ffiS^----' UC-NRLF *B 3D7 DD7 .^-' GRAM ^ ^RA Ji ^ PROBUCTIVB SYSTEM BY ROSWELL C. SMITH HE'S^ STt- 7/ SMITH'S NEW GRAMMAR. ENGLI MAK7-5 ^'MaC PRODUCTIVE system: METHOD OF INSTRUCTION RECENTLY ADOPTED GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND. IBesfgnetf for ScI)ools anti 0catremla». BY ROSWELL C. SMITH, AUTHOR OF "practical AND MENTAL ARITHMETIC," "INTELLECTUAL AND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR," AND "INTRODUCTORY ARITHMETIC." NEW STEREOTYPE EDITION. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY E. H. BUTLER & CO. . 1847. '^.X^l t j: *„ A -4. ^r r* :„ *t S:_ i Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by Perkins & Marvin, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. (2) rRINTED BY SMITH AND PETERS Franklin BuiMings. 6th St.. below Ai*«K PREFACE. ; 2 yy The following work was composed, as is indicated by Ihe'^''^ title, on what is styled in Germany and Switzerland the " Productive System of Instruction." It is in these countries that the subject of Education has been deemed a matter of paramount importance. The art of teaching, particularly, has there been most ably and minutely investigated. To give a brief account of the different systems which have prevailed there, may not be irrelevant on the present occa- sion, as they assist in forming an opinion of the comparative merits of the " Productive System," on which this work is principally based. " In reference to intellectual education, the persons who were in- strumental in producing the reformation in schools, in the last century, in these countries, may be divided into four classes — the Humanists, Philanthropists, Pestalozzian and the Productive Schools. " At the restoration of learning, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the classics were brought out from the libraries of the cloisters in which they had been buried. As they presented the only examples of exalted sentiments and elevated style which the secular literature of the age afforded, they were regarded as the only means of acquiring enlarged views and a liberal education ; the study of them received th€ proud title o{ Humanity ; and the zealous and meritorious men who employed this means for the revival of learning, were subsequently termed Humamsts, " The rigid Humanists maintained that ' the Greek and Latin authors are the only source of sound learning, whether in philosophy or rhetoric, in poetry or history, in medicine or law, and even in the elements of religion ; all has come to us from Greece and Rome.' * The learning of the Greek and Latin languages is the only foundation of a thorough education ;' the knowledge of the grammar ought to precede all other knowledge; * and philologists are the only thoroughly learned men.' "The Humanists maintained the entire sway of the learned world until about the middle of the last century, when the school of the Philanthropists arose. Disgusted with the extravagant manner in which the ancient languages were extolled, they were led to examine into the foundations of their pretensions. While they yielded the palm to the ancients in all that relates to matters of taste and beauty, they maintained that this superiority arose from the fact, that the ancients derived their views directly from the inspection of nature and the observation of man, instead of occupying themselves, as we do, with the mere pictures of them drawn by others ; — they pointed to the obvious truth, that the world is older and vastly more experienced than it was two thousand years ago ; that in regard to all that relates to human knowledge, the present generation are really the ancients. They believed that much time was lost by the indiscriminate and exclusive use of the classics as the foundation of education, which ought to be spent in acquisition of practical knowledge; and that by this tedious and laborious task, without any perceptible a) m:^9QP01 4 PREFACE. advantage to the pupil, they were often disg-usted with every species of intellectual effort They also pointed out the moral corruption which arises from many of the examples and sentiments of the ancients, and especially disapproved that discipline of compulsion and violence, by which children have been forced to this ungrateful employment. They urged the importance of leading by the attraction of knowledge itself, rather than by force. They paid much attention to the developement of the bodily constitution and powers, and professed to aim at forming men, and not mere scholars. #51' " But, with the ordinary weakness of human nature, in avoiding one extreme, they ran into the opposite. They forgot the valuable influence of these studies, properly regulated, upon the faculties and habits of the mind. " Notwithstanding their error, the Philanthropists unquestionably exerted much influence on the improvement of education. The extravagant views of the Humanists were considerably modified ; and although many still retain the exclusive maxims of their predecessors, many admit, as stated in the German ' Conversations Lexicon," that ' all should be embraced in education which can promote the formation of the man, and prepare him for the eternal destiny of his spirit.^ The Philanthropists also prepared the way for their successors of the School of Pestalozzi. This remarkable man adopted many of the opinions of his predecessors of the Philanthropic school, especially those which related to the developement of the bodily powers, and the methods of discipline, and religious instruction. He per- ceived, however, that, in assuming practical utility as the exclusive test of the value of particular objects of instruction, they had too much neglected the developement of the mind itself In seeking to avoid this error, jiowever, he did not entirely escape the other extreme. He assumed, as a fundamental principle, that a certain developement of mind was necessary for every rank and every occupation. The means of this developement he supposed himself to have found, so far as the intellectual faculties were concerned, in the elements of form and number, which are combined in the science of Mathematics, in Language, and in Natural History. The Mathematics appear to have assumed a preponderance in practice, which was unfavorable to the regular and harmonious cultivatioji of other powers. The senses and the bodily powers he endeavored to develope, in accordance with the views of the Philanthropic school, by the careful examination of the various objects of nature and art, which sur- round the pupil, by means of music, and by gymnastic exercises, alternated or combined with labor. Pestalozzi himself was remarkably the creature of powertiil impulses, which were usually of the most mild and benevolent kind, and preserved a child-like character in this respect, even to old age. It was probably this temperament which led him to estimate at a low rate the importance of positive religious truth in the education of children, and to maintain that the mere habit of faith and love, if cultivated towards earthly parents and benefactors, would of course be transferred to our heavenly Father, whenever his character should be exhibited to the mind of the child. The fundamental error of this view was established by the unhappy experience of his own institution: and his own ex- ample afforded the most striking evidence that the noblest impulses, not directed by established principles, may lead to imprudence and ruin, and thus defeat their own ends.* This principle, combined * As an example of this, it may be mentioned that, on one of those occasions (fre- quently occurring) on which he was reduced to extremity for want (tf the means of supplying his large family, he borrowed $400 from a friend for this purpose. In going home, he met a peasant wringing his hands in despair for the loss of Jiis cow. Pes- talozzi put the entire bag of money into his hands, and ran off to escape his thanks, PREFACE. S with the want of tact in reference to the affairs of common life, materially impaired his powers of usefulness as a practical instructer of youth. The rapid progress of his ideas rarely allowed him to execute his own plans; and, according to his own system, too much time was employed in the profound developement of principles to admit of much attention to their practical application. But, as one of his admirers observed, he seemed destined to educate ideas and not children. He com- bated, with unshrinking boldness, and untiring perseverance, through a long life, both by his example and by his numerous publications, the prejudices and abuses of the age, in reference to education. He attacked, with great vigor and no small degree of success, that favorite maxim of , bigotry and tyranny, that obedience ' and devotion are the legitimate offspring of ignorance. He denounced that degrading system which considers it enough to enable man to procure a subsistence for himself and his offspring — and in this manner to merely place him on a level with the beast of the forest ; and which deems every thing lost whose value cannot be estimated in money. He urged upon the consciences of parents and of rulers, with an energy approaching that of the an- cient prophets, the solemn duties which Divine Providence had imposed upon them, in committing to their charge the present and future desti- nies of their fellow beings. In this way he produced an impulse, which pervaded the continent of Europe, and which, by means of his popular and theoretical works, reached the cottages of the poor and palaces of the great. His institution at Yverdun was crowded with men of every nation, not merely those who were led by the same benevolence which inspired him, but by the agents of kings, and noblemen, and public insti- tutions, who came to make themselves acquainted with his principles, in order to become fellow-laborers in his plans of benevolence. " It is to these companions of his labors, most of whom resided in Germany or Switzerland, that we owe the formation of another school, which has been styled the Productive School^ and which now predomi- nates in Germany and Switzerland. It might, perhaps, with equal pro- priety, be termed the Eclectic School ; for it aims at embodying all the valuable principles of previous systems, without adhering slavishly to the dictates of any master, or the views of any party. It rejects alike the idolatrous homage to the classics, which was paid by the Humanists — the unreasonable prejudices of the Philanthropists against classical and merely literary pursuits — and the undue predilection for the mere expansion of mind, to the neglect of positive knowledge and practical application, which characterized too many of the Pestalozzian School. " The leading principle of this system, is that which its name indicates — that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient of the ideas of others, but as an agent capable of collecting, and originating, and pro- ducing most of the ideas which are necessary for its education, when pre- sented with the objects or the facts from which they may be derived. While, on the one hand, they are careful not to reduce the pupil to a mere machine, to be moved by the will of his instructer in an assigned dire«- tion, or a mass of passive matter, to be formed by him according to his own favorite model, they are equally careful to avoid the extreme, into which some of the preceding school have fallen, of leaving him to wander indefinitely, in a wrong direction in search of truth, in order to secure to him the merit of discovery. They consider a course of education as* divided into two parts — the period of developement and the period of acqui- sition. In the first period, which they consider as particularly devoted to developing the faculties and forming the habits of the mind^ in order to prepare U as an instrument for future operations^ they employ the induc- tive process chiefly. Time is not here of so much importance as the 1* 6 PREFACE. habit of investigation and effort, which can only be acquired by meeting sind overcoming difficulties. This period, which must be made longer or shorter according to the character of the pupil, or the necessity that his circumstances in life may impose, is succeeded by the period of acquisi- tion, in which the mind is more especially called upon to exercise the powers which have been previously developed and cultivated^ in the acqui- sition of such positive knowledge as may prepare the individual for life and action. The inductive process is still employed as much as possible, not only because it has become, for many cases, the shortest and most agreeable, but because it is important to maintain the habits it has pro- duced, and invigorate the faculties it has served to develope. " But still it is far less employed than previously, and the pupil is never suffered to waste his time in attempting to create a science for himself, and thus deprived of the benefit of the experience of sages and centuries. On the contrary, they deem his mind capable of being elevated even more rapidly by following the processes of patient investigation, by which the most exalted minds have arrived at results that astonish and delight him, and of thus learning to imitate strides, which seem to him like those of a giant, and to cultivate those habits of untiring attention, which the great- est philosophers have declared to be the principal source of that telescopic glance, that almost unerring power of discrimination, which seems to others so nearly miraculous. " Such is the Productive System, by which the powers of the pupil are called into complete exercise by requiring him to attempt a task unaided, and then assisting him in correcting his own errors, or returning from his own wanderings, before he is discouraged by the waste of time and the fruitlessness of his efforts. They distinguish carefully between know- ledge and the means of obtaining it. To cultivate the senses, and pre- sent the objects which they are capable of examining, is to open to the child the sources of knowledge — to place before him a book which is ever open, and in which he may every moment read. This, they maintain, is the first and most obvious part of education, according to the dictates of common sense. It is one in which nothing but truth is presented to him, and which, by calling his powers into constant exercise, ensures their improvement, and cultivates a spirit of investigation." The preceding extracts are taken from Art. I. Vol. I. No. VI. of the American Journal of Education, New Series. The author avails himself of this opportunity to express his obligations to the conductors of this valuable periodical. A constant perusal of its pages has afforded him many valuable ideas on the subject of education, and he cheerfully acknow- ledges material assistance derived from it in the preparation of the " Productive System of English Grammar," which is now respectfully submitted to the candid examination of the public, THE AUTHOR. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. « I. OF THE NOUN. Q. What is your name ? Q. What is the name of the town in which you Uve ? Q. What does the word noun mean? Mns, The word noun means name, Q, What, then, may your name be called? 1. A NOUN. Q. What may all names be called? 2. Nouns. Q. Boston is the name of a place : is Boston a noun ? and if so, why ? 3. Boston is a noun, because it is a name. Q. Hudson is the name of a river : is Hudson a noun, and why ? Q. Book is the name of something to read in : is book a noun, and why ? Q. Will you now inform me what a noun is? 4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. Q. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons ? two, the names of things ? two, the names of different places ? Q. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen- tences, as I read them to you ? " Thomas and Joseph are in the house." " The horse and cow are in the lot." " The hawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain." " Trees, corn, potatoes and apples grow in the fields." II. NUMBER. Q. What is the meaning of the word number ; as, ** The number of but- tons on your coat?" 5. Number means one or more. Q. What does the word singular mean? 6. It means one. Q. When, then, I speak of one thing only, as chair, what number is it? 7. Singular number. Q. What, then, does the singular number of nouns denote ? 8. The singular number denotes but one thing. (7) 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. Of what number is hooJt, and why ? 9. Book is of the singular number, because it means but one. Q. Of what number is chair, and why ? Q. What does the word plural mean ? 10. It means more than one, Q. Of what number is lamps, and why ? 1 1 . Lamps is of the plural number, because it means more than one. Q. Of what number is inkstand, and why ? Q. By adding s to dove, we have doveSf and es to 6oar, we have boxes. How, then, is the plural number of nouns usually formed ? 12. By adding 5 or es to the singular. Q. Will you spell the plural of ounce ? glass ? window ? theatre ? antece- dent ? church ? labyrinth ? Q. How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 13. Two, the singular and plural. Q. Will you name a noun of the singular number ? one of the plural number ? TIL GENDER. Q. What does the word gender mean? 14. Gender signifies sex. Q. What does the word masculine mean? 15. It means male. Q. John is the name of a male : of what gender or sex, then, is John f 16. Of the masculine or male gender. Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the masculine gender ? 17. The names of males. Q. What gender, then, is man, and why? 18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male. Q. Of what gender is un^le, and why ? father ? why ? Q. What does feminine mean ? 19. It means female. Q. Susan is the name of a female : of what gender, then, is Susan ? 20. Of the feminine gender. Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the feminine gender? 21. The names of females. Q. What gender is woman, and why? 22. Woman is of the feminine gender, because it is the name of a female. O. Of what gender is aunt, and why ? daughter ? why ? Q. What does the word neuter mean? 23. It means neither. Q. Chair is the name neither of a male nor a female : what gender, then, may it properly be called ? 24. Neuter gender. Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the neuter gender ? NOUNS. 9 25. The names of objects that are neither males nor females. Q. Of what gender is inkstand, and why ? 26. Neuter gender, because it is the name neither of a male nor female. Q. Of what gender is bench ? why f chair ? why ? Q. Parent, you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, it is a name common to both : of what gender, then, shall we call such nouns aa parent, bird, &.C. ? \27. Common gender. i Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the common gender ? ' 28. The names of such animals a& may be either males or females. „ Q. Of what gender is sheep, and why ? 29. Sheep is of the common gender, because it is the name either of a male or female. O. Of what gender is robin, and why ? Q. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 30. Four — the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, and the common. Q. Will you name a noun of the masculine gender ? one of the feminine ? one of the neuter ? one of the common ? Q. Will you name the gender and number of each noun in the following sentences, as I read them to you ? " James and Willianj. " Slate and pencil." " Jofin and the girls." " Women and birds." IV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 9. What is the meaning of the word comm4m ; as, *' A common com- plaint?" 31. Common means general. Q. Although there are a vast many male children in the world, each one may be called by the general name of boy : what kind of a noun, then., would you call boy? 32. A comnrion noun. Q. When, then, is a noun called common? 33. When it is a general name. - Q. What does the word proper mean ? -^ 34. It means fit or particular. Q. John, you know, is the particular name of a boy: what kind of a noun, then, may it be called ? 35. A proper noun. Q. When, then, may a noun be called proper? 36. When it is a particular name. Q. What kind of a noun is Susan, and why ? 37. Susan is a proper noun, because it is a particular name. Q. What kind of a noun is John, and why ? 10 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. What kind of a noun is river, and why ? 38. River is a common noun, because it is a general name. Q. How many kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they ? Q. What kind of a noun is girls ? Mary ? town f New York ? London ? boat ? chain ? Q. Will you now tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen- tences ; which are proper, and which common ; also their gender and number ? " Thomas and John." " King and queen." " Susan and Mary." " House and barn." V. PERSON. Q. When a person, in speaking, says, ** I, John, will do it," what peison do grammarians call John ? 39. The first person. Q. When, then, is a noun of the first person? * 40. When it is the name of the person speaking. Q. When I say, '* James, mind your studies," what person do gram- marians call James? 41. The second person, being the person spoken to. Q, When, then, is a noun of the second person ? 42. When it is the name of the person spoken to, or addressed. Q. " William, James has come." What person is William, and why ? 43. Of the second person, because William is spoken to. Q. When I say, *' William, James has come," I am speaking to William about James : of what person, then, is James, and why ? 44. Of the third person, because James was spoken of; that is, I was talking about James. Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person ? 45. When it is spoken of. Q. ** Thomas, Rufus is in the garden." What person is Thomas ? why ? Is Eufus ? why ? Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 46. Three persons — the first, second, and third. Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which common ; also their gender, number, and person ? " I, James, of Boston." " Boy and girl." " Henry, study your book." " William and his sister." VI. CASE. Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that " He is in a good case ;" and, when he is lean, that '* He is in a bad case ;" what, therefore, does the word case mean ? 47. Case means condition, state, &c. CASES. 11 Q. When I say, *' Charles strikes William," " William strikes Charles," you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles in the former example is quite different from his state or condition in the latter : in the one, Charles strikes ; in the other, he is struck : what, then, is meant by the different cases of nouns ? 48. The different condition or position they have in relation to other words in the same sentence. Q. What does the word nominative mean? 49. Nominative means naming. Q. When I say, "John strikes," he evidently does something: what, then, may John be called? 50. An actor or doer. Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading noun, in what case is John, when I say, " John strikes ?" 51. In the nominative case. Q. What, then, is the nominative case of nouns? 52. The nominative case is the agent or doer. Q. When I say,^ " The dog runs," in what case is dog, and why ? 53. Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the agent, actor, or doer. O. ** The cat catches mice." In what case is cat^ and why ? Q. When I say, "Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object here which Thomas is pursuing? 54. Thief. Q. What does the word objective mean ? 55. It means belonging to the object Q. In what case, then, may thief be reckoned, in the phrase, "Thomas pursues the thief?" 56. In the objective case. Q. What, then, does the objective case denote? 57. The objective case denotes the object. Q. When I say, " William whips John," in what case is John, and why? 58. In the objective case, because John is the Object. Q. What does the word possessive imply ? 59. Possession, oivnership, property, &c. Q. When I say, " It is John's slate," I mean to say that John owns the elate : in what case, then, shall we reckon John's ? 60. In the possessive case. Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote ? 61. The possessive case denotes possession, property, &c. 0. When I say, " Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife ? Q. In what case, then, is Peter's, and why? 62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses the knife. Q. In the example " John's slate," you perceive that John's ends in «, with a comma before it : what is the comma, and what is the s, ( ailed in grammar ? 63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and th 3 s, an apostrophic s. Q. You also perceive that John's is singular : how, then, do nouns in the singular number usually form their possessive case ? is the 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the letter 5 following it. Q. "On eagles' wings." Here eagles^ is plural, and in the possessive case : how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their possessive case ? 65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the addi- tion of 5. ?. But if the plural noun does not end in «, as, " men's concerns," how he possessive case formed ? 66. As the same case in the singular number is formed. Q. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 67. Three-— the nominative, possessive, and objective. Q. Decline sometimes means to vary the endings of a word : what, then, do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun ? 68. To tell its different cases or endings. Q. Will you decHne John? 69. Nominative case, John. Possessive case, John's. Objective case, John. Q. Will you decline boy, in both numbers? Singular. Plural. 70. JVom. Boy. JVom. Boys. Poss. Boy's. Pass. Boys'. Obj. Boy. Obj. Boys. Q. When I say, " William's coat," you perceive that the noun coat fol- lows Williarn's : by what is William's said to be governed, and why ? 71. By coat, because it follows William's. Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for governing the possessive case? RT7I.Z: I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. Q. ** William's hat." Is William's a proper or common noun ? Why ? (36.)* Q. What is its person ? why ? (45.)* Its number ? why ? (8.)* Its gen- der ? why ? (17.)* Its case ? why ? (61.)* What noun follows William's t What word, then, governs William's ? What is the rule ? Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in sentences, in the same manner as we have those of William's, above, what is the exercise called ? 72. Parsing. EXERCISES IN PARSING. " John's knife." 73. John's is a noun, because it is a name — proper, be- cause it is a particular name — masculine gender ; it is the name of a male — third person ; it is spoken of — singular '*' Refer back to this number. ARTICLES. 13 NUMBER ; it means but one — possessive case ; it implies possession — and it is governed by the noun knife^ accord- ing to Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun. Knife is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general name — neuter gender; it is neither male nor female — THIRD person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one. 55" Let the learner parse the foregoing, till the mode of parsing the noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily, without looking in the book. He mxiy then take the following exercises, which are to he parsed in a similar manner. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. « Peter's cap." " Stephen's coat." " Brother's knife." « John's slate." " Father's house." « Boys' hats." 4or\ Poss. Your or Ohj. Thee, > (ohj. You. Plur. Ye or you. yours. Your or yours. You. THIRD PERSON MASCULINE. Sing. Plur. Norn. He. They. Poss. His. Theirs or their. Ob}. Him. Them. THIRD PERSON FEMININE. Sing. Plur. Norn. She. They. Poss. Hers or her. Theirs or their. Obj. Her. Them. THIRD PERSON NEUTER. Sing. Plur. Norn. It. They. Poss. Its. Theirs or their.- Obj. It. Them. 0. Will you decline I in both numbers ? thou or you ? he ? she ? it ? Q. In wnat person, number, and case is I'i we? my? mine? our oi ours ? me? us? thou ? ye? his ? they ? them ? Q. In what gender, person, number, and case is he ? she ? it ? his ? hers ? her? him? Q. How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are they ? 128. Two — the singular and plural. Q. How many cases, and what are they? 129. Three — the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. PRONOUNS. 19 Q. How many persons? 130. Three — the first, second, and third. Q. How many genders? 131. Three — the masculine, feminine, and neuter. Q. How many pronouns are there in ail, of the first person ? 0. How many of the second, and how many of the third t (5. The pronouns of the nominative case, singular, are called leading pronouns : how many of these are there ? 133. Five — /, thou or you, he, she, it Q. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the smgular and {)lural numbers, also the nominatives plural, reckoned in the number of the eading pronouns ? 134. Because they are all considered as variations of the nominative singular. Q. To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender ? 135. To the third person singular, he, she, it, Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made always to repre- sent a different gender ? 136. The first and second persons being always pre- sent, their genders are supposed to be known. Q. If, as we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number, and person ought they to have ? 137. The same as the nouns for which they stand. Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for the agreement of the pro- nouns ? HUIiS V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they standi in gender^ number^ and person, QUESTIONS ON PARSING. Q. How many different sorts of words have we now found, and what are they ? 138. Four — the Noun, the Article, the Adjective, and the Pronoun. Q. The word part, you know, means division ; and speech, the power of using words, or language : what, therefore, shall we call these grand divi- sions of words ? 139. Parts of Speech. Q. When, then, I ask you what part ot speech hoy is, for instance, what do you understand me to mean ? 140. The same as to ask me whether boy is a noun or not. Q» What part of speech, then, is William, and why ? (36.) 1. "He went to school.'* 2. " She went to her task." 3. " William went to his play." 4. " John returned from his school.** 5. " I request you to mind your studies." 6. " The book was mine, but now it is yours.*^ Q. Will you name the pronouns in the six foregoing examples ? O. How many are there in all ? Q. What is the gender, number, and person of those in the first ? second? third ? fourth ? fifth ? sixth ? 20 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. What is the {ijender of his, in the fourth sentence ? why ? (137.) Its number ? why ? (137.) Its person ? why ? (137.) Its case ? why ? (61.) Q. Will you name the nouns in the first sentence ? in the second ? third ? fourth? fifth? sixth? X. OF THE VERB. A Q. When I say, " James strikes WiUiam," which word tells what James does ? 141. Strikes. Q. The word verb means word ; and as the words in all sentences, which tell what the nouns do, are the principal ones, what shall such words be called ? 142. Verbs. Q. If, in the phrase, ** William strikes James," we leave out the word strikes, you perceive at once that the sense is destroyed : what reason, then, can you give, for calling some words in a sentence verbs, and others by a different name ? 143. The words which we call verbs are the most important. Q. ** William studies his lesson." Which word is the verb here, and why? 144. Studies, because it tells what William does. Q. When I say, ** John dances," which word is the verb, and why ? Q. When I say, " James strikes John," which word shows that an action is performed? 145. Strikes, Q. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call strikes ? 146. An active verb. Q. What kind of a verb is walks, in this sentence, ** John walks," and why? 147. Walks is an active verb, because it expresses action. Q. *'He beat William." Which word here is the verb? Is William an agent or an object ? 148. An object. Q. When I say, ** The child walks," walks, it is true, is an active verb, ■fbut it has no noun after it for an object, as beat has, in the phrase above ; ^^ neither can we supply one; for we cannot say, *' The child walks," any thing: what, therefore, is to be inferred from this fact, in regard to the nattire of active verbs ? 149. That some active verbs will take nouns after them for objects, and others will not. Q. We will next notice this difference. The term transitive means pass- ^ ing over ; and when I say, *' William whips Charles," the verb whips shows that the action which William performs, passes over to Charles as the object. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call whips ? 150. An active-transitive verb. Q. What, then, is an active-transitive verb ? 151. It is one that either has, or may have, an object after it. Q. Walks, we found, would not take an object after it ; and, as intransi' live means not passmg over, what shall wo call such verbs as walks ? VERBS. 21 152. Active-intransitive verbs. (^. What, then, is an active-intransitive verb? 153. An active-intransitive verb is one that expresses action, but will not take an object after it. Q. When I say, *' He eats it," '* He beats him," we immediately deter- mine that heaU and eats are active-transitive verbs, by the objects after them : how, then, may transitive and intransitive verbs be distinguished ? 154. When we can place him or it after any active verb, and make sense, it is transitive; otherwise, it is intransitive. Q. *' James remains at home — sleeps at home — is at home." Which words are the verbs here ? 155. Remains, sleeps, and is. Q. These verbs do not imply action, Uke strikes, heats, &c. : what do they imply ? 156. Existence, rest, or being, in a certain state. Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called neuter (signifying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither active nor passive. On a future occasion, I will make you fully acquainted with a passive verb. It is sufficient for our present purpose, that you perceive the reason of the nahie of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ? y 157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being or existence in a certain state. Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, what is a correct defini tion of a verb ? 158. A verb is a word which signifies action or being. Q. When I say, ** I strike," in what number and person is strike, and why? 159. Strike is of the first person singular, because its agent, /, is of this person ^d number. Q. Hence you may perceive, tH(H|erbs, in themselves considered, do not have person and number : why, thOT, are they said to have these properties at all ? 160. On account of the connection which they have with their agents or nominatives. Q. We say. " I write," and ** He writes ;" hence you perceive that the ending of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies : what, then, will be the rule for the nominative case ? RVZiZS VZ. The nominative case governs the verb in number and person. Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, in what respect must the verb agree with its nominative case ? HUIiS VZI. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. Q. When I say, '* James beats him," the pronoun Am is the object of the action denoted by heats, and is, therefore, in the objective case : what, then, will be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs ? Rxrzizs VIZI. Active'transitive verbs govern the objective case. 22 V^NGLI^H •iR*AMMAK. Q. 1 will now give you tne different endings of the verb love, in its dif- ferent numbers and persons. Will you repeat them ? Singular^ Plural, 161. First person, I lovev First person, We love. Second person. You love. Second person. You love. Third person, He loves. Third person. They love. t Q, Will you repeat the variations of am ? r* Singular. Plural. ^ 162. 1 Pers. I am. 1 Pers. We are. 2 Pers. You are. 2 Pers. You are. 3 Pers. He is. 3 Pers. They are. t^. Will you repeat, in the same manner, the variations of hate t desire t readt EXERCISES IN PARSING. '■ J study my lesson,'* 163. J is a PRONOUN, a word used instead of a noun — per- sonal ; it always denotes the same person, (the first) — first person; it denotes the speaker — singular number; it means but one — " Norn. I" — made in the nominative case to study, according to Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in number and person. Study is a verb ; it expresses action — transitive ; it ad- mits an object after it — "1 Pers. I study" — made in the first person — SINGULAR NUMBER, bocausc its nominativo 1 is, with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. ^. My is a pronoun, a word us^pfor a noun — personal ; it % always represents the same person — first person ; it repre- sents the person speaking — " Nom. I ; Poss. my, or mine" — made in the possessive case — and governed by the noun lesson, according to Rule I. TTie possessive case is governed by the following noun* Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and in the objective case ; it is the object of the verb study, and governed by it, according to Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case, EJPRCISES IN parsing CONTINUED. TVansitive Verbs. " I lament mf faie.** . " He found a dollar." " You regard your friends." " She attends the school." " We desire your improvement.'' " It retards the work." «* We love our children." " They shun vice." " You make a knife." " Ye derive comlbrL" V.ERBS. 23 2. " I love him." " She forsook you." " I lament her." " They annoy me." " You assist them." " We took it." " He struck her." " She relieved us." " John reads his book.^* His is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun •— per- sonal ; it uniformly stands for the same person — masculine gender, third person, singular number, because the noun John is, vi^ith which it agrees, agreeably to Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person, " Nom. he ; Poss, his" — made in the possessive case — and governed by the noun book, according to Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following noun, iCf' The remaining words, book, reads, and John, are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 3. " Mary studies her lesson." " Virtue rewards its followers." " The girls love their books." " A disobedient son grieves his "Good children mind their parents." parents." " The intemperate man loves his " Sin deceives its votaries." dram." HJ" In parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. unless the nouns for which they stand are expressed. Intransitive Verbs, 4. " I walk." ** Y6u smile." " John swims." " James runs." " They wink." " Birds fly." " William hops." " We dance." " Lions roar." Neuter Verbs, "William is (1.) discreet." (2.) " John's wife is fortunate." " James is happy." " John's brother is unhappy." '* He was studious." " The eagle's flight was sudden." " He became intemperate." " The scholar's duty is plain." " Thou art wise." " The judge's pay is sufficient." XL INDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE. Q. When James says, " I will learn," he evidently means, by his man- ner of speaking, to express his intention to learn ; but when he says, " I can learn," what does he mean ? : — — : ■ ^ : ^ (I.) Is is a VERB ; it implies being — neuter ; it is neither active nor pas- sive, but expresses being, merely — '* 1 pers. I am ; 2 pers. You are ; 3 vers. He, or William is"— made in the third person, singular, because Wil- liam, its nominative, is, and agrees with William, according to Rule VH. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number a?id person, (2.) Discreet belongs to William, by Rule IV. 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 165. That he has the ability to learn. Q. What does the word mood mean? 166. Mood means manner, Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote ? 167. The different manner of representing actions. Q. What does the word indicative mean? 168. Declaring or showing. Q. When I say, " WilUam has studied,*' I declare some fact: m what mood, then, shall we class has studied ? 169. In the indicative mood. Q. When I say, " Has William studied?" the only difference between this phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in the order of the words, so as to show that a question is asked : in what mood, then, shall we call has William studied ? 170. Indicative mood. Q. What, then, is the indicative mood used for? 171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, indi- cating or declaring a thing, or asking a question. Q. In what mood is, ''They do sing?" Why? (171.) Q. What does the word tense mean? 172. Tense means time, Q. What does present mean ? 173. Present means now. Q. When I say, " The bird sings," I mean that the bird sings now : in what tense, then, is sings ? 174. In the present tense. Q. What, then, is the present tense used for? 175. The present tense is used to express what is now taking place. Q. In what tense is, ''The do^ runs?" Why? (175.) Q. "James wrote." "James has written." These phrases denote what is past : in what tense are they ? 176. In the past tense. Q. What does the word future mean ; as, " At some future time ?" 177. Future meaas yet to come, Q. In what tense are the phrases, " I will come," " I shall have come ?" 178. In the future tense. Q. How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and what are they ? 179. Three — the present, past, and future. Q When I say, " John wrote," is the action here spoken of past and finished ? 180. It is. Q. What does imperfect mean? 181. Unfinished, or incomplete. Q. " John was writing when I saw him." This denotes an action un- finished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated in Latin the imperfect tense : hence the origin of the name selected by English jrammarians to denote action past and finished ; a term not all significant of m action finished in past time : what, then, does the imperfect tense express ? 182. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in past time, however distant. Q. " Peter wrote yesterday, and has written to-day." Here both acts of VERBS. 25 writing are past and finished ; but which has more immediate reference to the present time ? 183. Has written. Q. To distinguish this tense from the imperfect, grammarians have called it the perfect tense : what, then, will the perfect tense express ? 184. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, and also conveys an allusion to the present time. Q. "James had read before I wrote." Here, both acts are past and finished ; but which took place first ? 185. The act of reading. Q. What does the word pluperfect mean ? 186. More than the perfect Q. What tense, then, shall we call, "James had read?" 187. The pluperfect tense. • Q. What, then, does the pluperfect tense express ? 188. The pluperfect tense expresses wliat had taken place at or before some past time mentioned. Q. " John will come." This, you know, was called the future tense : can you tell me why ? 189. Because it implies time to come. Q. What, then, does the future tense express? 190. The future tense expresses what will take place hereafter. Q. " I shall have learned my lesson by noon." Here, an action is to take place at a future time specified or mentioned ; and since we already have one future tense, we will call that the first, and this the second future tense : what, then, will the second future tense express ? 191. The second future expresses *what will have taken place at or before some future time mentioned. Q. What does synopsis mean? 192. A concise and general view, Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all the diflferent tenses illustrated by the verb learn : will you repeat it ? 193. Pres. tense, I learn, or do learn. Imp, tense, I learned, or did learn. Perf, tense, I have learned. ' Plup, tense, I had learned. 1st Fut. tense, 1 shall or will learn. . 2d Fut, tense, I shall have learned. {fCr You shall next have the different variations of the foregoing verb, in each tense of the indicative mood : these I wish you to study very carefully, that you may be able to answer the questions which will then be asked you. 191. To learn. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular, Plural. 1 Pers. I learn. 1 Per 8, We learn. 2 Pers. You learn. 2 Pers, You learn. 3 Pers. He, she, or it learns. 3 Pers, They learn. 3 c 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OR, When we wish to express energy or positiveness, thus — Singular, Plural. 1. I do learn. 1. We do learn. 2. You do learn. 2. You do learn. 3. He does learn. 3. They do learn. IMPERFECT TENSE. Plural 1. We learned. Singular. 1. I learned. 2. You learned. 3. He learned. Singular, 1. I did learn. 2. You did learn. 3. He did learn. Singular, 1. I have learned. 2. You have learned. 3. He has learned. Singular, 1. I had learned. 2. You had learned. 3. He had learned. OB, 2. You learned. 3. They learned. Plural. 1. We did learn. 2. You did learn. 3. They did learn. PERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1. We have learned. 2. You have learned. 3. They have learned. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1. We had learned. 2. You had learned. 3. They had learned. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Singular, Plural. 1. I shall or will leatn. 1. We shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 3. He shall or will learn. 3. They shall or will learn. FUTURE TENSE. Plural. 1. We shall have learned. 2. You will have learned. 3. They will have learned. *^* For the benefit of those who choose to retain the second person singu- lar, as given in former treatises, the following synopsis is inserted. SECOND Singular. 1. I shall have learned. 2. You will have learned. 3. He will have learned. SYNOPSIS. 195. 2d Pers, Sing, Pres, Thou learnest, or dost learn. 2d Pers. Sing. Imp, 2d Pers, Sing, Perf, 2d Pers. Sing. Plup. 2d Pers. Sing. 1st Fut, 2d Pers. Sing. 2d Fut. Q. In what mood is, *' I learn ?" (175.) In what mood and tense is, Thou learnedst, or didst learn. Thou hast learned. Thou hadst learned. Thou shalt or wilt learn. Thou wilt have learned. Why? (171.) He learns?" learn ?" "I have learned ?" "I had learned *' I shall have learned ?" Q. In what person and number is, "I learn ?" learn ?" " They had learned ?" "He shall learn V Q. What does the word auxiliary mean? 196. Auxiliary means helping. In what tense ? Why ? ** We learn?" **Idid " I shall or will learn ?" ** You learn?" "We ' "We had learned?" VERBS. 27 Q. In the phrase, ** I will sing," will, you perceive, is used to help form the future tense o(sing : will is, therefore, called an auxiliary verb, and the verb sing is reckoned the principal verb : what, then, are auxiliary verbs ? 197. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which are formed the different tenses, moods, &c. of the prin- cipal verbs. Q. The auxiliary verbs are not unfrequently denominated the signs of the tenses, because each tense has, in general, an auidhajy peculiar to itself: what, then, is the sign of the second future ? 198. Shall or will have. Q. What is the sign of the first future ? 199. Shall or will. Q. What is the sign of the pluperfect ? 200. Had. Q. What is the sign of the perfect ? 201. Have. Q. What is the sign of the imperfect ? 202. Did. Q. We can sav, *' I did strike yesterday," or, " Istruck yesterday ?" how, then, can we tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without the sign did ? 203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and make sense, it is in the imperfect tense. Q. What is the sign of the present tense ? 204. Do, or the first form of the verb. Q. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the indicative mood appear to have, and what are they ? 205. Six — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first and second future tenses. EXERCISES IN PARSING. " TTiey have arrived.^' 206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — PERSONAL ; it always represents the same person — third PERSON ; it denotes the persons spoken of— plural ; it means more than one — " Nom, he ; Poss. his ; Obj, him. Plural. Norn, they" — made in the nominative case to have arrived^ according to Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verh. Have arrived is a verb, a word that implies action or being — active ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does not admit of an object — indicative mood ; it simply indicates or declares a thing — perfect tense ; it expresses what has just taken place — " 1. I have arrived ; 2, You have arrived ; 3. He has arrived. Plural, 1. We have arrived; 2. You have arrived ; 3. They have arrived" — made in the third person PLURAL, because its nominative they is, and agrees with it, according to Rule VII. A verh must agree with its nominative case in number and jperscm. 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 1. "They had come." "The sun has risen." " We did go." " Dogs will fight." " The bird will return." " Lions will roar." 2. " James loves William." " Columbus discovered America." " Susan beats him." " Piety promotes our happiness." **I have beaten them." " He will learn his lesson." " She had beaten us." " John did make great progress." "You shall assist him." "They do study their lessons." " It did disturb me." " Boys love sport." 8. " Do I disturb you ]" " Shall I expect your assist- "Did they learn their lessons'!" ance?" " Have they recited ?" " Will a virtuous citizen commit "Does the instructer teach us?" such (L) acts?" " Had he dismissed him 1" " Have you found your knife ]" Xn. POTENTIAL MOOD. Q. What does, "He may write," imply? 207. Permission or liberty to write. Q. What does, '* He must write," imply? 208. Necessity of writing. Q. What does, "He can write," imply? 209. Power or ability to write. Q. What does, "He should write," imply? 210. Duty or obligation to write. Q. What does, "He would write," imply? 211. Will or inclination to write. Q. What does the word potential mean ? 212. Mle, or poiverfuL Q. In what mood, then, do grammarians reckon can learn, may write, and, also, must write, should write, &c. ? 213. In the potential mood. Q. Why are all these different forms of representing actions considered to be in the potential mood, a name, as we have seen, peculiar only to that form of the verb which implies power ? 214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and almost numberless extent. Q. What, then, does the potential mood imply ? 215. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, power, will, obligation, or necessity. Q. What are the signs of this mood ? 216. May, can, must, might, could, icould, and should. Q. What does the word conjugation mean? (1.) Adjective. VERBS. 29 217. Uniting y combining, or joining together. Q. You recollect that, in varying the verb, we ioined the pronouns with it ; hence, thb» exercise is called conjugation : what, then, do you under- stand by the conjugation of a verb ? 218. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combi- nation and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 219. Conjugation of the verb Learn. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may, can, or must learn. 1. We may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn. 3. He may, can, or must learn. 3. They may, can, or must learn. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or learn. should learn. 2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, w should learn. should learn. 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or should learn. should learn. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have learned. learned. 2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have learned. learned. 3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have learned. learned. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or have learned. should have learned. 2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or should have learned. should have learned. 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or should have learned. should have learned. Synopsis of the Second Person Singular , icith Thou. 220. Pres, Thou mayst, canst, or must learn. Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst learn. Perf. Thou mayst, canst, or must have learned. Plwp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have learned. O. In what mood is, "I may learn?" Why? (215.) Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with II thou ? he'i we? ve? you ? they f Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person, is, " I can learn ?" ** You may learn ?" " You might assist ?" '* They could have learned ?** "He must study?" Q. In what mood and tense is, "Ihave learned?" "He shall run? "William did sing?" Q. Will you conjugate lear?i in the present tense, potential mood ? Will 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. you conjugate love in the same mood, and imperfect tense ? Strikcy in the perfect tense ? Come, in the pluperfect tense ? Q. How many tenses has the potential mood? EXERCISES IN PARSING. " He may return.'* 221. He is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal; it invariably represents the same person — mascu- line GENDER ; it represents a male — third person ; it de- notes the person spoken of — singular number ; it implies but one — and in the nominative case ; it denotes the agent — " Nom. Ae" — nominative case to may return, by Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb. May return is a verb ; it implies action or being — active ; it implies adtion — intransitive ; it does not admit an object after it — potential mood ; it implies possibility, liberty, &c. — PRESENT TENSE ; it dcnotcs what may be now — " 1. I may or can return ; 2. You may or can return ; 3. He may or can return" — made in the third person, singular, because its nominative he is, with which it agrees, according to Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 1. ** He may come." ** Boys may learn arithmetic." " He might retire." " The wind may have shaken the " John can assist me." trees." " William must obey his in- " The lady could have procured structer." , her fan." " We may have erred. "James may catch the thief." " John's father would go." " They might learn." 2. **I do rejoice." "The committee will visit the "We do learn." school." " John will resume his task." " An idle boy will find pov- " An industrious boy will be rich." erty." Xni. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB To be. 222. When I say, " I am at home," you know that am is a verb, because it implies being or existence ; and since to be means to exists the verb am has been called the verb to he. 223. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular, Plural. 1. I am. 1. We are. 2. You are. 2. You are. 3. He is. 3. They are. VERBS. 31 IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular, Plural, t, I was. 1. We were. 2. You were. 2. You were. 3. He was. 3. They were. PERFECT TENSE. Singular, Plural, 1. I have been. 1. We have been. 2. You have been. 2. You have been. 3. He has been. 3. They have been. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular, Plural, 1. I had been. 1. We had been. 2. You had been. 2. You had been. 3. He had been. 3. They had been. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Singular, Plural. 1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be. 3. He shaU or will be. 3. They shall or will be. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. Singular, Plural, 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 2. You will have been. 2. You will have been. 3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may, can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or be. should be. 2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or should be. should be. 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or should be. should be. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have been. been. 2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must hava been. been. 3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must hav8 been. been. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or have been. should have been. 2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or should haVe been. should have been. 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or should have been. should have been. 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 224. Synopsis of the Second Person Singular, with Thou. INDICATIVE mood/ POTENTIAL MOOD. Pres, Thou art. Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must be. Imp. Thou wast. Imp, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst^ Perf, Thou hast been. or should st be. Plup, Thou hadst been. Perf. Thou mayst, canst, or must 1 ISit, Thou shalt or wilt have been. be. Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2 Fut. Thou wilt have been. or shouldst have been. XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION. Q. Why is am. a verb ? (158.) What is it sometimes called ? (222.) Why is it so called ? (222.) Q. Will you give the synopsis of the verb to he with I through the indica- tive mood ? Q. Will you conjugate am in the present indicative ? Imperfect ? Perr feet ? Pluperfect ? 1 Future ? 2 Future ? Present potential ? Imper- fect? Perfect? Pluperfect? Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person, is, "I am ?" ** Am I?" "You were?" "I have been?" "Have you been?" "He may or can be?" "We should be?" "He may have been?" "They should have been ?" ""Thou shouldst have been ?" " Thou mayst be ?" Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with tliov, ? EXERCISES IN PARSING. " The girls were industrious,^' 225. Were is a verb ; it implies action or being — neuter ; it is neither active nor passive, expressing simply being — INDICATIVE MOOD ; it Simply indicates or declares a thing — IMPERFECT TENSE ; it exprcsscs past time — " 1. I was ; 2. You were : 3. He was. Plur, 1. We were ; 2. You were ; 3. They w^ere, or girls were" — made in the third person plural, be- cause its nominative girls is, with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. Industrious is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to describe it — " industrious, more industrious, most industrious" — in the positive degree ; it describes, without any compari- son — and belongs to the noun girls, according to Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de- scribe, S5" For the and girls, apply Rules III. and VI. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED, " William is attentive." " Am I young 1" • " John is studious." " Was I wrong V " We are jealous." " Have we been wicked 1" " Thou art dutiful." " Were they penitent ?" ADVERBS. 33 ** Mary has been intelligent." " Washington was patriotic." " The boys will have been dutiful." " Columbus was enterprising." " Their estate was small." " My wife's mother is sick." XV. OF THE ADVERB. Q. When I say, ** The bird flies swiftly," I do not mean by swiftly to describe bird : what does swiftly describe ? 226. The manner of flying. Q. To what part of speech is swiftly ioined in the phrase, " The bird flies swiftly?" 227. To the verb flies. Q. What does the word adverb signify ? 228. Joined to a verb. Q. What, then, shall we call all such words as swiftly? 229. Adverbs. Q. ** John runs very swiftly." Which word here describes or shows how swiftly John runs? 230. Verij. Q. What is the word very called, and all such words as qualify or de- scribe adverbs ? 231. Adverbs. Q. " Industrious, more industrious, most industrious." What are more and most called here, and why ? 232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify adjec- tives. Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be a proper definition of adverbs ? 233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, to qualify or describe them. Q. ** John visits me often, but Thomas oftener^ In this example, we see that adverbs may be compared : will you, therefore, compare soon ? 234. " Soon, sooner, soonest." Q. Will you compare wisely'? 235. " Wisely, more wisely, most wisely." Q. How do adverbs ending in ly appear to be compared? 236. By the adverbs more and most 0. Will you in this manner compare admirably ? foolishly ? Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives of one syllable, as soon above ; but therd is a very considerable number, the comparison of which is not regulated by any general rule. The following list embraces adverbs variously compared: will you repeat the comparative and superlative of each, as I name the positive ? 237. Positive. Often, Much, Well, Soon, Justly, Wisely, Justly, Badly, or ill, , 3 Comparative. oftener, Superlative. oftenest. more. most. better, best. sooner, soonest. more justly, more wisely, most justly, most wisely. less justly, least justly. worse. worst. 34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 238. JVbf*.— Adverbs, though very numerous, may nevertheless be reduced to a few classes. You will now read with attention the following list, and I will then ask you some questions respecting each class. 1. Of number: as, " Once, twice, thrice," &c. 2. Of order: as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally," &c. 3. Of place: as, "Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, hence, thence, whithersoever," &c. 4. Of time. Of time present : as, " Now, to-day," &c. Of time past : as, " Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago," &c. Of time to come: as, "To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways," &c. Of time indefinite: as, " Oft, often, ofttimes, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again," &c. 5. Of quantity: as» "Much, little, sufliciently, how much, how great, enough, abundantly," &c. 6. Of manner or quality: as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly," &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing le into ly: as, "Bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably; admirable, admirably." 7. Of doubt: as, " Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance." a Of affirmation: as, "Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, furely, indeed, really," &c. 9. Of negation: as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise," &c. 10. Of interrogation: as, " How, why, wherefore, whether," &c. 11. Of comparison: as, " More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike," &c. When a preposition sufifers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by its appli* cation ; as, when we say, " He rides about ;^^ "He was near falling;" " But do not after lay the blame on me." There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the letter a used instead of at, on, &c. : as, " Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat." Q. Will you name two adverbs of number ? two cf order ? two of place ? two of time present ? two of time past ? two of time to come ? two of time indefinite ? two of quantity ? two of manner or quali*y ? two of doubt ? two of affirmation ? two of negation ? two of interrogation t two of comparison ? Q. Adjectives describe as well as adverbs : now, then, can yon tell one from the other ? 239. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs describe or qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Q. This fact should be remembered ; you shall, therefore, have it in the form of a rule : will you repeat it ? HUXiZ! ZX. Adverbs qualify verbs^ adjectives^ and other adverbs. Q. From had we form the adverb hadly : how, then, may a hu-ge class of adverbs be formed ? 240. By adding ly to adjectives. Q. Will you in this manner form an adverb from wise ? frpm great ? from aiuful ? EXERCISES IN PARSING. " The bird sings sweetly .'^ 241. Sweetly is an adverb, a word used to qualify a verb, adjective, or other adverb ; in this example it qualifies the verb sings, agreeably to Rule IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Singit, bird and the are parsed as before. PREPOSITIONS. 35 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. Adverbs qualifying verbs, ' The soldiers marched slowly." " They will return soon." * The girls sing delightfully." " The boys write admirably." * Henry improves rapidly." " Susan dances elegantly." Adverbs qualifying adjectives. * He was very attentive." ** James is more studious." * John is quite busy." " Walter is most studious." *• William is really studious." " Ellen is less happy." Adverbs qualifying verbs and other adverbs. * You learn grammar very well." *' James writes most elegantly." * The boys write too fast." "I will assist you most cheer- * He will come much oftener." fully." Adverbs promiscuously used. * He has read once." " John is not happy." * I will first remind you." " Whither shall'l fly 1" '• I saw him yesterday." " My brother sends me the paper * I have eaten sufficiently." monthly." XVI. OF THE PREPOSITION. Q. To say, "The cider is — cellar," would make no sense: can you inform me what would make sense ? 242. " The cider is in the cellar." Q. By placing the little word in after cider is, and before cellar, the sen- tence is rendered complete : what office, then, does in perform ? 243. It connects words, and thereby shows the relation between thenn. Q. What does the word preposition mean ? 244. Placed before. Q. What, then, may those words like in be called, as they are placed bewre other words to connect them with words preceding ? 245. Prepositions. Q. What, then, are prepositions? 246. Prepositions are words used to connect words, and thereby show the relation between them. 247. List of the principal Prepositions. Among around at concernmg near throughout by down of touchmg amidst below except off up athwart between excepting on upon after beneath for over under about behind from out of underneath against betwixt in respecting unto across beside into to with above beyond instead of towards within according to before notwithstanding through without Q. Will you mention the 1 prepositions beginning with a \ ? with 6? c? d? e? f? i? n? ? r? t? u? w? 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 0. Will you now repeat all the prepositions? Q. Do we say, "He works for I," or, "He works for me"? 0. In what case is wie? (127.) Q. What case, then, follows prepositions ? 248. The objective case. Q. This fact is of sufficient importarfce to constitute a rule : will you, therefore, repeat HXTIiIS Z. Prepositions govern the objective case. EXERCISES IN PARSING. " John found his hat in the road.'^ 249. In is a preposition, a word used to connect words, and show the relation between them ; it here shows the relation between hat and road. Road is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third PERSON ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — OBJECTIVE CASE J it is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition in, and governed by it according to Rule X. Prepositions govern the objective case,"* EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. "John ran through the house into "I will search the house dili- the garden." gently for him." " We have deceived him to our " We might learn the lesson he- sorrow." fore them." "We came in season." "According to my impression, he " You study grammar for your is in fault." improvement in language." " Notwithstanding his poverty, he " From virtue to vice the progress was the delight of his ac- is gradual." quaintances." " They travelled into France " On all occasions she behaved through Italy." with propriety." " He lives within his income." " Of his talents we might say ♦'Without the aid of charity, he much." lived very comfortably by his " We may expect a calm after a industry." storm." XVII. OF THE CONJUNCTION. Q. When I say, " John ^his book," the sense, you perceive, is incom- plete. Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the sense ? 250. " John reads his book." * The remaining words are parsed as before CONJUNCTIONS. 37 Q. Can you inform me what the foregoing expression is called? 251. A sentence. Q. What, then, is a sentence ? 252. A collection of words, forming a complete sense. Q, ** Life is short." This expression is called a sentence : can you tell me what kind, and why ? 253. It is a simple sentence, because it makes sense, and has but one nominative and one verb. Q. What does the term compound mean? 254. It means composed of tico or more things, Q. *' Life is short, and art is long." This sentence is made up of two simple sentences : what, therefore, may it be called ? 255. A compound sentence. Q. What, then, is a compound sentence ? 256. A compound sentence contains two or more sim- ple sentences connected together. Q. What does the term conjunction signify? 257. Union, or joining together, Q. In the compound sentence, " John writes, and Wilham learns," the simple sentences are joined together by the word and : what word, then, may and be called ? 258. A Conjunction. Q. ** The king and queen are an amiable pair." In this sentence, words and not sentences are connected by and : can you point out the words so connected ? 259. King and queen, Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the conjunction ? ^ 260. A conjunction is used to connect words and sen- tences together. Q. When I say, " Five and four are nine," what do I mean ? * 261. Five added to four make nine. Q. What, then, is implied by and? 262. Addition. Q. When I say, " I will go, if you will accompany me," what does the conjunction if imply ? 263. Condition or supposition. Q. What does the word copulative mean? 264. Uniting, joining, or linking together. Q. And, if, &c. are called copulative conjunctions : can you tell me why ? 265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or con- tinues a sentence by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c. Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you repeat them ? 266. ** And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided, since, then, that, therefore, wherefore." Q. When I say, " James and John will come," I mean both will come ; but when I say, *' James or Johij will come," what do I mean? 267. That either James or John, one of them, will come. 4 D 58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Q. Are the words in this sentence, then, joined or disjoined ? 268. Disjoined. Q. What word is it that expresses the disjoining? 269. Or. Q. What part of speech is or ? 270. Conjunction. Q. What does the word disjunctive mean? 271. Disjoining or separating, Q. What kind of a conjunction, then, shall we call or ? 272. A disjunctive conjunction. Q. "James will come, but Henry will not." Here the two clauses of the sentence are opposed to each other in meaning, and the word but sepa- rates these two clauses : what, then, does this word imply ? 273. Opposition of nieaning. Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be the use of the disjunctive conjunction ? 274. The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences, by- expressing opposition of nfieaning in various degrees. Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you repeat them ? 275. ** But, than, though, either, or, as, unless, neither, nor, less, yet, notwithstanding." Q. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words, as well as conjunctions ; how, then, can you tell the one from the other ? 276. Prepositions shov^ the relation between words, but conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a cause, or an opposition of naeaning. Q. ** He and she write." In what case is he ? she ? Q. ThejDronouns he and s^e, you perceive, are both in the same case, and connected by the conjunction and : when, then, may nouns and pro- nouns be connected ? 277. When they are in the same case. Q. " She will sing and dances." How may this sentence be corrected? 278. " She will sing and dance." Q. In what mood and tense is, "She will sing?" Q. To say, *' She dance," is incorrect; dance, then, in this example, cannot be in the present tense : will you, then, inform me what " She will sing and dance" means, when fully expressed ? 279. " She will sing and she w^ill dance." Q. Here will dance is in the future tense, as well as will sing : when, then, may verbs, in general, be connected ? 280. When they are in the same mood and tense. Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for tho use of conjunctions, m connecting words ? AUIiI! XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. INTERJECTIONS. 39 EXERCISES IN PARSING. " John assists his father and mother.^* 281. And is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect words and sentences — copulative ; it connects father and mother. Mother is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general name — feminine gender; it is the name of a female — THIRD person; it is spoken of— singular number; it means but one — and it is one of the objects of assists, and is, there- fore, in the objective case, and connected with father by the conjunction and, according to Rule XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. " I will reward him and them at " She reads well, dances (3.) ele- some future time." gantly, and plays admirably "We in vain (1.) look for a path on the piano-forte." between virtue and vice." " Intemperance destroys the mind " Reproof either hardens or soft- and benumbs the senses of ens its object." man." " In the morning of life, we ea- " You may read this sentence gerly pursue pleasure, but first, and then parse it." oftentimes meet (2.) with sad " He has equal knowledge, but disappointments." inferior judgment." "A good scholar never mutters "John rises early in the morning, nor disobeys his instructer." and pursues his studies." XVIII. OF INTERJECTIONS. Q. When I exclaim, " Oh! I have ruined my friend," " Alas ! I fear for life," which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, to express passion or feeling ? 282. Oh! Alas! Q. What does interjection mean? 283. Thrown between, Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as oh! alas ! &c.t 284. Interjections. Q. What, then, are interjections? 285. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings of the speaker. (1.) In vain means the same as vainly. It may, therefore, be called an adverbial phrase, qualifying look, by Rule IX. (2.) Meet agrees with we understood, and is, therefore, connected with jpursue by the conjunction hu, according to Rule XI. (3.) Dances and j>lays both agree with she, understood, and are, therefore, connected the former with reads, and the latter with dances, by Rule XI. 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 1. Of earnestness or grief; as, " O ! oh ! alas ! ah !** 2. Of wonder; as, "Really! strange!" 3. Of calling; as, "Halloo! ho! hem!" 4. Of attention ; as, " Behold ! lo ! hark !" 5. Of disgust ; as, " Foh ! fy ! fudge ! away !" 6. Of silence ; as, " Hush ! hist !" . 7. Of contempt; as, "Pish! tush!" 8. Of saluting ; as, " Welcome ! hail !" Q. Will you examine the foregoing list, and then name an interjection of grief? One of wonder ? One of calling ? One of attention ? One of dis- gust ? One of silence ? One of saluting ? Q. How may an interjection generally be known ? 286. By its taking an exclannation point after it. EXERCISES IN PARSING. " Ok ! I have alienated my friendJ* 287. Oh is an interjection, a word used to express pas- sion or feeling. 35" The remaining words are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED " Oh ! I must go and see (1.) my " Strange ! I did not know dear father before (2.) he dies." you." " We eagerly pursue pleasure, but, "Hush! our instructer is at the alas! we often mistake the * door." road to its (3.) enjoyment." " Fy ! how angry he is !" (1.) The sense is, **I must go, and I must see;" the verb see, then, agrees with /, understood, and is, therefore, connected with must go, ac- cording to Rule XI. (2.) jBefore, an adverb. (3.) Apply, first, Rule V. ; then, Rule I. RECAPITULATION. CRITICAL REMARKS. COMPOSZTZOXr. •XIX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 288. English Grammar teaches us to speak and write the English language correctly. 289. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, 290. 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, ^ 2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. XX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature and power of letters, and teaches how to spell words correctly. This part of grammar is usually learned from spelling-books and dictionaries. 292. Orthography means word-making, or spelling. XXI. OF ETYMOLOGY. 293. Etymology teaches how to form, from all the words in the English language, several grand divisions or sorts, com- monly called Parts of Speech. 294. It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use of words — also their different changes and derivations. 295. Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words. XIX. What does English grammar How is a knowledge of orthography leach? 288. usually obtained ? 291. Into how many parts is it divided ? 289. What does orthography mean ? 292. What are they ? 290. XXI. What does etymology teach ? 293. XX. What does orthography include What does it include ? 294. and teach ? 291. What does the word signify ? 295. 4* (41) 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. XXII. OF SYNTAX. 296. Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words into sentences correctly. 297. It includes a knowledge of the rules of composi- tion, formed from the practice of the best writers and speakers. 298. Syntax signifies arranging or placing together; or, as used in gram- mar, sentejice-making , XXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 299. The words of the English language are usually- divided into nine sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech, namely, Noun, Pronoun, Preposition, Article, Verb, Conjunction, Adjective, Adverb, Interjection. XXIV. OF NOUNS. 300. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing ; as, rmn, London, knife. 301. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and common. Common nouns are general names ; that is, they are names common to all individuals of the same kind or sort ; as, house^ city, river, 302. Proper nouns are particular names; that is, they are the names of particular individuals of the same kind or sort ; as, George, Boston, 3Iississippi. 303. When proper names have an article placed before them, thisy are Msed as common names ; as, *' He is the Cicero of his age." 304. When a proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes a common noun ; XXII. What does syntax teach ? 296. What does it include ? 297. What does the word signify ? 298. XXIII. How many different sorts of words are there ? 299. Wliat are they ? 299. What are these sorts of words com- monly called? 299. XXIV. What does the word noun mean ?* What is a noun ? 300. Give an exam- ple. How many different kinds of nouns are there, and what are they 7 301. What does the word common mean 7 31. What is a common noun ? 301. Give an example. What does proper mean ? 34. What is a proper noun ? 302. Give an example. When proper nouns have an article before them, how are they used? 303. Give an example. Are proper names used as such in the plural ? 304. Why cannot proper names have a plural? 304. * Sm I. lit uwwer. NOUNS. 43 as, '* The twelve Ccssars,*' or, "The seven Jameses^ This is obvious from the fact, that a proper name is, in its nature, descriptive of one object only, and, therefore, essentially singular. Accordingly, the nouns Span- iard, European, American, &c. are common nouns, as well as their plurals, Spaniards, Europeans, Americans, &c.* 305. Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by the addition of articles or pronouns ; as, *' The hoy is studious ;" *' That girl is discreet." 306. When a noun signifies many, it is called a noun of multitude, or a collective noun ; as, *' 1 he people,''^ " The armyJ*^ 307. Abstract signifies taken from: hence an abstract noun is the name of a quality abstracted from its substance ; as, knowledge, goodness, virtue, &.c. 308. To nouns belong person, gender, number and case. XXV. PERSON. 309. When any person, in speaking, introduces his own name, it is the first person ; as, " I, Jarnes, of the city of Bos- ton, do give," &c. 310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second person ; as, " James, come to me." 311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, is the third person ; as, " James has come." XXVI. GENDER. 312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 313. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the feminine, the common, and the neuter. 314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males ; as, man^ hoy^ &c. 315. The feminine gender denotes the names of females ; as, woman, girL What do they become when so used? When is a noun of the second person ? 304. Give an example. 310. Give an example. What kind of nouns are Spaniard, When is a noun of the third person? Americans, Spaniards 1 ^QA. 311. Give an example. What effect does the use of articles XXVI. What does the word gender have on common nouns? 305. mean ? 14. What is a noun of multitude, or a col- What is gender as applied to nouns? lective noun ? 306. Give an example. 312. What is an abstract noun ? 307. Give What does the word masculine mean?15. an example. What does the masculine gender of What belong to nouns? 308. nouns denote? 314. Give an example. XXV. When is a noun of the first per- What does feminine mean ? 19. BOn ? 309. Give an example. What does the fenjinine gender denote? 315. Give an example. • Spain is the proper name of a country, and Spaniard has, by some grammarians, been called the proper D ime of a people ; but the lattter is a generic term, characterizing any one of a great number of p«nooi^ by ti.eir cooaexion witli Spain. — EncyclopmcUa, 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 316. The common gender denotes the names of such ani- mals as may be either male or female ; as, parent, bird, 317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects which are neither males nor females ; as, chair, table. 318. Some nouns, naturally neuter, do, by a figure of speech, as it is called, become masculine or feminine ; as when we say of the sun, " jHe is setting," and of a ship, '* She sails well," &c. ^ 319. The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, viz : 319-1. By different words ; as, Male. Female. Male. Female. Bachelor, Maid. Husband, Wife. Boar, Sow. King, Queen. Boy, Girl. Lad, Lass. Brother, Sister. Lord, Lady. Buck, Doe. Man, Woman. Bull, Cow. Master, Mistress.* Bullock or > Steer, S Heifer. Milter, Nephew, Spawner. Niece. Cock, Hen. ^ Ram, Ewe. Dog, Drake, Bitch. Duck. Singer, C Songstress or ^Singer. Earl, Countess. Sir, Madam. Father, Mother. Sloven, Slut. Friar, Nun. Son, Daughter. Hind. Gander, Goose. Stag, Hart, Roe. Uncle, Aunt. Horse, Mare. Wizard, Witch. 319-2. Byadifferenc e of termination ; as. Male, Female. Male. Female. Abbot, Abbess. Enchanter, Enchantress. Actor, Actress. Executor, Executrix. Administrator Administratrix. God, Goddess. Adulterer, Adulteress. Governor, Governess. Ambassador, Ambassadress. Heir, Heiress. Arbiter, Arbitress. Hero, Heroine. Baron, Baroness. Hunter, Huntress. Bridegroom, Bride. Host, Hostess. Benefactor, Benefactress. Instructer, Instructress. Caterer, Cateress. Jew, Jewess. Chanter, Chantress. Landgrave, Landgravine. Conductor, Conductress. Lion, Lioness. Count, Countess. Marquis, Marchioness. Czar, Czarina. Mayor, Mayoress. Deacon, Deaconess. Patron, Patroness. Duke, Duchess. Peer, Peeress. Elector, Electress. Poet, " Poetess. Emperor, Empress. Priest, Priestess. What does the common gender denote ? 316. Give an example. What does neuter mean ? 23. What does the neuter gender denote ? 317. Give an example. What is said of nouns naturally neu- ter, in respect to gender? 318. Give an example. How many genders do nouns have, and what are they? 30. How many methods are there in Eng- lish of distinguishing sex? 319. Which is the first ; as, hoy 7 girl? 319-1. Will you spell the feminine correspond- ing to brother? 319-1. to hoy? nephew? wizard? friar ? sir ? drake ? earl ? gander 7 hart 7 king 7 lad 7 man 7 master 7 singer ? sloven ? son 7 stag 7 uncle 7 Will you spell the masculine corre- sponding to maid? girl? madam? daugh- ter ? niece ? What is the second method of distin- guishing sex ; as, abbot 7 abbess 7 319-2. Will you spell the feminine corre- sponding to abbot 7 actor 7 administrator 7 baron? benefactor? bridegroom? conduct- or 7 czar 7 duke ? emperor 7 executor 7 god? governor? heir? hero? host? hunt- er ? instructer 7 Jew 7 lion 7 marquis 7 pa- tron 1 peer? proprietor 1 shepherd? sor- NOUNS. ib Male. Female. Prince, Princess. Prior, Prioress. Prophet, Prophetess. Protector, Protectress. Proprietor, Proprietress. Shepherd, Shepherdess. Songster, Songstress. Sorcerer, Sorceress. 319-3. By prefixing a noun, A cock- sparrow, A man-servant, A he-goat, A he-bear, A male child, Male descendants. Male. Sultan, Female. Sultaness. Sultana. Tigress. Traitress. Tutoress. Viscountess. Votaress. Widow. Tiger, Traitor, Tutor, Viscount, Votary, Widower, pronoun, or adjective ; as, A hen- sparrow. A maid- servant. A she-goat. A she- bear. A female child. Female descendants. XXVII. NUMBER. 320. Number shows how many are meant, whether one or more. 321. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 322. The singular number expresses but one ; as, boy. 323. The plural number implies more than one ; as, boys, 324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only ; as, wheat, gold, sloth, pride, dutifulness, 325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ; as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine, 327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular ; as, sing, dove, plur, doves. 328. The irregular mode of forming the plural is as follows : when the noun singular ends in x, ch, soft, sh, or ss, we add es to form the plural ; as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses. > 329. Nouns ending in / or/e, change these terminations into ves to form the plural ; as, loaf, loaves ; wife, wives. cerer? sultan? tiger? tutor? viscount votary? widower? Will you spell the masculine corre- sponding to abbess? czarina! duchess^ ambassadress? heroine 1 huntress? poet- ess ? prophetess ? widow ? What is the third method of distin guishing sex ; as, a man-servant ? a maid- servant? 319-3. Will you spell the feminine corre- spondinn to male child? male descendants ? XXVil. What does the word number mean? 5. What does the number of nouns show ? 320. What does singular mean ? 6. What does the singular number of nouns imply? 322. Give an example. What does plural mean ? 10. What does the plural number of nouns imply? 323. Give an example- How are wheat, gold, &.c. used ? 324. How are bellows, lungs, &c. used ? 325. What is said of deer, sheep, &c. ? 326. How many numbers do nouns have, and what are they? 321. How is the plural number regularly formed ? 327. Give an example. When do we add es to form the plural ? 328. Give an example. What is the plural of loaf? 329. What is the rule for it? 329. 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 330. When a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the plural is formed regularly ; as, Hey, keys ; delay, delays ; valley, valleys. But if the y does not have a vowel before it, the plural is formed by changing y into ies ; as, jly, flies ; beauty, beauties, 321. The follownig nouns form iheir plurals not according to any general rules : — Sing. Plur. Mouse', Mice. Louse, Lice. r-^„, C Cows or ^^^' iKine. Penny, Pence. (1.) Die, Dice. (2.) Pea, Peas. (3.) 332. Mathematics, metaphysics, pneumatics, ethics, politics, &c. are reck- oned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is equally true o[ means, alms, amends. Antipodes, credenda, minuticB, literati, &c. are always plural. Bandit is now considered the singular of banditti. The noun news is always singular. Many nouns form their plurals according to the laws of the lan- guage from which they are derived. The following are of this class : — Sing. Man, Woman Child, Ox, Tooth, Foot, Goose, Plur. Men. Women. Children. Oxen. v v \ 526. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. .r^, . , \j 527. The potential mood has four tenses. ^ J 528. The infinitive mood has two tenses. 529. The imperative mood has one tense. What is the sign of the potential mood? Sign of the perfect 7 521. Give an ei- 515. Give an example. 515. ample. 521. What is the sign of the subjunctive Sign of the pluperfect ? 522. Give an mood ? 516. Give an example. 516. example. 522. "wK*':™"^"^""'""';^."-. . SiTnofSsecondfuture?524. Give What IS tTie sign of the imperative? an example. .524. 518. Give an example. 518. f]ow many tenses has the indicative XLTV. What is the sign of the pre- mood? 525. sent indicative ? 519. Give an example. How many the subjunctive ? 526. 519. How many the potential ? 527. Sign of the imperfect? 520. Give an How many the infinitive? 528. example. 520. How many the imperative ? 529. y VERBS. 71 XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 530. When I ask you to raise your voice, in reading, you readily under- stand what I mean by voice ; but in grammar, its application is somewhat peculiar. Grammatically considered, it refers to the active and passive nature of verbs. 531. The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. 532. The conjugation of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE, and that of a passive verb the passive voice. 533. Verbs are called regular, when they form their im- perfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect parti- ciple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense, or d only when the verb ends in e ; as, Fres, Tense, Imp, Tense, Perf, Participle, I favour. I favoured. Favoured. 1 love. I loved. Loved. 534. When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and perfect participle in this manner, it is called an irregular VERB ; as, Pres. Tense. I am. Imp, Tense, I was. Perf, Participle, Been. 535. The regular verb love^ and the irregular verb to be, are conjugated as follows : — COITJUGilTZOX7. TO LOVE AND TO BE, ACTIVE and PASSIVE VOICE CONTRASTED. INDICATIVE MOOD. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. 1 Pers. I love. 2 Pers. You love. 3 Pers. He loves. Plural. 1 Pers. We love. 2 Pers. You love. 3 Pers. They love. PRESENT TENSE. PASSIVE VOICE. Singular. 1 Pers. I am loved. 2 Pers. You are loved. 3 Pers. He is loved. Plural. 1 Pers. We are loved. 2 Pers. You are loved. 3 Pers. They are loved. NEUTER. Singular, 1 Pers. I am. 2 Pers. You are. 3 Pers. He is. Plural. 1 Pers. We are. 2 Pers. You are. 3 Pers. They are. XLV. What does voice mean in gram- mar? 530. Meaning of conjugation? 217. What is the conjugation of an active verb styled ? 532. \/hat the conjugation of a passive verb! 532. When are verbs called regular? 533. Give an example. 531. Will you repeat after me the present tense, and name the imperfect tense and perfect participle, of the \eths favour? love 7 533. When is a verb called irregular ? 534. Give an example. 534. 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Singular. 1. I loved. 2. You loved. 3. He loved. Plural. 1. We loved. 2. You loved. 3. They loved. Singular. 1. I have loved. 2. You have loved. 3. He has loved. Plural. 1. We have loved. 2. You have loved. 3. They have loved. Singular. 1. I had loved. 2. You had loved. 3. He had loved. Plural. 1. We had loved. 2. You had loved. 3. They had loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I was loved. 2. You were loved. 3. He was loved. Plural. 1. We were loved. 2. You were loved. 3. They were loved. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I have been loved. 2. You have been loved. 3. He has been loved. Plural. 1. We have been loved. 2. You have been loved. 3. They have been loved. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I had been loved. 2. You had been loved. 3. He had been loved. Plural. 1. We had been loved. 2. You had been loved. 3. They had been loved. Singular. 1. I was. 2. You were. 3. He was. Plural. 1. We were. 2. You were. 3. They were. Singular. 1. I have been. 2. You have been. 3. He has been. Plural. 1. We have been. 2. You have been. 3. They have been. Singular. 1. I had been. 2. You had been. 3. He had been. Plural. 1. We had been. 2. You had been. 3. They had been. Singular. 1. I shall or will love. 2. You shall or will love. 3. He shall or will love. Plural. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Singular. 1. I shall or will be 1. loved. 2. 2. You shall or will be loved. 3. 3. He shall or will be loved. Plural. 1. We shall or will 1. We shall or will be 1. love. loved. 2. You shall or will 2. You shall or will be 2. love. loved. 3. They shall or will 3. They shall or will be 3. love. loved. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Singular. 1. 1 shall have loved. 1. 1 shall have been 1. 2. You will have lov- loved. 2. ed. 2. You will have been 3. 3. He will have loved. loved. 3. He will have been loved. Plural. Plural. 1. We shall have lov- 1. We shall have been 1. ed. loved. 2. 2. You will have lov- 2. You will have been 3. ed. loved. 3. They will have lov- 3. They will have been ed. loved. Will you conjugate Zouc in the present perfect? first future? second future? tense, active voice, indicative mood? present passive? imperfect? perfect? 535. In the imperfect? perfect? plu- pluperfect ? first future ? second future? Singular. I shall or will be. You shall or will be. He shall or will be. Plural. We shall or will be. You shall or will be. They shall or will be. Singular. I shall have been. You will have been. He will have been. Plural. We shall have been. You will have been. They will have been. TENSES. 7b POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular, Singular. Singular. 1. 1 may or can love. 1. I may or can be lov- 1. I may or can be. 2. You may or can ed. 2. You may or can love. 2. You may or can be be. 3. He may or can loved. 3. He may or can love. 3. He may or can be loved. be. Plural. Plural. Plural. 1, We may or can 1. We may or can be 1. We may or can love. loved. be. 2. You may or can 2. You may or can be 2. You may or can' love. loved. be. 3. They may or can love. 3. They may or can be loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. 3. They may or can be. Singular. Singular. Singular. 1. 1 might, could,would, 1. 1 might, could, would, 1. I might, could, would, or should love. or should be loved. or should be. 2. You might, could, 2. You might, could, 2. You might, could, would, or should would, or should would, or should love. be loved. be. 3. He might, could, 3. He might, could, 3. He might, could, would, or should would, or should would, or should love. be loved. be. Flurah Plural. • Plural. 1. We might, could, 1. We might, could, 1. We might, could. would, or should would, or should would, or should love. be loved. be. 2. You might, could, 2. You might, could. 2. You might, could, would, or should would, or should would, or should love. be loved. be. 3. They might, could, 3. They might, could, 3. They might, could, would, or should would, or should would, or should love. be loved, PERFECT TENSE. be. Singular, Singular. Singular. 1. 1 may or can have 1. I may or can have 1. I may or can have loved. been loved. been. 2. You may or can have 2. You may or can have 2. You may or can have loved. been loved. been. 3. He mav or can have loved.. 3. He may or can have 3. He may or can have been loved. been. Flural. Plural. Plural. I. We may or can have 1. We may or can have 1. We may or can have loved. been loved. been. 2. You may or can have 2. You may or can have 2. , You may or can have loved. been loved. been. 3. They may or can 3. They may or can 3. , They may or can have loved. have been loved. have been. Will you conjugate the verb to be, or am, in the present? the imperfect? per- fect? pluperfect? first future? second future ? Will you name the first person singu- lar, of the present indicative, active and passive, of love, and the first person sin- gular of the verb to be ? 7 The second person in like manner? the third? the first person plural? second person plural ? third ? first person singu- lar, imperfect? second person? third? first person plural ? second person plural? third? first person singular, perfect? second person ? third ? first person plu ral? fiecond? third? G 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Singular. 1. I might, could, would, or should have lov- ed. 2. You might, could, would, or should have loved. 3. He might, could, would, or should have loved. Plural. 1. We might, could, would, or should have loved. 2. You might, could, would, or should have loved. 3. They might, could, would, or should have loved. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. Imight, could,would, or should have been loved. 2. You might, could, would, or should have been loved. 3. He might, could, would, or should have been loved. PluraL 1. We might, could, would, or should have been loved. 2. You might, could, would, or should have been loved. 3. They might, could, would, or should have been loved. Singular. 1. Imight, could, or should been. 2. You might, would, or have been. 3. He might, would, or have been. Plural. 1. We might, would, or have been. 2. You might, would, or have been. 3. They might, would, or have been. would, have could., should could, should could, should could, should could, should SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Singular. 1. If I love. 2. If you love. 3. If he loves. Plural, 1. If we love. 2. If you love. 3. If they love. Singular. 1. If I love. 2. If you love. 3. If he love. Plural. 1. If we love. 2. If you love. 3. If they love. Singular, 1. If I loved. 2. If you loved. 3. If he loved. Plural. 1. If we loved. 2. If you loVed. 3. If they loved. PRESENT TENSE. Common Form, Singular, 1. If I am loved. 2. If you are loved. 3. If h% is loved. Plural. 1. If we are loved. 2. If you are loved. 3. If they are loved. Subjunctive Form, Singular. 1. If I be loved. 2. If you be loved. 3. If he be loved. Plural. 1. If we be loved. 2. If you be loved. 3. If they be loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. Common Form. Singular. 1. If I was loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If he was loved. Plural. 1. If we were loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If they were loved. Singular. 1. If I am. 2. If you are. 3. If he is. Plural. 1. If we are. 2. If you are. 3. If they are. Singular. 1. If I be. 2. If you be. 3. If he be. Plural. 1. If we be. 2. If you be. 3. If they be. 1. If I was. 2. If you were. 3. If he was. Plural, 1. If we were. 2. If you were. 3. If they were. Will j'ou conjugate love in like man- ner, through each person and voice of the pluperfect ? first and second futures? pre- sent potential ? imperfect? perfect? plu- perfect? present subjunctive, common form ? subjunctive form ? imperfect, com- mon form? subjunctive form? perfect? pluperfect? first and second futures ? Will you conjugate lo.ve in the present indicative active? imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect? first and second futures? present passive? imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? first and second futures? present indicative of to be? imperfect? perfect ? pluperfect ? first and second futures ? TENSES. 75 Singular. 1. If X loved. 2. If you loved. 3. If he loved. Flural 1. If we loved. 2. If you loved. 3. If they loved. Subjunctive Form. Singular. 1. If I were loved. 1. 2. If you were loved. 2. 3. If he were loved. 3. Plural. 1. If we were loved. 1. 2. If you were loved. 2. 3. If they were loved. 3. Smgular. If I were. If you were. If he were. Plural. If we were. If you were. If they were. The remaining tenses are all of the Common Form. Singular. 1. If I have loved. 2. If you have loved. 3. If he has loved. Plural. 1. If we have loved. 2. If you have loved. 3. If they have loved. Si,ngular. 1. If I had loved. 2. If you had loved. 3. If he had loved. Plural. 1. If we had loved. 2. If you had loved. 3. If they had loved. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. If I have been loved. 2. If you have been lov- ed. 3. If he has been loved. Plural. 1. If we have been lov- ed. 2. If you have been lov- ed. 3. Ifthey have been lov- ed. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. If I had been loved. 2. Ifyou had been loyed. 3. If he had been loved. Plural. 1. If we had been loved. 2. If you had been lov- ed. 3. Ifthey had been loved. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. Singular. 1. If I have been. 2. If you have been. 3. If he has been. Plural. 1. If we have been. 2. If you have been. 3. If they have been Singular. 1. If I had been. 2. If you had been. 3. If he had been. Plural. l.'If we had been. 2. If you had been. 3. If they had been. Singular. Singular. Singular. 1. If I shall or will 1. If I shall or will be 1. If I shall or will love. loved. be. 2. If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will be 2. If you shall or will love. loved. be. 3. If he shall or will 3. If he shall or will be 3. If he shall or will love. loved. be. Will, you conjugate love through each person of the present indicative active? passive? the neuter verb to he? also in the imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect ? first and second futures? present potential? imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? present subjunctive, in both forms? perfect? pluperfect? first and second futures? What is the present infinitive active of lovel present passive? present of to fie ? perfect active of love? perfect passive? perfect of to 6c? present participle active of love? present passive? present of to he? perfect of Icwc? perfect of to he? compound perfect of love, in the active ? in the passive of to be? In what voice and mood is, " I love ?" *' They love ?" " They are loved ?" " Are they loved ?" " I do love ?" What is the force of do ? In what voice and mood is, *'The man loved?" "He has loved?" " He has been loved ?" " Has he been loved?" "^he had loved?" "She had been loved?" "We shall love?" ' We shall be loved ?" " Shall I have been loved?" "May I love?" "May I be loved ?" " She may have loved ?" " She may have been loved ?" " If I love ?" " If he be loved?" " If he is loved ?" " If I love?" " If I were loved"?" " If I was loved?" In what tense is, " They love ?" " Ye are lovisd ?" " She did love ?" " We were loved?" "They shall love?" "They shall be loved?" "I may be loved?" " If she has been loved ?" In what number and person is, " I love?" "We love?" "He does love?" " The man did love ?" " The men were loved?" "If he love?" "If I was?" " If I were ?" " If ye have been ?" " If ye have loved ?" " You may be loved ?" 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Plural. Plural. Plural. 1. If we shall or will 1. If we shall or will be 1. If we shall or will love. loved. be. 2. If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will be 2. If you shjiU or will love. loved. be. 3. If they shall or will 3. If they shall or will 3. If they shall or will love. be loved. be. Singular. 1. If I shall have ed. 2. If you shall have ed. 3. If he shall have ed. Plural. 1. If we shall have ed. 2. If you shall have ed. 3. Ifthey shall have ed. Singular. , Love you, or do you love. Plural. , Love you, or do you love. Pres. To love. Per/. To have loved. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. Singular. lov- 1. If I shall have been 1. loved. 2. lov- 2. If you shall have been loved. 3. lov- 3. If he shall have been loved. Plural. lov- 1. If we shall have been 1. loved, lov- 2. If you shall have been 2. loved, lov- 3. If they shall have 3. been loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 2. Be you loved, or do you be loved. Plural. 2. Be you loved, or do you be loved. INFINITIVE MOOD. Pres. To be loved, Perf. To have been lov- ed. PARTICIPLES. Singular. If I shall have been. If you shall have been. If he shall have been. Plural. If we shall have been. If you shall have been. If they shall have been. Singular. 2. Be you, or do you be. 1 Plural. % 2. Be you, or do you be. Pres. To be. Perf. To have been. Pres. Loving. Pres. Being loved. Pres. Being. Perf. Loved. P^ff Loved. Perf Been. Compound Perf. Hav- Compound Perf Hav- Compound Perf. Hav ing loved. ing been loved. ing been. ^ 536. For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thou, in the conjugation of verbs, the following synopsis is given. The pupil can take it separately, or be taught it in connection with the other persons of the verb, by substituting thou for you, in the foregoing conjugation. passive ? imperative present active ? pas sive 7 perfect infinitive active ? passive ? present subjunctive active in both forms ? passive? perfect infinitive? future ac- tive passive ? What kind of verb (that is, regular or irregular,) what voice, mood, tense, num- ber, and person is, " I sing ?" " We are formed?" "He is?" "You are deter- mined?" "It rains?" "It has happen- ed?" " The man was respected ?" " The boys did study ?" " If he improve ?" " Un- less he repent?" "Although she be dis- appointed?" " He may depart ?" "De- part now?" "To love?" "To sing?" " To be sung ?" " To rejoice ?" " To have wept ?" " To have been seen ?" " To have been found?" Is love, as, " They love," a regular or irregular verb? why? 533. active or pas- sive ? 439. What mood is it in ? why ? 452. tense ? why ? 482. number ? person ? What does love agree with ? Rule VII. Is are, as, " They are," a regular or irregular verb? why? 534. passive or neuter ? why ? 450. What mood is it in ? why? 452. tense? why? 482. number? person ? Rule for its agreement ? VII. What is the present imperative of lovel present infinitive? What mood and tense is, " Love you ?" is, " To have been loved ?" Will you conjugate learn in the pre- sent indicative active? passive? perfect active? perfect passive? present poten- tial activi ? passive? imperfect active? Pres. Thou lovest. Imp. Thou lovedst. Perf. Thou hast loved. Plup. Thou hadst lov- ed. 1 Put. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2 Put. Thou wilt have loved. 537. Pres. Thou mayst or canst.love. Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love. Perf. Thou mayst or canst have loved. Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved. TENSES. Synopsis with Thou, INDICATIVE MOOD. Thou art loved. Thou wast loved. Thou hast been loved. Thou hadst been loved. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. Thou wilt have been loved. POTENTIAL MOOD. Thou mayst or canst be loved. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be loved. Thou mayst or canst have been loved. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been loved. 77 Thou art. Thou wast. Thou hast been. Thou hadst been. Thou shalt or wilt be. Thou wilt have been. Thou mayst or canst be. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be. Thou mayst or canst have been. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 538. Pres. If thou lovest. Imp. If thou lovedst. 539. Pres. If thou love. Imp. If thou loved. 540. Perf. If thou hast loved- Plup. If thou hadst lov- 1 Put. If thou shalt or wilt love. 2 Put. If thou shalt have loved. Common Form. If thou art loved. If thou wast loved. Subjunctive Form. If thou be loved. If thou wert loved. Common Form. If thou hast been loved. If thou hadst been lov- ed. If thou shalt or wilt be loved. If thou shalt have been loved. If thou art. If thou wast. If thou be. If thou wert. If thou hast been. If thou hadst been. If thou shalt or wilt be. If thou shalt have been. Interrogative Form. INDICATIVE PRESENT. Singular. 1. Ami? 541. Singular, Singular. 1. Do I love ? 1. Am I loved ? 2. Do you love ? 2. Are you loved ? 2. Are you ? 3. Does he love ? 3. Is he loved ? 3. Is he ? Plural. Plural. Plural. 1. Do we love ? 1. Are we loved ? 1. Are we ? 2. Do you love? 2. Are you loved? 2. Are you? 3. Do they love ? 3. Are they loved ? 3. Are they ? 542. You will find, on examination of the foregoing conjugation, that the tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the corresponding ones of the indicative, except the following, namely, the present and imperfect Will you give the synopsis of love join- ed with thou through the indicative ac- tive ? passive ? Neuter verb to be ? Will you name the synopsis of learn in the first person in the active voice, through each mood and tense ? Will you repeat the two tenses of the infinitive and the three participles? Synopsis of 7* honor in like manner througli the pas sive ? also the synopsis of the verb to be ? Give the synopsis of rfe^ire in the active, like love; in the passive ; verb to be; first person plural active ; passive ; to ftc; third person active; passive; to be. What mood does the suhjunctive re« semble in its tenses ? 542. 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. of the verb to he ; the present and imperfect of the passive ; the present and the second future active. The last, however, corresponds in termination, but not in formation. Among the exceptions should be reckoned the use of the conjunction if. There are instances, however, of the subjunctive form, when no conjunction is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly under- stood ; as, " Were I to go, he would not follow;" " Had he known me, he would have treated me differently ;" that is, " If I were to go," and, " If he had known." Examples of this description are conjugated as follows : SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 543. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. Were I. 1. Were we. 2. Were you. 2. Were you. 3. Were he. 3. Were they. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. >. Had I loved. 1. Had we loved. 2. Had you loved. 2. Had you loved. 3. Had he loved. 3. Had they loved. 544. The second person singular of all verbs* formerly (1.) ended in st , ts, " Thou hast," " Thou wast," &c. This form is still retained by that respectable class of persons denominated C2.) Friends, and in the Sacred (3.) Scriptures. (3.) 545. Eth, for the termination of the third person singular, obtained (4.^ very generally till within a recent (5.) period, especially on grave (6.) and didactic (7.) subjects ; as, " He that hat?i ears to hear, let him hear ;" ** Sim pie multiplication teacheth to repeat," &c. But the custom of the present day is decidedly (8.) against the usage. (9.) 546. The Scriptures abound (10.) with instances of the use of the pro- noun ye for you ; as, " Ye are the salt of the earth ;" but it is scarcely to be met with in any standard works of modern date. 547. The following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of the verb, INDICATIVE PRESENT. Singular. Singular. Si7igular. 1. I love. 1. I am loved. 1. I am. 2. Thou lovest. 2. Thou art loved. 2. Thou art. 3. He loveth or loves. 3. He is loved. 3. He is. What exceptions? 542. By whom is this termination still re* How does the second future differ? 542. tained? 544. In what writings ? 544. Will you explain the difference ? 542. Meaning of Sacred Scriptures? 544. What is the sign of the subjunctive What form of the third person singu. mood ? 510. Is it always expressed ? 542. lar obtained till recently ? 545. Give an Give an example. 542. Will you supply example. 545. the conjunction ? Meaning of oftfatnerf? 545. Of receyit Will you conjugate the verb to be in 545. the subjunctive mood, imperfect tense, On what subjects was the termination without its usual sign? In like manner eth used in writing? 545. conjugate love in the pluperfect. Meaning of grave? of didactic? 545. Will you conjugate love in the present In what writings do we find ye used active, interrogative form? passive? for you? 546. neuter verb to bi? Is it common in modern works? 54G. In what voice, mood, tense, number Will you conjugate love in the present and person is, " Do I study ?" " Did she active, according to the ancient usage ? study ?" " Were they dismissed?" " Are 547. passive ? neuter verb to be? we ?" In what number and person is, " He In what did the second person singular hath?" "He hates?" " Thou lovest ?" of all verbs formerly end ? 544. Give an "Thou hast?" "He learneth?" "Ye example. 544. learn ?" " He rejoiceth?" "Thou art re- Meaning of /orwicWy? 544. joiced?" "Thou art?" "He weepeth?" * Exceptinsj art. n.; Sfinietiinea^o. (2.) Called. (3.) The Bib!e. (4.) Prevailed. (5.) Late. (6.) Seriou» •J.) Abounding in precepts or instructive. (8.) Positively. (9.) Use. (10.} Have many. VERBS, 79 Plural. Plural. Plural. 1. We love. 1, We are loved. 1. We are. 2. Ye or you love. 2. Ye or you are loved. 2. Ye or you are. 3. They love. 3. They are loved. 3. They are. 548. 0:5°" For a further illustration of these obsolete conjugations, the learner is referred to those treatises on grammar in our schools, which pro- fess to furnish him with a sure and infallible guide to the true and proper use of the English language. Ruiii: VI. TTie nominative case governs the verb in number and 'person, RTJI.ZS VIZ. i verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person, RUIiZS VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case, EXERCISES IN PARSING. " William loas admired for his prudence^ 549. William is a proper noun, of the third person, singular NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE tO WUS ad' mired, agreeably to Rule VI. Was admired is a regular passive verb, from the verb to admire — •" Pres. admire; Imp. admired; Perf. part, admired. 1. I was ad- mired; 2. You were admired; 3. He or William was admired" — made in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, sin- gular number, and agrees with William, according to Rule VII. For is a preposition. His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- ber, masculine gender, and agrees with William, according to Rule V. — ^^ Nom. he; Poss. his" — made in the possessive case, and governed by prudence, by Rule I. Prudence is a common noun, of the third person, singular num- bep., neuter gender, objective case, and governed by /or, by Hule X. EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. " John was applauded for his elo- " The girl was ridiculed by Iier quence." companions." " The king was crowned at West- " Susan was respected for her virtu- minster Abbey." ous conduct." "Thomas has been esteemed." "James will be rewarded by his " The business will be regulated." instructer." "Addition teaclieth?" "He that hath was admiredf 549. /or? 549. his? 5i9. ears?" "He that sinneth?" "Thou prudence? 549. lovedst?" "Thou rnightst, conldst, What is a passive verb? 444. How wouldst, or shouldsl have lamented ?" formed ? 510. Why is admired regular ? What is the rule for the agreement of 533. the verb? rule for the nominative ? rule Why is for a preposition? 24G. Why by wjaich verbs gov«rn the objective case? is //if a pronoun ? " William was admired for his pru- Will you now parse the rcmainin?j ex- dence." Will you parse William? 549. ercises^ eo ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. " We may be esteemed." " Justice may have been stayed." *' He might have been promoted." " The task must be performed." " William would have been de- " We should not (1.) be easily (1.) throned." disheartened in a good cause." "7/* 7ie be learned,^^ 550. ijr is a COPULATIVE conjunction. Be learned is a regular passive verb, from the verb to learn — " Pres. learn ; Imper. learned ; Perf. part, learned. 1. If I be learned ; 2. If you be learned ; 3. If he be learned" — made in the subjunctive mood, subjunctive form, present tense, third per- son, SINGULAR NUMBER, and agrecs with he^ according to Rule VII. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. " If John be rewarded." " Although you will be disappoint- " If I am noticed." ed." " Unless he be punished." " If the man had been elected." " Although they are respected." " Except he repent." " Columbus discovered America." " Susan assisted the little girl." " America was discovered by Co- " The little girl was assisted by lumbus." Susan." " John wounded his brother." " Pain follows pleasure." "John's brother was wounded by "Pleasure is followed by pain."* , him." ^ ^ 2. " An obedient son is deservedly re- " Unless great labor had been be- spected by his friends." stowed on William, he would "An idle boy will be punish- have disappointed the expecta- ed." tions of his parents." "Without j^nowledge, a man is "He will not (I.) mind without commonly (1.) despised." corporal punishment." 3. "The boy who visited me in Sep- "They that seek knowledge will tember, died in the city of Bos- find it." ton." "That lion v;hich was exhibited " The man whom I found perished in this town has been killed by in a storm of snow." his keeper." 4. " I found (5.) John and William (3.) " I have assisted him and his sister in the garden with their father in many difficulties, to no (4.) and mother. (3.) purpose." XLVI. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their im- perfect tense and perfect participle by adding to the present tense ed, or d only when the verb ends in e ; as, " If he be learned." Will you parse if? Why in the subjunctive form ? 4C3. 550. be learned? 550. Why in the sub- Will you parse the remaining exercises junctive mood? 456. in these lessons? (1.) Adverb. (2.) Irregular verb. (Q.) For tVUliam, and mother apply Rule XI. (4,) Adjective. IRREGULAR VERBS. 81 Pres, tense. Imperf. tense. Perf, Participle, Go, Went, Gone, Begin, Began, Begun. Z.ZST OF XRRZSGt7I.AR VERBS. Those marked r admit likewise a regular form Present. Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part. Present. Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part. Abide, abode, abode. Hang, hung, r. hung. r. Am, was. been. Hear, h^'^ heard. Arise, arose, arisen. Hew, hewn. r. Awake, ^ awoke, r. awaked. Hide, hid, ' hidden, hid. Bear, to forth, ^•"^ bare, carry, bore. born. Hit, Hold, hit, held. hit held. Bear, to borne. Hurt, hurt, hurt. Beat, beat. beaten, beat. Keep, kept. kept B&r% began. begun. Knit, knit, r. knU. r. Ijend, bent. bent. Know, knew. known. Bereave, bereft, r. bereft, r. Lade, laded. laden. Beseech, besought. besought. Lay,' laid, laid. Bid, bid, bade, bidden, bid. Lead, led. led. Bind, bound. bound. Leave, left. left Bite, bit. bitten, bit. Lend/ lent. lent Bleed, bled. bled. Let, let, let Blow, blew, blown. Lie, to lie down, lay. lain. Break, broke- broken. Load, loaded. laden, r. . Breed, bred. bred. Lose, made, lost. a; brought, brought. Make, made. built, built. Meet, met. met Burst, burst. burst. Mow, mowed, mown. r. Bay,^ bought, bought. Pay, paid, paid. Cast, cast. cast. Put,' put. put Catch, caught, r. chid. caught, r. chidden, chid. Read, read, read. Cbide, Rend, rent. rent Choose, ^ chose. chosen. Rid, a. ^ rid. Cleave, stick I . Ride, rode, ridden, t OT adhere, ^ -s"-"'. Ring, rung, rang. rung. Cleave, to split, clove or cleft cleft, cloven. Rise, rose, risen. Clin^, clung, clung. Rive, rived. riven. Clothe, clothed, clad. r. Run, ran. run. Come, came. come. Saw, saw, sawn. r. Goaf, cost. cost. Say, said. said. Crow, crew, r. crowed. la. saw. seen. Creep, crept. crept. Zt' isrf- Cut, cut. cut. Sell, Dare, to venture, durst, dared. Send, sent. sent Dare, to chal- }, Set, set. set lenge, Shake, shook. shaken. DeaL ' dealt, r. dealt r. Shape, shaped. shaped, sbapen Rig, ■ i^r dug. r. Shave, shaved. shaven, r. Do, done. Shear, sheared, shorn. Draw, drew. drawn. Shed, shed, shed. Drive, drove, driven. Shine, shone, r. shone, r. Drink, . drank, drunk. Show, showed, shown. Dwell, dwelt. dwelt, r. Shoe, shod. shod. Eat, ' Fall, eat or ate. eaten. Shoot, shot. shot fell. fallen. Shrink, shrunk. shrunk. Feed, fed. fed. Shred, shred, shred. Feel, felt. felt. Shut, shut, shut Fight, fought, fought. Sing, sung, sang. sunk. Find, found. found. Sink, sunk, sank Flee, fled. fled. Sit, ^^U . sat. FlS, flung, ^ flung. Slay, slew, <• slain. Fly, flew. flown. Sleep, slept, slid. slept yorget. forgot. forgotten, forgot Slide, slidden. Forsake, forsook. forsaken. Sling. Elung, slunk. s;£ Freeze, froze. frozen. Slink, Get, got,' got.* Slit, slit, r. sli!, or slitted. Gild, gilt, r. gilt. r. Smite, smote, smitten. Gird, girt, n girt. r. Sow, sowed. sown. r. Give, gave. given. V Speak, spoke, spoken. Go, went. gone. Speed, sped. sped. Grave, graved. graven, r. Spend, spent. spent Grind, ground. ground. Spill, spilt, r. spilt, r. Grow, grew, grown, had. Spin, spun. spun. Have, had. Spit, spit, spat. spit, spitten.t XLVI. When is a verb called irregu- lar? 551. Will you name the present and imper- fect tenses, also the perfect participle of go 7 begin ? am ? arise ? awake ? bear ? (to carry.) bid? bite? break? choose? do? drink? eat? forget? have? known 1 lie? (to lie down.) mow? rise? see? throw 1 weave? write? « Gotten is nearly obsolefe. Its compound, forgotten, is still in good use. t Ridden is nearly obsolete. XSpitten is nearly obsolete. 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Prtaent. Split, Spread, Spring, Stand, Steal, Stick, Sting, Stitik, Stride, Strike, String, Strive, Strow or strew, Swear, Sweat, Swell, Swim, Swing, Imperfect. Perf, or Pa-is. Part. Prueyit. Imperfect. Perf or Past. Part. split. split, r. Take, took, taken. spread, spread. Teach, taught. taught. sprung, sprang sprung. Tear, tore. torn. stood, siood. Tell, told, told. stole, stolen. Think, thought, thought. stuck, stuck. Thrive, throve, r. thriven. stung, stunk, stung, stunk. Throw, threw, thrown. Thrust, thrust, thrust strode, or strid. stridden. Tread, trod, trodden. struck, struck or stricken. Wax, waxed. waxen, r. strung, strung. Wear, wore. worn. strove. striven. Weave, wove. woven. strowed, or > strown, strowed. Weep, wept. wept. strewed, ) strewed. Win,*^' won, swore, sworn. Wind, wound. . wound. swet, r. swelled, swet. r. swollen, r. Work, wrought, I^ztj: swum, swam, swum. Wring, wrung. wrung. swung, swung. Write, wrote, written. 553. We say, " I have seen," "I had seen," and *' I am seen," using the participle seen instead of the verb saw : hence, Note VI. We should use participles, only, after have, and had, and the verb to be. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. ^^ John has imtten his copy.^^ 554. Has written is a'b irregular active-transitive verb, from the verb to write — " Pres. write ; Imperf. wrote ; ^ Perf. part. written. 1. I have written; 2. You have written; S.' He or John has written" — found in the indicative mood, perfect tensb» THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and Bgrees With John, Ly Rule VII. Johnf copy, and his^ are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX 1. CONTINUED. " Job has struck John." ♦* John has been struck by Job." " The men caught the thief in the tavern." " The thief was caught by the men in the tavern." "A wise son will make a glad father." ' The act was done >/ William." 'James found hij iittle brother in the boat." ' The instructer makes good pens." 'The farmer ploughs the ground in spring." ' I may spend my time in the country." Will you correct, in accordance with Note VI., the following examples from the list above ? " John has wrote." " He done it well." *' The sun has rose." *' The sun risen yesterday in a cloud." " I see him yesterday." " He has did his task." " The birds have flew away." " The birds flown or flew." •' The post is drove into the ground." " He began or begun to write." *' The task is began." *' I had went with him." " My brother has not spoke." '• The cloth is wove." •* The boys run swiftly." *' The thief has stole Inv watch." " His copy was wrote well." " He was smote on his cheek." " John was awoke by the noise." " My father has came," " He come yesterday." " Mary has chose the better part." " He drunk to excess." " The book was gave to me." " His friends have forsook him." " He was not forsook by his child- ren." " The laborer worked for me forty days." " He was took and bound." " John has written his copy." Will you parse has writtenl Whv is has written an irregular verb? 551. Why active ? 439. Why transitive? 440. EXERCISES. 83 2. »» John is at home." " He abode in peace." " Rufus rode into the country." " They would be cruel." " The sun will shine." " We may have been negligent." " The thief was confined in jail." " The boys should have been studi- "The horse ran with great vio- ous." lence." " William was in town." 3. " If he will assist me, I shall be faults, still he would not recom- much (1.) obliged to him." pense me." ** If he be virtuous, then he will be " I will write him, lest he neglect happy." my business." " If he is happy, then I am con- " Should I be disappointed, I shall tented." despair." "Had he mentioned that circum- "Unless he repent, he will not be stance, I should have avoided pardoned." my present calamities." " Were I* in your place, I would " Although he acknowledged his relieve him." 4. " Thou hast benefited me." " Dost thou hear me ?" " Ye make no pretensions." " Hath he many advisers ?" " This doctrine hath no follow- "Ye do always err." ers." " Thou shalt surely die." " If thou love me." " If thou hadst obeyed me, thou " If thou art more comfortable, I wouldst not have been disap- heartily rejoice." pointed." 5. " If Thomas, who is at school, re- imposed was performed with turn in season, I will visit you." reluctance." "The boys whom I admonished "The measure which he adopts have reformed." will succeed." " The man whose life was in dan- " I have known a little child that ger returned in safety." exhibited the prudence of ma- " The task which the instructer ture years." XLVII. GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 555. When I say, ** John begins to read," to read is a verb in the infini- tive mood ; and it follows, as you perceive, the verb begins : hence we say that it is governed by begins. "He is beginning to read." Here, the infinitive follows the participle beginning ; it is, therefore, governed by beginning. " He is eager to learn." Here, the infinitive follows the adjective eager; we therefore say that it is governed by eager. "He has an opportunity to learn." Here, the infinitive, to learn ia governed by the noun opportunity, because it follows the noun. In like manner the infinitive may be governed by pronouns; as, " There is a fine opportunity for him to learn :" hence, XLVII. "John begins to read." In "He has an opportunity to learn?" what mood is to readl 555. Why ? 479. What part of speech governs to learn in By what is it governed ? 555. Why ? 555. this example ? .555. Why ? 555. " He is beginning to read." What go- " opportunity for him to learn." verns ftf rcarf in this case ? 555. What does the infinitive here fol- " He is eager to learn." What governs low? By what, then, is it governed? to learn in this case ? 555. Why ? 555. 555. (1.; Adverb. ~ • See 543. 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rt7IiZS XII. The infinitive mood may he governed by verbs, partici- ples, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " James begins to learn,^^ 656. To learn is a regular transitive verb — ^^ Pres. learn; Imperf. learned; Perf. part, learned" — made in the infinitive MOOD, PRESENT TENSE, and govcmed by begins, agreeably to Rule XII. James and begins, are parsed as before. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. ** George desires to learn." " A knowledge of the rules of "He is eager to learn." grammar teaches us to write " He has a desire to study." correctly." " It seems to please John." " He should seek to obtain know- " William has come to see us." ledge." " They are determined to ex- " We may be taught to write, read, eel." and spell." Omission of to, the usual Sign of the Infinitive, "John saw the man strike (I.) the " I heard the clock strike." boy." " The tutor bade him do it." "The instructer made him sub- " The soldiers dare not rebel." mit." " My uncle let the boys play in the "They need not proceed in such garden." haste." " See (2.) the blind beggar dance." Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs ; as, " The summit of a mountain so high as to be invisible." EXAMPLES. " They are about (3.) to depart." " He desired no more (4.) than (5.) " He is wise enough (3.) to study." to know his duty." XLVIII. 557. We have before seen, that participles partake of the nature of two parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance which participles have to adjectives, is in referring to some noun in the sen- tence in which they are used ; as, *' The sun is setting :" here, the partici- ple setting is said to refer to the noun sun : hence, What, then, may be regarded as a rule " They are about to depart." By what for the government of the infinitive? XII. is the infinitive here governed ? Wliat ia "John begins to learn." Will you the note for this.? VII. parse to learn? James 7 begins? 556. XLVIII. What is a participle? 498. Is to ever omitted ? 480. " The sun ia setting." What is set- Will you now parse the exercises in tirig? 557. To what, then, does setting the lessons which follow ? refer ? 557. Rule ? XIII. What is the infinitive mood used for ? Will you now parse setting in m ^ full? ^ (1.) strike is governed b^ Rule XII. (2.) See is in the imperative, agrreeing with thcu or you, understood, by Rule VII. (3.) Adverb, (4.) Noun. (5.) Coujunction. PARTICIPLES. 85 RVX.!: XZIZ. Participles refer to nouns, EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " The wind is rising,''^ 558. Rising is a present active participle, from the irregular verb to rise — " Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf, part, risen" — and it refers to wind, according to Rule XIII. EXERCISESIIf syntax: CONTINUED. 1. ■' " " The moon is setting." " Mary was playing." " The sun is rising." " I have been writing." " The trees are growing." " I found him crying." "John was dancing." " I left him rejoicing." PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. " The rising sun cheers W5." 559. Rising is a participial adjective, from the verb to rise — ** Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf. part, risen" — and belongs to sim^ by Rule IV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 2. ** The setting sun reminds us of " We view with pleasure the twink- declining years." ling stars." "The roaring winds alarm us." "The roaring cataract strikes us "The rippling stream pleases with awe." us." ^ " The laboring man should not be •• The singing-master visited me." defrauded." 3. "Having dined, I returned to "Having slept, he recovered his school." strength." " Having fought bravely, they were " Having retired to rest, he was at last (I.) overcome." seized with violent pain." "John, having exercised too vio- "The thief, having escaped, was lently, fainted." never afterwards seen in that region." 4. " William returned, mortified at his " A child left to follow his own in- loss." clinations is most commonly " The stream, swollen by the rains, ruined." overflowed its banks." " Admired and applauded,, he be- " The man accustomed to his glass came vain." seldom reforms." Will you parse the next lesson ? What kind of a participle is, " Having Win you parse rising^ in the sentence, dined ?" 504. Why ? 504. "The rising sun?" 559. Why is it call- Who dined, in the phrase, "Having ed a participial adjective ? ^ns. Because dined, I returned to school ?" it describes, like an adjective, and im- To what, then, does having dined re- plies action, like a participle. fer? Rule XHI. Will you now parse the Will you now parse the next lesson? remaining lessons? (1.) At last is an adverbial phrase. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. " A dissipated son grieves his youth into his own house, and parents." rendered to him deserved assis- " We must not neglect any known tance." duty." " William befriended the deserted "My father took the forsaken man." 6. ** The men, being fatigued by labor, feet, was severely and justly sought rest in sleep." punished." " William, being dismissed from col- " The tree, having been weighed lege, retired to the country." down for a long time by abun- " Thomas, after having been re- dance of fruit, at last (1.) fell to peatedly admonished to no ef- the ground." RUZiz: xzv. Active participles, from active-transitive verbs, gov&im the objective case. " James is beating Johny 560. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and govemcd by heat- ing, by Rule XIV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. " John is striking William." immediately set off for Bos- " Susan is studying her lesson." ton." " Mary has been repeating her les- " I spied the cat watching a son to her mother." mouse." "The teamster, seeing the stage "Having given directions to his upsetting, ran and prevented servants, he left his family it." and took the stage for Wash- " Having obtained my request, I ington." " He delights in Jlghting,^^ 561. Fighting is a participial noun, in the objective case, and governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED, 1. " Job was exhausted by wrest- " Job practises fencing daily." ling." "The instructer teaches reading, "Mary acquired a liveHhood by writing, and spelling, in his sewing." school." " Walter excels in writing." " Whispering is forbidden in " Fishing delights me." school." "Beating John." Will you parse ing? ,%}. Why is fighting caUed a p&r- Johnl 560. Beating? 558. ticipial noun? Ans. Because it implies ^N\\\ you parse the remaining exercises f."'^°"' l;'!^. I P^'n'^'P^^' ^"'^ *'^'* ^^'''' in thp iP«s«nn nhnvo 1 the sense of a noun, m the lesson above ? ^. „ ^^^ p^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ jj^e exercises " In fighting." Will you parse fight- in this lesson ? (1.) M Uut is an adverbial phrase. EXERCISES. 8X 2. 562. " You will much oblige me by sending those books.^^ Sending is a participial noun, in the objective case, and governed by the preposition by, according to Rule X. Books is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, NEUTER GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and govomed by the active par- ticiple sending, according to Rule XIV. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. "James derives pleasure from read- " Mary's reading has been useful ing useful books." in improving her taste in com- "John is above doing a mean ac- position." lion." " I am discouraged from under- " Parents are pleased at seeing taking this study." the progress of their chil- " A good instructer takes no delight dren." in punishing." The present participle, when used as a noun, often has the definite article the before it, and the preposition o/ after it ; as, ** By the observing of truth, you will command respect." With equal propriety, however, it maybe said, "By observing truth," &c., omitting both the article and the pre- position. If we use the article without the preposition, or the preposition without the article, the expression will appear awkward : hence. Note VIII. The definite article the should be used before, and the preposition of afler, participial nouns, or they should both be omitted. EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. "By the observing these rules, he "In the regarding his interests, will avoid mistakes." he neglected the public af- "He prepared them for the event fairs." by the sending to them proper " He was sent to prepare the way information." by preaching of repentance." " In writing of his letter, he made " Keeping of one day in seven (1.) some mistakes." is required of Christians." PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. *♦ William calls George." " John will be punished for his "John*s father will reward his in- insolence." dustry. ^ »* We may improve under our in- " George's father's carnage passed structer, if we choose." the tavern." " If William return, he will be dis- " He who would excel in learn- appointed." ^"ff» ™ust be attentive to his •* John has beaten his little brother books." most shamefully," " She begins to improve." " By sending those books." Will you Instead of saying, " By the observing parse sending? 5(32. books? 562. these rules," what should I say? Why? Will you parse the remaining exercises Note VIII. How may participles in ing be distin- Will you parse the promiscuous exer- guished from other parts of speech of the cises in Syntax ? Next take those to be iiame termination ? 560. written. «1.) Seven is a numeral atdjedive, belonging to days, understood, bjr Note r. 88 , ENGLISH GRAMMAR. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 563. Will you compose a sentence, containing an active-transitive verb ? One, containing- a neuter verb ? One, containing a passive verb ? One, expressing the same sense as the last in an active form ? Will you com- pose a sentence having a verb in the potential mood ? One, in the sub- junctive mood ? One, in the imperative mood ? One, in the infinitive mood ? One, having an adjective in the superlative degree ? One, hav- ing the article an correctly used before a vowel ? One, having an adjec- tive in the positive degree that has in itself a superlative signification ? One, containing the relative whose ? One, containing wJdch ? One, with what used as a compound pronoun ? One, having who used as an inter- rogative pronoun ? One, having a verb in the subjunctive mood, common form ? Will you construct one or more sentences, which will make sense with the word truth contained in them? One, with the word wisdom contain- ed in it ? One, with the word knowledge 1 One, with the word learn' ing ? One, with the word science 7 Will you construct a sentence about prudence ? One about history ? One or more on the following subjects, namely, geography, gardenings farms, orchards ? Will you fill up the following phrases with suitable words to make sense, namely, " Industry health ?" " By — we acquire ?" " In youth characters ?" " Arithmetic business ?'* "Washington live hearts of his ?" XLIX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 564. The verbs have, he, will and do, when they are unconnected with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs ; as, " We have enough ;" '* I am grateful ;" " He wills it to be so ;" ** They do as they please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries ; as, "I shall have enough ;" "I will be grateful," &c. 565. The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the following account of them. 666. Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater energy and positiveness ; as, ^'I do speak truth ;" "I did respect him ;" *' Here am I, for thou didst call me." They are of great use in negative (1.) sentences ; as, ** I do not fear ;" "I did not write." They are almost universally employed in asking questions; as, " Doss he learn ?" ''Did he not write?" They sometimes also supply (2.) the place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in the same or a subsequent sentence, annecessary ; as, ** You attend not to j^our studies as he does ;" (i. e. "as be attends," &c.) *'I shall come, if I can; but if I do not, please to excuse me ;" (i. e. ** if I come not.") 567. 3Iay and might express the possibiUty or liberty of doing a thing ; can and could, the power ; as, " It may rain ;" "I may write or read ;" " He might have improved more than he has ;" " IJe can write much bet- ter than he could last year." XLIX. Which are the auxiliary verbs? What effect have do and did in sen- 512. tencea ? 566. Give an example. 566. What is an auxiliary verb ? 511. Will you give an example in which the What a principal one?* repetition of the principal verb is un- When are have, be, will, and do princi- necessary 7 566. pal verbs? 564. Give an example of What do may and might express? each. 564. 567. (1.) Denying. (2.) To fill up. * See question to 197. AUXILIARY VERBS. 89 568. Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity ; as, ** We must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and we must not pre- varicate." (1.) 569. Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates (2.) resolution and promising ; in the second and third person, it only foretells; as, "I will reward the good, and will punish -the wicked ;" " We will remember benefits, and be grateful ;" " I'hou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly ;" ** You, or they, will have a pleasant walk." 570. Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; in the second and third persons, it promises, commands, or threatens; as, "I shall go abroad ;" " We shall dine at home ;" " Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit the land ;" *' Ye shall do justice, and love mercy ;" " They shall account for their misconduct." 1'he following passage is not translated (3.) according to the distinct and proper meanings of the words shall and will : " Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever." It ought to be, " wi/Z follow me," and, " I shall dwell." — The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and cried out, '^ I will be drowned! nobody sAaZZ help me !" made a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries. 571. These observations respecting the import (4.) of the verbs will and shall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for when the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, (5.) for the most part, takes place : thus, " I shall go," " You will go," express event (6.) only ; but, *' JVill you go ?" imports intention ; and, " Shalt I go ?" refers to the will of another. But, ** He shall go," and, " Shall he g(5 ?" both imply will ; expressing or referring to a command. 572. When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning of these auxiliaries Hkewise undergoes (7.) some alteration ; as the learners will readily perceive by a few examples : " He shall proceed ;" " If he s^aZZ pro- ceed ;" " You shall consent ;" *' If you shall consent." These auxiharies are sometimes interchanged (8.) in the indicative and subjunctive moods ; to convey the same meaning of the auxihary ; as, *' He will not return ;" " If he shall not return ;" "He shall not return ;" " If he will not return." 573. Would primarily (9.) denotes inclination of will ; and should, obliga- tion ; but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple event. 574. Do and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, according to the following SiriTOFSZS. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. I do. I have. Imp. I did. I had. Perf. I have done. I have had. Plup. 1 had done. I had had. 1 Fut. I shall or will do. I shall or will have. 2 Fut. I shall have done. I shall have had. What is the use of must ? 568. all the days of my life ; and I will dwell What does will intimate in the first in the house of the Lord for ever." 570. person sitffeular? plural? 569. Give an In what consists the mistake in the example. 569. In the second and third expression which the foreigner made persons? 569. Give an example. 569. whon he fell into the Thames? 570. What does shall intimate in the first What do s/mW and wiZZ denote in inter- person? 570. Give an example. 570. ropative sentences; as, "Shall I go?" In what particular is the translation of " Will you go ?" 571. the following passage incorrect ? " Sure- What do tcould and should primarily ly goodness and mercy shall follow me denote ? 573. (1.) To shun the truth. (2.) Shows. (3.) Expressed. (4.) Menninj. (S.) Contrary. (6.) What happens. (7.) Suffers. (8.) To exchange oue for the other. (9.) la the first place. 8* 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 575. POTENTIAL MOOD. Pres. I may or can do. I may or can have. Imp. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should should do. have. Perf. I may or can have done. I may or can have had. Plup. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should should have done. have had. 576. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. \. If I do. If I have, &c. 576—1. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Pres. Do you, or Do you do. Have you, or Do you have. 577. INFINITIVE MOOD. Pres. To do. To have. Perf. To have done. To have had. 578. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Doing. Having. Perf. Done. Had. Comp. perf. Havmg done. Having had. L. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 579. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of the moods and tenses. 580. The following are the principal ones : Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. May, Might, (Wanting.) Can, Could, Will, Would, ' Shall, Should, Must, Must, . Ought Ought, ■ Quoth, 581. Of these, ought and must, you perceive, are not varied. 582. Ought and quoth are always used as principal verbs. Ought is the same in the imperfect tense as in the present, and is always followed by an infinitive ; as, ** He ought to study ;" "He ought to have read." In this last example, ou^ht is in the imperfect ; and in the first, it is in the present. This we determme by the infinitive, which follows the verb, thus : when the present infinitive follows ou^ht, ought is in the present tense ; but when the perfect infinitive follows it, it is in the imperfect tense. 583. In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive and intransitive, or neuter signification. Thus, to flatten, when it signifies to make even or level, is an active-transitive verb ; but when it signifies to grow dull or in- sipid, it is an intransitive verb. Will you repeat the synopsis of do Which are not varied ? 581. through all the moods ? of have ? How are ought and quoth always used ? Will you conjugate do in the present 582. tense ? have in the perfect tense ? How can you tell when ought is in the What is the perfect participle of do? present tense ? 582. of have? the compound perfect of do ? of When is it in the imperfect tense ? 582. Iiave? Give an exafnplo of each tense. 582. li. What are defective verbs ? 579. When is to flatten transitive, and when Will you mention the principal ones, intransitive? .583. with their imperfect tenses? 580. How, then, are verbs often used? 583. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 91 584. A neuter or intransitive verb, by the addition of a preposition, may become a compound active -transitive verb ; as, to smile is intransitive ; it cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be changed into the passive form. We cannot say, "She smiled him," or, *'He was smiled;" but we say, very properly, "She smiled on him;" "He was smiled on by her." 585. Prepositions affect the meaning of verbs in different ways. To cast means to throw; as, "He cast a stone at her." To cast up, however, means to compute ; as, "He casts up his accounts." In all instances in which the preposition follows the verb, and modifies its meaning, it should be considered a part of the verb, and be so treated in parsing. 586. There are some verbs, which, although they admit an objective case after them, still do not indicate the least degree of action; as, "I resemble my father." This seeming inconsistency may be easily recon- ciled by reflecting that, in all such cases, the verb has a direct reference to its object. Of this nature are the verbs retain, resemble, own, have, &c. 587. Some neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive form, and are thence called neuter passive verbs ; as, " John goes home to-night." Here goes is an intransitive verb. But in the sentence, " John is gone home," is gone is a neuter passive verb. Again, in the phrase, " William comes," comes is an intransitive verb ; and in the phrase, " William is come," is come is a neuter passive verb. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 1. V William had had many advantages " He has had many precious oppor- before he improved them in a tunities." proper manner." " John will do as his instriicter if* A good scholar will not do what (1.) directs." is forbidden by his instructer." " He may have had time." 2. " I own this book." " I cannot believe him." " Charles resembles his parents." " His father does not hesitate to " He retains his place." trust him." 3. •* The farmer casts seed into the " She smiles sweetly." ground." " She smiled on John." " The merchant casts up his ac- " John was smiled on by fortune in counts often." every undertaking." 4. " The instructer has come." ** Mary was gone before her mother " Our instructer has come." came." "William has gone to visit his "When they came to town, they parents." made many purchases." " Susan has gone." How can an intransitive verb be- Is resemble, strictly speaking, a transi- come transitive ? 584. Give an example, tive verb ? 586. 584. Why does it admit an object after it? What does to east mean ? 585. 586. Meaning of to cast up 7 585. There are several verbs of this class; When may the preposition be reckoned will you name some of them ? 586. a part of the verb ? 585. What is a neuter passive verb 1 587. How should it be considered in pars- Give an example. 587. ing ? 585. Will you now parse the next lessons ? (1.) What standi for, « that which," or, <« the thing which." Apply Rules V. VI. and VUI. 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LI. OF ADVERBS. 588. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, adjec- tives, and other adverbs, to qualify them. 589. Expressions like the following, namely, a few days ago, long since, none at all, at length., in vain, by no means, a great deal, &c., are denomi- nated adverbial phrases, when they are used to quahfy verbs or participles, by expressing the manner, time or degree of action. 590. The definite article the is frequently placed before adverbs of the comparative and superlative degrees, to give the expression more force ; as, " The more he walks, the better he feels." When the article is used in this sense, both the article and adverb may be reckoned an adverbial phrase, and be so considered in parsing. 591. You have doubtless noticed that most words ending in ly are ad- verbs. The reason of this is that ly is a cohtraction of the adverb like : thus, from manlike we form manly : gentlemanly is a contraction of gentle- manlike. — Hence, 592. If you meet with a word ending in ly, implying in its signification the idea of like, you may conclude at once that it is an adverb. RUZiS IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs* EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. " In vain we look for perfect happiness.'^'* 593. In vain is an adverbial phrase, and qualifies look, accord- ing to Rule IX. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. ** John has come again, but William " William acted very nobly." has not." " I will by no means consent." "Very many persons fail of happi- " He wrote a long letter a few days ness." ago." (1.) "A vast many evils are incident to "John was writing carelessly." man in his wearisome journey " I have admonished her once and through life." again." " The instructress has at length " A few days ago, there was much arrived." excitement in town." LI. What is the meaning of adverb ? When are they to be considered ad- 228. verbial phrases 1 589. To what is the adverb joined ? 588. la the article the ever joined to an ad- For what purpose ? 588. verb ? 590. For what purpose ? 590. HnSfiLmfn/v^'^Rj'"^ P^'*' '^""'^ What do the article and adverb form does It qualify? 588. . . ra»**o*' singular, ccjiinative case, and put in appositioa ■with 7, by Rule XV. 7 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Passive verbs of naming, judging, ^c. have the same case after them ai before them. I 4. Neuter verbs have the same case after Ijtem as before them. 616. The foregoing rules, in the opinion of the writer, are wholly unne- cessary, tending merely to confuse the mind of the learner by requiring him to make a distinction in form, when there exists none in principle. In cor- roboration of this fact, Mr. Murray has the following remark : — 617. ** By these examples it appears, that the verb to be has no govern- ment of case, but serves in all its forms as a conductor to the cases ; so that the two cases, which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next be- fore and after it, must always be aUke. Perhaps this subject will be more intelhgible by observing that the words, in the cases preceding and following the verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, * I understood it to be him,^ the words it and him are in apposi- tion ; that is, they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case." 618. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 1. " Webster is a statesman." " John is a good scholar." " William will become a distinguish- ed and valuable citizen." " She walks a queen." (1.) "He is styled Lord (1.) Mayor (1.) of London." " He was named John." (1.) 2. " Susan took her to be Mary." (1.) " I took him to be John (2.) Og- den." " We at first took it to be her, but afterwards were convinced that (3.) it was not she." " He is not the person who (4.) it seemed he was." " I understood it to be him (1.) who Remark 3. — It not unfrequently happens that the connecting verb is omit- ted ; as, *' They made him captain ;" that is, to be captain. 3. " They named him John." " They proclaimed him king." " The soldiers made him gen- " His countrymen crowned him em- eral." peror." " She moves a queen." (1.) " Julius Caesar was that Roman gen- eral who conquered the Gauls." "Tom struts a soldier." (1.) " Will sneaks a scrivener." " Claudius Nero, Caligula's uncle, a senseless fellow, obtained the kingdom." is the son of Mr. (2.) John Quincy (2.) Adams." (1.) " She is not now the person whom they represented her (1.) to have been." " Whom (5.) do you fancy them to be?" " The professor was apnointed tutor to the prince." / SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. "She is the person who I under- stood it to have been." " Who do you think me to be ?" " Whom do men say that I am ?" " Whom think ye that I am ?" 619. " It might have been him, (6.) but there is no proof (7.) of it." "Though I was blamed, it could not have been me." " I saw one who I took to be she." What office does the verb to be perform between cases ? 617. Are the cases next before and after it, alike, or different? 617. What is the opinion of Mr. Murray respecting the cases before and after to be ? 617. How does he think it and kirn should be parsed in the phrase, "I understood it to be him?" 617. Will you now parse lessons 1, 2, and 3 ? Is the verb to be always expressed ? Re- mark 3. Give an example. Remark 3. Will you now take the sentences to be parsed and corrected ; also, those to be written ? (1.) Apply Rule XV. . (2.) Remark 2, (3.) Coniunction. (4.) T^^o Is put in apposition with Ae, by Rule XV (6.) Whom agrees with them, by Rule XV. (6.) Ihm should be Ac to agree with it, ac cording to Rule XV. (7.J Apply Rule VI. NOUNS. ' 99 620. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Will you compose a sentence having nouns in apposition ? One, having nouns in apposition, but separated by a verb ? One, having a noun used as an adjective ? Will you construct a sentence having in it the word who ? One, having whose ? One, having whom ? One, having what ? One, having that ? One, having man? One, having woman? One, having hoy? Ope, having ^iris? One, having parents ? LVI. OF NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 621. To address signifies to speak to; as, "James, your father has fiome." The name of the person addressed must always be of the second "person ; and a noun in this situation, when it has no verb to agree with it, afld is wholly disconnected with the rest of the sentence, is said to be inde- pendent. Hence, nxjiiZs XVI- When an address is made, the name of the person or thing addressed is in the nominatiue case independent. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 622. " John, will you assist me V* John is a proper noun, of the second person, singular number, MASCULINE GENDER, and NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT, aCCOrding tO Rule XVI. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 1. "My lords, (1.) the time has come "Rufus, you must improve your when we must take some de- time." cisive measures." " Gentlemen of the jury." " In making this appeal to you, my "James, (1.) study (2.) your book." fellow-citizens, I rely entirely " William, do try to get your lesson on your candor." to-day." 2. " Boys, attend to your lessons." " My dear children, let no root of " Girls, come into school." bitterness spring up among •* Did you speak to me, girls ?" you." LVI. " James, your father has come." When is a noun independent ? 621. Which word here is the name of the per- What is the rule for a noun put inde- sou addressed? pendently ? XVI. What is the meaning of to address? In the sentence, "John, will you assist 621. me ?" will you parse John ? 622. Of what person is a noun when nn Will you next parse the rest of the address is made ? 621. exercises in this rule? (I.) Rule XVI. (2.) Imperative mood, and agrees with thou or you underBtood, by Rule VIl. 100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LVII. OF NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 623. In the phrase, *' The sun being risen, we set sail," the first clause of the sentence, namely, " The sun being risen," has nothing to do with the remainder : the noun and participle may, therefore, when taken together, be said to be in the nominative case independent ; but as we have already one case of this nature, we will, for the sake of making a distinction, call this (the noun joined with a participle) the nominative case absolute. Hence, RITi: Observation under Note XX. Give an represent individuals? 304. ,% example. What is a collective noun? 306. Will you now take the sentences to be What four things belong to nouns ? 308. parsed and written? What is gender? 312. Masculine How many articles are there? 351. gender? 314. Feminine gender? 315. Will you name them? 351. When do Common gender? 316. Neuter gender? we use a? 87, 857. When an ? 86. 317. PARTS OF SPEECH. lOD, LXIV. OF )VORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS ^ OF SPEECH. 650. That is a relative, When who or which may be substituted for it, and make sense; as,- ** The man that [who] arrived yesterday." 651. That is a demonstrative pronoun, When it is joined with a noun to point it out ; as, " That man is intelli- gent." 652. That is a conjunction, In all cases when it is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pronoun ; as, *' He studies that he may learn." 653. But is a preposition, When it has the sense of except; as, "All but [except] John came." 654. But is an adverb, When it has the sense of only ; as, *' This is but [only] doing our duty." 655. But is a conjunction. In all cases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition ; as, " He called, but I refused to go." 656. As is a relative, When it follows many, such, or same; as, "Let such as hear take heed." 657. As is an adverb. When it is joined to an adverb or adjective in the sense of so ; as, ** He does as well as he can." 658. As is a conjunction, In all cases except when it is an adverb or relative ; as,. " He did as I directed him." 659. Either is a conjunction, When it corresponds to or ; as, " Either the one or the other." 660. Either is a distributive pronoun. When it means, "one of the two;" as, "You can take either road." 661. Both is a conjunction. When it is followed by an^ / as, "We assisted him both for his sake and our own." How may nouns, naturally neuter, be noun? 651. Give an example. When a converted into the masculine or feminine conjunction ? 652. Give an example, gender ? 318. When is hut a preposition ? 653. Give What is the feminine corresponding to an example. When an adverb? 654. bachelor? 319. How is the feminine here ^tive an example. When a conjunction? formed'' 655. Give an example. Will you spell the feminine corre- When is as a relative? 656. Give an sponding to lah king ? benefactor 7 319. example. When an adverb ? 657. Give How is the feminine here formed ? ?;? example. When a conjunction ? 658. • TTr-,, II .u ^ Give an example. Will you spell the feminine corre- when is either a conjunction? 659. sponding to baron? poet? priest! Jew? Give an example. When a distributive votary? tutor? hero? duke 7 instructer? pronoun? 660. Give an example. 319- When is both a conjunction ? 661. Give LXIV. W^hen is that a relative ? 650. an example. When an adjective pro- Give an example. A demonstrative pro- noun ? 662. Give an example. 10 K no ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 662. Both is an adjective pronoun, When it means, " the two ;" as, *' Both the men are ^ilty." 663. Yet is a conjunction, When it follows though; as, " Though he reproves me, yet I esteem him." In all other cases, it is an adverb ; as, "That event has yet to come." 664. For is a conjunction, When it means the same as because ; as, ** He trusted him, for he knew that he would not deceive him." 665. For is a preposition. In all instances except when it is a conjunction; as, "He works for me." 666. What is a compound relative. When it stands for, " that which ;" as, " I will take what [that which] you send me." 667. What is an interrogative relative pronoun. When used in asking questions ; as, " What do you want?" 668. What is an adjective pronoun, When joined with a noun ; as, " What strange things he said !" 669. What is a compound adjective pronoun, When joined with nouns, and has the sense of two or more words ; as, " In what manner he succeeded, is unknown to me ;" that is, " The man- ner in which he succeeded, is unknown to me." 670. What is an interjection. When used to express wonder ; as, " What ! take my money ?" 671. Then is a conjunction, When it has the sense of therefore ; as, " If he has commanded it, then I must obey." 672. Then is an adverb. When it refers to time ; as, " Did you hear it thunder then ?" 673. Much is a noun. When it stands for quantity ; as, " Where much is given, much will be required." 674. Much is an adjective, When it is joined to nouns ; as, " Much labour fatigues us." 675. Much is an adverb. When it qualifies the same parts of speech that the adverb does ; as, " Thou art much mightier than I." 676. More is a noun. When it implies quantity; as, "The more we have, the more wa want." When is ye« a conjunction ? 663. Give When an interjection? 670. Give an an example. Wlien an adverb? 663. example. ^ whTn to^™'n^;,.r,iM«.tj^n 7 CCA r.rc When is then a conjunction ? 671. Give n^^i"'^-^ wh?n''?.rl^"\ n^7^ ^^ example. When an adverb? 672. Give an elcam JTe P-^^P^^^'^^" ^ ^^^^ Give an example. When is what a compound relative? When is much a noun? 673. ^ive an 666. Give an example. When an inter- example. When an adjective? 6/4. Give rogative relative pronoun? 667. Give an an example. When an adverb ? 675. example. When an adjective pronoun ?. Give an example. 66a Give an example. When a com- When is more a noun ? 676. Give an pound propoun ? 669. Give an example, example. EXERCISES. Ill 677. More and most are adjectives^ When they qualify a noun; as, '* The more joy I have, the more sorrow I expect; "Most men are mistaken in their pursuit of hap- piness." 678. More and most are adverbs^ When used in comparison ; as, ** This boy is more obedient than that;" ** The soil of Cuba is most fertile." 679. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. ' They perfume their garments." ^ A perfume is a sweet odor." 'They rise early in the morn- ' A rise sometimes signifies the be- ginning." 'Rufus speaks the language of truth." ' James performed his part well." ' A well is a fountain of water." * A well man is one who enjoys his health." *We frequently walk in the gar- den." * The Jews fast often." * He walks very fast." * The refuse signifies the worthless remains." ' Desert not a friend." * Joseph's brethren came and bowed down before him." * William went after his slate." " His elder brethren came before Benjamin did." " John left after William came." " Evil communications corrupt good manners." " Corrupt conversation is very fool- ish." " A walk in the fields in the sum- mer season is delightful." "A true fast is abstaining from iniquity." " Sin is a moral evil, and the cause ' of natural evils." " Protest not rashly, lest thou have to repent of it." " A protest is a solemn declaration against a thing." " Do nothing rashly, lest thou pre- cipitate thyself into inextricable difficulty." " Hasty promises are seldom kept." 2. "The man that I saw, was ex- ecuted." " That man that you met yesterday in the street, was taken and sent to Boston, that he might have an impartial trial." "We assisted him both for your sake and our own." ' Did you hear the report of the cannon then ?" 'Where much is given, much will be required." ' Future time is yet to come." ' He trusted him, /or he knew that he would not deceive him." When are more and most adjectives? f)??. Give examples of each. When ad- verbs? 678. Give examples of each. Wliat is number! 5. What does the sinjfular number denote? 8. What the plural? 10. What nouns have the singular form only? 324. What the plural ? 325. What are the same in both numbers? ;?26. How is the plural number of nouns generally formed ? 327. When nouns end in ch, sh, &c., how do thev form the plural ? 328. How do those endinjr in/or/c? 329. How is the plural formed, when the singular ends in ?/, with no other vowel in the same syllable ? 330. What is case ? 333. The nominative case? 335. .Possessive case? 337. How formed ? 338. How formed when the sin- gular ends in ss ? 341. What does the objective case express ? 343. Will you decline man? book? 345. chair? 345. Will you parse the promiscuous exer- cises ? What is an adjective? 363. What does the positive state express? 365. Comparative? 366. Superlative? 367. How is the comparative formed in mono- syllables? .369. How in more syllables than one ? 370. How do you compare the following ad- jecti ves ? — ffood ? bad ? wise ? little ? small? virtuous? many? old? 115. When does an adjective become a noun in parsing? 378. 112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ' Both the men are guilty." 'Although he reproves me, yet I esteem him." ' All but John came." ' This is but doing our duty." *He called me, but I refused to go-" ' Let such as hear take heed." ' He did as I directed him." *You may take either the one or the other." 'Either road will conduct you to the right place." ' If he has commanded it, then I must obey." " He works for me." " He refused what was sent him.** " What strange things he saw !" "In what manner he succeeded is unknown to me." " What ! will you take my life ?** " The more we have, the more we want." "The more joy I have, the more sorrow I expect." " The most dutiful children are the happiest children." " Much labor fatigues me." "Thou art much mightier than I aijp." "Susan is determined to learn." " By framing excuses he prolonged his stay." "The man who is faithfully at- tached to religion may be relied on with confidence." " James, do visit me." " Virtue and vice are opposites.** " When John's father asked him • that question, he heard him, but refused to answer him." " The wall is sixty feet high." " To meet our friends after a long absence affords us much joy." LXV. CONTRACTIONS. Of the Auxiliary Have, also of Had. ' They 've forsaken him." ' I *d gone when you came." ' They 'd just returned from town." " I 've satisfied myself.'*- "They'd determined to let him go." 681. 0/WiLL and Would. ' I '11 finish my work first." 'They'd sing songs till midnight, if they were urged." "He is still determined that he'll not forbear." " He '11 at last mind me." Will you name a few adjectives which have in themselves a superlative signifi- cation ? 374; What is a pronoun ? 381. A personal pronoun ? 382. Why called personal ? 382. How many persons have pronouns in each number? 383. How many num- bers ? 384. To which of the pronouns is gender ap- plied? 382. How many cases have pronouns ? 384» Will you decline J? tkou? he? she? m 127. What kind of a pronoun is myself? 386. How formed ? 386. What is a relative pronoun 7 409. Why called relative ? 40S. What is said of the relative what? 429. How ought who to be applied? 412. How which? 413. How may that be used? 415. When are pronouns called interroga- tive? 431 What are adjective pronouns? 390. How many kinds of adjective pronouns are there ? 391. Which are the demonstrative? 398. Why so called ? 398. The distributive ? 393. Why so called ? 393. The indefi- nite ? 402. Why so called ? 401. To what do this and that refer 7 400. Will you decline one? 404. other 7 403 What is the rule by which pronouns agree with their antecedents? V. Which words in sentences are antece- dents? 420. What are subsequents? 431. Will you parse t.^le ciercises marked 2? CONTRACTIONS. 113 682. Of Am and Is. " That man's rich." "'Tis strange that she will not " 'T is true she 's dead." regard the kind assistance of " I 'm sorry that you have misspent her friend." your time." 683. Of Cannot and Will not. " He can't endure such afflictions." " He won't disobey me." " You can't be absent at such " You won't mistake the direc- times." * tion." 684. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Interrogative Sentence. "Who will assist me?" "John" "What will make me respectable [will assist me]. and happy ?" " Virtue." " What sent our forefathers to this " Who taught him grammar ?" country?" " The love of liberty." " Mr. Williams." 685. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Auxiliary. *♦ Stephen will go if John will" " He received me in the same man- [go] . ner that I would you." " Susan shall walk, but John shall " I will do it as soon as I can." not" "The work is not completed, but ** I have recited ; have you ?" , soon will be." 686. Omissions of the Principal Verb after Than and As. "Thomas is a better scholar than "Johnson is richer than James." William" [is]. " Susan is not so beautiful as "He was more beloved than Cin- Mary." thia, but not so much ad- "She is more playful than her mired." brother." 687. Omissions of the Verb To be. ** Sweet the pleasure, rich the trea- " Delightful task, to rear the tender sure." thought, "A child of freedom thou." To teach the young idea how to " Sweet the music of birds." shoot." " Dear the schoolboy's sport." What is a verb ? 438. tivo? 472. Subjunctive? 456. Infini- What is an active verb? 439. live ? 479. When is an active verb transitive? What are participles? 498. How may 440. When intransitive ? 441. the participles in ing be distinguished What is a passive verb? 444. How from other words of like termination? formed ? 510. 500. How may a transitive verb be known ? How many, and which are the partici- 154. pies ?| What does the present express ? How an intransitive? 154. 500. Perfect ? 502. Compound perfect? What is a neuter verb? 450. 504. Willyounext take the exercises mark- LXV. Will you next parse the con- ed 3? tractions? 680. What belong to verbs ?* What is tense ? 494. What is the pre- Howmany numbers have they? How sent used for? 482. The perfect ? Imper- many persons?! feet? 488. Pluperftct ? 491. First fu- What is mood? 451. How many are ture? 41)2. Second future? 493. there ? 481. Will you name them? Under what circumstances do we use What is the indicative mood used for? the present tense to denote the relative 452. The potential ? 453. The impera- time of a future action ? 484. * Mood, tense, number and person. t Three. J Three — the present, perfect, and compound perfect. 114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 688. Omissions of Mam, Might, Could, Would, and Should. "Live long and be happy." "He might not weep, nor laugh, " Who will entreat the Lord that he nor sing." spare our lives ?" " Should I forgive you, and allow " I could not think, nor speak, nor you to depart, you would not hear." reform." 689. Omissions of the Conjunction before the Verb in the Sub- junctive Mood, " If he will repent and reform, I will assist him." " Unless good order be restored, and the former officers be re-elected, there will be an end to the ad- ministration of justice." "Had I improved my time as I ought to have done, I should have been well qualified for business." " Were there no alternative, I would not do that." 690. Omissions of For after Verb, implying the idea of serving. " Make me a pen." " Order me a carriage." ' Bring me some water." ' Purchase him a knife." " Sweet child ! lovely child ! parents are no more." " Sweet blossom ! precious to my heart." Omissions of the Interjection, thy " Thou Preserver and Creator of all mankind." " My beloved Ulrica ! hast thou, too, forgotten me ?" 692. Omissions of the Relative. " Several men are there come from " I trust that he I desire to see so Europe." muchi^ill^peedily return.' I.XVI. inver: The Nominative •• Smack went'the whip, round the wheels ; Wejpe ever folks so glat *'^ere^ goes a man alike ^istin* ':;:'_ j^olden hair." after the Verb, guished for his learning and ^ politeness." ^.^''"" "And in soft ringlets waved'^er In what sort of dftsoriptions do we use the present.ibrtT]e pasV tense ? 486. What is the conjugation of a verb? 531. What is the conjugation of an active verb styled? 532. A passive verb? 532. How many tenses lias the indicative ? .."625. Potential ? 527. Subjunctive ? 526. Imperative? 529. Infinitive? .528. What is the sign of the present indica- tive? 519. The imperfect ? 520. .fer- ^'Ifect? 521. Pluperfect? 522. Firslftir ture ? 523. Second future ? 524. The potential mood? 515. Infinitive ? 517. Subjunctive? 516. How many persons ^as the imperative ? 518. How many fepses? 529. How many forms h^s the Bubjunjctiye moQ4?^^l-'"Tft'"What d^.they W^ill you now parse the omissions? 684, &c. How is the passive verb formed ? 510. Will yskudecline love in the indicative present, passive-? and the verb to be in the imperfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? First future? Second future? Present poten- tial? Imperfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? Present subjunctive, common form? Im- perfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? First fu- ture ? Second future ? ■- |n what voice, mood, tense, number and per'gOij^ is, " I love ?" " We love ?" " They are loved ?" " You are ?" " I did learn ?" "John was, instructed?" "He was?" ♦'They have "Returned ?" "Have they gone?" "They hdVe been ?" " I had had?" "They had been distinguished?" SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 115 694. The Objective Case before the Verb, ** Tyrants no more their savage na- " Me glory summons to the martial ture kept, scene." And foes to virtue wondered how " The rolls of fame I will not now they wept." explore." 695. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. Will you compose a sentence exemplifying Rule VIIT. ? One, Rule IX.? X.? XL? XII.? XIII.? XIV.? Will you compose a sentence on the use of the dog ? One, on the clouds ? One, on night ? One, on wind 1 One, on snow ? One, on hail ? One, on ice? One, on skating ? One, on fishing ? One, on courage ? One, on cowardice ? One, on flial duty 1 ' One, on indolence ? One, on schools 7 696. SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. " Here rests his liead upon the lap of earth, A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown." Transposed, ** A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame, rests here his head upon the lap of earth." " When, young, life's journey I began. The glittering prospect charmed my eyes ; I saw along the extended plain, Joy after joy successive rise : But soon I found 'twas all a dream. And learned the fond pursuit to shun, Where few can reach the purposed aim, And thousands daily are undone." Transposed. " I began life's journey when young, and the glittering prospect charmed my eyes; I saw joy after joy successive rise, along the ex- tended plain : but soon I found it was all a dream ; and learned to shun the fond pursuit, where few can reach the purposed aim, and thousands are daily undone." " Needful austerities our wills restrain, As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm.'* Transposed, " Needful austerities restrain our wills, as thorns fence in the tender plant from harm." •'Thou hadst been"? "You shall be Will you give the synopis o{ desire in taught"? "Shall I be punished''? "He the active voice, with the participles? shall have been" ? Of the same in the passive ? Of do in the LXVI. Will you parse the inverted active? In the passive? sentences? 693, &c. When is a verb called regular? 533. In what voice, mood, tense, number and When irregular ? 534. person, is " Love thou" ? " I may go" ? Will you repeat the present and imper. " You may be regarded" ? " You might feet tenses, also the perfect participle, be rejoiced"? "She may have been re- of am? see? hear? do? weep? sink? fused" ? " We should have been" ? " If swim ? I have"? " If thou have"? " If thou Will you next take the sentences to be hast" ? " To have" ? " To have been" ? written ? Will you give the synopis of learn^ What are auxiliary verbs? 511. through all the moods, tenses, «fec., in the How many and which are they ? 512. first person, including the participle? What are defective verbs ? 579. Learn, in like manner, in the passive? What is an adverb? 588. Why so The verb to be in the same manner ? called ? 228. 116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. On some fond breast the parting soul relies, Some pious drops the closing eye requires : E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries, E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires." Transposed. ** The parting soul relies on some fond breast ; the closing eye requires some pious drops ; the voice of nature cries even from the tomb ; and their wonted fires live even in our ashes." " From lofty themes, from thoughts that soared on high And opened wondrous scenes above the sky. My Muse ! descend ; indulge my fond desire ; With softer thoughts my melting soul inspire, And smooth my numbers to a female's praise; A partial world will listen to my lays, While Anna reigns, and sets a female name Unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame." • Transposed, " O my Muse I descend thou from lofty themes, and from thoughts that soared on high, and opened wondrous scenes above the sky ; indulge thou my fond desire ; and do thou inspire my melting soul with softer thoughts, and smooth my numbers to a female's praise ; a partial world will listen to my lays, while Anna reigns, and sets a female name unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame." In what manner are adverbs compared? What is the rule for the agreement of 236,234. nouus? XV. Articles? II., III. Ad- Whal are the phrases which do the of- jectives ? IV. Pronouns ? V. Verbs ? fice of adverbs called ? 589. VII. Particinles ? XIII, Agreement of Will you name a few? 589. a verb plural with two nouns singular? What is a preposition ? 595. XVIII. Adjective pronouns and numer- Will you repeat the list of preposi- als ? Note 1. tions ? 247. What is the rule by which a verb agrees What is a conjunction? 602. Con- with a noun of multitude, or collective junction copulative ? 2G5. Why so call- noun ? Note XVI. Rule for the objective ed? 264. Conjunction disjunctive ? 274. case after a transitive verb? VI [I. Why so called? 271. • What is the rule for the objective case Will you repeat the list of copulative after a preposition ? X. After a partici- conjunctions? 266. Of disjunctive con- pie? XIV. Rule for the adverb? IX. junctions? 275. Rule respecting the interjections O! oh! What is an interjection? 607. Why aA/&c.? Note X. 80 called? 283. Mention a few? 285. Will you parse the sentences marked What is syntax ? 296. What is a sen* transposed? tence ? 252. A simple sentence ? 253. GENERAL OBSERYATIONS. SYNTAX. That part of Grammar which treats of the fonmation and sound of the letters, the combination of letters into syllables, and syllables into words, is called Orthography. That part which treats of the different sorts of words, their vari- ous changes and their derivations, is called Etymology. That part which treats of the union and right order of words in the formation of sentences, is called Syntax. Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species, Universal and Particular. Universal Grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages. Particular Grammar applies those principles to a particular language, modi- fying them according to the genius of that tongue, and the established practice of the best writers and speakers by whom it is used. Language, in the proper sense of the word, signifies the expres- sion of our ideas, and their various relations, by certain articulate sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas and relations. An articulate sound is the sound of the Human voice, formed by the organs of speech. Letters are the representatives of certain articulate sounds, the elements of the language. The letters of the English Language, called the English Alphabet, are twenty-six in number, each of which constitutes the first prin- ciple, or least part of a word. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels are a, e, t, o, u, and sometimes w and y, W and y are con- sonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels. A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the aid of a vowel ; as, 6, d, /, Z. All letters except the vowels are consonants. Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vowel. They are b, p, t, "Lord Feversham the general's the king s representative s. tent." (4.) " Whose (5.) works are these ? •* This palace had been the grand They are Cicero, the most elo- sultan's Mahomet's." quent of men's." 5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound ; so that we daily make more use of the particle of, to express the same relation. There is something awkward in the following sentences, in which this method has not been taken: *' The general, in the army's namd, published a declara- tion ;" " The commons' vote ;" '* The lords' house ;" " Unless he is very ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were certainly better to say, *' In the name of the army ;" '* The votes of the commons ;" '* The house of lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom." It is' also rather harsh to use two EngHsh genitives with the same substantive ; as, " Whom he acquaint- ed with the pope's and the king's pleasure." *' The pleasure of the pope and the king," would have been better. ^ We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another, and connected by the preposition of applied to each of them; as, " The severity of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation;" but this mode of expression is not to be recommended. It would be better to say, " The severe distress of the king's son touched the nation." We have a striking instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the follow- ing sentence : " Of some of the books of each of these classes of litera- ture, a catalogue will be given at the end of the work." "In the army's name." How may this expression be altered for the better ? 5. ** The world's government is not " It was necessary to have both the left to chance." (6.) . physician's and the surgeon's " She married my son's wife's bro~ advice." (9.) ther." (7.) »* The extent of the prerogative of " This is my wife's brother's part- the king of England is suf- ner's house." (8.) ficiently ascertained." 6. In-some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the preposition of ; as, '* It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." Sometimes, indeed, un- less we throw the sentence into another form, this method is absolutely neces- sary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strict- (1.) Or possessive. (2.) " Johnson's sAop." Rule I. (3.) " cwtZcr." See I!?ote I. under this Rule. (4.) " The tent qf lord;' &c. (5.) 431. (6.) " Ths government of the worlds (7.) " the brother of my Bon's wife." (8.) " This liouse helov.gs to the partner of my wife's brother" (D.) " the advice both of." 153 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ly so called, which is the most important of the relations expressed by the genitive case ; for the expressions, " This picture of my friend," and, " This picture of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that of property, in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner, by saymg, " This picture, belonging to my friend." When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it is generally omit- ted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be allowable only in cases which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In the expressions, " A subject of the emperor's ;" "A sentiment of my bro- ther's ;" more than one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong to the possessor. But when this plurahty is neither intimated, nor neces- sarily supposed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not be used ; as, " This house of the governor is very commodious ;" " The crown of the king was stolen;" '* That privilege of the scholar was never abused." But, after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it is termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the use of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another form of expression. Are there any cases in which we use both the genitive termination and the preposition ofl Give an example. Is this double genitive ever omitted ? 6. " That picture of the king\s does " This estate of the corporation's is not much resemble (1.) him." much encumbered." " These pictures of the king (2.) " That is the eldest son of the king were sent to him from Italy." of England's." 7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be put in the genhive case : thus, instead of saying, "What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily ?" that is, " What is the reason of this person in dismissing his ser- vant so hastily?" we may say, and perhaps ought to say, "What is the reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily ?" just as v^e say, " What is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant?" So also we say, " I remember it being reckoned a great exploit ;" or, more properly, " I remember its being reckoned," &c. The following sentence is correct and proper: " Much will depend on the pupiVs composing, but more on his reading frequently." It would not be accurate to say, " Much will depend on the pupil composing" &c. We also properly say, " This will be the effect oj the pupil s composing frequently ;" instead of, " of the pupil composing frequently." " What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily ?" Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for it ? ** What (3.) can be the cause of the the Hollanders their throwing parliament neglecting so im- off the monarchy of Spain, portant a business." and their withdrawing entire- " Much depends on this rule being ly their allegiance to that observed." crown." " The time of William making " If we alter the situation of any of the experiment, at length ar- the words, we shall pcesently rived." be sensible of the melody suffer- **It is very probable that this as- ing." sembly was called, to clear "Such will ever be the effect of some doubt which the king youth associating with vicious had about the lawfulness of companions." (1.) 586. (2.) Or, " These pictures belonging to the king,'' &c. (3.) Rule XV SYNTAX. 153 RUI.B VIIZ. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, RULE XL Active transitive verbs govern the objective case. In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually goes before the verb ; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb ac- tive ; and it is the order that determines the case in ?iouns ; as, " Alexander conquered the Persians." But the pronoun, having a proper form for each of those cases, is sometimes, when it is in the objective case, placed before the verb ; and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb ; as " Wham ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and fovernment to be neglected ; as in the following instances: " Who should esteem more than the wise and good?" " By the character of those who you choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed," Those are the persons who he thought true to his interests." " Who should I see the other day but my old friend?" "Whosoever the court favors." In all these places, it ought to be whom, the relative being governed in the objective case by the verbs esteem, choose, thought, &c. "He, who, under all proper circumstances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend;" it should be "■him who," &c. Verbs neuter and intransitive do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro- nouns. "He sleeps,^' "they muse,^^ &c., are not transitive. They are, therefore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the object of an ac- tion. But when this case, or an object of action, comes after such verbs, though it may carry the appearance of being governed by them, it is affected by a preposition or some other word understood; as, "He resided many years [that is, for or during many years] in that street ;" "He rode several miles [that is, for or through the space of several miles] on that day;" "He lay an hour [that is, during an hour] in great torture." In tlie phrases, "To dream a dream," "To live a virtuous life," "To run h race," " To walk the horse," " To dance the child," the verbs certainly assume a transitive form, and may not, in these cases, be improperly de- nominated transitive verbs. How is the nominative case usually known in English ? How the objec- tive? Do neuter verbs govern nouns and pronouns? In the phrase, " He resided many years in that street," how do you parse years ? When verbs naturally neuter assume a transitive form, what may they then be called 2 **They who opulence has made "She that is idle and mischievous, proud, and who luxury has reprove sharply." corrupted, cannot relish the " Who did they send to him on so simple pleasures of nature." important an errand ?" **You have reason to dread his "That is the friend (4.) who you wrath, which one day (I.) will must receive cordially, and who destroy ye both." you cannot esteem too highly." " Who have I reason to love so (2.) " He invited my brother and I to much (2.) as this friend (3.) of see and examine (3.) his li- my youth ?" brary." " Ye, who were dead, hath he " He who committed the offence, quickened." you should correct, not I, who ^ Who did they entertain so free- am innocent." lyt" "We should fear and obey the " The man who he raised from ob- Author of our being, even He scurity, is dead." who has power to reward or " Ye only have I known of all the punish us forever." families of the earth." " They who he had most (5.) in- ** He and they we know, but who jured, he had the greatest reason (4.) are you ?" to love." (1.) Rule XXIL (2.) Adverb. (3.) Rule XL (4.) Rule XV. (5.) 678. 154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter or intransitive verbs as if they were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to the French construction of reciprocal verbs ; but this custom is so foreio n to the idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The following are some instances of this practice : " Repenting him of his design." " The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous enemies." "The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject." " The nearer his successes approached him to the throne." ** Go, jiee thee away into the land of Judah." ** I think it by no means a fit and decent thing to vie charities," &c. ** They have spent their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with the profane chronology." " Repenting him of his design." Will you repeat the note which shows this sentence to be incorrect ? 1. " Though he now takes pleasure in before him, the humbler he them, he will one day (1.) re- grew." pent him (2.) of indulgences so " It will be very difficult to agree unwarrantable." his conduct with (3.) the prin- " The nearer his virtues approach- ciples he professes." ed him to the great example 2. Active-transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter or intransitive ; as, *' I must premise with three circumstances ;" ** Those who think to ingratiate with him by calumniating me." ** I must premise with three circumstances." Will you correct this sen- tence, and give the rule for it ? 2. "To ingratiate (4.) with some by " I shall premise ioi1. SYNTAX. 161 say, "by the observing which," nor, "by observing of which ;" but the phrase, without either article or preposition, would be right; as, "by ob- serving which." The article a or an has the same effect ; as, " This was a betraying of the trust reposed in him." This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and from as plain a principle as any on which it is founded : namely, that a word which has the article before it, and the possessive preposition o/* after it, must be a noun ; and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort of words, that is apt to deceive us, and make us treat them as if they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs. The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule : " He was sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance ;" it ought to be, *' by the preaching of repentance," or, " by preaching repentance." " By the continual mortifying our corrupt affections ;" it should be, " by the continual mortifying o/," or, "by continually mortifying our corrupt affections." " They laid out themselves towards the advancing and promoting the good of it;" " towards advancing and promoting the good." " It is an over- valuing ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities;" "it is overvaluing ourselves," or, '^ an overvaluing p/ our- selves." " Keeping of one day in seven," &,c. ; it ought to be, " the keep- ing of one day," or, " keeping one day." A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle, and the pos- sessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and preposition. " He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher," is capable of a different sense from, "He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher." When, therefore, we wish, for the sake of harmony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseologies for the other, we should previously consider whether they are perfectly similar in the sentiments they convey. "By the observing of which." Will you parse observing ? Rule for it ? What words in this sentence may be omitted with propriety ? Would it be proper to omit one of them only ? 1. •*By observing of truth, you will to be the most advantageously command esteem, as well as situated for gaining of wisdom, secure peace." Poverty turns our thoughts too "He prepared them for this event, much upon the supplying our by the sending to them proper wants ; and riches upon the en- information." joyi"? our superfluities." " A person may be great or rich " Pliny, speaking of Cato the Cen- by chance ; but cannot be wise sor's disapproving the Grecian , or good without the taking pains orators, expressed himself thus." for it." " Propriety of pronunciation is the " Nothing could have made her giving to every word that sound, so unhappy, as the marrying which the most polite usage a man who possessed such of the language appropriates principles." to it." *' The changing times and seasons, " The not attending (1.) to this rule, the removing and setting up is the cause (2.) of a very com- kings, belong to Providence mon error." alone.* " This was in fact a converting the " The middle station of life seems deposite to his own use. 2. The same observations which have been made respecting the effect of the article and participle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and partici- ple, when they are similarly associated ; as, " Much depends on their ebferv- (1.) Rule VI. (2.) Rule XV. 162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ing of the rule, and error will be the consequence oi their neglecting ofh ;" instead of " their observing the rule, and their neglecting it." We shall per- ceive this more clearly, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun ; as, " Much depends upon Tyro's observing of the rule," &,c. But, as this construction sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the senti- ment in the following, or some other form : " Much depends on the rule's being observed ; and error will be the consequence on its being neglected ;" or, " on observing the rule ;" and, " of neglecting it." This remark may be applied to several other modes of expression to be found in this work ; which, though they are contended for as strictly correct, are not always the most ehgible, on account of their unpleasant sound. We sometimes meet with expressions like the following : ** Informing of his sentences, he was very exact;" " From calling 0/ names, he proceeded to blows." But this is incorrect language ; for prepositions do not, hke arti- cles and pronouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a substan- tive ; as we have shown above in the phrase, " by observing which." And yet the participle, with hs adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or un- derstood ; as, '^'■^Y promising much J and performing but little, we become despicable ;" ** He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely."" ** Much depends on their observing of the rule." Would this sentence be correct if the preposition of were omitted ? Will you repeat the note ? 2. " There will be no danger of their the directions, that we lost our (1.) spoiling their faces, or of way." their gaining converts." " In tracing of his history, we dis- "For his avoiding that precipice, cover little that is worthy of he is indebted to his friend's imitation." care." " By reading of books written by ** It was from our misunderstanding the best authors, his mind be- ca^me highly improved." 3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, " He begun," for ** he began ;" " He run," for " he ran;" "He drunk," for *'he drank;" the participle being here used in- stead of the imperfect tense : and much more frequently the imperfect tense instead of the participle ; as, ** I had wrote," for "I had written ;" "I was chose," for ** I was chosen ;" " I have eat," for " I have eaten." " His words were interwove with sighs ;" '* were interwoven.'' " He would have spoke;" ^^ spoken." ** He hath bore witness to his faithful servants;" ^' borne." ** By this means he overrun his guide ;" ''overran." *' The sun has rose ;" ''risen." *'His constitution has been greatly shook, but his mind is too strong to be shook by such causes ;" "shaken" in both places. "They were verses wrote on glass;" "written." "Philosophers have often mistook the source of true happiness ;" it ought to be, " mistaken." The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by changing ed into t ; as, " In good behavior he is not surpast by any pupil of the school ;" " She was much distrest ;" they ought to be, " surpassed," " distressed." Is it correct to say, " He begun" ? What is wrong in the expression ? Will you repeat I^'ote 3 ? Can the participle ending in ed be contracted to «, with propriety ? 3. ** By too eager pursuit, he run a " He was greatly heated, and drunk great risk of being disappoint- with avidity." ed." (2.) " Though his conduct was, in some " He had not long enjoyed repose, respects, exceptionable, yet he before he begun to be weary of dared not commit so great an having nothing to do." offence as that which was pro- posed to him." (1.) Omit ** their," (2.) Prcs, paas. part, used as a Boun.— Rule X. SYNTAX. 1^1 **A second deluge •learning thus o'errun, And the monks finished what the Goths begun." " If some events had not fell out very unexpectedly, I should have been present" ** He would have went with us, had he been invited." "He returned the goods which he had stole, and made all the re- paration in his power." ** They have chose the part of holidr and virtue." " His vices have weakened his mind, and broke his health." ** He had mistook his true interest, and found himself forsook by his former adherents." " The bread that has been eat is soon forgot." " No contentions have arose amongst them since their reconciliation." " The cloth had no seam, but was wove throughout." •* The French language is spoke in every state in Europe. "His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight opposi- tion." '* He was not much restrained aftel-- wards, having took improper liberties at first." '* He has not yet wore off the rough manners which he brought with him." '*You w*ho have forsook your friends, are entitled to no Con- fidence." "They who have bore a part in the labor, shall share the re- wards." "When the rules have been wan- tonly broke, there can be no plea for favor." " He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the same subject." '*He h*ept up great riches, but past his time miserably." * He talkt and stampt with such vehemence, that he was sus- pected to be insane." RI7Z.I: xxvzz. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, RULE XV. Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, 6fC., require an appropriate situation in the sentence, . viz. for the most part, before adjectives, after verbs t, active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made a very sensible dis- >- course ; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and was attentively heard by the whole assenably/' A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate the rule. " He must not expect to find study agreeable always ;" *' always agreeable." *' We always find them ready when we want them ;" " we find them always ready," &e. " Dissertations on the prophecies which have remarkably been fulfilled ;" '* which have been remarkably.''^ " Instead of looking contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should look up thankfully to God, who hath made us better ;" *' Instead of looking down contemptuously, &c., we should thankfully look, up,^^ &c. ** IT thou art blessed naturally with a ^ood memory, continually exercise it ;" " na- turally blessed,^ ^ &c. *' exercise it continually.^^ Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at some distance after it ; sometimes between the two auxiliaries ; and sometimes af- ter them both ; as in the following examples : ' ' Vice always creeps by de- grees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we are at last completely bound." ** He encouraged the ITinglish barons to carry their opposition farther ;" ** They compelled him to declare that he would abjure the realm forever ,'" instead of, ** to carry farther their opposition ;" 164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. and " to abjure forever the realm." " He has eenera]J,y been reckoned an honest man;" " The book may always be had at such a place ;" in pre- ference to " has been generally," and " may be always." " These rules will be clearly understood, after they have been diligently studied," is pre- ferable to, "These rules will clearly be understood, after they have diligently been studied." From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no exact and determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, on all occasions. The general rule may be of considerable use ; but the easy How and per- epicuiiy of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. The adverb tfiere is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the verb and the nominative noun ; as, " There is a person at the door ;" " There are some thieves in the house ;" which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, " A person is at the door;" " Some thieves are in the house." Sometimes, it is made use of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence ; as, ** There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." When it is applied in its strict sense, it principally follows the verb and the nominative case ; as, *' The man stands there^ What word is misplaced in the sentence, "He must not expect to find study agreeable always" ? Will you correct the sentence, and give the Rule for the position of adverbs ? How is the adverb sometimes placed with re- spect to the verb ? With respect to the auxiliary ? ** He was pleasing not often, (1.) be- " So well educated a boy gives great cause he was vain." hopes to his friends." "William nobly acted, though he "Not only he found her employ was unsuccessful." ed, but pleased and tranquil " We may happily live^ though our also." possessions are small." " We always should prefer our duty " From whence (2.) we may date to our pleasure." likewise the period of this " It is impossible continually to be event." at work." "It cannot be impertinent or ri- "The heavenly bodies are in mo- diculous, therefore, to remon- tion perpetually." strate." "Having not known, or having not " He offered an apology, which not considered, the measures pro- being admitted, he became sub- posed, he failed of success." missive." " My opinion was given on rather "These things should be never a (5.) cursory perusal of the separated." book." " Unless he have more government " It is too common with mankind, of himself, he will be always to be engrossed and overcome discontented." totally, by present events." " Never (3.) sovereign was (4.) so " When the Romans were pressed much beloved by the people." with a foreign enemy, the " He was determined to invite back women contributed all their the king, and to call together rings and jewels voluntarily, to his friends." assist the government." 1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb; as, "I never was there;" " He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is used, it is placed indifferently, either before or after this adverb ; as, " He was never seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." Never seems to be improperly used in the following passages: "Ask me never so much dowry and gift." "If I make my hands never so clean." " Charm he never so wisely." The word ever would be more suitable to the sense. (1.) ''not often pleasing." (2.) 589. (3.) " JVo." (4.) "eccr so." . (5.) •' a rather:'— Rii\e IX. SYNTAX. 165 verb never ge , ive an exam instead of ever. How is the adverb never generally placed with respect to the verb ? Give an example. Give an example where the word never is improperly used ".They could not persuade him, " If some persons' opportunities were though they were never so elo- never so favorable, they would quent." be indolent to improve them." 2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where is often used instead of the pronouns relative and a preposition. " They framed a protestation, where they repeated all their former claims ;" i. e. '' in which they repeated." ** The king was still determined to run forwards, in the same course where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally ad- vanced ;" i. e. " in which he was." But it would be better to avoid this mode of expression. The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition ; for they sig- nify, " from this place," " from that place," " from what place." It seems, therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with them, because it is superfluous ; as, *' This is the leviathan, from whence the wits of our age are said to borrow their weapons ;" " An ancient author prophe- sies from hence." But the origin of these words is little attended to, and the preposiiion /rom so often used in construction with them, that the omis- sion of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to verbs sig- nifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither; as, **He came here hastily;" "They rode there with speed." They should be, *' He came hither /" ** They rode thither, ^^ and consequently and forcibly driven from, the agrees with, the preceding word." house." 3. Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Thus wei say, " To converse with a person, upon a subject, in a house," &c. We also say, " We are disappointed o/a thing," when we cannot get it, ** and disappointed in it," when we have it, and find it does not answer our expectations. But two different prepositions must be improper in the same constructions, and in the same sentence ; as, ** The combat between thirty French against twenty English." In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two prepositions the pre- ference is to be given, as both are used promiscuously, and custom has not decided in favor of either of them. We say, ** Expert at," and *' Expert in a thin^;" "Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes;" "Expert in deception." (1.) "with uAonu** <2.) ** Hum,* (3.) «< by the preceding word, and coruequmtly agnct toith it." 166, ENGLISH GRAMMAR. When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived ; as, "A compliance w;i7/t," " to comply mtA;" '* A disposition to tyranny," " dis- posed to tyrannize." Do we express different relations and different sense by the same, or a different preposition ? .. 3. **We are often disappointed q/" things, pany, but have always hitherto which, before possession, prom- been disappointed in that pleas- ised much enjoyment." ure." *' I have frequently desired their com- 4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great im- portance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of impropriety in the application of this part of speech. 1st, With respect to the preposition of. " He is resolved of going to the Persian court ,-" " on going," &c. " He was totally dependent of the Papal crown ;" *' on the Papal," &C. " To call of a person," and " to wait of him;" ^'on a person," «Scc. "He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citizens ;" " in recommending," &c. 0/is sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after worthy ; as, ** It is worthy observation," or, " of observation." But it would have been better omitted in the following sen- tences: " The emulation, who should serve their country best, no longer subsists among them, but o/who should obtain the most lucrative command." *' The rain hath been falling of a long time ;" " falling a long time." " It is situation chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men;" "decides the fortune," or, '^ concerning the fortune." "He found the greatest difficulty of writing ;" " in writing." " It might have given me a greater taste of its antiqmties." A taste o/a thing implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste /or it, implies only a capacity for enjoyment. " This had a much greater share of inciting him, than any regard after his father's commands ;" " share in inciting," and " regard to his father's," &c. 2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. " You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving persons ;" " upon the most deserving," &c. "He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch;" " o/ having betrayed." " His abhorrence to that superstitious figure ;" " o/'that," &c. " A great change to the better;" "/orthe better." " Your prejudice t© my cause ;" '' against ^ "The English were very different people then to what they are at present ;" ''from what," &c. " In compliance to the declaration ;" " with'' &c. " It is more than they thought for ;" " thought of.'' " There is no need for it ;" " of it." For is superfluous in the phrase, " More than he knows /or." " No discouragement for the authors to pro- ceed ;" " io the authors," (Sec. " It was perfectly in compUance to some persons ;" " with." " The wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel ;" " diminution of" and " derogation from." 3d, With respect to the prepositions with and upon. ." ReconciHng him- self with the king." " Those things which have the greatest resemblance with each other, frequently differ the most." " That such rejection should be consonant with our common nature." " Conformable with," &.c. " The history of Peter is agreeable whh the sacred texts." In all the above in- ' stances, it should be ''to," instead of " with." " It is a use that, perhaps, I should not have thought on ;" " thought of" " A greater quantity may be taken from the heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it;" " in it." " Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could confide ;" "in whom." " He was made much on at Argos;" "much of." "If pohcy can prevail upon force ;" " over force." " I do hkewise dissent with the examiner ;" "from." 4th, With respect to the prepositions in, from., &c. " They should be in- formed in some parts of his character ;" " about," or "concerning." " Upon such occasions as fell into their cognizance ;" " under." " That variety of factions into which we are still engaged ;" " in which." " To restore myself into the favor ;" " to the favor." " Could he have profited from his repeated experiences ;" " by." From seems to be superfluous after /orfegar ; as, " He SYNTAX. 169 could not forbear from appointing the pope," &,c. "A strict observance after times and fashions ;" *' o/ times." " The character which we may now value ourselves by drawing ;" *' upon drawing." " Nehher of them shall make me swerve out of the path;" "•from the path." " Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel ;" it ought to be, " which strain out a gnat, or, take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it." The impro- priety of the preposition has wholly destroyed the meaning of the phrase. The preposition among generally implies a number of things. It cannot be properly used in conjunction with the word every, which is in the singu- lar number ; as, " Which is found among every species of liberty," " The opinion seems to gain ground among every body." " He is resolved of going to the Persian court." Will you correct this . sentence? "You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving per- sons." How should this sentence be altered ? *' Reconciling himself with the king." What inaccuracy is there in this sentence? " 1'hey should be informed in some parts of his character." Will you correct this sentence ? 4. " She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind." 'Her sobriety is no derogation to her understanding." * There was no water, and he died for (1.) thirst." * We can fully confide on (2.) none but the truly good." * I have no occasion of his services." * Many have profited from good ad- vice." ' Many ridiculous practices have been brought in vogue." * The error was occasioned by com- pUance to earnest entreaty." * This is a principle in unison to our nature." * We should entertain no prejudices to simple and rustic persons." * They are at present resolved of doing their duty." * That boy is known under the name of the idler." * Though conformable with custom, it is not warrantable." * This remark is founded in truth." * His parents think on him and his improvements, with pleasure and hope." * His excuse was admitted of by (3.) , his master." * What went ye out for to see ?" ' There appears to have been a mil- lion men brought into the field." ' His present was accepted of by his friends." * More than a thousand of men were destroyed." 'It is my request that he will be particular in speaking to the fol- lowing points." * The Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their own power." *He lives opposite the royal ex- change." ' Their house^ situated to the north- east side OT the road." * The performance was approved of by all who understood it." ' He was accused with having acted unfairly.'* * She has an abhorrence to all de- ceitful conduct." * They were some distance (4.) from home, when the accident hap- pened." * His deportment was adapted for concihating regard." ' My father writes me very fre- quently." * Their conduct was agreeable with their profession." ' We went leisurely above stairs, and came hastily below. We shall write up stairs this forenoon, and down stairs in the afternoon." * The pohteness of the world has the same resemblance with benevolence, that the shadow has with its substance." * He had a taste of such studies, and pursued them earnestly." * When we have had a true taste for the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice." ' How happy it is to know how we live at times by one's self, to leave one's self in regret, to find one's self again with pleasure I The world is then less necessary for us." * Civihty makes its way among every kind of persons." 15 02.) "tn." (3.) "ty." (4.) K. XZII. 170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion ; as, "I went to London ;" "I am going to town." But the preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to he ; as, *' I have been at London ;'.' " I was at the place appointed ;" ** I shall be at Paris." We likewise say, "He touched, arrived at any place." The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ; as, " He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham." But before vil- lages, single houses, and cities which are in distant countries, at is used ; as, *' He lives at Hackney ;" " He resides at Montpellier." It is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun one another, whether the preposition of be placed between the two parts of it, or before them both. We may say, "They were jealous of one another;" or, " They were jealous one of another ;" but perhaps the former is better. Participles are frequently used as prepositions; as, excepting, respecting^ touching, concerning, according. ** They were all in fault except or except- ing him." llow is the preposition to used with nouns of place ? Give an example. Are participles ever used as prepositions ? Give an example. 5. ** I have been to London, after hav- and are going for Liverpool. ing resided a year at France ; They intend to reside some time and I now live at Islington." in Ireland." *' They have just landed in Hull, RViii: zz. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, RULE XVIII. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case, A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further display its utility. " If he prefer a virtuous hfe, and is sincere in his professions, he will succeed ;" *' if he prefers." " To deride the miseries of the unhappy, is inhuman ; and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian ;" " and to want compassion." " The parliament addressed the king, and has been prorogued the same day ;" " and was prorogued." " His wealth and him bid adieu to each other ;" *' and he." " He entreated us, my comrade and I, to live harmoniously ;" " comrade and me." " My sister and her were on good terms;" "and she." "We often overlook the blessings which are in our possession, and are searching after those which are out of our reach ;" it ought to be " and search after." " His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for Conjunctions ? " Professing regard, and to act " To be moderate in our views, and (1.) differently, discover a base proceeding temperately in the mind." pursuit of them, is the best way "Did he not tell me his fault, and to ensure success." entreated me to forgive him ?" " Between him and I there is some " My brother and him are tolerable disparity of years ; but none be- grammarians." tween him and she." "If he understand the subject, and " By forming themselves on fantas- attends to it industriously, he can tic models, and ready to vie with scarcely fail of success." one another in the reigning fol- " You and us enjoy many privileges." lies, the young begin with being " She and him are very unhappily ridiculous, and end with being cbnnected." vicious and immoral." 1. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect different moods and tenses of verbs ; but in these instances, the nominative must generally, if (I.) *• actiof," OR, " Toprt^at rt§ar4t and to act^^ &o. SYNTAX. 171 not always, oe repeated, which is not necessary, though it may be done, under the construction to which the rule refers. We may say, " He lives temperately, and he should live temperately;" " He may return, but he wUl not conli7iue,'^' " She was proud, though she is now humble :" but it, is obvious, that, in such cases, the nominative ought to be repeated ; and that, by this means, the latter members of these sentences are rendered not so strictly dependent on the preceding, as those are which come under this rule. When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative form, or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject or^ nominative is always resumed ; as, '* He is rich, but he is not respectable." There appears to be, in general, equal reason for repeating the nominative, and resuming^ the subject, when the course of the sentence is diverted by a change of the mood or tense. The following sentences may therefore be improved : " Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools;" "but rests only;" or, " but t7 will rest only." '* Virtue is praised by many, and would be desired also, if her worth were really known;" "and she would." "The world begins to recede, and will soon disappear ;" " and it will." Do conjunctions ever connect diffijrent moods and tenses of verbs ? What case must generally be repeated in such instances ? Give an example. 1. ** We have met with many disap- great riches, but do not command pointments ; and, if life continue, esteem." shall (1.) probably meet with " Our seaso* of iniprovement are many more." short, and, whether used or not, ** Rank may confer influence, but will will soon pass away." (2.) not necessarily produce vir- " He might have been happy, and is tue." now (3.) fully convinced of it." "He does not want courage, but is "Learning-strengthens the mind, and defective in sensibihty.'° if properly applied, will improve " These people have indeed acquired our morals too." KTTZiB XXVZII, Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, RULE XIX. Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the sub- junctive, mood after them. It is a general rule, that when something contingent or doubtful is implied, the subjunctive ought to be used ; as, ^' If I were to write, he would not regard it ;" " He will not be pardoned, unless he repentJ^ Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature require the indicative mood, '^ Jls virtue advances, so vice recedes ;" " He is healthy, because he is tem- perate." The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, &c., generally require tl^e subjunctive mood after them; as, "//*thou be afflicted, repine not;'* " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him ;" "He cannot be clean, unless he wash himself;" " No power, except it were given from above ;" " Whether liw^re I or they, so we preach." But even these conjunctions, ' when the sentence does not imply doubt, admit of the indicative ; as, " Though he is poor, he is contented." The lollowing example may, in some measure, serve to illustrate the dis- (U **v»^»tuau» (2.^ «f« vMW (3.) «n8istent and regular ; of being more conformable than any other to the definition of the subjunctive, and of not referring to the indicative m<»d forms of cxpvai- tion, which ill accord with its simplicity and nature. Perhajs this theory 'vill bw-ar a strict ex3..*iJaation. SYNTAX. 177 " Though thou might have foreseen ** Unless thou should make a timely . the danger, thou couldst not have retreat, the danger will be uau- avoided it." ' voidable." "If thou could convince him, he " I have labored and wearied myself would not act accordingly." that^thou may be at ease." ** If thou would improve m know- ** He enlarged on those dangers, that ledge, be diligent." thou should avoid them. 9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belonging to them, either expressed or understood ; as, 1st. Though— yet,' nevertheless ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for our sakea he became poor ;" " Though powerful, he was meek." 2d. Whether— or ; as, " Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell." ,3d. Either— or ; as, " I will either send it, or bring it myself" 4th. J^either — nor ; as, " J^eithcr he nor I am able to compass it." 5th. As—as; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister ; and as much respected." 6th. As— so; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, " As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 7th. As— so; expressing a comparison of quality ; as, ''As the one dieth, so dieth the other;" " As he reads, they read." 8th. So— as; with a verb expressing a comparison of quality; as, "To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 9Lh. So~as ; with a negative and an adjective expressing a comparison of quanti- ty ; as, " Pompey was not so great a general a3 Caesar, nor so great a man." 10th. So — that; expressing a consequence ; as, " He was so fatigued, that he could scarcely move." The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly equal pro- priety. ** I'he king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor deci- sive, assented to the meaaure." In this sentence, or would, perhaps, have been I eter ; but, in general, wor seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence, and, therefore, gives more emphasis to the expression. Are there any conjunctions which have correspondent conjunctions belong- ing to them ? Give examples. 9. " Neither the cold or the fervid, but ** The dog in the manger would not characters uniformly warm, are eat the hay himself, nor suffer formed for friendship." the ox to eat it." " They are both praiseworthy, and *' As far as I am able to judge, the one is equally (1.) deserving as book is well written." the other." "We should faithfully perform the "He is not as diligent and learned trust committed to lis, oringenu- as his brother." ously rehnquish the charge." " I will present it to him myself, or "He is not as eminent, and as much direct it to be given to him." esteemed, as he thinks himself " Neither despise or oppose what to be." thou dost not understand." " The work is a dull performance, "The house is not as commodious and is neither capable of pleasing as we expected it would be." (3.) the understanding, or the im- ** I must, however, be so candid to agination. own I have been mistaken." " There is no condition so secure, as " There was something so amiable, cannot admit of change." and yet so piercing m his look, as " This is an event which nobody pre- (2.) affected me at once with love sumes upon, or is so sanguine to and terror." ^ hope for." " I gained a son ; " We are generally pleased with any And such a son as all men hailed me httle accomplishments of body or happy." mind." 10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The following are examples of this impropriety : " The relations are so uncertain, as that they require a great deal of examination ;" It should be, " that they require," &.c. " There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend 12 ( 1.) For " •qruoMy," read •' or." <2.) « that it.** (8. ) " naither thea," 178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. some ill consequences ; it ought to be, "so sanguine as not to apprehend," &.C. ; or, *' no man, how sanguine soever, who did not," &c. '* To trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power." " This is no other but tho gate of paradise." In both of these instances, but should be Ihayi. " We should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hope ; whether they are such as we may reasonably expect from them what they propose," &,c. It ought to be, " that we may reasonably," &c. *' The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as he ought to have done ;" ** with which he ought." '* In the order as they lie in his preface;" it should be, "in order as they lie;" or, "in the order in which they lie." ** Such sharp replies that cost him his Hfe ;" *'a« cost," &c. " If he were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly painted ;" " such a scarecrow," &c. " I wish I could do that justice to his memory, to oblige the painters," &-c. ; " do smcA justice as to oblige," &c. Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ? What is said of sentences beginning with the conjunctive form of the verb ? Give an ex- ample. When has as the force of a relative pronoun ? (1.) Give an example. There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the conjunctive form of a verb. " Were there no difference, there would be no choice." A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes made use of; as, " Had he done this, he had escaped ;" " Had the limitations on the prerogative been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made him regard as sacred the boundaries of the consiitutioti." The sentence in the common form would have read thus : " If the limitations on the prerogative had seen," &c. '* his integrity would have made him regard," ect two words. f 7. ) R^ct one wwrl. SYNTAX. 18S "The sacTj^cesofTirtuewiH not only rules of Tirtue, not only would be rewarded hereafter, but re- they escape innumerable dan- compensed even in this life." (1.) gers, but command respect from ,'^* All those possessed of any office, the licentious themselves." (2.) resigned their former commis- '* Charles was a man of learning, sion." (2.) knowledge, and benevolence ; " If young persons were determined and, what is still more, a true to conduct themselves by the Christian." (2.) 6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner : " lie spoke and acted wisely ;" that is, *' He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely." " Thrice I went and offered my service;" that is, " Thrice I went, and thrice I offered my service." How is the ellipsis of the adverb used ? 6. •* The temper of him who is always " How a seed grows up into a tree, in the bustle of the world, will and the mind acts upon the body, be often ruffled, and be often are mysteries which we cannot disturbed." (3.) explain." (5.) "We often commend imprudently, "Verily there is a reward for the as well as censure imprudent- righteous. There is a God that ly." (4.) judgeth in the earth." (5.) 7. The ellipsis ot the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the following instances: "He went into the abbeys, halls, and public build- ings;" that is, " He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and hq went into the pubhc buildings." " He also went through all the streets and lanes of the city;" that is, "through all the streets, and through all the hmes," &c. "He spoke to every man and woman there;" that is, "to every man and to every woman." " This day, next month, last year;" that is, " On this day, in the next month, in the last year." " The Lord do that which seemeth him good ;" that is, " which seemeth to him." j Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the. preposition and the verb ? : 7. y* Changes are almost continually gins smiled at what they blush- taking place, in men and in man- ed before." (5.) ners, in opinions and in customs, " They are now reconciled to what in private fortunes and public they could not formerly be conduct." (5.) (3.) prompted, by any considera- " Averse either to contradict or tions." (5.) blame, the too complaisant man "Censure is thetaxwhich a man pays goes along with the manners that the pubhc for being eminent." (5.) prevail." (5.) " Reflect on the state of human life. ** By this habitual indelicacy, the vir- and the society of men as mixed with good and with evil." (5.) 8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : " They confess the power, wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator;" that is, "the power, and wisdom* and goodness, and love of," &c. " Though I love him, I do not flatter him ;" that is, " Though I love him, yet I do not flatter him." Will you give an example of the eUipsis of a conjunction ? S. " In all stations and conditions, the " Religious persons are often unjust- important relations take place, of ly represented as persons of masters and servants, and hus- romantic character, visionary bands and wives, and parents and notions, unacquainted with the children, and brothers and friends, world, unfit to live in it." (1.) ' and citizens and subjects." (6.) " No rank, station, dignity of birth, ^'Destitute of principle, he regarded possessions, exempt men from neither his family, nor his friends, contributing their share to public nor his reputation." (4.) utiUty." (7.) 9. The elHpsis of the interjection is not very common : it, however, is some- times used ; as, " Oh, pity and shame !" that is, " Oh, pity ! oh, shame !" (1.) Insert three words. (2.) Insert two words. (9.) Reject two words. (4.) IU|^ one word. 1^6.) loMTt one wond. f6,) Reject fijur wo»d». (7.) " nor-~no—nor on^." 184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language, numerous examples of it might be given ; but only a few more can be ad- mitted here. In the following instance, there is a very considerable one: "He will often argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation; and if another, from another;" that is, "He will often argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from another nation." The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis : *' Wo is me ;" i. e. " wo is to me." " To let blood ;" i. e. *' to let out blood." ** To let down ;" i. e. ** to let it fall or slide down." " To walk a mile ;" i. e. " to walk through the space of a mile." '* To sleep all night ;" i. e. ** to sleep through all the night." ** To go a fishing ;" ** To go a hunt- ing ;" i. e. " to go on a fishing voyage or business ;" " to go on a hunting party." ** I dine at two o'clock ;" i. e. " at two of the clock." " By sea, by land, on shore ;" i. e. " by the sea, by the land, on the shore." What is said of the ellipsis of the interjection ? 9. "Oh, my father! Oh, my friend ! how " Oh, piety ! virtue ! how insensible great has been my ingratitude !" have I been to your charms !" (1.) (2.) 10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of ellipsis in some particular cases. " The land was always possessed, during pleasure, by those intrusted with the command;" it should be, "those persons intrusted ;" or, " those who were intrusted." " If he had read far- ther, he would have found several of his objections might have been spared ;" that is, " he would have found that several of his objections," &c. " There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their own characters ;" it ought to be, " nothing tw t»^2cA men," and, "than in knowing." "I scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and use ;" it should be, " which would yield," &c. " In the temper of mind he was then ;" that is, " in which he then was." " The little satisfaction and consistency to be found in most of the systems of divinity I have met with, made me betake myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures;" it ought to be, " wJiich are to be found," and which I have met with." " He desired they might go to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were due ;" that is, " to him to whom," &c. " There is nothing men are more deficient in, than in knowing their own characters." Will you correct this sentence ? 10. ** That is a property most men have, " Most, if not all, the royal family or at least may attain." (3.) had quitted the place." (2.) " Why do ye that which is not lawful "By these happy labors, they who to do on the sabbath days ?" (2.) sow and reap, will rejoice to- " The show bread, which is not lawful gether." (4.) to eat, but for the priests alone."(2.) RXJIiZ! XXXI. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, RULE XXII. All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other: a regular and dependent construction, throughout, should he carefully preserved. The following sentence is, there- fore, inaccurate : " He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio." It should be, " He was more beloved than Cinthio,lDut not so much admired." (1.) Reject one word. (2.) Imert ooo word. C3.) Insert three wonta. (4.) Io»ert two word*. SYNTAX. 185 The flrst example under this rule presents a most irregular construction, namely, " He was more beloved as Cinthio." Tlie words more and so much are very impro- perly stated as having the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not necessary to supply the latter ellipsis; because it cannot lead to any discordant or improper construction, and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant. As the 31st rule comprehends alt the preceding rules, it may, at the first view, appear to be too general to be useful. But, by ranging under it a number of sen. tences peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calculated to ascertain the true grammatical construction of many modes of expression, which none of the particular rules can sufficiently explain. " This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be publish- ed ;" it ought to be. "that has been, or shall be published." " He was guided by interests always different, somAimes contrary to, those of the community;" "dif- ferent/row;" or, "always different from those of the community, and sometimes contrary to them." " Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even older than tradition ?" the words " as old," and " older," cannot have a common regimen ; it should be, " as old as tradition, or even older." " It requires few talents to which most men are not born, or at least may not acquire ;" " or which, at least, they may not acquire." " The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the common law." In this construction, the first verb is said to mitigate the teeth of the common law, which is an evident solecism. " Mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would have been grammatical. • " They presently grow into good humor and good language towards the crown ;" "grow into good language," is very improper. "There is never wanting a set of evil instruments, who, either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are always ready," &;c. We say properly, " A man acts out of mad zeal," or, " out of private hatred;" but we cannot say, if we would speak English, "he acts out of filthy lucre." "To double her kindness and caresses of me:" the word kindness requires to be followed by either fo or for, and cannot be construed with the preposi- tion of. " Never was man so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have done this evening :" the first and third clauses, namely, " never was man so teased," " as I have done this evening," cannot be joined without an impropriety; and to con- nect the second and third, the word that must be substituted for as; " or suffered half the uneasiness that I have done ;" or else, "half so much uneasiness as I have suffered." Tlie first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those such as are hardly consistent with one another : " How much soever the reformation of thia degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more com- fortable prospect of future times." The sentence would be more correct in the following form : " Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be despaired of," &c. " Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the bloodthirsty ; in whose hands is wickedness, and their right hand is full of gifts." As the passage introduced by the copulative conjunction and, vvas not intended as a continuation of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, the relalive whose should have been used instead of the possessive their ; namely, " and whose right hand is full of gifts." " Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." There seems to be an impropriety in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases. " Neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things," &;c. would have been regular. " We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very proper to say, " altering and compounding those images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" but we cannot with propriety say. " retaining them into all the varieties;" and yet, according to the manner in which the words are ranged,.this construction is unavoidable : for retaining, altering^ and compounding are participles, each of which equally refers to and governs the subsequent noun, those images ; dnd that noun, again, is necessarily connected with the following preposition, into. The construction might easily have been rectified, by disjoining the participle rcfainin^ from the other two participles, in this way; " We have the power of retaining those images which we have once received, and of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" or, perhaps, better thus: " We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, and of forming them into all the varie- ties of picture and vision." Why is the first example under this rule inaccurate ? ** This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be published." Will you point out the inaccuracies in this sentence, and correct them ? 16» 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ' Several alterations and additions have been made to the work." (1.) ' The first proposal was essentially different, and inferior to the se- cond." (2.) ' He is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as his com- panion." (3.) * Thou hearest the sound of wind, but thou canst not tell whence it Cometh, a7id whither it goeth." ' Neither has he, nor any other per- sons, suspected so much dissimu- lation." (4.) ' The court of France or England was to have been the umpire." (5.) ' In the reign of Henry H. all foreign commodities were plenty in Eng- land." (6.7 * There is no talent so useful towards success in business, or which puts men more out of the reach of ac- cidents, than that quality gener- ally possessed by persons of cool temper, and is, in common lan- guage, called discretion." (7.) * The first project was to shorten dis- course, by cutting polysyllables into one." (8.) ' I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have." (9.) * The greatest masters of critical learnmg differ among one an- other. ^^ ' Micaiah said, If thou certainly re- turn in peace, then hath not the Lord spoken by me." (10.) " I do not suppose, that we Britons want a genius, more than the rest of our neighbors." (10.) " The deaf man whose ears were opened, and his tongue loosened, doubtless glorified the great Phy- sician." (11.) ** Groves, fields, and meadows are, at any season of the year, pleasant to look upon ; but never so much as in the opening of the spring." (12.) " The multitude rebuke ihem, hecause they should hold their peace." " The intentions of some of these phi- losophers, nay, of many, might and probably were good." (13.) " It #as an unsuccessful undertak- ing ; which, although it has failed, is no objection at all to an enter- prise so well concerted." (14.) " The reward is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter be given to him." (15.) ** By intercourse with wise and expe- rienced persons, who know the world, we may improve and rub off the rust of a private and retir- ed education." (16.) " Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than knowledge." (17.) " No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the mortifications, as he has done to-day." (18.) ** The Romans gave not only the freedom of the city, but capacity for employments, to several towns in Gaul, Spain, and Germany." (19.) " Such writers have no other standard on which to form themselves, ex- cept what chances to be fashion- able and popular." (20.) ** Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed and heard in the clear- est light." (21.) *' To the happiness of possessing a person of so uncommon merit, Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honor his country could bestow." (1.) " This work has netivtd,'" &c. (2.) " vsas infmrior to the second, and— from it.*' (3.) " active than his." (4.) Insert "Aa»e." (5.) "ortAot o/." {6.) '^^ plentiful." (7.) Insert "more'' and "loAtcA." IS.) *^ by reducing— to words of one syllable " (9.) Insert a participle. (10.) Re- ject one word. (M.) Insert two words, and reject one. (12.) Insert "jo." (13.) Insert "Aauc 6een." i 14.) *^ the failure of which is, however." (15.) Insert «' fceen." (16.) End with, "and ru6 ojfiX* rtwt." 17.) "as knowledge, and." (18.) Insert •" ieen" for ^^done," and end with "fucA mortification.^ (19.) ^ the inhabitants of." (20.) Bejeet om word. (21.) *' displayed in the clearest." PROSODY. Prosody consists of two parts : the former teaches the true pro- mjNciATioN of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, PAUSE, and tone ; the latter, the laws of versification. OF PRONUNCIATION. OF ACCENT. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and second syllable sume, which take the accent. OF QUANTITY. The QUANTITY of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered long or short. A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel, which occa- sions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letter; as, fall, tale, mood, house, feature. A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant, which occasions thevowel tobe quickly joined to the succeeding letter; as, ant, bonnet, hunglir. A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pro- nouncing it ; thus mate and nole should be pronounced as slowly again as mat and not. OF EMPHASIS. By EMPHASIS is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay a particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the em- Ehatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as y a greater stress. OF PAUSES. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice, during a perceptible, and in many cases, a measurable space of time. OF TONES. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or variations which we employ in the expression of our sentiments. OF VERSIFICATION. Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of syllables, according to certain Taws. Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the last sound of another. Wh&t II protodr ? How much more time does the pronunciation of a What i( accent ? What ic the quantity of a lyllable? long syllable occupy, than a short one ? What is em- When ii a vowel or syllable long ? Wbeo short ? Oiv« phasis ? What are pauses ? What are tones ? What is •maplM of each. versiSeation ? What ie rhyme i (187) 188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OF POETICAL FEET. A certain number of syllables connected form a foot. They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three syllables, ar.d are reducible to eight kinds — four of two syllables, and four of three — as follows : DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. A Trochee, — ^ A Dactyl, — ^^ An Iambus, '-^ — An Amphibrach, ^ — "^ A Spondee, — — An AnapaBst, ^ ^ — A Pyrrhic, -^ ^ A Tribrash, ^ ^ ^ A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented ; as, '♦Hateful, pettish." An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter accented ; as, " Betray, consist." A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, " The pale moon." A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, " on the taU tree." A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented; as, " Laborer, possible." An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the mid- dle one accented; as, " Delightful, domestic." An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented; as, ♦' Contravene, acquiesce." A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, '* Niimerable, conquer- able." Some of these may be denominated ■principal feet, as pieces of poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and Anapaest. The others may be termed secondary feet, because their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. PUNCTUATION. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen- tences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon; and the Feriod, double that of the colon. OF THE COMMA. The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though very closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between them. Rule 1. — With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it is composed, have so near a relation to each other, that, in general, no points are requisite, except a full stop at the end of it ; as, " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." ** Every part of nature swarms with living creatures." A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nominative case is accompanied whh inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause im- mediately before the verb ; as, *' The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the EngUsh language." "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character." What constitutes a poetical foot, und why is it so What is punctuation ? What does the comma repre* called? Of how many syllables do poetical feet con- sent? the semicolon ? the colon? the period? sist? How many kinds of feet are there, and what How is the comma used ? are they ? What is a Trochee? an Iambus? a Spon- "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of %visdom." dee? a Pyrrhic? a Dactyl? an Amphibrach? an Does this sentence require a pause iu if? Will you Anapaest? a Tribrach? Will you give an example give (he rule for sentences of this kind ? "The good of each ? Which are ioilled principal feet ? Which taste of the present aue has not allowed us to neglect •-•*"? Wh|r? the cultivalior -'•♦»-» El-"' »• PROSODY. 189 Rule 2. — When the connection of the different parts of a simple sentence, is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before the beginning and at the end of the phrase ; as, "I remember, with grati- tude, his goodness to me." " His work is, in many respects, very imper- fect." " It is, therefore, not much approved." But when the interruptions are slight and unimportant, the comma is better omitted ; as, " Flattery is certainly pernicious." " There is surely a pleasure in beneficence." Rule 3. — When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they are parted by a comma ; as, " The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex- tremely." *' They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade." From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to two nouns closely connected by a conjunction ; as, " Virtue and vice form a strong contract to each other." " Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition." If the parts connected are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is expressed; as, "Romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil." Rule 4. — Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same substantive, are Hkewise separated by commas; as, "Plain, honest truth wants no artificial covering." " David was a brave, wise, and pious man." But two adjectives immediately connected by a conjunction, are not sepa- rated by a comma ; as, " Truth is fair and artless." " We must be wise or fooUsh : there is no medium." Rule 5. — Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and im- mediately following one another, "are also separated by commas ; as, " Vir- tue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity." " In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to the rule ; as, " The study of natural history expands aiid elevates the mind." Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and exception. Rule 6. — Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, must be separated by commas; as, "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." " We must act prudently, steadily, and vigorously." When two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted bv a comma ; as, " Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously." * Rule 7. — When participles are followed by something that depends upon them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "The king, approving the plan, put it in execution." "His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous." Rule 8. — When a conjunction is parted by a phrase or sentence from the verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a comma at each extremity; as, "They set out early, and, before the dawn of day, arrived at the destined place." Rule 9. — Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "My son, give me thy heart." "I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favors." Rule 10. — The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are sepa- rated by commas from the body of the sentence ; as, " His father dying, he succeeded to the estate." " At length, their ministry performed, and race well run, they left the world in peace." " To confess the truth, I was much in fault." Rule 11. —Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the same case, by way of explication or illustration, when accompanied with ad- juncts, are set off by commas; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was lentence admit of a pause ? If so, where, and what is sta»e what points should be placed in this sentence, the rule? " I remember \vith gratitude his goodness and the rule for it? St^te the exceptions, to me," Will you state how this sentence «hnuld be " The king approving? the plan, put it in execution." pointed, and the rule for it? Will ycyi slate the ex- Will ynu sttte how this sentence should be pomted, cepfion to this rule ? and the rule for ii ? " Plain honest truth wants no artificial coverine:," " They set ou' early and before the dawn of day ar- Will you state how this sentence should be pointed, rived at the des ined place." Will vou state the rule and the rule for it? What exception is Ihere to this for pointing this sentence, and others of a similar rule? "Virtue Siipporis in adversitv, mndera'es in kind? prosperity." Will \ou state how this sentence should " My son give me thy heart." What Is the rule for be pointed, and the rule for it ? State the exceptions to pointing this senteiice ? Xh - o- - .-.*«-, "Paul the aoostle of the G«ntile« wp< ».-**—♦ -»:>) , f(,f >,;, „^al and knowledge." Wi" >' • 190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. eminent for his zeal and knowledge." ** The butterfly, child of the sum- mer, flutters in the sun." But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they are not divided; as, "Paul the apostle." *'The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book." Rule 12. — Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a comma; as, ''As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." ** Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it." If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma is, in gen- eral, better omitted ; as, " How much better is it to get wisdom than gold !" Rule 13. — When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with Bome marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a comma ; as, " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." *' Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found not only in union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another." Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comma before it ; as, " Many states were in alliance with, and under the protection of Rome." *' The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or more nouns refer to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the threatening, and at the approach, of a cruel and lingering death." Rule 14. — A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, *' It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know." *' Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." Rule 15. — Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit a comma before them; as, "He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life." But when two members or phrases are closely connected by a relative, re- straining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should be omuted; as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative is not ex- pressed, but understood; as, "It was from piety, warm and unaffected, that his morals derived strength." Rule 16. — A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, or following another, must be distinguished by a comma ; as, " To improve time whilst we are blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness." "Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity and the evils of human Hfe, we make that vanity, and we increase those evils." If, however, the members succeeding each other are very closely con- sected, the comma is unnecessary ; as, " Revelation tells us how we may main happiness." When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its governing verb, with several words between them, those words should generally have a comma at the end of them ; as, " It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one another." Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and succeeding one another, are also divided by commas ; as, " To relieve the . indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble employments." Rule 17. — When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be made the nominative case to it, the former this sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it ? limely who lyires a sober righteous and piotis "As the hart panteth after the water-brm ks so doth life."" Will you state how this sentence should b« my soul pant after thee." How sh uld this sentence pointed, and the rule for it? Will you state when be pointed, and what is the rule for it ? the comnja should be omitted ? Does thi^ rule apply "Though deep yet clear though gentle yet not to cases in which the relative is expressed ? Give Jin dull " How should this sentence be pointed, and example. what is the rule for it ? State the exception to " To improve time whil-t we are bleraed with thi* rule. " It hurts a man's pride to say I do health will smooth the bed of sickness." How should •^"i How should this sentence be pointed, this sentence jo^ -■ .'v' and wV • ■- ' t''< for rt? "He prea"' K- ' PROSODY. 191 is generally separated from the latter verb by a comma; as, "The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men." " The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men." Rule 18. — When adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and often when the natural order of them is inverted, they may be set off by com- mas ; as, " Virtue must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeated exertions." *' Vices, hke shadows, towards the evening of life, grow great and monstrous." Rule 19. — Where the verb is understood, a comma may often be pro- perly introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides comprising some of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases not determined by any of them; as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; Irom curiosity, knowledge." Rule 20. — 1'he words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma. OF THE SEMICOLON. The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other as those which are dis- tinguished by a colon. * The semicolon is sometimes used when the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on the fol- lowing clause ; and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding one ; as in the folio wmg instance : " As the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our species in every, thing that is laudable ; so nothing is , more destructive to them when it is governed by vanity and folly." OF THE COLON. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less con- nected than those which are separated by a semicolon ; but not so indepen- dent as separate, distinct sentences. The colon may be properly applied in the three following cases : — 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some supplemental remark, or further illustration of the subject ; as, " Na- ture felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel reveals the plan of divine interposition and aid." 2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment; as, "A divine Legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty Governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wraih awaiting the wicked : these are the considerations which overawe the ■world, which support integrity, and check guilt." 3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced ; as, "The Scriptures give us an amiable representa- tion of the Deity, in these words : ' God is love.' " OF THE PERIOD. When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in con- struction with the following sentence, it is marked with a Period. ♦« The most obvious remedy is to withrfi^w from all and what is the rule for it ? « He feared want henc« •ssociations with bad men." Will you state how this he overvalued riches." Will you state how this sen- sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it? tence should be p^inteil, and the rule fir it ? •* Vices like shadows towards the evening of life grow When is the semicolon u^^ed ? When is the colon great and monstrous." Will ynu give the rule for lued ? In what three cases may the colon be properly pointing this sentence, and apply it? "From law applied? •rises security from security curiosity from curiosity When is the ppriod uied ? After abbreviated words kaowledee.^ H«w tbould this sentence be pointed, what point should be used ? Oiveexauiple«. 193 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The Deriod should be used after every abbreviated word ; as, M. S., P* S., N. B., A. D., O. S., N. S., &c. THE DASH. The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent wri- ters, may be intro(fuced with propriety where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause is required ; or where there is an un- expected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !" INTERROGATION. A Note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence ; that is, when a question is asked ; as, *' Who will accompany me ?'* ** Shall we always be friends ?" EXCLAMATION. The Note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &.c., and also to invocations or addresses; as, ''My friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Bless the Lord, O my soul! and forget not all his benefits !" The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent, in that respect, to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They mark an elevation of the voice. PARENTHESIS. A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, or use- ful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction ; as, " Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) f Virtue, alone, is happiness below." The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be accompanied with every point which the sense would require if the paren- thetical characters were omitted. Directions respecting the Use of CAPITAL LETTERS, It is proper to begin with a capital, 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing. 2. The first word after a period, and, if the two sentences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 3. The appellations of the Deity; as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit. 4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships ; as, George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Seahorse. 5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, Grecian, Roman, English, French, Italian, &c. 6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form ; as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : 'Know thyself.' " The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital. 7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books ; as, John- son's Dictionary of the English Language ; Thomson's Seasons. 8. The first word of every line in poetry. 9. The pronoun / and the interjection are written in capitals. Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. When may the dash be introduced with propriety ? What is n parenthesis? Give an example In "Who will accompany me?" What pomt should be which it is used with proprieiy. Should the voice used af the end of this sentence ? be elevated or depressed ia pronouDcinj a paren To what is the note of exclamation applied ? Give thesis ? an example. Are the exclamation and interrogation When should capital letters be used f points detenuiaateas to tlteir quantity or time ? E. H. BUTLER & CO. PUBLISHERS AND BOOKSELLERS, NO. 23 MINOR STREET, PHILADELPHIA, PUBLISH THE FOLLOWING STANDARD WORKS. SMITH'S GRAMMAR. English Grammar on the Productive System ; a method of instruc- tion recently adopted in Germany and Switzerland. Designed for Schools and Academies. By Roswell C. Smith, A. M. Price 34 cents. This work has been before the public several years. Notwithstanding the many new works on this subject which have from time to time appeared, Smith's Grammar has been constantly increasing in favour, and it is believed that at the present time its popularity is greater than that of any other School Book published in the country, and that the anndal sales of the work in the United Slates exceed that of the aggregate of all the other works on English Grammar. Thousands of recommendations could be given if the limits would admit. PETER PARLEY'S COMMON SCHOOL HISTORY: A General History for High Schools, Young Ladies' Seminaries, Academies, and Common Schools ; with one hundred and fifty engravings, illustrating History and Geography. Price 75 cents. This work is universally admitted to be the most successful attempt to bring General History within the scope of our schools and academies that has ever been made ; and is calculated to remove the difficulties which have hitherto excluded this study from our schools. It presents Universal History in a series of interesting and striking scenes, weaving together an outline of Chronology, illustrated by descriptions, which once impressed on the mind, will never leave it. One peculiar advantage of the work is, that History is here based upon geography, a point of the utmost importance. The success of the work, in actually interesting children in the study of history, has been practically tested and demonstrated. Several instances have occurred, in which pupils, before averse to history, have become deeply interested in it, preferring it to almost any other subject. The publisher requests my opinion of Parley's Common School History. It is seldom that I give an opinion upon school books, there are so few that I can recommend with a clear conscience ; and publishers do not wish, of course, to send forth a condemning sentence to the w^orld. But in this case I can truly say tiiat, having used the book in my school since it was published, I consider it a most interesting and luminous compend of general history for the younger classes of scholars ; and that, were I deprived of it, I know not where I could find a work that I could use with so much pleasure to myself, and profit to those for whom it is designed. , Respectfully yours. ' CD. CLEVELAND. E. H. BUTLER AND Co's PUBLICATIONS. Philadelphia, September 19, 1839. Having examined Parley's Common School History, I do not hesitate to say that, in ray opinion, it is decidedly the best elementary general history I have seen, and I recommend its use to other teachers. M. L. HURLBUT. The above is concurred in by the undersigned as follows : I intend to introduce it into the academical department of the University of Pennsylvania, under my care, as soon as possible. SAMUEL W. CRAWFORD. I have already introduced Parley's Common School History as a class-book. SAMUEL JONES, Principal of Classical and Mathejnatical Institute. I consider it one of the best works of its talented and indefatigable author. Its style is clear, and its plan shows the labour of thought. It is based, as all such works should be, upon geography, and judiciously cemented with chro- nology. It is surprising that any analysis of so complex a science as History, should disregard what have been so aptly called its " two eyes" — Geography and Chronology. I am sut)mitting these volumes to the practical test of daily lessons with my children, and find them both pleasing and instructive. Their division into short chapters, and the general classification, render their great variety of subjects easy to the unfolding mind. L. H. SIGOURNEY. ANGELL»S SERIES OF READERS. Complete in six numbers. By Oliver Angell, A. M, Principal of the Franklin High School. AngelPs Reader No. 1, or Child's First Book. The arrangement of the Lessons in this book is such, that the child commences reading as soon as he commences putting the letters together into syllables ; the exercise of spelling and reading being simultaneous. The same syllables and words which form the Spell- ing Lessons, are arranged as Reading Lessons directly opposite, or immediately under the spelling columns. It is believed that by this arrangement, the greatest difficulty which children usually experience in learning to read is removed. Price 8 cents. AngeU's Reader No. 2, or Child's Second Book. This is a continuation of the First Number, containing Easy Reading Lessons, most of which are pleasing stories, designed to interest the mind of the learner, and afford instruction. Spelling Lessons, con- sisting of vi^ords from the Reading Lessons, precede every Reading Lesson. Price 14 cents. AngeU's Reader No. 3, or Child's Third Book. This is a gradual advance from the Second Number, having the Reading and Spelling Lessons arranged on the same plan. The Lessons, in each of the Numbers, are followed by a set of Questions, to exercise the reader on what he has read. Price 17 cents. ^ E. H. BUTLER AND Co's PUBLICATIONS. AngelPs Reader, No. 4. A gradual advance from the Third Number, and designed as a Reading and Spelling Book, and containing a variety of useful and entertaining matter. Price 30 cents. AngelPs Reader, No. 0. A Reading Book for the higher classes in Common Scools, with Spell- ing Lessons and Definitions adapted to each reading section. Price 50 cents. Angeirs Reader, No. 6, or Select Reader. Being a selection of pieces, in Prose and Verse, which can scarcely fail to interest the mind, improve the heart, and inform the under- standing ; accompanied with an Explanatory Key, containing much useful information ; and a large collection of Verbal Distinctions, with illustrations. Designed as a Reading Book for the highest classes in Academies and Schools. Price 75 cents. The whole forming a Series of interesting, useful, and economical School Books. These Six Volumes, compiled by Oliver Angell, comprise a Series which is undoubtedly more suitable for the purpose for which they are designed, than any previous publications ; and they are more popular among those who have the direction of education than any ever prepared in this country. There is a decided advantage in possessing sets of Elementary books by the same author, Avho has pursued a similar plan with each, rising step by step, and who, it is pre- sumed, would be better able to preserve the proper gradation of style and matter, than several individuals would. COATES'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. First Lines of Natural Philosophy, divested of Mathematical Formulae ; being a practical and lucid Introduction to the Study of the Sciences. Designed for the use of Schools and Academies. Illustrated with 264 cuts. By Reynell Coates, M. D. This work has already passed through several editions and been introduced into many of the first schools in the United States. Duodecimo, Price 75 cents. I have examined with some care the " First Lines of Natural Philosophv," by Reynell Coates, M. D., published by E. H. Butler & Co., and I believe it to be a work unusually well calculated to ^ive to the student a clear understand^ lug of the different subjects upon which it treats. The clear and familiar style of the author, and his mode of preparing the learner to comprehend the meaning of the different scientific terms, previous to their being used in the work, are advantages in my opinion of no small merit. Signed, BENJAMIN HALLOWELL. Philadelphia, September, 1846. Coates' First Lines in Natural Philosophy, is used as a text-book for the junior classes in this institution. JOHN S. HART, Principal of Central High School. E. H. BUTLER AND CO'S PUBLICATIONS. COATES'S PHYSIOLOGY. First Lines of Physiology; being an Introduction to the Science of Life, written in Popular Language. Designed for the use of Common Schools, Academies, and General Readers. By Reynell Coates, M. D. Sixth Edition, illustrated with engravings. Price $1.00. Physiology is a subject of the deepest interest to all who are desirous properly to cultivate their powers of body and mind ; and it is now beginning to be conceded, that no course of education can be regarded as complete, without including some general knowledge of the science of I-.ife. A text-book upon this subject is anxiously sought for by the leading teachers and professors of our country ; but it has been supposed that, desirable as such knowletige must be for those who are charged with the care of the young, there is something in the nature of the study, rendering it unfit for introduction into seminaries. The error of this opinion is most clearly shown in the work now offered to the public. It contains not a word tliat can be regarded as objectionable by the most fastidious delicacy. KENDALL'S URANOG RAPH Y: Or, a Description of the Starry Heavens. Designed for the use of Schools and Academies ; accompanied by an Atlas of the Heavens, showing the places of the principal Stars, Clusters, and Nebulae. By E. Otis Kendall, Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the Central High School of Philadelphia, and Member of the American Philosophical Society. The Uranography contains 365 pages and 9 fine engravings ; the Atlas is in quarto, and contains 18 large maps. Price of the Uranography and Atlas $1.25. Uranography, as the word imports, is simply a description of the Heavens. It is Descriptive, as distinguished from Practical Astronomy. Astronomy, as a {)ractical science, requires the use of costly instruments and a knowledge of the ligher mathematics. But Uranography requires for its study no more expensive apparatus or higher attainments than Geography. The same boy or girl who is competent to study the description of the earth, may with equal ease, and from the same teacher, learn a description of the heavens. The " Uranography and Atlas" are to the one study what the " Geography and Atlas" are to the other. This work has already reached its fourth edition, and is highly recommended by Professors Olmstead, Loomis, and Walker, as well as by nearly every teacher who has examined it. HART'S CLASS BOOK OF POETRY. HART'S CLASS BOOK OF PROSE. Being Selections from distinguished English and American Authors, from Chaucer to the present day ; the whole arranged in Chronological Order, with Biographical and Critical Remarks. Price 75 cents each, sold separately. In making a compilation like the present, intended chiefly for the use of those whose characters and opinions are still but partially formed, it has been deemed important to select not only master-pieces of style, but also master-pieces of thought. It is believed to be a defect in some of the more recent publications, intended as reading-books for schools, that sufficient care has not been used in regard to the sentiments contained in them. Such books very often, indeed, contain pleasing descriptions, and interesting stories, written in an agreeable style, and capable of affording amusement for children of a certain age. But E. H. BUTLER AND CO'S PUBLICATIONS. they are not of that masculine character that stimulates the mind to action, or that gives it materials to act upon ; and they not unfrequently cultivate a taste for reading of tlie most unprofitable description. These volumes have been introduced into the public schools of the city and county of Philadelphia, and in the city of Baltimore, and have received the most unqualified recommendations from those who are the best able to judge — those that have used them in their schools. HART'S CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. A Brief Exposition of the Constitution of the United States. By John S. Haet, a. M., Principal of the Central High School. Fourth edi- tion.. Price 34 cents. This work has been recommended by Chief Justice Gibson, Judges Sergeant, Randall, and Parsons. HART'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. An Exposition of the Principles and Usages of the English Language. Price 38 cents. in the preparation of this work no special attempt has been made at novelty. The author's aim has been chiefly to make a careful and accurate digest of those principles of the language which have been remarked by previous writers, and to slate these principles with precision and perspicuity. At the same time, the work is believed to contain many observations that are new, and a satisfactory solution of many difficulties not solved in other works on the subject. Chamber of the Controllers of Public Schools, ) Philadelphia, January 10, 1845. > Resolved^ That Hart's English Grammar be introduced as a class book into the granunar schools of the district. From the minutes, THOMAS B. FLORENCE, Sec. New York Ward School Teacher's Association, > February 19, 1846. S Resolved, That this Association considers Hart's English Grammar very well adapted to forward the progress of students in that most difficult study, anl earnestly recommends its adoption in the ward and other schools of this Asso- ciation. WILLIAM KENNEDY, Rec. Secretary. This work, although it has been before the public but about nine months, has met with an unusual demand. Ten thousand copies having already been sold. SMITH'S INTRODUCTORY ARITHMETIC. Price 10 cents. COMSTOCK'S ELOCUTION. A System of Elocution, with special reference to Gesture, to the Treatment of Stammering, and Defective Articulation, com- prising numerous Diagrams and Engraved Figures illustrative of the subject. 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The American editor has long stood among the most distinguished men of letters in our country ; and is well known, in particular, for his masterly knowledge of Greek. FLEMING AND TIBBIN'S FRENCH AND EN- GLISH DICTIONARY. An entirely new and complete French and English and English and French Dictionary, adapted to the present state of the two Languages. By Professor Fleming, Professor of English in the College of Louis le Grand, and Professor Tibbins, author of several lexicographical works ; with important additions by Charles Picot, Esq., Professor of French in the University of Pennsylvania, and Judah Dobson, Esq. Member of the American Philosophical Society, &c. &c. 1 vol. octavo, 1400 pp. Price, fine sheep, $4. FLEMING AND TIBBIN'S FRENCH AND EN- GLISH DICTIONARY. Abridged and adapted to the use of Academies and Schools. By Pro- fessor Charles Picot and Judah Dobson, Esq. 1 vol. duodecimo, 724 pp. Price, sheep, $1.25. This work has been made on the basis of the ROYAL DICTIONARY EN- GLISH AND FRENCH AND FRENCH AND ENGLISH, compiled from the Dictionaries of Johnson, Todd, Ash, Webster, and Crabbe, from the last edition of Chambaud, Garner, and J. Descarrieres, the sixth edition of the Academy, the Supplement to the Academy, the Grammatical Dictionary of Laveaux, the Uni- versal Lexicon of Boiste, and the standard technological works in either lan- guage ; and containing, 1st, all the words in common use, with a copious selection of terms obsolescent or obsolete, connected with polite literature ; 2d, technical terms, or such as are in general use in the arts, manufactures, and sciences, in naval and military language, in law, trade, and commerce; 3d, terms geographical, &c. &c., with adjectives or epithets elucidating history ; 4th, a literal and figured pronunciation for the use of the Americans and English ; 5th, accurate and dis- 8 E. H. BUTLEH. AND Co's TLIBLICATIONS. criminating definition?, and, when necessary, willi appropriate examples and illustrations tending to fix as well as display the signification, import, rank, and character of each individual word ; 6lh, peculiar constructions, modes of speech, idioms, &c. &c.; 7th, synonymy; 8th, the difficulties of French Gram- mar presented and resolved in English, as they occur throughout the work. The American edition contains complete tables of the verbs on an entirely new plan, to which the verbs throughout the work are referred, with the addi- tion, in their respective places, of a very great number of terms in the natural sciences, chemistry, medicine, &c. &c., which are not to be found in any other French and English Dictionary. The sale of this work has been so great, that the publishers, notwithstanding the very heavy expense attendant upon its publication, are enabled to offer the large work at the very low price of $4, and the abridgment at $1.25. Among the numerous evidences of the high authority and practical utility of the work, the publishers have received the strongest commendatory notices from Peter Stephen Duponceau, President of the American Philosophical Society, — Robley Dunglison, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica and Practice of Medicine in the Jefferson Medical College, and Secretary of the American Philosophical Society, — F. A. Bregy, Professor of the French and Spanish Languages in the Central High School, Philadelphia, — George B. Emerson, Esq., — Thomas Sherwin, Esq., of the High School, Bo.ston, Mass., and from many other distinguished persons. The abridgment has already been extensively introduced into many of our first Academies and Schools. NUGENT'S FRENCH AND ENGLISH DICTION- ARY. In two parts. 1. French and English. 2. English and French. Con- taining all the words in general use, and authorized by the best writers. By Thomas Nugent, LL.D., with additions by J. OuiSEAU, A. M. Square 12mo. Price 63 cents. 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YB 36494 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 4/ A /X. •JOKS .■■ & CO, I HK 2300 pages ; price* \^SV\ itVXlV >N, < ^ 1 - , . rr;r\r«j ^.Nr^ . :i DICTiOxNAr t ,,' ' . > \N0 TIBO^N'- '. k Kis-: ^ ?u- : J, f * J ..^>, n'A^Kf < %' ' ! , > ^1 c^; ri,i.>f{ i>]r/i j(^.>j ^R^ , * , [ ' ' 1 , ■'j ' no At- and .^ fader- ;' ' r 'I ESTATES, K ^ ;•' i^»i»-«iw»i«etMHm!'y*'»aa(pc v '•v*^*