch on some other
points, but time fails me. I should have liked to
speak of the desirableness of giving higher grants on
account of the fifth and sixth standards than for the
third and fourth ; but especially I should have
desired to speak of the rural-parish endowments of
Scotland, amounting to about ;^24,ooo a-year, as a
fund by means of which the higher instruction might
be encouraged in the country districts, in conformity
with the 46th section of the Scottish Education Act.
This would not be a diversion of the money, but a
strictly equitable application of it in our altered
circumstances ; and I have yet to learn that it would
be illegal.
I omit these things for the present, and some
others ; but I would, with a persistency which I trust
you will pardon, revert for a single moment to the
subject with which I began, and which beyond all
doubt is the educational question of the day in Scot-
land, viz. the training of teachers. Offer grants even
of i^io for every pupil who is being instructed in the
higher branches, and you will utterly fail to get what
you want unless the teachers have the ability to give it.
Let us have the right men ; provide a little additional
assistance in the school, and you will get all you
want easily. We have the needed money in the
counties aided by the Dick Bequest ; but the Bequest
Il8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
would be powerless were it not for the co-operation
of the University of Aberdeen, which provides the
right men — men of good University attainments, and
possessed consequently of the highest scholastic am-
bition. How shall we continue to secure such public
servants if University diplomas are not recognized by
the State just as medical and other diplomas are
recognized ?
To conclude : there is every reason to be hopeful
of the future of Scottish education, and of the restora-
tion of the higher instruction to our public or parochial
schools. The Code, taken as a whole, has laid a good
foundation, and on this we can build. We do not
ask much from the Government, and we expect much
from the country itself It is true that the changes
we desire are of a vital character ; but they are easil}-
made, and — an important matter — they are in the
direction in which the Department has already begun
to move. A few minor defects would still remain : I
refer especially to the treating geography and history as
special subjects, and to the omission to allow a double
grant for boys who pass two standards in one year.
These subordinate defects time would clear away. A
few strokes of the Lord President's pen will do all we
who live north of the Tweed can reasonably desire,
and do it, I am certain, with the unanimous concur-
rence, nay, the applause, of all who arc interested in
the education of Scotland, and arc capable of patriotic
sentiment.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
THE HOUSE OF LORDS AND POPULAR
EDUCATION.*
The Function of the Primary School.
The debate in the House of Lords f on the Educa-
tion Code which ended in a majority of forty-eight,
virtually condemning the action of the Education
Department since 1870 in so far as it had encouraged
anything beyond the most elementary instruction, was
an event interesting in itself, and significant in the
history of education in England. Had the promoters
of what was virtually a vote of censure belonged to
the Tory party only, the result might have been
accepted as little more than a survival of a spirit sup-
posed to have been extinct. It was not so, however.
The Bishop of Exeter and Lord Sherbrooke ably
represented the other side, and were in themselves
* Fraser's Magazine.
f Debate of the i8th of June in which llie following motion by
Lord Norton was carried : " That a humble address be presented to
Her Majesty, praying that Her Majesty would be graciously pleased to
direct that the Fourth Schedule be omitted from the New Code of
Regulations issued by the Conmiittee of Privy Council on Education."
122 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
evidence that there is a considerable feehng of dis-
content with the action of the Department, and a still
wider suspicion of its tendencies, if not of its aims. It
is worth while to inquire whether there are any
grounds for this dissatisfaction.
It would be (absurd unhappily) in our country to
suppose that any abstract educational theories have
had anything to do, in the first instance at least, with
the wide-spread doubts and dissatisfaction that ulti-
mately found confused expression in the House of
Lords. The money question is the real starting point
of the malcontents. It is the large vote that stirs
into activity the educational intelligence of the English
people, and leads them to ask the question. What are
we paying for, and whither are we tending ? Three
millions per annum is a large sum, and might build
more than one ironclad. The uneasiness with which
many see this expenditure, which, after all, is only a
portion of the total which the country pays for edu-
cating its poorer citizens, leads them to fasten blindly
on a certain class of payments that seem to be super-
fluous. In addition to money grants calculated on the
average attendance at a school, and the grants for
passes in the " three R's," the Department pays for a
class of subjects denominated " specific," which in the
opinion of the House of Lords are not necessary to
the child of the working man — nay, more, in their
general effect and social tendency, are positively hurt-
ful. These subjects certainly strike one, at the first
blush, as out of place in a primary school : they are
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 23
to be found in the Fourth Schedule attached to the
main body of the Code, and include mathematics,
English literature, Latin (in Scotland, Greek and
Physics), French, German, mechanics, physiology,
physical geography, botany, and domestic economy.
It may be possible to urge a good educational argu-
ment against giving instruction in such subjects in
a primary school, but it must be conceded that the
purely financial objection breaks down ; for the total
sum spent on such subjects (excluding domestic
economy for girls, to which we presume no objection
will be taken), is comparatively a mere trifle.
As part of an argument, however, against the
alleged tendencies of the Department gradually and
insensibly to draw into itself the whole work of
secondary education, the financial objection may have
weight. Is there any such tendency ? Is it credible
that in men depressed by routine the love of power
should still survive ? Is it conceivable that fervour in
a "cause" should stir the official mind? It is only
on the assumption that such things are possible that
we can imagine any ground for imputing to the
Department a disposition to transgress its limits ; for
whatever may be said of other departments of the State,
it is in the minds of the permanent officials that we
must seek for the motives and aims that determine
successive Education Codes, and this, because the
subject is one of such infinite detail that the master of
the details must, as pilot, control the vessel, whoever
may be nominally its captain. For our own part, we
124 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
do not for a moment think the Department open to
any such imputation. That the love of power can
exist in the official mind, and in certain cases can
even flourish under folds of red tape, we might be in-
duced to believe ; but we do not think that any case
has been made out of a deliberate disposition on the
part of the Education Office to exceed its powers.
And, indeed, why should they ? They have enough
to do. A large and intricate machine is worked with
surprising efficiency, and we are satisfied that to work
it demands all the energy and ability in the service of
the Minister of Education. Since the days of Sir J.
P. Kay-Shuttleworth the Department has been gradu-
ally absorbing the whole primary education of the
country, and it is scarcely any exaggeration to say
that it is now (alas !) cognizant of what is going on in
every primary school in the country at every suc-
cessive minute of the school day. By some this may
be regarded as a proud position. To have conquered
so great an intellectual empire by means of money,
aided by the jealousies and mutual distrusts of
churches, is no small triumph. But it is only in a
limited and conventional sense, a success ; for, with
the advantages, come all the evils of over-centraliza-
tion, and these are more to be deprecated in the
educational than in other spheres of State administra-
tion. The life (jf education is the freedom of the
teacher and the school, within certain general restric-
tions ; and where this docs not exist, the intellectual
and moral evils of centralization far more than
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 12$
counterbalance the gain. Every teacher in the country-
takes his orders from the Code, studies the Code, and
devotes his energies to satisfy or to circumvent it.
The power that resides in the Permanent Secretary's
pen is probably greater than that wielded by any
other official in the empire. Still this centralization
has been an unpurposed, though an inevitable, growth ;
and there seems no way out of it except by delegating
some of the powers to the county governing bodies
which we are now promised. County autonomy, con-
trolled by a central official Council consisting partly
of experts, is not inconsistent with the State's obtain-
ing all the best ends of a national system — nay, it is
probably the only way of best attaining those ends.
We say that the power already exercised by the
Department, and the many burdens that it has even
now to bear, must subject it to a great strain ; and
this, among other things, forbids our suspecting it of
designs on the secondary education of the country.
Were there any indications of such a design, the pro-
posed inroad into this new domain would certainly
have to be resisted. For, while admitting that
secondary instruction is a subject clamantly calling
for State organization, the work would have to be set
about under very different auspices from that of the
present Department, and would have to be controlled
by a larger and more liberal spirit. We believe the
fact simply to be, that impatient professors of all
the " ologies " have been struck with admiration of
the mighty instrument which the Queen in Council
126 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
had put into their hands, and have pressed their
various pet educational crotchets on the patient and
perplexed permanent secretary. The result has been,
that round the dry and meagre Code introduced by
Mr. Lowe in 1861, there has grown, by inevitable
accretion, the list of " specific subjects " which now
call forth so much adverse comment. We cannot
believe the Department to be insensible to the humour
of the situation, and we half suspect that they have
with a certain wilful glee given the " modern spirit "
full rein just to see what the issue would be.
We not only acquit the Department of any such
ambition as that attributed to them, but we believe
that they are only acting on the line of the true
Liberal tradition in education, viz. that it is the duty
of the State in its own interest to see that all its
citizens have at least an opportunity afforded them of
being educated, not only up to the level of their
existing position in the social scale, but up to the
level of their possible position. Nor are we incon-
sistent in supporting, at the same time, both the
House of Lords and "the Department": the apparent
inconsistency is reconciled by a proper understanding
of the aims and the social restrictions of popular
education. We believe that the more education a
man has, if the substance and method of that education
be first wisely settled, the better citizen he will be —
nay, the better will he do even the humblest work
assigned to him. If any discontent arises, it will be
due not to the fact of the man's education, but to the
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 12/
fact that he is educated beyond the level of his
neighbours, and that, while raised by his ability and
acquirements out of sympathy with the life of his
fellow-labourers, he is nevertheless debarred from
finding occupation more suited to his intellectual life,
which he yet sees to be easily within the reach of
men socially more fortunate than himself while in
respect of education they are his inferiors.
The question put before the country by the House
of Lords is not at all whether the Department is
trenching on the sphere of secondary education and
spending money illegitimately. The Lords do not
understand their own difficulty. The term "secondary"
education is loosely and inaccurately used. The real
point is — and some of the speakers seemed to be
vaguely conscious of it — Up to what age is imperial
revenue to be burdened with the cost of education for
the poor ; and having determined this, how shall the
time at the disposal of the child be used ? Are we at
present using the time profitably and getting our
money's worth .'' As a matter of fact, the school
education of the masses of the population ends in the
twelfth year ; nor is it likely, while poverty continues,
that it will ever be otherwise. But surely it is the
function of the State, always presuming that it has
any educational function at all, to encourage the con-
tinuance of school life as long as the pressing physical
necessities of the poorer classes permit. The House
of Lords (we refer to the reactionary members) may
rest assured that in the present, or indeed any, con-
128 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
stitution of society, the prolongation beyond the
twelfth year will not be great. The age of fifteen is
not likely in any one case to be exceeded. The
longer the period of school life is, the more fruitful
is the result of the earlier years of training, and the
more certainly will the level of intelligence of the
humbler classes be raised — not only of those in-
dividuals who benefit by the prolonged instruction,
but (and this is the important point) of the whole social
class to which they belong. Is it necessary at this
time of day to argue that this is a matter of State
concern .'' Nations are now industrial communities
competing with each other, and the weapon with
which they now compete, and must for the future
compete, is intelligence. It is no longer an open
question whether we are to rely on the intelligence,
as well as on the moral and religious upbringings,
of the operative classes : we vmst do so. Technical
training in the various manufacturing industries can
reach only the few, and we believe that infinitel}'
more important than any amount of technical training
is the general intelligence of the workman as that
has been developed in the public school. Given a
well-exercised, open mind, and the requisite technical
knowledge and aptitude will be very easily acquired.
A leading aim of the primary school, then, is the
cultivation of the human intelligence, and we sincerely
believe that this is not attainable under the restrictions
which Mr. Lowe devised in the Revised Code of 1861,
or those which Lord Shcrbrooke would now rcimpose.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 29
The meagre requirements of Mr. Lowe would probably
cost as much to the State as a more liberal demand,
and would bring back to society little or no return.
It might with truth be maintained that the bare
technical arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic are
of less moment to the individual and the community
than the assiduous cultivation of the intelligence, even
to the comparative neglect of these arts. It is fortu-
nately true that a certain amount of discipline is
indirectly given in the course of learning to read and
write, especially if good methods are employed ; but
would not more of these accomplishments themselves
be acquired were the daily instruction made subor-
dinate to the training of the spiritual instrument by
which they are acquired ? Lord Sherbrooke attempts
to strengthen his position by giving us his experience
of boys who had passed the sixth standard, and
who could not act as his private readers in such
a way as to make listening on his part an occu-
pation either pleasing or profitable. So then we
are to understand, by Lord Sherbrooke's own con-
fession, that his policy has been a failure. We
should have expected nothing else. Mr. Lowe in-
structs boys in the deciphering of printed characters,
and then complains that when all is over they cannot
read to him satisfactorily blue-books or the " Fort-
nightly." Why should they ? Reading aloud in any
.sense other than the mere naming of vocables is an
act of intelligence, and an act requiring an ever higher
intelligence as the subject-matter of what is read
K
I30 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
grows in subtlety and complexity. Even with the
help of more disciplined and better-informed minds,
very few of the middle and upper classes can read in
a style that satisfies at once the understanding and
the ear of a cultivated listener. Probably, no accom-
plishment is more conclusive evidence that a boy has
been educated than the power of reading well. We
are quite ready to agree with Lord Sherbrooke : good
reading is more important than a knowledge of the
elements of Latin or of electricity and magnetism ;
and until the former is done, the latter may be left
out of the curriculum of the people's schools. But
how is reading, such as Lord Sherbrooke desiderates
to be obtained .■' Only by familiarizing the mind with
the subject-matter of books, and giving it command
over the words of literature, and the ideas which those
words denote. The House of Lords would not, we
believe, object to this being done, but they are
probably not aware that in accepting this as the
standard of education, they aim very much higher
than the promoters of a smattering of the specific or
so-called " secondary " subjects do. Such a result is
not to be attained except by a curriculum of in-
struction, carefully adapted to the age of the pupils,
in the realities of sense and of thought. The Education
Code should aim at this, and not at the beggarly
knowledge of the vocables of a reading-book which
has been carefully restricted in its scope to secure for
the pupil a Government " pass."
l^ we ask next on what materials the intelligence
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I3I
of the young is to be led to exercise itself, vvc answer
again, on the realities of sense and of thought. By
the former we mean nature and man's relation to it,
without any pretence to science and its (to children)
barren terms and empty formulated expressions ; by
the latter we mean the ideas and language of moral
and religious truth, and of imaginative literature. It
is only in this way that wc bring the young mind in
direct contact with the substance of the mental life of
all who have emerged above barbarism, and thereby
prepare them for the future teachings of the lecture-
room, the village library, and the church. By such
instruction alone we awaken the intelligence and
engage the moral affections of the young, and so best
fit them for their future lives. Reading must accom-
pany, or, at least, closely follow, the movements of
the active opening mind ; and then, at whatever
stage we have to part with the child, society will be
the better for what we have done, and the child him-
self will have received a start in a truly rational life,
and have such consolations in the toils and vicissitudes
of his humble career as an awakened spirit can give.
To imagine that a boy so educated will be a worse
ploughman or a worse man than if he had been left
in the condition of dumb driven cattle, is to suppose a
contradiction in thought and to despair of the future
of humanity. To imagine, on the other hand, that
we attain the human and humane ends of popular
education by sprinkling the misunderstood terms of
all the sciences through our schoolrooms is the very
132 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
folly and perversity of educational fanaticism. AH
that such misapprehension of the relations of science
to the work of the people's school can effect is the
pretence of knowledge — a pretence as hurtful to the
teacher as to the pupil, and certain to bring discredit
on the very name of education.
The training of the intelligence by presenting it
with the food suited to its period of growth and which
it can readily assimilate, is, however, after all, only a
means to a higher end — the moral and religious
education of the pupil. This, surely, is the supreme
consideration in the case of each individual, and there-
fore also in the people's school. We say moral and
religious, for though we are far from denying that a
certain moral education can be given without religion,
we are satisfied that, deprived of the inspiration of
religion and of the motives and aspirations of the
spiritual life, the morality will be meagre, attenuated,
and lifeless. The result, apart from all theological
and ecclesiastical considerations, will not be satisfactory
so far as the mere humanity of the child is concerned.
It is melancholy to think that our religious strifes arc
to shut out the child of the poor man (who is pro-
foundly indifferent to them) from all that most deeply
touches the heart and awakens the sentiment of man-
kind. Is it reasonable that the children of the poor
should be debarred from all that most surely furnishes
consolation and hope in the chances and changes of
this mortal life, because a few of the dogmas that
have been erected on the broad human basis of our
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 133
common Christianity arc distasteful to the illuminated
and fanatical few ? The poor man and the struggling
woman among the poor cannot be expected to find a
substitute for religion in that self-complacent sense of
superiority which suffices to sustain the heart of the
intellectual Agnostic. The moral and religious in-
tluencc which should pervade the life of the school,
and which is quite compatible with the relegation of
dogmatic teaching to a fixed hour, is, we regretfully
admit, beyond the power of the State to produce at
command. Aloral teaching it can, however, in any
case require ; and for the rest it must rely on the
general purport of its instructions to teachers and
inspectors, but above all on the training which it gives
to the teachers zuhoin it rears for the public service, and
to the inspectors whom it appoints to supervise them.
It may be possible to inspire both these agents.
We have indicated the true work of the people's
school. It does not change its character at any stage
of the school curriculum. Whether the child leaves
at the age of ten, twelve, or fourteen, the instruction
he receives is still substantially the same as at the
age of six. We believe that, so far, we carry with us
Lord Norton, the Bishop of Exeter, and the majority
of those who voted with them ; and we are quite
certain that we have the assent of the few who have
given time and study to the science and art of
education. " Educational enthusiasts," where they
have any knowledge of the repressive conditions
under which the common school is worked, desire no
134 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
more than has been here sketched, and they will be
content with no less. For such results our millions
would indeed be well expended.
But it is evident that to attain such results the
Code of the Department must begin and end dif-
ferently. It ought to lay down the material of in-
struction, and the course of intellectual discipline,
through which the child is to be carried from year to
year. Infants — that is to say, all under seven years of
age — have to be trained to the use of their observing
powers, in ways which wc need not here specify in
detail, but which are quite well understood. In the
course of this training their minds would be brought
into healthful contact with sensible objects, and a
broad foundation laid for subsequent real studies.
Satisfaction should also be given to the cravings of
imagination and sentiment by means of child-literature
and with the help of music. The moral and religious
impressions made on the heart at this early stage
would never in future years be obliterated — would
never, because they coiUd never. The rudiments of
reading, writing, and ciphering would not, of course,
be omitted, but they would, we maintain, be more suc-
cessfully taught by being held in subordination to the
higher ends of intellectual discipline and moral train-
ing. The successive years of school life simply repeat
and expand and confirm the teachings of the infant
school in ascending forms. The gradual additions to
real knowledge made from year to year would, by the
time the child had reached the sixth standard and the
PRIMARY IXSTRUCTIOX. I35
age of thirteen, have brought him into intelh'gent
relations with nature. Science in any form would be
eschewed, but the more practical results of science
would be intelligently apprehended. The Nature-
knowledge to which we point would find its final
expression in the primary school in such admirable
statements of what is no\\- covered by the term
" physical geography," as that of Professor Geikie, in
his little shilling book on the subject ; while the laws
of healthy living and the rudiments of an under-
standing of social and economic conditions would also
find their place. Moral training, conducted in a
religious spirit and with a religious aim more or less
explicit, arises daily, nay hourly, in connection with
such teaching : it finds its opportunity in e\ery act of
school-life, when the master is competent for his im-
portant and delicate task. All this is quite practicable.
Were it not practicable, popular education would be
doomed to failure. With such a curriculum specific
subjects which bear the illusory appearance of being
" secondary " subjects would disappear, and the minds
of the Lords would be tranquillized. There are indeed
no specific subjects in education. Whatever it is im-
possible to work into the ordinary' life of a primary or
secondary school belongs to some other kind of
institution. Specific subjects are for specific schools.
Can any one doubt that a scheme of education such
as that sketched above would result in a far more wide-
spread intelligence, a far deeper interest in scientific
truth and literary expression, and a far finer moral
136 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
spirit, than labouring against the grain in the dry
teaching of words and technical details based on text-
books constructed so as to teach the minimum which
will earn a Government grant ? And how much more
acceptable to the true teacher would a code conceived
in so liberal a spirit be !
If it be said that there is not time for all this, the
answer is that it can all be accomplished simply by
using properly selected reading books, and by the oral
teaching of the master in extension of the suggestions
of these books, if he is supplied with proper apparatus,
and, above all, properly trained.*
Consider for a moment how the time is now spent
that is not devoted to such studies and training. In
" getting up " history so called, and grammar and geo-
graphy, in the teaching of which every demand made
by the Department is right in the teeth of all sound
educational principle. Go into a school where the
children are learning histor}', and you will find a huge
black-board covered with the names of kings and
battle-fields, and an accumulation of dates that would
provoke the laughter of every cultivated mind not
depraved by working the system. As to grammar,
we have more than once met little ragged boys on
the road not more than ten years of age with Morell's
"Analysis" in their hands, and little girls of seven
with their slates covered with lists of nouns ! As well
* It may be (lilTicult and dangerous ff)r llic .State t<i prescribe rcadinLj
books, but it can name books from whicli tiie teacher's oral teaching
is to l)e given.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 37
might \vc ask them for lists of the fixed stars. This
■cannot be in accordance with sound educational prin-
•ciples and method, for it shocks our common sense.
It was not by " educational theorists " that Govern-
ment got such ideas of school work, but from
■" practical " men. Even where the Department does
open a passage for the entrance of an educational
principle, it converts it into an absurdity the moment
it tries to manipulate it. For example, it is a re-
cognized part of educational method that the learning
of geography should start with a child's immediate
parochial and county surroundings. This the Depart-
ment seizes on, and immediately perverts it by re-
quiring the children to waste their valuable time in
getting up the names of every insignificant locality
hi the county, — localities which were unknown to the
inspectors themselves, although they had traversed
the county again and again in the discharge of their
duties, until they specially got them up for the sole
purpose of torturing children and turning the study of
geography into ridicule. We speak what we do know.
This is the way the precious hours of childhood
are passed, and this is what we arc paying for. And
all to please whom ? We should like to know. Not
certainly the school boards, who care only for the
Government gold, and watch, lynx-eyed, the teacher
lest he should cheat them out of a three-shilling pass.
Not the schoolmaster, who, if he be an under-educated
drudge, may be content, for he can conceive nothing
higher than the mechanical ideal of the Department,
138 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
but who, if he be a true teacher, with a h'ving soul
in him, is crushed with the dead weight of official
demands ; or, if he smiles at all, smiles the smile of
educational despair as he sees the inspector take up
his pack and go. Not the children, who not many
years ago were beginning to love school, but who
now regard it as a task-shop and a thing to be
avoided — one of the pains instead of one of the
pleasures of their little lives — with what effect on
their disposition to learn and obey may be conceived.
Not the inspector : he cannot love his life of itin-
erating schedule-mongering, for he is an educated
man. Not the Department : it only wants to get its
honest pennyworth, and docs not see how else to do it.
We are very far from being blind to the fact that,
spite of all this wasted energy, the mere collecting
of children together and subjecting them to organiza-
tion, obedience, and discipline, is a distinct gain to the
communit}-, and worth a good deal in the shape of
taxation ; and we gladly recognize in the Code-
improvements which introduce examination by classes
and grants for discipline and intelligence, a distinct
evidence of right intention. We still more gladly
welcome the action of the present Chief-Inspector of
Training Colleges in the direction of liberalizing the
education of teachens. We arc not blind to the
groping good intentions of the Department. But
the Code is vitiated throughout : it is rotten at the
heart. The supposed necessity of maintaining the
leading characteristic of the Revised Code of 1862
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 139
makes of the Code of 1880 a piece of patchwork.
Two shillings a head for intelligence, and is. 6d. for
organization and discipline ! As if any school should
be regarded as a school at all where these conditions
are not fulfilled !
So much for the school up to thirteen years of
age. Children instructed on the lines which have
been (necessarily in this place) very generally in-
dicated, would go forth to sow and to reap and to
mine and to weave, ignorant of electricity and
magnetism, it is true, but with open eyes. They
would be ignorant of the precise date of the death
of Henry VI. 's grandmother, but they would have
in their souls some bright visions of British patriotism
and valour, and some inspiring recollections of duty
sublimely done. They would be ignorant of botany,
but we hope that they would know something of the
wayside flowers and trees : they would be ignorant
of physiology, but we hope that they would know
a good deal about the conditions of physical health :
they would be ignorant of mathematics, but we hope
that they would know something of weighing and
measuring : they would be ignorant of Latin, French,
and German, but they would, we hope, be able to read
with pleasure, because with mtelligence, the simpler
prose and poetical literature of their own country, and
to sing its songs. Their whole intellectual and spiritual
life would have been started into activity, and the
State's duty to the " masses " would have been dis-
charged. Note also that if the elementary knowledge
140 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
acquired at school have a direct bearing on the
ordinary and daily life of the people, we thereby
secure a continuity between the education of school
and the education of life ; and it is only in so far as
this continuity is established that the boy becomes
a wiser, a more intelligent, and more virtuous citizen
than he would have been without the school. The
material of school work must be of the same stuff
as human life is made of
While the " Lords " then were substantially right
in their assault on the Code in its present patchwork
form, they were wrong in failing to see that it erred
by defect much more than- by excess, and, above all,
that it erred by misreading popular education in
respect both of matter and method. Neither Lord
Norton nor the Bishop of Exeter, while complaining
of the promotion by the Department of what are
called "secondary" subjects, indicated why those
particular subjects were to be reserved for a higher
class of schools than the primary. What is suitable
in education for the sons of ploughmen is, speaking
generally, equally suitable for the sons of noblemen
of the same age. Except in so far as foreign lan-
guages and mathematics are studied with a view
to a profession, they are, as instruments of education,
equally good or bad for all. The question is a social
one. If boys can continue their education from
thirteen to seventeen or eighteen, the subjects we have
named arc held, rightly or wrongly, to be the best
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I4I
discipline for them and an indispensable preparation
for the studies of a university. But neither on grounds
of discipline nor of utility can the introduction of such
subjects be justified, if circumstances prevent their
being prosecuted beyond the initial stages ; and as
ninety-five per cent, of the pupils of primary schools
must cease to attend school at thirteen at latest, it
ma\' be fairly argued that their attention should be
confined to subjects having a more direct relation
to their future lives. But what of the five per cent,
of superior organization ? Brains are not confined to
a class. It is of far more importance to the well-
being of the State and to the position it is to hold
relatively to other communities, that the finer spirits
should be educated out of the sphere in which they
have been born, than it is to the individuals them-
selves. The country cannot afford to waste brain-
power on hedging and ditching. And there is another
and a potent consideration. Social equality is a
dream, and communism is an injustice, if not a crime ;
but it is not only possible for the State, but incumbent
on it, to make a passage from one class to' another
and a higher, at least possible. Scotland is liberal in
politics, but we cannot imagine it becoming socialistic,
and this simply because the finer and more ambitious
spirits have a career opened to them. The path they
have to traverse may be rough, and it is right it
should be so ; but it is at least practicable. The
l)otential mental energy of the country is not dammed
up. Outlets are provided, and no boy can say that
142 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
he has been unjustly used. Were the stronger spirits
among the poor north of the Tweed repressed —
crushed down by an educational organization sepa-
rating the lower from the upper in perpetuity, the
nation would ere long hear of it to its cost. It would
have to pay a much higher price than the trifling
addition to taxation which education continued in the
primary school beyond the age of thirteen demands.
On grounds, then, quite apart from that of Christian
humanity, provision ought to be made for the con-
struction of the " ladder." In primary schools, when-
ever the managers are willing, the Department is, we
hold, unquestionably right in encouraging more ad-
vanced teaching. Whether this encouragement should
take the wholesome form of special grants to teachers
to meet an equal grant from the local board, or the
trading form of capitation payments in accordance
with the genius of a nation of .shopkeepers, is not
wholly a matter of detail. The curriculum of study
would be probably best determined by the local
authorities, and should in any case be a curriculian,
and continue till a boy is fifteen. By that time the
special line of activity for which he is fitted would
have declared itself, and if he still gave high promise,
an exhibition should carry him to a real or classical
high school. Few might get so far ; but none could
say that the machinery of society was so contrived as
to block the way to the poor and deny them free
scope for their powers. What is of much more im-
portance, ten would receive the benefit of the more
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I43
advanced instruction for one who went out of his
social class : these would carry into their daily work
a higher intelligence, and so leaven the lower stratum
of society.
The establishment of certain exhibitions at county
schools, open to country boys, may be of service to
the sons of clergymen and medical practitioners, and
the larger farmers ; but it can never solve the question
of the secondary instruction of the poor. The son of
the poor man would soon find these advantages taken
out of his hands by the lower middle-class, whose
domestic habits and means enable them to prepare
their children for competition while the peasant's son
is labouring in the fields. Moreover, it is quite open
to question whether such a system of connecting
country with county schools would be salutary in its
effects. It is certainly desirable to open a path for
very promising boys and girls ; but even were this
path opened and strictly reserved for the peasant poor,
only one boy probably in every three or four years
would tread it, and the district from which he came
would be only indirectly and slightly benefited. The
true course, we repeat, is to provide for the intellectual
and moral life of the people's schools up to the age of
fifteen, wherever local authorities desire it. By such
provision the whole parish will be benefited, and a fair
proportion of thoroughly intelligent citizens added to
the agricultural and artisan class, not removed out of
it. In the course of such advanced primary instruc-
tion the boy born for what is conventionally con-
144 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
sidered to be a higher Hne of Hfe (In any case a hfe-
where mental power is more needed) would mark
himself out from his fellows in ways that would be
unmistakable. The main purpose of these advanced
classes, however, would not be the discovery of such
boys or girls, but the promotion of the intelligence of
the parish itself and the raising of the body of the
people out of their cloddish indifference to all save
physical requirements, thereby making them fitter
occupants of the church pew and the village reading-
room.
In small towns and populous places the higher
classes of the primary school, to which we have re-
ferred, naturally separate themselves from the primary
school and specialize themselves into High schools
which carry the instruction of boys and girls still
further ; and this simply because in such localities a
larger number of parents can afford to maintain their
children after the age of fourteen or fifteen without
the aid of their labour. It would be superfluous in
these days to argue for the increase and organization
of schools of this class. The various occupations of
life require the services of men and women who have
as boys and girls gone through a much more pro-
longed education than can be obtained even at the
best primary schools ; and, apart from this, the tone
of provincial, and consequently of national, life must
always be low, and its aims narrow and contemptible,
where such schools do not exist. Permissive power
should be given to England, in terms similar to tho.sc
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I45
of the Scottish Education Act of 1878, to institute
such schools. This for a time might suffice until a
Minister of Public Instruction or (better) an Educa-
tional Council could take the matter in hand. In all
localities so provided, the primary school should not
carry its instruction beyond the age of thirteen, and
this, if for no other reasons, because it would be a
waste of power to do so. It will scarcely be main-
tained that the encouragement (not the enforcement)
of advanced primary instruction in country districts
could affect the institution of high schools situated in
fit localities. In any case it would scarcely be just to
sacrifice the children of the county to those of the
county-town. The object is always to get as much
educational work done as can be accomplished with
the means at our disposal, and without waste of
power.
We often hear it said that the middle classes
should pay for their own education, and that they are
in many cases now taking advantage of board and
other primary schools conducted under the Govern-
ment fee-maximum of nincpence per week. But we
are not aware that the middle classes themselves com-
plain of this. On the contrary, they say, Why are we
to pay for the education of the poor, and also for our
own schools ? ]\Iay we not share in the educational
machinery which our own self-imposed rates and im-
perial taxation provide ? Is a child to be excluded
from a country school because his father farms 100
acres? If not, then 200? Or, at what point are we
L
146 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
to draw the line ? Is it not enough to rest satisfied
with the operation of social causes, feeling well assured
that as soon as a man has money enough he will seek
to separate his children from the mass ? What is
applicable to the country is equally applicable to the
town. It is only men who are raised far above the
struggle for a livelihood and who have exaggerated
notions of the wealth of the middle class, who venture
to complain of the small fee paid by those who, they
imagine, are quite competent to provide instruction
for themselves without the aid of rates. Those fami-
lies of the middle class who send their children to
board schools do so only because they cannot help it ;
and those who talk of the unfair advantage the middle
class seem to be taking are really ignorant of their
circumstances, and of the bitter secret struggle of the-
men and women who bear themselves bravely in the
face of the world in the maintenance of what is dear
tp them (and fortunately so, because important to the
State) — their " position." And who are they that
would cast a stone at their poorer neighbours ? The
charity of the past provides tJicvi with Eton and
Oxford. We may rest assured that if we once have
high schools in all our important centres, we may
safely leave the relation of the lower middle-class
population to State-aided primary schools to settle
itself ; and if at present, under shelter of the Educa-
tion Department, a few families seek in such schools
advanced instruction which would be otherwise quite
inaccessible, we should rather be glad of this, and
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I47
accept it as a clear indication that more is wanted
than the State has yet provided.
Meanwhile we think it would be well to encourage
in every way the disposition of the Department to
extend the education of primary schools to the age of
fifteen, and at the same time to give them powers to
refuse grants beyond the sixth standard to schools
situated in localities already provided with high schools
accessible to the poorer class of promising pupils.
The only exception we should make to this would be
in the case of Normal or Model schools, and this for
obvious reasons. But in all cases where the Depart-
ment recognizes instruction to the age of fifteen, they
should, we think, simply test the education given,
allowing each locality to find out for itself what it
most needs or desires.
We are not prepared to assent to the broad general
proposition that the State is bound to educate all its
citizens in the sense of promoting the culture of each
individual as such. On the contrary, it is more strictly
correct to say that the State's function to the indivi-
dual as such is discharged if it leaves him as free as
possible, and that, in charging itself with education,
it does so for State ends alone — in the interests,
that is to say, of the commonwealth as a whole.
It is quite entitled, therefore, to specify its demands
in return for the expenditure it resolves upon. With
a view to this it must ultimately, through some
machinery or other, however decentralized, control
the schools, control the training of teachers, and con-
148 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
trol the inspectors. But it must do this wisely, and
on the sure foundation of educational principle. Its
Code must not be. an aggregate of dislocated sugges-
tions tied together by no unity of purpose, but only
by the thread that stitches the leaves together ; nor
must it shock the common-sense of the community by
a vain show of science falsely so called.
Neither in the course of instruction we have slightly
sketched, nor in the continuance of that course beyond
the sixth standard, is there anything beyond the reach
of the Department even as it stands. The teachers
are, as a whole, quite competent for the task if they
are encouraged to undertake it, the inspectors are all
men of education and ability, and no one questions
the efficiency of the Department itself to do what it
thinks worth the doing. The weakest link in the
chain of agencies is doubtless the teacher, but this
instrument also is under the all-powerful hand of the
Whitehall officials. For it is the Department that
really controls the training colleges while deftly man-
aging to get gratuitous administration and twenty-five
per cent, of what is properly State expenditure, out of
the pockets of the various denominations in exchange
for an illusory right of management. But this is a
large question, and we shall not enter on it here.
We would only say, that if popular education means
what we think it means, the training of teachers
is a matter of prime importance. If it means what
Lord Sherbrooke thinks it means, then the arguments
urged for expending public money on training fall to
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I49
the ground, the present remuneration given to teachers
is absurdly extravagant, and their claim to social
recognition, in consequence of their presumed high
social function, disappears. Female ex-pupil teachers
can do all the national work that Lord Sherbrooke
desires to see done ; and if there be difficulty as to
their maintaining discipline in boys' schools, this
difficulty could be easily overcome by requiring the
frequent presence of the local policeman.
We conclude then that while more advanced
teaching and the so-called higher subjects have no
place in the primary education either of poor or rich,
they have an easily defined place up to the age of
fifteen in the primary school, and that, in so far as the
Department is feeling its way towards this result, it is
in accord with all the best feeling of the country, and
promoting the ends which a national educational
system is intended to subserve. We are glad to think
that there is no fear that the present heads of the
Department will fail in carrying out this liberal view
of their duties. Both Lord Spencer and Mr. Mundella
have at Sheffield strongly expressed their opinion
that the spread of elementary education necessarily
produces the desire for higher instruction, to which
" all the children of the country " have a claim " ac-
cording to their needs, capacities, and prospects ; "
and further, that it is the duty of the State to provide
such instruction, " not only thoroughly, but generously
and with an unstinting hand." The Duke of Argyll
has shown, moreover, that in Scottish schools attention
150 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
to higher instruction has not resulted in the neglect of
the general instruction of the main body of the school.
As a mere matter of fact, the blue-books nowhere
show so high a percentage in the ordinary subjects of
the Code as in those parts of Scotland where instruc-
tion is carried furthest. Nay, it is found that the
existence of advanced classes in public schools has
a stimulating effect on the intelligence of the whole
school, and thus all are gainers — master and pupils
alike. The same system rightly understood and
applied would produce similar results elsewhere. A
higher and more intelligent spirit would then arise in
all our public schools, and Lord Sherbrooke would
have no longer any reason to complain that a boy
who had passed the sixth standard could not read
satisfactorily. If he and his fellow Peers interested
in education would direct their attention to the im-
provement of the Code in respect both of substance
and form, they would further the cause which they
have no doubt at heart far more than by the mere
negative and uninstructed criticism in which they
indulged during the recent debate in the House of
Lords.
ON HIGHER PRIMARY SCHOOLS.
Higher Subjects in Public or Elementary Schools.*
I HAVE been asked by your committee to deliver an
address at this conference on the best way of pro-
moting instruction in the Higher Subjects (so-called)
in the Primary Schools, with special reference to
existing educational endowments. I feel, however,
that I cannot deal with this subject under the limita-
tions suggested, and that I must take a larger sweep.
I propose, accordingly, to consider generally the best
way of promoting instruction in the Higher Subjects
in Public Elementary Schools generally.
We have arrived at a critical period of Scottish
educational history — the most critical, in my opinion,
since the year 1696. The Act of 1872 settled the
question of quantity in our educational machinery,
and gave the country a complete elementary school
organization. Again, Lord Advocate Watson, by the
1 8th clause of the Education Act of 1878, has done
* Delivered before tlie Conference of the Educational Institute of
Scotland,
152 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
more for the education of Scotland than perhaps he is
aware of. The power of rating for high schools,
which he has been the means of conferring on the
school boards, completes the work of Lord Advo-
cate Young ; and, for the first time, the Reformation
ideas of a Scottish educational system are legisla-
tively recognized. The work now before the country
is one of administration only, and we have to con-
gratulate ourselves on the vantage-ground which we
at last occupy. The Act of 1872 brought schools, to
the people, and, in so far as it failed to bring the
people to the schools, it has been during the pa,st year,
in this respect also, amended and completed.
The question of quantity being thus settled, the
attention of us all is now naturally directed to that of
quality. Is the nation getting full value for its money
and labour ? I think it is not. Why it is not, and
how it may do so, are subjects which it peculiarly be-
comes the educational profession to consider. Their
right to a hearing is unquestionable. On the politics
of education, it is true, teachers have no right to
assume the attitude of specialists; the subject is far too
wide and far-reaching in its bearings on the whole his-
tory and social organism of a country to be dealt with
by any one class. Teachers occupy, in this sphere,
the position of (presumably) well-informed citizens,
and nothing more, l^ut, in all matters that pertain
to education itself, they arc entitled not only to speak,
but to a respectful hearing. It is only when their
counsels are guided by those who lose sight of educa-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I 53
tion, and, in their desire to acquire personal importance,
pander to class-interests, flatter class-weaknesses, and
feed class-vanity, that the educational body is to be
suspected and distrusted.
My text is the " Higher Subjects in Public or
Elementary Schools : " it is a plea consequently
for the encouragement of Higher-primary schools. I
begin by saying that I dislike — not the term " Higher
Subject-s," but the exclusive sense in which that ex-
pression is employed. I cannot admit that Latin, and
mathematics, and Greek are " higher subjects " in
any sense in which advanced English, advanced
arithmetic, and economics, and the elements of physi-
ology in their practical relations, are not also " higher
subjects." A "higher subject" is any subject what-
soever pursued beyond its elements. What is really
commonly meant in Scotland by the expression, is
" University''' subjects. If the Faculties of Arts were
to throw over Latin and mathematics to-morrow, and
to substitute German and chemistry, then the ex-
pression " higher subjects " in Public Schools would
change its meaning, and signify, hencefortli, German
and chemistry. Understand, then, that while by
" higher subjects " I here mean those subjects that
fit a boy to enter a Scottish University, I do not re-
strict myself to these.
I am the more anxious to be clearly understood on
this subject, because I hold that the leading subject of
all discipline and of all culture is our own tongue.
154 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
This is the centre round which all true education of
the intelligence turns. It is only the exceeding
difficulty of rightly and effectually teaching English
beyond the elementary stages, that drives me, as an
educationalist, to stand by Latin, and to advocate it,
even for those boys whose school-life ceases at fourteen
or fifteen.
We are told that the " higher subjects " of Latin
and mathematics are somehow connected, in a special
way, with the clerical profession, and it is not the
business of the schools to supply the pulpits of the
various churches. If the knowledge and discipline ac-
quired by the study of the higher subjects had merely
a technical bearing on any one profession, then the ob-
jection urged might have some weight ; but the facts
are notoriously otherwise. Look up our University
calendars, and you find set down, as preliminary to a
course of study for Master of Arts, Latin and mathe-
matics ; as preliminary to study for a Degree in Law,
Latin and mathematics ; as preliminary to a Degree
of Medicine, Latin and mathematics ; and again, as
preliminary to a Degree in Science, Latin and mathe-
matics. It appears, then, that Latin and mathematics
is the double key that opens the doors of every pro-
fession. If this be the fact, and it is the fact, the
identification of the Church with those higher sub-
jects is henceforth impossible in any honest argument.
Apart, then, altogether from reasons of a purely
educational kind, I stand by the (so-called) higher
subjects because they arc the sole avenues to the
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 155
various professions. Let this be distinctly under-
stood ; and let us now expose another fallacy of
the enemy. This fallacy may be expressed in brief
thus : — " Primary Subjects for Primary Schools ;
Higher Subjects for High Schools." In presence
of this plausible formula. I am again forced to
ask the question, " What are ' primary ' subjects,
and what are ' higher ' subjects ? " Is English a
" primary " subject only ? Ask Professor Masson, and
Professor Nichol, and Professor Spencer Baynes, and
Professor Bain. Is Arithmetic a " primary " subject ?
Ask Professor Kelland — in asking whom, you ask
perhaps the broadest and most enlightened of all
Scottish educationalists, though himself an English-
man. In short, there is no such thing as a " primary "
subject, and no such thing as a " higher " subject. Every
subject of instruction has its beginning, its middle, and
its end ; and the extent, and time, and mode of teach-
ing it is a question of the pupil's age and stage of ad-
vancement, and that is all. And if this be so, there
cannot be, in any country, a consistent and steady line
of demarcation between the primary and secondary
school and the primary and secondary teacher, without
serious disadvantage to that country, except perhaps
where both kinds of school exist in the same locality.
But further, if we confine higher subjects in the
sense of University subjects to high schools, we
thereby confine the Universities and the professions to
those boys who have the good fortune to be born
within walking distance of town high schools. I ask,
156 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
is this desirable in the interests of the community ?
Can a great empire Hke ours continue to subsist if we
do not lay under contribution all the best brains in
this small, but imperial island ? Assuredly not ; for
all the intellectual needs of the State, we require to
draw forth the best intellects of the community. Nor
is this all ; for what shall we say of the inherent rights
of the finer brains ? Is that clever boy — the son of a
poor crofter or of a village smith or carpenter, whose
spirit is touched to a finer issue than ploughing or
sowing — to be told that the State has so arranged the
educational machinery of the country that he is
doomed to be a hewer of wood and a drawer of water
in the teeth of the divine purpose, by virtue of which
he is intended for better things ? I ask the Politician
— Is this safe for the State ? I ask the " Liberal "
newspaper — Is there any Liberalism in this ? I ask
the Democracy — Where is true Democracy to be
found if not in the recognition of the just claims of
each individual son of the soil ? I ask those who
tremble before the secret and assured advance of
communism, by what counter-theory can they hope
to meet it and destroy it, save by the theory of in-
dividualism, which involves a free and open field for
the intellect of those who have been born poor ?
"Granted," say the admirers of paper systems, "but
we shall meet the difficulty by providing bursaries in
connection with secondary schools in towns ! " Now,
the very smallest sum which will provide clothing,
board, and education for a poor country boy, who has
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 15/
no private resources, is ;^35 a-year, involving an
annual expenditure, if the scheme is to be national, of
^70,000 or ^80,000 in Scotland alone. We may rest
assured that a golden ladder of learning such as this
will never be constriicted. Besides, even if it were to
be constructed, it would have to be under the control
of a central administration, and would inevitably be-
come rigid and inelastic in its rules. Then, at what age
are boys to be transferred from their parents' roof?
If taken too young, you have many difficulties to face
which are insuperable. First, you have this difficulty :
that country parents of the poorer class require the
labour of their boys at certain seasons of the year — a
labour which is of good educational effect on the in-
tellect and character of the boys themselves. Secondly,
you have the reluctance of parents to part with boys
who are mere children — a reluctance to be honoured
and to be encouraged in the interests of the family
and of society. Thirdly, you have the evil — and a
most serious one it is in its moral influence — of
separating boys from their own class, and dissociating
them from the education of home-influences and
worthy poverty. You thereby create a class within a
class ; you force into existence a number of bursary
prigs, and undermine all that goes to make character,
without which knowledge is little better than a curse.
Fourthly, you would have to subject boys to the strain
of competition at an age so tender as to be hurtful to
the boys, and therefore to the community ; for mark
that you would injure six boys for every 07ie that you
158 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
would select for special privileges. Fifthly, you would
weaken the instruction of the school, and, through it,
lower the intelligence of the whole parish by removing
from it, prematurely, its finest spirits. Sixthly, you
would injure the education of the school by limiting
the master's conception of his work, and the ambition
of his scholars to a premature bursary limit ; the
master's duty being everywhere to carry on the educa-
tion of the children of the parish as long as he can
induce them to stay with him. A dozen intelligent
and educated boys and girls are of more value to the
nation than one over-pushed pre-eminent precocity.
For these reasons, I hold that fourteen is quite the
lowest age at which you can safely call for bursary
competitors, as it is the lowest age at which the school-
master's work in a primary school would naturally
cease.
Let us assume this, and ask next what must be
the standard of proficiency in a boy of fourteen who
looks forward to one of the professions, or to the
public service? What, in other words, are to be the
subjects of examination for the secondary school
bursaries ? Latin, and mathematics, and English, in
any case, I presume ; and such amount of these as
will enable the boy to take his proper place in a
secondary or high school. If this be so, then it follows
that these subjects must enter into the curriculum of
the upper classes of the parish school, if we are in
earnest about our educational ladder, and are not
merely posing before the public as liberal education-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I 59
alists, for some personal political object, while all the
time we are actuated by social superciliousness, or are
the unconscious victims of our own dry inhuman
doctrinairism. From all which it appears that the
work of the primary-school must overlap, and in rural
districts ought to overlap, that of the secondary or
high school.
I say of the secondary or high school — not of the
University. I wish to emphasize this, because I think
that the University can never properly discharge its
duties to society unless it begin its proper work with
students in their eighteenth year, and adequately
prepared. There can be no objection to a University
establishing or retaining (for a time, at least) certain
junior or preparatory classes, as a kind of paedago-
gium, taught by tutors under the direction of the
professors, for lads who are too old or too rustic to
be quite comfortable in a city high school, so long as
the time spent in the paedagogium does not reckon
as an annus acadeviiciis qualifying for a degree. The
present system has only one possible defence, viz.,
that it secures a large income to those professors who
are doing the work — an argument which has not so
much weight with me as it perhaps would have were
I one of these happy professors. If we are to have a
University paedagogium at all, I would have the fees,
after deducting tutorial expenses, go into the Uni-
versity chest, and distributed among those professors
whose income necessarily, from the nature of their
subjects, falls below a certain amount ; provision being,
l60 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
of course, made for vested rights. It would be neces-
sary, also, to take measures to prevent the University
paedagogium underselling high schools. But this by
the way.
That University subjects should be taught in the
public school, as part of the work of the higher classes
of the school, I hold to be not only desirable, but
essential to the well-being of the country. The prac-
tice is also in the line of the tradition of Scottish
education. It has done more directly, and, above all,
indirectly, to maintain the tone and thoroughness of
the Scottish parochial school than anything else. It
has elevated those who have had no direct benefit
from it, and has engendered a respect for education
which the peasantry of no other country possesses in
the same degree. We cannot measure the wide-reach-
ing influences of a system by means, of statistical
returns of the number of boys who can construe a
little bit of Latin. The bonds which sustain the
life of a community escape the perspicacity of the
clerks in the Registrar-General's office, and decline
to figure in the most elaborate of schedules. It is
really, after all, a question of little moment whether
the percentage of pupils in Latin and mathematics
is less now than in the first half of the century. It
is better to stand on the general opinion that it ought
to be larger than it is. But I am not afraid of
statistics, if you will provide an interpreter of them.
I have given some attention to the subject, and my
conclusion is that six percent, of the pupils of country
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. l6l
parochial schools used to be taught Latin. We are
told that the percentage is steadily increasing ; and
the following fallacy is presented to the public by
those interested in London centralization, viz., that
the records of the Education Department show a
steady increase. An increase from what ? From
what existed in 1873, when the Code came into opera-
tion ? Not at all ; but from the returns of that year.
The teachers of the country had temporarily given
up Latin and mathematics in their struggle to meet
the various requirements of the Code. They had to
satisfy their new masters. When they had fitted their
shoulders into their new harness they took up Latin
■ again, presented pupils, and satisfied statistics. As
schools and the organization of schools became settled,
the number of Latin pupils increased, and was certain
to increase. But all this furnishes a misleading basis
for fact. The question is, What has been the percent-
age of increase as compared, say, with 1870? Assume
it to have been six per cent, then, what is it now ?
Trying to strike a mean between the somewhat con-
flicting opinions of the defunct Board of Education
and the Education Department, we may set it down
at four per cent. So far satisfactory ; but still mis-
leading. For, first, the six per cent, of old days was
calculated on country schools alone, and of the boys
in these ; the present four per cent, includes town
schools and girls. Secondly, we all know that the
first stage of Latin is mere memory work, and can be
taught to large numbers within the ordinary school
M
l62 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
hours. The testing question we have to ask is — What
percentage of pupils is in the third stage — the Ccssar
stage, let us say ? For be it observed, the old paro-
chial schoolmaster never dreamt of putting all his
highest class into the Latin grammar in order to earn
4J-, a head. His Latin and mathematical pupils were
all boys who meant to go on with their studies ;
and, accordingly, you must find the present per-
centage of those in the third stage, and add a fair
proportion of those in the first and second, if you
desire to ascertain whether the University subjects
are declining or not. Compare the number in the
third stage in 1879 with the number in the same
schools who were in the first stage in 1877, and you
may work out the number of bona fide Latin pupils ;
and if, when you have got this, it yields six per cent,
of the boys in country schools, I shall be only too glad
to hear it. But, until we hear this grateful news, we
must assume that the result and, still more, the. ten-
dency of the Code is to crush out the University
subjects. If any one doubts it, I ask the explanation
of the fact that pupil teachers in public schools, who
have had five years' instruction, and arc eighteen years
of age, don't know elementary Latin when they come
up to compete for entrance into training colleges ?
The test was last year more difficult than in 1877,
I admit ; but it was more difficult only after due
warning given to all concerned. Moreover, it was
the Government's own test. The Education Depart-
ment fixed the standard and examined the papers ;
PRIMARY INSTRUCTIOX. 163
and the standard was certainly not higher than ought
to be reached by all students entering the junior
classes of our Universities. The Scotsman may
sophisticise as it may ; it cannot wipe out this melan-
choly fact. Melancholy, for it places beyond question
that, of the two hundred students who enter the
training colleges next month, not more than thirty
will go out to the country two years hence com-
petent to instruct in Latin, and, perhaps, a dozen in
all fit to instruct in the rudiments of Greek. This
has been going on ever since the training colleges
came under a Government Code, during which period
three-fourths of the existing masters of country
schools have been sent out !
This brings us to the question — How in these
circumstances are we to secure that the University
subjects shall be taught in our public rural schools to
all who desire instruction in them ?
I do not complain of the absence of this instruc-
tion solely because the State thus filches from the
Scottish country school-boy a hereditary right, but also
because the masters are less cultivated than they
might be ; and, consequently, the intellectual and
moral tone of the schools grievously suffer. The
quality of education, in the true sense of the word, is
lowered for the whole nation. The idea of the
Scottish parochial school is departed from.
Do not suppose that I would sacrifice the majority
of a school to the (qw clever boys. Far from it. I
sympathize profoundly with the resolve of the Educa-
l64 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
tion Department, that the unquestionable defect of our
old • Scottish education shall be removed ; that the
flagrant wrong to the many shall be put down ; and,
if need be, with a strong hand. All approve of the
institution of standards — all approve of very much in
the Code. The maligned Code has been in many
respects of signal service to us. What we complain
of is, that the educational idea has not yet penetrated
into the Education Office. The educational idea is
an ethical idea. The school aims first of all at the
moral and religious life, and all other things are to
be subordinated to this. We do not w'ish to make
intelligent monkeys, but living men and women. To
do this the ethical substance of education, including
the elements of the laws of health and of economics,
must enter into the ordinary teaching — not be re-
legated to the region of specific subjects. These
things are in no true educational sense " specific
subjects." To constitute, for example, a department
of the Code out of scraps of English verse said by
heart, and to call that " literature," is at once to mis-
conceive the whole significance of the language-train-
ing of the school, and to insult the majestic name
of English literature. The native literature of a
country is the main channel of the educative force of
a master. It is the chief weapon in his armoury,
whereby he achieves his ethical aim. And what shall
we say of Code history ? Small-type condensations of
facts and dates — a kind of concentrated soup in three-
penny packets, and sixpence off if you take a dozen.
PRI^rARY INSTRUCTION. 165
And how is it all put into their little heads ? It
is not taught, it is injected. Helpless, home-neglected
children, with their soft brains and unformed wills,
are required, like the slave negroes of the old cotton
plantations, to toe the line or feel the lash, lest 3^. 4^/.
be lost. And this is education ! On what principle
of justice is it that the clever pupils are weighted
and dragged down by the dull and slow, or the
home-neglected ? The present practice I have else-
where called Educational Communism, which is just
as much or as little defensible as Political Com-
munism. I ask, will not the dull and slow profit more
by the raised intelligence and moral spirit of the
school to which they belong, than by a successful
struggle to read off correctly a few words and recite
a few facts at the expense of the intelligence and pro-
gress of the whole ?
I find myself plunged into the middle of the Code
when I ought to be speaking of the University sub-
jects ; but there is a method in the seemingly per-
verse digression. For the first thing that has to be
done to make advanced teaching, and consequently
the teaching of the University subjects, possible is,
that the school shall become an educational institu-
tion, and be no longer a Code-mill, between the upper
and nether stone of which the souls of the children
and the hearts of teachers are ground to dry dust.
First, then, individual examination must cease, and
the Inspector must go right for the intelligence and
life of each class. He will keep his eye on the reading
l66 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
and writing and counting of each pupil, of course ;
but, unless he find that more than fifteen per cent.
of each class is very backward in technical knowledge,
he should pass the class as a whole for grants. I
would substitute a class test for the individual test
under certain reasonable safeguards, easy to devise.
The teacher would then have time to bring his own
mind and heart into personal relation with the mind
and heart of his pupils. Education would become
possible. And, with an intelligence aw-akened, and
love for learning thus inspired, the teacher would
have no difficulty in giving a whole year of Latin
and Euclid before his pupils had emerged from the
sixth standard. Unless you concede this to me, I
have nothing to say on the higher and University
subjects, save that they cannot be taught except at
extra hours and for extra pay. And the truth is, I
care little for them, except in so far as they rest on
the sure and happy foundation of the true education of
the whole school. Given this, and, I repeat, the master
can give a year's Latin and mathematics before the
conclusion of the sixth standard. And what after
that, you will say ? He will in the following year
form a seventh standard, and the year after that an
eighth ; and by that time the promising boys will
be able, after a year in .some high school, to enter
the junior classes of a University if they choose to do
so. If they do not, the State is notwithstanding so
much the wealthier by the accession of a certain
number of active, intelligent, and educated brains.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 6/
Larger capitation grants for Latin and mathe-
matics than for physiology, etc., would not work
miracles. Its chief effect would be a moral effect ;
it would throw the influence of the State on the side
of these subjects instead of on the side opposed to
them, as at present. This would, doubtless, be of
great importance ; but the true way is to recognize
advanced standards by allowing higher grants for
them as a whole. To continue boys and girls at
school beyond the sixth standard for the mere pur-
pose of studying certain specific subjects is, from the
true educational point of view, a blunder. Every
possible inducement should be offered for their con-
tinuing at school, but this for the purpose of continu-
ing their general education, of which Latin and
mathematics are only a part. If increased grants are
made for those who pass in the sixth, seventh, and
eighth standards as classes, without regard to whether
Latin is part of the school work or not, the question
whether Latin shall be part of that work may be left
to the school boards and the teachers. Given the
reform here suggested, viz., the ' examination and
passing of the classes, and rising grants with the
rising standards, up to the eighth inclusive, the school
boards would have it in their power to do the rest.
Remember that the Education Department is under
legal obligation to do more than it does for the ad-
vanced subjects, and especially for those called
"University subjects;" for the terms of the Act of
1872 require them to maintain the "standard then
1 68 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
existing ; " and we all know that those words had
reference to University subjects, and University sub-
jects alojie. Had it not been for this understanding
the Act of 1872 would not have passed.
But how is the teacher to find time for these
seventh and eighth standards, including the University
subjects as part of them ? This brings me to my
second point : —
2. My second suggestion is obvious to you all :
it simply is, that the school boards shall provide
additional assistance. A school equipped for six
standards may, by means of female teachers, be
equipped for eight at a cost of from ^^40 to ^60.
This expenditure would be largely met by the in-
creased State capitation grants for the sixth, seventh,
and eight standards ; and the boards must do the rest.
3. To attract pupils, those in the seventh and eighth
standards should pay no fees, and the needy among
them might receive their books from the County
Associations of Scotland, which are located in Edin-
burgh and Glasgow.
4. The masters should receive additional remu-
neration by the help of local and other endowments ;
and it is to this purpose mainly that I would devote
local endowments. The trustees of an endowment
may say to the school board — " your teachers shall have
so much of our money, if you will provide the addi-
tional assistance required in the school."
The national aim, it seems to me, should be to
have at least one school in every parish of Scotland
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 169
where advanced instruction — including, where it was
desired and it would almost always be desired,
" University " subjects — should be given by a com-
petent master ; and this is quite within our power.
5. Where is the money to be got wherewith to
pay the teacher ? The large towns have endowments
enough to do all, and more than all, the work ; and
if Dundee be an exception, it has the rates to fall
back on, not to speak of private contributions.* If
we imagine an average of ^35 a year given to each
of one thousand masters of country schools who are
doing the more advanced work, we need only i^3 5,000
a year. The country parochial endowments already
amount to i^2 5,000 a year, rapidly, alas, being swal-
lowed up to save the ratepayer. There is over and
above this, ^^5000 a year in the Ferguson bequest
locker in Glasgow, waiting for the Western counties
to claim their rights. There is ^^2000 a year of Philp
money partially going to waste in Fife. There is
;^2000 a year, at least, asking you to come and spend
it in Stirling. The parishes of the shires of Aberdeen,
Banff", and Moray, are already provided for by the
Dick and Milne bequests (the latter awaiting reform),
the total amount spent there being ;^6ooo annually.
The sums I have named amount to ;^ 3 5,000 a
year. If you want more, I point you to other sources.
For example, I can show the Heriot trustees where
i^5000 is lying at their feet. They will not stoop
* No longer an exception in consequence of the Harris and Baxter
bequests.
I/O THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
to pick it Up. All this can be done without injuring
a single legal beneficiary, or without abstracting a
penny from the funds that are destined for high
schools, or delocalizing to any appreciable extent a
single trust. All that is wanted is organizatioi. I
consider that the present government have let slip
a great opportunity. Their omission has, however,
some apology in the want of union among the Scottish
members of parliament, and the philistinism which
characterizes so many of them. The suggestion here
made is not revolutionary ; it is in the line of clause
46 of the Act of 1872, which gives power to school
boards to " vary or depart from trusts with a view to
increase the efficiency of the parish or burgh schools,
by raising the standard of education therein, or other-
wise."
6. And now I come to my sixth suggestion.
I have pointed out how the master is to be enabled
to do the work which Scotland requires of him, by
modifying the Code and giving him an adequate
staff ; how he may be remunerated for doing it ; and
how i)upils may be induced to take advantage of his
.services. I now come to the most important sugges-
tion of all, which is this, that the Training Colleges
and Universities, and }-ou, the Educational Institute,
see to it that teachers sui)plicd to the country arc
competent to do the more advanced kind of work.
It may not be necessary that all trained teachers be
competent ; but it is indispensable that two thirds
at least of the 180 sent out annually b}' the training
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. I7I
colleges should be thoroughly competent. A teacher,
who is himself a good Latin and mathematical and
science scholar, will not require much inducement to
dignify himself, and his school by carrying forward
his clever boys and girls. He is anxious to do it.
I believe that eighty per cent, of them would gladly
do it now, without fee or reward, had they sufficient
assistance in the lower departments. They recognize
the intellectual and moral effect of an advanced class
on the intelligence and moral spirit of the whole
school, and they feel its elevating influence on the
parish. We all know that it was not the money
reward that induced the old parochial schoolmaster
to teach University subjects. It was his pride in his
position, and his sense of the responsibilities of that
position. It would be out of place here to enter into
details as to the training of teachers. But two things
I may say, that, if the end I have in view is to be
attained, the pupil teacher's course must be so
arranged that candidates shall come up to the train-
ing colleges better linguistic and mathematical
scholars than they are now ; and that, when they
are there, they shall be worked into the system of
the Scottish Universities as much as possible. To
encourage the movement in this direction, I have
placed before the Senate of the University of Edin-
burgh a proposal that a minor degree of Literate or
Licentiate in Arts shall be granted to all students
who have attended two sessions, and have passed an
examination in four subjects — the standard in these
172 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
being equal to that required for the degree of M.A. *
Those Queen's scholars who take advantage of
this will thus go out to the country with a Uni-
versity stamp, as well as a Normal school stamp ;
and, feeling themselves to be permanent members
of the University, will maintain, it is to be pre-
sumed, a higher standard of aim and work than
they would otherwise do. And, while these students
are getting University instruction in Latin, Logic, and
Physics, they should also add to the practical methods
learnt in the normal school all that the University
has to tell them on the philosophy, history, and
methodology of their profession, and be sent forth to
do the country's work, feeling that they are truly
members of a profession, because their work has a
root in philosophy and a continuity in history.
With this last object it was that chairs of educa-
tion were founded, the purpose and utility of which
certain authorities, who ought to know better, are slow
to recognize. The Education Department discourages,
them, and the Free Church normal school authorities
ignore them.
7. Seventhly, and finally : It is essential to the suc-
cessful working of a Code, reformed in accordance
with the educational idea, that inspectors of schools
also shall be trained. If teachers need training, on
what principle can Inspectors of teachers be ex-
empted from it ? You will perhaps think, that those
inspectors who have been teachers should be held to
* Tills Litcratcship is now in operation.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1/3
have fulfilled this requirement. But I think other-
wise : many teachers go on from year to year and
never make progress. It is a common fallacy to
suppose that, because a man is always doing the
same thing, he is acquiring " experience ; " and on the
strength of this he proceeds to dogmatize. But, if
it be true (as it is) that that man alone acquires experi-
ence who observes, analyzes, compares, generalizes, and
reaches valid inductions from the materials that come
before him, of what use is the constant repetition of
the same work from day to day to an unthinking
man, or a man of even average intelligence? It does
him positive hurt. . He repeats himself till he begins
to identify all that is possible in education with what
is possible yc?/' ///;;/. His narrow conceptions become
his standard for others as well as for himself He
has not the open, liberal, generous soul of the true
educator. He has often hardened down into the
" dominie," a danger to which those are specially ex-
posed who are teachers of departments of study only.
The large and complex movement of a Public people's
school keeps a man broader. For the inspector-
designate, then, even if he has been a teacher, and
especially if he has been a teacher of a department
— say classics or mathematics — training is needed.
He ought to spend six months studying methods
and organization in at least two normal schools, and
should at the end of that period be examined in his
knowledge of these things, and of the theory and
history of education. The Department and the
1/4 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
country would be great gainers by this, and teachers
would begin to look to the inspectors as friendly and
sympathizing counsellors, and not merely as per-
ambulating critics and statisticians. In the discharge
of their duties they should be instructed, moreover,
to promote the highest education possible, and not to
look coldly on a teacher's more ambitious efforts, be-
cause a few pupils have failed in the lower standards.
This is all I have to say at present. If I have
spoken with some emphasis on certain points, it is
because I am addressing an audience which has in its
hands the solution of many questions that, through
the school, affect the welfare of the nation. If you
prosecute reforms, especially those that bear on the
education of your profession, in the spirit of educa-
tionalists inspired with a fervent zeal for the highest
interests of the young multitudes who pass through
your hands, you will assuredly succeed.
THE HIGHER INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC
RURAL SCHOOLS.
As Exemplified by the Administration of the Dick Bequest
IN Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray.
It is specially appropriate to the consideration of
the question of higher-primary schools that some ac-
count should be given of an educational endowment
so important and so beneficial in its effects as the
bequest left by James Dick, the Jamaica merchant, in
May, 1828. The administration of the Dick bequest
contains a practical lesson suited to the present cir-
cumstances both of England and Scotland. No ques-
tion is more urgent than this : " How are we to foster
in public rural schools instruction in those branches
which prepare for the upper forms of grammar schools
and the junior classes in the universities ? " and the
question is one which will one day have to be answered
in England as well as in Scotland. The Dick bequest
has solved this problem in a way of its own in the
three counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray, by the
judicious application of an endowment of little more
lyG THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
than i^4000 a year net. You will, of course, under-
stand that I do not claim the whole merit of this work
for the Dick bequest trustees alone. They simply
made use of customs already recognized, and of forces
already in operation. The result of their work was to
consolidate these forces, and to direct energies which,
under the pressure of local necessities, had already set
in a certain direction. Without the University of
Aberdeen, its system of bursaries and its cheap educa-
tion, the bequest could have accomplished compara-
tively little. There would have been no standard up
to which the schools could have worked, and there
would have been no teachers capable of doing the
work which has been, and still is, required of them.
In the county of Aberdeen, too, the Milne bequest
has played an important part.
The aim of the Dick bequest trustees is to secure
at least one school in each parish in which the higher
instruction shall be given, so that a pathway to the
University shall be open to the poorest. They have
secured this by admitting one teacher in each parish
(and where there is a large population, two) to share
in the fund on the following conditions : —
I. That the teacher pass a qualifying examination.
This examination is held annually, and is attended
by recently appointed teachers who aim at holding a
high positipn among the teachers of the three counties.
When a school board advertises for a teacher of the
public school selected by them as that in which the
higher instruction is to be given, they limit the candi-
PRIMARY IXSTRUCTIOX. 1 7/
daturc to those who think themselves competent to
pass the Dick bequest examination; This virtually
means that none but University graduates need apply,
for the examination is so pitched as to require a quali-
fication in Latin, Greek, and mathematics higher than
that required for a mere pass degree ; and, in addition,
it demands a competent acquaintance with the English
language and literature, the elements of physics, geo-
graphy (physical and political), and history. The
schoolmaster is the key of the whole position, and by
directing their attention to his qualifications in the
first instance the trustees anticipated and removed
many difficulties.
2. But, it may be asked, how do school boards
succeed in attracting graduates as candidates for rural
public schools ? The answer is simple. By the sub-
stantial inducements which they offer. The trustees
at once saw that the endowments and advantages be-
longing to the position of a country schoolmaster
were a matter of vital moment. They accordingly
fixed a minimum salary, without which no school-
master is eligible to receive the benefit of their fund,
and they thereby protect themselves against what
without such protection would have been the inevitable
result, viz., the application of their grants to the relief
of the statutory local burdens. The sum at present
fixed is ;!^8o of stipend, a dwelling-house, and all the
fees of the school. The poorest master on the roll of
the Dick bequest will have at least £iiO, a house and
garden, and his bequest prospects. This sum would
N
1/8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
not, however, suffice to attract the best men, were it
not that it is only the first step in a career. The
highest salaries range from ;^200 to ^300 a year, in
addition to the bequest. It is the existence of prize-
places which secures for the humblest places the
services of a first-class man. As things now stand in
Scotland generally, there are too many good places
in proportion to the very good. No system can be
more wasteful both of money and power.
3. In allocating their free revenue among the
teachers the trustees proceed on this plan : — They
allow so many marks for the average attendance, so
many for the number receiving instruction in the
higher subjects, and a few for the scholarship of the
teacher, if he be one of those who have distinguished
themselves at their examination. Each mark repre-
sents a certain proportion of the free fund — generally
about 10^. A "Visitor" is then sent to the schools
to ascertain the condition of the school in every de-
partment, but with powers to have a special regard to
the way in which the higher subjects are taught, and
to the intellectual and moral character of the school
generally. On his report, if approved of by the
trustees, it depends whether the number of marks
already credited to the teacher on the basis of his
school statistics shall be \y.u(\ or not, or how much of
it shall be paid or how much shall be added to it.
Great power is thus conferred on the Visitor, and on
him must always largely depend the successful ad-
ministration (jf the trust, and all the more that the
TRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 179
trustees demand the strongest possible grounds for not
sustaining his judgment in each case. They have so
invariably sustained it that a body less accessible to
complaints or pri\ ate solicitation does not anywhere
exist. A great and consistent stringency, and some
even think severity, has characterized their administra-
tion, the absolute purity of which has never even been
questioned.
4. The visitor is not limited as to the amount of
marks he may deduct from the total credited to a
teacher on statistical grounds, but the amount he can
add is restricted to one-fifth of the total aggregate of
marks obtained in any one year by all the teachers
collectively. This gives a certain security against the
idiosyncrasies of any individual Visitor, and a confi-
dence to the teachers, who feel that they are not
wholly at his mercy. It practically comes to this —
that of the ;^4000 available for distribution the Visitor,
subject to the confirmation of the trustees, allocates
;^8oo among the 130 teachers. Those who are put
on a reduced scale may receive only ^^5, those who
are in the first rank may receive;^ 5 5. This inequality
of distribution is the life of the system.
5. Now, what are the results ? These : — That, in
the first place, ninety per cent, of the teachers are
graduates of a University, and graduates of more than
pass-qualifications. Secondly, that the subjects which
prepare for a University are taught in all save a few
schools that are peculiarly situated. Seven per cent,
of the scholars are learning Latin, two per cent, arc
l8o THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
learning Greek, and five per cent, are learning mathe-
matics. But the general disposition to teach the higher
branches does not stop here, for a large percentage of
girls are learning French (many of these also Latin),
and a small percentage have begun German. Thirdly,
the pupils thus trained go in a large number of cases
to the bursary competitions of Aberdeen University^
some, however, spending from three months to ten
months at a grammar school on their way. The girls
compete for admission to training colleges.
6. But a result not less important than this, in my
eyes at least, is produced. For the fact that advanced
instruciion is al\\"a}\s available secures a prolonged
attendance at school on the part of all whose parents
can afford it. A larger proportion of well-instructed
boys and girls are thus turned out annually than will
be found anywhere else. While in other districts the
children of even well-to-do parents leave school at the
age of thirteen, you find in the three Dick bequest
counties an effort to continue at school to fourteen,
fifteen, and even sixteen years of age. And all this
because there exi.sts a higher department in the
schools which by its very existence raises the standard
of ivhat is held to constitJitc education in the eyes of the
small farmers and tradesmen. This is by no means
the least valuable result of the system.
7. But the question naturally arises, and has been
again and again asked — What of the masses of the
children in attendance at these schools ? Can the
primary subjects be efficiently taught when the teacher's
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. l8l
powers arc drawn off to subjects which properly belong
to the sphere of secondary instruction ? I have again
and again answered this in the affirmative, but the
answer has been received with incredulity. The Go-
vernment returns, however, now afford independent
evidence and establish the fact beyond question. An
examination of the Blue-book by the Board of Edu-
cation for Scotland shows that the Dick bequest
schools gain more per head from the Parliamentary
grant for the ordinary subjects of the Code than rural
.schools in the rest of Scotland. The question, then,
is now definitively and officially answered as I have
always answered it from my own knowledge.
8. Still the incredulous, or rather, let us say, those
who are convinced against their will, will continue to
say, " How is it possible ? " My answer is that the
higher class of schoolmaster brings with him a moral
and intellectual force to his work which has two re-
.sults : (i.) It enables him to predispose the minds of
his pupils for more advanced instruction : (2.) It enables
him to accomplish more within the same time than a
less intellectual and educated man can accomplish :
3. When the more elementary stages of Latin and
mathematics and French are passed he devotes addi-
tional time to the higher subjects. An hour before or
after school is set apart for those pupils who are in
earnest about the more advanced studies.
9. It has to be admitted, however, that the pres-
sure of the Government Code is such as to tend to
discourage the teacher and to deprive him of the time
l82 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
necessary for the higher instruction if he is to meet
the ordinary requirements in the best possible manner.
This is unquestionably the tendency ; and were it
not for the counteracting influence of the Dick be-
quest, the power of traditionary custom, and the
special qualifications and ambition of the teachers,
the Code would inevitably conquer, and reduce the
instruction of the three counties to a dead level.
Some boards have clearly perceived this tendency, and
have met it by allowing one pupil-teacher in excess
of the Government requirements, or, what is much
better, by appointing a certificated mistress as assis-
tant where one or two pupil-teachers would have
satisfied the Education Department. The additional
cost of such arrangements varies from i^i5 to ^50
per annum. And this is the price which the boards
have to pay for the preservation of the higher in-
struction. So liberal are the Government grants that
the example of the few leading boards might well be
followed by all. It is in this direction, be)-ond all
doubt, that the boards must move. This will be the
ultimate solution of the local difficult}' as to teaching
power.
10. Those who have followed this brief account of
an important bequest will, I hope, see that if the
much-talked-of bridge from the primary school to the
university is to be built, the materials and the plan
must be similar to those which have constructed the
passage in the north-eastern counties of Scotland.
Ilif^h schools with bursaries attached to them will
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 1 83
suffice for town children, but will wholly fail to meet
the wants of country children of promising talent.
These must be prepared in loco for the grammar-
school bursar-ies, at least up to the age of fifteen ; and
to secure this we must have, first, highly accomplished
schoolmasters for the rural schools not only of Scot-
land but of England — men who know something
from their own experience of university work ; and,
secondly, inducements by means of local endowments
or Government grants, or both, for these men to do
the higher kind of work as well as the lower, and to
draw pupils to their classes. This I advocate not
merely for the sake of the few who get the immediate
benefit, but for the sake of the many who are
insensibly raised, morally and intellectually, by seeing
what their schoolfellows are doing and their teachers
aiming at. Nay, there are considerations of an equally
vital kind which, were this the fitting place and time,
I could insist on — considerations of a political and
social character — which in this connection impress me
deeply. It is such an educational system as exists
in the three north-eastern counties of Scotland which
realizes the true, and only true, democratic idea, in
presence of which all questions of suffrage are super-
ficial and trivial. It makes the clever poor contented,
and thus saps the foundations of Socialism.
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS.
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND.*
There can be no doubt that in pre-rcformation times
the number of high schools in Scotland (under the
names of grammar and cathedral schools) was larger,
in proportion to the population than it is now ;
and it is also certain that the influence of the revival
of letters was felt in these schools quite as soon as in
England. In those days, Scotland was in direct
political and intellectual relations with the continent
of Europe, and those relations were of a more friendl}-
kind than England maintained. Accordingly, it felt
the wave of continental life directU', and not only after
it had first passed over England. Greek was taught at
Montrose in 1534; King James V. was entertained in
Aberdeen, in 1540, with orations in Grceca Latinaqiie
lingua snviino artificio instructcc ; and John Knox says,
in 1 543, that the lay members of the Scottish Parlia-
ment knew Greek better than the clergy. It would
appear, indeed, that Scotland was in the full tide of the
* Read at the Social Science meeting in Aberdeen, in 1S79.
1 88 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Humanistic revival — as is evidenced not merely by its
advance in education, but by the vigour and originality
of its native literature at a time when literature south
of the Tweed was comparatively feeble. Barbour,
Blind Harry, James I., Henryson, Dunbar, and Lindsay
are greater names than any England has to show, from
the death of Chaucer down to the Elizabethan epoch.
The effect of the Reformation struggles in retarding
the higher conceptions of education which had begun
to influence Scotland will form an interesting and
instructive topic for the future historian of Scottish
high schools. My object here is wholly a practical
one. I wish to remind you that weak as the
secondary school system in Scotland now is, it was
not always so ; and that the present circumstances of
our country recall us to the national duty of doing
what we can to restore and preserve the learning of
Scotland under new and suitable forms. This can be
done mainly by the revival of our high schools ; for
although the universities can do much, they cannot
rise high except on the sure basis of a sound high
school .system.
Let us now, as briefly and concisely as possible,
consider our present position.
The Scottish Education Act of 1872 secured for
every parish of Scotland an educational machinery
adequate to its needs so far as primar)^ instruction
was concerned, and the Code of the Education De-
partment, which is of the nature of an annual Act of
Parliament resting on the statute of 1872, prescribes
SECONDARY OR PIIGH SCHOOLS. 1 89
the use which is to be made of this machinery in the
education of the people. It prescribes, but it does not
limit, the range of instruction.
By the same Act the grammar or high schools
were transferred from the hands of town councils to
the care of the burgh school boards ; and rightly so,
for the management of these high schools was in it-
self enough to discredit the whole system of municipal
administration. -But while by this transference of the
management a distinct benefit was conferred on the
secondary education of the country, no means were
provided for the improvement of these schools other
than they had possessed under town councils. Nay,
it may be said that the financial resources of these
schools were even curtailed, for, prior to 1872, there
was nothing, so far as I know, to prevent the town
councils voting additional sums from the "common
good " for the better endowment of the schools,
whereas the school boards were prohibited from doing
this.
The author of the Act was himself sufficiently
sensible of the inadequacy of his measure so far as it
touched the high schools, and he accordingly gave
the country at the same time a Commission to inquire
into educational endowments.* The substantial result
of that Commission was to show that Scotland pos-
sessed an educational income from endowments of
i^ 1 7 5, 000 a year, and that a considerable portion of
this might fairly be turned in the direction of the
* The Cok'brooke Endowed Schools Commission of 1872.
IQO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
secondary instruction of those who were unable to pay
for it, now that pubHc State provision had been made
for primary instruction.
Now, I venture to say with a confidence which
rests, not on a general but on a detailed knowledge of
the wants of Scotland, that a reorganization of the
endowed institutions and a devotion of a portion of
certain endowments to secondary instruction would
do much to equip Scotland with high schools. I am
certain, too, that this could be done in such a way as
to command the co-operation of the trustees of the
endowments themselves, save those whose personal
interests conflicted with the public good.
In these circumstances and with these facts before
the country it was almost inevitable that some move-
ment should be made to complete the half-built struc-
ture of Scottish education, and so to preserve for our
country the place which it had previously held among
the nations of Ifuropc. Hence the "Association for
the Promotion of Secondary Education in Scotland,"
whose first report, published in 1876.
As to the objects of this Association I would point
out, in the first place, that it is not an association
merely for the setting up of secondary or high schools,
but for the promotion of secondary education in every
form, in accordance with the traditions of the past ;
not because they are traditions, but simply because
the .system which these traditions hand down has
been found to turn out a larger proportion of well-
instructed, well-disciplined and capable Scotsmen for
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 19I
the service of the country than any other that could
have been devised. With this system we are resolved
not hastily to break. If it has to go, it will go only
because it cannot be helped, and because it is quietly
superseded by some other system under the law which
determines educational as well as natural evolution
— the law of natural selection and the survival of the
fittest.
First, then, the Association aims at reforming the
endowed institutions of the country in so far as they
need reform.
Secondly. — It aims at utilizing all endowments,
which can fairly and equitably be so utilised, for the
promotion of the higher instruction of the clever poor ;
and by " poor " we mean those of every rank who,
without extraneous aid, could not obtain that higher
instruction for which their natural capacities fit them.
Until the country is satisfied that the money left to
it by past benefactors is rightly used it will not bestir
itself to the only kind of voluntary activity which
promoters of associations appreciate, the kind which
results in liberal voluntary contributions for the im-
provement of high schools. The fact is (as the
Association has already found) that these endow-
ments, so far from promoting, are at this moment a
bar in the way of the higher instruction.
Thirdly. — The Association aims at securing an
executive body authorized to deal with the whole
question of endowments. The need of this has been
so strongly felt that the Association has again and
192 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
again brought the necessity before Government : so-
far with a kind of success ; for Government has
promised to take action.*
Fourthly. — The Association aims at reviving and
constituting with larger resources, and with a better
organization, all the old grammar or high schools of
the country, and of adding to the number of these in
populous places. What we need, and how the needs
are to be met, I endeavoured to show in a paper read
before the annual meeting of the Association held last
November. In that paper I said : " It is my object
to show what supply of high schools at present exists,
what number \\e shall need, and what means are now
available for the adequate supply of the national
wants ; " and I may here be allowed to quote from
what I then said : —
"In Scotland there are 982 civil parishes, including
81 burghs. Of the burghs there arc 21 whose popu-
lation is under 2000, or which in other respects are of
such small importance that they may be classed
among rural parishes, and treated for educational
purposes as rural.
" If to the 60 burghs which remain, after deducting
these 21, wc add 31 'towns' not burghs, but having
more than 2000 inhabitants,! we shall have a pretty
complete list of all the places in w hich high schools
.should be established — in all 91 localities.
* A 15111 has been more than once inlioduccil, ami is expected to pass
this year (1882).
t Deducting Ruthcrglcn, which is a suburb of Glasgow.
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. I93
" It is as impracticable as it would be unnecessary
to have schools of the first rank, such as the High
School of Edinburgh, in all these places. There are,
however, 11 towns which, either because of their
population, position, or their educational history, or
for all these reasons combined, ought, it seems to me,
to have schools of the first rank. These are : Aber-
deen, Ayr, Dumfries, Dundee, Edinburgh, Elgin,
Glasgow, Greenock, Inverness, Perth, Stirling.
" Now, it so happens that high schools in these
towns already exist, and that the existing endowments
and fees are such that the judicious expenditure of
;^iooo a year, and such an interpretation of the 64th
section of the Education (Scotland) Act of 1872 as
would enable school boards to rate for the repair,
cleaning, maintenance as well as for the erection of
buildings (which last they are permitted to do), would
suffice to place all of them on a perfectly satisfactory
footing.*
" There would then remain 79 burghs and towns
to be provided with high schools of the second and
tJiird rank. These I would enumerate as follows : —
Royal and Parliamentary Burghs.
Airdrie.
Cupar
Forfar
Annan
Dingwall
Galashiels
Arbroath
Dumbarton
Haddington
Banff
Dunbar
Hamilton
Brechin
Dunfermline
Hawick
Burntisland
Dysart
Inverurie
Campbeltown
Falkirk
Ii-vine
Cullen
Forres
Jedburgh
* This power is now given by the Act of 1S7S.
O
194
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Kilmarnock
Musselburgh
Renfrew
Kirkcaldy
Nairn
Rothesay
Kirkcudbright
Oban
Selkirk
Kirkwall
Paisley
Stranraer
Lanark
Peebles
St. Andrews
Leith
Peterhead
Tain
Linlithgow
Port Glasgow
Wick
Montrose
Portobello
Other Tozutts-
Wigtown — 48
Aberfeldy
Dalkeith
Kirkintilloch
Alloa
Dairy
Lerwick
Ardrossan
Dunoon
Motherwell
Barrhead
Dunse
Newton- Stewart
Bathgate
Fraserburgh
Pitlochrie
Beith
Girvan
Saltcoats
Blairgowrie
Helensburgh
Stonehaven
Castle Douglas
Keith
Thurso
Coatbridge
Kelso
Wishaw
Coupar-Angus
Kingussie
—31
Dalbeattie
Kinross
Total number — 79
" Now, without going into unnecessary detail, it
may be said generally that in all these towns, with
about a dozen exceptions, there either already exists
a high school of the second or third rank,* or there is
the germ of such a high school now at this moment
in operation. About half of these towns, too, possess
endowments of greater or less amount."
The general result of the organization of the high
schools of Scotland would be that we should have 1 3
high schools of the first rank, 53 of the second rank,
and 25 of the third rank — in all 91 — in addition to
the reformed Endowed schools. This is no great task
* By a high school of the second rank I mean a school which
carries boys as far as say the Medical Preliminary Examinations. A
high school of the third rank is simply an advanced department of a
primary school.
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 195
to accomplish. What we want is an organizing body
with adequate powers — the same body, perhaps, as
that entrusted with the reform of endowments.
One thing more we need — a permissive power to
school boards in burghs, towns, and populous local-
ities to impose rates, with a view to raise a fund to
meet any grants which might be made by an executive
body charged with the general administration.* This
body might also be empowered to draw on the
Treasury, if necessary, to a limited amount ; this draft
on the national exchequer being protected by two
conditions : (i) that no sums be allowed to any school
in localities where endowments already exist that could
be made available ; and (2) that an equivalent should
be, in all cases, locally raised. Twenty thousand
a year would suffice ! With this paltry sum and the
help of existing endowments the whole work could be
done. And if we are to have a Board of Educational
Supervision for Scotland, which we unquestionably
ought to have, this, with the drafting of a Code, the
auditing of accounts, and a general supervision of the
working out of the clauses of the Act of 1872 in the
various parishes, might constitute its work. It might
also serve as a Court of Appeal against the unjust
dismissal of teachers.
Fifthly. — The Association aims at preserving
secondary instruction in public rural primary schools.
Towns can take care of themselves. The higher the
aim of the schoolmaster, the better for the education
* Now given by the Act of 1878 (18th section).
196 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
of the school. Does the boy who leaves the fourth
form of an English public school receive no benefit
from the mere existence of fifth or sixth forms, although
he never attends them ? Those who think this do
not, it seems to me, understand what education means,
or how the higher work of an institution tells on the
lowest work done in it. But, quite apart from the
effect which the higher instruction in public schools
has on those who do not share it, it is at once manifest
that, without the ■ provisions which the Association
contemplates, higher instruction generally would be
practically confined to those resident in the vicinity
of high schools, if it were crushed out of country
districts. Once for all, it should be clearly understood
that this is not a question of Universities versus high
schools, or of primary schools versus high schools.
It is not intended by those who urge the preservation
of what we may call " University subjects " in the rural
public schools that these schools should be in direct
contact with the Universities. By all means let pro-
mising country lads be drafted into high schools before
proceeding to the University ; but inasmuch as this
drafting is, generally speaking, impracticable before
a boy is about fifteen years of age, it is urged that up
to this age the country school should give him his pre-
paration.*
Sixthly. — The sixth object of the Association is
suggested by the last — the encouragement of the
* The Endowed Institutions Commissioners have, since tlic above
was written, recommended this to Parliament.
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. IQ/
production of teachers for the public rural schools
competent to give the instruction necessary to carry
a boy at the age of fifteen to a high school. This
does not involve the abolition of the existing Normal
School system, but merely the institution of a parallel
or co-operative training in the Universities.*
Seventhly. — The Association aims at the institution
of bursaries to be held at high schools. There is
money enough in the country for this already, and an
executive body would know where to find it, with the
cordial concurrence even of those now in charge of
the funds. The Executive would in this connection
work out the 46th clause of the Act of 1872, which
provides that " it shall be lawful for the school board
from time to time, with the sanction of the Board
of Education, to vary or depart from trusts with a
view of raising the efficiency of the parish or burgh
school by raising the standard of education therein or
otherwise." There is ;^20,ooo a year awaiting this
application.
Eightly. — The Association aims not merely at
providing money and machinery, but also at improving
the airriciiliim of high schools, having due regard to
the requirements of different districts.
These are the aims of the Association. No one who
reads the names of its members, comprising leading men
of all political parties, can doubt that the programme
of the Association expresses the mind of Scotland.
* This object is now substantially attained by modifications in the
Scotch Code.
198 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Nor has the Association been without fruit thus
early. Its very existence has called attention to the
national needs, and stirred up a strong desire in many
localities to do for themselves or what the Association
aims at.
The Association has obtained the consent of Govern-
ment to the issuing of an Executive Commission to
deal with endowments ; and has, by memorial or
deputation, represented the necessity of encouraging
the higher instruction in public schools and of pro-
viding a more liberally educated class of schoolmasters
for these schools. It has also, by the circulation of
its report and otherwise, directed public attention to
the wants of Scotland. It will continue to prosecute
its objects as hitherto until they are attained.
The movements going on around us show the
effect which the report of the Endowed Schools Com-
mission and the action of the Association have already
had. The trustees of many institutions not only
acquiesce in reform but earnestly desire it, and
many have already bestirred themselves to the extent
of their present limited legal powers. In Glasgow
the Mutcheson Hospital trustees have taken a great
and important step ; the Buchanan Society has a
scheme in type ; and the representatives of other
educational endowments in Glasgow, by deputation
to the Lord Advocate, have expressed their desire
for reforming powers. In Dumfriesshire, Wallace-hall
Academy desires reform ; from Elgin a petition has
gone up to the Home Secretary ; in Stirling trustees
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 199
of an annual income of nearly ;^40oo are impatient
because of the Government delays ; the same is true
of the Spiers trustees, in Ayrshire. The Philp trustees,
in Fifeshire, are initiating a scheme of their own ; the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge has
already in operation a scheme which will provide
bursaries for Highland and Island lads in sufficient
number to settle the question of secondary education
in the whole of the North-west of Scotland ; the
Dundee high school has been thoroughly reorganized,
and has started on a new lease of life ; Dunfermline,
Haddington, Peebles, Hamilton have raised their
schools to high schools ; while in some instances
endowments have already been given or promised.
All that is needed is action by Government to collect,
concentrate, direct, and organize the energy of the
country. If we had this, the lapse of a few years
would, I am persuaded, see Scotland again at the
head of the countries of Europe.
Note. — Since the above was written many of the objects of tlie
Association have been gained ; but mucli still remains to be done.
ON THE GOVERNMENT OF HIGH
SCHOOLS.*
The question, which I venture briefly to treat, is
substantially this : What is the best governing body
for High schools ? It seems to be assumed in Great
Britain that there ought to be both local and cen-
tralized administration working together ; and this
assumption I am willing to accept in a country like
our own, where the citizens as a whole are sufficiently
enlightened to govern, or at least to share in govern-
ment. The question accordingly resolves itself into
one as to the nature and limits of the local and
central authorities respectively.
But this question cannot even be approached until
we have settled the work which the authorities we
propose to set up have to do. To enter into the
details of their duties would be here out of place,
and I accordingly content myself with the mei-ely
general statement that they have to fix, guide, and
control the education of youth between the age of
eleven and seventeen, and to settle any questions
* Read to the Social Science Conference in Edinburgh.
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 201
■of internal discipline that may be forced before their
notice. I limit myself to seventeen, because I am
convinced that boys will best prosecute their educa-
tion after this age at the universities, the arguments
in support of this opinion being here omitted. But
this is not all : the governing bodies have to fix the
curriculum of schools and the qualifications and re-
muneration of teachers, to select teachers, and to
govern teachers.
In the first section of their duties, it would be
unreasonable to expect in governing bodies technical
knowledge. In all questions of a technical kind, the
head-master should be supreme, aided by the special
knowledge of the under-masters, each in his own
department. But we are entitled to expect in the
governing body a clear conception of the aim of
school instruction, and of the relative value of
studies. It is essential, therefore, that the governing
bodies should be composed of intelligent and in-
structed men, and that they should belong to the
class in society which they are educating ; also
that they be fairly well informed in the subject of
education and not wholly ignorant of the scholastic
machinery of contemporary nations. In the second
section of their duties, qualities of a higher kind
are needed. There can be no doubt of this, — that
the education of youths of the middle and upper
classes (and these classes chiefly occupy high schools)
can be adequately conducted only by masters who are
not merely thoroughly qualified each in his own
202 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
department, but who arc also, in respect of general
cultivation and personal bearing, on a level with the
parents of the boys they are instructing. The intel-
lectual influence of teachers largely depends on this,
the moral influence luholly depends on it. Great
learning and native capacity will make up to some
extent, doubtless, for personal defects, but only to
some extent. The governing bodies, accordingly,
ought to be so constituted as to put it beyond all
question that scholars of ability and learning, who
at the same time are men of a good social standing,
or who by education have raised themselves to a
position of social equality with the parents of their
pupils, will feel that their interests are safe, and that
their independence and self-respect will be respected.
No man is fitted to be a teacher in a high school, still
less in a university, by virtue alone of his eminence
in a particular branch of knowledge. The poorer
classes of the community are, in this respect, fortu-
nate, for the great mass of the pupils of the primary
schools are below the social class from whom the
teachers arc drawn, while none are above the social
position which the teacher has legitimately gained for
himself In the ordinary English high schools, on
the other hand, it is only a small percentage of the
teachers who stand in a similar relation to their pupils.
It may be otherwise in the great public schools of Eng- •
land, but this exception supports my argument; for in
these schools, the social position and personal dignity of
schoolmasters have been confided to the care of gentle-
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 203
men, while the emoluments have generally been such
as to attract men of the middle and cultivated class.
Having indicated, in general terms, the function
of local governing bodies, the question now is. How
are we to get bodies qualified for the discharge of this
function ?
The high school of a county town, let me first say,
exists, not for the town alone, but for the county.
The county accordingly should be rated for its sup-
port, in so far as it may be supported by rates ; the
rural districts, however, paying only a modified sum
as compared with the town for whose benefit the
school mainly exists. That where there is a general
rate, there should be general representation, is a
settled conviction of the British mind. This general
doctrine, it seems to me, has in all cases to be
modified by the purpose for which a rate is taken
up. In the matter of secondary education, what we
have to secure is men competent to discharge the
kind of administrative duty with respect to education
which has been already briefly sketched above.
Hoards elected by the general body of rate-payers
are incompetent for the task, — incompetent, if we
look merely to the standing and efficiency of the
schools and the due protection of the masters. But
there is more than this to be considered. All men
who really understand what they are talking about
desire to see the body of masters in each town or
district constituting themselves a kind of college,
and directly influencing the whole locality by their
204 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
example of a learned and cultured life. This kind
of influence is only second in importance to that of
teaching in the schools.
An adequate conception of the position and
function of the high school and its collegiate body of
masters is manifestly quite beyond boards elected by
the £4 householder. Nay, more, I hold that boards
so elected are incompetent even to control the
parochial or primary school, wherever it assumes, as
it often does in Scotland, a quasi-secondary character
and becomes a higher-primary school. The rural
boards, I repeat, are unfit to govern these schools ;
and this chiefly because the members are brought
into such direct relations with the average rate-payer
that they must very often be guided by his views.
These are contracted in the extreme, — necessarily and
inevitably contracted and illiberal. To save a few
pounds to the parish to-day, they will sacrifice what
would yield to the State, in the sphere of civic action,
thousands in the long day. If this be so in the case
of higher-primary schools, what can we expect in the
case of high schools ? Are the poorer classes to
govern the education of the middle and upper classes,
simply because they pay an infinitesimal portion of
the rate which may go to upper schools ? Is ignor-
ance to legislate for knowledge ? Doubtless the
boards elected by large burghs will be generally
composed — in part at least — of more educated and
larger minded men than rural boards contain ; but as
they are elected mainly in the interest of primary
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 205
schools and of the great mass of the population, they
are vitiated in their constitution from the beginning.
I know such a board, which debated for several meet-
ings whether it should pay for certain absolutely
necessary apparatus. They were afraid to add a few
pounds to the rates (which, by-the-by, gave nothing to
the high school), because their poorer constituents,
who wrongly thought that they had no immediate
interest in the high school, might possibly object,
although these poorer constituents have their own
schools maintained chiefly by the money of the middle
classes. The rate for high schools, it is true, might be
taken up only from householders who paid more than
£\2 rent, but there are serious difficulties in the way
of. making such distinctions in rating for particular
purposes. And besides, it would be a most unwhole-
some procedure, because it tends to separate classes
and class interests, and restrict and degrade a citizen's
notions of the community of national interests which
it is desirable to foster in each and all. It is not in
the interest of the middle or upper classes alone that
we have high schools or universities, but in the interest
of all classes. The nation needs trained intellects and
minds for the public service, and for literature, science,
and philosophy ; and this for the sake of the nation,
not for the sake of a class. At the same time, I
object to governing bodies constituted by the votes of
all the rate-payers, for the very good reason that they
would defeat the end the State has in view, in pro-
moting the higher education. It seems to be a mere
2o6 "the training of teachers.
political superstition to hold that rate-paying, any-
more than taxation, should in all cases involve direct
representation. If the simple consideration of rate-
paying is to determine the constitution of a represen-
tative body, then it surely follows logically that the
representation should be regulated by the amount
paid by each ; that is to say, if the income of a high
school in a large city is ^io,000 a year from fees,
endowments, and rates, and the proportion of this
contributed by householders rated at less than £\o is
one twentieth, their representation on the governing
body should be only one twentieth. To this arrange-
ment no one would object ; but as it is said to be an
impracticable one, the same end should be attained in
some other way.
It might be said that my argument against direct
rate-paying representation leads directly to the placing
of the whole higher education under a centralized
state authority and making it a " public service."
This, however, would involve us in a serious evil of
another kind, to which reference will be made in the
.sequel. Moreover, I thoroughly respect the popular
clement, so long as it is not the plebeian element. It
is of great value, and we cannot afford to dispense
with it. Had the English public schools been under
the influence, even partially, of any popular authority
in past generations, the minds of those constituting
that authority would have been, from time to time
inevitably exercised on general questions of education.
The action of this authority would have evoked a
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 20/
response in the ijencral community which would have
so effectually directed attention to the intellectual
blunders and moral evils connected with the whole
system, that we should have been where we are now a
century sooner. Still-existing evils — such as that, for
example, of allowing the masters to be practically
hotel-keepers and provision contractors — would be
blown away by the popular breath. Indeed the
breath of the people where they have reached a
certain level of intelligence is always healthy ; but
the breath of the lowest stratum of voters, where it
proponderates or is active, is, in education, at least,
pernicious. Parents should take an interest in the
education of their children, and should have a proper
channel for expressing that interest in a collective
way, — that is to say, through governing bodies, — while
personal and individual interference should be dis-
couraged. Moreover, education in the larger sense is
promoted if we engage in its service the thoughts of
the people. It ought not to be restricted to school-
masters. This public interest reacts on family life,
and helps to give to education its due importance in
the State. I do not think it can attain its due im-
portance in the thoughts of men, if it be left in the
hands of a centralized bureau, even if the result of the
action of the bureau were to be a theoretically perfect
scholastic system. It is better to have some de-
ficiencies and many variations, if at this price we
engage the mind and heart of the country in the
work. Indeed, education in the broader sense is not
208 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
attained for the community until it begins to occupy
the thought of individual citizens as at once a private
and a public concern. Interest in the education of
youth educates the adult himself
Accordingly, I would place all high schools in a
county under a committee or board, elected jointly by
the existing town school boards to the extent of one
half, the other half of the board being elected by the
county boards — when these are constituted — and by
one or other of the Universities, since high schools
are to a large extent preparatory schools for the
Universities. Under high schools should be included,
for purposes of supervision, if not control, all endowed
educational institutions, simply leaving the charitable
part of the administration of these under the trustees
appointed by the testator (or such modifications of
the trust body as might be absolutely essential).
Such a board would be a strong one, and able to
resist over-centralization.
Let us next consider the relation of high schools
to the State ; that is to say, to the centralized adminis-
tration to which we commonly apply the term " State."
Why should there be a centralized administration
at all ? In very many matters of national concern,
and especially in postal, military, and foreign affairs,
centralization is by common consent essential. But it
is certainly not desirable that centralization should in
any department of social administration be pushed
further than may be absolutely necessary. In the
opinion of many thoughtful statesmen it is even now
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 209
overdone, and the current of political action ought
rather now to run in the direction of decentralization.
The majority of thoughtful men hold this doctrine
even in matters of ordinary material concern. What-
ever can be administered locally should be admin-
istered locally, if we are to preserve the spontaneity,
independence, and vigour of the citizens, and widen
their daily life beyond the narrow business of the
shop and the domestic kitchen. If decentralization
be desirable in the administration of merely material
concerns, how much more in matters that affect the
thought and moral life of a community ! In truth,
thought and moral life exist only in so far as they are
local, individual, free, and spontaneous. Adaptation
of a man's opinions and acts to the thought of others,
and obedience to the precepts of others, are doubtless
acts of intelligence, and suit perhaps the majority of
mankind ; but the true life and progress of a com-
munity are wrapped up in the individuality and free
mental activity of the citizens. It is dangerous, then,
to allow the education of a country to fall into the
hands of a central bureau. It gives the workers of
the state machinery too much power. With a stroke
of the pen they can alter the curriculum of education ;
by their dominating supervision they can crush out all
spontaneous activity, and with this, all true life.
Bureaucracy is as opposed to the genius of a free race
as is absolutism. A bureaucrat is almost of necessity
a doctrinaire. Official minds are apt, with a view to
simplicity in administration, to ignore provincial feel-
P
210 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
ings, habits, and peculiarities, oblivious of the fact that
difference is essential to vitality. A dead level of
uniformity must inevitably have charms for the
bureaucratic eye. At present, in the case of primary
instruction in England, the " local authorities " are in
point of fact, merely channels for conveying the
stream of power which has its source in Whitehall.
The liberty of school boards is the liberty to acquiesce.
This is not wholesome for the country, and it is de-
pressing to the teacher, who, if he be worthy of his
vocation, is less of a machine than the members of
most professions. If the teacher is to succeed, he
must work with the energy that comes from freedom
and from a consciousness that he is at liberty to initiate
as well as to execute. Centralization, by subduing
individuality, stifles originality and paralyzes the will.
A system of high schools, all uniform and subject to
one central authority would, I believe, be far more dan-
gerous to our educational well-being than the control
of the humblest class of rate-payers could possibly be.
At the same time, we must not lose sight of the
fact that without some controlling power, the organiza-
tion of a high-school system and the maintenance of
that organization arc impracticable. Educational in-
formation has to be collected. Money also is wanted
from general taxation to subsidize local rating, and
with the giving of money comes a certain control.
But it is not necessary that much money should be
given by the State, and still less is it necessary that
there should be much control with a view to see that
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 211
the money is well spent. Supervision, not govern-
ment, is all that is needed, and all that the contribu-
tion of the State would justify. All that the State has
to care for is, that proper provision is made for the pre-
paration of teachers for high schools, and that annual
reports from all the high-school governing bodies are,
along with the educational statistics of the year, laid
before the Government. From time to time, once in
four or five years, it might examine the schools. It
might further specify the examinations for testing
boys when leaving for the universities, and perhaps at
other periods of the curriculum. Such should be the
limits of the State interference, and they should be
defined by statute ; all else, I think, should be in the
hands of the local county authorities.
To the question. Should the present Education
Department be the controlling State authority in
Great Britain ? I answer, No, so long as it retains
its present form. As a department, it is efficient ; in
some respects, perhaps, too efficient. A Minister of
public instruction, advised by an Educational Council,
consisting more or less of paid experts, sitting from
week to week, but not changing with the Government
of the day, would constitute, I think, a safer adminis-
trative body. Control by the present Education De-
partment is substantially control by secretaries and
clerks, and must always be so. This we all know
means that some one assistant secretary — a man, it
may be of small capacity and slight interest in educa-
tion, and it must be of an official, nay of an office-and-
212 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
desk habit of mind, and with a soul often dry and
parched with the dust of filed documents — governs
boards and masters who may have a much better
conception of what is desirable and practicable in
education. Men of this class are notoriously im-
pervious to all ideas, and have a self-complacent way of
mistaking their own imperviousness for sound, practical
common-sense. It is only a very powerful mind
that can resist successfully the insidious encroachments
of routine and precedent.
My answer, then, to this question of High School
government is : — *
First, that High schools should be under popular
control, but that the controlling body should be so
constituted as to guard against ignorance and illiber-
ality of view.
Secondly, that as all organized educational ma-
chinery exists, not for the individual, but for the State,
State supervision should be exercised with a view to
maintain a high standard, and the general carrying
out of the law ; but that this supervision should be
so strictly defined by statute in respect of its objects
as to protect education from the evil of centralization
and despotism, and that the supervising body should
be a Minister of public instruction advised by an
Educational Council consisting of experts partly paid.
* The subject of this paper was prescribed to the writer of it with a
view to its forming a basis for discussion. Hence the somewhat curt
and dogmatic treatment.
ON LINGUISTIC VERSUS SCIENTIFIC IN-
STRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.*
In considering this question, it is necessary to clear
away from the field of discussion all illusory imagina-
tions as to the larger proportion of boys who would
benefit by a middle-school system, based solely on
scientific training, as compared with the number which
might benefit by the discipline afforded through the
classical tongues if good methods were employed.
Severe and sustained intellectual work, having know-
ledge or other mental purposes exclusively in view,
is naturally distasteful to the great majority of
boys. We must not draw too large an inference from
the inquisitiveness and love of knowledge which cha-
racterize childhood. The recipient stage of a child's
life should be gently and wisely dealt with, and this
it is the function of the primary school to do. But
in the middle school, receptivity has given place in
the boy to force, which seeks not to accept im-
pressions, but rather to make them. To break in
upon the spontaneous and healthy expression of this
* i.e. where the pupils are from twelve to sixteen years of age.
214 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
fresh boyish energy with Latin prose composition or
classifications of birds and beasts, is, even in the most
favourable circumstances, to traverse the natural and
genial current of young life, and to call for a painful
and self-sacrificing exertion of will. Most boys will be
found to make this exertion, when they do make it,
not from love of the work itself, but from emulation,
or from the moral considerations of respect for au-
thority, of personal attachment, or a sense of duty.
Of this we may be sure, that when inborn stupidity
and rampant boyism have claimed their own, the
residue of real intellectual workers, where there is no
external motive to intellectual exertion, will always
be found numerically disappointing. Nor will the
substitution of pneumatics, physiology, and chemistry,
for Latin and Greek, draw out a larger amount of
talent than these do, or show better on the reckoning-
day when stock is taken of the quantity and quality
of available knowledge and discipline really acquired.
That by means of better books and of methods based
on a knowledge of human nature, a larger proportion
of boys might be drawn within the circle of school-
work, is undeniable ; but this points to the improve-
ment of existing practice, not to the subversion of the
existing system of studies.
There are, it seems to us, only two valid objections
to the prevalent practice of our public schools : — (i.)
The almost entire exclusion from these schools of
elementary physics and social economy, which, if
properly taught, can be made attractive as well as
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 21 5
instructive, promoting rather than retarding the magi-
stral classical and mathematical studies. (2.) The
non-provision of "a course of study for those pupils
who do not contemplate a university career, and
whose intellects, though repelled by linguistic sub-
jects, might possibly be reached by those consecutive
and methodical accounts of the external world which
we call Science. If the study of Latin and Greek, as
the leading subjects of middle-school work, renders
once for all inevitable the total exclusion of all in-
struction regarding external nature and economic
science, the cause of the classicists is, by the admission
of this necessity, fatally weakened. As a matter of
fact,, however, there is no difficulty in prosecuting the
study of the ancient languages concurrently with
those subjects which every educated man may be
reasonably expected to know in their elementary
principles and general purport. This amount of (so-
called) realistic scientific knowledge is easy of attain-
ment in secondary schools, and as imperative as it is
easy. Such subjects as natural history are probably
best treated as diversions or recreations.
It is only after we have assumed a certain amount
of realistic instruction in natural science to be given
in public secondary schools to all the pupils, and a
separate educational provision for those who are by
nature disqualified for linguistic discipline, that we
properly approach the question of Language versus
Science as an educative instrument ; and the question
2l6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
then becomes this : Is formal science, as such, or the
classical tongues, when taught with average ability
(for it is only on a mediocre teaching capacity that
we ever can safely rely in estimating the value of
subjects of instruction), more promotive of the forma-
tion of a good intellectual habit ?
To state the question of a classical versus a
scientific education as a training in the knowledge
of the lifeless signs of speech and their relations,
versus a training in a knowledge of living Nature
and its manifold operations, is to misrepresent the
point at issue. In the University, and in the upper
classes of the middle school, the dispute is not be-
tween the claims of formal and of real studies.
Both studies present the realities of knowledge to the
mind of the student — the one the realities of man's
nature, the other the realities of physical nature.
Again, both Greek and physics exercise and disci-
pline the formal powers of intellect, and both admit
the student to an unconscious knowledge of the
operation and the laws of intelligence. But that
the purely formal discipline of language (where we
happen to have a highly developed language to work
with) is more delicate and subtle, more deep and
thorough, than that of physics, is, we think, justly
maintained.
The further superiority claimed for classical train-
ing over scientific consists in this, that in the former
we have the generalizations of the wisest men on
human life and human duty expressed in the most
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 21/
artistic forms ; in the latter we have only generaliza-
tions on the facts and sequences of the visible world.
The realities of moral experience, embodied in forms
historical and dramatic, as these are impressed on
the acquiring mind by the very effort applied in
deciphering a difficult language, are of more value,
both in themselves and as giving splidity and perma-
nent power to the mental fabric, than a knowledge
of the phenomena of heat and electricity. These
moral generalizations of the wise are, in truth, an
.unsystematic philosophy of human nature, furnishing
the learner not only with the experience of the past, but
with instruction in the motives and purposes of life.
To become acquainted with the thoughts and
imaginations of the past, through the medium of
translation or when transfused through modern litera-
tures, is to sacrifice the benefits which we derive from
the study of thought produced in circumstances not
only different from, but even in some respects antago-
nistic to, our own. It is to sacrifiice also the artistic
form in which the thoughts are clothed— forms which
are the most perfect in literature, and which the
structure of the ancient languages forces even upon
the negligent student. The peculiar value of the
aesthetics of the intellect and of morality, as dis-
tinguished from the aesthetics of feeling and emotion,
in promoting the discipline and cultivation of mind,
and, above all, of the opening mind of youth, has not
been adverted to by writers on education, though it
must have been experienced by all who have had the
2l8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
benefits of a classical training. It is not simply an
aesthetic, but also an intellectual and moral cultivation,
which flows from close contact with ideal and artistic
forms of utterance.
Such results in the growth of mind are, it is true,
neither ponderable nor commensurable quantities, but
they assuredly tend to produce a quality of mind
rarely to be attained in any other way, save by men
of native genius. Richter has well said, and probably
without much exaggeration — " The present ranks of
humanity would sink irrecoverably if youth did not
take its way through the silent temple of the mighty
past into the busy market-place of after-life."
Let us look at the contending claims of language
and science closely in their relation to the growth of
intelligence.
As an intellectual discipline, language makes good
its claim to preference on the following among other
grounds : —
I. Words stand for things real or notional. Now
it is only in so far as words denote the objects of ex-
ternal perception that a training based on science can
be said to have advantage over linguistic training.
Even in this case, however, language is defined for
the pupil onl)' within the narrow limits of the depart-
ment, or fragment of departments, which it is possible
within a given time to teach, whereas linguistic train-
ing, by teaching the value of words, as such, to what-
ever department of human knowledge they may
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 219
belong, educates the intellect to precision in the use
of them generally. So true is this, that men trained
only in a special department of science, and whose
education is limited by it, fail to use the language
even of their own department with that accuracy and
consistency of signification which would alone satisfy
a mind trained on language or philosophy. In the
only sense, then, in which physical science, to the
extent to %uJiich it can be taught to boys, can affect to
do the w^ork of linguistic training, it does not succeed.
Even if it succeeded, how small the ground it would
cover ! The language of a single department of
science or fragments of a few sciences, which, more-
over, in so far as they are fragmentary, fail to yield
true discipline, would represent the whole range of
the vocabulary taught. All those words which are
daily in our mouths as denoting the realities which
are constantly influencing our lives in all social and
moral relations, would be left outside the range of the
scientific teaching. It would be superfluous here to
dwell either on the pre-eminent importance of this
aspect of man's daily existence, or on the immense
value of a right understanding of words, and a wise
use of them. Every successive inquirer into human
nature has descanted on the error, misunderstanding,
and consequent misery, into which an abuse of words
is constantly betraying mankind. It seems to me
that if a linguistic training had no other result than
to teach us that words were our servants and not
our masters, and that we must question, define, weigh,
220 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
and estimate them, it would require little other
defence of its claim to the traditionary prominence
in the secondary school which it happily inherits.
2. When we pass from the consideration of the
discipline of language in teaching us the exact use
of single terms, to the employment of these in the
expression of our thoughts under the necessary opera-
tion of mental laws, we find in language a just, though
imperfect, reflection of intellectual processes. In this
view the study of language is the informal study of
the laws of thought. We may assume that few
will be prepared to require from boys that reflective
grasp of intellectual laws, that effort after a conscious
realization of abstract processes, which is implied in
any study of logic or psychology worthy of the name.
At the same time, all will recognize the paramount
importance of exercising the formal powers of mind,
and, by a careful method, giving practice in the art,
while avoiding the scientific terminology and formulae,
of logic. Now, it is precisely in this relation that the
distinctive characteristic of language-training reveals
itself For language being the body of thought, the
student of it is studying concrete mind. While
dealing with objective things — with vocables, which
are audible and visible, and which, therefore, do not
evade his grasp, — he is at the same time unconsciously
tracing the operations of intellect in others, and learn-
ing the right use of his own faculties ; in other words,
he is a student of logic, in the widest sense of that
term, without being aware of it.
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 221
Nor is this position a vague affirmation ; it is
capable of illustration in detail : —
In the first place, the similarities of inflection in a
sentence leads the pupil to the clear perception of the
concord and partial identity in thought of subject
and attribute, whether the attributive appears as an
adjective, or a predicative verb. The distinct forms
by which inflected languages indicate this mental
concord must necessarily give the pupil a clearer
notion of what a judgment and an affirmation really
are. We do not here speak of the use which might be
made of this part of linguistic discipline by a teacher
who was himself conscious of the course of logic which
his instructions in language were scarcely veiling, but
of the inevitable discipline which the average boy
receives from the average teacher. And it is not only
in simple sentences that the pupil is thus exercised in
the concord of thought as expressed in attribution, but
he is also led by the help of the same mutual good
understanding among the inflections to trace a con-
nection between clauses, and to detect the fact that
complete assertions, no less than individual words, may
be attributive of each other. The tracing out and per-
ception of this unity of thought between affirmations
is a valuable intellectual exercise.
We pass over the clearness which must be given to
the pupil's perception of time and of government by
the resembling, yet differing, terminations of verbs
and nouns, to point out the training in syllogistic logic
which he necessarily receives when he enters on the
222 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
analysis of an involved complex sentence. The
varying inflections of the words before him necessarily
lead him to the discrimination of an assertion from
its grounds, and of a conclusiom from its causes,
motives, or purposes. The forms set apart to denote
these qualities of propositions compel his attention,
detain it, and thus fix the distinctions in his mind.
Again, those qualities of propositions which we ex-
press by the words hypothesis and probability, and
even so fine a distinction as that between probability
and possibility, are forced upon the understanding of
the learner, however unconscious the teacher may be
of the full meaning and value of the instrument he is
using, and however ignorant the pupil of the logical
generalizations of propositions and the names by
which these generalizations are known. What higher
discipline of intellect can be proposed for a boy whom
we desire to discipline severely, but whose self-con-
sciousness we do not yet wish to evoke, or to force
into activity, than to lay before him a mass of words,
apparently dead and disjointed signs, and to require
that, from a steady consideration of these, the living
organism of speech shall be built up — an organism
into which all the formal elements of intellect run,
and which calls for the discrimination, not only of the
various relations in thought of the propositions before
him, but of the precise force of many and various
vocables, possessing it may be a wide and various
connotation .-•
Nay, I go further, and maintain that for the pro-
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 223
duction of a scientific habit of intellect we shall best
employ some years of boyhood in the study of
language. For this study exercises the mind at once
subtly and profoundly ; it penetrates all the re-
cesses of fallacy, and thereby habituates the mind to
the search for exactness and truth — the highest of
all qualifications for scientific investigation. By its
breadth of reach it widens the conceptions and
elevates the intelligence above the dominion of words
and phrases. This or that department of science is
no longer the master of the scientific intelligence, but
its servant. It is seen in its true proportions as only
a part of the general truth of life and furniture of
the human soul. Comprehension and grasp are thus
given, and the man who after linguistic training
becomes the thorough master of any one science, is
truly a master of it, because he sees it in its true
proportions and in its relations to the vast realm of
knowledge. Setting aside men of genius, is not the
man of one science, or even two, about the narrowest
and hopelessly barren of all the educated men one
can talk with ? It is true that much of what we
desiderate in the pure man of science may be obtained
from literature ; but, at a certain stage of education,
language properly understood and taught zs literature
as an exact study. Language-study then, I maintain,
gives comprehension of mind and power of intellect,
and is consequently the best of all preparations for even
the scientific man ; and further, it gives greater acute-
ness of discrimination — a most important attribute of
224 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
the highest scientific minds. And, in short, the
formal study of language is the most admirable of all
exercises in the analysis and synthesis which con-
stitute the whole method of science.
3. To the reply that the intellectual discipline of
which we speak can be equally well obtained from
subjects more immediately useful than Latin and
Greek, such as natural science, we would rejoin : —
The instruction of boys, in all subjects in which
the real as opposed to the formal is, from the nature
of the case, of primary importance, must be dogmatic.
Up to the age of sixteen, or, perhaps, even seventeen,
even a statement of principles is received by boys as
dogma : to suppose anything else is to deceive our-
selves. Though they may be occasionally startled
into the conscious perception of rational relations
under the influence of a teacher of original mind, they
do not and cannot, in any adequate sense, realize
the reasoning process by which scientific conclusions
are reached. Hence, while in the study of natural
science, or any branch of it, they arc doubtless
taught not only facts, but classifications and laws,
and causes in relation to their effects, these are not,
and in almost all cases cannot be, elaborated by the
pupil himself The teaching of them, accordingly,
is apt to degenerate into a statement of fact, and the
learning of them into an act of memory
It is to be at once conceded, that were pupils led
by an intelligent and rarely-endowed master in an
inquiry into nature, with a view to re-establish, for
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 22$
himself, results already known, a training would by
this means be given unequalled as a discipline ; but
such a method of instruction is on a large scale quite
impracticable, and, even if practicable, it would be
premature in its demands on the pupil's powers. Those
educationalists, who are not mere theorists, feel the
necessity of finding an instrument which does not
over-strain boys, and which can work fairly well in
the hands of no very cunning workmen. Where
natural science is that instrument, the method which
looks so well in theory must degenerate in actual
practice into the most ordinary and vulgar cram.
Differences, generalizations, laws, and causes will not
be truly apprehended as stick, but will be arranged
in the pupil's mind by virtue of association alone,
however glibly they may be enunciated at call in
their proper places and sequences. It is only the
select few, even of those who fairly master the subject
taught, that are fully conscious of the reasoning pro-
cess involved, and do not simply trust to faithful
memor}- and association.
It is no doubt true that, a few years later, the boy
who has been well taught in one or two departments
of science may reflect on the results of that teaching,
and in this way these results may fructify into a kind
of retrospective discipline ; the relation of cause and
effect, differences, likenesses, and the elements of gene-
ralizations, may be then seen, and the intellectual ends
of education be thus attained. But even the pro-
duction of this winter-fruit assumes particularly good
226 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
teaching, a good memory, and habits of mind which
are naturally more than usually reflective. In lan-
guage, on the contrary, the intellectual processes of
differentiation, generalization, and reasoning are not
only much more fully, delicately, and variously repre-
sented than in physics, but they have the signal
advantage of not being offered to the learner as
scientific results which are capable of being tabulated
and acquired by the memory as so many co-ordinated
facts. On the contrary, they have in every successive
.sentence to be sought out and brought to light a/teiv,
and this as the very condition of making a single
progressive step. The boy's daily task is the con-
structing of a living organism out of a seemingly
chaotic aggregation of dead symbols, and in the con-
struction of this he brings into play all his intellectual
faculties whether he will or not. The discipline is
thus obtained independently of the teacher, and we
might almost say independently of the will of the
pupil also.
Of no other instrumciit of discipline can this be
said except geometry, and the kind of cultivation
which it gives is of too narrow a kind to admit
of its ever being more than the accessory of other
educational instruments. The precision of the defini-
tions in geomctr)-, the necessity of constantly referring
t:) them, and the purity of the exercise in syllogistic
reasoning which it affords, are of great benefit to the
intellect. But alone, and unsupported by the higher
linguistic training, it would be an unsatisfactory and
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 22/
barren discipline in even mere syllogistic logic. Tiic
subject-matter of the reasoning is confined within
too narrow limits, and the landmarks of the ratio-
cinative process are too clearly defined, to admit of
geometry ever affording by itself a liberal culture.
Both the subject and the discipline which it gives, are
alike too monotonous and inflexible.
In the study of languages the boy either does the
work before him or he does not : if he docs it, he can-
not, if he would, avoid obtaining the discipline which
the work affords ; whereas, in elementary science, the
power of mere memory facilitates the acquisition of a
semblance of knowledge which may pass muster, but
which, I maintain, does not yield a thorough discipline
of any faculties save those of memory and association.
We shall, perhaps, be told that boys can and do
understand the science teaching; but when we examine
closely we find that the objectors do not really mean
strict science at all, but only Nature-knowledge, and
this we have already said ought, as a matter of course,
to have its place in every secondary school.
Accordingly, as in the training to a perception of
the force of vocables, so also in the disciplining of the
formal and intellectual powers, there seem to be suffi-
cient grounds for maintaining that science, as it can
he alone taught to boys between tiuelve and sixteen years
of age, is a feeble educative instrument as compared
with language.
The kind of discipline above claimed as the almost
exclusive property of language in the field of second-
228 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
ary instruction, cannot be so surely obtained through
the modern tongues, except in those cases (on which
it would be vain to calculate) in which the rare ex-
cellence and general philological cultivation of the
master supplement the inherent defects of his instru-
ments. It is the contrast of the Latin and Greek
tongues to our native mode of casting thought, no less
than their own perfection of structure, that makes
them so valuable as a discipline. The conspicuous
devices, moreover, whereby, in these tongues, gram-
matical, and therefore thought-relations are indicated,
reveal, even to the careless pupil of the most ordinar}'
teacher, the logical structure of language. The
organic character of thought is thereby more com-
pletely exhibited, the relations of its elements more
delicately indicated, and the whole rivetted more
firmly into a compact living body in the classical
tongues than any other.*
If nature-knowledge and mathematics and modern
languages, including our own language, are all admitted
to a place in our secondary schools, it is of course
impossible to preserve to both Latin and Greek
their present practical monopoly. The ship must
be lightened or it will never reach its port. Greek,
in short, and it is to be said with regret, must
give way and stand aside as a subject taught in all
* The larger literary and a'sthetic arguments in favour of basing
secondary education on tlie classical tongues are not here discussed.
( )ur object has been simply to show the nature of the intellectual opera-
lions which language on the one hand, and science on the other, calls
into I'lay in boys between twelve and sixteen.
SECONDARY OR HIGH SCHOOLS. 229
secondary schools, but only as a special subject to
be taken by those who choose. I do not believe in
what are called " modern sides " in classical schools.
Education at the secondary stage is a unity, as it is
in the primary stage. It is only after sixteen that the
process of specialization can be allowed to show itself.
To exclude Latin as well as Greek from the obligatory
curriculum would be an educational calamity. Being
the store-house of a large portion of our own tongue,
it yields in quite a peculiar degree an exercise in the
history and force of words. In studying Latin wc
are studying our native, if not our mother, tongue,
and it is hopeless to look for a grasp of modern
English if we are ignorant of one of its sources.
When we add to this the fact that it is the basis of
the Romance languages, and smooths the way to an
acquaintance with these, we add the consideration of
utility to an already adequate ground of preference.
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST.
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST.
Montaigne, the essayist and sceptic, continues,
after a lapse of three hundred years, to speak to us
with all the freshness of a contemporary. Among
mere men of the world he is sovereign. He is original
and unique, and at the same time a type of a class.
Though the class he represents may not be a large
one, he yet gives expression to a way of estimating
life which is a passing mood of all thoughtful minds.
He thus leads a large constituency — all the larger that
he makes no tyrannical demands, and warns the
reader not to labour after even him. Few writers
say so many wise things as Montaigne does, and no
one appears so little solicitous about convincing
others that his sayings are wise. His intellectual
philosophy is essentially sophistical and sceptical, his
morality conventional, and his moral philosophy
epicurean.
We are not disposed, however, to allow to Mon-
taigne, and such easy-going sceptics as he, the
superiority to limitations that they claim. It is all
234 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
very well to proclaim the impossibility of finding ab-
solute truth, and to luxuriate in a cultured indifference,
but at the foundation of such talk there in truth lies a
philosophical conviction as positive as that of the most
ardent zealot. The conviction is that, doomed as man
is to nescience, the happiness of each individual is for
himself the only solid pursuit, and is to be at all
hazards cherished. The standard of happiness will
doubtless vary with the idiosyncrasies and circum-
stances of each man, but must always, with cultivated
men, embrace equability of mind, balance of judgment,
a kindly disposition to all with whom they are
brought in contact, an indisposition to exertion for any
purpose whatsoever as leading to certain disturbance
and almost as certain disappointment, a horror of a
" Cause," and a strict regard to the comforts of
the animal economy generally. Intellectual scepti-
cism is itself in truth an implicit dogmatism, and in
the field of moral action it is epicurean dogmatism.
No man, in truth, holds more tightly to a positive
philosophy of life than Montaigne. Doubtless the
attitude of inquiry, the que scais-je ? gives a breadth
and elasticity of mind and promotes a geniality
of nature that have their charms, and are genuine
objects of desire to most men. They are, how-
ever, the true possession only of those who are not
" too sure " of anything. A steady sustained con-*
viction that there is nothing admitting of conviction
runs through Montaigne's life and writings, and he is
in this sense as positive as his neighbours. No man
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST.
-^J5
can build his house on shifting sand. Montaigne may
in words defy us to find him desperately in earnest,
but he fails : for he never doubts his doubts, and he
never loses his grip of his ethical standard such as it
is. So far at least he is in sober earnest.
We should like sometimes to find this arch-
philosopher of practical wisdom in earnest about other
things than indifference, and we naturally seek for
this quality of earnestness in his views of religion and
politics — subjects which call forth the passions of men
more than any other. But notwithstanding all that
has been said and written on these points, I think we
shall find that his whole mental attitude was such as
to forbid definite conclusions even on those vital sub-
jects. His Apology for Sebonde does not throw so
much light on his religious beliefs as we should desire.
If readers are disappointed in their expectations here,
they have themselves to blame, for they search for
something which his philosophy has beforehand told
them not to expect. The fact seems to be that in
religion he was strictly conventional, and in politics
he was equally conventional. " For Heaven's sake,"
he would say, "don't disturb the status quo; things
are bad enough, I grant, but in seeking to make them
better you will probably make them worse. Let us
go on from day to day, quietly meeting little diffi-
culties as they arise, and making the best both of the
good and of the bad. The practical guidance of life —
that is our business."
If we prosecute our inquiry after the "earnest"
236 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
side of Montaigne's character, we shall find it perhaps
most conspicuous in his heartfelt desire to amend the
condition of the poor, and in his views on education.
It is the latter with which we have to do here ; but
of both characteristics I would say that they were the
fruit of his positive philosophy. A happy, useful
(provided usefulness did not call for too much ex-
ertion), practically wise life was his sitimmun boniLni,
and it was this aim that unconsciously determined the
substance of his educational theory. In considering
then his teaching, we must keep Montaigne's theory
of life before our minds. For, education as distinct
from instruction is a subject on which no man can
possibly write without being more or less consciously
controlled in all his utterances by his philosophy of
man and of human life.
So much is necessary for the proper understanding
of Montaigne on education. But more than this is
needed for the proper placing of him in the series of
educational writers. We have to understand his
historical relations and the circumstances of his life
and time, of which receptive men like Montaigne are
in a special sense the product and reflection.
Luther died when Montaigne was thirteen years
old. It was during the latter period of Luther's life
that the Humanistic movement among the leaders of
the thought of Europe began to tell, as all great
philosophic and political movements inevitably do,
sooner or later, tell, upon the education of youth.
The reformation of religion was itself only part of the
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 237
larger Humanistic movement. For Humanism was
simply a rebellion against words and logical forms in
the interest of the realities of life and thought. An
intellectual movement of this kind could not fail to
make itself felt in education as well as in the domain
of religious forms and formularies, for it was a philo-
sophical movement, and philosophy ultimately deter-
mines all such things. Up to the period of University
life, and even beyond it, education consisted in the
acquisition of Latin words and rules about Latin, and
this in time received the addition of logic with all its
scholastic subtleties, and such physics as abridgments
of Aristotle could supply. Prior to Montaigne's
school-days the intellectual life of the school-boy was,
as may be supposed, very wretched, but those who
survived it and continued to devote themselves to
grammar, rhetoric, and logic, certainly acquired an
amount of discipline which could not fail to sharpen
their wits. Intensity and subtlety of thought were
the natural outcome of the educational system, but
accompanied with a restricted range of viev/ and a
worship of arid terms and phrases. Luther's educa-
tional activity was directed to aid the Humanists in
reviving in the school a regard for substance as
opposed to form. Pure Latinity, the study of the
substance of the great Roman writers, and of rhetoric
and logic by the perusal of those great products of
literary genius out of which the rules of rhetoric and
logic were themselves generalized, began to take the
place of mere words and of barbarous Latinity. The
238 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
typical schoolmaster of this period was John Sturm,
the rector of the High School of Strasbourg, whose
course of instruction, severe and mainly linguistic, was
yet such as to give genuine culture to all those who
were capable of culture, Sturm died in 1589. Already
the Humanistic movement in schools had been repre-
sented in England by Dean Colet, who died in 15 19,
and by Roger Ascham, who died in 1568, and was a
correspondent of Sturm. Erasmus, the friend of
Colet, died in 1536. Montaigne's position is thus
clearly defined. Born in 1533, and dying in 1592, he
was in the midst of the full tide of the reaction
against, what Milton calls, " the scholastic grossness of
barbarous ages," " ragged notions and babblements."
Bacon's influence had not yet begun.
Montaigne's father, a gentleman of private estate
in the province of Guienne, had notions of his own as
to the education of the young Michel, and whatever
we may think of them, the son thought highly of the
method, and all through life retained the profoundest
affection and respect for " the best father that ever
was." He used to ride in his father's old military cloak,
" because," he said, " when I have that on, I seem to
WTap myself up in my father." His education, under
the paternal roof, was directed morally to the cultiva-
tion in him of an intense love of truthfulness and of
kindliness of feeling and manners towards the poor
and dependent. So solicitous was the father to sur-
round his child with every beneficent influence, that he
had him roused every morning by the sound of music,
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 239
that there might be no violent disturbance of his
nervous system. As regards intellectual education, the
main object even with Humanists was Latin (and a
little Greek), because Latin represented humane letters.
Montaigne himself tells us the novel arrangements his
father made for initiating him in this language with-
out straining his powers. He gave him a Latin-
speaking tutor, and surrounded him with Latin
conversation, so that when he was six years old he
spoke Latin fluently, much better, indeed, than he
could speak his own tongue. The whole household,
indeed, became so Latinized that the domestics, and
even the peasants on his father's property, began to
use Latin words.
Greek was taught by the invention of a game,
but it would appear without much success, for Mon-
taigne's knowledge of Greek literature was never
much more than he could obtain through a Latin
medium.
He was only six years old when he was sent to
the College of Guienne at Bordeaux, an institution
of mark, in which the Humanistic culture must have
reigned supreme, if we may judge from the names
of the teachers — William Guerente the Aristotelian,
Muretus the classical Latinist and rhetorician, and
our own George Buchanan the historian and Latin
poet. At college he lost his familiar acquaintance with
colloquial Latin, but largely extended his private read-
ing in classical authors ; this, however, only by a breach
of school rules in which he was wisely encouraged by
240 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
his masters. At the early age of thirteen he had
accomplished his college course, and although he
afterwards studied law, it cannot be said that he had
any special instruction outside his professional read-
ing after he was a boy. Had it not been for the
wise connivance of his masters, which enabled him
to make acquaintance with the literature of Rome,
he would have " brought away from college nothing
but a hatred of books, as almost all our young gentle-
men do." His father was satisfied with the result
of his school life, " for the chief things he expected
from the endeavour of those to whom he had delivered
me for education was affability of manners and good
humour." Montaigne was, to speak the truth, idle
and desultory, and he would be the first to admit it.
He also complains that he had "a slothful wit that
would go no faster than it was led, a languishing
invention and an incredible defect of memory, so that
it is no wonder," he adds, " if from these nothing con-
siderable could be extracted." He was incapable of
sustained effort and of taking much trouble about
anything. Nor could it be said that witli all the
leisure at his command he was ever master of any
subject: he had "only nibbled," he himself says, "on
the outward crust of sciences, and had a little snatch
of everything and nothing of the whole." Even of
Latin he was not a master, and Scaligcr speaks with
contempt of his scholarship ; to which, however,
Montaigne never made any claim. His innumerable
classical allusions and quotations were, however, the
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 24 1
genuine fruit of his own reading ; but he read not
as a grammarian or philosopher, but as a man of
letters. " I make no doubt," he says, with his usual
naivete, " that I oft happen to speak of things that
are much better and more truly handled by those who
are masters of the trade." ..." Whoever will take
me tripping in my ignorance will not in an}' wa}'
displease me ; for I should be very^ unwilling to be-
come responsible to another for my writings, who am
not so to myself nor satisfied with them. Whoever
goes in quest of knowledge, let him fish for it where
it is to be found : there, is nothing I so little profess."
Again, " I could wish to have a more perfect know-
ledge of things, but I will not buy it so dear as it will
cost. My design is to pass over easily, and not
laboriously, the remainder of my life. There is nothing
that I will cudgel my brains about ; no, not knowledge
of what price soever. ... I do not bite my nails
about the difficulties I meet with in my reading, and
after a charge or two I give them over. . . . Con-
tinuation and a too obstinate endeavour darken,
stupefy, and tire m}- judgment."
The moral result was more satisfactory. Mon-
taigne's disposition was naturally kindly, and its
kindliness was further fostered by his father's affec-
tionate upbringing. If ever there was a man dis-
tinguished for that " sweet reasonableness " of which
we have heard not a little of late, that man was Mon-
taigne. He had the light of culture and also its
sweetness.
R
242 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
I have dwelt a little on Montaigne's own education
and character, because they have to be taken into
consideration along with the circumstances of his time,
to which I have already alluded, in forming a true
estimate of his educational opinions. The character
of the man also is itself to be regarded as, to some
extent at least, the fruit of his education, and retro-
spectively his father's method come up for judgment
according to the saying, " By their fruits ye shall
know them." It is sufficiently clear that of discipline,
intellectual or moral, Montaigne had received none,
and that his nature was one that stood in some need
of it. The love that his father bore him and the
gentleness of his treatment unquestionably nurtured
the ingenuous spirit of the son and gave him a free-
dom of judgment and a fearlessness of intelligence
which are among Montaigne's principal charms. His
mind was not at any time oppressed with too strong
a burden of duty or warped by fear. He grew up
into an open-eyed, gentle, bright-souled, and sweet-
blooded man, with a sound practical judgment — a wise
man, if not a learned one — capable of looking at every
side of a question by turns and dallying with each.
But to follow the example of Montaigne's father
would not always succeed. He had a man of genius
as his child and pupil, and all he did was felicitously
adapted to develop the boy's natural endowments.
But the system pursued did not cure the pupil's mani-
fest defects of character. I'2ven his natural weakness
of memory, so far from being remedied, was probably
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 245
increased by the father's lax treatment. Perhaps all
the better for the world, it may be said. In this
particular case it was so ; but we have not young
Montaignes to deal with. We have to discipline the
intellectual and moral nature of the average boy if we
would give energy of will, earnestness of purpose,
power of application, and love of truth.
When Montaigne gives us his own views on the
education of the young we find them to be very much
a reflex of his own experience and character. Let us
look at them for a little as they bear on the end of edu-
cation, on the materials of instruction, on method, on
intellectual and moral discipline, and on the penalties
whereby the work of the school is usually enforced.
If we were to put in the shortest form Montaigne's
idea of the End of education, wc should say that it is
this : that a man be trained up to the use of his own
reason. " A man," he says, " can never be wise save by
his own wisdom." " If the mind be not better disposed,
by education, if the judgment be not better settled, I
had much rather my scholar had spent his time at
tennis, for at least his body would by that means be in
better exercise and breath. Do but observe him when
he comes back from school, after fifteen or sixteen years
that he has been there : there is nothing so awkward
and maladroit, '-.o unfit for company and employment ;
and all that you shall find he has got is, that his
Latin and Greek have only made him a greater and
more conceited coxcomb than when he went from
244 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
home. He should bring back his soul replete with
good literature, and he brings it only swelled and
puffed up with vain and empty shreds and snatches
of learning, and has really nothing more in him than
he had before." It is true that great men and vigorous
natures overcome all this and are none the worse ;
but " it is not enough that our education does not
spoil us, it must alter us for the better." It is not
enough to tie learning to the soul, but to work and
incorporate them together ; not to tincture the soul
merely, but to give it a thorough and perfect dye ;
and if it will not take colour and meliorate its im-
perfect state, it were, without question, better to let
it alone." . . . Knowledge will not " find a man
eyes ; its business is to guide, govern, and direct his
steps, provided he have sound feet and straight legs to
go ttpony Neither Persia nor Sparta made much
account of mere knowledge, and Rome was at its
greatest in virtue and vigour before schools were much
thought of To train to valour, honesty, prudence,
wisdom, justice — these were the aims of the greatest
nations. As Agesilaus said when asked " what boys
should learn : " " Those things " (he said) " that they
ought to do when they become men."
Montaigne, then, would keep in view the end of
education from the very first ; and that end is to train
to right reason and independent judgment, to mode-
ration of mind, and to virtue. The cultivated and
capable man of aftairs, fit to manage his own
business well and discharge public duties wisely, is
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 245
his educated man. This is the antique idea of edu-
cation, and is very much what OuintiHan has in view
in the training of the " Good Orator." Philosophy-
is the highest fruit of education — not the philosophy
which has logical formulae for its subject-matter ; but
philosophy which has virtue for her end. Virtue and
philosophy are not " harsh and crabbed as dull fools
suppose," but the " enemies of melancholy and the
friends of wisdom : they teach us how to know and
make use of all good things, and how to part with
them without concern." " Philosophy instructs us to
live, and infancy has there its lessons as well as other
ages." We are not, however, to force to virtue and
to philosophy, but to attract by showing that they
alone yield happiness, and by leading the pupil to
recognize their essential beauty and charm. It may
be that there are youths who are inaccessible to all
that is noble and beautiful and ingenuous in thought
and action, and turn aside by preference to common
pleasures. What is to be done with these .^ " Bind
them 'prentice," says Montaigne, " in some good town
to learn to make mince pies, though they were the
sons of dukes ; " and in a manuscript emendation he
recommends that the masters should " strangle such
youths if tJicy can do it iintJiont %vitnesscs 1 "
What now has IMontaigne to say as to the ]\Iaterials
of instruction whereby his end is to be attained t
" The most difficult and most important of all human
arts is education," he says. The differences among
children increase the difficulty; but the promise of
246 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
the future is with young children so uncertain that it
is better, so far as the matter of instruction goes, to
give to all the elements of knowledge alike. In any
case, let us begin when they are young, when the clay
is moist and soft.
From the very first, the lessons of philosophy in
their simple and practical form can be inculcated.
In philosophy Montaigne includes all that we now
understand by the religious and moral, and he main-
tains, and rightly maintains, that a child's mind is
more open to all such lessons than to reading and
writing. In selecting other materials of instruction
we must bear in mind that a child " owes but the first
fifteen or sixteen years of his life to discipline, and
the rest to action. Let us therefore employ that time
in necessary instruction." At every stage that which
constitutes the ultimate aim of education is to appear
in some form or other — philosophy, namely, which
forms the judgment and conduct. This has a hand
in everything. " She is always in place, and is to be
admitted to all sports and entertainments because
of the sweetness of her conversation. By guiding
conduct, as well as by discourse in season, this instruc-
tion is to be given and habits thus formed."
Montaigne is generally classed by educational
writers as a realist — as the very founder of realism.
Those who so write, write without understanding.
Educational realism in our modern sense means the
substitution of a knowledge of nature and of the
practical ivork of after life for the study of language
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 247
and literature and all that we include in the Human-
ities. Those who advocate the latter are Humanists,
and are the true descendants of the Humanists
of the Renaissance. All educationalists, however,
(except, perhaps, the majority of schoolmasters), are
realists in this sense — Montaigne's sense — that they
desire to see reality, that is, to see the substance of
fact or thought in the education of youth. Montaigne's
realism opposed itself merely to verbalism, and he
fought a good fight in this. But all this belongs to
the past, in the region of educational theory at least.
We all now seek reality ; we are all opposed to ver-
balism. The difference now consists in this, that one
school of philosophy holds by language and literature
as introducing youth to the highest and best realities
— the realities of feeling and thought if properly
handled : the other school holds by facts, the facts of
nature and of man's triumphs over nature as yielding
the highest and best realities for educational purposes.
If we may make a distinction between the real
Humanistic and the verbal Humanistic, there can be
no doubt that Montaigne belonged to the former class,
and not to the utilitarian realists of whom Mr. Spencer
and Professor Bain are the best contemporary types.
Ethical training, then, in the broadest sense is the
main purpose of education according to Montaigne.
Virtue and wisdom sum him up. The ordinary sub-
jects of reading, writing, and casting accounts are of
course to be taught. After this, whatever you teach,
avoid words simply as words. Most modern Human-
248 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
ists would not go so far as IMontaigne certainly in
their opposition to words. They see more in them.
But we must bear in mind the state of things at the
time Montaigne wrote. The Humanistic revival, which
was a revival in the interests of realities, was also a
revival of style ; and the tendency was to give pro-
minence to art in language. This must always be the
case : teachers in their daily work cannot consistently
maintain from hour to hour the reality of any subject,
be it language, literature, or science. The tendency
inevitably is to fall back upon mechanical expedients,
on the learning of rules, and on symbolism generally.
It is so even with religion and morality. To the end
of time, the task of the true teacher who desires truly
to educate will be a struggle against the dominion of
words and forms, and this quite irrespectively of the
subjects he may choose to make the basis of his
school-work. The virtues of the educational pro-
fession are all summed up in the w^ords — life, reality ;
but, like other virtues, they are not always easily
practised.
"The world," says Montaigne, "is nothing but
babble. . . . We are kept four or five years to learn
nothing but words and to tack them together into
clauses ; as many more to make exercises, and to
divide a continued discourse into so many parts ; and
other five years, at least, to learn succinctly to mix
and interweave them after a subtle and intricate
manner. Let us leave this to the learned professors ! "
Words, grammar, style, or rhetoric in the larger sense
:\rONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 249
as embracing all these, constituted the main end of
school and college instruction in those days, and this
was supplemented by logic. Montaigne held that if
a man had really anything to say he could manage to
say it without all this training. " Let the pupil be
well furnished with things," {i.e. thoughts) he says,
" words will follow but too fast." People who pretend
to have great thoughts w^iich they cannot express are
deceiving themselves ; they are not labouring to bring
forth, but merely " licking the formless embryo " of
their minds. If a man has any clear conceptions he
will express them well enough though ignorant of
"ablative, conjunctive, substantive, and grammar."
"When things are once formed in the fancy, words
offer themselves in muster. Ipsiu res verba rapiunt^'
says Cicero. " The fine flourishes of rhetoric serve
only to amuse the vulgar, who are incapable of more
solid and nutritive diet." The attack on mere rhetoric
in the sense of style is keen and incisive and has not
a little truth in it. " Words are to serve and to follow
a man's purpose." He quotes Plato as approving of
fecundity of conception rather than of fertility of
speech, and Zeno as dividing his pupils into two
classes, the philolog'i, who loved things and reason-
ings, and logophili, who cared for nothing but words.
" I am scandalized," he says, " that our whole life
should be spent in nothing else."
What would he have then in addition to the usual
elements of education, and the teaching of philosophy
and of virtue } He would have a man learn thoroughly
2 5o thp: training of teachers.
his own language first, and then that of his neighbour,
regarding Greek and Latin, as ornamental merely.
Little, however, did Montaigne think that instruction,
even in our own language, could degenerate into what
it has become in these latter days — verbalism of a
kind much more offensive than any to be found in
classical teaching. He could not foresee detailed
analysis of sentences, and the dreary pedantry of
school grammars of our native tongue ! Pedagogic
ingenuity had not yet invented such arid substitutes
for the substance of our mother-speech — arch-enemies
of true Humanistic culture — the logical babblement of
the primary school. Truly teachers have an "infinite
capacity for sinking."
Vernacular and modern languages once secured,
Montaigne would thereafter limit the course of* study
" to those things only where a true and real utility and
advantage are to be expected and found. To teach a
boy astronomy, for example, instead of what will
make him Avise and good, is absurd. After you have
done this last, the pupil may be admitted to the
elements of geometry, rhetoric, logic, and physics ;
and then the science which his judgment most affects,
he will generally make his own." * But we must above
all teach him " what it is to know and what to be
ignorant, what valour is, and temperance and justice ;
the difference between ambition and avarice, servi-
tude and subjection, license and liberty ; in brief,
season his understanding with that which regulates
his manners and his sense, that which teaches him to
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 25 1
know himself, and how both well to die and well to
live. Over and above this, let us make a selection of
those subjects which directly and professedly serve
for the " instruction and use of life." But the direct
instruction of the master is not all. " Human under-
standing is marvellously enlightened by daily con-
versation with men, for we are otherwise of ourselves
so stupid as to have our sight limited to the end of our
own noses. One asking Socrates of what country he
was, he did not make answer, ' of Athens,' but ' of
the world.' " We must learn to measure ourselves
aright : " whosoever shall represent to his fancy, as in
a picture, that great image of our mother nature pour-
traycd in her full majesty and lustre, whoever in her
face shall read her so universal and constant v^ariety,
whoever shall observe himself and not only himself
but a whole kingdom no bigger than the least touch or
prick of a pencil in comparison with the whole, — that
man alone is able to value things according to their
true estimate and grandeur." The great world is the
mirror wherein we are to behold ourselves, to be able
to know ourselves as we ought to do. History
naturally suggests itself in this connection as a lead-
ing subject of study, for " thereby we converse with
those great and heroic souls of former and better
ages " — an empty and an idle study as commonly con-
ducted, but of " inestimable fruit and value " Avhen
prosecuted with care and observation.
Meanwhile the body is not to be forgotten, for,
not to speak of the moral instruction which may be
252 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
conveyed in connection with leaping and riding and
wrestling, etc., we have to form the youth's outward
fashion and mien at the same time as his mind : for
" 'tis not a soul, 'tis not a body we are training only,
but a man, and we ought not to divide him." And,
as Plato says, " we are not to fashion one without the
other, but make them draw together like two horses
harnessed to a coach," " It is not enough to fortify
the soul : you are also to make the sinews strong, for
the soul will be oppressed if not assisted by the bodily
members, and would have too hard a task to dis-
charge two offices at once." Effeminacy in food or
clothes or habits is also to be eschewed.
So much for the end of education according to
Montaigne, and the materials of instruction whereby
that end is to be attained. Montaigne's public school,
if he had to construct one in these days, would
certainly be somewhat after the fashion of a German
Real school, and, so far, he is rightly named a realist.
But the leading purpose of all his instruction would
essentially be ethical and humanistic. The only re-
spect in which his curriculum would be realistic in the
utilitarian meaning would be in the subordinate place
assigned to Latin and Greek. So far is he from being
a realist in the modern sense, that he may be rather
set down as an enemy of mere knowledge or informa-
tion. " The cares and expense our parents are at in
our education, point at nothing save to fill our heads
with knowledge," he says, "but not a word of judg-
ment or virtue. We toil and labour to stuff the
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 253
memory, and in the meantime leave the conscience
and the understanding unfurnished — void."
It has to be noted that Montaigne, and after him
Milton and I.ocke, think only of the education of the
few and not of the many — of the sons of gentlemen
only : but while the extent to which school instruction
goes depends for the most part on the social position
of the parent, the principles which regulate a pro-
longed education are equally operative in the briefest,
if they are worth anything at all as principles.
Of equal importance with end and means is
method. On this Montaigne has less to say, but what
he says contains probably the germs of the most im-
portant principles of all method.
" 'Tis the custom of schoolmasters to be eternally
thundering in their pupils' ears as if they were pour-
ing into a funnel, whilst the business of the pupil is
simply to repeat what the teacher has before said. I
would have a tutor correct this error, and at the very
first he should, according to the capacity he has to
deal with, put it to the test, permitting his pupil him-
self to taste and relish things and of himself to choose
and discern them, sometimes opening the way to him
and sometimes making him break the ice himself;
that is to say, I would not have him alone to invent
and speak, but also hear his pupil invent and speak
in his turn. Socrates, and since him Arccsilaus, made
first their scholars speak and then they spoke to them.
The authority of those who teach is very often an
impediment to those who desire to learn. It is good
254 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
to make the pupil, like a young horse, trot before the
master, that he may judge of his going and how much
he, the master, is to abate of his own speed to ac-
commodate himself to the vigour and capacity of his
pupil. For want of this due proportion we spoil all :
to know how to adjust this and to keep within an
exact and due measure is one of the hardest things I
know ; and it is an effect of a judicious and well-
tempered soul to know how to condescend to the boy's
puerile movements and to govern and direct them.
Those who, according to our common way of teaching,
undertake with one and the same lesson and the
same measure of direction to instruct several boys of
differing and unequal capacities, are infinitely mis-
taken in their method ; and at this rate it is no
wonder if, in a multitude of scholars, there are not
found above two or three who bring away any good
account of their time and discipline." ' Here we have
the foreshadowing of the organization of instruction
and the classification of pupils. The importance of
examination as a part of good method is also insisted
on. " Let the master," he says, " not only examine
him about the grammatical construction of the bare
words of the lesson, but about the sense and meaning
of them, and let him judge of the profit he has made,
not by the testimony of his memory, but of his under-
standing. Let him make the pupil put what he hath
learned into a hundred several forms, and accom-
modate it to many subjects to sec if he yet rightly
comprehend it and have made it his own, taking
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 255
instruction in his progress from the ' Institutions of
Plato.'" "'Tis a sign of crudity and indigestion," he
says, " to vomit up what we eat in the same condition
it was swallowed down, and the stomach has not per-
formed its ofhce unless it have altered the form and
condition of what was committed to it to concoct."
*' What is the good of having the stomach full of meat
if it do not nourish us ? " Here we have what used to
be called the " Intellectual method " anticipated, the
importance of assimilation enforced, and the dis-
tinguishing characteristic of cram well exposed.
Montaigne further, in opposition to theories of educa-
tion still current, advises that the pupil be made to
sift and examine for himself, and to accept nothing
on mere authority. " We can say, Cicero says thus :
that these were the manners of Plato : that these
again arc the very words of Aristotle : but what do
we say ourselves that is our ozuu / What do zee do ?
What do tc'^ judge ? A parrot would say as much."
So much for the method of intellectual instruction.
The method of moral teaching is summed up in the
words that it should " insensibly insinuate " itself in
so far as it is direct, as lessons do which are not set
and formal, but suggested by time and place.
Of intellectual and moral discipline, in the true
sense of these terms, we find in Montaigne nothing.
Nor does religion, in any true sense, enter into his
scheme of education. And when we have said this
we convict him of having left unwritten the two chief
chapters in any educational theory. These grave
256 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
omissions the character and upbringing of the man
"ivould lead us to expect, and we must not quarrel
with what we have, because it falls short of all our
demands.
With respect to Discipline, in the vulgar school
sense — that is to say, the means taken to force boys
to do what their masters want them to do — Montaigne
takes up a position substantially the same as that of
the greater number of eminent writers on education.
He is persuaded that, by following a good method,
instruction will become pleasant, and that it will not
be difficult to allure the pupil to both wisdom and
virtue. "If you do not allure the appetite and affec-
tion," he says, " you make nothing but asses laden
with books, and, by virtue of the lash, give them their
pocket full of learning to keep ; whereas, to do well,
you should not merely lodge it with them, but make
them to espouse it." Physical punishment fails of its
aim, and must fail by the nature of the case. If it
be necessary at any time to punish a child, it should
be done when we are calm. "No one," he says,
"would hesitate to punish a judge with death who
should have condemned a prisoner in a fit of passion.
Why is it allowed any more to parents and masters
to beat and strike children in their anger } That is
not correction : it is revenge. Chastisement stands
to children in the place of medicine ; and should we
endure a physician who was angry and violent with
his patient .^ " " Education," he says elsewhere,
" should be carried on with a severe sweetness, quite
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 257
contrary to the practice of our pedants, who, instead
of tempting and alluring children to letters by apt
and gentle ways, do, in truth, present nothing before
them but rods and ferules, horror and cruelty. Away
with this violence ! away with this compulsion ! than
which nothing, I certainly believe, more dulls and
degenerates a well-descended nature. If you would
have the pupil alive to shame and chastisement, do
not harden him to them. . . . The strict government
of most of our colleges has even more displeased me ;
and peradventure they might have erred less pernici-
ously on the indulgent side. The school is the true
house of correction of imprisoned youth. . . . Do but
come in, when they are about their lesson, and you
shall hear nothing but the outcries of boys under
execution, with the thundering noise of their peda-
gogues, drunk with fury, to make up the concert. A
very pretty way this to tempt these tender and
timorous souls to love their book — with a furious
countenance and a rod in hand ! A cursed and
pernicious way of proceeding ! . . . How much more
decent would it be to see their classes strewn with
green leaves and fine flowers, than with the bloody
stumps of birch and willows ! Were it left to my
ordering, I would paint the school with the pictures
of Joy and Gladness, Flora and the Graces, that where
the profit of the pupils is, there might their pleasure
also be."
We are all of Montaigne's opinion nowadays ; for
he did not forbid punishment or coercion, in some
S
258 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
form or other, when all other means failed. Extrema
in extremis. He merely protested against the scho-
lastic tyranny of his time — a tyranny still existing,
and till lately prevalent. Slave-driver and school-
master were almost convertible terms. The school
and the rod were ideas of inseparable association.
Samuel Butler calls " whipping "
" Virtue's governess,
Tutoress of arts and sciences."
" Oh ! ye " (says Byron) " who teach the ingenuous youth of nations,
Holland, France, England, Germany, and Spain,
I pray ye flog them upon all occasions,
It mends the morals ; never mind the pain."
Thomas Hood, in looking back on his school-days,
has before his mind chiefly the place where he was
birched ; and yet his pleasant humour can call up
some regret :—
"Ay, though the very birch's smart
Should mark those hours again,
I'd kiss the rod, and be resigned
Beneath the stroke and even find
Some sugar in the cane J"
The subject, however, is too serious for a jest.
Before Montaigne's day, and long after it, the brutality
of schoolmasters was such as to leave an almost
indelible stain on the profession for all time. The
whole body should make an annual pilgrimage of
penitence for the sins of their predecessors. School-
masters are now beginning to understand that it is
only by balanced temper and by sound method that
they can dispense with physical motives, and out of
MONTAIGNE AS AN EDUCATIONALIST. 259
the more or less contemptible " dominie " of the past,
evolve the educator of the future. In no other way
certainly can they make good their claim to that
social position which they, often too morbidly, claim.
A mere castigator p7icroruin has no claim to anything
save his wages, which should be the minimum for
\\hich he can be hired.
Montaigne's educational views w^ere defective cer-
tainly, though in substance and in their main purpose
sound. The defects, as before observed, may be
traced to his own upbringing and character. Ever\'-
thing with him is too easy. Wisdom's ways, alas !
are not always ways of pleasantness, nor are her paths
always those of peace. The charming way of life of
Montaigne is for a few fortunate souls only. We
have to train our boys to work hard, to will vigorously,
to be much in earnest, to have a high sense of dut}-.
Such qualities do not come by wishing. By intel-
lectual and moral discipline, by doing what may be
disagreeable, by obedience, by enforcement of law, we
have to mould our British boy. For all this kind of
work Montaigne has little to teach us ; but we can
learn much from him, and we part from the wise and
kindly Frenchman with gratitude, and even affection.
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS 01-
SCOTLAND.
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF
SCOTLAND.*
It is not inappropriate to the object of this Chair-
foundation to take a survey from time to time of the
educational field, by way of introduction to the severer
work of the session. And yet I would not do so did
I not find that such a survey affords an opportunity
of giving you, indirectly, some slight indications of
the nature and purposes of all educational machinery,
and inducing you to look at them in the light of prin-
ciples and of national aims.
I have chosen, on this occasion, as my text, " The
Educational Wants of Scotland." It would have
been a much more pleasant task to review the edu-
cational advance of the past thirty years ; and if I
do not do this, it is not because I am not alive to the
progress we have made. After all has been said that
can be said by way of unfavourable criticism, the edu-
cational system of Scotland is, when regarded as a
whole, and properly understood in its relations to the
peculiar genius of the nation, second only to the best.
* Introductory Lecture to the University Session of 1881-2.
264 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Of the staff of teachers my impression is that it would
be vain to look for a body of men in any profession
or in any country who understand their duty better,
and do it, on the whole, more faithfully. But, while
all this is true, we have not yet reached the point in
our journey when we arc entitled to "rest and be
thankful." There is much still to be done ; and I
wish to point out here, and now, though in a some-
what summary fashion, the work that is still before
us, and indeed urgent, if we are to continue to hold
our own. Within the last two or three years we have
seen a scheme of Secondary Education and a Royal
University inaugurated in Ireland (both on a most
vicious system certainly) ; Victoria University insti-
tuted in the north of England ; the Mason Science
College founded in Birmingham ; a Holloway College
for Girls in Surrey ; Colleges for science set agoing in
Leeds, Nottingham, Newcastle, Hull, Liverpool, and
Bristol ; and large reforms initiated in the Univer-
sities of Oxford and Cambridge. Against all this we
have to set only the College of Science and Art in
Glasgow, and the Baxter foundation in Dundee, pro-
claiming to the world, the while, our inability even to
pass a Bill for the reform of our existing endowments,
and our illiberal reluctance to take advantage of the
Act of 1878, which is the new charter of our high
schools. It becomes our duty, accordingly, to look
our defects in the face, and to ascertain what we still
need for the completion of our educational machinery.
I do not propose here to speak, except indirectly, of
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 265
internal reforms or of the vexed question of " studies,"
but only of external organization.
I. And, first, of the Universities which stand at
the head of our national system :
The ideas which govern all attempts at the reform
of Universities in Scotland are —
1st. That they should cease to be secondary
schools in their classical and mathematical depart-
ments, the work of secondary instruction being done
elsewhere. If this reform is to be introduced, en-
trance examinations for those who come to the Uni-
\'ersities with a view to graduation are indispensable.
Better than these, doubtless, would be school-leaving
examinations ; but for their introduction we must wait
till our high school system is more developed. We
ask for entrance examinations simply because, as Mr.
Mark Pattison has said, " the standard of teaching is
ruled by the standard already attained by the taught."
2nd. The second idea is, that the Universities
should be great schools for the advancement of science
and the fostering of scientific genius. By science I
do not of course mean physical science alone, but
every department of human knowledge which is
capable of development and co-ordination in relation
to ultimate principles. Professor Clifford says that
" the domain of science is all pos.sible human know-
ledge which can be rightly used to guide human
conduct ; " but however this may be, certainly no
department of human knowledge is worth}' of a place
266 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
in an University until it fulfils the condition above
indicated by me.
3rd. The third idea is, that the Universities should
complete their relation to the professions. The practi-
cal character of our nation, and the needs of society,
demand of the Universities the production of men who
shall practise the professional arts with a University
guarantee of fitness. In their relation to human
wants and wellbeing, theology, law, politics, educa-
tion, and aesthetics are arts no less than medicine.
Besides these, we have the arts that bear on indus-
tries, which may, for general purposes, be classed as
technical. Such, for example, are the mechanical
arts, including engineering and the agricultural art ;
not to speak of the less important arts of dyeing,
weaving, building, etc. A practical race like the
British is apt to lose sight of the purely scientific
and professional aim of Universities, and, by demand-
ing from them technicalists in every department, to
forget their true theory and function. The extent to
which they may be expected to turn out skilled
guides of the various industries is, indeed, one which
it is difficult theoretically to determine. We may
safely say, however, that the term " professional "
indicates very fairly the limit of University action.
We must beware of converting our Universities into
mere technical colleges.
4th. There is still another art with which the
Universities stand in close relation, and which is the
highest of all arts — the art, not of gaining a livelihood
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 26/
in the service of society, but the art of living. This is
taught through philosophy, history, literature, and
aesthetics. This, the last and greatest of the arts —
ars Vivendi — requires no special adaptation of Univer-
sity machinery ; for it is taught through knowledge,
through thought, through habitual converse with
humane letters. This art of rational living is summed
up in the word "culture," to which the physical sciences
may make important contributions, but which they
can never of themselves effect. It is by thought on
things human that the mind of man is cultured ;
thought on the things of sense, in the form of physical
science, being never more than subsidiary and contri-
butory to true culture. To those who pursue physical
knowledge, or indeed any department of study, to the
exclusion of the culture which philosophy and litera-
ture alone can give, we may fitly apply the words of
Seneca : " Dc partibus vitce qinsquc ddibcrat, de sicvnna
nnno." But along with this thought on things human,
there must be evoked the power, if not of expressing
thought artistically, at least of enjoying its artistic
expression in language and in the plastic arts. Not
knowledge itself then, but thought and aesthetic per-
ception, are the essential conditions of culture. This
culture, or art of rational living, is the highest aim of
University life. It is promoted chiefly through the
philosophical faculty, within which are included philo-
sophy in its widest acceptation, economics, jurispru-
dence, history, literature, aesthetics, and, let me add,
the principles of education, which is simply the expo-
268 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
sition of the way in Vv-hich a human soul grows to the
full fruition of its powers. The true character and
far-reaching influence of humane studies is apt in
these days to be lost sight of; but without derogating
from the legitimate claims of the physical sciences,
the words of the great Humanist, John Sturm, are,
and ever will be, true : " Nihil enim est in natura
rerum quod ita mores erudiat ut literarum studia ;
nihil tam in omnes partes fusas utilitates habet quam
humanitas atque doctrina." *
If, now, we keep in view these the governing ideas-
of University life, we begin at once to appreciate the
importance of such apparently small things as entrance
examinations,! the proper endowment of existing
chairs, and the foundation of additional chairs to
complete the encyclopaedia of human knowledge.
The encouragement of special studies by means of
tutor-fellowships is also seen to be essential, if we arc
to promote schools of science and learning by attach-
ing to our Universities original investigators — men
competent to hand on the torch of truth — in ever}^
department. But it is not necessary that fellowships
* Dc Litci-aram ludis recte apeiiendis.
f It has been proposed to meet the demand for entrance examina-
tions by excluding from Universities all below the age of sixteen, while
receiving all above this age, however ignorant. This specious proposal
misses the whole point. There is no objection to even ten thousand
students in a University, if there be teaching power enough. The
educational question is, What attainments shall be required' before a
student begins to count an annus acadcmicns for graduation? A veiy
simple question, and very easy to answer. Nobody is excluded from a
University by a "first examination'' for a degree. .Surely, we must
begin somewhere.
ON THE KDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 269
be numerous ; it is far more to the purpose to found
permanent positions of emolument (not of great
emolument, for wealth in a professoriate is a great
evil) for the benefit of those who have already given
proofs of capacity and intellectual ardour. These
fellowships should be elective. Need I add that
a power of selecting the subjects that are to qualify
for University degrees and honours, is a logical con-
sequence of a true theory of an University ? Schools
of science and learning, every one must admit, arc
not possible when men are weighted with many
diverse studies. Shallowness is the inevitable result,
and the true scientific spirit has not time to generate
itself Nor is shallowness less incompatible with true
culture : a wider range of subjects for graduation is a
necessary and urgently called for reform, because of
the unquestioned and unquestionable fact that, after
a certain age, intellectual movement, to be truly culti-
vating, must ho. free ; and it can be free only when it
works in a congenial direction. A youth, for example,
who, from whatever subtle causes, has an aversion to
mathematical studies, merely wastes his time in
attempting to meet University requirements in that
department of work. By continuing the present close
system we run counter to the laws of nature in slavish
subservience to a bad habit which has no rational
justification. Education must respect individualities
at every stage. The educator is not a drill-sergeant,
nor yet a tailor. Most of all must individualities and
mental bias be respected at that adolescent stage at
270 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
which the free spirit of man most asserts itself, and
when it can live only by freedom — all else being life
in death. True, it would be a difficult matter to
construct theoretically a better Arts curriculum than
the present, were all minds alike ; but all minds are
not alike. Our business is, subject to certain general
restrictive conditions, to allow each student to select
his group of studies for himself, in the firm persuasion
that a mind can truly know only when it truly lives ;
and that it can truly live only when it is free.
To accomplish this and other reforms, such as a
strengthening of the examining and tutorial elements
in our system, we need an Executive Commission.
It is not desirable to increase examinations : on the
contrary, it is desirable to diminish them, but more
power is wanted for the proper conducting of those
that exist. To expect from the British Treasury
such a sum as would accomplish all that sanguine
reformers desire, especially in the founding of new
chairs, would be vain ; but very much could be done,
and seed sown for the future, by the State offering
a public endowment to the extent of one half the
necessary sum for every subject approved of by the
University itself, as soon as private munificence had
contributed the other moiety. The cost of immediate
reform would be small, and were this the place to do
so, it could be shown that the necessary outlay for
placing all the Scottish Universities on a proper foot-
ing would not exceed ;^6ooo a year in addition to the
maintenance of the buildings.
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OK SCOTLAND. 2/1
II. The next educational want of Scotland that
presses for attention is that of High Schools. There
are not more than four or five schools in Scotland
under public control which can be assigned a position
as high schools of the first class, if we look to their
staff, emoluments, and organization. This is a national
disgrace. We should have at least nine such schools
in Scotland, and about forty high schools of the
second class. I have shown on a previous occasion
where these should be placed, and in the majority
of cases it will be found that there already exists
a nucleus or skeleton in the shape of some old
foundation, and that the work of completion is
by no means so difficult as some suppose. Lord
Watson's Act of 1878 gave powers to school boards
to rate for the support of high schools ; but they
do not do so, either because the boards generally
(whatever may be said of individuals among them)
are not competent to rise to an adequate concep-
tion of the educational needs of the country, or are
afraid to impose the necessary tax. Wc should have
at least fifty public high schools, with an adequate
staff, superintended by rectors with salaries from
i^500 to i^QOO a year. Experience has demonstrated
that to accomplish this some organizing authority is
needed. That authority — call it board or commis-
sion — might be a permanent part of the Home Ofiicc
working in Scotland, and might discharge other duties
in connection with primary schools and training
colleges ; subject of course, in this last relation, to the
2/2 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Education Department. We do not want, because
we do not need, centralized control, and consequently
we must forego grants for so-called " results," which
would quickly convert our high schools into mere
coaching establishments, and our teachers into cram-
mers. But there is no good reason why a Treasury
grant of i^20,ooo a year or so should not be assigned
to a permanent organizing commission to be applied
in stimulating the high school rate and the intelligent
application of available endowments. For the admini-
stration of this a Scottish Educational Council could
surely be trusted, merely reporting its proceedings to
Parliament annually. There would be no adequate
ground for centralization at Whitehall. Mr. Glad-
stone has told us that we need a distribution of the
legislative powers of Parliament ; it is of equal im-
portance, in the interests of decentralization and of
nationality, that we should have a distribution of
administrative power. The deadening influence of
bureaucracy, it seems to me, must be far more hurtful
in its effects on national character than imperial legis-
lation can possibly be. Ireland manages for itself
its primary and secondary, as well as its University
education, but Scotland is held to be incompetent to
administer education for itself, even under the con-
trolling hand of London ! The uniformity which
officialism loves is at the bottom of this. There is a
vague idea abroad that what is best for one is best for
all, and that Perthshire and Berkshire should turn out
precisely the same product from the Government mill.
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 273
There is greater danger to society in this uniformity
of type than we at present see.
There are two great obstacles in the way of a
secondary system. The first is the action — or, if you
please, inaction — of the Universities, to which refer-
ence has already been made ; and the second is the
exi.sting endowments. There exists a popular delu-
sion that secondary education in Scotland will some-
how be settled by a reform of the endowments. People
forget that the endowments, which remain to be dealt
with, are situated chiefly in the two large towns of
Edinburgh and Glasgow, and that reform can only
extend to the improvement of what already exists.
No statesman would venture to propose to take from
one locality to give to another, or to transfer money
from the artisan to the middle class. The endowed
institutions must be reformed in loco. When they are
reformed, Scotland will have a sufficient number of
public secondary schools in country districts ; and
Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and (thanks to local
munificence) Dundee will all be fully equipped. But
the smaller burghs will stand very much where they
are. And yet it is impossible to act in the face of a
popular delusion, and the " Association for promoting
Secondary Education in Scotland," which has already
done something, must suspend operations till this
endowed schools business is settled.
And why is it not settled .-• Because the Heriot
governors, or at least those who have been allowed to
represent them, have been conjuring with a phrase of
T
274 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
great potency — viz., " popular representation." They
fallaciously reason that wherever town councillors
have been appointed trustees — even at a time when
town councils did not represent the people — they
were so appointed with a view to their administering
trusts in accordance w^ith the will of the people, as
expressed at the ballot-box annually. This, I need
hardly say, is entirely to misapprehend the purposes
both of trusts and trusters. The Glasgow town
council, for example, among other money, holds
iJ"iO,000 given by Dr. A. Bell, for elementary educa-
tion. Every one who knows anything about Dr. Bell
and his educational activity, knows that the State
has taken up Jiis work in the primary field, and
done it so effectually, that he would never have
dreamt of making this bequest in present circum-
stances. The best application of the money now
w^ould be to carry out one of Bell's great objects, the
training of the teacher. He left a little for lectures
on education : he would have left much more in these
days ; and how could the now useless money be
better expended than in founding, in the interests of
the great body of the people, a Chair of the Institutes
and History of Education in Glasgow .-' Are the
Glasgow town councillors to ask the £4 householders
how they arc now to apply the bequest ? Would
Dr. Bell, the highest of Tories, as well as the most
ardent of educationalists, have done so .-• So far as
my observation extend.s, the artisan, or, if you please,
the trade-union class, is as fair and just in its
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 2/5
judgments as other classes. But what they beUeve
to be their private interests have, it seems to me,
misled them on this question of trusts. Still, poli-
ticians have to recognize existing facts, and there can
be no doubt that popular representation has long
existed in connection with the administration of the
Heriot trust, and the Government were consequently
quite right when they resolved in their Bill of last
year to protect it to an " adequate extent " in all
future provisional orders. The Heriot Provisional
Order is in itself an admirable one, and if the ques-
tion of the governing body blocks the way, I do not
see why the Government should not go even further
than they have done, and direct that, wherever admi-
nistrative bodies are now popularly elected, care shall
be taken, in revising existing constitutions, that all
those at present interested shall be adequately repre-
sented. That is to say, turn the clause in the Bill
round so as to admit other elements into the govern-
ing bodies, while providing that the chief power, to
the extent, say, of three-fifths, shall remain where
it now is. Such a clause would be best carried into
effect in Heriot's, by making the town council elect
one-half of the governors ; by leaving a representation
of the present clerical element ; by putting on two
or three to represent the University, which has a
beneficiary interest ; the Merchant Company, which
properly represents the higher class of old burgesses ;
and the School Board, which is the guardian of
primary instruction. To propose, as a certainly highly
2/6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
respected " ex-M.P." does, that all governing bodies
whatsoever should be to some extent popularly
elected, is a revolutionaiy suggestion — the offspring
of democratic fanaticism, and will be accepted by no
British Government. Here again we have a total
misconception of the purpose and nature of trusts,
as well as of the principles of reform. There is, in
truth, no reason why any trust should be altered at
all, so long as its present constitution is suited to the
accurate interpretation and efficient carrying out of
the truster's will ; and by the will I mean the letter
of the will, except in so far as the letter, owing to
change of circumstances, defeats the spirit. To
meddle in such cases would be an intolerable and
tyrannical act, unless indeed the trustees themselves
desired it. If an existing trust is not doing its duty,
then the " ex-M.P." is probably right in thinking
that there should be an infusion of new blood, and
this largely of a popular kind, by secondary or indirect
election.
In connection with the Endowed Schools dis-
cussion, the evils of free education have been much
exaggerated. Is there a single professor in the
University, or a single member in the House of
Lords, who has not benefited by education wholly
or partially free .'' The only thing we have to look
to is that the dispensation of such benefits should be
discriminating and just, and that those really get the
benefit who most truly need it. I confess I cannot
see that any man is disgraced by asking the Heriot
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 277
governors to educate his child, if he can show an
inability to do so himself.*
Of technical schools as a department of secondary-
instruction I shall here, for want of space, say little
beyond pointing out that we must beware of con-
founding real schools with technical schools or colleges.
A technical school or college exists for the mere pur-
pose of instructing those whose lives are to be devoted
to the various industries by which a nation lives, in
the scientific principles of those industries ; and this
with or without the help of model workshops. The
pupils who attend such institutions are not required
to take a complete curriculum : to demand this would
be to demand an impossibility. Each studies his own
branch or group. The class of society which can
alone take advantage of such institutions would be,
to a small extent the sons of manufacturing capitalists,
but chiefly the more intelligent and aspiring of the
working men. It is manifest, therefore, that they
must be night-schools, attended mainly by apprentices.
There does not exist in the country material for day
technical schools, in the strict sense of the word, save
* As to apprentice allowances. These are dead and gone ; but it
would be a perversion of a trust not to put some allowances in their
place in the case of fatherless children.
Then, circumstances have arisen which make it highly desirable that
all mortifications, up to the passing of the Education Act of 1872, should
be included in the Commissioners' survey.
In any case it is of pressing urgency that this endowed schools
question should be cleared out of the way, in order that operations in
connection with the secondary education of Scotland may be vigorously
undertaken.
278 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
perhaps in very large centres of industry, such as Man-
chester or Glasgow. We must not lose sight of this fact
if we are to secure ourselves against disappointment.
However important technical schools may be, it is a
pure delusion to imagine that the British artisan and
British industrial art will ever benefit so much through
them as through the cultivation of the intelligence of
all alike in the primary and superior-primary schools.
I cannot but think, too, that the industrial, like the
intellectual, activity of a country is more dependent
on the moral spirit of the nation than on any special
instruction. In eveiy department of human life the
most potent motive forces are ethical — always ethical.
However this may be, technical schools may be
allowed to take care of themselves. They have so
direct a bearing on material interests that they are
sure to receive sufficient attention. The ordinary
business intellect is capable of comprehending the
want, and the business pocket is well capable of
supplying it.
It is otherwise with the Real School. This is a
rival of the old type of high school, and draws its
pupils from the same classes. There is here a conflict
of two theories of education — the old and the new.
The antagonism between the two, however, has been
much exaggerated. In Scotland at this moment
every secondary school which adds the elements of
mechanics and physiography to its present curriculum,
makes Greek an optional subject to be prosecuted
by the few, and gives additional attention to foreign
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 2/9
languages, becomes a real school in the German
sense. The aim is not to make specialists — this is
the work of the technical school ; — it is to educate
men, simply substituting for Greek the modern
languages and some scientific instruction in the later
stages of the school curriculum ; that is to say, when
the boys are from fifteen to seventeen years of age.
In this sense the high schools of Scotland already
closely approximate to real schools. There is no
need to waste public money in setting up rival in-
stitutions to the high schools at present existing.
Make Greek optional, and the rest follows. The key
of the position, however, is here again in the hands of
the Universities. As soon as they substitute French
and German optionally for Greek, and demand
elementary physics and English in their entrance
examinations, the schools will take the hint.
As regards Universities, this University of Edin-
burgh is already to a large extent, a real University.
It has adapted itself to the wants of the times in
all essential respects, save in the terms on which its
Arts degree may be taken, and its entrance ex-
aminations, — which last, let me repeat, govern the
schools.
It is vain to look for a commission on secondary
education at present, but many valuable years might
be saved were either of the proposed Executive Com-
missions instructed to inquire into the operation of
the Act of 1878, and to report on the existing number
of high schools, and the localities where additional
280 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
high schools should be placed. Attention might
also be given to existing and possible sources of
revenue. The high school question is, be it remem-
bered, much more easy of solution in Scotland than
in England or Wales, because we not only already
have the rudiments of a system, but an Act em-
powering boards to rate.
III. Let us consider, next, primary or "public
elementary" schools and their wants. Imperial taxa-
tion, apart from rates and fees, gives ^^"45 5,000 a year
to these institutions, and yet I believe that ^6000
a year to Universities and i^20,ooo to high schools
could be extracted from the House of Commons only
after a bitter struggle, our legislators forgetting that
it is precisely this higher education which, by its
mere existence, maintains the standard of culture and
the tone of life in a nation, and thus indirectly does
as much, by its intellectual and moral influence, for
primary education as the Education Department
and all its complex machinery. Since the Education
Act of 1872 was passed, primary instruction has
ceased to be a legislative, and become merely an
administrative, question. It is, in brief, a question
of the Code, and here the want of Scotland still is
an Educational, as distinguished from an Education,
Code.
After much agitation, the administration of the
Parliamentary grant was remitted to the last En-
dowed Schools' Commission, and_^ their report last
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 28 1
year entirely confirmed, in almost every particular,
the allegations of the agitators, and confirmed their
recommendations. We were consequently looking
anxiously for a new Code on the basis of these
recommendations, when all we received was proposals
for the revision of the English Code ! If this be
intended as a graceful compliment to Scotland, the
Department being desirous to make an experimentum
in corpore vili of England before touching our historic
soil, we may be flattered into acquiescence. If it be
meant as an indication that, while the Department
find it necessary to expose to criticism its intentions
with regard to England, the changes to be made in
Scotland may be sprung on it suddenly, without
warning, we cannot be expected to regard the action
of the Department with the same equanimity. When
we say that what we now want is an Educational
Code, we mean a Code constructed with a view to
the education of the masses of the people, and not
merely to those outside forms and instruments of
education which admit of easy measurement and
tabulation. We want the substantial instruction, the
intelligence, the tone, the morality of the school to
form the basis of the inspectorial judgment — all other
things being attended to, doubtless, but as secondary
and subsidiary to these. Now, for the ascertainment
of the genuine educational outcome of a school there
is no other way but to trust the inspectors, and this,
again, is justifiable only if we first train the inspectors
and organize the inspectorate under chiefs, having
282 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
at head-quarters a controller of inspection who shall
harmonize all. Long ago I put forward this view.
Is it not an anomaly that teachers should be required
to study methods and school-keeping, and inspectors
be allowed to take their chance of finding out all about
these things .'' Do we ask too much when we ask
that youthful inspectors-designate should be required
to study a subject which has engaged the best powers
of Aristotle, Plato, Xenophon, Plutarch, Cicero, Varro,
Quintilian, Erasmus, Sturm, Ascham, Comenius,
Locke, Jean Paul, Kant, Rousseau, and of every great
constructive statesman ? But, ah ! here lies the
danger. Our inspectors might begin to think and
have ideas, and the teachers might follow their
example. The bureaucrat, like imperial Caesar, fears
this.
" Let me have men about me that are fat ;
Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep o' nights :
Yond' Cassius has a lean and hungry look ;
He thmks too much : such men are dangerous. "
Then again, why should not our future inspectors-
designate be required to "stoop to conquer," and spend
six months teaching in some model school, and there-
after three months in being coached by a senior in the
practical work of their inspectorial profession .'' They
ought to be the guides, the lights, the friends of the
teacher ; and to be all this they need much profes-
sional knowledge and some educational enthusiasm.
They must be one body with the schoolmasters, they
must love the schoolmaster's work, the little children
who are the objects of it, and the faithful men who.
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 283
among many discouragements, spend their days in
the service of the young. So equipped for their task,
and aided by organization, the inspectors may surely
be safely trusted. Mr. Mundella, in introducing the
English " proposals," pointed to the organization of
the inspectorate, but said nothing of training.
Of the "proposals," themselves, we gladly recognize
that they are, as Mr. Mundella says, an honest effort to
give effect to educational principles, and that many of
them do so. In some respects, however, they impress
me with being constructed from the outside, and after
a somewhat patchwork fashion. They seem to be
often devised to meet the suggestions of this person,
and the objectiojis of that. This has been the mischief
of the Code from the beginning. The pathetically
well-meaning attempt to cover the Barebones Code
of Mr. Lowe with flesh (and Sir Francis Sandford, a
man of great native power and eminent as an admini-
strator, has done all that man could do in this direction)
has not yet succeeded, and this simply because of the
failure to take a connected view of the whole question.
Hence we may say of the Department what Burke
said of the British Government of his time : " They
have taken things by bits and scraps — some at one
time on one pretence, and some at another, just as
they pressed, without any regard to their relations
and dependencies." It has gladly to be conceded,
however, that though, as a whole, the new " pro-
posals " lack educational inspiration and the simplicity
and unity of educational method, they in many and
284 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
important respects give effect to educational, as
opposed to official, views. In the extension of the
requirements demanded from infant schools, in the
introduction of payment on class examination instead
of individual examination in the first two standards,
in the reform of the specific subjects' schedule, in
the institution of a seventh standard and the conse-
sequent encouragement of superior-primary schools
where the population makes these desirable, we note
most important changes in the right direction. The
increase and improvement of the school staff, again, is
a reform which will meet with the approval of every
man in the country who thinks of the interests of
education, and not merely of his pocket. Mr. Mun-
della promises so to distribute the grants that good
schools will be as well off as ever. This will doubtless
be a difficult act of administration. But even if
schools received less, what then .-' Surely imperial
grants are liberal enough — too liberal. The proposal
also to count as scholars all who have been on the
roll of the school for six months, as opposed to the
present restriction of 250 attendances, is altogether a
good one, and can be objected to only by those who
have some other than a merely educational motive.
It is impossible, in a brief lecture, to enter into any
detailed justification of this proposal, but one good
result of its being passed into law will be that boards
and schoolmasters will make greater joint efforts than
they now do to secure regularity of attendance. But
perhaps the greatest improvement of all is contained
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 285
in proposal 6, which gives power to the inspector to
classify schools according to their merit as " fair,"
" good," or " excellent," and to recommend a special
grant to schools above " fair." There are, notwith-
standing all this, manifest defects, and to these w^e
may refer without, I trust, incurring odium, since we
have all been publicly invited to criticise by the
president and vice-president themselves.
Accordingly, I would remark very briefly : first,
that it is difficult to reconcile proposals i, 12, and 14.
" Payment on the passes of individual scholars " is
abolished in proposal 12, but in 14 we are told that
though the grant will be calculated on the basis oi
average attendance in terms of proposal i, it will be
determined by the "proportion of passes actually
made, to those that might have been made." Thus,
(if I correctly understand the proposal) the chief ob-
jections to the present way of estimating a school
remain in all the standards above the second. The
master must press on the dull and laggard at the cost
of the life of the school. He dare not venture to
dwell on the substance and teaching of a lesson lest
he should miss some individual "pass." In the higher
portion of the school, accordingly, the fundamental
defect of the Code reveals itself, for we find that intel-
lectual and ethical results are there subordinated to
those ,of a technical and formal kind. Now, true
teaching is the conversation of the instructed with the
uninstructed on a graduated series of subjects and
lessons. Its aim is the vivifying of the intelligence,
286 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
instruction in the conditions of human well-being, the
inculcation of moral and religious truth, the training
of the child to tenderness and reverence and to seemly
manners. And if this be the true aim of teaching, true
inspection is the taking of the measure of these things
by a man who has an eye and a heart. For these
•things primarily the teacher should labour, and for
these things the inspector, as the representative of the
Government, should also labour. The teacher is the
ordained pastor of childhood, and the inspector is his
bishop. The school is the porch of the temple of the
Church, and the temple itself is merely the school of
adults — too narrow in its present interpretation of its
functions perhaps, but gradually being broadened. It
is for human life that the teacher is preparing his
young charge, and he is himself in some sort an
apostle of humanity. His credentials are spiritual
credentials as much as those of any high priest. His
aim is, in the words of Tennyson —
"To train to riper growth the mind and will."
Now, we want the teacher's work estimated from
this point of view.
We shall be told that high intellectual and ethical
results are visionary and unattainable, and that we
must therefore content ourselves with measuring, by
means of government tape, the precise quantity of
reading, writing, and arithmetic, even though we there-
by convert our schools into mills and our teachers into
mechanics. But the answer is, that the ideal is by its
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND, 287
very nature always unattainable : none the less is it to
be held aloft as the aim of school-keeping, as of indi-
vidual life. Rest assured that the acquirement of the
mere instruments of education can be best secured
where the highest ends of the school are striven for ;
and to make this possible we must, I am persuaded,
content ourselves with eighty-five per cent, of "passes"
as the condition of grants, thereby securing freedom
to both teacher and taught.
A class should be tested as a whole, just as it is
taught as a whole ; but by this I do not mean that
the individuals who compose a class are to be over-
looked. Every child in a class will, of course, read to
the inspector, and that more than once, and he will
note those who fall below the mark. The class will
then be examined in the subject-matter and words
of the lesson ; if necessary, in detachments of six or
seven. The dictation, and composition, and writing,
and arithmetic, and geography of eacJi child will be
noted. There is no difficulty in all this ; but, to repeat,
where eighty-five per cent, of the class are found
up to the mark, one hundred per cent, of the grant
should be allowed for that class, and so on for every
successive class. Nor should the principle vary in
Standards I. and II. The inspector, further, should
be required to examine through the master as well as
independently. This is the only sound method of
testing a school, if we are to get at its moral and
intellectual character. The mere passing of eighty-
five per cent, would secure the inspector's mark " fair ; "
288 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
all above this would depend on the impression each
class and the school, as a whole, made in respect of
its intelligence, morale, discipline, organization, aims,
and methods.
In connection with this scheme of examination I
would retain the present grant for average attendance
as a basis, and also the infant grant — this last, however,
on the new conditions proposed by Mr. Mundella.
Secondly. — The introduction of class-subjects into
the lower division — that is, up to Standard IV. in-
clusive — is a decided advance, and also the require-
ment that where only one class-subject is taken at this
stage it shall be "literature." But of " literature "
which consists merely of saying off by heart a certain
number of lines of poetry, who has patience to speak ?
And what shall we say of the second class-subject,
" elementary science .-' " There is no science possible
for children of nine or ten years of age. All that can
be done is an extension of the object-lessons of the
infant school. Grammar, too, is included under
"English" in this, the lower part of the school, to the
great waste of the teacher's time and the stunting of
the pupil's intelligence.
TJiirdly. — In all the standards we have history
prescribed, and no second reading-book insisted on.
Now, if there were a deliberate purpose to defeat the
labours of the past, and the prime object of all
Education Acts, no surer way could be taken to do
so. All the avenues whereby a child comes into con-
tact with human life and duty, with nature, and with
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 289
the products of imagination, are to be choked up
with the dry record of kings, dates; and battles : for
what else, in point of fact, is primary school history ?
FoiirtJily. — Among the specific subjects of the
upper division we have animal physiology prescribed,
but with no indication that this is to be taught with
reference to the laws of health. The result of this
will simply be that, adorning the school-walls, you
will have a series of diagrams of grim and ghastly
skeletons and lively pictures of the human intestines.
Under such stimulus, the tender bud of the child's
soul is to open into flower and to yield a rich fruitage!
The aspiring boy is expected to find relief from the
• study of dusty chronology (miscalled history) in the
analysis of his own processes of respiration and diges-
tion. What we want to teach the children of the
people is hygiene — not physiology. Through the
analytic we discipline mind, but mind grows through
the synthetic ; and, up to the age of puberty, the
analytic should never be carried further than is neces-
sary to the fuller comprehension of the synthetic.
This applies to language as well as to physical
science.
Fifthly. — The first two standards, we are all glad
to see, are to be tested as classes — glad because it is
evidence that the Government is feeling its way to a
better system than the present. But, unfortunately,
this testing is to be done by the examination of a
selected number of individuals. Here we have, it
seems to me, the individual pass examination restored,
U
290 THE .TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
and in a worse form, because the selection of pupils
will be necessarily arbitrary and capricious. A class
should be examined as a whole, just as it is taught as
a whole. It would almost appear as if the confidence
of the Department in its inspectors was largely tem-
pered with distrust.
Sixthly. — A decided adv^ance, I have already said,
is the addition of a seventh standard, the object being
to carry the education of the more active-minded boys
and girls further than at present in the primary
schools, and thus to approximate the English system
to the Scottish practice. But here again, as I have
already indicated, we are met by a most disappointing
scheme of study. The boy is now to read a passage
from Milton or Shakespeare or some history (history
again !), but whether he is to read intelligently, ex-
pressively, or to understand at all what he reads, is
not said. He is further to write a "theme," and work
sums in percentages, discount, and stocks ! Do the
Government seriously mean to say that this is either
discipline or food for the boy of fourteen "i The boys
who prolong their stay at the primary schools beyond
the ordinary period are presumably boys of ardent
and active natures who have begun to feel the work-
ings of mind in them, — to be dimly aware that " man
does not live by bread alone," but that the human
spirit has its needs and its life apart from the getting
of food and of clothes for its body. To the boy thus
visited with vague previsions of spiritual life, and
groping for aliment for the new needs of his soul.
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 29 1
you open the inner shrine of the child-temple of the
Muses and introduce him to what — to discount and
brokerage ! Here in this ante-chamber of Mammon
you tell him to unfold his soul-wings. He may
gain something from Milton if he does not rather
(as is probable) prefer the easier " history," and he
may acquire some skill in reading "Paradise Lost"
even backwards. But this is all. You may reasonably
ask me what I should propose at this stage of a boy's
intellectual life. The answer is not difficult. The
" class-subjects " (so-called) should be thrown into the
standard work in every part of the school (for, as I
have often said on former occasions, there are, up to a
certain age at least, no " specific " subjects in educa-
tion), and other improvements made, which would
issue in something like the following requirements in
the highest class : —
The reading with intelligence, emphasis, and
expression, a book of Milton or a historical play
of Shakespeare.
The study of the said book or play with re-
ference to its thought, its logical sequence of
development, and its characteristics of style.
The grammar and general analysis of the
book professed.
The vocables of the book professed with
their cognates.
A piece of good literary prose similarly
studied.
292 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Evidence that the boy has read by himself,
or cursively with the master, one of the longer
poems of Scott and the greater part of Gold-
smith ; or, instead of these, selections from the
poetry of England.
The composition of a narrative of any part
that may be selected by the inspector from a
limited period of British history — the period to
be chosen by the boy himself.
Revision of physical geography with con-
tinued map-drawing.
Problems requiring the exercise of thought
in proportion involving fractions treated as
vulgar or decimal.
Drawing, either mechanical or from models.
One book of Euclid, or mensuration, or the
second stage of some foreign tongue, or two
or three chapters of Huxley's physiography
(adapted by the master).
Here you have both discipline and food — meal, not
sawdust ; bread, not dry bones ; the music of know-
ledge, not the hard clanking of its machinery.
The Education Code then, even as revised, is not
yet, it seems to me, an Educational Code ; nor can it
become this till the so-called class-subjects, somewhat
modified, arc thrown into the ordinary standard work,
and the whole scheme of elementary instruction elabo-
rated into a unity — which, as a unity, will also have the
virtue of such simplicity that he who runs may read.
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 293
When, indeed, we [contemplate the outcome of
seven years' schooling as exhibited in the proposed
seventh standard, we cannot but feel that this is not
what Wordsworth dreamt of when he sighed for
" The coming of that glorious time
WTien, prizing knowledge as her noblest wealth
And best protection, this imperial Realm,
While she exacts allegiance, shall admit
An obligation, on her part, to teach
Them who are born to serve her and obey ;
Binding herself by statute to secure
For all the children whom her soil maintains
The rudiments of letters, and inform
The mind with moral and religious truth,
Both understood and practised, — so that none,
However destitute, be left to droop
By timely culture unsustained ; or run
Into a wild disorder ; or be forced
To drudge through a weary life without the help
Of intellectual implements and tools ;
A savage horde among the civilized,
A servile band among the lordly free ! "
And yet it is clear enough (now that Lord Sher-
brooke and all his works are wiped out), that it is such
results as these that the Department honestly and
earnestly desires.
As regards Scotland, there can be no doubt that
the true policy at present is to do nothing until " pro-
posals " for Scotland have been submitted to Parlia-
ment. Better to wait a year than to have our Code
still left in a fluid condition.*
* The purely financial treatment of the truly great question now
before the country by the deputations that have besieged Whitehall is
most disappointing. But it is by no means so discreditable as the tone
of the discussions at teachers' meetings in Scotland. From teachers, at
least, if it be true that they belong to a profession, we are surely en-
titled to expect educational views.
294 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
IV. Next after an Educational Code, among the
wants of Scotland, is protection for the Tenure of
Teachers.
Those who are opposed to some protection of the
teachers' tenure of office have formed a wholly in-
adequate conception of the sort of men we want for
the education of the people. On the other hand, it
is equally certain that teachers urge the question of
tenure too much as if it were a personal right, and
with too little regard for the interests of the com-
munity. The question, it seems to me, simply is,
" How shall we get the best possible men for the
education of our children .-' " And the answer is, " In
the same way as we get the best possible men for
other professions'/' — viz., by good salaries, class privi-
leges, social consideration, and protection from arbi-
trary interference, either in the shape of dismissal or
in any other form. The day of conferring class
privileges is gone, and social consideration cannot be
given by Act of Parliament ; it depends on the educa-
tion, and character, and aims of the men who compose
a class. Where these are high, all the social con-
sideration that is worth having will follow. Tenure
of office, however, it is in our power to give, and it is
quite as efficacious as salary in attracting the better
class of minds into any profession. The question is,
therefore, one of national importance, if education be
of national importance. No one desires to protect
men who are either inefficient or immoral, cruel, or
even harsh. The sooner masters and mistresses who
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 295
fall under these designations are swept into the class
of day-labourers or policemen the better for our
schools, and, for that matter, the better for themselves.
No one can defend the old ad vitam tenure. The
question, from the side of the schoolmaster, is, " How
can masters who are efficient — nay, even zealous in
their discharge of duty, be protected from the arbitrary
action of men set over them who may be, and often
are, ignorant of a teacher's work, and incapable of re-
specting his office and his personal independence } "
There have been few cases of hardship, it is said ; but
this is because people measure the hardship by the
actual number of dismissals protested against. The
hardship does not lie in this at all. Indeed, were the
schoolmasters and those who sympathize with them
to rest their whole case on unjust dismissals alone,
they would fail in their attempts to alter the law. The
hardship lies in the weary months and years that pre-
cede dismissal or lead to resignation. It is the daily
interference or worrying of ignorant and incompetent
superiors that make the teacher's life undesirable, and
which in many cases known to me have taken the
heart out of the very best men. It is the necessity of
being on good personal relations with these superiors,
and of humouring them, that degrades and afflicts the
teacher, who, through his vocation, touches them on
their most sensitive side — their children. Further, it
is the disposition, on the part of ignorant superiors,
to strain their authority over those under them, espe-
cially if these subordinates are intellectually their
296 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
betters, which is the source of the teacher's anxieties
and irritations. Now, it is the ultimate power of
arbitrary dismissal which is at the bottom of all these
evils ; and the teaching- body seem to me to be right
in thinking that a check on this is required. I am
quite sure that it will sooner or later be obtained, not
because it is a teachers' question, but because it is a
national question. It is a national question because
the law, as it stands, affects vitally the education of
the country by turning away the best men from the
profession of teacher, and by striking at that indepen-
dence and freedom of action which is essential to all
good work of an intellectual and moral kind.
The relations in which bank managers stand to
their clerks, often cited against the granting of pro-
tection to the teacher, are not to the point at all.
The bank manager knows his business so well that he
will not dismiss a clerk who ought not to be dis-
missed. Moreover, individual responsibility exists in
all such cases, and makes the manager pause before
dismissing or even censuring ; while the fact that he
himself also is responsible to a body of directors must
operate as a powerful check on all his actions. The
teacher's case would be parallel were he dismissable
only by a superintendent of education who had been
trained to a schoolmaster's work, who was of mature
experience, and who, moreover, had to justify his acts
before a board of educational supervision or a council
of education. Teachers would be quite satisfied with
such protection of tenure as this.
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 297
While saying so much on one side, I feel, and have
always felt, the strength of the position " that there
may be other grounds besides inefficiency on which a
board may object to a teacher, and may think it de-
sirable, in the interests of the school and of the dis-
trict, to remove him from office." Nay, one may go
even further, and say that a board, while unable to
specify any faults against a teacher which could bear
public statement, might still honestly think that, for
the salary they offered, a better man might be got.
Why should the children of a parish be subjected,
for example, to the teaching of a man whose per-
sonal bearing and moral influence are unsatisfactory,
although the inspector's report might show that he,
does his work fairly well ? A board, in the discharge
of its duty, is quite entitled to say to a, teacher, " You
are efficient, but we want somebody more efficient,
and we think we can get him." Again, a teacher
may be " efficient," but harsh, though not cruel ; he
may be " efficient," but may spend his time smoking,
lounging, and gossiping about the village when his
day's work is done ; he may be " efficient," but he
may be a hot fanatic, political or ecclesiastical ; he
may be "efficient," yet slovenly in his habits and
vulgar in his manners. In all such cases, surely, a
school board is justified in making a change. The
teachers have not yet fully met this objection to pro-
tected tenure ; and until they do so, they will justly
be accused (not for the first time) of thinking more of
personal rights than of the education of the country.
298 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
For my own part, I think that tenure would be
sufficiently protected if boards were required to form
themselves into private committees when an}lhing'
personal to the teacher was under discussion ; if a
month's notice were given of the intention to consider
the continuance of the teacher in his post ; if private
censure and warning akvays preceded dismissal ; if
(warning having failed and dismissal being contem-
plated) two months were to elapse between notice of
a motion for dismissal and the adoption of it ; if
reasons were assigned in writing to the teacher when
notice of motion was given, and an opportunity of
appearing in his own defence afforded him ; and if,
finally, his dismissal could take effect only if voted
for by not not less than tivo-thirds of the board. The
time which would elapse under such a system of pro-
cedure would prevent hasty and immature counsels,
and would also afford to a teacher an opportunity of
quietly withdrawing. In this way we might secure
substantial justice by prescribing a form of process.
V. Other educational wants might be here referred
to if there were time, such as approved school read-
ing-books, and, above all, the institution of school-
libraries graduated and adapted to the standards of
the Code, beginning with " Nursery Rhymes " and
" Jack the Giant Killer," and going up to Bacon's
"Advancement of Learning." Such libraries are a
vital part of a national system. But I hasten to the
consideration of a defect of a more important kind
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 299
Still remaining to be noticed : I mean, the training of
schoolmasters.
VI. The question which yet awaits final settle-
ment in Scotland is the Training of the teacher.
It is to the action of the Education Department,
opening its mind to the (so-called) theories of outside
students of national education, and taking under its
charge the initial experiments which had been volun-
tarily made five-and-forty years ago, that we owe the
now universal acceptance of the doctrine that the
schoolmaster must be trained for his work. May we
not hope, then, that notwithstanding the burden of
complex details with which it has to contend, the
same Department may yet complete the work which
it began in 1839, and without which the Education
Act of 1870 w^ould have been impossible.'' I have
been too long and too intimately cognizant of the
work of training colleges to depreciate their great
services to the country, but it was many years ago
manifest that the State was gradually monopolizing
the training of teachers in Scotland to the exclusion
of the Universities, and that a mistake had been
made, involving much unnecessary outlay of public
money. For this we can scarcely blame the Depart-
ment, when we consider that the Universities them-
selves became alive to their relation to the general
education of the country only (some dare to say)
v/hen they saw that it would bring grist to their mill.
So long ago as 1861 it was foreseen that the training
300 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
colleges would gradually fill every school in Scotland
with students who had only received the benefit of
a narrow and illiberal course of training based on an
English model, and that the connection that had so
long subsisted between the Universities and the teach-
ing profession would thus be broken — a result to be
deprecated in the national interest, because it was
through the parochial teachers that the Universities
maintained their relations with the general body of
the people. The agitation which began twenty years
ago, in consequence of an article written by myself,
was ultimately so far successful, that a few years ago
the Department recognized the attendance of the elite
of the training college students at the Universities,
and this has been followed by the University institu-
tion in Edinburgh and Glasgow of a Literateship in
Arts, which, if taken in addition to the Government
Certificate, is evidence that the young teacher pos-
sesses a University as well as a training college
qualification. These are great steps in advance, but
there is something still to do. Do not for a moment
suppose that we can do without the training colleges.
These must continue to exist, not only for the class of
student-teachers who come up from the country with
humble acquirements, but for the wJiole class of male
and female teachers. But such arrangements should
be made as will get rid entirely, in the case of Univer-
sity Queen's Scholars, of history, political geography,
and ordinary grammar at the entrance examination.
The training college work should, for these students,
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 3OI
be almost entirely done during the summer session,
and, after the first year tJiis should be tutorial zuork in
the line of the nczv LiteratesJiip in Arts, with the addi-
tion of physical geography the first year and physio-
graphy the second. A literateship might then be
accepted in all such cases by the Department as
qualifying for a teacher's certificate, except in the
special normal school subjects. During the winter
sessions at the Universities the training college
authorities would of course continue to exercise a
tutorial supervision over their students.
The Department need not be afraid of deputing
this part of their work — the examination for a
literateship — to the Universities, for these are national
institutions, their courses of study and degrees are
from time to time regulated by the State through
Orders in Council and by commissions, and the
stamp they put on men should be accepted by the
State, since it is itself the primary fountain of all
academic honours. In the large field of primary in-
struction we have at present the " one-portal system "
of the Department's examination, which is hurtful to
the freedom of education. It cuts all according to
one pattern, presumed to be the best, whereas the
best for each man is that which gives fullest play to
his own intellectual aptitudes ; and for this the lite-
rateship provides. The M.A. degree has, as you are
doubtless aware, been recognized by the Department
as qualifying for a public school, provided the gra-
duate has had three months' practical training and
302 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
passes an examination in methods : what we now
want is the recognition of the Literateship in Arts,
and its incorporation, in some form or other, in the
Department's scheme of training. It would certainly
be better that, as in the three north-eastern counties,
the mastership of our public schools should be more
largely recruited from the graduate class ; but to look
to this source for a sufficient future supply of teachers
is vain. The literateship is a practical object of
ambition for at least one-half of our training college
students : the full degree is attainable only by a
select few.
You will see, from what has been said, that we
have no reason to complain of the Department. Any
changes yet desirable are all in the line of those which
they have already sanctioned ; no new principle is
involved, and we should very soon have all we
wanted were the training college syllabus for Scotland
issued as a separate document by the Scotch Educa-
tion Department, and not by the English. This
reform is not too much to ask. Indeed, a Scottish
Act and a Scottish Code seem to carry with them, as
a logical consequence, a Scottish training system.
The problem of the training of schoolmasters for
high schools is one which has not yet been faced,
but, in Scotland at least, it is one very easy of solution.
An Educational Diploma should be made the con-
dition of employment in all high schools, and this
diploma should be granted by the Universities to all
who, in addition to a degree in Arts or Science, give
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 303
evidence that they have studied the principles and
methods of education, and have obtained practical
training in schools recognized as training schools,
such as the high schools at the University seats.
It may be objected that this would exclude from
high schools foreign teachers of modern languages,
but this difficulty might be met by recognizing a
foreign diploma, and in the case of those who had
it not, the Universities might guarantee their qualifica-
tions after examination. My belief, however, is that
the modern languages will never take their proper
place in Scottish education until they are taught by
Scottish graduates who have, by residence abroad,
qualified for the teaching of French and German in
their native country.
In conclusion, let me say a further word for my
own subject. It is a melancholy reflection that while
in the proposals for a new Code in England, Mr.
Mundella is prepared to recognize University graduates
as public school teachers, and provides for their
practical training, he ignores altogether the fact that
a Cambridge Syndicate has arranged for courses of
lectures in the History and Methods of Education,
and does not require a certificate from a University
that graduates who are anxious to enter the public
service as schoolmasters have attended such lectures
and benefited by them. Such an omission as this is
to me inexplicable in view of the present agitation for
technical instruction. The school may be said to
304 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
correspond to the industrial workshop, and the present
ambition of Mr. Mundella is to send into the industrial
workshop men who have had technical instruction,
which Lord Rosebery, again, in an able speech at a
London meeting last summer, defined to be instruction
in the principles and history of the various arts. But
when we come to education, the highest and most
complex of all the arts, technical instruction — that is
to say, instruction in the history and principles of
education — is ignored ! The Bradford foreman, for-
sooth, is to be instructed in a knowledge of the different
kinds of wool which he handles, with the scientific
principles (if any) that underlie his combing, spinning,
weaving, and dyeing ; but the head of a school is not
to be required to seek a knowledge of the material in
which he works — the delicate organism of the human
mind, and of the principles which flow from this
knowledge and form the basis of the methods of the
school workshop ! I do not complain that a Govern-
ment bureau should be slow to initiate this kind of
training ; it is too much hampered with the work
of keeping its complex machinery supplied with
adequate steam-power, and with oiling its various
parts with a view to efficiency and good " results." It
is to the Universities we are entitled to look as the
nurseries of new ideas ; but it is certainly not too
much to expect that the Government of the country
should recognize what has been already done by the
Universities in Great Britain, Germany, and America.
A teacher, the Philistines tell us (and there arc
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 305
Philistines even in our Universities), is born, not
made. So they said when normal schools were first
instituted, and so they say now when the academic
development of the normal school idea is taking
philosophical shape. All our schemes of education —
all organization, — we may be assured, will fail if we
do not educate the teacher in educating, and fix the
standard high.
There is, I freely grant, such a thing as teaching
genius, which is independent of training. There are
teachers also who, though destitute of this genius, are
yet thoughtful men in whose minds the routine
methods of the normal schools are vivified into
living principles ; but in the vast majority of cases
these technical methods of the school-workshop remain
merely in the dead form of rules and maxims, and
leave the teacher precisely where the apt mechanic
now is. It is the insight into philosophical principles
that gives a true and never-failing supply of intel-
lectual energy to the teacher, it is the apprehension
of ideas that ennobles and inspires him, it is contact
with the history of past efforts to educate the race
that gives to him breadth and humanity. Without
the sustaining energy thus supplied, it seems to me
that the teacher's vocation is dreary enough ; with it,
there is a daily renewal of spiritual life for himself and
his pupils. It is a beneficent arrangement of nature,
doubtless, that enables so many men to work by rule
and routine, " circling like the gin-horse," as Carlyle
says, " for \yhom partial or total blindness is no evil,
X
306 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
round and round, still fancying that it is forward and
forward, and realise much — for himself victual, for the
world an additional horse's power in the grand corn-
mill or hemp-mill of economic society : " but it is
not such men we want for the spiritual work of
society. If we cannot get genius, we can at least,
through a spiritual philosophy, give to all save those
whom nature has destined to be hodmen, inspiration
either moral or intellectual ; and if the spiritual has
caught hold of a man on either the moral or the intel-
lectual side he is made. " How," to quote Carlyle
again, " can an inanimate, mechanical gerund-grinder,
the like of whom will, in a subsequent century, be
manufactured at Nlirnberg out of wood and leather,
foster the growth of anything ; much more of Mind,
which grows, not like a vegetable (by having its roots
littered with etymological compost), but like a Spirit,
by mysterious contact of Spirit ; Thought kindling
itself at the fire of living Thought .'' How should HE
give kindling, in whose inward man there is no live
coal, but all is burnt out to a dead grammatical cinder .''
The Hinterschlag professors knew syntax enough ;
and of the human soul thus much : that it had a
faculty called Memory, and could be acted on through
the muscular integument by appliance of birch-rods.
Alas, so is it everywhere, so will it ever ; till the
hodman is discharged, or reduced to hod-bearing ;
and an architect is hired, and on all hands fitly en-
couraged ; till communities and individuals discover,
not without surprise, that fashioning the souls of a
ON THE EDUCATIONAL WANTS OF SCOTLAND. 307
generation by Knowledge can rank on a level with
blowing their bodies to pieces by gunpowder."
" Education," says Cardinal Newman, " is a high
word : it is nothing less than the formation of a mind."
If this be so, what shall we say of the educators, and
their equipment for their great world-task .-' Is the
Academic treatment of the subject not a matter of
national concern .-' May not the Education Depart-
ment condescend to recog-nize it .-'
AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO
DISCIPLINE.
AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCI-
PLINE, AND THE DANGERS THAT
ATTEND THE DISCIPLINE OF GOOD
MASTERS.*
I DO not propose in this address to speak of incom-
petent masters — of men, that is to say, who cannot
maintain disciphne without constant appeal to cane
or laws. Such men ought at once to leave the pro-
fession ; they are naturally disqualified for it. What
sight more melancholy than to sec a teacher with his
book in his hand and the taws hanging under it;
hooked over his little finger! What an utter mis-
apprehension of the whole aim of school-life does this
indicate ! The driving, which is an inevitable result
of the Code, makes this necessary, we are told ; and
so far we may admit the apology. The chief objec-
tion to the " individual pass " system lies, indeed, in
this, that it causes the teacher to drive ; and driving
too often ends in physical coercion and pain. Even
girls are flogged, and the steady progress which Scot-
* Read at the Educational Congress at Edinburgh, 5th January,
1882.
312 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
land was making in the recognition of the fact that
moral power is the only truly educational power,
has been put back for a whole generation by the
Code.
In this address I have in view only good masters,
as you will see from its published title — men who
regard physical pain as a rare and final resort in
discipline, and who honestly desire to make moral
law supreme. I desire to consider, in a philosophical
spirit, the dangers to which the two chief kinds of
good masters are exposed, and to guard them against
these dangers, which, I think, generally arise from
their misinterpretation of the word Authority.
Let me start, then, with the proposition that all
sound discipline of the young rests ultimately on
authority as its basis, and that authority itself rests
on reason. And further, that the object of school
discipline, properly understood, is not to secure
obedience to school rules and the doing of the daily
lessons, but to create in the boy self-discipline. The
end is an ethical end ; it has in view the gradual and
slow formation of the character of the pupil, through
the inculcation of motives and the strengthening of
will. These things being assumed, I would say
further that the process of all disciplining of un-
formed minds by others consists largely in supplying
not so much direct motives as collateral motives to
the weak, uncertain will, whereby it may be steadied
and borne on to its purpose. This has to be done till
habit has been formed. A boy or youth, for example,
AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 313
may have a clear perception of the right in conduct ;
he may be intensely sensitive to the influence of those
sentiments and emotions which urge him to do the
right, but yet he may never do it save by accident.
The tendency of the natural man is like the steady
pull of a physical force ; it is like gravitation — always
there, always certain — dragging the boy's will along
without effort on his ^^z.xt, flumine secimdo.
Now, the most potent of all the collateral aids to
the unfashioned will of boyhood is the authority that
resides in the parent or master, and is symbolized in
their persons ; nay, it may be maintained that all
true and genuine discipline whatsoever emanates from
authority, and that disciplining of the young is simply
authority in action according to time and circum-
stances. If we seek then, for the source of all sound
and healthy discipline of the pupil, we shall find it in
the authority of the master. The master is at once
the legislative and executive power. His right to
legislate and to execute rest in the authority that is
vested in him.
Now, by what title does he lay claim to that
authority at all } The State and the parent, it may
be said, delegate to him their authority. True ; but
in that very delegation there is something to be in-
vestigated. I am not going to inquire into the
ultimate grounds of the authority exercised by the
State in the name of civil order; but I content myself
with saying that authority, in so far as it is not
concerned merely with police, i.e., the driving and
314 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
coercing of human beings into the observance of law
and order, but with the education of a human soul —
the bringing about of that self-discipline to which I
have referred above as the aim of the school, has no
claim to the exercise of might, except in so far as
might is based on right, and therefore on reason. I
will put my point in an extreme way for the purpose
of bringing out my meaning : — A father has no
right to exercise might in inflicting injustice on his
child, simply because that child has the misfortune to
be his offspring. Nay, I go further, and hold that a
father has no right to exercise his might in imposing
what is merely unreasonable on his boy — I mean
what is in itself, and, apart from the boy's own
opinion, unreasonable. Children submit, doubtless,
to such inflictions ; but why .'' Because they are too
ignorant to understand their rights, and too weak to
assert them. The unjust and unreasonable parent
takes advantage of this meanly. If these remarks be
true of the parent, how much more, then, are they
true of the master of a school ?
Authority, then, which is the foundation of all
discipline, is not might or force, as old masters used
to think, and as many still think. It is might as
based on right, and, in dealing with moral and
emotional beings, must always be able to vindicate
itself at the bar of right. Where, then, shall we look
for the characteristics of authority which constitute it
right in might ? I think wc shall find them by intro-
spection, — by ascertaining the characteristics of that
AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 315
inner authority of the moral law, that supremacy and
rightful might of conscience under which we all as
spirits live and work. Now, I find this inner law of
conscience, which is my schoolmaster, which dis-
ciplines me to be always just, to be always right
and reasonable, to be always the same, to be always
bound up with the highest sentiments and aspira-
tions of my nature, to condemn only when a real
offence has been committed ; to recognize pleas of
mercy, to be not equally severe with all offences,
but to graduate them ; and finally, to exist in my
consciousness clothed with the supreme majesty of
the Most High.
Now, all good masters may be placed under one
of two classes, (i.) Those in whom these character-
istics of the inner authority of conscience are con-
spicuous. They embody in their own character,
actions, and manner, the moral law. They are ever
exhibiting, consciously or unconsciously, the right of
the might of authority. (2.) Those who but dimly
recognize the moral ground of the authority. They
.wield and consequently embody rather the pure might
of authority.
The former is the just man, who educates ; the
latter is the strong-willed man, who, by the exhibition
of law and might, with their background of physical
force, coerces boys into the doing of certain things,
and calls it discipline. The first type of master I
would call " The Wise Master ; " the second type
I would call " the Captain-Master." As the great
3l6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
object of school is the education of a moral being,
not the mere drilling of boys into conformity with
certain external rules, it is only the just man who
is the wise master, and who really understands the
greatness and dignity of his position, and his power
as an instrument in human progress. The strong-
willed or captain-master may be likened to a head
policeman or the captain of a vessel on the high seas.
The best of this type have many merits, which I am
very far indeed from ignoring, but, at best, they do
not look far enough forward. They are content
with the immediate results of orders obeyed. The
wise and just master, on the other hand, has for his
motto, Respice finem. " What am I ultimately aiming
at } " is the question he asks himself. And the
answer is, "The education of my boys as moral
and spiritual beings." All else he will sacrifice to
this grand aim. I confess I have great respect for
the captain-master, and I am glad to find him when
perfect in his kind ; but for the wise master I have
a feeling of veneration. I know no position so exalted
as his : I know no man so admirable. I can find no
professional worker in the world's work who is to be
named with him in the same breath.
Having briefly described the two kinds of masters,
I would now dwell for a little, with your permission,
on the dangers and weaknesses to which these dif-
ferent types of men arc exposed. For it is not to be
presumed that we find cither of them in perfection.
What we may and do find is honest men striving to
AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 317
be one or the other, and some coming pretty near the
goal they are striving to reach.
I. — First, as to the wise master, the true educator,
what are his dangers }
I. He is apt to lose sight of the might that
resides in the might of authority. He is apt to for-
get that while the foundation of his authority is a
moral one, yet its effectiveness consists in the might
which it exhibits. He is in a governing position :
he is a ruler, a monarch. But he may be self-analytic,
and so humbly conscious of his own personal short-
comings as to have a half misgiving as to the right-
fulness of firmly asserting his own authority simply as
such. In exercising a firm, though wisely moderate,
authority, he may not himself always heartily believe
in it. His own sins of omission and commission may
be so many, his own failure to lead that perfect life
of the wise man up to which he is educating his boys
may be so clear to his own secret consciousness, that
he half feels himself to be an impostor, and is some-
times disposed to smile at his own assumption of
autocratic power. He cannot but be aware how
much better in many respects is a fine boy than
even a so-called good man. The disturbances of
his equanimity caused by petty everyday incidents,
the irritability caused by work and anxiety, the
sense of failure to discharge his responsibilities, the
envies, the jealousies, the uncharitableness, the anger
which the conflicts of the world engender, the little
3l8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
vanities or the pride which hang on the skirts of
his robe of office — all these things and many more
disturb his daily thoughts, and make him feel less
than the least of those to whom he is to be a
model, a guardian, and guide. He feels himself to
be a sham, for he has to seem what he is not. If
under the influence of such self-analysis he dis-
robes himself of the purple of command, he is
undone. His estimate of himself and his position
are both wrong. He forgets that there is no
such thing as the wise man, the perfect character.
He has misread the moral teachings of life. He
forgets that the highest life of the saint is still a
struggle, still a falling and rising again, and that the
distinguishing mark of all the wisdom and goodness
to which finite man can reach is the continual and
continuous effort to be wise and good. He ought
to remember the failures of the past only in so far
as they strengthen him for the present and the future.
He must not therefore allow his self-knowledge of
failure and imperfection to weaken his assumption
of the authority — the might, of his position. It will
always temper the exercise of that authority, but it
ought not to detract from the exhibition of it.
Is not this, however, to maintain relations with
the young spirits around him which arc not true and
honest, and which therefore have in them the clement
of failure, as all untruth necessarily has ? Not so ;
for, as his estimate of himself is wrong, so is his esti-
mate of his position. He docs not stand there at the
AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 319
head of these youthful spirits in his personal capacity
alone. He is a representative of all that is wise
and good, and in that representative and ministerial
character he must maintain the dignity of his office.
He holds Her Majesty's Commission, so to speak, and
is there in the name of the State ; he is the minister
of the thought and experience of mankind, and is
there in the name of humanity ; he is the sum of the
past, and is there in the cause of the future ; he is
the representative to the young of the highest spiritual
aims and hopes of mankind, and consequently is there
in the name of the Most High. Let him think of
these things, and whilst he will not thereby lessen
his efforts to harmonize his own inner life Avith his
high and sacred calling, he will yet maintain authority,
by exhibiting the might and dignity which becomes
his office.
2. Again, the clear perception of the ultimate
justification of his own authority — the moral justi-
fication of it, may lead him to bring that moral jus-
tification so much into the foreground as to weaken
the expression of authority as law or might on the
one side, and of obligation and obedience to au-
thority, simply as such, on the other. He may resort
to explanations, exhortations, appeals, and persua-
sions, instead of to command. Now, a master must
always be able to vindicate, if necessary, every order
and every authoritative act in the court of common
sense and at the bar of justice, but he is not bound
to make this always clear to his subjects. By ex-
320 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
planation and persuasion he flatters one kind of boy,
and so loses his respect ; he weakens another kind
of boy, though retaining his affection, also, however,
at the expense of his respect ; he wholly undermines
the only motive which guides and sustains another,
which is the sense of the power of law. With the
boy of finest temper he does not lose much, for such
a boy has already in a half-conscious way penetrated,
to the secrets of authority and shares the spirit of
the master, but even with him he weakens his posi-
tion. I am very far from saying that with his boys
a master should not sometimes put himself in the
position of a persuader and explainer. On the con-
trary, he must let all see from time to time the ethical
reality of the school forms, and lead them to under-
stand the ethical significance of his authoritative
acts and words. But he must not dwell on this : he
must act his ideas rather than talk them. There
are occasions, or, if there are none, they should
be made, when the lesson of the day gives room
for the sowing of moral seed by clear analysis of
the motives of moral action, or the pointed appli-
cation of a story, a poem, or historic deed. These
opportunities should not only be taken, but sought
and created. School life itself, too, will yield, in
its ordinary incidents, abundance of material for
enforcing the right and noble in thought and
action. What I mean is, that he must not rest his
authority on explanation and persuasion, but he
may, as fit occasion arises, support it with these.
AUTHORITY IX RELATION TO DISCITLINE. 32 1
A glance of the eye, a frown, a smile, a friendly pat,
an encouraging word — these arc the forms which his
moral persuasions must take. In fact, a master who
habitually tries to exhibit to his boys the ground
of all his actions, and to persuade to the right, ab-
dicates his authority as such. He does so with the
best intentions, relying on the power of truth and
goodness, forgetting that the power of these fails
even with himself, how much more, then, with the
immature mind, which cannot comprehend them in
all their depth ! In truth, he calls on the weak and
as yet unformed will to do what his own "mature
will does not always accomplish. But the worst is
this, that he forgets that the moral nature of boys
finds its support and strength in authority and law
as embodied in him, and that if he substitutes ideas
and thoughts and sentiments in room of these, that
support is withdrawn.
I have already said that opportunities are
numerous for pointing morals, stimulating to virtuous
effort, inciting to the disdaining of sloth, and the
suppression of vicious propensities, and of holding
up to the boys the standard at which they should
aim. These fit occasions the master will gladly seize
for bringing into clear daylight the undercurrent of
moral and religious principle which guides his con-
duct, and is presumed to animate the school life.
The boys will thus not merely learn to act rightly,
but will get some vision of the beauty and divine
charm of goodness and of the dignity of virtue. I^ut
Y
322 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
with all this, a master must beware of wearing " his
heart upon his sleeve for daws to peck at." All talk
on his part has to be kept within severe limits, for
it has no end save action, and boys must not be led
to substitute the dreamy contemplation of the good
for the doing of the right. In speaking to boys,
moreover, avoid dwelling on the sentimental or emo-
tional side of goodness where they themselves are
concerned ; they do not understand this. Sentiment,
like humour, comes late, save in exceptional cases.
It is the manliness, the heroism, the justice, the
wisdom, the nobility of goodness and virtue, which
can reach the hearts of boys ; and the lowness, the
meanness, the unwisdom, the injustice, the weakness,
the unworthiness of vice.
3. In the third place, a weakness which besets
the wise master is a certain contempt for his own
rules and for his own school order. He feels so
deeply his own strength in ideas, he is so confident
of the justness of his own sentiments, he is so sure of
the truth of his own emotions, he is so strong in his
spiritual strength, that he is prepared to suspend, set
aside, or override the rules of the school, under the
persuasion that his moral resources are so great
that he can, when he chooses, restore things to their
proper balance. The temptation to do this is great.
It is so detrimental to that settled order which con-
tributes so largely to the promotion of good habits
in the young, that a master must be on his guard
against this weakness. "That will do for to-day,"
AUTIIORITV IX RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 323
" Never mind, it is of little consequence," said in im-
patience, trusting to the power of recovering lost
ground, is a blunder. Even the wise master, then,
has to be watchful over himself with respect to those
vices of management which lean to virtue's side. I
speak, of course, of a school ; for it may constantly
occur in the well-understood relations of a tutor and
a single pupil, or of a father and child, that freedom
may be taken with rules which both understand. So
also, and for the same reasons, such conduct would
not affect the boy of finest temper ; but a masler has
to deal with various characters, and with these also
in various moods, which it is impossible for him to
estimate. In dealing with particular faults, too, he
is apt to be lenient, where he is himself well assured
that the act of the pupil was well meant, or that the
impulse that prompted him had a mixture of good
in it. Such treatment of the individual case may be
quite safe, but its effect on a school is hurtful. It
weakens the sense of order and just administration.
Morally there may be no fault to find with the treat-
ment of the case, in so far as the relations of master
and pupil arc concerned ; but in a school there is
such a thing as the universal as well as the particular
conscience w-hich has to be considered, and which
must be in all doubtful cases paramount. The
master's personal feeling about the case ought not
to govern ; if it does, law is weakened thereby, for
the majority of boys can ascribe the course pursued
to the arbitrary will of the master alone, and cannot
324 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
be expected to discriminate and note those finer
characteristics of an act or incident which justify
exceptional treatment.
It is not merely weak men who break down in the
administration of a school system, nor is it their case
that we now are specially considering, but that of the
strong man — the man so strong in his own moral con-
victions and spiritual resources, that he is disposed to
treat as of little importance the rules and methods
which he has himself in the wisest moments imposed.
Such a course of conduct has, moreover, its justifica-
tion to the understanding, for it is not desirable to
have a hard and fast line of pedantic military rule.
There should be some elasticity — some elbow-room —
in the school system, just as in the moral code and
habits that govern the individual conscience. In this
feeling that the organized life of a school should not
be wooden and inelastic, there is a sound principle.
But this does not justify fitful and capricious admini-
stration ; this freedom and elasticity should itself be
a visible part of the system. The chief ground
on which this opinion rests is, that it is essential to
good school-keeping, that the boys should feel that
there is a living and human moral force at their head
— not an iron mechanism, not a Fate ; that they are
not parts of a machine merely, of which the head-
master is only a kind of stoker or driver. A human
heart must be felt to be beating everywhere under the
outer case of rules and methods — a heart which
sympathizes and understands. There must be room
AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE, 325
left for this heart to beat freely, and this can be
secured only by having as few rules as possible.
Given a limited number of general rules for the
guidance of the day, and all else should flow from
the inspiration of the hour. The moral life of the
school should start fresh every morning. How else
can there be that free movement which is essential to
the growth of heart and intellect } With the wise
master there can be little or no difficulty in bringing
about this kind of life. He proceeds on the assump-
tion that all are aiming with him to realize a high
standard, and if he has acquired the confidence of his
boys, no word, or act, or gesture of his Avill be set
down to caprice : these things will be too visibly obedi-
ence in himself to the best and highest. The boys will
recognize this. The larger the school, of course, the
more numerous must be the rules ; the more strict, the
more system ; and the less potent the influence of the
central and governing mind. This is the evil attend-
ing large schools, and which weakens their influence
as moral seminaries. Recognize this : Day by day
the master gives forth the moral power which is to
permeate the mass. There is moral freedom on both
sides. If under the influence of this free spirit the boys
should err, they would, I hope and believe, not be
afraid to tell their master that they had done so ; the
relations between the two arc candid, for are they not
both working together to realize the same community
of life }
So much for the freedom and elasticity which
326 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
belong to the master and the school, as resting on
moral sympathy and livingness, as opposed to mere
system, and law, and formalism. But in authority
itself there is also to be found an element of elasticity,
for it has to regulate much that is in itself neither
moral nor immoral, and in this field it has a Papal
power of dispensation, which it can occasionally exer-
cise without damage to itself. Authority as such,
apart from the moral grounds on which it itself rests,
can frequently suspend a rule or injunction, and by
that very act strengthen itself as authorit}-.
4. Such are some of the errors against which even
the wise master has to guard. There are others not
worthy of mention. But it may be well to point out
that as the master we are describing has a moral
affection for his boys, which becomes in many cases
a personal affection, he is disposed to become too
familiar and friendly. Now, pleasing as it is to be on
such relations with well-disposed boys, there are dan-
gers attending it. The principle of authority, I again
repeat, is the central principle in the relations between
a teacher and his pupils, and must not be tampered
with. I do not mean to say that the wise master will
err, or can err, so far on this virtuous side as seriously
to impair the discipline of his school. A vigorous,
earnest mind can take great liberties without serious
hurt to any, and with possible advantage to a few of
the more timid and shy natures. But such famili-
arities are apt to engender in the boyish mind, which
we must remember is as yet untrained, inexperienced,
AUTHORITY IX RKLATIOX TO DISCIPLINE. 327
undisciplined, and immature (defects which only time
can cure), a sense of equality that docs not, cannot,
ought not to exist. The master is so vigorous, so
earnest, and so good withal, that there will be no
attempt to evade or counteract him, because of his
familiar kindness. The discipline will not be seriously,
if at all, affected ; but the too great equality will
deprive the higher natures of the idea of some
standard to attain, and will give to all false notions
of their relation to mature minds and to authority
generally. This, when we consider the tendency of
youth to self-assertion and to practising the art of
instructing their grandfathers, is not a desirable result,
especially in these times, when the crudities of youth
find so easy an avenue to platforms and other pro-
minent places.
II. — If dangers attend the administration of the
wise master, they are of the nature, as I have indicated,
of weaknesses which^ lean to virtue's side, and which
arise out of too amiable a view of human and boy-
nature, and too mild a sense of personal dignit}- — -in
brief, in a deficiency of pure authority simply as
such.
On the other hand, the captain-master — who
relies solely on authority in the sense of law and
might, who distrusts all purely moral motives, who
has little faith in the nature of boys, and does not
believe that they are capable of receiving ideas of
life and action, and relies, therefore, on the mainte-
328 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
nance of law as law, and on the preservation of a
rigid system — is exposed to dangers much more
serious. His duty is (or if this be not his duty, what
is ?) to train the boy to an independent perception of
the truth of moral ideas, to the majesty of the law
which resides in them, and to the habit of self-regu-
lation. And yet he abdicates his function altogether
when he treats boys simply as parts of a machine,
and distrusts the growing good in them, and all
the possibilities of virtue and religion as inner
growths.
This man, who rests not merely his claim to rule,
but his right to rule and his method of ruling, on
authority purely as such, A\ithout regard to the
ultimate moral basis of all authorit}- whatsoever, who
therefore never lets the light of moral ideas shine
through the sable mantle of magistracy', must ever
fail to attain to all the highest objects of the school ;
and this because he does not consciously propose to
himself any such objects. In truth, it will be found
he does not even propose to himself any such objects
as the aim of his own personal life. He has no
hesitations, no self-questionings. His life is like his
school, grounded on authority — the authority of
Church and State, or of social opinion and conven-
tion. He is not a living free soul, he has not attained
to the liberty wherewith Christ has made us free.
For be it always remembered that as is the man, so
is the master, and in describing the wise master, we
are only describing the wise man, whose powers have
AUTHORITY IX RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 329
been set in the particular direction of educating others.
He has to find a method, but it is educed from his
own character.
I know it will here be said by some, " Leave things
alone, then ; if all depends on the man and the
character, he will be a good or a bad master, spite
of you and all your teachings." This is a great error.
For, in the first place, a master, who is already a wise
man, has, when entering on his great and delicate
task, to be encouraged to have faith in the moral
method which would naturally suggest itself to his
nature, which is at once lofty and sympathetic, and,
on the other hand, to be guarded against the tendency
in that method to run to seed, l^y reflecting on other
characters and methods in the course of his studies,
moreover, he brings out with distinctness to himself
his own, and thereby understands what he is doing.
In the second place, it is a superficial view of human
nature which classes all as good and bad, or classes
them in any way which involves a visible and deep
demarcation. Human nature is a complex thing, and
at best we can only classify men and masters accord-
ing to their leading tendencies. Our duty is accord-
ingly to counteract the evil, and strengthen the good ;
to oppose and to hold up to aversion the former, and
to eliminate what is weak and questionable from the
latter. By thus clearing up the conceptions which
the young educational aspirant has as to his future
work, we confirm the weak and put the strong on
their guard, lest they in their strength should fail and
330 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
fall. Preparation for the work of tuition is thus the
preparation of the man himself for life. The aspirant
to the teacher's office must himself become the wise
man, in order that he may be able to become the
wise master. The training school for teachers, whether
in the Universities or out of it, must, in fact, be itself
a school for men, in order that it may be a school for
schoolmasters.
To return : the captain-master, who relies on
authority in its aspect of law and might alone, fails,
and must fail, for want of faith in boy-nature, to
attain the highest ends of school life, which are, as
I have said, ethical, always ethical. At the same
time, he does not wholly fail ; for obedience to law
as law is a great virtue, and if the master is perfect
of his kind, and holds himself bound within his own
rules, and does not overstrain the personal element in
authority, the school is orderly, the boys acquire
certain good habits, and they pass from the period
of tutelage with a sense of the supremacy of autho-
rity, which is a great gain. But the dangers to which
such a master is exposed are many : —
I. Such a man is very apt to overstrain his
authority, and, forgetting that he is working a system,
he substitutes for system arbitrary will. It is very diffii
cult to resist this tcndcnc)'. Love of power is a great
snare. This captain-master identifies, ere long, the
authority which to him is, in truth, only delegated,
and of which he is only the representative and symbol,
with his own will, authority passes into arbitrariness,
AUTHORITY IX RIXATIOX TO DISCIPLINE. 331
and the school quickly feels this. Now, I would ask
— Why should boys, who, after all, are little men,
submit to this ? Even where the authorit}', though
stern, has not yet passed into arbitrariness, why should
a boy submit and carry out the system of which he is
a part ? There is no answer to this save one — that he
is afraid to disobey. Why afraid .' If he disobeyed,
what would happen ? The disapprobation of his
master. But, mark, it is only the boy who has a
strong natural tendency to submission and respect
who is open to this motive. The weak, approbation-
loving boy is sensitive and timid, and he also submits.
The self-sufficing boy may, or may not, obey, accord-
ing to his appreciation of the ultima ratio regnni.
The lo}'al boy of fine nature may obey, and probably
will, not through fear of his master, but because he
has in himself and his own perceptions of right, a
motive for obedience. But note this, and it is to this
I am pointing — the true spiritual life of all these is
never reached by the master, and thus he cannot
possibly educate. He is in truth driving, not draw-
ing ; and this comes out very clearly if we consider
what his ultima ratio is. It is physical pain. It does
not matter whether it be a pa^na to write, detention
in school, deprivation of certain boyish pleasures, or
actual flogging — in all alike, physical dis-ease is the
essential character of the punishment. A teacher, in
answering a question on methods, when asked, "What
steps he would take to make an idle or disobedient
bo)' work .-* " wrote — " Tell him to do it, and if he
332 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
didn't, lick him ! " This is the whole book of disci-
pline with certain masters, summed up in a sentence.
If he did not do it after he was licked, I suppose the
next step would be to lick him again and harder, and
so on, ad infinituin. I do not mean to say that the
process would not succeed with many boys, but, at
most, only in securing outward conformity. It never
did, and never can educate. It is the method whereby
slaves are made to toe the line, and bears are taught
to dance. It is, however, the grand motive power
which lies at the basis of the administration of the
arbitrary captain-master. If now the purely authori-
tative method, well administered as a system, has this
weakness, that it fails to educate, how much is the
evil aggravated if the master yields to the tendency,
which there must always be, to substitute his arbitrary
will for the idea of true authority or might in the
sense of right, and of Avhich he ought to be only a
passionless symbol, and perhaps persuades himself
that he is.
2. The next weakness in the captain-master is the
identifying of his authority with his own personality.
Offences are then no longer offences against the law
and system which he represents, but against himself
personally. Here passion at once enters, and, with
passion uncertainty and irregularity of action, and
consequent injustice. Authority passes into the mere
caprice of despotism. The wise master can afford to
exhibit his human emotions of anger and indignation
and contempt, so long as he maintains self-control ;
AUTHORITY IX RELATION TO DISCIPLINi:. 333
the captain-master will find these dangerous tools to
play with. They raise the former in the estimation
of the boys ; they lower the latter to an equality with
them. Mere authority, as law and might and s}-stem,
has no right to passions. Wisdom, on the other hand,
may be angry and sin not.
3. The third danger to which the captain-master
is subject is over-severity in punishment. This
danger arises when he has already yielded to the
temptation to confound his own personality with the
authority which he wields only as a delegate of the
moral law, and which he is not, but only represents.
His only means of enforcing discipline being the pro-
duction of physical pain, there are no limits to the
inflictions he may impose if his personal passions are
once aroused. He can become even vindictive.
4. The fourth danger is a concomitant of perfect
coolness and self-control, and consists in his becoming
the slave of his own rules, mistaking rules for morality,
and so confounding all ethical distinctions. This is a
common weakness of w^omen when placed in a posi-
tion of command. All offences become alike heinous,
because all break some rule. It is by this rule that
offences are measured. Authority is thus transmuted
into pedantry.
I might now go on to describe other kinds of
masters, but the two classes with which I have been
dealing are the chief classes, of which all others are
modifications. The weaknesses w^hich beset each of
these two classes constitute fresh sub-t}pes when
334 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
they become permanent. Under the first class, for
example, falls the sub-type or variety — the sympa-
thetic master, he who merges all authority in sym-
pathy ; and this, carried beyond certain limits, gives
the anarchical master, who is no master at all. Under
the second head, again, we have the tyrant master
(like Dr. Keate of Eton), who makes a moral desert
and calls it peace, the pedantic master, and the cor-
poral master or martinet, with all of w^hom external
order is the highest and sole result, as it is, indeed,
the sole aim. It is enough, how^ever, to indicate these
distinctions.
Let us consider now for a little the effect on boys
of the defects of different kinds of masters.
To carry out in detail the parallel of the effect
which each kind of master has upon different kinds of
boys, would be a long, though by no means a tedious
or unprofitable work. Many and subtle are the influ-
ences which mould character. Nor are these exercises
in analytic psychology unworthy of the attention of
schoolmasters. They convert the life of the mere
teacher into the life of the educator and the student
of practical psychology. They deepen, at the same
time that they broaden, his conceptions of his task,
and invest a subject, otherwise barren, and even to
some minds repelling, with the perennial charm of
philosophy. They transform a mere teacher into an
educator. They throw the light o( the highest reason,
and the warmth of the life of humanity, on his daily
AUTHORITY IX RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 335
work, which is thus no longer task-work, but, spite of
all its drawbacks, the pleasantest as well as the
noblest work in which a man in these days can be
engaged.
Omitting much, then, I would merely at present
point out the danger that attends the proper spiritual
growth of boys under that species of the wise master
who, through the influence of his sympathetic nature,
has a disposition to place too great a reliance on the
emotions and moral sentiments of his charge. By so
doing, as I have said, he obscures the idea of authority,
and to that extent weakens his own power, and softens
the moral fibre of his pupil. You will find that the
purely sympathetic master tends to enfeeble all those
boys who live by authority, and are supported by it.
and all more or less are dependent on authority.
They have their natures disturbed ; an inner anarchy
begins to set itself up in their minds ; their mainstay
— law — is gone, and emotions, sentiments, ideas, on
which the sympathetic master relies, are no substitutes
for them. Even the boy of finest breed is, I hold,
injured ; for he, as well as the boy w^ho depends on
praise, is in special need of the discipline which the
recognition of mere authority as such gives. When
that is relaxed, he is left to himself, and may become
moody and isolated, or if there be too much morali-
zing and appeal on the part of the master, his loyal
nature, in the attempt to rise to the moral call made
on him, strains itself, and becomes mature before its
time ; and thus while a boy is yet in his teens, you
336 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
have the most disagreeable of all spectacles, which is
described by Goethe as a mature judgment in an un-
ripe mind. Where there is at the same time a
tendency to self-sufficingness in the mind of the boy,
you have the more offensive exhibition of the same
moral vices, accompanied by what is called priggish-
ness.
Now, without entering here on that interesting
subject — the moral analysis of a prig — I would merely
say that every other kind of boy has the possible
making of a man in him ; but the prig has to be un-
made and taken to pieces, as it were, and made up
afresh, before he can be an example of a man. He is
narrow and arid, and the human outcome is not
pleasing. He is the true moral Philistine.
What now is the mental attitude of the different
kinds of boys to the captain-master, who falls into the
sin which most besets him — arbitrariness and its con-
comitant severity ? He rules by fear and pain alone.
The self-sufficing boy is quick enough to see the
necessity of walking warily, and Avill probably escape
penalties ; but in what respect is his moral nature
affected } Is it not the case that the exhibition of
this arbitrariness and severity strengthens in him his
own vice of character ? Here before him is the man
whom his parents, supported by the action of many
other parents, have selected as the guide of his youth,
the model of his future manhood. The master has
his turn now, but in a few years the pupil's turn will
come ; and, meanwhile, the little monster repeats
AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 2)T)7
among younger boys in the playground and dormitory
the lesson which the master himself has already
taught.
That other boy, again, who is dependent on affec-
tion, sympathy, and praise, leads, in such circum-
stances, a wretched life, for when not bullied by his
master, he is bullied by the bigger boys, who expend
on him the latent irritation which the system of the
school engenders.
That third boy, again, whose sense of submission
to authority is the guiding principle, suffers least in
personal comfort ; but he tends to become a slave and
a sneak, and we all know what a slave is when he is
turned inside out — in other words, when the emanci-
pated boy becomes a man.
The loyal boy, the boy of finest breed, if he is by
nature strong, adapts himself, as best he may, to the
system under which he lives, perceiving in his master,
in a half-conscious way, for it does not take the form
of speech, all that he himself ought not to be. There-
by he is negatively educated. If his inner strength be
not great, either because of his tender years or native
want of fibre, even he is taught to skulk, evade, and
hate. He is at war, in brief, with his master, and his
very moral salvation lies in those rebellious feelings
which he rightly cherishes against his governor.
Meanwhile, where this arbitrary ruler governs, the
whole school is, as a matter of fact, divided into
hostile camps — the governor on one side, and the sub-
jects on the other. To deceive a master, to evade him,
z
338 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
nay, even to lie to him, to show up false exercises, to
call him names when he is not present, to take it out
of him in any way which may suggest itself to the
ingenious and irreverent minds of boys, are all re-
cognized as part of the school institution, on the
principle that all is fair in love and war. And can we
fairly blame the boys ? Ought we not rather to see
in this passive rebellion — or, if active, active only in
separate acts, not in combined resistance — the hope of
the salvation of the boys ? The youths of a high-
spirited nation, like the British, will not, nay, ought
not, to submit to arbitrary despotism based on
physical coercion. They must find some outlet for
their protest, and so long as they do not tell lies —
simply keep clear of lies — I for one applaud them.
The whole system proceeds on the assumption that
there are two codes — a masters' code and a boys' code
— of school morality ; nay, the more sagacious of the
masters, who accept the system as the only one they
feel their capacity to work, deliberately wink hard at
breaches of school order. Nay, they must wink hard ;
and I need not refer you to your Latin to let you
know the connection between the mild physical act of
winking and the moral offence of conniving. There
should, it seems to me, be only one code, one faith,
one school.
That the history of school-keeping is not enriched
(I say deliberately, enriched) Avith a greater number
of cases of open rebellion is explained by the fact that
boys are ignorant and do not know how far their
AUTHORITY IN RELATION TO DISCIPLINE. 339
mere feelings and emotions are right as opposed to
the tyranny above them, partly to the want of power
of combination in the young. The practical deduc-
tion from what I have just been saying is, that boys
are not always wrong, and masters are not always
right.
It may appear that in all I have said I have had
in view the master of an English public school, where
the head is not only teacher but rector and parent —
the prophet, priest, and king of a community. So far
this is true ; but the difference between the head-
master of such a school and the master of a day
school is not in the ends at which they should re-
spectively aim, the spirit in which they should work,
or the methods which they should pursue. Nor are
the remarks that have been made less applicable to a
parent, with this difference only, that he may lean
much more to the sympathetic and the tender than
becomes the wise master, because he is the constant
source of all the happiness as well as the unhappiness
of the family, and has thus a control of the child's
emotions and will which it is impossible for the master
of many to have. His opportunities, too, of individual-
izing and of allowing for idiosyncrasies of character
are great, and this a master of many can only very
partially do.
In conclusion, I would say to the master of a day
school or of a class, who doubts the reality of his
moral power over those whom he has for a portion
only of every day, " Do not underrate your influence.
340 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
It is radiating from you on every side, and is simply
incalculable in its possible effects. Work on the side
of the ethical forces in the spirit of the wise master,
and they will declare for you and help you when and
where you least expect. Nothing is lost, least of all
true moral power."
SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT.
SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT.
It has occurred to me that in the present crisis of
primary education, a sketch of the history of the
Education Department, however shght, may be in-
structive as well as interesting. I need scarcely say
that I refer only to the educational and not to the
political history of the Department.
Treasury grants were first made for the promotion
of education in 1833. In 1839 a Committee of Privy
Council on education was formed and entrusted with
the administration of any grants that Parliament
might make in aid of education.
When Parliament, in 1839, first voted ^^30,000 to
be expended by a Privy Council Committee, with the
Lord President as its head, and a permanent secretary
(Sir J. P. K. Shuttleworth) as its arm, the only course
which suggested itself was to distribute this money in
such a manner as to aid the two societies which then
represented organized educational effort in England
— the National Society, in connection with the Church
344 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS,
of England, and the British and Foreign School So-
ciety." This was done in the form of grants towards
the erection of normal schools, in which teachers
might be trained, of contributions to the erection of
school buildings where there were local subscriptions,
and of small grants towards the maintenance of such
schools only as were affiliated to the above-named
societies. At the same time, the right of inspection
was in all cases reserved, and the present system of
inspection initiated. This was in June and September,
1839. But as early as December following, the claims
which were made on the Council office necessitated a
more liberal interpretation of its functions. A Minute
was accordingly issued, in which the admission of
schools under special circumstances, even where not
connected with the two societies, was fully recognized,
their lordships only requiring to be informed of the
grounds on which objection was made "to connecting
the intended school with the National Society, or the
British and Foreign School Society." Then at once
emerged the religious diff.culty, and their lordships
had to steer a course requiring some experience in
moral and spiritual navigation. Through deference
to the declared will of the country the following half-
way position was taken up : —
Resolved, " That . . . their Lordships will limit
their aid to those cases in which proof is given of
great deficiency of education for the poorer classes in
the district, of vigorous effi^rts having been made by
the inhabitants to provide funds, and of the indis-
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 345
pensable need of further assistance ; and to those
cases in which competent provision will be made for
the instruction of the children in the school — the daily
readin^^ of a portion of the Scriptures forming part of
such instruction.
" The Committee will further give a preference to
schools in which the religious instruction will be of
the same character as that given in schools in con-
nection with one or other of the above-named So-
cieties ; and to those in which the school committee
or trustees, while they provide for the daily reading
of the Scriptures in the school, do not enforce any
rule by which the children will be compelled to learn
a catechism or attend a place of Divine worship to
which their parents on religious grounds object."
(3rd December, 1839).
Religious instruction, in so far as Bible reading
was concerned, was thus secured, while the liberty of
parents to object to the catechetical, without forfeiting
the general, instruction, was recognized. It is neces-
sary to observe, however, that so far as Church of
England Schools were concerned, this rule was subject
to modification. The managers were simply allozved
by the authorities, with consent of the diocesan, to
admit children who did not attend the Church of
England, and who did not accept its catechetical
instruction. Few religious parties could be wholly
satisfied with their lordships' Minute, but none could
have solid ground for complaint.
Passing over the extension of the grants to the
346 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
normal schools in connection with the Church of
Scotland, we come to the delicate question of inspec-
tion. This subject, after some discussion, received
settlement in a manner satisfactory to all parties. By
the Order in Council, August, 1840, the Archbishops
of Canterbury and York were to be consulted, each
for his own province, before the recommendation to her
Majesty of any inspector of Church of England schools,
and they were further empowered to suggest names.
Moreover, they were permitted at any time to with-
draw their concurrence, and thus to cancel an appoint-
ment, and to draw up instructions to the inspectors
having reference to religious teaching, etc. Arrange-
ments of a similar nature were afterwards made with
other societies, it being arranged that the Education
Committee of the General Assembly of the Estab-
lished and Free Churches should be consulted before
appointing inspectors for Scotland, and that in the
case of schools not connected with the Church of
England, the British and Foreign and the Wesleyan
Committees should have a like privilege.
The framework of the system was now constructed :
the main difficulties were overcome. Future action
consisted in the distribution of money in the most
prudent way ; and in doing this the recipients at least
might be safely calculated on as aiders and abettors
of Downing Street ; and even hostile fingers might
be expected in time to relax, and accept the offered
bribe. The expectation was not a vain one. It soon
became necessary to facilitate the working of the
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 34/
machine by constructing those regulations for the
erection and maintenance of schools, and those trust-
deeds for the conveyance of the school-property for
educational purposes, with their managers' clauses,
which, combined, attained in the course of years to a
manifoldness and complication which were the horror
of the amateur educator, and even defied the penetra-
tion of the most patient member of the " House." It
is necessary to a historical survey that we state
these conditions in a few words.
Grants had all along been made for school-build-
ings, and for the maintenance of schools. By the
Minute of November, 1843, they were extended to
school-furniture, teaching apparatus, and teachers'
residences. The Privy Council, in the same Minute,
specially guarded themselves against aiding normal
schools, except in the shape of building grants. These,
however, were liberal, being at the rate of £S^ f^or
every pupil, for whom it was proposed to provide
accommodation. The rate and mode of aid, though
in all cases made dependent on local effort, were not,
up to this point, it will be observed, definitely fixed,
so far as elementary schools were concerned ; and
already their lordships began to experience pressure
proceeding from poor and populous localities, where
might be found the worst classes of the population,
but in whose behalf no local subscriber could be got
to act, because few or no capable subscribers were
found to exist. As we shall have to recur to this
most important feature of the subject, we may
348 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
advantageously quote here the Minute of November,
1843, issued to meet exceptional cases.
" Their Lordships are prepared to give full effect
to that portion of the order of the 3rd of June, 1839,
which contemplates the making of larger grants to-
wards the erection of schools in poor and populous
places than are required elsewhere ; and they will in
all cases -whatever, consider the amount of grant to
be made without reference to the plan of any pro-
posed school having been drawn by their architect."
No legislation of any importance characterized
the next three years of the Privy Council adminis-
tration.* The only point deserving notice, was the
gradual but rapid increase of Parliamentary grants.
For, silently, schools in receipt of aid were multiplying,
and the Committee were doing their work of extend-
ing, as well as improving, popular education.
The first urgent necessities being met, two ques-
tions forced themselves into notice : first, the im-
portance of securing a higher class of teachers than
those then employed ; secondly, the importance of pro-
viding, at a small outlay, for schools largely attended,
without engaging additional adult assistants. The
monitorial system, so much insisted on by Bell and
Lancaster in the previous generation, suggested an
idea which would attain both the above objects at
once, and which lay at the basis of the Minutes of
1846, from which the existing system practically dates,
* If we except the "Minute on Methods of Teaching" issued in
1844.
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 349
SO far as the majority of the recipients of the pubh'c
money are concerned. By these Minutes, managers
were allowed to select promising boys and girls of
thirteen years of age, and apprentice them to the
teacher (of the male or female school, as the case
might be), to be trained by teaching to the art of
teaching, their own progress in elementary knowledge
being secured by requiring that for an hour and a half
each day, they should receive special instruction from
the master or mistress of the school. A programme
or scheme of study was drawn out, which has been
from time to time modified and defined, but which
stands essentially where it did in 1846. The require-
ments during the last year of the apprenticeship, in
other words, the examination for admission to the
normal colleges, sufficiently explain the course of
study pursued. These were : — Reading and writing,
expected both to be of good quality ; composition of
an essay on some subject connected with the art
of teaching ; problems in arithmetic : two books of
Euclid ; algebra to the end of simple equations,
America and the oceans (the other portions of the
globe having in previous years formed subject of
examination); outlines of British history; the Holy
Scriptures ; liturgy and catechism ; free-hand drawing
and shading of natural objects from memory, and the
elements of the theory of music.
It was next necessary for their lordships to antici-
pate the conclusion of the apprenticeship, and to
devise means of securing the apprentices to the public
350 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
service as teachers in elementary schools. The diffi-
culty of maintaining the normal schools, which had
been instituted, had also been urged on the Privy Coun-
cil, and the scheme still substantially in operation was
devised. By this it was arranged that those young
men and women, who successfully passed the fifth year's
examination, should be allowed Queen's scholarships,
of the value of ^23 * in the case of males, and £1^ in
the case of females, and that those who, at the end
of each year's training, passed a satisfactory exami-
nation, should receive certificates of merit entitling
the holder, when appointed to an elementary school,
to augmentation grants varying from ;^I5 tO;^30 per
annum, and somewhat less in the case of mistresses.
The amount allowed was to be determined by the
grade of certificate obtained, and was made dependent
on certain conditions as to school premises, and on
the receipt from other sources of a sum twice the
amount of the Government grant, one-half of which
was to be in the form of voluntary contribution from
the school-managers. For each of the students who
was thus carried through the year's course, and who
obtained a certificate, the Privy Council resolved to
pay to the authorities of the normal college sums
varying from ^13 to £2A^ in the case of males, and
two-thirds of these sums in the case of females.f
Thus every normal school for each student boarded
* The sum fluctuated, but for some years it stood as above,
t Wo give the average rates, and we omit the allowances for third
year's students, as these have been practically inoperative.
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 35 1
and educated receives from Government an average
of i^40 for males, and £^^0 in the case of females.
The Minutes bearing on elementary and on normal
schools, though originally kept apart, were now prac-
tically merged : the two institutions were now properly
regarded as different parts of the same system.
Prior to this, the statement of "special circum-
stances " in the case of schools applying for public
aid, but which were not in a position to affiliate them-
selves to the National or British and Foreign School
Societies, was dispensed with (28th of June, 1847),
and the sole grounds of admission to a share in the
Parliamentary grant, became — adequate premises,
and the reading of the Holy Scriptures or extracts
therefrom in school — the religious peculiarities of the
parents being reserved and guarded, as formerly stated,
except in the case of National Society (Church of
England) schools, where grants might be obtained
though the general instruction should include cate-
chetical in a/l cases, and might be accompanied with
enforced attendance at the parish church. The man-
agers of these schools, however, were allowed, as we
have already stated, to make exceptions, with the
concurrence of the diocesan.*
The religious principle limiting the area of the
Government grants was further strained by the ad-
mission of Roman Catholic schools in 1847. The
inspectors of such schools were subject to the approval
of that body, and, as in the case of Nonconformist
* See Sir J. P. K. Shuttleworth's letter of 17th April, 1847.
352 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
schools, they were not 7-eqiiired to report on the
rehgious instruction, but might simply state that it
was given. In December, 185 1, a further step was
taken, and Jewish schools were admitted to participa-
tion. Accordingly, quoad religion, the case then sub-
stantially stood thus : Any elementary school, taught
by a certificated teacher, might claim a portion of the
Parliamentary grant, on the inspector being satisfied
that the school-buildings were adequate, the instruction
and discipline sufficiently good, and that religious in-
struction was given ; the Privy Council being satisfied
with the modest allowance of a portion of certain
extracts from the Old Testament, it might be, in the
Douay version. Nay more, if the managers, on re-
ligious grounds, refused to report that religious in-
struction was given, the Minute of July, 1847, pro-
tected them.
Assuredly the conscience of the State was an
elastic one, and it may be a matter of surprise that
their lordships should have clung so tenaciously to
this last shred of religious principle, and refused to
recognize schools in which secular instruction, along
with moral instruction, was conveyed. With all respect,
we think the country found itself in a very absurd
position, and one not permanently tenable.
We have passed over the resolution to make
grants to schools of books and maps, gratuities to
teachers for instructing pupil-apprentices, the Minute
of 185 1 regarding superannuations, and the establish-
ment of Knellar Hall training-school for pauper-school
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 353
masters (which afterwards Avent to the ground), be-
cause these and many other points, though important
in themselves, do not enter into the plan of this
survey, the main object of which is to sketch the his-
tory, not to chronicle the acts, of the Department,
and to state the case as it at present stands.
The reader has now before him a general view of
the principles of our national system of education up
to 1862, with one notable exception (the Capitation
Minute), which will immediately form the subject of
remark ; and he will see, that while holding to the
original idea of only 'helping those who help them-
selves, " my lords " had been compelled by gradual
pressure to extend and to expand in other directions
beyond their first intention.
At the date which we have reached in this sketch,
the loiucst class of male schools in receipt of Govern-
ment aid for their maintenance would have shown the
following annual financial statement : —
Augmentation . . . . ■ £,^S
Salary required to meet this augmentation . 15
Fees . . . . . .15
Payment of }Hipil teacher . ' . . . 15
Gratuity to the master for teaching the pupil teacher 5
Value of dwelling house, say ... 10
Lis
For books and apparatus,* say . . ' . 10
Total . . /'SS
Thus, the minimum Government grant to small
male schools, with an attendance of, say, sixty pupils,
* Where books and apparatus were claimed.
2 A
354 TPIE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
and taking full advantage of the Minutes, would be
^45. A female school would show on the whole
about £6 or £'j less of Government money. The
average emoluments of teachers were much higher
than that above indicated. We have selected the case
of a school which, at the 1862 stage of the Minutes,
received as little as was compatible with its being
recognized by the State at all.
Up to 1849 their lordships had been indebted to
Sir J. P. K. Shuttleworth for the energy and admini-
strative talent which enabled them to steer their way
skilfully through so many storms, and to accommodate
themselves to such shoals and hidden rocks as could
not be avoided. The management was now trans-
ferred to Mr. Lingen,* who seems to have early felt
the increasing claims of that class of schools in con-
nection with which no local contributions could be
obtained, and which, in consequence of their very
poverty — a poverty which for the most part was also
the measure of their ignorance — were excluded from
Government recognition, thus most truly illustrating,
in one sense, the text, that " from him who hath not,
shall be taken away even that which he hath." We
have shown that from the initiation of the Privy
Council scheme this class of schools had been an
insurmountable obstacle in the way of a fixed and in-
flexible system of administration, and the fact was,
that under the name of " self-supporting " schools they
were frequently allowed to participate. To work a
* Now Sir R. R. W. Lingen, permanent secretary of the Treasury.
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 355
code, however, which had an exceptional clause of so
large and indefinite a character must have been
difficult ; a clause which every year, through fear of
an unjust estimate of local capabilities, must have
tended to infuse a certain amount of vacillation into
the application of the dominant principle of the
administration. About the same time the reports of
the inspectors had brought to light the weak points in
our primary school system ; namely, the irregularity
of the attendance, and the early age at which children
were withdrawn from school. Accordingly, to supply
the need of schools in poor but populous localities,
and by the same act to encourage more regular
attendance in so far as that could be effected through
the efforts of school-managers and teachers, it was
resolved (April, 1853) to grant to schools in such dis-
tricts an average of 5^". per head for every scholar who
had attended 176 days in the course of the year end-
ing at the date of inspection.* The managers were
required to expend at least seven-tenths of the whole
school income, including the grant, on the salary of
the teacher and assistant, if such there was ; and the
strict requirements as regarded buildings, etc., made
in all those cases where aiignicntation of salary was
claimed, as under the Minutes up to that date in force,
were somewhat relaxed. One condition, however,
operated so as to perpetuate the exclusion of the
poorest schools, while admitting many others which
did not quite fall under this category, namely, that
* The details are omitted.
356 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
which required that the " income of the school in the
preceding year from endowments, subscriptions, col-
lections, and school-pence shall have amounted to 14s.
per scholar in schools for boys, and 12s* in schools
for girls, without including the annual value of the
teacher's house or other school-buildings." A large
number of those schools which were already in
receipt of book and apparatus grants, augmentation
grants to the teacher, stipends to pupil teachers
and gratuities to the masters for teaching them,
at once hailed this golden advantage, and sent in
their claims. Hence it arose that the Capitation
Minute was abused: (i.) By the admission of the
claims of schools already in receipt of a sufficient
amount of public aid. (2.) By managers taking ad-
vantage of the clause which recognized seven-tenths
of the capitation grant as voluntary contribution, and
substituting this for what would otherwise, by a little
exertion, have been paid out of their own pockets,
and which they would have been well able to pay.f
Government money thus became too often a mere sud-
stitute for local effort. A rule intended to meet excep-
tional cases, threatened to overgrow the fundamental
principle on which the public money had been hitherto
expended — the principle that it was only a "grant
in aid." Nor can it be said that the evil and anomaly
which the Capitation Minute was intended to remove
* This condition to Ijc fulfilled f)nly in the case of those for whom
grants were claimable.
t This clause " was enabling only, not obligatory."
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 357
Avere more than palliated by its operation. Assuredly,
the good done was, in the opinion of many of those
most competent to judge, quite counterbalanced by
the too great reliance on the public purse for which
this Minute gave the opportunity, or rather which it
invited. The Minute of July, 1857, which allowed the
capitation grant to be expended without reference to
the allocation of seven-tenths of the school income to
the salary of the teacher, was in its effect a further
concession to the pockets of school managers, at the
same time that it was a step towards local manage-
ment. All were aware that capitation grants were
intended for needy schools only. The Minute " was
enabling only, not obligatory." But to consider each
case on its own merits would have been a task beyond
the reach of any department however large. The
inevitable consequence was, as any one may see by
consulting the Appendix to the Blue-book for 1861,
that the same schools were in receipt of all kinds of
aid at once. While augmentation money reached
^^98,000, in i860, the capitation grants amounted to
;^63,ooo. It was impossible to administer fairly to
the country any system \\hich was based on two
collateral and conflicting principles of action ; the one
requiring voluntary effort, the other encouraging its
absence. As things stood, in i860, an average school,
it might be in a wealthy locality, with an attendance
of only eighty children, might be in receipt of aug-
mentation grant, say ^20 ; stipends to pupil teachers,
^30 ; gratuities to master for instructing them, £(^ ;
358 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
book grants, etc., say £\2 ; capitation grant, say ;^ 12 ;
fees, say i^20 ; local contributions only, it may be, iJ"! i
or £\2. more, seven-tenths of the capitation grant
being substituted by the managers for what would
otherwise have been their own subscriptions ; ^83 of
the school income thus proceeding from Government,
and £\2 at most from local sources: and this, be it
observed, in a locality more than competent to pay
for the education of its own operative population.
At the same time a poor school, struggling in some
squalid court or populous lane, could not qualify for
one penny of aid.
Such was the position of the Committee of Privy
Council in 1861, their expenditure taking two great
channels : grants to normal colleges, including the
exhibitions called Queen's scholarships ; and grants
to elementary schools, falling under the various heads
of building grants, grants in augmentation of salary,
stipends to pupil teachers, gratuities to masters for
instructing them, book grants, and capitation grants.
In that year, the total expenditure by the Privy
Council, under all heads, was ;^8 13,441 i6s. od., of
which ;;6^495,47i os. d>d. was paid to Church of Eng-
land schools, and upwards of ^100,000 was expended
in Scotland.
To simplify the above complicated method of
administering the public money, which caused too
great a strain on the central office, to correct the
errors which experience had detected, and to attain
other objects which we shall advert to presently, the
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH, 359
Revised Code was issued on the 9th of May, 1862,
under the auspices of Lord Granville, Mr. Lowe, and
]\Ir. (now Sir R. R. \V.) Lingen. Prior to its pre-
paration a Royal Commission under the Duke of New-
castle, had reported at great length on the state of
popular education, and on the working of the Privy
Council office. Their discoveries entirely confirmed
the opinions of those practically acquainted with
popular education in England and Wales. The evils
that had to be remedied might be summed up as
follows :
1. The proportion of public money flowing into
the coffers of those schools, which, though situated in
wealthy districts, were in receipt of public money in
all its different forms, had to be lessened. At the
same time the poorest schools claimed, or rather
demanded, recognition and encouragement. The im-
possibility of treating every case on its own individual
merits made it impracticable to have two principles
of administration working side by side, the one en-
forcing, the other dispensing with, local effort.
2. The results of popular education had been dis-
appointing. Poor children whose time at school was
limited, were turned out, unable to read, write, or
cipher in any serviceable way. Of this there could be
no doubt. The teachers were not ignorant of their
duties, but they certainly directed too much time to
instruction in those branches which, though important
in themselves, were less essential to the children of
the labouring population.
J
60 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
3. Pupil teachers were in some parts of the
countiy underpaid, in others overpaid.
4. Irregularity of attendance seemed to be an insur-
mountable obstacle in the way of popular education.
5. The Council office had direct and personal
relations with each of the ten thousand schools on its
list — relations of a twofold, threefold, fourfold, and
even fivefold character, as the case might be, accord-
ing to the various kinds of payment enumerated
above. No central body could continue to discharge
the parochial business of the country. That must be
discharged parocJiially.
6. Many who endeavoured to take a wide view
of national education, and had read the lesson which
other countries had taught them, dreaded the rapid
growth of an educational bureau, which from year to
year was manufacturing teachers according to its own
pattern — a pattern which had some twice or thrice
already changed its colours — and was directing the
internal economy of schools even to the pettiest
details. They saw in this an element of danger to
the country, the sapping of its self-reliance, and the
enfeebling of that spontaneous vitality which had
always characterized the inhabitants of this island.
The necessity for the interposition of the educated
and governing classes, in all matters pertaining to the
intellectual and moral condition of the masses, was
freely admitted so far as legislation was concerned, but
not in the form of a standing central executive, which
was endowed with practically legislative functions.
KDUCATIOX DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 361
How was the remedy for all these evils to be found
at once ? This was the question which their lordships
had to answer, and they answered it by the Revised
Code. That they should be bound in perpetuity to all
the details of a scheme struck out in the infancy of
a department, it would have been preposterous to
expect. Having given it a fair trial, their duty was
to remedy the acknowledged defects. To transact
the business of every village school in Downing Street
was as impracticable as it was undesirable. This
great and growing evil had to be checked ; and, by
the same act, those interested by residence and pro-
perty in the various districts were to be taught, before
it was too late, to feel that they were mainly respon-
sible for the superintendence of the education of the
young, and to be urged, for their own advantage, as
well as for that of the classes below them, to give this
wholesome direction to their philanthropy or sense of
duty. The State could not continue a system by
which it afforded a substitute for both the money and
the management of every parish.
The course adopted in order to attain these ends
might not have been the wisest possible, but we
maintain that it was no violent innovation. It was
neither more nor less than the Capitation Minute of
1853, as modified in 1857, so extended tJiat one single
payment to each school should represent all the former
allozuances ivJiicJi were distrihnted under the separate
and perplexing heads of augmentation, stipends, gratui-
ties, book grant, apparatus, capitation. One annual
362 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
grant was now to be made on account of each
school, payable to the managers, who were to be-
not fewer than three in number. The money so
received was to be expended by them for the main-
tenance of the school in the way which seemed to
them most beneficial ; a j)ower, be it observed,
already conceded, and a responsibility already im-
posed, in respect of the capitation grants* The
managers were to make their own bargain with their
teacher, the Privy Council only requiring that, as
the number of children attending increased, additional
teachers should be engaged — one for every thirty
children {enrolled) above fifty, and that these teachers
should be certified or probationary, except in the
case of pupil teachers who were to be recognized
as assistants.
The new principle whereby the objects of State aid
were to be secured, and the remaining defects of the
existing system remedied, was payment for resnlts —
results in respect of quality of teaching and regularity
of attendance. The managers of schools might claim
(Art. 40) \d. for every attendance, after the first one
hundred days, at the morning or afternoon meetings,
and after the first twelve at the evening meetings, of
their schools, within the year. Attendances under
half-time Acts might be multiplied by two to make
up the preliminary number. One-third part of the
sum thus claimable was forfeited if the scholars failed
to satisfy the inspector in reading, one-third if in
* Minulcs, 1857.
EDUCATION DErARTMKNT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 363
writing, and one-third if in arithmetic, rcspectivel}',
according to Article 44.*
To many this "payment for results " seemed to be
a bad and unfair principle of administration, and by
almost all it was treated as an innovation. The latter
view, however, was erroneous. The capitation minute
already referred to contained a distinct provision to
the same effect, viz. : —
" That three-fourths of the scholars above seven
and under nine years of years, three-fourths of those
above nine and under eleven, and three-fourths of
those above eleven and under thirteen respectively,
pass such an examination before her Majesty's
inspector or assistant-inspector, as shall be set forth
in a separate minute of details." t
Nay more, the grouping according to age, which
justly formed so strong a subject of complaint, was to
a large extent enjoined on the inspectors in the cir-
cular letter of 20th August, 1853, which accompanied
the Capitation Minute. It is true that these portions
of the Minute had ibeen almost, if not wholly, in-
operative ; but the fact of their early introduction into
the existing system, taken in conjunction with the
historical sequence of events which we have shortly
sketched, prevents our characterizing the Revised
Code as revolutionary.
Before leaving the historical relation which the
* This Article also specified the standanl required in the various
sections of the school.
t Condition 8, Minutes, 1852-53.
364 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Revised Code holds to past Minutes, we would advert
for a moment to the new attitude in which their
lordships v^^ere supposed to have placed themselves
with regard to the question of Religions Instruction.
It is necessary to turn back a few pages and consider
the position into which the Committee had been
inevitably led before it had been many years in exist-
ence, in the attempt to distribute the Parliamentary
grant impartially in aid of every kind of efficient
voluntary effort for the education of the people. A
report that the Bible was read in a school, with the
important modifications that the Douay version was
admitted in Roman Catholic, and the New Testament
excluded from Jewish schools, was accepted as ade-
quate religious qualification for 'participation in the
grant. We do not think that this principle of admini-
stration could be regarded in any other light than as
a miserable shift for the purpose of meeting exigencies
which one by one arose. But that the Revised Code
still maintained the same requirement, as the indis-
pensable condition of aid, is sufficiently evident from
Article 8, which runs as follows : —
" Every school assisted from the Grant must be
either {a) A school connected with some recognized
religious denomination ; or, {b) A school in which,
besides secular instruction, the Scriptures are read
daily from the authorized version."
Nor did the fact that payments were to be hence-
forth made in return for results, affect this question.
For by Articles 49, 50, 51, and 52, the inspector was
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 365
required, if words have any meaning, not merely to
estimate the discipHne of the school but also to
examine into the instruction given over and above
•the actual attainment in the three essential subjects.
The first additional subject to which he would direct
his attention would be, as formerly, religious instruc-
tion ; and this article gave him the power, if he found
this and other subjects not in his schedule untaught
or badly taught, to cut off " not less than one-tenth
nor more than one-half the grant " claimed. If
religion, therefore, was pushed into a corner in our
schools, it was not the fault of their lordships, but of
the school-managers themselves ; in other words, of
the clergy. It did not at all affect the question that
subscription schools, hitherto received under the
elastic denomination " British," were now to be
admitted under the title " Undenominational." This
was simply a Avay of providing headings for official
letters, which should preclude misunderstanding.
The full recognition and encouragement of evening-
schools was another benefit proposed to be conferred
by the Revised Code, and might here, along with the
questions of " Breach of Faith," " Free Trade in
Teaching," " Lowering of the Educational Standard,"
receive consideration, were it worth our while to take
up questions now of little practical moment.*
While sympathizing with the objects which the
* The instractions to inspectors issued in September, 1S62, aimed
at maintaining a high standard of education, but they at once broke
down under the influence of "payment for results."
^66 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
Code sought to secure, we do not defend the way in
which it sought to attain them. There were man}-
sound objections to the Code, the chief of which was
that from first to last it misapprehended the meaning
of the word education. And what could be said in
defence of those regulations, whereby pupil-teachers
were declared competent to conduct a school without
any professional training, and those, again, whereby
high attainment in teachers was positively dis-
couraged ? That direct measures should have been
taken to discourage high qualifications in teachers was
false in policy and perverse in principle.
On the representations of teachers and others,
certain modifications were made in the Revised Code
from time to time, but these were all of a very sub-
ordinate character and did not affect the principle
and substance of the document. The " Lowe Code "
accordingly governed education in England and prac-
tically also in Scotland (though not formally applied
to the latter country) up to the passing of " the Eng-
lish Education Act of 1870 and thereafter." After a
reign of more than ten years, Mr. Lowe's throne
began to totter, and, under the influence of the awaken-
ing caused by Mr. Forster's Act in England, and
Lord Young's Act in Scotland, it vv^as subverted.
The English Act of 1870 gave Parliamentary
sanction to all future Minutes of the Education De-
partment {formerly Lords of the Committee of Privy
Council on PMucation) by section 97. The chief
change effected by the Act itself, but one to which
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT: HISTORICAL SKETCH. 367
the actual practice of the Department almost inevit-
ably led, was introduced by a condition inserted in the
clause just referred to, that no grant was to be made
" in respect of any instruction in religious subjects," a
condition of grants which was also extended to
training colleges for masters and mistresses. Whereas
formerly no grant could be given when religious
instruction was omitted, it was now enacted that no
grant would be given on account of religious instruc-
tion — a very significant change. Although such in-
struction was not proscribed, it is quite fair to say
that it was now discouraged by the State.
The improved educational spirit which began to
animate the action of the Department, showed itself
at once in Art. 21 of the Code of 1871, now called the
" New Code." By this article, grants were made on
account of instruction in other subjects than read-
ing, writing, and arithmetic. These other subjects
were called " specific subjects," and in the relative
schedule, they were said to be " Geography, History,
Grammar, Algebra, Geometry, Natural Philosophy,
Physical Geography, the Natural Sciences, Political
Economy, Languages or any definite subject of in-
struction extending over the classes to be examined
in Standards IV., V., and VI., and taught according
to a graduated scheme," etc. A great opportunity
was at this time lost of reconstructing the whole of
primary instruction on an educational basis. A Council
of education, even of a temporary character, would
have laid down what was essential to the education of
368 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
the masses of the people on broad Hues and rendered
unnecessary the subsequent ten years of laborious
groping after some rational programme. The ignor-
ance of the subject of education prevailing at head-
quarters was doubtless the cause of the feebleness
shown in the critical years of 1871-72. The dread
which the English mind has of principles makes it fight
shy of " theory." It prefers to wander about aim-
lessly, and to sneak into the temple of education by all
sorts of back doors rather than confidently ascend the
front steps. In Code after Code modifications have
been made to meet legitimate demands as they arose,
the greater number of these modifications being in the
right direction. The most important of them was the
introduction of " class-examination " in certain sub-
jects as opposed to individual examination, and the
giving of special grants for "intelligence" and "disci-
pline." The general grants were now made on the
average attendance and the individual passes of the
pupils without regard to local contributions.
The next important movement in the history of
the Department dates from the appointment of Mr.
Mundella to the vice-presidency. Mr. Mundella
signed his first report in June, 1881, and from that
date till now has never ceased to study the position of
affairs. Last autumn he laid before Parliament cer-
tain " Proposals," which, taken ■along with the improve-
ment of the training college syllabus under the head
of " Methods of Teaching," mark a new departure in
policy. These proposals I refer to in a paper in this
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT : HISTORICAL SKETCH. 369
volume on the " Educational Wants of Scotland."
Thus, after passing- through the tentative epoch in
national education which ended in 1861 and was
signalized by the institution of the pupil teacher
system and training colleges, the Department entered
on what may be fairly called the Philistine epoch of
Mr. Lowe which gave way to the well-meaning epoch
of Mr. Forster in 1871, now happily evolved into the
educational epoch under Mr. Mundella.
THE END.
I-RINTED BV WILLIAM CLOWES A.NU SONS, LIMITED, Lo.NUO.N AND UECCI.ES.
2 B
WRITINGS BY PROFESSOR S. S. LAURIE.
I.
THE EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND WRITINGS OF
JOHN AMOS COMENIUS, BISHOP OF THE
MORAVIANS.
Price 1$. bd.
" Mr. Laurie deserves the thanks of the educational world for his sketcli
of a remarkable man, whose success, in an unworldly sense, was great, and
whose failures are almost more instructive than his success." — Athenaum.
" In this little book we have a thoroughly good piece of workmanship,
for which all students of education should be grateful." — Academy.
" The little book is worthy of the attention of all educational reformers."
— British Quarterly Reviezv.
" Mr. Laurie has given us a good memoir of John Amos Comenius, the
earnest, simple-minded Moravian Bishop, who set about reforming the
schools of Europe in the midst of the confusion of the Thirty Years' War.
. . . His name is far less known than it deserves to be, and Mr. Laurie has
done good service in erecting this monument to his memory." — Westminster
Rtvieiv.
" The work is a systematic, earnest, and conscientious effort in educa-
tional biography. The introduction, which seeks to explain the relation of
Comenius to the Humanistic and Realistic Schools, which were the outcome
of the Renaissance, is well thought out and well written ; and the analysis
of Comenius' educational w ritings is executed with intelligence and thorough-
ness. " — Scotsman.
London : Kegan Paul, Trench & Co.
n.
HAND-BOOK TO LECTURES ON EDUCATION.
Frice 2s.
III.
ON PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN RELATION
TO EDUCATION.
Second Edition.
" Though written with no direct political purpose, we know of no book
so admirably adapted to suggest the nature of the change required in our
present system, as that on 'Primary Instruction' by Mr. .S. Laurie. This
admirable Essay is chiefly addressed to the Schoolmasters of Primary
Schools, with a view to reconcile them to the limited range of work whicli
is afforded them by their daily task. He shows bow, by a large and
thorough treatment, the most lofty educational ideas may be conveyed in
the proper teaching of Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic. Full of a minute
and practical knowledge ol his subject, his Essay is of the highest possible
interest, and affords solutions of many psychological problems that are still
debated among the learned in such matters.
" Rich in the results of an experience that has been enlightened by re-
flection, it is the furthest removed from any mere theory of the subject.
( 2 )
The minutest details of daily work are given, but always in the light of the
principles which should guide the methods recommended. It is a book
devoted to taking the tedium out of the dullest routine, and it may con-
fidently be asserted that it will do so for all who study it with good-will
and intelligence." — Westminster Review, January, 1868.
" The former [' Essay on Primary Education '] contains an able, practical,
and, as regards elementary education, thoroughly exhaustive discussion of
the subject in all its aspects. . . . The Essay may be regarded as a valuable
contribution to our educational literature." — -Scotsman.
"... Mr. Laurie is the author of a work, ' Philosophy of Ethics,' and
appears to possess a practical as well as a theoretical acquaintance with the
mental and moral nature of the young. He enters into their feelings,
luiderstands their wants, appreciates their difficulties, and is fully alive to
their dangers. . . . The volume closes with some admirable remarks on
classical and scientific education, in which the superior claims of the former
are powerfully maintained. " — Atkeiiceum, Nov. 16, 1867.
IV.
ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF ETHICS:
AN ANALYTICAL ESSAY.
" Mr. Laurie's volume now before us is in substance, though not in form,
a reply, to Mr. Mill's 'Utilitarianism." Mr. Laurie has the metaphysical
head and the metaphysical training of his countrymen, and has brought
both to bear with great force on the problem proposed." — Saturday Review.
" Dans le traite qui fait I'objet de la prt^sente etude et oil le sujet etait
plus en rapport avec les tendances mdtaphysiques de I'auteur, son esprit
d'analyse s'est revile dans toute sa force, en faisant jaillir une nouvelle
luinifere sur les questions les plus controversees de la morale. Aussi cet
ouvrage a-t-il dhs son apparition obtenu les suffrages des organes les plus
accr^dit^s de la presse anglaise. . . .
' ' A notre avis I'auteur s'est acquitt(5 en vrai philosophe de la tache difficile
et delicate qu'il s'est imposde, et nous croyons que son livre fera epoque
dans I'histoire des sciences morales." — Revue Popidaire (Paris), May, 1868.
V.
NOTES ON BRITISH THEORIES OF MORALS.
"His criticisms are candid and highly instructive — e.g., those of the
views of R^-ntham, Mill, and Bain. He manifests great aptitude in detecting
radio il defects, in exposing logical inconsistencies, and in detecting the legi-
timate tendencies of pliilosophical systems." — British Quarterly, April, 1868.
"The book is a model of conscientious and e.xact thinking on ethical
sui)jects. His controversial analysis of Professor Bain seems to us parti-
cularly successful." — Scotsman, May 6, 18 38.
VI.
ON THE FUNDAMENTAL DOCTRINE OF
LATIN SYNTAX,
VII.
CONSTABLE'S SERIES OF READING-BOOKS
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