ffiS^----'
UC-NRLF
*B 3D7 DD7
.^-' GRAM ^
^RA
Ji
^ PROBUCTIVB SYSTEM
BY ROSWELL C. SMITH
HE'S^ STt-
7/
SMITH'S NEW GRAMMAR.
ENGLI
MAK7-5
^'MaC
PRODUCTIVE system:
METHOD OF INSTRUCTION RECENTLY ADOPTED
GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND.
IBesfgnetf for ScI)ools anti 0catremla».
BY ROSWELL C. SMITH,
AUTHOR OF "practical AND MENTAL ARITHMETIC," "INTELLECTUAL AND
PRACTICAL GRAMMAR," AND "INTRODUCTORY ARITHMETIC."
NEW STEREOTYPE EDITION.
PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY E. H. BUTLER & CO.
. 1847.
'^.X^l
t
j: *„ A -4. ^r r* :„ *t S:_ i
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by
Perkins & Marvin,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.
(2)
rRINTED BY SMITH AND PETERS
Franklin BuiMings. 6th St.. below Ai*«K
PREFACE. ; 2 yy
The following work was composed, as is indicated by Ihe'^''^
title, on what is styled in Germany and Switzerland the
" Productive System of Instruction." It is in these countries
that the subject of Education has been deemed a matter of
paramount importance. The art of teaching, particularly,
has there been most ably and minutely investigated. To
give a brief account of the different systems which have
prevailed there, may not be irrelevant on the present occa-
sion, as they assist in forming an opinion of the comparative
merits of the " Productive System," on which this work is
principally based.
" In reference to intellectual education, the persons who were in-
strumental in producing the reformation in schools, in the last century,
in these countries, may be divided into four classes — the Humanists,
Philanthropists, Pestalozzian and the Productive Schools.
" At the restoration of learning, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
the classics were brought out from the libraries of the cloisters in which
they had been buried. As they presented the only examples of exalted
sentiments and elevated style which the secular literature of the age
afforded, they were regarded as the only means of acquiring enlarged
views and a liberal education ; the study of them received th€ proud title
o{ Humanity ; and the zealous and meritorious men who employed this
means for the revival of learning, were subsequently termed Humamsts,
" The rigid Humanists maintained that ' the Greek and Latin authors
are the only source of sound learning, whether in philosophy or rhetoric,
in poetry or history, in medicine or law, and even in the elements of
religion ; all has come to us from Greece and Rome.' * The learning of
the Greek and Latin languages is the only foundation of a thorough
education ;' the knowledge of the grammar ought to precede all other
knowledge; * and philologists are the only thoroughly learned men.'
"The Humanists maintained the entire sway of the learned world
until about the middle of the last century, when the school of the
Philanthropists arose. Disgusted with the extravagant manner in which
the ancient languages were extolled, they were led to examine into the
foundations of their pretensions. While they yielded the palm to the
ancients in all that relates to matters of taste and beauty, they maintained
that this superiority arose from the fact, that the ancients derived their
views directly from the inspection of nature and the observation of man,
instead of occupying themselves, as we do, with the mere pictures of them
drawn by others ; — they pointed to the obvious truth, that the world is older
and vastly more experienced than it was two thousand years ago ; that in
regard to all that relates to human knowledge, the present generation are
really the ancients. They believed that much time was lost by the
indiscriminate and exclusive use of the classics as the foundation of
education, which ought to be spent in acquisition of practical knowledge;
and that by this tedious and laborious task, without any perceptible
a)
m:^9QP01
4 PREFACE.
advantage to the pupil, they were often disg-usted with every species of
intellectual effort They also pointed out the moral corruption which
arises from many of the examples and sentiments of the ancients, and
especially disapproved that discipline of compulsion and violence, by
which children have been forced to this ungrateful employment. They
urged the importance of leading by the attraction of knowledge itself,
rather than by force. They paid much attention to the developement of
the bodily constitution and powers, and professed to aim at forming men,
and not mere scholars. #51'
" But, with the ordinary weakness of human nature, in avoiding one
extreme, they ran into the opposite. They forgot the valuable influence
of these studies, properly regulated, upon the faculties and habits of the
mind.
" Notwithstanding their error, the Philanthropists unquestionably exerted
much influence on the improvement of education. The extravagant views
of the Humanists were considerably modified ; and although many still
retain the exclusive maxims of their predecessors, many admit, as stated
in the German ' Conversations Lexicon," that ' all should be embraced in
education which can promote the formation of the man, and prepare him
for the eternal destiny of his spirit.^ The Philanthropists also prepared
the way for their successors of the School of Pestalozzi. This remarkable
man adopted many of the opinions of his predecessors of the Philanthropic
school, especially those which related to the developement of the bodily
powers, and the methods of discipline, and religious instruction. He per-
ceived, however, that, in assuming practical utility as the exclusive test
of the value of particular objects of instruction, they had too much
neglected the developement of the mind itself In seeking to avoid this
error, jiowever, he did not entirely escape the other extreme. He assumed,
as a fundamental principle, that a certain developement of mind was
necessary for every rank and every occupation. The means of this
developement he supposed himself to have found, so far as the intellectual
faculties were concerned, in the elements of form and number, which are
combined in the science of Mathematics, in Language, and in Natural
History. The Mathematics appear to have assumed a preponderance in
practice, which was unfavorable to the regular and harmonious cultivatioji
of other powers. The senses and the bodily powers he endeavored to
develope, in accordance with the views of the Philanthropic school, by the
careful examination of the various objects of nature and art, which sur-
round the pupil, by means of music, and by gymnastic exercises, alternated
or combined with labor. Pestalozzi himself was remarkably the creature
of powertiil impulses, which were usually of the most mild and benevolent
kind, and preserved a child-like character in this respect, even to old age.
It was probably this temperament which led him to estimate at a low rate
the importance of positive religious truth in the education of children, and
to maintain that the mere habit of faith and love, if cultivated towards
earthly parents and benefactors, would of course be transferred to our
heavenly Father, whenever his character should be exhibited to the
mind of the child. The fundamental error of this view was established
by the unhappy experience of his own institution: and his own ex-
ample afforded the most striking evidence that the noblest impulses,
not directed by established principles, may lead to imprudence and
ruin, and thus defeat their own ends.* This principle, combined
* As an example of this, it may be mentioned that, on one of those occasions (fre-
quently occurring) on which he was reduced to extremity for want (tf the means of
supplying his large family, he borrowed $400 from a friend for this purpose. In going
home, he met a peasant wringing his hands in despair for the loss of Jiis cow. Pes-
talozzi put the entire bag of money into his hands, and ran off to escape his thanks,
PREFACE. S
with the want of tact in reference to the affairs of common life,
materially impaired his powers of usefulness as a practical instructer
of youth. The rapid progress of his ideas rarely allowed him to execute
his own plans; and, according to his own system, too much time was
employed in the profound developement of principles to admit of much
attention to their practical application. But, as one of his admirers
observed, he seemed destined to educate ideas and not children. He com-
bated, with unshrinking boldness, and untiring perseverance, through a
long life, both by his example and by his numerous publications, the
prejudices and abuses of the age, in reference to education. He attacked,
with great vigor and no small degree of success, that favorite maxim of ,
bigotry and tyranny, that obedience ' and devotion are the legitimate
offspring of ignorance. He denounced that degrading system which
considers it enough to enable man to procure a subsistence for himself
and his offspring — and in this manner to merely place him on a level
with the beast of the forest ; and which deems every thing lost whose
value cannot be estimated in money. He urged upon the consciences
of parents and of rulers, with an energy approaching that of the an-
cient prophets, the solemn duties which Divine Providence had imposed
upon them, in committing to their charge the present and future desti-
nies of their fellow beings. In this way he produced an impulse, which
pervaded the continent of Europe, and which, by means of his popular
and theoretical works, reached the cottages of the poor and palaces of
the great. His institution at Yverdun was crowded with men of every
nation, not merely those who were led by the same benevolence which
inspired him, but by the agents of kings, and noblemen, and public insti-
tutions, who came to make themselves acquainted with his principles, in
order to become fellow-laborers in his plans of benevolence.
" It is to these companions of his labors, most of whom resided in
Germany or Switzerland, that we owe the formation of another school,
which has been styled the Productive School^ and which now predomi-
nates in Germany and Switzerland. It might, perhaps, with equal pro-
priety, be termed the Eclectic School ; for it aims at embodying all the
valuable principles of previous systems, without adhering slavishly to the
dictates of any master, or the views of any party. It rejects alike the
idolatrous homage to the classics, which was paid by the Humanists — the
unreasonable prejudices of the Philanthropists against classical and merely
literary pursuits — and the undue predilection for the mere expansion of
mind, to the neglect of positive knowledge and practical application, which
characterized too many of the Pestalozzian School.
" The leading principle of this system, is that which its name indicates
— that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient of the ideas
of others, but as an agent capable of collecting, and originating, and pro-
ducing most of the ideas which are necessary for its education, when pre-
sented with the objects or the facts from which they may be derived.
While, on the one hand, they are careful not to reduce the pupil to a mere
machine, to be moved by the will of his instructer in an assigned dire«-
tion, or a mass of passive matter, to be formed by him according to his
own favorite model, they are equally careful to avoid the extreme, into
which some of the preceding school have fallen, of leaving him to wander
indefinitely, in a wrong direction in search of truth, in order to secure to
him the merit of discovery. They consider a course of education as*
divided into two parts — the period of developement and the period of acqui-
sition. In the first period, which they consider as particularly devoted to
developing the faculties and forming the habits of the mind^ in order to
prepare U as an instrument for future operations^ they employ the induc-
tive process chiefly. Time is not here of so much importance as the
1*
6 PREFACE.
habit of investigation and effort, which can only be acquired by meeting
sind overcoming difficulties. This period, which must be made longer or
shorter according to the character of the pupil, or the necessity that his
circumstances in life may impose, is succeeded by the period of acquisi-
tion, in which the mind is more especially called upon to exercise the
powers which have been previously developed and cultivated^ in the acqui-
sition of such positive knowledge as may prepare the individual for life
and action. The inductive process is still employed as much as possible,
not only because it has become, for many cases, the shortest and most
agreeable, but because it is important to maintain the habits it has pro-
duced, and invigorate the faculties it has served to develope.
" But still it is far less employed than previously, and the pupil is never
suffered to waste his time in attempting to create a science for himself,
and thus deprived of the benefit of the experience of sages and centuries.
On the contrary, they deem his mind capable of being elevated even more
rapidly by following the processes of patient investigation, by which the
most exalted minds have arrived at results that astonish and delight him,
and of thus learning to imitate strides, which seem to him like those of a
giant, and to cultivate those habits of untiring attention, which the great-
est philosophers have declared to be the principal source of that telescopic
glance, that almost unerring power of discrimination, which seems to
others so nearly miraculous.
" Such is the Productive System, by which the powers of the pupil are
called into complete exercise by requiring him to attempt a task unaided,
and then assisting him in correcting his own errors, or returning from his
own wanderings, before he is discouraged by the waste of time and the
fruitlessness of his efforts. They distinguish carefully between know-
ledge and the means of obtaining it. To cultivate the senses, and pre-
sent the objects which they are capable of examining, is to open to the
child the sources of knowledge — to place before him a book which is ever
open, and in which he may every moment read. This, they maintain, is
the first and most obvious part of education, according to the dictates of
common sense. It is one in which nothing but truth is presented to him,
and which, by calling his powers into constant exercise, ensures their
improvement, and cultivates a spirit of investigation."
The preceding extracts are taken from Art. I. Vol. I.
No. VI. of the American Journal of Education, New Series.
The author avails himself of this opportunity to express his
obligations to the conductors of this valuable periodical. A
constant perusal of its pages has afforded him many valuable
ideas on the subject of education, and he cheerfully acknow-
ledges material assistance derived from it in the preparation
of the " Productive System of English Grammar," which
is now respectfully submitted to the candid examination of the
public,
THE AUTHOR.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
«
I. OF THE NOUN.
Q. What is your name ?
Q. What is the name of the town in which you Uve ?
Q. What does the word noun mean?
Mns, The word noun means name,
Q, What, then, may your name be called?
1. A NOUN.
Q. What may all names be called?
2. Nouns.
Q. Boston is the name of a place : is Boston a noun ? and if so, why ?
3. Boston is a noun, because it is a name.
Q. Hudson is the name of a river : is Hudson a noun, and why ?
Q. Book is the name of something to read in : is book a noun, and why ?
Q. Will you now inform me what a noun is?
4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing.
Q. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons ? two, the names
of things ? two, the names of different places ?
Q. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen-
tences, as I read them to you ?
" Thomas and Joseph are in the house."
" The horse and cow are in the lot."
" The hawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain."
" Trees, corn, potatoes and apples grow in the fields."
II. NUMBER.
Q. What is the meaning of the word number ; as, ** The number of but-
tons on your coat?"
5. Number means one or more.
Q. What does the word singular mean?
6. It means one.
Q. When, then, I speak of one thing only, as chair, what number is it?
7. Singular number.
Q. What, then, does the singular number of nouns denote ?
8. The singular number denotes but one thing.
(7)
8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Q. Of what number is hooJt, and why ?
9. Book is of the singular number, because it means
but one.
Q. Of what number is chair, and why ?
Q. What does the word plural mean ?
10. It means more than one,
Q. Of what number is lamps, and why ?
1 1 . Lamps is of the plural number, because it means
more than one.
Q. Of what number is inkstand, and why ?
Q. By adding s to dove, we have doveSf and es to 6oar, we have boxes.
How, then, is the plural number of nouns usually formed ?
12. By adding 5 or es to the singular.
Q. Will you spell the plural of ounce ? glass ? window ? theatre ? antece-
dent ? church ? labyrinth ?
Q. How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they?
13. Two, the singular and plural.
Q. Will you name a noun of the singular number ? one of the plural
number ?
TIL GENDER.
Q. What does the word gender mean?
14. Gender signifies sex.
Q. What does the word masculine mean?
15. It means male.
Q. John is the name of a male : of what gender or sex, then, is John f
16. Of the masculine or male gender.
Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the masculine gender ?
17. The names of males.
Q. What gender, then, is man, and why?
18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the
name of a male.
Q. Of what gender is un^le, and why ? father ? why ?
Q. What does feminine mean ?
19. It means female.
Q. Susan is the name of a female : of what gender, then, is Susan ?
20. Of the feminine gender.
Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the feminine gender?
21. The names of females.
Q. What gender is woman, and why?
22. Woman is of the feminine gender, because it is the
name of a female.
O. Of what gender is aunt, and why ? daughter ? why ?
Q. What does the word neuter mean?
23. It means neither.
Q. Chair is the name neither of a male nor a female : what gender, then,
may it properly be called ?
24. Neuter gender.
Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the neuter gender ?
NOUNS. 9
25. The names of objects that are neither males nor
females.
Q. Of what gender is inkstand, and why ?
26. Neuter gender, because it is the name neither of a
male nor female.
Q. Of what gender is bench ? why f chair ? why ?
Q. Parent, you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, it
is a name common to both : of what gender, then, shall we call such nouns
aa parent, bird, &.C. ?
\27. Common gender.
i Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the common gender ?
' 28. The names of such animals a& may be either males
or females.
„ Q. Of what gender is sheep, and why ?
29. Sheep is of the common gender, because it is the
name either of a male or female.
O. Of what gender is robin, and why ?
Q. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they ?
30. Four — the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, and
the common.
Q. Will you name a noun of the masculine gender ? one of the feminine ?
one of the neuter ? one of the common ?
Q. Will you name the gender and number of each noun in the following
sentences, as I read them to you ?
" James and Willianj. " Slate and pencil."
" Jofin and the girls." " Women and birds."
IV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS.
9. What is the meaning of the word comm4m ; as, *' A common com-
plaint?"
31. Common means general.
Q. Although there are a vast many male children in the world, each one
may be called by the general name of boy : what kind of a noun, then.,
would you call boy?
32. A comnrion noun.
Q. When, then, is a noun called common?
33. When it is a general name.
- Q. What does the word proper mean ?
-^ 34. It means fit or particular.
Q. John, you know, is the particular name of a boy: what kind of a
noun, then, may it be called ?
35. A proper noun.
Q. When, then, may a noun be called proper?
36. When it is a particular name.
Q. What kind of a noun is Susan, and why ?
37. Susan is a proper noun, because it is a particular
name.
Q. What kind of a noun is John, and why ?
10 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Q. What kind of a noun is river, and why ?
38. River is a common noun, because it is a general
name.
Q. How many kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they ?
Q. What kind of a noun is girls ? Mary ? town f New York ? London ?
boat ? chain ?
Q. Will you now tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen-
tences ; which are proper, and which common ; also their gender and number ?
" Thomas and John." " King and queen."
" Susan and Mary." " House and barn."
V. PERSON.
Q. When a person, in speaking, says, ** I, John, will do it," what peison
do grammarians call John ?
39. The first person.
Q. When, then, is a noun of the first person? *
40. When it is the name of the person speaking.
Q. When I say, '* James, mind your studies," what person do gram-
marians call James?
41. The second person, being the person spoken to.
Q, When, then, is a noun of the second person ?
42. When it is the name of the person spoken to, or
addressed.
Q. " William, James has come." What person is William, and why ?
43. Of the second person, because William is spoken
to.
Q. When I say, *' William, James has come," I am speaking to William
about James : of what person, then, is James, and why ?
44. Of the third person, because James was spoken
of; that is, I was talking about James.
Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person ?
45. When it is spoken of.
Q. ** Thomas, Rufus is in the garden." What person is Thomas ? why ?
Is Eufus ? why ?
Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they ?
46. Three persons — the first, second, and third.
Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which
common ; also their gender, number, and person ?
" I, James, of Boston." " Boy and girl."
" Henry, study your book." " William and his sister."
VI. CASE.
Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that " He
is in a good case ;" and, when he is lean, that '* He is in a bad case ;" what,
therefore, does the word case mean ?
47. Case means condition, state, &c.
CASES. 11
Q. When I say, *' Charles strikes William," " William strikes Charles,"
you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles in the former example
is quite different from his state or condition in the latter : in the one, Charles
strikes ; in the other, he is struck : what, then, is meant by the different
cases of nouns ?
48. The different condition or position they have in
relation to other words in the same sentence.
Q. What does the word nominative mean?
49. Nominative means naming.
Q. When I say, "John strikes," he evidently does something: what,
then, may John be called?
50. An actor or doer.
Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading
noun, in what case is John, when I say, " John strikes ?"
51. In the nominative case.
Q. What, then, is the nominative case of nouns?
52. The nominative case is the agent or doer.
Q. When I say,^ " The dog runs," in what case is dog, and why ?
53. Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the
agent, actor, or doer.
O. ** The cat catches mice." In what case is cat^ and why ?
Q. When I say, "Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object
here which Thomas is pursuing?
54. Thief.
Q. What does the word objective mean ?
55. It means belonging to the object
Q. In what case, then, may thief be reckoned, in the phrase, "Thomas
pursues the thief?"
56. In the objective case.
Q. What, then, does the objective case denote?
57. The objective case denotes the object.
Q. When I say, " William whips John," in what case is John, and why?
58. In the objective case, because John is the Object.
Q. What does the word possessive imply ?
59. Possession, oivnership, property, &c.
Q. When I say, " It is John's slate," I mean to say that John owns the
elate : in what case, then, shall we reckon John's ?
60. In the possessive case.
Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote ?
61. The possessive case denotes possession, property,
&c.
0. When I say, " Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife ?
Q. In what case, then, is Peter's, and why?
62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses the
knife.
Q. In the example " John's slate," you perceive that John's ends in «,
with a comma before it : what is the comma, and what is the s, ( ailed in
grammar ?
63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and th 3 s, an
apostrophic s.
Q. You also perceive that John's is singular : how, then, do nouns in the
singular number usually form their possessive case ?
is the
12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the letter 5
following it.
Q. "On eagles' wings." Here eagles^ is plural, and in the possessive
case : how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their possessive case ?
65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the addi-
tion of 5.
?. But if the plural noun does not end in «, as, " men's concerns," how
he possessive case formed ?
66. As the same case in the singular number is formed.
Q. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to
have, and what are they ?
67. Three-— the nominative, possessive, and objective.
Q. Decline sometimes means to vary the endings of a word : what, then,
do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun ?
68. To tell its different cases or endings.
Q. Will you decHne John?
69. Nominative case, John.
Possessive case, John's.
Objective case, John.
Q. Will you decline boy, in both numbers?
Singular. Plural.
70. JVom. Boy. JVom. Boys.
Poss. Boy's. Pass. Boys'.
Obj. Boy. Obj. Boys.
Q. When I say, " William's coat," you perceive that the noun coat fol-
lows Williarn's : by what is William's said to be governed, and why ?
71. By coat, because it follows William's.
Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for governing the possessive
case?
RT7I.Z: I.
The possessive case is governed by the following
noun.
Q. ** William's hat." Is William's a proper or common noun ? Why ?
(36.)*
Q. What is its person ? why ? (45.)* Its number ? why ? (8.)* Its gen-
der ? why ? (17.)* Its case ? why ? (61.)* What noun follows William's t
What word, then, governs William's ? What is the rule ?
Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in
sentences, in the same manner as we have those of William's, above, what
is the exercise called ?
72. Parsing.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" John's knife."
73. John's is a noun, because it is a name — proper, be-
cause it is a particular name — masculine gender ; it is the
name of a male — third person ; it is spoken of — singular
'*' Refer back to this number.
ARTICLES. 13
NUMBER ; it means but one — possessive case ; it implies
possession — and it is governed by the noun knife^ accord-
ing to
Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following
noun.
Knife is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general
name — neuter gender; it is neither male nor female —
THIRD person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means
but one.
55" Let the learner parse the foregoing, till the mode of parsing the
noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily, without looking in the
book. He mxiy then take the following exercises, which are to he parsed in a
similar manner.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
« Peter's cap." " Stephen's coat." " Brother's knife."
« John's slate." " Father's house." « Boys' hats."
4<M^
L. ^ Q. When I say, '* Give me a book," I evidently mean no particular book ;
^Hr but when I say, ** Give me the book," what do I meaji ?
VII. OF ARTICLES.
t
j 74. Some particular book.
Q. Which are the words that make this difference in meaning ?
75. A and the,
, mQ' What are these little words called ?
"^ 76. Articles.
Q. What, then, are articles?
77.. Articles are words placed before nouns to limit
their meaning.
Q. What is the meaning of the word definite f
78. Definite means particular,
Q. *' Give me the book." Here a particular book is referred to: what
kind of an article, then, shall we call the?
79. Definite article.
Q. What, then, is a definite article?
80. It points out what particular thing or things are
meant.
Q. The word in, when placed before words, frequently signifies not :
what, then, will indefinite mean?
81. JVot definite.
Q. When I say, " Give me a knife," no particular knife is meant: what
kind of an article, then, may a be called?
82. Indefinite article.
Q. Why is it so called?
83. Because it is not used before the name of any
particular person or thing.^
3 B
U ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Q. We say, ''an apple," ''an inkstand," &c. in preference to "a apple,"
" a inkstand," &c. : why is this ?
84. Because it is easier to speak, and also more plea-
sant to the ear.
Q. What kind of letters do apple and inkstand begin with ?
85. Vowels.
Q. In what cases do we use an instead of a ?
86. Before words beginning with the vowels a, e, i,
0, u.
Q. In speaking, we say, " a man," not "an man:" when, then, do we
use a?
87. Before words beginning with consonants.
Q. Which letters are consonants?
88. All the letters of the alphabet, except the vowels,
which are a, e, i, o, u ; and also w and y, except at the
beginning of words, when they are consonants.
Q. How, then, do a and an differ?
89. Only in their use ; a being used before consonants,
and an before vowels : both are called by the same name.
Q. How many articles do there appear to be, and what are they ?
90. Two — a or an, and the,
Q. It is customary to say, ** a boy," not *' a hoys ;" also, " an inkstand,"
not **an hikstands :^^ ot what number, then, must the noun be, before
which the indefinite article is placed ?
91. The singular number.
Q. What, then, is the rule for the indefinite article?
RtJIiIS IZ.
The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of
the singular number.
Q. We can say, " the boy," and " the boys ;" using a noun either of the
singular or plural number after the : what, then, is the rule for the definite
article ?
RUIiZS III.
The definite article the belongs to nouns in the
singular or plural number.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" The boy:'
92. The is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit
their meaning — definite ; it means a particular boy — and
belongs to boy, according to
Rule III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the
singular or plural number.
Boy is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general
name — masculine gender ; it is the name of a male — third
PERSON ; it is spoken of — and singular number ; it means
but one.
ADJECTIVES. 15
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
" A hand." " An eagle." " The man." " The boys' hats."
« A man." " An insect." " The men." " A man's cap."
« A mite." " An acorn." « The boys." " The girls' room."
« A month." " An ounce." " The mice." " The lady's box."
VIII. OF ADJECTIVES
f
Q. When I say, " John is an obedient, industrious, and good boy," I
use certain words to describe loy : which are they ?
93. Industrious, obedient, and good.
Q. When 1 say, " a good man," to what word is the describing word
good joined or added ?
94. To the noun man,
Q. What does the word adjective mean?
95. Joined or added to,
Q. What, then, shall we call such describing words as good^ obedient ^
industrious, &c. ?
96. Adjectives.
Q. What, then, are adjectives ?
97. Adjectives are words joined to nouns to describe
or qualify them.
Q. '* A wise man." Which word is the adjective here, and why ?
Q. ** Rufus is a good boy, but James is a better one." How are Rufus
and James spoken of here ?
98. In comparison with each other.
Q. The adjectives in the last example are good and better : can you tell
me which of these words denotes a higher degree of excellence than the
other ?
99. The word better.
Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call better i
100. Comparative degree.
Q. What, then, does the comparative degree imply?
101. A comparison between two.
Q. ** William is tall, Thomas is taller, but Rufus is the tallest boy in
school." What is meant here by tallest ?
102. Exceeding all in height.
Q. What does the word superlative mean?
103. Exceeding all ; the highest or lowest degree.
Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call tallest ?
104. Superlative degree.
Q. What, then, does the superlative degree do?
105. It increases or lessens the positive to the highest
or lowest degree.
Q. When I say, " James is a good boy," I make no comparison between
him and any other ; but simply assert in a positive manner, that James is a
good boy. What kind of a sentence, then, would you call this?
106. A positive sentence.
Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call good t
107. The positive degree.
16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Q. What, then, does the positive degree do?
108. It merely describes, without any comparison.
Q. Will you compare great ?
109. " Posz/ive, great ; Com^parative, greater; Superla-
tive, greatest."
Q. Will you compare wise in the same manner?
Q. Wise and great are words of one syllable : how, then, are the com-
parative and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed ?
110. By adding r or er, st or est, to the positive.
Q. Will you in this manner compare small ? high ? mean ? ^i!^'*''"
Q. Will you compare beautiful ? *
111. "Po5. beautiful; Comp. more beautiful; St0. most
beautiful."
Q. How many syllables compose the word beautiful?
112. Three.
Q. How, then, are words of three, or more syllables than one, usually
compared ? ^
113. By placing more and most before the positive.
Q. Will you in this manner compare induHrious ? ingenious ? dutiful ?
Q. Will you compare wise, by using the words less and least ?
114. "Po5. wise; Comp, less wise; Sup, least wise."
Q. Will you in hke manner compare benevolent ? distinguished ? dilatory ?
Q. *' Good men, better men, best men." Which adjective here is trie
positive, and why? (108.) Which the comparative? why? (101.) Which
the superlative? why ? (105.)
Q. Good, you perceive, is not compared rep:ularly, like great, beautiful^
&c. ; and since there are many words of this deepription, I will give you a
list of the principal ones, together with others, regularly compared : will you
repeat the comparative and superlative degrees, as l^name the positive ?
115. Positive, Comparative. Superlative.
Good, Better, Best.
Little, Less, Least.
Much, or many, More, Most.
Bad, ill, or evil, Worse, Worst.
Near, Nearer, Nearest, or next*,
Old, Older, Oldest, or eldest.
Late, Later, Latest, or last.
Q. From the foregoing, how many degrees of comparison do there appear
to be, and what are they ?
116. Three — the positive, comparative, and superlative.
Q. Adjectives, you recollect, describe nouns: to what, then, do they
naturally belong ?
BVZ.ZI ZV.
Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" A wiser child."
117. A is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit
their meaning — indefinite ; it means no particular child —
and belongs to child, agreeably to
Rule II. The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of
the singular number.
PRONOUNS. 17
Wiser is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to
describe it — " Pos. wise ; Comp, wiser ; Sup, wisest" — made
in the comparative degree — and belongs to child, by
Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de-
scribe.
Child is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general
name — common gender ; it may be either male or female —
THIRD person ; it is spoken of — and singular number ; it
means but one.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
1. 2. 3.
" A dutiful son." " An ugly child." " The base man."
" An idle boy." " An irksome task." " The whiter cloth."
" A foolish son." " A mild reply." ** The milder weather."
4. 5.
" The greatest man." " The more (1) benevolent citizen."
" The wisest prince." ** The most (1) suitable method."
" The noblest man." *' The least (1) distrustful friend."
6. 7.
" A large, convenient, and (1) " The last choice."
airy habitation." " The best man."
" The intelligent, industrious, " The nearest relations.''
obedient, and (1) docile " Johnson's (2) large dictionary."
scholar." " Murray's small grammar "
IX. OF PRONOUNS.
^. When I say, " John goes to school, John learns fast, and John will
excel," how can I speak so as to avoid repeating John so often ?
118. By using the word he in its place; thus, "John
goes to school, he learns fast, and he will excel."
Q. What little word, then, may stand for John ?
119. He.
^ Q. What does the word pronoun mean ?
120. Standing for, or instead of, a noun,
Qj What, then, shall we call the word he, above?
121. A PRONOUN.
Q. What, then, is a pronoun?
122. A pronoun is a word used for a noun, to avoid a
repetition of the same word.
Q. When James says, " I will study," you perceive that / stands for the
person speaking : what person, then, is it ? (39.)
Q. When I say, ** James, you must study," the word you evidently is
applied to James, who is spoken to : what person, then, ought you to be?
123. The second person.
1. To be omitted in parsing. 2. Johnson's is governed by dictionary, by
Rule I.
18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Q. When I say, "He (meaning William) should learn," what person
ought he to be, and why ?
124. The third person ; because it stands in the place
of a noun which is spoken of.
Q. If 7 invariably stands for the first person, you for the second, and he
for the third, how can we tell the different persons of pronouns ?
125. By the pronouns themselves.
Q. What have these pronouns been called from this ch-cumstance ?
126. Personal pronouns.
0:5° I will now give you a hst of all the personal pronouns, which you
must first examine carefully, and then answer such questions on them as
may be asked you.
DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. f
FIRST PERSON.
127. Sing.
Norn A.
Poss. My or mine.
Obj. Me.
SECOND PERSON.
Plur.
We.
Ours or our.
Us.
Sing, Sing.
Norn. Thou. ^ C Noni. You.
Poss. Thy or thine. >or\ Poss. Your or
Ohj. Thee, > (ohj. You.
Plur.
Ye or you.
yours. Your or yours.
You.
THIRD PERSON MASCULINE.
Sing. Plur.
Norn. He. They.
Poss. His. Theirs or their.
Ob}. Him. Them.
THIRD PERSON FEMININE.
Sing. Plur.
Norn. She. They.
Poss. Hers or her. Theirs or their.
Obj. Her. Them.
THIRD PERSON NEUTER.
Sing. Plur.
Norn. It. They.
Poss. Its. Theirs or their.-
Obj. It. Them.
0. Will you decline I in both numbers ? thou or you ? he ? she ? it ?
Q. In wnat person, number, and case is I'i we? my? mine? our oi
ours ? me? us? thou ? ye? his ? they ? them ?
Q. In what gender, person, number, and case is he ? she ? it ? his ? hers ?
her? him?
Q. How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are they ?
128. Two — the singular and plural.
Q. How many cases, and what are they?
129. Three — the nominative, the possessive, and the
objective.
PRONOUNS. 19
Q. How many persons?
130. Three — the first, second, and third.
Q. How many genders?
131. Three — the masculine, feminine, and neuter.
Q. How many pronouns are there in ail, of the first person ?
0. How many of the second, and how many of the third t
(5. The pronouns of the nominative case, singular, are called leading
pronouns : how many of these are there ?
133. Five — /, thou or you, he, she, it
Q. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the smgular and
{)lural numbers, also the nominatives plural, reckoned in the number of the
eading pronouns ?
134. Because they are all considered as variations of
the nominative singular.
Q. To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender ?
135. To the third person singular, he, she, it,
Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made always to repre-
sent a different gender ?
136. The first and second persons being always pre-
sent, their genders are supposed to be known.
Q. If, as we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number,
and person ought they to have ?
137. The same as the nouns for which they stand.
Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for the agreement of the pro-
nouns ?
HUIiS V.
Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they
standi in gender^ number^ and person,
QUESTIONS ON PARSING.
Q. How many different sorts of words have we now found, and what
are they ?
138. Four — the Noun, the Article, the Adjective,
and the Pronoun.
Q. The word part, you know, means division ; and speech, the power of
using words, or language : what, therefore, shall we call these grand divi-
sions of words ?
139. Parts of Speech.
Q. When, then, I ask you what part ot speech hoy is, for instance, what
do you understand me to mean ?
140. The same as to ask me whether boy is a noun
or not.
Q» What part of speech, then, is William, and why ? (36.)
1. "He went to school.'*
2. " She went to her task."
3. " William went to his play."
4. " John returned from his school.**
5. " I request you to mind your studies."
6. " The book was mine, but now it is yours.*^
Q. Will you name the pronouns in the six foregoing examples ?
O. How many are there in all ?
Q. What is the gender, number, and person of those in the first ? second?
third ? fourth ? fifth ? sixth ?
20 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Q. What is the {ijender of his, in the fourth sentence ? why ? (137.) Its
number ? why ? (137.) Its person ? why ? (137.) Its case ? why ? (61.)
Q. Will you name the nouns in the first sentence ? in the second ? third ?
fourth? fifth? sixth?
X. OF THE VERB.
A
Q. When I say, " James strikes WiUiam," which word tells what
James does ?
141. Strikes.
Q. The word verb means word ; and as the words in all sentences, which
tell what the nouns do, are the principal ones, what shall such words be
called ?
142. Verbs.
Q. If, in the phrase, ** William strikes James," we leave out the word
strikes, you perceive at once that the sense is destroyed : what reason, then,
can you give, for calling some words in a sentence verbs, and others by a
different name ?
143. The words which we call verbs are the most
important.
Q. ** William studies his lesson." Which word is the verb here, and
why?
144. Studies, because it tells what William does.
Q. When I say, ** John dances," which word is the verb, and why ?
Q. When I say, " James strikes John," which word shows that an
action is performed?
145. Strikes,
Q. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call strikes ?
146. An active verb.
Q. What kind of a verb is walks, in this sentence, ** John walks," and
why?
147. Walks is an active verb, because it expresses
action.
Q. *'He beat William." Which word here is the verb? Is William
an agent or an object ?
148. An object.
Q. When I say, ** The child walks," walks, it is true, is an active verb,
■fbut it has no noun after it for an object, as beat has, in the phrase above ;
^^ neither can we supply one; for we cannot say, *' The child walks," any
thing: what, therefore, is to be inferred from this fact, in regard to the
nattire of active verbs ?
149. That some active verbs will take nouns after them
for objects, and others will not.
Q. We will next notice this difference. The term transitive means pass-
^ ing over ; and when I say, *' William whips Charles," the verb whips shows
that the action which William performs, passes over to Charles as the object.
What kind of a verb, then, shall we call whips ?
150. An active-transitive verb.
Q. What, then, is an active-transitive verb ?
151. It is one that either has, or may have, an object
after it.
Q. Walks, we found, would not take an object after it ; and, as intransi'
live means not passmg over, what shall wo call such verbs as walks ?
VERBS. 21
152. Active-intransitive verbs.
(^. What, then, is an active-intransitive verb?
153. An active-intransitive verb is one that expresses
action, but will not take an object after it.
Q. When I say, *' He eats it," '* He beats him," we immediately deter-
mine that heaU and eats are active-transitive verbs, by the objects after
them : how, then, may transitive and intransitive verbs be distinguished ?
154. When we can place him or it after any active
verb, and make sense, it is transitive; otherwise, it is
intransitive.
Q. *' James remains at home — sleeps at home — is at home." Which
words are the verbs here ?
155. Remains, sleeps, and is.
Q. These verbs do not imply action, Uke strikes, heats, &c. : what do
they imply ?
156. Existence, rest, or being, in a certain state.
Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called neuter
(signifying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither active nor
passive. On a future occasion, I will make you fully acquainted with a
passive verb. It is sufficient for our present purpose, that you perceive the
reason of the nahie of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ?
y 157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being or
existence in a certain state.
Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, what is a correct defini
tion of a verb ?
158. A verb is a word which signifies action or being.
Q. When I say, ** I strike," in what number and person is strike, and
why?
159. Strike is of the first person singular, because its
agent, /, is of this person ^d number.
Q. Hence you may perceive, tH(H|erbs, in themselves considered, do not
have person and number : why, thOT, are they said to have these properties
at all ?
160. On account of the connection which they have
with their agents or nominatives.
Q. We say. " I write," and ** He writes ;" hence you perceive that the
ending of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies : what, then,
will be the rule for the nominative case ?
RVZiZS VZ.
The nominative case governs the verb in number
and person.
Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, in
what respect must the verb agree with its nominative case ?
HUIiS VZI.
A verb must agree with its nominative case in
number and person.
Q. When I say, '* James beats him," the pronoun Am is the object of
the action denoted by heats, and is, therefore, in the objective case : what,
then, will be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs ?
Rxrzizs VIZI.
Active'transitive verbs govern the objective case.
22 V^NGLI^H •iR*AMMAK.
Q. 1 will now give you tne different endings of the verb love, in its dif-
ferent numbers and persons. Will you repeat them ?
Singular^ Plural,
161. First person, I lovev First person, We love.
Second person. You love. Second person. You love.
Third person, He loves. Third person. They love.
t Q, Will you repeat the variations of am ?
r* Singular. Plural.
^ 162. 1 Pers. I am. 1 Pers. We are.
2 Pers. You are. 2 Pers. You are.
3 Pers. He is. 3 Pers. They are.
t^. Will you repeat, in the same manner, the variations of hate t desire t
readt
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
'■ J study my lesson,'*
163. J is a PRONOUN, a word used instead of a noun — per-
sonal ; it always denotes the same person, (the first) — first
person; it denotes the speaker — singular number; it
means but one — " Norn. I" — made in the nominative case
to study, according to
Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in number
and person.
Study is a verb ; it expresses action — transitive ; it ad-
mits an object after it — "1 Pers. I study" — made in the
first person — SINGULAR NUMBER, bocausc its nominativo 1
is, with which it agrees, agreeably to
Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in
number and person. ^.
My is a pronoun, a word us^pfor a noun — personal ; it %
always represents the same person — first person ; it repre-
sents the person speaking — " Nom. I ; Poss. my, or mine" —
made in the possessive case — and governed by the noun
lesson, according to
Rule I. TTie possessive case is governed by the following
noun*
Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name — neuter
gender ; it is neither male nor female — third person ; it is
spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and in the
objective case ; it is the object of the verb study, and
governed by it, according to
Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case,
EJPRCISES IN parsing CONTINUED.
TVansitive Verbs.
" I lament mf faie.** . " He found a dollar."
" You regard your friends." " She attends the school."
" We desire your improvement.'' " It retards the work."
«* We love our children." " They shun vice."
" You make a knife." " Ye derive comlbrL"
V.ERBS. 23
2.
" I love him." " She forsook you."
" I lament her." " They annoy me."
" You assist them." " We took it."
" He struck her." " She relieved us."
" John reads his book.^*
His is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun •— per-
sonal ; it uniformly stands for the same person — masculine
gender, third person, singular number, because the noun
John is, vi^ith which it agrees, agreeably to
Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which
they stand, in gender, number, and person,
" Nom. he ; Poss, his" — made in the possessive case —
and governed by the noun book, according to
Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following
noun,
iCf' The remaining words, book, reads, and John, are parsed as before.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
3.
" Mary studies her lesson." " Virtue rewards its followers."
" The girls love their books." " A disobedient son grieves his
"Good children mind their parents."
parents." " The intemperate man loves his
" Sin deceives its votaries." dram."
HJ" In parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. unless the nouns for
which they stand are expressed.
Intransitive Verbs,
4.
" I walk." ** Y6u smile." " John swims."
" James runs." " They wink." " Birds fly."
" William hops." " We dance." " Lions roar."
Neuter Verbs,
"William is (1.) discreet." (2.) " John's wife is fortunate."
" James is happy." " John's brother is unhappy."
'* He was studious." " The eagle's flight was sudden."
" He became intemperate." " The scholar's duty is plain."
" Thou art wise." " The judge's pay is sufficient."
XL INDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE.
Q. When James says, " I will learn," he evidently means, by his man-
ner of speaking, to express his intention to learn ; but when he says, " I
can learn," what does he mean ?
: — — : ■ ^ :
^ (I.) Is is a VERB ; it implies being — neuter ; it is neither active nor pas-
sive, but expresses being, merely — '* 1 pers. I am ; 2 pers. You are ; 3 vers.
He, or William is"— made in the third person, singular, because Wil-
liam, its nominative, is, and agrees with William, according to
Rule VH. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number a?id person,
(2.) Discreet belongs to William, by Rule IV.
24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
165. That he has the ability to learn.
Q. What does the word mood mean?
166. Mood means manner,
Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote ?
167. The different manner of representing actions.
Q. What does the word indicative mean?
168. Declaring or showing.
Q. When I say, " WilUam has studied,*' I declare some fact: m what
mood, then, shall we class has studied ?
169. In the indicative mood.
Q. When I say, " Has William studied?" the only difference between
this phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in the order of the words,
so as to show that a question is asked : in what mood, then, shall we call
has William studied ?
170. Indicative mood.
Q. What, then, is the indicative mood used for?
171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, indi-
cating or declaring a thing, or asking a question.
Q. In what mood is, ''They do sing?" Why? (171.)
Q. What does the word tense mean?
172. Tense means time,
Q. What does present mean ?
173. Present means now.
Q. When I say, " The bird sings," I mean that the bird sings now : in
what tense, then, is sings ?
174. In the present tense.
Q. What, then, is the present tense used for?
175. The present tense is used to express what is now
taking place.
Q. In what tense is, ''The do^ runs?" Why? (175.)
Q. "James wrote." "James has written." These phrases denote
what is past : in what tense are they ?
176. In the past tense.
Q. What does the word future mean ; as, " At some future time ?"
177. Future meaas yet to come,
Q. In what tense are the phrases, " I will come," " I shall have come ?"
178. In the future tense.
Q. How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and what
are they ?
179. Three — the present, past, and future.
Q When I say, " John wrote," is the action here spoken of past and
finished ?
180. It is.
Q. What does imperfect mean?
181. Unfinished, or incomplete.
Q. " John was writing when I saw him." This denotes an action un-
finished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated in
Latin the imperfect tense : hence the origin of the name selected by English
jrammarians to denote action past and finished ; a term not all significant of
m action finished in past time : what, then, does the imperfect tense express ?
182. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in
past time, however distant.
Q. " Peter wrote yesterday, and has written to-day." Here both acts of
VERBS. 25
writing are past and finished ; but which has more immediate reference to
the present time ?
183. Has written.
Q. To distinguish this tense from the imperfect, grammarians have called
it the perfect tense : what, then, will the perfect tense express ?
184. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place,
and also conveys an allusion to the present time.
Q. "James had read before I wrote." Here, both acts are past and
finished ; but which took place first ?
185. The act of reading.
Q. What does the word pluperfect mean ?
186. More than the perfect
Q. What tense, then, shall we call, "James had read?"
187. The pluperfect tense. •
Q. What, then, does the pluperfect tense express ?
188. The pluperfect tense expresses wliat had taken
place at or before some past time mentioned.
Q. " John will come." This, you know, was called the future tense :
can you tell me why ?
189. Because it implies time to come.
Q. What, then, does the future tense express?
190. The future tense expresses what will take place
hereafter.
Q. " I shall have learned my lesson by noon." Here, an action is to
take place at a future time specified or mentioned ; and since we already
have one future tense, we will call that the first, and this the second future
tense : what, then, will the second future tense express ?
191. The second future expresses *what will have taken
place at or before some future time mentioned.
Q. What does synopsis mean?
192. A concise and general view,
Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all the diflferent tenses
illustrated by the verb learn : will you repeat it ?
193. Pres. tense, I learn, or do learn.
Imp, tense, I learned, or did learn.
Perf, tense, I have learned.
' Plup, tense, I had learned.
1st Fut. tense, 1 shall or will learn.
. 2d Fut, tense, I shall have learned.
{fCr You shall next have the different variations of the foregoing verb, in
each tense of the indicative mood : these I wish you to study very carefully,
that you may be able to answer the questions which will then be asked you.
191. To learn.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular, Plural.
1 Pers. I learn. 1 Per 8, We learn.
2 Pers. You learn. 2 Pers, You learn.
3 Pers. He, she, or it learns. 3 Pers, They learn.
3 c
26
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
OR,
When we wish to express energy or positiveness, thus —
Singular, Plural.
1. I do learn. 1. We do learn.
2. You do learn. 2. You do learn.
3. He does learn. 3. They do learn.
IMPERFECT TENSE.
Plural
1. We learned.
Singular.
1. I learned.
2. You learned.
3. He learned.
Singular,
1. I did learn.
2. You did learn.
3. He did learn.
Singular,
1. I have learned.
2. You have learned.
3. He has learned.
Singular,
1. I had learned.
2. You had learned.
3. He had learned.
OB,
2. You learned.
3. They learned.
Plural.
1. We did learn.
2. You did learn.
3. They did learn.
PERFECT TENSE.
Plural.
1. We have learned.
2. You have learned.
3. They have learned.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Plural.
1. We had learned.
2. You had learned.
3. They had learned.
FIRST FUTURE TENSE.
Singular, Plural.
1. I shall or will leatn. 1. We shall or will learn.
2. You shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn.
3. He shall or will learn. 3. They shall or will learn.
FUTURE TENSE.
Plural.
1. We shall have learned.
2. You will have learned.
3. They will have learned.
*^* For the benefit of those who choose to retain the second person singu-
lar, as given in former treatises, the following synopsis is inserted.
SECOND
Singular.
1. I shall have learned.
2. You will have learned.
3. He will have learned.
SYNOPSIS.
195. 2d Pers, Sing, Pres, Thou learnest, or dost learn.
2d Pers. Sing. Imp,
2d Pers, Sing, Perf,
2d Pers. Sing. Plup.
2d Pers. Sing. 1st Fut,
2d Pers. Sing. 2d Fut.
Q. In what mood is, *' I learn ?"
(175.) In what mood and tense is,
Thou learnedst, or didst learn.
Thou hast learned.
Thou hadst learned.
Thou shalt or wilt learn.
Thou wilt have learned.
Why? (171.)
He learns?"
learn ?" "I have learned ?" "I had learned
*' I shall have learned ?"
Q. In what person and number is, "I learn ?"
learn ?" " They had learned ?" "He shall learn V
Q. What does the word auxiliary mean?
196. Auxiliary means helping.
In what tense ? Why ?
** We learn?" **Idid
" I shall or will learn ?"
** You learn?" "We
' "We had learned?"
VERBS. 27
Q. In the phrase, ** I will sing," will, you perceive, is used to help form
the future tense o(sing : will is, therefore, called an auxiliary verb, and the
verb sing is reckoned the principal verb : what, then, are auxiliary verbs ?
197. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which
are formed the different tenses, moods, &c. of the prin-
cipal verbs.
Q. The auxiliary verbs are not unfrequently denominated the signs of the
tenses, because each tense has, in general, an auidhajy peculiar to itself:
what, then, is the sign of the second future ?
198. Shall or will have.
Q. What is the sign of the first future ?
199. Shall or will.
Q. What is the sign of the pluperfect ?
200. Had.
Q. What is the sign of the perfect ?
201. Have.
Q. What is the sign of the imperfect ?
202. Did.
Q. We can sav, *' I did strike yesterday," or, " Istruck yesterday ?" how,
then, can we tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without the sign did ?
203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and
make sense, it is in the imperfect tense.
Q. What is the sign of the present tense ?
204. Do, or the first form of the verb.
Q. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the indicative mood appear
to have, and what are they ?
205. Six — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the
pluperfect, the first and second future tenses.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" TTiey have arrived.^'
206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun —
PERSONAL ; it always represents the same person — third
PERSON ; it denotes the persons spoken of— plural ; it means
more than one — " Nom, he ; Poss. his ; Obj, him. Plural.
Norn, they" — made in the nominative case to have arrived^
according to
Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verh.
Have arrived is a verb, a word that implies action or being
— active ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does not
admit of an object — indicative mood ; it simply indicates or
declares a thing — perfect tense ; it expresses what has just
taken place — " 1. I have arrived ; 2, You have arrived ; 3. He
has arrived. Plural, 1. We have arrived; 2. You have
arrived ; 3. They have arrived" — made in the third person
PLURAL, because its nominative they is, and agrees with it,
according to
Rule VII. A verh must agree with its nominative case in
number and jperscm.
28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
1.
"They had come." "The sun has risen."
" We did go." " Dogs will fight."
" The bird will return." " Lions will roar."
2.
" James loves William." " Columbus discovered America."
" Susan beats him." " Piety promotes our happiness."
**I have beaten them." " He will learn his lesson."
" She had beaten us." " John did make great progress."
"You shall assist him." "They do study their lessons."
" It did disturb me." " Boys love sport."
8.
" Do I disturb you ]" " Shall I expect your assist-
"Did they learn their lessons'!" ance?"
" Have they recited ?" " Will a virtuous citizen commit
"Does the instructer teach us?" such (L) acts?"
" Had he dismissed him 1" " Have you found your knife ]"
Xn. POTENTIAL MOOD.
Q. What does, "He may write," imply?
207. Permission or liberty to write.
Q. What does, '* He must write," imply?
208. Necessity of writing.
Q. What does, "He can write," imply?
209. Power or ability to write.
Q. What does, "He should write," imply?
210. Duty or obligation to write.
Q. What does, "He would write," imply?
211. Will or inclination to write.
Q. What does the word potential mean ?
212. Mle, or poiverfuL
Q. In what mood, then, do grammarians reckon can learn, may write,
and, also, must write, should write, &c. ?
213. In the potential mood.
Q. Why are all these different forms of representing actions considered
to be in the potential mood, a name, as we have seen, peculiar only to that
form of the verb which implies power ?
214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and
almost numberless extent.
Q. What, then, does the potential mood imply ?
215. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty,
power, will, obligation, or necessity.
Q. What are the signs of this mood ?
216. May, can, must, might, could, icould, and should.
Q. What does the word conjugation mean?
(1.) Adjective.
VERBS. 29
217. Uniting y combining, or joining together.
Q. You recollect that, in varying the verb, we ioined the pronouns with
it ; hence, thb» exercise is called conjugation : what, then, do you under-
stand by the conjugation of a verb ?
218. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combi-
nation and arrangement of its several moods, tenses,
numbers, and persons.
219. Conjugation of the verb Learn.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may, can, or must learn. 1. We may, can, or must learn.
2. You may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn.
3. He may, can, or must learn. 3. They may, can, or must learn.
IMPERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or
learn. should learn.
2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, w
should learn. should learn.
3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or
should learn. should learn.
PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have
learned. learned.
2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have
learned. learned.
3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have
learned. learned.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or
have learned. should have learned.
2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or
should have learned. should have learned.
3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or
should have learned. should have learned.
Synopsis of the Second Person Singular , icith Thou.
220.
Pres, Thou mayst, canst, or must learn.
Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst learn.
Perf. Thou mayst, canst, or must have learned.
Plwp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have learned.
O. In what mood is, "I may learn?" Why? (215.)
Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with II thou ? he'i we? ve? you ? they f
Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person, is, " I can learn ?" ** You
may learn ?" " You might assist ?" '* They could have learned ?** "He
must study?"
Q. In what mood and tense is, "Ihave learned?" "He shall run?
"William did sing?"
Q. Will you conjugate lear?i in the present tense, potential mood ? Will
30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
you conjugate love in the same mood, and imperfect tense ? Strikcy in the
perfect tense ? Come, in the pluperfect tense ?
Q. How many tenses has the potential mood?
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" He may return.'*
221. He is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun —
personal; it invariably represents the same person — mascu-
line GENDER ; it represents a male — third person ; it de-
notes the person spoken of — singular number ; it implies but
one — and in the nominative case ; it denotes the agent —
" Nom. Ae" — nominative case to may return, by
Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb.
May return is a verb ; it implies action or being — active ;
it implies adtion — intransitive ; it does not admit an object
after it — potential mood ; it implies possibility, liberty, &c.
— PRESENT TENSE ; it dcnotcs what may be now — " 1. I may
or can return ; 2. You may or can return ; 3. He may or can
return" — made in the third person, singular, because its
nominative he is, with which it agrees, according to
Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in
number and person.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
1.
** He may come." ** Boys may learn arithmetic."
" He might retire." " The wind may have shaken the
" John can assist me." trees."
" William must obey his in- " The lady could have procured
structer." , her fan."
" We may have erred. "James may catch the thief."
" John's father would go." " They might learn."
2.
**I do rejoice." "The committee will visit the
"We do learn." school."
" John will resume his task." " An idle boy will find pov-
" An industrious boy will be rich." erty."
Xni. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB
To be.
222. When I say, " I am at home," you know that am is a verb, because
it implies being or existence ; and since to be means to exists the verb am
has been called the verb to he.
223. INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular, Plural.
1. I am. 1. We are.
2. You are. 2. You are.
3. He is. 3. They are.
VERBS. 31
IMPERFECT TENSE.
Singular, Plural,
t, I was. 1. We were.
2. You were. 2. You were.
3. He was. 3. They were.
PERFECT TENSE.
Singular, Plural,
1. I have been. 1. We have been.
2. You have been. 2. You have been.
3. He has been. 3. They have been.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular, Plural,
1. I had been. 1. We had been.
2. You had been. 2. You had been.
3. He had been. 3. They had been.
FIRST FUTURE TENSE.
Singular, Plural.
1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be.
2. You shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be.
3. He shaU or will be. 3. They shall or will be.
SECOND FUTURE TENSE.
Singular, Plural,
1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been.
2. You will have been. 2. You will have been.
3. He will have been. 3. They will have been.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may, can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must be.
2. You may, can, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be.
3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be.
IMPERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or
be. should be.
2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or
should be. should be.
3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or
should be. should be.
PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have
been. been.
2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must hava
been. been.
3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must hav8
been. been.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or
have been. should have been.
2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or
should haVe been. should have been.
3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or
should have been. should have been.
32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
224. Synopsis of the Second Person Singular, with Thou.
INDICATIVE mood/ POTENTIAL MOOD.
Pres, Thou art. Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must be.
Imp. Thou wast. Imp, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst^
Perf, Thou hast been. or should st be.
Plup, Thou hadst been. Perf. Thou mayst, canst, or must
1 ISit, Thou shalt or wilt have been.
be. Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst,
2 Fut. Thou wilt have been. or shouldst have been.
XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION.
Q. Why is am. a verb ? (158.) What is it sometimes called ? (222.) Why
is it so called ? (222.)
Q. Will you give the synopsis of the verb to he with I through the indica-
tive mood ?
Q. Will you conjugate am in the present indicative ? Imperfect ? Perr
feet ? Pluperfect ? 1 Future ? 2 Future ? Present potential ? Imper-
fect? Perfect? Pluperfect?
Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person, is, "I am ?" ** Am I?"
"You were?" "I have been?" "Have you been?" "He may or can
be?" "We should be?" "He may have been?" "They should have
been ?" ""Thou shouldst have been ?" " Thou mayst be ?"
Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with tliov, ?
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" The girls were industrious,^'
225. Were is a verb ; it implies action or being — neuter ;
it is neither active nor passive, expressing simply being —
INDICATIVE MOOD ; it Simply indicates or declares a thing —
IMPERFECT TENSE ; it exprcsscs past time — " 1. I was ; 2. You
were : 3. He was. Plur, 1. We were ; 2. You were ; 3. They
w^ere, or girls were" — made in the third person plural, be-
cause its nominative girls is, with which it agrees, agreeably to
Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in
number and person.
Industrious is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to
describe it — " industrious, more industrious, most industrious"
— in the positive degree ; it describes, without any compari-
son — and belongs to the noun girls, according to
Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de-
scribe,
S5" For the and girls, apply Rules III. and VI.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED,
" William is attentive." " Am I young 1" •
" John is studious." " Was I wrong V
" We are jealous." " Have we been wicked 1"
" Thou art dutiful." " Were they penitent ?"
ADVERBS. 33
** Mary has been intelligent." " Washington was patriotic."
" The boys will have been dutiful." " Columbus was enterprising."
" Their estate was small." " My wife's mother is sick."
XV. OF THE ADVERB.
Q. When I say, ** The bird flies swiftly," I do not mean by swiftly to
describe bird : what does swiftly describe ?
226. The manner of flying.
Q. To what part of speech is swiftly ioined in the phrase, " The bird
flies swiftly?"
227. To the verb flies.
Q. What does the word adverb signify ?
228. Joined to a verb.
Q. What, then, shall we call all such words as swiftly?
229. Adverbs.
Q. ** John runs very swiftly." Which word here describes or shows
how swiftly John runs?
230. Verij.
Q. What is the word very called, and all such words as qualify or de-
scribe adverbs ?
231. Adverbs.
Q. " Industrious, more industrious, most industrious." What are more
and most called here, and why ?
232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify adjec-
tives.
Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be a proper definition
of adverbs ?
233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs, to qualify or describe them.
Q. ** John visits me often, but Thomas oftener^ In this example, we
see that adverbs may be compared : will you, therefore, compare soon ?
234. " Soon, sooner, soonest."
Q. Will you compare wisely'?
235. " Wisely, more wisely, most wisely."
Q. How do adverbs ending in ly appear to be compared?
236. By the adverbs more and most
0. Will you in this manner compare admirably ? foolishly ?
Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives of one syllable, as soon
above ; but therd is a very considerable number, the comparison of which
is not regulated by any general rule. The following list embraces adverbs
variously compared: will you repeat the comparative and superlative of
each, as I name the positive ?
237. Positive.
Often,
Much,
Well,
Soon,
Justly,
Wisely,
Justly,
Badly, or ill,
, 3
Comparative.
oftener,
Superlative.
oftenest.
more.
most.
better,
best.
sooner,
soonest.
more justly,
more wisely,
most justly,
most wisely.
less justly,
least justly.
worse.
worst.
34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
238. JVbf*.— Adverbs, though very numerous, may nevertheless be reduced to a few
classes. You will now read with attention the following list, and I will then ask
you some questions respecting each class.
1. Of number: as, " Once, twice, thrice," &c.
2. Of order: as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally," &c.
3. Of place: as, "Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere,
herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence,
hence, thence, whithersoever," &c.
4. Of time.
Of time present : as, " Now, to-day," &c.
Of time past : as, " Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long
since, long ago," &c.
Of time to come: as, "To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward,
by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways," &c.
Of time indefinite: as, " Oft, often, ofttimes, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, seldom,
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again," &c.
5. Of quantity: as» "Much, little, sufliciently, how much, how great, enough,
abundantly," &c.
6. Of manner or quality: as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly,"
&c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed
by adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing le into ly: as,
"Bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably; admirable, admirably."
7. Of doubt: as, " Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance."
a Of affirmation: as, "Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes,
furely, indeed, really," &c.
9. Of negation: as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise," &c.
10. Of interrogation: as, " How, why, wherefore, whether," &c.
11. Of comparison: as, " More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very,
almost, little, alike," &c.
When a preposition sufifers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by its appli*
cation ; as, when we say, " He rides about ;^^ "He was near falling;" " But do not
after lay the blame on me."
There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the letter a used
instead of at, on, &c. : as, " Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed,
aground, afloat."
Q. Will you name two adverbs of number ? two cf order ? two of place ?
two of time present ? two of time past ? two of time to come ? two of time
indefinite ? two of quantity ? two of manner or quali*y ? two of doubt ? two
of affirmation ? two of negation ? two of interrogation t two of comparison ?
Q. Adjectives describe as well as adverbs : now, then, can yon tell one
from the other ?
239. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs describe
or qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Q. This fact should be remembered ; you shall, therefore, have it in the
form of a rule : will you repeat it ?
HUXiZ! ZX.
Adverbs qualify verbs^ adjectives^ and other adverbs.
Q. From had we form the adverb hadly : how, then, may a hu-ge class
of adverbs be formed ?
240. By adding ly to adjectives.
Q. Will you in this manner form an adverb from wise ? frpm great ? from
aiuful ?
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" The bird sings sweetly .'^
241. Sweetly is an adverb, a word used to qualify a verb,
adjective, or other adverb ; in this example it qualifies the verb
sings, agreeably to
Rule IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs.
Singit, bird and the are parsed as before.
PREPOSITIONS.
35
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
Adverbs qualifying verbs,
' The soldiers marched slowly." " They will return soon."
* The girls sing delightfully." " The boys write admirably."
* Henry improves rapidly." " Susan dances elegantly."
Adverbs qualifying adjectives.
* He was very attentive." ** James is more studious."
* John is quite busy." " Walter is most studious."
*• William is really studious." " Ellen is less happy."
Adverbs qualifying verbs and other adverbs.
* You learn grammar very well." *' James writes most elegantly."
* The boys write too fast." "I will assist you most cheer-
* He will come much oftener." fully."
Adverbs promiscuously used.
* He has read once." " John is not happy."
* I will first remind you." " Whither shall'l fly 1"
'• I saw him yesterday." " My brother sends me the paper
* I have eaten sufficiently." monthly."
XVI. OF THE PREPOSITION.
Q. To say, "The cider is — cellar," would make no sense: can you
inform me what would make sense ?
242. " The cider is in the cellar."
Q. By placing the little word in after cider is, and before cellar, the sen-
tence is rendered complete : what office, then, does in perform ?
243. It connects words, and thereby shows the relation
between thenn.
Q. What does the word preposition mean ?
244. Placed before.
Q. What, then, may those words like in be called, as they are placed
bewre other words to connect them with words preceding ?
245. Prepositions.
Q. What, then, are prepositions?
246. Prepositions are words used to connect words, and
thereby show the relation between them.
247. List of the principal Prepositions.
Among
around
at
concernmg
near
throughout
by
down
of
touchmg
amidst
below
except
off
up
athwart
between
excepting
on
upon
after
beneath
for
over
under
about
behind
from
out of
underneath
against
betwixt
in
respecting
unto
across
beside
into
to
with
above
beyond
instead of
towards
within
according to
before
notwithstanding
through
without
Q. Will you
mention the
1 prepositions beginning with a \
? with 6? c? d?
e? f? i? n?
? r? t? u?
w?
36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
0. Will you now repeat all the prepositions?
Q. Do we say, "He works for I," or, "He works for me"?
0. In what case is wie? (127.)
Q. What case, then, follows prepositions ?
248. The objective case.
Q. This fact is of sufficient importarfce to constitute a rule : will you,
therefore, repeat
HXTIiIS Z.
Prepositions govern the objective case.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" John found his hat in the road.'^
249. In is a preposition, a word used to connect words,
and show the relation between them ; it here shows the relation
between hat and road.
Road is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general
name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third
PERSON ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one
— OBJECTIVE CASE J it is the object of the relation denoted by
the preposition in, and governed by it according to
Rule X. Prepositions govern the objective case,"*
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
"John ran through the house into "I will search the house dili-
the garden." gently for him."
" We have deceived him to our " We might learn the lesson he-
sorrow." fore them."
"We came in season." "According to my impression, he
" You study grammar for your is in fault."
improvement in language." " Notwithstanding his poverty, he
" From virtue to vice the progress was the delight of his ac-
is gradual." quaintances."
" They travelled into France " On all occasions she behaved
through Italy." with propriety."
" He lives within his income." " Of his talents we might say
♦'Without the aid of charity, he much."
lived very comfortably by his " We may expect a calm after a
industry." storm."
XVII. OF THE CONJUNCTION.
Q. When I say, " John ^his book," the sense, you perceive, is incom-
plete. Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the sense ?
250. " John reads his book."
* The remaining words are parsed as before
CONJUNCTIONS. 37
Q. Can you inform me what the foregoing expression is called?
251. A sentence.
Q. What, then, is a sentence ?
252. A collection of words, forming a complete sense.
Q, ** Life is short." This expression is called a sentence : can you tell
me what kind, and why ?
253. It is a simple sentence, because it makes sense,
and has but one nominative and one verb.
Q. What does the term compound mean?
254. It means composed of tico or more things,
Q. *' Life is short, and art is long." This sentence is made up of two
simple sentences : what, therefore, may it be called ?
255. A compound sentence.
Q. What, then, is a compound sentence ?
256. A compound sentence contains two or more sim-
ple sentences connected together.
Q. What does the term conjunction signify?
257. Union, or joining together,
Q. In the compound sentence, " John writes, and Wilham learns," the
simple sentences are joined together by the word and : what word, then,
may and be called ?
258. A Conjunction.
Q. ** The king and queen are an amiable pair." In this sentence, words
and not sentences are connected by and : can you point out the words so
connected ?
259. King and queen,
Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the
conjunction ? ^
260. A conjunction is used to connect words and sen-
tences together.
Q. When I say, " Five and four are nine," what do I mean ? *
261. Five added to four make nine.
Q. What, then, is implied by and?
262. Addition.
Q. When I say, " I will go, if you will accompany me," what does the
conjunction if imply ?
263. Condition or supposition.
Q. What does the word copulative mean?
264. Uniting, joining, or linking together.
Q. And, if, &c. are called copulative conjunctions : can you tell me why ?
265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or con-
tinues a sentence by expressing an addition, a supposition,
a cause, &c.
Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you
repeat them ?
266. ** And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided,
since, then, that, therefore, wherefore."
Q. When I say, " James and John will come," I mean both will come ;
but when I say, *' James or Johij will come," what do I mean?
267. That either James or John, one of them, will
come.
4 D
58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Q. Are the words in this sentence, then, joined or disjoined ?
268. Disjoined.
Q. What word is it that expresses the disjoining?
269. Or.
Q. What part of speech is or ?
270. Conjunction.
Q. What does the word disjunctive mean?
271. Disjoining or separating,
Q. What kind of a conjunction, then, shall we call or ?
272. A disjunctive conjunction.
Q. "James will come, but Henry will not." Here the two clauses of
the sentence are opposed to each other in meaning, and the word but sepa-
rates these two clauses : what, then, does this word imply ?
273. Opposition of nieaning.
Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be the use of the disjunctive
conjunction ?
274. The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences, by-
expressing opposition of nfieaning in various degrees.
Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you
repeat them ?
275. ** But, than, though, either, or, as, unless, neither,
nor, less, yet, notwithstanding."
Q. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words, as well as conjunctions ;
how, then, can you tell the one from the other ?
276. Prepositions shov^ the relation between words, but
conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a cause,
or an opposition of naeaning.
Q. ** He and she write." In what case is he ? she ?
Q. ThejDronouns he and s^e, you perceive, are both in the same case,
and connected by the conjunction and : when, then, may nouns and pro-
nouns be connected ?
277. When they are in the same case.
Q. " She will sing and dances." How may this sentence be corrected?
278. " She will sing and dance."
Q. In what mood and tense is, "She will sing?"
Q. To say, *' She dance," is incorrect; dance, then, in this example,
cannot be in the present tense : will you, then, inform me what " She will
sing and dance" means, when fully expressed ?
279. " She will sing and she w^ill dance."
Q. Here will dance is in the future tense, as well as will sing : when,
then, may verbs, in general, be connected ?
280. When they are in the same mood and tense.
Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for tho
use of conjunctions, m connecting words ?
AUIiI! XI.
Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the
same case.
INTERJECTIONS. 39
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" John assists his father and mother.^*
281. And is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect
words and sentences — copulative ; it connects father and
mother.
Mother is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general
name — feminine gender; it is the name of a female —
THIRD person; it is spoken of— singular number; it means
but one — and it is one of the objects of assists, and is, there-
fore, in the objective case, and connected with father by the
conjunction and, according to
Rule XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
" I will reward him and them at " She reads well, dances (3.) ele-
some future time." gantly, and plays admirably
"We in vain (1.) look for a path on the piano-forte."
between virtue and vice." " Intemperance destroys the mind
" Reproof either hardens or soft- and benumbs the senses of
ens its object." man."
" In the morning of life, we ea- " You may read this sentence
gerly pursue pleasure, but first, and then parse it."
oftentimes meet (2.) with sad " He has equal knowledge, but
disappointments." inferior judgment."
"A good scholar never mutters "John rises early in the morning,
nor disobeys his instructer." and pursues his studies."
XVIII. OF INTERJECTIONS.
Q. When I exclaim, " Oh! I have ruined my friend," " Alas ! I fear
for life," which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences,
to express passion or feeling ?
282. Oh! Alas!
Q. What does interjection mean?
283. Thrown between,
Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as oh! alas ! &c.t
284. Interjections.
Q. What, then, are interjections?
285. Interjections are words thrown in between the
parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden
feelings of the speaker.
(1.) In vain means the same as vainly. It may, therefore, be called an
adverbial phrase, qualifying look, by Rule IX.
(2.) Meet agrees with we understood, and is, therefore, connected with
jpursue by the conjunction hu, according to Rule XI.
(3.) Dances and j>lays both agree with she, understood, and are, therefore,
connected the former with reads, and the latter with dances, by Rule XI.
40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LIST OF INTERJECTIONS.
1. Of earnestness or grief; as, " O ! oh ! alas ! ah !**
2. Of wonder; as, "Really! strange!"
3. Of calling; as, "Halloo! ho! hem!"
4. Of attention ; as, " Behold ! lo ! hark !"
5. Of disgust ; as, " Foh ! fy ! fudge ! away !"
6. Of silence ; as, " Hush ! hist !" .
7. Of contempt; as, "Pish! tush!"
8. Of saluting ; as, " Welcome ! hail !"
Q. Will you examine the foregoing list, and then name an interjection of
grief? One of wonder ? One of calling ? One of attention ? One of dis-
gust ? One of silence ? One of saluting ?
Q. How may an interjection generally be known ?
286. By its taking an exclannation point after it.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" Ok ! I have alienated my friendJ*
287. Oh is an interjection, a word used to express pas-
sion or feeling.
35" The remaining words are parsed as before.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED
" Oh ! I must go and see (1.) my " Strange ! I did not know
dear father before (2.) he dies." you."
" We eagerly pursue pleasure, but, "Hush! our instructer is at the
alas! we often mistake the * door."
road to its (3.) enjoyment." " Fy ! how angry he is !"
(1.) The sense is, **I must go, and I must see;" the verb see, then,
agrees with /, understood, and is, therefore, connected with must go, ac-
cording to Rule XI.
(2.) jBefore, an adverb.
(3.) Apply, first, Rule V. ; then, Rule I.
RECAPITULATION.
CRITICAL REMARKS.
COMPOSZTZOXr.
•XIX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
288. English Grammar teaches us to speak and write the
English language correctly.
289. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely,
290. 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, ^
2. Etymology, 4. Prosody.
XX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature and
power of letters, and teaches how to spell words correctly.
This part of grammar is usually learned from spelling-books
and dictionaries.
292. Orthography means word-making, or spelling.
XXI. OF ETYMOLOGY.
293. Etymology teaches how to form, from all the words
in the English language, several grand divisions or sorts, com-
monly called Parts of Speech.
294. It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use of
words — also their different changes and derivations.
295. Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words.
XIX. What does English grammar How is a knowledge of orthography
leach? 288. usually obtained ? 291.
Into how many parts is it divided ? 289. What does orthography mean ? 292.
What are they ? 290. XXI. What does etymology teach ? 293.
XX. What does orthography include What does it include ? 294.
and teach ? 291. What does the word signify ? 295.
4* (41)
42
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
XXII. OF SYNTAX.
296. Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words into
sentences correctly.
297. It includes a knowledge of the rules of composi-
tion, formed from the practice of the best writers and
speakers.
298. Syntax signifies arranging or placing together; or, as used in gram-
mar, sentejice-making ,
XXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED.
299. The words of the English language are usually-
divided into nine sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech,
namely,
Noun, Pronoun, Preposition,
Article, Verb, Conjunction,
Adjective, Adverb, Interjection.
XXIV. OF NOUNS.
300. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing ; as,
rmn, London, knife.
301. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and common.
Common nouns are general names ; that is, they are names
common to all individuals of the same kind or sort ; as, house^
city, river,
302. Proper nouns are particular names; that is, they
are the names of particular individuals of the same kind or sort ;
as, George, Boston, 3Iississippi.
303. When proper names have an article placed before them, thisy are
Msed as common names ; as, *' He is the Cicero of his age."
304. When a proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes a common noun ;
XXII. What does syntax teach ? 296.
What does it include ? 297.
What does the word signify ? 298.
XXIII. How many different sorts of
words are there ? 299.
Wliat are they ? 299.
What are these sorts of words com-
monly called? 299.
XXIV. What does the word noun
mean ?*
What is a noun ? 300. Give an exam-
ple.
How many different kinds of nouns are
there, and what are they 7 301.
What does the word common mean 7
31.
What is a common noun ? 301. Give
an example.
What does proper mean ? 34.
What is a proper noun ? 302. Give an
example.
When proper nouns have an article
before them, how are they used? 303.
Give an example.
Are proper names used as such in the
plural ? 304.
Why cannot proper names have a
plural? 304.
* Sm I. lit uwwer.
NOUNS. 43
as, '* The twelve Ccssars,*' or, "The seven Jameses^ This is obvious
from the fact, that a proper name is, in its nature, descriptive of one object
only, and, therefore, essentially singular. Accordingly, the nouns Span-
iard, European, American, &c. are common nouns, as well as their plurals,
Spaniards, Europeans, Americans, &c.*
305. Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by the
addition of articles or pronouns ; as, *' The hoy is studious ;" *' That girl is
discreet."
306. When a noun signifies many, it is called a noun of multitude, or a
collective noun ; as, *' 1 he people,''^ " The armyJ*^
307. Abstract signifies taken from: hence an abstract noun is the name of
a quality abstracted from its substance ; as, knowledge, goodness, virtue, &.c.
308. To nouns belong person, gender, number and case.
XXV. PERSON.
309. When any person, in speaking, introduces his own
name, it is the first person ; as, " I, Jarnes, of the city of Bos-
ton, do give," &c.
310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second person ;
as, " James, come to me."
311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about,
is the third person ; as, " James has come."
XXVI. GENDER.
312. Gender is the distinction of sex.
313. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the feminine,
the common, and the neuter.
314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males ; as,
man^ hoy^ &c.
315. The feminine gender denotes the names of females ; as,
woman, girL
What do they become when so used? When is a noun of the second person ?
304. Give an example. 310. Give an example.
What kind of nouns are Spaniard, When is a noun of the third person?
Americans, Spaniards 1 ^QA. 311. Give an example.
What effect does the use of articles XXVI. What does the word gender
have on common nouns? 305. mean ? 14.
What is a noun of multitude, or a col- What is gender as applied to nouns?
lective noun ? 306. Give an example. 312.
What is an abstract noun ? 307. Give What does the word masculine mean?15.
an example. What does the masculine gender of
What belong to nouns? 308. nouns denote? 314. Give an example.
XXV. When is a noun of the first per- What does feminine mean ? 19.
BOn ? 309. Give an example. What does the fenjinine gender denote?
315. Give an example.
• Spain is the proper name of a country, and Spaniard has, by some grammarians, been called the proper
D ime of a people ; but the lattter is a generic term, characterizing any one of a great number of p«nooi^ by
ti.eir cooaexion witli Spain. — EncyclopmcUa,
44
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
316. The common gender denotes the names of such ani-
mals as may be either male or female ; as, parent, bird,
317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects which
are neither males nor females ; as, chair, table.
318. Some nouns, naturally neuter, do, by a figure of speech, as it is
called, become masculine or feminine ; as when we say of the sun, " jHe is
setting," and of a ship, '* She sails well," &c. ^
319. The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, viz :
319-1. By different words ; as,
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
Bachelor,
Maid.
Husband,
Wife.
Boar,
Sow.
King,
Queen.
Boy,
Girl.
Lad,
Lass.
Brother,
Sister.
Lord,
Lady.
Buck,
Doe.
Man,
Woman.
Bull,
Cow.
Master,
Mistress.*
Bullock or >
Steer, S
Heifer.
Milter,
Nephew,
Spawner.
Niece.
Cock,
Hen. ^
Ram,
Ewe.
Dog,
Drake,
Bitch.
Duck.
Singer,
C Songstress or
^Singer.
Earl,
Countess.
Sir,
Madam.
Father,
Mother.
Sloven,
Slut.
Friar,
Nun.
Son,
Daughter.
Hind.
Gander,
Goose.
Stag,
Hart,
Roe.
Uncle,
Aunt.
Horse,
Mare.
Wizard,
Witch.
319-2. Byadifferenc
e of termination ;
as.
Male,
Female.
Male.
Female.
Abbot,
Abbess.
Enchanter,
Enchantress.
Actor,
Actress.
Executor,
Executrix.
Administrator
Administratrix.
God,
Goddess.
Adulterer,
Adulteress.
Governor,
Governess.
Ambassador,
Ambassadress.
Heir,
Heiress.
Arbiter,
Arbitress.
Hero,
Heroine.
Baron,
Baroness.
Hunter,
Huntress.
Bridegroom,
Bride.
Host,
Hostess.
Benefactor,
Benefactress.
Instructer,
Instructress.
Caterer,
Cateress.
Jew,
Jewess.
Chanter,
Chantress.
Landgrave,
Landgravine.
Conductor,
Conductress.
Lion,
Lioness.
Count,
Countess.
Marquis,
Marchioness.
Czar,
Czarina.
Mayor,
Mayoress.
Deacon,
Deaconess.
Patron,
Patroness.
Duke,
Duchess.
Peer,
Peeress.
Elector,
Electress.
Poet,
" Poetess.
Emperor,
Empress.
Priest,
Priestess.
What does the common gender denote ?
316. Give an example.
What does neuter mean ? 23.
What does the neuter gender denote ?
317. Give an example.
What is said of nouns naturally neu-
ter, in respect to gender? 318. Give an
example.
How many genders do nouns have, and
what are they? 30.
How many methods are there in Eng-
lish of distinguishing sex? 319.
Which is the first ; as, hoy 7 girl? 319-1.
Will you spell the feminine correspond-
ing to brother? 319-1. to hoy? nephew?
wizard? friar ? sir ? drake ? earl ? gander 7
hart 7 king 7 lad 7 man 7 master 7 singer ?
sloven ? son 7 stag 7 uncle 7
Will you spell the masculine corre-
sponding to maid? girl? madam? daugh-
ter ? niece ?
What is the second method of distin-
guishing sex ; as, abbot 7 abbess 7 319-2.
Will you spell the feminine corre-
sponding to abbot 7 actor 7 administrator 7
baron? benefactor? bridegroom? conduct-
or 7 czar 7 duke ? emperor 7 executor 7
god? governor? heir? hero? host? hunt-
er ? instructer 7 Jew 7 lion 7 marquis 7 pa-
tron 1 peer? proprietor 1 shepherd? sor-
NOUNS.
ib
Male. Female.
Prince, Princess.
Prior, Prioress.
Prophet, Prophetess.
Protector, Protectress.
Proprietor, Proprietress.
Shepherd, Shepherdess.
Songster, Songstress.
Sorcerer, Sorceress.
319-3. By prefixing a noun,
A cock- sparrow,
A man-servant,
A he-goat,
A he-bear,
A male child,
Male descendants.
Male.
Sultan,
Female.
Sultaness.
Sultana.
Tigress.
Traitress.
Tutoress.
Viscountess.
Votaress.
Widow.
Tiger,
Traitor,
Tutor,
Viscount,
Votary,
Widower,
pronoun, or adjective ; as,
A hen- sparrow.
A maid- servant.
A she-goat.
A she- bear.
A female child.
Female descendants.
XXVII. NUMBER.
320. Number shows how many are meant, whether one or
more.
321. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural.
322. The singular number expresses but one ; as, boy.
323. The plural number implies more than one ; as, boys,
324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only ; as,
wheat, gold, sloth, pride, dutifulness,
325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ; as,
bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c.
326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers ; as, deer,
sheep, swine,
327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by
adding s to the singular ; as, sing, dove, plur, doves.
328. The irregular mode of forming the plural is as follows : when the
noun singular ends in x, ch, soft, sh, or ss, we add es to form the plural ; as,
box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses. >
329. Nouns ending in / or/e, change these terminations into ves to form
the plural ; as, loaf, loaves ; wife, wives.
cerer? sultan? tiger? tutor? viscount
votary? widower?
Will you spell the masculine corre-
sponding to abbess? czarina! duchess^
ambassadress? heroine 1 huntress? poet-
ess ? prophetess ? widow ?
What is the third method of distin
guishing sex ; as, a man-servant ? a maid-
servant? 319-3.
Will you spell the feminine corre-
spondinn to male child? male descendants ?
XXVil. What does the word number
mean? 5.
What does the number of nouns show ?
320.
What does singular mean ? 6.
What does the singular number of
nouns imply? 322. Give an example.
What does plural mean ? 10.
What does the plural number of nouns
imply? 323. Give an example-
How are wheat, gold, &.c. used ? 324.
How are bellows, lungs, &c. used ? 325.
What is said of deer, sheep, &c. ? 326.
How many numbers do nouns have,
and what are they? 321.
How is the plural number regularly
formed ? 327. Give an example.
When do we add es to form the plural ?
328. Give an example.
What is the plural of loaf? 329.
What is the rule for it? 329.
46
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
330. When a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the plural
is formed regularly ; as, Hey, keys ; delay, delays ; valley, valleys. But if
the y does not have a vowel before it, the plural is formed by changing y
into ies ; as, jly, flies ; beauty, beauties,
321. The follownig nouns form iheir plurals not according to any general
rules : —
Sing. Plur.
Mouse', Mice.
Louse, Lice.
r-^„, C Cows or
^^^' iKine.
Penny, Pence. (1.)
Die, Dice. (2.)
Pea, Peas. (3.)
332. Mathematics, metaphysics, pneumatics, ethics, politics, &c. are reck-
oned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is equally true o[ means,
alms, amends. Antipodes, credenda, minuticB, literati, &c. are always plural.
Bandit is now considered the singular of banditti. The noun news is always
singular. Many nouns form their plurals according to the laws of the lan-
guage from which they are derived. The following are of this class : —
Sing.
Man,
Woman
Child,
Ox,
Tooth,
Foot,
Goose,
Plur.
Men.
Women.
Children.
Oxen. <v
Teeth.
Feet.
Geese.
Sing. Plur.
Fish, Fishes. (3.)
Cupful, Cupfuls.
Spoonful, Spoonfuls.
Brother-in-law, Brothers-in-law.
Court-martial, Courts-martial.
5 Brothers or
^Brethren.
Brother,
Singular.
Antithesis,
Appendix,
Apex,
Arcanum,
Automaton,
Axis,
Beau,
Basis,
Calx,
Cherub,
Crisis,
Criterion,
Datum,
Diaeresis,
Desideratum,
Effluvium,
Ellipsis,
Emphasis,
Encomium;
Erratum,
Plural.
Antitheses.
C Appendixes or
^Appendices.
Apices.
Arcana.
Automata.
Axes.
Beaux or Beaus.
Calces.
5 Cherubim or
?. Cherubs.
Crises.
Criteria.
Data.
Diaereses.
Desiderata.
Effluvia.
Ellipses.
Emphases.
5 Encomia or
^ Encomiums.
Errata.
Singular.
Genius,
Genus,
Hypothesis,
Ignis fatuus,
Index,
Lamina,
Magnus,
Memorandum,
Metamorphosis,
Parenthesis,
Phenomenon,
Radius,
Stamen,
Seraph,
Stimulus,
Stratum,
Thesis,
Vertex,
Vortex,
Plural.
Genii. (4.)
Genera.
Hypotheses.
Ignes fatui.
C Indices or
^Indexes. (5.)
Laminae.
Magi.
S Memoranda or
\ Memorandums.
, Metamorphoses.
Parentheses.
Phenomena.
Radii or Radiuses.
Stamina.
5 Seraphim or
\ Seraphs.
StimuU.
Strata.
Theses.
Vertices.
C Vortices or
? Vortexes.
Will you spell the plural oi delay 7 330.
valley? What is the rule for forming
these plurals ? 22Q.
Will you spell the plural oi jly 7 330.
heauty 7 Rule for the plural ?
Do man, woman, form their plurals re-
gularly, or irregularly ? 331.
Will you spell the plural of man? of
woman 7 child 7 ot 7 tooth 7 foot 7 goose 7
mouse 7 louse 7 brother 7 die 7 fish 1 spoon-
ful? court-martial 7
Will you spell the singular of live?
kine 7 cows 7 brethren 7 oxen 7 teeth 7
pence? pennies? peas? fishes? cupfuls?
hrofhers-in law 7
What is the plural of pea, when we re-
fer to quantity ? Ot fish 7
What is the singular of banditti?
332.
In accordance with what laws does
antithesis form the plural ? 332.
Will you spell the plural of apex? ap
pendix? arcanum? automaton 7 axis 7 cri-
sis? basis? criterion? datum? desidera-
tum 7 effluvium 7 encomium 1 erratum 7
genius? index? memorandum?
Will you spell the singular of bases?
beaux? cherubs? ellipses? genii! theses?
parentheses ? stimuli 7 strata ?
How are mathematics, optics, &c. con-
sidered in regard to number? 332.
Of what number is means? 'SM. alms?
amends? antipodes? literati? news?
(I.) Ptnnits, when the coin is meant. (2.) Dies, for coining. (3.) Pease, and fish, meaning quantities; hut
pea* and fishes, when number is meant.
(4.) Genii, when denoting aerial or imaginary spirits ; geniutet, when denoting persocs of genius. (5.) Tn-
iexta, when denoting pointers or table* of contents ; iixdicts, when referring to algebraic.quantities.
NOUNS. 47
XXVIII. CASE. ^
333. Case means the different state, condition, or relation
which nouns have to other words in the same sentence.
334. In English, nouns have three cases — the nominative,
the possessive, and the objective.
335. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and
always the subject of the verb.
336. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; as, ** John assists Wil-
liam:" here, John is the subject spoken of, or the nominative case to the
verb assists.
337. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership, pro-
perty, &c. ; as, " William's book." This case may be distin-
guished from the other cases by the apostrophe or the letter s.
338. A noun in the singular forms its possessive case by
taking the apostrophe and the letter s after it ; as, " John's hat."
339. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case simply
by taking the apostrophe ; as, " On eagles' wings."
340. When the plural of nouns does not end in s, they form their posses-
sive case by taking both the apostrophe and the letter s; as, ** Mens
houses."
341. When the singular ends in ss, the apostrophe only is added ; as, "For
goodness' sake:" except the noun witness ; as, *' The witness's deposition."
342. Nouns ending in nee form the possessive by adding the apostrophe
only ; as, *' For conscience^ sake :" because an additional s would occasion .
t<jo much of the hissmg sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation.
343. The objective case denotes the object of an action or
relation.
344. In the sentence, |* John strikes him," ftmisthe object of the action
denoted by strikes; and in the sentence, ** He went from London to York"
YorJc is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to.
345. DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
Singular.
Flural
Singular.
Plural
Nominative case,
Mother,
Mothers.
Man,
Men.
Possessive case.
Mother's,
Mothers'.
Man's,
Men's.
Objective case,
Mother,
Mothers.
Man,
Men.
XXVIII. What is the meaning of the How do nouns in the plural ? 339.
word case? 47. When the plural noun does not end in
What is meant by the case of nouns ? s, how is its possessive formed ? 340. Give
333. an example.
How many cases have nouns, and what When the singular ends in ss, how is
are they 7 334. the possessive case formed 7 341. Give
What does nominative mean ? 49. an example.
What is the nominative case ? 335. How is the possessive case of nouns
Give an example. ending in nee formed ? 342. Give an ex-
What do you understand by the subject ample.
of a verb ? 33G. Illustrate it by an exam- Wiiy is not the s added 7 342.
pie. What does the word objective mean ?
What does possessive mean ? 59. 55.
What does thH possessive case denote ? What does the objective case of
337. Give an example. nouns denote? 343. Give an exam-
How may this case be distinguished pie.
from the other cases 7 3.37. What does the declension of nouns
How do nouns in the singular form mean ? 68.
their possessive case? 338. Give an exam- Will you decline mother? 345. man?
p!e. brother? hat?
48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
HVIiZS Z.
The p(Msessive case is governed by the following noun.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" John's wife returned. ^^
346. John's is a proper noun, of the masculine gender,
the THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, POSSESSIVE CASE, and
governed by ivife, by Rule I.
Wife is a common noun, of the feminine gender, the third
PERSON, singular NUMBER, and nominative CASE to retumed,
by Rule VI.
Returned is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood,
imperfect tense — " 1. I returned; 2. You returned; 3. He
returned, or wife returned" — made in the third person, sin-
gular, and agrees with wife, by Rule VII.
MORE exercises IN SYNTAX.
" William's son has come." " William's wife's sister remained
"John's brother died." in town."
" John makes (1.) boys' hats." " Rufus studied Johnson's Diction-
" John lost his knife." ary."
" The boys neglected their les- " Mary's bonnet is old."
sons." " Virtue's reward is sure." (2.)
♦* Intemperance ruins its votaries." " Rufus's hat is new."
SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
" Brothers estate,''''
347. If you examine the foregoing example, you will find it difficult to
ascertain whether the estate is the property of one brother or more ; if of one
only, an apostrophe should precede the s, thus ; "Brother's estate :" but if it
belongs to more than one, an apostrophe should follow the s, thus ; ** Bro-
thers' estate." Mistakes of this sort often occur ; hence you perceive the
importance in writing, of attending to the subject of grammar-
" Hans' happiness,''^
348. Incorrect, because mans^ is in the possessive case, sin-
gular number, and, therefore, the apostrophe should be placed
before the 5, according to the observations above, and Art. 338.
Will you repeat the rule for the posses- Why cannot you tell ?
sive case ? Rule I. If only one brother is meant, how
In the sentence, "John's wife return- should the apostrophe be placed? How,
ed," will you parse John's? wife? re- if more than one?
turned? 346. In the phrase, " Mans' happiness," why
Why is John's in the possessive case ? is it incorrect for the apostrophe to follow
337. the 5? 348.
Wliat kind of a verb is returned? 346. What is the rule for forming the pos-
Why ? 153. sessive case of nouns ? 338.
In what case is wife ? 346. Will you now parse man's ?
Why ? 335. We spell the possessive case of man
id* The pupil may next parse the addi- thus, TO-a-TC-(apostrophe) s; will you in
Uonal exercises in syntax. like manner gpell the possessive of John ?
In the phrase, " Brothers estate," does William ? Rufus ? women ? boys?
one brother, or more than one, own the |I5=* The remaining exercises are to be
estate ? 347. corrected as well as parsed.
(I.) Active-transitive verb, (2.) Adjective, and belongs to reward^ by Rule IV.
ARTICLES. 49
SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTIjVUED.
•♦Johns son departed." " I discovered Marias faults."
*' Susans sister will learn." " Susan made little Harriets bon-
" Charles task is too difficult." net."
" I have read Willi's poem." " Johnson makes mens shoes."
EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.*
349. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a
proper noun, as for example, " William learns grammar" ? One^
containing a common noun ? One, containing a noun of the third
person singular ? One, of the third person plural, and in the
nominative case ? One, having a noun of the second person
singular and of the feminine gender 1 One, having a noun the
name of some article of food ? One, having a noun the name of
some quality ? One, having a noun of multitude ? One, having
your own name associated with book; as, "John Griscom's
book"?
XXIX. OF ARTICLES.
350. Articles are words put before nouns, to point them
out, or to limit their meaning.
351. There are two articles, a or an, and the,
352. A or an is called the indefinite article.
353. The is called the definite article.
354. The article a is called indefinite, because it means no particular per-
son or thing ; as, ** a house," ** <z man," that is, a«y house, any man. The
article the is called definite, because it means some particular person or thing ;
as, " the house," *' the man," meaning some particular house, some particu-
lar man.
355. ^becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent A; as, "a^t acorn,"
"awhour." But if the ^ be sounded, the a only is used; as, "a hand," "a
heart :" except when the word before which the article is placed, has its ac-
cent on the second syllable ; as, "an heroic action," '* a/i historical account."
356. Before words beginning with u long, a is used instead of an ; as, **a
union," ** a university. a useful thing.
357. A is also used for an before the word one, because, in pronouncing
one, we sound it as if written wun.
358. The article a or an means one; as, *^ an ounce," " a pound," that
is, one ounce, one pound.
XXIX. What is an article ? 350. But if the h is sounded, which is to be
What does definite mean 7 78. used ? 355. Give an example.
What is the called? 353. Why?. 354. What exception to this? 355. Give an
Give an example. example.
What does indefinite mean ? 81. Do we say, " a union," or ''an union" ?
What is a or arecalled? 352. Why? "a university," or ''an university"?
354. Give an example. Why? 356.
How many articles are there? 351. Do we say, "a one," or *'anon«"?
Name them. Why ? 357.
When does a become an ? 355. Give an What does the article a mean ? 358.
example. Give an example.
— — ' ' -t
• FJther on a slate or in a •null naanuscript book kept for the purpose.
50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
auziE zz.
The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the
singular number,
RXrZiI! zzz.
The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular
or plural number,
359. Exception. When the adjectives/ew, great many, dozen, hundred,
thousand, &c. come between the noun and article, the noun to which tho
indefimte article belongs, is plural ; as, ** a few men," " a great many men."
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" The bird flies swiftly:'
360. The is a definite article, and belongs to bird^ ac-
cording to Rule III.
Bird is a common noun, of the common gender, the third
person, singular number, and in the nominative case to
flies, by Rule VI.
Flies is an active-intransitive verb, indicative mood,
PRESENT TENSE — " 1. I fly ; 2. You fly ; 3. He flies, or bird
flies" — made in the third person, singular, and agrees
with bird, by Rule VII.
Swiftly is an adverb, qualifyingj/Zies, by Rule IX.
exercises in syntax continued.
*• The boys have arrived season- " Children attend the school."
ably." " William founded a university."
" Galileo invented the telescope." " The grass is green."
'* The boy had an ulcer." "Farmers carry hay into, the
♦♦ William gave an historical ac- barn."
count (1.) of the transaction." "The good scholar obeys his in-
♦* Columbus discovered the conti- structer."
nent of America."
SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
" He had a ulcer,'*'*
361. Incorrect, because we use an before a vowel, except u
long: a should, therefore be an; thus, "an ulcer."
sentences to be parsed and corrected, continued.
" A enemy approaches." *' Three barley corns make a inch."
"James procured a inkstand." "Eight drams make a ounce."
" He conferred a honour." " They formed an union."
"An unit figure occupies the low- " He quoted an hard saying."
est place in whole numbers." " Thomas has lost an horse."
What is the rule for the indefinite arti- \^ The remaining exercises are next tn
cle ? Rule II. ' he parsed from the book.
What exception to this rule? 359. Would you say, " a ulcer," or " an ul-
What is the rule for the indefinite cer" ? Wliy ? 361.
article ? Rule III. HJ* The pnpil should now take the re-
in the sentence, " the bird flies swift- mainivg sentences to be corrected. lie
ly," how do you parse the? bird? fiies? should be required to parse as well as cor^
swiftly? 2?)0.' rectthem.
Cl.; Apply Rule Vlll.
ADJECTIVES. 51
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
363. Will you write down two sentences, usingf in one the definite,
and in the other the indefinite article ? One, containing a correctly used
before u long ? One, having a definite article correctly used before the
consonant h?
Will you write two nouns, the names of different things in the school-
room ? Two, the names of different cities ? One sentence, having a
proper noun used as a common noun ?
XXX. OF ADJECTIVES.
863. An adjective is a word joined to a noun, to describe
or define it ; as, " An obedient son."
364. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the
degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of compari-
son — the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.
365. The positive degree simply describes an object; as,
" John is good,^^
366. The comparative degree increases or lessens the posi-
tive in meaning ; as, " William is better than John." It im-
plies a comparison between two.
367. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive
to the highest or lowest degree ; as, " Thomas is the best ;"
" Walter is the worst.^''
368. It implies a comparison between three or more.
369. The simple word, or positive, if a monosyllable, (1.) becomes the
comparative by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or csf, to
the end of it ; as, wise, wiser, wisest ; ereat, greater, greatest.
370. In words of more than one syllable, the comparison is usually made
by placing the adverbs more and most before the positive ; as, henevolenty
more be7ievolent, most benevolent.
371. The comparison is sometimes formed by the adverbs less and least ;
as, wise, less wise, least wise.
372. Dissyllables (2.) ending in y ; ajs, happy, lovely, and in Ze, after a mute;
(3.) as, able, ample, or accented on the last syllable ; as, discreet, polite, easily
XXX. What is the meaning of the What does it imply ? 368.
word adjective? 95. What is a monosyllable? 369.
What is an adjective ? 363. Give an How are monosyllables compared? 369.
example. Give an example.
How many degrees of comparison are How are dissyllables compared ? 372.
there ? 364. What effect do less and least have on
Will you name them? adjectives? 371.
What does the positive degree do ? 365. What is a dissyllable ? 372.
Give an example. Will you spell the comparative and
What does the comparative degree do ? superlative degrees of able? lovely? aiit-
366. Give an example. pie? discreet? polite? 372.
What does it imply ? 366. Which are the mutes ? 372.
What does superlative mean ? 103. How do words of more than two syl-
What does the superlative degree do? lables almost invariably form their com.
307. Give an example. parison?372.
(I.) A word of one syllable. (2.) A word of two syllables
(3.) i, k, p, t, aod c and c bard, are mutes.
52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
admit of er and est ; as, happiery happiest ; abler ^ ablest, &c. Words of
more than two syllables hardly ever admit of these terminations.
373. In some words, the superlative is formed by adding the adverb most
to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, uppermost.
374. Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative signification, do
not admit of comparison ; as, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, infinite, cease-
less, supreme, omnipotent, eternal.
375. ^y adding ish to adjectives, we have a slight degree of comparison
below the positive ; as, black, blackish ; salt, saltish.
376. Very expresses a degree of quality, but not the highest ; as, " good,"
"very good."
377. Words used in counting and numbering are called numeral adjectives ;
as, one, two, three ; first, second, third. These adjectives are not compared.
378. An adjective put without a noun, with the definite article before it,
becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and may be considered as such in
parsing ; as, " Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad.'^
RUIiEl ZV.
Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" John is sincere.^^
379. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singu-
lar NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE
to is, by Rule VI.
Is is a. NEUTER VERB, in the indicative mood, present
TENSE — " 1. I am ; 2. You are ; 3. He or John is," — made in
the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, and agrees with John, according
to Rule VII.
Sincere is an adjective, — " sincere, more sincere, most sin-
cere," — made in the positive degree, and belongs to John, by
Rule IV.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
* You are studious." *' One man has come.'*
' John is more studious." ** Two men have departed."
' William is most studious." " Twenty men will sail." •
' Mary is intelligent." ** James wrote his name on the first
* James is active." page."
* Thomas is less active." *' Here comes a great man."
' Charles is happy." " Here comes a greater man."
' Mary is tall. Susan is taller." " Here comes the greatest man."
* No composition is perfect." ** The first fleet contained five hun-
* Rehgion makes its votaries happy." dred men. "
Is ^er/6c« compared ? Why? 374. superlative degrees of ^ooi.* ill! much?
Will you name several others that are little ?
not compared ? 374. When is an adjective to be considered
How is the superlative formed in the a noun ' 378.
^WhKVL'lffectof i.. added to ad. What is the rule for the adjective MV.
jectives ? 375. Give an example. In the phrase, " John is sincere," how
What is the force of very in compari- <^o you parse John? ts? sincere? 3/9.
BOn'? 376. Why is sincere in the positive fle;?ree?
What are numeral adjectives? 377. 365. Why do you call is a neuter verb?
Give an example. Are they compared ? 157.
377. UJ" Let the pupil next taJce the exercises
Win you spell the comparative and that follow, and parse as before.
PRONOUNS. 53
XXXI.
380. Double comparatives and superlatives, since they add nothing
to the sense, should be avoided ; as, worser^ more wiser ^ &c. ; also,
lesser, supremest, most infinite^ &c.
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
Q. Will you write down two sentences, each containing* a different
adjective in the positive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the comparative
degree? Two, with adjectives in the superlative degree?
Q. Will you supply such adjectives in the following sentences as will
make sense ? "A boy studies his lesson." " A boy deserves
punishment." " A man helps the man." " Merchants own
ships." " The instructer loves scholars." " William is a
scholar, Rufus is a one, but Thomas is the — — one that I ever saw."
XXXII. OF PRONOUNS.
381. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid
a disagreeable repetition of the noun,
382. A PERSONAL PRONOUN is SO Called, because it invari-
ably represents the same person. There are five personal
pronouns — I, thou or you, he, she, it. They have person,
number and case, like nouns ,• and those of the third person
have gender also.
383. / is the first person, thou the second, he, she, or it, the
third. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter.
384. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases — the nomi-
native, the possessive, and the objective ; and two numbers —
the singular and plural.
385. Mine and thine, instead of my and th/y, were formerly used in the
solemn style, before nouns and adjectives beginning with a vowel or silent
h ; as, "Blot out all mine iniquities."
XXXI. Is it correct to say, " A lesser XXXII. What does the word pronoun
evil?" Why not? 380. signify? 120.
Will you correct the following inaccu- What is a pronoun 7 381-
racies in comparison as I read them to Why is a personal pronoun so called ?
you ? 382.
" He is intelligenter." How many personal pronouns are
" She is the most wisest." there, and what are they ? 382.
" A worser evil." Why is this number said to include all
"William is a bad boy; Joseph is a the pronouns? 134.
worser one." Which is the first person ? the second ?
" He gave a more stronger proof of the the third ? 383.
fact than the other." To which of the pronouns do we apply
"The pleasures of the mind are more gender? 383.
(1.) preferable than those of the body." Why is not gender applied to the first
"That table is round, but this is a and second persons ? 136.
rounder one, and that is the roundest of Which is masculine ? 383. which femi-
the three." nine ? 383. which neuter ? 383.
" This is more square." How many cases have pronouns, and
" A more greater concern." what are they ? 384.
" The most fairest of all the daughters How many numbers? 384.
cf Eve." Will you decline I? thou, 7 he 1 she!
'* His mother's extremest joy." it? 127.
(1.) For man preferable than, read preferable to.
94
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
XXXIII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
386. Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding
the word self^ in the plural selves^ to the simple pronouns ; as,
himself^ themselves^ &c.
PERSON.
First.
Second.
Third.
CASE.
Nom.
JPoss.
Obj.
Nom.
Fobs.
Obj.
Nom.
Foss.
Obj.
Nom.
Obj.
Nom.
Foss.
Obj.
8INGULAE.
Myself,
Wanting.
Myself,
Thyself, or')
Yourself, 5
Thyself, orl
Yourself, 5
Himself,
Himself,
Herself,
Herself,
Itself,
Itself,
PLURAL.
Ourselves.
Ourselves.
Yourselves.
Yourselves.
Themselves.
Themselves.
Themselves.
Themselves.
Themselves.
Themselves.
Pronouns must agree with the nouns for ivhich they
stand, in gender, number and person.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" John found his knife,^^
387. John is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third
PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and NOMINATIVE CASE tO fouud^ by
Rule VI.
Found is an active-transitive verb, in the indicative mood,
imperfect tense — "1. I found; 2. You found; 3. He or John
found" — made in the third person singular, and agrees with JoA?i,
by Rule VII.
His is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular,
masculine gender, and agrees with John^ according to Rule V. ; in
the possessive case, and governed by knife, by Rule I.
Knife is a common noun, of the third person singular, neuter
gender, the objective case, and governed by founds according to
Rule VIII.
Of what number and person is minet
ours ? me? toe! they 1 thine ? you ?
yours? 127.
Of what gender, number and person is
he ? she ? it ?
Of what number, person and case is
they ? ours ? his ? hers ? mine ?
In what style were mine and thine for-
merly used ? 385.
XXXIII. How are the compound per-
sonal pronouns formed ? 386.
What is the rule for the agreement of
personal pronouns in the phrase, " John
found his knife ?" V.
How do you parse John? 387.
Will you parse John in the phrase,
" John found his knife ?" .387.
Will you parse found? his? knife?
387.
\[^ Theleamer shouldnextparsc the re-
maining exercises in Syntax from the book,
and then take the exercises t4) be written.
PRONOUNS. &S
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
1.
" James obtained his request." " Ye despise reproof."
** I will assist you." *' They mend their pens."
" He will receive his reward." " Mary tore her handkerchieC"
" She misused him." " Virtue has its reward."
** Sin ruins its votaries." ** She deceived them."
2.
"An indulgent father will reprove "John is in distress, and I will
his son when (1.) he deserves assist him."
it." " I found Mary and her mother in
* A dutiful son gladdens the hearts trouble, and (2.) comforted (3.)
of his parents." them."
EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.
Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different personal
pronoun of the first person ? One, having a pronoun of the first person
plural ?
Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable pronouns,
BO as to make sense ? " — lost my hat, but found — again." " Let
Harriet have — book, for — will need — to get her lesson." " The
travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes."
Q. Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitable
words to make sense ? " Intemperance r— evil." " Washington
father of his ." "Columbus America." "Boston
inhabitants." " The ocean is miles wide." " first
XXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
388. In the sentence, ** ^l^oth wealth and poverty are temptations; that
tends to excite pride, this discontent;" you perceive that the word that
represents wealth, and thq^^word this poverty. This and that do, therefore,
resemble pronouns, and may, for this reason, be called pronouns.
389. When I say, ** THis house is mine, that barn is yours," the words
this and that are joined to nouns like adjectives, to define or specify them :
they may, on this account, be called adjectives.
390. Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble both
pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are sometimes calN
ed pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. ■' ,
391. The ADJECTIVE pronouns may be divided into three
sorts — the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite.
392. The distributive are those that relate to persons oi
things, taken separately and singly.
XXXIV. What are adjective pro- One in which they resemble adjective? 1
nouns? 390. 389.
Why are they so called? 388, 389. Into how many sorts may these pro-
By what other name have these pro- nouns be divided, and what are they J
nouns been called? 390. 391.
Will you give an example in which What is a distributive pronoun?
these words resemble pronouns? 3^ 392.
<l.) Adverb. (9.) Conjunction. («.) Apply Rule XI.
56 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
393. DISTRIBUTIVE (1.) PRONOUNS.
Each, every, either, and sometimes neither.
394. Each relates to two or more persons or things, taken separately ;
as, " Each of his brothers is doing well."
395. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one
of them, taken separately ; as, ** Every man must account for himself."
396. Either relates to two persons or things only, taken separately, and
signifies the one or the other; as, "I have not seen cifAer." Hence, to
say, " Either of the three," is incorrect.
397. Neither means not either ; that is, not one nor the other ; as,
** Neither of my friends was there."
398. The demonstrative (2.) pronouns are those which
precisely point out the things to which they relate.
399. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
Sing, Plu,
This, These.
That, Those.
Former, Former.
Latter, Latter.
400. Thi$ and these refer to the nearest persons or things, — that and tho$e
to the most distant ; as, *' These gloves are superior to those.''^ ** Both wealth
and poverty are temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontent."
401. The INDEFINITE are those that refer to things in an
indefinite or general manner.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
402. Some, other, any, one, all, such, none. Of these
pronouns, one and other are declined like nouns. Another is
declined in the singular, but it wants the plural.
Sing. Plu.
403. Nom. Other, Others.
Foss, Other's, Others'.
Ohj. Other, . Others.
Sing. Plu.
404, Nom. One, Ones.
Poss. One's, Ones'.
Ohj, One, Ones.
We say, "This book," but, "These books;" also, "One man,"
" Twenty men:" hence,
405. Note L Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree
in number with the nouns to which they belong.
Why is it so called ? 393. Which are singular ? 399. Which plu-
Which are they ? 393. ral ? 399.
What does each refer to ? 394. Give what do this and these refer to ? 400.
*"whoI"Jf«oa s^c^. »oio*- ♦« 1 oQc r-;™ What do that and those refer to ? Give
What does every relate to ? 395. Give pvamni*. 4on
an example. an example. 40U.
What does either relate to ? 396. Give What does indefinite mean ? 81. ^
an example. What is an indefinite pronoun ? 401.
What does neither mean ? 397. W^'^^ ^''^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^- . .««
What does demonstrative mean ? 398. Will you decline other ? 403.
What are demonstrative pronouns? Will you decline one? 404.
398. What note do you apply in parsing ad-
Which are they ? 399. jective pronouns ? Note I.
(1.) So called from distribttte, to divide among several,
(2.) So called from demonstrate, to prove or show jpreciselt/.
PRONOUNS.
57
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" These two hooks belong to meJ^
406. These is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind,
in the plural number, and belongs to books^ according to Note I.
Two is a NUMERAL adjective, and belongs to booksy by Note I.
Books J belong, &c.,are parsed as before.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
"Every man performs his part in
creation."
' Each man arrived at his station."
* Either party can repair the in-
jury."
'Some persons cannot acquire
wealth."
*Many people obtain riches with
apparently little exertion."
* One boy labors for his improve-
ment."
* This man neglects his affairs."
"These men might remain with
us."
" Those men make many pretences
to religion."
"All rational beings desire happi-
ness."
"By application almost any boy
may acquire an honorablo
rank in his class."
"Good and virtuous men will
sooner (1.) or later (1.), attain
to happiness."
" The old bird feeds her young onesJ^
407. Ones is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds ; in the
COMMON GENDER, THIRD PERSON PLURAL, in the OBJECTIVE CASE, and
governed by feeds, agreeably to Rule VIII.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
** One boy influences many others." others spend their time in idleness ;
" None act their part too well." the former will receive praise, the
** Some scholars study diligently ; latter censure."
"We cannot say, *' Them run," but, " They run :" hence,
Note II. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of the
verb, it should be in tTie nominative case.
It is very common for persons in conversation to say, " Them books,"
** Them knives," &c. instead of *' Those books," " Those knives," &c.
The incorrectness here alluded to consists in substituting a personal in the
place of an adjective pronoun : hence,
Note III. The pronoun them should not be used in the place
of these or those.
In the plirase, " These two books," &c.
will you parse these ? two 7 406.
W^ill you now take the book, and parse
the remaining exercises under Note I. ?
In ihe phrase, " The old bird feeds her
young ones," will you parse ones 7 407.
Will you correct by Note I. the follow-
ing examples, as I read them to you ?
" He will not come this two hours."
" I dislike those sort of books."
" I have two canes ; you may have any
of them."
Do we say, " They run," or, " Them
run?" Why? Note II.
Will you now correct, by Note II. the
followingexamples as I read them to you?
" Them will go."
" Him and me went to church."
" Art thee well ?"
" Him who is diligent will improve."
Would you say, " Them knives," or,
" These knives"? Why? III.
In what does the incorrectness con-
sist? III.
Will you correct the following expres-
sions ?
" Them boys are very idle."
" Bring me them pens."
" Which of them three things do you
prefer?"
UJ" The pupil may next take th* exer-
cises to he written.
SB ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different adjective
pronoun ? One, having a demonstrative pronoun ? One, having an in-
definite pronoun used as a noun ?
Q. Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense the follow-
ing phrases ? " When Harriet found — book, — tore^ — , and then flung
— away." " — man likes — farm, — merchandise."
Q. Will you compose a proper example under Rule I. ? One under
Rule II. ? Rule III. ? Rule IV. ? Rule V. ? Rule VI. ?
XXXV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
408. In the sentence, " That man is happy, who Uvea virtuously," the
word who is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun (the noun man), and it is
a relative, because it relates or refers to this noun in the same sentence : hence,
409. A relative pronoun is a word that usually stands for
some noun before it in the same sentence.
410. There are three relative pronouns, viz.
411. Who, which, and that.
412. Who is used in speaking of persons ; as, " The man
who came."
413. Which is used in speaking of animals or things ; as,
" The bird which sings," " The tree which I planted."
414. Which, however, is used in speaking of persons, when we wish to
distinguish one of two individuals, or a particular person among many
others ; as, *' Which of the two is he ?" " Which of them has gone ?"
415. That, as a relative, is often used, in speaking either of
persons or things, in the place of who or which ; as,
"The boy that reads," or, "The boy who reads;" "The bird that
flew," or, "The bird which flew;" "The bench that was made," or,
" The bench which was made."
That is used in preference to who or which, in ihe following cases: —
1. In speaking both of persons and things ; as, " The man and the beast
that I saw, perished."
2. In speaking of children ; as, " The child that I met."
3. After the adjective same; as, "He is the same man that we saw
yesterday."
4. After the superlative degree; as, "He is the wisest man that the
world ever produced."
5. After the relative who; as, "Who that reflects."
415 — 1. Exception. That, as a relative, cannot take the preposition im
mediately before it ; as, " He is the same man with that you were acquaint-
ed." For with that, read with whom. It is remarkable, however, that,
when the arrangement is a Httle varied, the word that admits the preposi-
tion ; as, " He is the same man that you were acquainted whh."
XXXV. In the sentence, " That man speaking of persons? Give an example.
IS happy, who lives virtuously," what 414.
part of speech is who ? Why ? 408. What When may that be used ? 415.
^''Hiu Y^-^^ • f^:- o .na Is it correct to say, " The child who ?'•
What IS a relative pronoun ? 409. ^^ „^^ , . .j,^^ J^^ ^^„ ^ho ?" Why
Will you name them? 411. „^^ V -The wisest man which?" Why
When do we use who 7 Give an exam- ^^^ , . ^j, ^^^ ^^^^^^^ ,„ y^^ ^ot ?
pie. 412. 4,tr . -l n 'i A K
When do we use which? Give an ex- *^^ ' ^' ''' "*' *' '*'
ample. 413. What exception is mentioned ? 415—1.
In what cases do we use which, in Give an exampl . 415 — I.
PRONOUNS. 59
416 — 1. We can say, ** The man who," or " The men who," using tbo
relative who in speaking either of one man or more than one : xeho^ then, is
of both numbers, and is thus declined :
Singular. Plural.
Norn. Who, Who.
Poss. Whose, Whose»
Obj. Whom, Whom.
417. Which and thai are of both numbers, but they are not declined, ex-
cept that whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which ; as, " Is
there any other doctrine wAose followers are punished ?"
418. Whose, used in the manner last described, is made to represent three
words ; as, " Philosophy whose end," for '* the end of which."
419. Antecedent signifies going before.
420. The noun or pronoun which goes before the relative, and to which
the relative refers, is therefore called the antecedent of the relative ; as,
'* John, who has gone." Here, John is the antecedent of who.
421. When you are told that who, which, and that are relatives, you should
not get the impression that the last two are always relatives ; for that is a
relative only when it is used in the sense of who or which i that is, when wfio
or which may be used in its place, without destroying the sense ; as, *' Here
' is the knife that I found," which can be altered to '' Here is the knife which
I found," without injury to the sense.
422. That, when it points out or specifies some particular person or thing,
is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When not used as a relative, nor as an
adjective pronoun, it is reckoned a conjunction; as, " He studies that he
may learn."
423. Hence it appears that the word that may be used sometimes as a rela-
tive pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pronoun, and sometimes as a con-
junction.
424. Since relative pronouns stand for nouns, as well as personal pro-
nouns, they should therefore agree with nouns in the same particulars and
by the same rule. Rule V. will therefore apply to both.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" That man is happy who lives virtuously,^*
425. That is a demonstrative pronoun, of the singular
NUMBER, and belongs to man, by Note I.
Who is a RELATIVE PRONOUN, of the MASCULINE GENDER,
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, and agrees with man, by Rule V. It
is in the nominative case to lives, according to Rule VI.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
"That man is fortunate who es- "I met the same man in the market
capes censure. to-day (1.), that I met yesterday
"The girl whom I saw, perished." in the street.
IIow many numbers has wAo? 416. When is tkat an adjective pronoun?
Will you decline it ? 416—1. Give an example. 422.
How many numbers have which and When a conjunction? Give an exara-
that? Are they declined? 417. pie. 422.
What exception to this? 417. How many different parts of speech
When whose is used as the possessive may that rnpresent ? 423.
case of which, how many words does it What is the rule for the agreement of
represent? Give an example. 418. relative pronouns? 424.
What is the meaning of antecedent? Will you parse that, in the phrase,
419. ♦' That man" ? 425,
What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? In the sentence, " That man is happy
Give an example. 420. who lives virtuously," will you parse
Is that always a relative ? 421, who? 425.
When is it a relative ? Give an exam- Will you now take the book, and parse
pie. 421. the remaining exercises?
60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
" You, who came first, should retire " That house, which stands on the
first." hill, once (1.) belonged to me."
" You taug-ht the boy whose hat I " The boy whom I instruct learns
found." well."
SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. '
" The man which I saw J'
426. Incorrect ; because, in speaking of persons, who, whose,
or whom is generally to be used. It should therefore read,
" The man whom I saw."
SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED.
" The bird whom I killed had made " Thou who are in prosperity must
her nest." assist me in adversity."
"The man which visited me has "He which shuns vice does gene-
lefl town." rally practise virtue."
" That man is happy whom is vir- " I, who lives by your charity, should
tuous." be grateful."
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
Q. Will you construct a sentence containing the relative who ? One,
containing icAicA ? One, containing <Aaf?
Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with relatives correctly
used ? " The man sins shall die." " The boy studies will
learn." " The bird sung so sweetly has flown." Will you fill up
the following with one or more words that will make sense ? " Intempe-
rance evils." " If truth sorry."
Q. Will you embrace in different sentences, each of the following words ?
Washingtoriy* Columbus, Captain Cook, Indians, Wisdom, Riches, James
Monroe.
XXXVI. OF COMPOUND AND INTERROGATIVE
PRONOUNS.
427. *' I took what you gave me."
" I took that which you gave me.'*
** I took the thing which you gave me."
" I took those things which you gave me."
428. By examining the foregoing sentences, you will see that the word
, what, in the first example, means the same as the words in italics in the suc-
cessive ones : the word what, then, is clearly a pronoun ; and because it
stands for more than one word, it is called a compound pronoun. The word
before the relative which, in the phrase " that which," or ** the thing which,"
is the antecedent of which. Hence,
429. What is a compound relative pronoun, including
both the antecedent and the relative, and is generally equiva-
lent to THAT WHICH.
Instead of saying, " The man which I tences which mean the same as " I took
saw," what should I say? Why? 426. what you gave me" ? 427.
Will you correct and parse the remain- What words, then, does what stand for ?
ing exercises, and then take the exercises 428.
to be written ? Why is what a pronoun ? 428.
XXXVI. Will you repeat those sen- Why a compound pronoun ? 428.
(1.) Adverb.
* Thus, " Wuhin^n was a true patriot," &c. 2%e pupil may writt several sentences on, each toord.
PRONOUNS. 61
430. Who, which, and what have sometimes the words ever or goever an-
nexed (1.) to them : and each combination of this sort is called a compound
relative; as, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, &,c. They are not
often used.
431. Who, which, and what are called interrogatives, or relatives of the
interrogative kind, when they are used in asking questions; as, ** Who is
he ?" ** Which is the book ?" " What are you doing ?" These relatives,
you perceive, have no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase con-
tained in the answer, which is called a subsequent, because it follows after
the relative; as, "Whom did you see?" Ans. "John." Here John is
the subsequent to which whom refers.
432. Hence it follows, that antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each
other in meaning ; the former signifying ^oiwg before, the Iditter following after,
433. Wliether was formerly made use of to express interrogation; as,
* Whether of these shall I choose ?" but it is now seldom used, the inter-
rogative which supplying its place.
434. Which, what, and, as we have already seen, that, when joined to
nouns, are adjective pronouns ; as, " unto which promise our twelve tribes."
435. When what and which are joined to nouns in asking questions, they
are called interrogative adjective pronouns ; as, ** Which horse did he take ?"
436. In some instances, we find what used in the sense of an interjection ;
as, " What I take my money, and then my life ?"
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" / will leave what is useless,**
437. What, in the example above, means the same as, "that which," or,
" the thing which ;" we will, therefore, in parsing it, bear in mind that it
has the government and agreement of two separate words. We will first
parse it as standing for thing, and secondly for which.
What is a compound relative pronoun, and is equivalent to
" that which," or, " the thing which." In representing thing, it
may be considered a pronoun of the third person singular, neu-
ter GENDER, in the objective case, and governed by leave, accord-
ing to Rule VIII.
What, in representing which, may be considered a relative pro-
noun of the third person singular, neuter gender, and relates
to thing for its antecedent, according to Rule V. and in the nomi
native case to is, by Rule VI.
Is is a neuter verb, in the indicative mood, present tense — '
"1. I am ; 2. You are; 3. He or which is" — made in the third per-
son singular, and agrees with which, the relative part of the pro-
noun what, according to Rule VII.
Useless is an adjective, in the positive degree, and belongs to
what, by Rule IV.
How may what be described ? 429. When are what, which, and that a^jec-
Will you give three examples of com- tive pronouns? Give an example. 434.
pound pronouns formed by annexing ever Which of the relatives are sometimes in-
or soever? 430. terrogative adjective pronouns ? When?
What is the meaning of annexed? 435.
430. When I say, " What ! rob me of my
When are who, which, and what called money, and then take my life ?" in what
interrogatives ? 431. sense is what used ? 436.
What are the nouns called, to which In the sentence, "1 will leave what is
interrogatives refer ? 431. useless," how do you parse what? is?
What is the meaning of subsequent? useless? 437.
432. What does 7cAa« stand for? 437.
Why so called? 431. Do you parse it as one word or two?
In the phrase, " Whom did you see ?'» What two ? 437.
Ans. " John ;" which word is the subse- 23" The pupil may now parse the re-
quent 7 431. maining exercises on the pronoun what.
(1*) Raced afUr.
6 F
03 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
** James will do what is proper." "William demands what I cannot
** You heard what I said." give."
" Whatever improves delights him." " They advocate what is excellent.*
XXXVII. OF THE VERB.
438. A VERB is a word that expresses action or being.
Verbs are of three kinds — active, passive, and neuter.
439. An active verb expresses action, and the actor is
always the nominative case ; as, " John runs." Active verbs
are either transitive or intransitive.
440. An active verb is transitive, when it either has or may-
have an object after it, on which the action terminates; as,
« John beats William."
441. An active verb is intransitive, when it neither has nor
can have an object after it.
442. Passive means suffering or receiving.
443. When I say, *' John is beaten by William," is heaten is a verb,
because it expresses action ; and it is a passive verb, because it expresses
the action received by John ; and if John receives the action, then he is the
object of it : hence,
444. A passive verb expresses action or effect received.
445. The object is always its subject or nominative case.
446. Active nominative^ or actor, " John strikes William."
447. Passive nominative, or object, *' William is struck by
John."
448. By examining the foregoing examples, you will see that when the
verb is active, its nominative is likewise active ; and when the verb is pas-
sive, its nominative is likewise passive.
449. The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression on occasions
when we wish to state what has been done, without exposing the author;
thus, instead of saying, " William struck John," I can, to avoid alluding
to William, say, " John was struck."
XXXVII. What is the meaning of In the example, " John is beaten by
verb?* William," which is the verb? Why?
Why so called ? H3. What kind ? Why ? 443.
What is a verb ? 438. Which word is the object ? Why ? 443.
What is an active verb ? 439. What, then, is a passive verb ? 444.
What is always its nominative ? Give Which is the nominative to a passive
an example. 439. verb, the agent or the object ? 445.
What is the meaning of transitively Is the nominative to an active verb ac-
of intransitive? I tive or passive ? Give an example. 448.
How may active verbs be divided ? 439. Is the nominative to a passive verb ac-
When is an active verb transitive? tive or passive? Give an example. 448.
Give an example. 440. In what particular is the passive voice
When is an active verb intransitive ? a convenient form of expression ? Give
Give an example. 441. an example. 449.
What is the meaning of passive! 442. What is the meaning of neuter 1^
• Se« question to 142. f See question to 150. % See question to 152. § See quertion to 157.
MOOD. 63
460. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor passive,
expressing simply either being or existence in a certain state ;
as, " He 51^5," " He is at home."
XXXVIII. MOOD, OR MODE.
451. Mood, or mode, is the manner of representing action
or being.
452. The indicative mood is used simply for indicating or
declaring a* thing, or asking a question ; as, " I walk ;" " Do I
walk?'
453. The potential mood is used for expressing possi-
bility, liberty, power, will, or obligation, either with or without
asking a question ; as, " I may go ;" " May I go 1" " He must
read," &c.
454. Of the subjunctive mood. The term siibjunctive signifies subjoin-
ed or added to.
455. When I say, " I will go, if he desire it," the phrase, ** if he desire
it," is added on to the one before it: hence, we say, " if he desire it," is
in the subjunctive mood. The term, however, is Hmited to such sentences
as are preceded by the conjunctions if, unless, although, except, lest, &,c.,
which imply doubt or some uncertainty.
456. The subjunctive mood is used for expressing doubt or
uncertainty.
457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two different
forms. It is equally correct to say, '* If he is poor, he is respected," and,
*' It he he studious, he will excel." The verbs be and is are both in the
present tense ; and since each has the conjunction if before it, each is in
the subjunctive mood.
458. The phrase; " If he he studious," means the same as, " If he will
be studious;" it therefore plainly implies future time.
459. On the contrary, in the phrase, " If he is poor," the sense plainly
is, " If he is now, at the present time, poor," without any reference to
future time.
460. Hence it appears, that, in one form of the verb, doubt only is im-
plied ; and in the other, both doubt and future time.
What is a neuter verb ? Give an exam- How is the term subjunctive limited ?
pie. 450. 455.
How many kinds of verbs are there, What is the subjunctive mood used
and what are they? 438. for? 45(5.
XXXVIII. What is the meaning of How many different forms has it? 457.
moodl 166. Give an example of each. 457.
What is mood? 451. In what tense are the verbs be and is7
What is the meaning of indicative ? 457.
168. In what mood is each with the con-
What is the indicative mood used for ? junction if before it ? 457.
Give an example. 452. What does, " If he be studious," mean.
What is the meaningr of potential? 212. as it respects time ? 453.
What is the potential mood used for? What tense, then, is referred to? 458.
Give an example. 453. What does, " If he is poor," mean, in
What is the meaning of subjunctive? respect to time? 459.
454. What idea, then, is implied in the one
In what mood is, " If he desire it ?" form ? 460.
455. What two ideaJi in the other form ? 460.
64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
461. The verb is corresponds with the common form of the verb fo fte,
in the indicative mood, present tense; as, "I am, you are, he is:" — we
will, therefore, when the verb is varied as usual, call it the common form
of the subjunctive mood ; and when the verb is not varied in the different
persons, we will call it the subjunctive form, since this form is peculiar to
this mood. You should here be informed that this distinction relates only
to the present tense, it being customary to vary the terminations of the verb
in the remaining tenses, as usual.
462. The following general rules will direct you in the proper use of the
subjunctive mood :
463. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense,
has a reference to future time, we should use the
SUBJUNCTIVE FORM.
Present Tense.
464. Singular. * Plural,
1. If I love. 1. If we love.
2. If thou or you love. 2. If ye or you love.
3. If he love. 3. If they love.
465. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense,
has no reference to future time, we should use the
COMMON FORM.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I love. 1. If we love.
2. If thou lovest, or"} 2. If ye love, or 7
If you love. 3 I^ y^^ \o\e. 3
3. If he loves. 3. If they love.
466. Other conjunctions, besides if, are used before the subjunctive
mood. If is perhaps used most frequently, because it implies doubt more
strongly than most others.
467. By the foregoing, you may perceive that when the verb is in the sub-
junctive form, some auxiliary verb is always understood ; as, '* He will not be
pardoned unless he repent," that is, ** unless he will repent ;" '* If thou ever
return, thou shouldst be thankful," that is, " if thou shouldst ever return."
468. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive,
common form, simply by placing a conjunction, implying doubt, before it;
as, **I walk," the indicative mood, becomes subjunctive by prefixing if;
thus, " If I walk."
469. In like manner, a verb in the potential may be changed to the sub-
junctive ; as, ** I can go," is the potential ; " If I can go," tlie subjunctive.
470. Of the IMPERATIVE MOOD. When I say, *' John, mind your book,"
I command John to do something ; and because imperative means command-
ing, we say that mind, in the phrase above, is in the imperative mood.
Vl^ith what does the verb is corre- What does, " He will not be pardoned
spend ? 461. unless he repent," mean ? 467.
How is the verb varied in the common What, then, is understood ? 467.
form of the subjunctive mood ? 461. '* If thou ever return, thou shouldst be
Why called common ? How varied in thankful :" what does this mean ? 467.
the subjunctive form? Why called sub- What, then, is understood ? 467.
^"how is t'his'distinction limited? 461. .J^J'^'J' ^'^^^^ understood in this
How are the remaining tenses varied? '^how may a verb in the indicative
When do we use the subjunctive form ? ^«^ ^^ converted into the subjunctive ?
463.
468.
When do we use the common form ? In what mood is, " John, mind your
465. studies?" Why? 470.
Why is the conjunction if used most What is the meaning of imperative?
Oequently in the subjunctive mood? 466. 470.
MOOD. 65
471. This mood, for reasons assigned before, (214.) embraces the follow-
mg particulars :
1. Command; as, "John, sit up."
2. Entreaty ; as, "Do visit me."
3. Exhorting; as, "Remember my counsel."
4. Permitting ; as, "Go in peace."
472. The imperative mood, then, is used for commanding,
entreating, exhorting, or permitting.
473. The application of this mood is limited to the second person ; as,
" John, come to me ;" because, in uttering a command, making an entreaty,
(fee. we must necessarily address some one ; hence, you can see the reason
why this mood has but one person, viz. the second.
474. We cannot, with any propriety, command a person to-day, or in
present time, to do any thing in past time, yesterday for instance ; con- ,
sequently a verb in this mood cannot have any past tense.
475. When I command a person to do any thing, the performance of the
command must take place in a period of time subsequent to that of the com-
mand ; that is, in future time ; but the command itself must, from the very
nature of the case, take place in present time : this mood, therefore, can-
not, strictly speaking, have any future tense : hence,
476. A verb in the imperative mood must be in the present tense, and in
the second person.
477. Of the infinitive mood. In the phrases, " John begins to sing,"
" The boys begin to sing," " Thou beginnest to sing," you perceive that
the verb to sing is not varied to correspond with the number and person of
its different agents, John, the hoys, and thou : hence, to sing is said not to
be limited either by person or number.
478. This mood, then, is properly denominated infinitive, signifying not
limited : hence,
479. The infinitive mood is used to express an action not
limited either by person or number.
480. To, the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood ; as, " Let
me go," instead of, " Let me to go ;" " I heard him say it," for, " I heard
him to say it." This little word to, when used before verbs in this man-
ner, is not a preposition, but forms a part of the verb, and, in parsing,
should be so considered.
481. From the foregoing, it appears that there are five
moods — the indicative, the imperative, the potential, the sub-
junctive, and the infinitive.
How many particulars does this mood What is the meaning of infinitivet
dmhrace? 471. Why so many? 214. 478.
What, then, is the imperative mood In what mood is sin^, in the phrase?,
used for ? 472. Give an example of com- " John begins to sing," " The boys begin
manding? one of entreating? one of to sing," "Thou beginnest to sing?"
„'xhorting? one of permitting? 471. 477, 478.
How many persons has this mood ? 473. In what particulars is this mood reck-
What person is it? 473. oned not to be limited ? 477.
Has this mood any past tense ? Why ? What, then, is the infinitive mood
474. used for ? 479.
When I command a person, when, if What is the usual sign of this mood ?
at all, must the performance of the com- 480.
mand take place? 475. Is it always expressed? Give an ex-
When, or in what time, must the com- ample. 480.
mand itself be given ? 475. How is the sign to to be parsed?
Has this mood, then, any future tense ? 480-
475. Why parsed with the verb ? 480.
How many tenses, then, has it ? How How many moods are there, and what
many persons ? 476. are they ? 481.
.5
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
XXXIX. OF TENSE.
482. The present tense expresses what is now taking place ;
as, " John swims."
483. This tense is often employed to express the actions of persons long
since dead ; as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well."
484. The present tense, preceded by the words «J7^e», before, after, as
soon as, &c., is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future
action; as, " When he arrives, he will hear the news."
485. This tense is elegantly applied to quahties and things which are in
their nature unchangeable; as, " Tnith is eternal;" " William boldly
asserted there was no God;" properly, " is no God."
486. In animated (1.) historical narrations, (2.) this tense is sometimes
used for the imperfect ; as, "He e?iters the territory of the peaceable in-
habitants ; he fights and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he
divides among his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph."
487. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in time
past, however distant ; as, " John died."
488. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, and
conveys an allusion to the present time ; as, " I have finished
my letter."
489. When any particular period of past time is specified or alluded to,
we use the imperfect tense; as, '* John wrote yesterday ;" but when no
particular past time is specified, we use the perfect tense ; as, " I have read
Virgil many times."
490. The perfect tense and the imperfect tense both denote a thing that
is past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is still actually
remaining some part of the time ta slide away, wherein we declare the
thing has been done ; whereas the imperfect denotss the thing or action
past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was
done. If we speak of the present century, we say, "Philosophers have
made great discoveries in the present century ;" but if we speak of the last
century, we say, " Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century."
— '" He has been much afflicted this year." " I have this week read the
kmg's proclamation." ' ' I have heard great news this morning." In these
instances. He has been, I have read, and heard, denote things that are past ;
XXXIX. What is the meaning of pre- What does the perfect tense express?
sent? 173. Give an example. 488.
What does the present tense express? " John wrote yesterday." What tense
482. Give an example. 482. is the verb in here? 489.
" Seneca reasons well." What tense Why is this tense used ? 489.
is employed here ? Why? 483. " Ihave read Virgil many times." Why
In the phrase, " When he arrives," is the perfect tense used here ? 489.
future time is alluded to: why, then, is What do both the perfect and imper-
the present employed ? 484. feet denote ? 490.
Do we sav, " There is," or, " there was How does the former denote il ? 4£0.
no God?" Why? 485. How does the latter? 490. *
What is the meaning of ani^nafcd? 486. Do we say, "Philosophers made" or,
Meaning of narrations 7 486. " have mode, great discoveries in the pre-
" He enters the territory," &c. Why is sent century ?" Why ? 4D0.
the present tense used ? 486. Which tense do we use in speaking of
What is the meaning of impcr/eci? 181. the last century ? 490. Give an exam-
How came this term to be used, to de- pie. 490.
note an action past and finished ?* " I have this week read the king's pro-
What does the imperfect tense express ? clamation." " I have heard great news
487. Give an example. 487. this morning." Which are tlie verbs
Meaning of perfect?^ used in these two sentences ? 4!j0.
(1.) Lively. (2.) Descriptions, or fellins what has beeu done.
* See qnestiou to 182. t finished, or coiuidetB.
TENSES. — PARTICIPLES. C7
but they occurred in this year, in this week, and to-day ; and still there
remains a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak.
490 — 1. In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action
is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either of the
author or of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries
ago ; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used.
We may say, ** Cicero has written orations ;" but we cannot say, " Cicero
has written poems ;" because the orations are in being, but the poems are
lost. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, '* They have, in all ages,
claimed great powers;" because the general order of the priesthood still
exists : but if we speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests,
which does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say,
•* The Druid priests have claimed great powers ;" but must say, " The Druid
priests claimed great powers ;" because that order is now totally extinct.
491. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place at
some past time mentioned ; as, " I had finished my letter before
my father returned."
492. The first future tense expresses what will take place ;
as, " John will come."
493. The second future expresses what will have taken
place, at or before some future time mentioned ; as, " I shall
have finished my business before the steam-boat starts."
494. Tense is the distinction of time, and admits of six
variations, namely — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the
pluperfect, and the first and second future tenses.
XL. OF PARTICIPLES.
495. In the phrase, "I found a man laboring in the field," the word
laboring shows what the man was doing, and therefore resembles a verb.
When I say, "The laboring man should not be wronged," laboring is
joined to the noun man, to describe it, and therefore resembles an adjective.
496. The word laboring, then, partakes of the nature of two different
parrs of speech ; and since participle signifies partaking of, we will call
Buch words as laboring, participles.
What do they denote ? When did these Give an example. 492. Why called first
things occur? 49(). future?*
To what may the perfect tense in gen- What does the second future express?
eral be applied ? Wliat exception is men- Give an example. 493.
tioned ? 490 — 1. How many tenses are there in all, and
Do we say, " Cicero wrote," or, " fuis what are they ? 494.
written, orations?" "Cicero wrote," or, In what mood is, "He runs?" Why?
*' has writteii," poems 7" Why? 490—1. 452. "Does ho run?" Why? 452. "I
In speaking of priests, in general, why may run ?" Why ? 453. " Should 1 have
do we say, " They have in all ages claim- studied ?" Why ? 453. "If he accept ?"
ed great powers?" 490— I. Why? 45G. "If he accepts?" Why?
Can we say, " The Druid priests have 456. " To sing?" Whv ? 479.
claimed great powers?" What should we In what tense is, "He sings?" Why?
say? Why? 490—1. 482. "Did he sing?" Why? 487. "He
What is the meaning of pluperfect? has read?" 488. Wliv? "Had he writ-
186. ten ?" 491. Why ? "Shall he go ?" 492.
What does the pluperfect tense ex- " I shall have gone ?" Why ? 493.
press? 491. Give an example. 491. XL. What parts of speech does labor.
Moaning of /iftttre? 177. i/j^ resemhle ? Give an example. 495
What does the first future express? What is the meaning of pa rticip/e? 496.
* See question to 191,
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
497. All participles are derived from verbs ; thus, from labor comes
laboring ; iroiii h»at, heating ; rejoice, rejoicing, &lc.'. hence,
498. The participle is a word derived from a verb, and par-
takes of the nature of a verb and adjective.
499. When I say, " John is writing," the participle writing shows what
John is now doing, but has not finished ; writing, then, may be called a
present participle : hence,
500. The present participle expresses what is now taking
place, but not finished.
501 — 1. This participle always ends in ing ; as, sinning, fighting, weep-
ing, loving, &c. There are many words of this termination, which are
not participles ; as, morning, evening, which are nouns ; uninterestitig,
unsatisfying, which are adjectives. The fact that these cannot be formed
from verbs will furnish you with a certain rule for distinguishing the par-
ticiple from all other words of the same termination ; as, for instance, un-
interesting, we know, is not a participle, because there is no such verb as
uninterest, from which to form it.
501. " The letter is written." Here the participle written shows that
the act of writing is past and finished ; it may then be called a perfect par-
ticiple : hence,
502. The perfect participle expresses what is past and finished.
502 — 1. This participle may always be distinguished by its making sense
with having ; thus, having written, having sung, &c. Here written and
sihng are perfect participles.
503. "John, having written his letter, sealed it." Here you doubtless;
perceive that the act of writing took place before that of seaUng ; also, that
the participle is composed of two words, having and written ; it may then
be called a compound participle, and because it denotes also an action past
and finished, it may very properly be called a compound perfect participle :
hence,
504. The compound perfect participle expresses what took
place before something else mentioned.
504 — 1. This participle is formed by placing the present participle having
before the perfect participle of any verb ; as, having fought, having ciphered.
XLI. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB.
505. Struck is a perfect participle, from the verb strike, and this you
know, because it makes sense joined with having ; as, having struck.
From what are all participles derived? Having written, having sung. Which
497. Give an example. 497. are the perfect participles here? 502.
What is a participle ? 498. " John , having written his letter, seal-
When I say, " John is writing," what ed it." Which took place first, the wri'
Aoes writing show 1 499. ting or sealing? 503.
What, then, may it be called? 499. Of what is this participle composed if
What, then, is a present participle.' 503.
500. What, then, may it be called ? 503.
What does this participle always end What does having written denote in
in? 500 — 1. Give an example. 500—1. reference to time and action ? 503.
Are all words ending in ing partici- What may it thence be called ? 503.
pies? Give an example of nouns of this What does a compound perfect parti-
termination ? of adjectives? 500—3. ciple express? 504.
How, then, can the participle be How is this participle formed? 504.
distinguished? Give an example. Give an example. 504.
500 — 1. XLI. Striking, struck, having struck.
"The letter is written." What docs Here are three different participles : can
the participle wn<<e7i show here? What, vou tell which is the present? Why?
then, may it be called? 501. 500. Perfect? Why? 503. Compound
What is a perfect participle ? 502. perfect ? Why ? 503.
How may this participle always be What kind of a participle is struck?
known? Give an example. 502— 1. 505. How do you know this? 505.
VERBS. 69
506. hy you doubtless recollect, is a variation of the verb to he ; as, "I
am, you are, he is :" now, by joining is with struck, we can form the pas-
sive verb is struck; "John strikes Joseph," is active; but, "Joseph is
struck by John," is passive.
507. In these two examples, you perceive that the sense of each is the
same : hence, by means of the passive verb, we are enabled to express, in a
different form, the precise meaning of the active, which, you will oftentimes
find, contributes not a little to the variety and harmony of the language.
508. By examining the conjugation of the verb to he, you will discover
that it has, in all, ten variations : viz. am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, heeriy
he, and heing. Every passive verb must be composed of one of these ten
variations, and the perfect participle of any active transitive verb. Thus,
taking was, and joining it with the perfect participle of the verb heat, namely,
heaten, we form the passive verb was heaten, to wliich prefixing an object,
or nominative case, we have the phrase, " WilHam was beaten."
509. It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the passive verb always
retains the same mood, tense, number, and person, that the verb to he has,
before it is incorporated with the participle ; thus, " tie has been," is the
indicative perfect, third person singular ; then, "He has been rejected," is
likewise the indicative perfect, third person singular, passive. It cannot,
therefore, be difficult to tell the mood, tense, number, and person, of any
passi'^^e verb, if you are familiar with the conjugation of the verb to he.
From the foregoing particulars, we derive the following general rule :
510. All passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect par-
ticiple of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to he.
XLII. OF THE AUXILIARY VERB.
511. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the
principal verbs are conjugated.
512. The auxiliary verbs are may^ can, must, might, could,
would, should, and shall. The following are sometimes aux-
iliaries, and sometimes principal verbs : do, be, have, and wilL
513. When, in the formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary verb, that
tense is called a compound one ; and the tense formed by the principal verb
alone is called a simple tense.
XLIII. SIGNS OF THE MOODS.
514. ' The indicative mood may be known by the sense, or
by its having no sign except in asking a question ; as, " Who
comes here?'^
Of what verb is the verb is a varia- What fact is mentioned as worthy of
tion ? 506. notice ? 509.
Will you form a passive verb with is What mood, tense, number, and per-
and struck? 506. son, is, "He has been?" 509. Is, "H^
" John strikes Joseph." How may the has been rejected ?*' 509.
sense of this sentence be expressed by a What will make the mood, tense, &c.
passive verb ? 506. of passive verbs familiar ? 509.
What advantage does the use of the H^^w are all passive verbs formed ? 510.
passive verb often afford us ? 507. XLII. What is the meaning of aux-
To what does it contribute? 507. ^^^^JlVJ^^' •,• .i, ^ r,,
. ^. ^ ^ ' What are auxiliary verbs? 511.
How many variations has the verb to y^iw y^y name them ? 513,
be in all ? 508. What are they ? 508. vv^at verbs are used both as auxiliary
What will always compose one part of and principal verbs ? 512.
a passive verb? 508. What the other XLIII. What is the sign of the indica-
part ? 508. tive mood ? 514. Give an example. 514.
70« ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
515. The potential mood has for its signs the auxiliaries
may^ can, must, might, could, would, and should ; as, " I
could love," &c.
516. The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the
conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest ; as,
" Unless he repent," &c.
517. The infinitive mood has usually for its sign the word
to ; as, to sing,
518. The imperative mood may be distinguished by its
always being in the second person, and by its agreement with
thou, or ye, or you ; as, " Depart thou," &c.
XLIV. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OF THE
INDICATIVE.
519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of the
verb ; as, weep, remain, &c. ; excepting the occasional use of
do ; as, " I do learn."
520. The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, except
did, which is sometimes used. If, however, the verb is not in
the present tense, and has no auxiliary, it follows that it is in
the imperfect ; as, " I fought."
521. The perfect tense has for its sign the word have; as,
have loved,
522. The pluperfect has for its sign had ; as, had loved,
523. The first future has for its sign shall or will ; as, shall
or will love,
524. The second future has for its sign shall have or will ^
have ; as, shall have loved, or ivill have loved.
525. The indicative mood has six tenses. >v v \
526. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. .r^, . , \j
527. The potential mood has four tenses. ^ J
528. The infinitive mood has two tenses.
529. The imperative mood has one tense.
What is the sign of the potential mood? Sign of the perfect 7 521. Give an ei-
515. Give an example. 515. ample. 521.
What is the sign of the subjunctive Sign of the pluperfect ? 522. Give an
mood ? 516. Give an example. 516. example. 522.
"wK*':™"^"^""'""';^."-. . SiTnofSsecondfuture?524. Give
What IS tTie sign of the imperative? an example. .524.
518. Give an example. 518. f]ow many tenses has the indicative
XLTV. What is the sign of the pre- mood? 525.
sent indicative ? 519. Give an example. How many the subjunctive ? 526.
519. How many the potential ? 527.
Sign of the imperfect? 520. Give an How many the infinitive? 528.
example. 520. How many the imperative ? 529.
y
VERBS.
71
XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
530. When I ask you to raise your voice, in reading, you readily under-
stand what I mean by voice ; but in grammar, its application is somewhat
peculiar. Grammatically considered, it refers to the active and passive
nature of verbs.
531. The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination
and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and
tenses.
532. The conjugation of an active verb is styled the
ACTIVE VOICE, and that of a passive verb the passive voice.
533. Verbs are called regular, when they form their im-
perfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect parti-
ciple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense, or
d only when the verb ends in e ; as,
Fres, Tense, Imp, Tense, Perf, Participle,
I favour. I favoured. Favoured.
1 love. I loved. Loved.
534. When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and
perfect participle in this manner, it is called an irregular
VERB ; as,
Pres. Tense.
I am.
Imp, Tense,
I was.
Perf, Participle,
Been.
535. The regular verb love^ and the irregular verb to be,
are conjugated as follows : —
COITJUGilTZOX7.
TO LOVE AND TO BE,
ACTIVE and PASSIVE VOICE CONTRASTED.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Singular.
1 Pers. I love.
2 Pers. You love.
3 Pers. He loves.
Plural.
1 Pers. We love.
2 Pers. You love.
3 Pers. They love.
PRESENT TENSE.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Singular.
1 Pers. I am loved.
2 Pers. You are loved.
3 Pers. He is loved.
Plural.
1 Pers. We are loved.
2 Pers. You are loved.
3 Pers. They are loved.
NEUTER.
Singular,
1 Pers. I am.
2 Pers. You are.
3 Pers. He is.
Plural.
1 Pers. We are.
2 Pers. You are.
3 Pers. They are.
XLV. What does voice mean in gram-
mar? 530.
Meaning of conjugation? 217.
What is the conjugation of an active
verb styled ? 532.
\/hat the conjugation of a passive
verb! 532.
When are verbs called regular? 533.
Give an example. 531.
Will you repeat after me the present
tense, and name the imperfect tense and
perfect participle, of the \eths favour?
love 7 533.
When is a verb called irregular ? 534.
Give an example. 534.
72
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Singular.
1. I loved.
2. You loved.
3. He loved.
Plural.
1. We loved.
2. You loved.
3. They loved.
Singular.
1. I have loved.
2. You have loved.
3. He has loved.
Plural.
1. We have loved.
2. You have loved.
3. They have loved.
Singular.
1. I had loved.
2. You had loved.
3. He had loved.
Plural.
1. We had loved.
2. You had loved.
3. They had loved.
IMPERFECT TENSE.
Singular.
1. I was loved.
2. You were loved.
3. He was loved.
Plural.
1. We were loved.
2. You were loved.
3. They were loved.
PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.
1. I have been loved.
2. You have been loved.
3. He has been loved.
Plural.
1. We have been loved.
2. You have been loved.
3. They have been loved.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular.
1. I had been loved.
2. You had been loved.
3. He had been loved.
Plural.
1. We had been loved.
2. You had been loved.
3. They had been loved.
Singular.
1. I was.
2. You were.
3. He was.
Plural.
1. We were.
2. You were.
3. They were.
Singular.
1. I have been.
2. You have been.
3. He has been.
Plural.
1. We have been.
2. You have been.
3. They have been.
Singular.
1. I had been.
2. You had been.
3. He had been.
Plural.
1. We had been.
2. You had been.
3. They had been.
Singular.
1. I shall or will love.
2. You shall or will
love.
3. He shall or will
love.
Plural.
FIRST FUTURE TENSE.
Singular.
1. I shall or will be 1.
loved. 2.
2. You shall or will be
loved. 3.
3. He shall or will be
loved.
Plural.
1. We shall or will 1. We shall or will be 1.
love. loved.
2. You shall or will 2. You shall or will be 2.
love. loved.
3. They shall or will 3. They shall or will be 3.
love. loved.
SECOND FUTURE TENSE.
Singular. Singular.
1. 1 shall have loved. 1. 1 shall have been 1.
2. You will have lov- loved. 2.
ed. 2. You will have been 3.
3. He will have loved. loved.
3. He will have been
loved.
Plural. Plural.
1. We shall have lov- 1. We shall have been 1.
ed. loved. 2.
2. You will have lov- 2. You will have been 3.
ed. loved.
3. They will have lov- 3. They will have been
ed. loved.
Will you conjugate Zouc in the present perfect? first future? second future?
tense, active voice, indicative mood? present passive? imperfect? perfect?
535. In the imperfect? perfect? plu- pluperfect ? first future ? second future?
Singular.
I shall or will be.
You shall or will
be.
He shall or will
be.
Plural.
We shall or will
be.
You shall or will
be.
They shall or will
be.
Singular.
I shall have been.
You will have been.
He will have been.
Plural.
We shall have been.
You will have been.
They will have been.
TENSES.
7b
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular,
Singular.
Singular.
1. 1 may or can love.
1. I may or can be lov-
1.
I may or can be.
2. You may or can
ed.
2.
You may or can
love.
2. You may or can be
be.
3. He may or can
loved.
3.
He may or can
love.
3. He may or can be
loved.
be.
Plural.
Plural.
Plural.
1, We may or can
1. We may or can be
1.
We may or can
love.
loved.
be.
2. You may or can
2. You may or can be
2.
You may or can'
love.
loved.
be.
3. They may or can
love.
3. They may or can be
loved.
IMPERFECT TENSE.
3.
They may or can
be.
Singular.
Singular.
Singular.
1. 1 might, could,would,
1. 1 might, could, would,
1.
I might, could, would,
or should love.
or should be loved.
or should be.
2. You might, could,
2. You might, could,
2.
You might, could,
would, or should
would, or should
would, or should
love.
be loved.
be.
3. He might, could,
3. He might, could,
3.
He might, could,
would, or should
would, or should
would, or should
love.
be loved.
be.
Flurah
Plural. •
Plural.
1. We might, could,
1. We might, could,
1.
We might, could.
would, or should
would, or should
would, or should
love.
be loved.
be.
2. You might, could,
2. You might, could.
2.
You might, could,
would, or should
would, or should
would, or should
love.
be loved.
be.
3. They might, could,
3. They might, could,
3.
They might, could,
would, or should
would, or should
would, or should
love.
be loved,
PERFECT TENSE.
be.
Singular,
Singular.
Singular.
1. 1 may or can have
1. I may or can have
1.
I may or can have
loved.
been loved.
been.
2. You may or can have
2. You may or can have
2.
You may or can have
loved.
been loved.
been.
3. He mav or can have
loved..
3. He may or can have
3.
He may or can have
been loved.
been.
Flural.
Plural.
Plural.
I. We may or can have
1. We may or can have
1.
We may or can have
loved.
been loved.
been.
2. You may or can have
2. You may or can have
2.
, You may or can have
loved.
been loved.
been.
3. They may or can
3. They may or can
3.
, They may or can
have loved.
have been loved.
have been.
Will you conjugate the verb to be, or
am, in the present? the imperfect? per-
fect? pluperfect? first future? second
future ?
Will you name the first person singu-
lar, of the present indicative, active and
passive, of love, and the first person sin-
gular of the verb to be ?
7
The second person in like manner? the
third? the first person plural? second
person plural ? third ? first person singu-
lar, imperfect? second person? third?
first person plural ? second person plural?
third? first person singular, perfect?
second person ? third ? first person plu
ral? fiecond? third?
G
74
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Singular.
1. I might, could, would,
or should have lov-
ed.
2. You might, could,
would, or should
have loved.
3. He might, could,
would, or should
have loved.
Plural.
1. We might, could,
would, or should
have loved.
2. You might, could,
would, or should
have loved.
3. They might, could,
would, or should
have loved.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular.
1. Imight, could,would,
or should have been
loved.
2. You might, could,
would, or should
have been loved.
3. He might, could,
would, or should
have been loved.
PluraL
1. We might, could,
would, or should
have been loved.
2. You might, could,
would, or should
have been loved.
3. They might, could,
would, or should
have been loved.
Singular.
1. Imight, could,
or should
been.
2. You might,
would, or
have been.
3. He might,
would, or
have been.
Plural.
1. We might,
would, or
have been.
2. You might,
would, or
have been.
3. They might,
would, or
have been.
would,
have
could.,
should
could,
should
could,
should
could,
should
could,
should
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Singular.
1. If I love.
2. If you love.
3. If he loves.
Plural,
1. If we love.
2. If you love.
3. If they love.
Singular.
1. If I love.
2. If you love.
3. If he love.
Plural.
1. If we love.
2. If you love.
3. If they love.
Singular,
1. If I loved.
2. If you loved.
3. If he loved.
Plural.
1. If we loved.
2. If you loVed.
3. If they loved.
PRESENT TENSE.
Common Form,
Singular,
1. If I am loved.
2. If you are loved.
3. If h% is loved.
Plural.
1. If we are loved.
2. If you are loved.
3. If they are loved.
Subjunctive Form,
Singular.
1. If I be loved.
2. If you be loved.
3. If he be loved.
Plural.
1. If we be loved.
2. If you be loved.
3. If they be loved.
IMPERFECT TENSE.
Common Form.
Singular.
1. If I was loved.
2. If you were loved.
3. If he was loved.
Plural.
1. If we were loved.
2. If you were loved.
3. If they were loved.
Singular.
1. If I am.
2. If you are.
3. If he is.
Plural.
1. If we are.
2. If you are.
3. If they are.
Singular.
1. If I be.
2. If you be.
3. If he be.
Plural.
1. If we be.
2. If you be.
3. If they be.
1. If I was.
2. If you were.
3. If he was.
Plural,
1. If we were.
2. If you were.
3. If they were.
Will j'ou conjugate love in like man-
ner, through each person and voice of the
pluperfect ? first and second futures? pre-
sent potential ? imperfect? perfect? plu-
perfect? present subjunctive, common
form ? subjunctive form ? imperfect, com-
mon form? subjunctive form? perfect?
pluperfect? first and second futures ?
Will you conjugate lo.ve in the present
indicative active? imperfect ? perfect ?
pluperfect? first and second futures?
present passive? imperfect? perfect?
pluperfect? first and second futures?
present indicative of to be? imperfect?
perfect ? pluperfect ? first and second
futures ?
TENSES.
75
Singular.
1. If X loved.
2. If you loved.
3. If he loved.
Flural
1. If we loved.
2. If you loved.
3. If they loved.
Subjunctive Form.
Singular.
1. If I were loved. 1.
2. If you were loved. 2.
3. If he were loved. 3.
Plural.
1. If we were loved. 1.
2. If you were loved. 2.
3. If they were loved. 3.
Smgular.
If I were.
If you were.
If he were.
Plural.
If we were.
If you were.
If they were.
The remaining tenses are all of the Common Form.
Singular.
1. If I have loved.
2. If you have loved.
3. If he has loved.
Plural.
1. If we have loved.
2. If you have loved.
3. If they have loved.
Si,ngular.
1. If I had loved.
2. If you had loved.
3. If he had loved.
Plural.
1. If we had loved.
2. If you had loved.
3. If they had loved.
PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.
1. If I have been loved.
2. If you have been lov-
ed.
3. If he has been loved.
Plural.
1. If we have been lov-
ed.
2. If you have been lov-
ed.
3. Ifthey have been lov-
ed.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular.
1. If I had been loved.
2. Ifyou had been loyed.
3. If he had been loved.
Plural.
1. If we had been loved.
2. If you had been lov-
ed.
3. Ifthey had been loved.
FIRST FUTURE TENSE.
Singular.
1. If I have been.
2. If you have been.
3. If he has been.
Plural.
1. If we have been.
2. If you have been.
3. If they have been
Singular.
1. If I had been.
2. If you had been.
3. If he had been.
Plural.
l.'If we had been.
2. If you had been.
3. If they had been.
Singular. Singular. Singular.
1. If I shall or will 1. If I shall or will be 1. If I shall or will
love. loved. be.
2. If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will be 2. If you shall or will
love. loved. be.
3. If he shall or will 3. If he shall or will be 3. If he shall or will
love. loved. be.
Will, you conjugate love through each
person of the present indicative active?
passive? the neuter verb to he? also in
the imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect ? first
and second futures? present potential?
imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? present
subjunctive, in both forms? perfect?
pluperfect? first and second futures?
What is the present infinitive active of
lovel present passive? present of to fie ?
perfect active of love? perfect passive?
perfect of to 6c? present participle active
of love? present passive? present of to
he? perfect of Icwc? perfect of to he?
compound perfect of love, in the active ?
in the passive of to be?
In what voice and mood is, " I love ?"
*' They love ?" " They are loved ?" " Are
they loved ?" " I do love ?" What is the
force of do ? In what voice and mood is,
*'The man loved?" "He has loved?"
" He has been loved ?" " Has he been
loved?" "^he had loved?" "She had
been loved?" "We shall love?" ' We
shall be loved ?" " Shall I have been
loved?" "May I love?" "May I be
loved ?" " She may have loved ?" " She
may have been loved ?" " If I love ?"
" If he be loved?" " If he is loved ?" " If
I love?" " If I were loved"?" " If I was
loved?"
In what tense is, " They love ?" " Ye
are lovisd ?" " She did love ?" " We were
loved?" "They shall love?" "They
shall be loved?" "I may be loved?"
" If she has been loved ?"
In what number and person is, " I
love?" "We love?" "He does love?"
" The man did love ?" " The men were
loved?" "If he love?" "If I was?"
" If I were ?" " If ye have been ?" " If
ye have loved ?" " You may be loved ?"
76
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Plural. Plural. Plural.
1. If we shall or will 1. If we shall or will be 1. If we shall or will
love. loved. be.
2. If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will be 2. If you shjiU or will
love. loved. be.
3. If they shall or will 3. If they shall or will 3. If they shall or will
love. be loved. be.
Singular.
1. If I shall have
ed.
2. If you shall have
ed.
3. If he shall have
ed.
Plural.
1. If we shall have
ed.
2. If you shall have
ed.
3. Ifthey shall have
ed.
Singular.
, Love you, or do you
love.
Plural.
, Love you, or do you
love.
Pres. To love.
Per/. To have loved.
SECOND FUTURE TENSE.
Singular.
lov- 1. If I shall have been 1.
loved. 2.
lov- 2. If you shall have been
loved. 3.
lov- 3. If he shall have been
loved.
Plural.
lov- 1. If we shall have been 1.
loved,
lov- 2. If you shall have been 2.
loved,
lov- 3. If they shall have 3.
been loved.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
2. Be you loved, or do
you be loved.
Plural.
2. Be you loved, or do
you be loved.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres. To be loved,
Perf. To have been lov-
ed.
PARTICIPLES.
Singular.
If I shall have been.
If you shall have
been.
If he shall have
been.
Plural.
If we shall have
been.
If you shall have
been.
If they shall have
been.
Singular.
2. Be you, or do you
be. 1
Plural. %
2. Be you, or do you
be.
Pres. To be.
Perf. To have been.
Pres. Loving. Pres. Being loved. Pres. Being.
Perf. Loved. P^ff Loved. Perf Been.
Compound Perf. Hav- Compound Perf Hav- Compound Perf. Hav
ing loved. ing been loved. ing been. ^
536. For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thou, in the
conjugation of verbs, the following synopsis is given. The pupil can take
it separately, or be taught it in connection with the other persons of the
verb, by substituting thou for you, in the foregoing conjugation.
passive ? imperative present active ? pas
sive 7 perfect infinitive active ? passive ?
present subjunctive active in both forms ?
passive? perfect infinitive? future ac-
tive passive ?
What kind of verb (that is, regular or
irregular,) what voice, mood, tense, num-
ber, and person is, " I sing ?" " We are
formed?" "He is?" "You are deter-
mined?" "It rains?" "It has happen-
ed?" " The man was respected ?" " The
boys did study ?" " If he improve ?" " Un-
less he repent?" "Although she be dis-
appointed?" " He may depart ?" "De-
part now?" "To love?" "To sing?"
" To be sung ?" " To rejoice ?" " To have
wept ?" " To have been seen ?" " To have
been found?"
Is love, as, " They love," a regular or
irregular verb? why? 533. active or pas-
sive ? 439. What mood is it in ? why ?
452. tense ? why ? 482. number ? person ?
What does love agree with ? Rule VII.
Is are, as, " They are," a regular or
irregular verb? why? 534. passive or
neuter ? why ? 450. What mood is it in ?
why? 452. tense? why? 482. number?
person ? Rule for its agreement ? VII.
What is the present imperative of lovel
present infinitive?
What mood and tense is, " Love you ?"
is, " To have been loved ?"
Will you conjugate learn in the pre-
sent indicative active? passive? perfect
active? perfect passive? present poten-
tial activi ? passive? imperfect active?
Pres. Thou lovest.
Imp. Thou lovedst.
Perf. Thou hast loved.
Plup. Thou hadst lov-
ed.
1 Put. Thou shalt or
wilt love.
2 Put. Thou wilt have
loved.
537.
Pres. Thou mayst or
canst.love.
Imp. Thou mightst,
couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst love.
Perf. Thou mayst or
canst have loved.
Plup. Thou mightst,
couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst have loved.
TENSES.
Synopsis with Thou,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Thou art loved.
Thou wast loved.
Thou hast been loved.
Thou hadst been loved.
Thou shalt or wilt be
loved.
Thou wilt have been
loved.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
Thou mayst or canst be
loved.
Thou mightst, couldst,
wouldst, or shouldst
be loved.
Thou mayst or canst
have been loved.
Thou mightst, couldst,
wouldst, or shouldst
have been loved.
77
Thou art.
Thou wast.
Thou hast been.
Thou hadst been.
Thou shalt or wilt be.
Thou wilt have been.
Thou mayst or canst
be.
Thou mightst, couldst,
wouldst, or shouldst
be.
Thou mayst or canst
have been.
Thou mightst, couldst,
wouldst, or shouldst
have been.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
538.
Pres. If thou lovest.
Imp. If thou lovedst.
539.
Pres. If thou love.
Imp. If thou loved.
540.
Perf. If thou hast loved-
Plup. If thou hadst lov-
1 Put. If thou shalt or
wilt love.
2 Put. If thou shalt have
loved.
Common Form.
If thou art loved.
If thou wast loved.
Subjunctive Form.
If thou be loved.
If thou wert loved.
Common Form.
If thou hast been loved.
If thou hadst been lov-
ed.
If thou shalt or wilt be
loved.
If thou shalt have been
loved.
If thou art.
If thou wast.
If thou be.
If thou wert.
If thou hast been.
If thou hadst been.
If thou shalt or wilt
be.
If thou shalt have been.
Interrogative Form.
INDICATIVE PRESENT.
Singular.
1. Ami?
541.
Singular, Singular.
1. Do I love ? 1. Am I loved ?
2. Do you love ? 2. Are you loved ? 2. Are you ?
3. Does he love ? 3. Is he loved ? 3. Is he ?
Plural. Plural. Plural.
1. Do we love ? 1. Are we loved ? 1. Are we ?
2. Do you love? 2. Are you loved? 2. Are you?
3. Do they love ? 3. Are they loved ? 3. Are they ?
542. You will find, on examination of the foregoing conjugation, that the
tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the corresponding ones
of the indicative, except the following, namely, the present and imperfect
Will you give the synopsis of love join-
ed with thou through the indicative ac-
tive ? passive ? Neuter verb to be ?
Will you name the synopsis of learn in
the first person in the active voice,
through each mood and tense ? Will you
repeat the two tenses of the infinitive
and the three participles? Synopsis of
7*
honor in like manner througli the pas
sive ? also the synopsis of the verb to be ?
Give the synopsis of rfe^ire in the active,
like love; in the passive ; verb to be; first
person plural active ; passive ; to ftc; third
person active; passive; to be.
What mood does the suhjunctive re«
semble in its tenses ? 542.
78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
of the verb to he ; the present and imperfect of the passive ; the present and
the second future active. The last, however, corresponds in termination,
but not in formation. Among the exceptions should be reckoned the use of
the conjunction if. There are instances, however, of the subjunctive form,
when no conjunction is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly under-
stood ; as, " Were I to go, he would not follow;" " Had he known me,
he would have treated me differently ;" that is, " If I were to go," and, " If
he had known." Examples of this description are conjugated as follows :
SUBJUNCTIVE FORM.
543. IMPERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. Were I. 1. Were we.
2. Were you. 2. Were you.
3. Were he. 3. Were they.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
>. Had I loved. 1. Had we loved.
2. Had you loved. 2. Had you loved.
3. Had he loved. 3. Had they loved.
544. The second person singular of all verbs* formerly (1.) ended in st ,
ts, " Thou hast," " Thou wast," &c. This form is still retained by that
respectable class of persons denominated C2.) Friends, and in the Sacred (3.)
Scriptures. (3.)
545. Eth, for the termination of the third person singular, obtained (4.^
very generally till within a recent (5.) period, especially on grave (6.) and
didactic (7.) subjects ; as, " He that hat?i ears to hear, let him hear ;" ** Sim
pie multiplication teacheth to repeat," &c. But the custom of the present
day is decidedly (8.) against the usage. (9.)
546. The Scriptures abound (10.) with instances of the use of the pro-
noun ye for you ; as, " Ye are the salt of the earth ;" but it is scarcely to
be met with in any standard works of modern date.
547. The following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of the verb,
INDICATIVE PRESENT.
Singular. Singular. Si7igular.
1. I love. 1. I am loved. 1. I am.
2. Thou lovest. 2. Thou art loved. 2. Thou art.
3. He loveth or loves. 3. He is loved. 3. He is.
What exceptions? 542. By whom is this termination still re*
How does the second future differ? 542. tained? 544. In what writings ? 544.
Will you explain the difference ? 542. Meaning of Sacred Scriptures? 544.
What is the sign of the subjunctive What form of the third person singu.
mood ? 510. Is it always expressed ? 542. lar obtained till recently ? 545. Give an
Give an example. 542. Will you supply example. 545.
the conjunction ? Meaning of oftfatnerf? 545. Of receyit
Will you conjugate the verb to be in 545.
the subjunctive mood, imperfect tense, On what subjects was the termination
without its usual sign? In like manner eth used in writing? 545.
conjugate love in the pluperfect. Meaning of grave? of didactic? 545.
Will you conjugate love in the present In what writings do we find ye used
active, interrogative form? passive? for you? 546.
neuter verb to bi? Is it common in modern works? 54G.
In what voice, mood, tense, number Will you conjugate love in the present
and person is, " Do I study ?" " Did she active, according to the ancient usage ?
study ?" " Were they dismissed?" " Are 547. passive ? neuter verb to be?
we ?" In what number and person is, " He
In what did the second person singular hath?" "He hates?" " Thou lovest ?"
of all verbs formerly end ? 544. Give an "Thou hast?" "He learneth?" "Ye
example. 544. learn ?" " He rejoiceth?" "Thou art re-
Meaning of /orwicWy? 544. joiced?" "Thou art?" "He weepeth?"
* Exceptinsj art.
n.; Sfinietiinea^o. (2.) Called. (3.) The Bib!e. (4.) Prevailed. (5.) Late. (6.) Seriou»
•J.) Abounding in precepts or instructive. (8.) Positively. (9.) Use. (10.} Have many.
VERBS, 79
Plural. Plural. Plural.
1. We love. 1, We are loved. 1. We are.
2. Ye or you love. 2. Ye or you are loved. 2. Ye or you are.
3. They love. 3. They are loved. 3. They are.
548. 0:5°" For a further illustration of these obsolete conjugations, the
learner is referred to those treatises on grammar in our schools, which pro-
fess to furnish him with a sure and infallible guide to the true and proper
use of the English language.
Ruiii: VI.
TTie nominative case governs the verb in number and
'person,
RTJI.ZS VIZ.
i verb must agree with its nominative case in number and
person,
RUIiZS VIII.
Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case,
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" William loas admired for his prudence^
549. William is a proper noun, of the third person, singular
NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE tO WUS ad'
mired, agreeably to Rule VI.
Was admired is a regular passive verb, from the verb to admire
— •" Pres. admire; Imp. admired; Perf. part, admired. 1. I was ad-
mired; 2. You were admired; 3. He or William was admired" —
made in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, sin-
gular number, and agrees with William, according to Rule VII.
For is a preposition.
His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num-
ber, masculine gender, and agrees with William, according to
Rule V. — ^^ Nom. he; Poss. his" — made in the possessive case,
and governed by prudence, by Rule I.
Prudence is a common noun, of the third person, singular num-
bep., neuter gender, objective case, and governed by /or, by Hule X.
EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.
" John was applauded for his elo- " The girl was ridiculed by Iier
quence." companions."
" The king was crowned at West- " Susan was respected for her virtu-
minster Abbey." ous conduct."
"Thomas has been esteemed." "James will be rewarded by his
" The business will be regulated." instructer."
"Addition teaclieth?" "He that hath was admiredf 549. /or? 549. his? 5i9.
ears?" "He that sinneth?" "Thou prudence? 549.
lovedst?" "Thou rnightst, conldst, What is a passive verb? 444. How
wouldst, or shouldsl have lamented ?" formed ? 510. Why is admired regular ?
What is the rule for the agreement of 533.
the verb? rule for the nominative ? rule Why is for a preposition? 24G. Why
by wjaich verbs gov«rn the objective case? is //if a pronoun ?
" William was admired for his pru- Will you now parse the rcmainin?j ex-
dence." Will you parse William? 549. ercises^
eo ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2.
" We may be esteemed." " Justice may have been stayed."
*' He might have been promoted." " The task must be performed."
" William would have been de- " We should not (1.) be easily (1.)
throned." disheartened in a good cause."
"7/* 7ie be learned,^^
550. ijr is a COPULATIVE conjunction.
Be learned is a regular passive verb, from the verb to learn
— " Pres. learn ; Imper. learned ; Perf. part, learned. 1. If I be
learned ; 2. If you be learned ; 3. If he be learned" — made in the
subjunctive mood, subjunctive form, present tense, third per-
son, SINGULAR NUMBER, and agrecs with he^ according to Rule VII.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
" If John be rewarded." " Although you will be disappoint-
" If I am noticed." ed."
" Unless he be punished." " If the man had been elected."
" Although they are respected." " Except he repent."
" Columbus discovered America." " Susan assisted the little girl."
" America was discovered by Co- " The little girl was assisted by
lumbus." Susan."
" John wounded his brother." " Pain follows pleasure."
"John's brother was wounded by "Pleasure is followed by pain."*
, him." ^ ^
2.
" An obedient son is deservedly re- " Unless great labor had been be-
spected by his friends." stowed on William, he would
"An idle boy will be punish- have disappointed the expecta-
ed." tions of his parents."
"Without j^nowledge, a man is "He will not (I.) mind without
commonly (1.) despised." corporal punishment."
3.
"The boy who visited me in Sep- "They that seek knowledge will
tember, died in the city of Bos- find it."
ton." "That lion v;hich was exhibited
" The man whom I found perished in this town has been killed by
in a storm of snow." his keeper."
4.
" I found (5.) John and William (3.) " I have assisted him and his sister
in the garden with their father in many difficulties, to no (4.)
and mother. (3.) purpose."
XLVI. OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their im-
perfect tense and perfect participle by adding to the present
tense ed, or d only when the verb ends in e ; as,
" If he be learned." Will you parse if? Why in the subjunctive form ? 4C3.
550. be learned? 550. Why in the sub- Will you parse the remaining exercises
junctive mood? 456. in these lessons?
(1.) Adverb. (2.) Irregular verb. (Q.) For tVUliam, and mother apply Rule XI. (4,) Adjective.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
81
Pres, tense.
Imperf.
tense.
Perf, Participle,
Go,
Went,
Gone,
Begin,
Began,
Begun.
Z.ZST
OF XRRZSGt7I.AR VERBS.
Those marked r admit likewise
a regular form
Present.
Imperfect.
Perf. or Pass. Part.
Present.
Imperfect.
Perf. or Pass. Part.
Abide,
abode,
abode.
Hang,
hung, r.
hung. r.
Am,
was.
been.
Hear,
h^'^
heard.
Arise,
arose,
arisen.
Hew,
hewn. r.
Awake,
^ awoke, r.
awaked.
Hide,
hid, '
hidden, hid.
Bear, to
forth,
^•"^ bare,
carry, bore.
born.
Hit,
Hold,
hit,
held.
hit
held.
Bear, to
borne.
Hurt,
hurt,
hurt.
Beat,
beat.
beaten, beat.
Keep,
kept.
kept
B&r%
began.
begun.
Knit,
knit, r.
knU. r.
Ijend,
bent.
bent.
Know,
knew.
known.
Bereave,
bereft, r.
bereft, r.
Lade,
laded.
laden.
Beseech,
besought.
besought.
Lay,'
laid,
laid.
Bid,
bid, bade,
bidden, bid.
Lead,
led.
led.
Bind,
bound.
bound.
Leave,
left.
left
Bite,
bit.
bitten, bit.
Lend/
lent.
lent
Bleed,
bled.
bled.
Let,
let,
let
Blow,
blew,
blown.
Lie, to lie
down, lay.
lain.
Break,
broke-
broken.
Load,
loaded.
laden, r. .
Breed,
bred.
bred.
Lose,
made,
lost.
a;
brought,
brought.
Make,
made.
built,
built.
Meet,
met.
met
Burst,
burst.
burst.
Mow,
mowed,
mown. r.
Bay,^
bought,
bought.
Pay,
paid,
paid.
Cast,
cast.
cast.
Put,'
put.
put
Catch,
caught, r.
chid.
caught, r.
chidden, chid.
Read,
read,
read.
Cbide,
Rend,
rent.
rent
Choose,
^ chose.
chosen.
Rid,
a. ^
rid.
Cleave,
stick I .
Ride,
rode, ridden, t
OT adhere, ^ -s"-"'.
Ring,
rung, rang.
rung.
Cleave, to split, clove or cleft
cleft, cloven.
Rise,
rose,
risen.
Clin^,
clung,
clung.
Rive,
rived.
riven.
Clothe,
clothed,
clad. r.
Run,
ran.
run.
Come,
came.
come.
Saw,
saw,
sawn. r.
Goaf,
cost.
cost.
Say,
said.
said.
Crow,
crew, r.
crowed.
la.
saw.
seen.
Creep,
crept.
crept.
Zt'
isrf-
Cut,
cut.
cut.
Sell,
Dare, to venture, durst,
dared.
Send,
sent.
sent
Dare, to
chal- },
Set,
set.
set
lenge,
Shake,
shook.
shaken.
DeaL
' dealt, r.
dealt r.
Shape,
shaped.
shaped, sbapen
Rig,
■ i^r
dug. r.
Shave,
shaved.
shaven, r.
Do,
done.
Shear,
sheared,
shorn.
Draw,
drew.
drawn.
Shed,
shed,
shed.
Drive,
drove,
driven.
Shine,
shone, r.
shone, r.
Drink,
. drank,
drunk.
Show,
showed,
shown.
Dwell,
dwelt.
dwelt, r.
Shoe,
shod.
shod.
Eat, '
Fall,
eat or ate.
eaten.
Shoot,
shot.
shot
fell.
fallen.
Shrink,
shrunk.
shrunk.
Feed,
fed.
fed.
Shred,
shred,
shred.
Feel,
felt.
felt.
Shut,
shut,
shut
Fight,
fought,
fought.
Sing,
sung, sang.
sunk.
Find,
found.
found.
Sink,
sunk, sank
Flee,
fled.
fled.
Sit,
^^U .
sat.
FlS,
flung, ^
flung.
Slay,
slew, <•
slain.
Fly,
flew.
flown.
Sleep,
slept,
slid.
slept
yorget.
forgot.
forgotten, forgot
Slide,
slidden.
Forsake,
forsook.
forsaken.
Sling.
Elung,
slunk.
s;£
Freeze,
froze.
frozen.
Slink,
Get,
got,'
got.*
Slit,
slit, r.
sli!, or slitted.
Gild,
gilt, r.
gilt. r.
Smite,
smote,
smitten.
Gird,
girt, n
girt. r.
Sow,
sowed.
sown. r.
Give,
gave.
given. V
Speak,
spoke,
spoken.
Go,
went.
gone.
Speed,
sped.
sped.
Grave,
graved.
graven, r.
Spend,
spent.
spent
Grind,
ground.
ground.
Spill,
spilt, r.
spilt, r.
Grow,
grew,
grown,
had.
Spin,
spun.
spun.
Have,
had.
Spit,
spit, spat.
spit, spitten.t
XLVI. When is a verb called irregu-
lar? 551.
Will you name the present and imper-
fect tenses, also the perfect participle of
go 7 begin ? am ? arise ? awake ? bear ?
(to carry.) bid? bite? break? choose?
do? drink? eat? forget? have? known 1
lie? (to lie down.) mow? rise? see?
throw 1 weave? write?
« Gotten is nearly obsolefe. Its compound, forgotten, is still in good use.
t Ridden is nearly obsolete. XSpitten is nearly obsolete.
6
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Prtaent.
Split,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Steal,
Stick,
Sting,
Stitik,
Stride,
Strike,
String,
Strive,
Strow or strew,
Swear,
Sweat,
Swell,
Swim,
Swing,
Imperfect.
Perf, or Pa-is. Part.
Prueyit.
Imperfect.
Perf or Past. Part.
split.
split, r.
Take,
took,
taken.
spread,
spread.
Teach,
taught.
taught.
sprung, sprang
sprung.
Tear,
tore.
torn.
stood,
siood.
Tell,
told,
told.
stole,
stolen.
Think,
thought,
thought.
stuck,
stuck.
Thrive,
throve, r.
thriven.
stung,
stunk,
stung,
stunk.
Throw,
threw,
thrown.
Thrust,
thrust,
thrust
strode, or strid.
stridden.
Tread,
trod,
trodden.
struck,
struck or stricken.
Wax,
waxed.
waxen, r.
strung,
strung.
Wear,
wore.
worn.
strove.
striven.
Weave,
wove.
woven.
strowed, or
> strown, strowed.
Weep,
wept.
wept.
strewed,
) strewed.
Win,*^'
won,
swore,
sworn.
Wind,
wound.
. wound.
swet, r.
swelled,
swet. r.
swollen, r.
Work,
wrought,
I^ztj:
swum, swam,
swum.
Wring,
wrung.
wrung.
swung,
swung.
Write,
wrote,
written.
553. We say, " I have seen," "I had seen," and *' I am seen," using
the participle seen instead of the verb saw : hence,
Note VI. We should use participles, only, after have, and
had, and the verb to be.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
^^ John has imtten his copy.^^
554. Has written is a'b irregular active-transitive verb,
from the verb to write — " Pres. write ; Imperf. wrote ; ^ Perf. part.
written. 1. I have written; 2. You have written; S.' He or John
has written" — found in the indicative mood, perfect tensb»
THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and Bgrees With John, Ly
Rule VII.
Johnf copy, and his^ are parsed as before.
EXERCISES IN
SYNTAX
1.
CONTINUED.
" Job has struck John."
♦* John has been struck by Job."
" The men caught the thief in the
tavern."
" The thief was caught by the men
in the tavern."
"A wise son will make a glad
father."
' The act was done >/ William."
'James found hij iittle brother in
the boat."
' The instructer makes good pens."
'The farmer ploughs the ground
in spring."
' I may spend my time in the
country."
Will you correct, in accordance with
Note VI., the following examples from
the list above ?
" John has wrote."
" He done it well."
*' The sun has rose."
*' The sun risen yesterday in a cloud."
" I see him yesterday."
" He has did his task."
" The birds have flew away."
" The birds flown or flew."
•' The post is drove into the ground."
" He began or begun to write."
*' The task is began."
*' I had went with him."
" My brother has not spoke."
'• The cloth is wove."
•* The boys run swiftly."
*' The thief has stole Inv watch."
" His copy was wrote well."
" He was smote on his cheek."
" John was awoke by the noise."
" My father has came,"
" He come yesterday."
" Mary has chose the better part."
" He drunk to excess."
" The book was gave to me."
" His friends have forsook him."
" He was not forsook by his child-
ren."
" The laborer worked for me forty
days."
" He was took and bound."
" John has written his copy." Will
you parse has writtenl
Whv is has written an irregular verb?
551. Why active ? 439. Why transitive?
440.
EXERCISES. 83
2.
»» John is at home." " He abode in peace."
" Rufus rode into the country." " They would be cruel."
" The sun will shine." " We may have been negligent."
" The thief was confined in jail." " The boys should have been studi-
"The horse ran with great vio- ous."
lence." " William was in town."
3.
" If he will assist me, I shall be faults, still he would not recom-
much (1.) obliged to him." pense me."
** If he be virtuous, then he will be " I will write him, lest he neglect
happy." my business."
" If he is happy, then I am con- " Should I be disappointed, I shall
tented." despair."
"Had he mentioned that circum- "Unless he repent, he will not be
stance, I should have avoided pardoned."
my present calamities." " Were I* in your place, I would
" Although he acknowledged his relieve him."
4.
" Thou hast benefited me." " Dost thou hear me ?"
" Ye make no pretensions." " Hath he many advisers ?"
" This doctrine hath no follow- "Ye do always err."
ers." " Thou shalt surely die."
" If thou love me." " If thou hadst obeyed me, thou
" If thou art more comfortable, I wouldst not have been disap-
heartily rejoice." pointed."
5.
" If Thomas, who is at school, re- imposed was performed with
turn in season, I will visit you." reluctance."
"The boys whom I admonished "The measure which he adopts
have reformed." will succeed."
" The man whose life was in dan- " I have known a little child that
ger returned in safety." exhibited the prudence of ma-
" The task which the instructer ture years."
XLVII. GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE.
555. When I say, ** John begins to read," to read is a verb in the infini-
tive mood ; and it follows, as you perceive, the verb begins : hence we say
that it is governed by begins.
"He is beginning to read." Here, the infinitive follows the participle
beginning ; it is, therefore, governed by beginning.
" He is eager to learn." Here, the infinitive follows the adjective eager;
we therefore say that it is governed by eager.
"He has an opportunity to learn." Here, the infinitive, to learn ia
governed by the noun opportunity, because it follows the noun.
In like manner the infinitive may be governed by pronouns; as, " There
is a fine opportunity for him to learn :" hence,
XLVII. "John begins to read." In "He has an opportunity to learn?"
what mood is to readl 555. Why ? 479. What part of speech governs to learn in
By what is it governed ? 555. Why ? 555. this example ? .555. Why ? 555.
" He is beginning to read." What go- " opportunity for him to learn."
verns ftf rcarf in this case ? 555. What does the infinitive here fol-
" He is eager to learn." What governs low? By what, then, is it governed?
to learn in this case ? 555. Why ? 555. 555.
(1.; Adverb. ~ • See 543.
64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rt7IiZS XII.
The infinitive mood may he governed by verbs, partici-
ples, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" James begins to learn,^^
656. To learn is a regular transitive verb — ^^ Pres. learn;
Imperf. learned; Perf. part, learned" — made in the infinitive
MOOD, PRESENT TENSE, and govcmed by begins, agreeably to
Rule XII.
James and begins, are parsed as before.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
** George desires to learn." " A knowledge of the rules of
"He is eager to learn." grammar teaches us to write
" He has a desire to study." correctly."
" It seems to please John." " He should seek to obtain know-
" William has come to see us." ledge."
" They are determined to ex- " We may be taught to write, read,
eel." and spell."
Omission of to, the usual Sign of the Infinitive,
"John saw the man strike (I.) the " I heard the clock strike."
boy." " The tutor bade him do it."
"The instructer made him sub- " The soldiers dare not rebel."
mit." " My uncle let the boys play in the
"They need not proceed in such garden."
haste." " See (2.) the blind beggar dance."
Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by
conjunctions or adverbs ; as, " The summit of a mountain so
high as to be invisible."
EXAMPLES.
" They are about (3.) to depart." " He desired no more (4.) than (5.)
" He is wise enough (3.) to study." to know his duty."
XLVIII.
557. We have before seen, that participles partake of the nature of two
parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance
which participles have to adjectives, is in referring to some noun in the sen-
tence in which they are used ; as, *' The sun is setting :" here, the partici-
ple setting is said to refer to the noun sun : hence,
What, then, may be regarded as a rule " They are about to depart." By what
for the government of the infinitive? XII. is the infinitive here governed ? Wliat ia
"John begins to learn." Will you the note for this.? VII.
parse to learn? James 7 begins? 556. XLVIII. What is a participle? 498.
Is to ever omitted ? 480. " The sun ia setting." What is set-
Will you now parse the exercises in tirig? 557. To what, then, does setting
the lessons which follow ? refer ? 557. Rule ? XIII.
What is the infinitive mood used for ? Will you now parse setting in
m ^ full? ^
(1.) strike is governed b^ Rule XII.
(2.) See is in the imperative, agrreeing with thcu or you, understood, by Rule VII.
(3.) Adverb, (4.) Noun. (5.) Coujunction.
PARTICIPLES. 85
RVX.!: XZIZ.
Participles refer to nouns,
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" The wind is rising,''^
558. Rising is a present active participle, from the irregular
verb to rise — " Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf, part, risen" — and it
refers to wind, according to Rule XIII.
EXERCISESIIf syntax: CONTINUED.
1. ■' "
" The moon is setting." " Mary was playing."
" The sun is rising." " I have been writing."
" The trees are growing." " I found him crying."
"John was dancing." " I left him rejoicing."
PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES.
" The rising sun cheers W5."
559. Rising is a participial adjective, from the verb to rise —
** Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf. part, risen" — and belongs to sim^ by
Rule IV.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
2.
** The setting sun reminds us of " We view with pleasure the twink-
declining years." ling stars."
"The roaring winds alarm us." "The roaring cataract strikes us
"The rippling stream pleases with awe."
us." ^ " The laboring man should not be
•• The singing-master visited me." defrauded."
3.
"Having dined, I returned to "Having slept, he recovered his
school." strength."
" Having fought bravely, they were " Having retired to rest, he was
at last (I.) overcome." seized with violent pain."
"John, having exercised too vio- "The thief, having escaped, was
lently, fainted." never afterwards seen in that
region."
4.
" William returned, mortified at his " A child left to follow his own in-
loss." clinations is most commonly
" The stream, swollen by the rains, ruined."
overflowed its banks." " Admired and applauded,, he be-
" The man accustomed to his glass came vain."
seldom reforms."
Will you parse the next lesson ? What kind of a participle is, " Having
Win you parse rising^ in the sentence, dined ?" 504. Why ? 504.
"The rising sun?" 559. Why is it call- Who dined, in the phrase, "Having
ed a participial adjective ? ^ns. Because dined, I returned to school ?"
it describes, like an adjective, and im- To what, then, does having dined re-
plies action, like a participle. fer? Rule XHI. Will you now parse the
Will you now parse the next lesson? remaining lessons?
(1.) At last is an adverbial phrase.
86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
5.
" A dissipated son grieves his youth into his own house, and
parents." rendered to him deserved assis-
" We must not neglect any known tance."
duty." " William befriended the deserted
"My father took the forsaken man."
6.
** The men, being fatigued by labor, feet, was severely and justly
sought rest in sleep." punished."
" William, being dismissed from col- " The tree, having been weighed
lege, retired to the country." down for a long time by abun-
" Thomas, after having been re- dance of fruit, at last (1.) fell to
peatedly admonished to no ef- the ground."
RUZiz: xzv.
Active participles, from active-transitive verbs, gov&im the
objective case.
" James is beating Johny
560. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular
NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and govemcd by heat-
ing, by Rule XIV.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
1.
" John is striking William." immediately set off for Bos-
" Susan is studying her lesson." ton."
" Mary has been repeating her les- " I spied the cat watching a
son to her mother." mouse."
"The teamster, seeing the stage "Having given directions to his
upsetting, ran and prevented servants, he left his family
it." and took the stage for Wash-
" Having obtained my request, I ington."
" He delights in Jlghting,^^
561. Fighting is a participial noun, in the objective case, and
governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED,
1.
" Job was exhausted by wrest- " Job practises fencing daily."
ling." "The instructer teaches reading,
"Mary acquired a liveHhood by writing, and spelling, in his
sewing." school."
" Walter excels in writing." " Whispering is forbidden in
" Fishing delights me." school."
"Beating John." Will you parse ing? ,%}. Why is fighting caUed a p&r-
Johnl 560. Beating? 558. ticipial noun? Ans. Because it implies
^N\\\ you parse the remaining exercises f."'^°"' l;'!^. I P^'n'^'P^^' ^"'^ *'^'* ^^''''
in thp iP«s«nn nhnvo 1 the sense of a noun,
m the lesson above ? ^. „ ^^^ p^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ jj^e exercises
" In fighting." Will you parse fight- in this lesson ?
(1.) M Uut is an adverbial phrase.
EXERCISES. 8X
2.
562. " You will much oblige me by sending those books.^^
Sending is a participial noun, in the objective case, and
governed by the preposition by, according to Rule X.
Books is a common noun, of the third person, plural number,
NEUTER GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and govomed by the active par-
ticiple sending, according to Rule XIV.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
"James derives pleasure from read- " Mary's reading has been useful
ing useful books." in improving her taste in com-
"John is above doing a mean ac- position."
lion." " I am discouraged from under-
" Parents are pleased at seeing taking this study."
the progress of their chil- " A good instructer takes no delight
dren." in punishing."
The present participle, when used as a noun, often has the definite article
the before it, and the preposition o/ after it ; as, ** By the observing of truth,
you will command respect." With equal propriety, however, it maybe
said, "By observing truth," &c., omitting both the article and the pre-
position. If we use the article without the preposition, or the preposition
without the article, the expression will appear awkward : hence.
Note VIII. The definite article the should be used before,
and the preposition of afler, participial nouns, or they should
both be omitted.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
"By the observing these rules, he "In the regarding his interests,
will avoid mistakes." he neglected the public af-
"He prepared them for the event fairs."
by the sending to them proper " He was sent to prepare the way
information." by preaching of repentance."
" In writing of his letter, he made " Keeping of one day in seven (1.)
some mistakes." is required of Christians."
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
*♦ William calls George." " John will be punished for his
"John*s father will reward his in- insolence."
dustry. ^ »* We may improve under our in-
" George's father's carnage passed structer, if we choose."
the tavern."
" If William return, he will be dis- " He who would excel in learn-
appointed." ^"ff» ™ust be attentive to his
•* John has beaten his little brother books."
most shamefully," " She begins to improve."
" By sending those books." Will you Instead of saying, " By the observing
parse sending? 5(32. books? 562. these rules," what should I say? Why?
Will you parse the remaining exercises Note VIII.
How may participles in ing be distin- Will you parse the promiscuous exer-
guished from other parts of speech of the cises in Syntax ? Next take those to be
iiame termination ? 560. written.
«1.) Seven is a numeral atdjedive, belonging to days, understood, bjr Note r.
88 , ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
563. Will you compose a sentence, containing an active-transitive verb ?
One, containing- a neuter verb ? One, containing a passive verb ? One,
expressing the same sense as the last in an active form ? Will you com-
pose a sentence having a verb in the potential mood ? One, in the sub-
junctive mood ? One, in the imperative mood ? One, in the infinitive
mood ? One, having an adjective in the superlative degree ? One, hav-
ing the article an correctly used before a vowel ? One, having an adjec-
tive in the positive degree that has in itself a superlative signification ?
One, containing the relative whose ? One, containing wJdch ? One, with
what used as a compound pronoun ? One, having who used as an inter-
rogative pronoun ? One, having a verb in the subjunctive mood, common
form ?
Will you construct one or more sentences, which will make sense with
the word truth contained in them? One, with the word wisdom contain-
ed in it ? One, with the word knowledge 1 One, with the word learn'
ing ? One, with the word science 7
Will you construct a sentence about prudence ? One about history ?
One or more on the following subjects, namely, geography, gardenings
farms, orchards ?
Will you fill up the following phrases with suitable words to make
sense, namely, " Industry health ?" " By — we acquire ?"
" In youth characters ?" " Arithmetic business ?'*
"Washington live hearts of his ?"
XLIX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS.
564. The verbs have, he, will and do, when they are unconnected with a
principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal
verbs ; as, " We have enough ;" '* I am grateful ;" " He wills it to be so ;"
** They do as they please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries ;
as, "I shall have enough ;" "I will be grateful," &c.
565. The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the
following account of them.
666. Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater
energy and positiveness ; as, ^'I do speak truth ;" "I did respect him ;"
*' Here am I, for thou didst call me." They are of great use in negative
(1.) sentences ; as, ** I do not fear ;" "I did not write." They are almost
universally employed in asking questions; as, " Doss he learn ?" ''Did
he not write?" They sometimes also supply (2.) the place of another
verb, and make the repetition of it, in the same or a subsequent sentence,
annecessary ; as, ** You attend not to j^our studies as he does ;" (i. e. "as
be attends," &c.) *'I shall come, if I can; but if I do not, please to
excuse me ;" (i. e. ** if I come not.")
567. 3Iay and might express the possibiUty or liberty of doing a thing ;
can and could, the power ; as, " It may rain ;" "I may write or read ;"
" He might have improved more than he has ;" " IJe can write much bet-
ter than he could last year."
XLIX. Which are the auxiliary verbs? What effect have do and did in sen-
512. tencea ? 566. Give an example. 566.
What is an auxiliary verb ? 511. Will you give an example in which the
What a principal one?* repetition of the principal verb is un-
When are have, be, will, and do princi- necessary 7 566.
pal verbs? 564. Give an example of What do may and might express?
each. 564. 567.
(1.) Denying. (2.) To fill up. * See question to 197.
AUXILIARY VERBS. 89
568. Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity ; as,
** We must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and we must not pre-
varicate." (1.)
569. Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates (2.) resolution
and promising ; in the second and third person, it only foretells; as, "I
will reward the good, and will punish -the wicked ;" " We will remember
benefits, and be grateful ;" " I'hou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly ;"
** You, or they, will have a pleasant walk."
570. Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; in the
second and third persons, it promises, commands, or threatens; as, "I
shall go abroad ;" " We shall dine at home ;" " Thou shalt, or you shall,
inherit the land ;" *' Ye shall do justice, and love mercy ;" " They shall
account for their misconduct." 1'he following passage is not translated (3.)
according to the distinct and proper meanings of the words shall and will :
" Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and
I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever." It ought to be, " wi/Z
follow me," and, " I shall dwell." — The foreigner who, as it is said, fell
into the Thames, and cried out, '^ I will be drowned! nobody sAaZZ help
me !" made a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries.
571. These observations respecting the import (4.) of the verbs will and
shall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for when the sentence
is interrogative, just the reverse, (5.) for the most part, takes place : thus,
" I shall go," " You will go," express event (6.) only ; but, *' JVill you
go ?" imports intention ; and, " Shalt I go ?" refers to the will of another.
But, ** He shall go," and, " Shall he g(5 ?" both imply will ; expressing or
referring to a command.
572. When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning of these
auxiliaries Hkewise undergoes (7.) some alteration ; as the learners will
readily perceive by a few examples : " He shall proceed ;" " If he s^aZZ pro-
ceed ;" " You shall consent ;" *' If you shall consent." These auxiharies
are sometimes interchanged (8.) in the indicative and subjunctive moods ;
to convey the same meaning of the auxihary ; as, *' He will not return ;"
" If he shall not return ;" "He shall not return ;" " If he will not return."
573. Would primarily (9.) denotes inclination of will ; and should, obliga-
tion ; but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple
event.
574. Do and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, according to the
following
SiriTOFSZS.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. I do. I have.
Imp. I did. I had.
Perf. I have done. I have had.
Plup. 1 had done. I had had.
1 Fut. I shall or will do. I shall or will have.
2 Fut. I shall have done. I shall have had.
What is the use of must ? 568. all the days of my life ; and I will dwell
What does will intimate in the first in the house of the Lord for ever." 570.
person sitffeular? plural? 569. Give an In what consists the mistake in the
example. 569. In the second and third expression which the foreigner made
persons? 569. Give an example. 569. whon he fell into the Thames? 570.
What does shall intimate in the first What do s/mW and wiZZ denote in inter-
person? 570. Give an example. 570. ropative sentences; as, "Shall I go?"
In what particular is the translation of " Will you go ?" 571.
the following passage incorrect ? " Sure- What do tcould and should primarily
ly goodness and mercy shall follow me denote ? 573.
(1.) To shun the truth. (2.) Shows. (3.) Expressed. (4.) Menninj. (S.) Contrary.
(6.) What happens. (7.) Suffers. (8.) To exchange oue for the other. (9.) la the first place.
8*
90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
575. POTENTIAL MOOD.
Pres. I may or can do. I may or can have.
Imp. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should
should do. have.
Perf. I may or can have done. I may or can have had.
Plup. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should
should have done. have had.
576. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres. \. If I do. If I have, &c.
576—1. IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Do you, or Do you do. Have you, or Do you have.
577. INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres. To do. To have.
Perf. To have done. To have had.
578. PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Doing. Having.
Perf. Done. Had.
Comp. perf. Havmg done. Having had.
L. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS.
579. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some
of the moods and tenses.
580. The following are the principal ones :
Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle.
May, Might, (Wanting.)
Can, Could,
Will, Would,
' Shall, Should,
Must, Must, .
Ought Ought, ■
Quoth,
581. Of these, ought and must, you perceive, are not varied.
582. Ought and quoth are always used as principal verbs. Ought is the
same in the imperfect tense as in the present, and is always followed by an
infinitive ; as, ** He ought to study ;" "He ought to have read." In this
last example, ou^ht is in the imperfect ; and in the first, it is in the present.
This we determme by the infinitive, which follows the verb, thus : when
the present infinitive follows ou^ht, ought is in the present tense ; but when
the perfect infinitive follows it, it is in the imperfect tense.
583. In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive and intransitive,
or neuter signification. Thus, to flatten, when it signifies to make even or
level, is an active-transitive verb ; but when it signifies to grow dull or in-
sipid, it is an intransitive verb.
Will you repeat the synopsis of do Which are not varied ? 581.
through all the moods ? of have ? How are ought and quoth always used ?
Will you conjugate do in the present 582.
tense ? have in the perfect tense ? How can you tell when ought is in the
What is the perfect participle of do? present tense ? 582.
of have? the compound perfect of do ? of When is it in the imperfect tense ? 582.
Iiave? Give an exafnplo of each tense. 582.
li. What are defective verbs ? 579. When is to flatten transitive, and when
Will you mention the principal ones, intransitive? .583.
with their imperfect tenses? 580. How, then, are verbs often used? 583.
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 91
584. A neuter or intransitive verb, by the addition of a preposition, may
become a compound active -transitive verb ; as, to smile is intransitive ; it
cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be changed into
the passive form. We cannot say, "She smiled him," or, *'He was
smiled;" but we say, very properly, "She smiled on him;" "He was
smiled on by her."
585. Prepositions affect the meaning of verbs in different ways. To cast
means to throw; as, "He cast a stone at her." To cast up, however,
means to compute ; as, "He casts up his accounts." In all instances in
which the preposition follows the verb, and modifies its meaning, it should
be considered a part of the verb, and be so treated in parsing.
586. There are some verbs, which, although they admit an objective
case after them, still do not indicate the least degree of action; as, "I
resemble my father." This seeming inconsistency may be easily recon-
ciled by reflecting that, in all such cases, the verb has a direct reference to
its object. Of this nature are the verbs retain, resemble, own, have, &c.
587. Some neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive form, and are
thence called neuter passive verbs ; as, " John goes home to-night." Here
goes is an intransitive verb. But in the sentence, " John is gone home,"
is gone is a neuter passive verb. Again, in the phrase, " William comes,"
comes is an intransitive verb ; and in the phrase, " William is come," is
come is a neuter passive verb.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
1.
V William had had many advantages " He has had many precious oppor-
before he improved them in a tunities."
proper manner." " John will do as his instriicter
if* A good scholar will not do what (1.) directs."
is forbidden by his instructer." " He may have had time."
2.
" I own this book." " I cannot believe him."
" Charles resembles his parents." " His father does not hesitate to
" He retains his place." trust him."
3.
•* The farmer casts seed into the " She smiles sweetly."
ground." " She smiled on John."
" The merchant casts up his ac- " John was smiled on by fortune in
counts often." every undertaking."
4.
" The instructer has come." ** Mary was gone before her mother
" Our instructer has come." came."
"William has gone to visit his "When they came to town, they
parents." made many purchases."
" Susan has gone."
How can an intransitive verb be- Is resemble, strictly speaking, a transi-
come transitive ? 584. Give an example, tive verb ? 586.
584. Why does it admit an object after it?
What does to east mean ? 585. 586.
Meaning of to cast up 7 585. There are several verbs of this class;
When may the preposition be reckoned will you name some of them ? 586.
a part of the verb ? 585. What is a neuter passive verb 1 587.
How should it be considered in pars- Give an example. 587.
ing ? 585. Will you now parse the next lessons ?
(1.) What standi for, « that which," or, <« the thing which." Apply Rules V. VI. and VUI.
92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LI. OF ADVERBS.
588. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, adjec-
tives, and other adverbs, to qualify them.
589. Expressions like the following, namely, a few days ago, long since,
none at all, at length., in vain, by no means, a great deal, &c., are denomi-
nated adverbial phrases, when they are used to quahfy verbs or participles,
by expressing the manner, time or degree of action.
590. The definite article the is frequently placed before adverbs of the
comparative and superlative degrees, to give the expression more force ; as,
" The more he walks, the better he feels." When the article is used in
this sense, both the article and adverb may be reckoned an adverbial phrase,
and be so considered in parsing.
591. You have doubtless noticed that most words ending in ly are ad-
verbs. The reason of this is that ly is a cohtraction of the adverb like :
thus, from manlike we form manly : gentlemanly is a contraction of gentle-
manlike. — Hence,
592. If you meet with a word ending in ly, implying in its signification
the idea of like, you may conclude at once that it is an adverb.
RUZiS IX.
Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other
adverbs*
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" In vain we look for perfect happiness.'^'*
593. In vain is an adverbial phrase, and qualifies look, accord-
ing to Rule IX.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
** John has come again, but William " William acted very nobly."
has not." " I will by no means consent."
"Very many persons fail of happi- " He wrote a long letter a few days
ness." ago." (1.)
"A vast many evils are incident to "John was writing carelessly."
man in his wearisome journey " I have admonished her once and
through life." again."
" The instructress has at length " A few days ago, there was much
arrived." excitement in town."
LI. What is the meaning of adverb ? When are they to be considered ad-
228. verbial phrases 1 589.
To what is the adverb joined ? 588. la the article the ever joined to an ad-
For what purpose ? 588. verb ? 590. For what purpose ? 590.
HnSfiLmfn/v^'^Rj'"^ P^'*' '^""'^ What do the article and adverb form
does It qualify? 588. . . ra<?P^'? nqn
Which are they ? 588. in such cases? 590.
What is the definition of an adverb ? How is it to be considered in parsing ?
588. 590.
Are adverbs compared ?* How came most words ending in ly to
Will you compare wisely? 235. soon? be considered adverbs? 591. Give an
234. example. 591.
How are they compared? 236. How can we determine between words
Will you compare the adverbs much? ending in ly, whether or not they are ad-
wcll ? bad ? ill 7 237. verbs ? 592.
Some adverbs are not regular in their What rule do you apply when you
comparison, will you name one? 237. parse an adverb? IX.
Will you name four or five adverbial " In vain we look." Will you parse
phrases ? 589. in vain?' 593.
(1.) A feui days o^f o— an adverbial phrase. * See question to 234.
PREPOSITIONS. 93
Note IX. To qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and
other adverbs, we should use adverbs ; but to qualify nouns,
we should use adjectives.
SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
" William writes good."* " Harriet dresses neat."
" Susan studies diligent" " On conditions suitably to his rank."
" He speaks fluently and reasons " He speaks correct."
correct." " Mary sings admirable."
•* John writes tolerable well, but " He writes elegant."
readst miserable." " He reads and spells very bad."
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
594. Will you write down a sentence, containing a compound active-
transitive verb ? One, having a neuter-passive verb?
Will you compose two or more sentences about a lion? Two or more,
about sheep ? Two or more, about a cow 1 One, about an ox ? One, about
a dog 7 One, about a cat ? One, about Africans ? One, about Indians ?
One, about ^sAes? One, about steam-boat disasters? One, about stage
mcidents?
LIL OF PREPOSITIONS.
595. Prepositions are used to connect words, and to show
the relation between them.
596. We not unfrequently meet with verbs compounded of a preposition
and verb ; as, " to wphold," "to invest, " "to overlook;" and this com-
position sometimes gives a new sense to the verb; as, " to M7i(ierstand,"
"to io2«/idraw." But the preposition more frequently occurs after the verb,
and separate from it ; as, "to cast wp," "to fall oti." The sense of the
verb, in this case, is also materially affected by the preposition.
598. The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and several others,
sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered; as, "They
had their reward soon after ;" "He died not long before ;" "He dwells
above ;" but if the noun time or place be added, they lose their adverbial
form ; as, " He died not long before" [that time] , &<c.
599. There is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the correct use of the
different prepositions. For illustration, we will take the following senten-
ces : "He walks with a staffs?/ moonlight ;" "He was taken by stratagem,
and killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say,
Will you next parse the remaining ex- compounded? 596. Give an example,
ercises? j 596.
When should W6 use adverbs? Note Where is the preposition more fre-
'when adjectives? Note IX. ' ?r"' ''''''' '''• """' '"^ '''"'''''
thisYemlre'Incorref^^^^^^ '^''"'^" ^' Will you name four prepositions which
Wryou now^^^^^^^^^ correct the re- %^^''y ^"^t^"^^^ ^PP^^^- '^ ^^ ^^^^'''^ ^
maining exercises ?
598.
LIL What is the meaning of preposi- How may they be converted into pre-
tion 7 244. positions again ? 598.
What are prepositions ? 595. " He walks by a stalTwith moonlight."
Will you repeat the list? 247. Will you correct this sentence, and yien
With what are verbs not unfrequently repeat the phrase ?
* For the adjective good, we should use the adverb voeU, according to Note IX.
t Read$ a^eea with John understood, and is, therefore, coauected with vorites by the conjunction Ivi. ftgre^
ably to Rule XI.
94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
**He walks hy a staff with moonlight;" *' He was taken with stratagem,
and killed hy a sword ;" and it will appear that they differ in signification
more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine.
RXTI.I: X.
Pl^epositions govern the objettive case.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" John lives within his income^
600. Within is a preposition.
Income is a common noun, of the third person, singular num-
ber, NEUTER GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and govcmed by within, ac-
cording to Rule X.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
"Thomas made his fortune by in- He made the sun to shine by
dustry." day, and tlie moon (1.) to give
" Susan labors with her needle for light by night."
a livelihood," " Beneath the oak lie acorns in
" Respecting that affair, there was great abundance."
a controversy." " John, who is at all times watch-
•* In six days God made the world, ful of his own interest, will
and all things that are in it. attend to that concern."
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
601. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable prepositions
to make sense? "John was — the house when he was seized a
fit." " The busy bee — summer provides food — the approaching winter
— the prudence — a rational being."
Will you supply the objects to the following? "James was catch-
ing ." " He was beating ." " He supports ."
Will you supply agents or nominative cases to the following ? was
running." " was dancing."
Will you supply verbs in the following? "A dutiful child his
parents." " Grammar us correctly."
Will you compose two or more sentences about hoys ? One, about
whales ? One, about snakes ? One, about foxes ? One, about parents ?
One, about hrothers ? One, about sisters ? One, about uncles ? One, about
auntsl
LIIL OF CONJUNCTIONS.
602. A CONJUNCTION is a word that is chiefly used to con
nect sentences, so as, out of two or more sentences, to make
but one.
Will you repeat the rule respecting the What is a simple sentence ? 253. Give
government of nouns by prepositions ?X. an example. A compound sentence?
" John lives within his income." Will 256. Give an example,
you parse within 1 COO income? 600. Why called compound? 254.
Will you now take the remaining ex- LIII. Meaning of conjunction? 257.
ercises to be parsed; after which, those What is a conjunction? 602.
to be written ? Meaning of copulative? 264.
(1.) The sense is, « He made the moon." 3foon, then, is in the objective case, governed by made undentood,
and counected with sun, by Rule XI.
INTERJECTIONS. 95
603. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen-
tences ; as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord."
604. Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they appear to unite
only words; as, in the following sentences: "Duty and interest forbid
vicious indulgences." "Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these
forms of expression contains two sentences, namely, the first, " Duty for-
bids vicious indulgences ;" "Interest forbids vicious indulgences:" the
second, " Wisdom governs us ;" " Folly governs us."
BUIiZ! XI.
Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and tense,
and nouns or pronouns of the same case.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
605. " William writes and ciphers.''^
And is a copulative conjunction.
Ciphers is a regular active intransitive verb, from the verl)
to cipher — ^* Pres. cipher; Imperf, ciphered; Per, part, ciphered.
1. I cipher ; 2. You cipher ; 3. He or William ciphers" — made in the
indicative mood, pI^sent tense, third person singular, and
agrees with William understood, and is connected to writes by the
conjunction and^ agreeably to Rule XI.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. "
" John ciphers rapidly, and reads " Though he is lively, yet he is not
correctly." too volatile."
"If we contend about trifles, and " If he has promised, he should act
violently maintain our opin- accordingly."
ions, we shall gain but few " He denied that he circulated the
friends." report."
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
606. Will you compose a sentence containing the conjunction ifl One,
containing andl As many sentences as there are conjunctions which
follow ; each sentence containing one ? Although, Unless. For. Be-
cause. Therefore. Or. Neither. Nor.
* Will you compose a sentence about Jackson ? One, about Clay ? One,
about Monroe ? One, about Madison ?
LIV. OF INTERJECTIONS.
607. Interjectioi^s are words thrown in between the
parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings
of the speaker.
What is the use of the copulative con- Do conjunctions ever connect senten-
junction ? 265. ces when they appear to connect words
Will you repeat the list of copulative only ? (i04. Give an example. 604.
'^®iVru"*H*^"^V^^'^* ,. • r , o., "William writes and ciphers." Will
What does d^sJunct^ves^frx^^fy? 271. yo„ parse and? 605. ciphers? 605.
What does the disjunctive conjunction „_.., . , ^, , . , .u
connect^ 274 ^^'" y""' '" ^^^ "'^^'^ place, take the
Will you repeat the list of them ? 275. exercises to be parsed and written, and
What is the rule for connecting words o'spose of them 7
by conjunctions ? XI. , LIV. What is the meaning of inter
What other words, besides conjunc- jecfion ? 283.
tions and prepositions, connect? 603. What are interjections? 607.
96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
608. We do not say, "Ah, II" ** Oh, I!" but, *'Ah, ipe!" "Oh,
me!" using the objective case after the interjection. The pronoun here
spoken of, you perceive, is of the first person : hence,
Note X. Pronouns of the first person are put in the objec-
tive case, after the interjections Oh ! O ! ah! &c.
609. We say, " thou persecutor!" " Oh, ye hypocrites!" " O thou
who'dwellest," &c. : hence,
' Note XI. The interjections O ! oh ! and ah ! require the
nominative case of pronouns in the second person.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
610. " A^, me! I must perish J'^
Ah is an interjection.
Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular, objec-
tive CASE, and governed by ah, agreeably to Note X.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
"O, thou (1.) who hast murdered "Ah! unhappy (2.) thou, who art
thy friend !" deaf (3.) to the callo of duty
" O, thou who hearest prayer !" and honor."
"Ah, me! must I endure all "Oh! happy (4.) us, surrounded
this ?" with so many blessings."
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
611. Will you compose a sentence containing wZas ? One, containing
oh ? One, about volcanoes ? One, about lakes ? One, about islands ? One,
about Webster the statesman ? One, about a good scholar ? One, about a
poor scholar ? One, about a good instructer ?
LV. OF THE AGREEMENT OF NOUNS.
612. Apposition, in grammar, signifies the putting of two nouns in the
same case.
613. When I say, "John the mechanic has come," I am speaking ot
only one person; the two nouns, John and mechanic, both meaning or
referring to the same person ; consequently they are put, by apposition, in
the same case : hence,
RlTZiS XV.
IVhen two or more nouns, in the same sentence, signify
the same thing, they a^e put, by apposition, in the same
case.
Will you repeat from the list six inter- Will you now take the remaining ex-
jections? 285. ercisps to be parsed and written ?
How may an interjection generally be LV. Meaning of apposition ? 612.
known? 286. "John the mechanic." How many
" Ah, me !" In what case is me ? 610. persons are here spoken of? 613. Should,
What rule or note applies to wie? X. then, the two nouns, Jahn and me-
*' O thou," &c. What note applies to chanic, be in the same, or a different
thou? XL case? 613.
" Ah, me!" Will you parse ah? me? What is the rule for this agreement?
310. XV\
(1.) For thou, apply Note XI. (2.) Agrees with thou, by Rule IV.
(3.) Belongs to who, by Rule IV. (4.) Apply Rule IV.
EXERCISES. 97
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
614. " Webstei' the statesman has left ws."
Statesman is a common noun, masculine gender, third person,
SINGULAR number, NOMINATIVE CASE, and put in apposition with Web-
ster, by Rule XV.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
1.
"John the Baptist was beheaded." " Cicero, the orator, flourished in
* David, the thief, was apprehend- the time of CatiUne, the con-
ed." spirator."
♦Johnson, the bookseller, has failed "I visit Thompson, the professor,
in business." often."
"I consulted Williams, the law- "John, the miller, died yester-
yer." day."
2.
"If John will not go, I will go my- "We will inspect the goods our.
self." (1.) selves."
" You yourself are in fault." " I, I am the man who committed
" They themselves were mistaken." the deed."
BemarJc 1. — For the same reason that one noun agrees with another in
case, it agrees with it in number and person also.
" I, Alexander, by the grace of God, " We, the representatives of the
emperor of all the Russians, people of these colonies, do
promulgate this law." make this declaration."
Remark 2. — When one noun describes or quahfies another, the one so
quahfying becomes an adjective in sense, and may be so considered in
parsing. Accordingly, Tremont, in the phrase, ** Tremont House," is an
adjective belonging to House, by Rule IV.
615. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
**The Marlborough Hotel is situated " John Dobson was in town yester-
in Washington-street." day."
" The firm of Messrs. Williams & " John Johnson, the blacksmith, has
Sons, has failed." broken his leg."
Remark 3. — When the nouns which refer to the same person or thing are
separated by verbs; as, "Webster is a statesman," it is customary to
apply one or more of the following rules :
1. Any verb may have the same case after it as before it, when both words
refer to the same thing. ^
2. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as
that which next precedes it.
"Webster the statesman." Will you "Tremont House." What part of
parse sfafesman ? 614. speech is Tremont? Remark 2. How
Will you now parse the succeeding ex- used here? Remarks. Will you parse
ercises? it in full ?
" I will go myself." Will you parse Will you now parse all the exercises
myself? under Remark 2?
How is the compound personal pro- What is the rule or rules usually giv-
noun formed in the singular? 386. How en for parsing statesman, in the phrase,
in the plural ? 386. " Websier is a statesman ?" Remark 3,
When one noun is put in apposition 1, 2, 3, 4.
with another, in what particulars does it In the same sentence, do Webster and
agree with it ? Remark 1. statesman both mean or refer to the same
Will you now parse the next exer- person? In what case, then, ought they
cises? to be? 613. By what rule ? XV.
(1.) Mysdf M a compound personal pronoun, firrf j>»**o*' singular, ccjiinative case, and put in appositioa
■with 7, by Rule XV.
7
98
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. Passive verbs of naming, judging, ^c. have the same case after them ai
before them.
I 4. Neuter verbs have the same case after Ijtem as before them.
616. The foregoing rules, in the opinion of the writer, are wholly unne-
cessary, tending merely to confuse the mind of the learner by requiring him
to make a distinction in form, when there exists none in principle. In cor-
roboration of this fact, Mr. Murray has the following remark : —
617. ** By these examples it appears, that the verb to be has no govern-
ment of case, but serves in all its forms as a conductor to the cases ; so that
the two cases, which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next be-
fore and after it, must always be aUke. Perhaps this subject will be more
intelhgible by observing that the words, in the cases preceding and following
the verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the
sentence, * I understood it to be him,^ the words it and him are in apposi-
tion ; that is, they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case."
618. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
1.
" Webster is a statesman."
" John is a good scholar."
" William will become a distinguish-
ed and valuable citizen."
" She walks a queen." (1.)
"He is styled Lord (1.) Mayor (1.)
of London."
" He was named John." (1.)
2.
" Susan took her to be Mary." (1.)
" I took him to be John (2.) Og-
den."
" We at first took it to be her, but
afterwards were convinced that
(3.) it was not she."
" He is not the person who (4.) it
seemed he was."
" I understood it to be him (1.) who
Remark 3. — It not unfrequently happens that the connecting verb is omit-
ted ; as, *' They made him captain ;" that is, to be captain.
3.
" They named him John." " They proclaimed him king."
" The soldiers made him gen- " His countrymen crowned him em-
eral." peror."
" She moves a queen." (1.)
" Julius Caesar was that Roman gen-
eral who conquered the Gauls."
"Tom struts a soldier." (1.)
" Will sneaks a scrivener."
" Claudius Nero, Caligula's uncle,
a senseless fellow, obtained the
kingdom."
is the son of Mr. (2.) John
Quincy (2.) Adams." (1.)
" She is not now the person whom
they represented her (1.) to
have been."
" Whom (5.) do you fancy them to
be?"
" The professor was apnointed tutor
to the prince."
/
SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
"She is the person who I under-
stood it to have been."
" Who do you think me to be ?"
" Whom do men say that I am ?"
" Whom think ye that I am ?"
619.
" It might have been him, (6.) but
there is no proof (7.) of it."
"Though I was blamed, it could
not have been me."
" I saw one who I took to be she."
What office does the verb to be perform
between cases ? 617.
Are the cases next before and after it,
alike, or different? 617.
What is the opinion of Mr. Murray
respecting the cases before and after to
be ? 617.
How does he think it and kirn should
be parsed in the phrase, "I understood it
to be him?" 617.
Will you now parse lessons 1, 2, and 3 ?
Is the verb to be always expressed ? Re-
mark 3. Give an example. Remark 3.
Will you now take the sentences to be
parsed and corrected ; also, those to be
written ?
(1.) Apply Rule XV. . (2.) Remark 2, (3.) Coniunction. (4.) T^^o Is put in apposition with Ae,
by Rule XV (6.) Whom agrees with them, by Rule XV. (6.) Ihm should be Ac to agree with it, ac
cording to Rule XV. (7.J Apply Rule VI.
NOUNS. ' 99
620. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
Will you compose a sentence having nouns in apposition ? One, having
nouns in apposition, but separated by a verb ? One, having a noun used as
an adjective ?
Will you construct a sentence having in it the word who ? One, having
whose ? One, having whom ? One, having what ? One, having that ? One,
having man? One, having woman? One, having hoy? Ope, having ^iris?
One, having parents ?
LVI. OF NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY.
621. To address signifies to speak to; as, "James, your father has
fiome." The name of the person addressed must always be of the second
"person ; and a noun in this situation, when it has no verb to agree with it,
afld is wholly disconnected with the rest of the sentence, is said to be inde-
pendent. Hence,
nxjiiZs XVI-
When an address is made, the name of the person or thing
addressed is in the nominatiue case independent.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
622. " John, will you assist me V*
John is a proper noun, of the second person, singular number,
MASCULINE GENDER, and NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT, aCCOrding tO
Rule XVI.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.
1.
"My lords, (1.) the time has come "Rufus, you must improve your
when we must take some de- time."
cisive measures." " Gentlemen of the jury."
" In making this appeal to you, my "James, (1.) study (2.) your book."
fellow-citizens, I rely entirely " William, do try to get your lesson
on your candor." to-day."
2.
" Boys, attend to your lessons." " My dear children, let no root of
" Girls, come into school." bitterness spring up among
•* Did you speak to me, girls ?" you."
LVI. " James, your father has come." When is a noun independent ? 621.
Which word here is the name of the per- What is the rule for a noun put inde-
sou addressed? pendently ? XVI.
What is the meaning of to address? In the sentence, "John, will you assist
621. me ?" will you parse John ? 622.
Of what person is a noun when nn Will you next parse the rest of the
address is made ? 621. exercises in this rule?
(I.) Rule XVI. (2.) Imperative mood, and agrees with thou or you underBtood, by Rule VIl.
100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LVII. OF NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTE.
623. In the phrase, *' The sun being risen, we set sail," the first clause
of the sentence, namely, " The sun being risen," has nothing to do with
the remainder : the noun and participle may, therefore, when taken together,
be said to be in the nominative case independent ; but as we have already
one case of this nature, we will, for the sake of making a distinction, call
this (the noun joined with a participle) the nominative case absolute. Hence,
RITi:<IS XVIZ.
A noun or pronoun before a participle, and independent
of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case
absolute,
624. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
"The sun (1.) being risen, (2.) we " WeHington having returned to
departed." England, tranquillity was re-
" Egypt being conquered, Alexander stored to France."
returned to Syria." " Bonaparte being conquered, the
" Shame being lost, all virtue was king was restored."
lost." "The conditions being observed,
"The soldiers retreating, victory the bargain was a mutual
was lost." benefit."
625. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
" Him (3.) only excepted, who was " Him being destroyed, the re-
a murderer." maining robbers made their
" Her being dismissed, the rest of escape."
the scholars behaved well."
LVIII. OF TFIE INFINITIVE MOOD.
Note XII. — A verb in the infinitive mood is sometimes
placed independently ; as, " To be frank, I own I have injured
you."
626. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" To confess the truth, I was in " To tell the plain truth, I persuaded
fault. him to stay."
"To display his power, he oppres- "To convince you, I will continue
sed his soldiers." here till you return."
LVII. "The sun being risen, we sel LVIII. "To confess the truth, I
sail." How many words in this sen- was," &cc. How is to confess used? —
tence, used independently, are taken to- Note XII.
gether ? 623. What is the rule for it ? Note XIL
^hll^f'VVfo'.'^'^ denominated the case ^^.^^ .^ ^^^ infinitive mood used for?
absolute? 623. ^~q
^ What is the rule for the case absolute ? ' ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^3 ^^^ j^ , 52g
Will you now take the parsing exer- What is its usual sign ? 517.
cises under Rule XVII., and then the Will you now parse the exercises un-
sentences to be corrected ? der Note XII. ?
{\.) In the nominative case absolute witlj being risen, by Rule XVII. (2.) Rule XIII.
, (3.) When a noun is in the oase absolute, it should be in the nominative case. Him should therefore be Ae,
by Rule XVII.
MOOD. 101
" To play is pleasant." What is pleasant ? " To play." The infinitive
to play is, then, the nominative case to is. " Thou shalt not kill, is required
of all men." What is required? ** Thou shalt not kill." The verb is re-
quired, then, agrees with " Thou shalt not kill," as its nominative. Hence,
626-1. Note XIII. — The infinitive mood, or part of a
sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb of
the third person singular.
627. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
"To excel requires much exer- "Thou shalt not kill, is the com
tion." mand of God."
" To abandon friends will sink a " Honor thy father and thy mo-
man's character." ther, is required of all men."
"To practise religion is our du- "To write a fair hand requires
ty." practice."
Remark 1. — To excel is the nominative case to requires, by Note XHI.,
and requires agrees with to excel, by Rule VH. In parsing, " Thou shalt
not kill," we first apply Rules Vl., VH. and IX. The whole phrase is
considered the nominative to is required, by Note XIII.
2. The infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, is frequently the object
of a transitive verb ; as, ** Boys love to play." What do boys love ? '* To
Elay." The object of love, then, is to play. " Children do not consider
ow much has been done for them by their parents." Consider what?
^* How much has been do7ie for them by their parents ;^^ including for the
object of the verb the whole phrase in italics.
Note XIV. — The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, may
have an adjective or participle agreeing with it, when there is
no noun, either expressed or understood, to which the adjective
may belong.
628. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" To see the sun is pleasant." " Defraud not thy neighbour, is
" To practise virtue will be produc- binding on all."
tive of happiness." " To do good to our enemies, is not
** To be ridiculed is unpleasant." natural to our hearts."
Eemarks. ^-Pleasant agrees with, ** to see the sun," by Note XIV. Bind-
ing agrees with, ** Defraud not thy neighbour," by the same authority. To
is apply Rule VII. ; to sun, Rule VIII. ; to the infinitive to see, Note XIII.
629. SENTENCES TO BBtWRITTEN.
Will you compose one or more sentences having an infinitive governed
by a participle ? One, using an infinitive after a noun ? One, describing
the manner of playing baUl One, or more, on the manner of playing
tag? One, on the duty of children to mind their parents ? One, or more,
on industry ? One, on the business you intend to pursue for life ?
" To play is pleasant." What is plea- Since we have a rule for tn love, as a
sant 7 What, then, is the nominative to verb, there is no necessity for considering
is 7 626-1. Rnle ? Note XIII. it the object in parsing : what rule, then,
" Thou shalt not kill, is required of all will you apply to it ? XII.
men." What is required? Will you name an example in which
What is the nominative to IS rcgMtred.? there is part of a sentence used as the
626-1. Rule ? Note XIII. object of a verb? 627. Remark 2.
Will you now parse the remaining ex- "To seethe sun is pleasant." Will
ercises under this rule ? you parse pleasant ? to see 7 the 7 sun ? is ?
" Boys love to play." What is the ob- Will you now parse the remaining ex-
ject of love ? 627. Remark 2. ercises under Note XIV.
9*
102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LIX.
630. In the phrase, " John and James are here," the sense is, that " John
and James are both here ;" two persons are therefore spoken of, which ren-
ders it necessary to use the plural verb are, to agree with two nouns which
individually are singular : hence,
Bviiz: XVIII.
Two or more nouns or pronouns, of the singular number,
connected together hy and, either expressed or under-
stood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing
with them in the 'plural number,
631. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
»* William and James run." " John and Joseph can get their
** Mary and Harriet study, and they lessons."
will therefore excel." " Time and tide wait for no
" You and I are in fault." man."
" John and Thomas say they intend " My coat and pantaloons were
to study Latin." made by Watson."
Remarks. — William is one of the nominatives to the verb run. James is
m the nominative case to the verb run, and is connected with the noun Wil-
liamt by Rule XI. Bun agrees with William and James, by Rule XVIII.
632. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
** Mary and her cousin has come." " The farmer and his son is in
" You and I makes progress in our town."
studies." " Susan and her sister is deceitful."
"Life and health is both uncer- "William and John both writes a
tain." good hand."
Remarks. — For has come, we should read have come, that the verb may be
plural, when it has two nominatives connected by and, according to Rule
XVIIL
Exception 1. — When and connects two or more nouns in the singular,
which refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be singular ; as,
** Pliny the philosopher and naturalist has greatly enriched science."
633. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
"That superficial scholar ^nd "In that house live a great and
critic have given new evi- distinguished scholar and states-
dence of his misguided judg- man."
ment" " Mr. Cooper, the sailor and novel-
" There go a benevolent man and ist, visit La Fayette, the patriot
scholar." and philanthropist."
LIX. When I say, " John and James Will you parse the succeeding exer-
are here," of how many persons do I cises ?
speak? " Pliny the philosopher and naturalist
Should we, then, use 15 or flre ? 630. has greatly enriched science." Why
What is the rule for are? XVIII. should we use has, in this sentence, in-
Will you now parse the exercises un- stead of have? Exception 1.
der Rule XVIII.? "That superficial scholar and critic
" William and James run." Will you have given." Why is have given incor-
parse William, in full? and? James? rect? Exception 1.
run ? What is the rule for has come ? Excep.
Will you parse the next exercises ? tion 1.
" Mary and her cousin has come." — Will you correct and parse the remain-
Why is this incorrect 7 632. ing exercises ?
EXERCISES. 103
Exception 2. — When two or more nouns in the singular, connected by a7id,
have each or every joined with them, the verb must be in the singular number ;
as, "Every person, every house, and every blade of grass, was destroyed."
634. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
" Every man, and every woman, " Each man and each woman, were
and every child, were taken." particularly alluded to in the
" Every tree, stick and twig, were report of the affair."
consumed."
Remark. — Were, in the first of these examples, should be changed for was,
because reference is had to each person, individually considered, which, in re-
spect to the verb, is the same in effect as if one person only was spoken of
Note XV. — Every is sometimes associated with a plural
noun, in which case the verb must be singular ; as " Every
hundred years constitutes a century."
635. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
** Every twenty-four hours afford to " Every four years add another day
us the vicissitudes of day and to the ordinary number of days
night.'* in a year.
Remark. — Afford, in the example above, is a violation of the note : it should
be affords, in the singular number. The reason of this is, that "every twenty-
four hours," signifies a single period of time, and is, therefore, in reality sin-
gular.
Note XVI. — A verb in the plural will agree with a col-
lective noun in the singular, when a •part only of the indi-
viduals are meant ; as, " The council were divided in their
sentiments." When the noun expresses the idea of unity, the
verb should be singular ; as, " The council was composed
wholly of farmers."
Remarks. — In the foregping example, we use the plural verb were divided,
because we refer to the individuals composing the council ; but if no allusion
of this sort had been made, and we had spoken of it as one entire body, we
should have used the singular verb, according to the common rule ; as, " The
council is composed wholly of farmers."
We apply to council, in the first example. Note XVI. ; to were divided^
the same note ; and to council, and was composed in the second example,
Rules VI. and VII.
636. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
** The council were divided in their " My people do not consider."
sentiments." "The multitude eagerly pursue
**A part of the men were mur- pleasure as their chief good."
dered."
In the first example, under Exception " The council were divided." Why
2, why use was destroyed, rather than r\ot was? Note XVI. Remarks. Rule?
were destroyed? Exception 2. Note XVI.
Will you parse the remaining exercises When is a noun called collective ? 306.
under this exception, after having cor- In what circumstances would it he
reeled them ? proper to use the singular verb? Note
"Every twenty-four hours afford to XVI. . Give an example,
us." What does " every twenty-four How do you parse cowwciV,? Note XVI.
hours" signify, one period of time, or Remarks. Were divided? Note XVI.
more ? What is wrong, then ? Why ? Remarks. Was composed, in the second
635. Remark. example? Note XVI.
What is the rule for this ? Note XV. Will you now parse and correct the
Will you correct and parse the otlter remaining exercises under this note ?
example ?
104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
C37. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
** My people doth not consider." " The committee was divided in
" The people rejoices in that which their sentiments, and has re-
should g-ive it sorrow." ferred the business to a general
"The multitude rushes to certain meeting."
destruction."
LX.
638. Negative means denying ; and affirmative, asserting or declaring
positively. A sentence in which something is denied is a negative one, and
a sentence in which something is affirmed or positively asserted, is an affirm-
ative one. "Vice degrades us," is an affirmative sentence, and "Labor
does not injure us," is a negative one. Not, nothing, none at all, by no
means, no, in no wise, ?teither, no, none, <^c., are negative terms.
The phrase, "I have nothing," has one negative, and means, "I have
not any thing." The phrase, "I have not nothing," cannot mean the same
as " I have nothing," but must mean, on the contrary, " I have something."
This last, you perceive, is an affirmative sentence, and signifies the same as
the foregoing one, "I have not nothing." Two negatives, therefore, are
equal to an affirmative. Hence,
RUIiS XZX.
Two negatives in the same sentence, are equivalent to
an affirmative.
639. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
" He spends all the day in idleness, " Be (1.) honest, nor (2.) take (3.)
and I cannot prevail on him to no shape nor semblance of dis-
do nothing." guise."
" He cannot get no employment in " He is so (4.) indolent, that he will
town." not do nothing." ,
" T cannot by no means consent." " I did not say nothing."
" I shall not take no interest in the " He cannot do nothing acceptable
affair." to John."
" I never studied no grammar."
Remarks. — For nothing, in the above examples, read anything, in accord-
'ance with Rule XIX.
LX. What is the meaning of ne^aiire? What is "T have not nothing" equal
C38. affirmative? 638. to in expression ? G38.
What is a negative sentence? 638, What, then, can we say of two nega-
An alBrmative one? 638. Give an ex- tives? Rule XIX.
ample of each. Will you next take the exercises under
Will you name a few negative terms? Rule XIX?
638. What is a noun? 4. article? 350.
How many negatives has the phrase adjective? 363. pronoun? 381. verb?
"I have nothing," and what does it 438. participle? 498. adverb? 588.
mean? 638. preposition? 50.5. conjunction? 602.
Meaning of "I have not nothing"? interjection? 607. common noun? 301.
638. proper noun? 302. definite article ? 80.
How many negatives has it ? indefinite article ? 83.
What kind of a sentence is " I have How many properties in grammar have
something"? 638. nouns? 308. How many have verbs?*
(1.) Be agrees with thou or you understood, by Rule VII.
(2.) Fornor, read and.
(3.) Take is in the imperative mood, and a^ees with theu or you vndentood, and is therefor* consected to btf
accord in<r to Rule XI.
(4.) Adverb.
* Mood, tense, number, and person.
EXERCISES.
105
640. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
"Deep rivers move with. silent ma-
jesty; but small brooks are
noisy."
" Deeds are fruits ; words are but
leaves."
" It is a bad horse indeed that will
not carry his own provender."
"The hog never looks up to him
who threshes down the acorns."
"Add not trouble to the grief-
worn heart."
" If the counsel be good, it is no
matter who gives it."
" By others' faults wise men correct
their own."
"When the world says you are
wise and good, ask yourself if
it be true."
" Sin and misery are constant com-
panions."
" Power discovers the disposition of
man."
"Quarrels are easily begun, but
with difficulty ended."
" Force without forecast is of little
worth."
" Rome was not built in one day."
" In youth and strength think of
old age and weakness."
" All are not saints who go to
church."
"To say well is good, but to do
well is better."
"No fear should deter us from
doing good."
"Pride, perceiving Humility hon-
orable, often borrows her
cloak."
" Say what is well, but do what is
better."
641.
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
Will you compose one sentence describing the business of an instruC'
ter? One, the business of a doctor? One, the business of a lawyer? One,
of a dentist ? One, of a surgeon ? One, of a farmer ? One, of a hlack-
smith ? One, of a miller ? One, of a merchant ? One, of a grocer ? One,
of an apothecary ? One, of a legislator ? One, of a judge ? One, of a
colonel ? One, of a captain ? One, of a general ? One, of an agent in a
factory ? One, of the directors of a bank ?
LXI.
642. When I say, "He taught me grammar," I mean, "He taught
grammar to me:" grammar, then, is the object of the verb, and me is
governed by the preposition to, understood. In the first example, we have
two objective cases after the verb taught ; and since there are many instan-
ces like the preceding, in which transitive verbs are followed by two objec-
tive cases — hence the following,
How many participles are there?*
What are they ? 500, 502, 504,
When is a verb active? 439.
When transitive ? 440. When intran-
sitive? 441. How may it be known?
154.
Will you decline I? thou? he? she?
it? 127.
Of what person is I? my? usl their?
you? 127.
What is mood? 451. the indicative?
452. potential? 4.')3. subjunctive? 456.
infinitive? 479. imperative? 472. How
many tenses has the indicative? 525.
subjunctive? 526. potential? 527. in-
tinitive ? 528. imperative ? 529. What
are the signs of the present tense ? 519.
imperfect? 520. perfect? 521. pluper-
fect? 522. first future? 523. second fu-
ture? 524.
Will you now parse the promisc»oua
exercises ?
Will you next take the sentences to be
written ?
LXI. "He taught me grammar."
What does this mean ? 642. What, then,
is the object of the verb, and by what is
grammar governed ? 642. By what is me
governe'd? 642.
How many objective cases, then, fol-
low the verb taught ? 642.
106
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
RTTZii: XX.
Two objective cases, the one of a person, and the other
of a thing, may follow transitive verbs, of asking,
teaching, giving, Sfc; a preposition being under-
stood,
" He taught me grammar,'*^
Bemark 1. — In the foregoing example, me and grammar are both govern
ed by tattght, according to Rule XX.
EXAMPLES IN SYNTAX.
"My instructer gave me a valu-
able book, for my attention to
study."
" She forbade him the presence of
the emperor."
"The French denied him the
privilege of an American citi-
zen."
643.
" He taught me grammar."
*' William asked me some ques-
tions."
" My mother wrote me a precious
letter in the month of May."
" They allowed him his seat in
Congress."
" John gave me a detailed account
of the whole transaction."
LXII.
b44. The natural construction of the passive voice requires the object o
the active verb to become the nominative to the passive verb; as, "He
taught me grammar ;" ** Grammar was taught me." In some few instan-
ces, just the reverse takes place ; as, "I was taught grammar ;" here the
object, grammar J is placed after the verb : we therefore derive the following
RUXiz: XXI.
An objective case may follow passive verbs of asjcing,
teaching, and some others; as, "I was taught gram-
mar."
5:^ Apply to I Rule VI. ; to was taught, Rule VII. ; to grammar, Rule
645.
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" John taught me music."
" Music was taught me by John."
" A question was asked me."
" Theresa was forbidden the pre-
sence of the emperor."
' I was taught grammar."
' The presence of the emperor was
forbidden Theresa."
' Reading is taught in almost every
school."
What rule is given for cases of this
description ? XX.
By what are me and grammar govern-
ed ? 642. Remark 1.
Will you next parse the exercises un-
der Rule XX.?
LXII. What is the natural construc-
tion of the passivo voice in reference to
the object ? 644. Give an example. 644.
Give an example where the reverse takes
place. 644.
Where is the object placed ? 644.
" I was taught grammar." Will you
parse I? was taught? grammar?
Will you next take the exercises un.
dor Rule XXI. ?
EXERCISES. 107
LXIII.
646. When I say, " He came home last May," the sense is, when fully
expressed, "He came to his home in last May." " John continued four
years at the university ;" that is, *' during four years." '* The horse ran a
mile ;" that is, " over the space of a mile. " John went that way ;" that
is, ^^over that way." From these facts we derive the following
BUZiE XXIZ.
Home, and nouns signifying which way, how far, how
long, or time when, <^c., are in the objective case ; a
preposition being understood.
647. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" He came home last May." " Susan rides out every day."
" John continued four years at the " William sleeps comfortably all
university." night."
" John went home once a month." " John was absent from home six
"Charles studies six hours every years."
day." " James lived six years at Boston,
" John rode that way." twelve years at Dedhara."
*'He ran a mile."
Note XVII. — After the words liJce and unlike, the preposi-
tion to or unto is frequently understood ; as, " He is like his
father ;" that is, " like to his father." " She is unlike her
sister ;" that is, " unlike to her sister."
648. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" He is like his brother." "John behaves like a man in a vio-
" William, unlike his father, falsi- lent rage."
fied his word." " He is unlike any other mortal."
Note' XVIII. — Nouns signifying duration, extension, quan-
tity, quality or valuation, are in the objective case, without any
governing word. The following are examples :
" The Atlantic ocean is three thou- " The cart weighs fifteen hundred
sand miles (1.) wide." pounds."
" William's knife is worth eighteen " The wall which separates China
pence, or twenty-five cents." from Tartary, commonly called
" For that article, which is richly the great Chinese wall, is fifteen
worth a dollar, (2.) we cannot hundred miles long, and from
always get fifty cents." twenty to thirty feet in height."
" The chasm is fifty feet broad." .
Remarks. — (1.) The noun miles is governed according to Note XVIII.
(2.) Apply Note XVIII.
LXIII. '• He came home last May." Will you parse the exercises under
What does this mean, when more fully Rule XXH?
expressed? 646. Will you parse home? What is the note respecting like and
May? unlike? XVII.
" John continued four years at the uni- " He is like his father." How is father
i^ersity." "The horse ran a mile." What parsed? Note XVII.
do these sentences mean, when fully ex- Will yon next take the remaining ex-
Vfressed ? ercises under Note XVII ?
108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Note XIX. — The conjunction as, after such, many and
same, is generally considered a relative pronoun ; as in the
following examples :
" He receives into his school as " He took such books as pleased
many scholars as (1.) apply." him."
"Our instructer, who is scrupu- "He exhibited the same course
lously exact in the execution of conduct as was once before
of justice, punishes severely exhibited on the same occa-
all such as disobey his com- sion."
mands."
Remarks. — (1.) As is a conjunction, used here as a relative, according to
the Note preceding ; of the third person plural, masculine gender, agreeing
with scholars, according to Rule V. ; and in the nominative case to apply,
according to Rule VI.
Note XX. — The conjunction than seems to have the force
of a preposition before the relative whom, in a sentence where
a comparison is made ; as follows :
"Which, when Beelzebub per- "Alfred, than whom, Solomon ex-
ceived, than whom, (1.) Satan cepted, a wiser king never
(2.) excepted, (3.) none higher reigned, was one of the earliest
sat." English kings."
HemarTcs.'-^l.) Whom is governed by the conjunction than, used as a pre-
position, according to Note XX. — (2.) Apply Rule XVII. — (3.) Participle
agreeing with Satan, by Rule XIII. — It is somewhat remarkable, that if,
in the last two examples, the personal pronoun he were substituted for
whom, it would be in the nominative case ; as, "A wiser king never reigned
than Ae,"" that is, " than he was."
649. ENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
Will you compose a sentence having a proper example under Rule
I.? II.? III.? IV.? v.? VI.? VII.? VIII.? IX.? X.? XI.? XII.?
XIIL? XIV.? XV.? XVI.? XVII.? XVIII.? XIX.? XX.? XXL?
XXII.?
Will you construct a sentence descriptive of the calamities arising from
Jire ? one, on losses by sea ? one, on the fatal effects of lightning ? one,
on the character of our forefathers ? one, on each of the seasons ? one, on
the effects of rain? one, on the manner of making hay? one, on the wp-
pearance of soldiers lohen training? one, on the celebration of the fourth
of July ? one, on the utility of Jire ? one, on the utility of wood ? one, on
the usefulness of the cow? one^ on fruit ?
When is the conjunction as used as a W^hat does English grammar teach ?
relative pronoun ? Note XIX. 288. How many parts of speech are
W^ill you parse as, in the phrase "He there in English? 299.
received into his school as many scholars Whai does orthography inclnde 7 291.
as applied" ? Note XIX. What does it teach us ? 291.
Will you parse the remaining exercises What does etymology teach ? 293.
under this Note 1 What are proper nouns ? 302.
When is than considered a preposition ? What are common nouns ? 301.
Note XX, Give an example. In what manner may proper names be
What would be the effect of using the used as common names ? 303.
personal pronoun instead of the relative? How may common names be used to>
Observation under Note XX. Give an represent individuals? 304. ,%
example. What is a collective noun? 306.
Will you now take the sentences to be What four things belong to nouns ? 308.
parsed and written? What is gender? 312. Masculine
How many articles are there? 351. gender? 314. Feminine gender? 315.
Will you name them? 351. When do Common gender? 316. Neuter gender?
we use a? 87, 857. When an ? 86. 317.
PARTS OF SPEECH. lOD,
LXIV. OF )VORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS
^ OF SPEECH.
650. That is a relative,
When who or which may be substituted for it, and make sense; as,-
** The man that [who] arrived yesterday."
651. That is a demonstrative pronoun,
When it is joined with a noun to point it out ; as, " That man is intelli-
gent."
652. That is a conjunction,
In all cases when it is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pronoun ;
as, *' He studies that he may learn."
653. But is a preposition,
When it has the sense of except; as, "All but [except] John
came."
654. But is an adverb,
When it has the sense of only ; as, *' This is but [only] doing our
duty."
655. But is a conjunction.
In all cases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition ; as, " He called,
but I refused to go."
656. As is a relative,
When it follows many, such, or same; as, "Let such as hear take
heed."
657. As is an adverb.
When it is joined to an adverb or adjective in the sense of so ; as, ** He
does as well as he can."
658. As is a conjunction,
In all cases except when it is an adverb or relative ; as,. " He did as I
directed him."
659. Either is a conjunction,
When it corresponds to or ; as, " Either the one or the other."
660. Either is a distributive pronoun.
When it means, "one of the two;" as, "You can take either
road."
661. Both is a conjunction.
When it is followed by an^ / as, "We assisted him both for his sake
and our own."
How may nouns, naturally neuter, be noun? 651. Give an example. When a
converted into the masculine or feminine conjunction ? 652. Give an example,
gender ? 318. When is hut a preposition ? 653. Give
What is the feminine corresponding to an example. When an adverb? 654.
bachelor? 319. How is the feminine here ^tive an example. When a conjunction?
formed'' 655. Give an example.
Will you spell the feminine corre- When is as a relative? 656. Give an
sponding to lah king ? benefactor 7 319. example. When an adverb ? 657. Give
How is the feminine here formed ? ?;? example. When a conjunction ? 658.
• TTr-,, II .u ^ Give an example.
Will you spell the feminine corre- when is either a conjunction? 659.
sponding to baron? poet? priest! Jew? Give an example. When a distributive
votary? tutor? hero? duke 7 instructer? pronoun? 660. Give an example.
319- When is both a conjunction ? 661. Give
LXIV. W^hen is that a relative ? 650. an example. When an adjective pro-
Give an example. A demonstrative pro- noun ? 662. Give an example.
10 K
no ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
662. Both is an adjective pronoun,
When it means, " the two ;" as, *' Both the men are ^ilty."
663. Yet is a conjunction,
When it follows though; as, " Though he reproves me, yet I esteem
him." In all other cases, it is an adverb ; as, "That event has yet to
come."
664. For is a conjunction,
When it means the same as because ; as, ** He trusted him, for he knew
that he would not deceive him."
665. For is a preposition.
In all instances except when it is a conjunction; as, "He works for
me."
666. What is a compound relative.
When it stands for, " that which ;" as, " I will take what [that which]
you send me."
667. What is an interrogative relative pronoun.
When used in asking questions ; as, " What do you want?"
668. What is an adjective pronoun,
When joined with a noun ; as, " What strange things he said !"
669. What is a compound adjective pronoun,
When joined with nouns, and has the sense of two or more words ; as,
" In what manner he succeeded, is unknown to me ;" that is, " The man-
ner in which he succeeded, is unknown to me."
670. What is an interjection.
When used to express wonder ; as, " What ! take my money ?"
671. Then is a conjunction,
When it has the sense of therefore ; as, " If he has commanded it, then
I must obey."
672. Then is an adverb.
When it refers to time ; as, " Did you hear it thunder then ?"
673. Much is a noun.
When it stands for quantity ; as, " Where much is given, much will be
required."
674. Much is an adjective,
When it is joined to nouns ; as, " Much labour fatigues us."
675. Much is an adverb.
When it qualifies the same parts of speech that the adverb does ; as,
" Thou art much mightier than I."
676. More is a noun.
When it implies quantity; as, "The more we have, the more wa
want."
When is ye« a conjunction ? 663. Give When an interjection? 670. Give an
an example. Wlien an adverb? 663. example.
^ whTn to^™'n^;,.r,iM«.tj^n 7 CCA r.rc When is then a conjunction ? 671. Give
n^^i"'^-^ wh?n''?.rl^"\ n^7^ ^^ example. When an adverb? 672.
Give an elcam JTe P-^^P^^^'^^" ^ ^^^^ Give an example.
When is what a compound relative? When is much a noun? 673. ^ive an
666. Give an example. When an inter- example. When an adjective? 6/4. Give
rogative relative pronoun? 667. Give an an example. When an adverb ? 675.
example. When an adjective pronoun ?. Give an example.
66a Give an example. When a com- When is more a noun ? 676. Give an
pound propoun ? 669. Give an example, example.
EXERCISES.
Ill
677. More and most are adjectives^
When they qualify a noun; as, '* The more joy I have, the more
sorrow I expect; "Most men are mistaken in their pursuit of hap-
piness."
678. More and most are adverbs^
When used in comparison ; as, ** This boy is more obedient than that;"
** The soil of Cuba is most fertile."
679.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
' They perfume their garments."
^ A perfume is a sweet odor."
'They rise early in the morn-
' A rise sometimes signifies the be-
ginning."
'Rufus speaks the language of
truth."
' James performed his part well."
' A well is a fountain of water."
* A well man is one who enjoys his
health."
*We frequently walk in the gar-
den."
* The Jews fast often."
* He walks very fast."
* The refuse signifies the worthless
remains."
' Desert not a friend."
* Joseph's brethren came and bowed
down before him."
* William went after his slate."
" His elder brethren came before
Benjamin did."
" John left after William came."
" Evil communications corrupt good
manners."
" Corrupt conversation is very fool-
ish."
" A walk in the fields in the sum-
mer season is delightful."
"A true fast is abstaining from
iniquity."
" Sin is a moral evil, and the cause
' of natural evils."
" Protest not rashly, lest thou have
to repent of it."
" A protest is a solemn declaration
against a thing."
" Do nothing rashly, lest thou pre-
cipitate thyself into inextricable
difficulty."
" Hasty promises are seldom kept."
2.
"The man that I saw, was ex-
ecuted."
" That man that you met yesterday
in the street, was taken and
sent to Boston, that he might
have an impartial trial."
"We assisted him both for your
sake and our own."
' Did you hear the report of the
cannon then ?"
'Where much is given, much will
be required."
' Future time is yet to come."
' He trusted him, /or he knew
that he would not deceive
him."
When are more and most adjectives?
f)??. Give examples of each. When ad-
verbs? 678. Give examples of each.
Wliat is number! 5. What does the
sinjfular number denote? 8. What the
plural? 10.
What nouns have the singular form
only? 324. What the plural ? 325. What
are the same in both numbers? ;?26.
How is the plural number of nouns
generally formed ? 327.
When nouns end in ch, sh, &c., how do
thev form the plural ? 328.
How do those endinjr in/or/c? 329.
How is the plural formed, when the
singular ends in ?/, with no other vowel
in the same syllable ? 330.
What is case ? 333. The nominative
case? 335. .Possessive case? 337. How
formed ? 338. How formed when the sin-
gular ends in ss ? 341.
What does the objective case express ?
343.
Will you decline man? book? 345.
chair? 345.
Will you parse the promiscuous exer-
cises ?
What is an adjective? 363. What
does the positive state express? 365.
Comparative? 366. Superlative? 367.
How is the comparative formed in mono-
syllables? .369. How in more syllables
than one ? 370.
How do you compare the following ad-
jecti ves ? — ffood ? bad ? wise ? little ?
small? virtuous? many? old? 115.
When does an adjective become a noun
in parsing? 378.
112
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
' Both the men are guilty."
'Although he reproves me, yet I
esteem him."
' All but John came."
' This is but doing our duty."
*He called me, but I refused to
go-"
' Let such as hear take heed."
' He did as I directed him."
*You may take either the one or
the other."
'Either road will conduct you to
the right place."
' If he has commanded it, then I
must obey."
" He works for me."
" He refused what was sent him.**
" What strange things he saw !"
"In what manner he succeeded is
unknown to me."
" What ! will you take my life ?**
" The more we have, the more we
want."
"The more joy I have, the more
sorrow I expect."
" The most dutiful children are the
happiest children."
" Much labor fatigues me."
"Thou art much mightier than I
aijp."
"Susan is determined to learn."
" By framing excuses he prolonged
his stay."
"The man who is faithfully at-
tached to religion may be relied
on with confidence."
" James, do visit me."
" Virtue and vice are opposites.**
" When John's father asked him
• that question, he heard him, but
refused to answer him."
" The wall is sixty feet high."
" To meet our friends after a long
absence affords us much joy."
LXV. CONTRACTIONS.
Of the Auxiliary Have, also of Had.
' They 've forsaken him."
' I *d gone when you came."
' They 'd just returned from town."
" I 've satisfied myself.'*-
"They'd determined to let him
go."
681.
0/WiLL and Would.
' I '11 finish my work first."
'They'd sing songs till midnight,
if they were urged."
"He is still determined that he'll
not forbear."
" He '11 at last mind me."
Will you name a few adjectives which
have in themselves a superlative signifi-
cation ? 374;
What is a pronoun ? 381. A personal
pronoun ? 382. Why called personal ?
382.
How many persons have pronouns in
each number? 383. How many num-
bers ? 384.
To which of the pronouns is gender ap-
plied? 382.
How many cases have pronouns ? 384»
Will you decline J? tkou? he? she?
m 127.
What kind of a pronoun is myself? 386.
How formed ? 386.
What is a relative pronoun 7 409.
Why called relative ? 40S.
What is said of the relative what? 429.
How ought who to be applied? 412.
How which? 413. How may that be
used? 415.
When are pronouns called interroga-
tive? 431
What are adjective pronouns? 390.
How many kinds of adjective pronouns
are there ? 391.
Which are the demonstrative? 398.
Why so called ? 398. The distributive ?
393. Why so called ? 393. The indefi-
nite ? 402. Why so called ? 401.
To what do this and that refer 7 400.
Will you decline one? 404. other 7
403
What is the rule by which pronouns
agree with their antecedents? V.
Which words in sentences are antece-
dents? 420.
What are subsequents? 431.
Will you parse t.^le ciercises marked 2?
CONTRACTIONS. 113
682. Of Am and Is.
" That man's rich." "'Tis strange that she will not
" 'T is true she 's dead." regard the kind assistance of
" I 'm sorry that you have misspent her friend."
your time."
683. Of Cannot and Will not.
" He can't endure such afflictions." " He won't disobey me."
" You can't be absent at such " You won't mistake the direc-
times." * tion."
684. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Interrogative
Sentence.
"Who will assist me?" "John" "What will make me respectable
[will assist me]. and happy ?" " Virtue."
" What sent our forefathers to this " Who taught him grammar ?"
country?" " The love of liberty." " Mr. Williams."
685. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Auxiliary.
*♦ Stephen will go if John will" " He received me in the same man-
[go] . ner that I would you."
" Susan shall walk, but John shall " I will do it as soon as I can."
not" "The work is not completed, but
** I have recited ; have you ?" , soon will be."
686. Omissions of the Principal Verb after Than and As.
"Thomas is a better scholar than "Johnson is richer than James."
William" [is]. " Susan is not so beautiful as
"He was more beloved than Cin- Mary."
thia, but not so much ad- "She is more playful than her
mired." brother."
687. Omissions of the Verb To be.
** Sweet the pleasure, rich the trea- " Delightful task, to rear the tender
sure." thought,
"A child of freedom thou." To teach the young idea how to
" Sweet the music of birds." shoot."
" Dear the schoolboy's sport."
What is a verb ? 438. tivo? 472. Subjunctive? 456. Infini-
What is an active verb? 439. live ? 479.
When is an active verb transitive? What are participles? 498. How may
440. When intransitive ? 441. the participles in ing be distinguished
What is a passive verb? 444. How from other words of like termination?
formed ? 510. 500.
How may a transitive verb be known ? How many, and which are the partici-
154. pies ?| What does the present express ?
How an intransitive? 154. 500. Perfect ? 502. Compound perfect?
What is a neuter verb? 450. 504.
Willyounext take the exercises mark- LXV. Will you next parse the con-
ed 3? tractions? 680.
What belong to verbs ?* What is tense ? 494. What is the pre-
Howmany numbers have they? How sent used for? 482. The perfect ? Imper-
many persons?! feet? 488. Pluperftct ? 491. First fu-
What is mood? 451. How many are ture? 41)2. Second future? 493.
there ? 481. Will you name them? Under what circumstances do we use
What is the indicative mood used for? the present tense to denote the relative
452. The potential ? 453. The impera- time of a future action ? 484.
* Mood, tense, number and person. t Three. J Three — the present, perfect, and compound perfect.
114
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
688. Omissions of Mam, Might, Could, Would, and Should.
"Live long and be happy." "He might not weep, nor laugh,
" Who will entreat the Lord that he nor sing."
spare our lives ?" " Should I forgive you, and allow
" I could not think, nor speak, nor you to depart, you would not
hear." reform."
689. Omissions of the Conjunction before the Verb in the Sub-
junctive Mood,
" If he will repent and reform, I
will assist him."
" Unless good order be restored, and
the former officers be re-elected,
there will be an end to the ad-
ministration of justice."
"Had I improved my time as I
ought to have done, I should
have been well qualified for
business."
" Were there no alternative, I would
not do that."
690. Omissions of For after Verb, implying the idea of serving.
" Make me a pen."
" Order me a carriage."
' Bring me some water."
' Purchase him a knife."
" Sweet child ! lovely child !
parents are no more."
" Sweet blossom ! precious to my
heart."
Omissions of the Interjection,
thy
" Thou Preserver and Creator of all
mankind."
" My beloved Ulrica ! hast thou, too,
forgotten me ?"
692. Omissions of the Relative.
" Several men are there come from " I trust that he I desire to see so
Europe." muchi^ill^peedily return.'
I.XVI. inver:
The Nominative
•• Smack went'the whip, round
the wheels ;
Wejpe ever folks so glat
*'^ere^ goes a man alike ^istin* ':;:'_ j^olden hair."
after the Verb,
guished for his learning and
^ politeness." ^.^''""
"And in soft ringlets waved'^er
In what sort of dftsoriptions do we use
the present.ibrtT]e pasV tense ? 486.
What is the conjugation of a verb? 531.
What is the conjugation of an active
verb styled? 532. A passive verb? 532.
How many tenses lias the indicative ?
.."625. Potential ? 527. Subjunctive ? 526.
Imperative? 529. Infinitive? .528.
What is the sign of the present indica-
tive? 519. The imperfect ? 520. .fer-
^'Ifect? 521. Pluperfect? 522. Firslftir
ture ? 523. Second future ? 524. The
potential mood? 515. Infinitive ? 517.
Subjunctive? 516. How many persons
^as the imperative ? 518. How many
fepses? 529. How many forms h^s the
Bubjunjctiye moQ4?^^l-'"Tft'"What d^.they
W^ill you now parse the omissions?
684, &c.
How is the passive verb formed ? 510.
Will yskudecline love in the indicative
present, passive-? and the verb to be in the
imperfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? First
future? Second future? Present poten-
tial? Imperfect? Perfect? Pluperfect?
Present subjunctive, common form? Im-
perfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? First fu-
ture ? Second future ?
■- |n what voice, mood, tense, number and
per'gOij^ is, " I love ?" " We love ?" " They
are loved ?" " You are ?" " I did learn ?"
"John was, instructed?" "He was?"
♦'They have "Returned ?" "Have they
gone?" "They hdVe been ?" " I had
had?" "They had been distinguished?"
SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 115
694. The Objective Case before the Verb,
** Tyrants no more their savage na- " Me glory summons to the martial
ture kept, scene."
And foes to virtue wondered how " The rolls of fame I will not now
they wept." explore."
695. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
Will you compose a sentence exemplifying Rule VIIT. ? One, Rule
IX.? X.? XL? XII.? XIII.? XIV.? Will you compose a sentence on
the use of the dog ? One, on the clouds ? One, on night ? One, on wind 1
One, on snow ? One, on hail ? One, on ice? One, on skating ? One, on
fishing ? One, on courage ? One, on cowardice ? One, on flial duty 1
' One, on indolence ? One, on schools 7
696. SENTENCES TRANSPOSED.
" Here rests his liead upon the lap of earth,
A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown."
Transposed,
** A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame, rests here his head upon
the lap of earth."
" When, young, life's journey I began.
The glittering prospect charmed my eyes ;
I saw along the extended plain,
Joy after joy successive rise :
But soon I found 'twas all a dream.
And learned the fond pursuit to shun,
Where few can reach the purposed aim,
And thousands daily are undone."
Transposed.
" I began life's journey when young, and the glittering prospect
charmed my eyes; I saw joy after joy successive rise, along the ex-
tended plain : but soon I found it was all a dream ; and learned to shun
the fond pursuit, where few can reach the purposed aim, and thousands
are daily undone."
" Needful austerities our wills restrain,
As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm.'*
Transposed,
" Needful austerities restrain our wills, as thorns fence in the tender
plant from harm."
•'Thou hadst been"? "You shall be Will you give the synopis o{ desire in
taught"? "Shall I be punished''? "He the active voice, with the participles?
shall have been" ? Of the same in the passive ? Of do in the
LXVI. Will you parse the inverted active? In the passive?
sentences? 693, &c. When is a verb called regular? 533.
In what voice, mood, tense, number and When irregular ? 534.
person, is " Love thou" ? " I may go" ? Will you repeat the present and imper.
" You may be regarded" ? " You might feet tenses, also the perfect participle,
be rejoiced"? "She may have been re- of am? see? hear? do? weep? sink?
fused" ? " We should have been" ? " If swim ?
I have"? " If thou have"? " If thou Will you next take the sentences to be
hast" ? " To have" ? " To have been" ? written ?
Will you give the synopis of learn^ What are auxiliary verbs? 511.
through all the moods, tenses, «fec., in the How many and which are they ? 512.
first person, including the participle? What are defective verbs ? 579.
Learn, in like manner, in the passive? What is an adverb? 588. Why so
The verb to be in the same manner ? called ? 228.
116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
On some fond breast the parting soul relies,
Some pious drops the closing eye requires :
E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries,
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires."
Transposed.
** The parting soul relies on some fond breast ; the closing eye requires
some pious drops ; the voice of nature cries even from the tomb ; and
their wonted fires live even in our ashes."
" From lofty themes, from thoughts that soared on high
And opened wondrous scenes above the sky.
My Muse ! descend ; indulge my fond desire ;
With softer thoughts my melting soul inspire,
And smooth my numbers to a female's praise;
A partial world will listen to my lays,
While Anna reigns, and sets a female name
Unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame."
• Transposed,
" O my Muse I descend thou from lofty themes, and from thoughts that
soared on high, and opened wondrous scenes above the sky ; indulge thou
my fond desire ; and do thou inspire my melting soul with softer thoughts,
and smooth my numbers to a female's praise ; a partial world will listen
to my lays, while Anna reigns, and sets a female name unrivalled in the
glorious lists of fame."
In what manner are adverbs compared? What is the rule for the agreement of
236,234. nouus? XV. Articles? II., III. Ad-
Whal are the phrases which do the of- jectives ? IV. Pronouns ? V. Verbs ?
fice of adverbs called ? 589. VII. Particinles ? XIII, Agreement of
Will you name a few? 589. a verb plural with two nouns singular?
What is a preposition ? 595. XVIII. Adjective pronouns and numer-
Will you repeat the list of preposi- als ? Note 1.
tions ? 247. What is the rule by which a verb agrees
What is a conjunction? 602. Con- with a noun of multitude, or collective
junction copulative ? 2G5. Why so call- noun ? Note XVI. Rule for the objective
ed? 264. Conjunction disjunctive ? 274. case after a transitive verb? VI [I.
Why so called? 271. • What is the rule for the objective case
Will you repeat the list of copulative after a preposition ? X. After a partici-
conjunctions? 266. Of disjunctive con- pie? XIV. Rule for the adverb? IX.
junctions? 275. Rule respecting the interjections O! oh!
What is an interjection? 607. Why aA/&c.? Note X.
80 called? 283. Mention a few? 285. Will you parse the sentences marked
What is syntax ? 296. What is a sen* transposed?
tence ? 252. A simple sentence ? 253.
GENERAL OBSERYATIONS.
SYNTAX.
That part of Grammar which treats of the fonmation and sound
of the letters, the combination of letters into syllables, and syllables
into words, is called Orthography.
That part which treats of the different sorts of words, their vari-
ous changes and their derivations, is called Etymology.
That part which treats of the union and right order of words in
the formation of sentences, is called Syntax.
Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species,
Universal and Particular. Universal Grammar explains the
principles which are common to all languages. Particular
Grammar applies those principles to a particular language, modi-
fying them according to the genius of that tongue, and the
established practice of the best writers and speakers by whom it
is used.
Language, in the proper sense of the word, signifies the expres-
sion of our ideas, and their various relations, by certain articulate
sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas and relations.
An articulate sound is the sound of the Human voice, formed by the
organs of speech.
Letters are the representatives of certain articulate sounds, the
elements of the language.
The letters of the English Language, called the English Alphabet,
are twenty-six in number, each of which constitutes the first prin-
ciple, or least part of a word.
Letters are divided into vowels and consonants.
A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The
vowels are a, e, t, o, u, and sometimes w and y, W and y are con-
sonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other
situation they are vowels.
A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without
the aid of a vowel ; as, 6, d, /, Z. All letters except the vowels are
consonants.
Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.
The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vowel.
They are b, p, t, <?, k, and c and g hard.
(im
118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They
are /, Z, m, n, r, v, s, z, a?, and c and g soft.
Four of the semi-vowels, namely, Z, m, w, r, are called liquids,
because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it
were, into their sounds.
A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a single
impulse of the voice ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce,
A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like
manner; as, eau in beau, iew in view,
A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded;
as, oi in voice, ou in ounce.
An improper diphthong has. but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea
in eagle, oa in boat,
A Syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, uttered by
a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part of a
word ; as, «, an, ant.
A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable; a word of two
syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a
word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.
Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent as signs of
our ideas.
Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative.
A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler
word in the language ; as, man, good,
A derivative word is that which may be reduced to a simpler
word ; as, manful, goodness.
The elementary sounds, under their smallest combination, produce
a syllable; syllables, properly combined, produce a word; words,
duly combined, produce a sentence; and sentences, properly com-
. bined, produce an oration, or discourse,
A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming complete sense.
Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound.
A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite* verb ;
as, " Life is short."
A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences
connected together ; as, " Life is short, and art is long."
As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so the
members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple and compound
members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become
members of other sentences, by means of some additional connection ; as
in the following example : ** The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his
master's crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider."
This sentence consists of two compounded members, each of which is
subdivided into two simple members, which are properly called clauses.
A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making
sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sen-
tence.
The principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject, the
attribute, and the object.
* Finite verbs arc those to which number and person appertain. Verbs in the
infinitive mood have no respect to number and person.
SYNTAX. 119
The subject is the things chiefly spolfen of; the attribute is the
thin^ or action affirmed or denied of it; and the object is the thing
affected by such action.
The nominative case denotes the subject; and usually goes before
the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase denoting the object,
follows the verb; as, "A wise man governs his passions." Here a
wise man is the subject; governs^ the attribute or thing affirmed ;
and his passions^ the object.
Syntax principally consists of two parts. Concord and Govern-
ment. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another
in gender, number, case, or person. Government is that power
which one part of speech has over another, in directing its mood,
tense, or case.
What is Orthography? Etymology? Syntax? How many kinds of
grammar are there ? What are they ? What is universal grammar ? Par-
ticular grammar ? What is language ? What is an articulate sound ? What
are letters ? What are the letters of the English language called ? What
does each constitute ? How are letters divided ? What is a vowel ? Which
are they ? How many do they make ? When are to and y consonants ?
when vowels ? What is a consonant ? Give an example. Which letters are
consonants ? How are the consonants divided ? What is a mute ? Which
are they ? What is a semi- vowel ? Which are they ? Which of the semi-
vowels are called liquids, and why ? What is a diphthong ? Give an exam-
ple. What is a triphthong ? Give an example; What is a proper diphthong ?
Give an example. What is an improper diphthong? Give an example.
What is a syllable? monosyllable? dissyllable? trisyllable? polysyllable?
What are wotds ? Of how many sorts are they ? What is a primitive word ?
Give an example. What is a derivative word ? Give an example. What
does an elementary sound produce ? What do syllables produce ? Words ?
Sentences ? What is a sentence ? How are sentences divided ? What is a
simple sentence ? Compound sentence ? Give an example of each. How
are the members of sentences divided ? Give an example. What is a phrase t
What are the principal parts of a simple sentence ? What is the subject ? the
attribute ? the object? What does the nominative case denote ? and where
is it usually placed in a sentence ? Give an example. Of how many parts
does Syntax consist ? What are they ? What is concord ? Government ?
The right construction of sentences may perhaps be
best learned by correcting examples of wrong construc-
tion. Exercises in false syntax for the pupil, assisted by
rules and notes to parse and correct, will therefore now
be given.
The following contain all the notes and observations
in Murray's large Grammar, together with all his ex-
ercises in false syntax.
RUI.Z3 VII-
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar.
RULE I.
A verb must agree with its nominative case in number
and person.
The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule : *' What
unifies good opinions, when our practice is bad?" /'what signify.''
120
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
"There's two or three of us, who have seen the work;" "there are.''^
"We may suppose there was more impostors than one;'* "there were
more." " I have considered what have been said on both sides in this con-
troversy ;" " what has been said." " If thou would be healthy, live tem-
perately;" " if thou TiJowZ^s^" "Thou sees how Httle has been done ;"
" thou seesty " Though thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may and
should do something;" *' canst not, mayst, and shouldst.^^ " Full many a
flower are born to blush unseen ;" ''is born." " A conformity of inclina-
tions and qualities prepare us for friendship ;" ''prepares us." "A variety
of blessings-have been conferred upon us;" "has been." " In piety and
virtue consist the happiness of man;" " consist s.^^ "To these precepts
are subjoined a copious selection of rules and maxims;" " is subjoined."
" If thou would be healthy, live temperately." Which word is wrong in
this example ? In what particular, wrong ? Why ? What is the Rule for
it? How, then, would you correct the example ? — " There was more equi
vocators." Which word is wrong here ? What correction should be made !
Why?
^fCrThe pupil is first to answer the questions on each Bule or Note, then tt
correct and parse the subsequent exercises! It is suggested to the teacher, thai
the pupils should direct their attention first to the Rules and exercises undei
them, exclusively, omitting the Notes, (J-c, for a review, when all may bt
taken in course.
' Disappointments sinks the heart
of man ; but the renewal of
hope give consolation."
' The smiles that (1.) encourage
severity of judgment hides ma-
lice and insincerity."
' He dare not act (2.) contrary (3.)
to his instructions.^
' Fifty pounds of wheat contains
forty pounds of flour."
' The mechanism of clocks and
watches were totally unknown
(4.) a few centuries ago." (5.)
' The number of inhabitants in
Great Britain and Ireland, do
not exceed sixteen millions."
* Nothing (6.) but vain and fool-
ish pursuits (7.) delight some
persons."
*A variety of pleasing objects
charm the eye."
'So (8.) much (9.) both (10.) of
ability and merit (11.) are sel-
dom (12.) found."
'In the conduct of Parmenio a
mixture of wisdom and folly
(11.) were very (8.) conspicu-
ous."
'He is an author (13.) of more
credit than Plutarch, (14.) oi
any other (15^) that (11.) writ
lives too (12.) hastily."
"The inquisitive (16.) and cu-
rious (11.) is generally talka*
tive." (17.)
" Great pains has been taken to re-
concile the parties."
"The sin<}ere (16.) is always es-
teemed."
" Has the goods been sold to ad-
vantage ? and did thou embrace
the proper season ?"
"There is many occasions (6.) in
life, in which silence and sim-
plicity (11.) is true wisdom."
"The generous (16.) never re-
counts minutely the actions
they have done ; nor the pru-
dent, (7.) those (15.) . they will
do."
"He need not proceed (2.) in such
haste."
"The business that (1.) related to
ecclesiastical meetings, mat-
ters (11.) and persons, (11.)
were to be ordered accord-
ing (18.) to the king's direc-
tion."
m See 650. ..,...,„ ,„., , ,
XIII. (5.) A few centuries ago — an adverbial phrase, 589; or apply Note XVIII.
f2.) Apply Rule XII. See 480.
648, to centuries, and Rule IX. to ago. (6.) Rule VL
(9.) 673. (10.) 661. (11.) Rule XI. (12.) Adverb,
(14.) " Plutarch is." (15.) Note I. 405, and Rule X,
IV. (18.) 247.
(3.) Adjective.
"19; or apply
(7.) Rule XI.
(4.) Rule
(H.) 239.
(13.) Rule XV. 613.
(16.) 378. (17.) Rul«
SYNTAX.
121
"In him were happily blended
true dignity with softness of
manners."
"The support of so (1.) many (2.)
of his relations, were a heavy
tax (3.) upon his industry ;
but thou knows he paid it
cheerfully."
"What (4.) avails the best senti-
ments (5.) if persons do not
live suitably to them ?"
" Not one (6.) of them whom thou
sees clothed (7.) in purple, are
completely happy."
" And the fame of this person,
and of his wonderful actions,
were diffused (8.) throughout
the country."
"The variety of the productions
of genius, like (9.) that (10.)
of the operations of nature, are
without limit."
"In vain (11.) our flocks and fields
increase our store,
When our abundance makes us
wish (12.) for more."
"Thou shalt love thy neighbour
as (13.) sincerely as (14.j thou
loves thyself."
" Has thou no better reason for cen-
suring (15.) thy friend and com-
panion ?" (16.)
"Thou, who art the Author (17.)
and Bestower (16.) of life, can
doubtless restore it also ; but
whether thou will please to re-
store it, or not, that thou only
knows."
" O thou my voice (18.) inspire.
Who touched (19.) Isaiah's hallow-
ed lips with fire."
"Accept (20.) these grateful tears;
for thee they flow ;
For thee, that ever felt (21.) an-
other's woe."
" Just to thy word, in every thought
sincere ;
Who knew (22.) no wish but what
the world might hear."
1. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put as the
nominative case to the verb ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant ;" " To be
good IS to be happy ;" "A desire to excel others in learning and virtue is
commendable;" " That warm climates should accelerate the growth of
the human body, and shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe ;"
** To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in open air, and
to preserve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the best preser-
vatives of health."
** To see the sun are pleasant." Which word is wrong in this example ?
In what particular, wrong ? What is pleasant ? What, then, is the nomina-
tive case to is ? Is there one thing, or more than one, here spoken of, as be-
ing pleasant ? Why, then, should we use is in preference to are ? What is
the Rule for is ? (23.) Rule for, " To see,'' or, *' To see the sun .?" (24.)
^iCr When examples are referred to without being quoted^ the teacher may
read them to the pupil.
** To be temperate in eating," &c. How many things are here spoken
of as being the best preservatives ? Should we, then, use the singular or
plural verb ? Rule for it ? (25.)
" To do unto all men, as we would
that they, in similar circumstan-
ces, should do unto us, constitute
the great principle of virtue."
"From a fear of the world's cen-
sure, to be ashamed (24.) of tho
practice of precepts, which the
heart approves and embraces,
mark a feeble and imperfect
character."
(1.) 239. (2.) 378. (3.) Rule XV. 613. (4.) Rule VII?. (5.) RuleiVI.
(6.) Note r. 405, and Rule VI. (7.) Rule Xfll. (8.) 510. (9.) Rule IV
(10.) " that variety"— '^oie I. 405, and Rule X. See Note XVII. 647. (11.) Ad-
verbial phrase. (12.) Rule XII. 555. See 480. (1.3.) Adverb. (14.) Con
junction. (15.) Participial noun. (16.) Rule XI. (17.) Rule XV. 613.
(18.) Rule VIII. (19.) "Who touchcdst or didst touch." (20.) "Accept
thou" — imp. mood. (21.) " didst feel." (22.) " IVho knewest or didst know."
(23.) Rule VII. (24.) Note XIII. 626, or, Note 1, this page. (25.) Rule XVUI.
11 L
122 ENGLISH
"The erroneous opinions which
we form concerning (1.) hap-
piness and misery gives rise
to all the mistaken (2.) and
dangerous passions that em-
broils our life."
"To live soberly, righteously, and
piously, are required of all
men."
•*That (3.) it is our duty to pro-
mote the purity of our minds
and bodies, to be just (4.) and
kind to our fellow-creatures,
and to be pious and faithful to
Him that made us, admit not
of any doubt in a rational and
well (5.) informed mind."
" To be of a pure and humble
mind, to exercise benevolence
towards others, to cultivate
piety towards God, is the sure
means (6.) of becoming peace-
ful and happy."
" It is an important truth, that re-
ligion, vital religion, the re-
ligion of the heart, are the most
GRAMMAR.
powerful auxiliaries of reason,
in waging war with the pas-
sions, and promoting that sweet
composure which constitute the
peace of God."
"The possession of our senses
entire, of our limbs uninjured,
of a sound understanding, of
friends and companions, are
♦ often overlooked ; though it
would be the liltimale wish (6.)
of many, who, as far as we can
judge, deserves it as much as
ourselves."
" All (7.) that make a figure on the
great theatre of the world, the
employments of the busy, the
enterprises of the ambitious,
and the exploits of the warlike ;
the virtues which forms the
happiness, and the crimes which
occasions the misery of man-
kind; originates in that silent
and secret recess of thought,
which are hidden from every
human eye."
2. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the participle, ought to
have a nominative case, either expressed or implied ; as, ** Awake ; arise ;"
that is, " Awake ye ; arise ye."
Wfe shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the verb
without its nominative case. ** As it hath pleased him of his goodness to
give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the great danger," &c.
The verb hath preserved has here no nominative case, for it cannot be pro-
perly supplied by the preceding word, him, which is in the objective case.
It ought to be, "and as he hath preserved you;" or rather, '*and to pre-
serve you." " If the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long, had
continued ;" ** and which lasted," &c. ** These we have extracted from
an historian of undoubted credit, and are the same that were practised,"
&c. ; *' and they are the same." " A man whose inclinations led him to
oe corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business ;" ** sindwfio had,"
&c. *' A cloud gathering in the north ; which we have helped to raise, and
may quickly breas in a storm upon our heads ;" ** and which may quickly."
*'As it hath pleased," &c. What correction should be made in this
example ? Why ? Recite the Note.
2.
" If the privileges to which he has
an undoubted right, and he has
long enjoyed, should now be
wrested from him, (8.) would
be flagrant injustice."
"These curiosities we have im-
ported from China, and are
similar to those which were
some time ago brought from
Africa."
"Will martial flames forever fire
thy mind.
And never, never (9.) be to heaven
resigned ?"
(I.) Preposition. (2.) Rule XIII. (3.) Conjunction. U-) " jnst persons.^*
Rule IV. (5.) Adverb. (6.) Rule XV. (7.) Note I. 405, Rule VI.
(8.) " it would" (9.) *' And wilt thou never be ?'*
SYNTAX. 123
3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an address
is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either expressed or im-
plied; as, "Who wrote this book?" "James;" that is, " James wrote
It." " To whom thus Adam," that is, " spoke."
One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative case, without
any verb, expressed.or implied, to answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate
the usefulness of the preceding observations.
" Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring prince would have
wanted a great deal of that incense which had been offered up to him." The
pronoun it is here the nominative case to the verhTobserved ; and which rule
is left by itself, a nominative case without any verb following it. This form
of expression, though improper, is very common. It ought to be, '^ If this
rule had been observed," &c. "Man, though he has great variety of
thoughts, and such from which others as well as himself might receive pro-
fit and delight, yet they are all within his own breast." In this sentence,
the nominative man stands alone, and unconnected with any verb, either
expressed or implied. It should be, " Though man has great variety," &,c.
" Which rule, if it," «fec. What is the nominative case to observed ? Has
the noun rule any verb following it, to which it may be the nominative case ?
Is this form of expression much used ? Is it not proper ? What correction
ehould be made ? Why ? Recite the Note.
3.
•*(1.) Two substantives, when they "Virtue, however it may be neg
come together, and do not lected for a time, men are so
signify the same thing, the constituted as ultimately to ac-
former (2.) must be in the .. knowledge and respect genuine
genitive case." merit."
4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be under-
stood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them ;
but some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it,
as also to that which stands next to the verb ; as, " His meat loas locusts
and wild honey;" " A great cause of the low state of industry twere the
restraints put upon it;" " The wages of sin is death."
" The wages of sin is death," or, " Death is the wages of sin." What*
is the nominative case to is ? Is this nominative, in the first example, before
or after is ? What is the rule for wages ? (3.) Recite the Note. What do
you mean by the subject of the affirmation ? (4.)
4.
" The crown of virtue is peace and " His chief occupation and enjoy-
honor." ment were controversy."
5. When the nominative case has no personal tense of a verb, but is put
before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence, it is called the
case absolute ; as, "Shame being lost, all virtue is lost;" "That having
been discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume it."
As, in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, always the
nominative, the following example is erroneous, in making it the objective.
" Solomon was of this mind ; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true
proverbs, as any body has done since ; him only excepted, who was a much
greater and wiser man than Solomon." It should be, " Ae only excepted."
What is the rule for the case absolute ? (5.) " He only excepted." Which
word is wrong in this example ? In what particular, wrong ? What correc-
tion should be made ?
(1.) " When two substantives come together.'* (2.) *' the first of them.**
(3.) Rule XV. 613. (4.) The nominative case. (5.) Rule XVII. 623.
124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
5.
"Him destroyed, , All this (2.) will soon follow."
Or won to what (1.) may work "Whose gray top
his utter loss, Shall tremble, him descending."
The nominative case is commonly placed befoJ-e the verb ; but sometimes
it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense ; and between the auxiliary and
the verb or participle, if a compound tense; as,
1st. When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish expressed ;
as, " Confidest thou in me ?" ** Read thou !" *' Mayst thou be happy !"
*' Long live the king !"
2d. When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; as, *' Were
it not for this ;" " Had I been there."
3d. When a verb transitive is used; as, "On a sudden appeared the
king."
4ih. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs here, there, then, thence,
hence, thus, &c. ; as, "Here am I;" " There was he slain;" "Then
cometh the end;" "Thence ariseth his grief;" "Hence proceeds his
anger;" " Thus was the affair settled."
5th. When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be coupled with
another sentence ; as, " Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest
ye die."
Some grammarians assert, the phrases as follows, as appears, form what
are called impersonal verbs ; and should, therefore, be confined to the sin-
gular number; as, "The arguments advanced were nearly as /oZZow;s ;"
" The positions were as appears incontrovertible ;" that is, " as it follows,"
"as it appears." If we give (say they) the sentence a different turn, and,
instead of as, say such as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal ; but
properly agrees with its nominative, in the plural number ; as, " The argu-
ments advanced were nearly such as follow ;" " The positions were such
as appear uncontrovertible."*
They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, " That as,
however and whenever used in English, means the same as it, or that, or
which ;^^ and who are not satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first
mentioned, should be in the singular or the plural numher, may vary the
form of expression. Thus, the sense of the preceding sentences may be
conveyed in the following terms : — " The arguments advanced were nearly
* of the following nature ;" " The following are nearly the arguments which
were advanced;" "The arguments advanced were nearly those which
follow;" "It appears that the positions were incontrovertible;" "That
the position* were incontrovertible is apparent;" " The positions were in-
controvertible is apparent;" "The positions were apparently incontro-
vertible."
Where is the nominative case usually placed ? Mention a few instances
in which the nominative follows the verb. What do some grammarians say
of the phrases as follows, as appears ? What is Dr. Campbell's opinion con-
cerning them ?
(1.) '♦ that which." 437. (2.) Note I. 405.
* These grammarians are supported by general usage, and by the authority of an
eminent critic on language and composition. " When a verb is used impersonally,"
says Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, " it ought undoubtedly to be in the
singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or understood." For this
reason, analogy and usage, favor this mode of expression ; " The conditions of the
agreement were as follows," and not "as follow." A few late writers have incon-
siderately adopted this last form, through a mistake of the construction. For the
same reason, we ought to say, " I shall consider his censures so far only as concerns
my friend's conduct," and not " bo far as concern."
SYNTAX. 125
RniiE XVZII.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE II.
Two or more nouns or pronouns of the singular number,
connected together by and, either expressed or under-
stood, must have verbs, nouns and pronouns agreeing
with them in the plural number.
This rule is often violated ; some instances of which are annexed. " An'd
so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, who were partners with
Simon ;" " and so were also." " All joy, tranquillity and peace, even for
ever and ever, doth dwell;" ^^ dwell for ever." "By whose power all
good and evil is distributed ;" ** are distributed." ** Their love, and their
hatred, and their envy, is now perished ;" ** are perished." *' The thought-
less and intemperate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse of it, and
the forgetfulness of our being accountable creatures, obUterates every seri-
ous thought of the proper business of life, and effaces the sense of religion
and of God;" it ought to be, '* obliterate' ' and *' efface.''
*' All joy, tranquiUity, &c., doth dwell." Which word is wrong in this
example ? In what particular, wrong ? What correction, then, should be
made ? Why ? Recite the Rule.
" Idleness and ignorance is the " The planetary system, boundless
parent of many vices." space, and the immense ocean,
" Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells affects the mind with sensations
with the golden mediocrity." of astonishment."
" In unity consists the welfare and " Humility and love, whatever (3.)
security of every society." obscurities may involve religi-
" Time and ti^ waits for no man." ous tenets, constitutes the
"His politeness and good disposi- essence of true religion."
tion was^ on failure of their "Religion and virtue, our best supti
effect, entirely changed." port (4.) and highest honour,
"Patience and diligence, like (1.) confers on the mind principles
faith, (2.) removes moun- of noble independence."
tains." " What (5.) signifies the counsel
" Humility and knowledge, with and care of preceptors, when
poor apparel, excels pride and youth think they have no (6.)
ignorance under costly attire." need of assistance ?"
1. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinguishable in
sense, and sometimes even when they are very different, some authors
have thought it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pronouns in the sin-
gular number; as, "Tranquillity and peace dwells there;" "Ignorance
and negligence has produced the effect ;" " ^i'he discomfiture and slaughter
was very great." But it is evidently contrary to the first principles of
grammar, to consider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their
shades of difference ; and if there be no difference, one of them must be
superfluous, and ought to be rejected. ♦
To support the above construction, it is said, that the verb may be undeF-
stood as applied to each of the preceding terms ; as in the following exam-
ple : "Sand, and salt, and a mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man
without understanding." But besides the confusion, and the latitude of
(1.) Adverb. (2.) Rule X. See Note XVTI. 647. (3.) Note I. 405.
(4.) Rule XV. (5.) Rule VIII. C6.) 239.
11*
126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
application, which such a construction would introduce, it appears to be
more proper and analogical, in cases where the verb is intended to be ap-
plied to any one of the terms, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction,
which grammatically refers the verb to one or other of the preceding terms,
in a separate view. To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and
disjunctive conjunctions, would render the rules precise, consistent and
intelligible. Dr. Blair very justly observes, that "two or more substan-
tives, joined by a copulative, must always require the verb or pronoun to
which they refer, to be placed in the plural number."
" Tranquillity and peace dwells there." What dwells ? Is it not, then, a
violation of Ruie XVIII. to use dwells in the singular number? When do
some writers think it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pronouns in the
singular number .? Is this usage grammatical ? In what does the incorrect-
ness consist? If there be no difference in the meaning of terms, are both
necessary ? What ought to be done with the superfluous one ? How do
some attempt to support the above construction? How would they read, on
this principle, the example beginning with, " Sand, and salt, and a mass of
iron, is easier," &c. ? (1.) In examples Hke the last, what conjunction can
we substitute in the place oi .and, which will better express the sense ?
What does Dr. Blair say on this subject?
1.
" Much <?oes human pride and self- "Pride and self-sufficiency stifles
complacency require correction." sentiments of dependence on
"Luxurious living, and high plea- our Creator; levity and at-
sures, hegets a languor and tachment to worldly pleasures
satiety that destroys all enjoy- destroys the sense of gratitude
ment." to him."
2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to determine,
whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered as the nominative
case ; and, consequently, whether the verb should be in the singular or the
plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a number of varied exam-
ples of this nature, which may serve as some government to the scholar
with respect to sentences of a similar construction. "Prosperity, with
humihty, renders its possessor truly amiable." "The smp, with all her
furniture, was destroyed." " Not only his estate, his reputation too has
suffered by his misconduct." " The general, also, in conjunction with the
officers, has applied for redress." " He cannot be justified ; for it is true,
that the prince, as well as the people, was blameworthy." "The king,
wi'h his life-guard, has just passed through the village." " In the mutual
ii'fluence of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which
we cannot fathom." " Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, conspire to
recommend the measure." " Patriotism, morality, every public and pri-
vate consideration, demand our submission to just and lawful government."
** Nothing delights me so much as the works of nature."
In support of such forms of expression as the following, we see the
authority of Plume, Priestley, and other writers ; and we annex them for
the reader's consideration: "A long course of time, with a variety of
accidents and circumstances, are requisite to produce those revolutions."
" The king, with the lords and commons, form an excellent frame of
government." "The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the tri-
angle." " The fire communicated itself to the bed, which, with the furni-
ture of the room, and a valuable library, were all entirely consumed." It
is, however, proper to observe, that these modes of expression do not
appear to be warranted by the just principles of construction. The words,
" A long course of time," " The king," " The side A," and " which,"
are the true nominatives to the respective verbs. In the last example,
the word all should be expunged. As the preposition with governs the
objective case in English, and, if translated into Latin, would govern
(I.) " Sand is easier, and salt is easier, and a mass of iron ia easier," &c.
SYNTAX.
127
the ablative case, it is manifest, that the clauses following with, in the pre-
ceding sentences, cannot form any part of the nominative case. They can-
not be at the same time in the objective and the nominative cases. The
following sentence arppears to be unexceptionable, and may serve to explain
the others: " The lords and commons are essential branches of the British
constitution : the king, with them, forms an excellent frame of govern-
ment."
** The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle." In this sen-
tence, what is the nominative case to compose ? Should the verb, then, be
singular or plural ? What difficulty is mentioned in the beginning of this
Note?
2.
"Good order in our affairs, not
mean savings, produce great
profits."
"The following treatise, together
with those that accompany it,
were written many years ago,
for my own private satisfac-
tion."
"That great senator, in concert
with several other eminent per-
sons, were the projectors (1.) of
the revolution."
"The religion of these people, as
well as their customs and
manners, loere strangely mis-
represented."
"Virtue, joined to knowledge and
wealth, confer great influence
and respectability. But know-
ledge, with wealth united, if
virtue is wanting, have a very
limited influence, and are often
despised."
" That superficial scholar and critic,'
like some reno wned critics of our
own, have (5.) furnished most
decisive proofs that they (3.)
knew not the characters of the
Hebrew language."
"The buildings of the institution
have been enlarged ; the ex-
pense of which, added (4.) to
the increased price of pro-
visions, render it necessary to
advance the terms of admis-
sion."
"One, added to nineteen, make
twenty."
"What (5.) black despair, what
horror, fills the mind I"
3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a
copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the plural pronouns
agree with them in person, the second person takes place of the third, and
the first of both ; as, " James, and thou, and I, are attached to our coun-
try ;" " Thoa and he shared it between yow."
" James, and thou, and I, am attached to our country." What is wrong
in this example ? In what particular, wrong? What correction should be
made ? Why ? " Thou and he shared it between him." Will you correct
this example ? Why use you instead oihim ? Will you repeat the Note ?
3.
" Thou, and the gardener, and the
huntsman, must share the
blame of this business amongst
them"
' My sister and I, as well as my
brother, are daily employed
in their respective occupa-
tions."
♦Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence would
certainly stand better thus: " The king, the lords, and the commons, form an ex-
cellent constitution."
(2.) 632. Exception 1. (3.) " he knew:*
(5.) 4:m.
(1.) Rule XV. 613.
(4.) Rule XTII. 557
128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
HVZjB XXIII.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE III.
The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that
of the conjunction copulative ; for as the verb, noun
or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken
L separately, it must be in the singular number; as,
\ " Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake ;"
" John, James, or Joseph, intends to accompany me ;"
" There is, in many minds, neither knowledge nor
understanding."
The following sentences are variations from this rule : " A man may see
a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a descrip-
tion ;" "read iV." " is either character nor dialogue were yet understood ;"
** ims yet." " It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do
not carry in them robbery or murder ;" ''does not carry in i7." " Death,
or some worse misfortune, soon divide them ;" it ought to be, ''divides.^'
*' Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood." What is wrong
in this example ? Why ? Will you correct it ? What is the Rule for this
correction ?
** Man's happiness or misery are, in " When sickness, infirmity, or re-
a great measure, put into his verse of fortune affect us, the
own hands." sincerity of friendship is prov-
" Man is not such a machine as a cd."
clock or a watch, which 7nove "Let (1.) it be remembered, (2.)
merely as they are moved ?" that (3.) it is not the uttering,
" Despise no infirmity of mind or or the hearing of certain words,
body, nor any condition of life ; that constitute the worship of
for they are, perhaps, to be your the Almighty."
own lot." " A tart reply, a proneness to re-
" Speaking impatiently to servants, buke, or a captious and Con-
or anything that betrays inat- tradictious spirit, are capable
tention or ill-humour, are cer- ^ of imbittering (4.) domestic life,
tainly criminal." (5.) and of setting friends at
" There are many faults in spelling, variance."
which neither analogy nor pro-
nunciation justify."
1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun of different persons,
are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that person which is
placed nearest to it; as, "I or thou art to blame;" "Thou or I am in
fault ;" "I, thou, or he, is the author of it ;" " George or I am the per-
son." But it would be better to say, " Either I am to blame, or thou
art," &c.
" I or thou am to blame." How should this be altered? What is. the
Rule for it?
1.
" Either (6.) thou or I art greatly " I or thou am the person (7.) who
mistaken, in our judgment on must undertake the business
the subject." proposed."
(1.) Imperative mood, agreeing with thou or you understood, by Rule VI.
(2.) Infinitive, 480. (.3.) Conjunction. (4.) Rule X. (5.) Rule XIV. 560.
(6.) 659. (7.) Rule XV. 613.
SYNTAX. 129
2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and
a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun;
as, " Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him ;" *' I or they were
offended by it." But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can
conveniently be done, should be placed next to the verb.
*' I or they was offended." What is wrong in this example? What is
the Rule for the correction ?
2.
"Both (1.) of the scholars, or one of "Whether one person or more was
them at .least, was present at concerned in the business, does
the transaction." not appear."
" Some parts of the ship and cargo " The cares of this life, or the de-
.were recovered; but neither (2.) ceitfulness of riches, has choked
the sailors nor the captain was the seeds of virtue in many a
saved." promising (3.) mind."
NOTE XVI.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar.
RULE IV.
Jl verb in the plural ivill agree loith a collective noun in
the singular, when a part only of the individuals are
meant ; as, '' The council were divided in their sen-
timents." When the noun expresses the idea of unity,
the verb should be singular ; as, " The council was
composed wholly of farmers."
We ought to consider whether the term will immediately suggest the idea
of the number it represents, or whether it exhibits to the mind the idea of
the whole, as one* thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be plural ;
in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, " The
Peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes."
t would be better to say, " The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort
make use," &c., because the idea, in both these cases, is that of a number.
On the contrary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, in which
nouns of number have verbs plural, because the ideas they represent seem
not to be sufficiently divided in the mind : '* The court of Rome were not
without solicitude." **The house of commons were of small weight."
" The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons." " Ste-
phen's party were entirely broken up by the captivity of their leader." "An
army of twenty-four thousand toere assembled." " What reason have the
church of Rome for proceeding in this manner ?" *' There is indeed no con-
stitution so tame and careless of their own defence." — " All the virtues of
mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and vices are
innumerable." Is not mankind, in this place, a noun of multitude, and
such as requires the pronoun referring to be in the plural number, their ^
" The peasantry goes barefoot," (fee. What correction is necessary in
this example ? Why ?
"The people rejoices in that "The court have just ended, after
which should give it sor- having sat through the trial
row." of a very long cause."
•*The flock, and not the fleece, "The crowd were so great, that
are, or ought to be, the oh. the judges with difficulty made
jects of the shepherd's care." their way through them."
n.) 407. (2.) Conjunction when followed by nor. (3.) Rule XIII.
130
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
"The corporation of York consist
of a mayor, aldermen, and a
common council."
"The British parliament are com-
posed of king, lords and com-
mons."
"When the nation complain, the
rulers should listen to their
voice."
" In the days of youth, the multi-
tude eagerly pursues pleasure
as its chief good."
" The church have no power to in-
flict corporal punishment."
"The fleet were seen sailing (1.)
up the channel."
"The regiment consist of a thou-
sand (2.) men."
"The meeting have established
several salutary regulations."
"The council was not unanimous,
and it separated without com-
ing (3.) to any determina-
tion."
" The fleet is all arrived and moored
(4.) in safety."
"This people draweth near to me
with their mouth, and konoreth
me with their lips, but their
heart is far from me."
" The committee was divided in its
sentiments, and it has referred
the business to the general
meeting."
"The committee were very full
when this point was decided ;
and their judgment has not
been called in question."
"Why (6.) do this generation wish
for greater evidence, when so
much (5.) is already given ?"
"The remnant of the people were
persecuted with great severi-
ty-"
"Never were any people so (6.)
much (6.) infatuated (7.) as tlie
Jewish nation."
" The shoal of herrings were of an
immense extent."
" No society are chargeable with the
disapproved (8.) misconduct of
particular members."
Corresponding with Murray's Grammer,
RULE V.
Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they standi
in gender, number and person.
Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few of which
may be sufficient to put the learner on his guard. ''Each of the sexes should
keep within its particular bounds, and content themselves with the advantages
of their particular districts :" better thus ; '* The sexes should keep within
their particular bounds," &c. *' Can any one, on their entrance into the
world, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived ?" " on his entrance,"
and '* that he shall." ** One should not think too favorably of ourselves ;"
'* oi one's self.^^ ** He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles ;"
'^who poisoned."
Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either ex-
pressed or implied ; as, ** Who is fatal to others, is so to himself;" that is,
** the man who is fatal to others."
Who, which, what, and the relative that, though in the objective case, are
always placed before the verb ; as are also their compounds, whoever, who-
soever, &c. ; as, " He whom ye seek ;" " This is what, or the thing which,
or that you want;" '* Whomsoever you please to appoint."
What is sometimes applied in a manner which appears to be exceptiona-
ble ; as, *' All fevers, ^cept what are called nervous," &c. It would at
least be better to say, " except those which are called nervous."
"One should not think too favorably of ourselves." How should this
sentence be altered ? What is the Rule for it? Are the relatives placed be-
fore or after the verb ?
(1.) Hiile XIII.
<6.) Adverb.
(2.) Note I. 405. (3.) 561.
(7.) '* were iiifatuated.''
(4.) Rule XI.
(8.) Rule XIII.
(5.) 673.
SYNTAX.
131
•* The exercise of reason appears as
(I.) little (2.) in these sports*
men, as in the beasts whom they
sometimes hunt, and by whom
they are sometimes hunted."
"They which seek Wisdom will
certainly find Acr." '
** The male amongst birds seems to
discover no beauty, but in the
color of its species."
"Take handfuls of ashes of the
furnace, and let Moses sprinkle
it towards heaven, in the sight
of Pharaoh ; and it shall be-
come small dust."
"Rebecca took goodly raiment,
which were with her in the
house, and put them upon
Jacob."
"The wheel killed another man,
which is the sixth which have
lost their lives by this means."
"The fair sex, whose task is not
to mingle in the labors of pub.
lie life, has its own part assign-
ed it to act."
"The Hercules man-of-war foQn-
dered at sea; she overset, and
lost most (3.) of her men."
" The mind of man cannot be long
without some food to nourish
the activity of his thoughts."
" What is the reason that our lan-
guage is less refined than
those of Italy, Spain, or
France ?"
" I do not think any one should
incur censure for being (4.)
tender (5.) of their reputa-
tion."
"Thou who hast been a witness
(6.; of the fact, can give an
account of it."
"In religious concerns, or what
(7.) is conceived to be such,
(8.) every man must stand or
fall by the decision of the great
Judge."
"Something like (9.) what (10.)
have been here premised, are
the conjectures of Dryden."
"Thou great First Cause, (11.)
least understood ! (12.)
Who all my sense confined, (13.)
To know but this, that thou art
good,
And that myself (11.) am blind;
Yet gave (14.) me in this dark
estate," &c.
"What (6.) art thou, (11.) speak,
that, (15.) on designs un-
known, \( 16.)
While others sleep, thus range (17.)
the camp alone ?"
1. Personal pronouns, being used to supply the place of the noun, are
not employed in the same part of a sentence as the noun which they repre-
sent ; for it would be improper to say, " The king Ae is just ;" "I saw her
the queen;" "The men they were there;" "Many words they darken
speech;" "My banks they are furnished with bees." These personals
are superfluous, as there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the
same part where the principal word is present. The nominative case they,
in the following sentence, is also superfluous: "Who, instead of going
about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon doing mischief."
" The king he is just." Will you correct this sentence, and tell why it
is wrong ?
1.
"Whoever (18.) entertains such
an opinion, he judges errone-
ously."
"The cares of this world, they
often choke the growth of vir-
tue."
" Disappointments and afilictions,
however disagreeable, they often
improve us."
2. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as to things ;
but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the pronominal
(1.) Rule IX. (2.) Adverb. (3.) 676. (4.) 561. (5.) Rule IV.
(6.) Rule XV. (7) " </mc whichr 437. (8.) "such concerns,'' Rule IV.
(9.) Rule IV. (10.) Rule VI. and X. Note XVII. (11.) Rule XV. (12.) Rule
XIII. (13.) '' eovfinedst." (14.) '' gavest" (15.) Conjunction.
(16.) Rule XIII. (17.) " t/osi range." (18.) " i/c zcAo."
132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
adjective samef it is generally used in preference to who or which; as,
** Charles XII. king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the
world ever saw ;" " Catiline's followers were the most profligate that could
be found in any city ;" " He is the same man that w,e saw before." There
are cases wherein we cannot conveniently dispense with this relative as
apphed to persons : as, first, after who, the interrogative ; \' Who, that has
any sense of rehgion, would have argued thus ?" Secondly, when persons
make but a part of the antecedent; "The woman, and the estate, that
became his portion, were too much for his moderation." In neither of
these examples could any other relative have been used.
To what is the pronoun that applied ? and when is it used in preference
to who or which? (416. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.) Give an example.
2.
" Moses was the meekest man " They are the same persons who
whom we read of in the Old assisted us yesterday."
Testament." " The men and tilings which he has
"Humility is one of the most ami- studied, have not improved his
able virtues which we can pos- morals."
sess."
3. The pronouns whichsoever^ whosoever, and the like, are elegantly
divided by the interposition of the corresponding substantives : thus, *' On
whichsoever side the king cast his eyes," would have sounded better, if
written, ** On which side soever," &c.
Will you give an example in which the compound pronoun whichsoever
may be divided with propriety ?
3 '
" Howsoever beautiful they appear, contemplated, they appear to
they have no real merit." advantage."
" In whatsoever light we view " However much he might despise
him, his conduct will bear in- the maxims of the king's ad-
spection." ministration, he kept a total
" On whichsoever side they are silence on that subject."
4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the objective case of the
personal pronouns, in the place of these and those; as, "Give me them
books," instead of ''those books." We may sometimes find this fault
even in writing; as, " Observe them three there." We also frequently
meet with those instead of they, at the beginning of a sentence, and where
there is no particular reference to an antecedent; as, " Those that sow in
tears, sometimes reap in joy ;" " They that, or they who sow in tears."
^ It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a personal pronoun or a
demonstrative is preferable, in certain constructions. " We are not unac-
quainted with the calumny of them [or those] who openly make use of the
warmest professions."
Give me them books." Why is this sentence incorrect ?
4.
" Which of them two persons has injuries, than those (2.) that
most distinguished himself?" are most (3.) forward in doing
" None (1.) more' impatiently suffer (4.) them. (5.)
5. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that, and some-,
times we find it in this sense in writing ; " They will never believe but whatl
have been entirely to blame." " I am not satisfied but what," &-c., instead of
** but thaty The word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be used
improperly : " These punishments seem to have been exercised in somewhat '
(J.) Rule VI. (2.) Note I. 405. (3.) 677. (4.) 561. (5.) Rul« XIV.
SYNTAX. 138
an arbitrary manner." Sometimes we read, "In somewhat of." The
meaning is, " in a manner which is, in some respects, arbitrary."
Will you give an example of the improper use of what instead of thai ?
5.
"He would not be persuaded but "These commendations of his
what (1.) I was greatly in children appear to have been
fault. made in somewhat (2.) an in-
judicious manner.
6. The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated to persons, that there
is generally harshness in the application of it, except to the proper names of
persons, or the general terms man, womaii, &c. A term which only implies
the idea of persons, and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will
hardly authorize the use of it ; as, " That the faction in England who most
powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions." '* That faction which,^^ would
nave been better ; and the same remark will serve for the following examples :
" France, who was in alliance with Sweden." " The court t«Ao," &c. " The
cavalry «jAo," &c. "The cities who aspired at Hberty." "That party
among us loAo," &.c. " The family whom they consider as usurpers."
In some cases, it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is properly ap-
plied or not ; as, " The number of substantial inhabitants with whom some
cities abound." For when a term directly and necessarily implies persons,
it may in many cases claim the personal relative. " None of the company
vjhom he most affected could cure him of the melancholy under which he
labored." The word acquaintance may have the same construction.
How is the relative who used ?
6.
" He instructed and fed the " He was the ablest minister which
crowds who (3.) surrounded James ever possessed."
him." "The court, who gives currency
" Sidney was one of the wisest and to manners, ought to be ex^
most active governors, which emplary." (4.)
Ireland had enjoyed for several " I am happy in the friend which I
years." have long proved."
7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives
us the idea of reason and reflection; and, therefore, the application of the
personal relative who, in this case, seems to be harsh : " A child wAo." It
is still more improperly applied to animals: "A lake frequented by that
fowl whom nature has taught to dip the vidng in water."
Do we say, " A child who," or " A child which" ? Will you repeat the
Note for this ?
7.
"The child whom we have just "He is like (4.) a beast (5.) of
seen, is wholesomely fed, and prey, who destroys without
not injured by bandages or pity."
clothing."
8. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does not
refer to the person, the pronoun who ought not to be applied. "It is no
wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of queen Elizabeth, who
was but another name for prudence and economy." Better thus : " whose
name was but another word for prudence," &.c. The word whose begins
likewise to be restricted to persons ; yet it is not done so generally, but that
^ood writers, even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The construc-
tion is not, however, generally pleasing, as we may see in the following
instances : " Pleasure, whose nature," &c. " Call every production, whose
parts and whose nature," &.c.
(1.) " that." Conjunction. (2.) " in a manner lehich is, in some respects, inju'
dicious." (3.) " that:* (4.) Rule IV. (5.) Rule X. Note XVII.
12 M
134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which, with respect to
persons ; and that is, when we want to distinguish one person of two, or a
particular person among a number of others. We should then say, " Which
of the two," or " Which of them is he or she ?"
*• The court of queen Elizabeth, who," &c. Will you correct this sen-
tence, and give the Note for it ?
8.
"Having once disgusted (1.) him, deceive and betray, should be
he could never regain the favor avoided as the poisonous ad-
of Nero, who was indeed another der."
name for cruelty." " Who of those men came to his
" Flattery, whose nature (2.) is to assistance ?"
9. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we sometimes
find an ambiguity in the use of it; as, when we say, **The disciples of
Christ, whom we imitate," we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or
of his disciples. The accuracy and clearness of the sentence depend very
much upon the proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may
readily present its antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without
any obscurity or ambiguity.
What is remarked in this Note on the use of the relative pronoun ?
9.
"The king (3.) dismissed his min- "There are millions of people in
ister without any inquiry; who the empire (4.) of China whose
had never before committed so support is derived almost entire-
unjust an action." ly from rice."
10. It is and it was are often, after the manner of the French, used in a
plural construction, and by some of our best writers ; as, " It is either a few
great men who decide for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a sedi-
tious ring-leader ;" *' /< is they that are the real authors, though the soldiers
are the actors of the revolution;" " It was the heretics that first began to
rail," &c. ; ** Tts these that early taint the female mind." This license in
the construction of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, however,
been certainly abused in the following sentence, which is thereby made a
very awkward one: **/< is wonderful the very few accidents, which, in
several years, happen from this practice."
How are it is and it was often used ? Give an example in which they are
Hsed incorrectly in this sense.
10.
"It is remarkable his continual "It is indisputably true his asser-
endeavors to serve us, notwith- tion, though it is a paradox^
standing our ingratitude." (5.) (6.)
11. The interjections ! oh ! and ah ! require the objective case of a pro-
noun in the first person after them ; as, " O me ! Oh me ! Ah me !" but
the nominative case in the second person ; as, *' O thou persecutor !" " O
ye hypocrites!" ** thou who dwellest," &c.
The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, is
frequently joined, in explanatory sentences, with a noun or pronoun of the
masculine or feminine gender ; as, '* It was I ;" "It was the man or woman
that did it."
The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood : thus we
say, "As appears, as follows," for "As it appears, as it follows;" and
" May be," for " It may be."
(1.) " Havivg disgusted." Rule XIII. (2.) " the nature of which:' (3.) " The
king, who had never," ice. (4.) " There are in the empire" &c. (5.) " JHis con-
tinual," &.C.; ending the sentence with, "are remarkable." (6.) "■ His assertion^
though paradoxical" &o» •*
SYNTAX. 135
The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express,
1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry ; as, " It happened on a sum-
mer's day ;" *' Who is it that calls on me ?"
2d. The state or condition of any person or thing ; as, " How is it with
you?"
3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event ;
or any person considered merely as a cause ; as, '* We heard her say it was
not he;" ** The truth is, it was I that helped her."
Why is it incorrect to say, " Oh I" ? Why incorrect to say, '* Oh thee" ?
11.
" Ah ! unhappy thee, who art " Oh I happy we, surrounded with
deaf to the calls of duty and so many blessings."
of honor."
RX7Z.I: xxzv.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE VI.
The relative is the nominative case to the verb, lohen
no nominative case comes between it and the verb ; as^
" The master who taught us ;" " The trees which are
planted."
When a nominative case comes between the relative and
the verb J the relative is governed by some word in its
own member of the sentence ; as, " He who preserves
me, to v)hom I owe my bQing, whose I am, and whom
I serve, is eternal."
In the several members of the last sentence, the relative performs a dif-
ferent office. In the first member, it marks the agent ; in the second, it
submits to the government of the preposition ; in the third, it represents the
possessor ; and in the fourth, the object of an action : and therefore it must
l3e in the thr&e different cases, correspondent to those offices.
When both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each to
different verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and the an-
tecedent to the latter verb; as, " True philosophy, which is the ornament
of our nature, consists more in the love of our duty, and the practice of
virtue, than in great talents and extensive knowledge."
A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both branches of
the sixth rule. The three following refer to the first part: " How can we
avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved
themselves our real friends ?" *' These are the men whom, you might sup-
pose, were the authors of the work." ** If you were here, you would find
three or four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably." In all
these places, it should be who, instead of whom. The two latter sentences
contain a nominative between the relative and the verb ; and, therefore,
seem to contravene the rule ; but the student will reflect, that it is not the
nominative of the verb with which the relative is connected. — The remain-
ing examples refer to the second part of the rule : " Men of fine talents
are not always the persons who we should esteem." ** The persons who
you dispute with are precisely of your opinion." "Our tutors are our
benefactors, who we owe obedience to, and who we ought to love." In
these sentences, whom should be used instead of who.
'* These are the men whom, you might suppose, were," &.c. Will you
correct this example, and give the rule Tor it ?
136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
" We are dependent on each others' "They who have labored to make
assistance : whom is there that us wise and good, are the per-
can subsist by himself?" sons who we ought to love and
" If he will not hear his best friend, respect, and who we ought to
whom shall be sent to admonish be grateful to."
him ?" " The persons, who conscience and
"They z^jAo (1.) much is given io, virtue support, may smile at the
will have much (2.) to answer caprices of fortune."
for." (3.) " From the character of those who
"It is not to be expected that you associate with, your own
they, whom in early life have will be estimated."
been dark and deceitful, should " That (4.) is the student who 1
afterwards become fair and in- gave the book to, and whom, 1
genuous." am persuaded, deserves it."
1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the noun oi
pronoun containing the answer, must be in the same case as that which
contains the question ; as, ** Whose books are these ?" " They are John's.''^
" Who gave them to him?" " PFe." " Of whom did you buy them?"
'* Of a bookseller ; him who lives at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did
you see there ?" ** Both him and the shopman." The learner will readily
comprehend this rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the
.answers. Thus, to express the answers at large, we should say, " They
are John's books ;" " We gave them to him ;" " We bought them of him
who lives," &c. ; "We saw both him and the shopman." As the relative
pronoun, when used interrogatively, refers to the subsequent word or
phrase containing the answer to the question, that word or phrase may
properly be termed the subsequent to the interrogative.
" Of whom did you buy them ?" *' Of a bookseller ; he who lives," &c.
What is wrong in this sentence, and how may it be corrected ? What is the
Note for it ?
1.
"Of whom were the articles "Who was the money paid to?"
bought?" "Of a mercer; he "To the mercer and hia
(5.) who resides near (6.) the clerk."
mansion-house." "Who counted it?" "Both the
*Was any person besides (6.) the clerk and him."
mercer present?" "Yes, both
him and his clerk."
HU'Z.B XXV.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar.
RULE VII.
When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of
different persons, the relative and verb may agree in
person with either, according to the sense ; as, " I am
the man icho command you ;" or, " I am the man icho
commands you."
The form of the first of the two preceding sentences expresses the meaning
rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say, * ' I, who command
you, am the man." Perhaps the difference of meaning produced by referring
the relative to different antecedents, will be more evident to the learner in the
(1.) " to whom:' (2.) 673. (3.) 596. (4.) Note I. 405.
(5.) Rule XV. (6.) 247.
SYNTAX. 137
following sentences : " T am the general who gives the orders to-day ;* *• I
am the general, who give the orders to-day ;" that is, "I, who give the
orders to-day, am the general."
When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with either
of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be preserved throughout
the sentence; as in the following instance: "I am the Lord, thdt maketk
all things; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone." Isa. xliv. 24. Thus
far is consistent: the Lord, in the third person, is the antecedent, and the
verb agrees with the relative in the third person : " I am «Ae Lord, which
Lord, or he, that makelh all things." If /were made the antecedent, the
relative and verb should agree with it in the first person ; as, "/am the
Lord, that make all things; that stretch forth the heavens alone." But
should it follow, " that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself," there would
arise a confusion of persons, and a manifest solecism.
" I am the man who command you." " I am the man who commands
you." What is the nominative to command in the first sentence ? What to
commands in the second ? Rule for each ? Why is the verb of a diflferent
person in different sentences ?
"I acknowledge that (L) I am "I perceive that thou art a pupil
the teacher, (5.) who adopt who possesses bright parts, but
that sentiment, and maintains who hast cultivated them but
the propriety of such meas- (3.) little." (4.)
ures." (2.) " Thou art he (5.) who breathest on
"Thou art a friend (5.) that hast the earth with the breath of
often relieved me, and that has spring, and who covereth it
not deserted me now, in the with verdure and beauty."
time of peculiar need." " I am the Lord (5.) thy God, (5.)
"I am the man who approves of who teacheth Ihee to profit,
wholesome discipline, and who and who lead thee by the way
recommend it to others ; but I thou shouldst go."
am not a person who promotes " Thou art the Lord who did choose
useless severity, or who object Abraham, and broughtest him
to mild and generous treat- forth (4.) out of (6.) Ur of the
ment." Chaldees."
RUI.IS IV.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammer,
RULE VIII.
Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe.
Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in
number with the nouns to which they belong.
I. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited : ** I have
not travelled this twenty years ;" '* these twenty." " I am not recommend-
ing these kind of sufferings ;" *' this kind." " Those set of books was a
valuable present ;" *' that set."
" I have not travelled this twenty years." How should this be altered ?
Why ?
•* These kind of indulgences soften playing (9.) this two hours."
and injure the mind." (10.)
** Instead (7.) of improving (8.) " Those sort of favors did real in-
yourselves, you have been jury, under the appearance of
kindness."
(1.) 652. (2.) •' adopts and maintains,^' or " adopt and maintain.'' (3.) 654
(4.) Adverb. (5.) Rule XV. (6.) 247. (7.) 247. (8.) 561. (9.) Rulo
XIII. (10.) Rule XXII. 646,
12* '
138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
"The chasm made (1.) by the earth- "How many a sorrow (5.) should
quake was twenty foot (2.) we avoid, if we were not in-
broad, (3.) and one hundred dustrious to make them !"
fathom (4.) in depth." " He saw one or more persons (6.)
enter (7.) the garden."
1. The word means, in the singular number, and the phrase ^'lythis
means, ^^ *' hy that means, ^^ are used by our best and most correct writers ;
namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, &c.* They
are indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would appear awkward,
if not affected, to apply the old singular form, and say, " by this mean ;"
'* by that mean ;" "it was by a mean ;^^ although it is more agreeable to
the general analogy of the language. " The word means (says Priestley)
belongs to the class of words, which do not change their termmation on ac-
count of number ; for it is used alike in both numbers."
The word amends is used in this manner, in the following sentences:
" Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his country ;
and with this amends he was content." '* Peace of mind is an honorable
amends for the sacrifices of interest." '* In return, he received the thanks
of his employers, and the present of a lar^e estate : these were ample
amends for all his labors." " We have described the rewards of vice : the
good man's amends are of a different nature."
It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (Hke the word mea?is)
had formerly its correspondent form in the singular number, as it is derived
from the French amende, though now it is exclusively established in the
plural form. If, therefore, it be alleged, that mean should be applied in the
singular, because it is derived from the French moyen, the same kind of
argument may be advanced in favor of the singular amende ; and the general
analogy of the language may also be pleaded in support of it.
Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, has the following remark on
the subject before us : *' JN'o persons of taste will, I presume, venture so
far to violate the present usage, and consequently to shock the ears of the
generahty of readers, as to say, ' By this mean, by that mean.'' "
(1.) Rule XIII. ' (2.) Note XVIII. 648. {X) '' chasm— hroadr Rule IV.
(4.) Rule IX. (5.) " many sorrows." (6.) " one person, or more than one."
(7.) Rule XII.
* " By this means he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed with
a long march." Bacon.
"£y this means one great restraint from doing evil would be taken away." " And
this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue." " By that means they have
rendered their duty more difficult." Tillotson.
" It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means securing
the continuance of his goodness." " A good character, when established, should not
be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further good."
Atterbdry.
" Bij this means they are happy in each other." " He by that means preserves his
superiority." Addison.
" Your vanity by this means will want its food." Steele.
'• By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope.
*' Which custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles."
Dean Swift
" There is no means of escaping the persecution." " Faith is not only a means of
obeying, but a principal act of obedience." Dr. Young.
** He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing power."
Lord Lyttleton's Henry II.
" John was too much intimidated not to embrace .every means afforded for his
safety." • Goldsmith.
" Lest this means should fail." " By means of ship-money, the late king," &c.
•' The only means of securing a durable peace." Hume.
" By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland," &c.
Blackstone.
*' By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters."
Dr. Robertson.
" By this means they bear witness to each other." Burke.
" By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against itself." Dr. Blair.
" A magazine, which has, by this means, contained," &c. " Birds, in general, pro-
cure tlieir food by means of their beaJc." Dr. Paley.
SYNTAX. r39
Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means in the singular
number. They do not, however, speak decisively on the point ; but rather
dubiously, as ii they knew that they were questioning eminent authorities
as well as general practice. That they were not decidedly against the ap-
plication of this word to the singular number, appears from their own lan-
guage : ** Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may becom©
members of other sentences by means of some additional connection.^* —
Dr. Lowth' s Introduction to English Grammar.
** There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant,
but by means of something already known." — Dr. Johnson. Idler.
It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures makes no use,
as far as the compiler can discover, of the word mean ; though there are
several instances to be found in it of the use oi means, in the sense and con-
nection contended for. " By this means thou shalt have no portion on this
side the river." Ezra iv. 16. " That by means of death,'* &c, Heb. ix.
15. It will scarcely be pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes
did not accurately understand the English language ; or that they would
have admitted one form of this word, and rejected the other, had not their
determination been conformable to the best usage. An attempt, therefore,
to recover an old word, so long since disused by the most correct writers,
seems not likely to be successful : especially as the rejection of it is not
attended with any inconvenience.
The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great majority of
them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during its continuance, the
standard of language ; especially if, in particular instances, this practice
continue after objection and due consideration. Every connection and ap-
pUcation of words and phrases, thus supported, must therefore be proper,
and entitled to respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of view.
" Si volet usus
" Quern penes arhitriam est, etjus, et norma loquendi.** Hor.
On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating from the
general analogy of the language than those before mentioned, are to be con-
sidered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following :
" None of them are varied to express the gender ;" and yet no?ie originally
signified 7lo one. " He ^imseZ/ shall do the work :" here, what was at first
appropriated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative case.
*' You have behaved yourselves well :" in this example, the word you is put
in the nominative case plural, with strict propriety ; though formerly it was
confined to the objective case, and ye exclusively used for the nominative.
With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus established, it is
the grammarian's busmess to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously
opposing the decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete modes
of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity ; and,
in some degree, obscure points that are sufficiently clear and decided ; but he
cannot reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or to assist the learner,
in discovering and respecting the true standard and principles of language.
Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the gram-
marian's province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate on the ground
of derivation, analogy, and propriety : and his reasonings may refine and
improve the language : but when authority speaks out, and decides the
point, it were perpetually to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and
debate. Anomalies, then, under the limitation mentioned, become the
law, as clearly as the plainest analogies.
The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use of the
word mean in the old form has a very uncouth appearance : "By the mean
of adversity we are often instructed." '* He preserved his health by mean
of exercise." " Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competency." They
should be, ** By means of adversity," dec. ; " By means of exercise," &c. ;
** Frugality is one means,*' &c.
Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive (1.) mean in the singu-
(1.) J^ouns are soir.jtimes called substantives.
140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
lar number, and in that number only, to signify mediocrity, middle rate, &c.,
as, " This is a mean between the two extremes." But in the sense of
instrumentality, it has long been disused by the best authors, and by almost
every writer.
This means and that means should be used only when they refer to what
is singular ; these means and those means, when they respect plurals ; as,
*' He lived temperately, and by tJiis means preserved his health ;" '* The
scholars were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; and by
these Tweaws^ acquired knowledge."
We have*^ enlarged on this article, that the young student may be led to
reflect on a point so important as that of ascertaining the standard of pro-
priety in the use of language.
In what number is the word means used ? What does Dr. Priestley remark
concerning the use of this word ? What other word is used in this manner ?
What does Dr. Campbell remark in regard to the use of the phrase, " By
this mean ?" Do Dr. Lowth and Dr. Johnson approve of the use of means
in the singular number? Do good writers make use of the substantive (1.)
mean in the singular number? Give an example. When should "This
means" and " Tnat means" be used ? When *' These means" and " Those
means?"
1.
"Charles was extravagant, and by "This person embraced every op-
this mean became poor and portunity to display his talents ;
despicable." and by these means rendered
" It was by that ungenerous mean himself ridiculous."
that (2.) he obtained his end." " Joseph was industrious, frugal
" Industry is the mean of obtaining and discreet; and by this
competency." means obtained property and
" Though a promising measure, it is reputation."
a mean which I cannot adopt."
2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, and there is
occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, that is used in
reference to the former, and this, in reference to the latter : as, '* Self-love,
which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for thaty
man would be inactive ; and but for this, he would be active to no end."
How are the pronouns that and this used ?
2.
" Religion raises men above them- upon the earth in lliose than in
selves; irreligion sinks them these; because there is a much
beneath the brutes ; that (3.) slower evaporation."
binds them down (4.) to a poor, Rex and Tyrannus are of very
pitiable speck of perishable different characters. The one
earth ; this opens for them a (3.) rules his people by laws to
prospect to the skies." which they consent ; the other,
"More rain falls in the first two (5.) by his absolute will and
summer months, than in the power : this is called freedom ;
first two winter ones ; but it that (5.) tyranny."
makes a much greater show
3. The distributive adjective pronouns each, every, either, agree with the
nouns, pronouns and verbs, of the singular number only ; as, " The king
of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne ;*
'* Every tree is known by its fruit ;" unless the plural noun convey a col-
lective idea ; as, ** Every six months ;" ** Every hundred years." The fol-
lowing phrases are exceptionable: "Let each esteem others better than
themselves ;" it ought to be, " himself.*^ " The language should be both
perspicuous and correct : in proportion as either of these two quahties are
wanting, the language is imperfect ;" it should be, " is wanting." " Every
(1.) Note 1, p. 139. (2.) 652. (3.) 407. Rule VI. (4.) Adverb.
(5.) Rule XI.
SYNTAX. 141
one of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of attachment ;"
*^ bears a regular date, and contaiiisy *'^ Every town and village were
burned ; every grove and every tree were cut down;" ** was burned, and
was cut down."
Either is often used improperly, instead of each ; as, " The king of Israel,
and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne;"
** Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer."
Each signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately ; either properly
signifies only the one or the other of them, taken disjunctively.
'* The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of
them on their throne." Will you correct this, and give the rule for it ?
3.
** Each of them, in their (1.) turn, is productive of much (7.) in-
receive the benefits to which ward joy or bitterness."
they are entitled." " Whatever (8.) he undertakes,
" My counsel to each of you is, that either (9.) his pride or his
you (2.) should make it your folly disgust us."
endeavor to come to a friendly " Every man and every woman
agreement." were numbered."
" By discussing what (3.) relates to "Neither of those men seem to have
each particular, in their order, any idea that their opinions
we shall better understand the may be ill founded."
subject." "When benignity and gentleness
"Every person, whatever (4.) be reign within, (7.) we are al-
their station, (5.) are bound ways (7.) least (7.) in hazard
by the duties of morality and from without: (10.) every per-
religion." son and every occurrence are
" Every leaf, every twig, (6.) beheld in the most favorable
every drop of water, teem with light."
life." "On either side of the river was
" Every man's heart and temper there the tree of life."
4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs ; as, ** Indif-
ferent honest ; excellent well; miserable poor;" instead of '* Indifferently
honest; excellently well ; miserably poor." "He behaved himself con-
formable to that great example;" '' conformably ^ "Endeavor to live
hereafter suitable to a person in thy station ;" " suitably.'" " I can never
think so very mean of him ;" " meanly.^' " He describes this river agree-
able to the common reading;" ^* agreeably ^ "Agreeable to my promise, I
now write ;" " agreeably." " Thy exceeding great reward ;" when united
to an adjective, or adverb not ending in ly, the word exceeding has Iv added
to it; as, " exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great ;" " exceedingly well,
exceedingly more active :" but when it is joined to an adverb or adjective,
having that termination, the Zy is omitted ; as, " Some men think exceeding
clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly;" " She appeared on this occasion,
exceeding lovely." — " He acted in this business bolder than was expected."
*' They behaved the noblest, because they were disinterested." They should
have been, '■'more boldly, most nobly," The adjective pronoun such is often
rnisapplied; as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent
his whole patrimony in a few years ;" it should be, " so extravagant a young
man" "I never before saw such large trees;" ^' saw trees so large"
When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word such is properly
applied ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found :" but when degree is signi-
fied, we use the word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found."
Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives ; as, " The tutor ad-
dressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence ;" " suitable. '''*
(1.) "Ais." (2.)"A«." (3.) 437. (4.) Rule XV. (5.) Rule VI.
(6.) Rule XI. (7.) Adverb. (8.) Rule VIII. (9.) 659. (10.) ''from
tDithout,'^ i. 6. " ertemally.'** 589,
142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
*' They were seen wandering about solitarily and distressed ;" " solitary."
*' He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion ;"
" agreeable.'^ *' The study of syntax should be previously to that ofpunc-
tuation ;" "previous."
Young persons who study grammar, find it difficult to decide, in particular
constructions, whether an adjective, or an adverb, ought to be used. A few
observations on this point, may serve to inform their judgment, and direct
their determination. They should carefully attend to the definitions of the
adjective and the adverb ; and consider whether, in the case in question,
quality or manner is indicated. In the former case, an adjective is proper ;
in the latter, an adverb. A number of examples will illustrate this direction,
and prove useful on other occasions.
" She looks cold— She looks coldly on him."
*• He feels warm — He feels warmly the insult offered to him."
" He became sincere and virtuous — He became sincerely virtuous."
" She lives free from care— He lives freely at another's expense."
*' Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly."
" Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He has grown greatly in re-
putation."
"*' They now appear happy — They now appear happily in earnest."
" The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in point."
The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word
immediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb ; and con-
sequently, when this verb can be substituted for any other, without varying
the sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected with
an adjective. The following sentences elucidate these observations : ** 'J'his
is agreeable to our interest." " That behaviour was not suitable to his sta-
tion." " Rules should be conformable to sense." "The rose smells [is]
sweet." *' Hovv sweet the hay smells [is] !" ** How delightful the country
appears [is] !" " How pleasant the fields look [are] !" " The clouds look
[are] dark." " How black the sky looked [was] !" "The apple tastes
[is] sour!" "How bitter the plums tasted [were] !" "He feels [is]
happy." In all these sentences, we can, with perfect propriety, substitute
some tenses of the verb to be, for the other verbs. But in the following
sentences we cannot do this : " The dog smells disagreeably." " George
feels exquisitely." " How pleasantly she looks at us !"
The directions contained in this IS'ote are offered as useful, not as complete
and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us ;
but we must not reject rules, because they are attended with exceptions.
Why is " indifferent honest" an incorrect expression ? Do we say, " ex-
ceeding dreadful," and " exceeding great" ? What, then, do we use in the
place of exceeding ? When, then, do we use exceedingly ? When exceeding ?
" The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his of-
fence." Why is this sentence wrong ? Correct it. How can we tell whether
an adjective or an adverb ought to be used ? Which do we use, when quahty
is indicated ? Which, when manner is indicated f Which does the verb fo be
generally require to be connected with it, the adjective or adverb ? To illus-
trate the distinct and proper use of both the adverb and adjective, I will give
you some examples. Would you then say, " He is dihgently and attentive-
ly," or "diligent and attentive"? " She will be happy," or "happily" ?
" He looks cold," or " coldly" ? " She looks cold on him." Can we use
is for looks, and make sense ? Would you, then, say, " She looks cold on
him," or " coldly on him" ? "She lives freely [is] from care" ? Why?
" He lives free at another's expense" ? " He feels warmly" ? " He feels
warm the insult offered him" ? "He became sincerely and virtuously" ?
" He became sincere virtuous" ? Why ? " Harriet always appears neatly —
She dresses neat" ? " Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He is grown
great in his reputation" ? " They now appear happily — They now appear
nappy in earnest" ? " The statement seems exactly — The statement seems
exact in point ?" " How sweetly the hay smells !" ? " How delightful tho
country appears !" ? " How pleasant the fields look !" ? " The clouds iQok
darkly" ? " The apples taste sourly" ?
SYNTAX.
143
4.
* She reads proper^ writes very nea<,
and composes accurate^
'* He was extreme prodigal, and his
property is now near exhaust-
ed."
'* They generally succeeded ; for
they lived conformable to the
rules of prudence."
" We may reason very clear and ex-
ceeding strongs without know-
ing that there is such a thing
as a syllogism."
'* He had many virtues, and was
exceeding beloved.^'*
"The amputation was exceeding
well performed, and saved the
patient's life."
'' He came agreeable to his promise,
and conducted himself suitable
to the occasion."
'*He speaks very fluent, reads ex-
cellent, but does not think very
coherent."
* He behaved himself submissive,
and was exceeding careful not
to give (1.) offence."
* They rejected the advice, and con-
ducted themselves exceedingly
indiscreetly."
* He is a person of great abilities,
and exceeding upright; and is
like to be a very useful member
(2.) of the community."
*The conspiracy was the easier
(3.) discovered, from its (4.)
being known (5.) to many."
'Not being fully acquainted with
the subject, he could affi,rm no
stronger (6.) than he did."
' He was so deeply impressed with
the subject, that few could speak
nobler upon it."
'*We may credit his testimony, for
he says express, that he saw the
transaction."
' Use a little wine for thy stomach's
sake, and thine often (7.) in-
firmities."
* From these favorable beginnings,
we may hope for a soon (8.)
and prosperous issue."
' He addressed several exhortations
to them suitably to their cir-
cumstances."
'Conformably to their vehemence
of thought, was their vehemence
of gesture."
'We should implant in the minds
of youth such seeds and prin-
ciples of piety and virtue, as
(9.) are likely to take soonest
and deepest root."
'Such (10.) an amiable disposition
will secure universal regard."
' Such distinguished virtues seldom
occur."
5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided ; such as, ** a
worser conduct ;" " on lesser hopes ;" " a more serener temper ;" "the
most straitest sect ;" ** a more superior work." They should be, " worse
conduct ;" *' less hopes ;" ** a more serene temper ;" " the straitest sect ;"
" a superior work."
** A worser conduct." Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule
for it ?
»"Tis more easier to build two
chimneys than to rnaintain
one."
"The tongue is like (11.) a race-
horse, (12.) which runs the
faster (13.) the lesser weight it
carries."
' The pleasures of the understand-
ing are more preferable than
(14.) those of the imagination,
or of sense."
'The nightingale sings: hers is
the most sweetest voice in the
grove."
(1^) Rule XII. (2.) Rule XV. {"i.) ''more easily r (4.) Rule I.
(5.) "■being known'''' — participial noun. (6.) " 7iot affirm more strongly.^*
(7.) " thy frequent.'' (8.) " speedy:'' (9.) 65(5. (10.) " A disposition
so amiable:' &.C. See the Note, a few lines before the close. (11.) Rule IV.
(12.) Rule X.— Note XVII. 647. (13.) 5U0. (14.) ''preferable to:'
144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
"The Most Highest hath created us "The Supreme Being- is the most
for his glory, and for our own wisest, and most powerfuUest,
happiness." and the most best of beings.'*
6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification, do not
properly admit of the superlative or comparative form superadded ; such as
chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme, <Slc. ; which are sometimes
improperly written chiefest, extremest, perfectest, rightest, most universal,
most supreme, &c. I'he following expressions are, therefore, improper:
" He sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices." "The quarrel
became so universal and national." *' A method of attaining the rightest
and greatest happiness." The phrases, *' so perfect," "so right," "so
extreme," "so universal," &c., are incorrect; because they imply that
one thing is less perfect, less extreme, &c., than another, which is not
possible.
Is it proper to say, " The most perfect work ?" Why not?
6.
"Virtue confers the supremest {1.) "His work is perfect; (4.) his
dignity on man ; and should be brother's, more perfect ; and
his chiefest desire." his father's, the most perfect
"His assertion was moj'e true (2.) of all."
than that of his opponent ; nay, " He gave the fullest and most sin-
the words of the latter were cere proof of the truest friend-
most untrue." (3.j ship."
7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of com-
parison are appUed and construed. The following are examples of wrong
construction in this respect : " This noble nation hath, of all others, admit-
ted fewer corruptions." The word fewer is here construed precisely as if
it were the superlative. It should be, " This noble nation hath admitted
fewer corruptions than any other." We commonly say, "This is the
weaker of the two," or, " the weakest of the two ;" but the former is the
regular mode of expression, because there are only two things compared.
"The vice of covetpusness is what enters deepest into the soul of any
other." " He celebrates the church of England as the most perfect of all
others." Both these modes of expression are faulty: we should not say,
" the best of any man," or, " the best of any other man," for, " the best
of men." The sentences may be corrected by substituting the compara-
tive in the room of the superlative : " The vice, &c., is what enters deeper
into the soul than any other." " He celebrates, &c., as more perfect than
any other." It is also possible to. retain the superlative, and render the.
expression grammatical: " Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest,
into.the soul." " He celebrates, &c., as the most perfect of all churches.'* "
These sentences contain other errors, against which it is proper to caution
the learner. The words deeper and deepest, being intended for adverbs,
should have been more deeply, most deeply. The phrases more perfect and
most perfect are improper ; because perfection admits of no degrees of*com-
parison. We may say, nearer or nearest to perfection, or more or less
imperfect.
In speaking of two persons, should we say, " The wealier of the two,"
or, " The weakest of the two?" Why ?
7.
" A talent of this kind would, per- " He spoke with so much propriety,
haps, prove the likeliest of any that I understood him the best
other (5.) to succeed.'* of all the others (6.) who spoke
" He is the strongest of the two, on the subject."
but not the wisesf^ " Eve was the fairest of all her
daughters."
a:
(4.V
) ^^ the supremest — supreme.''^ (2.) "better founded."* (3.) "not true.''*
" well ezectited— still better— best.^' (5.) " all." (6.) " of all who.'"
SYNTAX. 145
8. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their substan-
tives, even by words which modify their meaning, and make but one sens«
with them; as, "A large enough number, surely." It should be, "A
number large enough." ** The lower sort of people are good enough
judges of one not very distant from them."
The adjective is usually placed before its substantive; as, " A generous
man ;" " How amiable a woman !" The instances in which it comes after
the substantive, are the following :
1st. When something depends upon the adjective ; and when it gives a
better sound, especially in poetry ; as, *' A man generous to his enemies ;"
" Feed me with food convenient for me ;" "A tree three feet thick ;" "A
body of troops fifty thousand strong;''^ "The torrent tumbling through '
rocks abrupt^
2d. When the adjective is emphatical; as, ''Alexander the Great ;^*
'* Lewis the Bold ;" ** Goodness infinite ;" " Wisdom unsearchable,*^
3d. When several adjectives belong to one substantive; as, " A man
just, wise, and charitable ;" "A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous."
4tli. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb ; as, "A boy regularly
studious ;" "A girl unaffectedly modest."
5th. When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes between a sub-
stantive and an adjective, the adjective may frequently either precede or
follow it ; as, " The man is happy,** or, '* Happy is the man, who makes
virtue his choice :" " The interview was delightful ;" or, ** Delightful was
the interview."
6th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a substantive
placed after an active verb ; as, " Vanity often renders its possessors despica-
ble.** In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the
substantive ; as, " How despicable does vanity often render its possessor!"
There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing the adjective
before the verb, and the substantive immediately after it ; as, " Great is the
Lord ! just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints !"
Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of particulars
comprehended under it. "Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred." Some-
times a substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding particulars,
is used in conjunction with this adjective ; as, " Royahsts, republicans,
churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, all parties, concurred in the illusion."
An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes properly as-
sociate with a singular noun ; as, " Our desire, your intention, their resigna-
tion." This association applies rather to things of an intellectual nature,
than to those which are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general rule.
A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word ;
whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so
on; as, "An old man; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good
old man."
" Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in many in-
stances, put as if it were absolute ; especially where the noun has been
mentioned before, or easily understood, though not expressed ; as, " I often
survey it."
Is it correct to say, " A large enough number" ? How should it be alter-
ed ? What is the Note for it ? Should the adjective be placed usually before
or after the noun ?
8.
"He spoke in a distinct enough pair of gloves : he is the servant
manner to be heard by the of an old rich (2.) man."
whole assembly." "The two first (3.) in the row are
"Thomas is equipped with a new cherry-trees, the ttoo others are
(1.) pair of shoes, and a new pear-trees."
(l,) *' a pair of new shoes:' (2.) '' rich oW (3.) Note I.— Rule VI.
10
146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
HITI4I! ZI.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar.
RULE IX.
The indefinite article, a or an, belongs to nouns of the
singular number.
TLXJlsH III.
TTie definite article, the, belongs to nouns of the singu-
lar or plural numbers.
The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be justly
applied, according to their distinct nature ; as, '* Gold is corrupting ; the sea
is green; a hon is bold."
It is the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing spoken
of. A determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it still un-
certain which ; the determines which it is, or, if many, which they are.
The following passage will serve as an example of the different vses of a
and the, and of the force of the substantive without any article : '* Man was
made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men ; but a man
will naturally entertain a more particular kindness for the men with whom
he has the most frequent intercourse ; and enter into a still closer union
with the man whose temper and disposition suit best with his own."
As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use to ex-
hibit a few instances : *' And I persecuted this way unto the death." The
apostle does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in general :
the definite article, therefore, is improperly used : it ought to be, "unto
death," without any article.
*' When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth;"
that is, according to this translation, "into all truth whatsoever, into truth
of all kinds;" — very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from
the original, "into all the truth;" that is, "into all evangelical truth, all
truth necessary for you to know."
" Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel.?" it ought to be " the wheel,"
used as an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing criminals.
" The Almighty hath given reason -to a man to be a light unto him :" it
should rather be, " to man,'''' in general. " This day is salvation come to
this house, forasmuch as he also is the son of Abraham:" it ought to be,
" a son of Abraham."
These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the proper use
of the article, and the excellence of the English language in this respect ;
which, by means of its two articles, does most precisely determine the
extent of signification of common names.
What is the nature of the articles ? What does the article a determine ?
What the article the ?
** The fire, the air, the earth, and the " (4.) Wisest and best men some-
water, are four elements (1.) of times commit errors."
the philosophers." " Beware of drunkenness ; it im-
" Reason was given to a man to pairs understanding; wastes
control his passions." an estate ; destroys a reputa-
•* We have within us an intelligent tion ; consumes the body ; and
principle, distinct from (2.) body renders the (5.) man of the
and from matter." brightest parts the (5.) com-
•♦ A man is the noblest work of (3.) mon jest (6.) of the meanest
creation." clown."
(1.) " Fire, air," &c. " the four ;" &c. (2.) " the body." (3.) " the
creation." (4.) " The wisest." (5.) " a." (6.) Rule XV
SYNTAX.
147
" He is a much better writer than a
reader."
"The king has conferred on him
the title of a duke."
** There are some evils of life which
equally affect prince and peo-
ple."
** We must act our part with a con-
stancy, though reward of our
constancy be (1.) distant."
" We are placed here under a trial
of our virtue."
** The virtues like his are not easily
acquired. Such qualities honor
the nature of a man.'*
"Purity has its seat in the heart,
but extends its influence over
so much of outward conduct,
as to form the great and ma-
terial part of a character."
"The profligate man is seldom or
never found to be the good hus-
band, the good father, or the
beneficent neighbor."
"True charity is not the meteor
which occasionally glares, but
the luminary which, in its
orderly and regular course,
dispenses benignant influ-
ence."
1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis-
sion of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a little reverence," my
meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved with httle reverence," my
meaning is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be
used in the same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person; by the
latter, I dispraise him. For the sake of this distinction, which is a very
useful one, we may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a
before nouns of number. When I say, " There were few men with him,"
I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable :
whereas, when I say, " There were a few men with him," I evidently
intend to make the most of them.
What is the difference in meaning between the expressions, *' We be-
haved with a hitle reverence," and, '* We behaved with little reverence ?"
1.
"He has been much censured for
conducting himself with a lit-
tle attention to his business,"
" So bold a breach of order called
for (2.) little severity in punish-
ing the offender."
"His error was accompanied with
so little contrition and candid
acknowledgment, that he found
a few persons to intercede for
him."
"There were so many mitigating
(3.) circumstances attending
his misconduct, particularly
that (4.) of his open confes-
sion, that he found (5.) few
friends who were disposed to
interest themselves in his fa-
vor."
" As his misfortunes were the fruit
of his own obstinacy, a few per-
sons pitied him."
2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of
two words in the same construction ; though the French never fail to repeat
it in this case. "There were many hours, both of the night and day,
which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." It might
have been, " of the night and of tJie day." And, for the sake of emphasis,
we often repeat the article in a series of epithets. " He hoped that this
title would secure him an ample and an independent authority."
Is the article to be repeated before two words in the same construction ?
2.
" The fear of shame, (6.) the desire
of approbation, prevent many
bad actions."
" In this business he was influenced
by a just and (7.) generous prin-
ciple."
' He was fired with desire of doing
something, though he knew not
yet, with distinctness, either end
or means."
(I.) 464.
Rule XIV.
(2.) "fl little."
(5.) "a few.'
(3.) 559. (4.) •• that circuvutanee,^' Note I.—
359. (6.) •• and the." (7.) " a generous »•
148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the
articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially in a
grave style. ** At worst, time might be gained by this expedient." " At
the worst" would have been better in this place. " Give me here John
Baptist's head." There would have been more dignity in saying, " John
the Baptist's head ;" or, " The head of John the Baptist."
The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a person by
an epithet. " In the history of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we
are surprised at not finding him the great man." " I own I am often sur-
prised that he should have treated so coldly a man so much the gentleman."
This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, for
the pronoun possessive ; as, ** He looks him full in the face ;" that is, " in
his face." "In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the
ground ;" that is, " their foreheads.^^
We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article,
when the adjective, on account of any clause depending u^n it, is put after
the substantive. " Of all the considerable governments among the Alps, a
commonwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of
those countries." "With such a specious title as that of blood, which,
with the multitude, is always a claim the strongest, and the most easily
comprehended." " They are not the men in the nation the most difficult
to be replaced."
*' At worst, time might be gained," (fee. What word may properly be
inserted in the beginning of this sentence ? What is the Note for it ?
3.
*' At worpt, I could but incur a gen- " At best, his gifl was but a poor
tie reprimand.'* offering, when we consider his
estate."
Rxriiis X.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar.
RULE X.
The possessive case is governed by the following noun.
When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, there
is no variation of case ; as, " George, king of Great Britain, elector of
Hanover," &c. ; " Pompey contended with Caesar, the greatest general
of his time;" "Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity."
Nouns thus circumstanced are said to be in apposition to each other. The
interposition of a relative and verb will sometimes break the construction ;
as, " Pompey contended with Caesar, who was the greatest general of his
time." Here the word general is in the nominative case, according to Rule
XV., or Note 4, under jR.ule VIH.
The preposition of, joined to a substantive, is not always equivalent to the
possessive case. It is only so, when the expression can be converted into
the regular form of the possessive case. We can say, "the reward of
virtue, ' and, " virtue's reward ;" but though it is proper to say, " a crown
of gold," we cannot convert the (expression into the possessive case, and
say, " gold's crown."
Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive case ;
as, " Every tree is known by its fruit ;" " Goodness brings its reward ;"
" That desk is miney
The genitive (1.) its is often improperly used for H is or it is ; as, " Its
my book ;" instead of, " It is my book."
The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it relates, is to be
considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the per-
sonal pronoun; as, " This composition is hisJ'^ " Whose book is that?"
" His.^^ If we used the noun itself7we should say, " This composition is
(1.) Or possessive.
SYNTAX. 149
John*8.'* " Whose book is that ?" " Eliza's." The position will be still
more evident, when we consider that both the pronouns in the following
sentences must have a similar construction : ** Is it her or Ids honor that is
tarnished ?" " It is not hers, but Ais."
Sometimes a substantive in the ge^nitive or possessive case stands alone,
the latter one by which it is governed being understood ; as, "I called at
the bookseller's," that is, " at the bookseller's shop'^
*' Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." What is said of
the nouns religion, and support, in respect to each other ? When is the pre-
position of joined to a substantive equivalent to the possessive case ? Give
an example.
" My ancestors virtue is not mine." " A mothers tenderness, and a
(1.) fathers care are natures gifts
** His brothers offence will not con- for mans advantage."
demn him." "A mans manners' frequently in-
" I will not destroy the city for ten fluence his fortune."
sake." "Wisdoms precepts' form the
"Nevertheless, Asa his heart (2.) good mans interest and hap-
was perfect with the Lord." piness."
" They slew Varus, he that was " They slew Varus, who was him
mentioned before." that I mentioned before."
1. If several nouns come together in the genitive (3.) case, the apostrophe
with s is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as, " John and
Eliza's books;" " This was my father, mother and uncle's advice." But
when any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the
sign of the possessive should be annexed to each; as, " They are John's
as well as Eliza's books ;" " I had the physician's, the surgeon's and the
apothecary's assistance." '
" John's and EUza's books." Will you correct this sentence, and give
the Rule for it ?
1.
** It was the men*s, (4.) women's " This measure gained the king,
(5.) and children's lot to suffer as well as the people's appro-
great calamities." bation."
'^Pcter^Sy John's and Andrew's "Not only the counsel's and at-
occupation, was that of fisher- torney's but the judge's opinion
men." also, favored his cause."
2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe re-
tained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural number ending
in s ; as, " The wrath of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in
prose, which the following erroneous example will demonstrate: *' Moses'
minister ;" " Phinehas' wife ;" *' Festus came into Felix' room ;" " These
answers were made to the witness' questions." But in cases which would
give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronuncia-
tion, the omission takes place even in prose; as, "For righteousness*
sake ;" ** For conscience' sake."
Is the additional s ever omitted ? Give an example.
2.
" And he cast himself down at " If ye suffer for righteousness's
Jesus feet." sake, happy are ye."
*^ Moses rod was turned into a "Ye should be subject for con-
serpent." science's sake."
"For Herodias sake, his brother
Philips wife."
(1.) Rule I. (2.) " Asa's hearty (3.) Or possessive. (4.) •* Men** is here
in the possessive case, the apostrophe being understood; therefore apply Rule I.
(5.) " Men, women ;" or " It was the lot qf" &c.
13*
150 EN GLISPI GRAMMAR.
3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between a
genitive case and the word which usually follows it; as, " She began to
extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding." It ought
to be, ** the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him."
** She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent under-
standing." Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule for it ?
3.
" They very justly condemned the " They implicitly obeyed the pro-
prodigal's, as he was called, lector's, as they called him,
senseless and extravagant con- imperious mandates."
duct." (1.)
4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or
of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory of the
other, it may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive
case should be annexed ; or whether it should be subjoined to them both.
Thus, some would say, "I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller;" others,
*' at Smith the bookseller's ;" and perhaps others, " at Smith's the book-
seller's." The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom ;
and if the addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be less
dubious ; as, "I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." But
as this subject requires a httle further explanation, to make it intelligible to
the learners, we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its principles.
A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit
of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the genitive sign at
or near the end of the phrase ; as, " Whose prerogative is it ?" " It is the
king of Great Britain's;" "That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;"
** The bishop of Landaff's excellent book;" "The Lord Mayor of Lon-
don's authority ;" " The captain of the guard's house."
When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems
also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the genitive a similar
situation ; especially if the noun which governs the genhive be expressed ;
as, " The emperor Leopold's ;" " Dionysius the tyrant's;" "For David
my servanVs sake;" " Give me John the Baptist's head;" " Paul the
apostle's advice." But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not
expressed ; and when the latter part of the sentence is extended ; it appears
to be requisite that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, and un-
derstood to the other; as, " I reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and
benefactor;" "Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Ccesar's, the
greatest general of antiquity." In the following sentences, it would be very
awkward to place the sign either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the
end of the latter one alone : " These psalms are David's, the king, priest,
and prophet of the Jewish people ;" " We staid a month at lord Lyltleton's,
the ornament of his country, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of
the genitive case may very properly be understood at the end of these mem-
bers, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being a common construction
in our language ; as the learner will see by one or two examples : " They
wished to submit, but he did not;" that is, " he did not wish to submit.^*
" He said it was their concern, but not his ;" that is, not Jiis concern^
If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only, we
shall perceive that a resting-place is wanted, and that the connecting circum-
stance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable ; as,
** Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar, the greatest general of
antiquity^ s ,*" " These psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet of the
Jewish 7)eopZe'5." It is much better to say, " This is PauVs advice, the Chris-
tian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles," than " This is Paul the Christian
hero, and great apostle of the gentiles' advice." On the other hand, the ap-
plication of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, would
be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases incorrect ;
as, "The emperor's Leopold's ;' "King's George's;" "Charles's the
(1.) " the senseless^'" &,c. " qf the prodigal, as he loas called^''
SYNTAX. 151
Second's;" '* The parcel was left at Smith's the bookseller's and station-
er's." The rules which we have endeavored to elucidate will prevent the
inconvenience of both these modes of expression ; and they appear to be
simple, perspicuous, and consistent with the idiom of the language.
Which is most agreeable to the English idiom, to say, '* Smith's llic
bookseller," or, ** Smith the bookseller's?" When the words are comuct-
ed and dependent, where is the genitive (1.) sign to be placed ?
When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, where
should the sign of the genitive be placed ? What effect is perceived if we
annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only of the sen-
tence ? Give an example. What is the effect of applying the genitive sign
to both or all the nouns in apposition ? Give an example.
4.
" I bought the knives at Johnson's " I will not for David's thy father's
(2.) the cutler's:' (3.) sake."
" The silk was purchased at Brown's « tt ♦ i r ♦ ^u
,, f J 1. I. J 7. » M He took refuse at the governor,
the mercers and haberdasher s. xu i • » **•?»>
"Lord Feversham the general's the king s representative s.
tent." (4.) " Whose (5.) works are these ?
•* This palace had been the grand They are Cicero, the most elo-
sultan's Mahomet's." quent of men's."
5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound ; so that we daily
make more use of the particle of, to express the same relation. There is
something awkward in the following sentences, in which this method has
not been taken: *' The general, in the army's namd, published a declara-
tion ;" " The commons' vote ;" '* The lords' house ;" " Unless he is very
ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were certainly better to say, *' In
the name of the army ;" '* The votes of the commons ;" '* The house of
lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom." It is' also rather harsh to use
two EngHsh genitives with the same substantive ; as, " Whom he acquaint-
ed with the pope's and the king's pleasure." *' The pleasure of the pope
and the king," would have been better.
^ We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another,
and connected by the preposition of applied to each of them; as, " The
severity of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation;" but
this mode of expression is not to be recommended. It would be better to
say, " The severe distress of the king's son touched the nation." We
have a striking instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the follow-
ing sentence : " Of some of the books of each of these classes of litera-
ture, a catalogue will be given at the end of the work."
"In the army's name." How may this expression be altered for the
better ?
5.
** The world's government is not " It was necessary to have both the
left to chance." (6.) . physician's and the surgeon's
" She married my son's wife's bro~ advice." (9.)
ther." (7.) »* The extent of the prerogative of
" This is my wife's brother's part- the king of England is suf-
ner's house." (8.) ficiently ascertained."
6. In-some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the preposition
of ; as, '* It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." Sometimes, indeed, un-
less we throw the sentence into another form, this method is absolutely neces-
sary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strict-
(1.) Or possessive. (2.) " Johnson's sAop." Rule I. (3.) " cwtZcr." See
I!?ote I. under this Rule. (4.) " The tent qf lord;' &c. (5.) 431. (6.) " Ths
government of the worlds (7.) " the brother of my Bon's wife." (8.) " This
liouse helov.gs to the partner of my wife's brother" (D.) " the advice both of."
153 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ly so called, which is the most important of the relations expressed by the
genitive case ; for the expressions, " This picture of my friend," and, " This
picture of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that
of property, in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be conveyed
in a better manner, by saymg, " This picture, belonging to my friend."
When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not necessary
to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it is generally omit-
ted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be allowable only in cases
which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In
the expressions, " A subject of the emperor's ;" "A sentiment of my bro-
ther's ;" more than one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong
to the possessor. But when this plurahty is neither intimated, nor neces-
sarily supposed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not
be used ; as, " This house of the governor is very commodious ;" " The
crown of the king was stolen;" '* That privilege of the scholar was never
abused." But, after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it is
termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the use
of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another form of expression.
Are there any cases in which we use both the genitive termination and the
preposition ofl Give an example. Is this double genitive ever omitted ?
6.
" That picture of the king\s does " This estate of the corporation's is
not much resemble (1.) him." much encumbered."
" These pictures of the king (2.) " That is the eldest son of the king
were sent to him from Italy." of England's."
7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the
present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance,
the noun on which it depends may be put in the genhive case : thus, instead
of saying, "What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so
hastily ?" that is, " What is the reason of this person in dismissing his ser-
vant so hastily?" we may say, and perhaps ought to say, "What is the
reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily ?" just as v^e
say, " What is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant?"
So also we say, " I remember it being reckoned a great exploit ;" or, more
properly, " I remember its being reckoned," &c. The following sentence
is correct and proper: " Much will depend on the pupiVs composing, but
more on his reading frequently." It would not be accurate to say, " Much
will depend on the pupil composing" &c. We also properly say, " This
will be the effect oj the pupil s composing frequently ;" instead of, " of the
pupil composing frequently."
" What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily ?"
Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for it ?
** What (3.) can be the cause of the the Hollanders their throwing
parliament neglecting so im- off the monarchy of Spain,
portant a business." and their withdrawing entire-
" Much depends on this rule being ly their allegiance to that
observed." crown."
" The time of William making " If we alter the situation of any of
the experiment, at length ar- the words, we shall pcesently
rived." be sensible of the melody suffer-
**It is very probable that this as- ing."
sembly was called, to clear "Such will ever be the effect of
some doubt which the king youth associating with vicious
had about the lawfulness of companions."
(1.) 586. (2.) Or, " These pictures belonging to the king,'' &c. (3.) Rule XV
SYNTAX. 153
RUI.B VIIZ.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XL
Active transitive verbs govern the objective case.
In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually goes before
the verb ; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb ac-
tive ; and it is the order that determines the case in ?iouns ; as, " Alexander
conquered the Persians." But the pronoun, having a proper form for each
of those cases, is sometimes, when it is in the objective case, placed before
the verb ; and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and
verb ; as " Wham ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you."
This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and
fovernment to be neglected ; as in the following instances: " Who should
esteem more than the wise and good?" " By the character of those who
you choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed," Those are
the persons who he thought true to his interests." " Who should I see the
other day but my old friend?" "Whosoever the court favors." In all
these places, it ought to be whom, the relative being governed in the objective
case by the verbs esteem, choose, thought, &c. "He, who, under all proper
circumstances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend;" it
should be "■him who," &c.
Verbs neuter and intransitive do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro-
nouns. "He sleeps,^' "they muse,^^ &c., are not transitive. They are,
therefore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the object of an ac-
tion. But when this case, or an object of action, comes after such verbs,
though it may carry the appearance of being governed by them, it is affected
by a preposition or some other word understood; as, "He resided many
years [that is, for or during many years] in that street ;" "He rode several
miles [that is, for or through the space of several miles] on that day;"
"He lay an hour [that is, during an hour] in great torture." In tlie
phrases, "To dream a dream," "To live a virtuous life," "To run h
race," " To walk the horse," " To dance the child," the verbs certainly
assume a transitive form, and may not, in these cases, be improperly de-
nominated transitive verbs.
How is the nominative case usually known in English ? How the objec-
tive? Do neuter verbs govern nouns and pronouns? In the phrase, " He
resided many years in that street," how do you parse years ? When verbs
naturally neuter assume a transitive form, what may they then be called 2
**They who opulence has made "She that is idle and mischievous,
proud, and who luxury has reprove sharply."
corrupted, cannot relish the " Who did they send to him on so
simple pleasures of nature." important an errand ?"
**You have reason to dread his "That is the friend (4.) who you
wrath, which one day (I.) will must receive cordially, and who
destroy ye both." you cannot esteem too highly."
" Who have I reason to love so (2.) " He invited my brother and I to
much (2.) as this friend (3.) of see and examine (3.) his li-
my youth ?" brary."
" Ye, who were dead, hath he " He who committed the offence,
quickened." you should correct, not I, who
^ Who did they entertain so free- am innocent."
lyt" "We should fear and obey the
" The man who he raised from ob- Author of our being, even He
scurity, is dead." who has power to reward or
" Ye only have I known of all the punish us forever."
families of the earth." " They who he had most (5.) in-
** He and they we know, but who jured, he had the greatest reason
(4.) are you ?" to love."
(1.) Rule XXIL (2.) Adverb. (3.) Rule XL (4.) Rule XV. (5.) 678.
154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter or intransitive verbs as if
they were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to the
French construction of reciprocal verbs ; but this custom is so foreio n to the
idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated.
The following are some instances of this practice : " Repenting him of his
design." " The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking
such dangerous enemies." "The popular lords did not fail to enlarge
themselves on the subject." " The nearer his successes approached him to
the throne." ** Go, jiee thee away into the land of Judah." ** I think it
by no means a fit and decent thing to vie charities," &c. ** They have
spent their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with the profane
chronology."
" Repenting him of his design." Will you repeat the note which shows
this sentence to be incorrect ?
1.
" Though he now takes pleasure in before him, the humbler he
them, he will one day (1.) re- grew."
pent him (2.) of indulgences so " It will be very difficult to agree
unwarrantable." his conduct with (3.) the prin-
" The nearer his virtues approach- ciples he professes."
ed him to the great example
2. Active-transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter or
intransitive ; as, *' I must premise with three circumstances ;" ** Those who
think to ingratiate with him by calumniating me."
** I must premise with three circumstances." Will you correct this sen-
tence, and give the rule for it ?
2.
"To ingratiate (4.) with some by " I shall premise ioi<A two or threo
traducing others, makes a base general observations."
and despicable mind."
3. The neuter verb (5.) is varied Hke the active ; but, having, in some
degree, the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the pas-
sive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as
signify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition; as, "I am
come;" '* I was gone;" "I am grown;" " I was fallen." The following
examples, however, appear to be erroneous, in giving the neuter verbs a
passive form, instead of an active one : " The rule of our holy religion, from
which we are infinitely swerved.''^ ** The whole obligation of that law and
covenant was also ceased^ *' Whose number was now amounted to three
hundred." ** This mareschal, upon some discontent, was entered into a
conspiracy against his master." *' At the end of a compaign, when half
the men are deserted or killed." It should be, **Aave swerved," '^^ had
ceased," &c.
" I am come." Why should not this be " I have come" ?
3.
"If such maxims and such prac- "The mighty rivals are now at
tices (6.) prevail, what has length agreed."
(7.) become of decency and " The influence of his corrupt ex-
virtue ?" ample was (8.) then entirely
"I have come, according to the ceased."
time proposed ; but I have " He was entered into the con-
fallen upon an evil hour." nection before the consequences
were considered."
(1.) Rule XXII. (2.) " repent of.'' (3.) " to make agree with," &c.
(4.) "ingratiate ourselves.'' (5.) By neuter and active, Mr. Murray here means
what in this work are styled intransitive and transitive verbs. (6.)Rule XI.
(7.) "ta become." (8.) ''had."
SYNTAX. 155
Rule XV. When two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns,
signi lying the same thing, come together, they are put by appo-
sition in the same case.
55° The examples which follow may he corrected hy this Rule or the follow
ing Note,
4. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as
that which next precedes it. "/ am Ae whom they invited." " /< may be,
(or, it might have been) he, but it cannot be, {or, could not have been) /.**
" /Ms impossible to be they." *' It seems to have been he who conducted
himself so wisely." ** It appeared to be she that transacted the business."
*' I understood it to be him." " I believe it to have been them." *' We at
first took it to be her ; but were afterwards convinced that it was not she."
*' He is not the person who it seemed he was." " He is really the person
who he appeared to be." ** She is not now the woman whom they repre-
sented Jier to have been." " Whom do you fancy him to be ?" By these
examples, it appears that this substantive verb has no government of case ;
but serves, in all its forms, as a conductor to the cases ; so that the two
cases which, in the construction of the sentence, are the ?iext before and
after it, must always be aUke. Perhaps this subject will be more intelligible
to the learner, by observing, that the words in the cases preceding and fol-
lowing the verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus,
in the sentence, ** I understood it to be him,' the words it and him are in
apposition ; that is, *' they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case."
The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and exhibit the
pronoun in a wrong case. "It might have been him, but there is no proof
of it." " Though I was blamed, it could not have been we." " I saw one
whom I took to be she." " She is the person, who I understood it to have
been." "IFAo do you think me to be?" " TFAom do men say that I am ?"
*' And whom think ye that I am ?"
Passive verbs, which signify naming, &c., have the same case before and
after them; as, " He was called Caesar;" "She was named Penelope;"
** Homer is styled the prince of poets ;" "James was created a duke;"
*' The general was saluted emperor ;" " The professor was appointed tutor
to the prince."
"I am him whom they invited." Will you correct this sentence, and
give the rule for it ?
4.
*"Well may you be afraid; it is (2.) who conducted the business;
him indeed." but I am certain it was not him."
" I would act the same part, if I " He so much resembled my bro-
were hinif (1.) or in his situa- ther, that, at first sight, I took
tion." it to be he."
" Search the Scriptures, for in them " After all their professions, is it
ye think ye have eternal life ; possible to be them ?"
and they are them which testify " It could not have been her, for
of me." she always behaves discreet-
" Be composed : it is me : you have ly."
no cause for fear." " If it was not him, who do you
" I cannot tell who has befriended imagine it to have been ?"
me, unless it is him from whom " Who do you think him to be ?"
I have received many benefits." " Whom do the people say that we
" I know not whether it were them are ?"
* When the verb to be is understood, it has the same case, before and after it, as
when it is expressed; as, " He seems the leader of the party ;" '* He shall continue
steward ;" " They appointed me executor ;" " I supposed him a man of learning ;"
— that is, '• He seems to be the leader of the party," &.c. Nouns in apposition are
in the same case ; as, " We named the man Pompey ;" "They may term Charles a
visionary, but they cannot call him a deceiver ;" " Hortensius died a martyr ;" " The
gentle Sidney lived the shepherd'? friend."
(1.) Rule XV. (2.) *' they were the persons."
l.'ie ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
5. The auxiliary let governs the objective case ; as, " Let him bew^are ;"
"Let MS judge candidly ;" " Let them not presume ;" " Let George study
his lesson."
" Let us judge candidly." In what case is us ? What is the rule ?
5.
"Whatever (1.) others do, let (2.) "Let them and we unite to oppose
thou and I act wisely." this growing (3.) evil."
nxjiMH xiz.
Corresponding" with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XIL
TTie infinitive mood may be governed by verbs, participles,
adjectives, nouns and pronouns.
The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, is some-
times properly omitted ; as, " I heard him say it ;" instead of, " to say it."
The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them, in the
infinitive mood, without the sign to, are, hid, dare, need, make, see, hear,
feel, and also lei, not used as an auxiUary ; and perhaps a few others ; as,
'* I bade him do it ;" " Ye dare not do it ;" " I saw him do it ;" '* I heard
him say it ;" ** Thou lettest him go."
^ Will you name the verbs which have commonly other verbs in the infini-
tive mood after them, without the sign to ?
" It is better (4.) live on a lit- " I need not to solicit him to do a
tie, (5.) than outlive a good kind action."
deal." "I dare not to proceed so hastily,
" You ought not walk too hastily." lest I should give offence."
"I wish him not wrestle with his "I have seen some young persons
happiness." to conduct themselves very dis-
creetly."
1. In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood,
where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is superfluous and improper :
** I have observed some satirists to use," &c. ** To see so many to make
so Uttle conscience of so great a sin." *' It cannot but be a delightful spec-
tacle to God and angels, to see a young person, besieged by powerful temp-
tations on every side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out
against the most violent assaults ; to behold one in the prime and flower of
his age, that is courted by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all the
bewitching vanities of the' world, to reject all these, and to cleave stead-
fastly unto God."
This mood has also been improperly used in the following places : '* I am
not hke other men, to envy the talents I cannot reach." ' * Grammarians have
denied, or at least doubted, them to he genuine." ** That all our doings may
be ordered by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight."
The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and par-
ticiples ; as, '* He is eager to learn ;" '* She is worthy to be loved ;" " They
have a desire to improve ;" ** Endeavoring to persuade."
The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, expressing
the action itself which the verb signifies, as the participle has the nature of
an adjective. Thus the infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in
different cases: — in the nominative; as, " To ^Zay is pleasant :" — in the
objective ; as, ** Boys love to play ;" " For to will is present with me ;
but to perform that which is good, I find not."
The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the
rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the
potential mood ; as, "To confess the truth, I was in fault;" "To begin
with the first ;" " To proceed ;" " To conclude ;" — that is, " That I may
confess," &c.
(1.) Rule VIIL (2.) Imp. Rule VI. (a) 559. (4.) » to live," Rule XH.
(5.) Noun.
SYNTAX. 157
" I have observed some satirists to use," &c. What is incorrect in this
eentence ?
In the expression, " He is eager to learn," will you parse to learn ? What
is the rule ? (1.) ** To play is pleasant." Will you parse to play, and give
a rule for it ? (1.) ** To confess the truth, I was in fault." How is to con-
fess parsed ? What is the rule for it ? (2.)
1.
** It is a great support to virtue, " To see (6.) young persons who are
when we see a good mind to courted by health and pleasure,
maintain (3.) its patience and to resist all the allurements
tranquillity, under injuries and of vice, and to steadily pursue
affliction, and to cordially for- virtue and knowledge, is cheer-
give its oppressors." ing and delightful to every good
•* It is the difference of their con- mind."
duct, which makes us to ap- " They acted with so much reserve,
prove the one, and to reject the that some persons doubted them
other." to be sincere." (7.)
•* We should not be like many per- " And the multitude wondered, when
sons, to (4.) depreciate the vir- they saw the lame to walk, and
tues we (5.) do not possess." the blind to see." (8.)
RUZiIS ZXVZ.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XITI.
In the use of ivords and phrases ivhich, in point of time,
relate to each other, a due regard to that relation
should he observed. Instead of saying, " The Lord
hath given, and the Lord hath taken away," loe
should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lord hath
taken away." Instead of, "I remember the family
more than twenty years," it * should be, " I have re-
membered the family more than twenty years."
It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of the moods and
tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they may be proper and
consistent. The best rule that can be given, is this very general one—" To
observe what the sense necessarily requires." It may, however, be of use
to give a few examples of irregular construction. * ' The last week I m-
iended to have written,^ ^ is a very common phrase; the infinitive being in
the past time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly wrong ;
for how long soever it now is since I thought of writing, to write was then
present to me, and must still be considered as present, when I bring back
that time, and the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, '* The last week
I intended to write.^^ The following sentences are also erroneous: "I
cannot excuse the remissness of those whose business it should have been,
as it certainly was their interest, to have interposed their good offices."
*' There were two circumstances which made it necessary for them to have
lost no time." ** History painters would have found it difficult to have in-
vented such a species of beings." They ought to be, to interpose, to lose,
to invent. *' On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty
wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he loosed him." It ought to be,
"because he would knpw,^^ or, rather, *^ being willing to know^ " The
(1.)
1.) Rule XII. (2.) Note XII. LVIII. (3.) For to maintain read maintain,
tohor (5.)'* they" (6.) Note XIII. {1 .)'' their sincerity "
persons who had been lame, talking ; and those who had been blind, seeing."
14 o
158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might receive my sight." " If by
any means I might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." May, in both
places, would have been better. ''From this biblical knowledge, he ap-
pears to study the Scriptures whh great attention ;" " <o have studied,'' &-c.
" I feared that I should have lost it, before I arrived at the city ;" " should
lose ity " I had rather walk ;" it should be, "I would rather walk." " It
would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it ;" it should be,
" if I could have performed it ;" or, "It would afford me no satisfaction, if I
could perform it."
To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect that, in
the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often carry with
them a future sense ; and that the auxiliaries should and would, in the im-
perfect times, are used to express the present or future, as well as the past.
" I intended to have written." Will you point out the incorrectness of
this sentence, and give a rule for it ?
"The next new year's day I shall hold on all the opportunities
he (1.) at school three years." which the imprudence, weak-
** And he that was dead (2.) sat up, ness, or necessities of prince*
and began to speak." afford it, to extend its author
**I should be obliged to him, if ity."
he will gratify me in that par- " Fierce as he moved^ his silver
ticular." shafts resound."
"And the multitude wondered, "They maintained that scripture
when they saw the dumb to conclusion, that all mankind
speak, the maimed to be whole, rise from one head."
the lame walk, and the blind "John will earn his wages when
seeing." (3.) his service is completed."
•' I have compassion on the mul- " Ye will not come unto me that
titude, because they continue ye might have life."
with me now three days." " Be that as it will, he cannot justi-
" In the treasury belonging to the fy his conduct."
cathedral in this city is pre- " I have been at London a year,
served (4.) with the greatest and seen the king last sum-
veneration, for upwards of six mer."
hundred years, a dish which "After we visited London, we re-
they pretend to be made of turned, content and thankful,
emerald," to our retired and peaceful
•*The court of Rome gladly laid habitation."
L It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infinitive mood in the
following form — to write, to be writing, and to he written — always denote
something contemporary with the lime of the governing verb, or subsequent
to it ; but when verbs of that mood are expressed as follows — to have been
writing, to have written, and to have been written — they always denote some-
thing antecedent to the time of the governing verb. This remark is thought
to be of importance ; for, if duly attended to, it will, in most cases, be suf-
ficient to direct us in the relatitre application of these tenses.
The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed: "I found
him better than I expected to find him." '* Expected to have found him,"
is irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive
of hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the
present, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive
an error in this expression — " It is long since I commanded him to have done
it ;" yet "expected to have found,' ^ is no better. It is as clear that the
finding must be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be
posterior to the command.
In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in the perfect
tense of the infinitive mood : " It would have affbrdea me great pleasure, as
(1.) " shall have been.'' (2.) " had been dead." (3.) See the last example under
the preceding Rule. (4.) " a dish has been preserved."
SYNTAX. 159
often as I reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of such intelligence."
As the message, in this instance, was antecedent to the pleasure, and not
contemporary with it, the verb expressive of the message must denote that
antecedence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. If the message and
the pleasure had been referred to as contemporary, the subsequent verb
would, with equal propriety, have been put in the present of the mfinitive ;
as, "It would have afforded me great pleasure, to be the messenger of such
intelligence." In the former instance, the phrase in question is equivalent
to these words — "7/" I Jiad been the messenger ;" in the latter instance, to
this expression — " Being the messenger."
It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the past time
with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive must always be.
used ; as, " He ought to have done it." When we use this verb, this is the
only possible way to distinguish the past from the present.
In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can produce the
sentiments of eminent grammarians ; amongst whom are Lowth and Camp-
bell. But there are some writers on grammar who strenuously maintain,
that the governed verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when
the verb which governs it is in the past time. Though this cannot be ad-
mitted, in the instances which are controverted under this rule, or in any in-
stances of a similar nature ; yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases,
in which the thing referred to preceded the governing verb, it would be pro-
per and allowable. We may say, '* From a conversation I once had with
him, he appeared to have studied Homer with great care and judgment." It
would be proper also to say, " From his conversation, he appears to have
studied Homer with great care and judgment ;" ** That unhappy man is sup-
posed to have died by violence." These examples are not only consistent
with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is the tense of tho
governing verb only, that marks what is called the absolute time ; the tense
of the verb governed marks solely its relative time with respect to the other.
To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive mood have no
tenses, no relative distinctions of present,. past and future, is inconsistent
with just grammatical views of the subject. That these verbs associate with
verbs in all the tense»v is no proof of their having no peculiar time of their
own. Whatever period the governing verb assumes, whether present, past,
or future, the governed verb in the infinhive always respects that period,
and its time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be
before, after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as
the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present
with the thing denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great
propriety, that tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The
point of time from which they are computed, is of no consequence ; sinco
present, past, and future, are completely apphcable to them.
We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking, that,
though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive after the govern-
ing verb, yet there are particular cases in which it would be better to give
the expression a diflTerent form. Thus, instead of saying, " I wish to have
written to him sooner," " I then wished to have written to him sooner,"
** He will one day wish to have written sooner;" it would be more per-
spicuous and forcible, as \yell as more agreeable to the practice of good
writers, to say, " I wish that I had written to him Sooner," " I then wish-
ed that I had written to him sooner," " He will one day wish that he had
written sooner." Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, there
would still be numerous occasions for the use of the past infinitive ; as we
may perceive by a few examples : " It would ever afterwards have been a
source of pleasure, to have found him wise and virtuous." "To have
deferred his repentance longer, would have disqualified him for repenting
at all." " They will then see, that to have faithfully performed their duty,
would have been their greatest consolation."
" I expected to have found him." Will you correct this sentence, and give
a rule for it ? What tense of the infinitive must be used to express past time
with the defective verb ought ? Give an example. Is it proper ever to use
the perfect of the infinitive after the governing verb ? Give an example.
160
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1.
"I purpose to go to London in a
few months, and afler I shall
finish, (1.) my business there,
to proceed (2.) to America."
"These prosecutions of William
seem to he the most iniquitous
measures pursued by the court
during the time that the use of
parliaments was suspended."
" From the little conversation I had
with him, he appeared to have
been a man of letters."
** I always intended to have reward-
ed my son according to his
merit."
" It would, on reflection, have given
me great satisfaction, to relieve
him from that distressed situa-
tion."
" It required so much care, that I
thought I should have lost it
before I reached home."
"We have done no more than it
was our duty to have done."
, "He would have assisted one of his
friends, if he could do it with-
out injuring the other; but as
that could not have been done,
he avoided all interference."
*^ Must it not be expected that he
would have defended an au-
thority, which had been so
long exercised without contro-
versy ?" (3.)
"These enemies of Christianity
were confounded, whilst they
were expecting to have found
an opportunity to have betrayed
its author."
" His sea-sickness was so great,
that I often feared he would
have died before our arrival."
" If these persons had intended to
deceive, they would have taken
care to have avoided what would
expose them to the objections
of their opponents."
" It was a pleasure to have received
his approbation of my labors,
for which I cordially thanked
him."
"It would have afforded me still
greater pleasure, to receive hia
approbation at an earlier period ;
but to receive (4.) it at all, re-
flected credit upon me."
"To be censured by him, would
soon have proved an insuper-
able discouragement."
" Him portioned maids, apprenticed
orphans blest.
The young who labor^ and the old
who rest."
" The doctor, in his lecture, said, that
fever always produced thirst"
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XIV.
Active participles from active transitive verbs govern the
objective case.
" Esteeming (5.) theirselves wise,
they became fools."
"Suspecting not only ye, but they
also, I was studious to avoid all
intercourse."
" I could not avoid considering, (6.)
in some degree, they as enemies
to me ; and he as a suspicious
friend."
" From having exposed (7.) hisself
too freely, in different climates,
he entirely lost his health."
1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the present parti- ,
ciple, with the definite article theheiore it, becomes a substantive, and must
have the preposition o/ after it ; as, " These are the rules of grammar, by the
observing of which, you may avoid mistakes." It would not be proper to
(1.) '' shall have finished^ (2.) Rule IX. (3.)
(4.) " to Ao»fl,received." Note XIII. (5.) Rule XIII.
' Might it not have bei^n" &.C,
(6.) Rule VIII. v7.) 5(>1.
SYNTAX. 161
say, "by the observing which," nor, "by observing of which ;" but the
phrase, without either article or preposition, would be right; as, "by ob-
serving which." The article a or an has the same effect ; as, " This was
a betraying of the trust reposed in him."
This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and from as
plain a principle as any on which it is founded : namely, that a word which
has the article before it, and the possessive preposition o/* after it, must be a
noun ; and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not
to have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort
of words, that is apt to deceive us, and make us treat them as if they were
of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs.
The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule : " He was
sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance ;" it ought to be, *' by
the preaching of repentance," or, " by preaching repentance." " By the
continual mortifying our corrupt affections ;" it should be, " by the continual
mortifying o/," or, "by continually mortifying our corrupt affections."
" They laid out themselves towards the advancing and promoting the good
of it;" " towards advancing and promoting the good." " It is an over-
valuing ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our
capacities;" "it is overvaluing ourselves," or, '^ an overvaluing p/ our-
selves." " Keeping of one day in seven," &,c. ; it ought to be, " the keep-
ing of one day," or, " keeping one day."
A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle, and the pos-
sessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same
meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and
preposition. " He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the
philosopher," is capable of a different sense from, "He expressed the
pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher." When, therefore, we wish,
for the sake of harmony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseologies
for the other, we should previously consider whether they are perfectly
similar in the sentiments they convey.
"By the observing of which." Will you parse observing ? Rule for it ?
What words in this sentence may be omitted with propriety ? Would it be
proper to omit one of them only ?
1.
•*By observing of truth, you will to be the most advantageously
command esteem, as well as situated for gaining of wisdom,
secure peace." Poverty turns our thoughts too
"He prepared them for this event, much upon the supplying our
by the sending to them proper wants ; and riches upon the en-
information." joyi"? our superfluities."
" A person may be great or rich " Pliny, speaking of Cato the Cen-
by chance ; but cannot be wise sor's disapproving the Grecian
, or good without the taking pains orators, expressed himself thus."
for it." " Propriety of pronunciation is the
" Nothing could have made her giving to every word that sound,
so unhappy, as the marrying which the most polite usage
a man who possessed such of the language appropriates
principles." to it."
*' The changing times and seasons, " The not attending (1.) to this rule,
the removing and setting up is the cause (2.) of a very com-
kings, belong to Providence mon error."
alone.* " This was in fact a converting the
" The middle station of life seems deposite to his own use.
2. The same observations which have been made respecting the effect of
the article and participle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and partici-
ple, when they are similarly associated ; as, " Much depends on their ebferv-
(1.) Rule VI. (2.) Rule XV.
162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ing of the rule, and error will be the consequence oi their neglecting ofh ;"
instead of " their observing the rule, and their neglecting it." We shall per-
ceive this more clearly, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun ; as, " Much
depends upon Tyro's observing of the rule," &,c. But, as this construction
sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the senti-
ment in the following, or some other form : " Much depends on the rule's
being observed ; and error will be the consequence on its being neglected ;"
or, " on observing the rule ;" and, " of neglecting it." This remark may
be applied to several other modes of expression to be found in this work ;
which, though they are contended for as strictly correct, are not always the
most ehgible, on account of their unpleasant sound.
We sometimes meet with expressions like the following : ** Informing of
his sentences, he was very exact;" " From calling 0/ names, he proceeded
to blows." But this is incorrect language ; for prepositions do not, hke arti-
cles and pronouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a substan-
tive ; as we have shown above in the phrase, " by observing which." And
yet the participle, with hs adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase
in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or un-
derstood ; as, '^'■^Y promising much J and performing but little, we become
despicable ;" ** He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely.""
** Much depends on their observing of the rule." Would this sentence
be correct if the preposition of were omitted ? Will you repeat the note ?
2.
" There will be no danger of their the directions, that we lost our
(1.) spoiling their faces, or of way."
their gaining converts." " In tracing of his history, we dis-
"For his avoiding that precipice, cover little that is worthy of
he is indebted to his friend's imitation."
care." " By reading of books written by
** It was from our misunderstanding the best authors, his mind be-
ca^me highly improved."
3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes different
in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It
is frequently said, " He begun," for ** he began ;" " He run," for " he
ran;" "He drunk," for *'he drank;" the participle being here used in-
stead of the imperfect tense : and much more frequently the imperfect tense
instead of the participle ; as, ** I had wrote," for "I had written ;" "I was
chose," for ** I was chosen ;" " I have eat," for " I have eaten." " His
words were interwove with sighs ;" '* were interwoven.'' " He would have
spoke;" ^^ spoken." ** He hath bore witness to his faithful servants;"
^' borne." ** By this means he overrun his guide ;" ''overran." *' The sun
has rose ;" ''risen." *'His constitution has been greatly shook, but his
mind is too strong to be shook by such causes ;" "shaken" in both places.
"They were verses wrote on glass;" "written." "Philosophers have
often mistook the source of true happiness ;" it ought to be, " mistaken."
The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by changing ed
into t ; as, " In good behavior he is not surpast by any pupil of the school ;"
" She was much distrest ;" they ought to be, " surpassed," " distressed."
Is it correct to say, " He begun" ? What is wrong in the expression ?
Will you repeat I^'ote 3 ? Can the participle ending in ed be contracted to «,
with propriety ?
3.
** By too eager pursuit, he run a " He was greatly heated, and drunk
great risk of being disappoint- with avidity."
ed." (2.) " Though his conduct was, in some
" He had not long enjoyed repose, respects, exceptionable, yet he
before he begun to be weary of dared not commit so great an
having nothing to do." offence as that which was pro-
posed to him."
(1.) Omit ** their," (2.) Prcs, paas. part, used as a Boun.— Rule X.
SYNTAX.
1^1
**A second deluge •learning thus
o'errun,
And the monks finished what the
Goths begun."
" If some events had not fell out
very unexpectedly, I should
have been present"
** He would have went with us, had
he been invited."
"He returned the goods which he
had stole, and made all the re-
paration in his power."
** They have chose the part of holidr
and virtue."
" His vices have weakened his mind,
and broke his health."
** He had mistook his true interest,
and found himself forsook by
his former adherents."
" The bread that has been eat is
soon forgot."
" No contentions have arose amongst
them since their reconciliation."
" The cloth had no seam, but was
wove throughout."
•* The French language is spoke in
every state in Europe.
"His resolution was too strong
to be shook by slight opposi-
tion."
'* He was not much restrained aftel--
wards, having took improper
liberties at first."
'* He has not yet wore off the rough
manners which he brought with
him."
'*You w*ho have forsook your
friends, are entitled to no Con-
fidence."
"They who have bore a part in
the labor, shall share the re-
wards."
"When the rules have been wan-
tonly broke, there can be no
plea for favor."
" He writes as the best authors
would have wrote, had they
writ on the same subject."
'*He h*ept up great riches, but past
his time miserably."
* He talkt and stampt with such
vehemence, that he was sus-
pected to be insane."
RI7Z.I: xxvzz.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XV.
Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense,
6fC., require an appropriate situation in the sentence, .
viz. for the most part, before adjectives, after verbs
t, active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary
and the verb; as, "He made a very sensible dis-
>- course ; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and was
attentively heard by the whole assenably/'
A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate
the rule. " He must not expect to find study agreeable always ;" *' always
agreeable." *' We always find them ready when we want them ;" " we
find them always ready," &e. " Dissertations on the prophecies which have
remarkably been fulfilled ;" '* which have been remarkably.''^ " Instead of
looking contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should
look up thankfully to God, who hath made us better ;" *' Instead of looking
down contemptuously, &c., we should thankfully look, up,^^ &c. ** IT thou
art blessed naturally with a ^ood memory, continually exercise it ;" " na-
turally blessed,^ ^ &c. *' exercise it continually.^^
Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at some
distance after it ; sometimes between the two auxiliaries ; and sometimes af-
ter them both ; as in the following examples : ' ' Vice always creeps by de-
grees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we
are at last completely bound." ** He encouraged the ITinglish barons to carry
their opposition farther ;" ** They compelled him to declare that he would
abjure the realm forever ,'" instead of, ** to carry farther their opposition ;"
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
and " to abjure forever the realm." " He has eenera]J,y been reckoned an
honest man;" " The book may always be had at such a place ;" in pre-
ference to " has been generally," and " may be always." " These rules
will be clearly understood, after they have been diligently studied," is pre-
ferable to, "These rules will clearly be understood, after they have diligently
been studied."
From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no exact and
determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, on all occasions.
The general rule may be of considerable use ; but the easy How and per-
epicuiiy of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded.
The adverb tfiere is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds
nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the verb and the nominative
noun ; as, " There is a person at the door ;" " There are some thieves in
the house ;" which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, " A
person is at the door;" " Some thieves are in the house." Sometimes, it
is made use of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence ; as,
** There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." When it is
applied in its strict sense, it principally follows the verb and the nominative
case ; as, *' The man stands there^
What word is misplaced in the sentence, "He must not expect to find
study agreeable always" ? Will you correct the sentence, and give the Rule
for the position of adverbs ? How is the adverb sometimes placed with re-
spect to the verb ? With respect to the auxiliary ?
** He was pleasing not often, (1.) be- " So well educated a boy gives great
cause he was vain." hopes to his friends."
"William nobly acted, though he "Not only he found her employ
was unsuccessful." ed, but pleased and tranquil
" We may happily live^ though our also."
possessions are small." " We always should prefer our duty
" From whence (2.) we may date to our pleasure."
likewise the period of this " It is impossible continually to be
event." at work."
"It cannot be impertinent or ri- "The heavenly bodies are in mo-
diculous, therefore, to remon- tion perpetually."
strate." "Having not known, or having not
" He offered an apology, which not considered, the measures pro-
being admitted, he became sub- posed, he failed of success."
missive." " My opinion was given on rather
"These things should be never a (5.) cursory perusal of the
separated." book."
" Unless he have more government " It is too common with mankind,
of himself, he will be always to be engrossed and overcome
discontented." totally, by present events."
" Never (3.) sovereign was (4.) so " When the Romans were pressed
much beloved by the people." with a foreign enemy, the
" He was determined to invite back women contributed all their
the king, and to call together rings and jewels voluntarily, to
his friends." assist the government."
1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb; as, "I never was
there;" " He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is used,
it is placed indifferently, either before or after this adverb ; as, " He was
never seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." Never seems to
be improperly used in the following passages: "Ask me never so much
dowry and gift." "If I make my hands never so clean." " Charm he
never so wisely." The word ever would be more suitable to the sense.
(1.) ''not often pleasing." (2.) 589. (3.) " JVo." (4.) "eccr so." .
(5.) •' a rather:'— Rii\e IX.
SYNTAX. 165
verb never ge
, ive an exam
instead of ever.
How is the adverb never generally placed with respect to the verb ? Give
an example. Give an example where the word never is improperly used
".They could not persuade him, " If some persons' opportunities were
though they were never so elo- never so favorable, they would
quent." be indolent to improve them."
2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where is often
used instead of the pronouns relative and a preposition. " They framed a
protestation, where they repeated all their former claims ;" i. e. '' in which
they repeated." ** The king was still determined to run forwards, in the
same course where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally ad-
vanced ;" i. e. " in which he was." But it would be better to avoid this
mode of expression.
The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition ; for they sig-
nify, " from this place," " from that place," " from what place." It seems,
therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with them,
because it is superfluous ; as, *' This is the leviathan, from whence the wits
of our age are said to borrow their weapons ;" " An ancient author prophe-
sies from hence." But the origin of these words is little attended to, and
the preposiiion /rom so often used in construction with them, that the omis-
sion of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable.
The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to verbs sig-
nifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither; as, **He
came here hastily;" "They rode there with speed." They should be,
*' He came hither /" ** They rode thither, ^^ <Slc.
** They framed a protestation where they repeated all their former claims."'
Will you correct this sentence, and repeat Note 2 ?
** He drew up a petition, where he " George is active ; he walked
too freely represented his own there in less than an hour."
, merits." (1.)
'* His follies had reduced him to a " Where are you all going in such
situation where he had much to haste ?"
fear, and nothing to hope." " Whither have they been since
. •* It is reported that the prince will they left the city ?"
come here to-morrow."
3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives : " In
1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, since when it has begun
to increase in those countries as a religious order;" i. e. "since which
time.^^ "A httle while, and I shall not see you;" i. e. " a short time.^'
*' It is worth their while ;" i. e. " it deserves their time and pains." But
this use of the word rather suits familiar than grave style. The same may
be said of the phrase, " To do a thing anyhow /" i. e. "in any manner :"
or, " somehow /" i. e. "in some manner." " Somehow, worthy as these
people are, they are under the influence of prejudice."
Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it ?
3.
" Charles left the seminary too " Nothing is better worth the while
early, since when he has (3.) of youn^ persons, than the
made very little improve- acquisition of knowledge and
ment" (2.) virtue."
(1.) Rule XXIT. (2.) " and from that time he," &c. ; or, " and has since made"
&.0, (3.) •' tke time and attention of^" &c
im ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XVI.
Tivo negatives, in the sarne simple sentence, are equivalent
to an affirmative ; as, " Nor did they not perceive him ;^'
i, e. ** They did perceive him."
It is better to express an affirmation by a regular affirmative, than by two
separate negatives, as in the former sentence ; but when one of the nega-
tives is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives
form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression.
Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one ;
as, in the following instances : " I never did repent of doing good, nor shall
not now;" ^'■nor shall I now^ "Never no imitator grew up to his
author ;" ** never did any,^^ &c. ** I cannot by no means allow him what
his argument must prove ;" "I cannot by awy means," &c. ; or, ''lean
by no means.^^ " Nor let no comforter approach me ;" " nor let any com-
forter," &c. ** Nor is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no
more than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes;"
it should be, ''any more.^^ "Ariosto, Tasso, GaUleo, no more than
Raphael, were not born in republics;" ''Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor
Galileo, any more than Raphael, was born in a republic."
Should we express an affirmation by an affirmative, or by two separate
negatives ? Will you give an example of the improper use of two negatives ?
" Neither riches nor honors, nor no " Do not interrupt me yourselves,
such perishing goods, can satisfy nor let no one disturb my retire-
the desires of an immortal ment."
spirit" "These people do not judge wise-
" Be honest, nor take no shape nor iy, nor take no proper measure
semblance of disguise." to effect their purpose."
•* We need not, nor (1.) do not, con- " The measure is so exceptionable,
fine his operations to narrovtr that we cannot by no means
limits." permit it."
"I am resolved not to comply with "I have received no information on
the proposal, neither at present, the subject, neither from him
nor at any other time." nor from his friend."
"There cannot be nothing more "Precept nor discipline is not so
insignificant than vanity." ' forcible as example."
" Nothing never affected her so " The king nor the queen was
much, as this misponduct of not all deceived in the busir
her child." ness."
RUZiIS X.
Gorresponding with Murray's GraiQinar,
RULE XYII.
Prepositions govern the objective ca^e.
The following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of
the objective : "Who servest thou under?" "Who do yoi^ speak to?",,
" We are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to." " Who dost
thou ask for ?" " Associate not with those who none can speak well of."
In all these places, it ought to be, " whom.^'
The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before the pro-
nouns : as, " Give me the book ;" " Get me some paper ;" that is, " to me,"
(1.) " and doe.''
SYNTAX. 167
•*/or me." " Wo is me ;" i. e. " to me." " He was banished England ;"
i. e. ^' from England."
*• Who do you speak to?" Will you correct this sentence, and explain
why it is wrong ? " Give me the book." What is understood in this sen-
tence ?
* We are all accountable creatures, to ? Who does he offer such
each for hisselfr ^ language to ?"
** They wilUngly, and oUkeirselves, "It was not he that they were so
endeavored to make up the dif- angry with."
ference." '* What concord can subsist between
** He laid the suspicion upon some- those who commit crimes, and
body, I know not who in the they (2.) who abhor them ?"
company." " The person who I travelled with,
"I hope it is not I who (1.) he is has sold the horse which he rode
displeased with." on during our journey."
" To poor we, there is not. much *' It is not I he is engaged with."
hope remaining." . " Who did he receive that intelli-
" Does that boy know who he speaks gence from ?"
1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which it governs ;
as, " Whom wilt thou give it to ?" instead of, *' To whom wilt thou give
it ?" " He is an author whom I am much delighted with ;" " The world is
too pohte to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers
are the first that inform them of." This is an idiom to which our language
is strongly inclined ; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well
with the familiar style in writing : but the placing of the preposition before
the relative is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much
better with the solemn and elevated style.
Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ?
1.
*' To have no one whom we heartily "He is a friend whom I am highly
wish well to, and whom we are indebted to."
warmly concerned for, is a de-
plorable state."
2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to con-
nect different prepositions with the same noun ; as, ** To suppose the zodiac
and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves." This, whether
in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should generally
be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where fulness and exactness of
expression must take place of every other consideration, it may be admitted.
Is it correct to separate the preposition from the noun which it governs ?
When may it be admitted ?
2.
On these occasions, the pronoun is " They were refused entrance into,
governed by (3.>and consequently and forcibly driven from, the
agrees with, the preceding word." house."
3. Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different
prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Thus
wei say, " To converse with a person, upon a subject, in a house," &c.
We also say, " We are disappointed o/a thing," when we cannot get it,
** and disappointed in it," when we have it, and find it does not answer our
expectations. But two different prepositions must be improper in the same
constructions, and in the same sentence ; as, ** The combat between thirty
French against twenty English."
In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two prepositions the pre-
ference is to be given, as both are used promiscuously, and custom has not
decided in favor of either of them. We say, ** Expert at," and *' Expert in
a thin^;" "Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes;" "Expert in
deception."
(1.) "with uAonu** <2.) ** Hum,* (3.) «< by the preceding word, and coruequmtly agnct toith it."
166, ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same
that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived ; as, "A
compliance w;i7/t," " to comply mtA;" '* A disposition to tyranny," " dis-
posed to tyrannize."
Do we express different relations and different sense by the same, or a
different preposition ?
.. 3.
**We are often disappointed q/" things, pany, but have always hitherto
which, before possession, prom- been disappointed in that pleas-
ised much enjoyment." ure."
*' I have frequently desired their com-
4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great im-
portance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of impropriety
in the application of this part of speech.
1st, With respect to the preposition of. " He is resolved of going to the
Persian court ,-" " on going," &c. " He was totally dependent of the Papal
crown ;" *' on the Papal," &C. " To call of a person," and " to wait of
him;" ^'on a person," «Scc. "He was eager of recommending it to his
fellow-citizens ;" " in recommending," &c. 0/is sometimes omitted, and
sometimes inserted, after worthy ; as, ** It is worthy observation," or, " of
observation." But it would have been better omitted in the following sen-
tences: " The emulation, who should serve their country best, no longer
subsists among them, but o/who should obtain the most lucrative command."
*' The rain hath been falling of a long time ;" " falling a long time." " It
is situation chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men;"
"decides the fortune," or, '^ concerning the fortune." "He found the
greatest difficulty of writing ;" " in writing." " It might have given me a
greater taste of its antiqmties." A taste o/a thing implies actual enjoyment
of it ; but a taste /or it, implies only a capacity for enjoyment. " This had
a much greater share of inciting him, than any regard after his father's
commands ;" " share in inciting," and " regard to his father's," &c.
2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. " You have bestowed
your favors to the most deserving persons ;" " upon the most deserving,"
&c. "He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch;" " o/ having
betrayed." " His abhorrence to that superstitious figure ;" " o/'that," &c.
" A great change to the better;" "/orthe better." " Your prejudice t©
my cause ;" '' against ^ "The English were very different people then
to what they are at present ;" ''from what," &c. " In compliance to the
declaration ;" " with'' &c. " It is more than they thought for ;" " thought
of.'' " There is no need for it ;" " of it." For is superfluous in the phrase,
" More than he knows /or." " No discouragement for the authors to pro-
ceed ;" " io the authors," (Sec. " It was perfectly in compUance to some
persons ;" " with." " The wisest princes need not think it any diminution
to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel ;"
" diminution of" and " derogation from."
3d, With respect to the prepositions with and upon. ." ReconciHng him-
self with the king." " Those things which have the greatest resemblance
with each other, frequently differ the most." " That such rejection should
be consonant with our common nature." " Conformable with," &.c. " The
history of Peter is agreeable whh the sacred texts." In all the above in- '
stances, it should be ''to," instead of " with." " It is a use that, perhaps,
I should not have thought on ;" " thought of" " A greater quantity may
be taken from the heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it;"
" in it." " Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could confide ;"
"in whom." " He was made much on at Argos;" "much of." "If
pohcy can prevail upon force ;" " over force." " I do hkewise dissent with
the examiner ;" "from."
4th, With respect to the prepositions in, from., &c. " They should be in-
formed in some parts of his character ;" " about," or "concerning." " Upon
such occasions as fell into their cognizance ;" " under." " That variety of
factions into which we are still engaged ;" " in which." " To restore myself
into the favor ;" " to the favor." " Could he have profited from his repeated
experiences ;" " by." From seems to be superfluous after /orfegar ; as, " He
SYNTAX.
169
could not forbear from appointing the pope," &,c. "A strict observance
after times and fashions ;" *' o/ times." " The character which we may now
value ourselves by drawing ;" *' upon drawing." " Nehher of them shall
make me swerve out of the path;" "•from the path." " Ye blind guides,
which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel ;" it ought to be, " which strain
out a gnat, or, take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it." The impro-
priety of the preposition has wholly destroyed the meaning of the phrase.
The preposition among generally implies a number of things. It cannot
be properly used in conjunction with the word every, which is in the singu-
lar number ; as, " Which is found among every species of liberty," " The
opinion seems to gain ground among every body."
" He is resolved of going to the Persian court." Will you correct this
. sentence? "You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving per-
sons." How should this sentence be altered ?
*' Reconciling himself with the king." What inaccuracy is there in this
sentence? " 1'hey should be informed in some parts of his character."
Will you correct this sentence ?
4.
" She finds a difficulty of fixing her
mind."
'Her sobriety is no derogation to
her understanding."
* There was no water, and he died
for (1.) thirst."
* We can fully confide on (2.) none
but the truly good."
* I have no occasion of his services."
* Many have profited from good ad-
vice."
' Many ridiculous practices have
been brought in vogue."
* The error was occasioned by com-
pUance to earnest entreaty."
* This is a principle in unison to our
nature."
* We should entertain no prejudices
to simple and rustic persons."
* They are at present resolved of
doing their duty."
* That boy is known under the name
of the idler."
* Though conformable with custom,
it is not warrantable."
* This remark is founded in truth."
* His parents think on him and his
improvements, with pleasure and
hope."
* His excuse was admitted of by (3.)
, his master."
* What went ye out for to see ?"
' There appears to have been a mil-
lion men brought into the field."
' His present was accepted of by his
friends."
* More than a thousand of men were
destroyed."
'It is my request that he will be
particular in speaking to the fol-
lowing points."
* The Saxons reduced the greater
part of Britain to their own
power."
*He lives opposite the royal ex-
change."
' Their house^ situated to the north-
east side OT the road."
* The performance was approved of
by all who understood it."
' He was accused with having acted
unfairly.'*
* She has an abhorrence to all de-
ceitful conduct."
* They were some distance (4.) from
home, when the accident hap-
pened."
* His deportment was adapted for
concihating regard."
' My father writes me very fre-
quently."
* Their conduct was agreeable with
their profession."
' We went leisurely above stairs, and
came hastily below. We shall
write up stairs this forenoon, and
down stairs in the afternoon."
* The pohteness of the world has
the same resemblance with
benevolence, that the shadow
has with its substance."
* He had a taste of such studies, and
pursued them earnestly."
* When we have had a true taste for
the pleasures of virtue, we can
have no relish for those of vice."
' How happy it is to know how we
live at times by one's self, to
leave one's self in regret, to find
one's self again with pleasure I
The world is then less necessary
for us."
* Civihty makes its way among
every kind of persons."
15
02.) "tn."
(3.) "ty."
(4.) K. XZII.
170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they
follow verbs and participles of motion ; as, "I went to London ;" "I am
going to town." But the preposition at is generally used after the neuter
verb to he ; as, *' I have been at London ;'.' " I was at the place appointed ;"
** I shall be at Paris." We likewise say, "He touched, arrived at any
place." The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ;
as, " He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham." But before vil-
lages, single houses, and cities which are in distant countries, at is used ;
as, *' He lives at Hackney ;" " He resides at Montpellier."
It is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun one another,
whether the preposition of be placed between the two parts of it, or before
them both. We may say, "They were jealous of one another;" or,
" They were jealous one of another ;" but perhaps the former is better.
Participles are frequently used as prepositions; as, excepting, respecting^
touching, concerning, according. ** They were all in fault except or except-
ing him."
llow is the preposition to used with nouns of place ? Give an example.
Are participles ever used as prepositions ? Give an example.
5.
** I have been to London, after hav- and are going for Liverpool.
ing resided a year at France ; They intend to reside some time
and I now live at Islington." in Ireland."
*' They have just landed in Hull,
RViii: zz.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XVIII.
Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and
tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case,
A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further display its
utility. " If he prefer a virtuous hfe, and is sincere in his professions, he
will succeed ;" *' if he prefers." " To deride the miseries of the unhappy,
is inhuman ; and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian ;" " and
to want compassion." " The parliament addressed the king, and has been
prorogued the same day ;" " and was prorogued." " His wealth and him
bid adieu to each other ;" *' and he." " He entreated us, my comrade and
I, to live harmoniously ;" " comrade and me." " My sister and her were
on good terms;" "and she." "We often overlook the blessings which
are in our possession, and are searching after those which are out of our
reach ;" it ought to be " and search after."
" His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." Will you correct this
sentence, and give the rule for Conjunctions ?
" Professing regard, and to act " To be moderate in our views, and
(1.) differently, discover a base proceeding temperately in the
mind." pursuit of them, is the best way
"Did he not tell me his fault, and to ensure success."
entreated me to forgive him ?" " Between him and I there is some
" My brother and him are tolerable disparity of years ; but none be-
grammarians." tween him and she."
"If he understand the subject, and " By forming themselves on fantas-
attends to it industriously, he can tic models, and ready to vie with
scarcely fail of success." one another in the reigning fol-
" You and us enjoy many privileges." lies, the young begin with being
" She and him are very unhappily ridiculous, and end with being
cbnnected." vicious and immoral."
1. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect different moods
and tenses of verbs ; but in these instances, the nominative must generally, if
(I.) *• actiof," OR, " Toprt^at rt§ar4t and to act^^ &o.
SYNTAX. 171
not always, oe repeated, which is not necessary, though it may be done,
under the construction to which the rule refers. We may say, " He lives
temperately, and he should live temperately;" " He may return, but he
wUl not conli7iue,'^' " She was proud, though she is now humble :" but it,
is obvious, that, in such cases, the nominative ought to be repeated ; and
that, by this means, the latter members of these sentences are rendered not
so strictly dependent on the preceding, as those are which come under this
rule. When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to
the negative form, or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject or^
nominative is always resumed ; as, '* He is rich, but he is not respectable."
There appears to be, in general, equal reason for repeating the nominative,
and resuming^ the subject, when the course of the sentence is diverted by a
change of the mood or tense. The following sentences may therefore be
improved : " Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only
in the bosom of fools;" "but rests only;" or, " but t7 will rest only."
'* Virtue is praised by many, and would be desired also, if her worth were
really known;" "and she would." "The world begins to recede, and
will soon disappear ;" " and it will."
Do conjunctions ever connect diffijrent moods and tenses of verbs ? What
case must generally be repeated in such instances ? Give an example.
1.
** We have met with many disap- great riches, but do not command
pointments ; and, if life continue, esteem."
shall (1.) probably meet with " Our seaso* of iniprovement are
many more." short, and, whether used or not,
** Rank may confer influence, but will will soon pass away."
(2.) not necessarily produce vir- " He might have been happy, and is
tue." now (3.) fully convinced of it."
"He does not want courage, but is "Learning-strengthens the mind, and
defective in sensibihty.'° if properly applied, will improve
" These people have indeed acquired our morals too."
KTTZiB XXVZII,
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XIX.
Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the sub-
junctive, mood after them. It is a general rule, that
when something contingent or doubtful is implied, the
subjunctive ought to be used ; as, ^' If I were to write,
he would not regard it ;" " He will not be pardoned,
unless he repentJ^
Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature
require the indicative mood, '^ Jls virtue advances,
so vice recedes ;" " He is healthy, because he is tem-
perate."
The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, &c., generally require
tl^e subjunctive mood after them; as, "//*thou be afflicted, repine not;'*
" Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him ;" "He cannot be clean, unless
he wash himself;" " No power, except it were given from above ;"
" Whether liw^re I or they, so we preach." But even these conjunctions,
' when the sentence does not imply doubt, admit of the indicative ; as,
" Though he is poor, he is contented."
The lollowing example may, in some measure, serve to illustrate the dis-
(U **v»^»tuau» (2.^ «f« vMW (3.) «<aju( now A« %».»
172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
tinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods: '* Though ha
were divinely inspired, and spoke therefore as the oracles of God, with
supreme authority ; though he were endued with supernatural powers, and
could, therefore, have confirmed the truth of what he uttered, by miracles ;
yet, in compliance with the way in which human nature and reasonable
creatures are usually wrought upon, he reasoned." That our Saviour was
divinely inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that
are here taken for granted, as not admitting the least doubt ; they would
therefore have been better expressed in the indicative mood: " Though he
tuas divinely inspired ; though he was endued with supernatural powers."
The subjunctive is used in the like improper manner, in the following
example : ** Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience, by the things
which he sufferecf." But, in a similar passage, the indicative, with great
propriety, is employed to the same purpose ; " Though he was rich, yet lor
your sakes he became poor."
What conjunctions generally require the subjunctive mood after them ?
** If he acquires (1.) riches, they will *' Though he were her friend, he did
corrupt his mind, and be useless not attempt to justify her con-
to others." duct."
"Though he urges me yet more ** Whether he improve ornot, I can
earnestly, I shall not comply, not determine."
unless he advances more forcible " Though the fact be extraordinary,
reasons." it certainly did happen."
**I shall walk in the fields to-day, "Remember what thou wert, and
unless it raiws." be (3.) humble."
*' As the governess were (2.) present, "O that his heart was tender, and
the children behaved properly." susceptible ofthe woes of others."
*' She disapproved the measure, be- " Shall then this verse to future age
cause it were very improper." pretend,
*' Though he be high, he hath respect Thou wert my guide, philosopher,
to the lowly." and friend ?"
1. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily require
the subjunctive mood; as, "Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty;"
" Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee ;" " Take heed that thou speah
not to Jacob."
If, with hut following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunctive
mood ; as, " /fhe do hut touch the hills, they shall smoke ;" " ifhe 6e hut
discreet, he will succeed." But the indicative ought to be used, on this
occasion, when future time is not signified ; as, " If, in this expression, he
does hut jest, no offence should be taken ;" "'If she is hut sincere, 1 am ..
happy." The same distinction applies to the following forms of expression :
" If he do submit, it will be from necessity ;" " Though he does submit, he
is not convinced ;" "If thou do not reward this service, he will be discou-
raged ;" " If thou dost heartily forgive him, endeavor to forget the offence."
When do lest and that require the subjunctive mood after them ? When
does t/ require the subjunctive ? When the indicative ?
1.
"Despise not any condition, lest it abilities, he is worthy of atten-
happens to be your own." tion."
" Let him that is sanguine take heed " If he be but in health, I am con-
lest he miscarries." tent."
" Take care that thou breakest not " If he does promise, he will certain-
atiy ofthe established rules." ly perform."
" If he does but (4.) intiniate his de- " Though he do praise her, it is only
sire, it will be sufficient to pro- for her beauty."
duce obedience." "If thou dost not forgive, perhaps
" At the time of his return, if he is thou wilt not be forgiven."
biit expert in the business, he "If thou do sincerely believe the
will find employment." truths of religion, act according-
"If he do but speak to display his ly."
Cl.} 4M. (2.) 4I». (3.) knpera. (4.) 654.
•s
SYNTAX. 173
I
2. In the following instances, the conjunction that, expressed or understood,
seems to be improperly accompanied with the subjunctive mood : " So much
she dreaded his tyranny, that the fate of her friend she dare not lament;"
*• He reasoned so artfully, that his friends would Usten, and think [that] he
were not wrong."
Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ?
2.
•' His confused behaviour made it rea- rebuke, that he dare not make' any
sonable to suppose that he were reply."
uilty." ** His apology was so plausible, that
'e is so conscious of deserving the many befriended him, and thought
he were innocent."
3. The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunc-
tive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to
be a great impropriety ; as in these instances : " //" there be but one body of
legislators, it is no better than a tyranny ; if there are only two, there will
want a casting voice." *' 7/*a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them
is gone astray," &c.
May the same conjunction have both the subjunctive and indicative moods
after it in the same sentence ? Give an example of this impropriety.
3.
*' If one man pre/era life of industry, unless he aim at reputation, or
it is because he has an idea of com- hopes for some singular advan-
fort in wealth; if another prefers tage."
a hfe of gayety, it is from a like ** Though the design be laudable, and
idea concerning pleasure." is favourable to our interest, it will
"No one engages in that business, involve much anxiety and labour."
4. Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language, have .
arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the
sentence, and made it regular ; and it is probable, that this has generally been
the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words now in use ; which
will appear from the following examples : " We shall overtake him, though
he run ;" that is, " though he should run." *' Unless he act prudently, he
will not accompHsh his purpose ;" that is, '* unless he shall act prudently."
** If he succeed, and obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it ;" that
is, " If he should succeed, and should obtain his end." These remarks and
examples are designed to show the original of many of our present conjunc-
tive forms of expression ; and to enable the student to examine the propriety
of using them, by tracing the words in question to their proper origin and
ancient connections. But it is necessary to be more particular on this sub-
ject, and therefore we shall add a few observations respecting it.
That part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the sub-
junctive mood, has a future signification. This is effected by varying the
terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative ; as will
be evident from the following examples : *' If thou prosper, thou shouldst be
thankful." " Unless he sfwt^y more closely, he will never be learned." Some
writers, however, would express these sentiments without those variations ;
*• If thou pros/)eres«," &c. ; " Unless he studies,''^ &c. ; and, as there is great
diversity of practice in this point, it is proper to offer the learners a few re-
marks, to assist them in distinguishing the right application of these different
forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, that the changes of ter-
mination are necessary, when these two circumstances concur : 1st, When
the subject is of a dubious and contingent nature ; and, 2d, When the verb
has a reference to future time. In the following sentences, both these circum-
stances will be found to unite : " If thcm injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself."
** He has a hard heart ; and if he continue impenitent, he must suffer." ** He
will maintain his principles, though he lose his estate." " Whether he succeed
or not, his intention is laudable." " If he be not prosperous, he will not re-
pine." '* If a man smite his servant, and he die,^' 6lc. Exod. xxi. 20. In all
these examples, the things signified by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to
future time. But in the instances which follow, future time is not referred to :
15*
174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
and therefore a different construction takes place : " If thou livest virtuous-
ly, thou art happy." '* Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faith-
less." " If he allows the excellence of Virtue, he does not regard her
precepts." " Though he seems to be simple and artless, he has deceived
us." " Whether virtue is better than rank or weahh, admits not of any dis-
pute." " If thou believest with all thy heart, thou mayest," &,c. Acts viii.
37. There are many sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in which neither
contingency nor futurity is denoted ; as, " Though he excels her in know-
ledge, she far exceeds him in virtue." " I have no doubt of his principles ;
but if he believes the truths of religion, he does not act according to them."
That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity are necessary,
as tests of the propriety of altering the terminations, will be evident, by
inspecting the following examples ; which shovy that there are instances in
which neither of the circumstances alone implies the other. In the three
examples following, contingency is denoted, but not futurity : " If he Ihiriks
as he speaks, he may safely be trusted." ** If he is now disposed to it, I
will perform the operation." "He acts uprightly, unless he deceives me."
In the following sentences, futurity is signified, but not contingency. " As
soon as the sun sets, it will be cooler." " As the autiimn advances, these
birds will gradually emigrate."
It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that the rules above
mentioned may be extended to assert, that, in cases wherein contingency and
futurity do not concur, it is not proper to turn the verb from its signification of
present time, or to vary its form or termination. The verb would then be in
the indicative mood, whatever conjunctions might attend it. If these rules,
which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the in-
dicative moods in this tense, were adopted and established in practice, we
should have, on this point, a principle of decision simple and precise, and
readily applicable to every case that might occur. It will, doubtless, sonie-
times happen, that, on this occasion, as well as on many other occasions, a
strict adherence to grammatical rules would render the language stiff and
formal ; but when cases of this sort occur, it is better to give the expression a
different turn, than violate grammar for the sake of ease, or even of elegance.
Has the present tense of the subjunctive mood a future signification?
How is this effected ? What two circumstances should concur to render
necessary this change of termination ?
Should the termination be changed when futurity and contingency do not
concur ? What mood or form will the verb then be in ?
4.
*' Unless he learns faster, he will be Persevere until thou gainest the
no scholar." summit: there, all is order, beauty
** Though he falls, he shall not be and pleasure."
utterly cast down." ** If Charlotte desire to gain esteem
"On condition that he comes, I will and love, she does not employ
consent to stay." the proper means."
** However that affair terminates, (1.) ** Unless the accountant deceive me,
my conduct will be unimpeach- my estate is considerably im-
able." proved."
'* If virtue rewards us not so soon as *' Though self-government produce
we desire, the payment will be some uneasiness, it is light when
made with interest." compared with the pain of vici-
** Till repentance composes his mind, ous indulgence."
he will be a stranger to peace." " Whether he think as he speaks,
*' Whether he confesses or not, the time will discover."
truth will certainly be discover- '* If thou censure uncharitably, thou
ed." deservest no favor."
**If thou censurest uncharitably, thou ** Though Virtue appear severe, she
wilt be entitled to no favor." is truly amiable."
** Though, at times, the ascent to the ** Though success he very doubtful,
temple of virtue appears steep it is proper that he endeavors to
and craggy, be not discouraged. succeed."
(I.) Or, " may <«nntfio<e."
SYNTAX. 175
5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the subjunc-
tive mood, it seems proper to make a few observations. Some writers
express themselves in the perfect tense as follows: *' If thou Aave deter-
mined, we must submit:" " Unless he have consented, the writing will be
void:" but we believe that few authors of critical sagacity write in this
manner. The proper form seems to be, " If thou hast determined," ** Un-
less he has consented," &c., conformably to what we generally meet with
in the Bible : " I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not known me."
Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. ** What is the hope of the hypocrite, though he hath
gained," &.c. Job xxvii. 8. See, also, Acts xxviii. 4.
" If thou have determined, we must submit." How should this sen-
tence be altered ?
5.
** If thou have promised, be faithful to submission, he is too generous
to thy engagement." to exact it."
" Though he have proved his right " Unless he have improved, he is
unfit for the office."
6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet with such ex-
Eressions as these; '*If thou had applied thyself diligently, thou wouldst
ave reaped the advantage;" " Unless thou shall speak the whole truth,
we cannot determine ;" "If thou will undertake the business, there is
little doubt of success." This mode of expressing the auxiUaries does not
appear to be warranted by the general practice of correct writers. They
should be, hadst, shalt and wilt : and we find them used in this form, in
the Sacred Scriptures: " If thou hadst known," &.c. Luke xix. 47. *' If
thou hadst been here," &c. John xi. 21. " If thou wilt, thou canst make
me clean." Matt. viii. 2. See, also, 2 Sam. ii. 27; Matt. xvii. 4.
" If thou wilt undertake the business, there is little doubt of success." Is
this mode of expression warranted by good authority ? How should it be
altered ?
6.
** If thou had succeeded, perhaps of the measure, we shall not de-
thou wouldst not be the happier sire thy support."
for it." **Though thou will not acknowledge,
'* Unless thou shall see the propriety thou canst not deny the fact.'
7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive
mood, is also very frequently varied in its termination; as, "If thou loved
him truly, thou wouldst obey him;" "Though thou did conform, thou
hast gained nothing by it." This variation, however, appears to be impro-
per. Our present version of the Scriptures, which we again refer to as a
good grammatical authority in points of this nature, decides against it : " If
thou knewest the gift," &,c. John iv. 10. " If thou didst receive it, why
dost thou glory ?" &,c. 1 Cor. iv. 7. See, also, Dan. v. 22. But it is pro-
per to remark, that the form of the verb to be, when used subjunctively in
the imperfect tense, is indeed very considerably and properly varied from
that which it has in the imperfect of the indicative mood ; as the learner
will perceive by turning to the conjugation of that verb.
Is the second person singular of the imperfect ever varied in its termi-
nation in the subjunctive mood ? Will you give an example ? Is this varia-
tion proper ?
7.
** If thou gave Uberally, thou wilt " Was he ever so great and opu-
receive a liberal reward." lent, this conduct would debase
"Though thou did injure him, he him."
harbors no resentment." " Was I to enumerate all her virtues,
" It would be well, if the report was it would look like flattery."
only the misrepresentation of her "Though I was perfect, yet would
enemies." I not presume."
8. It may not be superfluous also to observe, that the auxiliaries of the po-
tential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change the termination
of the second person singular. We properly say, " If thou mayst or canst go;"
" Though thoM mightst live ;" " Unless thou coiUdst read ;" " If thou wouldst
176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
learn;" — and not, " If thou mayor can go," &:.c. It is sufficient, on this point,
to adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth : — " If thou shouldst go ;"
Johnson. " If thou mayst, mightst, or couldst love ;" Loxvlh. Some authors
think that, when that expresses the motive or end, the termination of these
auxiliaries should be varied ; as, ** I advise thee, that thou may bev^^are ;"
" He checked thee, that thou .sAomZJ not presume ;" but there does not appear
to be any ground for this exception. If the expression of " condition, doubt,
contingency," &,c. does not warrant a change in the form of these au.xiliaries,
why should they have it, when a motive or end is expressed ? The transla-
tors of the Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction contended
for. " Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be their king." Neh. vi. 6.
*' There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayst be feared." Ps. cxxx. 4.
From the preceding observations under this rule, it appears, that, with re-
spect to what is termed the present tense of any verb, when the circumstances
of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations of the
second and third persons singular ; that without the concurrence of those cir-
cumstances, the terminations should not be altered ; and that the verb and the
auxiliaries of the three past tenses, and the auxiliaries of the first future, un-
dergo no alterations whatever, except the imperfect of the verb to be, which, in
cases denoting contingency, is varied in all the persons of the singular number.
After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will be natural for
the student to inquire. What is the extent of the subjunctive mood ? Some
grammarians think it extends only to what is called the present tense of verbs
generally, under the circumstances of contingency and futurity, and to the
imperfect tense of the verb to be, when it denotes contingency, &.c. ; because
in these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of variation ; and they sup-
pose that it is variation merely which constitutes the distinction of moods.
It is the opinion of other grammarians, (in which opinion we concur,) that,
besides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the three past and the two
future tenses are in the subjunctive mood, when they denote contingency
or uncertainty, though they have not any change of termination ; and that,
when contingency is not signified, the verb, through all these five tenses,
belongs to the indicative mood, whatever conjunction may attend it. They
think that the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood have no refer-
ence to change of termination, but that they refer merely to the manner of
the being, action, or passion signified by the verb ; and that the subjunctive
mood may as properly exist without a variation of the verb, as the infinitive
mood, which has no terminations different from those of the indicative. The
decision of this point may not, by some grammarians, be thought of much
consequence. But the rules which ascertain the propriety of varying or
not varying the terminations of the verb, will certainly be deemed impor-
tant. These rules may be well observed, without a uniformity of senti-
ment respecting the nature and Hmits of the subjunctive mood.*
Do the auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive,
change the termination of the second person singular? When is it proper
to vary the terminations of the second and third persons singular of the
present tense ? Do the verb and auxiliaries of the past tenses, and the
auxiliaries of the first future, undergo any alteration ? What exception ?
What is the opinion of some grammarians in regard to the extent of the
subjunctive mood ? What is the opinion of other grammarians ? In which
of these opinions does the author concur ?
8.
" If thou may share in his labors, be " Unless thou can fairly support the
thankful, and do it cheerfully." cause, give it up honorably."
» We have stated, for the student's information, the difFerent opinions of g7ammarians, respecting the English
Bubjunctive mood ; First, that which supposes there is no such mood in our language ; Secondly, that which ex-
tends it no farther than the variations of the verb extend ; Thirdly, that which we hive adopted, and explained
at large, and which, in general, corresponds with the views of ihe most approved writers on English grammar.
We may add a Fourth npinion. which appears to possess, at leait, much plausibility. This opinion admits tlie
arraneemeiit we have given, with one variation, namely, that of assigning to Ihe first tense of the subjunctive,
two forms — Ist, that which simply denotes contingency ; as, " Jf lie desires it, I will perform the operation ;"
that is, if he now desires it; 2dly, that which denotes both contins^ency aid futurity ; as, " If he rfwtVe it, I will
perform the operation j" that is, " If he should hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunc'ive mood
claims the merit of rendering the whole system of Ihe moods ci">n8istent and regular ; of being more conformable
than any other to the definition of the subjunctive, and of not referring to the indicative m<»d forms of cxpvai-
tion, which ill accord with its simplicity and nature. Perhajs this theory 'vill bw-ar a strict ex3..*iJaation.
SYNTAX. 177
" Though thou might have foreseen ** Unless thou should make a timely .
the danger, thou couldst not have retreat, the danger will be uau-
avoided it." ' voidable."
"If thou could convince him, he " I have labored and wearied myself
would not act accordingly." that^thou may be at ease."
** If thou would improve m know- ** He enlarged on those dangers, that
ledge, be diligent." thou should avoid them.
9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belonging to them,
either expressed or understood ; as,
1st. Though— yet,' nevertheless ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for our sakea he
became poor ;" " Though powerful, he was meek."
2d. Whether— or ; as, " Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell."
,3d. Either— or ; as, " I will either send it, or bring it myself"
4th. J^either — nor ; as, " J^eithcr he nor I am able to compass it."
5th. As—as; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, " She is as amiable as her
sister ; and as much respected."
6th. As— so; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, " As the stars, so shall thy
seed be."
7th. As— so; expressing a comparison of quality ; as, ''As the one dieth, so dieth
the other;" " As he reads, they read."
8th. So— as; with a verb expressing a comparison of quality; as, "To see thy
glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary."
9Lh. So~as ; with a negative and an adjective expressing a comparison of quanti-
ty ; as, " Pompey was not so great a general a3 Caesar, nor so great a man."
10th. So — that; expressing a consequence ; as, " He was so fatigued, that he could
scarcely move."
The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly equal pro-
priety. ** I'he king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor deci-
sive, assented to the meaaure." In this sentence, or would, perhaps, have
been I eter ; but, in general, wor seems to repeat the negation in the former
part of the sentence, and, therefore, gives more emphasis to the expression.
Are there any conjunctions which have correspondent conjunctions belong-
ing to them ? Give examples.
9.
" Neither the cold or the fervid, but ** The dog in the manger would not
characters uniformly warm, are eat the hay himself, nor suffer
formed for friendship." the ox to eat it."
" They are both praiseworthy, and *' As far as I am able to judge, the
one is equally (1.) deserving as book is well written."
the other." "We should faithfully perform the
"He is not as diligent and learned trust committed to lis, oringenu-
as his brother." ously rehnquish the charge."
" I will present it to him myself, or "He is not as eminent, and as much
direct it to be given to him." esteemed, as he thinks himself
" Neither despise or oppose what to be."
thou dost not understand." " The work is a dull performance,
"The house is not as commodious and is neither capable of pleasing
as we expected it would be." (3.) the understanding, or the im-
** I must, however, be so candid to agination.
own I have been mistaken." " There is no condition so secure, as
" There was something so amiable, cannot admit of change."
and yet so piercing m his look, as " This is an event which nobody pre-
(2.) affected me at once with love sumes upon, or is so sanguine to
and terror." ^ hope for."
" I gained a son ; " We are generally pleased with any
And such a son as all men hailed me httle accomplishments of body or
happy." mind."
10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The
following are examples of this impropriety : " The relations are so uncertain,
as that they require a great deal of examination ;" It should be, " that they
require," &.c. " There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend
12
( 1.) For " •qruoMy," read •' or." <2.) « that it.** (8. ) " naither thea,"
178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
some ill consequences ; it ought to be, "so sanguine as not to apprehend,"
&.C. ; or, *' no man, how sanguine soever, who did not," &c. '* To trust in
him is no more but to acknowledge his power." " This is no other but tho
gate of paradise." In both of these instances, but should be Ihayi. " We
should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hope ; whether they are such as
we may reasonably expect from them what they propose," &,c. It ought to
be, " that we may reasonably," &c. *' The duke had not behaved with that
loyalty as he ought to have done ;" ** with which he ought." '* In the order
as they lie in his preface;" it should be, "in order as they lie;" or, "in
the order in which they lie." ** Such sharp replies that cost him his Hfe ;"
*'a« cost," &c. " If he were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly
painted ;" " such a scarecrow," &c. " I wish I could do that justice to his
memory, to oblige the painters," &-c. ; " do smcA justice as to oblige," &c.
Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ? What is said
of sentences beginning with the conjunctive form of the verb ? Give an ex-
ample. When has as the force of a relative pronoun ? (1.) Give an example.
There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the conjunctive form
of a verb. " Were there no difference, there would be no choice."
A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes
made use of; as, " Had he done this, he had escaped ;" " Had the limitations on the
prerogative been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made him
regard as sacred the boundaries of the consiitutioti." The sentence in the common
form would have read thus : " If the limitations on the prerogative had seen," &c.
'* his integrity would have made him regard," <fec.
The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun such, has the force of a
relative pronoun ; as, " Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own
conduct ;" which is equivalent to, " Let them who presume," &c. But when used by
itself, this particle is to he considered as a conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb.
Our lan^'uage wants a a conjunction adapted to a familiar style, equivalent tn not-
withstanding. The words for all that seem to be too low. " The word was in the
mouth of every one, but, for all that, the subject may still be a secret."
/« regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do much better in the fol-
lowing sentence : " It cannot be otherwise, in regard iliat the French prosody differs
from that of every other language."
The word erxept is far pre^rable to other than. " It admitted of no effectual cura
other than aniputation." Except is also to be preferred to a^Z but. "Theywero
happy, all but the stranger." In the two following phrases, tiie conjunction 05 is
improperly omitted : " Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine to hope." " I
must, however, be so just to own."
The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and understood ; as, " I beg you
would come to me;" "See thou do it not;" instead of " that you would," "that
thou do." But in the following, and many similar phrases, this conjunction were
much better inserted : " Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues remain to poa
terity." It should be, " Yet it is just that the memory," &.c.
10.
*'Be ready to succor such persons "He gained nothing further by hia
who (2.) need thy assistance." speech, but only (6.) to be com'
"The matter was no sooner pro- mended for his eloquence."
posed, but (3.) he privately with- "He has httle more of the scholar
drew to consider it." besides the name."
"He has too much sense and pru- " He has little of the scholar <^n the
dence than to become a dupe to name."
such artifices." " They had no sooner risen, but
" It is not sufficient that our conduct they applied themselves to their
as far as it respects others, ap- studies."
pears to be unexceptionable." " From no other institution, besides
" The resolution was not the less the admirable one of juries, could
fixed, that (4.) the secret was yet so great a benefit be expected."
communicated to very few." "Those savage people seemed to
"He opposed the most remarkable have no other element but war."
corruptions ofthe church of Rome, "Such men that act treacherously
80 (5.) as 'that his doctrines were ought to be avoided."
embraced by great numbers."
^1.; 636. (2.) •<«." r3.) "»Aon." (4.) "tAou^A." {%.)'' and on thia aecount.» (6
SYNTAX. 179
"Germany ran (he same risk as *' No errors are so trivial, but they
Italy had done." (1.) deserve to be corrected."
RiriiX! ZXIZ.
Corresponding with Murrays Grammar,
RULE XX.
When the qualities of different things are compared, the
latter noun or pronoun is not governed hy the conjunct
lion than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed
by the verb or the preposition, expressed or understood ;
as, "Thou art wiser than I;" that is, "than 1 am."
" They loved him more than me ;" that is, " more than
they loved me." " The sentiment is well expressed by
Plato, but much better by Solomon than him ;" that is,
** than by him."
The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the preceding as well
as in some other forms, may be discovered, by supplying the words that are
not expressed ; which will be evident from the following instances of errone-
ous construction: "He can read better than me." "He is as good as
her." " Whether I be present or no." " Who did this ? Me." By sup-
plying the words understood, in each of these phrases, their impropriety
and governing rule will appear ; as, " better than I can read ;" "as good
as she is;" " present or not present ;" " I did it."
" Thou art wiser than I." Will you parse /, and repeat the rule for it?
**In some respects, we have had as "They know how to write as well
many advantages as them ; but as him ; but he is a much better
in the article of a good library, grammarian than them."
they have had a greater privilege "Though she is not so learned as
than us." him, she is as much beloved and
*' The undertaking was much better respected."
executed by his brother than he." " These people, though they possess
" They are much greater gainers than more shining qualities, are not so
me by this unexpected event." proud as him, nor so vain as her."
1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed; a
number of which is subjoined, as a further caution and direction to tho
learner : " Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death." " She
suffers hourly more than me." " We contributed a third more than th«
Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion more than us." "King
Charles, and, more than him, the duke and the popish faction, were at
liberty to form new schemes." " The drift of all his sermons was, to pre-
pare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose
shoes he was not worthy to bear." " It was not the work of so eminent
an author as him to whom it was first imputed." "A stone is heavy, and j
the sand weighty ; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both." " If the
king give us leave, we may perform the office as well as them that do."
In tnese passages, it ought to be, " /, toe, he, they,^' respectively.
When the relative who immediately follows than, it seems to form an ex-
ception to the 29th Rule ; for, in that connection, the relative must be in the
objective case ; as, " Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned," &c.
" Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat," ^c. It is re-
markable that, in such instances^ if the personal pronoun were used, it would
be in the nominative case; as, "A greater king never reigned than Ae,"
that is, '' tha?ihewas.^* "Beelzebub, thanhe,^* &,c., that is, '^ than he sat. ^*
The phrase than whom is, however, avoided by the best modern writers.
"She suffers hourly more than me." Will you correct this sentence,
and explain why it is wrong ?
lUy** that they do not.»
180 ENGLISH GRAMM:AR.
1.
" Who betrayed her companion?" " Whether he will be learned or no,
" Not me." must depend on his application. *
*' Who revealed the secrets he ought '* Charles XII. of Sweden, than who
to have concealed?" " Not ^im." (1.) a more courageous person
** Who related falsehoods to screen never lived, appears to have been
herself, and to bring an odium destitute of the tender sensibiJi-
upon others ?" " Not me ; it was ties of nature."
her" ^ " Salmasius (a more learned man than
*' There is but one in fault, and that him has seldom appeared) was
is me." not happy at the close of life."
BTJXiX: xxz.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XXI.
To amid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our ideas
in a few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some words,
is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, " He was a
learned man, he was a wise nnan, and he was a good
man," ice make use of the ellipsis, and say, " He was a
learned, wise and good man."
When the omission of words would obscure the sentence,
weaken its force, or be attended ivith an impropriety,
they must be expressed. In the sentence, " We are apt
to love who love us," the icord them should be supplied.
" A beautiful field and trees," is not proper language ;
it should be, " Beautiful fields and trees," or, "A beauti-
ful field and fine trees."
Almost all compounded sentences are more or less elliptical ; some ex-
amples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech.
" I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me." Will you correct this
sentence, and repeat the latter part of Rule XXX, by which the correctior
is made ?
"I gladly shunned (2.) who gladly fell a victim to the madness of
fled from me." the people, truth, virtue, religion,
"And this is (3.) it men mean by fell with him." (5.)
distributive justice, and is proper- "The fear of death, nor hope of
ly termed equity." life, could make him submit to a
" His honor, interest, religion, were dishonest action." (6.)
all embarked in this under- "An elegant house and furniture
taking." (4.) were, by this event, irrecover-
" When so good a man as Socrates ably lost to the owner." (7.)
1. The eUipsis of the article is thus used : " A man, woman, and child ;"
that is, "a man, a woman, and a child." " A house and garden ;" that is,
" a house and a garden." "The sun and moon ;" that is, "the sun and
the moon." " The day and hour;" that is, " the day and the hour." In
all these instances, the article being once expressed, the repetition of it
becomes unnecessary. There is, however, an exception to this observa-
tion, when some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as in the following
sentence : " Not only the year, but the day and the hour." In this case,
the ellipsis of the last article would be improper. When a different form
of the article is requisite, the article is also properly repeated ; as, "a house
and an orchard," instead of " a house and orchard."
(1.) " loAom."— Note XX. (648.) (2.) " him who " (3.) " that which.'' (A.) Insert « /Ji"
twice more. (5.) " 07id" twice. (6.) •• A'ettAer— nor." {T.) '* much costly y
SYNTAX.
m
Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the arlicU 1 Is it necewary to
repeat the article in each of these instances ?
1.
*' These rules are addressed to none
with an unimproved, or with a
corrupted, mind."
' The more I see of his conduct, I
like him better."
' It is not only the duty, but interest,
of young persons to be studious
and. diligent."
but the intelligent and the (1.) at-
tentive."
" The gay and the pleasing are, some-
times, the most insidious, and the
most dangerous companions."
** Old age will prove a joyless and a
dreary season, if we arrive at it
2. The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner : ** The laws
of God and man ;" that is, *' The laws of Cod and the laws of man." In
some very emphatical expressions, the elUpsis should not be used ; as,
"Christ, the power of God, and the wisdom of God;" which is more
emphatical than " Christ the power and wisdom of God."
Will you give an example of the omission of the nounl Should this
ellipsis always be used ?
2.
*' These counsels wer(3 the dictates
of virtue, and the dictates (2.) of
true honor."
*' Avarice and cunning may acquire
an estate, but avarice and cunning
cannot gain friends." (3.)
*' A taste for useful knowledge will
provide for us a great and noble
entertainment, when others leave
us." (4.)
* Without firmness, nothing that is
great can be undertaken ; that is
difficult or hazardous, can be ac-
complis^ied." (5.)
The anxious man is the votary of rich-
es; the negligent of pleasure." (6.)
3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner : " A de-
lightful garden and orchard ;" that is, "A delightful garden and a delight-
ful orchard." " A little man and woman;" that is, " a little man and a
little woman." In such elHptical expressions as these, the adjective ought
to have exactly the same signification, and to be quite as proper, vvhen
joined to the latter substantive as to the former ; otherwise the ellipsis
should not be admitted.
Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different num-
bers ; as, "A magnificent house and gardens." In this case it is better to
use another adjective ; as, *' A magnificent house, and fine gardens."
Will you give an example of the elUpsis of the adjective ? What rule is
to be observed in the use of this elUpsis ?
3.
*'His crimes had brought him into " That species of commerce will pro-
extreme distress and extreme duce great gain or loss." (10.)
perplexity." (7.) ** Many days, and even weeks, pass
away unimproved." (10.)
"This wonderful action struck the
beholders with exceeding (11.)
astonishment." (10.)
** The people of this country possess
a healthy climate and soil." (9.)
'* They enjoy also a free constitution
and laws."
** He has an affectionate brother, and
an affectionate sister, and they
live in great harmony." (8.)
** We must guard against too great se-
verity, and faciUty of manners."(9 )
" We should often recollect what the
wisest men have said and written
concerning human happiness and
vanity." (10.)
4. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun : " I love and fear him ;"
that is," I love him, and I fear him." " My house and lands ;" that is, " My
house, and my lands." In these instances, the ellipsis may take place with
propriety ; but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be
used ; as, " His friends and his foes ;" " My sons and my daughters."
In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually
omitted ; as, " This is the man they love," instead of, " This is the man
(10.)
(1.) Reject «' tfte." (2.) ^'virtue and oftrutJ*
'4.) Insert " erUertammen<#." (5.) Insert " turtAtngr."
riv«. (g.) Reject two wondi. (9<) Insert two wordi.
16
(3.) Insert " thty^ in the place of two nouns.
(60 Insert ^'^man, that.** (7.) Rrject an adjec-
(10.) lossrt an adjective. (11 J " Bxctedingly,^
182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
whom they k)ve ;" " These are the goods they bought/* for *' These are
the goods which they bought."
In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative pronoun ex-
pressed ; as it is more proper to say, " The posture in which I lay," than
'* In the posture I lay ;" " The horse on which I rode, fell down," than
•* The horse I rode, fell down."
The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence together ;
and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, they should answer to each other
with great exactness. " We speak that we do know, and testify that we have
seen." Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be supplied ; as,
" We speak that which we do know, and testify that which we have seen."
Will yon give an example of the ellipsis of the pronoun? Can this ellipsis
be properly used at all times ?
4.
*' His reputation and his estate were '* He is not only sensible and learned,
both lost by gaming." (1.) but is religious too." (2.)
" This intelligence not only excited **The Chinese language contains an
our hopes, but fears too." (2.) immense number of words ; and
** His conduct is not scandalous; and who would learn them must pos-
that is the best can be said of it." sess a great memory." (2.)
(3.) *' By presumption and by vanity, we
"This was the person whom calumny provoke enmity, and we incur
had greatly abused, and sustained contempt." ij .)
the iniustice with singular pa- " In the circumstances I was at that
tience. (2.) time, my troubles pressed heavily
" He discovered some qualities in the upon me." (4.)
youth of a disagreeable nature, "He had destroyed his constitution,
and to him were wholly unac- by the very same errors that so
countable." (2.) ' many have been destroyed."
" The captain had several men died
in his ship of the scurvy." (2.)
5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances : " The man
was old and crafty ;" that is, '* The man was old, and the man was crafty."
" She was young, and beautiful, and good ;" that is, " She was younw, she
was beautiful, and she was good." " Thou art poor, and wretched, and
miserable, and blind, and naked." If we would fill up the ellipsis in the
last sentence, thou art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives.
If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property above the
rest, that property must be placed last, and the ellipsis sup{Aied ; as, " She
is young and beautiful, and she is good."
" 1 went to see and hear him," that is, " I went to see, and I went to hear
him." In this instance, there is not only an ellipsis of the governing verb, /
went, but Ukewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it.
Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the auxiliaries
of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone to spare the repetition of
^rttheverb; as, "He regards his word, but thou dost not;" that is, "dost
j not regard it." " We succeeded, but they did not;" " did not succeed."
*' I have learned my task, but thou hast not ;" " hast not learned." " They
must, and they shall be punished ;" that is, " they must be punished."
Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the verb ? Suppose we wish to
point out one property above the rest? How are the auxiliaries sometimes
used?
5.
" He is temperate, he is disinterest- " Perseverance in laudable pursuits
ed, he is benevolent ; he is an will reward all our toils, and will
ornament to his family, and a produce effects beyond our calcu-
credit to his profession." (5.) lation." (7.)
"Genuine virtue supposes our benev- "It is happy for us, when we can
olence to be strengthened, and to calmly and deliberately look back
be confirmed by principle." (6.) on the past, and can quietly an-
ticipate the future." (7.)
(I.) R^eet » prononn. (2.) Insert* pronoun. (9.)**that—that.^ (4.) Fnw
(&) Rayect «iz worda, and \ramt one. (6. ) Rei>ect two words. f 7. ) R^ct one wwrl.
SYNTAX. 18S
"The sacTj^cesofTirtuewiH not only rules of Tirtue, not only would
be rewarded hereafter, but re- they escape innumerable dan-
compensed even in this life." (1.) gers, but command respect from
,'^* All those possessed of any office, the licentious themselves." (2.)
resigned their former commis- '* Charles was a man of learning,
sion." (2.) knowledge, and benevolence ;
" If young persons were determined and, what is still more, a true
to conduct themselves by the Christian." (2.)
6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner : " lie
spoke and acted wisely ;" that is, *' He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely."
" Thrice I went and offered my service;" that is, " Thrice I went, and
thrice I offered my service."
How is the ellipsis of the adverb used ?
6.
•* The temper of him who is always " How a seed grows up into a tree,
in the bustle of the world, will and the mind acts upon the body,
be often ruffled, and be often are mysteries which we cannot
disturbed." (3.) explain." (5.)
"We often commend imprudently, "Verily there is a reward for the
as well as censure imprudent- righteous. There is a God that
ly." (4.) judgeth in the earth." (5.)
7. The ellipsis ot the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the
following instances: "He went into the abbeys, halls, and public build-
ings;" that is, " He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and hq
went into the pubhc buildings." " He also went through all the streets and
lanes of the city;" that is, "through all the streets, and through all the
hmes," &c. "He spoke to every man and woman there;" that is, "to
every man and to every woman." " This day, next month, last year;"
that is, " On this day, in the next month, in the last year." " The Lord
do that which seemeth him good ;" that is, " which seemeth to him."
j Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the. preposition and the verb ?
: 7.
y* Changes are almost continually gins smiled at what they blush-
taking place, in men and in man- ed before." (5.)
ners, in opinions and in customs, " They are now reconciled to what
in private fortunes and public they could not formerly be
conduct." (5.) (3.) prompted, by any considera-
" Averse either to contradict or tions." (5.)
blame, the too complaisant man "Censure is thetaxwhich a man pays
goes along with the manners that the pubhc for being eminent." (5.)
prevail." (5.) " Reflect on the state of human life.
** By this habitual indelicacy, the vir- and the society of men as mixed
with good and with evil." (5.)
8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : " They confess the power,
wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator;" that is, "the power, and
wisdom* and goodness, and love of," &c. " Though I love him, I do not
flatter him ;" that is, " Though I love him, yet I do not flatter him."
Will you give an example of the eUipsis of a conjunction ?
S.
" In all stations and conditions, the " Religious persons are often unjust-
important relations take place, of ly represented as persons of
masters and servants, and hus- romantic character, visionary
bands and wives, and parents and notions, unacquainted with the
children, and brothers and friends, world, unfit to live in it." (1.)
' and citizens and subjects." (6.) " No rank, station, dignity of birth,
^'Destitute of principle, he regarded possessions, exempt men from
neither his family, nor his friends, contributing their share to public
nor his reputation." (4.) utiUty." (7.)
9. The elHpsis of the interjection is not very common : it, however, is some-
times used ; as, " Oh, pity and shame !" that is, " Oh, pity ! oh, shame !"
(1.) Insert three words. (2.) Insert two words. (9.) Reject two words. (4.) IU|^ one word.
1^6.) loMTt one wond. f6,) Reject fijur wo»d». (7.) " nor-~no—nor on^."
184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language,
numerous examples of it might be given ; but only a few more can be ad-
mitted here.
In the following instance, there is a very considerable one: "He will
often argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should
gain from one nation; and if another, from another;" that is, "He will
often argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should
gain from one nation ; and if another part of our trade were well cultivated,
we should gain from another nation."
The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis : *' Wo
is me ;" i. e. " wo is to me." " To let blood ;" i. e. *' to let out blood."
** To let down ;" i. e. ** to let it fall or slide down." " To walk a mile ;"
i. e. " to walk through the space of a mile." '* To sleep all night ;" i. e.
** to sleep through all the night." ** To go a fishing ;" ** To go a hunt-
ing ;" i. e. " to go on a fishing voyage or business ;" " to go on a hunting
party." ** I dine at two o'clock ;" i. e. " at two of the clock." " By sea,
by land, on shore ;" i. e. " by the sea, by the land, on the shore."
What is said of the ellipsis of the interjection ?
9.
"Oh, my father! Oh, my friend ! how " Oh, piety ! virtue ! how insensible
great has been my ingratitude !" have I been to your charms !"
(1.) (2.)
10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of
ellipsis in some particular cases. " The land was always possessed, during
pleasure, by those intrusted with the command;" it should be, "those
persons intrusted ;" or, " those who were intrusted." " If he had read far-
ther, he would have found several of his objections might have been spared ;"
that is, " he would have found that several of his objections," &c. " There
is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their own characters ;"
it ought to be, " nothing tw t»^2cA men," and, "than in knowing." "I
scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and
use ;" it should be, " which would yield," &c. " In the temper of mind
he was then ;" that is, " in which he then was." " The little satisfaction
and consistency to be found in most of the systems of divinity I have met
with, made me betake myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures;" it
ought to be, " wJiich are to be found," and which I have met with." " He
desired they might go to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks
to whom only they were due ;" that is, " to him to whom," &c.
" There is nothing men are more deficient in, than in knowing their own
characters." Will you correct this sentence ?
10.
** That is a property most men have, " Most, if not all, the royal family
or at least may attain." (3.) had quitted the place." (2.)
" Why do ye that which is not lawful "By these happy labors, they who
to do on the sabbath days ?" (2.) sow and reap, will rejoice to-
" The show bread, which is not lawful gether." (4.)
to eat, but for the priests alone."(2.)
RXJIiZ! XXXI.
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XXII.
All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other:
a regular and dependent construction, throughout, should
he carefully preserved. The following sentence is, there-
fore, inaccurate : " He was more beloved, but not so
much admired, as Cinthio." It should be, " He was more
beloved than Cinthio,lDut not so much admired."
(1.) Reject one word. (2.) Imert ooo word. C3.) Insert three wonta. (4.) Io»ert two word*.
SYNTAX. 185
The flrst example under this rule presents a most irregular construction, namely,
" He was more beloved as Cinthio." Tlie words more and so much are very impro-
perly stated as having the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not
necessary to supply the latter ellipsis; because it cannot lead to any discordant or
improper construction, and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant.
As the 31st rule comprehends alt the preceding rules, it may, at the first view,
appear to be too general to be useful. But, by ranging under it a number of sen.
tences peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calculated to ascertain the
true grammatical construction of many modes of expression, which none of the
particular rules can sufficiently explain.
" This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be publish-
ed ;" it ought to be. "that has been, or shall be published." " He was guided by
interests always different, somAimes contrary to, those of the community;" "dif-
ferent/row;" or, "always different from those of the community, and sometimes
contrary to them." " Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even older
than tradition ?" the words " as old," and " older," cannot have a common regimen ;
it should be, " as old as tradition, or even older." " It requires few talents to which
most men are not born, or at least may not acquire ;" " or which, at least, they may
not acquire." " The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of
the common law." In this construction, the first verb is said to mitigate the teeth
of the common law, which is an evident solecism. " Mitigates the common law,
and breaks the teeth of it," would have been grammatical. •
" They presently grow into good humor and good language towards the crown ;"
"grow into good language," is very improper. "There is never wanting a set of
evil instruments, who, either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are
always ready," &;c. We say properly, " A man acts out of mad zeal," or, " out of
private hatred;" but we cannot say, if we would speak English, "he acts out of
filthy lucre." "To double her kindness and caresses of me:" the word kindness
requires to be followed by either fo or for, and cannot be construed with the preposi-
tion of. " Never was man so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have done
this evening :" the first and third clauses, namely, " never was man so teased," " as
I have done this evening," cannot be joined without an impropriety; and to con-
nect the second and third, the word that must be substituted for as; " or suffered
half the uneasiness that I have done ;" or else, "half so much uneasiness as I have
suffered."
Tlie first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those such as
are hardly consistent with one another : " How much soever the reformation of thia
degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more com-
fortable prospect of future times." The sentence would be more correct in the
following form : " Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be
despaired of," &c.
" Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the bloodthirsty ; in
whose hands is wickedness, and their right hand is full of gifts." As the passage
introduced by the copulative conjunction and, vvas not intended as a continuation
of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, the
relalive whose should have been used instead of the possessive their ; namely, " and
whose right hand is full of gifts."
" Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man,
the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." There seems to be
an impropriety in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity,
performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases.
" Neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things," &;c. would
have been regular.
" We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which
we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very
proper to say, " altering and compounding those images which we have once
received, into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" but we cannot with propriety
say. " retaining them into all the varieties;" and yet, according to the manner in
which the words are ranged,.this construction is unavoidable : for retaining, altering^
and compounding are participles, each of which equally refers to and governs the
subsequent noun, those images ; dnd that noun, again, is necessarily connected with
the following preposition, into. The construction might easily have been rectified,
by disjoining the participle rcfainin^ from the other two participles, in this way;
" We have the power of retaining those images which we have once received, and
of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" or,
perhaps, better thus: " We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding
those images which we have once received, and of forming them into all the varie-
ties of picture and vision."
Why is the first example under this rule inaccurate ? ** This dedication
may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be published." Will
you point out the inaccuracies in this sentence, and correct them ?
16»
186
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
' Several alterations and additions
have been made to the work." (1.)
' The first proposal was essentially
different, and inferior to the se-
cond." (2.)
' He is more bold and active, but not
so wise and studious as his com-
panion." (3.)
* Thou hearest the sound of wind,
but thou canst not tell whence it
Cometh, a7id whither it goeth."
' Neither has he, nor any other per-
sons, suspected so much dissimu-
lation." (4.)
' The court of France or England
was to have been the umpire." (5.)
' In the reign of Henry H. all foreign
commodities were plenty in Eng-
land." (6.7
* There is no talent so useful towards
success in business, or which puts
men more out of the reach of ac-
cidents, than that quality gener-
ally possessed by persons of cool
temper, and is, in common lan-
guage, called discretion." (7.)
* The first project was to shorten dis-
course, by cutting polysyllables
into one." (8.)
' I shall do all I can to persuade
others to take the same measures
for their cure which I have." (9.)
* The greatest masters of critical
learnmg differ among one an-
other. ^^
' Micaiah said, If thou certainly re-
turn in peace, then hath not the
Lord spoken by me." (10.)
" I do not suppose, that we Britons
want a genius, more than the
rest of our neighbors." (10.)
" The deaf man whose ears were
opened, and his tongue loosened,
doubtless glorified the great Phy-
sician." (11.)
** Groves, fields, and meadows are, at
any season of the year, pleasant
to look upon ; but never so much
as in the opening of the spring."
(12.)
" The multitude rebuke ihem, hecause
they should hold their peace."
" The intentions of some of these phi-
losophers, nay, of many, might
and probably were good." (13.)
" It #as an unsuccessful undertak-
ing ; which, although it has failed,
is no objection at all to an enter-
prise so well concerted." (14.)
" The reward is his due, and it has
already, or will hereafter be given
to him." (15.)
** By intercourse with wise and expe-
rienced persons, who know the
world, we may improve and rub
off the rust of a private and retir-
ed education." (16.)
" Sincerity is as valuable, and even
more valuable, than knowledge."
(17.)
" No person was ever so perplexed,
or sustained the mortifications, as
he has done to-day." (18.)
** The Romans gave not only the
freedom of the city, but capacity
for employments, to several towns
in Gaul, Spain, and Germany."
(19.)
" Such writers have no other standard
on which to form themselves, ex-
cept what chances to be fashion-
able and popular." (20.)
** Whatever we do secretly, shall be
displayed and heard in the clear-
est light." (21.)
*' To the happiness of possessing a
person of so uncommon merit,
Boethius soon had the satisfaction
of obtaining the highest honor his
country could bestow."
(1.) " This work has netivtd,'" &c. (2.) " vsas infmrior to the second, and— from it.*' (3.) " active
than his." (4.) Insert "Aa»e." (5.) "ortAot o/." {6.) '^^ plentiful." (7.) Insert "more''
and "loAtcA." IS.) *^ by reducing— to words of one syllable " (9.) Insert a participle. (10.) Re-
ject one word. (M.) Insert two words, and reject one. (12.) Insert "jo." (13.) Insert "Aauc 6een."
i 14.) *^ the failure of which is, however." (15.) Insert «' fceen." (16.) End with, "and ru6 ojfiX* rtwt."
17.) "as knowledge, and." (18.) Insert •" ieen" for ^^done," and end with "fucA mortification.^
(19.) ^ the inhabitants of." (20.) Bejeet om word. (21.) *' displayed in the clearest."
PROSODY.
Prosody consists of two parts : the former teaches the true pro-
mjNciATioN of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis,
PAUSE, and tone ; the latter, the laws of versification.
OF PRONUNCIATION.
OF ACCENT.
Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or
syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished
from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the
letter u, and second syllable sume, which take the accent.
OF QUANTITY.
The QUANTITY of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing
it. It is considered long or short.
A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel, which occa-
sions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letter; as,
fall, tale, mood, house, feature.
A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant, which occasions
thevowel tobe quickly joined to the succeeding letter; as, ant, bonnet, hunglir.
A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pro-
nouncing it ; thus mate and nole should be pronounced as slowly again as
mat and not.
OF EMPHASIS.
By EMPHASIS is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we
distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay a particular stress,
and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the em-
Ehatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as
y a greater stress.
OF PAUSES.
Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the
voice, during a perceptible, and in many cases, a measurable space of time.
OF TONES.
Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting in the
modulation of the voice, the notes or variations which we employ in the
expression of our sentiments.
OF VERSIFICATION.
Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of
syllables, according to certain Taws.
Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the last
sound of another.
Wh&t II protodr ? How much more time does the pronunciation of a
What i( accent ? What ic the quantity of a lyllable? long syllable occupy, than a short one ? What is em-
When ii a vowel or syllable long ? Wbeo short ? Oiv« phasis ? What are pauses ? What are tones ? What is
•maplM of each. versiSeation ? What ie rhyme i
(187)
188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
OF POETICAL FEET.
A certain number of syllables connected form a foot. They are called
feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through
the verse in a measured pace.
All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three syllables, ar.d are
reducible to eight kinds — four of two syllables, and four of three — as follows :
DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE.
A Trochee, — ^ A Dactyl, — ^^
An Iambus, '-^ — An Amphibrach, ^ — "^
A Spondee, — — An AnapaBst, ^ ^ —
A Pyrrhic, -^ ^ A Tribrash, ^ ^ ^
A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented ; as,
'♦Hateful, pettish."
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter accented ; as,
" Betray, consist."
A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, " The pale
moon."
A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, " on the taU
tree."
A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented;
as, " Laborer, possible."
An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the mid-
dle one accented; as, " Delightful, domestic."
An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented;
as, ♦' Contravene, acquiesce."
A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, '* Niimerable, conquer-
able."
Some of these may be denominated ■principal feet, as pieces of poetry may
be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee,
Dactyl, and Anapaest. The others may be termed secondary feet, because
their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse.
PUNCTUATION.
Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen-
tences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different
pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require.
The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a pause double
that of the comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon; and the
Feriod, double that of the colon.
OF THE COMMA.
The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though very
closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between them.
Rule 1. — With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it
is composed, have so near a relation to each other, that, in general, no points
are requisite, except a full stop at the end of it ; as, " The fear of the Lord is the
beginning of wisdom." ** Every part of nature swarms with living creatures."
A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nominative
case is accompanied whh inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause im-
mediately before the verb ; as, *' The good taste of the present age, has not
allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the EngUsh language." "To be
totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character."
What constitutes a poetical foot, und why is it so What is punctuation ? What does the comma repre*
called? Of how many syllables do poetical feet con- sent? the semicolon ? the colon? the period?
sist? How many kinds of feet are there, and what How is the comma used ?
are they ? What is a Trochee? an Iambus? a Spon- "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of %visdom."
dee? a Pyrrhic? a Dactyl? an Amphibrach? an Does this sentence require a pause iu if? Will you
Anapaest? a Tribrach? Will you give an example give (he rule for sentences of this kind ? "The good
of each ? Which are ioilled principal feet ? Which taste of the present aue has not allowed us to neglect
•-•*"? Wh|r? the cultivalior -'•♦»-» El-"' »•
PROSODY. 189
Rule 2. — When the connection of the different parts of a simple sentence,
is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before
the beginning and at the end of the phrase ; as, "I remember, with grati-
tude, his goodness to me." " His work is, in many respects, very imper-
fect." " It is, therefore, not much approved." But when the interruptions
are slight and unimportant, the comma is better omitted ; as, " Flattery is
certainly pernicious." " There is surely a pleasure in beneficence."
Rule 3. — When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they
are parted by a comma ; as, " The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex-
tremely." *' They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade."
From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to two nouns
closely connected by a conjunction ; as, " Virtue and vice form a strong
contract to each other." " Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition."
If the parts connected are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the
conjunction is expressed; as, "Romances may be said to be miserable
rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil."
Rule 4. — Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same substantive,
are Hkewise separated by commas; as, "Plain, honest truth wants no
artificial covering." " David was a brave, wise, and pious man."
But two adjectives immediately connected by a conjunction, are not sepa-
rated by a comma ; as, " Truth is fair and artless." " We must be wise
or fooUsh : there is no medium."
Rule 5. — Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and im-
mediately following one another, "are also separated by commas ; as, " Vir-
tue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity." " In a letter we may
advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss."
Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to
the rule ; as, " The study of natural history expands aiid elevates the mind."
Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and exception.
Rule 6. — Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, must
be separated by commas; as, "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed."
" We must act prudently, steadily, and vigorously."
When two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted bv a
comma ; as, " Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously." *
Rule 7. — When participles are followed by something that depends upon
them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by commas;
as, "The king, approving the plan, put it in execution." "His talents,
formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous."
Rule 8. — When a conjunction is parted by a phrase or sentence from the
verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a comma at
each extremity; as, "They set out early, and, before the dawn of day,
arrived at the destined place."
Rule 9. — Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas; as, "My son, give me thy heart." "I am
obliged to you, my friends, for your many favors."
Rule 10. — The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are sepa-
rated by commas from the body of the sentence ; as, " His father dying,
he succeeded to the estate." " At length, their ministry performed, and
race well run, they left the world in peace." " To confess the truth, I was
much in fault."
Rule 11. —Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the
same case, by way of explication or illustration, when accompanied with ad-
juncts, are set off by commas; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was
lentence admit of a pause ? If so, where, and what is sta»e what points should be placed in this sentence,
the rule? " I remember \vith gratitude his goodness and the rule for it? St^te the exceptions,
to me," Will you state how this sentence «hnuld be " The king approving? the plan, put it in execution."
pointed, and the rule for it? Will ycyi slate the ex- Will ynu sttte how this sentence should be pomted,
cepfion to this rule ? and the rule for ii ?
" Plain honest truth wants no artificial coverine:," " They set ou' early and before the dawn of day ar-
Will you state how this sentence should be pointed, rived at the des ined place." Will vou state the rule
and the rule for it? What exception is Ihere to this for pointing this sentence, and others of a similar
rule? "Virtue Siipporis in adversitv, mndera'es in kind?
prosperity." Will \ou state how this sentence should " My son give me thy heart." What Is the rule for
be pointed, and the rule for it ? State the exceptions to pointing this senteiice ?
Xh - o- - .-.*«-, "Paul the aoostle of the G«ntile« wp< ».-**—♦
-»:>) , f(,f >,;, „^al and knowledge." Wi" >' •
190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
eminent for his zeal and knowledge." ** The butterfly, child of the sum-
mer, flutters in the sun."
But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they are not
divided; as, "Paul the apostle." *'The emperor Antoninus wrote an
excellent book."
Rule 12. — Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives,
are for the most part distinguished by a comma; as, ''As the hart panteth
after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." ** Better is a
dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it."
If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma is, in gen-
eral, better omitted ; as, " How much better is it to get wisdom than gold !"
Rule 13. — When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with
Bome marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a comma ; as,
" Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ;
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full."
*' Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found not only in
union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another."
Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is
single, it is better to omit the comma before it ; as, " Many states were in
alliance with, and under the protection of Rome."
*' The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or more nouns
refer to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the
threatening, and at the approach, of a cruel and lingering death."
Rule 14. — A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat
in the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as,
*' It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know." *' Plutarch calls lying,
the vice of slaves."
Rule 15. — Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit
a comma before them; as, "He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober,
righteous, and pious life."
But when two members or phrases are closely connected by a relative, re-
straining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma
should be omuted; as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make."
The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative is not ex-
pressed, but understood; as, "It was from piety, warm and unaffected,
that his morals derived strength."
Rule 16. — A simple member of a sentence, contained within another,
or following another, must be distinguished by a comma ; as, " To improve
time whilst we are blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness."
"Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity and the evils of
human Hfe, we make that vanity, and we increase those evils."
If, however, the members succeeding each other are very closely con-
sected, the comma is unnecessary ; as, " Revelation tells us how we may
main happiness."
When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its governing verb, with
several words between them, those words should generally have a comma
at the end of them ; as, " It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and
degrade one another."
Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and
succeeding one another, are also divided by commas ; as, " To relieve the .
indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the
deserving, are humane and noble employments."
Rule 17. — When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood,
which, by transposition, might be made the nominative case to it, the former
this sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it ? limely who lyires a sober righteous and piotis
"As the hart panteth after the water-brm ks so doth life."" Will you state how this sentence should b«
my soul pant after thee." How sh uld this sentence pointed, and the rule for it? Will you state when
be pointed, and what is the rule for it ? the comnja should be omitted ? Does thi^ rule apply
"Though deep yet clear though gentle yet not to cases in which the relative is expressed ? Give Jin
dull " How should this sentence be pointed, and example.
what is the rule for it ? State the exception to " To improve time whil-t we are bleraed with
thi* rule. " It hurts a man's pride to say I do health will smooth the bed of sickness." How should
•^"i How should this sentence be pointed, this sentence jo^ -■ .'v' and wV • ■-
' t''< for rt? "He prea"' K- '
PROSODY. 191
is generally separated from the latter verb by a comma; as, "The most
obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men." " The
first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all
associations with bad men."
Rule 18. — When adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and often
when the natural order of them is inverted, they may be set off by com-
mas ; as, " Virtue must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts,
but by daily and repeated exertions." *' Vices, hke shadows, towards the
evening of life, grow great and monstrous."
Rule 19. — Where the verb is understood, a comma may often be pro-
perly introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides comprising some
of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases not determined by any of
them; as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; Irom
curiosity, knowledge."
Rule 20. — 1'he words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly,
now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short,
and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be
separated from the context by a comma.
OF THE SEMICOLON.
The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or
more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a
comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other as those which are dis-
tinguished by a colon. *
The semicolon is sometimes used when the preceding member of the
sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on the fol-
lowing clause ; and sometimes when the sense of that member would be
complete without the concluding one ; as in the folio wmg instance : " As
the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the
amiable part of our species in every, thing that is laudable ; so nothing is ,
more destructive to them when it is governed by vanity and folly."
OF THE COLON.
The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less con-
nected than those which are separated by a semicolon ; but not so indepen-
dent as separate, distinct sentences.
The colon may be properly applied in the three following cases : —
1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by
some supplemental remark, or further illustration of the subject ; as, " Na-
ture felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt:
the gospel reveals the plan of divine interposition and aid."
2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater pause is
necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment; as,
"A divine Legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty
Governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing us of
perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and
wraih awaiting the wicked : these are the considerations which overawe the
■world, which support integrity, and check guilt."
3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a
speech is introduced ; as, "The Scriptures give us an amiable representa-
tion of the Deity, in these words : ' God is love.' "
OF THE PERIOD.
When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in con-
struction with the following sentence, it is marked with a Period.
♦« The most obvious remedy is to withrfi^w from all and what is the rule for it ? « He feared want henc«
•ssociations with bad men." Will you state how this he overvalued riches." Will you state how this sen-
sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it? tence should be p^inteil, and the rule fir it ?
•* Vices like shadows towards the evening of life grow When is the semicolon u^^ed ? When is the colon
great and monstrous." Will ynu give the rule for lued ? In what three cases may the colon be properly
pointing this sentence, and apply it? "From law applied?
•rises security from security curiosity from curiosity When is the ppriod uied ? After abbreviated words
kaowledee.^ H«w tbould this sentence be pointed, what point should be used ? Oiveexauiple«.
193 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The Deriod should be used after every abbreviated word ; as, M. S., P*
S., N. B., A. D., O. S., N. S., &c.
THE DASH.
The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent wri-
ters, may be intro(fuced with propriety where the sentence breaks off
abruptly ; where a significant pause is required ; or where there is an un-
expected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respected
once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !"
INTERROGATION.
A Note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence ;
that is, when a question is asked ; as, *' Who will accompany me ?'* ** Shall
we always be friends ?"
EXCLAMATION.
The Note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion,
surprise, joy, grief, &.c., and also to invocations or addresses; as, ''My
friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Bless the Lord, O my soul! and
forget not all his benefits !"
The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as to their
quantity or time, and may be equivalent, in that respect, to a semicolon,
a colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They mark an elevation
of the voice.
PARENTHESIS.
A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, or use-
ful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which
may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction ; as,
" Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,)
f Virtue, alone, is happiness below."
The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be
accompanied with every point which the sense would require if the paren-
thetical characters were omitted.
Directions respecting the Use of CAPITAL LETTERS,
It is proper to begin with a capital,
1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece
of writing.
2. The first word after a period, and, if the two sentences are totally
independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation.
3. The appellations of the Deity; as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the
Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit.
4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships ;
as, George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Seahorse.
5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, Grecian,
Roman, English, French, Italian, &c.
6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a
direct form ; as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : 'Know thyself.' "
The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital.
7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books ; as, John-
son's Dictionary of the English Language ; Thomson's Seasons.
8. The first word of every line in poetry.
9. The pronoun / and the interjection are written in capitals.
Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when they
are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition.
When may the dash be introduced with propriety ? What is n parenthesis? Give an example In
"Who will accompany me?" What pomt should be which it is used with proprieiy. Should the voice
used af the end of this sentence ? be elevated or depressed ia pronouDcinj a paren
To what is the note of exclamation applied ? Give thesis ?
an example. Are the exclamation and interrogation When should capital letters be used f
points detenuiaateas to tlteir quantity or time ?
E. H. BUTLER & CO.
PUBLISHERS AND BOOKSELLERS,
NO. 23 MINOR STREET, PHILADELPHIA,
PUBLISH THE FOLLOWING STANDARD WORKS.
SMITH'S GRAMMAR.
English Grammar on the Productive System ; a method of instruc-
tion recently adopted in Germany and Switzerland. Designed for
Schools and Academies. By Roswell C. Smith, A. M. Price 34
cents.
This work has been before the public several years. Notwithstanding the
many new works on this subject which have from time to time appeared, Smith's
Grammar has been constantly increasing in favour, and it is believed that at the
present time its popularity is greater than that of any other School Book published
in the country, and that the anndal sales of the work in the United Slates exceed
that of the aggregate of all the other works on English Grammar. Thousands
of recommendations could be given if the limits would admit.
PETER PARLEY'S COMMON SCHOOL HISTORY:
A General History for High Schools, Young Ladies' Seminaries,
Academies, and Common Schools ; with one hundred and fifty
engravings, illustrating History and Geography. Price 75 cents.
This work is universally admitted to be the most successful attempt to bring
General History within the scope of our schools and academies that has ever been
made ; and is calculated to remove the difficulties which have hitherto excluded this
study from our schools. It presents Universal History in a series of interesting
and striking scenes, weaving together an outline of Chronology, illustrated by
descriptions, which once impressed on the mind, will never leave it. One peculiar
advantage of the work is, that History is here based upon geography, a point of
the utmost importance. The success of the work, in actually interesting children
in the study of history, has been practically tested and demonstrated. Several
instances have occurred, in which pupils, before averse to history, have become
deeply interested in it, preferring it to almost any other subject.
The publisher requests my opinion of Parley's Common School History. It
is seldom that I give an opinion upon school books, there are so few that I can
recommend with a clear conscience ; and publishers do not wish, of course, to
send forth a condemning sentence to the w^orld. But in this case I can truly say
tiiat, having used the book in my school since it was published, I consider it a
most interesting and luminous compend of general history for the younger classes
of scholars ; and that, were I deprived of it, I know not where I could find a
work that I could use with so much pleasure to myself, and profit to those for
whom it is designed. , Respectfully yours.
' CD. CLEVELAND.
E. H. BUTLER AND Co's PUBLICATIONS.
Philadelphia, September 19, 1839.
Having examined Parley's Common School History, I do not hesitate to say
that, in ray opinion, it is decidedly the best elementary general history I have
seen, and I recommend its use to other teachers. M. L. HURLBUT.
The above is concurred in by the undersigned as follows :
I intend to introduce it into the academical department of the University of
Pennsylvania, under my care, as soon as possible.
SAMUEL W. CRAWFORD.
I have already introduced Parley's Common School History as a class-book.
SAMUEL JONES,
Principal of Classical and Mathejnatical Institute.
I consider it one of the best works of its talented and indefatigable author.
Its style is clear, and its plan shows the labour of thought. It is based, as all
such works should be, upon geography, and judiciously cemented with chro-
nology. It is surprising that any analysis of so complex a science as History,
should disregard what have been so aptly called its " two eyes" — Geography and
Chronology.
I am sut)mitting these volumes to the practical test of daily lessons with my
children, and find them both pleasing and instructive. Their division into short
chapters, and the general classification, render their great variety of subjects
easy to the unfolding mind.
L. H. SIGOURNEY.
ANGELL»S SERIES OF READERS.
Complete in six numbers. By Oliver Angell, A. M, Principal of
the Franklin High School.
AngelPs Reader No. 1, or Child's First Book.
The arrangement of the Lessons in this book is such, that the child
commences reading as soon as he commences putting the letters
together into syllables ; the exercise of spelling and reading being
simultaneous. The same syllables and words which form the Spell-
ing Lessons, are arranged as Reading Lessons directly opposite, or
immediately under the spelling columns. It is believed that by this
arrangement, the greatest difficulty which children usually experience
in learning to read is removed. Price 8 cents.
AngeU's Reader No. 2, or Child's Second Book.
This is a continuation of the First Number, containing Easy Reading
Lessons, most of which are pleasing stories, designed to interest the
mind of the learner, and afford instruction. Spelling Lessons, con-
sisting of vi^ords from the Reading Lessons, precede every Reading
Lesson. Price 14 cents.
AngeU's Reader No. 3, or Child's Third Book.
This is a gradual advance from the Second Number, having the Reading
and Spelling Lessons arranged on the same plan. The Lessons, in
each of the Numbers, are followed by a set of Questions, to exercise
the reader on what he has read. Price 17 cents.
^
E. H. BUTLER AND Co's PUBLICATIONS.
AngelPs Reader, No. 4.
A gradual advance from the Third Number, and designed as a Reading
and Spelling Book, and containing a variety of useful and entertaining
matter. Price 30 cents.
AngelPs Reader, No. 0.
A Reading Book for the higher classes in Common Scools, with Spell-
ing Lessons and Definitions adapted to each reading section. Price
50 cents.
Angeirs Reader, No. 6, or Select Reader.
Being a selection of pieces, in Prose and Verse, which can scarcely
fail to interest the mind, improve the heart, and inform the under-
standing ; accompanied with an Explanatory Key, containing much
useful information ; and a large collection of Verbal Distinctions, with
illustrations. Designed as a Reading Book for the highest classes in
Academies and Schools. Price 75 cents.
The whole forming a Series of interesting, useful, and economical School
Books.
These Six Volumes, compiled by Oliver Angell, comprise a Series which is
undoubtedly more suitable for the purpose for which they are designed, than
any previous publications ; and they are more popular among those who have
the direction of education than any ever prepared in this country. There is a
decided advantage in possessing sets of Elementary books by the same author,
Avho has pursued a similar plan with each, rising step by step, and who, it is pre-
sumed, would be better able to preserve the proper gradation of style and matter,
than several individuals would.
COATES'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
First Lines of Natural Philosophy, divested of Mathematical Formulae ;
being a practical and lucid Introduction to the Study of the Sciences.
Designed for the use of Schools and Academies. Illustrated with
264 cuts. By Reynell Coates, M. D. This work has already
passed through several editions and been introduced into many of
the first schools in the United States. Duodecimo, Price 75 cents.
I have examined with some care the " First Lines of Natural Philosophv,"
by Reynell Coates, M. D., published by E. H. Butler & Co., and I believe it
to be a work unusually well calculated to ^ive to the student a clear understand^
lug of the different subjects upon which it treats. The clear and familiar style
of the author, and his mode of preparing the learner to comprehend the meaning
of the different scientific terms, previous to their being used in the work, are
advantages in my opinion of no small merit.
Signed,
BENJAMIN HALLOWELL.
Philadelphia, September, 1846.
Coates' First Lines in Natural Philosophy, is used as a text-book for the junior
classes in this institution.
JOHN S. HART,
Principal of Central High School.
E. H. BUTLER AND CO'S PUBLICATIONS.
COATES'S PHYSIOLOGY.
First Lines of Physiology; being an Introduction to the Science of Life,
written in Popular Language. Designed for the use of Common
Schools, Academies, and General Readers. By Reynell Coates,
M. D. Sixth Edition, illustrated with engravings. Price $1.00.
Physiology is a subject of the deepest interest to all who are desirous properly to
cultivate their powers of body and mind ; and it is now beginning to be conceded,
that no course of education can be regarded as complete, without including some
general knowledge of the science of I-.ife. A text-book upon this subject is
anxiously sought for by the leading teachers and professors of our country ; but
it has been supposed that, desirable as such knowletige must be for those who
are charged with the care of the young, there is something in the nature of the
study, rendering it unfit for introduction into seminaries. The error of this
opinion is most clearly shown in the work now offered to the public. It contains
not a word tliat can be regarded as objectionable by the most fastidious delicacy.
KENDALL'S URANOG RAPH Y:
Or, a Description of the Starry Heavens. Designed for the use of
Schools and Academies ; accompanied by an Atlas of the Heavens,
showing the places of the principal Stars, Clusters, and Nebulae.
By E. Otis Kendall, Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in
the Central High School of Philadelphia, and Member of the
American Philosophical Society. The Uranography contains 365
pages and 9 fine engravings ; the Atlas is in quarto, and contains 18
large maps. Price of the Uranography and Atlas $1.25.
Uranography, as the word imports, is simply a description of the Heavens. It
is Descriptive, as distinguished from Practical Astronomy. Astronomy, as a
{)ractical science, requires the use of costly instruments and a knowledge of the
ligher mathematics. But Uranography requires for its study no more expensive
apparatus or higher attainments than Geography. The same boy or girl who is
competent to study the description of the earth, may with equal ease, and from
the same teacher, learn a description of the heavens. The " Uranography and
Atlas" are to the one study what the " Geography and Atlas" are to the other.
This work has already reached its fourth edition, and is highly recommended
by Professors Olmstead, Loomis, and Walker, as well as by nearly every teacher
who has examined it.
HART'S CLASS BOOK OF POETRY.
HART'S CLASS BOOK OF PROSE.
Being Selections from distinguished English and American Authors,
from Chaucer to the present day ; the whole arranged in Chronological
Order, with Biographical and Critical Remarks. Price 75 cents each,
sold separately.
In making a compilation like the present, intended chiefly for the use of those
whose characters and opinions are still but partially formed, it has been deemed
important to select not only master-pieces of style, but also master-pieces of
thought. It is believed to be a defect in some of the more recent publications,
intended as reading-books for schools, that sufficient care has not been used in
regard to the sentiments contained in them. Such books very often, indeed,
contain pleasing descriptions, and interesting stories, written in an agreeable
style, and capable of affording amusement for children of a certain age. But
E. H. BUTLER AND CO'S PUBLICATIONS.
they are not of that masculine character that stimulates the mind to action,
or that gives it materials to act upon ; and they not unfrequently cultivate a
taste for reading of tlie most unprofitable description.
These volumes have been introduced into the public schools of the city and
county of Philadelphia, and in the city of Baltimore, and have received the most
unqualified recommendations from those who are the best able to judge — those
that have used them in their schools.
HART'S CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
STATES.
A Brief Exposition of the Constitution of the United States. By John
S. Haet, a. M., Principal of the Central High School. Fourth edi-
tion.. Price 34 cents.
This work has been recommended by Chief Justice Gibson, Judges Sergeant,
Randall, and Parsons.
HART'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
An Exposition of the Principles and Usages of the English Language.
Price 38 cents.
in the preparation of this work no special attempt has been made at novelty.
The author's aim has been chiefly to make a careful and accurate digest of those
principles of the language which have been remarked by previous writers, and
to slate these principles with precision and perspicuity. At the same time, the
work is believed to contain many observations that are new, and a satisfactory
solution of many difficulties not solved in other works on the subject.
Chamber of the Controllers of Public Schools, )
Philadelphia, January 10, 1845. >
Resolved^ That Hart's English Grammar be introduced as a class book into
the granunar schools of the district. From the minutes,
THOMAS B. FLORENCE, Sec.
New York Ward School Teacher's Association, >
February 19, 1846. S
Resolved, That this Association considers Hart's English Grammar very well
adapted to forward the progress of students in that most difficult study, anl
earnestly recommends its adoption in the ward and other schools of this Asso-
ciation.
WILLIAM KENNEDY, Rec. Secretary.
This work, although it has been before the public but about nine months,
has met with an unusual demand. Ten thousand copies having already been
sold.
SMITH'S INTRODUCTORY ARITHMETIC.
Price 10 cents.
COMSTOCK'S ELOCUTION.
A System of Elocution, with special reference to Gesture, to the
Treatment of Stammering, and Defective Articulation, com-
prising numerous Diagrams and Engraved Figures illustrative of
the subject. By Andrew Comstock, M. D., Principal of the Vocal
and Polyglot Gymnasium. Eighth edition, enlarged. Price $1.00.
E. H. BUTLER AND CO'S PUBLICATIONS.
COMSTOCK'S PHONETIC READER.
The Phonetic Reader: consisting of a Selection of Pieces, Classical
and Moral, in Prose and Verse, in both the Old and New Alpha-
bet; to which is prefixed a System of Vocal Gymnastics. By
Andrew Comstock, M. D., Principal of the Vocal and Polyglot
Gymnasium. Price $1.00.
COMSTOCK'S PHONETIC SPEAKER.
The Phonetic Speaker : consisting of the Principles and Exercises
in the Author's System of Elocution, with additions ; the whole
printed in the New Alphabet only, and illustrated with numerous
Engravings. By Andrew Comstock, M. D., Principal of tlie
Vocal and Polyglot Gymnasium. Price $1.00.
GREEN'S ALGEBRA.
Gradations in Algebra. By Richard W. Green. 12mo. sheep.
Price 63 cents.
This work is used in the Public Schools of the city and county of Philadel-
phia, and has passed through six editions.
GREEN'S KEY TO GRADATIONS IN ALGEBRA.
Price $1.00.
LIBRARY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.
Price $4.00.
MCCARTNEY'S ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF
THE UNITED STATES.
Price $1.00.
VIRGINIA HOUSEWIFE.
Price 50 cents.
FROST'S EASY EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
Price 25 cents.
KENDALL'S WALKER'S GEOMETRY.
Price 75 cents.
RICHARDSON'S NEW ENGLISH DICTIONARY.
A New Dictionary of the English Language. By Charles Richard-
son. Two volumes quarto, 2300 pp. Originally published as a
part of that highly scientific work, the Encyclopeedia Metropolitana.
Price, best sheep binding, $12.
A Dictionary, such as, perhaps, no other language could ever boast." — London
Quarterly Revieto.
'* This Dictionary is a mine of wealtli in English literature, and shows on every
page the immense erudition of its author." — National Gazette.
E. H. BUTLER AND CO'S PUBLICATIONS.
DONNEGAN'S GREEK AND ENGLISH LEXICON:
Revised and Enlarged. By Robert B. Patton, Professor of Ancient
Languages in the College of New Jersey, with the assistance of J.
Addison Alexander, D. D., of the Theological Seminary of Prince-
ton, N. J. 1 vol. octavo, 1420 pp. Price, fine sheep, $4.
The quick sale of so many large editions of this Lexicon, is the best evidence
the publishers could desire of its acceptableness to scholars generally.
Frrnn C. C. Feltorij Professor of Greek Literature, Harvard University, Cam-
bridge, Mass.
I have, for some time past, been in the habit of consulting frequently the
American edition of Donnegan's " Greek and English Lexicon." I have no
hesitation in saying, that it is a most valuable addition to the means of acquiring
a knowledge of the Greek language and literature ; and that it deserves to be
extensively adopted in the schools and colleges of the United States. The
American editor has long stood among the most distinguished men of letters in our
country ; and is well known, in particular, for his masterly knowledge of Greek.
FLEMING AND TIBBIN'S FRENCH AND EN-
GLISH DICTIONARY.
An entirely new and complete French and English and English and
French Dictionary, adapted to the present state of the two Languages.
By Professor Fleming, Professor of English in the College of Louis le
Grand, and Professor Tibbins, author of several lexicographical
works ; with important additions by Charles Picot, Esq., Professor
of French in the University of Pennsylvania, and Judah Dobson,
Esq. Member of the American Philosophical Society, &c. &c. 1
vol. octavo, 1400 pp. Price, fine sheep, $4.
FLEMING AND TIBBIN'S FRENCH AND EN-
GLISH DICTIONARY.
Abridged and adapted to the use of Academies and Schools. By Pro-
fessor Charles Picot and Judah Dobson, Esq. 1 vol. duodecimo,
724 pp. Price, sheep, $1.25.
This work has been made on the basis of the ROYAL DICTIONARY EN-
GLISH AND FRENCH AND FRENCH AND ENGLISH, compiled from the
Dictionaries of Johnson, Todd, Ash, Webster, and Crabbe, from the last edition
of Chambaud, Garner, and J. Descarrieres, the sixth edition of the Academy, the
Supplement to the Academy, the Grammatical Dictionary of Laveaux, the Uni-
versal Lexicon of Boiste, and the standard technological works in either lan-
guage ; and containing, 1st, all the words in common use, with a copious selection
of terms obsolescent or obsolete, connected with polite literature ; 2d, technical
terms, or such as are in general use in the arts, manufactures, and sciences, in
naval and military language, in law, trade, and commerce; 3d, terms geographical,
&c. &c., with adjectives or epithets elucidating history ; 4th, a literal and figured
pronunciation for the use of the Americans and English ; 5th, accurate and dis-
8 E. H. BUTLEH. AND Co's TLIBLICATIONS.
criminating definition?, and, when necessary, willi appropriate examples and
illustrations tending to fix as well as display the signification, import, rank, and
character of each individual word ; 6lh, peculiar constructions, modes of
speech, idioms, &c. &c.; 7th, synonymy; 8th, the difficulties of French Gram-
mar presented and resolved in English, as they occur throughout the work.
The American edition contains complete tables of the verbs on an entirely
new plan, to which the verbs throughout the work are referred, with the addi-
tion, in their respective places, of a very great number of terms in the natural
sciences, chemistry, medicine, &c. &c., which are not to be found in any other
French and English Dictionary.
The sale of this work has been so great, that the publishers, notwithstanding
the very heavy expense attendant upon its publication, are enabled to offer the
large work at the very low price of $4, and the abridgment at $1.25. Among
the numerous evidences of the high authority and practical utility of the work,
the publishers have received the strongest commendatory notices from Peter
Stephen Duponceau, President of the American Philosophical Society, — Robley
Dunglison, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica and Practice of Medicine in the
Jefferson Medical College, and Secretary of the American Philosophical Society,
— F. A. Bregy, Professor of the French and Spanish Languages in the Central
High School, Philadelphia, — George B. Emerson, Esq., — Thomas Sherwin, Esq.,
of the High School, Bo.ston, Mass., and from many other distinguished persons.
The abridgment has already been extensively introduced into many of our first
Academies and Schools.
NUGENT'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH DICTION-
ARY.
In two parts. 1. French and English. 2. English and French. Con-
taining all the words in general use, and authorized by the best
writers. By Thomas Nugent, LL.D., with additions by J.
OuiSEAU, A. M. Square 12mo. Price 63 cents.
WALKER'S PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY.
A Nev^^ Edition, corrected. Octavo, 782 pp. Price, fine edition, $2.50.
Common edition $1.25.
MCCARTNEY'S, CALCULUS.
The Principles of the Differential and Integral Calculus, and their
application to Geometry. By Washington M'Cartney, Professor
of Mathematics in La Fayette College, Easton, Pa. 2d edition. 8vo.
Price $1.50.
E. H. BuTLEU & Co., No. 23 Minor Street, Philadelphia, have
always on hand a full and complete assortment of books in the various
departments of Literature and Science, which they will furnish at whole-
sale at very low rates. A liberal discount from the prices in the above
list will be made to dealers.
YB 36494
THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
4/
A /X.
•JOKS
.■■ & CO, I
HK 2300 pages ; price*
\^SV\ itVXlV >N,
< ^ 1 - , .
rr;r\r«j ^.Nr^
. :i DICTiOxNAr t
,,' ' . >
\N0 TIBO^N'-
'. k
Kis-:
^ ?u- : J, f * J
..^>,
n'A^Kf <
%' ' ! , > ^1
c^; ri,i.>f{ i>]r/i j(^.>j ^R^ ,
* , [ ' ' 1 , ■'j
' no At- and .^ fader- ;' '
r 'I ESTATES,
K ^ ;•'
i^<iw>»i»-«iw»i«etMHm!'y*'»aa(pc v '•v*^*