nia
 
 0^: 
 
 K
 
 Publications of the 
 
 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 
 
 Division of Economics and History 
 John Bates Clark, Director
 
 JAPANESE MONOGRAPHS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 BARON Y. SAKATANI, D.C.L. 
 
 Formerly Minister of Finance of Japan 
 
 Conscription System in Japan, by Gotaro Ogawa. 
 Expenditures of the Russo-Japanese War, by Gotaro Ogawa. 
 Military Industries of Japan, by Ushisaburo Kobayashi. 
 War and Armament Loans of Japan, by Ushisaburo Kobayashi 
 War and Armament Taxes of Japan, by Ushisaburo Kobayash 
 Expenditures of the Sino-Japanese War, by Giichi Ono. 
 War and Armament Expenditures of Japan, by Giichi Ono.
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM 
 
 IN JAPAN 
 
 Ta.KcckL J ' <-^oa cu 
 
 BY 
 
 GOTARO OGAWA, D.C.L. 
 
 Professor of Finance in the University of Kioto 
 
 NEW YORK 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 AMERICAN BRANCH: 35 West 32nd Street 
 LONDON, TORONTO, MELBOURNE. AND BOMBAY 
 
 1921
 
 COPYRIGHT I 92 I 
 
 BY THE 
 
 CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE 
 
 THE RUMFORD PRESS, CONCORD
 
 TS T3 
 
 SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE LIBRARY 
 
 inn 
 
 NOTE BY THE DIRECTOR 
 
 The plans of the Division of Economics and History of the 
 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace have been 
 transformed by the World War. Problems now calling for 
 study transcend in importance those with which this Division 
 has been dealing and material for research and record so far 
 transcends any that was formerly available that it will demand 
 almost exclusive attention for some years to come. A new 
 world has evolved suddenly out of the world which we knew 
 and the transformation extends to the foundations of gov- 
 ernment and of economic life. 
 
 The process of warfare itself is now so unlike that of former 
 days that many military rules of the past have gone into the 
 scrap basket. The late war ended when its deadliest tools 
 had barely been brought into action. The peoples have 
 fought as they had worked, by machinery, mechanical and 
 chemical engines of destruction have decided the result and 
 will decide in like manner the result of all wars of the future. 
 Machine shops and chemical laboratories will so largely 
 determine what armies shall win that fighting strength will 
 be as much a matter of available capital and of science in 
 applying it as of numbers of troops and strategy in directing 
 them. It is safe to say that the death dealing arts and instru- 
 ments will far surpass in destructiveness those which made 
 the late war so deadly, and to a soldier of the future the order 
 to march into a cloud of poisonous gas and a whirlwind of 
 missies will resemble an order to plunge into the rapids of 
 Niagara. This is one central and obvious fact which the 
 war has taught us and it has many corollaries, some of which 
 have to do with the increased costs of war and the importance 
 of the particular resources that make a nation powerful for 
 offense and defense; but there are less conspicuous economic 
 facts which are more fundamental, since they may determine 
 where and when, if at all, wars shall hereafter occur. 
 
 Causes of warfare are always partly economic and those 
 which incited the recent one were mainly so. The business 
 plans of a powerful state reached to the ends of the earth
 
 VI NOTE BY THE DIRECTOR 
 
 and so crossed and interlaced the claims of other states that 
 some writers, then and afterwards, pronounced the war inevi- 
 table. If we assume a settled purpose on the part of such a 
 state to encroach on the rights of others, we may say that it 
 doubtless was inevitable. The victory of the defending 
 countries has saved them from an immediate and intolerable 
 domination, but it can not be taken as an assured fact that 
 similar attempts will never again be made. The economic 
 inducement continues and the means may at some time be 
 forthcoming. 
 
 \\'ithin the several states war has democratized industry, 
 giving to labor an increase of control — a change that if con- 
 tinued will entail momentous consequences; but still greater 
 effects have been produced on the relations of states to each 
 other. The world as a whole has changed more than its 
 component parts and the new relation of the parts to one 
 another is the critical element in the situation. The great 
 increase in the economic functions of governments is one 
 cause of this condition. Within the great international com- 
 munity in which the se\ eral states are units extensive eco- 
 nomic functions have gravitated into the hands of govern- 
 ments and caused them to face each other as business rivals 
 and to deal with each other in a multitude of ways in which 
 the merely self-seeking policy of private business is intoler- 
 able. Power to invoke principles of justice and international 
 law as interpreted by a competent court has become an in- 
 dispensable means of allaying strife and this fact exalts to 
 supreme importance the high court of nations which has just 
 been established. It magnifies also the importance of the 
 economic facts and principles with which the law itself will 
 have to deal. It is not merely individual men or private 
 corporations who now meet each other in the rough and 
 tumble of a world-wide mart but states themselves, each 
 representing its own population and seeking to foster its 
 interests as a zealous and faithful agent. The chances of 
 friction that are inherent in ordinary commerce inhere today 
 in vast international transactions and will increase in the 
 measure in which the intercourse grows. All this means a
 
 NOTE BY THE DIRECTOR VU 
 
 great Increase in incentives to warfare, on the one hand, and 
 in the motives for preventing it, on the other. Private com- 
 merce unites more than it separates those who participate in 
 it, and it remains to be seen whether international commerce 
 will act in the same way; but, in view of what modern war 
 means, the human race will deserve to perish, and much of 
 it will probably do so, if the forces of strife are allowed to get 
 the upper hand. Whether they will or not — whether the 
 recent economic changes will tend to reduce warfare or to 
 increase it — depends on the ability of nations to create and 
 maintain the instrumentalities that in the new state of the 
 world are necessary. 
 
 Certain it is that the feeling which prevails today, the 
 world over, is not one of security. The dread of further war 
 is greater than it was before 1914. In some areas war still 
 prevails, in others peace is held by a precarious tenure and 
 in all it can be firmly established only by conscious and intel- 
 ligent action by the states themselves. Mere exhaustion 
 holds war dogs temporarily in leash, but it will take more 
 than that to tame them as they must be tamed if peace is 
 to endure. 
 
 We here confront a wide difference between the several 
 states in comparative desire for peace and disposition to 
 maintain it. One portentous fact is the grim determination 
 of Russian communists to extend their system by crude force 
 from state to state. Bolshevism is government by the few and 
 largely the bad masquerading as government for and by the 
 people. In its mother country, Russia, the economic meas- 
 ure by which it began its career was confiscation of private 
 wealth — in itself an ultra-democratic measure. If this had 
 brought in a true communism, it would have been a ruthless 
 and unjust measure for creating a peace-loving state. A 
 just and orderly democratizing of industry in the several 
 states would give new strength to the forces of peace, and it 
 would be highly improbable that any state so influenced would 
 try to extend its system over foreign countries by military 
 invasion. Democracy, socialism, communism and bolshe- 
 vism all appear in the aftermath of the war. The first of
 
 Vlll NOTE BY THE DIRECTOR 
 
 them makes for future peace and so does even the conserva- 
 tive element In the second, while all else in the series means 
 certainty of civil strife and danger of international war. 
 
 The fact that during the war governments had to take on 
 innumerable functions that were formerly in private hands 
 has lent an impetus to socialism and to the per\'erted growths 
 that have accompanied it, and it has created a new inter- 
 national system the meaning of which is profoundly signif- 
 icant, though he who runs can not so easily read it. There 
 are dangerous features in the system which the war evoked 
 and, happily for mankind, there are available safeguards 
 which were evoked with them and need to be retained if 
 human effort can do it. 
 
 By a compulsion that there was no resisting, the war forced 
 the nations of the Entente into economic cooperation with 
 each other. Commissions centering finally in the Supreme 
 Economic Council adjusted in a harmonious way questions 
 that would otherwise have led to rivalry and conflicting 
 action in purchasing war materials, securing ships, appor- 
 tioning food, controlling railroads, financing the war and 
 doing a multitude of other things with the one common pur- 
 pose of victory. The special compulsion of the struggle is 
 over, but it has left an aftermath of issues grave enough to 
 make peace insecure unless something equivalent to the 
 Supreme Economic Council survives in full efficiency. The 
 agency that did so much to win the war can do so much to 
 prevent another one, but to that end it will have to be guided 
 by economic principles and it is a saving fact that these still 
 surA'ive. The war has not abolished the law of demand and 
 supply, though governments may forget it. In the coming 
 era they must build better than they now know. Economic 
 knowledge must either go in advance of action and prevent 
 disaster or follow action and be learned from disaster. Be- 
 yond computation is the importance of attaining the knowl- 
 edge and using it when evil impends and prevention is possible. 
 
 John Bates Clark, 
 New York. Director. 
 
 September 27, ig20.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Upon my return from the conference at Berne, I requested 
 Mr. Y. Takata to investigate the system of conscription and 
 its economic effects, because I regarded him as a scholar 
 well versed in sociological, statistical and economic subjects. 
 He is certainly well fitted for such work. After two years' 
 hard labor he has completed this great work. Many were 
 the difficulties with which he was confronted. There were 
 but few books that he could rely upon. Nor were there any 
 official statistics to furnish him with accurate information. 
 To trace the historical development of the system of con- 
 scription, he had no other way than to study the successive 
 changes in the conscription law. For the economic effects 
 of the system, the only material that he could work upon 
 was the Annual Statistics. He had to visit different Divisions, 
 in order to make personal investigations concerning the eco- 
 nomic effects of this system. Mr. Takata certainly deser\^es 
 our admiration, as he now lays before us the result of his 
 laborious work. Special mention should be made of his 
 painstaking collection of new material and of his arguments 
 based upon it. 
 
 (i) Concentration of Soldiers in Towns (Part H, Chapter 
 HI). As there was no available material concerning the 
 concentration of soldiers in towns, he had to resort to an 
 indirect way of using such information as came to his notice. 
 Such an indirect method lacks in force of demonstration. 
 We fail to do him justice, however. If we do not perceive his 
 fair and candid treatment of the materials he managed to 
 collect. 
 
 (2) Formation of Military Towns (Part H, Chapter HI). 
 As to the formation of military towns, the author, starting his 
 work with a general survey of the places where regiments are 
 quartered, proceeded to a particular investigation of the 
 town of Zentsuji, which was but a little village previous to 
 the establishment of a division there. He made a visit to 
 this town and collected material. His idea was that this 
 
 ix
 
 Xll 
 
 EXPLANATORY TABLES 
 
 
 Chronological T 
 
 'able — {Contin 
 
 lied) 
 
 
 i\Ieiji29th 
 
 1896 A. D. 
 
 Meiji 41st 
 
 
 1908 A. 
 
 " 30th 
 
 1897 ' 
 
 
 " 42cl 
 
 
 1909 ' 
 
 " 31st 
 
 1898 ' 
 
 
 " 43d 
 
 
 1910 ' 
 
 " 32d 
 
 1899 ' 
 
 
 " 44th 
 
 
 1911 ' 
 
 " 33d 
 
 1900 
 
 
 " 45th \ 
 
 Taisho ist J 
 
 
 1912 ' 
 
 " 34th 
 
 1901 ' 
 
 
 
 " 35th 
 
 1902 ' 
 
 
 2d 
 
 
 1913 ' 
 
 " 36th 
 
 1903 ' 
 
 
 " 3d 
 
 
 1914 " 
 
 " 37th 
 
 1904 ' 
 
 
 4th 
 
 
 1915 ' 
 
 " 38th 
 
 1905 ' 
 
 
 " 5th 
 
 
 1916 ' 
 
 " 39th 
 
 1906 ' 
 
 
 " 6th 
 
 
 1917 • 
 
 " 40th 
 
 1907 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Weights, Measures and Money 
 With English, American, French and German Equivalents 
 
 Japan 
 
 Ri-36 Clio 
 = 2,160 Ken 
 = 12,960 Shaku . 
 
 Great 
 Britain 
 
 2 . 44030 
 Miles 
 
 I 15152 
 Miles 
 
 Ri (Marine) 
 
 Snuare 7?/ / 5 -95505 
 
 bquare/</. j g^ jyjjj^g 
 
 Cho = 10 Tan 
 = 100 6"e 
 = 3 coo Bit. 
 
 2.45064 
 Acres 
 
 U. S. of 
 America 
 
 2.44029 
 Miles 
 
 115151 
 Miles 
 
 5-95501 
 Sq. Miles 
 
 2 . 45062 
 Acres 
 
 France Germany 
 
 3 .92727 
 Kiloms. 
 
 I -85318 
 Kiloms. 
 
 3.92727 
 Kiloms. 
 
 I. 85318 
 Kiloms. 
 
 1542347, 15.42347, 
 Km. Carres Quadrat Km. 
 
 99-17355 
 Ares 
 
 Tsiiho= 10 Go / 3 . 95369 
 
 = 100 Shaku.. . . \ Sq. Yards 
 
 Kokii= 10 To 
 = 100 Sho 
 = 1,000 Go 
 
 f 
 
 4.96005 
 Bushels 
 
 = 10,000 Shaku. . [ 
 
 Koku (Capacity of/i/iool 
 shi[)j \ one Ton 
 
 3 . 95367 3 - 30579 
 
 Sq. Yards Centiares. 
 
 [47.65389 I. 8039 I 
 
 Gallons (Liq.) Hectolitres 
 5. 1 1902 
 Bushels (Dry) 
 
 i/io of 
 one Ton 
 
 Kiva)!= 1,000 Momme 
 = 10,000 Fun 
 = 100,000 Kin. . . 
 
 Kin= 160 Momme 
 
 Yen = 100 Sen 
 = 1 ,000 Riyi 
 = 10,000 Mo. 
 
 8.26733 8.26733 
 lbs. (Avoir.) lbs. (Avoir.) 
 I 10.0471 1 10.0471 1 
 [ lbs. (Troy) lbs. (Troy) 
 
 ■ 1.32277 1.32277 
 lbs. (Avoir.) lbs. (Avoir.) 
 1 1.60754 1.60754 
 [ lbs. (Troy) lbs. (Troy) 
 
 2.0.582 
 s. d. 
 
 o 4984 
 Dollar 
 
 1/ 10 
 
 de Tonne 
 
 3 - 75000 
 Kilogs. 
 
 o . 60000 
 Kilogs. 
 
 2-583 
 trancs 
 
 99-17355 
 Ar. 
 
 3 30579 
 Quadratm. 
 
 1.80391 
 Hectolitres 
 
 i/io 
 Tonne 
 
 3.75000 
 Kilogs. 
 
 0.60000 
 Kilogs. 
 
 2.0924 
 Marks
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Part I — Historical Survey of the System 
 OF Conscription 
 
 CHAPTER page 
 
 I Introduction i 
 
 II From the Restoration to the Satsuma Rebellion . 8 
 
 III From the Satsuma Rebellion to the Sino- 
 
 Japanese War 19 
 
 IV From the Sino- Japanese War to the Russo- 
 
 Japanese War 44 
 
 V From the Russo-Japanese War to the Present 
 
 Time 49 
 
 VI Conclusion 57 
 
 Part II — Economic Effects of the System 
 OF Conscription 
 
 I Introduction 73 
 
 II Effects on Population 76 
 
 III Effects on the Development of Towns 87 
 
 IV Effects on Employment 108 
 
 V Effects on Labor 136 
 
 VI Effects on Productivity 160 
 
 VII Effects on Consumption . 186 
 
 VIII Social Effects 223 
 
 IX Conclusion 236 
 
 Index 239 
 
 Xlll
 
 PART I 
 
 HISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE SYSTEM 
 OF CONSCRIPTION
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Before entering upon a historical investigation of the sys- 
 tem of conscription, let us, first of all, glance at the origin of 
 the conscription law. 
 
 It was in January, 1873, that the law was proniulgated, 
 being the first of its kind in the history of Japan. 
 
 The feudal system that had been on the verge of destruc- 
 tion at the time of the Meiji Restoration (1868) was entirely 
 demolished by the law promulgated in 1871, which abolished 
 the clans and established the prefectures, and thus secured 
 the primary aim of the Restoration. With the abolition of 
 the old system, each clan had to disband its own troops, 
 upon whom the responsibility, both defensive and offensive, 
 had rested. The nation could not, however, do without 
 some sort of military preparation, even for a day. It had to 
 find some other system that would replace the regular service 
 of the Bushi. 
 
 At the time of the Restoration, the nation was busy 
 absorbing the Western civilization in all respects; any insti- 
 tution, if Western, was adopted or imitated without discrimi- 
 nation. Turning our attention to the military systems of 
 Europe, we find the conscription system adopted in France as 
 early as the Revolutionary year of 1793, and in Prussia, twenty 
 years later. By the year 1866, we find other nations follow- 
 ing their example in the adoption of the system, which has 
 thus become a method of completing military service, com- 
 mon to all the European countries. It was natural that the 
 Japanese authorities, who were in pressing need of a new 
 military system, should follow the European example. 
 
 The adoption of the system was, however, not an easy mat- 
 ter. Strong objections were raised against this new system, 
 for it was not compatible with the feudal spirit, with which 
 the whole people were thoroughly saturated. The idea of
 
 4 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 taking into service those who were not of the miUtary class 
 {Bushi) was the point of attack by not a few of the higher 
 functionaries and it was only after the greatest efforts on the 
 part of the military authorities that they yielded to the nec- 
 essity of conscription. Thus the foundation of the conscrip- 
 tion law was now laid. Needless to say, Japan had to vary 
 from the Western system, in order to suit the actual condi- 
 tions of the country. 
 
 The Imperial mandate concerning conscription, issued on 
 the 28th of November, 1872, reads in part as follows: "The 
 military system of the West is thorough and detailed, for it 
 is the result of the studies and tests of centuries. But the 
 difference of government and geographical conditions warns 
 us against indiscriminate adoption of the Western system." 
 The very idea of military service as one of the important 
 duties of a people has come into existence under the influence 
 of Western thought and institutions. This is clearly indi- 
 cated in the same mandate: 
 
 Everything in the universe has its tax to pay. The tax a people have to pay 
 is for the national use. A people must then serve their country with a whole 
 heart. The "blood-tax," so-called among the Western peoples, means their 
 living blood offered to their country. When a country is threatened with dan- 
 gers, her people must of course suffer from them. Whole hearted service to one's 
 own country is therefore the basis of preventing calamity. If there is a nation, 
 there must necessarily be armaments, and armaments imply military service by 
 the people. These considerations make it clear that military preparations are a 
 principle not artificial but natural. As to the method or system of putting it 
 into operation, it is of utmost importance to interpret rightly the actual tenden- 
 cies of the times. 
 
 It would, however, be too rash to say that our conscrip- 
 tion law is nothing but an imitation of the Western system. 
 We must not overlook one condition that was very effective 
 in bringing about the adoption of this system, namely, the 
 national spirit at the time of the Restoration. 
 
 The new Meiji Era was the result of the great movement 
 for the restoration of the Imperial family to power. There 
 had no doubt been many and various conditions that led to this 
 result, but no one questions the patent fact that the primary 
 aim of the whole movement was the restoration of the Impe-
 
 INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 rial power. The exclusive possession of political power on 
 the part of the military class having been the cause of the 
 decline of the Imperial power, the first step toward its restora- 
 tion was the destruction of the military class and of feudalism. 
 In order to maintain the restored Imperial regime, it was 
 necessary to take such measures as would leave no room for 
 the reappearance of the causes of the decline. Hence, the 
 pressing need of destroying the exclusive military class and 
 all other remains of the feudal system. There was theoreti- 
 cally no necessary connection between the decline of the 
 Imperial power and the rise of the military class of feudalism, 
 and yet the people were firm in the belief that there was such 
 a connection between them, basing their belief upon the events 
 that had actually taken place in the past. 
 
 The best way of abolishing the military class was to return 
 to the earlier condition in which there had existed neither the 
 military class nor the military institution that supported it. 
 In other words, the restoration of the Imperial power de- 
 manded the restoration of the old military institutions, and 
 the military institution that was demanded was the conscrip- 
 tion system. On the other hand, the accomplishment of all 
 the plans for the Restoration came to mean, virtually, the 
 adoption of the military system of Europe. We thus plainly 
 see that the Restoration became a twin sister of the progressive 
 movement, both of them being the children of the times. 
 This was the reason that our conscription system was brought 
 into existence in a comparatively easy manner. Let it be 
 mentioned here that the authorities were of course aware of 
 the difference between our military institutions in earlier 
 times and those of modern Europe. Hence, the words, "com- 
 plementing our ancient military system with the excellences 
 of the Western, in order to meet the national emergencies 
 with a proper army and navy." 
 
 That the new conscription law bears a restorative meaning 
 will be seen from the preface of the Imperial mandate, already 
 referred to and from that of the said law. In the former, 
 issued on November 28, 1872, we find it stated as follows:
 
 6 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 In ancient times when the prefectural system was in force, the country was 
 protected by the militia enlisted in army corps, and there was no distinction of 
 status between soldiers and farmers. It was in the Middle Ages when the military 
 power was monopolized by the military class that this distinction came into 
 being and formed the basis of the feudal system. The Restoration in 1868 was 
 truly a great event that has seen no equal for more than a thousand years. We 
 who live in the new era must take necessary steps in regard to an army and navy. 
 
 So much from the preface; now from the mandate itself 
 of the same date. 
 
 According to our ancient institutions, there was no one in the country who was 
 not a soldier. In cases of emergency, all the able bodied men were enlisted in 
 the army, under the command of the Emperor. When the service was over, 
 they returned home, resuming their duties as farmers, mechanics, or merchants. 
 They were indeed very different from the so-called Bushi (knights) of the later 
 times, who always wore swords, led an easy life, and were arrogant and shame- 
 less, and murdered innocent people with impunity. Since Uzuhiko was appointed 
 by the first Emperor Jimmu the prefectural governor of Katsuragi, the process 
 of completing armaments has been going on, first the army corps, then the Impe- 
 rial and frontier guards, and still later (724-748 A. D.) "the six generals and two 
 garrisons." It was after the decline of the Imperial power during the course of 
 the Hogen and the Heiji Era (1156-1159 A. D.) that the military power fell into 
 the hands of the military class. And it was then that the country was divided 
 into clans and the people into soldiers and farmers. In later times all these insti- 
 tutions were thrown into a state of confusion, thereby causing innumerable 
 grievances. In the Meiji Reformation, the lords of the different clans returned 
 their fiefs to the Emperor, and order was brought out of confusion by the restora- 
 tion of the prefectual system. The hereditary pensions, with which the idle 
 knights had been favored by their feudal lords were reduced and the traditional 
 privilege of wearing swords was taken from them. The era of freedom is now 
 gradually dawning upon the people. The hereditary distinction between the 
 soldier and the farmer will be done away with. 
 
 The necessity of depending upon a national army is thus 
 emphasized in the mandate. At the same time, in the pref- 
 ace of the conscription law issued in November, 1873, the 
 reason for adopting such a conscription system as would 
 avoid the weaknesses of the militia but would be in accord 
 with our ancient military system, is clearly stated. In the 
 preface it is stated that — 
 
 There are two kinds of militia, namely, those whose enlistment is compulsory 
 and those who volunteer for service. The former usually serve in the army, 
 but such of them as are used to a maritime life are put into the naval service. 
 The latter, whose service extends over a certain number of years, form a picked 
 troop well versed in the various military arts, and are thus very efficient. But 
 the latter are not free from some defects that may arise in the long run. This is 
 the reason why the former kind of service is preferred to the latter.
 
 INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 We have seen that our conscription law had a twofold 
 origin, the national and the Western. Now, if it be asked 
 which is the more important, it is not difficult to answer 
 that the institution of the law itself was due to the restorative 
 spirit of the Reformation. Even if a conscription system 
 was not then in force in Europe, or not known to us at all, 
 there is no doubt that our military system had to be based 
 upon conscription. For the military class and the feudalism, 
 that had become so unpopular, had by all means to be replaced 
 by some other institutions. x\nd, as we have already seen, 
 the volunteer system that made possible the foundation of 
 a military class could not be adopted. 
 
 The only system now remaining was the ancient conscrip- 
 tion system, which was aimed at by the reformers. The 
 motive of instituting some sort of conscription system was 
 thus internal, and not foreign. But, when we look at the 
 content of the new system, we find it mainly Western. The 
 content is certainly not a copy of our ancient system. Our 
 military system was, at the beginning of the Meiji Era, 
 especially under the French influence. Previous to this, in the 
 Keio Era, a French officer had already been employed as an 
 advisory councilor. Masujiro Omura, the first and greatest 
 advocate of conscription at the beginning of the Meiji Era, 
 was determined to imitate the French system, and his pro- 
 posal to invite some French officers was approved by the 
 Emperor. It was Omura who laid the foundation of the 
 conscription law, upon which Aritomo Yamagata constructed 
 the system in detail. It is but natural that our conscription 
 law bears the Western, and especially the French, coloring. 
 
 We have thus far studied the circumstances in which our 
 conscription law originated. Let us now proceed a step fur- 
 ther and follow the changes of its content in the succeeding 
 epochs. We shall see how these changes have been made, 
 how the number of conscripts has varied, according to the 
 changes in our military system, and what circumstances have 
 caused all these changes.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE SATSUMA 
 
 REBELLION 
 
 Our field of investigation extends over the period begin- 
 ning with the Reformation and ending with the Satsuma 
 RebeUion. We find conscription already in the first year of 
 Meiji (1868). Five years later (1873), the conscription law 
 was promulgated. Few changes have been made during these 
 years. The changes made in this law, in this incipient stage, 
 the number of men enlisted, according to this law and the 
 reasons for the changes both in form and content, will now 
 be the subjects of our study. 
 
 Changes in the Conscription Law 
 
 Enlistment before i8/j 
 
 Although the promulgation of the conscription law was 
 an event that took place in January, 1873, yet troops had 
 already been requisitioned on difTerent occasions, in accord- 
 ance with Imperial ordinances. The germ or incomplete 
 conditions of the law had already existed. When the nation 
 entered upon her new era in 1868, a requisition order was 
 issued to the feudal lords on the 19th of the intercalary month 
 of April of the same year. The gist of the order was as 
 follows : 
 
 Ten men of whom three for the present, per 10,000 kokii (about five bushels) 
 of stipend. To be maintained within the Imperial domains (Kinai). The gar- 
 risoning of the nine Imperial gates and other places, to be ordered later. 
 
 Fifty men, per 10,000 koku. To be maintained in each county. 
 
 Three hundred ryo a year, per 10,000 kokti. To be paid in three payments, for 
 the wages of the men. 
 
 The above is now ordered to all the fief possessors of the Empi''e, in order to 
 organize an army. 
 
 In another ordinance issued on the 24th of the same month, 
 we find — 
 
 Concerning the ordinance issued the other day, for the requisition of men and 
 war funds, it should be understood that the men are to be picked from among 
 
 8
 
 RESTORATION TO SATSUMA REBELLION 9 
 
 the people, seventeen or eighteen to thirty-five years of age. The service extends 
 over three years. 
 
 For the present, the men are to be equipped with muskets, bedding and other 
 requisites, by the fief possessors. . . . 
 
 The Imperial Court will be responsible for the furnishing of uniforms, salaries 
 and board. 
 
 As to the troops maintained in the countries, they should always be held ready 
 for the Imperial requisition. 
 
 It was on February lo of the next year that the following 
 ordinance was issued, ordering the release from service, in 
 order to reconstruct the military system: 
 
 Concerning the requisition of arms previously ordered, let it be understood 
 that the men are now to be released for the present, a new arrangement of the 
 military system being needed as a result of the subjugation of the Northeast. 
 
 On February lo, 1870, another order was issued as follows, 
 concerning the organization of the army and conscription: 
 
 Infantry. — One battalion shall consist of sixty men, and each company of two 
 platoons. . . . Different officers, together with the noncommissioned, are not 
 included in the number. 
 
 Artillery. — A squad shall consist of two cannon, three squads forming a corps. 
 
 The age of men should be eighteen to thirty-eight, those who have been in 
 service are excepted, if they are strong in body. 
 
 Men are requisitioned at the rate of one platoon per 10,000 koku of stipend. 
 
 It is forbidden to choose men outside the military class and the retainers. When 
 the ratio of the platoon per 10,000 kokii is not obtainable, this must be reported 
 to the Military Department, for further instructions. 
 
 As will be seen from the above, the common people were 
 yet outside the scope of conscription. Those who were not 
 of the military class and the retainers were not entitled to 
 serve in the army, nor had they a duty to do so. Our military 
 system was then in the stage of transition to a general con- 
 scription system. The Imperial Court saw the urgent need 
 of a new system. As the necessary preparation for the estab- 
 lishment could not, however, be made suddenly, the Con- 
 scription Regulations were issued, as a temporary arrange- 
 ment, on November 13 of the same year (1870). They were in 
 force until the drafting and promulgation of the conscription 
 law. In the regulations is found a proclamation, part of 
 w^hich runs as follows : 
 
 We are now instructed by the Imperial Court to issue these regulations con- 
 cerning the conscription in the following separate sheet.
 
 lO CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 It has already been ordered that men be requisitioned at a certain ratio. Arms 
 are of urgent necessity for national defense, on which the Imperial prestige takes 
 its rests. It is the intention of the Emperor to study the history of the military 
 organizations of the world and thereby to institute a new system of conscription. 
 Meanwhile, these regulations should be observed, in choosing able bodied men 
 from the military class and the common people, beginning with the first month 
 of the next year. The number to be reported to the Osaka Ofhce of the Depart- 
 ment is five men per 10,000 koku. It should be understood that the standing 
 troops already in existence are to be maintained, as before, for local defense. 
 
 Article I. Men who are eligible must be twenty to thirty years of age. They 
 must be strong in body and more than five feet in height. Those are exempted 
 from service who do not come up to the standard of the medical officers of the 
 department. 
 
 Article II. The term of service shall extend over four years. To those who 
 have served the term, donations will be granted. They are forbidden to return 
 home during the term, but those who desire to remain after the expiration of the 
 time will be permitted to perform the service again. 
 
 Article IV. Pensions will be granted to those who are disabled for life while 
 in the service. 
 
 Article V. Uniforms and boarding will be furnished by the department, which 
 will also pay salaries. As to the traveling expenses of the men to Osaka, they 
 shall be defrayed by the local governors. The expenses back to the provinces, 
 when discharged, will be paid by the department. 
 
 Article VI. When the men selected are found ineligible by medical officers, 
 the local governors shall secure substitutes. 
 
 When we see it stated In the regulations that the common 
 people were eligible as well as those of the military class and 
 the retainers, and that a definite number of eligibles should 
 be selected, it is now plain that conscription was already in 
 existence. A step further, and it would be the conscription 
 law enacted in 1873. , 
 
 The Conscription Law Issued in 1873 
 
 On November 2S, 1872, it was declared that a law would 
 soon be enacted, according to which all the people should be 
 made eligible for service. The first conscription law was 
 promulgated on January 10, 1873, which consisted of a state- 
 ment of the principles that relate to the organization of an 
 army, and general rules therefor, together with five chapters. 
 The principles were divided into three clauses, the first clause 
 treating of the standing army, the second of the reserves and 
 the third of the national army. The first clause contained
 
 RESTORATION TO SATSUMA REBELLION II 
 
 six by-rules, the second those rules concerning the first and 
 second reserves and the third no detailed provisions. Of the 
 five chapters, the first consisted of twelve paragraphs con- 
 cerning the conscription officers and their duties; the second, 
 of four paragraphs concerning the inspection tours of the 
 superintendents and the preparations to be made previous 
 to their visits; the third, of twelve paragraphs concerning 
 the regulars and discharged men; the fourth, of seven para- 
 graphs concerning the examination of conscripts; and the 
 fifth, of seventeen paragraphs relating to the drawing of lots 
 and to the examinations in penmanship and arithmetic. 
 
 Setting aside those parts that relate to the business of 
 conscription, let us now give general descriptions of the re- 
 maining provisions of the law. 
 
 1. Service as a National Duty. — All the male subjects of 
 the Empire, seventeen to forty years of age, are available for 
 service and are to be registered as such (see "General Rules" 
 and "The National Army, Clause III"). They are to serve 
 either in the army or the navy (see Clause II). 
 
 2. Kinds of Service. — The army consists of the regulars, 
 the reserves and the militia, the service and the duties vary- 
 ing accordingly. The regular or actual service is obligatory 
 upon men who are fully twenty years of age, from whom the 
 requisite number is obtained by drawing. Their term is 
 three years. The reserve service is obligatory upon those 
 who have served as regulars, and is divided into the first 
 reserve service and the second reserve service. 
 
 Those who have served as regulars are enlisted in the former 
 service, and those who have served as first reserves for two 
 years are enlisted in the latter service, which extends over 
 another two years. The national army service is obligatory 
 upon all the males of the Empire, seventeen to forty years 
 of age, who are exempted from the regular and the reserve 
 service. 
 
 3. Specialization in Service. — Both the regulars and the 
 reserves are distributed, according to stature, into five classes: 
 artillery, cavalry, infantry, engineering and commissariat.
 
 12 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Men of all these classes are to be garrisoned in the respec- 
 tive localities from which they are drafted. 
 
 The regular service extends over three years, as prescribed. 
 But in peaceful times, those are discharged who have served 
 more than two years, and proved to be skilful in military 
 arts (by- rule 6). Those selected for noncommissioned offi- 
 cers must serve for more than seven years, thereby being 
 exempted from reserve service (by-rule 5). Men are paid 
 daily wages while in service and their uniforms, etc., are fur- 
 nished by the government. Those excellent in body and 
 character are to be transferred to the Imperial Guards (by-rule 
 2). Those who are in the reserve service may engage in 
 ordinary business at home. The first reserves are to be 
 called to join the army on declaration of war. They are also 
 to be called to their respective barracks once a year, in order 
 to review their arts, the expenses being defrayed by the 
 state. They are forbidden to go out of their jurisdiction, 
 without permission, which will be given so far as it does not 
 interfere with the term for review. The second reserves are 
 to be called out when the whole nation needs to be armed, 
 but may remain at home, provided they will inform their 
 headquarters of their w^hereabouts whenever they leave the 
 jurisdiction. They are, however, to return to their own dis- 
 trict, when the first reserves are called out. 
 
 Even though the term for the different services above 
 specified has expired, it must be prolonged in cases of 
 emergency. 
 
 Those who belong to the unorganized militia are to be 
 enlisted in an army, for territorial defense, when the whole 
 nation is to be armed. 
 
 In order to fill up the vacancies in the standing army, the 
 number of men, not exceeding one-half of the yearly con- 
 scripts for the said army, is requisitioned by a drawing (Ch. 
 5, par. 4). This supplementary servdce extends over one 
 year. The term was shortened to ninety days by Dajokan 
 fukoku, State Order No. 17, issued in 1875. 
 
 Those who have discharged this supplementary ser^dce
 
 RESTORATION TO SATSUMA REBELLION 1 3. 
 
 may go home and remain there, under the same conditions 
 as those who were exempted from service by a drawing. 
 Those who are exempted from service by a drawing must 
 stay at home, for they may be required to enter barracl<:s, 
 in order to fill up vacancies in the regular army. The order 
 of entering barracks in such cases is decided by lot. When 
 those who were ordered to be in this supplementary service 
 do not receive notice to enter barracks before the expiration 
 of a full year after the order (before the nineteenth day for 
 the regulars, according to the state order above), they shall 
 take it for granted that their names are dropped from the 
 list (Ch. 5, par. 2). If transferred from the supplementary 
 to the regular list, they are to serve the term of three years, 
 beginning with the day on which the lot was drawn (the first 
 day for regulars to enter barracks, according to the cabinet 
 order above). 
 
 4. Exceptional Cases. — No provisions. 
 
 5. Rejection and Exemption. — Criminals sentenced to pun- 
 ishment above penal servitude are forbidden to serve in the 
 army (Ch. 3, par. 9). 
 
 State Order No. 403, issued in 1873, adds another condi- 
 tion, that of Jozoku (expelled from the Bushi class). No 
 exemption from serv^ice. 
 
 6. Postponement of, and Exemption from. Enrollment. — 
 The postponement takes place in the following tw^o cases: 
 (a) that of sickness at the time of physical examination, in 
 which case the enrollment is postponed to the following year, 
 if the disease is found to be temporary in the medical exami- 
 nation made at the home of the patient in question ; and (b) 
 that of the death or serious sickness of either of the parents. 
 In case of death, the enrollment is postponed one year, when 
 the period of mourning for three weeks has not yet expired. 
 In case of sickness, it is also postponed for another year, 
 when sickness or other grave circumstances at home make it 
 impossible for enrollment. In each of the cases specified, 
 the men in question are to present a detailed statement authen- 
 ticated by the census officer concerned (Ch. 3, par. 6).
 
 14 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 The following are excused from enrollment, and exempted 
 from all other services, except that of the national army 
 (unorganized militia) : 
 
 (i) Those below five feet and one inch in stature (Ch. 3, 
 par. i). 
 
 (2) Those congenitally weak, inveterately diseased, or 
 deformed (Ch. 3, par. 2). 
 
 (3) The governmental or prefectural officials and semi- 
 officials (Ch. 3, par. 3). 
 
 (4) Those training for military or naval service, and living 
 in military or naval schools (Ch. 3, par. 4). 
 
 (5) Students specializing in the public schools, for service 
 in the educational, the engineering, or the colonial depart- 
 ment, those studying abroad, and those studying medicine 
 and possessing a certificate for residence, or a license in a 
 certain branch of medicine, given by government professors 
 (Ch. 3, par. 5). 
 
 (6) Heads of families (Ch. 3, par. 6). 
 
 (7) Heirs and lineal grandsons (Ch. 3, par. 7). 
 
 (8) The only son and grandson (Ch. 3, par. 8). 
 
 (9) Those attending to home affairs, in place of father or 
 elder brother, who are sick or otherwise disabled (Ch. 3, 
 par. 10). 
 
 (10) Those actually adopted as sons (Ch. 3, par. 11). 
 
 (11) Brothers of those who are in service (Ch. 3, par. 12). 
 
 (12) Those presenting their request, with the "Substitute 
 fee" of 270 yen. The fee must be paid to the Administrative 
 Officer of the district, who will forward it to the Military 
 Department through the prefectural offices, during the month 
 of April (Ch. 3, par. 15). 
 
 Those who draw blank lots, and those supplementary 
 reserves who are not called out within the period prescribed, 
 are to be dropped from the list. 
 
 7. Rules for Punishments. — Those who incorrectly state 
 their age, the existence of parents, etc., are guilty of deception. 
 Those officials who sign incorrect statements concerning 
 these things are guilty of carelessness. Those who conceal
 
 RESTORATION TO SATSUMA REBELLION 1 5 
 
 information about them are guilty of gravest offenses. All of 
 these shall be punished under the laws newly enacted. 
 
 From 1873 to the Satsuma Rebellion 
 
 A somewhat detailed description has now been given of 
 the conscription law issued on January lo, 1873. Slight 
 amendments have been made in the law by State Order No. 
 403 (1873), and by State Orders No. 17 (1874), No. 17 (1875), 
 and No. 62 (November 5, 1875). Of these amendments, 
 that made in State Order No. 17 (1875), is of some impor- 
 tance. It relates to two points. The term for the supple- 
 mentary reserves to live in barracks that had extended over 
 one year, reckoning from the day on which order was issued, 
 was shortened to ninety days, reckoning from the day on 
 which the regulars enter barracks, while the term of the 
 supplementary service itself that had extended over three 
 years, reckoning from the day on which the lot was drawn, 
 was changed to a term of three years, reckoning from the day 
 on which the regulars enter barracks. 
 
 Statistics of Conscription 
 Increase of the Number of A rmy Corps 
 
 As the number of conscripts is determined by that of the 
 army corps, which vary according to the organization of the 
 army, let us first see what changes have taken place in the 
 number of army corps. 
 
 Disregarding the army corps previous to 1872, since the 
 establishment of the six garrisons in 1873, at Tokyo, Sendai, 
 Nagoya, Osaka, Hiroshima and Kumamoto, instead of the 
 four garrisons that had existed previously, the number has 
 been as follows: 
 
 Infantry, 14 regiments Full force in peace, 31,680 (the actual 
 
 Cavalry, 3 regiments number was only 12,723 in 1873) 
 
 Artillery, 18 sections Full force in war, 46,350 
 
 Engineering, 10 sections In additition to the above, some Imperial 
 
 Commissariat, 6 sections Guards 
 
 Coast Artillery, 9 corps
 
 1 6 CONSCRIPTION system: historical survey 
 
 In 1875, the full force in peace was decreased to 31,440, 
 although the number of corps remained the same. It was 
 in the same year that a colonial conscription system was 
 established, according to which the colonial governor of 
 Hokkaido organized an army, by calling out those of the 
 sumurai class in the vicinity. The organization of the Impe- 
 rial Guards also took place in the same year, and was con- 
 stituted as follows: 
 
 Infantry, 2 regiments (4 battalions) Engineers, i section 
 Cavalry, 2 battalions Commissariat, i section 
 
 Artillery, i battalion Full force in peace, 3,880 
 
 There was no change in the number of army corps until 
 1879. 
 
 Number of Conscripts 
 
 We can not ascertain what was the actual number of con- 
 scripts drafted during this period. The full force was, how- 
 ever, as follows: 
 
 Year Conscripts 
 
 1873 10,560 
 
 1874 10,560 
 
 1875 10,480 
 
 Year Conscripts 
 
 1876 10,480 
 
 1877 10,679 
 
 The foregoing figures are based on the following tables: 
 
 Number of Conscripts (1873) 
 
 Year Conscripts Total 
 
 Seventh year ^^'S^^l Second Reser\-e 21 120 
 
 Sixth " 10,560/ ^^^°^^^^^ 21,120 
 
 Fifth ;; ^«'56ol pj^g^R 3^^.^ 20 
 
 Fourth 10,560/ 
 
 Third " 10,560! 
 
 Second ' 10,560 j- Standing Army 31.680 
 
 First " 10,560 J 
 
 The Number of Conscripts (1875) 
 
 Year Conscripts Total 
 
 Seventh year 10,480 1 g ^ Reserve 20,960 
 
 Sixth 10,480/ 
 
 E'^th ;; ^^'480 1 First Reserve 20,960 
 
 Fourth 10,480/ 
 
 Third " 10,480] 
 
 Second " 10,480 \ Standing Armv 31. 44° 
 
 First " 10,480 J
 
 RESTORATION TO SATSUMA REBELLION 
 
 17 
 
 The figures for 1877 are based upon the order issued by 
 the Army Department, by which a special arrangement was 
 made for that year alone. 
 
 Proportion of Conscripts to Population 
 Regulars and Conscripts per 1,000 of Population 
 
 Year 
 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 
 Population 
 
 33,300,675 
 33,625,618 
 
 33-997,449 
 34,338,404 
 34,628,328 
 
 Regulars 
 
 10,560 
 10,560 
 10,480 
 10,480 
 10,679 
 
 Per cent 
 
 •317 
 •314 
 .308 
 
 •305 
 .308 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 14,880 
 14,880 
 14.744 
 14.744 
 14.537 
 
 Per cent 
 
 •447 
 ■443 
 •434 
 .429 
 .419 
 
 Reasons for the Changes 
 
 The changes in this period were determined primarily by 
 the dispute between the advocates of conscription and those 
 who were opposed to it on the ground that the common people 
 would lower the standard of soldiership. It was an idea very 
 common among the authorities during the Reformation that 
 those who were not the descendants of the military class 
 could not organize a strong army, that the commons were 
 not qualified for the protection of the Empire. It was on 
 this account that the authorities did not enlist the commons 
 in the army, in spite of the official announcement concerning 
 conscription made in February, 1870. In August of the 
 same year Aritomo Yamagata (now Prince Yamagata) 
 returned from his inspection tour through Europe. He 
 pointed out that they were mistaken in the above view, and 
 prevailed upon them to adopt the French system. On 
 November 13 of the same year we find " Regulations Concern- 
 ing Conscription" issued and enforced. At a certain age all 
 had to take the physical examination, whether commoners 
 or of the military class. But these regulations were only 
 temporary in their nature. Nor did the people at large yet 
 come to recognize the obligatory nature of service. The 
 regulations were not sufficient for the completion of arma-
 
 1 8 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 ment, for which the conscription law was enacted in 1873, 
 It was completed in the same year, that of the Imperial 
 Guards being completed in 1875. Those changes that have 
 been made in the law in the succeeding years are of compara- 
 tively slight importance.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 FROM THE SATSUMA REBELLION TO THE SINO- 
 
 JAPANESE WAR 
 
 The period from the Reformation to the Satsuma RebelHon 
 may be called that of the origin or formation of the con- 
 scription system, which we have studied. Let us now pro- 
 ceed to the period from the Satsuma Rebellion to the Sino- 
 Japanese War, which we may call the period of development. 
 
 The Satsuma War was an epoch-making event in the his- 
 tory of the Empire. Japan was now compelled to turn over 
 a new leaf, by disengaging herself from her insular traditions. 
 Changes were made in the conscription law in order to adapt 
 it to the new circumstances. Changes were again made in 
 the law in 1889, when the constitution was promulgated. 
 Since then it has remained practically unchanged. This 
 period witnessed more changes in the law than any other.. 
 
 Changes in the Conscription Law 
 Amendments in i8yg 
 
 Remarkable changes were made in the law by State Order 
 No. 46, issued on October 27, 1879. The law so amended 
 consisted of eight chapters, divided into sixty-eight clauses. 
 The first chapter (clauses i to 8) treats of the organization 
 of conscripts, the second (clauses 9 to 11) of the jurisdiction 
 of conscripts, the third (clauses 12 to 26) of the nature of 
 service, the fourth (clauses 27 to 36) of release from service 
 and extension of time for enlistment, the fifth (clauses 37 to 
 43) of the examination for conscripts, the sixth (clauses 44 
 to 54) of the drawing of lots for enlistment, the seventh 
 (clauses 55 to 67) of miscellaneous rules, and the eighth (clause 
 68) of enlistment. 
 
 I. The Duty of Service. — It is declared in clause i and 
 clause 8 that service is obligatory upon all the males of the 
 country, in which respect the new law remains the same as 
 3 19
 
 20 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 the old. But In the new law. are prescribed certain excep- 
 tions, in which some are rejected and some exempted, which 
 we shall note presently. 
 
 2. Kinds of Service. — The military service is of four kinds 
 — the regular army, the first and the second reserve, and 
 the unorganized militia. Men who are twenty years of age 
 must take the conscript examination. When they win in 
 the drawing, they are to be enlisted in the regular service for 
 three years (clause 2). As to the exceptions, we shall see 
 later. The first reserves consist of those who have completed 
 the regular service for three years. 
 
 Their term is also three years (clause 5). There are again 
 exceptions to this. When the first reserv^es finish their term, 
 they are to be enrolled in the second reserve service, which 
 extends over four years (clause 6) . The term of each service 
 is prolonged in cases of war or other emergency (clause 7). 
 Those who are seventeen to forty years of age and are not en- 
 listed in any of the services are to be registered as unorganized 
 militiamen (clause 8). 
 
 3. Specialization in Service. — According to ability and 
 stature, men are assigned to one of the following branches of 
 the army, — infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineering and 
 commissariat (clause i). If the required number of trans- 
 port auxiliaries, nurses and mechanics are lacking, even those 
 Avho are below the standard in stature, or are not fitted for 
 managing arms, may be assigned to any of the said services. 
 Or, there may be cases in which those passing the conscript 
 'examination are required to fill vacancies according to their 
 own trade (clause 3). 
 
 The regular service extends over the term of three years, 
 to which there are exceptions, (i) Those singled out for the 
 Imperial Guards must remain in the regular ser\'ice for three 
 years and six months (clause 2, par. 2). (2) The regular 
 term of service for commissariat troops is six months (clause 
 3, par. i). (3) The term for regulars transferred from the 
 supplementary service shall be fixed, as the case may require 
 (clause 52). Those of the regular ser\-ice are assigned to the 
 9?
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 21 
 
 garrison of the province whence they are called out (clause 2). 
 In time of peace those who prove themselves proficient in 
 military arts may be discharged even before the expiration of 
 their term (clause i, par. i). Those who are strong in body, 
 skilful in military arts and upright in conduct are singled out 
 for the Imperial Guards (clause i, par. 2). Regulars are 
 paid fixed daily wages besides being provided with uniforms 
 and boarding (clause 4). 
 
 Exceptions to the rule of two years for the first reserves 
 are (i) two years and six months for the Imperial Guards 
 (clause 2, par. 2) ; (2) five years and six months for com- 
 missariat soldiers (clause 3, par. 3). They may engage in 
 their own trades in peace time. In cases of war or emer- 
 gency, they shall immediately be called out, and enlisted in 
 the regular army or in separate corps. They shall be ordered 
 to enter barracks once a year, in order to review military 
 arts (clause 5). 
 
 The second reserves are to stay at home and engage in 
 business like the first reserves. In cases of emergency they 
 shall be called out after the first reserv^es. In peace time, 
 they must enter barracks once a year in the place where they 
 passed the conscript examination (clause 6). The names of 
 the unorganized militiamen are kept in the military register. 
 In case of emergency, they shall be enlisted in defense corps, 
 as occasion requires (clause 8). 
 
 Supplementary service is not yet recognized as a separate 
 and_independent service, but the regulations for the ser\dce 
 are already in existence. Supplementary reserv^es are to fill 
 by lot the vacancies in the regular army (clause 49). Those 
 who are registered as supplementary reserves (amounting to 
 one-half the regular army) are required to stay at home, 
 until they are ordered to enter barracks and fill vacancies, 
 according to lot, at the garrison to which they belong. It 
 should be understood, however, that these reserves, although 
 registered, shall be exempted from this service in peace time, 
 if they do not receive the order to enter barracks at the end 
 of one full year, beginning with April 20, which is the firs:t
 
 22 CONSCRIPTIOX SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 day for the regulars to enter barracks (clause 51), Those 
 transferred from the supplementary to the regular service 
 remain In the service for three years, beginning with the 
 first day for the regulars to enter barracks, not with the day 
 on which they actually entered barracks (clause 52). 
 
 4. Special Cases. — Invitation of volunteers Is limited to 
 certain branches of the army. Transport auxiliaries, nurses 
 and mechanics are taken mainly from volunteers, until they 
 reach full strength. Their term of ser\'ice is the same as 
 that of other ser\ices, except the transport auxiliaries. 
 
 5. Rejection and Exemption. — These two are included 
 under the title "exemption." The former concerns those 
 sentenced to one year or more of penal servitude or to 
 one year or more of confinement as political offenders (clause 
 27, par. 2), The latter, or exemption proper, is applied to 
 those who are deformed or inveterately diseased, and show 
 signs of not being up to the medical standards prescribed in 
 the regulations (clause 27, par. i). 
 
 6. Postponement of and Exemption from Roll Call. — Post- 
 ponement Is provided under the title of yiiyo (temporary 
 postponement) and yokunen-mawashi (postponement to the 
 following year). Postponement is of two kinds, — postpone- 
 ment in general and in peace time. The former goes by the 
 name of yokunen-maivashi and the latter by the name of yuyo. 
 
 In either of the following circumstances men fall under the 
 yokimen-mawashi, that is, their conscript examination is post- 
 poned to the following year: 
 
 (i) When sickness on the conscription day prevents them 
 from taking the examination, when they are still in the mourn- 
 ing period of three weeks for the death of either parent, or 
 when their parents are seriously ill, causing grave situations 
 in the family, or when the medical officials do not require 
 them to be present at some other examination place, nor go 
 to their own home for examination (clause 41 and 42). 
 
 (2) When sickness, criminal offense, or other circumstances, 
 which prevented them from entering the barracks on the 
 fixed date, still obtain even on the first of October. These
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 23 
 
 must take the examination again the following year, and 
 must enter barracks before other conscripts (clause 56). 
 
 Men in any of the following circumstances fall under the 
 yuyo (postponement for one year in peace time) : 
 
 (i) When they intend to serve in the navy. 
 
 (2) When brothers are to be called out at the same time. 
 (In case of an even number, one-half; in that of an odd num- 
 ber, the least number, that is, one out of three.) 
 
 (3) One elder brother or one younger brother, or noncom- 
 missioned officers who serv^e in either the army or the navy, 
 
 (4) One elder brother or one younger brother of the mili- 
 tary or navy officers. The case is excepted, if the one elder 
 brother or the one younger brother, as in Nos. 2 and 4, are 
 not up to the medical standard. 
 
 (5) When they have neither father nor elder brother, or 
 when the father is dead, and when the elder brother has either 
 disappeared or is unable to support the family without their 
 assistance. 
 
 (6) Those who have finished at least one year's course 
 either in the government schools under the direct control of 
 the Educational Department or other offices, or in public 
 normal schools. 
 
 (7) Those who have finished at least a three years' course 
 either in public middle schools or in public technical schools. 
 
 (8) Those who live abroad for study or for business. 
 
 (9) Those who are yet below the standard in physique, or 
 are not able to bear the burdens of service, owing to sickness. 
 
 (10) Criminal prisoners not convicted as yet (clause 35, 
 pars. I to 10). 
 
 If the circumstances specified above are found still pend- 
 ing even the following year, then the postponement will be 
 extended still another year (clause 34). 
 
 Exemption from service is called "exemption," or ex- 
 emption from service other than that of militia (clauses 
 3 and 28). 
 
 This exemption is of two kinds, exemption of a general 
 nature and exemption in peace time.
 
 24 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Under the former fall the following: 
 
 (i) The head of a famil3^ However, those are excluded 
 who set up a branch family, previous to reaching the con- 
 scription age, who assume the name of the wife setting up a 
 new branch family, who revive an extinct family, or who are 
 adopted by, and succeed, a man who retires before the age 
 of fifty years. 
 
 (2) The only son (the heir) and the only grandson (the 
 grandson of the same lineage). The existence of sisters not 
 considered. 
 
 (3) The heir and the grandson (of the same lineage) of 
 those above fifty years of age. But those are excluded who 
 set up a branch family after reaching the conscription age, 
 who are adopted by a man under fifty years of age, who revive 
 an extinct family, who assume the name of the wife setting 
 up a new branch family, and who are adopted as heirs or 
 lineal grandsons, previous to reaching the conscription age, by 
 the man assuming his wife's name. 
 
 (4) Those adopted as the heir or successor of those who 
 are over fifty years of age and have no heir. But those are 
 excluded who are adopted as the heir or successor of those 
 setting up a new branch family after retirement. 
 
 (5) The heir or lineal grandson of those who are below 
 fifty years of age but are inveterately diseased or deformed. 
 
 (6) Ofiicials (above the han?iin rank) and government relig- 
 ious teachers (including the probationers) and census registrars. 
 
 (7) Presidents and vice presidents and members of pre- 
 fectural assemblies. 
 
 (8) Teachers employed in public schools and those in the 
 schools under the direct control of the Educational Depart- 
 ment and other offices. 
 
 (9) Semi-officials and employers of the government or of 
 different prefectures whose substitute can not be obtained, 
 and those who are attached to the foreign employers of the 
 departments or prefecture and are being trained in certain 
 arts at government expense. These cases are, however, to 
 be decided by the state council (clause 31).
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 2$ 
 
 (lo) Eligible conscripts who pay the exemption fee of two 
 hundred and seventy yen, and those of the yuyo class who 
 pay one hundred and thirty-five yen (clause 64). 
 
 The following are exempted from enrollment in peace time. 
 
 (i) The heir and lineal grandson of those below fifty years 
 of age. And those are excluded who become heirs after 
 reaching the conscription age, who set up a new branch 
 family as the lineal grandson, who are adopted by those 
 below fifty years of age, who revive extinct families, who 
 assume the name of the wife setting up a new branch family, 
 and who become heirs or lineal grandsons of other families, 
 previous to reaching conscription age. 
 
 (2) Those training in the military and naval schools and 
 the naval armament office and regular mechanics belonging 
 to the government dockyard. 
 
 (3) One elder brother and one younger brother of those 
 who died while in the regular military or naval service, or 
 of those who were wounded or contracted disease while in 
 public office. The cases are treated in the same manner, 
 when such circumstances arise among the first and second 
 reserv^es. 
 
 (4) Those who are in possession of a license to practise 
 medicine. 
 
 (5) Those completing the required course of the public 
 middle schools or of the public technical schools. 
 
 (6) Those completing the required course of the public 
 normal schools. 
 
 - (7) Those completing the required course of the govern- 
 ment schools under the direct control of the Educational 
 Department or other offices. 
 
 (8) Those studying abroad, and possessing certificates for 
 at least a two years' course. 
 
 (9) Those in possession of a license as captain, mate or 
 engineer, according to the seamen's license regulations. 
 
 (10) Those in possession of a certificate for at least three 
 years' service at sea as firemen or sailors, according to the 
 seamen's employment regulations (clause 29, pars, i to 10).
 
 26 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 (ii) Those coming under either of the conditions specified 
 under "general postponement," who are still in the same 
 condition at the time of the conscript examination in the 
 third year of the regular service (clause 34). 
 
 (12) Those coming under either of the conditions specified 
 under postponement in peace time, who are still in the same 
 condition at the time of conscript examination in the third 
 year of regular service (clause 34). 
 
 (13) Those coming up to the medical standard, but draw- 
 ing a blank lot (clause 49). 
 
 (14) Those assigned to the supplementary reserve service, 
 but not ordered to enter barracks, at the end of one year, 
 beginning with the first day on which regulars enter barracks 
 (clause 51). 
 
 Of the above, those exempted from enlistment, according 
 to either of the foregoing conditions. No. 13 or No. 14, are 
 to be assigned to the first reserve service No. i, while those 
 exempted from enlistment, according to either of the condi- 
 tions. No. I to No. 12, are to be assigned to the first reserve 
 service No. 2. The latter will be called out, before they are 
 thirty years of age, as second reserves, in cases of emergency. 
 They may be called out and enlisted in army corps or in com- 
 missariat service, when the occasion requires it (clause 36). 
 
 7. Punishments. — In matters concerning conscription, 
 those will be dealt with, according to the provisions of the 
 common law, who give wrong information in regard to con- 
 script age or the existence of parents or brothers, who inflict 
 bodily injury upon themselves, who pretend or cause sick- 
 ness, who evade conscription, or who issue false certificate of 
 conscription (clause 66). All those who evade conscription in 
 such manner, or neglect giving the required notices about it, 
 will be examined at the time of enlistment the following year, 
 and be ordered to enter barracks in preference to all others 
 (clause 67). 
 
 The Conscription Law of 1883 
 
 The conscription law that had suffered changes by State 
 Order No. 46, issued on October 2^, 1879, was again amended
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO- JAPANESE WAR 27 
 
 by State Order No. 46, Issued on December 18, 1883. It 
 consists of six chapters. The first chapter (clauses i to 7) 
 is introductory, the second (clauses 8 to 15) relates to service, 
 the third (clauses 16 to 23) to exemption and postponement, 
 the fourth (clauses 24 to 29) to conscription districts and 
 drawing of lots, the fifth (clauses 30 to 33) to supplemen- 
 tary reserves and to first and second reserves, and the sixth 
 (clauses 34 to 44) to sundries. 
 
 I. The Duty of Servdce. — All the men of the country, 
 seventeen to forty years of age, are eligible as soldiers (clause 
 i). In this respect, we find no change from the old law. 
 As to the exceptions to this rule, we shall see presently. 
 
 II. Kinds of Service. — Service, whether army or naval, is 
 that of the regulars, of the reserves and of the militia (clause 
 2). The regular service is divided into the active and the 
 reserve. The active service is obligatory upon the men of 
 twenty years of age and extends over three years. The 
 reserve service is obligatory upon those who have completed 
 the active service and extends over four years. The second 
 reserve service is obligatory upon those who have completed 
 the resers'e service and extends over five years. Those who 
 are seventeen to forty years of age, and are neither regulars 
 nor reserves, constitute the militia (clauses 2 to 5). We 
 shall later see the exemptions to the terms of the services. 
 The term of each service may be extended in case of emer- 
 gency, or when special manoeuvers or reviews take place, or 
 when those of the respective services are either at sea or 
 resident abroad (clause 6). 
 
 III. Specialization in Service. — Men of the military active 
 service belong to one of the following lines, according to the 
 number required each year, and to their bodily conditions and 
 occupations: infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineering, mechan- 
 ical and miscellanea (clause 8) . Those of the naval active serv- 
 ice belong to one of the following divisions, according to the 
 number required and the result of examination into the con- 
 ditions and occupations of those who live along the coast line, 
 or in the islands: sailors, firemen and mechanics (clause 6).
 
 28 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 The active service extends over three years. But the terrn 
 may be shortened in the case of the miscellanea of the army, 
 according to the nature of their duties. The term of the 
 regular ser\4ce, however, always remains the same (clause 9). 
 Those of the active service may be discharged before the 
 expiration of their term, if they prove proficient in their arts 
 and conduct, or if they possess a certificate of military train- 
 ing received at government schools (clause 12). Men of the 
 reserve sersace are to be called out in case of war or emer- 
 gency, and enrolled in the regular army or in the supple- 
 mentary corps. In peace time, the reserv^es are called out 
 for review once a year, the term being sixty days. They 
 are also called out once a year for roll call. Naval reser\'es, 
 however, are not called out for review (clause 13). The 
 second reserves are called out in case of emergency after the 
 first reserves, in order to support the regulars. As to the 
 calling out and roll call, the same procedure is followed for 
 the second reserves and the reserv^es (clause 14). 
 
 The militia are called out and enrolled in corps, in case of 
 emergency, when more men are needed, after the calling out 
 of the second reserves (clause 15). The supplementary 
 service is not yet recognized as an independent service, in the 
 same sense that the regular or other service is an independent 
 service. The supplementary reserv^es are taken from those 
 who win the lot, and serA^e as such for one year. In case of 
 vacancies in the active service, or in case of emergency when 
 more men are needed, they are to be called out, according to 
 lot. The number of the supplementary reserves should not 
 be less than two-fifths of that of the regulars (clause 30). In 
 addition to what have been described above, there are also 
 emergency reserves. They are to be called out, in case of 
 war or emergency, when more men are needed than are pro- 
 vided by the second reser\'es. They are enlisted in certain 
 corps or commissariat service, according to the order of the 
 lots (clauses 33 and 36). The manner of their enrollment 
 will be described later. 
 
 IV. Volunteers. — There are two kinds of volunteers, those 
 in general and those for one year's service.
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 29 
 
 (i) Volunteers in general. Those above seventeen years 
 of age may volunteer for active service, even before the con- 
 scription age (clause lo). 
 
 (2) Volunteers for one year's service. Those in possession 
 of diplomas received at government or prefectural schools, 
 and ranging between seventeen and twenty-seven years of 
 age, may be admitted into active service for one year at their 
 own expense. Those who are already skilful in arts may be 
 discharged from duties after some months. It should be 
 understood, however, that they are not exempted from the 
 prescriptive term of the regular servace (clause ii). 
 
 V. Rejection and Exemption. — It is prescribed in the regu- 
 lations that those convicted of grave offenses are not per- 
 mitted to serve in the army or na\'y (clause 7). As to exemp- 
 tion from service, it is prescribed in clause 16 that the 
 inveterately diseased or deformed are excused when they are 
 not able to serve. 
 
 VI. Postponement of and Exemption from Enrollment. — 
 The cases of postponement of enrollment provided in this 
 law are divided, as was provided in the law of 1879, i^^to those 
 of a general nature and those of peace time. Let us first 
 take up the postponement that takes place in peace time. 
 Even those whose enrollment is postponed in peace time 
 are, except those who fall under clause 18, par. 6, on page 30, 
 to be enrolled when vacancies occur in the required number of 
 supplementary reserves for a certain year, or when more men 
 are needed to meet emergencies. The postponement of this 
 class is further divided into that for an indefinite period, 
 and that for a definite period. 
 
 (A) Postponement in peace time for an indefinite period 
 (clause 17) : 
 
 (i) One of the brothers who are called out at the same time, 
 and one elder or younger brother of those who are already in 
 active service. 
 
 (2) One elder or younger brother of those who died while 
 in active service, or were wounded or contracted disease 
 while in public service. This is granted only when they are 
 exempted from service owing to these circumstances.
 
 30 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 (3) The heir or Hneal grandson of the head of a family 
 about sixty years of age. 
 
 (4) The heir or Hneal grandson of the head of a family, 
 ^vho is not able to support his family on account of deformity 
 or chronic disease. 
 
 (5) The head of a family. 
 
 (B) Postponement in peace time for a definite period : 
 When those who have passed conscript examination are 
 not able to enter barracks, owing to sickness or crime, and 
 when such conditions remain on the first of September of 
 that year, their enrollment will be postponed to the following 
 year. In this case, they are required to take the examination 
 again the following year before their enrollment. In case of 
 war or emergency, the enrollment may take place, even before 
 the conscription time in the following year (clause 40). 
 
 Now for postponements of a general nature. These are 
 also divided into postponements for a definite period and 
 those for an indefinite period. 
 
 (a) The postponement for an indefinite period : 
 Under each oi the following circumstances, enrollment will 
 be postponed as long as the circumstances remain unchanged 
 (clause 1 8) : 
 
 (i) Religious teachers. 
 
 (2) Teachers in government and public schools possessing 
 diplomas conferred by government or public schools. 
 
 (3) Regular students belonging to government universities, 
 or government schools on an equal footing with them. 
 
 (4) Military and naval cadets, and naval workmen. 
 
 (5) Those who are yet below the medical standard. 
 
 (6) Those who are unable to serve owing to sickness or 
 debility after sickness. 
 
 (7) Those studying abroad. 
 
 (8) Unconvicted prisoners accused of penal crimes. 
 
 (9) Those whose civil rights are suspended. 
 
 When the experts employed in the departments and in pre- 
 fectural and other offices are unable to secure their substitute 
 for enrollment, they may be exempted from it, by decision of 
 the state council (clause 21).
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO- JAPANESE WAR 3 1 
 
 (b) The postponement for a definite period : 
 The enrollment of the students of different government 
 and prefectural schools completing at least a one year's course 
 may be postponed for six years (clause 19). 
 
 As to the exemption from enrollment, we have no pre- 
 scribed rules, but can draw certain inferences from various 
 regulations. 
 
 (A) The exemption is granted (i) in case those under 
 either of the conditions of postponement in peace time for an 
 indefinite period do not receive orders for enrollment, or (2) 
 when they fall under one of the conditions of postponement 
 of a general nature for an indefinite period. In either of 
 these cases, they will be exempted from enrollment, if their 
 condition remains unchanged for seven years, but will be 
 registered as eligible reserves, until they are thirty-two years 
 of age. In the former case, they will be enrolled in the active 
 service, if they lose their qualification, during the course of 
 six years after their registration as the supplementary second 
 reserves (clatise 32). 
 
 (B) The exemption is granted when those registered as 
 supplementary reserves are not called out within the pre- 
 scribed period, or when those regular students of the con- 
 scription age at the different government universities have 
 finished at least a two years' course. These are to be regis- 
 tered as supplementary first reserves, until twenty-seven 
 years of age. When their term as the said reserves expires, 
 they will be registered as supplementary second reserves until 
 thirty-two years of age (clause 32). 
 
 (C) Those drawing blank lots are exempted. 
 
 In connection with the above, it should be mentioned that 
 those under the following circumstances never fall into the 
 class granted postponement in peace time for an indefinite 
 period (clause 22) : 
 
 (i) The head of the dependent house {fiiseki koshi), or the 
 heir or lineal grandson of such person. 
 
 (2) Those ceasing to be the heir or lineal grandson, with- 
 out such disabilities as chronic disease, deformity, inability
 
 32 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 to make a livelihood, or accusation or conviction of grave 
 offenses, or the heir or lineal grandson of such person. 
 
 (3) The heir or lineal grandson of him who succeeds, 
 after reaching sixty years of age, or the head of a family who 
 has ceased to be such before reaching sixty years of age, with- 
 out such disabilities as are specified above. 
 
 (4) Those setting up a branch family or reviving an extinct 
 family, or the heir or grandson of such men. 
 
 (5) Those heirs or lineal grandsons succeeding the heirs or 
 lineal grandson whose disappearance is yet less than five 
 years. 
 
 (6) Such heirs or lineal grandsons fall under the foregoing 
 heads, Nos. 2, 3 and 4, and succeed him who has ceased to 
 be the head of a family, without such disabilities as chronic 
 disease, deformity, inability to make a livelihood, or grav^e 
 offenses. 
 
 (7) Those succeeding him who has ceased to be the head 
 of a family before reaching sixty years of age, without such 
 disabilities as are given above (clause 21, par. 2). 
 
 (8) Those succeeding the head of a family who has died or 
 ceased to be such and is not succeeded by his own heir or 
 grandson, without such disabilities as are given above. 
 
 (9) Those succeeding the head of a family, whose disap- 
 peariance is yet less than five years. 
 
 VII. Punishments. — Those who injure their own body in 
 order to escape service, become sick on purpose, run away or 
 conceal themselves, avoid attendance at the place of examina- 
 tion without sufficient reasons, or neglect sending the pre- 
 scribed notices — these will be enrolled in the active service 
 at once or after examination in the following year, without 
 the privilege of drawing lots (clause 41). 
 
 Those who do not send the prescribed notices, or do not 
 appear before the medical officers, in spite of an offfcial notice 
 of the date of examination, and w^ithout a sufificient reason, 
 pay a fine of from three to thirty ^ew (clause 43). They will 
 be imprisoned for a term ranging from one month to one 
 yfear, in addition to' which they have to pay as penalty three
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 33 
 
 to three hundred yen (clause 44), when they try to evade 
 conscription in any way whatever. 
 
 From 1883 to i88q 
 
 Amendment of the conscription law was again made in 
 1889. It consists of seven chapters, divided into forty-six 
 clauses. The first chapter (clauses i to 7) is introductory, 
 the second (clauses 8 to 16) relates to service, the third (clauses 
 17 to 22) to exemption, postponement and yiiyo, the fourth 
 (clauses 23 to 24) to supplementary reserves, the fifth (clauses 
 25 to 29) to miscellaneous rules, the sixth (clauses 30 to 31) 
 to punishments, and the seventh (clauses 32 to 46) to sup- 
 plementary rules. This new law shows a great advance- 
 ment over the old, in that it abolishes most of the privileges 
 given to various social ra.nks. It forms the foundation of the 
 law that is in force at present. The following is an outline 
 of this new law: 
 
 1. The Duty of Service. — Same as the old law we have 
 studied above. 
 
 2. Kinds of Service. — According to the old law, the term 
 of active service was three years and that of reser\'e service 
 four years, both in the army and navy. This was changed 
 in the new law to three years for active ser\-ice in the army 
 and four years for active service in the mxy, and to four 
 years for reserve service in the army and three years for reserve 
 ser\dce in the navy (clause 3). 
 
 3. Specialization in Service. — As to the different branches 
 of the army, we find no changes in the new law, except the 
 clause in which men on the different islands are required to 
 serve in their respective local branches of the defense army 
 (clause 8). Concerning the term of active service for the 
 miscellanea, both in the army and navy, we find that it may 
 be shortened, as the case may be, though there is no shorten- 
 ing of the prescriptive term of the regular (standing) serv-ice 
 (clause 9). For example, transport auxiliaries are in active 
 service only one year (see Imperial Order No. 37, issued in 
 jyiarch, 1890) ; those, of the defense army Jive in barracks only
 
 34 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 one year (clause 9) ; those who are proficient both in arts and 
 conduct may be permitted to return home previous to the 
 expiration of their terms (clause 13). 
 
 The reserv^es and second reserves, both in the army and 
 navy, must be present at the annual reservist inspection 
 (clauses 14 and 15). There is no change in the regulations 
 concerning the national army (clause 16). Those experts in 
 government or local offices, for whom no substitutes are 
 obtainable, are not required to be present at the said inspec- 
 tion. Members of different assemblies instituted by law are 
 also excused during session (clause 22). 
 
 The supplementary service is not yet treated as an inde- 
 pendent servdce, but its regulations are found under the head 
 of reserve enrollment. When the number of men enrolled 
 in active service, according to the order of lots, exceeds the 
 yearly requirement, the surplus men are put on the supple- 
 mentary reserve for one year, reckoning from the first of 
 December. 
 
 Those of the supplementary reserve not called out within 
 their term are transferred to the militia rolls (clauses 23 and 
 24). 
 
 4. Special Cases. — (i) No change concerning volunteers 
 (clause 10). 
 
 (2) One year volunteers. Those are eligible for this class 
 of volunteers who are in possession of diplomas given at the 
 different government schools, prefectural normal and middle 
 schools or private schools, in which law, politics and economy 
 are taught according to the rules approved by the Educational 
 Minister. Those who pass the examination given by a mili- 
 tary examination committee are also eligible. In all of these 
 cases, the expenses are to be paid by the volunteer. But the 
 government may give a partial support to those whose inabil- 
 ity to pay all the expenses is confirmed (clause 11). 
 
 Volunteers of this class are permitted to choose their 
 branches of service and places of duty, when they do not 
 receive any support from the government. They pay sixty 
 yen a year for the expenses of clothing, arms, ammunition,
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO- JAPANESE WAR 35 
 
 etc. Those volunteering for cavalry pay eighty yen for the 
 expenses of harness, etc., in addition to the sixty yen. 
 
 The government does not pay them salary. They live 
 outside barracks at their own expense. If they are unable to 
 pay these expenses, part of them will be defrayed by the 
 government, (see Imperial Order No. 14, clauses i to 6, issued 
 in February, 1887). They receive special training, and are 
 enrolled for two years' reserve service when their term for 
 active service expires, and for five years' second reserve serv^ice 
 when the reserve service term expires (clause 11). 
 
 (3) Six weeks' active service. Those possessing a diploma 
 given at government or prefectural normal schools and teach- 
 ing in government or public primary schools may be enrolled 
 for six weeks' active service. Their age is seventeen to twenty- 
 six years. Their expenses are paid by the government. 
 
 At the expiration of their term, they will be registered as 
 militiamen. In case they resign their post as teacher in the 
 course of the six weeks, and before reaching the age of twenty- 
 six years, they will be transferred to the active service, with- 
 out a drawing (clause 11). 
 
 V. Rejection and Exemption. — Those convicted of grave 
 offenses are not permitted to serve in the army (clause 7). 
 Those sentenced to imprisonment or punished for gambling 
 may not become one year volunteers (clause 12). Those are ex- 
 empted from service who are inveterately diseased or deformed 
 and do not come up to the medical standard (clause 17). 
 
 VI. Postponement of and Exemption from Enrollment. — 
 Those coming under any of the following conditions are 
 granted a postponement of enrollment : 
 
 (i) When they are yet too short of stature, though of 
 strong physique. 
 
 (2) When they are sick or convalescent. 
 
 In either of these two cases, the enrollment is postponed 
 for one year (clause 18). 
 
 (3) When they are in detention, on account of light or 
 heavy offenses that may cause suspension of civil rights 
 (clause 19).
 
 36 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 (4) When their famihes are dependent on them for support 
 and when they send In requests for postponement with proper 
 confirmation of the fact. If the conditions remain unchanged 
 for more than three years, they will be registered as mili- 
 tiamen. But their requests for postponement will not be 
 granted in case they set up a new branch family, or revive an 
 extinct family, or fabricate such conditions as will leave their 
 families helpless (clause 20). 
 
 (5) Those who are not able to enter barracks on account 
 of sickness or crime (clause 27). 
 
 Each of the foregoing cases of postponement are included 
 under the general term, yuyo, but they are treated differently. 
 
 (6) When they come under (2) of the special cases men- 
 tioned above, enrollment may be postponed at their own 
 request, until they are twenty-six years old. They w^ll be 
 enlisted without drawing, in either of these two cases: when 
 such conditions change before they are twenty-six years old, 
 or when such conditions are pending, even after they are 
 twenty-six years of age (clause 21, par. i). 
 
 (7) For those studying abroad, enrollment will be post- 
 poned, at their own request, until they are twenty-six years 
 of age. If they return home before or after that age, they 
 will be listed, without drawing (clause 21, par. 2). 
 
 In either of the following cases, exemption is granted: 
 
 (1) When they are still below the standard in stature, 
 though of strong physique, or when they are still sick or con- 
 valescent the following year at the time of enrollment (clause 
 18). 
 
 (2) When their families are still in need of them, even three 
 years after postponement. 
 
 Statistics of Conscription 
 Increase in the Number oj Army Corps 
 The organization of army corps in 1875 was altered in 
 1879. According to the regulations (chapter 8) issued in the 
 latter year, the number of the standing army corps, distrib- 
 uted among the six garrisons, was as follows:
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 37 
 
 Infantry, 14 regiments Commissariat, 6 sections 
 
 Cavalry, 2 battalions Coast Artillery, 9 corps 
 
 Artillery, 9 battalions Full force in peace times, 31,440 
 
 Engineers, 3 battalions and 3 companies 
 
 In 1882, an Imperial proclamation was issued for the expan- 
 sion of armaments, and the schemes for the national defense 
 were completely revised. Two years later the infantry regi- 
 ments of the garrisons were organized into brigades, other 
 branches of the army being also enlarged. This renova- 
 tion prepared the way for the organization of the divisions. 
 According to a table contained in the departmental ordinance 
 No. 53-B, issued by the Military Department on May 24, 
 1884, the number of army corps was as follows: 
 
 Active 
 
 Infantry, 12 brigades (24 regiments) Engineers, 6 battalions 
 Cavalry, 6 regiments Commissariat, 6 battalions 
 
 Artillery, 6 regiments Fortress artillery, not organized 
 
 . Reserve 
 
 Infantry, 24 battalions Engineers, 6 companies 
 
 Cavalry, 6 companies Commissariat, 6 companies 
 
 Artillery', 6 companies 
 
 The actual number of army corps, including the Imperial 
 Guards, in that year, was — 
 
 Infantry, 24 regiments Commissariat, 6 sections 
 
 Cavalry, 2 battalions Gendarmes, 2 battalions 
 
 Artillery, 6 regiments and i battalion Colonial troops, i battalion and 2 sections 
 
 Engineers, 3 battalions and 4 companies Telegraph corps, 2 corps^ 
 
 In 1886, when the naval stations were established, the 
 military authorities saw the necessity of distributing fortress 
 artillery for the defense ot harbors and islands. The follow- 
 ing table, including the Imperial Guards, applies to that year: 
 
 Infantry, 4 brigades Gendarmes, 3 battalions 
 
 Cavalry, 2 battalions Colonial troops, 2 battalions 
 
 Artillery, 7 regiments Telegraph corps, 2 corps 
 
 Engineers, 3 battalions and 4 companies Musicians, I corps 
 Commissariat, 6 battalions Defense guards, i corps 
 
 ^This table is based on MoTOjiRO Tanabe, History oj the Japanese Army,
 
 38 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
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 w 
 
 int^OoOt^M (N 'to o» 
 
 < 
 
 
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 > 
 
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 bo 
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 3
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 
 
 39 
 
 The fluctuation of the number in the following years is 
 shown below: 
 
 1887 Colonial troops, 3 battalions and i company; telegraph corps, abolished. 
 
 1888 Engineers, 6 battalions and i company; musicians, 2 corps. 
 
 1889 Gendarmes, 4 corps; Colonial troops, 5 battalions. 
 
 1890 Cavalry, 6 battalions; Gendarmes, 6 corps; fortress artillery, 2 battalions 
 
 (4 regiments under consideration). 
 
 1891 Fortress Artillery, 2 regiments (4 regiments under consideration); Colonial 
 
 troops, 4 infantry battalions and i cavalry, i artillery and i engineering 
 corps. 
 
 1892 Imperial Guards, i engineering company enlarged into i engineering 
 
 battalion. 
 
 1893 No change. 
 
 1894 Fortress artillery, 3 regiments; Gendarmes, i corps added. 
 
 Number of Conscripts ^ 
 
 Year 
 
 (Meiji Era) 
 
 Active Service 
 
 Supplementary 
 Reserves 
 
 Total 
 
 1878 
 
 II 
 12 
 13 
 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 10,158 
 
 10,299 
 
 25,374 f 15,000 of 
 < which were 
 [ commissariat 
 
 24-767 
 
 24,817 
 
 26,208 
 
 26,288 
 
 3,888 
 
 3,888 
 
 24,293 
 
 8,754 
 8,746 
 9,952 
 
 15-046 
 14,187 
 49,667 
 
 33-521 
 33,563 
 36,160 
 
 1879 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 
 
 Proportion of Conscripts to Population and to Males of Con- 
 script Age 
 
 Table L — Conscripts for Active Service per 1,000 Population 
 
 Conscripts for Per 1,000 
 Year Population 
 
 1878 34,898,540 
 
 1879 35,768,584 
 
 1880 35,929,060 
 
 1881 36,358,994 
 
 1882 36,700,118 
 
 1883 37,017,302 
 
 1884 37,451,764 
 
 1885 37,868,984 
 
 1886 38,507,177 
 
 8 In these years, \^ of 15,000 commissariats were deducted from the figures given 
 in preceding table, because only one twentieth of them were enrolled, according 
 to the regulations. 
 
 ^ Based on the table of annual conscripts in The Compendium of Laws and 
 Ordinances. 
 
 Active Service Population 
 
 10,158 
 
 291 
 
 10,299 
 
 287 
 
 II,I24» 
 
 309 
 
 10,214* 
 
 269 
 
 10,567" 
 
 288 
 
 11,958'' 
 
 323 
 
 12,038* 
 
 344 
 
 13,423" 
 
 354 
 
 18,261 
 
 466
 
 40 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Table I. — Continued. 
 
 Conscripts for Per i ,000 
 
 Year Population Active Service Population 
 
 1887 39,069,691 20,008 .512 
 
 1888 39,607,234 20,115 507 
 
 1889 40,072,020 18,782 .468 
 
 1890 40,453,461 20,365 .534 
 
 1891 40,718,677 20,689 501 
 
 1892 41,089,940 20,012 .487 
 
 1893 41,388,313 20,625 .498 
 
 1894 41,813,215 22,354 -535 
 
 Table II. — Conscripts per 1,000 Population 
 
 Conscripts 
 Year per 1,000 
 
 1878 402 
 
 1879 397 
 
 1880 1.382 
 
 1881 922 
 
 1882 915 
 
 1883 1 .606 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 4.764 
 
 1886 5.015 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 Year per 1,000 
 
 1887 5095 
 
 1888 2.701 
 
 1889 2.329 
 
 1890 3.657 
 
 1891 3-593 
 
 1892 3-987 
 
 1893 2.934 
 
 1894 2.887 
 
 Table III. — Conscripts for Active Service per 100 males of Military Age 
 
 Year 
 
 Males of 
 
 Military' Conscripts 
 Age Per Cent 
 
 Conscripts 
 Examined 
 
 Conscripts for 
 Active Service per 
 100 Conscripts 
 Examined 
 
 1880 273,307 4.325 
 
 1881 306,724 3.330 
 
 1882 280,813 3-763 
 
 1883 308,723 3874 
 
 1884 347,748 3-462 
 
 1885 387,389 3-495 
 
 1886 421,278 4-339 
 
 [391,366 (first examination) ] 
 1887 ■{ 386,606 (second examina- 
 
 1888 427,846 
 
 1889 360,357 
 
 1890 361,422 
 
 1891 350,369 
 
 1892 392,763 
 
 1893 432,340 
 
 1894 436,246 
 
 tion) 
 4.700 
 212 
 635 
 905 
 044 
 
 /64 
 124 
 
 352,236 
 379-706 
 
 856 
 
 887
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 
 
 41 
 
 
 Table IV.— C 
 
 
 Conscripts per 
 
 
 100 Males of 
 
 
 Military 
 
 Year 
 
 Age 
 
 1880. . . 
 
 ... 18.173 
 
 1881... 
 
 10.932 
 
 1882... 
 
 ... 11-953 
 
 1883... 
 
 11.756 
 
 1884... 
 
 
 1885... 
 
 46.566 
 
 1886... 
 
 ... 45-837 
 
 1887... 
 
 
 Conscripts per 100 Men of Military Age 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 per 
 ICO Men 
 Examined 
 
 Year 
 
 1888. 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 1892. 
 
 1893. 
 1894. 
 
 Conscripts per 
 
 100 Males of 
 
 Military 
 
 Age 
 
 .056 
 
 25 
 46 
 
 41 
 41 
 
 28 
 
 903 
 097 
 
 763 
 
 702 
 
 079 
 
 668 
 
 Conscripts 
 per 
 100 Men 
 Examined 
 
 37 
 31 
 
 280 
 789 
 
 Reasons for the Changes 
 
 This was the period of the completion of the conscription 
 law, whose contents underwent great and rapid changes. 
 These remarkable changes were due to the idea of raising 
 the army from the whole nation, without any distinction of 
 class; and this idea was in turn due to the rapid changes in 
 the political and social conditions of the people. 
 
 This idea had already existed even at the time of the pro- 
 mulgation of the law. In the Imperial mandate, issued in 
 1872, we find these words: "According to our ancient sys- 
 tem, the whole people were eligible for military service. 
 In case of emergency, the Emperor raised expeditionary 
 forces among the able bodied males and took command of 
 them." The nation had, however, not felt the full force of 
 this idea until the Satsuma Rebellion. The burden of con- 
 scription had as yet been very light, in respect of the number, 
 term, postponement and exemption. It was only in this 
 period that the idea was put into practice to the fullest extent. 
 
 The circumstances at the time of the Restoration deterred 
 the nation from making any preparations for the emergencies 
 on the continent that may affect the independence of the 
 country. Nor was the new government yet strongly estab- 
 lished in power. There was a great deal of dissatisfaction 
 among the military people, who were deprived of their tra- 
 ditional privileges, social and political. 
 
 The remnant of the Shogunate party was still "loitering 
 with intent." Consolidation of the state and military prepa-
 
 42 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 rations were of urgent necessity, and to this the whole energy 
 of the government authorities was devoted. The use of the 
 standing army for local guard was the result of their great 
 effort. Both the conscription law, issued in 1873, and the 
 law revised in 1875, contain the following words: "Men of 
 the different branches of the army are to be raised in the 
 district under the jurisdiction of each garrison. They shall 
 serve in the army for a certain period of time at their respec- 
 tive garrisons. They are for local defense." The ordinary 
 way of distributing men over the districts other than their 
 own, especially when a civil war was feared, was not resorted 
 to by the new government. Their system was based upon 
 the principle of assigning men to the place from which they 
 came. The whole country was divided into six military 
 jurisdictions; and each garrison was to defend the district 
 under its own jurisdiction with men raised from that district. 
 The Imperial Guards were an exception to this rule. This 
 circumstance was due to the influence of the old apportion- 
 ment of men adopted by the feudal lords under the Shogunate 
 Government, who held their own in different localities. As 
 the result of this circumstance, men raised by the different 
 garrisons had already been of different fiefs. Hence there was 
 no need of redistribution of men by the military authorities. 
 
 The government had always felt uneasy until the suppres- 
 sion of the insurrection at Saga (1874) ^^^ o^ the Satsuma 
 Rebellion (1877), after which they saw no cause for appre- 
 hension. Their attention was now turned to the great prob- 
 lem of national expansion. 
 
 Two years after the Satsuma Rebellion, the conscription 
 law was revised, by which the term of service was extended. 
 The conditions tor postponement and exemption were made 
 somewhat more rigorous. But this was not sufficient. In 
 accordance with the Imperial rescript given to the army and 
 the navy in 1882 and the Imperial edict issued in the same 
 year relating to the expansion of the military and naval 
 systems, the authorities started that reorganization. In 
 1883, another revision of the law was effected in order to pre-
 
 SATSUMA REBELLION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 43 
 
 pare for emergencies abroad. The term of service was again 
 extended, the system of substitution was aboHshed, and the 
 conditions for exemption and postponement were made still 
 more severe. Besides, the provision for one-year volunteers 
 was established, by which the way was opened for filling 
 vacancies in the list of reserv^e officers. It was in 1889 that 
 another revision was made. The conditions for postpone- 
 ment and exemption were made extremely rigorous. All 
 the regulations that were intended for the protection of the 
 family system were done away with. The whole nation was 
 now eligible for service.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 FROM THE SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE RUSSO- 
 JAPANESE WAR 
 
 Since its enactment in 1889, the conscription law has under- 
 gone little change, except a slight amendment made by State 
 Order No. 15, issued in March, 1895, and it remained the 
 same until the time of the Russo-Japanese War. This was 
 perhaps because the revision of 1889 was so complete as to 
 make any further change needless. 
 
 Changes in the Conscription Law 
 
 We need not go over the whole of the law revised in 1895. 
 Let us look over only those points that were changed, 
 (i) The term for reserve service in the army was changed 
 from four years to four years and four months (clause 3). 
 
 (2) The old system of filling up vacancies in the active and 
 reser\'e services was changed into the supplementary reserve 
 service (Hoju-eki), the first supplementary reserve service 
 and the second supplementary reserv^e service. The term 
 for the former extends over seven years and four months. 
 
 These resersdsts are taken from among the surplus men for 
 active service. The term for the latter extends over one 
 year and four months, the required number of men being taken 
 from among the surplus men for the former. In the case of 
 the navy, the required number of men is taken among the 
 surplus men for active service (clause 5). 
 
 (3) The militia service is divided into the first militia serv- 
 ice and the second militia service. Those who have com- 
 pleted the term for the first supplementary reserve service 
 are enlisted in the former service. In the latter service is 
 enlisted those who have completed the active, the reserve 
 and the supplementary service and the first militia service 
 (clause 6). 
 
 (4) The period of temporary exemption (yuyo) for stu- 
 
 44
 
 SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 45 
 
 dents of the schools prescribed is now extended to twenty- 
 eight years of age (formerly twenty-six years) (clause 23). 
 
 (5) Those studying abroad were temporarily exempted 
 from enrollment until' twenty-six years of age. In regard to 
 this, we notice the following changes: Those staying abroad 
 (excepting those in Korea) may be postponed at their own 
 request. But they will be enrolled, if they return home 
 before reaching thirty-two years of age. When they are 
 above thirty-two years of age, they will be enlisted in the 
 militia service. But they may apply for one-year volunteer 
 service (clause 23). 
 
 Statistics of Conscription 
 
 Increase in the Number of Army Corps 
 
 At the conclusion of the Sino-Japanese War, an increase of 
 armaments was effected (1896). The colonial troops were 
 organized into a division, and five new divisions were created. 
 These six new divisions added to the existing six divisions, 
 together with the Imperial Guards, now numbered thirteen 
 in all. Besides, there were now three composite brigades in 
 Formosa. The number of army corps was accordingly 
 increased as follows: 
 
 1896 The cavalry battalion attached to the Imperial Guards 
 was increased to one regiment. The number of the 
 infantry regiments increased to forty-eight, that of 
 the cavalry regiments to sixteen, that of field artil- 
 lery regiments to eighteen, that of engineers and com- 
 missariats to twelve battalions, and that of fortress 
 artillery corps to four regiments and four battalions. 
 The seventh division consisted of one independent 
 infantry battalion, one independent field artillery 
 battalion, and one independent engineering com- 
 pany, besides which this di\'ision included four battal- 
 ions of colonial infantry, one cavalry, one artillery 
 and one engineering corps. The composite brigades 
 in Formosa consisted of six infantry regiments, three
 
 46 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
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 SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 47 
 
 cavalry companies, three field artillery companies, 
 two fortress artillery battalions, three engineering 
 companies and one railway guard corps. 
 
 1897 The independent engineering company ot the seventh 
 
 division was enlarged into one battalion. One inde- 
 pendent fortress artillery battalion was added. 
 
 1898 The number of divisions was increased to twelve. 
 
 1899 Four new regiments were added to the existing colo- 
 
 nial infantry of the seventh division. 
 
 1900 One cavalry regiment, one field artillery regiment, one 
 
 engineering battalion and one commissariat battal- 
 ion were added to the seventh division. The army 
 stationed in China consisted of four infantry battal- 
 ions and one field artillery company. 
 1903 The army stationed in China now consisted of one 
 infantry corps. One infantry corps was stationed 
 in Korea. The colonial infantry of the seventh 
 division was reduced to one corps. The schemes for 
 the expansion of armaments made out In 1896 was 
 at last completed, when the number of the dif- 
 ferent corps, increased in 1899, was filled up. 
 
 Proportion of Conscripts to Population and to Males of 
 
 Conscript Age 
 
 Table I. — Number Enrolled in Active Service per 1,000 Population 
 
 Enrolled in Per 1,000 
 
 Year Population Active Service Population 
 
 1895 42,270,620 22,442 .503 
 
 1896 42,708,264 44.113 1-032 
 
 1897 43,228,863 48,264 1. 1 16 
 
 1898" 43,763,855 53,452 I -221 
 
 "There is no official table of those enrolled in active serv'ice after 1898. 
 
 Table II. — Number Enrolled per 1,000 Population 
 
 Per 1,000 
 Year Population Population 
 
 1895 See above i . 898 
 
 1896 " " . 4099 
 
 1897 " " 3-273 
 
 1898 " " 4-070 
 
 1899 44,260,642 4-132 
 
 1900 44,815,980 4. 171
 
 48 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Table II. — Continued 
 
 Year Population 
 
 1901 45,437,032 
 
 1902 46,022,476 
 
 1903 46,732,841 
 
 1904 47,219,566 
 
 Per 1,000 
 
 Population 
 
 4.217 
 
 4.289 
 
 3-933 
 5 703 
 
 Table III. — Number Enrolled in Active Service per 100 Men of Conscript 
 
 Age 
 
 Year 
 
 Men of 
 Conscript Age 
 
 Per Cent in 
 Active Service 
 
 Men 
 Examined 
 
 Ratio of Men Enrolled 
 
 in Active Service per 
 
 100 Examined 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 
 449,834 
 489,895 
 477,555 
 502,924 
 
 4.987 
 
 9.002 
 
 10.108 
 
 10.626 
 
 386,613 
 423,178 
 401,952 
 421,654 
 
 5-804 
 10.426 
 12.006 
 12.677 
 
 Enrolled per 100 
 
 Examined 
 
 20.747 
 
 41 
 
 244 
 
 35 
 
 185 
 
 42 
 
 265 
 
 43 
 
 526 
 
 44 
 
 376 
 
 44 
 
 691 
 
 45 
 
 794 
 
 53 
 
 349 
 
 66 
 
 000 
 
 Table IV. — Number Enrolled per 100 Men of Conscript Age 
 
 Enrolled per 100 
 Year Men of Conscript Age 
 
 1895 17S31 
 
 1896 35-731 
 
 1897 29.821 
 
 1898 35-417 
 
 1899 
 
 1900 
 
 1901 
 
 1902 
 
 1903 
 
 1904 
 
 Reasons for the Changes 
 
 According to Count Okuma's "History of the Fifty Years 
 Since the Opening of the Country," the field of battles during 
 the Sino-Japanese War was so wide that there was a great 
 lack of men.i This was the reason wh}' the period of the 
 entire service was extended to twelve years and four months, 
 and why the system for filling up vacancies in active and 
 reserve service was reorganized into what is called the supple- 
 mentary reserv^e service (hoju-eki), whose term ranges from 
 one year and four months to seven years and four months. 
 These changes were made in March, 1895. The increases in 
 the number of divisions and in the men to be enrolled in active 
 service that followed the above changes were also due to the 
 same reason. 
 
 ^See section in which Prince Yamagata deals with our military system.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 FROM THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT 
 
 TIME 
 
 Since the Russo-Japanese War, the law has twice under- 
 gone changes. The first revision by Imperial Ordinance No. 
 212, issued in September, 1904, relates to the following points: 
 (i) the extension of the five years' term of the military second 
 reserve service to ten years, (2) the extension of the seven 
 years and four months' term of the supplementary first re- 
 serve ser\'ice and of the one year and four months' term of 
 the supplementary second reser\'e service to twelve years 
 and four months, (3) the establishment of a detailed system 
 of militia sers'ice in both the army and the navy, and (4) the 
 extension of the term of the second reserve service for one 
 year volunteers. It was by the revision in 1906 that all 
 these changes made by this ordinance were drafted into law. 
 We shall next study the essential points of the conscription 
 law, issued in 1906. All through this period the most im- 
 portant change was the Imperial Ordinance concerning the 
 two years' service. 
 
 Changes in the Conscription Law 
 
 The essential points of the law as revised in 1906 are as 
 follows : 
 
 I. The Duty of Service. — The same as in the former law. 
 
 II. Kinds of Service. — Service is of four kinds, the regular, 
 the reserve, the supplementary and the militia (clause 2). 
 The regular service is divided into the active and the active 
 reserve. As to the three years' term in the army, and the 
 four years' term in the navy of active service, and the four 
 years and four months' term in the army and the three years' 
 term in the navy of active reserve service, we find that they 
 are the same as those prescribed in the law of 1889. The 
 reserve service in the army extends over ten years and in the 
 
 49
 
 50 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 navy five years (clauses 3 and 4) . The supplementary service 
 in the army extends over twelve years and four months, and 
 that in the navy, one year. In the latter case, the required 
 number for the service is taken from the number that exceeds 
 the required quota for active service (clause 5). The militia 
 service is divided into first militia and second militia. The 
 list of the former service in the army is filled by those com- 
 pleting the reserve service, or those supplementary reserves 
 called out and completing their service. In the navy, the 
 list is filled by those completing the reserve ser\dce. The list 
 of the second militia service is filled by those who are not in 
 the regular, the reserve, the supplementary or the first militia 
 service (clause 6). 
 
 III. Specialization in Service. — No change in active, active 
 reser\^e and reserv^e services (clause 16). 
 
 Supplementary reserves both of the army and the navy 
 are to fill vacancies in the list of active service, and are to be 
 called out in case of war or emergency. But this filling up 
 of vacancies is limited to the first year of active service. 
 In the case of the army, the reserves are called out for training, 
 which will last one hundred and fifty days, in peace time. 
 They will be called out for review and inspection, in the same 
 way as the active reserves (clause 17). 
 
 IV. Special Cases. — (i) Volunteers. No change. 
 
 (2) One year volunteers. Those are eligible as one year 
 volunteers who are seventeen to twenty-eight years of age, 
 and desire to be officers of the active reserves or the supple- 
 mentary reserves. They must be graduates of those schools 
 that are prescribed in the old law, or must pass the required 
 examination. While in service, they must pay all the nec- 
 essary expenses, although the government may defray part 
 of their expenses, as the case may require (clause 13). They 
 are as a rule to serve in the garrison that is quartered in their 
 locality, but may be transferred to other places, in case of 
 necessity. The branch of service they enter will be deter- 
 mined by their wish and by the convenience of the authori- 
 ties. Those completing certain courses of study may apply
 
 RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO PRESENT TIME 51 
 
 for the service, as accountants, surgeons, veterinary sur- 
 geons or pharmacists. 
 
 Their expenses must be paid in advance, according to 
 regulations issued by the War Minister (clauses i, 2, 3 and 7 
 of the Regulations for One Year Volunteers in the Army). 
 
 Those completing one year's service as volunteers will be 
 enrolled in the active reserve for six years and four months 
 and at the completion of this, in the reserve service for ten 
 years (clauses 10 and 13 of the regulations above). 
 
 (3) Six weeks' active service. Those who are seventeen to 
 twenty-eight years of age, and have such qualifications as 
 prescribed by the old law, may be enrolled in this service. 
 In case their names are dropped out of the teacher's list before 
 they are twenty-eight years old after the active service, they 
 will be enrolled in the active service for two years without a 
 drawing, and in the active service and the supplementary 
 service, successively (clause 13), when the term for the active 
 service is completed. 
 
 V. Rejection and Exemption. — Those convicted of felony 
 are not admitted into any branch ot the service (clause 8). 
 Those sentenced to imprisonment or punished for gambling, 
 are not eligible for the one year volunteer service (clause 14). 
 The rules concerning exemption from service are the same as 
 those of the old law. 
 
 VI. Postponement of and Exemption from Enrollment. — • 
 Postponement of enrollment takes place in any of the follow- 
 ing circumstances: 
 
 (i) Same as that prescribed in the old law. 
 
 (2) Same as that in the old law. (Clause 20 of the new 
 law corresponds to the items above.) 
 
 (3) Same as that prescribed in the old law. (See clause 21 
 of the new.) 
 
 (4) Same as that of the old law. (See clause 22 of the new.) 
 
 (5) Same as that of the old law. (See clause 27 of the 
 new.) 
 
 (6) Residents of the different schools stated under the 
 item of one year volunteers may have their enrollment post-
 
 52 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 poned until they are twenty-eight years of age. But such 
 postponement is granted only when they apply for it. When 
 their conditions are changed, before twenty-eight years of 
 age, or when their conditions still remain unchanged at that 
 age, they will be enrolled, without drawing lots (clause 23). 
 
 (7) Those staying abroad. Their enrollment is post- 
 poned only at their own request. They will be enrolled with- 
 out a drawing if they return home before they are thirty-two 
 years of age (clause 23). Residents in Formosa, Saghalien, 
 the Loochoos, Korea, the Kuriles, Hongkong and Amoy, are 
 not granted postponement, but may take their examination 
 at the neighboring garrisons or consulates, in accordance 
 with the orders that will be issued by the War Minister (Impe- 
 rial Order No. 318, issued in December, 1904). 
 
 The case of postponement that takes place under the last 
 two conditions is called ywyo (temporary exemption from 
 enrollment), in order to distinguish it from the other cases. 
 
 Exemption from enrollment takes place under the follow- 
 ing conditions: 
 
 (i) The first of the items stated in the old law concerning 
 exemption (clause 20 of the new law). 
 
 (2) The second of the items stated in the old law concern- 
 ing exemption (clause 22 of the new law). 
 
 (3) When those residing abroad (except in those countries 
 specified above) and obtaining the permission for postpone- 
 ment at their own request are more than thirty-two years of 
 age (clause 23). 
 
 (4) When the number of those winning the lots as supple- 
 mentary reserves exceeds that of the actual vacancies to be 
 filled (clause 11). 
 
 VII. Punishments. — The same as those prescribed in the 
 old law. 
 
 The foregoing are the essentials of the new law issued in 
 1906. The rules concerning the two years' service also 
 demand our special attention. In Imperial Ordinance No. 
 332, issued in October of the same year, are found the follow-
 
 RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO PRESENT TIME 53 
 
 ing statements, concerning the release of infantry soldiers in 
 the active service: 
 
 Those infantry soldiers in the active service who prove proficient in their Hne 
 may be discharged from their duties at the end of two years' service. It should, 
 however, be understood that a certain number of them as deemed necessary, will 
 be detained in case of war or emergency (clause i, ordinance No. 332). 
 
 This rule is also applicable to men belonging to other branches of the army 
 (clause 2). 
 
 This ordinance is binding upon all those to be enrolled after 1905. 
 
 Part of those to be enrolled that year will, however, be released (supplementary 
 
 rules). 
 
 / 
 
 The departmental order, issued in February, 1908, states 
 that after 1905, men of the military medical corps may be 
 released at the end of two years' service. 
 
 There have been no changes since. But we understand 
 that additional changes are in contemplation, among which 
 are the following: 
 
 (i) All those who attain the age of twenty should go 
 through the conscript examination, without exception. 
 
 (2) Residents of different schools wishing postponement of 
 enrollment may obtain permission until they are twenty-six 
 years of age. The Investigation Committee on Education 
 contemplates changes of almost the same import. 
 
 Statistics of Conscription 
 Increase in the Number of A rmy Corps 
 
 After the Russo-Japanese War, the number of divisions 
 was increased from thirteen to nineteen. Military Order 
 No. 4, issued in September, 1907, and amended in April, 
 1908, by Order No. 12, contains a table concerning the dis- 
 tribution of the standing military corps. Our present sys- 
 tem is based on this table, according to which the number of 
 military corps is as follows : 
 
 19 Divisions: 
 
 Infantry, 26 brigades (76 regiments) 
 
 Cavalry, 4 brigades (27 regiments) 
 
 Field artillery, 25 regiments (8 of which are formed into three brigades)
 
 54 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Mountain artillery, 3 battalions 
 
 Engineers, 19 battalions 
 
 Commissariat, 19 battalions 
 
 Hea\y Artillery, 6 regiments and 6 battalions (4 of which are formed into 2 
 
 brigades) 
 Communication corps (railway regiments, telegraph and aeroplane corps), 
 
 I brigade 
 Defense guards, i battalion 
 Musicians, 2 corps 
 
 The standing army corps stationed in Formosa, Saghalien, 
 Manchuria and Korea are not inchided in the above table. 
 
 The division increase bill having passed through the Impe- 
 rial diet at its special session in May, 191 5, there will be an 
 increase of two divisions, to be stationed in Korea. The 
 full strength of the army corps belonging to these new divi- 
 sions will then be as follows: 
 
 Infantry divisions, 2 
 Cavalry regiments, 2 
 
 Heavy artillery battalions, 
 Engineering battalions, 2 
 Field artillery regiments, 2 
 
 The plan is to complete the organization in six years, begin- 
 ning with the filling up of one third of the infantry force (that 
 is, of sixteen companies), in one division, and in the other 
 division, with the filling up of one-twelfth of the infantry 
 force (that is, of four companies), and with that of two cav- 
 alry companies, two artillery companies and two engineering 
 companies. 
 
 Number of Conscripts 
 
 Year 
 
 1905 
 1 906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 1911 
 1912 
 
 Em oiled 
 
 201,714 
 
 245.257 
 252,103 
 
 257,293 
 257,507 
 258,201 
 
 258,893 
 
 Postponed 
 
 3,428 
 3,300 
 4,685 
 7,652 
 6,950 
 7,464 
 6,993 
 
 Exempted 
 
 from 
 Enrollment 
 
 158,220 
 136,007 
 
 150,343 
 156,631 
 140,230 
 
 114,731 
 157,640 
 
 Exempted 
 
 from 
 
 Service 
 
 33,388 
 28,279 
 32,036 
 31,565 
 27,741 
 19,877 
 17,466 
 
 Total 
 Examined 
 
 396,750 
 412,843 
 
 439,167 
 453,141 
 432,428 
 400,273 
 440,992 
 
 "The number for 1905 was not officially announced.
 
 RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO PRESENT TIME 55 
 
 Proportion of Conscripts to Population and to Males of 
 
 Conscript Age 
 
 Table I. — Number ,of Conscripts per i,ooo Population 
 
 Conscripts per i,ooo 
 Year Population Population 
 
 1905 47,678,396 6,520 
 
 1906 48,164,761 4,188 
 
 1907 48,819,630 5,023 
 
 1908 49,588,804 5,084 
 
 1909 50,254,471 5,120 
 
 Table II. — Conscripts per 100 Males of Military Age 
 
 Conscripts per 100 Conscripts per 100 
 
 Year Examined Year Examined 
 
 1905 78.107 1909 56.759 
 
 1906 50.707 1910 59468 
 
 1907 59.169 1911 61.010 
 
 1908 57426 1912 57378 
 
 Reasons for the Changes 
 
 The military authorities learned in the Russo-Japanese 
 War that the old conscription law was insufficient to fill the 
 needs in war time and as a result the amendment of the law 
 was, as we have already seen, effected by the Emergency 
 Ordinance, issued by the Emperor in September, 1904. This 
 amendment had as its primary aim the immediate increase 
 of men by the extension of the term of service. The authori- 
 ties saw, however, that the necessity of increasing the num- 
 ber of men would continue to exist in the future, and the 
 present conscription law was enacted in 1906. The number 
 of men in active service was, of course, increased during this 
 period. The exact number is not officially announced, but 
 it is believed that 22 or 23 per cent of the conscripts examined 
 are now enrolled in active service. Such an increase of men 
 in active service is plain, when we see that the divisions that 
 had been thirteen in all were increased to nineteen after the 
 conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War. As to the two years' 
 service, there is no doubt that it owes its existence partly to 
 the post-bellum movement. But we must not forget that 
 the establishment of this service had already been recog- 
 nized as necessary for the curtailment of national expenses,
 
 56 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 even before the Russo-Japanese War. We can understand 
 how necessary was the curtailment, when we see the rapid 
 increase in the number of men in active service. Sixty thou- 
 sand men in the said service were increased to one hundred 
 and fifty thousand, after the Sino-Japanese War; and the 
 full war time force of two hundred thousand was increased 
 to five hundred thousand. The state paid about one hun- 
 dred million yen for the expansion, besides the annual ex- 
 penditure of thirty-eight million yen, which had been twelve 
 million yen formerly. The armament thus expanded could 
 not be reduced, while the heavy burden had to be reduced. 
 This was the reason that the influence of the advocates of the 
 two years' service began to tell upon the people after 1902. 
 The Imperial Ordinance issued in 1907 is to be regarded as a 
 partial solution of this great problem.
 
 CHAPTER Vl 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 We have thus far studied the historical development of our 
 conscription law, its changes and reasons. Let us now sum 
 up our results. It is a fact worthy of note that the Satsuma 
 Rebellion was a turning point in the history of the law. Pre- 
 vious to that event, the law had aimed at the maintenance of 
 peace and order at home, but since that time it has always 
 been the object of the law to prepare for emergencies on the 
 continent. This policy of preparedness has ever since been 
 supported by the increase of population at home. So far as 
 the general trend of the world is for military competition, 
 this policy of ours must be pursued. Completion of arma- 
 ments must be aimed at. Our conscription law had under- 
 gone various changes, in order to meet such circumstances, 
 making the burden of military servdce heavier and heavier. 
 The principle that the whole people are eligible for service is 
 being realized almost to perfection. We have seen the proc- 
 ess of such changes separately through each period. Let us 
 give a general view of the process through which the burden 
 of military service has gradually increased. It will be con- 
 venient, if we divide our survey into (i) the term of service 
 and its nature; (2) exemption from services, and postpone- 
 ment of and exemption from enrollment; (3) the sphere of the 
 operation of the law, and (4) the increase in the number of 
 men enrolled. 
 
 Term of Service and Its Nature 
 
 Above all, changes in the term of service call for our atten- 
 tion. Although the different periods of the military sers'ice 
 are distinguished from each other by such names as the active, 
 the active reserve, the reserve and the supplementary ser\dce, 
 yet there is one point common to all these services, in regard 
 to the expansions of the list of men in each service. It is a 
 
 57
 
 58 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 considerable extension of the term for the military service as 
 a whole, except the militia servdce. This is shown by the 
 following tables: 
 
 Army 
 
 Year 
 
 Active 
 
 Active 
 Reserve 
 
 Reserve 
 
 Total 
 
 Supple- 
 mentary 
 
 1873 
 
 1879 
 
 1883 
 
 1889 
 
 1895 
 
 1904 
 
 3 years 
 (Regular) 
 
 3 years 
 (Regular) 
 
 3 years 
 
 3 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 2 years 
 (ist res.) 
 
 3 years 
 
 4 years 
 
 7 yrs. (ist res.) 
 
 5 yrs. (2d res.) 
 
 4 years 
 
 4 years 
 
 6 4 mos. 
 
 4 years 
 & 4 mos. 
 
 2 years 
 (2d res.)" 
 
 4 years 
 
 5 " 
 
 5 " 
 5 " 
 
 ID " 
 
 7 years 
 
 ID " 
 12 " 
 
 12 " 
 
 12 yrs. & 
 4 months 
 
 17 yrs. & 
 4 months 
 
 I year 
 (90 days 
 aft. 1875) 
 
 I year 
 I " 
 
 I " 
 
 7 yrs. & 4 mos. 
 
 (ist sup.) 
 I yr. & 4 mos. 
 
 (2d sup.) 
 
 12 yrs. & 4 
 months 
 
 Navy 
 
 Year 
 
 Active 
 
 Active 
 Reserve 
 
 Reserve 
 
 Total 
 
 Supple- 
 mentary 
 
 1889 
 
 1895 
 
 1904 
 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 
 3 years 
 3 years 
 3 years 
 
 5 years 
 5 years 
 5 years 
 
 12 years 
 12 years 
 12 years 
 
 I year 
 I year 
 I year 
 
 Since the enactment of the Imperial Ordinance in 1907, 
 concerning the two years' active service, men of the active 
 service in the army are permitted to go home, at the expira- 
 tion of two years' term. 
 
 We have no means of knowing the actual character and 
 nature of the military service. It is almost impossible to 
 know what changes there have been in barrack life and how 
 restrictive the life has been. We can, however, get some 
 information concerning these points if we look at the length 
 of the term and the various conditions for exemption and 
 postponement.
 
 CONCLUSION 59 
 
 Active Service. — First of all, let us turn our attention to 
 those rules concerning the release of soldiers. In the con- 
 scription law as enacted for the first time is found the follow- 
 ing statement: 
 
 Those of the standing army (regulars) must be in service 
 for three years, but in peace time they may be permitted to 
 go home when they have served at least two years and when 
 they prove proficient in their service. There has since been 
 no change in this respect. The law revised in 1883 says: 
 
 Those of the active service, who prove to be especially skilful in their arts and 
 excellent in their conduct, or those who are in possession of certificates for mili- 
 tary training at the different government schools — -these may be permitted to go 
 home even before the expiration of their term. 
 
 However, it is a mistake to think that, compared with the 
 above statement, the conditions for release were made some- 
 what lenient. For we find that such a privilege had already 
 been given to the graduates of the said schools, by the ordi- 
 nance of 1879, and that the ordinance of 1889 deprived them 
 of the privilege. This privilege was replaced by the privilege 
 of the one-year volunteer service and six-weeks active serv- 
 ice. Imperial Ordinance No. 332, issued in 1907, concern- 
 ing the two years' service and the release, states : 
 
 Those men in the active service, in the infantry or in other branches, may be 
 permitted to go home when they have acquired full knowledge of their arts, at 
 the end of a two years' term (clauses i and 2, Imperial Ordinance No. 332). 
 
 This provision, however, can by no means be construed 
 as mitigating the burden. It means quite the contrary, 
 for the provision aims at the raising of more men for both 
 the active and the reserve service, with the same amount of 
 expenditure. 
 
 Active Reserve and the Reserve Service. — -According to 
 the Imperial Ordinance issued in 1879, oflficials, headmen of 
 villages, religious teachers, teachers in government and pre- 
 fectural schools, members of prefectural assemblies and those 
 in possession of licenses for medical profession were exempted 
 from enrollment. But the provision for this privilege was
 
 6o CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 dropped from the law by the ordinance of 1883. The only 
 mitigation in service now consisted of the exemption of the 
 active reserves and the (second) reserves from the calling out 
 for inspection once a year. Even this small mitigation was 
 upon the condition that the state council may require them 
 to come out, in such cases as are deemed necessary (clause 20). 
 Later, in 1889, there were made some more changes in this 
 respect, in which those government or prefectural officials, 
 whether in the active reserve service or in the (second) reserve 
 service, were exempted from the calling out, in case their 
 substitutes can not be obtained. The same provision was 
 made for members of different assemblies, organized accord- 
 ing to law, while in session. 
 
 Supplementary Reserve Service. — ^At first, this was not 
 regarded as a proper and independent service, but consisted 
 of men under the general name of " hojuheV (those in reserve 
 for any vacancies in the list of the other services). It was by 
 the ordinance of 1895 that this service came to be recognized 
 as an independent service, when the "vacancy-fillers" were 
 ordered to come out for inspection or review, on a peace foot- 
 ing. A glance at the changes in the provisions for this newly 
 organized service, will show the following facts: According 
 to the conscription law, enacted in 1873, these "vacancy- 
 fillers," or supplementaries, were called out for one year, only 
 when there were vacancies. (The term was only ninety 
 days, from 1875 to 1879.) This remained the same in the 
 law revised in 1879. However, in the ordinance of 1883, we 
 find some changes in this respect. The ordinance required 
 them to come out, according to the number of the lot, and 
 serve in the army for one year, not only when vacancies oc- 
 curred in the list of the active service, but also when emer- 
 gencies required more men. The ordinance also contained a 
 provision for another kind of reserves to be regarded as sup- 
 plementaries, who have completed the one year's service, or 
 those who were postponed from enrollment for seven years. 
 They were to be called out in cases of emergency and enlisted 
 in the commissariat or other services. In the ordinance of
 
 CONCLUSION 6 1 
 
 1889, a provision was made for calling out these supple- 
 mentaries under the name of yobi-choin (men called out as 
 reserv^es), but this was merely a matter of name and con- 
 tained no change in substance. It contained no provision 
 for the yobi-chohei, conscript reserv^es, such as we found in 
 the ordinance above. 
 
 As has already been stated, this supplementary service 
 came to be recognized as an independent servdce, by the 
 amendment of the law in 1895. This service is of two kinds. 
 The first supplementaries (like the naval supplementaries) 
 are to fill vacancies in the active service, and are to be called 
 in case of war or emergency, besides serving in the army for 
 one hundred and fifty days. They are, in this respect, like 
 the reserves. The second supplementaries are to be called 
 out, after the first, when there is need for more men. By 
 another amendment in 1906, the provision for the second 
 supplementaries was removed. But this did not mean mitiga- 
 tion of the burden on the people. Departmental Order No. 
 72, issued in October, 1908, declared that the supplementaries 
 would not be called out for the time being. We see, how- 
 ever, that the provision is now revived, without any change 
 in the wording. 
 
 From the above, it is quite plain that not only was the term 
 of service extended, but the burden of the service upon the 
 people made heavier. This increasing burden of the service, 
 both in its term and its effect upon the people, shows the 
 tendency toward militarism. We shall find the same situa- 
 tion when we proceed to the next subject. 
 
 Exemption and Rejection from Service and Postpone- 
 ment OF AND Exemption from Enrollment 
 
 The conditions for rejection from service were penal servi- 
 tude, or a heavier punishment, according to the ordinance of 
 1873; one year's penal servitude or more, and one year's 
 imprisonment or more for political offenses, according to that 
 of 1879; and felony, according to the ordinances of 1889 and 
 later years. Thus we see no real changes in the conditions 
 all through these years.
 
 62 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 As to the exemption from service, no provision for it is 
 found in the ordinance of 1873. This absence of provision 
 was due to the fact that there was as yet no distinction 
 between the exemption from service and that from enroll- 
 ment. Concerning the provision for the inveterately diseased 
 and deformed, there has never been any change since the 
 issue of an ordinance in 1879, according to which they are to 
 be exempted from service, if they are found, after examina- 
 tion, to be unfit for it. The regulations concerning the medi- 
 cal examination have since undergone changes, into which we 
 need not go now. 
 
 Remarkable were the changes in the conditions for exemp- 
 tion from and postponement of enrollment. It is these 
 changes that show vividly the stages through which our con- 
 scription system has advanced towards militarism, by which 
 is here meant the idea of the eligibility of the whole people 
 for service without any distinction. Militarism, considered 
 from the viewpoint of postponement and exemption, has had 
 to encounter various difficulties, of which the greatest were 
 the family system and the privileged class. Let us now see 
 how influential was the family system in giving a check to 
 the expansion of armaments. 
 
 According to the conscription law enacted in 1873 the 
 following were exempted from enrollment: (i) the head of a 
 family, (2) heirs and lineal grandsons, (3) the only sons and 
 grandsons, (4) those who take the place of their fathers or 
 elder brothers in the family, on account of sickness or some 
 other circumstances of the latter, (5) adopted sons, and (6) 
 brothers of those who are in ser\-ice. It is now plain that of 
 these six conditions, the first five were meant for the con- 
 tinuance of the family, while the sixth was meant to con- 
 tribute to its prosperity. But each of the above conditions 
 has undergone changes by the successive revisions of the 
 law. In 1879, the following changes were introduced: (i) 
 the head of a family is exempted from enrollment, but those 
 are not who set up a new family, or assume the name of the 
 wife setting up a new family, or revive an extinct family,
 
 CONCLUSION 63 
 
 or succeed a head under fifty years of age as his adopted heir. 
 (2) Heirs and Hneal grandsons are not necessarily exempted 
 from enrollment; they are exempted (a) when the head is 
 above fifty years of age, (b) or when the head is under the 
 said age in peace times, (c) But those younger brothers who 
 become heirs are not exempted when their elder brothers, 
 previous to the age of conscription, establish new families, 
 are adopted by those under fifty years of age, revive extinct 
 families, or adopt the name of the female head, establishing 
 a new family. (3) The only sons and grandsons, when they 
 are heirs or lineal grandsons. (4) Those taking their father's 
 or elder brother's place in the family are exempted from 
 enrollment, when they are the heirs, but, if they are not the 
 heirs, they are granted postponement for one year in peace 
 time. They will be exempted from enrollment, when their 
 condition remains unchanged, even at the time of the exami- 
 nation that takes place in the third year of the regular service. 
 But this exemption occurs only In peace time. (5) The 
 adopted sons of those who have no heirs at the age of fifty 
 years or up are exempted from enrollment, but not if they 
 are the heirs of retired persons. The heirs or adopted sons 
 of those who are under fifty years but are inveterately dis- 
 eased or deformed, are exempted from enrollment. (6) 
 Brothers of those in active service are no longer exempted 
 from it unconditionally. • Only one brother of noncommis- 
 sioned soldiers in active service, whether in the army or the 
 navy, is granted postponement of enrollment, and in peace 
 time only. 
 
 The conscription law of 1883 also shows the gradual restric- 
 tion of the conditions intended for the protection of the family, 
 (i) The head of a family is granted postponement of enroll- 
 ment only in peace time, but those are not who are (a) the 
 head of the dependent house (fuseki-koshi), (b) the heads of 
 new families, of extinct or abolished families, and (c) the 
 heads who succeed those, under sixty years of age, not de- 
 formed or inveterately diseased, nor incapable of supporting 
 their families, nor punished for grave offenses. (2) Heirs or
 
 64 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 lineal grandsons are exempted from enrollment, (a) when the 
 head of their family is above sixty years of age, (b) or when 
 the head is inveterately diseased or deformed. This exemp- 
 tion takes place only in peace time, when postponement 
 extends for three years and has so many exceptions that there 
 is no room left for any devices to escape enrollment. Accord- 
 ing to the old law, the heirs or grandsons of those even under 
 fifty years were exempted from enrollment, but they are now 
 to be enrolled, if the latter is under sixty years. (3) No 
 change, as to the only sons or grandsons. (4) Those taking 
 their father's or brother's place in the family are now granted 
 postponement of enrollment in peace time, only when they 
 are heirs or lineal grandsons. They are exempted from en- 
 rollment, only when their conditions remain the same, even 
 in the third year of postponement. Thus the privilege given 
 to those taking their father's or brother's place in the family 
 is well-nigh disappearing. (5) No privilege for adopted sons. 
 As to the cases in which they are heirs or grandsons, see (2) 
 above. (6) The elder or younger brother of those in active 
 service is granted postponement only in peace time; one of 
 several brothers is granted postponement only in peace time, 
 if they happen to be called out at the same time; the enroll- 
 ment of the elder or the younger brother of those becoming 
 sick, or wounded, while in service, is postponed only in peace 
 time, and they are exempted if this condition remains for 
 three years. 
 
 From the above, it is now quite plain that the law revised 
 in 1883 has reduced the conditions or privileges for post- 
 ponement or exemption to much rarer cases than those pro- 
 vided in the laws of 1873 and 1879. Yet, even in this law, 
 we can find some traces, slight as they are, of the spirit that 
 makes for the family system. It is by the law revised in 
 1889 that all these conditions were done away with. The 
 whole people, whatever their family relations may be, are 
 now to be enrolled, the only exception being the case in which 
 a family can not get along without the man to be called out, 
 and this only when there is positive proof of the condition in
 
 CONCLUSION . 65 
 
 question. If this condition still remains even at the end of 
 the third year, then he will be registered in the list of the 
 militia. Needless to say, this last provision is not to be 
 construed as meaning the protection of the family system. 
 
 So much for the changes in the conscription law in its rela- 
 tion to the family system. Let us now go a step further 
 and see how the privileged class has stood in the way of mili- 
 tarism. The protection of the privileged class can be seen 
 from the three following aspects: (i) Exemption from 
 enrollment for those who pay a certain amount of money, 
 (2) exemption from enrollment for those of certain professions 
 or certain social standing, and (3) postponement of exemption 
 for the residents or graduates of certain schools. 
 
 (i) Exemption from Enrollment Obtained with a Certain 
 Amount of ]\Ioney. — It was provided in the law of 1873 that 
 those paying 270 yen as the "proxy-fee" were free from 
 service, except in the militia. Now, at that time this amount 
 of money was about equal to 270 koku (a koku is about 
 5 bushels), and is equal to 2,000 yen today. Hence, we see 
 that those who obtained this privilege were comparatively 
 few in number. The law revised in 1879 contains a similar 
 provision for those who pay the exemption or proxy-fee of 
 270 ye7i, or for those who pay 135 yen, when they are to be 
 called out on the peace footing. No such provision, entitling 
 a man to postponement or exemption on payment of a sum of 
 money, is found in the law of 1883. 
 
 (2) Members of Certain Professions and Social Standing. — 
 It was provided in the law of 1873 that departmental and 
 prefectural officials were to be exempted from enrollment 
 (clause 3). This privilege was extended by the law of 1879 
 to (a) the officials above hannin rank, religious teachers 
 above probationary rank, and headmen of villages, (b) mem- 
 bers of prefectural assemblies, (c) teachers of public schools 
 and teachers of schools under the direct control of the educa- 
 tional or other departments and offices, and (d) those of 
 different departments, bureaus and offices, whose place can 
 jiot be filled by others. But a great change was introduced
 
 66 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 in this regard by the law of 1883, hmiting this privilege to 
 the narrowest possible sphere. The tendency is clearly dis- 
 cernible to limit this privilege to those who are necessary for 
 the advancement of culture. 
 
 According to this law, all those proxdded in (2) above were 
 excluded from the privilege, while those officials could be 
 granted postponement of enrollment whose substitutes were 
 not obtainable. And even this postponement was possible 
 only after the case had gone through the state courts. Teach- 
 ers in public or government schools were exempted from 
 enrollment only when they were in possession of diplomas 
 conferred at government or prefectural schools. Those 
 coming under the provisions above, (a), (b) and (c), and 
 those possessing diplomas conferred by government or pre- 
 fectural medical schools and engaging in medical practice, 
 were exempted from calling out for inspection or review, if 
 they were in the active reserve or the reserve service. It 
 was by the law of 1889 that this privilege was entirely abol- 
 ished, except for the officials mentioned above and the rev- 
 enue officials and deputy mayors of cities, towns and villages, 
 who were exempted from the calling out for review or inspec- 
 tion. As to the provision by which members of the different 
 assembHes instituted by law were exempted from the calling 
 out, we may well regard it as a necessity, rather than as a 
 privilege given to certain classes. 
 
 (3) Pri\ileges Given to the Graduates and Residents of 
 Certain Schools. — It was provided in the law of 1873 that the 
 privilege of exemption from enrollment could be obtained by 
 those who specialized at the schools under the direct con- 
 trol of the Educational, the Engineering, and the Colonial 
 Department, or by those studying abroad, or by those pos- 
 sessing licenses for the practice of medicine or veterinary 
 surgery. In 1879, the following slight changes in these pro- 
 visions were introduced: (a) Those in possession of medical 
 licenses, (b) graduates of public normal schools, (c) graduates 
 of public middle schools or of public technical schools, (d)
 
 CONCLUSION 67 
 
 graduates of the schools under direct control of the Educa- 
 tional Department or of other departments and offices, (e) 
 those studying abroad and possessing certificates for at least 
 a two years' course of study. In 1883, this was narrowed to 
 the regular students of government universities, or govern- 
 ment schools on an equal footing with them, who had finished 
 at least a two years' course. In 1889 all these conditions were 
 abolished. 
 
 With regard to the privilege of postponement given to the 
 graduates and students named above, we find the following 
 changes: In 1879, this privilege was given to (a) students 
 who had finished at least a one year's course at government 
 schools or at prefectural normal schools, (b) who had finished 
 at least a three years' course at public middle schools or at 
 public technical schools, and (c) who were staying abroad for 
 study, postponement for one year, and exempted from enroll- 
 ment on peace footing, when still staying away, through three 
 successive postponements. In 1883, this privilege was lim- 
 ited to (a) regular students of government universities or 
 government schools on equal footing with them (exempted 
 from enrollment on peace footing, after successive postpone- 
 ments for seven years), and (b) students of government or 
 prefectural schools, who had finished at least a one year's 
 course. In this case, the postponement was for six years. 
 In 1889, the provision (a) was abolished, students under this 
 provision being treated in the same way as those under (b). 
 At the same time, this privilege of postponement was extended 
 to students of certain private schools, the provision for which 
 runs as follows: 
 
 The privilege of postponement of enrollment until the age of twenty-six obtains 
 to those whose names are registered at government schools, prefectural normal 
 schools, prefectural middle schools, private schools recognized by the educational 
 minister as on an equal footing with middle schools, or private schools where 
 law, politics, and political economy are taught according to the rules approved 
 by the minister; the same privilege for those who stayed abroad. 
 
 In 1895, the age limit was extended to twenty-eight years. 
 There has since been no change in this provision. Either the
 
 68 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 one-year volunteer service or the six weeks' active servdce 
 may be regarded as a privilege similar to that above. 
 
 We have thus far traced the different stages through which 
 the provisions for various sorts of privileges have been abol- 
 ished, one after another. The only privilege now remaining 
 is the privilege that obtains to the graduates and under- 
 graduates of certain schools. Even this privilege has been 
 reduced to the narrowest possible limits. There are now 
 some who advocate the abolition of this privilege. But this 
 would probably be impossible, for the privilege is intended 
 not so much for the protection of certain classes as for the 
 advancement of education and culture. The further reduc- 
 tion of the privilege may, however, be effected before long. 
 
 The Sphere of the Operation of the Law 
 
 The conscription law enacted in 1875 does not make any 
 reference to conscription in Hokkaido, the Loochoos and 
 the Bonin Islands, except the clause in which mention is 
 made of the defense of Hokkaido. According to the law 
 revised in 1879, conscription seems to have been enforced in 
 the province of Hakodate alone of all the provinces of Hok- 
 kaido. In 1884, conscription is said to have been enforced 
 at Hakodate, Esashi and Fukuyama. It was in 1896 that 
 we find it enforced in the four provinces of Oshima, Shiribeshi, 
 Iburi and Ishikari, and in 1898 that conscription was enforced 
 in the seven provinces of Teshio, Kitami, Hitaka, Tokachi, 
 Kushiro, Nemuro and Chishima. 
 
 But the enrollment was temporarily to be postponed for 
 the immigrants whose period of domicile in these provinces 
 was less than five years after its registration (Imperial Ordi- 
 nances Nos. 126 and 336 issued in September, 1895, and 
 August, 1899, respectively). Imperial Ordinance No. 258, 
 issued in July, 1897, reters to the enforcement of conscription 
 in the islands of Okinawa and Ogasawara from the first of 
 January, 1898.
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 69 
 
 Increase in the Number of Soldiers 
 
 Table I. — Increase of Ratio of Conscripts to Men of Conscript Age^ 
 
 Conscripts Conscripts 
 Year per 100 Men per 100 Men 
 
 of Age 
 
 1880 18,173 
 
 1881 10,932 
 
 1882 11,953 
 
 1883 11,756 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 46,566 
 
 1886 45,837 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 25,056 
 
 1889 25,903 
 
 1891 46,097 
 
 1892 41.763 
 
 1893 41.702 
 
 1894 28,079 
 
 1895 27,688 
 
 Examined 
 
 37,280 
 
 31,787 
 20,747 
 
 Conscripts 
 Year per 100 Men 
 of Age 
 
 1896 17,831 
 
 1897 35.731 
 
 1898 29,821 
 
 1899 35.417 
 
 1900 
 
 1901 
 
 1902 
 
 1903 
 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 per 100 Men 
 
 Examined 
 
 41.244 
 35.185 
 42.265 
 
 43.526 
 44.376 
 44,691 
 
 45.794 
 53.349 
 66,000 
 78,107 
 50.707 
 59.169 
 57.426 
 
 56,759 
 59.468 
 
 Table II. — Yearly Increase in the Number of Soldiers 
 
 Year 
 
 1887 
 1888 
 1889 
 1890 
 1891 
 1892 
 
 1893 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 1898 
 
 1899 
 1900 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 1911 
 1912 
 
 Officers 
 
 2,262 
 
 2,432 
 2,520 
 
 2,449 
 2,500 
 
 2,475 
 2,495 
 3.268 
 
 3,341 
 
 3,822 
 
 4.308 
 
 Men Above 
 Semi- 
 Officers 
 
 6,863 
 7,216 
 
 7.705 
 
 7.913 
 
 8,127 
 
 1 1 ,064 
 12,400 
 12,269 
 12,326 
 12,640 
 13,086 
 13,411 
 
 Semi-officers 
 and Noncommis- 
 sioned Officers 
 
 5.682 
 
 5.795 
 5.457 
 5,670 
 5.803 
 5,868 
 
 6,319 
 11,674 
 
 10,872 
 12,504 
 14,494 
 
 Specialists At- 
 tached to Dif- 
 ferent Officers 
 
 4.124 
 4.095 
 4,441 
 4.175 
 4,080 
 
 5.406 
 4.831 
 5.540 
 5.408 
 5.594 
 5.532 
 5.541 
 
 Men 
 
 47.607 
 48,112 
 
 49.212 
 
 49.463 
 51.283 
 
 52,583 
 
 54,554 
 146,722 
 
 87,411 
 104,801 
 124,328 
 
 Men Below Non- 
 commissioned 
 Officers 
 
 132,311 
 129,678 
 
 131,514 
 134.899 
 138,610 
 
 173.712 
 197,898 
 
 207,957 
 212,824 
 214,476 
 217,032 
 
 Total 
 
 55,551 
 56,339 
 57,189 
 57,582 
 59,586 
 60,926 
 63,368 
 161,664 
 
 101,624 
 121,127 
 143,130 
 
 143,298 
 140,989 
 143,660 
 146,987 
 150,817 
 
 190,943 
 215,707 
 225,691 
 231,058 
 233,094 
 235,984 
 
 ^ This is a summary of the tables already given above, under each heading.
 
 PART II 
 
 ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE SYSTEM 
 OF CONSCRIPTION
 
 CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Only forty-two years have elapsed since the establish- 
 ment of the system of conscription, but many have been 
 the changes introduced, as we have seen in the first part 
 of this treatise. If we wish to know its economic effects, we 
 must see how each of the stages of this system has affected 
 the economic conditions of the corresponding period, and how 
 the changes in the system have been accompanied by corres- 
 ponding changes in our economic world. There is no doubt 
 that the influence of conscription upon economic conditions 
 is an important subject. But it is not for us to know it as an 
 apparent, obvious fact, but as a matter based upon inferences. 
 We, however, deem it too tedious for our purpose to repeat 
 the inferences at each period or stage. Let us therefore 
 limit the sphere of our investigation to the economic effects 
 of the system at present. Before entering upon our subject, 
 it may be necessary to state here the reasons why our con- 
 clusions must be based upon indirect inferences. It is an 
 easy matter to know the economic effects of temporary events, 
 such as wars or natural calamities. But we find it very diffi- 
 cult to ascertain the economic effects of things or events that 
 are in permanent existence, very difficult to distinguish the 
 effects from institutions of permanent and constant existence. 
 The degree of the effects will only be known after a very 
 careful examination of complicated circumstances. The sys- 
 tem of conscription has never been abolished or reestablished, 
 and is one of the very things that are permanent and constant 
 in their existence. Hence, our dependence upon indirect 
 inferences in our investigation of its economic effects. One 
 may think that they might easily be observ^ed at the time of 
 its establishment. We must, however, take into considera- 
 tion the fact that the country was then in a very confused 
 and disordered condition, not only as regards the system of 
 
 73
 
 74 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 conscription, but also in almost all other respects, so that 
 it is very difficult to point out the economic effects alone 
 of conscription. Even supposing that we might do this 
 to a certain extent, it would be of no direct advantage to 
 us, because circumstances in those times were so different 
 from those of the present that the inference from one are 
 of little avail for the understanding of the other. Besides, 
 most of the circumstances in those times are now beyond 
 our reach. 
 
 We must make our problem still more definite. The sys- 
 tem of conscription is the backbone of our military prepara- 
 tions, especially of our army. All acknowledge the fact that 
 the armament of a nation has great effects upon its economic 
 conditions, according to its foreign policy. The armament 
 is necessary not only for the defense and utilization of newly 
 acquired territories, but also for the extension of markets. 
 Besides, so long as armed peace is a necessity for all nations, 
 the armament is, of course, a guarantee of their economic life 
 at home. The maintenance of armaments by taxes and 
 "blood taxes" must therefore be an insurance system on a 
 large scale. But we must extricate ourselves from such con- 
 siderations for two reasons. The economic effects of arma- 
 ments through foreign policies are so vague and far reaching 
 that they are beyond our definite and exact calculation. 
 And the other reason is that — even admitting that calculation 
 of such effects is possible — we can then only know the effects 
 as those of armaments, and not of conscription. To try to 
 distinguish the economic effects of conscription in such a 
 calculation is as if we were to try to assign to one hand a 
 definite quantity of sound from the clapping of both hands. 
 Such being the case, let us now study the economic effects of 
 conscription, putting aside the question of foreign policy and 
 its relation to economic life. 
 
 Our problem is, what are the economic effects of the system 
 of conscription, by which hundreds of thousands of the able 
 bodied are yearly taken from productive labor? Let us begin 
 with the effects upon the population. For, of all the condi-
 
 INTRODUCTION 75 
 
 tions that affect the economic Hfe of a nation, the most import- 
 ant is the population in its relation to conscription.^ 
 
 Our next task is to see its effects upon the national economic 
 life in two aspects, namely, production and consumption; 
 and then to obtain a general view of the effects. ^ We shall 
 then proceed to a survey of the effects upon the domestic 
 economy of those who participate in this national economy. ^ 
 Our last task is to give a summary of our results.^ 
 
 1 Chapters II and III. 
 
 2 Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII. 
 
 3 Chapter VIII. 
 
 * Chapter IX.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 EFFECTS ON POPULATION 
 
 Of the factors of population that control economic life, 
 increase and concentration are the most important. Our 
 surv'ey will then fall under the two headings: What are 
 the effects of conscription upon the increase of population? 
 And what are the effects of the same upon concentration? 
 On the increase of population, we must consider the effects 
 of conscription upon birth rates and death rates. Those 
 who are in the active service must stay away from home for 
 two, three or four years, and this must mean a decrease of 
 the birth rate. Another aspect that must be considered in 
 connection with these rates is the fact that the training in 
 the army is conducive to health, which reflects upon the birth 
 rate. Looked at from the other viewpoint, this would lower 
 the death rate among them. As to concentration, the ex- 
 istence of barracks in cities or nearby causes a concentra- 
 tion of population. The tendency of these men to live in 
 cities, even after their barrack life is over, and the tendency 
 of the places where troops are stationed to absorb inhabi- 
 tants from the surrounding districts, are also instrumental in 
 bringing about the results in question. The present chapter 
 deals with the influence of the economic effects upon the in- 
 crease of the population. 
 
 Birth Rates 
 
 Decrease oj Birth Rate Due to Barrack Life 
 
 Those joining a corps are not permitted, except for a few 
 days after the enrollment, to return home for two years in 
 the case of infantry men, three years in the case of the men 
 of other branches, and four years in the case of sailors. They 
 are all permitted to go home on Sundays, but not permitted 
 to stay at home over night. ^ It follows then that there are 
 
 1 Of the men belonging to special branches in the army, the assistant artillery 
 men, artillery transport men, commissariat men, and nurses are in their respective
 
 EFFECTS ON POPULATION 
 
 77 
 
 almost no cases in which the wives of the married soldiers 
 have opportunities to conceive. Of course, in those societies 
 where the custom of conception-prevention or abortion 
 obtains, owing to the anxiety of living, barrack life may 
 mean only postponed birth, and the life has nothing to do 
 with the birth rate of the whole population. But with the 
 present state of our people, it is not too much to say that 
 the impossibility of conception during these years of barrack 
 life means a corresponding decrease of the birth rate. To 
 what extent then are our yearly birth rates affected by such 
 a life? In order to know the rates, we must first know the 
 number of married men in active service, but we have no 
 means of ascertaining this. The only way would then be to 
 resort to inferences from other facts. 
 
 Presumptive Number of Married Men in Active Service. — 
 Since it is very rare that men get married during the term 
 of service, these actives must have married previous to en- 
 listment. In order to estimate their probable number from 
 the rate of the married men at large, we must base our cal- 
 culation upon the men of twenty or twenty-one years of age, 
 that is, the men who are of the same age as those enlisted. 
 The statistics that show the number of the married and the 
 unmarried, according to age, are published every five years. 
 
 Table for 1908, as of December 311 
 
 Age 
 
 Married 
 
 Unmarried 
 
 Total 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 19-20 
 
 20—21 
 
 17,876 
 
 33.133 
 45,100 
 
 92.119 
 128,060 
 155,881 
 
 448,094 
 421,197 
 367,110 
 
 359.114 
 309,228 
 
 248,851 
 
 465.970 
 454.330 
 412,210 
 
 451.233 
 437,288 
 
 404.732 
 
 21-22 
 
 
 services for two years and four months. The first of these live in barracks for 
 one year, the second for four months, the third for three months and the fourth 
 for four months. Noncommissioned officers, gendarmes and musicians are per- 
 mitted to live outside. Certain classes of men such as guardsmen, corporals, 
 accountants, etc., may be permitted to live outside. 
 * Figures taken from Imperial Statistics.
 
 78 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 The ratio of married men to the total: 
 
 Age 19-20 3 • 80 per cent 
 
 " 20-21 7 30 per cent 
 
 " 21-22 13 .30 per cent 
 
 Table for 1903, as of December 31^ 
 
 Age 
 
 Married 
 
 l^nmarried 
 
 Total 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 iq-20 
 
 20,253 
 36,401 
 55,256 
 
 94,174 
 134,901 
 163,786 
 
 397,700 
 
 398,991 
 373,869 
 
 295,680 
 316,730 
 252,611 
 
 417,953 
 435,392 
 429,125 
 
 410,904 
 
 20-21 
 
 430,581 
 
 21-22 
 
 416,397 
 
 
 
 The ratio of married men to the total: 
 
 Age 19-20 4.8 per cent 
 
 " 20-21 8.3 per cent 
 
 " 21-22 12.9 per cent 
 
 From the two tables above, it is seen that the percentage 
 of the married who are of the same age as enlisted men, was 
 8.3 per cent in 1903 and 7.3 per cent in 1908. Now, even 
 granting that the rate has since fallen, it is reasonably certain 
 that the rate at present is not below 6 per cent. We may 
 expect the same rate among the men in the army. The 
 probable number of married actives would then be the number 
 of those in the active service multiplied by this rate. 
 
 Army^ 
 
 Number of men, including noncommissioned officers 212,824 
 
 Number of experts attached to different offices, schools, etc., including 
 
 noncommissioned officers 3,078 
 
 Total about 215,900 
 
 Those noncommissioned officers living out of barracks about 3,300' 
 
 Balance of men and noncommissioned officers living in barracks, .about 212,600 
 
 1 Figures taken from Imperial Statistics. 
 
 ' Military Department Statistics, 1910. ' 
 
 *This figure is obtained in the following manner: The number of noncommis- 
 sioned officers at home, 11,442, plus that of those abroad, 2,050 (probably), plus 
 that of experts, attached to different offices, 3,078, gives the total of noncommis- 
 sioned officers as 16,570. The ratio of those outside the barracks to those in the 
 barracks is approximately one fifth. The total multiplied by one fifth is 3,314. 
 For the sake of convenience, we omit the figures 14, and the result is 3,300.
 
 EFFECTS ON POPULATION 79 
 
 Navy 
 
 1 
 
 Number of noncommissioned officers and men 45,576 
 
 (noncommissioned officers, 9,996, and men, 35,580) 
 Presumptive number of volunteers 22,788 
 
 (one half of the total above) 
 Balance of noncommissioned officers and men 22,788 
 
 (the other half of the total) 
 Presumptive number of noncommissioned officers living outside naval 
 
 stations about 5,000 
 
 (half of the total number) 
 
 Balance of men living in naval stations about 17,200 
 
 Total (army and na\^) " 229,800 
 
 The whole number of those in the active service (both in 
 the army and the navy) is presumably 230,000. Now, sup- 
 posing the 6 per cent of this number as constituting the num- 
 ber of the married, we obtain 13,800. 
 
 Annual Birth Rates to Married Women. — Supposing women 
 ranging from fifteen to forty-two years of age as capable of 
 production, the number of married women, according to 
 statistics prepared on December 30, 1908, is as follows: 
 
 Age Married Women 
 
 15-20 193-978 
 
 20-25 902,999 
 
 25-30 1,315.482 
 
 30-35 1,341,403 
 
 35-40 1,068,154 
 
 40-42 442,387 
 
 Total 5,264,403 
 
 The number of births in 1908 was 1,508,365; in 1907, 
 1,466,914. The ratio of this number to the number of mar- 
 ried women is i to 3.6. 
 
 Decrease of Birth Rate, resulting from Conscription. — If the 
 13,800 of the men we have seen above had remained at home, 
 their wives would have given birth to about 4,000 children 
 (that is, 13,800-^3.6 = 3,833) annually. Moreover, if they 
 had remained at home, they would have married earlier than 
 the age at which their term of service expires. And this 
 means that conscription makes the birth rate still less by 
 postponing marriage. Putting aside this question for the 
 time being, we find some other reasons for considering the 
 figure 4,000 as too small, and these are: 
 
 ^ Nav\ Department Statistics, 191 1.
 
 8o 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 (i) Early marriage obtains more in the country than in 
 cities. 
 
 (2) The rate of conscription for active service from the 
 country is greater than that of conscripts for the same from 
 cities. 
 
 Let us now look at the evidences for these statements. 
 The ages of marriage in the three urban prefectures, whose 
 centers are Tokyo, Kyoto and Osaka, and in the five rural 
 prefectures, Miyagi, Fukushima, Iwate, Aomori, and Yama- 
 gata, in 1904, were as follows, the population of the two groups 
 being approximately the same. 
 
 Number of Marriages at a Given Age — Urban Prefectures 
 
 Age 
 
 15-16 
 16-17 
 17-18 
 18-19 
 19-20 
 20-21 
 21-22 
 22-23 
 23-24 
 
 24-25 
 25-26 
 26-27 
 27-28 
 28-29 
 
 Tokyo 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 81 
 
 119 
 316 
 614 
 
 818 
 
 1.074 
 1,189 
 1,301 
 
 1,327 
 1,212 
 1,058 
 
 Kyoto 
 
 o 
 I 
 
 29 
 
 42 
 
 89 
 
 203 
 
 317 
 425 
 599 
 639 
 
 781 
 
 793 
 700 
 601 
 
 Osaka 
 
 I 
 
 47 
 
 78 
 
 ^33 
 
 313 
 
 484 
 
 729 
 
 818 
 
 1,021 
 
 1,174 
 
 1,138 
 
 1,077 
 
 898 
 
 Total 
 
 I 
 6 
 
 107 
 201 
 
 341 
 
 832 
 
 I-415 
 1,972 
 
 2,491 
 2,849 
 
 3,256 
 3,258 
 2,989 
 
 2,557 
 
 Number of Marriages at a Given Age — Rural Prefectures 
 
 Age 
 
 15-16 
 16-17 
 17-18 
 18-19 
 19-20 
 20-21 
 21-22 
 22-23 
 23-24 
 24-25 
 25-26 
 26-27 
 27-28 
 28-29 
 
 Miyagi 
 
 o 
 6 
 
 135 
 193 
 293 
 465 
 544 
 600 
 728 
 
 653 
 596 
 541 
 447 
 335 
 
 
 Fukushima 
 
 Iwate 
 
 Aomori 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 II 
 
 259 
 
 319 
 
 200 
 
 338 
 
 338 
 
 298 
 
 480 
 
 503 
 
 366 
 
 662 
 
 620 
 
 532 
 
 759 
 
 649 
 
 586 
 
 759 
 
 585 
 
 593 
 
 753 
 
 611 
 
 646 
 
 723 
 
 549 
 
 565 
 
 661 
 
 444 
 
 464 
 
 536 
 
 312 
 
 364 
 
 470 
 
 270 
 
 268 
 
 357 
 
 229 
 
 215 
 
 Yamagata 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 189 
 
 257 
 368 
 
 474 
 567 
 593 
 664 
 
 641 
 626 
 536 
 
 453 
 362 
 
 Total 
 
 7 
 
 72 
 
 1,102 
 
 1,424 
 2,010 
 
 2,753 
 3,105 
 
 3,130 
 3,401 
 
 3,131 
 2,791 
 2,289 
 1,908 
 
 1,498
 
 EFFECTS ON POPULATION 
 
 8i 
 
 In the three urban prefectures, the greatest number of 
 marriages takes place at the age of twenty-six or seven, while 
 in the five rural prefectures, at the age of twenty-three or 
 four. If we now compare the number of the married at the 
 age of fifteen to twenty with the whole number of the married 
 of all the ages given above, we shall see that the age of mar- 
 riage in cities is considerably higher than that in the country. 
 
 Marriages 
 
 between Total Number 
 
 15-21 of Marriages 
 
 The three urban prefectures^. ...... 656 37>949 
 
 Five rural prefectures 7,368 37,02i 
 
 Per cent under 
 Age of 2 1 
 
 1-7 
 19.9 
 
 The following table compares these figures with those of 
 the married men alone in Tokyo, ranging from nineteen years 
 of age to twenty-four years : 
 
 Age 
 
 19-20 
 20-21 
 21-22 
 22-23 
 23-24 
 
 Married 
 
 III 
 
 197 
 
 340 
 
 759 
 1,218 
 
 
 
 Unmarried 
 
 Total 
 
 9,212 
 
 9,323 
 
 8,940 
 
 9.137 
 
 8,008 
 
 8,348 
 
 8,805 
 
 9.564 
 
 8,195 
 
 9,413 
 
 Married Men in Tokvo 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 Total in 
 
 Tokyo 
 
 1 .1 
 2.2 
 41 
 7-9 
 12.9 
 
 Per cent of 
 Total in 
 Country 2 
 
 3-8 
 
 7-3 
 
 13-3 
 
 16.7 
 
 22.6 
 
 We are now to see how the number of men from the country 
 in active service is greater than is that from the cities. The 
 rates in the urban prefecture of Kyoto are as follows : 
 
 Men of Actives Men of Age per 
 
 Age One of Actives 
 
 The city of Kyoto* 3,291 652 5.04 
 
 Rural districts 6,199 ii537 4 03 
 
 The same situation obtains in the prefecture of Tokyo 
 
 Men of 
 Age 
 
 The city of Tokyo I4,35i 
 
 Rural districts 7,805 
 
 Men of Age per 
 Actives One of Actives 
 2,033 7 06 
 
 1,665 4 69 
 
 1 No data were obtainable for comparison of cities with urban prefectures. 
 
 2 Seventh Statistical Report for 1908 by the city of Tokyo. 
 'Statistical Report for 191 1 by the city of Kyoto.
 
 82 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 The fact that people in the country marry earlier than 
 those in cities and that a comparatively greater number of 
 men of age in the country is enlisted in active service shows 
 that there are really more married men in active ser- 
 vice than the calculation based on the average of the whole 
 people indicates. Accordingly, the decrease of birth rates, 
 caused by the barrack life, must be greater than the 4,000 we 
 have obtained without taking this circumstance into consid- 
 eration. However, we have no means of ascertaining how 
 much greater it is. 
 
 The decrease of birth rates is not a matter of mere infer- 
 ence. During the Russo-Japanese ^^'ar the rate actually 
 diminished, owing to the fact that men were away from home. 
 We must admit that not only such great events as the Russo- 
 Japanese War, but also lesser events of similar nature have 
 always to do with the decreased rates. In connection with 
 this, we give below the birth rates per 1,000 of the popula- 
 tion, — 32.9 in 1902; 32.0 in 1903; 30.6 in 1904; 30.6 in 1905; 
 29.1 in 1906; 33.2 in 1907; 33.7 in 1908. The years 1904, 
 1905 and 1906 were the years in which the people were engaged 
 in the Russo-Japanese War. 
 
 Development of the Physique 
 
 We shall see later how barrack life is conducive to the 
 development of the physique. And it is certain that such a 
 life increases the vitality of men to such extent that it results 
 in a diminished death rate, which in turn exerts a favor- 
 able influence upon the birth rate. As to the extent of this 
 influence, it is not possible for us to show in exact figures. 
 One thing that claims our particular attention is the fact that 
 the birth late in this country has increased with the develop- 
 ment of the system of conscription. Of course, we do not 
 know whether the increase is due to economic causes, or 
 to what extent it has been afi"ected by the system. At 
 any rate, this is rather a remarkable fact, when we see that 
 the general tendency among civilized nations is in the oppo- 
 site direction.
 
 EFFECTS ON POPULATION 
 Birth Rate Per i.ooo Population 
 
 83 
 
 Year 
 
 1872 24.1 
 
 1873 24.6 
 
 1874 25.3 
 
 1875 26.1 
 
 1876 25.5 
 
 1877 24.5 
 
 1878 24.4 
 
 1879 24.3 
 
 1880 25.6 
 
 1881 24.7 
 
 Year 
 
 1882 26.8 
 
 1883 25.8 
 
 1884 26.7 
 
 1885 27.3 
 
 1886 27.1 
 
 1887 29.6 
 
 1888 30.2 
 
 1889 28.3 
 
 1890 26.7 
 
 1 89 1 29.4 
 
 Year 
 
 1892 28 
 
 1893 28 
 
 1894 29 
 
 1895 30 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 30 
 
 1898 31 
 
 1899 31 
 
 1900 31 
 
 1901 33 
 
 Year 
 
 1902 32.9 
 
 1903 32.0 
 
 1904 30.6 
 
 1905 306 
 
 1906 29.1 
 
 1907 33-2 
 
 1908 33-7 
 
 1909 33-9 
 
 1910 33-9 
 
 1911 340 
 
 This increase of the rates is not due to the increase of the 
 rates of marriage. 
 
 Year 
 
 1788. 
 
 1893. 
 1898. 
 
 Number of the Married Per 100 Females 
 
 Year 
 
 18.73 
 18.39 
 18.23 
 
 1903- 
 1908. 
 
 17 .61 
 17-31. 
 
 Death Rates 
 
 The system of conscription has also affected the death 
 rate of the population. It is now forty years since the estab- 
 lishment of the system, during which time there have been 
 several wars of varying magnitude. Many soldiers were 
 killed and wounded. In the Russo-Japanese \\'ar alone, 
 sixty- five thousand were disabled, of which some fifteen thou- 
 sand^ were still living at the end of 1912, all others having 
 died in the course of five or six years. The number of deaths 
 and the death rate due to the direct effects of wars must be 
 great. But this can not be regarded as the effect of the system 
 of conscription. 
 
 By the effect of this system upon death rates is meant the 
 effect of the military service and training. It is insisted 
 upon, among the European nations, that conscription has 
 caused a decrease of death rates to a considerable extent. 
 But we are not able to say for certain that this is also the 
 
 ^ Osaka Mainichi, December 16, 1913. 
 7
 
 84 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 case in Japan, because our statistics at the beginning of the 
 Meiji Era were very imperfect. 
 
 A comparison of death rates before and after the increase 
 of the standing army, accompanying that of the divisions, 
 will enable us to see whether or not our system of conscription 
 has caused a decrease in death rates. For this purpose, let 
 us first compare the death rates before 1 898-1 899 with those 
 after these years, and those before 1 908-1 909 with those 
 after these years, limiting the age of men to from twenty-five 
 to thirty-five. At the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, 
 the number of the enrolled was suddenly increased, and this 
 tendency to increase the number was kept up by the organ- 
 ization of the five new divisions immediately after the war. 
 Now, those whose age fell between twenty-five and twenty- 
 six in 1 898-1 899 were already within the scope of the increase, 
 while those above twenty-seven years of age escaped it. In 
 1 908-1 909, all those above fifteen years and below thirty- five 
 years were within the scope of the increase. The following is 
 a comparison of the death rates in each of the two periods 
 
 .Annual Death Rate Per 1,000 Mex 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ii ear 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 1898 \ 
 1899/ •• 
 1908 \ 
 1909/ •• 
 
 8.38 
 8.80 
 
 7.76 
 
 8.46 
 
 8.19 
 8.00 
 
 8.08 
 
 7.84 
 
 7.88 
 7.68 
 
 8.38 
 7.68 
 
 7-73 
 7.60 
 
 8.77 
 7.72 
 
 8.47 
 7.66 
 
 7-72 
 7-71 
 
 8.31 
 8.08 
 
 above with those of the ordinary men, whose age corresponds 
 to each of the ages above. Before showing the comparison, 
 a word is necessary to explain our method of calculation. 
 We base the number of population and the death rate upon 
 ''The Static and Dynamic Statistics of the Population of 
 Japan." The average death rate of each of the two years 
 above is divided by the total number of the ordinary men
 
 EFFECTS ON POPULATION 
 
 8.^ 
 
 of the corresponding age in 1 898-1 899 and in 1 908-1 909, 
 respectively. It is necessary for the divisor to be the average 
 of the men of the same age in the two years above. As our 
 static statistics give the number of the population, according 
 to ages, only every five years, we are obliged to use the average 
 of men for one year. 
 
 From the above table, it is seen that death rates are less 
 in the case after the increase of enrolled men than in the case 
 before the increase. Those of twenty- five or six years of 
 age, who are not at all under the influence of the increased 
 enrollment, or are under the least influence of it, have higher 
 rates than those before the increased enrollment. There 
 may be some other reasons for this, which we are not able to 
 state here. 
 
 We can not ascribe this decrease of death rates to the ad- 
 vancement of medical sciences, or to the progress of sanitary 
 conditions. If such is the case, there should not be any dif- 
 ference in the rates between men and women, whereas we 
 find the rates for women somewhat on the increase in 1898 
 and 1908. Of course there may be particular reasons for 
 this, but we can hardly consider it as due to the progress of 
 medicine or hygiene. We rather believe that the increase 
 of enrollment is at least one of the important causes of the 
 decrease of the death rate. 
 
 Death Rate Per 1,000 Womex 
 
 Year 
 
 1898 
 1908 
 
 26 
 
 8.22 
 10.45 
 
 27 
 
 7-95 
 10,79 
 
 Age 
 
 7.82 
 10.34 
 
 29 
 
 7.80 
 10,31 
 
 30 
 
 8.89 
 10,02 
 
 Summary 
 
 We have seen that the system of conscription gives rise 
 to the two contrary effects. It causes a decrease of birth
 
 86 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 rate, on one hand, while it causes an increase of birth rate 
 and a decrease of death rate, on the other. 
 
 We can not say definitely which of these two effects has 
 the tendency to predominate over the other, because we can 
 not measure the definite quantity of the latter. At any 
 rate, we can say that the effects of the system upon these 
 several rates are not very great. True, we have seen the 
 birth rate decrease temporarily, owing to the absence of men 
 for two or three years. The decrease of the birth rate may 
 have left its effects not only temporarily, but also for several 
 years to come. But, as such effects can not be regarded as 
 due to the system of conscription, we leave the matter as it 
 stands, without entering into further details.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 EFFECTS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 
 
 As has already been stated, the effects of the system upon 
 the concentration of population may well be viewed from 
 two aspects. The concentration caused by the tendency 
 among the discharged soldiers to live in towns is one. The 
 other is the tendency among the people at large to crowd 
 together into the towns or places where troops are stationed. 
 Let us now take up each of these two aspects. 
 
 Concentration of Soldiers in Towns 
 
 A general tendency has developed among our agricultural 
 people to leave their native homes and to crowd together in 
 towns. Does not the system of conscription encourage such 
 a tendency? The reasons that it does so are plain. Barracks 
 and naval stations are usually located in towns, or in their 
 neighborhoods. Naval stations and places for anchorage are 
 mostly located in towns containing more than one hun- 
 dred thousand inhabitants. Of the seventy-six infantry 
 regiments, only sixteen are stationed outside cities or suburbs. 
 And of these sixteen regiments, all except four are stationed 
 in towns of above ten thousand inhabitants. ^ Those who 
 live a rigorous life in the barracks, away from comforts of 
 home, must find compensation in the pleasure of cities or 
 towns when they are permitted to spend a few hours outside 
 the barracks. The more strict is their military discipline, 
 the more pleasant must seem the city life. Thus they get 
 used to the pleasures of cities. Therefore when they are 
 discharged and return home, they can not forget those pleas- 
 ures, while they feel a repugnance for their former agricul- 
 tural life. We are now to see how these observations are 
 borne out by facts. 
 
 Theoretically speaking, the best way of demonstrating such 
 observ^ations would be first to get the number of the dis- 
 
 1 Report of the Military Department, March, 1908. 
 
 87
 
 88 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 charged soldiers from the country who live in cities and then 
 to establish a comparison between that number and the ordi- 
 nary people of the corresponding age who have left their 
 homes in the country and removed to the cities. This is, 
 however, impossible for private individuals to accomplish, 
 nor are there any official statistics available for the purpose. 
 We must, therefore, resort to some indirect methods. 
 
 Let us admit the assumption that the number of country 
 people who come together in cities or towns runs parallel to 
 that of those who remove their domicile to such places. This 
 assumption seems to be almost an actual fact. This will be 
 seen from statistics for the city of Sasebo, where a rapid 
 increase of inhabitants was accompanied by that of temporary 
 residents, who apply for the registration of their domicile in 
 that city. 
 
 Year 
 
 1898 
 1899 
 I goo 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 191 1 
 1912 
 
 Residents 
 
 8,750 
 9,928 
 
 10,144 
 1 1 ,408 
 
 12,251 
 
 13923 
 15,200 
 
 15407 
 16,121 
 20,123 
 22,626 
 
 23.872 
 
 25.109 
 26,370 
 
 Population 
 
 
 Sojourners 
 
 Total 
 
 25.790 
 
 34-540 
 
 28,632 
 
 38,560 
 
 33.679 
 
 43.823 
 
 38,010 
 
 49,418 
 
 
 50,968 
 
 42,878 
 
 55,129 
 
 47,707 
 
 61,630 
 
 55.503 
 
 70,703 
 
 58,756 
 
 74.163 
 
 59,891 
 
 76,012 
 
 58,655 
 
 78,778 
 
 57,641 
 
 80,267 
 
 58,230 
 
 82,102 
 
 61,300 
 
 86,409 
 
 63,983 
 
 90,353 
 
 Ratio of "Nonresi- 
 dents per 100 
 Inhabitants 
 
 74 
 74 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 77 
 78 
 79 
 78 
 74 
 71 
 70 
 70 
 69 
 
 During all these years, the population has increased at the 
 rate of about 15 per cent; the ratio of nonresidents to the 
 inhabitants was rather stationary, that is, between 71 per 
 cent and 79 per cent. This shows that the number of those 
 removing their domicile into the said city accompanies the
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 89 
 
 increase of nonresidents. Working on this basis, we believe 
 we can say that whenever the number of removals in certain 
 particular classes is large, that of the sojourners of certain 
 particular classes is also large, unless there are some partic- 
 ular circumstances, in which the former wish to move. On 
 the strength of this assumption, we may make the assertion 
 that the discharged soldiers from the country would be rela- 
 tively more numerous among the sojourners when the number 
 of such soldiers is relatively larger among the men who change 
 their domicile. 
 
 Our problem would then be somewhat as follows: Is the 
 number of the said soldiers, who change their domicile to the 
 cities, greater than that of ordinary movers? Here again, 
 we have no direct means of solving the question. The only 
 way is to resort to a certain indirect method. Supposing 
 that the ratio of soldiers enrolled in the active service to the 
 male population is the same in a city and in a district from 
 which the soldiers flow into that city, our formula will be: 
 
 ^^ r Number of actives A' = Same in the other city.^ 
 [ in one city 
 
 R= / Number of active t>,_ ,, a a << 
 
 ~ \ reserves or reserves 
 
 p_ f Number of male p/_ u u .< << 
 
 ~ \ residents 
 
 (i) In case of the concentration of discharged soldiers in 
 
 towns — 
 
 B b; 
 A A' 
 
 (2) In case this concentration is larger among the said 
 
 soldiers than among ordinary people — 
 
 B b; 
 P P' 
 
 But as the ratio of the actives to the male population is 
 greater in the country than in towns, we must take this cir- 
 cumstance into consideration. Our method of calculation 
 would then become a little more complex. 
 
 1 If necessary, we may in some cas3s use the actual figures of the active instead 
 of the signs, A, A'.
 
 90 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 (i) If there be a concentration of the soldiers in towns, as 
 we have seen above, then there will be such a relation as — 
 
 A A' 
 
 And if there be no such concentration, then the question 
 whether its rate is especially great in towns or not is negatived 
 from the outset. 
 
 (2) If there obtain such a relation as — 
 
 B b; 
 • , p P' 
 
 in spite of the fact that the rate of the actives to male 
 population is less in towns than in the country, then it goes 
 without saying that the tendency toward concentration is 
 stronger among the discharged soldiers from the country. 
 Even supposing that there obtains no such relation, we can 
 still say that this is the case, if there be the following fact: 
 
 A , /A/ _ A V / A_' 
 
 B-^P ^P; Ph^^BfwB P' 
 
 P' A/ P\ P' PA, 
 
 P' ^ p 
 
 \P' Pjn 
 
 Sign, - represents the rate of the total of the removers into the city in question 
 n 
 and of the newly born out of them to the whole population, since the enlistment 
 in service of the oldest of the active reserves or of the reserves. 
 
 Let us explain the above somewhat in detail. If soldiers 
 flow into cities in the same rate as ordinary people, then the 
 rate of the above two classes of reserves to the male popula- 
 tion of cities would be equal to the left side of the formula 
 
 above. But if — is actually greater, then this is an evidence 
 
 that the reserv'es are especially numerous. Strictly speaking, 
 
 the factor B' in — in the left side must be replaced with 
 
 B'+X, with X indicating the numbei of soldiers that have 
 gone to the towns. But we may well overlook the X as 
 against the comparatively greater P'. We are now to see
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 
 
 91 
 
 whether or not the rate of concentration is especially great on 
 the part of soldiers, by using the method explained above. 
 
 According to statistics prepared in 1910 for the city of 
 Kyoto, the number of soldiers from the country is as follows: 
 
 District 
 
 Actives 
 
 Active Reserves 
 
 Reserves 
 
 Male 
 
 N.C.O. 
 
 Men 
 
 Total 
 
 N.C.O. 
 
 Men 
 
 Total 
 
 N.C.O. 
 
 Men 
 
 Total 
 
 Residents 
 
 Upper 
 
 Lower 
 
 23 
 29 
 
 826 
 1,032 
 
 849 
 1,061 
 
 74 
 112 
 
 778 
 1,021 
 
 852 
 1,133 
 
 212 
 290 
 
 795 
 1,059 
 
 1,007 
 1,349 
 
 
 Total . . 
 
 52 
 
 1,858 
 
 1,910 
 
 186 
 
 1,799 
 
 1,985 
 
 502 
 
 1,854 
 
 2,356 
 
 167,246 
 
 If we wish to know what localities send out the most people 
 to be domiciled in the city, we must ascertain what localities 
 have sent out the most sojourners into the city. According 
 to statistics prepared in 191 1, the whole number of sojourners 
 and the localities where sojourners above five thousand were 
 found in the said year, is as follows : 
 
 Number of 
 Localities Sojourners 
 
 Districts in Kyoto prefecture 28,091 
 
 Osaka prefecture 1 1.545 
 
 Hyogo prefecture 11,141 
 
 Shiga prefecture 37,474 
 
 Gifu prefecture 6,122 
 
 Fukui prefecture 7,303 
 
 Ishikawa prefecture 9,824 
 
 Other districts . 48,535 
 
 Total 
 
 160,035 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 Whole Number 
 
 of Sojourners 
 
 17.6 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 v3 
 
 lOO.O 
 
 B' A' 
 
 For — and — in the left side of our formula above, we 
 
 .... g, 
 
 must find the average that is given by weighing these — and 
 
 A' 
 
 — of the different prefectures, according to the respective 
 
 numbers of sojourners. But we can not, to our regret, secure 
 
 B' A' 
 
 the accurate figures for — and — of all the prefectures above, 
 
 except those of Shiga, Ishikawa and H\'ogo. And we have
 
 92 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 found that their figures are very near those of Kyoto, as is 
 evident from the following comparison: 
 
 I. Between Kyoto and Ishikawa Prefectures (1907) 
 Actives (A) Male Population (P) 
 
 Kyoto 5,184 
 
 Ishikawa 4,150 
 
 512,343 
 411.450 
 
 II. Between Kyoto and Shiga Prefectures (1909) 
 Actives (A) Male Population (P) 
 
 Kyoto 6,601 
 
 Shiga 4,838 
 
 526,358 
 381,692 
 
 III. Between Kyoto and Hy^ogo Prefectures (1909) 
 Actives ( ~ ) Male Population (P) 
 
 Kyoto 2,189 
 
 Hyogo 4,092 
 
 1,005,211 
 544,363 
 
 A 
 
 P 
 
 .9012 
 .01009 
 
 A 
 
 P 
 
 127.3 
 126.7 
 
 nP 
 
 40.7 
 40.2 
 
 It seems that all other prefectures are very similar to the 
 
 B' A' ^ , 
 
 above, and we think we can use — and — of Kyoto instead 
 
 of the average we have obtained above by weighing. It 
 
 B' A' 
 
 would be more accurate, if we use the — and — of the Kyoto 
 
 districts alone, leaving out that of the city of Kyoto. 
 
 Soldiers in the Districts of Kyoto (1910) 
 
 Actives 
 
 Active Reserves 
 
 Reserves 
 
 Male 
 
 N. C. 0. 
 
 Men 
 
 Total 
 
 N. CO. 
 
 Men 
 
 Total 
 
 N. C. 0. 
 
 Men 
 
 Total 
 
 Residents 
 
 127 
 
 2,435 
 
 2,562 
 
 169 
 
 2,272 
 
 2,441 
 
 514 
 
 2,14s 
 
 2,659 
 
 206,297 
 
 According to the above method, the rate of these two 
 
 /B B'\ 
 reserves to that of the actives I — > —J is as follows: 
 
 Active Reserves 
 Actives Against Actives 
 
 Reserves Against 
 Actives 
 
 City 100% 103.9 
 
 Districts 100% 95 .3 
 
 
 123.3% 
 
 103.9' 
 
 (f) 
 » (I')
 
 Active Reserves 
 
 Reserves 
 
 .0119 
 
 .0141 
 
 .0118 
 
 .0129 
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 93 
 
 Either with the active reserves or with the reserves, we find 
 the relation t>T7- Hence, the certainty of the fact of con- 
 
 centration among the soldiers from the country. Let us 
 see next the ratio of the men of the different services to the 
 male population. 
 
 Actives 
 
 City 01 16 
 
 Districts 0124 
 
 Since the rate of the two reserves to the male population is 
 greater in the city than in the districts, their rate is to be 
 
 greater than that of ordinary people 
 
 In order to make the comparison still more accurate, we 
 again use the above formula : 
 
 A /A'_Ay 
 
 B' P Vp' P/n 
 Active Reserve — P A^ =.0118 
 
 F 
 
 ■^ il6+(i24-ii6)Xl/3 
 
 X — = .0118 
 
 ,. 116+8X1/3 o^"6 + - 
 
 But— 
 
 A , 
 
 B B' P Vp' P/n B 
 p = .oii8 .-. p-,X ^7 >p 
 
 /A'AV 
 Vp' P/n 
 
 P' 
 
 Reserves — ^ X "\, '^" = .01 29 
 
 /A'_A\j, 
 VP' P/n_ 
 
 P A' 
 
 P' 
 
 _ ii6+(i24-ii6)X^ ^120 ,, 
 
 X F^i = .oi29X— =.0120- 
 
 * Note: - — . The oldest of the active reserves were enrolled seven years ago, 
 
 during which the number of the removals into the city has not been more than 
 
 I 
 one third of the male population. Hence, ~. 
 
 o 
 
 * Note: — ~ — . The h indicates the rate of removals seventeen years hence for 
 
 n 2 ^ ■' 
 
 B 
 the same reason as above. But, p = .0141 
 
 .oi4i>.oi25
 
 94 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 We can see from the above that the rate of concentration 
 from the country is greater among the discharged soldiers 
 than among ordinary people. To what extent is this rate 
 due to the effects of military life? In order to answer this 
 question, we must first know whether or not the said soldiers 
 have a stronger tendency toward concentration even without 
 the effects of military life. But we have no material to ascer- 
 tain it quantitatively. 
 
 Let us once more see what is the case with some other 
 
 A' B' 
 great cities, taking — , — of the district, in which lies the 
 
 city, instead of the weighted average obtained from the 
 said quantities of the districts wherefrom the soldiers are 
 removed. 
 
 City of Tokyo (1910) 
 
 Actives 
 
 City. 5,740 
 
 Districts 4,399 
 
 Actives 
 
 City 100 
 
 Districts 100 
 
 The above shows that either in the active reserves or in 
 
 B . B' . . 
 
 the reserv'es, — is greater than — , from which will be seen 
 
 the fact of concentration among them. 
 
 Ratio to Male Population 
 
 Actives Active Reserves Reserves 
 
 City 0093 .0117 .0128 
 
 Districts 0114 .0131 .0124 
 
 \Mth this alone, we can not ascertain the stronger tendency 
 toward concentration among the said soldiers. Now — 
 
 Active Male 
 Reserves Reserves Population 
 
 7,237 7,923 
 5,066 4,799 
 
 619,139 
 385,834 
 
 Active ReserA'es 
 
 to One Hundred 
 
 Actives 
 
 Reser%'es to 
 
 One Hundred 
 
 Actives 
 
 126 
 115 
 
 138 
 109
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 95 
 
 A+/A'_AV 
 
 B B' Pj_VP^P/n Q3 + (ri4-93)l 
 p=.oii7 pX — = .oi3iX- — 
 
 ICO 
 
 = ^3iX — =.0115+^ 
 
 A + fA'_AV 
 
 B^B' P Vp' P/n 
 .oii5<.oii7 ■". p>p^ X^ 
 
 We see that the rate of concentration is greater among the 
 active reserves. It is still more evident among the reserves. 
 
 B_ 
 P-.0138 
 
 A+/A'_Ay 
 
 jvp^Vp' pyn 
 
 By 
 
 P'-^ X' = .0124 
 
 ^ 93+(ii4-93)' , I03-5 
 
 X — =.oi24X-Y^ = .oi23 
 
 A, /A'_AV = 
 
 . B^B' P l,P' P/n 
 .oi38>.oi23 that is,p> p X ^^ 
 
 P 
 
 City of Kobe (191 i) 
 
 Active Male 
 
 Actives Reserves Reserves Population 
 
 City 1,224 1,730 1,830 120,648 
 
 Districts 10,512 I4,330 11,241 878,731 
 
 Ratio of the Two Reserves to Actives 
 
 Active Reserves Reserves to 
 
 to One Hundred One Hundred 
 
 Actives Actives Actives 
 
 City 100 141 149 
 
 Districts 100 137 107 
 
 • . BR' 
 ■■ A A' 
 
 Ratio to Male Population 
 
 Actives Active Reserves Reserves 
 
 City oioi -0043 0152 
 
 Districts 0120 0152 .0128 
 
 1 Note: ~ ~ T, according to the circumstances given above. 
 
 2 Note: ~~2> according to the circumstances given above.
 
 96 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Active Reserves — 
 
 B B'_P Vp P'/n 
 
 = .0143 
 
 B' P 
 
 a; 
 p' 
 
 =.0127 
 
 Provided, —~- 
 n 3 
 
 Reserves — 
 
 B 
 
 p=.OI52 
 
 B' P 
 
 + fA_A'V 
 Vp F'/n 
 
 a; 
 p' 
 
 :.0Il8 
 
 I _ I 
 
 Provided, — 
 
 n 2 
 
 In either case, the concentration is remarkable among 
 soldiers, especially among the reserves. And this is so in 
 the larger cities. This fact is, however, not so evident in 
 the smaller cities, in some of which the contrary is often the 
 case. Take for example those of the Fukuoka Prefecture: 
 
 
 Actives 
 
 Active Reserves 
 
 Reserves 
 
 Male 
 
 
 N.C.O. 
 
 Men 
 
 Total 
 
 N.C.O. 
 
 Men 
 
 Total 
 
 N.C.O. 
 
 Men 
 
 Total 
 
 Population 
 
 Fukuoka . . 
 Kurume. . . 
 Kokura. . . . 
 Moji 
 
 4 
 15 
 
 5 
 7 
 
 286 
 158 
 87 
 109 
 
 290 
 
 173 
 
 92 
 
 116 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 9 
 
 26 
 
 378 
 197 
 141 
 129 
 
 408 
 233 
 ISO 
 155 
 
 97 
 53 
 43 
 24 
 
 321 
 169 
 iSi 
 118 
 
 418 
 222 
 
 194 
 142 
 
 31.844 
 
 15.548 
 
 10,067 
 
 8.811 
 
 Total 
 
 Districts . . 
 
 31 
 
 451 
 
 640 
 8,189 
 
 671 
 8,640 
 
 lOI 
 
 773 
 
 845 
 11,684 
 
 946 
 
 12,457 
 
 217 
 1.954 
 
 759 
 11,050 
 
 976 
 13,004 
 
 66,270 
 840,878 
 
 Ratio of the Two Reserves to the Actives 
 
 Active Reserves 
 Actives to 100 Actives 
 
 City 100 141 
 
 Districts 100 144 
 
 Ratio to Male Population 
 
 Actives Active Reserves 
 
 City Old .0141 
 
 Districts 0104 .0148 
 
 Active Reserves — 
 
 A , /A'_A\i 
 
 B B' p'^Vp' P/n 
 
 p = .0141 p7 X ^^7 = .01 47 
 
 F 
 
 Reserves 
 to 100 Actives 
 
 145 
 150 
 
 Reserves 
 .0147 
 •0155
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 
 
 97 
 
 Reserves — 
 
 In either case — 
 
 A , /A'_AV 
 B B' P VP' Pyn 
 p = -0147 p- ^ X' ^ •°'53 
 
 P' 
 
 B 
 
 < 
 
 B'yA /A'_AV 
 P' P Vp' P/n 
 
 A/ 
 P' 
 
 This may be due to the fact that this prefecture has many 
 small mines in the districts, thereby causing the concentra- 
 tion of discharged soldiers to an extent greater than in other 
 prefectures. But it is also due to the fact that smaller towns 
 have a smaller rate of concentration. The same thing can 
 be said of many other smaller towns. 
 
 We have thus far seen that the rate of concentration in 
 towns is greater among the discharged soldiers than among 
 the ordinary people. We believe we are doing justice to the 
 fact when we ascribe it to the effects of military life. Only 
 we are not able to ascertain the extent of the effects, as we 
 can not know the extent of the effects that are caused by 
 some other conditions. The particular local conditions of 
 the places where troops are stationed make a difference in 
 
 
 
 Prefecture of Tokyo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 5-10 
 
 10-15 
 
 15-20 
 
 20-25 
 
 25-30 
 
 30-35 
 
 35-40 
 
 40-45 
 
 Men 
 
 503.1 
 508.7 
 
 462.3 
 447-0 
 
 S20-I 
 
 437-5 
 
 638.0 
 517.5 
 
 564. 1 
 543.7 
 
 522.4 
 503.4 
 
 460.7 
 410.9 
 
 370.8 
 317.0 
 
 319 .6 
 
 Womf^n 
 
 272 I 
 
 
 
 Throughout the Country 
 
 
 Age 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 S-IO 
 
 10-15 
 
 15-20 
 
 20-25 
 
 25-30 
 
 30-35 
 
 35-40 
 
 40-45 
 
 Men 
 
 607.2 
 595-9 
 
 581-3 
 561-5 
 
 525-5 
 516-6 
 
 470-4 
 469-5 
 
 405.8 
 428.4 
 
 401.6 
 407.0 
 
 379.0 
 370.1 
 
 309.1 
 296.7 
 
 294-6 
 
 274. 3 
 
 Women 
 
 
 
 ' Statistics of population, prepared in 1908.
 
 98 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 the effects, of which, however, we have no material to work 
 upon. 
 
 Concerning our investigation above, there is one thing that 
 demands our particular attention, and it is whether there is 
 more or less difference between the rate of the age classes of 
 removals of the discharged soldiers and of the ordinary people 
 of a corresponding age. If the rate is greater among the 
 former, then it follows that the rate of concentration among 
 the discharged soldiers is not necessarily great. But our 
 investigation into the actual circumstances shows that the 
 rate of removal is especially great among the people below a 
 corresponding age. 
 
 The above statistics do not give the rate of each age among 
 the removals to the city, but the rate of each age for the year 
 previous to it is as follows: 
 
 
 Age 
 
 
 10-15 
 
 15-20 
 
 20-25 
 
 25-30 
 
 30-35 
 
 Tokyo 
 
 112 
 91 
 
 123 
 90 
 
 88 
 86 
 
 93 
 99 
 
 81 
 
 The whole country 
 
 94 
 
 We thus see that the rate of removals into cities is con- 
 siderable among people ten to twenty years of age. The 
 rate among people ranging from twenty to twenty-five years 
 of age merely make up the difference of death rate; that 
 among people of twenty-five to thirty falls short of the dif- 
 ference; and that among people thirty to thirty-five falls 
 short of the difference to a still greater extent. Our con- 
 clusion is therefore not at all affected by such circumstances. 
 
 Formation of Military Towns 
 
 The places in which troops are stationed have a tendency 
 to form into towns, for they naturally invite commercial and 
 industrial people, especially retailers. If these places have
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 99 
 
 already been towns, they will undergo a rapid expansion after 
 they become stations for troops. This is because many peo- 
 ple flow into them in order to earn their livelihood as suppliers 
 of materials for the troops, or as suppliers of labor and mate- 
 rials both for the troops and the people who are connected 
 with them in various ways. 
 
 But it is difficult to estimate the extent of concentration 
 caused by the stationing of troops. This difficulty is two- 
 fold, (i) Most of the military stations are located, not in 
 cities or towns, but in their suburbs. Of the seventy-six 
 infantry regiments, thirty-five are stationed in suburbs; of 
 the twenty-four field artillery regiments, twelve; of the 
 twenty-two cavalry regiments, nineteen; of the eighteen 
 engineering battalions, ten; and of the eighteen commissariat 
 battalions, nine are in suburbs. Many of the suppliers men- 
 tioned above are naturally led to live in the suburbs, and 
 their number does not appear in the statistics of cities or 
 towns. It is not possible to secure the exact number of the 
 inhabitants of each village around the military stations. The 
 only way left is to obtain the number of the inhabitants of 
 each city or town that lies in the neighborhood of the stations. 
 This is, of course, indirect and insufficient for our purpose. 
 (2) There is another difficulty of a contrary nature. If the 
 statistics of the cities are depended upon, how are we to dis- 
 tinguish between the increase of the city populations caused 
 by the annexation of the neighboring villages and the increase 
 caused by other circumstances? The former is liable to 
 underestimation, while the latter is liable to overestimation. 
 Difiiculties such as these He in our way. Insufiicient as our 
 method is, we must pursue our investigation, basing it upon 
 the statistics of the cities. 
 
 After the Sino-Japanese War, the number of the divisions 
 was increased from seven to twelve. At the same time, 
 twenty new infantry regiments were organized (the 29th regi- 
 ment to the 48th regiment). Of these regiments, some were 
 stationed at the places where the divisions had already located 
 while others had to be stationed at new places. As new
 
 100 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 divisions are accompanied by new regiments of the infantry 
 and other branches, the increase of divisions means the 
 increase of population to a greater extent than the increase of 
 regiments alone. 
 
 Let us now see how this assertion is borne out by the table 
 below. We except from the table Osaka, Kyoto, Nagoya 
 and Sendai, on the one hand, and the two small towns, 
 Muramatsu and Sabaye, on the other, because the former 
 contain more than one hundred thousand inhabitants and 
 accordingly the fluctuation of the figures for inhabitants is 
 caused more by other reasons than by the increase of troops, 
 while the latter are wanting in the statistics of population. 
 The following table, ^ therefore, concerns the fourteen (out 
 of twenty) cities and towns, where regiments were newly 
 organized : 
 
 
 T^ppiment 
 
 Population 
 
 (Infantry) 
 
 Towns 
 
 1894 
 
 1903 
 
 Increase 
 
 N 
 
 o "^I 
 
 Hirosaki* 
 
 Yamagata 
 
 Shizuoka 
 
 Kanazavva" 
 
 Himeji'' 
 
 Tottori 
 
 Fukuyama 
 
 Yamaguchi 
 
 Zentsuji^ 
 
 Kochi 
 
 Kagoshima 
 
 Ohmura 
 
 Kokura* 
 
 Kurume 
 
 30 934 
 28 565 
 37.824 
 89.975 
 
 31 134 
 27,776 
 
 15.476 
 
 15.075 
 
 8,083 (1896) 
 
 37.112 
 
 55.495 
 7649 (1898) 
 18,826 
 26,962 
 
 36443 
 40,248 
 
 48,744 
 99,657 
 26,509 
 
 31.023 
 16,976 
 19876 
 1 1 ,044 
 35.518 
 .59001 
 
 7.847 
 36825 
 33.273 
 
 5 509 
 
 
 ' 7,2 
 
 11,683 
 
 
 ' -lA 
 
 10 920 
 
 
 ' T,=, 
 
 9,682 
 
 
 ' -in 
 
 5375 
 
 .1 
 
 ' 4.0 
 
 3,247 
 
 « 
 
 ' Al 
 
 I 500 
 
 
 ' 42 
 
 4,801 
 
 
 ' AT. 
 
 2,961 
 
 
 ' 4.4 
 
 1.544 
 
 
 ' 4S 
 
 3 506 
 
 
 46 
 
 198 
 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 17.999 
 6,311 
 
 
 
 
 * New div'isions. 
 
 The average increase of population throughout the five 
 towns where new divisions were established is about 8,300 
 (perhaps, the average would be a little more than this, if we 
 were able to include the increase at Zentsuji, since 1894). 
 
 'The above figures are taken from the Imperial Statistics, except those of 
 Zentsuji and Ohmura, which are taken from the Prefeclural Statistics,
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 
 
 lOI 
 
 The average in those towns where regiments alone were 
 newly organized is 4,550. 
 
 The difference must be regarded as due to such special 
 branches as cavalry, artillery, engineering, etc. 
 
 Thus, new troops mean an increase of population in certain 
 towns. But what relation is there between this increase and 
 the size of the towns? It is difficult to give an accurate 
 answer with the scanty data at hand. But, examination of 
 this material reveals that the smaller the town, the larger 
 the increase of population that is due to the new organization 
 of troops. Of the towns in the above table, the increase in the 
 towns of ten thousand to twenty thousand inhabitants, in 
 the towns of twenty thousand to thirty thousand, and in the 
 towns of thirty thousand to forty thousand, is as follows: 
 
 Size of Towns 
 
 X umber of 
 Towns 
 
 Total Popula- 
 tion (1894) 
 
 Total Popula- 
 tion (1903) 
 
 Increase 
 
 Average 
 
 (A) I0,000''-20,000 
 
 (B) 20,000 -30 000 
 
 (C) 30,000 -40,oo( 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 
 49.377 
 
 83,303 
 
 137.004 
 
 73-677 
 104,544 
 157.214 
 
 24,300 
 21,241 
 20,210 
 
 8,100 
 7,080 
 5.050 
 
 ■One of (A) is the place where a division is stationed, and two of (C) have each 
 a division. 
 
 The above figures show that the smaller the size of the 
 towns, the larger the increase in the population. Let us next 
 see how this is the case with the towns of the three following 
 classes, — those above ten thousand, those above twenty 
 thousand and those above thirty thousand but below forty 
 thousand, the number of each, according to statistics pre- 
 pared in 1894. The increase of the population of each up to 
 1903 is as follows: 
 
 Size of Towns 
 
 Number of 
 Towns 
 
 Total Popula- 
 tion (1894) 
 
 Total Popula- 
 tion (1904) 
 
 I ncrease 
 
 Average 
 
 (A) I0,000-20,0C0. 
 
 (B) 20,000-30,000. 
 
 (C) 30,000-40,000. 
 
 43 
 II 
 
 19 
 
 1,473,512 
 304,392 
 
 1,596,694 
 373.255 
 
 123,182 
 68,863 
 96,805 
 
 2,865 
 6,260 
 5.095 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORN 
 
 lA
 
 xoa 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Comparing the average of each town with that of the same 
 in the other table, we find that the increase caused by new 
 troops is greater in the smaller towns. 
 
 Average of the Places Increase of 
 Towns ' for new Troops Average Total Comparison 
 
 A 8,ioo 2,865 5.235 : 
 
 B 7,080 6,260 820 
 
 C 5.050 5,095 45 ' 
 
 That the increase of population is greater in the places 
 where new divisions are established than in the places where 
 new regiments are organized, and that the increase of popula- 
 tion caused by new troops is especially large in the smaller 
 towns, can be seen by looking at the places where new troops 
 were stationed after the Russo-Japanese War. Twenty-four 
 regiments were newly established after the war. Below is a 
 comparison between the population before the establishment 
 and that after the establishment in the places where regiments 
 are stationed, excepting Hiroshima and other cities containing 
 a population above one hundred thousand, and Sasayama and 
 Sakura, whose population we have no means of ascertaining: 
 
 Regiment 
 
 No. 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 =59 and 66 . 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 Towns 
 
 Kofu 
 
 Matsumoto 
 
 Tsu 
 
 Hirosaki 
 
 Nara 
 
 Okayama^' 
 
 Saga 
 
 Kurume" 
 
 Takata=' 
 
 Utsunomiya'' 
 
 Toyohashi-'' 
 
 Wakayama 
 
 Tokushima 
 
 Matsiiye 
 
 Miyakonojo 
 
 W'akamatsu 
 
 Hamamatsu 
 
 (;ifu 
 
 Tovama 
 
 Oita 
 
 1903 
 
 44,188 
 
 33,493 
 36,408 
 
 36,443 
 33.735 
 81,025 
 
 35,083 
 33,273 
 19,557 
 35,953 
 
 28,315 
 68,527 
 
 63,710 
 35,081 
 14,716 
 
 32,534 
 23,306 
 40,168 
 56,275 
 11,927 
 
 1908 
 
 49,882 
 35,011 
 41,229 
 
 37,489 
 
 93.421 
 36,051 
 35.928 
 28,021 
 
 45,183 
 43.980 
 
 77.303 
 65.561 
 36,209 
 
 18,345 
 39,265 
 
 32.381 
 
 41,488 
 
 57.437 
 29,547 
 
 Increase 
 
 5,694 
 
 1,518 
 
 4,821, 
 
 1,046' 
 
 1,003 
 
 12,396 
 
 968 
 
 2,655 
 
 8,464 
 
 9,230 
 
 15.655 
 8,776 
 1. 85 1 
 1,128 
 3.629 
 6,731 
 9.075 
 1,320 
 1,162 
 
 17,620 
 
 * Towns where new divisions were established. Besides these, Kyoto had a 
 new division. But its population is too large for our purpose, so it is omitted 
 from the table. All the above figures are based upon statistics.
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 
 
 103 
 
 • Let us again compare the increase of population in the 
 places where new divisions were formed with that in the places 
 where new regiments were organized. 
 
 ' 
 
 Number 
 of Towns 
 
 1903 
 
 1908 
 
 Increase 
 
 Average 
 
 Places of new di\'isions . . . 
 Places of new regiments . . . 
 
 5 
 15 
 
 198,123 
 565,594 
 
 246,533 
 629,928 
 
 48,110 
 64.334 
 
 9,682 
 4,289 
 
 Of these two classes of towns, the increase in the former 
 is twice as large as that in the latter. We shall now find that 
 the smaller towns have greater increase of population by the 
 stationing of new troops when we look at the population of 
 each of the above classes of towns: 
 
 (i) Increase Throughout Towns, Garrisoned by New Divisions 
 
 Size of Towns 
 
 Number 
 of Towns 
 
 Population 
 1903 
 
 Population 
 1908 
 
 Increase 
 
 Average 
 
 10,000-25,000 .... 
 25,000-50,000 .... 
 
 5 
 12 
 
 69,506 
 429,674 
 
 152,274 
 474.345 
 
 82,668 
 44.571 
 
 16,533 
 3.63 1 "^ 
 
 " It must be remembered that such an increase is due not only to new troops 
 but also to other circumstances. 
 
 (2) Increase in Towns, Not Garrisoned by New Divisions 
 
 . Size of Towns 
 
 Number 
 of Towns 
 
 Population 
 1903 
 
 Population 
 1908 
 
 Increase 
 
 Average 
 
 10,000-25,000 .... 
 25,000-50,000 .... 
 
 3 
 9 
 
 49.949 
 327,133 
 
 80,273 
 349,354 
 
 30,324 
 22,221 
 
 10,108 
 2,525 
 
 The increase in the smaller towns of 10,000 to 25,000 during 
 this period has been — 
 
 Number of Towns 
 
 Population 
 1903 
 
 Population 
 1908 
 
 Increase 
 
 Average 
 
 103 
 
 1,581,109 
 
 1,719,061 
 
 137.952 
 
 1,281
 
 r04 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Therefore it follows that however small the average increase 
 of the larger towns of 25,000 to 50,000 may be, the increase 
 caused by new troops is greater in the towns below 25,000. 
 
 Now for the reasons why the increase is larger in the smaller 
 towns. Some of the new trades demanded by the estab- 
 lishment of new troops are not found in the smaller towns. 
 Even if found, men of those trades are few. Hence, the 
 necessity of concentration, in order to meet the new demand. 
 The larger towns have such trades already even before the 
 establishment, and the number of men engaged in the trades 
 is large. However, they have to extend their businesses by 
 greater effort. Hence, the lesser increase of population in 
 the larger towns. Of course, a new event such as the estab- 
 lishment of new troops may cause a boom among the traders, 
 which will in turn attract people from other quarters. But 
 such a psychological circumstance fails computation. 
 
 Our statistical investigations have shown that the towns 
 for new divisions have greater increase of population than 
 the towns for new regiments, that the increase of population 
 is caused by the establishment of troops, and that the increase 
 is greater in the smaller towns than in the larger towns. But 
 the results arrived at are only of a general nature. For those 
 towns are mostly provincial centers of commerce, education, 
 local administration, etc., and have other and more varied 
 causes for the increase of population than the establishment of 
 troops. In order to obtain more accurate results, we should 
 have to take a place where there was no cause for the increase 
 other than the establishment of new divisions or regiments. 
 But such places can not be found. The town of Zentsuji, 
 however, approaches this ideal, which we shall now consider. 
 
 Previous to the establishment of a new division, this town 
 had consisted of a smaller town, containing some three thou- 
 sand inhabitants, and an agricultural village, containing some 
 five thousand inhabitants. There were scarcely any circum- 
 stances that would attract people except the establishment of 
 new troops. But it has now developed into a town of more 
 than 14,000 inhabitants, including the surrounding villages. 
 The following statistics show the process of its growth:
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 
 Population of Zentsuji 
 
 i05 
 
 Year 
 
 Town of Zentsuji 
 
 Number of 
 Houses 
 
 Inhabitants 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Total 
 
 
 f Village Yoshida 
 
 410 
 654 
 
 555 
 
 .... 
 
 
 2,294 
 3.058 
 2,731 
 
 1896 
 
 < " Zentsuji 
 
 " Asano 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 1,619 
 
 
 
 8,08^ 
 
 
 [ V^illage Yoshida 
 
 
 
 558 
 932 
 607 
 
 1,427 
 1,947 
 1,423 
 
 1,335 
 1,972 
 1,426 
 
 2,762 
 
 1898 
 
 < " Zentsuji 
 
 3,918 
 2,849 
 
 
 " Asano 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 2,097 
 
 4,797 
 
 4.732 
 
 9,529 
 
 
 f Village Yoshida 
 
 
 
 1.458 
 2,342 
 1.398 
 
 1.599 
 2,321 
 
 1,390 
 
 3,057 
 4,663 
 
 2 788 
 
 1899 
 
 i " Zentsuji 
 
 
 " Asano 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 5,198 
 
 5,310 
 
 10,508 
 
 
 
 1901 
 
 2.344 
 3.199 
 2,385 
 3422 
 
 2,542 
 2,627 
 
 2,704 
 
 3,806 
 
 3,684 
 
 6,780 
 7,502 
 5,616 
 7,019 
 7,237 
 7,563 
 7645 
 7,273 
 
 7,036 
 
 4,952 
 5,122 
 
 5.428 
 
 5.244 
 6,561 
 6,642 
 6,786 
 
 7.348 
 
 7,072 
 
 I I 7'?2 
 
 1002 
 
 
 12,624 
 11,044 
 12,263 
 13,798 
 14,205 
 
 14.431 
 14,621 
 
 1903 
 1904 
 190S 
 
 
 
 
 1906 
 
 
 1907 
 
 
 1908 
 
 
 1909" 
 
 
 IQIO* 
 
 
 
 I9II 
 
 
 14,108 
 14,363 
 
 I912 
 
 
 
 
 ^ No statistics for 1909 and 1910. 
 
 Let us next see the fluctuation of the figures in the neigh- 
 boring towns and villages, where no division was established, 
 in order to estimate the speed of increase. 
 
 Population of Neighboring Towns and Villages 
 
 Places 
 
 1897 
 
 1899 
 
 1902 
 
 1905 
 
 1908 
 
 1911 
 
 A (Tadotsu) 
 
 7,763 
 2,944 
 2,757 
 3,396 
 2,494 
 2,512 
 
 7,979 
 2,938 
 2,823 
 3,356 
 2,476 
 2,601 
 
 7,483 
 3,402 
 2,492 
 
 3,529 
 2,561 
 2,808 
 
 7,715 
 2,904 
 
 3.036 
 
 3,578 
 2.517 
 2,849 
 
 7,863 
 2,826 
 
 2,974 
 3,537 
 2,568 
 
 3,034 
 
 8,572 
 3,030 
 2,967 
 
 3.723 
 2.677 
 2,870 
 
 B (Toyohara) 
 
 C (Shirakata) 
 
 D (Shikamura) 
 
 E (Yoshiwara) 
 
 F (Fudeoka) 
 
 Total 
 
 21,866 
 
 22,173 
 
 22,275 
 
 22,599 
 
 22,802 
 
 23,939 

 
 I06 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Ratio of Increase in Neighboring Towns and Villages 
 
 Year 
 
 1897 
 1899 
 1902 
 
 1905 
 1908 
 1911 
 
 Villages (excluding A) 
 
 Popula- 
 tion 
 
 14,103 
 
 14.194 
 14.792 
 14,884 
 
 14.939 
 15.367 
 
 Ratio of 
 Increase 
 
 100 
 100 
 104 
 
 105 
 106 
 109 
 
 Towns and Villages 
 (including A) 
 
 Popula- 
 tion 
 
 21,866 
 22,173 
 
 22,275 
 
 22,599 
 22,802 
 
 23,939 
 
 Ratio of 
 Increase 
 
 100 
 loi .4 
 loi .9 
 
 103.3 
 104.2 
 
 109.5 
 
 Ratio of Increase in Zentsuji 
 
 Year 
 
 1897 
 1899 
 1902 
 
 1905 
 1908 
 1911 
 
 illages 
 
 Estimated 
 Increase'' 
 
 8,083b 
 8,140 
 
 8,479 
 8,536 
 8,568 
 8,811 
 
 Actual 
 
 Excess over 
 
 Estimate 
 
 8,196 
 
 8,237 
 8,350 
 
 8,423 
 8,851 
 
 Towns and Villages 
 
 Estimated 
 Increase" 
 
 2,368 
 
 3.695 
 5.262 
 6,053 
 5,397 
 
 Actual 
 
 Excess over 
 
 Estimate 
 
 2,311 
 3,937 
 5,448 
 6,198 
 
 5,257 
 
 * Estimated on supposition that ratio of increase is same as of neighboring 
 towns and villages. 
 
 ''The figures are for 1896. We have no rate for 1897. 
 
 From the above it will be seen that the increase of popula- 
 tion caused by the establishment of a new division is about 
 five thousand and a fraction. Moreover, the towns in which 
 divisions are stationed are usually places where are stationed 
 not only infantry regiments, but also regiments, battalions, 
 corps, etc., of other special branches, and hospitals, armories 
 and regimental and divisional headquarters. The full force 
 of an infantry regiment is about eighteen hundred, while that 
 of two regiments and battalions of other special branches is 
 never more than nineteen hundred and fifty. But there are 
 other men belonging to special offices and bureaus. Taking 
 all this into consideration, it would be probably correct to
 
 EFFECTS ON DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS 10/ 
 
 state that the increase of population, at the towns where new 
 divisions are estabHshed, is about one-third of the above num- 
 ber, that is, sixteen or seventeen hundred. Again, changes in 
 the Hst of soldiers would make a difference. If the establish- 
 ment of new divisions should take place in larger towns, the 
 rate of the increase of population would be still less. 
 
 Summary 
 
 As we have seen above, the system of conscription tends to 
 attract soldiers to cities, and, as a consequence, to attract 
 civilians to these places where troops are stationed. We may 
 therefore say that the system is an effective factor in encourag- 
 ing concentration in towns. However, concentration is also 
 encouraged in other ways. The manufacture of military 
 materials and the business of supplying raw materials for 
 this manufacture, even in towns where troops are not sta- 
 tioned, causes concentration. Then, again, increase in popu- 
 lation is often the result of the construction of improved 
 means of communication and of sanitary equipments for the 
 convenience of the troops. These circumstances must of 
 course not be overlooked, even though we have not the means 
 at hand to study them in definite quantities.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 
 
 The following four chapters will be devoted to an investiga- 
 tion of the effects of the system of conscription upon national 
 economy. Our investigation falls under two general head- 
 ings — the effects upon production and the effects upon 
 consumption. 
 
 Let us first study the economic effects upon production. 
 That capital and labor must be united in order to carry out 
 production is undeniable. In other words, employment and 
 labor must go hand in hand. Other things being equal, the 
 productive power of a nation is determined by the quantity 
 of labor plus employment. If we wish to determine the effects 
 of the system of conscription upon the productive power of 
 our nation, we have first to note its effects upon employment, 
 then its effects upon labor, and lastly its effects upon the 
 combination of the two. Loss of labor is usually pointed out 
 as the effect of this system. But how this is so can be known 
 only when the question whether there is enough opportunity 
 for employment is answered. In this chapter, we shall observe 
 the effects upon employment, dividing it into two sections, 
 that concerning agriculture and that concerning manufac- 
 tures and commerce. 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 The effects of the system upon agricultural employments 
 can not be said to be great. They are little compared with 
 those upon commerce and manufactures. The agricultural 
 effects are to be seen from two aspects — that of the increase 
 of employments, and that of their decrease. 
 
 Decrease of Agricultural Employments 
 
 The chief cause of the decrease is to be found in the de- 
 crease of the area of arable land, owing to the larger area 
 1 08
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 
 
 109 
 
 being used for military purposes. As the selection of the 
 sites for barracks is determined by the conditions that are 
 convenient for military purposes, such as defense or mobili- 
 zation, the ground in the neighborhood of cities or towns 
 is liable to utilization. And such ground is usually fertile 
 soil. Of course, the decrease of the area from such a cause 
 is not very considerable, and yet not so little as to justify 
 overlooking it. We can not know the exact amount of such 
 decrease, but we can obtain an approximate estimate of the 
 arable area utilized by the Military Department when we 
 sum up the areal amounts of those lots whose estimated 
 values are above ten sen per tsubo (thirty yen per acre). 
 The following figures are based on the "Annual Report" 
 prepared by the department on December 31, 1910: 
 
 Arable Land Used for Military Purposes 
 
 Offices 
 
 The Land Survey Dept 
 
 Headquarters of Special JVIilitary Works. 
 
 Headquarters of Fortifications 
 
 The Tokyo Arsenal 
 
 The Osaka Arsenal 
 
 The Senju Woolen Factory 
 
 The Horse Administration Bureau 
 
 The Imperial Guard Division 
 
 The First 
 The Second 
 The Third 
 The Fourth 
 The Fifth 
 The Sixth 
 The Seventh 
 The Eighth 
 The Ninth 
 The Tenth 
 The Eleventh 
 The Twelfth 
 The Thirteenth 
 The Fourteenth 
 The Fifteenth 
 The Sixteenth 
 The Seventeenth 
 The Eighteenth 
 
 Total 
 
 Division . 
 
 Area 
 
 Tsubo 
 242 
 3,856,932 
 
 5,993-675 
 768,212 
 
 569 547 
 32,358 
 
 643,555 
 1,008,092 
 9,505,228 
 
 5,942 
 3,884,731 
 2.333,580 
 1,903,070 
 6,032,110 
 o 
 457,064 
 2,108,566 
 
 4,725,054 
 2,709,864 
 
 1,297,140 
 1,131,219 
 
 858,139 
 
 7,526,973 
 
 863,361 
 
 10,362,452 
 
 836,702 
 
 72,868,770 
 
 Land Value per 
 Tsubo 
 
 13 
 15 
 10 
 
 TOO 
 
 156 
 
 1300 
 
 17 
 
 33 
 19 
 
 100 
 12 
 
 100 
 22 
 22 
 
 24 
 25 
 16 
 10 
 84 
 28 
 36 
 24 
 23 
 13 
 57 
 
 Sen 
 
 3- 61 
 
 6- 143 
 
 .4- 28 
 
 .0- 854 
 
 . I-I2GO 
 ,0 
 
 .7- 19 
 
 3- 348 
 .8- 478 
 ,0 
 
 313 
 598 
 119 
 150 
 
 4- 
 o- 
 I- 
 
 5- 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 9 
 8- 
 
 3- 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6- 
 
 2- 
 
 5- 234 ■) 
 
 122 .7 
 
 115. 
 
 146.6 
 78.4
 
 no CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 According to another statistical report prepared by the 
 department in the same year (1910), the total area under its 
 control is 765,230,891 tsuho. Deducting from the total the 
 area in Korea, Formosa, Manchuria and that under the con- 
 trol of the headquarters of special military works but lying 
 outside the country, we get 729,513,004 tsuho, which is the 
 total area within the country. Of this total area within the 
 country, nearly one-tenth is supposed to be arable land. 
 Hence, we must say that the decrease of the arable area means 
 the decrease of agricultural employment. If there be any 
 objection to the method that regards the land value of thirty 
 yen up per tan ( = \ acre) as a mark of arable land, let us 
 then exchange this estimate for that of one hundred yen. 
 Now, according to the statistical report above, there are 
 22,493,313 tsuho of such land. To the extent that this 
 much of the arable land is turned into military use, agri- 
 cultural laborers are deprived of their employment. In 
 1 91 2 and 1 91 3, a fraction of the land under the control 
 of the department was sold, but we have no means of know- 
 ing just how much. 
 
 Increase of Agricultural Employments 
 
 Troops are better provided with food and clothing than 
 the people at large, which we shall see later. For the supply 
 of raw materials we have to depend upon primitive industry. 
 The better the conditions of living of the troops, the more 
 we depend upon it. Most of the cotton and wool for military 
 use comes from foreign lands, but rice and other grains, vege- 
 tables, fish and meat and leathers are obtained at home. The 
 fact that these materials, especially those of better qualities, 
 are in large demand in the army must be one of the sources 
 of the livelihood of agricultural and fishing laborers. We 
 must put this matter aside for the time being, because the 
 investigation into such a matter is accompanied by too intri- 
 cate conditions, and because the extent of its being a source 
 of their livelihood is not so considerable. We say not con-
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT III 
 
 siderable, since such necessaries as specified above would be 
 in demand among the masses, if their prices were reduced 
 a Httle. 
 
 Troops cause an increase of agricultural, especially stock 
 farming, employments from circumstances other than those 
 mentioned above. They demand war horses and forage. 
 Industry connected with war horses and forage is possible 
 only because of troops. We can not, of course, obtain 
 any definite estimate of the increase of employments in 
 the production of war horses. But there is no doubt 
 that industrial laborers derive more benefit and more em- 
 ployment than if there were no demand for war horses. 
 And we can estimate the extent of the demand for war 
 horses and forage. 
 
 In order to know how troops are supplied with horses, let 
 us see what are some of the provisions made in the Horse 
 Administration Regulations (Military Department, No. 69, 
 issued in 1908). 
 
 All corps (except the Horse Supply Bureau and those corps whose horses are 
 supplied out of the surplus horses of military schools) shall fill up their number 
 of horses every year, at the rate of one-tenth of the prescribed number. (Chapter 
 2, clause 4.) 
 
 The following horses are to be supplied with those bred at the Horse Supply 
 Bureau, — cavalry horses, field artillery horses, horses belonging to the cavalry 
 training school and those belonging to the field artilleiy training school, and which 
 are to be supplemented peiiodically. (Chapter 2, clause 5.) 
 
 The following horses are to be replaced with young horses purchased: mountain 
 artillery horses, heavy artillery horses, commissariat horses, telegraphic battalion 
 horses, those used by the different schools, those used by ofificers, those to be 
 provided lor the first time and those to be supplied temporarily. (Chapter 2, 
 clause 6.) 
 
 The Horse Supply Bureau shall purchase every year two-year-old horses to the 
 number of one-third of the horses that are being bred at the bureau, and to train 
 them for about three years. The horses to be purchased may be three years old 
 if necessary. (Chapter 3, clause 14.)
 
 112 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 The average number of horses per day, in 1910, is as follows: 
 
 Division 
 
 Schools 
 
 1st Division 
 
 Imperial Guards 
 
 2d Division 
 
 3d " 
 
 4th " 
 
 5th " 
 
 6th " 
 
 7th " 
 
 8th " 
 
 9th " 
 
 loth " 
 
 nth " 
 
 I2th " 
 
 13th " 
 
 14th " 
 
 15th " 
 
 i6th " 
 
 17th " 
 
 i8th _" \ 
 
 Troops in Korea 
 
 Troops in Formosa 
 
 Troops in China and Manchuria 
 
 The Branch Office of Horse Supply Bureau at 
 
 Shirakawa 
 
 The Branch Office at Hagino 
 
 " " Kushiro 
 
 " " Takanabe 
 
 " " Kawakami 
 
 " " Sanbongi 
 
 " " Muhara 
 
 " " Shichinohel 
 
 " " Oyama 
 
 Total 
 
 I9I0 
 
 1911 
 
 1,912 
 
 1,984 
 
 5 f'li 
 
 5,061 
 
 3 439 
 
 3,472 
 
 790 
 
 623 
 
 I 141 
 
 1. 138 
 
 I 401 
 
 1,406 
 
 1,388 
 
 956 
 
 901 
 
 1,147 
 
 I -145 
 
 1,156 
 
 2,4«3 
 
 2,495 
 
 I -134 
 
 1,138 
 
 1,137 
 
 1,139 
 
 478 
 
 1,259 
 
 1,656 
 
 1,703 
 
 1,139 
 
 1,158 
 
 1,156 
 
 1,165 
 
 2,465 
 
 2,478 
 
 1. 134 
 
 1,139 
 
 I 247 
 
 I 293 
 
 I 254 
 
 I 287 
 
 I 917 
 
 I 522 
 
 150 
 
 148 
 
 1,036 
 
 I 773 
 
 1,470 
 
 1.429 
 
 949 
 
 1,135 
 
 689 
 
 698 
 
 928 
 
 941 
 
 497 
 
 512 
 
 I 35 s 
 
 I 404 
 
 898 
 
 873 
 
 U4 
 
 1,193 
 
 636 
 
 672 
 
 44,080 
 
 45 397 
 
 I9I2 
 
 1,992 
 5,062 
 3,468 
 
 1,298 
 1,123 
 1,420 
 
 762 
 
 1,165 
 1,165 
 
 2,016 
 
 1,150 
 1,156 
 1,153 
 1,723 
 1,174 
 
 1,192 
 
 2,496 
 1,163 
 
 316 
 
 1 273 
 1,480 
 
 156 
 
 1,223 
 
 I 341 
 
 I 094 
 
 764 
 
 939 
 
 549 
 I 433 
 
 861 
 1,266 
 
 683 
 
 44,025 
 
 One-third of this total, that is, some three thousand head, 
 is to be replaced every year with a fresh supply, purchased 
 by the Horse Supply Bureau. The different military schools 
 need also an annual fresh supply of horses to the extent of 
 one-tenth of the prescribed bed number. One-seventh of 
 the total number of war horses has to be supplied annually, 
 according to our calculation based on the "regulations." We 
 find the same situation with the number of the head actually 
 filled up.
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 
 
 113 
 
 1912 
 Number of Years 
 
 Horses Were Used Horses 
 
 o- I 197X 1= 197 
 
 1-2 224X 2= 448 
 
 2-3 293X 3= 879 
 
 3-4 248X 4= 992 
 
 4- 5 273X 5=1,365 
 
 5- 6 216X 6= 1,296 
 
 6- 7 447X 7 = 3,129 
 
 7-8 819X 8 = 6,552 
 
 8-9 614X 9 = 5,526 
 
 9-10 117X10=1,170 
 
 lo-ii 255X11=3.905 
 
 11-12 26X12= 312 
 
 12-13 30X13= 390 
 
 13-14 16X14= 224 
 
 14-15 11X15= 165 
 
 15-16 6X16= 96 
 
 16- 6X17= 102 
 
 3,898 26,748 
 26,748-3,898 = 6.87 
 
 1910 
 Number of Years 
 
 Horses W'ere Used Horses 
 
 0- I 294X 1= 294 
 
 1- 2 299X 2= 598 
 
 2-3 452 X 3=1,356 
 
 3-4 209X 4= 836 
 
 4- 5 473X 5 = 2,365 
 
 5-6 888X 6 = 5,328 
 
 6-7 711 X 7 = 4,977 
 
 7- 8 156X 8=1,248 
 
 8-9 142X 9=1,278 
 
 9-10 151X10=1,510 
 
 lo-ii 285X11=3,135 
 
 11-12 24X12= 286 
 
 12-13 18X13= 234 
 
 13-14 9X14= 126 
 
 14-15 14X15= 210 
 
 15-16 7X16= 112 
 
 16- 6X17= 102 
 
 4,140 23,997 
 
 23.997^4,140 = 5 80 
 
 Thus the number of years during which horses are em- 
 ployed is about six or seven years, which shows that about 
 one-seventh of the horses in employment is to be filled up 
 every year. The following figures indicate the number of 
 horses purchased in recent years: 
 
 Years 
 
 Kinds 
 
 Head 
 
 Total Cost 
 
 Average Amount 
 Per Head 
 
 
 r Ridinff horses 
 
 4,272 
 1,780 
 
 513 
 
 Yen 
 598,161 
 256,026 
 
 59,992 
 
 Yen 
 I 40 . 00 
 
 143-83 
 116.44 
 
 1910 
 
 • Cart horses 
 
 Pack horses 
 
 
 Total 
 
 r Riding horses 
 
 
 6,565 
 
 914,179 
 
 139-25 
 
 
 3,194 
 1,488 
 
 300 
 
 453.529 
 
 201,362 
 
 36,422 
 
 141.994 
 
 135 324 
 121. 407 
 
 1911 
 
 ■ Cart horses 
 
 Pack horses 
 
 
 Total 
 
 f Riding horses 
 
 
 4,982 
 
 691,312 
 
 138.762 
 
 
 2,911 
 1,158 
 
 308 
 
 407.371 
 
 156,133 
 
 36,497 
 
 139 942 
 134-830 
 118.497 
 
 1912 
 
 i Cart horses 
 
 Pack horses 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 4,377 
 
 600,001 
 
 137.081 
 

 
 114 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 It is further provided in the Officers' Horse Riding Regula- 
 tions (Imperial Ordinance, No. 4) issued in January, 1907, 
 that officers above field officers must keep a certain number 
 of their own. For the first provision and for supplementing 
 them thereafter they must purchase them from the people. 
 The number of such officers is about two thousand, and their 
 horses number at least twenty- five hundred. Of this number 
 of horses, one-sixth or more than four hundred, is to be sup- 
 plied anew every year. Altogether, the stock farmers have to 
 supply the army with at least five thousand head per year. 
 
 The amount of money that is paid per horse is seven thou- 
 sand yen, roughly estimated, all of which goes into the hands 
 of stock farmers. 
 
 In its effect upon the live stock considered as a whole, this 
 demand for war horses is, however, not very great. The 
 total number of horses in this country is more than 1,500,000, 
 and the number annually produced is about 120,000. 
 
 Number of Horses 
 Horses Produced 
 
 1910 1,564,643 117-950 
 
 1909 1,551,156 116,380 
 
 1908 1,494,506 107,847 
 
 1907 1,465,466 107,072 
 
 Considered quantitatively, the number of fifty thousand 
 is not very large when compared with the figures above. 
 But we must not overlook the effect of war horses upon the 
 improvement of live stock. In time of war, a much greater 
 number of war horses is demanded. And the effects of a war 
 upon the quality of horses are important. The number of 
 horses requisitioned during the Russo-Japanese War was 
 more than 150,000. 
 
 Years 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 
 
 Horses 1,515,108 1,523,745 1,390,017 1,367,615 1,465,466 
 
 The military authorities are doing their best for the improve- 
 ment of war horses, and the effects upon horse industry will 
 be great. 
 
 The increase of agricultural employment is also caused by
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 
 
 115 
 
 the demand for forage, which is supplied by the Horse Supply 
 Bureau and by the agricultural people at large. It is pro- 
 vided in the regulations that all the horses belonging to the 
 bureau are to be fed with forage raised on its own fields, 
 though it may be purchased in the common markets in some 
 special cases. ^ The cultivation work of the Military Horse 
 Supplement Department shall be planned according to the 
 required amount after harvest to be estimated by the number 
 of trained horses and of other horses. ^ We shall not be far 
 from correct, when we assume that the fodder of the said 
 department is obtained by its harvest. The following figures 
 will give some idea of the farming work of this bureau : 
 
 Year 
 
 1903 . 
 1906. 
 1907. 
 
 Cultivated 
 Fields 
 
 Clw 
 
 3143 92 
 4229.45 
 3830.00 
 
 New- 
 Fields 
 
 Clw 
 1256.41 
 
 353-43 
 100.30 
 
 Yield 
 
 Koku 
 26. 71 1 
 
 48.276 
 35-777 
 
 Kan 
 3,298.612 
 3,335.626 
 3,950.144 
 
 C/;o = 2.45 acres. ivofez( = five bushels, short. iva» = 8.28 lbs. 
 
 We have no information yet about the area and yield after 
 1907. Now, the average number of war horses per day was 
 33,000 head in 1907. After 1910 this average was increased 
 to the extent of one-third of this figure. We may well sup- 
 pose that the Horse Supply Bureau increased its horses to 
 the same extent. The area of the fields would then be about 
 five thousand cho. 
 
 As to the thirty-five or six thousand heads not belonging 
 to the bureau, and two thousand and odd belonging to officers 
 above field officers, their forage is all supplied by the common 
 people. 
 
 The following is an estimate of the forage demanded of them, 
 basing it upon a table in the "Horse Allowance Regulations, "^ 
 
 ' Military Horse Management Regulations, No. 17. 
 
 ^ Ibid., Ko. 16. 
 
 3 According to the regulations, the allow-ance of straw may be increased to an 
 extent not exceeding .400 in cold regions. Oats may be used instead of barley, 
 and hay instead of forage, at the rate of .900 of oats to i.ooo of barley and of 
 .800 of hay to i.ooo of forage.
 
 ii6 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 Class of Horses 
 
 Horse Allowance 
 per Day 
 
 Increased Allowance 
 of a Horse per Day 
 
 ■ 
 
 Barley 
 
 Forage 
 
 Straw 
 
 Barley 
 
 First class 
 
 Kan 
 1 .400 
 1.300 
 I .000 
 I .000 
 
 Kan 
 1 .000 
 
 i i 
 I i 
 i i 
 
 Kan 
 I .000 
 
 H 
 
 ti 
 1 1 
 
 Kan 
 
 Second " 
 
 Not more than . 350 
 
 Third " 
 
 Fourth " 
 
 
 
 
 From the above table, it will be seen that the average of 
 barley is about i . 200. Setting aside the increase allowance, 
 let us see the amount of horse allowance for some thirty- 
 eight thousand head of horses. 
 
 Kind of Feed 
 
 Horse Allowance 
 per Day 
 
 Horse Allowance 
 per Year 
 
 Horses 
 
 Total Allowance 
 per Year 
 
 Barley 
 
 Straw 
 
 Forage 
 
 Kan 
 I .200 
 I .000 
 I .000 
 
 Kan 
 438 . 000 
 365.000 
 365.000 
 
 Head 
 38,000 
 38,000 
 38,000 
 
 Kan 
 16,724,000 
 13,870,000 
 13,870,000 
 
 One-sixth of the barley is replaced with oats. As the oats 
 raised in Hokkaido have no other use than for feeding horses, 
 the whole amount is turned to military uses. Barley is some- 
 what above oats in price, but regarding both as of the same 
 price, for the sake of convenience, we find one hundred kan 
 of barley is worth about seventeen yen (including carriage). 
 The yearly amount is then worth about 2,800,000 yen. We 
 must not forget that the horses belonging to ofiicers are fed 
 with a better grade and a greater quantity of barley. 
 
 Barley is purchased, as in the case of cleaned rice and wheat, 
 by means of written bids, the required amount being delivered 
 by the successful bidder at the respective corps. The amount 
 of oats to be purchased in Hokkaido is about 1,000 kan, which 
 is apportioned to the several villages beforehand, and each 
 village has to bring its yield to the Provision Department. 
 In 1 9 14, there were fifty-five such villages and two farms,
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 
 
 117 
 
 the apportioned amount of each ranging from 15,000 to 
 850,000 kan. Straw is purchased in the same manner. In 
 the fiscal year 191 3, the amount of straw purchased by a cer- 
 tain division from two bidders was as follows, the amount 
 being divided into four lots: 
 
 A certain 
 
 K 
 A certain 
 
 M 
 
 Total 
 
 Quantities 
 
 Unit Price (100 Kan) 
 
 Kan 
 
 Yen 
 
 120,000 
 
 3 30 
 
 120,000 
 
 3.80 
 
 200,000 
 
 2.40 
 
 180,000 
 
 1.79 
 
 620,000 
 
 Hay is usually purchased directly from farms, not through 
 intermediary merchants. In some cases it is purchased 
 from the industrial guilds under the village agricultural asso- 
 ciation, or from the village officer representing a certain num- 
 ber of farmers. In the fiscal year of 19 14, 1,500,000 kan of 
 hay was apportioned to the several agencies in Hokkaido, as 
 follows: 
 
 Sent in by Quantity 
 
 400,000 
 
 K 40,000 
 
 A 20,000 
 
 K An industrial guild 300,000 
 
 M 75>ooo 
 
 N 25,000 
 
 c f A representative of the 
 
 \ district 60,140 
 
 H 
 
 20,000 
 
 Sent in by Quantity 
 
 D r A village agricultural 
 
 \ association 4i,74i 
 
 M 
 
 c f An industrial guild of a 
 
 35,000 
 
 town 8,000 
 
 T 80,000 
 
 c / A village agricultural 
 
 \ association 240,120 
 
 H 100,000 
 
 rp / A village agricultural 
 
 \ association 30,000 
 
 A. 
 
 250,000 
 
 As we shall see later, the value of the above hay is about 
 1,500,000 yen, 400,000 yen of which was for straw. 
 
 From the above it follows that agricultural employments 
 are both increased and decreased as an effect of the military 
 system. A rough estimate of the extent of increase is as 
 follows: •• ■ -
 
 Il8 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Yen 
 
 Barley and oats 2,800,000 
 
 Straw 400,000 
 
 Hay 1, 100, GOO 
 
 Horses 700,000 
 
 Total 5,000,000 
 
 As efforts are made not to deal through intermediary mer- 
 chants in the purchase of forage, it may be supposed that 
 almost the whole amount of money paid out goes directly 
 into the hands of the agricultural and stock farming people. 
 Supposing the cost of production to be half of the amount, 
 that is, 2,500,000 yen, the other half will be net profit. If 
 three hundred is sufficient to support a laborer's family, then 
 the amount of 2,500,000 yen will be able to support 7,500 
 such families. Such Is the extent of the increase of employ- 
 ment. It has been seen that the decrease of the area of arable 
 land is 22,493,313 tsubo, which is equal to 7,500 cho. As the 
 average area of arable land per family is about one cho, the 
 said decrease means the decrease of the employment for 
 7,500 families. The increase of employment caused by the 
 conscription system, disregarding the employments con- 
 nected with the Horse Supply Bureau, is only sufficient to 
 balance the decrease. 
 
 Manufacture and Commerce 
 
 The system of conscription no doubt exercises considerable 
 effect upon commercial and manufacturing employment. 
 The exact extent of these effects is, however, more difficult to 
 ascertain than in the case of agriculture. 
 
 Let us begin with the effects upon commerce. We find an 
 increase of employment on various sides. Most of the sol- 
 diers come from farmers' homes, which are self-supporting. 
 But once enlisted in service, all their needs must be met 
 through merchants. Moreover, they are better supplied at 
 the barracks than at home, and this makes for the increase of 
 employment on the part of merchants. Not only that, but 
 the demands peculiar to military life give a wider field of
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT II9 
 
 activity to merchants. All this means an increase in com- 
 mercial employment. But we do not know the exact extent 
 of the increase, and we must be satisfied with a rough esti- 
 mate. We may be sure that the extent of the increase will 
 presumably not exceed our estimate. 
 
 The following are the various merchants who get their 
 livelihood from troops: 
 
 (i) Those dealing in goods that go to the Provision Bureau, 
 that is, those engaged in the production of canned food and 
 in the transportation of raw materials necessary for such 
 production. 
 
 (2) Those dealing in goods demanded by the arsenals, 
 that is, dealers in metals, leathers, timbers, raw materials for 
 gunpowder and other articles. 
 
 (3) Those dealing in goods demanded by the Senju Woolen 
 Factory and the Clothing Department, i.e., dealers in furs, 
 hides, leathers, dyestuffs, cotton, etc. 
 
 (4) Those dealing in goods demanded by the Divisional 
 Accountants' Bureau, i.e., dealers in cleaned rice and wheat, 
 forage, underwear, stockings, such articles as are necessary 
 for repairing clothing, etc. Those goods in demand at the 
 Divisional Headquarters are not included in these. 
 
 (5) Those dealing in goods in demand by the different 
 bodies of troops, i.e., dealers in provisions and materials for 
 cooking (vegetables, meat, fish, grains, sugar, fuel, etc.), 
 articles for consumption in barracks (desk, chairs, clocks, 
 stationery, tents, brooms, etc.), such articles as are necessary 
 for the repair of arms (cotton, grease, paper, etc.), sundries 
 used in military exercises, etc. 
 
 (6) Camp hawkers. Dealers in articles necessary to the in- 
 dividual soldier, such as stationery, beverages, comestibles, etc. 
 
 (7) Dealers in articles disposed of by the troops, such as 
 empty bales and bottles, old clothing, etc. 
 
 (8) Those engaged in such businesses as restaurants, thea- 
 tres, baths, bars, fruit stores, confectioneries, the sale of daily 
 necessaries such as handkerchiefs, towels, tooth powder, soap, 
 stationery, the sale of souvenirs and noted local products.
 
 120 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic EFFECTS 
 
 (9) Hotel keepers accommodating visitors to the barracks. 
 
 (10) Dealers in articles in demand by the soldiers living 
 outside barracks, and their families, such as daily necessaries, 
 furniture, luxuries, etc. 
 
 The enumeration above is nearly complete, so far as the 
 leading goods and articles are concerned. 
 
 It is possible for us to make an estimate of the amount of 
 money that is expended for some of them. Let us now make 
 an investigation into this amount of money and the classes 
 to which the merchants concerned belong. 
 
 The total amount for barley and oats used as forage is 
 about 2,800,000 yen, as we have already seen. Each of the 
 divisions that has no cavalry attached to it needs annually 
 barley and oats valued at 100,000 to 120,000 yen. The total 
 amount for hay is about 1,100,000 yen, of which 40,000 to 
 50,000 yen is paid by each division. The total amount for 
 straw is about 400,000 yeyi, of which 15,000 to 20,000 is paid 
 by each division. These estimates include transportation 
 charges. 
 
 Barley and straw are purchased through merchants of 
 smaller means, who collect them from among the farmers, 
 while hay, and oats, raised in Hokkaido, are purchased 
 directly from the producers. 
 
 The amounts of raw materials that are sent in to the 
 arsenals are as follows: 
 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 
 Tokyo 
 Arsenal 
 
 Osaka 
 Arsenal 
 
 Tokyo 
 Arsenal 
 
 Osaka 
 Arsenal 
 
 Metals 
 
 Leathers 
 
 Yen 
 1,174,800 
 1,243,242 
 
 966,333 
 
 448,147 
 663,107 
 
 Yen 
 
 2,216,430 
 
 1,107,017 
 
 603,560 
 
 745,803 
 
 516,760 
 
 Yen 
 
 1,365,119 
 1,233,566 
 
 967,708 
 1,067,196 
 
 875,808 
 
 Yen 
 1,962,649 
 183,840 
 
 Timbers 
 
 Gunpowder materials 
 
 Sundries 
 
 812,057 
 
 570,875 
 670,057 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 9,685,199 Yen 
 
 9,708,875 Yen
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 121 
 
 Goods Furnished the Clothing Department, Including Those to 
 the Senju Woolen Factory, IQIJ 
 
 (i) Raw materials and their values : 
 
 (a) Those obtainable at home — wool oil, leather oil, raw 
 
 materials for gloves and socks, dyestuffs (acetic 
 acid, indigo, ammonia, sulphuric acid, etc.), and 
 coal. The values of all these goods amount to 
 46,246 yen. 
 
 (b) Those imported — wool oil, leather oil, wool, dye- 
 
 stuffs, grease, etc., the values of which amount to 
 1,427,738 yen. 
 (2) Manufactured goods and their values: 
 
 (a) Those obtainable at home — light brown woolen 
 
 cloth, cloth for gaiters, cloth for badges, woolen 
 thread for knitting, thick weave cotton, spun cot- 
 ton, calicoes, various sorts of hemp cloth, leathers, 
 belts, sewing threads, ammonia, sulphuric acid, 
 cocoanut resin, oils, cement, bricks, accessories to 
 apparatus and machines, etc. The values amount 
 to 4,307,082 yen. 
 
 (b) Those imported — woolen threads, furs, nails and 
 
 threads for shoes, pegs, hemp cloth, oleate oils, 
 
 olivine oils, accessories to machines, leather made 
 
 articles, etc. The values amount to 194,002 yen. 
 
 The total value of goods that are purchased by the Clothing 
 
 Department is 5,995,068 yen. 
 
 Goods Furnished the Provision Bureau, 191 3 
 
 (i) Raw materials: 
 
 {a) Those obtainable at home — meat, flour, sugar, soy, 
 salt, sweet sake, potatoes, seasame, pickles, fir- 
 boards, coal, etc., amounted to 885,597 yen. 
 (b) Those imported — tin, hops, lead, raw gum, varn- 
 ish, ammonia for cold storage, shellac, etc., 
 amounted to 16,922 yen. 
 (2) Manufactured goods: 
 
 (a) Those obtainable at home — powdered salt, solid salt,
 
 122 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 paper bags, wooden boxes, ropes, cotton thread, 
 straw bags, etc., amounted to 133,418 yen. 
 {b) Those imported — nails, tin-plates, etc., amounted to 
 
 111,957 yen. 
 
 The total amount of goods that are purchased by the Pro- 
 vision Bureau is 1,147,894 yen. 
 
 We have seen the amount of goods that are purchased by 
 the two arsenals, the Clothing Department, and the Provision 
 Bureau, and also their value. Roughly estimated, the whole 
 amount of the purchases by the Military Department is more 
 than 16,000,000 yen. All these purchases are made on large 
 scales by means of written bids. Merchants of smaller 
 means can, therefore, not engage in such business. The 
 Senju Woolen Factory purchased wool, in 1913, to the quan- 
 tity and value of to 3,451,236 pounds and 1,566,759 yen. 
 Except 19,200 pounds (value 7,653 yen) of this wool, supplied 
 by the Imperial Farm at Shimosa, the Matsukata Farm at 
 Nasuno at Tochigi Prefecture, and the Koiwai Farm at Iwate 
 Prefecture, all of it was imported from Australia and South 
 America by such great companies as the Okura Gumi, the 
 Mitsui Bussan and the lida Co. (The Osaka Mainichi, 
 December 25, 1913.) Below is a table of the purchases by 
 
 the Senju Woolen Factory: 
 
 1910 1911 
 
 Yen Yen 
 
 Furs and woolen yarn 1,412,021 1,475,251 
 
 Dyestuffs 15-242 86,571 
 
 Hides 2,170 
 
 Total 1,427,263 1,563,992* 
 
 a The purchase made by the Clothing Department in the two years above is 
 not published. 
 
 The same is true for the two commodities of rice and wheat. 
 Only wealthy merchants reap the benefits. The rice pur- 
 chased by the Accountants' Bureau is worth about twenty- 
 two yen per koku (about five bushels), and the amount paid 
 by the bureau is 7,500,000 yen. Each of the divisions pur- 
 chases cleaned rice to the amount of about 350,000 yen. The 
 price of cleaned wheat is about eleven yen per koku. The
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 1 23 
 
 Accountants' Bureau pays about 1,500,000 yen for the wheat, 
 while each division pays about eighty thousand yeyi. 
 
 In the case of cleaned rice, the purchase is made by means 
 of written bids on units of two hundred koku, which is the 
 quantity required at each division for two months. The 
 purchase of cleaned wheat is made by means of written 
 bids, on units of one hundred koku, which is the quantity 
 required at each division for two months. Such being the 
 case, merchants of smaller means are not able to handle the 
 business. 
 
 It is carried on by a few wealthy merchants, some of whom 
 supply the required quantities to several divisions. Accord- 
 ing to our law, any merchant may engage in a business like 
 this, if he has been engaged in it for at least two years and is 
 furnished with a certificate issued by the village officials. 
 But, as a result of competition, wealthy merchants have come 
 to monopolize the business. 
 
 The amount paid by each division for the materials to be 
 used in the repair of clothing ranges from 25,000 to 30,000 
 yen. The purchase of these materials is made by dividing 
 them into smaller lots, and some ten merchants are engaged 
 in their supply. One division divides the materials into the 
 following lots: 
 
 Materials to be used in tailoring and laundry work, those 
 to be used in the repair of caps, those to be used in laundry 
 work, train oil, those to be used in the repair of sewing 
 machines, leathers, naphthalin, scissors, patent leather belts. 
 
 Turning our attention to the purchase of provisions at each 
 division, let us first look at the apportionment of boarding 
 per day. 
 
 Boarding of a Soldier per Day " 
 Sen 
 II .7 The First Jurisdiction (the 7th division) 
 
 9.3 The Second Jurisdiction (the ist and the 4th divisions) 
 
 9.0 The Third Jurisdiction (the 2d, the 8th, the 12th, the 13th, 
 
 the 14th, and the i6th divisions) 
 8.7 The Fourth Jurisdiction (the 6th, the 9th, the loth, the nth, 
 
 the 15th, and the l8th divisions) 
 8 .4 The Fifth Jurisdiction (the 3d, the 5th, and the 17th divisions) 
 
 * Allowance of 2.4 more, on a field day, and of 2.0 on other occasions.
 
 124 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 For the sake of convenience, let us take nine sen as the 
 average. The number of soldiers in all the divisions in the 
 country is 220,000, and the amount paid for their boarding 
 every year is about 7,300,000 yen. Each division pays 
 300,000 to 350,000 yen. The number of suppliers at a cer- 
 tain infantry regiment is as follows: Dealers in vegetables 
 and dried vegetables, 3; dealers in fish, 3; dealers in soy and 
 pickles, 3; dealers in beef and pork, 2; dealers in sugar, 3; 
 dealers in chicken and eggs, i ; dealers in confectioneries, 3 ; 
 dealers in fuels, 2 ; dealers in wines, 2. In cases where several 
 corps are quartered at the same place, the same class of dealers 
 transact their business with the several corps. 
 
 The articles required for encampment and the articles of 
 consumption vary a great deal, according to the different 
 branches of the army. The quantities will be given later. 
 Roughly estimated, the amount of money paid for these things 
 by each division is about 80,000 yen. In this case, as in the 
 case of boarding, the suppliers are divided into small classes. 
 In a certain infantry regiment, they are as follows: dealers in 
 new articles for encampment, 2; dealers in metals to be used 
 for repairs, i ; dealers in fuels, 2; dealers in timber for repairs, 
 I ; dealers in holders for maps and atlases, 2 ; dealers in electric 
 lamps and batteries, I ; dealers in cotton, i ; dealers in drugs, 
 I. All of these dealers are merchants of small means. Of the 
 twenty-eight dealers connected with the headquarters of a 
 certain division, only three possess property above ten thou- 
 sand yen in value. 
 
 Sutlers sell wines, rice cakes, sweet cakes, vermicelli, cooked 
 food, stamps, handkerchiefs, canned food, etc., the kinds and 
 quantities of these things being determined by the head offi- 
 cer of each company. The proceeds of the sale vary accord- 
 ing to the place where troops are stationed, but the amount is 
 about equal to that of the wages soldiers receive. This can 
 be said even of the proceeds of the sutlers in the Eighth Divi- 
 sion, whose soldiers come from the most impoverished dis- 
 tricts in the country.
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 
 
 125 
 
 Amount Expended at Sutlers' by a Certain Company, Eighth Division, 
 
 April-June, 1914 
 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 Articles 
 
 Amount 
 Expended 
 
 Average 
 
 per soldier 
 
 per day 
 
 Amount 
 Expended 
 
 Average 
 
 per soldier 
 
 per day 
 
 Amount 
 Expended 
 
 Average 
 
 per soldier 
 
 per day 
 
 Eatables and 
 drinks 
 
 Wine 
 
 Stamps 
 
 Handkerchiefs, 
 tooth powder, 
 etc 
 
 Canned food . . . 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Yen 
 
 612 . 150 
 49 ■ 700 
 59.000 
 
 32.210 
 
 22.375 
 190.380 
 
 Yen 
 
 0.034 
 
 0.0027 
 
 0.0032 
 
 0.0021 
 0.0012 
 
 O.OIO 
 
 Yen 
 
 726. 190 
 57.000 
 71.65c 
 
 68.220 
 
 13 939 
 
 165.520 
 
 Yen 
 
 0.040 
 . 0032 
 0.0039 
 
 0.0037 
 . 0007 
 0.009 
 
 Yen 
 
 649.150 
 56 . 000 
 64.100 
 
 67 . 700 
 
 17.900 
 
 157.290 
 
 Yen 
 
 0.036 
 . 003 1 
 0.0035 
 
 0.0037 
 
 0.009 
 
 0.007 
 
 Total 
 
 965815 
 
 0.054 
 
 1,102.525 
 
 0.061 
 
 1,012.192 
 
 0.056 
 
 Average wages, per soldier, per week . 
 
 Noncommissioned officers. . . 0.0724 
 Soldiers o . 0538 
 
 About the. same situation is found in the Seventh Division. 
 The following is the amount expended at the sutlers belong- 
 ing to this division, per soldier, per year, April, 1913, to March, 
 
 The 25th Infantry Regiment 16 .06 
 
 The 26th " " 14 . 34 
 
 The 27th " " 15.62 
 
 The 28th " " 14.17 
 
 The 7th Cavalry Regiment 2 1 . 20 
 
 The 7th Field Artillery Regiment 23 . 70 
 
 The Hakodate Heavy Artillery Corps 17 57 
 
 The 7th Commissariat Battalion 22 . 26 
 
 The Asahigawa Hospital 34 . 30 
 
 The 7th Engineering Battalion 1 8 . 94 
 
 Statistics prepared by the Fourteenth Division indicate 
 similar facts. The following is the proceeds of the sutler of 
 this division, per soldier, per month, April, 1912, to March, 
 1913: 
 
 The 2d Infantry Regiment i 
 
 The 15th " " 
 
 The 59th " " 
 
 The 66th " " 
 
 The i8th Cavalry Regiment 
 
 The 20th Field Artillery Regiment , 
 
 The 14th Engineering Battalion 
 
 The 14th Commissariat Battalion , 
 
 Yen 
 66 
 02 
 
 45 
 68 
 40 
 84 
 47 
 87
 
 126 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 As the soldier's average wage per year is some nineteen 
 yen, nearly the whole of their wages is spent at the sutlers. 
 Of the statistics prepared by the Sixteenth and Eighteenth 
 Divisions, we shall see later. The average sum expended at 
 the sutlers per division would then be 180,000 to 200,000 
 yen. In short, the wages of soldiers go into the hands of 
 sutlers, but not into the hands of merchants at large. But 
 the net proceeds of the sutlers are very little. According to 
 statistics prepared by the Sixteenth Division, they range, 
 from 18 per cent to 43 per cent, the average being only 30 
 per cent. 
 
 As to the amount of the total expenses of the soldiers, it is 
 difficult to estimate. Admitting as true certain statements 
 to be made later, the amount of money that they get from 
 home annually is thirty yen, on an average. As we have seen 
 above, their wages are spent at the sutler, and their savings 
 out of their wages are too little to be of any account. And 
 the thirty ye7i that they get from home is spent outside the 
 barracks. The amount throughout the divisions will reach 
 six million yen at least. As to the amount of money spent 
 by the soldiers living out of the barracks, and by the parents, 
 relatives, or friends who pay visits to the soldiers living in 
 the barracks, we have no means of ascertaining. There is 
 no doubt that the merchants who get the benefit from such 
 soldiers and such people are below the middle class. 
 
 So much for commerce; now for manufactures. The vari- 
 ous manufacturers that are supported by the system of con- 
 scription may be classified as follows: (i) Those who meet 
 the demands of each corps or each individual soldier at the 
 place where they are quartered. They manufacture tools for 
 encampment, or make articles of consumption, or make cloth- 
 ing. They engage in the construction or repair of barracks 
 and other buildings. (2) Those who engage in the works 
 belonging to the different factories under the direct control of 
 the Military Department. The factories are the arsenals and 
 their branches, the Provision Bureau and its branches, the 
 Clothing Department, and the Senju Woolen Factory, etc.
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 
 
 127 
 
 (3) Those who make goods or articles that are to be sent in 
 to the different factories above as manufactured goods. Gen- 
 erally speaking, the third class of manufacturers must be 
 wealthier, for they must produce large quantities of goods of 
 a uniform quality. The first class of manufacturers meet 
 individual demands and, therefore, need not necessarily carry 
 on their business on a large scale. It is thought in some 
 quarters that the system of conscription gives benefits only 
 to capitalists, but this is not so, for both the great manufac- 
 turing works that are carried on by individual capitalists, and 
 the different factories under the direct control of the Military 
 Department, have to employ a great number of workmen. 
 
 According to the annual report of the Military Department, 
 published in 191 1, the number of the workmen employed at 
 the different factories is as follows: 
 
 T^artoriP'^^ 
 
 Employes 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Total of Male 
 
 Employes 
 and Laborers 
 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Total 
 
 Tokyo arsenal 
 
 Osaka arsenal 
 
 Clothing Department in- 
 cluding branches 
 
 Provision Bureau, includ- 
 ing branches 
 
 Senju Woolen Factory.. . 
 
 Draughtsmen 
 
 14,727 
 9,915 
 
 1,406 
 
 264 
 
 504 
 
 15 
 
 3,129 
 
 813 
 
 1,891 
 
 214 
 566 
 
 
 
 172 
 
 103 
 
 75 
 33 
 
 95 
 26 
 
 172 
 
 198 
 
 lOI 
 
 33 
 
 14,727 
 10,087 
 
 1,509 
 
 339 
 
 537 
 
 15 
 
 Total 
 
 26,831 
 
 6,613 
 
 383 
 
 121 
 
 504 
 
 27,214 
 
 Our estimate is that in the factories above are employed 
 about 25,000 workmen, excepting men below age twenty and 
 women not supporting their families. 
 
 Our next task is to ascertain the number of the manufac- 
 turers who meet the individual demands of troops or soldiers 
 at the place where they are stationed. But this is by no 
 means easy. The same difficulty will be found when we want 
 to know the exact number of merchants belonging to the 
 different classes enumerated at the beginning of this section, 
 from the fourth downwards. We have but one way to get
 
 128 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 the total number of such people, and that is an indirect way. 
 Suppose that there is a given town of small size that has no 
 particular cause of prosperity other than the establishment 
 of new troops. We may then regard the increase of its mer- 
 chants or manufacturers as the result of the establishment 
 of new troops. Of course, the establishment may give rise to 
 some other conditions in which people come together. So, 
 we may not say, even in this case, that the whole of the in- 
 crease in the inhabitants is due directly to the stationing of 
 troops. 
 
 We may, however, say this much, that the increase of 
 inhabitants due directly to the establishment is not more 
 than that whole. The more remote the place, the more would 
 the actual increase approach the increase of employments due 
 directly to the establishment. We take the town of Zentsuji 
 as the example. 
 
 What is then the increase of employments at Zentsuji, since 
 the establishment of a new division? The records of the 
 town ten years ago were not kept in good order, but we can 
 make a generalization from the fragments. The number of 
 merchants and manufacturers at about the time of the estab- 
 lishment was as shown on the facing page. 
 
 Until 1898 these three villages existed separately, and 
 were united into a town, Zentsuji by name, in 1899. Some 
 of the figures above do not belong to the same year. But the 
 difference of one year was little in these villages, so our total 
 overlooks this difference. The year 1910 was the year in 
 which this division was despatched to Manchuria; hence, a 
 considerable decrease in the figures. 
 
 The fact that the average of the figures for the four years, 
 1905 to 1908, rose to 1,600, but came down to the average of 
 1,500, in the succeeding years, may be taken as an evidence 
 that the increase of employments caused by the establish- 
 ment of the div'ision, reached its maximum. Excepting the 
 figures for 1910, the average of the last three years in the above 
 table is about 1,500. And the number of manufacturers and 
 salesmen, previous to the establishment, was about six hun-
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 
 
 129 
 
 Year 
 
 Village 
 
 1893 Yoshida. 
 
 1893 Asano. . 
 
 1894 Zentsuji. 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 
 Manu- 
 
 Restau- 
 
 
 Bath- 
 
 
 
 Sales- 
 
 fac- 
 
 rant 
 
 Bar 
 
 house 
 
 Bar- 
 
 Rikisha 
 
 men 
 
 turers 
 
 keepers 
 
 keepers 
 
 keepers 
 
 bers 
 
 Men 
 
 84 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 97 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 153 
 
 70 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 334 
 
 126 
 
 I 
 
 S3 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 74 
 
 Total 
 
 169 
 164 
 266 
 
 599 
 
 Between 1894 
 
 AND 1897 THE Division Was Established 
 
 
 
 
 114 
 no 
 200 
 
 55 
 45 
 
 4 
 
 
 30 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 63 
 IS 
 
 272 
 
 1897] Asano. 
 
 Zentsuji 
 
 204 
 200 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 424 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 61 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 78 
 
 676 
 
 f Yoshida 
 
 1898 i, Asano 
 
 1 Zentsuji 
 
 1899 Zentsuji 
 
 174 
 151 
 282 
 
 67 
 S3 
 
 201 
 
 II 
 
 
 25 
 
 ■38 
 
 
 85 
 
 S 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 55 
 8 
 
 II 
 
 334 
 218 
 282 
 351 
 
 Total 
 
 607 
 
 321 
 
 36 
 
 123 
 
 13 
 
 31 
 
 74 
 
 1,20s 
 
 
 
 1903 
 
 807 
 906 
 926 
 888 
 790 
 915 
 853 
 820 
 861 
 857 
 
 327 
 312 
 328 
 318 
 367 
 384 
 353 
 327 
 359 
 342 
 
 42 
 44 
 SS 
 34 
 33 
 22 
 24 
 14 
 53 
 41 
 
 139 
 178 
 207 
 190 
 164 
 161 
 152 
 123 
 106 
 109 
 
 17 
 19 
 17 
 19 
 23 
 21 
 21 
 22 
 21 
 23 
 
 48 
 57 
 56 
 59 
 55 
 
 SI 
 SS 
 54 
 63 
 58 
 
 103 
 54 
 69 
 SO 
 41 
 SO 
 47 
 44 
 52 
 69 
 
 1.483 
 1.570 
 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 1.658 
 1,558 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1.473 
 1,604 
 1.S05 
 1,404 
 1,515 
 
 1910 
 
 191 1 
 
 1912 
 
 1.499 
 
 
 dred. Hence, the increase 1,500 less 600 is 900. On the 
 other hand, the average increase of inhabitants in the sur- 
 rounding villages, during the same period, was 9 per cent, 
 from which we may infer that the increase of employments in 
 these villages was also 9 per cent. Of the difference of 900 
 above, some 50 would represent the natural increase — 
 600X9 per cent = 54. 
 
 The increase, directly caused by the establishment of new 
 troops, was, therefore, 850. Suppose each of these 850 em- 
 ployments supports five people, then their total number will 
 be 4,250. Now, the special increase of the population of 
 this town, compared with that of other villages near by, is 
 about 5,400. Deducting 4,250 above from this 5,400, we 
 get the balance of 1,150. If the three hundred families of the 
 soldiers stationed at Zentsuji consist each of four persons, 
 then w^e get 1,200, w^hich is approximate to the 1,150 above. 
 Following is a table showing the number of specialists and
 
 130 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 men above noncommissioned officers who belong to the dif- 
 ferent miHtary offices and troops at Zentsuji. 
 
 The Ordnance Depot 14 
 
 Headquarters of the Regiment 
 
 District 13 
 
 The Administrative Staff 26 
 
 The Accounts Office 22 
 
 The Veterinary Surgeons' Office . 2 
 The 43d Infantry Regiment. ... 99 
 The nth Field Artillery Regi- 
 ment 52 
 
 The I ith Commissariat Battalion 24 
 
 The nth Garrison Hospital 46 
 
 The nth Garrison Prison 10 
 
 The Judiciary Office 4 
 
 The Surgeons' Office 3 
 
 Headquarters of the 22d Brigade 3 
 
 The nth Cavalry Regiment. ... 30 
 
 The nth Engineers Battalion. ... 26 
 
 The Gendarmerie 18 
 
 Total 392 
 
 Supposing that about 80 per cent short of this total num- 
 ber have their famiHes, we get the figures, 300. 
 
 All other branches of the army, except the infantry, are 
 usually quartered at the place where a division is stationed. 
 But of the four regiments that belong to a division, three are 
 usually stationed away from it. How many get their liveli- 
 hood from these three regiments can only be known indirectly. 
 The number of the manufacturers and merchants is deter- 
 mined by the amount of money that is expended by troops. 
 The approximate number of the noncommissioned officers and 
 men of a regiment is eighteen hundred, and that of the non- 
 commissioned officers and men of the special branches (the 
 field artillery, the cavalry, the engineering, commissariat, 
 etc.) is about nineteen hundred and fifty. The number of 
 soldiers at the place where regiments are quartered is about 
 half of the number of soldiers at the place where a division is 
 stationed. It may appear, at first thought, that half of the 
 money that is spent at the latter place goes to the former place. 
 But this is not really so, for (i) men of the special branches 
 have more expenses than those of the infantry (especially in 
 horses and fodder) ; (2) in some divisions, some articles are 
 purchased altogether for their companies {i.e., socks, shirts, 
 etc.) ; (3) higher officials of special offices are stationed where 
 divisions are. We think, therefore, that only one-third of 
 the money spent by a division, including the special branches, 
 goes to the place where regiments are quartered. In other 
 words, the number of the manufacturers and merchants who
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT I3I 
 
 earn their livelihood from the regiments is about two hundred 
 and eighty, that is, ^. In this estimate of ours, we have 
 taken into consideration such circumstances as will cause 
 slight variations in the incidentals of individual soldiers. 
 
 Of the seventy-six infantry regiments, forty-nine are quar- 
 tered at places where divisions are not stationed. Six of them 
 are stationed at the same places as divisions. The eleven 
 places that have each a division have each two regiments. 
 Asahigawa and Tokyo, where a division is stationed, have 
 three and six regiments, respectively. Our estimate of the 
 total number of commercial and manufacturing employments 
 supported by these regiments would then be — 
 
 850X19+280X18+280X49-16,150+5040+13,720 = 24,910. 
 
 Besides these regiments, there are a few more, such as the 
 four cavalry regiments at Narashino, the two cavalry regi- 
 ments at ToyohashI and at Morioka, the four field artillery 
 regiments at Kokubudai and Shimoshidzu, the six heavy 
 artillery regiments, distributed among Yokosuka, Yura, 
 Hiroshima and Shimonoseki, and one railway regiment at 
 Chlba. According to our estimate, these regiments support 
 about half of the total number of the commercial and manu- 
 facturing employments supported by the regiments we have 
 seen in the preceding paragraph, which would then number 
 about twenty-seven hundred. Adding this number to the 
 twenty-four thousand and odd In the preceding paragraph, 
 we get the total of about twenty-eight thousand. 
 
 Furthermore, we must get the number of employments 
 
 that are obtained through the transaction of raw materials 
 
 and manufactures supplied to the different factories of the 
 
 army, and that of employments that are obtained through 
 
 the manufacture ot the finished articles. Let us first consider 
 
 the former: 
 
 Yen 
 
 The amount supplied to the Provision and Clothes Department about 6,000,000 
 
 The amount supplied to the Arsenal Department about 9,000,000 
 
 The amount supplied to the Fodder Department about 1,000,000 
 
 Total about 16,000,000 
 
 Other amounts about 3.200.000 
 
 Grand total about 19,200,000 
 
 10
 
 132 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 According to the Yorodzii, September, 1914, ordinary com- 
 mercial interest is about i per cent. If we calculate the sum 
 total of interests, and suppose that one employment needs 
 three hundred yen (but the dealers are in fact rich merchants, 
 who need much more), the number of employments that we 
 seek will not be more than 6,000. In the case of the latter: 
 
 Yen 
 Homemade manufactures supplied to the Clothes Department about 4,300,000 
 Homemade manufactures supplied to the Fodder Department about 100,000 
 
 Total about 4,400,000 
 
 The industrial interest today will not be more than 2 per 
 cent.^ The number of employments obtained will be about 
 two thousand. 
 
 The above is only a rough estimate, but when we consider 
 the number of employments obtained by the conscription 
 system, we shall find it to be — 
 
 Military factories , 25,000 
 
 Manufacturers and merchants at places where troops are stationed 28,000 
 
 Those obtained by manufacture of finished articles supplied to military 
 
 factories 8,000 
 
 Total 61 ,000 
 
 Summary 
 
 We may now summarize the separate treatments of the 
 effects of the system of conscription upon the increase of 
 employments, agricultural, commercial and manufacturing. 
 We have seen that the increase of agricultural employ- 
 ments is balanced by their decrease. The work of the Horse 
 Supply Department has been neglected, because the 5,000 
 cho of arable land, belonging to the department, had been 
 cultivated land before it was turned to its present use. The 
 part that was brought under cultivation by the department 
 was so little that we might well overlook it. There was 
 scarcely any room for new employments. As to the decrease 
 of the arable land to the extent of 7,500 cho, our estimate is 
 
 1 Yorodzu, September, 1914.
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 133 
 
 perhaps too moderate. Hence, we have Httle reason to rec- 
 ognize any increase of agricultural employments. 
 
 The effects upon commercial and manufacturing emplo>- 
 ments are their increase, as we have shown above. Our 
 estimate was that the increase would not exceed sixty thou- 
 sand. Even if sixty thousand, not the whole of it is due to 
 the system of conscription. The chief employments are, as 
 we have seen, either those concerning munitions, such as 
 arms and clothing, and those concerning the individual wants, 
 such as eatables or drinkables or miscellaneous goods of daily 
 use. Now, there is no doubt that a greater part of the latter 
 will be in demand, even if the system of conscription did not 
 require men to be enlisted in the army. 
 
 To our mind, there are only four circumstances in which 
 the individual wants of soldiers have to be met by commercial 
 and manufacturing employments that owe their existence to 
 the system of conscription. 
 
 (i) Where even self-supporting soldiers ha\'e to buy the 
 articles of daily necessity from the merchants connected with 
 troops; (2) where soldiers are in want of more articles than 
 at home, because they are paid better in the army than at 
 home; (3) where they are in want of more and better articles, 
 because of emulation and imitation of city life; and (4) 
 where the uniformity of wants among soldiers requires the 
 supply from such merchants. Apart from these circum- 
 stances, the increase of employments, consequent to the 
 establishment of new troops, only balances the decrease of 
 employments, consequent to the soldiers' leaving home. 
 Such being the case, it is absolutely impossible to tell just 
 how many of the sixty thousand new employments are the 
 sole result of the establishment of new troops. Let us, how- 
 ever, admit, for the sake of argument, that the whole of the 
 number is due to troops. 
 
 All of the employments discussed above are productive. 
 But we must not overlook those nonproductive employments, 
 of which there are three classes. The employments of officers 
 are permanent, those of noncommissioned officers last for a
 
 134 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 considerable period and those of soldiers are entirely tem- 
 porary. The first are purely professional, the second half 
 professional, and the third not professional at all. 
 
 Our estimate of the number of these three classes, based on 
 the Military and the Naval Annual Report, is as follows: 
 
 ARMY, 1912 
 
 Officers, Including Semi-Officers and Cadets 
 
 Offices, 
 General and 
 
 Special Troops Gendarmerie Total 
 
 Generals, and those ranking with them.. 64 85 2 151 
 
 Field officers, and those ranking with 
 
 them . 594 i-i43 41 i,778 
 
 Company officers, and those ranking 
 
 with them 1,443 9,998 220 11,661 
 
 Semi-officers and cadets 360 2,185 73 2,618 
 
 Total 2,461 13,41 1 336 16,208 
 
 Noncommissioned Officers 
 
 Offices, general and special 3,077 
 
 Troops (at home) 12,286 
 
 Gendarmerie 1,171 
 
 Troops (abroad; roughly estimated) ' 2,435 
 
 Total 18,969 
 
 Common Soldiers, Including All Soldiers Not Mentioned Above 
 
 Troops (at home) 166,688 
 
 Troops (abroad; roughly estimated) 33,358 
 
 Gendarmerie 7, 811 
 
 Total 207,857 
 
 Those Attached to the Army 
 
 Offices, general and special 8,009 
 
 Troops 1 ,326 
 
 Gendarmerie 1 ,335 
 
 Total 10,670 
 
 NAVY, 191 2 
 Officers 
 
 Admirals, and those ranking with them 105 
 
 Captains 1,187 
 
 Junior officers 3,003 
 
 Cadets ' 224 
 
 Semi-officers 1,167 
 
 Total 5,686 
 
 Noncommissioned officers 10,516 
 
 Sailors 37,873 
 
 Those attached to the navy 1,189
 
 EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT 1 35 
 
 In the army, the total number of the officers and noncom- 
 missioned officers whose employments are either permanent or 
 last for a considerable period is 35,000. The officers and 
 others in the navy are 16,000 of the total number. Of these 
 51,000 military and naval officers and others, most of the 
 regular officers did not originally belong to the producing 
 classes. Now, when we see that many who belong to the 
 same class as the officers are in want of employment, we can 
 understand that the employments in the army and the navy 
 are to that extent a help to those who seek employment in 
 other lines. As to the noncommissioned officers and others 
 below them, we all know that most of them are from the 
 lower classes, and are originally productive laborers. Their 
 number, throughout the army and the navy, is about 30,000. 
 The nation is therefore deprived of so much labor in the same 
 manner as it is deprived of the 200,000 laborers in the case 
 of common soldiers. If we want to know exactly the effects 
 ot the system of conscription upon the national economy, we 
 must first know how many people get their employment by 
 the existence of these 30,000 noncommissioned officers and 
 200,000 common soldiers. We must also consider the ques- 
 tion whether or not the increase of the sixty thousand com- 
 mercial and manufactural employments is purely the result 
 of the existence of troops.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 
 
 Of the two factors that determine production — employ- 
 ment and labor — the former has already been considered. 
 The next problem is the effect of the system of conscription 
 upon labor, which has two aspects, the quality and the quan- 
 tity of labor. Any changes in either of these two aspects have 
 a significance of great importance in the determination of pro- 
 ductive power. By the quality of labor, we mean the effi- 
 ciency of laborers, and by the quantity of labor, their num- 
 ber. We are now to study the effects of conscription upon 
 these two aspects oi labor. 
 
 Efficiency of Labor 
 
 Laborers' efficiency is determined by their skill, strength 
 and character, especially their discipline. The effects of con- 
 scription upon such qualities are difficult to ascertain, except 
 through various, indirect ways. 
 
 Molding oj Character 
 
 The army is a national school, so to speak. This is espe- 
 cially the case with the Japanese Army, which aims at the 
 cultivation of such virtues as courage, loyalty, uprightness, 
 deriving the fundamental principles of discipline from the 
 Imperial Rescript given to the soldiers in 1882. In no schools 
 is emphasized the importance of spiritual education as in the 
 aimy. The military life is as regular and as punctual as a 
 machine. Soldiers get accustomed to this life until it becomes 
 their second nature. Remarkable is the effect of such a life 
 for two or three years upon the improvement of their charac- 
 ter. Soldiers are looked up to among the people, especially 
 among the laboring classes. Those who have served in the 
 army feel a moral strain in their efforts not to dishonor their 
 standing. Consequently, the discharged soldiers in the 
 country are generally regular and rigorous in their habits and 
 136
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 
 
 137 
 
 devoted to their trade. This is a fact not only emphasized by 
 the soldiers themselves but recognized by the people at large. 
 This being the case, there can be no doubt that the military 
 life has a wholesome effect upon the efficiency of laborers. 
 
 Although we have no direct proof of such an effect, yet we 
 are able to produce evidences of an indirect nature. 
 
 (i) The number and percentage of the prisoners among 
 discharged soldiers, in a certain regimental district, during 
 the year 191 2, is as follows (both the number of prisoners and 
 that of soldiers being multiplied by n) : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -*-> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 U} 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 ■4-1 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 rt 
 
 -a 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 Field 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Soldiers 
 
 Heavy 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Soldiers 
 
 c 
 
 'So 
 
 c 
 
 c/l 
 
 'b 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 d 
 +-» 
 c 
 3 
 
 
 u 
 
 < 
 
 Medical 
 Privates 
 
 
 2 
 
 224 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 172 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 446 
 
 Branches 
 
 Number of 
 Soldiers 
 
 Per- 
 centage 
 
 Branches 
 
 Number of 
 Soldiers 
 
 Per- 
 centage 
 
 Gendarmerie 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Cavalry ... ... 
 
 68 
 
 41,488 
 
 1,270 
 
 6,514 
 
 2.65 
 0.54 
 
 0.68 
 
 Engineers 
 
 Commissariat . . . 
 
 Accountant 
 
 Health Dept. . . 
 
 Total 
 
 2,102 
 
 26,214 
 
 336 
 
 788 
 
 3.80 
 0.66 
 
 Field and Heav>' 
 Artillery 
 
 0.25 
 
 78,780 
 
 0.552 
 
 We can not know what difference there is between the 
 criminal percentage of this regimental district and that of 
 other districts. But the former percentage is presumably not 
 smaller than the latter, for we know that about one-sixth of 
 the population of this district lives in a large town, where 
 cases of criminal offenses take place frequently. Let us now 
 look at the percentage of prisoners of the same age as these 
 soldiers :
 
 138 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 
 Ages 20 to 30 
 
 Ages 30 to 40 
 
 Year 
 
 Heavy 
 Offense 
 
 Light 
 Offense 
 
 Total 
 
 Heavy 
 
 Offense 
 
 Light 
 Offense 
 
 Total 
 
 IQ07 
 
 0.02 
 0.02 
 0.02 
 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 
 0.02 
 0.02 
 0.02 
 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 0.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 1906 
 
 05 
 
 IQOS 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 
 In this average percentage is included that of both men and 
 women of the same age. We must find the average percent- 
 age of men alone. 
 
 
 Women Prisoners per 100,000 
 
 Men Prisoners per 100,000 
 
 Year 
 
 For 
 
 Light 
 
 Offenses 
 
 For 
 
 Heavy 
 
 Offenses 
 
 Total 
 
 For 
 
 Light 
 Offenses 
 
 For 
 
 Heavy 
 
 Offenses 
 
 Total 
 
 IQ07 
 
 25 -7 
 26.8 
 
 19 
 
 I 7 
 
 27.6 
 
 28.5 
 
 329 -3 
 
 333 • I 
 
 17.0 
 
 18.3 
 
 346 -3 
 
 1906 
 
 351 -4 
 
 
 
 On the strength of the above table, the percentage of pris- 
 oners to the total number of men between twenty years and 
 forty years of age, supposing the number of men as being 
 equal to that of women, is estimated as follows: 
 
 (329-3+I7-0) + (333-I + l8-3) v, = nn9=: 
 
 °-5^(329-3 + i7-o) + (333.i + i8.3)+(257 + i-9) + (26.8+i.7)^^ ^-^^S- 
 
 Those convicted of heavy offenses may not serve in the army, 
 according to the law of conscription (article 8). As they are 
 expelled from the list of available conscripts, this will mean a 
 decrease of so much in the criminal percentage among dis- 
 charged prisoners. But we shall not consider this question 
 for the time being, because the number of discharged soldiers 
 convicted of heavy offenses is very small, compared with that 
 of ordinary people of the same age, and because those who are 
 enlisted in the army are able bodied, and consequently are 
 prone to crime. We shall see later how it comes that the 
 able bodied are prone to crime. If we now compare the per-
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 1 39 
 
 centage of 0.925 among the common men with that of 0.552 
 among discharged soldiers, we shall see that the military life 
 has had much to do with producing such a difference.' 
 
 The number of prisoners during these years was as follows: 
 
 1905 75-402 
 
 1906 79.409 
 
 1907 78,873 
 
 1908 78,265 
 
 1909 104,896 
 
 (2) The branches to which the prisoners and convicts 
 among discharged soldiers belong have to be considered, in 
 their bearing upon the character of soldiers. The following 
 is a table showing the percentage of the convicts from Janu- 
 ary I to December 31, 1912, and the prisoners of another 
 regimental district from January i to December 31, 191 1, 
 together with the branch of service. 
 
 Percentage of Prisoners (Including Contraventions of Police Regu- 
 lations) TO Soldiers and Noncommissioned Officers of Army 
 
 Branches 
 
 Percentage of 
 Prisoners 
 
 Percentage of 
 Convicts 
 
 Average of the 
 Two Percentages 
 
 Gendarmerie 
 
 2.647* 
 0.622 
 
 
 0.583 
 0.951 
 0.694 
 
 
 0.507 
 
 2.647* 
 0.448 
 
 0.522 
 
 0.571 
 0.610 
 
 0.254* 
 
 2.647=^ 
 
 0.504 
 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Field and heavy artillery. . . . 
 Engineering 
 
 0.552 
 
 0.761 
 
 0.652 
 
 
 
 Commissariat 
 
 Accountant 
 
 Medical 
 
 0.371- 
 
 
 Total 
 
 0.640 
 
 0.500 
 
 0.566 
 
 "Left out of consideration because their absolute numerical basis is too small. 
 
 Of the average figures above, those of engineering are 
 greatest, for which there are certain special reasons. Most of 
 the crimes committed by the discharged soldiers of this branch 
 are committed in cities. The total number of conscripts 
 belonging to this regimental district was 10,478 in 191 2, of 
 which 3,291 belong to the subdivisions of the regimental 
 
 ^ Objections may be raised to our basing the comparison upon the figures taken 
 from the years in which the present criminal cases among the common people 
 have increased since 1908, when the Criminal Code went into effect. The differ- 
 ence due to the military life will then be still greater.
 
 140 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 districts. The rate of the distribution of discharged soldiers 
 may be regarded as ahnost the same as that of the conscripts 
 above, that is, seven in the country against three in the 
 cities. Of the two hundred and fifty-two prisoners above, 
 two hundred and fifteen, that is, 85 percent, belong to cities. 
 Of the one hundred and ninety-seven convicts above, one 
 hundred and sixty-one, that is, 86 per cent, belong also to 
 cities. Most of the discharged soldiers belonging to the engi- 
 neering branch are residents of cities, the reasons for which 
 are not far to seek. Of the special branches of the army, the 
 engineering especially selects its men from those connected 
 with mechanics. Such men are more usually found in cities 
 than in the rural districts. Therefore, most of the engi- 
 neering soldiers are from cities, and hence the percentage of 
 their crimes is large. We may therefore say that there are 
 special reasons for the large percentage of crimes in this case. 
 Next to them in percentage comes the commissariat soldiers. 
 The average percentage of either convicts or prisoners among 
 the commissariats is only exceeded by the engineers. And 
 this is so not because most of the former are from the districts 
 as in the case of the latter, but because most of them, espe- 
 cially the auxiliaries, receive military training only for a short 
 period. Of the total number of men, 13,000, belonging to 
 this branch of the army, only three hundred receive military 
 education for two or three years, as in the case of men belong- 
 ing to other branches. All others are either lacking in mili- 
 tary training or are trained incompletely. Sixty-seven per 
 cent of them are lacking in training, and 31 per cent receive 
 it only for a short time. In other words, they have far less 
 chances of living in the moral atmosphere of the army than 
 the other regular soldiers. It is therefore not surprising that 
 the percentage of their crimes is large. This is not merely a 
 personal opinion, but a fact generally recognized by the officers 
 in the army. We have also to consider another question. 
 Why is it that the percentage of crimes among the supple- 
 mentaries of the infantry is comparatively small, in spite of 
 the fact that they, as well as the commissariat auxiliaries, are 
 either lacking or incomplete in their training? In fact, the
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 
 
 141 
 
 percentage of their crimes is less than that of the crimes com- 
 mitted by the soldiers of the artillery. Of the total number of 
 the discharged soldiers of the infantry, 10/21 are lacking in 
 training, and 3/21 are trained incompletely. And the crime 
 percentage of the infantry soldiers who receive training for 
 the full length of their term is larger than that of the com- 
 missariats. This is the reason why the former have .504 per 
 cent of crimes against the .654 of the latter. As to the tact 
 that the infantry has a comparatively large number of men 
 deficient in education, we can say that their 62 per cent is 
 not very large, for even the artillery has 55 per cent of the 
 men deficient in education. We can easily see why the in- 
 fantry has .504 of crimes against .552 of the artillery, if we 
 take into consideration the following circumstances: 
 
 (i) Both the infantry and the cavalry can devote their 
 whole energy and time to military discipline, while both the 
 artillery or the engineering must devote their energy and time 
 to special arts as well as to military discipline. This is one 
 reason why the infantry and the cavalry ha\"e a less percent- 
 age of crimes. 
 
 (2) The artillery selects its men from the conscripts who 
 are of greater size and strength. Consequently, ill beha\'ior 
 and bad manners and habits obtain among them. A larger 
 quantity of wine and tobacco is in greater demand among 
 them than among any others. 
 
 Average Amount Expended at Sutlers per Soldier per Month, 191 i 
 
 Regiments and Battalions 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Sundries 
 
 Sweet 
 Cakes 
 
 Stamps 
 
 Wine 
 
 Other Eat- 
 ables and 
 Beverages 
 
 The 9th Infantry Regiment . 
 
 The 19th Regiment 
 
 The 38th Regiment 
 
 The 53rd Regiment 
 
 The 20th Cavalry Regimeni 
 
 The 20th Field Artillery Reg- 
 iment 
 
 The i6th Engineering Bat- 
 talion 
 
 The i6th Commissariat Bat- 
 talion 
 
 Sen 
 
 34 
 22 
 24 
 23 
 43 
 
 50 
 
 33 
 39 
 
 Sen 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 13 
 12 
 II 
 
 18 
 
 Sen 
 70 
 7 
 78 
 46 
 68 
 
 37 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 Sen 
 12 
 II 
 
 7 
 II 
 
 19 
 19 
 13 
 13 
 
 Sen 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 49 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Sen 
 21 
 72 
 30 
 36 
 37 
 
 43 ' 
 
 38 
 
 64
 
 142 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 The table above confirms the opinion that the percentage of 
 crimes is larger in the artillery than in the infantry. Taking 
 all the special circumstances of each branch of the army into 
 consideration, wc may say that the larger the percentage of 
 soldiers deficient in training, the larger the percentage of 
 Clime. In other words, the military life has a great influence 
 upon the molding of character. 
 
 (3) Of the total number of noncommissioned ofificers and 
 common soldiers within the regimental district above, the 
 percentage of the former is 3.34 per cent. Of this number of 
 noncommissioned of^cers, none was convicted of any crimes 
 in 1 91 2, while only three were arrested in 1911. But, if it be 
 true that they have a tendency to crimes in the same way as 
 common soldiers, then there should have been six prisoners 
 among the former and eight prisoners among the latter. The 
 fact that there were only three prisoners among the noncom- 
 missioned officers in the said year may be taken as an evidence 
 of the healthy effects of the military life upon their character. 
 
 Although we have not been able to give direct proof that 
 the military life enhances the character of soldiers, yet the 
 small percentage of crimes among soldiers must be indirect 
 e\ddence that their character is being molded by the military 
 discipline. Of the different good qualities that they get from 
 such a discipline, regularity or punctuality seems to be the 
 greatest, of which, however, we can produce no evidence. 
 
 Spread of Education 
 
 The skill of laborers has much to do with their efficiency, and 
 the degree of their skill depends, broadly speaking, upon two 
 conditions — the physical and the mental habit, or the autom- 
 atism of the bodily and the mental powers and the increase 
 of knowledge. Does the military life promote or impede such 
 automatism? To such a question, we can not make any 
 sweeping answer. With those whose business requires the 
 use of the fingers, two or three years of military life may cause 
 retrogression in their skill. This would especially be the case 
 with those engaged in art. On the contrary, there are certain 
 classes of people, who acquire their skill because of their life 
 in the army. Of 230,000 soldiers, about 10,800 are employed
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR I43 
 
 in engineering, railway or telegraphic works (about 8,000 
 engineers, about 1,800 railway corps, and about 1,000 tele- 
 graph corps). Their business may be different from what 
 they engage in when at home, but there is no doubt that they 
 get a certain degree of skill because of such work in the army. 
 Cobbleis in the army are the only soldiers that engage in 
 productive work exclusively, but their average number, 
 including 44 first class cobblers per day and 171 first and 
 second class cobblers per day, is little more than two hundred 
 per day.^ No doubt they get their skill because of their life 
 in the army, but their number is so small that we may ov^er- 
 look them. 
 
 The degree of skill, if understood in the sense of the increase 
 of knowledge, is clearly accelerated by military training. But, 
 if we mean by knowledge only the advanced knowledge that 
 is not necessary for productive laborers, we should say that 
 soldiers are deprived of any chances of gaining such knowl- 
 edge. Let us now look at the actual conditions in barrack 
 life. We do not find any considerable progress in knowledge 
 among those soldiers, who have finished the higher elementary 
 course before entering banacks, because the degree of knowl- 
 edge they have gained is sufficient for the military life. But 
 those meet with difficulties who enter barracks before finishing 
 the course. This is especially the case with those who have 
 finished only the ordinary elementary course, but, after 
 entering barracks, wish to become superior privates. In 
 order to escape from the difficulties and inconveniences, con- 
 sequent upon the insufficiency of knowledge, they spend their 
 private hours in reading. Some of them are so stirred in their 
 desire for learning that they study transcripts of lectures ol 
 middle school grades. Such studies are not compulsory but 
 are encouraged by superior officers, who help them in their 
 studies. Of course, one's talent has much to do with the 
 progress of learning, and we can not make any general state- 
 ment about the degree of progress among soldiers. But it is 
 a fact generally recognized that those who were entirely lack- 
 ing in the knowledge of reading and arithmetic are now able to 
 understand them to a certain extent. Those who could not 
 
 1 Military Department Annual Report, 1910.
 
 144 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 write their own letters home are now able to write them in the 
 kana syllabary. And those, who have acquired this amount 
 of learning will, before leaving barracks, have attained a 
 scholarship equal to the ordinary elementary course. With 
 regard to those who are already in possession of the scholar- 
 ship equal to this course, their degrees of progress are varied 
 to a large extent. Some of the superior privates show con- 
 siderable progress, while others show no signs of progress. 
 The following tables will give an idea of the progress of learning 
 among soldiers: . • 
 
 Degree of Scholarship of Conscripts, 1908 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 D 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 University graduates . . . 
 Those on equal footing with 
 
 the above 
 
 College graduates 
 
 Those on equal footing with 
 
 the above 
 
 Those completing the middle 
 
 school course 
 
 Those on equal footing with 
 
 the above 
 
 Those completing the higher 
 
 elementary course .... 
 Those on equal footing with 
 
 the above 
 
 Those completing the ordinary' 
 
 elementary course 
 
 Those on equal footing with 
 
 the above 
 
 Those having some knowledge 
 
 of reading and arithmetic 
 Illiterates 
 
 Total 
 
 First 
 Class 
 
 Second Class 
 
 Third 
 Class 
 
 Fourth 
 Class 
 
 Fifth 
 Class 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 70 
 
 57 
 
 102 
 
 195 
 
 107 
 
 4 
 
 156 
 52 
 
 154 
 55 
 
 186 
 52 
 
 327 
 91 
 
 118 
 34 
 
 13 
 2 
 
 129 
 
 112 
 
 107 
 
 170 
 
 73 
 
 8 
 
 2,549 
 
 1.428 
 
 1.438 
 
 2,419 
 
 933 
 
 105 
 
 3,621 
 
 1,949 
 
 1.783 
 
 2,490 
 
 807 
 
 137 
 
 35,010 
 
 13.942 
 
 10,770 
 
 15.239 
 
 4.235 
 
 744 
 
 19,200 
 
 7.487 
 
 5,791 
 
 9,029 
 
 2.279 
 
 422 
 
 71.476 
 
 28,878 
 
 23,709 
 
 38,480 
 
 11.338 
 
 1,595 
 
 13.509 
 
 6,196 
 
 4.986 
 
 8,734 
 
 2.532 
 
 372 
 
 19.429 
 6,842 
 
 8.825 
 3.538 
 
 8,057 
 3,169 
 
 14,352 
 6.797 
 
 4.849 
 4,684 
 
 496 
 
 241 
 
 172,043 
 
 72,621 
 
 60,150 
 
 98,323 
 
 31,989 
 
 4.140 
 
 Total 
 
 535 
 
 954 
 286 
 
 599 
 
 8,872 
 
 10,787 
 
 79,940 
 
 44.208 
 
 175.476 
 
 36,330 
 
 56,008 
 25.271 
 
 439.266 
 
 Degree of 
 
 Scholarship ( 
 
 DF Conscripts 
 
 , 1909 
 
 
 
 
 First 
 Class 
 
 Second Class 
 
 Third 
 Class 
 
 Fourth 
 Class 
 
 Fifth 
 Class 
 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 Total 
 
 A 
 
 82 
 136 
 
 75 
 153 
 
 2,765 
 3,551 
 38,117 
 17,807 
 77,456 
 12.326 
 18.726 
 
 6. 121 
 
 90 
 ISO 
 
 85 
 139 
 
 1,631 
 1.945 
 
 16.965 
 7,571 
 
 34.643 
 S.630 
 8,856 
 3,153 
 
 no 
 
 168 
 
 97 
 
 116 
 
 1,624 
 1.69s 
 
 12,449 
 5. 212 
 
 25,265 
 4.088 
 7,795 
 2,745 
 
 245 
 32s 
 189 
 269 
 
 2,552 
 
 2,280 
 15,202 
 
 7,720 
 39,520 
 
 7,549 
 13.554 
 
 5.776 
 
 no 
 
 lOI 
 
 72 
 
 97 
 
 958 
 742 
 4.278 
 2.155 
 II. 671 
 2.360 
 4.655 
 4.366 
 
 2 
 8 
 3 
 
 8 
 168 
 170 
 
 1,320 
 583 
 
 2,936 
 572 
 832 
 390 
 
 6^0 
 
 B 
 
 888 
 
 C 
 
 S2I 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 782 
 
 9,698 
 
 10,383 
 
 G 
 
 88,331 
 
 H 
 
 41,048 
 191,491 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 K 
 
 32,525 
 54,418 
 
 22.<;^i 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 177.315 
 
 80.858 
 
 61,364 
 
 95.152 
 
 31.565 
 
 6.992 
 
 453,275 

 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 
 Degree of Scholarship of Conscripts, 1910 
 
 145 
 
 
 First 
 Class 
 
 Second Class 
 
 Third 
 Class 
 
 Fourth 
 Class 
 
 Fifth 
 Class 
 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 Total 
 
 A 
 
 120 
 
 lOI 
 
 81 
 
 114 
 
 2,678 
 
 3,139 
 
 38,177 
 
 17,313 
 
 74,597 
 
 11,987 
 
 17,921 
 
 4,922 
 
 102 
 
 119 
 
 63 
 
 125 
 1.548 
 1,676 
 
 15,918 
 6,728 
 
 30,555 
 5.039 
 7.723 
 2.415 
 
 144 
 148 
 100 
 
 177 
 1,813 
 1,912 
 
 14.059 
 5,560 
 
 24.479 
 4.246 
 6.479 
 2.067 
 
 381 
 328 
 207 
 
 2.^4 
 
 2.542 
 16.S18 
 
 8,104 
 38,668 
 
 7,793 
 11,933 
 
 4,733 
 
 S3 
 57 
 26 
 
 50 
 
 630 
 
 505 
 
 3,926 
 
 1,878 
 
 10,346 
 
 2,153 
 
 4,027 
 
 4.088 
 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 
 8 
 169 
 178 
 
 1,199 
 584 
 
 2,467 
 591 
 705 
 291 
 
 807 
 
 B 
 
 7SS 
 
 C 
 
 483 
 
 D 
 
 777 
 
 E 
 
 9,822 
 
 F • 
 
 9,952 
 
 G 
 
 89,797 
 
 H 
 
 40,167 
 
 I 
 
 181,112 
 
 J 
 
 31,809 
 
 K 
 
 48,788 
 
 L 
 
 18,516 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1-1.150 
 
 72,011 
 
 61,184 
 
 94,494 
 
 27,739 
 
 6,212 
 
 432,783 
 
 
 
 Of the different grades of the first class conscripts, the 
 a\'erage number for the three years above of those whose 
 progress in learning was considerable, is as follows: 
 
 L 5,962 
 
 K 18,692 
 
 J • 12,274 
 
 1 74.530 
 
 Total 111,458 
 
 The percentage of this total number to the total of the first 
 class conscripts is 64 per cent. Now, if all the first class con- 
 scripts are to be alike enrolled in the active service, then 
 about half of them will become actives. In other words, 
 about fifty-five thousand of the annual conscripts for the 
 active service are raising the standard of scholarship, because 
 of their military life, though we must deduct from the number 
 the commissariat and the artillery auxiliaries, who receive 
 military training only for a short time. As these fifty-five 
 thousand soldiers have to earn their livelihood by some sort 
 of industry when they are discharged, the acquisition of this 
 knowledge while in the active service must be of much help 
 to the efficiency of their labor. This effect of military dis- 
 cipline upon labor will the more strongly be felt as the demand 
 for skilled laborers increases. There may be some people 
 who think that the acquisition cf knowledge by soldiers will 
 make them abhor productive labor. But, to our mind, it
 
 146 CONSCRIPTION system: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 seems that men with such a degree of knowledge as we have 
 seen have no other way to earn their HA-elihood than by physi- 
 cal labor. 
 
 Physical Training 
 
 The dependence ot the efficiency of labor upon one's bodily 
 strength is a fact as evident as the healthy effect of the military 
 life upon physical training. Our task now is to produce 
 evidences for such effects. There are some who try to get the 
 necessary materials for their investigation by comparing the 
 bodily development of soldiers with that of students in schools 
 or of those engaged in various industries. But this is a 
 dangerous method, because either students or those in busi- 
 ness are constitutionally inferior to the soldiers of the same 
 age. Those who are constitutionally different undergo also 
 different developments. Supposing that there is a difference 
 of development between soldiers and students, such a differ- 
 ence alone is not sufficient for proving the efficiency of military 
 training. 
 
 The efficiency can only be known when we establish a com- 
 parison between those who are under the strict discipline of 
 military life and those whose constitution is almost similar to 
 theirs, but whose business is entirely diff'erent. It is difficult 
 to obtain proper materials for such an investigation. Fortu- 
 nately, however, we have one thing which suits our purpose, 
 and that is the development of the physique of the soldiers 
 belonging to the different branches of the army. 
 
 Let us now compare the physique of infantry soldiers with 
 that of the privates of the medical corps, for they are the two 
 extremes of the military life. The former have little to do 
 with technique, but devote their time to physical and mental 
 training, while the very nature of the work of the latter leads 
 them away from military training. If there is any difference 
 between them, it is because one leads a purely military life, 
 while the latter leads a semi-military life. Originally, both 
 of them were selected and enrolled according to the same 
 constitution. Besides, all the conditions concerning food, 
 clothing, dwelling, etc., are the same. The only difference
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 
 
 147 
 
 would then be that of training and work. The following is 
 based on the Military Department Annual Report, published 
 in 1909 and 1910: 
 
 Physique of Infantry Soldiers, 19 10 
 
 Period of 
 Examination 
 
 Number of 
 Conscripts 
 Examined 
 
 Age 
 
 Height 
 
 Weight 
 
 Chest 
 
 Expan- 
 sion 
 
 First period'* 
 
 Second " 
 
 Third " 
 
 49,648 
 
 20.07 
 21 .07 
 22.07 
 
 Shaku 
 5 29 
 5 31 
 532 
 
 Kan 
 14.815 
 15358 
 15 -473 
 
 Shaku 
 
 2.78 
 2.83 
 2.85 
 
 2.3 
 2.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 1909 
 
 First period 
 
 Second " 
 Third " 
 
 43,900 
 
 20.07 
 
 529 
 
 21 .07 
 
 5 30 
 
 22.07 
 
 532 
 
 4-757 
 
 2.78 
 
 5-294 
 
 2.81 
 
 5-433 
 
 2.82 
 
 2-3 
 
 2.4 
 2.3 
 
 *The first period means the first month of enroHment, the second, one full year 
 after enrollment, and the third, the next one full year. 
 
 Physique of Priv 
 
 .\TES OF 
 
 Medic-^l 
 
 Corps, 
 
 1910 
 
 
 Period of 
 Examination 
 
 Number of 
 Conscripts 
 Examined 
 
 Age 
 
 Height 
 
 Weight 
 
 Chest 
 
 Expan- 
 sion 
 
 First period 
 
 Second " 
 
 Third " 
 
 2,370 
 
 20.06 
 21 .06 
 22.06 
 
 Shaku 
 
 5-35 
 5-36 
 5-37 
 
 Kan 
 
 14-654 
 15.276 
 13.203 
 
 Shaku 
 2.72 
 2.77 
 2.76 
 
 2.3 
 
 2-55 
 
 2.6 
 
 1909 
 
 First period 
 Second " 
 Third " 
 
 808 
 
 20.09 
 21 .09 
 22 .09 
 
 5 - 35 
 5-36 
 5-37 
 
 14-675 
 15.212 
 15-230 
 
 2.74 
 2.78 
 2.80 
 
 2-5 
 2.6 
 
 2.7 
 
 Infantry Soldiers — Average for Two Years 
 
 Period of 
 Examination 
 
 First period 
 Second " 
 Third " 
 
 Number of 
 Conscripts 
 Examined 
 
 Height 
 
 
 Shaku 
 5 29 
 5-305 
 5-32 
 
 Weight 
 
 Kan 
 14.786 
 15 326 
 15-453 
 
 Chest 
 
 Shaku 
 2.78 
 2.82 
 2-835 
 
 Expan- 
 sion 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.45 
 
 H
 
 148 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Privates of Medical Corps — Average for Two Years 
 
 Period of 
 Examination 
 
 First period 
 Second " 
 Third " 
 
 Number of 
 Conscripts 
 Examined 
 
 Height 
 
 Weight 
 
 Chest 
 
 .... 
 
 Shaku 
 
 5-35 
 536 
 
 5-37 
 
 Kan 
 14.665 
 
 15-244 
 15.217 
 
 Shaku 
 
 2.775 
 2.78 
 
 Expan- 
 sion 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.55 
 2.65 
 
 Increase Between Periods 
 
 Period of Examination 
 
 Branch of 
 Service 
 
 Height 
 
 Weight 
 
 Chest 
 
 Expan- 
 sion 
 
 From first period to second 
 From second period to third 
 From first period to second 
 From second period to third 
 
 • Infantry - 
 
 Aledical 
 ' Corps 1 
 
 Shaku 
 .015 
 
 .015 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 Kan 
 ■540 
 
 .107 
 
 •579 
 .027 
 
 Shaku 
 .04 
 
 .015 
 
 -045 
 • 05 
 
 .1 
 
 •05 
 
 •15 
 
 .1 
 
 We shall gain nothing in the comparison of the height, 
 weight, etc., of each different period. But the increase be- 
 tween periods, as shown above, should be noted. 
 
 During the time that extends from the first to the second 
 period, medical privates, as well as infantry soldiers, receive 
 the same military training, and their duties are also almost 
 alike. But during the time between the second and the third 
 period, a differentiation takes place between these two classes 
 of soldiers, the medicals engaging in nonmilitary work. When 
 we now examine the stature in each period, we find that the 
 increase is ,015 with infantry soldiers, while it is ,01 with 
 medical privates. The latter are, even at the time of enroll- 
 ment, taller than the former, by .06, and, consequently, they 
 do not grow in stature so much as infantry soldiers after 
 enrollment. The increase of chest during the time between 
 the first and the second period is .04 with infantry soldiers, 
 while that of medical privates is .045. This is but natural. 
 Against the 2.78 shakii^ chest measure of infantry soldiers, 
 that of medical privates is .05 less at the time of enrollment. 
 This shows that the latter have still room left in which to 
 grow. There is nothing remarkable in all these comparisons. 
 But when we find the chest increase is only .05 with medi- 
 cal privates, against ,15 with infantry soldiers, during the 
 
 1 One shaku = .994 foot.
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 
 
 149 
 
 time between the second and the third period, we must be 
 struck with the poor results in the case of the former. With 
 regard to weight, the difference between them in the first 
 hah" of their term is very sUght, but in the second half the 
 increase is ,107 with infantry soldiers, while the rate with 
 medical privates is .027. 
 
 We have nothing to say about expansion. In short, there 
 is no doubt that the difference of physical development be- 
 tween infantry soldiers and medical privates is considerable, 
 after their differentiation in training and duties. Let us 
 again look at the statistics for 1910, in which all contingent 
 elements were, it seems, eliminated according to the law of 
 large numbers. There we find that infantry soldiers hav^e an 
 increase of .115 in weight during the time between the second 
 and the third period, while medical privates have a decrease 
 of .073 in their weight and of .01 in their chest measure during 
 the same length of time. 
 
 It is stated above that we can not treat the development of 
 students' physique in the same manner as that of the soldiers. 
 The following table will, however, be a side light in our 
 investigation : 
 
 Physique of Students in Schools Under Direct Control of the Edu- 
 cational Department 1 
 
 Age 
 
 Period of Examination 
 
 Number of 
 
 Students 
 
 Examined 
 
 Height 
 
 Weight 
 
 Chest 
 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 
 f Corresponds to first period 1 
 \ of conscripts J 
 
 f Corresponds to second period 1 
 \ of conscripts J 
 
 f Corresponds to third period "I 
 \ of conscripts j 
 
 3,099 
 3,447 
 3,026 
 
 Shaku 
 5-34 
 
 5-37 
 
 5-35 
 
 Kan 
 14.400 
 
 14-453 
 14.400 
 
 Shaku 
 2.69 
 
 2.71 
 
 2.69 
 
 The figures for each period above are not those of the same 
 persons, as is the case with conscripts. But we can get an 
 idea of the general tendency of the development of students' 
 physique. This table shows that students above the age of 
 twenty-one make no improvement in physique. Compare 
 
 1 Educational Department Annual Report, 191 1.
 
 150 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 the student life, with no improvement in physique, with the 
 mihtary Hfe, in which there is a certain increase of weight and 
 chest, and we can see clearly the good effects of military 
 training. 
 
 Let ug next compare the common soldiers with the sewing 
 and cobbling privates. The latter are also selected and 
 enrolled according to the same standards as the former and 
 live under the same conditions as the former. But they en- 
 gage in work that is quite nonmilitary. No statistics of their 
 physique are published, the only material being the statistics 
 of the sick patients among soldiers. 
 
 Patients of Different Classes in Barracks and Hospitals, 19 io 
 
 Class 
 
 Noncommissioned officers of differ- 
 ent branches 
 
 Those of Account Department 
 
 Those of Health Department 
 
 Higher privates 
 
 Higher sewing and cobbling privates . 
 
 Higher medical privates 
 
 First and second class soldiers 
 
 First and second class sewers and 
 cobblers 
 
 First class medicals 
 
 Average 
 Number 
 Per Day 
 
 1 1 ,005 
 
 115 
 
 282 
 20,730 
 
 44 
 
 1,404 
 
 133,832 
 
 171 
 1,917 
 
 New Pa- 
 
 New Pa- 
 
 tients in 
 
 tients m 
 
 Barracks 
 
 Hospitals 
 
 4,912 
 
 1,154 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 11,924 
 
 216 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 195 
 
 148 
 
 97,983 
 
 19,086 
 
 156 
 
 23 
 
 638 
 
 234 
 
 Total of 
 New 
 
 Patients 
 
 6,066 
 
 24 
 
 58 
 
 14,085 
 
 38 
 
 343 
 117,069 
 
 179 
 
 872 
 
 Patients of Different Classes in Barracks and Hospitals per 1,000 
 
 Men, 1910 
 
 Class 
 
 Noncommissioned officers of different 
 branches 
 
 Those of Account Department 
 
 Those of Health Department 
 
 Higher privates 
 
 Higher sewing and cobbling privates . . 
 
 Higher medical privates 
 
 First and second class soldiers ........ 
 
 First and second class sewers and 
 cobblers 
 
 First class medicals 
 
 New Patients 
 
 in 
 
 Barracks 
 
 446 
 90 
 85 
 575 
 750 
 139 
 732 
 
 912 
 
 333 
 
 New Patients 
 
 in 
 
 Hospitals 
 
 105 
 65 
 121 
 104 
 114 
 105 
 143 
 
 Total 
 
 551 
 155 
 206 
 679 
 864 
 244 
 875 
 
 1,074 
 455
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR I5I 
 
 Since the noncommissioned officers li different branches of 
 the army are under better sanitary conditions than higher 
 privates, and the latter are under better sanitary conditions 
 than first and second class soldiers, the percentage of new 
 patients is larger among common soldiers and smaller among 
 the officers. We have now to compare the classes on an 
 equal footing with each other. Higher privates have 679 
 new patients per 1,000, while higher sewing and cobbling 
 privates have 864 per 1,000. First and second class soldiers 
 have 875, while first and second class sewers and cobblers 
 have 1,047. From this comparison, we can see that the 
 sewers and cobblers who engage in productive work like the 
 common' mechanics, have not the advantage of healthful 
 working conditions as the common soldiers, who are under 
 strict military discipline. Leaving out of consideration agri- 
 cultural, stock farming, and fishing laborers, the mechanics m 
 cities engage in unhealthy businesses, similar to the sewers 
 and cobblers in the army. Now, when we consider the fact 
 that the system of conscription takes these common mechan- 
 ics away from cities, and gives them two or three years' 
 training, we can not but admit the wholesome effect of such 
 a training upon the development of their physique. 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 We have seen that the military life is conducive to the 
 improvement of character, gives to the illiterates who are 
 enrolled a knowledge necessary for livelihood and contributes 
 to the cultivation of physical strength. We can not doubt 
 that all these good results gained while in the army will 
 remain when the soldiers are discharged and enhance the effi- 
 ciency of their labor. The system of conscription also has an 
 indirect effect upon the physical development of the peoJDle. 
 Men of conscript age receive a preparatory training before the 
 examination and enrollment. The officials of villages and 
 towns call out those who will be of age in about six months, 
 and give them a preparatory examination. If there are found 
 among them cases of syphilis or trachoma they are required to
 
 152 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 take necessary steps for remedy, the negligence of which is 
 often visited with punishment. Such measures as these will 
 be of much help in the prevention of the spread of such dis- 
 eases and will contribute to the improvement of physique. 
 The officials also take every possible measure to prevent 
 sickness among those who have passed the conscript examina- 
 tion, so that there will be no cases of sickness among them at 
 the time of enlistment. The Discharged Soldiers' Association 
 and its branches attend to meetings of various sorts, in which 
 conscripts are given preparatory lessons. In the evening 
 (for such meetings are usually held in the evening) they 
 gather together, and receive instruction in various military 
 rules and their exposition. They are often required to attend 
 military drill. As they want to alleviate difficulties after 
 enrollment, they try hard to learn these preparatory lessons. 
 Such preparatory measures as the above will no doubt reflect 
 upon the efficiency of their labor, after their discharge. 
 
 Number of Laborers 
 Rate of Productive Laborers Among Those Enrolled 
 in Active Service 
 The system of conscription has a great effect upon the 
 number of laborers, because it takes many of the able bodied 
 laborers away from their work. But the actual number of 
 the productive laborers enrolled in the service is difficult to 
 learn because statistics of the distribution of trades among 
 those enrolled are entirely lacking. We can, however, ob- 
 tain some estimate of their rate from other sources. In the 
 present state of our society, those who have completed the 
 elementary course alone can hardly engage in any occupation 
 requiring brain work, but go into productive trades that 
 require physical strength. Of course, wealthy people need 
 not engage in such trades, even when possessed of the same 
 grade of education and, besides, they are usually far advanced 
 in their education.
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 
 
 153 
 
 Those who have completed the middle school course, or 
 those of the same grade, usually live by brain Avork. Of 
 these, however, there are some who have completed technical 
 courses of some kind and engage in productive labor, but their 
 number is comparatively so small that we may overlook them, 
 for the time being. By productive laborers, we mean those 
 who by the exercise of their own bodily strength engage in the 
 production of goods. We exclude from this class such as 
 engage in office work, or such as are superintendents of 
 laborers. 
 
 Taking our stand upon the above premises, we believe we 
 may go a step further and estimate the number of conscripts 
 who previous to their enrollment in the active service were 
 engaged in productive labor. In order to do this, the amount 
 of their education must be known, whic h we dedu( e from that 
 of the first class conscripts. 
 
 Percentage of Conscripts Having Education of Elementary Grade, 
 
 Who Passed the Conscript Examination, to Men of 
 
 Conscript Age 1910 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 A University graduates 
 
 B Those on equal standing with 
 
 above 
 
 C College graduates 
 
 D Those on equal standing with 
 
 above 
 
 E Those completing middle school 
 
 course 
 
 F Those on equal footing with 
 
 above 
 
 G Those completing higher ele- 
 mentary course 
 
 H Those on equal footing with 
 
 above 
 
 I Those completing ordinary 
 
 elementary course 
 
 J Those on equal footing with 
 
 above 
 
 K Those having some knowledge 
 
 of reading and arithmetic . . . 
 L Illiterates 
 
 Total 
 
 First 
 Class 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.06 
 o. 21 
 
 0.28 
 
 1.73 
 
 2.13 
 
 22.18 
 
 12.31 
 
 33.95 
 
 12. 14 
 
 II .92 
 3 00 
 
 100.00 
 
 Second Class 
 
 A 
 
 o. 29 
 
 0.22 
 0.44 
 
 0.53 
 
 2.27 
 
 2.79 
 
 21.48 
 
 11.72 
 
 33-40 
 
 10.76 
 
 13.00 
 3-10 
 
 100.00 
 
 o . 63 
 
 0.46 
 0.85 
 
 1 .04 
 
 3.66 
 
 4.14 
 
 21.98 
 
 11.48 
 
 30.29 
 
 11.84 
 
 10.83 
 2.80 
 
 Third 
 Class 
 
 0.72 
 
 0.53 
 0.92 
 
 0.80 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.72 
 
 15-71 
 
 11.52 
 
 31-51 
 
 13-98 
 
 14-15 
 
 4-44 
 
 100.00 
 
 Fourth 
 Class 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.17 
 0.32 
 
 0.30 
 
 2.38 
 
 1 .62 
 
 11.84 
 
 7-92 
 
 30.32 
 
 12 .64 
 
 16.69 
 15 - 57 
 
 100.00 
 
 Fifth 
 
 Class 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.36 
 
 3-50 
 
 4.46 
 
 19.06 
 
 11.82 
 
 30.40 
 
 11.94 
 
 14-36 
 3-62 
 
 100.00 
 
 Aver- 
 age 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.26 
 0.52 
 
 0.55 
 
 2.4s 
 
 2.63 
 
 19-64 
 
 11-63 
 
 32.50 
 
 12 .40 
 
 12.85 
 4-17
 
 154 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Percentage of Conscripts Having Education of Elementary Grade, 
 
 Who Passed the Conscript Examination, to Men of 
 
 Conscript Age 1909 
 
 
 First 
 Class 
 
 Second Class 
 
 Third 
 Class 
 
 Fourth 
 Class 
 
 Fifth 
 Class 
 
 Aver- 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 age 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.09 
 
 1.56 
 
 2.00 
 
 21.50 
 
 10.04 
 
 43.68 
 
 6.95 
 
 10.56 
 
 3-45 
 
 O.II 
 
 0. 19 
 
 O.II 
 
 0.17 
 2.02 
 2.41 
 
 20.98 
 936 
 
 43.84 
 6.96 
 
 10.95 
 3-90 
 
 0.18 
 0.28 
 0. 16 
 0. 19 
 2.65 
 2.76 
 
 20.29 
 8.49 
 
 41.17 
 6.66 
 
 12.70 
 4-47 
 
 0.26 
 0.34 
 0.20 
 0.28 
 2.68 
 2.40 
 
 15-97 
 8. II 
 
 41-52 
 7.93 
 
 14-24 
 6.07 
 
 0.35 
 0.32 
 0.23 
 0.31 
 3-03 
 2-35 
 
 13-55 
 6.83 
 
 36.97 
 7.48 
 
 14-75 
 
 13.83 
 
 0.03 
 0.12 
 0.04 
 0.12 
 2.40 
 2.43 
 
 18.88 
 8.34 
 
 41.99 
 8.18 
 
 11.90 
 5-57 
 
 0. 14 
 0.19 
 II 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 0.17 
 
 E 
 
 2.14 
 
 2 .29 
 19.49 
 
 9.06 
 42.25 
 
 7.17 
 12 01 
 
 F : 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 T 
 
 K 
 
 L. . 
 
 4-98 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 
 
 
 According to the two tables above, the total number of 
 those conscripts above the middle school grade is 5.04 per 
 cent of the total number of all the conscripts of different 
 grades, in 1909, and 6.77 per cent, in 1910. But since the 
 number of those conscripts who pass the examination becomes 
 less as the grade of education becomes higher, and accordingly 
 since the number of the conscripts to be enlisted in the active 
 service grows smaller among those of higher grades of edu- 
 cation, the percentage of those actives above the middle school 
 grade must be below the 5.04 per cent or the 6.77 per cent of 
 the total number of actives of different grades. Now, when 
 we examine the number of the first class conscripts who pass 
 the examination every year, we find it is about double the 
 required number. Of course, in such a reg'mental district 
 as Osaka, in which a great city like Osaka is situated, the 
 number of the first class conscripts is not sufficient to fill the 
 required number of actives. But this we may regard as an 
 exception. As a rule, there is no necessity of enrolling the 
 second class conscripts. Such being the case, in order to 
 obtain the percentage of the actives above the middle school 
 grade to the total number of the actives of all grades, we must 
 obtain the percentage of the first class conscripts above the 
 said grade who have passed the examination, to the total
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR . 1 55 
 
 number of all the first class conscripts. Of course, we must 
 make allowances for the fact that those favored with the 
 privilege of postponement of enrollment are called out at the 
 expiration of the term of postponement without the drawing 
 of lots. But the majority of such conscripts are above the 
 higher school grade, and their percentage is as small as i per 
 cent of the total number of conscripts. We may well over- 
 look such a circumstance, for the time being. 
 
 Now to return to the two tables above. According to 
 those tables, the percentage of the first class conscripts above 
 the middle school grade was only 3.82 per cent in 1909, and 
 4.50 per cent in 1910. To go still further back, it was 3.82 
 per cent in 1908, and 4.54 per cent in 1907. The average for 
 these four years was about 4.42 per cent. In recent years, 
 the number of conscripts above the middle school grade ought 
 to have had more or less of an increase. But our inference 
 from the said average of percentage would be that the per- 
 centage at present will be about 5 per cent. Now, even sup- 
 posing that the conscripts of the second class A are, as a rule, 
 enrolled in the active service, there is still no necessity for 
 changing the percentage of 5 per cent. The percentage of 
 the second class B above the middle school, who have passed 
 the examination, was 6.54 per cent in 1910, 5 per cent in 
 
 1909, 5.17 per cent in 1908, and 6.41 per cent in 1907. Putting 
 these percentages with those of the first class conscripts 
 above, and assigning their relative value (the number of the 
 first class conscripts is about double that of the second class 
 conscripts), we get the following averages: 5.18 per cent in 
 
 1910, 4.22 per cent in 1909, 4.27 per cent in 1908, and 5.16 
 per cent in 1907. The average for these four years is about 
 4.71 per cent. Hence our estimate of 5 per cent is nearly 
 correct. 
 
 Taking the basis for our investigation upon the foregoing 
 premises, let us now make an estimate of the number of pro- 
 ductive laborers among those in the active service, but we 
 have first to know the total number of the men below non- 
 commissioned officers in the active service. The actual
 
 156 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 number, however, is not published. We have, therefore, to 
 go to the average number of men per day, as pubHshed in the 
 Health Section of the Military Department Annual Report. 
 The figures for several years in the report are as follows: 
 
 Year 
 
 Men Above 
 Semi-officers 
 
 Noncommis- 
 sioned Officers 
 and Common 
 Soldiers 
 
 Men of Special 
 
 Offices and 
 
 Schools 
 
 Total 
 
 IQ07 
 
 12,400 
 12,269 
 12,326 
 12,640 
 
 173,712 
 197,898 
 
 207,957 
 212,824 
 
 4,831 
 5,540 
 
 5,408 
 
 5,594 
 
 190,943 
 215,707 
 225,691 
 231,058 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 The number of 231,058 in 1910 nearly accords with that 
 referred to in the American Army and Navy Magazine. The 
 Military Club Report quotes the following from that maga- 
 zine : 
 
 Infantry 149,402 Cavalry 
 
 Field Artillery 18,918 Foot Artillery. . 
 
 Coast Artillery 6,889 Expert Soldiers. 
 
 Commissariats 11,427 Health Dept. . . 
 
 Total 221,432 plus X 
 
 14.585 
 
 p 
 
 16,727 
 3-484 
 
 Roughly estimated, the total is 230,000, which may be 
 increased to 1,228,000 after the mobilization in war time.^ 
 From this total, 230,000, we must now subtract the number 
 of men above semi-officers, which is 15,156 (of which those 
 belonging to troops are 12,640, and those of special offices 
 and schools 2,516). The balance is 214,502. From this 
 number, we have again to subtract 14,770 noncommis- 
 sioned officers. The balance is then 199,780. We may 
 regard this number as that of the men enrolled, according to 
 the system of conscription; that is, the number of actives is 
 about two hundred thousand. But we must not forget that 
 this is the average per day, and, therefore, that the actual 
 number will be greater than that, if we take into our estimate 
 the number of the different auxiliaries, who are enrolled only 
 for a short time. The average of 200,000 per day is, however, 
 
 ' American Army arid Navy Magazine, May 20, 191 1.
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 157 
 
 sufficient for our purpose. If we suppose that 5 per cent of 
 this number engage in brain work after they are discharged, 
 then their number would be ten thousand. The balance, one 
 hundred and ninety thousand, must engage in productive 
 labor, after being discharged. Add to this the 14,770 non- 
 commissioned officers who would have to engage in productive 
 labor, if they had stayed at home. The military life then 
 takes some 205,000 men out of productive labor, in order to 
 have them engage in such nonproductive work as military drill. 
 When we turn our attention to the navy, we find that the 
 total noncommissioned officers and sailors, according to 
 statistics prepared at the end of 191 1, is 45,576, of which 
 9,996 are officers. As half of the sailors are taken from vol- 
 unteers, 17,790 of them (half of 35,580) should be regarded as 
 conscripts. Suppose we subtract from this number the 5 
 per cent who would have engaged in brain work, if not en- 
 rolled. The total of the naval conscripts would still be some 
 22,000, for the number of noncommissioned officers, picked 
 from among the conscripts, is about half of the total number 
 of noncommissioned officers. Adding the figures 22,000 to 
 those of the army, we get 227,000, which is the total number 
 of men taken from productive labor. 
 
 Loss of Labor Days 
 
 We have seen above that the number of those who live in 
 barracks the whole year and are deprived of their productive 
 labor is 227,000. If we wish to know how many labor days 
 are lost to the nation, the answer is quite simple. They are 
 equal to 227,000 multiplied by the number of labor days per 
 man per year, not counting holidays. The total would be 
 82,855,000. But there are other circumstances to be con- 
 sidered. 
 
 Article XVI of the Conscription Law now in force runs as 
 follows: " Reserv'es and Supplementaries are called out in 
 cases of war or other emergency." In peace time, they are 
 called out for military exercises, for a period not exceeding 
 sixty days every year. They are called out for military
 
 158 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 inspection once every year. According to this article, they 
 must be called out every year for military exercises, but, 
 actually, this does not take place, on account of the expense 
 that would be entailed. The annual appropriations of the 
 Military Department for such exercises are about two million 
 yeyi (i, 949-575 yen in 1912, 1,847,533 yen in 191 1, 2,137,933 
 yen in 1910, 2,094,401 yen in 1909). But this sum is not 
 sufficient to pay such expenses for all the resei'V'es and supple- 
 mentaries. As a rule, the appropriations are distributed 
 among the different divisions, each of which calls out the men 
 as far as it can with the funds available. Setting aside the 
 special manoeuvers that take place every year in different 
 districts, the number of the reserves and supplementaries 
 called out every year is only a fraction of the total. 
 
 Also their annual number is not uniform, because the 
 apportioned amount is not. A rough estimate of the 
 amount is about 40,000 yen per division. V\q are not able, 
 therefore, to make any estimate of the number of such re- 
 serves and supplementaries that will hold good throughout 
 all the divisions. • In a certain regimental district, the number 
 was 1,960 in 1910, and 1,600 in 191 1, from which we infer that 
 the annual number of each regimental district is 1,800 or 
 so. This inference seems to be based upon too little mate- 
 rial, but we have no other proper way to get the required 
 number. But when we see that the number of soldiers of each 
 .regimental district is about the same, our inference is not 
 necessarily out of place. Basing our investigation upon the 
 estimate of 1,800, we find that the approximate number of 
 all the reserves and supplementaries that are called out every 
 year is equal to 1,800 multiplied by 72, which is the number 
 of regimental districts. In other words, the annual number 
 is 129,600, that is, 130,000, roughly estimated. But we shall 
 see that this annual number is larger, actually, when we take 
 into consideration the fact that in some regimental districts 
 the reserves and supplementaries of the Imperial Guard Divi- 
 sion are called out together with those of other divisions, and, 
 therefore, their annual number exceeds 1,800, which is our
 
 EFFECTS ON LABOR 159 
 
 estimate. Besides, these figures are of those regimental 
 districts that do not participate in the special grand man- 
 oeuvers. The figures will be greater for the regimental dis- 
 tricts that participate in these manoeuvers. Taking all these 
 circumstances into account, we shall not be too far from the 
 truth when we say that the annual total does not exceed 
 140,000. Now, these 140,000 soldiers must serve in the army 
 for at least three weeks every year. Setting aside the number 
 of the days that are spent in the preparations and trips, the 
 number of labor days lost will reach 2,940,000 or more. The 
 time for the calling out is not fixed, but it takes place during 
 the term that extends through September, October and 
 November, which is the harvest season. The season may not 
 be the busiest season for farmers, but it is not a leisure season 
 by any means. This loss of labor days is equal to the loss 
 of the labor of 365 days for 8,000 laborers. In this is not 
 included the loss on the part of the naval reserves and supple- 
 mentaries. 
 
 Summary 
 
 From the above, it follows that the system of conscription 
 has a good effect upon the quality of labor, while it has a bad 
 effect upon its quantity. Of these contradicting effects, we 
 are not able to determine which is the more far reaching. We 
 can not make any quantitative estimate of the difference. 
 And there may naturally be room enough for disputes. The 
 military authorities emphasize the good effects upon the 
 quality of labor, as a set-off to the loss of productive labor. 
 But any one who looks into the matter without bias, will admit 
 that the effects upon the quality is not sufficient to compen- 
 sate the loss of labor days. We can not, of course, deny that 
 the military life increases the efiiciency of labor. But this 
 is a slight matter after all. That hundreds of thousands of 
 able bodied laborers are taken from productive work must 
 be a great loss in the national economy, so far as there is 
 opportunity for employment. Whether there is such oppor- 
 tunity is our next question.
 
 CHAPTER \1 
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 
 
 The effects of the system of conscription upon employment 
 and labor were studied in the preceding chapters. This alone, 
 however, would not be sufficient for an accurate knowledge of 
 its effects upon productivity. The fact that military life 
 takes away many able bodied men from productive labor will 
 not justify us in thinking that so much of the productive power 
 of a nation is thereby lost. For, there may be a limit to the 
 amount of employment which may cause among discharged 
 soldiers various difficulties in the gaining of their livelihood. 
 Even admitting that the conscription system gives rise to 
 certain employment, as we have already seen to be the case, 
 this does not necessarily mean the Increase of employment 
 among the people at large. We must know whether or not 
 those who get their livelihood because of the army have some 
 other means of getting employment, even in a case where 
 there Is no such system as that of conscription. It is neces- 
 sary for us to investigate the conditions in which labor and 
 employment go hand in hand. In other words, we must see 
 whether or not those who get their means of subsistence from 
 and in the army would be able to find employment outside 
 the army, and without depriving others of their employment. 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Let us now see how far labor and employment are in accord 
 with each other; how far our agriculture is able to furnish 
 labor with employment. 
 
 Tendency Among Agricultural Laborers to Concentrate in 
 
 Cities 
 
 The concentration of agricultural laborers In cities is a 
 phenomenon common to all civilized nations, and this is now 
 the case with our nation. Of course, this tendency throughout 
 
 1 60
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 
 
 l6l 
 
 all the nations is not peculiar to the present age, but the 
 feature that is new to the present age is its assuming an un- 
 healthy character. And this unhealthy character of the 
 tendency is now being realized in our countr>^ as in other 
 countries. 
 
 Percentage of Inhabitants in Various Cities, Towns and 
 
 THE Whole Population 
 
 Villages to 
 
 Cities, Towns and Villages 
 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 
 1903 
 
 1908 
 
 Below 500 Inhabitants 
 500-2,000 
 2,000-5,000 
 
 5,000-10,000 " 
 10,000-20,000 " 
 20,000-50,000 " 
 50,000-100,000 " 
 100,000-200,000 " 
 200,000-300,000 " 
 300,000-400,000 " 
 400,000-500,000 " 
 Above 500,000 " 
 
 4. II 
 
 3-54 
 1.98 
 0.74 
 0.48 
 0.76 
 1. 14 
 2.89 
 
 4.08 
 3-78 
 1.74 
 0.99 
 0.49 
 0.78 
 1 .11 
 2 .90 
 
 4.22 
 3.60 
 
 1.85 
 1.07 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.77 
 
 
 
 4.08 
 
 391 
 3.56 
 
 1-97 
 I .12 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.75 
 
 
 
 4.68 
 
 0.44 
 13.20 
 53 -So 
 14.92 
 
 4-39 
 3.85 
 1.70 
 
 0-93 
 I .01 
 0.78 
 
 4-98 
 
 0.23 
 
 9-57 
 51.80 
 
 17-70 
 
 5 -11 
 4.16 
 2 .22 
 0.77 
 1. 18 
 1.46 
 
 5,80 
 
 0.12 
 
 7.30 
 
 46.91 
 
 20 . 75 
 
 6.93 
 
 4.68 
 
 2.61 
 
 1.03 
 
 
 
 2.22 
 
 0.86 
 
 6-59 
 
 Total (below 10,000) 
 
 " (above 10,000) 
 
 84.36 
 15.64 
 
 84.31 
 15-87 
 
 83-56 
 16. 14 
 
 83-44 
 16,56 
 
 82,36 
 17.64 
 
 79-30 
 20.70 
 
 75-08 
 24.92 
 
 City censuses for the ten years preceding 1908, except for 
 1898 and 1903, and for the years since 1908 have not been 
 published. The towns and villages possessing a population 
 above 10,000 are, with a few exceptions, the local centers of 
 commerce and manufactures, and their life is similar to city 
 life. Those of less than 10,000 inhabitants, except a few 
 that are manufacturing and commercial, are agricultural in 
 character. Such being the case, if the percentage of the 
 inhabitants in cities and towns above 10,000 is found to be on 
 the increase, and if the percentage of those in towns and 
 villages below 10,000 is found to be on the decrease, then this 
 is evidence that a concentration of population in cities is 
 taking place. As the birth rates of cities are lower than 
 those of the country, and death rates are higher in the former 
 than in the latter, even the very fact that the percentage of 
 increase is stationarv Is an evidence of concentration. And
 
 1 62 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 this is more evident when there is a gradual increase of the 
 percentage in cities. According to the table above, the per- 
 centage of the towns and villages below 10,000 decreased 
 gradually from 84.36 to 75.08 in the fourteen years from 1894 
 to 1908, and the rate of decrease was greater in the years 
 following 1900. On the contrary, the percentage of the towns 
 and villages above 10,000 increased gradually from 15.64 to 
 24.9. Judging from these figures, we must say that concen- 
 tration is an actual fact, and that the rate of increase has been 
 especially great since 1900. We also recognize the fact that 
 the rate was great during the two years 1909 and 19 10, when 
 the price of rice was very low, but the statistics for these years 
 are not obtainable. 
 
 This fact of concentration may indicate an excess of agri- 
 cultural people, but is not conclusive evidence of the excess. 
 Of course, it is often the case that agricultural people move 
 to cities when their farms no longer yield sufficient for their 
 support. But this is by no means the only reason for their 
 removal. The farms may be enough for their support, but 
 the trades and occupations in cities may give them more return 
 than those in the country. And this is often the case. It is 
 but natural that many are attracted to the cities, and this is 
 true of all the civilized nations. Many a farm is deserted, 
 because many a tiller leaves his home for the city. That 
 people can get a better living in cities than in the country may 
 account for concentration, but does not necessarily mean an 
 excess of agricultural people. In other words, we must go a 
 step further, if we want to ascertain the relation between the 
 concentration in cities and the excess in the country. This 
 is a problem of great importance to us. 
 
 Area of Cultivated Fields 
 
 Our task now is to study the area of arable land, in order to 
 see whether or not the concentration in cities is due to an 
 excess of agricultural people. Before proceeding any further, 
 let us bear in mind that the phrase "excess of agricultural 
 laborers" carries with it two meanings. On the one hand, it
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 
 
 163 
 
 means that the area of the arable land is not sufficient for the 
 whole labor of agricultural people, and, on the other, that the 
 area is either not sufficient for giving employment to all of the 
 agricultural population, or is barely sufficient for doing so. 
 The former relates to a physical comparison between the 
 arable land and man's labor; the latter, to a social and eco- 
 nomic comparison between the profits derived from the arable 
 land and the number of people. 
 
 A comparison of the areas of the cultivated fields of the last 
 sixteen or seventeen years would be of much value. That 
 the Russo-Japanese War (i 904-1 905) took away about one 
 million men from among the people is suggestive of its effects 
 upon agricultural labor. Seeing that this war dealt no blow" to 
 the rice crops, in spite of the fact that it deprived our agri- 
 cultural labor of the most able-bodied men, the conclusion is 
 reached that this is an evidence of an excess of agricultural 
 population, that is a physical excess in the comparison between 
 labor and land. They contend that the number at least of 
 those taken to the battlefields is not necessary to agriculture. 
 This contention is not altogether groundless. The following 
 table shows the areas of rice fields for more than a decade: 
 
 Area of 
 Year Rice Fields 
 
 Cho 
 
 1897 2,845,339 
 
 1898 2,836,036 
 
 1899 2,839,550 
 
 1900 2,828,459 
 
 1901 2,847,357 
 
 1902 2,847,191 
 
 1903 2,864,139 
 
 1904 2,880,714 
 
 1905 2,881,548 
 
 1906 2,898,792 
 
 1907 2,906,091 
 
 1908 2,922,387 
 
 1909 2,938,073 
 
 
 Comparison with 
 
 is 
 
 Pre' 
 
 v'ious Year 
 
 4 
 
 + 
 
 52,840.4 
 
 •/ 
 
 — 
 
 9.303 
 
 2 
 
 + 
 
 3,513-5 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 11,090.3 
 
 3 
 
 + 
 
 18,897.4 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 165.4 
 
 .1 
 
 + 
 
 16,947.2 
 
 •9 
 
 + 
 
 16,575-8 
 
 •5 
 
 + 
 
 833.6 
 
 9 
 
 + 
 
 17,244.4 
 
 •9 
 
 -f 
 
 7,299.0 
 
 .8 
 
 -f 
 
 16,295.9 
 
 .8 
 
 + 
 
 15,686.0 
 
 The area in 1904 and in 1905 did not decrease, but rather 
 increased to a certain extent in the same manner as in the 
 year preceding and following them. As to the deficiency of 
 
 12
 
 164 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 labor in these two years, we are unable to get any clear evi- 
 dence from rice crops. We can only draw an indirect inference. 
 The average of rice crops per cJio in the successive years was 
 as follows: 
 
 Year 
 
 1897 
 1898 
 1899 
 1900 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 
 Rice Raised 
 
 on Wet 
 
 Fields 
 
 Koku 
 .209 
 .720 
 •430 
 ■497 
 .686 
 .328 
 .665 
 •«34 
 ■353 
 .632 
 .722 
 .815 
 .823 
 
 Glutinous 
 Rice 
 
 Koku 
 076 
 530 
 310 
 
 343 
 513 
 
 185 
 498 
 
 653 
 200 
 
 465 
 558 
 638 
 665 
 
 Rice Raised 
 
 on Dry 
 
 Fields 
 
 Koku 
 0.706 
 0.920 
 0.770 
 
 0.875 
 0.902 
 0.721 
 0.768 
 0.704 
 0.791 
 0.901 
 1 .012 
 
 I 054 
 1 .021 
 
 Average 
 
 Koku 
 
 185 
 681 
 400 
 466 
 648 
 297 
 628 
 785 
 325 
 597 
 688 
 
 777 
 785 
 
 As rice crops are controlled to a large extent by conditions 
 of weather, it is difficult to ascertain the amount of labor from 
 them alone. In 1904, there was a good har\'est, from which 
 we judge that the labor was also sufficient. The bad harvest 
 in 1905 was not the worst in history. Besides, if this bad 
 harv'est was due to the deficiency of labor, the harvests in all 
 of the provinces would have been uniformly bad, which was 
 not the case. Of the deficit in that year's har\^est, 6,000,000 
 koku (compared with the average of the preceding years), 
 75 per cent, is credited to the nine northeastern provinces 
 — Fukushima, Miyagi, Iwate, Aomori, Yamagata, Akita. 
 Niigata, Ibaraki and Tochigi. Such provinces as Shizuoka, 
 Tokushima, Kagawa, Oita, Wakayama, Shiga and Ehime 
 had all har\'est increases of from 30,000 koku to 80,000 koku. 
 Theiefore, we can not attribute the har^-est decrease in 1905 
 to deficiency of labor. We shall find the same fact when we 
 consider the areas of wheat, including barley and naked barley 
 fields.
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 1 65 
 
 Cho 
 
 1897 1.749,571 7 
 
 1898 1,806,667.4 ■ 
 
 1899 1,809,822 .6 
 
 1900 1 ,806,668 . 6 
 
 1901 .' 1,816,200.8 
 
 1902 1,804,938.0 
 
 1903 1 .799.346 I 
 
 1904 1,800,393.0 
 
 1905 1 ,817,522 .4 
 
 1906 1,813,913.1 
 
 1907 1.797.447 -6 
 
 1908 1 ,782,401 . 2 
 
 1909 1. 771. 855. 6 
 
 1910 • 1,765,176.8 
 
 In 1904 and 1905 we have a remarkable increase in the 
 area, and the year 1905 has no equal in this respect in the 
 year preceding or following it in which we have nothing that 
 indicates a deficiency of labor. As to the yield of wheat, 
 we shall say nothing, because we can make no definite state- 
 ment, as in the case of rice crops. At any rate, our investi- 
 gation so far seems to justify the contention referred to at the 
 beginning of this clause.^ At least, there seems to be no posi- 
 tive evidence against the contention. But it is, to our mind, 
 based upon an imperfect observation of the matter. Rice 
 and wheat are the most important agricultural products of 
 our country, and the greater part of the income of our agri- 
 cultural people depends upon them. Even supposing that 
 there are some cases in which they are in want of labor, we 
 can hardly believe that they would reduce the area of their 
 rice or wheat fields on that account. Is it not very natural 
 that in such cases they would try to meet the deficiency of 
 labor by reducing the labor for transplanting other grains of 
 lesser importance, so that there may be sufficient harvests of 
 rice and wheat? If we want to know whether labor was 
 deficient or not during the Russo-Japanese War, we must go 
 a step further, and ascertain the area of the fields of some other 
 agricultural products. The total area of the fields devoted 
 to the eight important food products, ^ except rice, and of the 
 five other products ^ is as follows : 
 
 ^ We understand that the authorities of the Commercial and Agricultural 
 Department are of the same opinion. 
 
 ^ Wheat, beans, red beans, millet, sorghum, buckwheat, potatoes and sweet 
 potatoes. 
 
 ^ Cotton, hemp, indigo, tobacco, and rape seed.
 
 1 66 
 
 Year 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM 
 
 Total 
 Cho 
 
 1897 3,469,634.5 
 
 1898 3,499,687.1 
 
 1899 3,497,702.0 
 
 1900 3,511,555.1 
 
 1901 3,485.976.7 
 
 1902 3,466,709.6 
 
 1903 3,470,277.0 
 
 : ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Year Total 
 
 Cho 
 
 1904 3,428,424.8 
 
 1905 3,380,619.8 
 
 1906. 3,404,629.9 
 
 1907 3,415,313 o 
 
 1908 3,417,140.0 
 
 1909 3,363,369 -9 
 
 We shall find a very interesting relation between these 
 figures and the area of cultivated rice fields, in the accom- 
 panying diagram. 
 
 Let the red line denote the area of rice fields, and the black 
 that of the other important products. We shall perceive that 
 there exists a constant relation between the two lines. The 
 diagram shows that they run symmetrically from the hori- 
 zontal line in the center. The fluctuation of one corresponds 
 to that of the other. There was some irregularity in this 
 relation in 1904, 1905 and 1906 only. If these existed in the 
 same regular relation in these three years as in other years, 
 the black curv^ed line would have run the dotted course. 
 There is no other reason than the war that will account for 
 the irregularity in the said years. 
 
 To express the same thing in another way, the area of rice 
 fields and that of other fields were constant in the successive 
 years. But we find that the total of the area of these two 
 kinds of fields falls short of the usual figures, despite the 
 increase in the area of rice fields. This shows that there was 
 a decrease in the area of the fields other than rice fields, and 
 the difference is due to the deficiency of labor, caused by the 
 departure of able-bodied laborers for the front. Below we 
 give the total area of fields in the successive years: 
 
 Year Total 
 
 Cho 
 
 1897 6,314,973.9 
 
 1898 6,337,252.2 
 
 1899 6,335,723.8 
 
 1900 6,340,015.0 
 
 1901 6,333,334.0 
 
 1902 6,313,901.5 
 
 1903 6,334,416.1 
 
 Year " Total 
 
 Cho 
 
 1904 6,309,139 
 
 1905 6,262,168 
 
 1906 6,303,422 
 
 1907 6,321,404 
 
 1908 6,339,527 
 
 1909 6,301,443
 
 
 <7» 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 0> 
 
 o 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 in 
 o 
 
 <0 
 
 o 
 
 0> 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 351 
 
 296 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 350 
 
 295 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 349 
 
 294 
 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 348 
 
 293 
 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 347 
 
 292 
 
 
 \ \ 
 
 
 346 
 
 291 
 
 
 \ \ 
 \ \ 
 
 \ N 
 
 J 
 
 345 
 
 290 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^\/ 
 
 344 
 343 
 
 289 
 
 
 \ 
 
 / \ 
 ^ \ 
 
 288 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 342 
 341 
 340 
 339 
 
 287 
 286 
 285 
 
 \^ 
 
 A -^ 
 
 284 
 
 "v 
 
 
 \ 
 
 338 
 
 283 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 337 
 
 382 
 
 
 
 
 336 
 
 381 
 
 (ten (tea 
 thou- thou- 
 sands) sands
 
 EFFECTS OX PRODUCTIVITY 1 67 
 
 Except the figures for 1909, those of other years make 
 6,330,000 cho their basis, the fluctuation being not more than 
 15,000 cho. But the decrease in the three years of the war 
 was too irregular, and, especially, that in 1905 was only 
 60,000 or 70,000 cho, as compared with the average for the 
 preceding years. 
 
 Let us go a step further, and ask, why is the annual area of 
 fields almost stationary? It is not because the area of arable 
 land is settled and has all been utilized for cultivation, so that 
 there is no more room for increase. On the contrary, there 
 was a remarkable increase in the area.^ There are certain 
 reasons by which we recognize the constancy of the number 
 of agricultural laborers, despite the increase of the area.^ 
 On the strength of these reasons, we may say as follows: 
 We may regard the quantity of labor that is necessary for 
 the cultivation of one cho of rice field or other fields as nearly 
 fixed. Therefore, there is no way other than by cultivating 
 the same area, even though there is an increase of the area of 
 arable land. Since they have used their labor to its furthest 
 limit, they can not take care of the increased area. However, 
 such an explanation of the matter is not entirely free from 
 difficulties. Assuming that about half the number of soldiers 
 at the front are agricultural laborers, their number would 
 have been at least 400,000, to which about 600,000 more 
 must be added who were enlisted in rear ser\dce. The loss 
 of men from agricultural labor would thus have been about 
 one million. If now we suppose that they would have de- 
 voted their whole energy to their work in the fields which 
 amounted, as we have seen, to 6,300,000 cho, why did the 
 loss of at least 300,000 or 400,000 of them in 1905 result in 
 the small decrease of 60,000 or 70,000 cho in the area of the 
 cultivated land? 
 
 The only explanation now remaining for us would be that 
 there would be no change in the quantity of labor per cho, in 
 usual times, for there is a certain limit to the quantity of 
 
 1 Infra, p. 169. 
 
 2 Ibid.
 
 1 68 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 labor, owing to certain customs among Japanese agricultural 
 people. So far as there is no increase in the number ot men, 
 the area of cultivated land would remain the same, despite 
 the increase of arable land. The increase of rice fields would 
 then mean the decrease of other fields. Now, about 400,000 
 men were taken to the front in the war and those who re- 
 mained at home had to forego their customary labor limita- 
 tions. Even children, women and old people, who remain at 
 home in usual times, were compelled to go to the fields. The 
 result was the small decrease of 60,000 or 70,000 cho. 
 
 If we indorse such an explanation as this, our conclusion 
 would be that Japanese agricultural laborers are in excess, 
 in the physical sense ; that is, there would be a lack of arable 
 land if they devoted their whole energy and time to cultiva- 
 tion. The war took away at least 400,000 and still the 
 deficiency of laborers was not more than 80,000. ^ Then, the 
 number of all the reserves and supplementaries at the front, 
 less 80,000 men, must be the excess, considered in their rela- 
 tion to the area of the arable land. If other laborers had 
 devoted their whole energy to farming, they would have been 
 unnecessary. The area of arable land has since increased 
 considerably. But it would still be insufficient for calling 
 forth the whole energy of the surplus number. Of the in- 
 crease in the area, we shall see later. 
 
 Agricultural laborers are thus in excess, considered in their 
 physical relation. But our problem is whether there is an 
 economic surplus or not, whether or not our agriculture has 
 any more room for employment. A physical surplus does not 
 necessarily mean an economic surplus, for is it not a fact that 
 our agricultural laborers, who were in excess physically, have 
 been employed in some sort of farming woik? Is the num- 
 ber of our farming people in excess economically? If not, to 
 what extent is our agriculture still able to give employment 
 to attract more laborers? For the answer we must go to the 
 
 ^ The total number of agricultural families is 5,400,000. Supposing the number 
 of actual laborers per family to be one and a half persons, the total of the laborers 
 will be 8,100,000. This number of laborers cultivate about 6,000,000 cho. Hence 
 the number required for the cultivation of 60,000 cho is about 80,000.
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 
 
 169 
 
 materials other than the area of cultivated land, 
 hardly go further than to draw mere inferences. 
 
 We can 
 
 Fluctuation in the Area of Arable Land and in the Number 
 
 of Agricultural Laborers 
 
 In order to see whether our agriculture has more room for 
 employment, we must look at the fluctuation in the area of 
 arable land. It is unfortunate that we can not gain access to 
 the conditions previous to 1903. 
 
 Year 
 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 Increase from 1904 to 19 12 
 
 Wet Fields 
 
 CJio 
 2,818,276.3 
 2,832,569.2 
 2,840,308. 1 
 2,849,760.7 
 2,873,562.1 
 2,894,050.6 
 2,902,189.4 
 2,916,793 6 
 2,932,832.0 
 
 1 14.555 -7 
 
 Drv Fields 
 
 Cho 
 2,476,584.2 
 2,488,098.7 
 2,497,400.7 
 2,586,895.1 
 2,630,761.4 
 2,723,576.0 
 2,750,473-2 
 2,782,425.7 
 2,826,278.2 
 
 349,694.0 
 
 Total 
 
 Cho 
 5,294,860 
 5,320,667 
 5,337,708 
 5,436,655 
 
 5,504,323 
 
 5,617,626 
 
 5,652,662.6 
 
 5,699,219.3 
 
 5,759,110.2 
 
 464,249 7 
 
 During these years, the increase in wet fields was some 100,000 
 and that in dry fields some 300,000. When we now look at 
 the numbers of farming people during the same period, we 
 find little increase. 
 
 Year 
 
 Number of 
 
 Houses in 
 
 Country 
 
 Number of 
 
 Farmers' 
 
 Houses 
 
 Number of 
 Semi- 
 farmers 
 
 Total 
 Farmers 
 
 Percentage of Farmers 
 to tlie Number of Houses 
 
 
 Farmers 
 
 Semi-farmers 
 
 1904 
 
 8,413,688 
 8,486,772 
 8,689,735 
 8,730,259 
 8,964,986 
 9,084,710 
 9.020,021 
 9,245.253 
 
 3,776,798 
 3.759,163 
 3,819.625 
 3.778.250 
 3.747.633 
 3.702,558 
 3,694.970 
 3.682,344 
 
 1,639,905 
 1,620,806 
 1.558,712 
 1,627,922 
 1,660,730 
 1,706,941 
 1,721,967 
 1.739,782 
 
 5,416,703 
 5.379,969 
 5.378,337 
 5,406,172 
 5.408,363 
 5,409.499 
 5.416,937 
 5,422,126 
 
 44 80 
 
 19.49 
 
 1905 . 
 
 44 
 43 
 43 
 41 
 40 
 40 
 39 
 
 29 
 96 
 SI 
 80 
 76 
 97 
 83 
 
 19. 10 
 
 1906 
 
 17-94 
 
 1907 
 
 18.56 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 18.52 
 18.79 
 
 1910 
 
 19.09 
 
 191 1 
 
 18.82 
 
 
 
 
 
 Except 1905 and 1906, in which the effects of the war were 
 remarkable, the total number of farmers' houses was 5,400,000 
 to 5,410,000, these figures remaining the same throughout;
 
 1 70 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 from which we may infer that the figures preceding 1904 
 remained ahnost the same. Indeed the very fact that there 
 was a decrease of about 80,000 in the number of farmers' 
 houses, while there was an increase of about 80,000 in that 
 of semi-farmers' houses, is a sufficient evidence of the decrease 
 of those who had employment on farms alone. Some will 
 think that if there be any decrease of agricultural employment, 
 this should necessarily be in our own case, for we see that 
 the number cf cattle and horses for farming work has in- 
 creased to some extent. 
 
 Percentage of Wet and Dry Fields, for which Cattle and Horses Are 
 Used, and of Those for which They Are Not Used 
 
 Year 
 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 
 W'et Fields 
 
 Used 
 
 53-87 
 
 53 
 
 7« 
 
 54 
 
 35 
 
 55 
 
 62 
 
 57 
 
 00 
 
 57 
 
 28 
 
 57 
 
 87 
 
 Not Used 
 
 46.13 
 46 . 22 
 
 45-65 
 44 38 
 43- 00 
 42.72 
 
 42 13 
 
 Dry Fields 
 
 Used 
 
 32.85 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 II 
 
 37 
 
 61 
 
 33 
 
 61 
 
 34 
 
 79 
 
 Not Used 
 
 67-15 
 67-69 
 67.76 
 
 65.89 
 
 62.39 
 66.39 
 65.21 
 
 The area of arable land increased about 400,000, while 
 there was little increase in that of cultivated land. As to the 
 number of farmers' houses, there was not an increase but a 
 slight decrease. This does not at all mean that there was an 
 economic surplus, nor that there was no room for more em- 
 ployment. E\'en subtracting the area of 400,000 cho, which 
 is the increase since 1904, from the area of arable land at 
 present, the present number of farmers could gain their 
 livelihood by using the balance of the area as they did before. 
 But as the new increase of population left its own district for 
 cities, in order to seek some better means of livelihood, there 
 we find no increase in the number of farmers. On the other 
 hand, there is an increase in the area of arable land, which 
 means that the area per man is on the increase.
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 
 
 171 
 
 The increased area of 400,000 cho ought to give them more 
 employment, though the standard of their Hving may thereby 
 fall somewhat. Of the area of cultivated land, we shall find 
 almost the same thing to be true. If the area of arable land 
 already in existence in 1904 had been used in the same way as 
 before, this alone would have caused an increase in the area of 
 cultivated land, to the extent that it would have amounted to 
 6,330,000 cho. The area of arable land, 400,000 cho, is suf- 
 ficient margin for additional increase of the area of cultivated 
 land and can, therefore, give an additional increase of employ- 
 ment. The concentration of agricultural laborers in cities 
 is by no means due to the fact that they can not find employ- 
 ment in the country. It is due to the fact that they want to 
 find better means of livelihood in the cities. In the country 
 there is still much employment left. Let us secure a rough 
 estimate of the amount: 
 
 Area of Arable Land per Farmer 
 
 Year 
 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 
 Wet Fields 
 
 Cho 
 
 .5200 
 
 .5218 
 
 •5224 
 ■5224 
 •5308 
 
 •5315 
 .5318 
 
 Dry Fields 
 
 Cho 
 
 •4521 
 .4606 
 .4612 
 
 •4724 
 .4818 
 
 •5015 
 .5027 
 
 Total 
 
 Cho 
 
 .9721 
 
 .9824 
 
 .9836 
 
 .9948 
 
 I .0126 
 
 I .0330 
 
 I 0345 
 
 The area per farmer is thus about one cho. Now, if we 
 estimate the number of agricultural laborers per house to be 
 one man and a half, the arable land of 400,000 cho would sup- 
 port at least 500,000 or 600,000 laborers. This estimate 
 requires, however, some discount, because newly opened 
 fields can not be considered on an equal footing with well 
 cultivated fields. However, we have no means of knowing 
 the amount to discount. But we believe we can say that 
 however large may be the number of agricultural laborers, 
 compared with the area of arable land, our farms ought to give 
 more employment to the soldiers who are originally from the
 
 172 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 laboring classes, and to about 300,000 of those who gain their 
 livelihood by the employment connected with the army. 
 
 As we have included in the above the estimate of the in- 
 crease of the area of wet and dry fields in Hokkaido, we now 
 give it below separately, by way of parenthesis: 
 
 Year 
 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 Increase from 1904 to 1910 
 
 Wet Fields 
 
 Cho 
 
 20,584 . 7 
 
 21,402 
 
 3 
 
 22,827 
 
 7 
 
 24,637 
 
 
 
 28,696 
 
 I 
 
 36,432 
 
 5 
 
 37,902.7 
 
 17.318 
 
 
 
 Dry Fields 
 
 Cho 
 319,620.3 
 341,962.3 
 366,349.0 
 
 403,337 -9 
 432,878.2 
 
 481,455 I 
 500,131.1 
 
 180,510.8 
 
 Total 
 
 Cho 
 340,205.0 
 363,364.6 
 
 389,176.7 
 427,974.9 
 
 461,574 -3 
 517,887.6 
 538.033-8 
 
 197,828.8 
 
 Subtracting this amount from the estimate above (that is, 
 total increase of the area of arable land) we get the increase of 
 all the other parts of the country, from 1904 to 1910. 
 
 Wet Fields 
 66,733 I 
 
 Dry Fields 
 93,371 o 
 
 Total 
 160,104.1 
 
 If we add to this total that of 1911, the increase of the area 
 would then be 180,000 cho at least. As we have already seen, 
 the area per house is about one cho. Hence, the said total of 
 the increase of the area would support 18,000 houses. On the 
 other hand, there was, during these years, a decrease of about 
 35,000 houses against the area existing previous to these years. 
 If we suppose that labor could be increased in the same degree 
 as before, the area of arable land, except that in Hokkaido, 
 would be enough to support 210,000 or 220,000 laborers. As 
 to the area in Hokkaido, during the same period there should 
 have been an increase of 100,000 or 1 10,000 houses, if we esti- 
 mate the area per house to be about two cho. But this was 
 not the case. The increase was only 36,000, which means 
 that the area would still be able to support 60,000 or 70,000 
 more houses. In other words, the total of the increased area
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 
 
 173 
 
 ought to support at least 250,000 houses. Now, if we suppose 
 that the average labor of adults per house is one man and a 
 half, then the area would support 370,000 or 360,000 laborers. 
 
 Increase of Agricultural Houses in Hokkaido" 
 
 Year 
 
 1904. 
 
 1905- 
 1906. 
 1907. 
 1908. 
 1909. 
 1910. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Farmers 
 
 79.214 
 
 81,697 
 
 87,921 
 
 96,377 
 
 103,554 
 
 103,809 
 
 106,757 
 
 27,543 
 
 Semi-farmers 
 
 36,751 
 33,816 
 
 33,540 
 34,311 
 35.465 
 43,611 
 44,621 
 
 4,870 
 
 Total 
 
 115,965 
 115,513 
 121,461 
 130,688 
 139,019 
 147,420 
 151.378 
 
 35.413 
 
 ^ Because there was an increase of 35,000 in Hokkaido, whose agricultural popu- 
 lation is a part of the whole agricultural population, in which there was almost no 
 change during the said years. 
 
 Let us now proceed still further, and see how much of the 
 area of our land could yet be turned into wet and dry fields. 
 According to an investigation made by a reliable authority^ 
 the estimate is as follows:^ 
 
 Area That Could Be Turned into Wet Fields 
 
 Cho 
 
 Increase as the result of the rearrangement of arable land^ 36,000 
 
 Dry fields in interior to be turned into wet fields 250,000 
 
 Dry fields in Hokkaido to be turned into wet fields 100,000 
 
 Land in interior to be reclaimed 250,000. 
 
 Land in Hokkaido to be reclaimed 100,000 
 
 Total 736,000 
 
 Area That Could Be Turned into Dry Fields 
 
 Land to be reclaimed 500,000 
 
 Dry fields to be turned into wet fields 350,000 
 
 Balance 150,000 
 
 The above estimate is the safest and the least possible 
 estimate. Of the whole area of the country, about 9,529,110 
 cho is regarded as arable, the maximum angle of slope being 
 fifteen degrees. If we deduct from this area that of the land 
 
 ^ Hokkaido Agricultural Association Report, No. 4, Vol. XIX. 
 2 The estimate is that there will be an increase of the 3 per cent of 1,213,000 cha 
 of the land to be rearranged.
 
 174 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 already cultivated, which amounts to 5,759,110 cho, the 
 balance will be 3,769,902 cho. Of this area of arable land, it 
 would not be very difficult to get about one million cho of wet 
 and dry fields. Setting aside the circumstances in Korea and 
 Formosa, the area will be enough for the support of all the 
 soldiers in 'the army, and of all those who are getting their 
 livelihood from the army. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce 
 
 We will now study our commercial and industrial conditions 
 There are persons prone to believe in the excess of labor, but 
 we have already seen that even in our agriculture alone there 
 is yet much room for labor. People leave the country for the 
 cities, in spite of this fact, because the city life is more profit- 
 able than the life in the country. What we would lose by the 
 military system would be made up by what we gain in the 
 agricultural life. But is there, in our commerce and manu- 
 factures, any possibility of giving more employment, as we 
 have seen to be possible in agriculture? The most valuable 
 data for our study would be statistics of those who are not 
 employed, but as there have yet been no statistics of the kind, 
 we shall have to base our arguments upon indirect inferences 
 from various observations. 
 
 Increase of City Population 
 
 In a preceding section, we have studied the concentration 
 in cities. Our task now is to study the increase of the abso- 
 lute city population for several years in succession. Assum- 
 ing that the cities and towns above ten thousand population 
 are industrial and commercial, and that towns and villages 
 below that size are agricultural, let us, for the sake of con- 
 venience, call the former simply cities. 
 
 Until 1897, the yearly increase in cities was 200,000 or so, 
 but, in 1898, the increase jumps to 650,000 or 660,000. We 
 further find that this great increase went hand in hand with 
 the increase of about 150,000,000 yen, for two years, in the 
 total amount of imports and exports. The yearly increase of
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 
 
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 176 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 city population, for about ten years, has since been about 
 500,000. As these figures include those of the cities formerly 
 below 10,000, but now above 10,000, as the result of their slow 
 increase, this estimate of 500,000 may be somewhat exagger- 
 ated. But even excluding such small towns from our esti- 
 mate, the increase is at least 400,000. 
 
 Whether this increase of 400,000 may be due to the con- 
 centration of people from the country, or not, it must be due 
 to the fact that people have found so many new employments. 
 The number of inhabitants in the smaller towns and villages 
 is also, to a certain extent, making a yearly increase. 
 
 1898 1903 1908 
 
 Population in towns under 10,000 37.359.8o7 38,493.655 38,843,905 
 
 Increase in five years .... 1,133,848 350,250 
 
 Yearly increase .... 226,770 70,050 
 
 As we have seen in the previous section, there has been no 
 increase in the number of farmers' houses in recent years. 
 This increase of about seventy thousand must therefore be 
 due to the increase of commercial and industrial employment. 
 Assuming that one employment is sufficient for the support 
 of five persons, the number of people who have employment in 
 manufactures and commerce must be more than one hundred 
 thousand. The fact that our commerce and manufactures 
 can every year give employment to the laboring classes to this 
 extent leads us to the conclusion that our commerce and 
 manufactures are always demanding such laborers. This 
 conclusion may cause surprise on the part of those who think 
 that there is a great excess of labor in the country. The 
 following will confirm our conclusion: 
 
 Wages of Laborers 
 
 If our commerce and manufactures are in trouble, because 
 of the excess of labor, then the yearly increase of removals to 
 cities would cause a decrease of wages. Especially would it 
 cause loss of employment, which would cause decrease of 
 wages among unskilled laborers. But wages have been going 
 up for the last ten years. Even the wages of unskilled labor-
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 
 
 177 
 
 ers have been Increasing, compared with the total average of 
 prices, or with the price of rice, or with those stuffs that are 
 used as substitutes for rice.^ 
 
 Increase in Wages of Laborers' in Comparison with Average Increase 
 
 IN Prices of Foodstuffs 
 
 Year 
 
 1900. 
 1901 . 
 1902. 
 1903. 
 1904. 
 
 1905 
 
 1906. 
 
 1907. 
 
 1908. 
 
 1909. 
 
 1910. 
 
 1911 . 
 
 1912. 
 
 Total 
 
 Wages of 
 
 Average 
 
 Day 
 
 of Wages 
 
 Laborers 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 104 
 
 7 
 
 105 -4 
 
 107 
 
 7 
 
 I05-4 
 
 109 
 
 5 
 
 108. 1 
 
 107 
 
 5 
 
 108. 1 
 
 112 
 
 I 
 
 no. 8 
 
 118 
 
 4 
 
 II3-5 
 
 134 
 
 I 
 
 132.4 
 
 143 
 
 
 
 1432 
 
 144 
 
 I 
 
 140.5 
 
 148 
 
 5 
 
 143-2 
 
 152 
 
 9 
 
 151 -4 
 
 157 
 
 2 
 
 156.8 
 
 Wages of 
 
 Men 
 Servants 
 
 Total 
 Average 
 of Prices 
 
 Price of 
 Rice 
 
 100. 
 
 1 00.0 
 
 100. 
 
 100.7 
 
 97 
 
 loi .0 
 
 100.4 
 
 97.0 
 
 107.0 
 
 IIO.O 
 
 100. 
 
 121 .0 
 
 III .9 
 
 108.0 
 
 114. 
 
 119 3 
 
 116. 
 
 112. 
 
 122.5 
 
 114. 
 
 128.0 
 
 142 5 
 
 122 .0 
 
 142.0 
 
 149.6 
 
 122.0 
 
 1350 
 
 161 . 1 
 
 118. 
 
 III .0 
 
 168.7 
 
 120.0 
 
 114. 
 
 172.2 
 
 126.0 
 
 149.0 
 
 175-2 
 
 133 -o 
 
 180.0 
 
 First Class 
 
 Foodstuffs 
 
 Except Rice 
 
 100 
 
 91 
 100 
 
 125 
 132 
 128 
 118 
 128 
 124 
 119 
 122 
 
 135 
 168 
 
 The following table concerning the wages of day laborers 
 in the different districts is of importance : 
 
 Districts 
 
 Wages of Day Laborers 
 
 Tokyo . . . . 
 Osaka .... 
 
 Kobe 
 
 Yokohama 
 Nagoya . . . 
 
 
 1900 
 
 
 
 1912 
 
 
 First 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 First 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 Class 
 
 Class 
 
 Class 
 
 Class 
 
 Class 
 
 Class 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 68 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 Wages of 
 
 Middle Class 
 
 Laborers, 
 
 in 1912=* 
 
 144 
 
 175 
 108 
 
 163 
 175 
 
 "Supposing that of 1900 to be 100. 
 
 Generally speaking, this advance in the wages of unskilled 
 laborers in cities is greater than that of the average of all 
 other wages. Attention should be paid to the fact that the 
 
 ^ Report of the Commercial and Agricultural Department.
 
 178 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 advance is greatest in the city of Osaka, which is the greatest 
 of all the commercial and manufacturing cities of Japan. Our 
 conclusion is, therefore, that the demand for labor is increas-^ 
 ing, in spite of the fact that the greater commercial and manu- 
 facturing cities are attracting great numbers of laborers every 
 year. 
 
 Percentage of Male and Female Operatives 
 
 The above conclusion is confirmed by the percentage of 
 the operatives of different factories. There are now about 
 920,000 operatives in both government and private factories^ 
 of which over 500,000 are females. In textile factories female 
 operatives are more numerous than male operatives, their 
 number being 450,000 against 70,000 males. This is a phe- 
 nomenon peculiar to our manufactures, there being no such 
 condition in any other civilized nation. How came this 
 peculiar fact into existence? This is rather surprising, when 
 we see that the system of the family is quite strong and that 
 female members who leave their family for works of various 
 sorts are comparatively few. There is one circumstance that 
 will explain the matter, and that is the lack of male labor. 
 It is said that the factories that demand male operatives alone 
 have difficulty in securing proper male operatives. This 
 circumstance compels the different factories to employ female 
 
 Operatives in 19121 
 
 Factories 
 
 Operatives 
 
 Coolies 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Total 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Total 
 
 
 66,904 
 84.996 
 50,312 
 36,031 
 43,306 
 66.681 
 
 446,283 
 
 4,655 
 24,922 
 
 7,929 
 23,037 
 
 8,321 
 
 513,187 
 89,651 
 75.234 
 43.960 
 66,343 
 75.002 
 
 9,653 
 7,130 
 
 10,930 
 3.857 
 5.179 
 
 82,528 
 
 4.199 
 944 
 3.648 
 I.95S 
 1.742 
 32,953 
 
 13,852 
 
 Machine and tool factories 
 
 Chemical works 
 
 8,074 
 14.578 
 
 Food and drink factories 
 
 Miscellaneous works 
 
 5. 812 
 6.921 
 
 Soecial works 
 
 115,481 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 348,230 
 114,335 
 
 515,217 
 161,553 
 
 863.377 
 275.888 
 
 119.277 
 6,879 
 
 45,441 
 616 
 
 164.718 
 
 Factories conducted by government 
 
 7.495 
 
 Total 
 
 462,565 
 
 676.770 
 
 1.139,265 
 
 126,156 
 
 46,057 
 
 172,213. 
 
 
 
 1 Twenty-Ninth Statistical Report of the Department of Agriculture and Com- 
 
 merce.
 
 EFFECTS OX PRODUCTIVITY 179 
 
 Operatives, if they can find some means of replacing male 
 operatives with female. This they do, in spite of the greater 
 amount of expense of securing the latter. If the number of 
 the former were sufficient, why so much trouble and expense? 
 Of course, the cheapness of female labor, considering its 
 efficiency, may be one of the causes, but there is still no doubt 
 that this is due to the lack of male labor. 
 
 Absorption of Labor after the Russo-Japanese War 
 
 In the consideration of agriculture, our first task was to 
 examine the accessible facts, and so it must be with our con- 
 sideration of manufactures and commerce. The number of 
 the soldiers that were in the first line of the battle fields in the 
 Russo-Japanese \\'ar was perhaps not more than 500,000, but 
 the number of those who were in the second line was not less 
 than 300,000. But if we add to these 800,000 all those who 
 were engaged in various occupations at the rear, the total 
 number must have been at least two millions, all of whom 
 were nonproductive workers. 
 
 That our industry was deprived of such considerable amount 
 of labor must have been a great blow. But great as this loss 
 of labor was, it was soon made up by the following conditions: 
 (i) the participaticn in productive labor of aged people, 
 women and children, who had heretofore not done so; (2) 
 the greatest possible extension of laboring hours; (3) the yearly 
 increase of at least 500,000 laborers, who reached the age of 
 labor; (4) the use and invention of various machines, in order 
 to meet the demand for labor, proven by the unprecedented 
 number of patents, registered in 1905; and (5) the improve- 
 ments in different systems of production. We believe the 
 greater part of the loss of labor due to the war was thus made 
 up. 
 
 This belief is based upon the two circumstances: (i) there 
 was no decrease in the amount of exports and (2) there was 
 also no considerable decrease in the amount of manufactured 
 products of all sorts, so far as our investigation goes. 
 
 13
 
 l80 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Increase of Exports, 1904-1905 
 
 Articles 
 
 Food stuffs 
 
 Manufactured goods 
 
 Raw materials 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total 
 
 1903 
 
 Yen 
 
 32,433,025 
 
 76,502,521 
 
 161,894,789 
 
 15,141,285 
 
 285,971,620 
 
 1904 
 
 Yen 
 34,656,859 
 96,167,777 
 
 157-750.224 
 17,154,726 
 
 315,729,586 
 
 1905 
 
 Yen 
 
 39.675.385 
 
 95.588,883 
 
 158.659,551 
 
 24.365,797 
 
 318,289,616 
 
 As this table does not suggest any decrease of exports, so 
 there is no decrease in the actual amount of manufactured 
 products, so far as we can judge from the material at hand. 
 The amount in 1905 was not less than that in 1903, while 
 there was a slight decrease in the amount in 1904. The 
 products were: cotton, silk, hemp, textiles, knitted goods, 
 dyed goods, chinas and porcelains, tiles, lacquered wares, 
 mats and goza, manufactural chemicals, lacquer glue, oils, 
 vegetable wax, indigo, camphor, peppermint, soap, Japanese 
 paper, foreign paper, wheat, flour, starch, sugar, Bengal 
 isinglass, canned goods, matches, leather, fertilizers, straw 
 braids, chip braids, watches, glass, brushes and buttons, 
 thirty-five in all. • 
 
 Judging from these facts, we must say that over one million 
 laborers after the war were ushered into our productive indus- 
 tny' as a sort of surplus. Supposing one half of the number to 
 be agricultural workers, and subtracting from the remaining 
 half those who engage in some kind of nonproductive work, 
 at least 300,000 or 400,000 must have gone into commercial 
 and manufacturing life. Was there then any surplus of 
 labor as the result of the inrush of the new laborers? This 
 abundance of labor, after the war, together with the resulting 
 economic conditions, caused the sudden increase in enter- 
 prises, and these enterprises absorbed the surplus labor. In 
 1906 the wages of labor rose considerably, notwithstanding 
 the general fall in prices.^ We believe we are not wide of the 
 mark when we say that under the present circumstances in 
 
 ^ Table of wages, p. 177.
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY l8l 
 
 the nation, the rapid growth of commerce and manufactures 
 can give employment for the new laborers that increase by the 
 hundreds of thousands. In fact, there has never been since 
 the war any indication of an excess of labor. If some 300,000 
 or 400,000 new laborers were absorbed by our commercial 
 and manufacturing industry directly after the war, then there 
 is no reason why it can not be done at the present time. 
 
 Lack of Labor 
 
 From the above it follows that labor is not in excess, but 
 rather is lacking. Let us now see how this is so. 
 
 (i) Lack of Commercial Laborers. — In an article, entitled 
 ^'Suggestions to Employers," in the Employment World, we 
 find the following i^ 
 
 If employes are wanted, the application blank must be filled in and sent in at 
 once. ... As apprentices and maids are very scarce, we can hardly meet 
 your immediate demands, but 
 
 According to the director's own statement, employers get 
 only 2 or 3 per cent of the apprentices that they need. This is 
 a sign that our industry is short of labor. In the same num- 
 ber of the magazine we find the following statement by an 
 employer: 
 
 We are very much vexed by the men of employment offices, some of whom 
 resort even to such extreme measures as to bring tramps. The latter run away as 
 soon as their stomachs are full. At first, I could not understand why the ap- 
 prentices, brought by such agencies, leave us after a few days, but later I have 
 come to know that this was because the agents covet commissions. They entice 
 away from their work those who are employed, on the pretext that better work 
 will be found. 
 
 This shows that not only apprentices but also all sorts of 
 commercial laborers are lacking. Such a condition as this 
 could never exist, unless there were too much demand and too 
 little supply of labor. 
 
 (2) Lack of Manufacturing Laborers. — Our manufacturing 
 industry is making such a rapid growth that the rate of the 
 increase of manufacturing laborers can hardly keep up with 
 
 ^ "Suggestions to Employers," Employment World, No. 8, published by the 
 Osaka Employment Office.
 
 1 82 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 it. All factories are having great trouble in finding opera- 
 tives. Especially the spinning factories, well developed com- 
 pared with other factories, are in constant trouble in securing 
 operatives. The following is a statement found in the report 
 for 1903 of the Factory Investigation Committee of the Com- 
 mercial and Manufacturing Bureau: 
 
 According as the number of factories increases, the lack of laborers is keenly 
 felt. They have to go all over the country in search of operatives. Some of 
 them, however, confine the sphere of the collection of their operatives within a 
 certain limit. In the collection, they either send their partners to certain districts, 
 or depend upon some employment office. Even in the former case, they have to 
 get the assistance of mediators, as they are not familiar with the particular con- 
 ditions in each district. These mediators try to kidnap innocent rustics with 
 flattering words. They furnish them with information concerning the profits and 
 pleasure of the life of operatives, but try to conceal the troubles and sicknesses 
 that accompany such a life. These mediators usually get a commission of one 
 yen per operative and often receive additional rewards. 
 
 One of the consequences has been a competition among 
 employers, who try every means to attract operatives to their 
 own factories. This competition was carried to such ex- 
 tremes that an understanding has now been established 
 among employers. All this goes to show that not only spin- 
 ning factories but all other factories are in great need of opera- 
 tives. 
 
 Take for example the case of the operatives in iron works. 
 Words to the following effect are found in the above report: 
 
 In inviting steel operatives, one of two ways is usually resorted to, invitation 
 through the operatives already employed, or advertisements. It is often the 
 case that the operatives are relied upon who have many underhands. At rare 
 intervals, partners are sent out, charged with collection. 
 
 Of the hands in glassware factories, the same report says: 
 
 The methods of getting hands are diverse, but the usual methods are these 
 three, reliance upon mediators, or reliance upon the operatives already in employ, 
 or the despatch of partners. Glassware factories are prosperous these days, but 
 have great difficulties in finding hands. It sometimes happens that the hands in 
 other factories are kidnapped. This bad practice of kidnapping is greatly exten- 
 uated in Tokyo, where new hands are brought by their boss, and not by employ- 
 ment offices. The different trade associations in Osaka pay particular attention 
 to the means of guarding against kidnappers, which have, however, not been very 
 effective.
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 1 83 
 
 Again, the report says, regarding printers: 
 
 It is very often the case, when business is brisk, that operatives, or apprentices, 
 that have been in employ for several years, leave their factories on various pre- 
 texts. 
 
 The cotton, hosiery, brush and electric bulb factories, and 
 several others, are also in the same plight: 
 
 These factories are usually on a smaller scale, and consequently the hands 
 employed are smaller in number. Their methods of inviting hands are various. 
 It is seldom that they send out their clerks to distant districts. Bills of invitation 
 are posted up in the neighborhood, or advertising agencies are used, who go round 
 the streets. The employers often get the assistance of their friends, who go forth 
 in search of hands in likely places. In rare cases, in which middlemen are em- 
 ployed and sent out to distant districts, they use every cunning in order to earn 
 their commission. 
 
 The foregoing extracts agree in showing the scarcity of 
 manufacturing labor, rather than its excess. Not to mention 
 the time when business is especially brisk, but even in usual 
 times, kidnapping, or despatch of men to distant districts, 
 takes place very frequently.^ But it has already been shown 
 that the rate of employments to labor has never decreased 
 since. Operatives never have trouble in getting employment, 
 but employers are troubled to get the necessary labor. That 
 the want of labor is keenly felt on the part of different factories 
 is also demonstrated by another fact, the lack of labor in 
 mining works. Factories and mines can, to a certain extent, 
 employ interchangeable laborers. If there is a surplus of 
 laborers in manufacturing, when mining workers are in de- 
 mand, the former must flow into the mines. But this has 
 never happened, which is an evidence of the lack of labor in 
 manufacturing circles. The owners of mines are trying every 
 means to keep their miners, in which they often fail. This is 
 especially the case with coal mines. A keen competition often 
 takes place among the owners for getting the necessary labor. 
 They often appeal to force in their kidnapping. 
 
 ^ The report of the Commercial and Manufacturing Bureau, from which the 
 above extracts are quoted, was prepared some ten years ago.
 
 184 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 We have estimated that the yearly increase of commercial 
 and manufacturing employes is 400,000 or 500,000. The 
 different cities of the country absorb all the increasing laborers 
 and are in want of more. Employers are always complaining 
 of the want of labor. Such being the case, the largest per- 
 centage of soldiers, engaged as they are in nonproductive 
 works, when discharged, can easily get employment in com- 
 mercial and manufacturing circles, even though they may not 
 engage in farming. 
 
 Summary 
 
 Our conclusion was that soldiers, and those commercial 
 and manufacturing people who depend upon the army for 
 their livelihood, can earn it when they leave the army not 
 only by farming but in commerce and industry. In other 
 words, supposing that the army were disbanded, there would 
 be no less employment ; there would be ample room for them 
 in our productive industry. 
 
 But this conclusion is not necessarily based upon the prem- 
 ise that there is ample room for employment in our agriculture 
 and commerce and manufacturing industries. We shall come 
 to the same conclusion, even on the premise that there seems 
 to exist no condition in which employment can make a fresh 
 combination with labor, so long as the present state of things 
 remains the same. The total amount of wages to be paid in 
 certain communities can never go down below the total 
 amount necessary to support the whole of the laboring classes. 
 In some cases, the former may temporarily go down below 
 the latter. But, in such cases, the considerable part of the 
 laboring classes will make desperate efforts in order to earn 
 their livelihood, with the result that the total of their wages 
 will go up above the amount that is necessary for their 
 subsistence. The total of their wages will, by the competition 
 among laborers, be distributed, so that each of them will never 
 be out of employment. Therefore, if cases happen in which 
 those who depend upon the army for their livelihood lose their
 
 EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 1 85 
 
 employment they will soon find employment in some other 
 field. 
 
 The agricultural, commercial and manufacturing people 
 who get their livelihood through the army are contributing 
 to the productive works of the country by their works con- 
 nected with the army, such as manufacturing the goods in 
 demand by the army, or transporting their products. Even 
 supposing that the system of conscription is done away with, 
 there would be no change in the circumstances, so far as they 
 engage in some sort of productive industry. Of course, there 
 is no doubt that, if the labor of the soldiers could be turned 
 into productive works, the national economic life would be so 
 much benefited. And this means that the system is depriving 
 the nation of its productive labor. The military life may 
 contribute to the efficiency of labor, after the discharge of the 
 soldiers, but this is very little as compared with the loss of 
 labor.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 EFFECTS OX CONSUMPTION 
 
 It is very difficult to find a proper method of ascertaining 
 the amount of consumption by a certain part of the members 
 that constitute a national, economic whole. Even its theoret- 
 ical consideration is accompanied with great difficulties. It 
 appears at first thought that our task would be enough if we 
 sum up the expenses of each member, but the result can but 
 be a very indefinite one. Consider, for example, the case of 
 the general expenses of the people at large. A conspicuous 
 part of this expense is the tax. But no goods are consumed 
 that are equivalent to the amount so paid out. The greater 
 part of the expenses of pleasure-seeking nobles is given to 
 women, but this is not the consumption of goods. The 
 amounts paid for certain facilities of position, "which are 
 nonproductive," do not mean a consumption of goods. As 
 these expenses affect those of others by shifting, it is very 
 difficult to know definitely how much of the total outlay is 
 paid for the equivalent goods. Let us, however, disregard 
 such difficulties, for the time being, and assume that the 
 amount of the expenses of each member of society is approxi- 
 mately equivalent to the amount of goods consumed. 
 
 Starting from such an assumption, let us see first how much 
 are these expenses of the soldiers and their friends, and then 
 of the people at large. And when each is ascertained, let us 
 compare it with the amount of the consumed goods. Such 
 is our method of studying the effects of conscription upon 
 consumption. 
 
 Expenditure per Soldier 
 
 State Expenditure for Training of Soldiers 
 
 At the beginning of the Aleiji Era, all the conscripts were 
 self-supporting as regards their clothing, etc., but this has 
 ceased to exist as a principle since the promulgation of the 
 
 1 86
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 
 
 187 
 
 Conscription Law in 1873. At present all the materials 
 necessary for a soldier are furnished by the state. 
 
 Our estimate of the military expenditure per soldier, out 
 of the ordinary state expenditures, is as follows: 
 
 Military Expenditure per Soldier 
 
 Items 
 
 Salary 
 
 Office expenses . . 
 
 Repairs 
 
 Travels 
 
 Miscellaneous. . 
 
 Allowance 
 
 Forage and food 
 
 Clothing 
 
 Ammunition . . . . 
 
 Horses 
 
 Exercises 
 
 Daily articles . . . 
 Transportation . 
 Other expenses . , 
 
 Total 
 
 1909 
 
 Yen 
 
 72.83 
 
 5 63 
 
 6.21 
 
 9 05 
 
 6.15 
 
 436 
 
 86.87 
 
 36.22 
 
 26.32 
 
 8.58 
 
 9.28 
 
 8.25 
 
 751 
 6-54 
 
 293.80 
 
 1910 
 
 Yen 
 89.01 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 86 
 
 33 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 7 
 5 
 3 
 
 17 
 12 
 
 27 
 86 
 61 
 86 
 91 
 45 
 89 
 21 
 99 
 97 
 60 
 
 305 92 
 
 1911 
 
 Yen 
 89.94 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 10 
 6 
 
 5 
 90 
 
 32 
 26 
 
 15 
 96 
 
 89 
 33 
 94 
 05 
 21 
 
 39 
 00 
 
 93 
 23 
 
 71 
 58 
 
 308.35 
 
 1912 
 
 Yen 
 
 91 
 
 5 
 5 
 9 
 6 
 
 5 
 90 
 
 31 
 
 25 
 7 
 8 
 8 
 4 
 5 
 
 42 
 12 
 
 84 
 86 
 
 39 
 93 
 06 
 
 78 
 20 
 80 
 26 
 00 
 
 87 
 69 
 
 306.22 
 
 The average expenditure per soldier is 305 yen or 310 yen, 
 as the table above shows. But, this average includes the 
 expenses for ammunition, horses, etc., and also expenses con- 
 nected with officers. Hence, we must limit the items to those 
 that are necessary for the sustenance of each soldier. Such 
 items are (i) salaries and wages, (2) provisions, (3) clothing, 
 (4) exercises, and (5) miscellaneous (utensils, harness, etc.). 
 Of clothing, food and habitation, the expenses for habitation 
 are excluded, because we have no means of calculating them. 
 The military and naval authorities too did not include them 
 in their estimate of the expenses for the training of soldiers 
 and sailors. This is a point that we should not overlook in 
 the comparison between soldiers' expenses and those of the 
 ordinary people. Of the various items mentioned above, 
 salaries, the expenses for military exercises and boarding, and 
 miscellaneous expenses, are almost fixed as to the amount of
 
 i88 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 money. But rice and wheat and clothing can not be fixed in 
 money, because their prices change from time to time. 
 
 As the total average of the expenses of all the division is not 
 published, our estimate of the expenses for the training of 
 soldiers must be obtained from inference in a limited sphere. 
 The following estimate is approximately accurate: 
 
 Annual Training Expenses per Soldier 
 
 Salary 
 
 Forage 
 and Food 
 
 Clothing 
 
 Exercises 
 
 Miscella- 
 neous 
 
 Total 
 
 Yen 
 19 50 
 
 Yen 
 76.00 
 
 Yen 
 32.00 
 
 Yen 
 4.00 
 
 Yeji 
 6.50 
 
 Yen 
 138.00 
 
 Annual Training Expenses per Noncommissioned Officer 
 
 Salary 
 
 Forage 
 and Food 
 
 Clothing 
 
 Exercises 
 
 Miscella- 
 neous 
 
 Total 
 
 Yen 
 114.00 
 
 Yen 
 76.00 
 
 Yen 
 32.00 
 
 Yen 
 4.00 
 
 Yen 
 6.50 
 
 Yen 
 232.50 
 
 From the above table, it appears that the military annual 
 expenses per soldier amount to about 140 yen, and those per 
 noncommissioned ofhcer to about 235 yen. The expenses of 
 the noncommissioned officers living outside the barracks are 
 not included in the above estimate. Supposing the number 
 of soldiers to be 200,000, and that of noncommissioned offi- 
 cers to be 20,000, the average annual expenses per soldier 
 would be — 
 
 (140 yenX20^-235 yen X2)-e-(20-f2) = 175.00 yen 
 
 This estimate includes the noncommissioned officers living 
 outside the barracks. 
 
 The naval annual expenses per sailor are published.^ The 
 expenses are divided only into the three items of salaries, 
 clothing and provisions. If to these we add the other ex- 
 penses, the total would be greater. 
 
 1 Annual Report of the Naval Department, 19 10.
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 
 Annual Training Expenses per Sailor 
 
 189 
 
 Salary 
 
 Clothing 
 
 Provisions 
 
 Total 
 
 Yen 
 64.970 
 
 Yen 
 37.166 
 
 Yen 
 85.280 
 
 Yen 
 187.416 
 
 Annual Tr 
 
 AiNiNG Expenses per Noncommissioned Officer 
 
 Salary 
 
 Clothing 
 
 Provisions 
 
 Total 
 
 Yen 
 224.017 
 
 Ye7i 
 27 133 
 
 Yen 
 85 . 280 
 
 Yen 
 336.430 
 
 Supposing the number of sailors to be 35,000 and that of 
 noncommissioned officers to be 10,000, then the annual 
 average per head would be 220-odd yen. But as many of 
 the noncommissioned officers support their families, we 
 have to reduce their number, in our estimate, by about 
 one-half. The annual average per head would then be 205 or 
 206 yen. 
 
 Either in the army or in the navy, the greater part of the 
 expense is for clothing and food. But the average is subject 
 to change, according to the fluctuation of the prices of rice 
 and wheat. The above estimate will, however, be near the 
 truth so long as prices remain at the same level they have now 
 reached. 
 
 Admitting that so large an amount of the above estimate 
 is paid out of the national treasury, there are still two further 
 facts of which notice must be taken, (i) Are all the salaries 
 turned to personal expenses? (2) In what relation does the 
 unit value of the goods consumed stand to the common retail 
 prices? It is a well known fact that soldiers save their money, 
 or send it home, little as it is. Statistics prepared by the 
 Eighteenth Division are as follows:
 
 190 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Savings of Soldiers, Eighteenth Division 
 
 • 
 
 Savings 
 
 Money Sent Home 
 
 Corps 
 
 Number of 
 Depositors 
 
 Amount 
 
 Number of 
 Senders 
 
 Amount 
 
 The 46th Infantry 
 
 795 
 1,173 
 813 
 977 
 251 
 144 
 142 
 321 
 207 
 204 
 93 
 
 Yen 
 3,016.02 
 
 4.819 15 
 2,861 .01 
 5,211.24 
 
 914.17 
 1,001 .46 
 
 576.63 
 1,448.84 
 
 515-43 
 758.46 
 544-75 
 
 lOI 
 
 99 
 137 
 76 
 10 
 38 
 17 
 29 
 35 
 42 
 29 
 
 Yen 
 I.02S or 
 
 The SSth " 
 
 1,201 
 1.945 
 753 
 155 
 446 
 134 
 332 
 177 
 
 309 
 256 
 
 65 
 
 88 
 
 The 48th " 
 
 The 56th " 
 
 87 
 on 
 
 The 22nd Cavalry 
 
 The 24th Field Artillery 
 
 The 3d Mountain Artillery 
 
 The Sasebo Heavy Artillery .... 
 The Nagasaki Heavy Artillery. . 
 The 1 8th Engineering 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 70 
 
 32 
 30 
 34 
 
 The 18th Commissariat 
 
 We do not know of any other division that has compiled 
 statistics of this kind. According to the table above, about 
 one-half of the soldiers seem to send more or less money home, 
 or to save it. Of course, we do not entertain any doubt of 
 the statistics above, but it would be too hasty a conclusion, 
 if we should think that the soldiers are actually saving their 
 money. For they are not permitted to keep about them 
 money from home, or possess it, from some other source. 
 Above a fixed amount, they are ordered to deposit it. They 
 are always warned against extravagance. Their savings 
 constitute one of the necessary conditions to be marked as an 
 excellent soldier. Hence, it very frequentl^^ happens that 
 their savings come from home rather than from their salary. 
 And such savings too will be turned over to their own personal 
 expenses afterwards. That their savings do not come from 
 their salary is evinced by the fact that of the 1,778 soldiers 
 belonging to the 55th Infantry Regiment, 1,497 received 
 money from home, the amount reaching 4,638.15 yeti. That 
 this is a very moderate estimate rather than actual fact, will 
 be discussed later. If 1,497 men out of 1,778 men get money 
 from home, those who sa\'e money out of their own salary 
 must be 1,778 — 1,497, that is, only 281. But the actual fact
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION I9I 
 
 is that 1,272 of them send their money home, from which 
 follows that the greater part of the amount of the money- 
 saved or sent home by them does not come from their own 
 salaries. We do not mean to say that no soldier saves or sends 
 money home. As to the soldiers below noncommissioned 
 officers, those who are poorest of all the members of their 
 company and those few who are very frugal do not spend the 
 whole of their salaries, some of them sending it to their homes. 
 But this may well be regarded as a negligible quantity. The 
 yearly average of the salaries of noncommissioned officers is 
 no yen or so. Supposing that they spend some 50 yen, the 
 balance would be 60 yen, which we shall discuss in detail 
 later. We think it possible that they save or send home the 
 greater part of the balance. The number of the money send- 
 ers, through the Eighteenth Division, is 620, and the total 
 amount of money is 6,800 yen, that is, ten or eleven per head. 
 The whole of the amount can be regarded as being sent by 
 the noncommissioned officers. The number of money savers 
 is 5,266, and the amount is about 22,000 yen. We have 
 reason to regard the greater part of this as being that of the 
 noncommissioned officers. When we see that the number 
 of money-saving noncommissioned officers throughout the 
 Fourth Division is about one hundred, and that the amount 
 is 1,500 or 1,600 yen, and when we see that the districts of 
 Kyushu, where the Eighteenth Division is located, are places 
 convenient for money saving, we can easily believe that the 
 greater part of the 22,000 yen belongs to the noncommissioned 
 officers. From our personal knowledge all the men of every 
 company, except a few, get money from home. We have 
 seen above that 1,497 men of a certain regiment get money 
 from home. But we think that this number is based upon 
 false statements of the men, who wish thereby to get the 
 confidence of their superiors or comrades. That such a great 
 per cent of soldiers get money from home shows not only the 
 impossibility of money saving, on the part of most of the men, 
 but also the insufficiency of their salary even for their daily 
 expenses.
 
 192 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 From what we have observ^ed above, it follows that noncom- 
 missioned officers are actually saving their money or sending it 
 home, but the common soldiers, except a few, save or send 
 money, not out of their own salary, but out of the amount 
 sent from home. There is no doubt that the whole of the 
 salary of common soldiers goes toward their daily expenses. 
 
 Let us now glance at the difference between the unit value 
 of the goods consumed by soldiers and the common retail 
 price. Of course, we are not able to express such a difference 
 in definite figures. But we find that one-fifth or one-fourth 
 of the training outlay goes for clothing, the greater part of 
 which is made in the Senju Woolen Factory, or in the Clothing 
 Department and its branches. Since clothing is made by the 
 army itself, their unit value, of course, must be cheaper than 
 the common retail value. It is an undeniable fact that the 
 clothing valued at 30 yen per head in the army would be 
 valued at 40 yen or more in the ordinary market. 
 
 The next point for consideration is that the greater part of 
 the expenses for provisions is spent for rice and wheat. The 
 national Treasury purchases and distributes them among the 
 different corps. Needless to say, the purchase price is much 
 lower than the common retail price. 
 
 Still cheaper are the cooking materials. About 4 per cent 
 of the 76 yen for the provisions are spent for these materials. 
 Vegetables, fish, meat, sugar, soy, bean paste, etc., are pur- 
 chased wholesale from those merchants patronized by the 
 government authorities. Their prices are lower than the 
 ordinary prices by 2 or 3 per cent.^ Such being the case, 
 soldiers whose ration costs only 8 or 9 sen per day, are fed 
 better than the common people. As we have said, we can 
 hardly express in definite figures how cheap are the goods con- 
 sumed by the army. Nevertheless, the fact is certain that 
 they are cheap. From this fact, we can infer that the total 
 amount of the goods consumed by the army is a great deal 
 larger than the amount indicated by the figures of the training 
 expenses. The same thing might be said of the naval training 
 expenses. 
 
 ^ See the Kyoto Hinode Shimhtm, June, 1913.
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 1 93 
 
 We now conclude this part of our investigation, by saying 
 that all the expenditures of the national Treasury for the 
 training of soldiers are spent by the common soldiers, while 
 part of the salaries of noncommissioned officers is not spent 
 but saved. We may take the total amount of the expenses 
 of the said officers as being almost equal to that of the soldiers. 
 A quantity of goods, a great deal larger than could be bought 
 In the common market with an amount of money equal 
 to the training expenses, is taken away from the economic 
 world of the people. 
 
 The Amount of Money Soldiers Get from Home 
 In the navy, few get money from home, because the salaries 
 are comparatively high, and, owing to their life at sea, they 
 have comparatively few chances of spending money. But in 
 the army there is almost no one who does not get money from 
 home. One reason for this is that the soldiers' salary is 
 small. We have already seen that a common soldier is paid 
 20 yen per year, on an average, and a noncommissioned officer 
 no yen or so per year, the details of which are shown below: 
 
 Monthly Allowance of Noncommissioned Officers and Common Soldiers 
 
 Inside the Outside the 
 Officers and Soldiers Barracks Barracks 
 
 Yen Yen 
 
 Sergeant-majors and those on 1 fA 45 • oo 
 
 Special ■{ B 39 oo 
 
 [C 33.00 
 
 First class 19.80 30.60 
 
 Second class 17.00 27.00 
 
 Third class i5-00 25.50 
 
 equal footing with them, also 
 first class experts 
 
 Sergeants and those on equal foot- 
 ing with them, also second class 
 experts 
 
 First class 12.90 23.00 
 
 Second class 10.80 21.00 
 
 Third class 9.00 19.00 
 
 Fourth class 7.80 18.00 
 
 Corporals and those on equal] First class " 5-70 16.00 
 
 footing with them, also third ^ Second class 4-65 15 00 
 class experts J 
 
 Soldiers on equal footing with the noncommissioned. . 2.34 
 Soldiers on equal footing with the noncommissioned of 
 
 the defense guards 3-5i 
 
 Higher class soldiers and others i -95 
 
 Higher class gendarmes and others 13 50 
 
 First and second class soldiers and others i .56 
 
 Jailors .75
 
 194 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 Monthly .\llowance During Calling Out 
 
 Y'en 
 Higher class soldiers and others . i . 80 
 Sergeant-majors and others. ... 5.70 
 
 Sergeants and others 3 60 
 
 Corporals and others 2 . 40 
 
 Yen 
 Probationers of military band. . 334- 
 First and second class soldiers 
 
 and others i • 50 
 
 Supplementaries i - 50 
 
 Of the expenses of common soldiers, the amounts that they 
 pay to their sutlers are definitely known. Even a glance over 
 these expenses shows that their salary is too small for their 
 daily expenses. The following is a table, prepared in 191 1, 
 showing a comparison between the monthly average of the 
 proceeds of a sutler and the amount of the salaries paid to the 
 soldiers of the Sixteenth Division: 
 
 Regiments and Battalions 
 
 A The 9th Infantry 
 
 B The 19th Infantry 
 
 C The 38th " : 
 
 D The 53d " 
 
 E The 20th Cavalry 
 
 F The 22d Field Artillery 
 
 G The 1 6th Engineering. 
 
 H The 1 6th Commissariat 
 
 Salary 
 
 Yen 
 2 .06 
 
 17 
 14 
 03 
 20 
 
 15 
 2.25 
 1 .96 
 
 Proceeds 
 
 of Sutlers 
 
 per Soldier 
 
 Yen 
 
 1.36 
 1-57 
 1-34 
 1.87 
 2 . 10 
 
 1.65 
 I .92 
 
 Balance 
 
 Yen 
 
 + 
 + 
 + 
 + 
 + 
 + 
 + 
 + 
 
 55 
 81 
 
 43 
 69 
 
 33 
 05 
 60 
 04 
 
 This shows that throughout the division the salary is more 
 than the expenses. But we must not forget that this table 
 includes the salary of the noncommissioned officers. Below 
 we give a comparison between the salary^ of common soldiers 
 and the proceeds of sutlers. It is believed that there is little 
 difference between noncommissioned officers and common 
 soldiers, as regards their expenditures with the sutlers.
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 
 
 195 
 
 Regiments and Battalions 
 
 A 
 B 
 C 
 D 
 E 
 F 
 G 
 H 
 
 Salary 
 
 Yen 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.62 
 
 1-52 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.64 
 
 I .60 
 
 Proceeds of 
 Sutlers 
 
 Yen 
 
 1.36 
 
 1-57 
 34 
 87 
 10 
 
 65 
 92 
 
 Balance 
 
 Yen 
 
 + 
 + 
 + 
 + 
 
 II 
 
 26 
 
 05 
 28. 
 21 
 48 
 01 
 32 
 
 According to this table, the salary is short of the expenses, 
 at sutlers, except in the case of infantry soldiers, in which the 
 excess of their salary is only 5 sen to 28 sen. Moreover, their 
 money is spent not only at sutlers, but at general goods stores^ 
 restaurants, bars, etc. Is it not plain that the salary of any 
 soldier is short of his expenses? The result is that all the 
 deficit is made up with the money that soldiers get from home. 
 
 As to the amount of the money that they get from home, it 
 is difhcult to estimate, because the circumstances of their 
 districts and of their regiments are so different and various. 
 If the corps to which they are attached are located in cities, 
 their expenses would be larger, for in cities prices are high and 
 accommodations for pleasure are complete. Take, for exam- 
 ple, the case of the regiments at Osaka, one of the greatest 
 cities in Japan, where temptations are many and various. 
 The soldiers are at the mercy of the extrav-agant city life. 
 The regiment at Fukuchiyama is, on the other hand, stationed 
 at a place remote from cities. The opportunities for dissipa- 
 tion are few. Nor must we forget the manners and customs 
 of the places where regiments are located. Experienced 
 ofificers tell us that of about one hundred and fifty men of a 
 company, only thirty keep their chastity. All this goes to 
 show that the expenses of soldiers vary according to the cir- 
 cumstances of the places where they live. It sometimea 
 
 14
 
 196 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 happens that they are given up to amours, and that with 
 little expense. The regiment at Sabaye is an example. This 
 shows that the manners of the places where soldiers live have 
 much to do with the amount of their expenditures. In 
 estimate of soldiers' expenses, we must also take into our 
 consideration the circumstances of the corps to which they 
 belong. Generally speaking, the greatest amounts are spent 
 by artillery soldiers. Next to them in amount, come com- 
 missariat soldiers, infantry'and engineering soldiers being last. 
 As we are not in possession of reliable statistics of all the 
 expenses, we give below a table showing the proceeds of the 
 sutlers in the Sixteenth Division, according to its different 
 corps. Each amount is the average per soldier, April, 191 2, 
 to March, 1913. 
 
 Monthly Average per Soldier, April, 1912-MARCH, 1913 
 
 Corps 
 
 The 9th Inf. Reg. . . 
 The 19th " " . . 
 The 38th " " . . 
 The 53d " " .. 
 The 20th Cav. Reg. 
 The 22d Field Art. . 
 
 The i6th Eng 
 
 The l6th Commis. . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Yen 
 
 1 
 
 Vm 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 1-74 
 
 
 53 
 
 1-33 
 
 1.48 
 
 I . II 
 
 1.32 
 
 
 H7 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 22 
 
 1-43 
 
 
 34 
 
 1-93 
 
 
 74 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 52 
 
 I .88 
 
 
 15 
 
 I .21 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 3H 
 
 1.48 
 
 
 57 
 
 1. 17 
 
 
 62 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 47 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 93 
 
 1.38 
 
 
 93 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 54 
 
 1.94 
 
 
 95 
 
 2.01 
 
 
 98 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 14 
 
 115 
 
 
 29 
 
 I-3I 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 19 
 
 1-39 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 1.44 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Yen 
 1.48 
 I .46 
 1.88 
 1 .20 
 
 ■99 
 1.80 
 I .24 
 1-74 
 
 Corps 
 
 The 9th Inf. Reg.. 
 The 19th " " . 
 The 38th " 
 
 The 53d " " • 
 The 20th Cav. Reg 
 The 22d Field Art. 
 
 The i6th Eng 
 
 The i6th Commis. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Total 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 1-34 
 
 I . II 
 
 I .21 
 
 1.27 
 
 1.66 
 
 16.57 
 
 I-3I 
 
 1. 18 
 
 1.70 
 
 i^56 
 
 1 .90 
 
 18 
 
 70 
 
 1. 17 
 
 I .60 
 
 2.33 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.15 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 ■99 
 
 1.50 
 
 I 23 
 
 1-35 
 
 1 .60 
 
 16 
 
 49 
 
 ■97 
 
 1.66 
 
 1-35 
 
 I .50 
 
 2.04 
 
 17 
 
 96 
 
 1 .00 
 
 1.63 
 
 1-95 
 
 1. 81 
 
 1.63 
 
 20 
 
 59 
 
 1 .00 
 
 I .50 
 
 1-35 
 
 I . 12 
 
 1.32 
 
 15 
 
 7H 
 
 1.63 
 
 1.77 
 
 1.76 
 
 1. 61 
 
 i.«3 
 
 18 
 
 40 
 
 Monthly 
 Average 
 
 Yen 
 
 I 51 
 1.36 
 
 1-57 
 I 34 
 1.87 
 2.10 
 1.65 
 I .92
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 
 
 197 
 
 The following is a table for the Eighteenth Division, in- 
 cluding the expenses at sutlers and other expenses: 
 
 Corps 
 
 Number of 
 
 Expenses at 
 
 Other 
 
 Total 
 
 Average per 
 
 Soldiers 
 
 Sutlers 
 
 Expenses 
 
 Soldier 
 
 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 The 46th Inf 
 
 1-754 
 
 15,239-61 
 
 7,986.94 
 
 23,226.55 
 
 12.67 
 
 The 55th " 
 
 1,778 
 
 14,484.59 
 
 9,657 -44 
 
 24,142.03 
 
 13 
 
 5« 
 
 The 48th " 
 
 1,697 
 
 16,410.36 
 
 6,166.80 
 
 22,577.16 
 
 13 
 
 30 
 
 The 56th " 
 
 1,289 
 
 9,831-65 
 
 5,022.22 
 
 14,853-87 
 
 II 
 
 52 
 
 The 22d Cav 
 
 366 
 
 3,897.02 
 
 1,058.58 
 
 4,955-60 
 
 13 
 
 54 
 
 The 24th Field Art.. 
 
 621 
 
 5,405-45 
 
 3,510.61 
 
 8,916.06 
 
 14 
 
 36 
 
 The 3d Mt. Art 
 
 306 
 
 2,769.88 
 
 1,730.42 
 
 4,500.30 
 
 14 
 
 70 
 
 The i8th Eng 
 
 453 
 
 4,016.16 
 
 1,477-13 
 
 5,493-29 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 The 18th Commis. . 
 
 271 
 
 2,981.47 
 
 1,308.28 
 
 4,289-75 
 
 15-83'^ 
 
 * These statistics are for the five months, from July to November, 1912. 
 
 The phrase "other expenses" in the table above, is too 
 indefinite to rely upon. But supposing that the figures under 
 this heading correspond to the actual expenses, we shall find 
 that there is a certain similarity between these figures and 
 those of the Sixteenth Division, which do not include "other 
 expenses." That is, the amount of the expenses is greatest 
 with the field and mountain artilleries and with the commis- 
 sariat. The cavalry is next to them, the infantry and the 
 engineering being last. 
 
 Admitting that there is such a difference in the expenses 
 of soldiers in the different branches of the army, what could 
 be taken as the absolute amount of money that they get from 
 home? Although there is such a difference, according to the 
 branch of service, yet the difference is not very great. Of 
 course, there may be comparatively greater differences, ac- 
 cording to localities. But we can avoid an overestimate if 
 we depend upon the statistics of the corps in remoter places. 
 We have, however, only one table of statistics of this sort, 
 which is that of the Eighteenth Division. Besides, we have 
 to make allowance for the fact that the greater part of the 
 amount they get from home is concealed. Bearing all these 
 circumstances in mind, let us look at the statistics:
 
 198 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 ON 
 
 u 
 m 
 S 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 Z 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 (/} 
 H 
 
 z 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 a 
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 199 
 
 A. 
 B. 
 C. 
 D. 
 E. 
 F. 
 G. 
 H. 
 I. 
 
 J. 
 K. 
 
 Table II 
 
 Percentage of Soldiers 
 Receiving Money in Other 
 Percentage of Soldiers Ways than by Money 
 Receiving Money Order 
 
 67 
 
 84 
 78 
 
 93 
 70 
 
 55 
 31 
 56 
 75 
 74 
 93 
 
 411. 
 458. 
 2.584- 
 273- 
 126. 
 221 . 
 294. 
 669. 
 102. 
 213. 
 254- 
 
 Total Number 
 of Soldiers 
 
 9 095 
 
 Total Amount 
 of Money 
 
 Yen 
 21,210.45 
 
 Table III 
 
 Average per 
 Soldier 
 Yen 
 2-335 
 
 Average per 
 Month 
 Yen 
 .4667 
 
 Average per 
 Year 
 Yen 
 5.604 
 
 From the above tables, it is noted that the number of those 
 who get money from the hands of \dsitors, or by other similar 
 ways, is a great deal larger than that of those who get money 
 by money order. The former is about double the latter, 
 except that it is twenty-five times as much in the Forty- 
 eighth Regiment. The money that soldiers get directly from 
 visitors or friends can be concealed if they so desire. But 
 from the fact that so much of the amount received in this 
 way is published in the statistics, we can infer that it is 
 actually not less than the amount received by money order. 
 In other respects, we can hardly rely upon these statistics. 
 For example, how could it be possible that only 50 to 70 per 
 cent of the soldiers get money from home? 
 
 Even the officers themselves can hardly know the actual 
 amount of money their men get from home. The amount 
 sent by money order seems to be quite obvious, yet it is often 
 the case that soldiers get money through a money order 
 addressed, not to themselves, but to friends, in order to escape 
 the notice of the officers. And the friends are usually restau- 
 rant keepers, etc. Even the amount received by money 
 orders is, therefore, not to be exactly ascertained. Our only 
 clue in the matter is the statistics of the amount paid on
 
 200 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 money orders at the 
 Eleventh Division is 
 Zentsuji, there are two 
 Sakade and Kotohira. 
 center of the district, \v 
 account of its shrine, 
 is about equal to that 
 present. 
 
 Sakade . 
 Zentsuji. 
 
 Post Office of Zentsuji, where the 
 quartered. In the neighborhood of 
 other towns almost equal to it in size, 
 
 The former is a small commercial 
 
 hile the latter is a place well known on 
 
 The population of the former (Sakade) 
 
 of Zentsuji, though slightly larger at 
 
 Year Ending 
 
 1902 1908 191 1 
 
 10,759 14.470 15-866 
 
 12,174 14,621 14,108 
 
 Zentsuji depends for its prosperity upon the division and 
 the Zentsuji Temple, while Sakade is a commercial center. 
 
 If we exclude from our consideration the amount of money 
 sent to soldiers, we can hardly believe that Sakade is below 
 Zentsuji in the amount paid in money orders. 
 
 The population of Kotohira is almost equal to that of 
 Sakade, and in them the amounts of money paid on money 
 order are about equal. We give this comparison because we 
 want to show that Sakade is not particularly less in its 
 amount of the money order paid. In other words, we want 
 to show that we are justified in selecting Sakade, which is 
 about equal in population to Kotohira, and comparing it with 
 Zentsuji. 
 
 Comparison of Amounts Paid on Money Orders in Zentsuji, Kotohira 
 
 AND Sakade 
 
 Year 
 
 1897 
 1898 
 1899 
 1900 
 1901 
 1902 
 1903 
 1904 
 
 1905 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 
 Zentsuji 
 
 Kotohira 
 
 Sakade 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 11,596.245 
 
 36,405.738 
 
 22,035 
 
 .499 
 
 44,444.287 
 
 38,728.025 
 
 25.953 
 
 899 
 
 61,648.704 
 
 40,987.075 
 
 38,383 
 
 915 
 
 62,761 .426 
 
 50,166.549 
 
 34.528 
 
 314 
 
 67,671.988 
 
 44,898.560 
 
 29.530 
 
 6X1 
 
 206,220.084 
 
 53.371.431 
 
 46,007 
 
 962 
 
 261,380.443 
 
 69,201 .508 
 
 67.539 
 
 050 
 
 132,680.492 
 
 68,742.741 
 
 65.496 
 
 257 
 
 128,587.083 
 
 96,930.893 
 
 63,205 
 
 785 
 
 109,483.048 
 
 66,968.034 
 
 73.384 
 
 434 
 
 123,986.000 
 
 64,184.000 
 
 59.357 
 
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 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 201 
 
 We shall find a considerable difference in the amount paid 
 
 on money orders between Zentsuji, on the one hand, and the 
 
 two other towns, on the other. Since the establishment of 
 
 the division in 1899, Zentsuji, which was below the other 
 
 towns in the amount of money order payments, has gone ahead 
 
 of them in this respect. We leave out of our consideration 
 
 the figures for 1904, 1905 and 1906, because they are due to 
 
 the influence of the war, and also those for 1907, because the 
 
 town of Kotohira had a great festival in that year. But as to 
 
 the difference in the amount paid on money orders in 1907 to 
 
 1909 at Zentsuji and at the other towns, we may attribute it 
 
 to the fact that the soldiers get money from home. The aver- 
 
 362,056 yen 
 
 age amount for these years at Zentsuji is = 65,420 
 
 5 
 
 327,099 yen , ,u .u ^ tu A-f 
 
 and = 65,420 yen, at the other towns. Ihe dii- 
 
 o 
 ference of about 55,000 yen must be regarded as the amount 
 
 of money received by the soldiers at Zentsuji. We shall get 
 the following result, if we parcel out this amount to the total 
 number of the soldiers at Zentsuji. The amount since 1910 
 will suit our purpose, for the division has since been stationed 
 in China. 
 
 The annual report of the Military Department, 1908, tells 
 us that the number of noncommssioned officers and common 
 soldiers was 3,884. As we do not know the figures in 1907 and 
 1909, we take the figures above as showing the average num- 
 ber. The average amount received by money orders, per 
 soldiers, would be (120,685 yen — 6^,4.20 3•ew)-^ 3,884 = 
 55,265 3^^^-^ 3,884= 14.23 yen (short); that is, 14 yen and 23 
 sen per soldier. Roughly estimated, we take it as 15 yen. 
 Besides these 15 yen, there is the amount of money received 
 from visitors. The authorities of the Eighteenth Division 
 estimate it about double the amount paid on money orders. 
 But in making this estimate, they counted only the amount of 
 the money orders addressed to the soldiers, which means that 
 this estimate is less than the actual amount. We shall, 
 therefore, regard the amount of money received from visitors
 
 202 
 
 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 as about equal to that received by money order. And this 
 is admitted by the said authorities. Then, about 30 yen 
 must be the total average per head of the money the soldiers 
 get from home. 
 
 Our opinion is that this amount of 30 yen is approximately 
 not only the amount the soldiers at Zentsuji get from home, 
 but also that it holds good for the soldiers throughout the 
 country. This is surely not an overestimate. Zentsuji is a 
 little town of 15,000 inhabitants, while all other places, where 
 troops are quartered, are, as a rule, larger in size. Zentsuji is 
 also a town where the prices of goods are comparatively low. 
 Let us take a glance at the following table of the boarding 
 expenses throughout the divisions: 
 
 The old jurisdiction 
 districts 
 
 I 
 
 The present jurisdic- 
 tion districts 
 
 The first district 
 The second " 
 The third 
 The fourth " 
 The fifth 
 
 The sixth 
 The seventh " 
 
 The first district 
 
 The second " 
 The third 
 
 The fourth " 
 
 The fifth 
 
 The 7th Division 
 
 The 1st 
 
 The 8th and 14th Divisions 
 
 The 2d, 4th and i8th Divisions 
 
 The 6th, 9th, 12th, 13th and i6th 
 
 Divisions 
 The 15th Division 
 The 3d, 5th, loth, nth and 17th 
 
 Divisions 
 
 The 7th Division 
 
 The 1st and 4th Divisions 
 
 The 2d, 8th, 12th, 13th, 14th and 
 
 1 6th Divisions 
 The 6th, 9th, loth, nth, 15th and 
 
 l6th Divisions 
 The 3d, 5th and 17th Divisions 
 
 The boarding expenses are greatest in the first district while 
 those in the seventh are least. Those of the Eleventh Division 
 jurisdiction, that is, Zentsuji, are the lowest, or next to the 
 lowest. Since Zentsuji is a small town, where prices are low 
 and accommodations for pleasure are very incomplete, the 
 average amount of money received from home, which we have 
 estimated to be 30 yen, is surely not an overestimate. Besides, 
 this estimate of ours agrees with what we hear personally 
 about the expenses. It is said that soldiers in the ordinary 
 towns get about 2 yen per month, and about 4 or 5 yen in 
 case of special manoeuvers. In the northeastern districts, 
 the amount must be less, while it must be larger in the dis- 
 tricts around Kyoto and Osaka. The average amount is,
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 
 
 203 
 
 after all, about 30 yen. Captain Masuda also estimates it to 
 be about 30 yen in his work entitled "A Dissertation on Mili- 
 tary Tax." 
 
 Expenses at the Time When Soldiers Enter and Leave Barracks 
 
 Thus far, we have devoted ourselves to the study of the 
 expenses paid by the national Treasury and by soldiers them- 
 selves. Our study would be incomplete unless we obtain 
 some information concerning the expenses of the soldiers on 
 their entrance to, and departure from, barracks. Of these 
 expenses, the following are important : 
 
 Expenses on entrance: 
 
 (a) Clothing, 
 
 (b) Travel, 
 
 (c) Entertainments, 
 
 (d) Entrance expenses. 
 
 Expenses at departure: 
 
 (a) Clothing, 
 
 (b) Purchase of souvenirs, 
 
 (c) Entertainments, 
 
 (d) Miscellaneous. 
 
 Of course, statistics of such expenses throughout the whole 
 country are not obtainable. There are, however, some local- 
 ities that are in possession of reliable statistics of such ex- 
 penses. Although the items are not necessarily the same, 
 yet we can make some general observations concerning the 
 expenses. 
 
 Table I. — Statistics of the Second Division, Concerning the Expenses 
 
 AT Departure, November, 1912 
 
 Corps 
 
 Souvenirs 
 
 Per 
 Head 
 
 Necessary 
 Articles 
 
 Per 
 Head 
 
 Total per 
 Head 
 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 The 29th Inf. Regiment. . . . 
 
 3,425-250 
 
 4.92 
 
 3245.18 
 
 4.66 
 
 958 
 
 The 65th Inf. Regiment. . . . 
 
 3,609.103 
 
 5-18 
 
 1495 -97 
 
 1. 91 
 
 7.09 
 
 The 4th Inf. Regiment 
 
 5,706.000 
 
 7.20 
 
 2983.15 
 
 4.00 
 
 II .20 
 
 The 32d Inf. Regiment 
 
 2,786.880 
 
 ? 
 
 2957 -75 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.20+x 
 
 The 2d Cav. Regiment. ... 
 
 308 . 700 
 
 2.57 
 
 98.00 
 
 I .00 
 
 3-57 
 
 The 2d Field Art. Regiment 
 
 316.000 
 
 2.25 
 
 400 . 00 
 
 2.50 
 
 4-75 
 
 The 1st Mount. Art. Bat- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 talion 
 
 278.550 
 
 3.86 
 
 367 75 
 
 4.00 
 
 7.86
 
 204 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 
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 1
 
 208 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Table III. — Statistics of Expenses Prepared for a Certain Division in 
 
 THE Northeastern Districts 
 
 The following is the result of an investigation by an ofificer well acquainted with 
 the local circumstances. The investigation is concerned with the expenses of the 
 soldiers in the said division who belong to the middle class. The result is, we 
 believe, quite approximate to the actual facts. 
 
 /. — Expenses of Soldiers, When They Enter Barracks 
 
 Yen 
 
 (1) Expenses at the conscript examination. 
 
 (a) Expenses for clothing 20. 00 
 
 (Conscripts take this opportunity to get new clothing made, not 
 
 for this occasion alone, but for the marriage that they have in 
 view.) 
 
 (b) Traveling expenses • • ■ 3-00 
 
 (Those who were schoolmates gather together on this occasion. 
 
 They put up at the same hotel, hold meetings, take photographs, 
 etc.) 
 
 (2) Expenses for dinner party ■ ■ 8 .00 
 
 (Just before or after the examination, friends visit the conscripts and 
 
 participate in a dinner.) 
 
 (3) Expenses from examination to the entrance to barracks 15 00 
 
 (Farewell meetings; visits to shrines or temples, or to relatives and 
 
 friends, living far from the conscripts; the purchase of books neces- 
 sary to the military life, etc.) 
 
 (4) The expenses at the time of entering barracks 8 .00 
 
 (Farewell meetings, traveling expenses, incidental expenses, etc.) 
 
 Total 5400 
 
 11. — Expenses When They Leave Barracks 
 
 Yen 
 
 (i) Purchase of souvenirs, etc 5-00 
 
 (Wine cups, tea trays, hanging pictures, etc.) 
 
 (2) Clothing ■■••. •••• 5 00 
 
 (Most soldiers have their clothing already made at the time ot the 
 
 examination, and now they purchase hats, shoes or clogs, shirts, etc.) 
 
 (3) Dinners ...... 10.00 
 
 (Dinners and meetings of various sorts, when soldiers get home.) 
 
 Total 20 .00
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 
 For Purchase of Souvenirs on Departure for Home 
 
 209 
 
 Corps 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 F 
 G 
 H 
 I 
 
 J 
 K 
 
 Infantry 
 
 II 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Field Artillery 
 Engineering. . 
 Commissariat 
 Hospital 
 
 Number of 
 Soldiers 
 
 746 
 720 
 410 
 710 
 
 2bl 
 10 
 
 Amount of 
 Money 
 
 Yen 
 1,971.14 
 
 3.999 
 
 1,464 
 
 962 
 
 95 
 150 
 
 30 
 
 90 
 50 
 25 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 Average per 
 Head 
 
 Yen 
 64 
 50 
 57 
 35 
 00 
 00 
 00 
 
 35 
 00 
 00 
 00 
 
 Note. — The average per head for E, F, G and J is a supposition by the author- 
 ities concerned. The small amount of H is due to the shortness of the term for 
 service. 
 
 According to the table above, soldiers spend 3 to 4 yen on an average, in the 
 purchase of souvenirs. But it happens frequently that they purchase them 
 through the merchants or friends at home. Our estimate is, therefore, 5 yen per 
 head. 
 
 Judging from the above, the least esthnate of the expenses 
 at the time of entering barracks must be 5 yen for clothing, 5 
 yen for dinners and another 5 yen for traveling expenses, etc., 
 that is, 15 yen in all. About the same amount is spent at 
 departure. 
 
 Few are the soldiers who wear uniform when they leave barracks for home. 
 It is very often the case that, when they are about to leave barracks, they tease 
 their parents or brothers into making a new dress that is in fashion. Do not say 
 that it is only a suit of clothes. The very suit they obtain indicates their tendency 
 to an extravagant life as the result of their living in towns or cities. Think of 
 their influence upon the rustics. ^ 
 
 Infantry soldiers and medical privates serv^e in the army 
 ior two years. Hence, they need the amount of 15 yen twice 
 — at their entrance into barracks the first year, and at their 
 departure from barracks the second year. Soldiers of other 
 special branches need it also twice, for their term extends over 
 three years. The ratio of the distribution of the actives, 
 according to the branches of the army, is four of the infantry 
 
 ^ Jiji Shimpo, December 3, 1913.
 
 210 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 soldiers against one of other special branches. Besides, many 
 supplementaries and transport auxiliaries incur expenses at 
 their entrance and departure every year. Taking all these 
 circumstances into consideration, we shall not be very far 
 from the truth when we say that such an amount as the above 
 is needed once every year. To avoid overestimate, let our 
 estimate of the amount be lo yen per head, every year. 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 We have studied under separate headings the different 
 expenses incurred by our soldiers. Let us now. sum up all 
 the expenses in order to see how much is expended by each 
 soldier. The common soldiers, whose number is the largest 
 of all classes of military men, have the following expenses 
 per head: 
 
 Yen 
 
 A Amount paid out by the national Treasury About 140.00 
 
 B Amount soldiers receive from home " 30.00 
 
 C Amount spent by soldiers at the entrance to and departure from 
 
 barracks " 10.00 
 
 Total .About 180.00 
 
 When we turn our attention to the amount of the expendi- 
 ture by the national Treasury for noncommissioned officers, 
 we shall find that there is much difference between it and the 
 corresponding amount for common soldiers, which we have 
 seen above. But the difference is only that of salaries. The 
 former, whose salary is about no yen per year, do not spend 
 the whole of it, but send a part of it home for saving, as we 
 have already seen to be the case. They do not receive money 
 from home, nor incur any expenses at their entrance to and 
 departure from barracks. But there is nothing different 
 from the common soldiers in their living. As they are paid 
 somewhat better than common soldiers, and are more free 
 than they, these men may spend their money to a greater 
 extent than the common soldiers. Taking these various 
 circumstances into consideration, our estimate of the amount 
 of the expenses per noncommissioned officer is that it is about 
 equal to that of the common soldier.
 
 EFFECTS OX CONSUMPTION 211 
 
 Yen 
 
 Amount paid out by the national Treasury About 235.00 
 
 The amount sent home or saved " 55-00 
 
 Balance About 180.0a 
 
 The conscript sailors do not, as a rule, receive any money 
 
 from home, and almost the whole of their salary is spent upon 
 
 themselves. As their term of active service extends over four 
 
 years, the amount of their expenses at enrollment and at 
 
 discharge is about one-half of the yearly average of common 
 
 soldiers. 
 
 Yen 
 
 Amount paid 6ut by the national Treasury About 187 .00 
 
 Amount of expenses at enrollment and at discharge " 5 00 
 
 Total .About 192 .00 
 
 Noncommissioned ofhcers of the navy spend by far a greater 
 amount of money. But, in order to avoid any overestimate, 
 let us estimate it to be about equal to that of the common 
 sailors. 
 
 The estimate above has been of the average amount of 
 expenses per head, both in the army and the navy. Below we 
 give the estimate of the amount of expenses for all the men of 
 the army and the navy: 
 
 The army 180 FenX2i5,ooo= 38,700,000 Yen 
 
 The navy 190 YenX 18,000= 3,420,000 " 
 
 Total 42,120,000 Yen 
 
 The total of about 42,120,000 yen is being spent every year 
 by the men of the army and the navy. 
 
 Expenditure per Head of Population 
 
 A Comparison of Expenditure Between Soldiers and Populace 
 
 It is not an easy thing to establish a comparison of expendi- 
 ture between soldiers and populace. As we have, however, 
 obtained the average amount per soldier, we shall perhaps be 
 able to accomplish our object, if we can find the amount of 
 the expenses of the populace; but this is almost impossible to 
 
 as
 
 212 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC SYSTEM 
 
 learn exactly. First of all, let us take it for granted that 
 soldiers spend more money than common people, and then 
 compare the necessaries of life for the common people with 
 those of soldiers. 
 
 Rice. — With the common people, rice forms the staple food, 
 but they usually mix it M'ith wheat. It would be a luxury 
 for them to feed on rice alone. On the other hand, the ration 
 of rice per soldier was formerly 6 go per day; at present, it is 
 slightly over 4 go, because wheat is now mixed with rice for 
 hygienic reasons. The amount of cleaned rice consumed by 
 a soldier in one year would then be about 1,530 go (that is, 
 about eight bushels). But the common people consume 
 about 1,000 go (that is, one koku, about five bushels) of un- 
 cleaned rice and the amount consumed by 54,000,000 of the 
 population is 54,000,000 kokii. Taking i per cent of this 
 population to be children below seven or eight years of age, 
 the average amount per head would be i.i koku (five bushels 
 and a half). 
 
 Beef. — In the present state of living In Japan, beef is a 
 luxury. The average quantity per soldier is about 22 kin 
 (about 29.3 lbs.) a year. On the other hand, the average 
 quantity per head of the population Is as follows: 
 
 Kin 
 
 1908 1 .326 
 
 1909 1 .369 
 
 1910 1 .800 
 
 191 1 1 .400 
 
 The quantity of lieef consumed by soldiers is then about 
 fourteen or fifteen times as much as that consumed by the 
 common people. Strictly speaking, the quantity of beef 
 should be compared with the quotient divided by the number 
 of consumers. 
 
 In the quantity of fish consumed, also, the common people 
 are far below the soldiers. 
 
 Clothing. — We shall not be far from the truth when we 
 say that the quantity of textile fabrics produced ev^ery year 
 may well be regarded as Indicating the quantity of clothing
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 
 
 213 
 
 used by the people. The quantity of textile fabrics consumed 
 a.t home in 191 2 was as follows: 
 
 Production 
 Yen 
 
 Imported 
 Yen 
 
 Exported 
 
 Yen 
 
 Home Consumption 
 Yen 
 
 337,230,151 
 
 20,280,379 
 
 57,540,177 
 
 299,970,353 
 
 That is, only 5.50 yen per head, while the average amount 
 per soldier is usually above 30 yen, every year. If we add 
 to the former amount the expenses for sewing and the profit 
 that goes to retailers, even then we can not deny the great 
 difference between the two. 
 
 The foregoing are only a few instances of many. In other 
 various respects, too, soldiers are by far greater consumers 
 than the common people. But we shall make a further 
 investigation into this matter in order to ascertain as approx- 
 imately as possible the degree of the difference. Let us now 
 make an estimate of the expenses of soldiers when at home. 
 
 Classes to Which Soldiers Belong 
 
 In order to know the expenses of soldiers when they are at 
 home, we must first look at the state of their distribution 
 among the different social classes. Statistics of the conscript 
 examination in the city of Kyoto in 1912 give us valuable 
 information concerning the relation between physique and 
 means of living, and the ratio of conscripts to the actives. 
 
 Direct National Tax in the City of Kyoto, Lower District 
 
 Physique 
 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 5-10 
 
 10-20 
 
 20-50 
 
 50-100 
 
 Above 
 100 
 
 First class 
 
 Yen 
 
 234 
 60 
 
 274 
 
 Yen 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Yen 
 
 . 8 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 Yen 
 31 
 
 4 
 29 
 
 Yen 
 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 52 
 
 Yen 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 Yen 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 Second " A 
 
 " B 
 
 
 
 Total of eligibles 
 
 Third class 
 
 568 
 
 267 
 
 50 
 
 28 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 34 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 64 
 
 23 
 2 
 
 88 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 38 
 18 
 
 I 
 
 31 
 16 
 
 Fourth " 
 
 5 
 
 
 Total 
 
 885 
 
 40 
 
 54 
 
 89 
 
 132 
 
 57 
 
 52 
 
 Percentage of eligibles to 
 conscripts 
 
 First class eligibles to con- 
 scripts 
 
 64.2 
 26.4 
 
 70.0 
 40.0 
 
 63.0 
 16.5 
 
 71.9 
 36.5 
 
 66.6 
 25.6 
 
 66.7 
 315 
 
 88.0 
 18.0
 
 214 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Direct National Tax in the City of Kyoto, Upper District 
 
 Physique 
 
 First class 
 
 Second " 
 
 Total of eligibles 
 
 Third class 
 
 Fourth " 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage of eligibles to 
 conscripts 
 
 First class eligibles to con- 
 scripts 
 
 Yen 
 272 
 322 
 
 594 
 280 
 
 938 
 
 63 -3 
 29.0 
 
 0-5 
 
 Yen 
 
 14 
 II 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 59-5 
 33 I 
 
 5-10 
 
 Yen 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 60.5 
 16.3 
 
 10-20 
 
 Yen 
 25 
 33 
 
 58 
 19 
 
 85 
 
 68.2 
 29.4 
 
 20-50 
 
 Yen 
 26 
 36 
 
 62 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 94 
 
 66.0 
 
 27.7 
 
 50-100 
 
 Yen 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 38 
 
 71. 1 
 47-4 
 
 Above 
 100 
 
 Yen 
 6 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 I 
 
 27 
 
 81. 5 
 22.2 
 
 The Sum Total 
 
 First class 
 
 506 
 
 1,824 
 
 30 
 
 82 
 
 15 
 91 
 
 56 
 165 
 
 59 
 223 
 
 35 
 92 
 
 15 
 
 Conscripts 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 Percentage of first class eli- 
 gibles to conscripts 
 
 27.7 
 
 36.6 
 
 16.5 
 
 33-9 
 
 26.5 
 
 38.0 
 
 19.6 
 
 If we classify the conscripts in the Lower District according 
 to the standards of living recognized by the officials of the 
 District Office, we shall get the following result. The divi- 
 sion of the middle class into A and B is the author's. Pay- 
 ment of the national tax is the division line between the two. 
 
 Standard of Living ^ 
 
 Physique 
 
 Higher 
 
 Middle A 
 
 Middle B 
 
 Lower 
 
 First class 
 
 15 
 
 I 
 
 23 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 95 
 
 21 
 
 III 
 
 98 
 13 
 
 127 
 
 32 
 
 141 
 
 138 
 
 30 
 
 113 
 
 Second class A . . 
 
 25 
 
 Second class B 
 
 130 
 
 Third class 
 
 135 
 
 Fourth class 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 67 
 
 338 
 
 468 
 
 430 
 
 
 
 Percentage of first class eligibles to 
 conscripts 
 
 22.4 
 58.2 
 
 28.0 
 67.1 
 
 274 
 64.0 
 
 26.3 
 
 Percentage of eligibles to conscripts 
 
 62.3 
 
 1 Figures are based on materials collected by the City Office of Kyoto.
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 215 
 
 The percentage is greatest in the Middle A, which means 
 that the largest percentage of the first class, and consequently 
 of the active, belongs to the Middle Class A. The figures get 
 smaller suddenly in the higher, while in the Middle B and the 
 lower, they also fall off, but the difference between them and 
 the Middle A is not very large. In other words, the first 
 class eligibles, and consequently the actives, come from those 
 classes who pay a national tax to the amount of 50 to 100 yen. 
 The percentage of those who pay a national tax above 100 
 yen falls off considerably. On the other hand, the percentage 
 of those who pay a tax of less than 50 yen falls off, but not so 
 considerably as the former. The percentage, of the actives 
 to conscripts is 29.9 among those who pay the national tax 
 below 100 yen, while the percentage among those who pay a 
 tax above 100 yen is 19.6. The ratio is 3 to 2, 
 
 Our statistical investigation has so far been limited to one 
 city only, but we think that in other cities there exist similar 
 circumstances as regards the percentages given above. But 
 in the provinces this is not necessarily true, for which there 
 are two reasons. One is that the provinces are different from 
 the cities in their various circumstances, especially in sanitary 
 conditions, and the other is that the national tax in cities is 
 usually the income tax or the business tax, while that in the 
 provinces is mainly the land tax. In order to know the rela- 
 tion between the amount of the tax paid in the province and 
 the physique of conscripts, we have to go to statistics of the 
 localities concerned. For this purpose we quote the accom- 
 panying table from Lieut. Col. Motojiro Tanabe's work, en- 
 titled History of the Japanese Army. These statistics were 
 prepared by him in 1906 for the Sakura Regimental District. 
 
 In spite of the differences In circumstances, the different 
 classes of tax payers down "to below 100 yen'' show compara- 
 tively slight differences In physique, while those who pay the 
 tax "above 100 yen'' fall far below, in the percentage of the 
 first class conscripts. The highest percentage of those "below 
 100 yen" is 50.1, the average being 43.4. If we compare this 
 average percentage with that of those "above 100 yen,"
 
 2l6 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
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 EFFECTS OX CONSUMPTION 21/ 
 
 which is 29.4, we find the ratio to be 3 of the former against 2 
 of the latter, as was the case in Kyoto. Those who pay no 
 national tax have a slightly lower percentage of first class 
 conscripts than do those "below 100 yen,'' which was the 
 case in Kyoto. 
 
 Granting that there are such differences in the percentage 
 of first class conscripts among the different classes of tax 
 payers, what will be the state of distribution of conscripts in 
 general, among the different social classes? We have several 
 statistical tables from different localities concerning this 
 question, but we find statistics for the whole country entirely 
 lacking. The only way left for us is first to classify the people 
 according to their property and then to make an estimate of 
 the number of conscripts, on the supposition that the birth 
 rate in all classes is the same. Of course, the rate is greatest 
 among the lower classes, but since the exact figures for the 
 rate are not known, there is no way other than to suppose 
 that they are the same throughout the different classes. We 
 do not think that we can draw hard and fast lines between the 
 different classes, according to their property. But we think 
 that the classification of the people, according to the amount 
 of their income, would lead us to a result quite similar to the 
 classification according to property. 
 
 Even this classification according to income is not without 
 difficulties. Needless to say, the statistics prepared by the 
 government authorities concerning the income of the people 
 are not accurate. And there are no statistics of any sort 
 concerning the incomes below 300 yen. Not only that, but 
 we have no means of ascertaining to whom belong such in- 
 comes as the interest on public or on company bonds, the 
 profits of legal persons, etc. Our way of classifying the people 
 is therefore only possible when we depend upon the so-called 
 "third class income," by which is meant the incomes from 
 salary. As will be seen later, the impossibility of locat- 
 ing certain incomes will not hinder us so much as appears at 
 first.
 
 2l8 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Classification of Tax Payers by Income i 
 
 Approximate Income Tax Payers Total Income 
 
 Ye7i Yen 
 
 300-500 695,108 200,556,498 
 
 500-1000 378,343 185,630,699 
 
 1000-2000 130,553 123,001,782 
 
 2000-3000 34.102 55,658,621 
 
 3000-5000 22,191 53-937.268 
 
 5000-10,000 1 1,107 44,496,043 
 
 10,000-15,000 2,493 16,939,147 
 
 15,000-20,000 873 8,348,716 
 
 20,000-30,000 533 7,597,317 
 
 30,000-50,000 304 6,507,316 
 
 50,000-100,000 98 3,826,140 
 
 Above 100,000 13 1 ,602,367 
 
 Total 1,275,718 708,101,914 
 
 Most of those whose income belongs to "the first " and "the 
 second class income," pay the third class income tax also, and 
 their income is above 500 yen. The actual number of those 
 who receive an income above 300 yen and below 500 yen is, 
 perhaps, not much different from the number on the table 
 above. For the sake of convenience, from the total number of 
 tax payers, let us subtract 695,108, being those with income 
 above 300 yen and below 500 yen ; then the balance of 580,610 
 will be those who pay tax above 500 yen. Following is a 
 table showing the number of tax payers and houses in the 
 whole country:- 
 
 Total number of houses 9,250,434 
 
 Total number of houses whose income is above 500 yen 580,610 
 
 Total number of houses whose income is below 500 yen and above 
 
 300 yen 695,108 
 
 Total number of houses, whose income is below 300 yen 7,974,716 
 
 Basing our investigation upon this table, let us see how the 
 actives are distributed among the different classes of tax 
 payers. Now, to which of the classes do those belong who 
 pay a national tax above lOO yen? The classes to which they 
 belong would be quite different, according to their calling, 
 and according to whether they belong to cities or to rural 
 districts. About 75 per cent of the total number of houses 
 belongs to districts, and their chief tax is the land tax. 
 
 1 Annual Report published in 191 1 by the Revenue Bureau of the Finance 
 Department. 
 
 - See the Thirtieth Annual Statistics of Japan.
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 219 
 
 And of those who pay the land tax, those having an income of 
 500 yen pay different national taxes to the amount of about 
 100 yen. Land owners are not confined to districts, but many 
 of them live in cities. Besides, the land tax occupies a fore- 
 most part in the amount of the different national taxes paid 
 in cities. In 191 1 the number of those who paid a land tax 
 was 9,300,578. These figures show that the number of land 
 tax payers is greater than that of the houses in the whole 
 country, which is 9,250,000. And this number of the payers 
 of the land tax is more than double the number of houses of 
 farmers that are in possession of arable land. The following 
 is a table prepared in December, 191 1, by the National Agri- 
 cultural Association : 
 
 Number of farm houses 5,419,992 
 
 Number of land-owning and tenant farmers 2,155,763 
 
 Number of land-owning farmers 1,762,296 
 
 Number of tenant farmers i,50i,933 
 
 Such being the case, it is plain that there must be many land 
 owners in the cities. This is the reason why the land tax 
 occupies a foremost part in the total amount of national taxes 
 in cities. The figures for the city of Osaka are as follows : 
 
 Yen 
 
 Land tax i ,355.790 
 
 Income tax i ,783.808 
 
 Business tax 2,134,177 
 
 Total 5.273.775 
 
 Of the income of those who pay either a business tax or an 
 income tax we can not make a general statement that is 
 applicable to either of them, for the circumstances are differ- 
 ent, according to the kinds of business tax. Those whose 
 income is i,ooo yen do not pay, as a rule, more than lOO yen 
 national tax. Those who get their income by labor must 
 receive about 3,000 yen in order to pay 100 yen of income tax. 
 Such differences as these among the payers of business tax and 
 of income tax do not, however, make much difference in our 
 inquiry. The percentage of the first class eligibles to those 
 who earn their income by labor is much smaller than that of 
 the first class eligibles to those who pay a national tax above
 
 220 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 100 yen. The Saga Regimental Office gives the following- 
 figures concerning the percentage of the actives to those 
 conscripts other than the actives:^ 
 
 Trade of the Head of the Family Percentage 
 
 Agriculture, and other primitive industries 29.2 
 
 Commerce 13. i 
 
 Manufacture 17.0 
 
 Commercial and manufacturing laborers 16.8 
 
 Professional labor 8.1 
 
 Excepting the merchants and manufacturers in cities, who 
 do not live by labor, the ratio of the first class eligibles to the 
 total number of conscripts will be 2, in the case of the con- 
 scripts from the houses whose income is above 500 yen, to 3 of 
 those from other houses. If now we suppose that conscripts 
 are called out from all classes alike, all the soldiers, including 
 noncommissioned officers, may be classified as follows: 
 
 List of Army and Navy 
 Army: 
 
 Soldiers 199,400 
 
 ^ Noncommissioned officers 16,500 215,900 
 
 Navy: 
 
 Conscript sailors 17,800 
 
 Other sailors 17,800 35,600 
 
 Total 251,500 
 
 Of about 10,000 noncommissioned officers of the navy, there 
 may be some who were originally conscript sailors, which may 
 be disregarded for the time being. The total number of the 
 noncommissioned officers of the army, 16,500, excepting the 
 one-year volunteers, may be regarded as belonging to the 
 class whose income is below 500 yen, or below 300 yen even. 
 The result will be somewhat as follows: 
 
 2(58i,ooo)+3(695.ooo)-l-3(7,975,ooo) =27,172,000 
 
 2(581) 
 (199,400 + 17,800) =9,300 (The amount of income above 500 yew.) 
 
 27>^7- 
 
 3(695) 
 (199,4004-17,800) =16,600 (The same above 300 yen?) 
 
 27,172 
 
 (199,400 + 17,800) =191,300 (The same below 300 yen?) 
 
 27,172 
 191,300+16,500 = 207,800 (The same below 300 yen, including noncommissioned 
 officers). 
 
 We have yet no reliable statistics concerning household 
 economy, but taking recourse to Western statistics, and to 
 
 ^ The table is for the District of Saga, in 1912.
 
 EFFECTS ON CONSUMPTION 221 
 
 some investigations made in our own country, narrow as the 
 field may be, we shall find the different items of expenses to 
 be in the following ratio: food, 5; habitation, 2; clothing, i; 
 fuel, i; other necessities, i.^ Of these expenses, the greater 
 part of those for food, clothing and other necessities may be 
 saved when conscripts leave home for the army. As the 
 number of inhabitants per house is 5.59 at present, we may 
 consider the average per house, except little children, as being 
 four persons. A quarter of the expenses, other than those for 
 habitation and fuel, will then be saved by the enrollment of 
 conscripts. Such being the estimate of the expenses of con- 
 scripts, the actual expenses of seven-eighths of all the con- 
 scripts when they are at home will not exceed 50 yen. Even 
 in the case of those whose income is above 300 yen and below 
 500 yen, their expenses when at home will not be more than 
 70 yen, on an average. We can not estimate the average 
 expenses of those whose income is above 500 yen, but their 
 number is only one twenty-fifth of the total number of con- 
 scripts. Now, compare these estimates of the expenses of 
 conscripts when at home with the preceding conclusion con- 
 cerning their expenses when in the army or navy, and it will 
 be enough to convince us that the conditions in the military 
 life are much better than those in the life at home. 
 
 Summary 
 
 We have seen that the conditions among the army and navy 
 men, during enrollment, are much better than the conditions 
 when they are at home. There are yet two things that de- 
 mand our attention: (i) The better Hfe in the army will 
 surely exercise its influence upon the life at home after the 
 soldiers are discharged. All people experience difficulty in 
 leading a life inferior to what they have been accustomed. 
 It is natural that soldiers should desire to continue their 
 better life even when they return home. And this will be 
 more so, when they have got used to the city life and when 
 
 1 The Problem of Household Expenses, prepared by the Society for Sozial Politik.
 
 222 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 they have got into the habits of imitating a life of pleasure. 
 (2) In addition to this tendency to raise the standard of Hving, 
 the miUtary life fosters the tendency to intensify one's desires, 
 and wants are scattered and various in the ordinary life, while 
 they become similar and uniform in the collective life of the 
 army. Not only the quantity of consumable goods is large 
 in the army, but the concentration of the desires for such goods 
 is also intense in such a collective life. Now this concentra- 
 tion and uniformity of desires is one of the reasons for the 
 creation of new employment in commerce and manufactures. 
 It bears a close relation to what we observ^e in the next chapter 
 concerning the national life.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 SOCIAL EFFECTS 
 
 The economic effects of conscription upon the individual 
 life of the nation are now our subject matter. Such effects 
 are, of course, different, according to the social class to which 
 an individual belongs. It is believed that the effects upon 
 the higher classes are fa\'orable, whereas they are unfavorable 
 to the livelihood of those below the middle classes. Hence, 
 our survey in this chapter falls naturally under the two head- 
 ings, the effects of conscription that are favorable to the 
 higher classes, and those that are not favorable to the lower 
 classes. 
 
 Favorable Tendencies 
 
 The effects of conscription upon at least a part of the higher 
 classes have been favorable when viewed from the economic 
 and other points of view. The circumstances by which the 
 favorable effects have been produced are, primarily, (i) the 
 development of capitalism and (2) the purchasing and con- 
 tract system. 
 
 The Development of Capitalism 
 
 That the development of those productive industries which 
 require capital benefits the capitalists, is a matter of -course. 
 The system of conscription has contributed to its develop- 
 ment, and is still contributing to it. Let us now see how this 
 is so. 
 
 (a) Accumulation of Desires. — The system of conscription 
 always brings with it the system of supplying soldiers with 
 all that they need at government expense. Consequently, 
 markets have to meet all the demands of soldiers, as one whole 
 or as a few partial wholes. When they are at home, their 
 demands are met by retailers. But when enlisted in the 
 
 223
 
 224 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 army, their individual demands are collected into a great 
 whole, which merchants and manufactures have to supply. 
 Seventy per cent of the actives now belong to the agricultural 
 classes who are yet self-supporting. Soldiers' demands upon 
 merchants and manufactures have thus been accumulated 
 into big wholes, and the quantity of their demands has also 
 been increased. 
 
 (b) Accumulation of Capital. — Demands of munitions, 
 consequent to the system of conscription, have contributed 
 to the growth of large fortunes, almost to extremes. This 
 has been especially the case in the past war, of which we do 
 not like to make any detailed statements. But it is well 
 known by all that Baron Iwasaki of Tokyo and Baron Fujita 
 of Osaka are now in possession of large fortunes because they 
 have been the suppliers of munitions. Let us quote from The 
 Millionaires of the Meiji Era, by Gennosuke Yokohama: 
 
 Many were the merchants of Osaka who left home for Kyushu during the Sat- 
 suma RebelHon. Denzaburo Fujita was the foremost of all those who profited by 
 it. "What was the amount of the government expenses during the said war? 
 Of the 41,500,000 yen of its expenses, 5,000,000 yen for arms and greater part of 
 the expenditure for clothing came into the hands of the Fujitas. As for Iwasaki, 
 he profited 3,000,000 yen from transportation and 700,000 yen as a government 
 grant. His net profit was more than 4,000,000 yen. 
 
 Of those who gained great profits during the Russo-Japa- 
 nese War, we may count such as Mitsui, Iwasaki, Fujita, 
 Okura, the supplier of canned food, Takata, the merchant to 
 the Na\^ Department, and many owners of ships and coal 
 mines. It is said that the profits of these merchants from the 
 said war, great as they were, were not so great as those from 
 the Sino- Japanese War. This accumulation of large fortunes 
 must be going on even in peace time, though the rate may not 
 be rapid. In Japan, merchants under government patronage 
 are usually regarded as coveting excessive profits, and typical 
 of such merchants are the suppliers of munitions. 
 
 (c) Concentration in Towns and Cities. — We have already 
 considered this in detail in Chapter II. The increase of pop- 
 ulation in cities and towns has no doubt encouraged the 
 development of those productive industries that require
 
 SOCIAL EFFECTS 225 
 
 large capital by the accumulation of demands and by the 
 supply of laborers. 
 
 (d) Gro\vi:h of Desires. — Soldiers in cities and towns are 
 under the influence of a \'ain and extravagant life. They are 
 after fashions. When they return home, they are looked up 
 to among the rustics. The new desires and wants that such 
 soldiers carry with them spread among the provincials by the 
 psychological process of "superiority imitation." The growth 
 of such desires furnishes capitalist industry with wider fields. 
 
 Purchasing and Contract System 
 
 The purchasing and contract system that is now prevalent 
 has also a tendency to profit the higher classes. In order to 
 get rid of excessive profits to the merchants patronized by the 
 government, and to facilitate business transactions on the 
 part of the military authorities, the manufacture of munitions 
 was committed to the care of the Military Department. 
 Arsenals were established, in accordance with the Arsenal 
 Regulations, enacted in April, 1900, by the Imperial Ordi- 
 nance No. 159; the Pro\'ision Department, in accordance 
 with the Provision Ordinance No. 23 and with the Provision 
 Regulations. But arms and clothing that these arsenals and 
 departments can not supply and the raw materials that are 
 needed in their manufacture must be obtained either by 
 purchase or by contract. In such cases, the military author- 
 ities seek their market among capitalists, because it is con- 
 venient to make the purchase or contract in large amounts. 
 Legal qualifications for such purchase or contract are very 
 simple, but, actually, it is only those who possess large capital 
 that can meet the military demands. Although the author- 
 ities make efforts to obtain the necessary- materials directly 
 from the producers, yet they are limited to those who carry 
 on productive industry on a large scale. Straw and hay, and 
 a few other things, are almost the only materials supplied by 
 individual producers through the trade associations. And 
 this circumstance will continue for a long time yet. The 
 greater the accumulation of individual desires, the greater
 
 226 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 will be the amount of demands that are supplied, not by the 
 ordinary merchants or manufacturers, but by great capitalists. 
 The profits consequent to the system of conscription are thus 
 absorbed by the higher classes, while the burden of conscrip- 
 tion is heavy upon the lower classes, and very light upon the 
 higher classes, as will be seen in detail in the following section. 
 
 Aggravation of Distress 
 
 The system of conscription is a great blow to the conscripts' 
 families, especially to those families below the middle classes. 
 Such families are deprived of their chief laboring members by 
 the system. Besides, they have to send more or less money 
 every month to their sons or brothers, while they are in the 
 army. In case of war, it often happens that many of them 
 are taken away from their families forever, and the pension is 
 not sufficient for the support of their families. We are now 
 to see these circumstances in detail. 
 
 Actives from the Lower Classes 
 
 The number of the actives from the lower classes will be 
 determined by a definition of the general term "lower classes." 
 If the meaning is fixed as above, then the distribution of the 
 actives among the difterent classes that we saw in the pre- 
 ceding chapter will help us in our study of this subject. 
 
 In the preceding chapter, we have seen that about 208,000 
 of the noncommissioned officers and common soldiers belong 
 to the families whose income is below 300 yen. In the 
 present state of living in Japan, they shall be regarded as of 
 the lower classes. It would be a great loss to their families if 
 they were enrolled in the army, as they are. Now', the abso- 
 lute number of such actives is, of course, important in our 
 study, but the ratio of such actives to the members of the 
 respective classes is a question still more important. 
 
 (i) Result of Conscript Examination in the City of Kyoto, 1912 
 
 Higher Middle A Middle B Lower 
 Percentage of first class conscripts . . 22.4 28.0 27.4 26.3
 
 SOCIAL EFFECTS 
 
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 228 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Generally speaking, the ratio is smallest among the rich 
 and greatest among the middle classes. This ratio goes down 
 gradually, as the standard of living goes down, but it is far 
 greater with the lower classes than with the rich. The ratio 
 is especially small with the rich who have received higher 
 education. Hence, we may say that the present system of 
 conscription enlists a comparatively greater number of 
 soldiers out of the middle classes, and exempts a great number 
 of the higher classes. Of course, this circumstance is due to 
 differences of physique, but it is recognized implicitly by all 
 that it is also due to the discretion of the examiners in the 
 conscript examination. 
 
 The table opposite shows that of those who belong to the 
 higher or the lower classes, those who have received higher 
 education are practically exempted from service. 
 
 There is, of course, no express provision in the conscription 
 law to make lighter the burden of service for the rich. But 
 the actual result shows that the rich who are entirely free from 
 difficulties in living escape from conscription very often, while 
 those whose families will suffer from difficulties when they 
 are enrolled are enlisted to a great percentage. Not only that, 
 but most of the conscripts from the higher classes enjoy the 
 privilege of the one year volunteer ser\ice, because they are 
 usually those who have completed the middle school course. 
 They can easily pay the amount of money required by the 
 government for the volunteer service. On the other hand, 
 those who have much difficulty in gaining a livelihood have to 
 spend two or three years in the army. 
 
 The Amount of Loss per Family Co?isequent to Enlistment 
 
 The amount of loss consequent to enlistment is to be con- 
 sidered from two viewpoints. One is the amount of the 
 expenses of each soldier, not paid out of his salary but out of 
 the money that he receives from home, and the other is the 
 value of the loss of labor consequent to his two or three years' 
 service in the army. Of course, the living expenses of each 
 soldier are saved, so long as he is in service. As to the ex-
 
 SOCIAL EFFECTS 
 
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 230 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 penses that soldiers incur during their service, and those at 
 their entrance to, and departure from, barracks, we are In a 
 position to make an approximate estimate. W^e have already 
 seen that the average amount of money that they receive 
 from home is 30 yen per head. The average amount at the 
 entrance and departure is about 10 yen per head, In which, 
 however, those expenses paid by their relatives or friends are 
 Included. About one-half of this amount then Is to be de- 
 ducted. In other words, about 35 yen per year is to be paid 
 out by each family when one of its members is enlisted. Of 
 course, this Is the average amount, and we are aware that in 
 \'er>' rare cases some of the soldiers send part of their salary 
 home. 
 
 The amount of labor lost by a family, one of whose mem- 
 bers is enlisted, differs according to the class to which a 
 soldier belongs. It is comparatively easy to make an estimate 
 of the amount among the lower classes. And we can say 
 beforehand that the amount is greater among the middle 
 classes. There are many of the lower classes who do not 
 depend upon employers for their livelihood, and this is 
 especially the case among the agricultural laborers. But the 
 Income of such independent laborers will not be greater to any 
 considerable extent than that of the employes. Such being 
 the case, we wish to know first the wages of employes, and 
 then to infer from them the amount of income lost by enlist- 
 ment. According to an investigation concerning the wages 
 of different laborers made in 1910 by the Agricultural and 
 Commercial Department, the average, not weighted, of the 
 wages of forty-two kinds, is .65 yen. The average may be 
 somewhat less than that In the case of agricultural laborers, 
 whose number is very large. Unless there has since been 
 considerable change In the average, we may regard the aver- 
 age at present as being 65 sen or so. Deducting holidays, the 
 working days throughout the whole year number 276, that 
 is, 23 days per month. The yearly amount of a laborer's 
 wage is then about 150 yen. This much is then lost to a 
 family, one of whose members is enrolled. Besides, we must
 
 SOCIAL EFFECTS 23 1 
 
 take into consideration those circumstances in whicii some 
 trades make it impossible for conscripts to engage in them, 
 even previous to their enrollment, and after their discharge. 
 This is especially the case with those soldiers who want new 
 employment after their discharge. In cases like this, the 
 amount lost will be more than the estimate above. In Japan 
 at present, laborers, except skilled ones, receive the average 
 wage when they reach the age of twenty. 
 
 But we must see how much of the living expenses per fam- 
 ily will be diminished when one of the members is enrolled. 
 Usually a conscript's family has, besides himself, one other 
 male member (father or brother), who is able to work. Or, 
 it is often the case with some families that the female mem- 
 bers, including children, engage in work, when one of their 
 members is enrolled. In such cases, the income may be 
 increased, that is, its amount be greater than 150 yen. 
 
 In order to avoid an overestimate, let our estimate in such 
 cases be about 200 yen. About 30 per cent of this amount, 
 as we have seen to be the case in the preceding chapter, goes 
 into the expenses of a conscript enrolled, which amount to 60 
 yen or so. The balance of what the enrolled soldier spends 
 and of what his family saves would be about 90 yen, which is 
 the amount of the loss to his family consequent to his enroll- 
 ment. This is our estimate for the laborers. As to those 
 above the middle classes, the amount of the loss will be greater, 
 because the income from their labor is greater than that of 
 the lower classes. Those of the higher classes who lead an 
 idle life, and those students that have no calling of their own, 
 must be excepted from our consideration. 
 
 Except those above the middle classes that live in cities, 
 the size of Japanese families is still large. Therefore, they 
 do not suffer very much, even when one of their members is 
 enrolled, because they have some other male members that 
 can take up his work. If, on the contrary, such members are 
 lacking, then it must be a great hardship upon the family, 
 especially upon the families in the rural districts. In cities, 
 women or children may engage in retail business, or be em-
 
 232 CONSCRIPTION SYSTEM: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 ployed in factories. The case is quite otlierwise in the agri- 
 cultural districts. Women and children may be of some 
 help only when they have the chief laborer. It is often the 
 case in the districts that all the members of a family are left 
 helpless when the male member is enrolled. 
 
 Postponement of and Exemption from the Calling Out 
 
 The twenty-second article of the Conscription Law now in 
 force runs as follows : 
 
 If there is confirmed evidence concerning the helplessness of the family when he 
 is called out, postponement will be granted at his own request. In case the said 
 circumstance still exists, even after three years, he will be registered in the militia 
 service. 
 
 Now it may be thought that conscripts can be granted 
 postponement or exemption when their family can not subsist 
 without them. The law seems to provide for such cases, 
 although this is so only in appearance. According to the 
 annual report of the Educational Department for 1911, about 
 1.3 of the children of school age are not able to attend school 
 because of poverty. On the other hand, the annual report of 
 the Military Department tells us that for the three years, 
 1908 to 191 o, only 5/10,000 of the conscripts of the first, 
 second and fifth classes were exempted from enrollment for 
 the same reason. Is this not a strange situation? It is often 
 the case that those houses that produce conscripts have male 
 laborers besides them, while those houses that have children 
 of school age are in lack of male laborers except the father, 
 the grandfather being dead and the brothers being yet too 
 young. But such circumstances alone would not be sufficient 
 to explain this discrepancy between i .3 per cent and 5/10,000. 
 
 The loss of labor can be endured, if it is only for the two or 
 three years that conscripts have to spend in the army. But 
 how will it be if they are killed on the battle field or are dis- 
 abled? Is this not a permanent loss of labor, wholly or 
 partially? Of course, the system of pensions and aids pro- 
 vides for such cases. Soldiers below noncommissioned officers 
 will be granted pensions, "when they are exempted from
 
 SOCIAL EFFECTS 
 
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 234 
 
 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 service owing to wounds received, whether in war time or in 
 peace time, by which they have lost more than one Hmb." 
 "When they are killled in battle, or die from wounds, their 
 bereaved widows or orphans are entitled to aid.''^ But will 
 the amount of pensions and aids be sufficient? 
 
 The amount of pension for the first class soldiers, when 
 disabled, is only about 50 yen, and that of aids to the bereaved 
 family of the first class soldiers, when killed in battle, is only 
 about 50 yen ; in case they die of sickness while on the battle 
 fields, their family receives only about 35 yen. The following 
 are statistics prepared in 191 2: 
 
 Pension 
 Regulations 
 
 Kinds of Pension 
 
 Noncommissioned 
 Officers 
 
 Soldiers 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Amount 
 
 Number 
 
 Amount 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Yen 
 
 
 Yen 
 
 
 Exemption pen- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sion 
 
 20,380 
 
 1,702,000 
 
 53,449 
 
 2,742,508 
 
 
 Additional pen- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sion 
 
 1,429 
 
 64,625 
 
 13,908 
 
 411,058 
 
 
 Aids 
 
 13,335 
 
 787,277 
 
 77,133 
 
 3,152,699 
 
 The Army Pen- 
 
 Pension to 
 
 
 
 
 
 sion Regula- 
 
 wounded 
 
 137 
 
 8,368 
 
 637 
 
 31,206 
 
 tion, issued in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1876 
 
 Aids 
 
 141 
 
 6,659 
 
 206 
 
 7,091 
 
 The Officers Aids 
 
 Aids to wounded 
 
 6 
 
 620 
 
 43 
 
 1,433 
 
 Regulation, is- 
 
 ] Aids in case of 
 
 
 
 
 
 sued in 1875. . 
 
 death 
 
 19 
 
 889 
 
 42 
 
 1,232 
 
 Aids Regulation, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 4, issued in 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 i8qi 
 
 [ Aids 
 
 227 
 
 11,836 
 
 1,055 
 
 35,59S 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 35.674 
 
 2,582,274 
 
 146,473 
 
 6,382,820 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total number of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 men, except 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 those receiv- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing additional 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pension 
 
 34,245 
 
 .... 
 
 132,565 
 
 .... 
 
 2,582 
 
 ,274 
 
 6,382,82 
 
 
 
 
 34,245 
 
 75 yen 
 
 132,565 
 
 49 yeii 
 
 Now could the amount of pension or aids, which we have seen 
 to be some 50 yen per disabled soldier or per bereaved family, 
 make up for the loss of labor per male? It is but natural that 
 the families of the disabled or the killed suffer distress. 
 
 ^Soldiers Pension Regulations, Articles 5, 27 and 31.
 
 SOCIAL EFFECTS 235 
 
 The Patriotic Ladies Association made an investigation 
 concerning the families of the disabled and the killed, dividing 
 them into the following classes: (i) those in want of daily 
 sustenance; (2) those in poverty, though having slight means 
 of gaining daily sustenance; (3) those in possession of slight 
 means of livelihood ; (4) those in possession of sufficient means 
 of livelihood. The association regards those of the first and 
 second classes as needing help, and is giving a little help to 
 them, but it leaves the third and fourth classes to themselves, 
 as needing no help. The number of those who receive more 
 or less help from the association, according to the standards 
 above, is 83,465 throughout the whole country, that is, about 
 one-half of the w^hole number (34,245 + 132,565 = 168,810) 
 of those who receive pensions or aids, and 63 per cent of those 
 soldiers the amount of whose pension or aids is smallest. 
 This shows how hard is the life of the families of the disabled 
 and the killed. 
 
 Summary 
 
 The effects of the system of conscription upon the liveli- 
 hood of the people are now sufficiently clear. That the great- 
 est number of the actives come from the lower classes, that 
 their families suffer from the double effects of the loss of labor 
 and of the amount of money that they have to send to those 
 enrolled, and that postponement or exemption is only appar- 
 ent, and not actual, except in very rare cases, — all these cir- 
 cumstances show that the largest number of the lower classes 
 suffer most from the effects of conscription. Of course, there 
 are certain reasons which make us think that the system is 
 favorable to better living, but this is the case only with the 
 higher classes who are armed with large fortunes. The num- 
 ber of the enrolled among thos6 above the middle classes is 
 comparatively small, because they escape from enrollment by 
 reason of weak physique, of studies pursued abroad, or of the 
 discretion in the conscript examination. But almost all those 
 who belong to the lower classes have not the benefit of these 
 reasons and are enrolled, to the aggravation of distress.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 We now hasten to our conclusion. Let us sum up what we 
 have seen of the economic effects of conscription upon the 
 people. At the beginning of our survey, we said that we 
 should not touch upon the question of its effects, through 
 international relations, upon the economic life at home. That 
 question will also be excluded from our concluding remarks. 
 
 The system of conscription robs our productive world of 
 its most valuable laboring power. If the laborers were not 
 enrolled as soldiers, they would engage in productive work, to 
 the increase of our national wealth, because there is every 
 opportunity for them to get employment. As we have seen 
 already, there are some reasons that make us admit the in- 
 crease of efficiency, as a result of conscription. But this may 
 well be ignored, when we see that more than two hundred 
 thousand of the most able bodied workers are turned to such 
 unproductive work as the military ser^dce. Besides, the 
 calling out of such able bodied men causes a greater amount 
 of consumption than there would otherwise be, which means 
 that so much of the national wealth is wasted. Not only 
 that, but soldiers, once under the influence of the extravagant 
 life of the cities, can hardly get rid of the unwholesome habit, 
 even after their return home. And their influence upon their 
 neighbors can but be deplorable. 
 
 As to the effects of conscription upon population, there are 
 two contrary^ facts, — the increase and the decrease of popu- 
 lation. And it is difficult to state the net result. But, if 
 we take the effects of war into consideration, it is plain that 
 conscription causes the decrease of population. The con- 
 centration in towns, caused by the existence of troops, has 
 some good effects, because it encourages the commerce and 
 manufactures of those places. When we come to the effects 
 upon the livelihood of the people, we see that they are worst 
 236
 
 CONCLUSION 237 
 
 Upon the lower classes. It seems as if conscription were the 
 sole diit^,- of the lower classes. E\-en the most needy have 
 almost no means of escaping conscription. The provisions 
 in the law concerning the privileges of postponement and 
 exemption are almost empty words, as regards the utterly 
 destitute people. 
 
 Some students of economics think that the only effects of 
 armaments, that is, of conscription, upon our economic life 
 are those connected with the diminution of productive labor, 
 that the military expenditure has no considerable eft'ects 
 because all the moneys paid out by the militar>- authorities 
 come back to the people, and that the expenses find, in many 
 cases, their equivalents in goods. ^ It is true, of course, that 
 the greater part of the military' expenses comes back to the 
 people and that large quantities of goods are gained as the 
 equivalent of those expenses. But such reasons as these are 
 not sufficient to justify the position that the military- outlays 
 have no effects upon our economic life. 
 
 True, the military expenditures have their equivalent in 
 goods. But we must not forget that those goods are mostly 
 consumable goods. Besides, such goods, except clothing and 
 provisions, can only be used for military purposes, and do not 
 therefore contribute to the national wealth. If the amount of 
 the productive labor spent in producing such unnecessary 
 consumable goods were turned into the production of some 
 other goods of economic value, how great would be the benefits 
 to the nation! Moreover, there are many cases in which pro- 
 ductiA-e commodities, such as land, are converted into con- 
 sumable goods, in order to make the unproductive use for the 
 army. Thus, the people are doubly robbed of their pro- 
 ductive acti\4ty. 
 
 Even granting that all the militars' expenses return to the 
 people in the end, we can not say that they have no economic 
 effects. The military expenses, especially in the rapid ex- 
 pansion of armament, cause the overissue of currency, on the 
 one hand, and the increase of taxes, on the other. The in- 
 
 1 Colonel Sato, History of the National Defense of Japan, vol. 11.
 
 238 CONSCRIPTION system: economic effects 
 
 crease of the indirect tax, especially, causes an increase of the 
 expenses of production, and thereby causes a rise of prices. 
 The former also encourages this tendency of the rise of prices 
 not only directly, but also indirectly, because the amount of 
 commodities purchased with the military outlays are not used 
 as productive capital. This is especially the case \vith extra- 
 ordinary military expenses. Now, there is no question that 
 this artificial rise of prices is harmful to the international 
 economic relations. 
 
 Such being the case, we can not think, as some do, that 
 the only economic effects of the military expenditures are the 
 loss of the productive labor of able bodied men. But we have 
 not discussed effects other than the loss of productive labor 
 and the increase of consumption, only because the other 
 effects can not be considered as the direct effects of the system 
 of conscription, although they may be regarded as effects of 
 the military expenditures. Besides, such effects can only be 
 discussed theoretically, and can not be treated statistically.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Agriculture, effect of conscription, io8- 
 109; decrease of employment in, 109- 
 lio; increase of employment with 
 demand for forage, 115, 118; concen- 
 tration of agricultural laborers in 
 cities, 160-161; effect of Russo-Jap- 
 anese War on, 163; labor by women 
 and children, 168; increase of farm 
 houses in Hokkaido (1904-1910), 
 173; National Agricultural Associa- 
 tion, 219; percentage of the actives to 
 those of conscripts other than actives 
 engaged in, 220. 
 
 Agricultural laborers, concentration of, 
 in cities, 160-162; excess of, 168; 
 numbers of (1904-1911), 169; reasons 
 for concentration in cities, 171 ; wages 
 of and amount lost by conscription, 
 230. 
 
 Akita, deficit in rice crop in (1905), 164. 
 
 Aomori, number of marriages (ages 15- 
 29) in, 80; deficit of rice crop in(i905), 
 164. 
 
 Arsenals, at Tokyo, 120, 127; at Osaka, 
 120, 127; establishment of, 225. 
 
 Artillery, organization of, 9; number of 
 sections, 15, 37, 39; increase of (1900), 
 47; present size, 53; location of regi- 
 ments, 99; reason for large percent- 
 age of crime among, I4i-i42;expenses 
 of soldiers in Eighteenth Division of, 
 
 Asahigawa, division at, 131. 
 
 Asano, population of (i 896-1 899), 105. 
 
 Australia, wool imports from, 122. 
 
 Beef, quantity consumed by soldiers 
 and people, 212. 
 
 Barley, amount purchased, 116; increase 
 in production, 118; area (1897-1916), 
 165. 
 
 Birth rate, decrease due to barrack life, 
 76-77, 82; decrease due to Russo- 
 Japanese War, 82; increase with the 
 development of conscription, 82; per 
 1,000 population (1872-1911), 83; in 
 city and country, 161. 
 
 Bonin Islands, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Bushi, (anti-military class), 3-4, 6. 
 
 Cavaln>% number of regiments, 15, 37, 
 39; increase of, in 1896, 45; in 1900, 
 47; present size, 53; location of regi- 
 
 ments, 99; savings of soldiers of Eight- 
 eenth Division, 190; monthly average 
 proceeds of sutlers and salaries of 
 soldiers of Sixteenth Division, 194; 
 proceeds of sutlers in the Sixteenth 
 Division from, 196; expenses of sol- 
 diers in Eighteenth Division of, 197. 
 
 Chiba, railway regiment at, 131. 
 
 China, Japanese army stationed in 
 (1900-1903), 47; number of horses 
 used by troops in, (1910-1912), 112. 
 
 Chishima, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Clothing, average amount per soldier 
 and common people, 213. 
 
 Clothing Department, 119, 126, I92r 
 goods furnished to (1913), 121 ; num- 
 ber of workmen in, 127; supplies 
 needed by, 131. 
 
 Coast Artillery, number of corps, 15, 
 
 37-. 
 Colonial troops, number of battalions, 
 
 37, 39; increase of, in 1899, 47. 
 Commissariat, number of sections, 15, 
 37; term of service, 20; increase in 
 1896, 45; in 1900, 47; present size, 54 r 
 location of regiments, 99; reasons for 
 large percentage of crime among, 
 140; savings of soldiers of i8th Divi- 
 sion, 190; monthly average proceeds 
 of sutlers and salaries of soldiers of 
 i6th Division, 194; proceeds of sutlers- 
 in the i6th Division from, 196; ex- 
 penses of soldiers in i8th Division, 
 
 ^97- 
 
 Communication corps, present size, 54. 
 
 Conscription, law and origin, 3; in 
 France and Prussia, 3; objections to, 
 4; Imperial mandate (November, 
 1872), 4; reasons for, 6-7; organiza- 
 tion of, 9; Conscript Regulations, 9- 
 10; provisions of law of 1873, 11-13, 
 187; amendments (1873-1875), 15; 
 (1879), 19-20; numbers of conscripts 
 (1873-1877), 16-17; proportion of 
 conscripts to population, (1873- 
 1877), 17; changes in system and rea- 
 sons, 17-18; law of 1883, 26-27; 
 amendments to law, (1883-1889), 
 33-35, 42-43; number of conscripts 
 (1878-1884), 39; proportion of con- 
 scripts to males of conscript age and 
 population (i 878-1 886), 39; changes 
 in law, 44-45; number of conscripts 
 
 239
 
 240 
 
 INDEX 
 
 (1905-1912), 53; proportion of con- 
 scripts to population and to males of 
 conscript age (1905-1909), 55; law of 
 1906, 55; influence on economic con- 
 ditions, 73; importance of, 74; effects 
 on population, 74-75; effect on birth 
 rate, 79-80; effect on death rate, 83- 
 84; effect on migration to cities, 87; 
 concentration of soldiers in towns, 
 89-90, 167; effect on agricultural 
 employment, 108-109; effect on mer- 
 chants,! 18-1 19, i28;effectoncommer- 
 cial and manufacturing employment, 
 132; effect on character of conscripts, 
 136-137, 142; degree of scholarship 
 among conscripts (1908-1910), 144- 
 145; effect of physical training, 146, 
 151; effect on number of laborers, 
 152; percentage of conscripts having 
 education of elementary grade (1909- 
 1910), 153-154; number of actives, 
 156; number of men lost to produc- 
 tive labor by, 157; loss of labor days 
 by, 157-159; condition of conscripts 
 in Meiji Era, 186; tendency to raise 
 standard of living and intensify de- 
 sires, 222; effect on development of 
 productive industries, 223; effects of 
 demands for munitions on accumula- 
 tion of capital, 224; effect on family 
 of conscript, 226; result of conscript 
 examination in city of Kyoto (1912), 
 226; result of conscript examination 
 in Sakura (1906), 227; large propor- 
 tion of middle classes selected for, 
 228; percentage conscripted from 
 various classes, 229 ; postponement of, 
 where proposed conscript is needed by 
 family, 232. 
 Criminals, barred from service, 13, 23, 
 52, 61, 138; criminal percentage in a 
 regimental district (1912), 137; per- 
 centage of prisoners between ages of 
 20-40 ( 1 905-1 907), 138. 
 
 Death rate, annual, ages 25-35, (1908- 
 1909, 1898-1899), 84; per 1,000 
 women, (1898-1908) ages 26-30, 85; 
 in city and country, 161. 
 
 Defense guards, number of corps, 37; 
 present size, 54. 
 
 Discharged Soldiers' Association, work 
 of, 152. 
 
 Education, among soldiers, 143; degree 
 of scholarship among conscripts 
 (1908-19 10), 144-145; percentage of 
 conscripts having (1909-1910), 153- 
 
 Ehime, increase in rice crops in, 164. 
 
 Employment, occasioned by proximity 
 of regiments and divisions, 131-132; 
 by conscription system, 132. 
 
 Engineers, number of sections, 15, 37, 
 39; increase in 1896, 45; in 1897, 47; 
 present size, 54; reasons for large per- 
 centage of crime among, 140; savings 
 of Eighteenth Division, 190; monthly 
 average proceeds of sutlers and sala- 
 ries of soldiers of Sixteenth Division, 
 194; proceeds of sutlers in the Six- 
 teenth Division, 196; expenses of sol- 
 diers in Eighteenth Division, 197. 
 
 Enrollment, postponement or exemp- 
 tion caused by death or sickness, 13- 
 14, 22, 35-36, 62; other exemptions 
 from, 14, 22-23, 29-31; revision of 
 rules of, 43; rejection from, because of 
 imprisonment, 61; exemption from, 
 by money payment, 65; exemptions 
 from, of certain professions and those 
 with social standing, 65-66; privileges 
 given university graduates and cer- 
 tain classes of students, 66-67. 
 
 Esashi, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Exemption: from service, 23 el seq., 31 
 et seq.; 36, 51-52, 62; revision of rules 
 of, 43; under conscription law of 
 1873, 62; of 1879, 62-63; of 1883, 63- 
 64 ; of 1 889, 64-65 ; where family needs 
 conscript, 232. 
 
 Expenses: of training soldiers, 187-188; 
 of training noncommissioned officers, 
 188; of training sailors and noncom- 
 missioned naval officers, 189; of sol- 
 diers at sutlers, 194 et seq.; boarding 
 expenses of soldiers, 202; other, 203, 
 230; statistics of Second Division 
 concerning, 203; at entrance and de- 
 parture in a certain prefecture, 204; 
 greatest amount of expense for each 
 item, 205; average amount of expense 
 for each item, 206; smallest amount of 
 expense for each item, 207; statistics 
 of expenses prepared for a certain 
 division in the northeastern districts, 
 208; for purchase of souvenirs on de- 
 parture for home, 209 ; of common sol- 
 dier, 210; of noncommissioned soldier, 
 210-21 1 ; of sailors, 211; of noncom- 
 missioned officers of navy, 211; ratio 
 of different items of, 221. 
 
 Exports, increase of (1904-1905), 180. 
 
 Factory Investigation Committee, re- 
 port of, 182. 
 
 Feudal system, decay of, 3-4; unpopu- 
 larity of, 7. 
 
 Fish, quantity consumed by people and 
 soldiers, 212.
 
 INDEX 
 
 241 
 
 Formosa, no, 174; soldiers in, 45; 
 standing army, 54; number of mili- 
 tary horses in (1910-1912), 112. 
 
 Fortress artillery, number of battalions, 
 39; increase of, in 1896, 45. 
 
 Fudeoka, population (1897-1911), 105. 
 
 Fujita, Baron, munitions manufacturer, 
 224. 
 
 Fukuchiyama, regiment at, 195. 
 
 Fukui prefecture, number of sojourners 
 (i9ii),9i. 
 
 Fukuoka prefecture, actives, active re- 
 serves, reserves and male population, 
 96 ; ratio of two reserves to the actives, 
 96; ratio to male population, 96. 
 
 Fukushima, number of marriages, ages 
 15-29, 80; deficit in rice crop (1905), 
 164. 
 
 Fukuyama, conscription in, 68; popula- 
 tion and increase (1894-1903), 100. 
 
 Gendarmes, number of battalions of, 
 
 37. 39- , , . 
 
 Gifu prefecture, number of sojourners 
 (191 1), 91; population before and 
 after estai)lishment of regiments 
 (1903-1908), 102. 
 
 Hagino, number of military horses 
 (1910-1912), 112. 
 
 Hamamatsu, population before and 
 after establishment of regiments 
 (1903-1908), 102. 
 
 Hay, amount purchased, 117; increased 
 production, 118; obtained through 
 trade associations, 225. 
 
 Himeji, population and increase (1894- 
 1903), 100. 
 
 Hirosaki, population and increase 
 (1894-1903), 100; population before 
 and after establishment of regiments 
 (1503-1908), 102. 
 
 Hakodate, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Heavy Artillery, 54. 
 
 Hiroshima, garrison at, 15; artillery 
 regiment at, 131. 
 
 Hitaka, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Hokkaido, organization of army in 
 (1875), 16; conscription in, 6!?; oats 
 raised in, 116, 120; hay grown in, 117, 
 120; increase of area of dry and wet 
 fields in (1904-1910), 172; increase of 
 agricultural houses in (1904-1910), 
 
 173- 
 Horses, demand for military purposes, 
 1 1 i-i 12 {Administration Regulations, 
 III; Horse Supply Bureau, in; aver- 
 age number of horses per day (1910- 
 1912), 112; life of, 113; purchases 
 (1910-1912), 113; officers', 114; total 
 
 number in country and number pro- 
 duced (1907-19 10), 114; number req- 
 uisitioned during Russo-Japanese 
 War (1902-1906), 114; Military 
 Horse Supplement Department, 115; 
 allowance per day for, 116; allowance 
 for 38,000, 116; used in cultivation of 
 wet and dry fields (1904-1910), 170. 
 
 Horse Supply Bureau, work of, i n ; at 
 Shirakawa and other towns, 112; 
 supply of forage by, 115. 
 
 Hyogo prefecture, number of sojourners 
 at (1911), 91; comparison of actives 
 and population with Kyoto (1909), 
 92. 
 
 Ibaraki, deficit of rice crop in (1905), 
 164. 
 
 Iburi, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Imperial Guards, 42; makeup of, 16, 37, 
 39; conscription law for (1875), 18; 
 term of service of, 20. 
 
 Imperial power, move toward restora- 
 tion of, 4-5; decline of, 6. 
 
 Infantry, organization of, 9; number of 
 regiments, 15, 37, 39; increase in 1896, 
 45, 99-100; present size, 53; location 
 of regiments, 99; physique of soldiers 
 (1909-1910), 147-148; savings of sol- 
 diers of Eighteenth Division, 190; 
 salaries and sutlers' average proceeds 
 from Sixteenth Division, 194-195; 
 proceeds of sutlers in Sixteenth Divi- 
 sion, 196; expenses of soldiers in 
 Eighteenth Division, 197. 
 
 Ishikawa prefecture, number of sojourn- • 
 ers (1911), 91; comparison of actives 
 and population with Kyoto (1907), 
 
 Ishikari, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Iwasaki, Baron, munition manufacturer, 
 
 224. 
 Iwate, number of marriages (ages 15- 
 
 29) in, 80; deficit in rice crop (1905), 
 
 164. 
 
 Jimmu, Emperor, 6. 
 
 Kagawa, increase of rice crop in, 164. 
 Kagoshima, population and increase 
 
 (1894-1903), 100. 
 Kanazawa, population and increase 
 
 (1894-1903), 100. 
 Kawakami, number of military horses 
 
 (1910-1912), 112. 
 Keio Era, French officer as advisory 
 
 councilor during, 7. 
 Kitami, conscription in, 68. 
 Kobe, actives, active reserves, reserves 
 
 and male population, (1911), 95;
 
 242 
 
 INDEX 
 
 ratio of two reserves to actives, 95; 
 ratio to male population, 95; wages of 
 day laborers (1900-1912), 177. 
 
 Kochi, population and increase (1894- 
 1903), 100. 
 
 Kof u, population before and after estab- 
 lishment of regiments in (1903-1908), 
 102. 
 
 Kokubudai, artillery regiments in, 131. 
 
 Kokura, actives, active reserves, re- 
 sers'es and male population, 96; pop- 
 ulation and increase (1894-1903), 100. 
 
 Korea, no, 174; standing army at, 54; 
 number of military horses (1910- 
 1912), 112. 
 
 Kotohira,population (1902-1908-191 1), 
 200; money orders cashed by soldiers 
 at (1897-1909), 200-201. 
 
 Kumamoto, garrison at, 15. 
 
 Kurume, actives, active reserves, re- 
 serves and male population, 96; pop- 
 ulation and increase, (i 894-1903), 
 100; population before and after 
 establishment of regiments (1903- 
 1908), 102. 
 
 Kushiro, conscription in, 68; number of 
 military horses (1910-1912), 112. 
 
 Kyoto, number of marriages (ages 15- 
 29), 80; number of men in service and 
 percentage of total population, 81; 
 number of soldiers from country' in 
 (1910), 91 ; comparison of actives and 
 population (1907), 92; comparison of 
 actives and population with Shiga 
 (1909), 92; comparison of actives and 
 ' population with Hyogo (1909), 92; 
 soldiers in the districts of (1910), 92; 
 boarding expenses of soldiers in, 202; 
 direct national tax (Upper and Lower 
 District), 214; result of conscript ex- 
 amination in the city of (1912), 226. 
 
 Kyushu, location of Eighteenth Divi- 
 sion, 191. 
 
 Laborers; increased skill obtained by 
 conscription, 143; effect of conscrip- 
 tion on numbers of, 152; total taken 
 from productive labor by military 
 life, 157; loss of time to, by conscrip- 
 tion, 159; increase in wages of, and 
 comparison with average increase in 
 prices of foodstuffs (1900-1912), 177; 
 wages of day (1900 and 1912), 177; 
 lack of male, 178-179; yearly increase 
 of, 179; numbers in commercial and 
 manufacturing, 180-181; scarcity of, 
 1 81-182; methods employed to at- 
 tract, 182-183; kidnapping of, 183; 
 lossofthoseconscriptecl, 228, 237-238. 
 
 Loochoos, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Manchuria, no; standing army in, 54' 
 number of military horses (1910- 
 1912), 112. 
 
 Marriages, number of (ages 15-29), 80. 
 
 Masuda, Captain, estimate of boarding 
 expenses, 203. 
 
 Matsumoto, population before and after 
 establishment of regiments (1903- 
 1908), 102. 
 
 Matsuye, population before and after 
 establishment of regiments (1903- 
 1908), 102. 
 
 Medical corps, 53; physique of (1909- 
 1910), 147-148. 
 
 Meiji Restoration, aim of, 3-4; effect of, 
 on conscription, 5; control of mili- 
 tary system by French during, 7; 
 millionaires of, 224. 
 
 Military Horse Supplement Depart- 
 ment, farming work of, 115. 
 
 IMilitary towns, formation and expan- 
 sion of, 99 et seq. 
 
 Mitsui, 224. 
 
 Miyagi, number of marriages (ages 15- 
 29), in, 80; deficit in rice crop (1905), 
 
 .164- 
 Miyakonojo, population before and 
 
 after establishment of regiments 
 
 (1903-1908), 102. 
 Moji, actives, active reserves, reserves 
 
 and male population, 96. 
 Money orders, amounts paid on, 200. 
 Morioka, cavalry regiments at, 131. 
 Mountain artillery, present size, 54; 
 
 savings of soldiers of Eighteenth 
 
 Division, 190; expenses of soldiers in 
 
 Eighteenth Division, 197. 
 Muhara, number of military horses 
 
 (1910-1912), 112. 
 Musicians, number of corps, 37, 39; 
 
 present size, 54. 
 
 National Agricultural Association, 
 table on number of farm houses 
 and land-owning and tenant farmers, 
 219. 
 
 Nagoya, garrison at, 15; wages of day 
 laborers (1900 and 19 12), 177. 
 
 Nara, population before and after estab- 
 lishment of regiments (1903-1908), 
 102. 
 
 Narashino, cavalry regiments at, 131. 
 
 Nemuro, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Niigata, deficit in rice crop (1905), 
 164. 
 
 Oats, amount purchased, 1 16; increased 
 production, 118. 
 
 Ogasawara, enforcement of conscrip- 
 tion, 68.
 
 INDEX 
 
 243 
 
 Ohmura, population and increase (1894- 
 1903), 100. 
 
 Oita, population before and after estab- 
 lishment of regiments (1903-1908), 
 102; increase of rice crop, 164. 
 
 ■Okayama, population before and after 
 establishment of regiments (1903- 
 1908), 102. 
 
 Okinawa, enforcement of conscription 
 in, 68. 
 
 Okuma, Count, 48. 
 
 Okura, canned food manufacturer, 224. 
 
 Omura, Masujiro, advocate of conscrip- 
 tion, 7. 
 
 Orphans, pension to, 232 et seq. 
 
 Osaka, 10; garrison at, 15; number of 
 marriages (ages 15-29), 80; sojourn- 
 ers at(i9ii),qi;raw material sen t to 
 (1910-1911), 120; number of work- 
 men in arsenal at, 127; conscription 
 in, 154; wages of day laborers (1900 
 and 1912), 177; high expenses of sol- 
 diers stationed at, 195; boarding ex- 
 penses of soldiers at, 202; land, in- 
 come and business taxes in, 219. 
 
 Oshima, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Oyama, number of military horses 
 (1910-1912J, 112. 
 
 Patriotic Ladies Association, investiga- 
 tion of families of disabled and killed, 
 
 235- 
 
 Pensions, under Conscription Regula- 
 tion, 10, 232 et seq.; inadequacy of, 
 226; table of, and aids to widows and 
 orphans, 233; number and amount of 
 (I9I2),234. 
 
 Population, effect of conscription on in- 
 crease of, 76 et seq., 224, 236; etTect of 
 conscription on urban, 87; increase 
 in towns with newly organized regi- 
 ments, 100; increase in towns of 10,- 
 000 to 40,000, loi; before and after 
 establishment of regiments in certain 
 towns, 102; increase in places where 
 new divisions and new regiments were 
 formed, 103; increase throughout 
 towns, garrisoned by new divisions, 
 103; increase in towns, not garrisoned 
 by new divisions, 103; increase in 
 smaller towns, 103; of Zentsuji (1896- 
 1912), 105; of neighboring towns and 
 villages (1897-1911), 105; percentage 
 of inhabitants in various cities, towns 
 and villages to the whole, 161; in- 
 crease of absolute city population, 
 
 174-175- 
 Provision Bureau, 119, 126; goods fur- 
 nished to (1913), 121; number of 
 
 workmen in, 127; supplies needed by, 
 
 ^3.1- 
 Punishment, for infractions of rules for 
 
 enrollment, 14-15; 26, 32, 52. 
 
 Reserve service, rules of, 12, 21, 34; 
 changes in 44; annual inspection of, 
 .158. 
 
 Rice, amount purchased, 122-123; area 
 of fields and comparison with previous 
 year (1897-1909), 163; total crop 
 (1897-1909), 164; relationship of area 
 of other fields and rice, 166; con- 
 sumption of, by soldiers and people, 
 212. 
 
 Russo-Japanese War, 44, 49, 53; in- 
 creased need for conscription after, 
 55; decrease of birth rate during, 82; 
 casualties of, 83; horses requisitioned 
 during, 114; effect on agricultural 
 labor, 163, 165; number of soldiers 
 used in, 179; merchants who profited 
 by, 224. 
 
 Sabaye, regiment at, 196. 
 
 Saga, suppression of insurrection at, 42; 
 population before and after establish- 
 ment of regiment at (1903-1908), 
 102; figures of Regimental Office con- 
 cerning the percentage of the actives 
 to those conscripts other than actives, 
 220. 
 
 Saghalien, standing army at, 54. 
 
 Sakade, population (1902-1908-1911), 
 200; number of money orders cashed 
 by soldiers at (1897-1909), 200. 
 
 Sakura, relation of physique of con- 
 scripts to tax paid in (1906), 216; 
 result of conscript examination in 
 (1906), 227. 
 
 Sanbongi, number of military horses 
 (1910-1912), 112. 
 
 Sasebo, population (resident and foreign, 
 1898-1912), 88. 
 
 Satsuma Rebellion, 8, 41, 57; impor- 
 tance of, 19. 
 
 Sendai, garrison at, 15. 
 
 Senju Woolen Factory, 119, 126, 192; 
 wool purchases of, 122; number of 
 workmen at, 127. 
 
 Service, term of conscript, 10, 28, 57- 
 58; kinds of, 11, 20, 27, 33, 49-50;' 
 specialization in, II-12, 20-21, 27-28, 
 33-34. 50; supplementary, 12-13, 21, 
 28, 48, 50; active, 59-60; reserve, 60; 
 supplementary reserve, 60-61. 
 
 Shichinonel, number of military horses 
 (1910-1912), 112.
 
 244 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Shiga prefecture, number of sojourners, 
 
 (191 1), 91 ; comparison of actives and 
 
 population, with Kyoto, (1909), 92; 
 
 increase in rice crop, 164. 
 Shikamura, population (1897-1911), 
 
 105. 
 Shimonoseki, artillery rcgmients at, 131. 
 Shimoshidzu, artillery regiments at, 131. 
 Shirakata, population (1897-1911), 105. 
 Shirakawa, military horses (1910- 
 
 1912), 112. 
 Shiribeshi, conscription in, 68. 
 Shizuoka, population and increase 
 
 (1894-1903), 100; increase in rice 
 
 crop, 164. 
 Shogunate party, 41-42. 
 Sino-Japanese War, 44-45, 48; increase 
 
 of military force after, 56, 84, 99; 
 
 profiteering of merchants during, 
 
 224. 
 South America, wool imports from, 122. 
 Straw, amount purchased, 117; in- 
 • creased production, 118; obtained 
 
 through trade associations, 225. 
 Sutlers, activities of, 124-125; profits 
 
 of, 126; average amount expended by 
 
 soldiers per day at, 141 ; proceeds of, 
 
 from Eighteenth Division, 194 et seq. 
 
 Tadotsu, population (1897-1911), 105. 
 
 Takanabe, number of military horses in 
 (1910-1912), 112. 
 
 Takata, population before and after 
 establishment of regiments (1903- 
 1908), 102. 
 
 Takata, merchant supplying Navy- 
 Department, 224. 
 
 Tanabe, Lieutenant Colonel Montojiro, 
 37; on taxes, 215; table on result of 
 conscript examination in Sakura 
 (i906),_227. 
 
 Taxes, direct national tax in Kyoto, 
 213-214; relation of physique of con- 
 scripts to tax paid in Sakura (1906), 
 216; number paying, 218; land, 218- 
 219; income and business, 219; in- 
 crease of, due to conscription, 237- 
 238. 
 
 Telegraph corps, number of, 37, 39. 
 
 Teshio, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Tochigi, deficit in rice crop in (1905), 
 164. 
 
 Tokachi, conscription in, 68. 
 
 Tokushima', population before and after 
 establishment of regiments (1903- 
 1908), 102; increase in rice crop in, 
 164. 
 
 Tokyo, garrison at, 15; marriages from 
 ages 15-29, 80; married and unmar- 
 
 ried men and percentage with regard 
 to rest of country, (ages 19-24), 
 81 ; percentage of men of age in serv- 
 ice, 81; number of actives, active re- 
 serves, reserves and male population 
 (1910), 94; ratio to male population 
 of actives, active reserves and re- 
 serves, 94; rate of removal to (ages 
 5^45)' 97; raw materials sent to 
 arsenal at (1910-1911), 120; number 
 of workmen in arsenal at, 127; divi- 
 sion at, 131; wages of day laborers, 
 (1900-1912), 177. 
 
 Tottori, population and increase (1894- 
 1903), 100. 
 
 Toyama, population before and after 
 establishment of regiments (1903- 
 1908), 102. 
 
 Toyohara, population (1897-1911), 105. 
 
 Toyohashi, population before and after 
 establishment of regiments (1903- 
 1908), 102; cavalry regiments at, 
 
 131- 
 Tsu, population before and after estab- 
 lishment of regiments in (1903- 
 1908), 102. 
 
 Utsunomiya, population before and 
 after establishment of regiments 
 (1903-1908), 102. 
 
 Uzuhiko (governor of Katsuragi), 6. 
 
 \'olunteers, 28-29; 34-35; one year, 
 50-51- 
 
 Wages, 187; of soldiers under Conscrip- 
 tion Regulation (1870), 10; under 
 Conscription law (1873), 12; increase 
 in, of laborers in comparison with 
 average increase in prices of food- 
 stuffs (1900-1912), 177; of day labor- 
 ers (1900-1912), 177; rise of (1916), 
 180; of noncommissioned officers, 
 191; during calling out, 194; of sol- 
 diers of Sixteenth Division, 194; of 
 noncommissioned officers of Sixteenth 
 Division, 195; average of different 
 laborers, 230. 
 
 Wakamatsu, population before and 
 after establishment of regiments 
 ( 1 903-1 908), 102. 
 
 Wakayama, population before and after 
 establishment of regiments (1903- 
 1908), 102; increase of rice crops in, 
 164. 
 
 Wheat, amount purchased, 122-123; 
 area of (1897-19 10), 165. 
 
 \\ idows, pensions to, 232 et seq.
 
 INDEX 
 
 245 
 
 Yamagata, Aritomo, 48; constructor of 
 conscription system, 7; results of 
 tour of inspection of European sys- 
 tems, 17-18. 
 
 Yamagata, number of marriages in 
 (ages 15-29), 80; population and in- 
 crease (1895-1903), 100; deficit in 
 rice crop in (1905), 164. 
 
 Yamaguchi, population and increase in 
 _ (1894-1903), 100. 
 
 Yokohama, wages of day laborers 
 (1900-1912), 177. 
 
 Yokohama, (iennosuke, 224. 
 
 Yokosuka, artillery regiments at, 131. 
 
 Yoshida, population (1896-1899), 105. 
 
 Yoshiwara, population, (1897-1911), 
 
 105. 
 Yura, artillery regiments at, 131. 
 
 Zentsuji, population and increase (1894- 
 1903), 100; (1902-1908-1911), 200; 
 growth of population due to estab- 
 lishment of a new division at, 104- 
 105; increase of employment due to 
 establishment of a new division at, 
 128-129; higher officers stationed at, 
 130; money orders cashed by soldiers 
 (1897-1909), 200-201; boarding ex- 
 penses of soldiers at, 202.
 
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