PD 3109 G45 i IC-NRLF $B 311 L4at U^pt^H .^ .^, iniversity c nia. FROM thp: library of DR. FRANCIS LIEBER, Professor of History and Law in Columbia College, ^ 'ow York. THE GIFT OF MICHAEL REESE, Of San Francisco. 1873. 4» mr: ELEMENTS DANISH AND SWEDISH LANGUAGES. JOHN GIERL O W. CAMBRIDGE: MET CALF AND COMPANY, PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY. 1847. PREFACE The connection which subsists between nations in the affairs of government, in commerce, and domestic concerns, renders a knowledge of the living languages to many useful and agreeable ; to others, very neces- sary. The work here presented to the public is designed to afford a means for attaining a considerable knowledge of the Danish and Swedish languages, which hitherto have been but too much neglected, considering the rich- ness of their literature. In laying this work before the eye of an enlightened public, I trust that I shall obtain its pardon, if it has not arrived at that degree of perfection I sincerely wish for. But as perfection is not the property of man, and as the pen of a foreigner is often apt to err, I most respectfully crave the kind indulgence of those who IV PREFACE. may peruse my work, should it not meet with their approbation. Should this work be encouraged with a rapid sale, I shall shortly publish a Danish and Swedish reader, in which I shall endeavour to make good the errors I may have committed in this, my present work. J. G. Lowell, Mass., Jan. 1, 1847. DANISH GRAMMAR. CHAPTER I. ALPHABET. The Danish language is expressed by means of twenty- eight letters. Letters. 95, b, e, c, 3,i, . 3,;, «,f, . i, i, 5m, ra, 31, n, £>, 0, , =0, q, 9l,v, § 1. Simple Letters. Names. Ah, Bay, Say, Day, Eh, Eff, . Ghay, Hoh, Ee, Yod, Koh, Ell, . English repre- sentation. . . . A, a. B, b. . . . C,c. ... D, d. . . . E, e. F.f. . . . G,g. ... H, h. . . . I,i. . . . J,j. . . . K, k. ... L,l. Emm M, m. Enn, O, . Pay, Koo, Err, N, n. 0,o. P,p. a,q. R,r. PRONUNCIATION. @, f, ^, 3/ J, . 2(a, aa, Ess, S, s, Tay, T,t. Oo, U, u. Vay, V, V. Ex, X, X. Ipsilon, .... Y, y. Sett, Z, z. Au. Ay. 0. ^ 2. Compound Letters. Letters. Names. d), Say-hoh, ff, Eff-eff, . fi, Eff-eff-ee, ff(, Eff-eff-ell, ji, Eff-ee, . f[, Eff-ell, . a, Ell-ell, . ft, Ess-ee, (I, Ess-ell, . If, Ess-ess, , §, Ess-ess, ]\, Ess-tay, . English repre- sentation. . ch. ff. . . ffi. . ffl. . . fi. fl. . . 11. . fi. . . fl. . fl: , . fs. . fl;. CHAPTER II. PRONUNCIATION. § 3. Sounds op Simple Vowels. a. Sounded nearly as a in the English word /ar ; e. g. ittmagt, omnipotence ; mange, many. PRONUNCIATION. 3 e. Nearly like a in the English word fate ; e. g, Sijig^el), eternity ; mcgCt, much. (See § 4, Obs. 1.) t. Like the English e in me ; e. g. "iime, hour ; ibelig, perpetual. . , - .^ 0. Like the English o in more; e. g. 5!D?0t)er, mother; Ovttt, worm, tt. Like the English u in rule ; e. g. ®^l^, God ; llglltcfig, profane. 1^. As the French u in du; e. g. ©^n, sight; ^bttt^g, humble. C^C(, Nearly as the English o in long ; e. g. 2(ant)/ ghost ; Uaa, blue. . w -,. CC. As the English a in /amc ; e. g. 2Sve, honor ; fcccre, to carry. 0. As the French eu in /cm; e.g. ^V&^f bread; 0t>C/ desert. Observations. § 4. 055. 1. The Danish language has a loud and a S2- /ew^ e. It is called loud, when sounded distinctly. The si- lent e serves to denote that a monosyllabic word, or the last syllable in a word, which, according to the pronunciation, ends in e, t, 0, u, I), Of, &, and aci, has the accent. It must, therefore, notwithstanding it is not heard, still be written in the following cases : — (a.) In the accented syllable at the end of nouns consist- ing of more than one syllable, which in the pronunciation end in i, and monosyllabic nouns, which in the pronunci- ation end in t, i, 0, t), «, &, and dd ; e. g. SSetkric, beg- ging ; &nn, snow ; SSie, bee ; ff oe, cow ; ©fi;e, sky ; "ivccc, tree ; 9}T^e, maiden ; 2(ac, brook. (6.) In the accented syllable at the end of an adjective, which in the pronunciation ends in i, 0, «, I), and aa, in the plural, and in the singular with the definite article ; e. g. fric SOTcent), free men ; bh;e ^id^, bashful maidens ; fmie 4 PRONUNCIATION. Savk, cunning fellows ; gvaae ^dtU, gray hats ; likewise, Den fvie 9}?ant), the free man ; t)CU fcli;e ^i^(, the bashful maiden ; t)Cn fuue ^avf, the shrewd fellow ; t>cn gravtc ^at, the gray hat. With the indefinite article, on the contrary, in the singular, these adjectives must be written without the sile?it e ; consequently, en fri 9}Iant), a free man ; en bft) spige, a bashful maiden ; &c. (c.) In the last syllable of infinitives contracted of two syllables, and therefore accented, which in the pronunci- ation ends in C, i, 0, X), da, and & ; e. g. at fee, to see ; at frie, to free ; at tree, to believe ; at fpe, to sow ; at gaae, to go ; at Q)JOftf to bark. {d.) In the accented syllable in the end of imperatives, which in the pronunciation ends in e, i, 0, U, \), &, and aa ; e. g. fee! behold! .He I remain! tvoe! believe! tvnei threat- en ! f[i;e ! fly ! \>i^z I die ! ^aat \ go ! (e.) In the accented syllable of imperfects, which in the pronunciation ends in or aa, and in the plurals of pres- ents, which in the pronunciation end in aa*^ e. g. jeg loe, I smiled; jeg Uae, I laid; t?i maae, we must; t)i faae, we receive . The singular of the verb, on the contrary, must be writ- ten without the C ; e. g. jeg maa, I must. § 5. Ohs, 2. All the vowels are sometimes long, and sometimes short, that is, the same sound being more or less protracted \ e. g. a is long in ®at)e, gift, and short in ©anD, sand. The distinction, however, has reference only to ac- cented syllables. ^ 6. Ohs. 3. When two vowels occur together, they must both be sounded ; as, beeM^e, to swear to ; §iel>, print of footsteps. ^ 7. Sounds of the Diphthongs. at. Sounded as a2 in the English word aisle; e. g. CDtai, the month of May ; ^ax, a shark. PRONUNCIATION. 5 au. Nearly as ou in the English word our ; e. g. ©aug, a saw ; ^aw^C, garden, eu Like ei in the English word height; e. g. feig, cowardly ; ©pcif, mirror. en. An intermediate sound between that of ei and that of the following diphthong (oi) ; e. g. ffuvopa, Europe. Oi. Like the English oi in voice; e. g. SSoie, bilboes ; ft'oie, hammock. OU. This diphthong sounds, when in a word, like ow in the English word owl; e. g. spoul, Paul ; 3!0llg, rope. &'u Is sounded nearly as oi ; e. g. @t-ai, noise ; ip'xz, eye. Observation. ^ 8. The three diphthongs oi, CU, -O^i, are sounded nearly alike. The first is the simple English oi in voice ; the sec- ond is somewhat closer; the last is more broad, pronounced with the mouth widely opened. It is, however, difficult for any one but a native to obtain a correct pronunciation of these diphthongs. § 9. Sounds of the Simple Consonants. b. Sounded as in the English word baj/ ; e. g. 95v-0^^, bread ; except at the end of words, where it is sound- ed hard, like bp; e. g. Xab, loss. C. Like kj unless it stands before e, i, i;, OJ, JOf, when it is sounded as 5 ; e. g. £a)tauie, chestnut, pronounce Ka- stanie; CitVOn, lemon, pronounce Sitron, ^ As in the English word do ; e. g. Sauff, Danish. (See § 10, Obs. 1.) f. As in the English word off; e. g. §0^, foot ; ofte, often. g. As the English g in go ; e. g. ®al)e, gift ; Sag, day. {;, As the English h in he ; e. g. ^\X^, house ; ^ig^CD, like- ness ; except when it stands before ) and \). (See § 11, Obs. 2.) 1# O PRONUNCIATION. ;. Sounded like y in the English word yet ; e. g. 3agt, hunting ; ;eg, I. t As in English, but is distinctly heard before n ; e. g. ^nCC, knee ; fnccfte, to break. L As in English j e. g. iit), life ; SIl^, lead. ttl. As in English ; e. g. SDTcuneffe, man ; km, lamb. at. As in English ; e. g. naar, when ; fait, can. p. As in English; e. g. spvop, cork; pv^^e, to prove. q. Sounded nearly as ^ ; e. g. X).\)a(, distress ; O.^if?, twig. This letter is always followed by the letter t). r. This letter is, in the Danish language, rolled, if rolled at all, so slightly, and in so peculiar a manner, that it can hardly be heard, and its sound can only be acquir- ed by long practice. Its sound comes somewhat near to the r in the English word warm; e. g. SHet, jus- tice ; var, rare. f. As the English s in soul; e. g. ©of, sun; 9te||, re- mainder. t. As in English ; e. g. 3:i^, time ; tCCt, tight. t). As in English; e. g. ^ife, song; ^ot)e, to hazard. (See §13, Obs. 4.) )t. As the English x \njix ; e. g. ft]l*erc, to disappoint. J. As in English ; e. g. ^\\x, ornament ; jittrc, to tremble. Observations. § 10. Obs. 1. The sound of the letter I) is exceeding- ly difficult to acquire. It is only when beginning a word that it is sounded like the English d ; when beginning a syl- lable, or when ending a word, it has a sound so peculiar as not to be represented here, and it is only by the instruction of a native, and by long practice, that it can be acquired.* * The letter t) must not be written in words in the etymology of which is found no ground for it ; e. g. in g^^anft, French ; ©tceff, Greek j a^fHtt (from at>ffit(er, to separate) ; fat (from fcctter, to sit). On the contrary, it must be written in gobtv ont>t/ for^abt, because these words are formed of got>/ good; oitb/ evil, l;at)et, to hate. PRONUNCIATION. 7 § 11. Obs, 2. When the letter i) stands before j and t>/ it loses its sound ; e. g. J^j^tp, help ; f)\>'\tf, white. ^ 12. Obs, 3. In words derived from the Latin, when t is followed by a vowel, it is generally sounded like ^; e. g. ^OVticu, portion, sound porsion. § 13. Obs. 4. The letter \) when followed by the let- ter t is always sounded like f ; e. g. ()at?t, had ; Iat)t, low ; pronounce haft^ laft, § 14. Sounds of Combined Consonants. d^ occurs only in foreign words and proper names, and is pronounced both as k and as sh in the English word sheen; e. g. C^avacteei*, character; ^{j, there I stood. Further, in Danish, all nouns, and all words used as nouns, begin with a capital letter, as also all pronouns denoting a person adressed ; e. g. £0?aut)eu, the man ; @pifeu, the meal ; ^u, thou, 35e, you. CHAPTER IV. ARTICLE. § 20. The article in the Danish language is of two kinds, viz. the definite and the indefinite. ARTICLE. 9 ^ 21. The indefinite article is, for the masculine and feminine genders, in the singular, eu, a, or an, for the neuter, ft, a ; as, m 501ant>, a man ; CU S'OUe, a woman ; ct SSavn, a child. It has no plural. § 22. The definite article is of two kinds, viz. (a.) that for the nouns, and {b, ) that for the adjectives ; the former is used where the noun stands without an adjective ; the latter, where it stands with an adjective. («.) The definite article for the nouns is, in the singu- lar, for the masculine and feminine genders, en, for the neu- ter, et ; and in the plural for all three genders ene or aie, when they are joined to the last syllable of a noun ; e. g. QKaut^ CU, the man ; ^anx-tt, the child ; plur. 3}?(Xnt)'Cnc, 25^*11-' ene. (6.) The definite article for the adjectives is, in the sin- gular, for the masculine and feminine genders, ben, the ; for the neuter, and in the plural for all three genders, t>C, the. It is placed both before nouns and adjectives; e. g. t)Cn gODC CWant), the good man ; Det QOte 23ott), the good table ; plur. be gObe 50?o:nt>, be gobe 25orbe. Likewise, instead of gobe SDTanb'Cn, gobe aSovb-ct ; gcbe Tlc^ni>mu, gobe aSovb^enc. Here, however, must be observed the peculiar use of the article when a noun is preceded by the adjective ^ccf, whole, or the so-called indefinite pronoun al, all ; e. g. {)ele aSog^en, the whole book ; al ^at>nx, all the food ; alt golfet, the whole nation. Observations . § 23. Obs. 1. The plural of the definite article for nouns, which is joined immediately to the plural of words with the indefinite article, is t\U to those nouns which in the indefinite plural do not end in e or V ; e. g. 9}?«nb, 50Tanb'Cne; SB^nt, 25m-u=eue; it is, on the contrary, ue to those words which in the indefinite plural end in c or cr ; e. g. Soncr, Kouecme ; aSovbe, aSorbe-ne. 10 NOUN. § 24. Obs, 2. The definite article for the adjectives is now and then used in poetry instead of that for the nouns ; e. g. faa piU l)C 3t0Vt>mCCnt) for atorge, they Northmen thus fight for Norway ; where U SlOVtmCCUt) stands for 3l0V^' § 25. Obs, 3. When several nouns are united with each other, and one of them has the definite article, they must all have the same ; e. g. man tttaci ta^t "^it^m Cg itu (igljCbeat ia^t, the time and the opportunity must be con- sidered : not %iHn og ieiligt)et), nor 3:it> og icilig^eten. When these united nouns are of different genders, and the first has an article, it must be repeated by the rest: e. g. en sHepublit og ct CDTonavfie ere forffjelUge sHcg= jcviatg^fovmcr, a republic and a monarchy are different forms of government ; t)et i)&k 93tob Og t)en utmcevf ct)e 3:ap= pev^et), t)cat imgc ^viger S)iip, i>ax ijan^ SHoe^, men ogfaa ^an^ ^Ugt/ the high courage and the remarkable bravery shown by the young warrior was his praise, as also his duty. CHAPTER V. NOUN. General Statement. ^ 26. Nouns in Danish have but two grammatical gen- ders, viz. {a.) gcclkffj^n (genus commune), which compri- ses the masculine and the feminine, and (6.) ^WUttj&n (ge- nus neutrum), the neuter gender. There are two numbers, singular and plural ; and five cases, viz. nominative, gen- itive, dative, accusative, and vocative. ^ 27. The gcedcffj-an is signified by the article en and l>cn ; the 3ntctf)4)n by et and Det ; e. g. en SDTant), CDTanten ; et ®ort), "tSovm. NOUN. 11 In the formations of the plural (of which there are four in Danish nouns), it must be observed, that in some words the letter a is changed into the letter a, and the letter o, to Q ; e. g. 9}TanD, SDiant); COloDev, 13}?-at>ve. The four formations are the following : — 1.) The plural is unchanged as well as the singular; e. g. et Sl^g, an egg ; to ^"Sg, two eggs ; et 25aau^, a ribbon ; tve 25aant>/ three ribbons. 2.) By adding the letter e to the singular; e. g. ©frCCt»Cr, tailor, plur. ©ffCeDevc. Some words, besides adding the letter e, double the last consonant ; e. g. ffiient)Om, posses- sion, plur. Cicut>ommc. 3.) By adding the letter r to the singular ; e g. JjjCVtC, heart, plur. J^jevtcv ; S5ue, bow, plur. SSuer. 4.) By adding ev to the singular, except when the word ends in the silent e, in which case only v is added. Declension of Danish Nouns. § 28, The Danish language has but two declensions ; (a.) the first, when the word is declined with the indefinite article, or without an article, has four cases ; (6.) the sec- ond, when it is declined with the definite article, has five cases. The genitive case ends, in both declensions, either in ^ or e^. In the second declension, the vocative is form- ed from the nominative by taking away the article. ^ 29. First Declension f with the Indefinite Article. Ex. : en 5D?ant), a man. Singular. Plural. Norn. enSOtanD. Nom. SD?ccu^. Gen. en 50?anl)^. Gen. ?Dto:u^^. Dat. m^anl). Bat. 9}tccu^ Ace. en 3}?ant). Ace SOtcsuD. 12 NOUN. 3ntetf;, an. Ex.: : et ^mi^f a house. Singular. Plural. Norn, . Ct J^HU^. Nom, ^W^^. Gen, et J^Hfe^. Gen. i^ufe^. Bat. ct J^uu^. Dat, ^ufe. Ace, et ^mie. Ace, ^ufe. 0, Second Declension , wi th the Definite Article, galfeff; QU. Ex.: 5Dtaut)en, the man. Singular. Plural. Norn, 3}?anben. Nom, SQlcent)ene» Gen, 5D?aut)cn^. Gen. SD?o:nt)cne^. Dat, SOTanben. Dat. CDtanbene. Ace. 9)?an^cn. Ace. 50Tamt)ene. Voc, CDtanD ! Sntetf; Voc. 3}?cent ! Ex.: : ^\l{tt, the house. Singular. Plural. Nom, J^iifet. Nom, J^ufene* Gen. ^Xl^H^. Gen. J^ufene^. Dat, J^ufet Dat. J^ufene. Ace, ^ufet. Ace, «5wfene. Voc. ^im^ ! Voc. J^ufe! Observations on the Declensions, ^ 31. Ohs. 1. The words which in the singular end in the loud e need not, with the definite article, have the whole syllable eu or et added to them, but only the letter n or t ; e. g. ©IccDe, joy, ©(cc^e-u ; ^inMte, window, SJin^^ § 32. O65. 2. The genitive is formed by adding ^ to the nominative ; e. g. Sag, day, Sag^. Nouns ending in NOUN. I^ €f ]C, and J, take e^ in the genitive; e. g. ^(j:, witch, § 33. Obs, 3. When several nouns standing in apposi- tion (that is, connected without a conjunction), and denot- ing the same person or thing (e. g. J^ilbvicffvibcven UixHt> Jr^^itftlH, Arild Hvitfeldt the historian; e^vi|^ian ten &r)' t)enl>e, ^onge i Sanmavf, Christian the Seventh, king of Denmark), are used in the genitive case, the last only receives the mark of the genitive ; e. g. ^\\\oxu^tn\>ntn livilt) J^bitfcttt^ ^VJ^nih, the chronicle of Arild Hvitfeldt, the historian ; ^eifcvinteu af SHu^taut Cat^ariua ten 2(n- ten^ SRegjering, the reign of Catharine the Second, Czar- ina of Russia. § 34. Obs, 4. Titles of honor, or official names in e, lose this e when they stand before proper nouns ; e. g. Songe, king, ^ong S^vi)^ian ; CSvct)e, count, ©ret) ©cfeim-' melman ; J^evve, lord, master, ^nt J^^nfen ; etc. § 35. Obs, 5. Nouns, which in the singular end in el, en, and tx, are sometimes contracted in the plural ; e. g. aSitfef, curb, plur. S5it|Iev (for aSitfelef) ; 2(ger, acre, plur. 2(gve (with the definite article, 2(gven) ; CD^Oter, mother, plur. SDT^tve (but with the definite article SWoteveu, not anobren). § 36. Obs. 6. The nouns in ei*, which in the indefi- nite plural are not contracted, suffer this contraction in the plural with the definite article ; e. g. ©fvOJtev, tailor, in- definite plural ©frceteve (not ©fvoetre), definite plural ©frccDefue (not ©frcetevene). § 37. Obs. 7. Many words have no plural; e. g. (Suit, gold, &JOli), silver, ^aab, hope, @l)n, sight, &c. Others have no singular ; e. g. govccftve, parents, ©XTtffente, brothers and sisters, &c. Some nouns stand in certain * The old genitives in fettfif — e. g. ^aftfettflf (for^at5et^) ©lln^, the bottom of the ocean — are not now in use. 2 14 ADJECTIVES. cases in the singular, and nevertheless denote more than one thing; e. g. tjan t)JOhU giff, he bought fish; ^au Ct fern go^ ij&i, he is five feet high ; &c. CHAPTER VI. ADJECTIVES. General Statement. ^ 38. Adjectives in Danish are varied in two general ways, viz. by comparison and by declension. These varia- tions are both made by the addition of one or more letters to the original simple form. Comparison. § 39. There are in Danish, as in English, three degrees of comparison ; the positive, comparative, and superlative. § 40. The comparative is formed by adding ere or ve to the positive; e. g. latD, learned, tovt^^eve ; CCM'U, sober, atm-nt ; bauge, fearful, bange-ve. § 41. The superlative is formed by adding e|lt or )l to the positive; e. g. fa^, sweet, f^D.-etl ; f<^^*^/ tav^'e)^; baitge, ba)tge-|i Observations on Comparison. §42. Obs, 1. Some adjectives, especially those formed from verbs, and such as are composed either of an adjective and a substantive (when the adjective stands first), or with the particle be, do not bear these terminations of comparison, but use in place thereof, in the ascending degrees, in com- parative, meeV/ and in superlative, meeft ; and in the de- scending degrees, in comparative, miuM*e, in superlative, miut)|i E. g. fovtvl;Ileal^e, charming, meet fovtn;(Ienl)e, ADJECTIVES. (IS mccjl fortft)tlcnl>e ; ff jat)benet, crooklegged, meet ffjatbc? net, mu\l ff ja:\)6enet ; bc^jcrtct, courageous, miutve be^jev- ttt, miuD|l bc^jci-tet. § 43. Obs. 2. When adjectives ending in a simple consonant, and in the last syllable of which is a short- sounded vowel, at the terminations of the comparative and superlative grow in the end, the consonant at the end is often doubled ; e. g. fmuf, handsome, fmuffcvc, fmutfe|l. § 44. Obs. 3. Adjectives, which in the positive end in d, cn, CV, suffer, when they in the comparative and superla- tive grow in the end, a contraction, by throwing away the vowel preceding the consonant at the end ; e. g. CC^e[, no- ble, ccMevc (from aDelcve), Qtt)U\\ (from cetelet^). § 45. Obs, 4. Superlatives are raised by prefixing the word ailn to the adjective ; e. g. aUevt)CU(i9|l, most friendly, af(crtUv|i, tallest of all, &c. § 46. Obs. 5. Some adjectives are irregular in their comparison ; e. g. faa, few, fccrve, fcervell ; gammel, old, o:(t>ve, o:f^|i ; gob, good, bmt, htr>\l ; lan^, long, langete, laugll ; (iDctt, little, miuDve, mu\t\l ; mange, many, |Iere, flcet^ ; megen, much, meve, meeil ; nccr, near, noenneve, nccvmc|t ; onb, bad, tjccvve, \)a\:\l ; fmaa, small, fmcxrve, fmccvrell; \Uiict, \i. 4- A. \tm SD?ant). SntHff^n. Ex. : et |IOVt ^UU^, a great house. Singular. Plural. N. et l^ovt ^m^. N. jlove ^ufe. G^. et )iovt J^ufe^. ^- jTove J^ufe^. 2>. 4- J. et llovt Jjun^. 1>. 4- ^. )^ore J^ufc. § 49. Second Declension, with the Definite Article, goilfeffj^n. Ex. : Sen l^ove SD?ani), the tall man. Singular. Plural. N. 2)en jlove SD?an^ N, Se t^ove CDTanD. 6?. Sen lltcve OHant)^. G^. Se ]loxt ^mr>^. D. Sf^A. Sen |love Tlan^. D. 4* ^. Se |l^ove ^mt>. V. ©tore SDtant) ! v: ©tove SD?a;nl> ! 3ntett)4^n. Ex. : Set |l0Ve J^wn^, the great house. Singular. Plural. N, Set |lore J^un^. iV. Se llore J^ufe. G. Set )]cre J^nfe^. G. Se tlove J^ufe^. D. 4« A, Set t^ove J^un^^ D. ^ A. Se Ibve ^nfe. F. ©toveJ^un^l F. ©toveJ5ufe! ADJECTIVES. 17 Observations on the First Declension, § 50. Obs, 1. According to this declension, adjectives are also declined, when they are preceded by the pronoun l)t)ilfcu, which, with an exclaiming signification ; e. g. Ij^iU fen got) SDTant) ! how kind a man ! &c. § 51. Obs. 2. The adjectives which end in 0, ff, |l, t, u, t), do not add a t in the 3ntetf j-au ; e. g. et tvo 3}?enucffe, a faithfiil person; ct ^i)loviff 3ul>^o(t), an historical index; &c. Except the word n\), new, which in the ^nUti)&n has n\)t ; e. g. et ni;t ^XIU^, a new house. § 52. 06s. 3. Words of more than one syllable end- ing in e^, and adjectives in e, are not declined ; e. g. iail)^ \>OXM g^Ielfe, internal feeling; CU 6auge Srcug, a frighten- ed boy ; &/C. § 53. Obs. 4. ©gen, own, litCtt, small, and ttiegcn, much, throw, in the 3ntetf j^U, the letter n away, when stand- ing before t ; e. g. cgct, fit)Ct, meget. ©gCU and megeu follow this declension everywhere in the singular ; e. g. tuitt egcu (not egne) -O^^nb, my own hand; ten mcgen (not megs lie) (Sot^et, (the) much kindness. When egen, on the con- trary, signifies fCCfCgen (peculiar, singular), then it follows the second declension ; e. g. \)ibenffabe(ig CuIUlt* Mtet* ci ut)en £)pt)o:ffeffen af t>en egne ^raft tii ©efouivffom^eb, scientific culture is useless without the excitement of the peculiar power of self-action. iit>tn is with the definite article called lilfe, and in the plural fmaae. § 54. Obs. 5. Adjectives which stand disjoined fol- low this declension ; e. g. sptgen^ gavjlanb et* |lor, the maiden's knowledge is great; fiMfet ei* gOtt, the beer is good ; §oroeft>vene eve atedge, the parents are noble. Observations on the Second Declension. % 55. Obs. 1. According to this declension adjectives are also declined, when preceded by a genitive or a pro- 2* 18 ADJECTIVES. noun ; * e. g. SOtautCU^ ^^ie ^xm^, the man's high house ; jeg CCVlige SOtant), honest man that I am ; tin i}\licn 90^e ^an\:> ci aleue ^av vceb- t>c\> mi^, men ogfaci mine 23m*n, which good man has not only saved me, but also my children. Gen. J^^iffcn gObe CDIanD^ 23^rn tafer ^n Om ? what good man's children do you speak of? ^\)\[hn got)e 9}?ant)^ ^&tn jeci ffal forft)ave til mit i;t>cr|Ie, which good man's children I will defend to my last. Dat. ^Miax gote 9}?an^ gat) Dn ^engene ? to what good man did you give the money ? J^^ilf^'H gCDe 93Tan^ jeg )U*a]l* ^(i\) ^engene, to which good man I immediately gave the money. Ace. J^t^itfen gOt>C 9}?anb taUv t>Xl om ? of what good man are you speaking? J^^itf^l^ gOt>e CDTan^ jeg nat)ncv met) ^'Srefv^gt, which good man I name with reverence. Plural Nom. ^\)ilh gODe 5D?CCnt> er t>et, fom ^n tafer om ? ^Mh goDe 5D?ccn^ Ijevtjet) in^lievne^ far 9tetten, which good men hereby are summoned before the court. Gen. ^\>ilh got)e SD?ccn^^ S3-avn mener bn? ^"oilh goDe D}?ant)^ 35-ani jeg alt»vig ftal fovfate. Dat. JpDiffe gobc OTant) gaV) t)n tet? J5t)ilfe goDe £D?oen^ jeg |lrar gat) 2((ting. Ace. J5\)ilfe go^e SDI^nt) mener Du ? ^Mh gobe a}?cen^ jeg l}evt)et) in^t^oct)nev fai- SKetcen. ^ 56. Obs. 2. The adjective |)ee( can also be declined in the singular according to this declension, although the noun has the definite article for substantives instead of that for adjectives; e. g. ^e(e ©tnen t)ar fntb af golf, the whole room was full of people, for ten ^ele ®tnt ; ^efe golfet t)ar * Except those named in Obs. 1, ^ 50. ADJECTIVES. 19 i 95ci)age(fc, the whole nation was in commotion, for ^et § 57. Ohs. 3. Formerly it was the custom to add z\\ to the adjective, both in the gocdcff J4^n and ^\\Utt)Q\\, instead of the definite article ; e. g. t>et) ij&'mx SO?a|l, for t)eb \>m ijOM 9}?a|h This is also done in names of nations ; e. g. Sauffcu, ©\)Cnffcn ; and by poets, who also often leave out the article ; e. g. met) U\^^u @^n, for me& ten tappve ©^tt. General Observations on both Declensions, ^ 58. Obs, 1. When an adjective, which ends in a simple consonant, and in the last syllable of which there is a short-sounded vowel, grows in the end, consequently in the plural with the indefinite article (first declension), and in the singular with the definite article (second declension), the consonant ending the word is always doubled ; e. g. fmuf, handsome, plural with the indefinite article, fmuftc 95<(n*U ; singular with the definite article, ten fmuttc SvCUg/ the handsome lad, &>c. § 59. Obs. 2. Adjectives of more than one syllable, in ft, change, with the indefinite article, in the plural, and with the definite article, in the singular, the ending con- sonant t to ^ ; e. g. en een^iet COTaut), a one-eyed man, eeu-aiete 3}?«n^, Un uxmtu 3}Taul)» ^ 60. Obs. 3. When adjectives stand as substantives, the letter (? is added to the genitive the same as with real substantives. E. g. Nom. ten ©tOVC ; Gen. ten ©tove^/ ^c. Form and Position of Adjectives. ^61. As to the place of an adjective, when joined to a substantive, the' Danish language acknowledges precisely the same rules as the English ; e. g. Srengen ev gfaD, the boy is glad, lange 2(vme, long arms, &c. The same is the 20 ADJECTIVES. case when adjectives are explained as participles ; e. g. et ©i;n c\i;fefigt at fee paer, a beloved mother, &/C. But not so in the cases. In the nominative, they are always alike; but if the substantive stands in the genitive case, with its adjective before it, the substantive only is so inflected ; e. g. en |IOU EDTanb^ ^. 4- ^. "^n, @ig. Plural for both Genders. N. Se. G^. 2)cve^. D. §• ^. Sem, ©ig. § 71. The reciprocal pronouns are only used in the plural : — D, 4* A. J^iuaubeit. D. 4* A. J5t)eranbve. G, ^inauDen^. G^. JpDcvauM-c^. § 72. 06s. 1. When the conversation is of a person of high rank, the third person plural must not not be used for the third person singular. Thus we ought to say, ter- ^XXiX fom (not t>eve^) J^^H^ ^QmWX\>\^\)Z\>, thereupon his Lordship came. § 73. Obs, 2. The reflective pronoun f(g is used for t;am, ^CUte, t^eu, t)et, Dem, in the dative and accusative, when they relate to the subject of a sentence ; e. g. ^ail ^H f^3/ ^* r ^v* he struck himself, &c. But, when they stand as subject instead of Su or 3, then fig must not be used, but l)cm, although this HXXI has reference to the sub- ject ; e. g. Se (3)u) maa 6ctccnfe t)cm (not fig) t)a*paa, you must reflect upon it; Se (3) maac ^dh t)cm (not fig) bovt, you must be gone. If, on the contrary, the subject * This is the abbreviation of c^ faa t>tl>ere, and so forthi PRONOUN. SIS: i)an, t}\m, is used instead of ©u, then ^am, t)CnU, is not used, but f(5; e. g. t)il Ijau (()im) t>og paffe fig (not ^am, ^enDc) 6ovt ! will you be gone, I entreat ! § 74. Jjinanten is used (as. a sort of dual) of two ; f)l)Cvantt:e, on the contrary, of more than two. Possessive Pronouns. ^ 75. The possessive pronouns, which are adjective, are 9}lin, mine ; 33ov, our ; j)in, thine ; 3cr, your ; ©in, his ; ©ev, their. §76. First Person. Sntetf. Singular. 50?in. SBor. SCriit. gjovt. Plural for both Genders. SDtine. 25ore. §77. Second Person, gcefteff. Sntctf. ©in. 3cr. ©it. 3evt. Plural for both Genders. "S^'xiM. 3cre. §78. Third Person. goefleff. 3utetf. Singular. ©in. (©ev.) ©it. (©evt.) Plural for both Genders. ©inc. (©eve.) Observations. §79. Ohs. \, The possessive pronouns are declined like the adjectives, and stand, like these, either disjunctive, conjunctive, or substantive ; e. g 39ogen CV win, the book is mine; min SSogcr fctoen fcovte, my book is lost ; min gif fovam, mine walked in front. — ^\\\, t>'x\\, and ftn throw away n in the 3ntetf)^n. — ^ove^, jeve^, and t)ere^ are used instead of t)or, ;er, and bev ; e. g. tet et t)Ot J^itnt, t)OVt J5»U^, it is our dog, our house ; J^MH^nt, JgJnfCt er t)OVe^, i&C'C. — As the pronoun ter (in place of which the 24 PRONOUN. Gen. tJCrc^ is used) is only applied in daily conversation among the lower classes, I have put it in parentheses. § 80. Obs. 2. The possessive pronoun ftn is used in- stead of Ijan^, ^enbe^, Un^, tM, when they express the subject of the sentence; e. g. ()an I)ar ftu ^C|l flttC spengC f jOCVeve en^ faa, O. f. ^., he loves his horse, his money better than that, &c. But ftn must never be used instead of ^c= ve^, as it is only used to denote one possessing person ; thus we ought to say, e. g., t)e UH efCCV t)CVC^ (not fine) @t^\)lcv, they seek after their boots j SRigevne {)at)e tcve^ (not fin) ga^et* i t>ei*e^ (not fin) ^onge, the countries have their father in their king. Demonstrative Pronouns. § 81. The demonstrative pronouns, which are substan- tive, are '^cn, that ; Sennc, this ; ^xxn, that one. ^82. S)en. Singular, Plural S«W^ffj*tt. 3ntetf)«n. /or both Genders. N. ©en. N. Set. iV. 2)e. 6?. Sen^. G. Set^. G^. Seve^. D. 4*^. Sen. Z>. ^-^.Set. Z>. 4* ^. 2)em. Observations. § 83. 06s. 1. When ben is used as an adjective, it has not t)em in Ace. plur. ; but as all the cases in this instance are alike, it becomes like the Nom. be ; e. g. be SlSblev ^il jeg t)&lHf those apples I will buy. § 84. Obs. 2. The adverb t>n, her, is often used in- stead of this pronoun with a preposition in connection with the same; e. g. benneb (for nieb mtt) et* ©agen tilenbe, with this the matter is settled. PRONOUN. 25 Plural for both genders. N. 5)i(fe. D.S^ A. 2)itfe. Plural for both genders. N. J^ine. G. J^iuc^. D. 4- A. ^iate. § 85. ©enne. Singular. N. Scnne. iV. ^ette. G^. Sennet. G, "i^ttu^. D. ^ A. Senne. D. S^ A. "X^au. \ 86. J^iin. Singular. A'. ^iin. iV. Jjiint. D, 4* ^. ^iiu. I>. S^ A. ipiinC. Observations, ^ 87. 055. 1. These demonstrative pronouns stand al- so as adjectives, and have all their cases like that of the nominative; e. g. Nom. Sen 93Tan^ ^av 9Jort M, that man has done it ; Gen. S)cn 9}?anl)^ 25vol)Cr er (;cr, that man's brother is here; Sijfe a}t«n^^ S5-avn jtf ©tvaf, these men's children got punishment ; Ace. plur. 3eg ijOlUx mcgCt af ^ijfc 23^l*n, I love these children much. ^ 88. Obs. 2. As these, like all pronouns, make the noun definite, even when they, like adjectives, are con^ nected with it, the noun therefore cannot have an article. I cannot say t)en SDIauteJt, nor ten ijim 5D?aul), and much less ejt ^iin SDtauD. Relative Pronouns. § 89. The relative pronouns, which are substantive, are, @om, who, which, or that, ^\>iltax, who, which, or that, 2)er, who, which, or that. § 90. ©cm. In both Numbers and Genders. N. ©cm. G. ^t)i^. D. S^ ^. @om. 26 PRONOUN. Observations. § 91. Ohs. 1. The relative font is used, when the po- sition of the relative is but adjective ; that is, it serves only to determine more nearly that word in the place of which the relative stands ; e. g. ^av ^U faact U S-agCV, fom ;eg fent)te 3)tg 1 b. C«* U t)ig fenttc SS^gcr, have you received the books which I sent you ? that is, the books sent to you. § 92. Obs, 2. ©cm is often left out; but this omission ought not generally to take place, except where it should stand in the Dat. or Ace; e. g. SOTatCtt (fom) ^au fpifcv fmager gO^t, the food (which) he eats tastes good. And especially does this omission take place when the relative position is preceded by a noun with the demonstrative bCU/ or with the definite article for the nouns, or the Dat. or Ace. of a pronoun, the Nom. of which is different from its Dat. and Ace. ; e. g. t)en ^iXb, (fom) t>u fpifcv ; bet n Ijam (mig, fjcuDe, t)ig, ^cm, o^, etcv), (fom) t»ct 9ti;gte gaaer om, it is him (me, her, thee, them, us, you) of (whom) the re- port is spread. § 93. Obs, 3. The relative adverbs t>a and ^t)Or are often used for relative pronouns ; e. g. 3eg f om pcici ^av= terret i Ut flMebfif ta (^ e. i ^t)ilfet) eometJieu beg^lt^te, og fom t\i at tltaae paa t)ec lleD, ^\>n (K e. pact ()t)iltct) jeg |ltot) fovIc^CU/ I came into the pit at the moment when the comedy commenced, and happened to occupy the same place which I did the other day. § 94. J^Diffen. Singular. N. J5\)iften. N. ^\>\IUU G. ^S>'x^ or S^S^'xlhw^, G. J5t)i^ or ^"oilht^. D. 4- A. ^\>\[h\\. D, S^ A. S^\>\\ht * This is the abbreviation of bet it, that is. PRONOUN. 27 Plural for both Genders, N, ^\>'\{h. G. ^\>i^ or J5^iIfeb^ Z>. 4- A. ^mlh. Observations, ^ 95. Obs. 1. ^\>ii{m also stands adjective, and has then all cases like the nominative; e. g. l}\)i[fcn ^an\> n m ? what man is that 1 ij\)Hftn ^dwH SSog CV M ? what man's book is that ? § 96. Obs. 2. When t)\)ilim, in the signification i)Ml> for ecu (which one), is used interrogatively, it belongs to the interrogative pronouns; e. g. ^t)ilfen et* t)in ^Og af Dilfc to? which one of these two is your book ? ^t)ilf eu t)it Du ^at)e ? which one will you have ? § 97. Obs. 3. The interrogative pronoun J)t)0 is also now and then used as a relative pronoun. (See ^ 102.) § 98. Obs, 4. Instead of the relative ^\)ilfett with a preposition, the adverb tj\)OX is often used in connection with it ; e. g. ()t)0Vi (for i ^Dilfm, wherein) ; {)\)Ovaf (for af ijXiiU feu, of which) ; &c. § 99. Ser. Singular. Plural gc«((eff|«n. 3tttett)^n. /or Z>o«/i genders. N, Ser. iV. J)cr. iV. »cv. G^. ^\>\^. G, J5t)i^. G^. JptJi^. D. S^ A. Sen. 1>. 4- -4. Set. />. 4- A, 2)em. § 100. The relative t)er is of great use in the neigh- bourhood of the conjunction foitt/ in order to maintain har- mony ; e. g. 3)u f jo:nt)ev )o nof Kj^bmant) 91., t)et* (not fom) if; 01* fpilleDe gallit, fom faa mange antre, you know very well the merchant N., who went into bankruptcy last summer, like so many others. 28 PRONOUN. Interrogative Pronoun. § 101. The interrogative pronoun, which is substantive, is ^'OOf who, what. Singular, N. Jg\)o or J5t)em, N. ^t)at). G. ^t)i^. G, J5t)i^. D. ^ A, ^\)m. D, ^ A. Jg^at). Plural for both genders. N. J!p\)o or ^S)m. G. J5t)i^. 2>. ^ A. ^"om. Observation, § 102. ^\>0 is partly interrogative; e. g. J^^^^ (l)t)Cm) l)ai* 9/ Oft t)et ? who has done it ? Partly demonstrative-rela- tive ; e. g. 3eg t)ceD iih t)))o t)ei* (t. e. ten fom) ^av gjovt liet, I know not who has done it. It is even now and then, when used for persons in the Dat. and Ace, entirely a rel- ative pronoun ; e. g. Dat. 2)er jltrtcier min 25i*ol)ei*, i)\>nn (K e. fom) bu igaav ga\) t)in ©temme til ©ecvctaiviatct, there stands my brother, to whom you yesterday gave your vote for the secretary-office; Ace. 3)ct er Itetaf^ ©ecvetairctt Ij^cm (&. c. fom) t)U l)CV f^cr, It is just the secretary whom you Indefinite Pronouns. § 103. The so-called indefinite pronouns, which, al- though they could not actually be brought under any of the former classes, yet have the general characteristics where- by the pronouns differ as well from the substantives as from the adjectives, are (a.) some pronominal adjectives, which partly could never admit of comparison, partly either admit of no article-addition at all, or do not admit of the same PRONOUN. 29 before it ; (b.) two pronominal substantives, which also do not admit of any article-addition; and (c.) the pronominal adverb Hv* The Pronominal Adjectives are the following, § 104. Those which admit of no article-addition. Singular, Plural 3ce(teft|*tt. 3ntettj*n. for both genders* 1. CDtaugcn. ?!}?angt. * E. g. 3eg ijav mangen en gla^ Sag, I have many a glad day; ^n CI* maugt Ct tungt Ttrbeil), here is many a hard la- bor. 2. atogen. 9togct. Slogcn and 3flcg(c.t E. g. SOtau ^ar l>Og UOgCU ^fo:^e, one has indeed some joy ; ®ev n l)Og UOget gOt)t Dct) t}am, there is really some good in him ; ^av tn UOgeu 2Sfcfev ? have you any apples ? 3a, UOgfe, yes, some. 3. ©ornme. | E. g. ©omme (t). e. tjifle, nogtc) 2)age ct* f)uu ganffe Utuntcr, some days she is quite lively. 4. 3ugcat, 3ntct. 3ngen. E. g. Jjcr ct* ingcn SD?at) paa a5ovt)ct, intct Srccntie i J^ufct, ingcn 50tcnncffcr (jjcmmc, here is no food on the ta- ble, no wood in the house, no people at home. 5. a5cgge, E. g. J^cr CfC H 6cggC %(>, here they are both. * SDTange is a peculiar adjective pronoun in the plural, which admits of comparison ; of the same kind is megen, much. t Plur. nogen signifies some one, but nogle signifies not mariy. X ^omme signifies still fewer than wto^U, and has besides a more indef- inite and doubting idea in itself than this, which is more affirmative in its signification 5 e. g. S)er ere nogle faa gobe QS^ger i \)^\\^ QSogfamting, 03 fom* me iblanbt Mjfe ere enbt»a maabeltge nof, there are some few good bookB in his library, and some among these are still moderate enough. 3* 30 PRONOUN. Singular. Plural 5«((effj*n. ^ntttijm. for both genders. 6. J^^ft* and ^\>n't and E. g. J5t)cr ^ant) (euf)t)et* ^ant)) tafer om Snbtoget, every one speaks of the entry ; Jj^CVt (ct^t)CVt) ^J5avn \>M tttf every child knows it. 7. 2(L 2((t. mu. E. g. 2(f 3}?at)en cv fpii)^; alt goffct ei* l>v(x6t ; afle 9}?enncffer eve Ute ; all the food is eaten ; the whole nation is slain ; all people are out. 8. @aal)an, ©aat>ant. ©aa^anne. E. g. ©aaban en 3Jen ; faatant et 2Cv6ei^ ; facitanue SSeuuet* ; such a friend ; such a labor ; such friends. 9. J5t)ovt>au. J^i^ovbant* J^^ovbanne. 10. iicjeban* iigebant. ^igetanne. 11. ©ag. ©figt. ©Uge. E. g. J5t)ort)att en S'one ei* bet ? ^nn n Iigel)att eeu, fom l)ent)e^ &&\ln\ ©figen Opfavfel maa ©trajfe^; what kind of a woman is that ? She is one just like her sister. Such conduct must be punished. 12. ©eft). ©e(t). ©c(t>. E. g. 3eg (eft), I myself; SSavuet fc(t), the child itself; Se felt)/ they themselves. § 105. Those which admit of article-addition. 1. 2(nl)ett.t anbet 2(nDve. E. g. Set- er eeu (aliquis) inte i ©tuen, eg t>et* paaei* eu ant)eu (alius) ut)enfov ; t>en ene (alter) t)it gaae^ eg Den anDen t)if itte bie, there is somebody within, and there * ^^tt and enljijetr signify the same as (XiU, which is also expressed by ()t)er eeti, whereof the contrary is l)t?etr anbeii (compounded of l}t)er and the ordinal auteit) which must not be regarded as the singular to l;i?erant»ve. t This pronominal adjective must not be mistaken for the ordinal anben. PRONOUN. 31 Stands another without ; the one will go, and the other will not remain. ^k\, t)Ct CV Cn mt>m @ag, yes, that is another thing. Sctte er got)t; alt ant>ct (aliud) {alt Ht axmt) n flet, this is good ; the rest is bad. 3cg \)il gaac met), uaat H ant)Ve (alii)\anffe tCt, I will follow, if the others wish it. Singular. Plural gcelteffj^tt. ^ntettj^tt. for both genders. 2. ©amme. ©amme. ©amme. E. g. ®en famine 9}tan^ ; M famme SSani ; te famme 95xrni ; the same man ; the same child ; the same children. 3. govfige. govvige. govrige. E.g. 2)en fovvige Sag; Det fcvvige 2Cav; U foiTtge 2(aringev ; the former day ; the former year ; the former years. Observations^ ^ 106. Obs. 1. When al and tegge stand adjective, they are often followed by the definite article ; e. g. al 9}?a' Dcu, alt golfet, alle golfeue; a[ ten got)e 5D?aD, all the good food ; alt bet talvige golf, the whole numerous nation ; alle t)e gcDe 9}tccut), all the good men ; SSegge 9}?ccut)eue ; begge t)e goDe 9}?aub, both good men. § 107. 06s. 2. • ©el\) is mostly used by the personal and demonstrative pronouns ; e. g. )eg felt?, IjlUI fe[\), H fel\), I myself, she herself, they themselves. The Pronominal Substantives are the following, ^ 108. ©cn (aliquis), which must not be mistaken ei- ther for the numeral ecn or the article en ; e. g. Nom. 2)er er ©en nbenfor, fom \)il talc meD J^evren, there is somebody v^^ithout, who wishes to speak with you, Sir. Gen. 5)ei* lig? get* Scn^ J^^^t i *2JiubUCt, somebody's hat is lying in the window. Dat. ©aabau Q^cw gii)ev jeg altvig nogct, to such an one I never give any thing. Ace. 3eg faae ©Cn tjO^ I)am, I saw some one with him. It has no plural. 32 VERBS. § 109. ^aWf which is a collective that cannot be de- clined, and has no plural ; e. g. ^an flger M, it is said; ^iXn bafintin fig iffc t>c[, one does not feel comfortable. § 110. The pronominal adverb t)CV is only used as sub- ject, when the sentence is indefinite (as in the impersonal expressions tet VCgUCr, it rains, t>U fctafci*, it blows) ; e. g. t>n taU^ (t). e. ^afen f-arc^) ofte &cvom, there is often spo- ken thereof; Ux fh*it)C^ tnaugC 35^3CV om liaxtt, there are many books written during the year. CHAPTER VIII. VERBS. General Statement. ^111. Danish verbs, like the verbs in other languages, are either transitive or intransitive. The verbs are said to be transitive, when they admit of an immediate connection (that is, without a preposition) with their complements, and their relation seems to operate immediately upon another thing ; e. g. jcg cfffcr mine sg-avn, I love my children ; jcg l)iXt>n t>cn Uvctclioie, I hate the dishonest one. The verbs are intransitive when they admit of connection with their complements only by prep- ositions ; e. g. jeg t^olcr paa mine 5Bcnnef, I depend on my friends ; ijdn (jenfj^VCV til Ct. "oi]} ©elffab, he belongs to a certain society. ^ 112. Reflective verbs in Danish are so called because the thing expressed by the verb falls back, as it were, upon the subject ; e. g. jcg foi'l)a|Ul* mig; I over-hasten myself. ^113. Reciprocal verbs are those that express a thing by which two or more subjects are represented to operate upon each other mutually ; e. g. jeg jlaae^ met) min 2Jen, I am quarrelling with my friend. VERBS. 33 § 114. Verbs are either simple or compound. The lat- ter are formed by joining particles to the simple verbs; e. g. ut)fave, to export, is compounded of the simple verb fave, to carry, and Ut>, out. § 115. Danish verbs, like English, are varied by means of voice, mode, tense, number, and person. § 116. There are two voices, the active and passive. The passive is formed by the addition of the letter ^ to the active, and belongs only to transitive verbs. § 117. There are four modes, the infinitive, indicative, optative, and imperative.* Besides, there are two partici- ples, the present and perfect. ^ 118. There are three tenses in the infinitive, viz. the present, perfect, and future ; six in the indicative, viz. the present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and two futures, viz. absolute and exact. ^ 119. There are two numbers, the singular and plural. The distinction of number belongs to all the tenses of the verb, except those of the infinitive. ^ 120. There are three persons to each number, corre- sponding with the personal pronouns, viz. jeg, t\l, i)(\\\ ; \>i, 3/t)e. § 121. In Danish, as in English, many of the verbs are irregular in their conjugation. These irregularities bear a considerable similarity to those of English verbs. Regular verbs are conjugated by mere changes of termination, and the aid of auxiliary verbs ; irregular verbs exhibit changes in the substantial part of their form. Auxiliary Verbs. ^ 122. The auxiliary verbs in Danish are seven in num- * In Danish, the conjunctive or subjunctive mode is, in regard to gram- mar, not different from the indicative, but only in meaning. It can only be distinguished from the indicative by certain conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and the use of the tenses j e. g. jcg bcber, at bu til (ccfe SBogeii/ 1 wish that you may read the book ; I;tifi? t)u bar Hog, faa git t»u (b. e. tilbe/ ttiMtH bu ^Mi) bcttf if you were sensible, then you would be gone. 34 ber, viz. tj^iH, to have ; Mxt, to be ; fclitJe and t)OVt)e, to become ; * ^ille and ffulIC/ to be willing, to be obliged, and faae, to get. § 123. The auxiliary verb l:i(i\)C is conjugated as follows : — Indicative. Present. Singular, jeg i)(ii% I have. DU ^av, thou hast. Ijan ijdv, he has. Plural 1)1 ^al)e, we have. 3 i)a\>t, you have. tt tjd'Ot, they have. Perfect. Singular. jeg tjdV [jaU, I have had. Plural. t)i ijt tl(i\>t, we have had. Future absol. (1st Future.) Singular. Imperfect. Singular. jCg ^vlt)l)C, I had. t)U ^at)^e, thou hadst. ijan ^at)De, he had. Plural. l)i ()a\)t)C, we had. 3 t)al)l>e, you had. H ^al)t)e, they had. Pluperfect. Singular. jeg ^ai)l)e f;a\)t, I had had. Plural. Di ^al)t>e ^a\)t, we had had. Future exact. (2d Future.) Sinorular. jeg ffalorDtl ijdH, I shall or jeg faaci* iler may also denote to remain, e. g. jeg blber Ijet:/ I remain here; but practice will soon teach the different uses and significations of these verbs. VERBS. 35 Plural Plural ti l)at)e, we may have. t)i^at)e^at)t,we may have had. Future absol. Future exact. Singular, Singular. jegffuIIeori)i[Ieljai)e,Ishould )eg faae ijaU, I should have or w^ould have. had. Plural Plural \>i ffufle or Dide t)a\)e, we t)i faae tja^t, we should have should or would have. had. Imperative. Present. Perfect. Singular, Singular. (Du) ijfXS),* ijan ^aD, have (t)u) ^at) i)a\>tf (thou) have (thou), let him have. had. ijixn f)at)e tia\>t, let him have had. Plural Plural (3) i}(^^tv, t)e ()a\)e, have (3) i}n t)a\>t, (you) have (you), let them have. had. De l)at)e^at)t, let them have had. Infinitive. Present. Perfect. i)(XS)C, to have. ijaU ijaU, to have had. Future absol. Future exact. ffufle or t)ifle ^at)e, to be faae ^al)t, to be about to have about to have. had. * The pronouns of the second person are often omitted in imperative sentences, unless the conversation goes from the one to the other 5 e. g. ftrii? bu t>et/ t>g ftrb bu httttf you write that, and you write this 3 as also politeness demands, instead of this pronoun, to use the proper noun fe(t> ; e. g. txn mtg, ^r. ^anfen ! believe me, Mr. Hanson ! 36 Present. ^al)ent>C, having. VERBS. Participles. Past. ^at)t, had. § 124. The auxiliary verb t)OCV*e is conjugated as fol- lows : — Indicative* Imperfect. Present. Singular. jeg er, I am. Plural. t>i eve, we are. Perfect. Singular, jeg ^ar Wxtt, I have been Plural, Singular. jeg Dar, I was. Plural. ^i tJave, we were. Pluperfect. Singular. jeg ^at)De Davet, I had been. Plural. t)i ^ai)e WXit, we have been. t)i \j(CoU t)avet,we had been. Future absol. Future exact. Singular* Singular. jeg ffal or t)il Dave, I shall jeg faaev Wxtt, I shall have or will be. been. Plural. Plural. t>iffufIeorDit(et)CCve,weshall l)i faae t)ccvet, we shall have or will be. been. Present. Optative. Perfect. Singular. jeg t)ave, I may be. jeg ^at)e iJCCVet, I may have had. Plural. Plural. t)i i)oeve, we may be. t)i l)at)e iJOevet, we may have had. VERBS. 37 Future absol. Future exact. Singular. Singular, jeg ffuHc or t)if(e tjare, I jeg faae Mxtt, I should have should or would be. been. Plural. Plural. t)i ff uf(e or MU Dccve, we \>i faae t)Cetet, we should have should or would be. been. Imperative. Present. Perfect. Singular. (l)U) Mt, be (thou). Singular. (bu) ^at) t)a:vet, (thou) hast been. ^an ^OJve, let him be. i^an ()at)e tjoevet, let him have been. P/wraZ. Plural (3) l)ccver, be (you). (3) ^ciDev Mut, (you) have been. be ^O^Vt, let them be. be ^ai^e t)avet, let them have been. Infinitive. Present. Perfect. t)ceve, to be. ()at)e iXSvet, to have been. Future absol. Future exact. ffulle or t)il(e t)«ve, about to be. r to be faae MXH, to be about to have been. Participles. Present. Past. t)avenl>e, being. MXttf been. § 125. The auxiliary verbs 6Ii^e and l)OVl>e are conju- gated as follows : — VERBS. ' Present. Singular, jeg 6[it)ev, t>ovt>cr, I become. Plural t)i bfit)e, t)OVbe, we become. Perfect. Singular. leg er 6let)en, er t)ovl)en, I have become. Plural. t)i eve 6(et)ne, ere t)Ott)ne, we have become'. Future absol. Singular. Indicative. Imperfect. Singular, jeg blet),* I became. Plural. t)i 6fe^e, we became. Pluperfect. Singular, jeg t)at fcletjen, t)av t)Ott)en, I had become. Di l)ave 6Iet)ue, tjave t)ov^tte/ we had become. Future exact. Singular, jeg ffat or t)il bli^t, ffal or jeg faaei* bfe^en, faaer Dovl>en, l)il ^OVl>e, I shall or will I shall have become, become. Plural Plural. \)i ffufte or i)ifle b(i\)e, ffufle t)i faae b[et)ne, faae Dovline, or \)itle t)OVDe, we shall or we shall have become, will become. Optative, Present. Singular. jeg blithe, ^OVte, I may be- come. Plural, t)i bli^e, t)OVt)e, we may be- come. Perfect. jeg Mn ble^en, ixxn t)crben, I may have become. Plural Di Ijccve 6Iei)ne, ^oere t)or^^e, we may have become. * The imperfect of t)orbe, t>or^, is very old and out of use, as also the verb itself is used but very little. The verb bUbe is always used instead of it. VERBS. Future absol. Future exact. Singular, Singular. jeg ffulle or t)il(e 6Iit)e, ffufU ;eg faae b[et)ett, faae t)ort>cn, or t)if[e tJOVtie, I should or I should have been, would become. Plural. Plural. t)i ffulfe or \)illt 6fiDe, ffuUe t)i faae bfctjue, faae ^ot:t)tte, or t)it(e ^OtHf we should we should have been, or would become. Imperative, Present. Perfect. Singular, (Ml) 6fit), ^OVte, become (thou). J;an blit)e, t)ovt)e, let him become. Plural, (3) fclitjev, t)OvDer, become (you). t>e 6[it)e, t)Ott)e, let them be- come. (bu) t)Oft bfet>ctt/ Doer t)Ot:ten, (thou) hast become. tjan t)oere blel^ett, t^oite t^or- ^eu^ let him have become. Plural. (3) i)avev lJIe\)ne,t)o:vet* Dot^^ ne/ (you) have become. tit \>ctvt bU\>nt, Mxt t)ovt)ne, let them have become. Infinitive, Present. Perfect. H\\>t, t)0^:^e, to become. Wte b(et)en, t^ceve Dorbeii/ to have become. Future absol. Future exact, ffuffe or i)ille Mit)e, ffufle or faae bUs>tn, faae ijovben, to Diffe t)Orte, to be about to be about to have become, become. Participles. Present. Past. bUt)ent)e,t)ovt)en^e, becoming. He^en, t)Ovtett, become. 40 VERBS. § 126. The auxiliary verbs t)i(Ie and ffuUc are conju- gated as follows : — Indicative, Present. Imperfect. Singular. Singular. leg t)il, ffaft, I will, shall. jeg tjifDe ffutt)e, I would, should. Plural. Plural. ^i t)ine, fMe, we will, shall. t)i Difbe, ffuft)e, we would, should. Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular. mijav billet, (jar ffuftet, I jeg fjaDDe Dillet, ^atjbe ffudet, have been about. I had been about. Plural. Plural. t)i ijau t)ilfet, ijdH ftullet, t)i ()at)De Diflet, ^atJDe ffuffet, we have been about. we had been about. Future absol. Future exact. Singular. jeg ff af t)ilfe,* I shall be about. ( Wanting. ) Plural. i>i ffulle t)it(e, we shall be about. Optative, Present. Perfect. Singular. Singular. m ^ilf^/ ffullc, I may be jcg tjaU Dillct, i)i ffulfe S>iikf we should be about. Imperative. ( Wanting. ) Infinitive, Future exact. (Wanting.) Present, DiUe, ffulle, to be about. Future absol. ffufle MU, to be obliged to be about. Perfect. tjdU Diflet, t)as>t ff udet, to have been about. Future exact. (Wanting.) Participles. Present. Past. t)illent>e, ffudente, being Wkt, ffuIUt, been about, about. § 127. The auxiliary verb faae is conjugated as fol- lows : — Indicative, Imperfect. Present. Singular. jeg faaev, I get. Plural t)i faae, we get. Perfect. Singular. leg ^ar faaet, I have got. 4# Singular. jeft fif, I got. Plural. tl jtf, we got. Pluperfect, Singular. jeg ^at)t)e faaet, I had got. 42 VERBS. Plural. Plural. s>\ {)at)e faaet, we have got. t)i ^^s>H faaet, we had got. Future absol. Future exact. Singular. Singular. )e9 ffaf or s>x{ faae, I shall jeg faaev faaet, I shall have or will get. got. Plural. Plural. t)i ff ude or t)ille faae, we shall t)i faae faaet, we shall have or will get. got. Present. Optative, Perfect. Singular. jeg faae, I may get. Plural. Di faae, we may get. Future absol. Singular, jeg ^at)e faaet, I may have got. Plural. t)i ^at)e faaet, we may have got. Future exact. Singular. Singular. ;eg ffufle or t>i((e faae, I jeg faae faaet, I should have should or would get. got. Plural. Plural. t)i ffufle or tJille faae, we t)i faae faaet, we should have should or would get. got. Imperative* Present. Perfect. Singular, Singular. (t)u) faae, ^an faae, get (tit) ^at) faaet, (thou) have (thou), let him get. got ; ^an Ija^e faaet, let him have got. Plural, Plural, (3) faaev, De faae, get (you), (3) ^at)ev faaet, (you) have let them get. got ; U ()a\)e faaet, let them have got. VERBS. 43 Infinitive. Present. Perfect, faae, to get. f^atje faaet, to have got. Future absol. Future exact, ffulle or \>'\{k faae, to be faae faaet, to be about to about to get. have got. Participles, Present. Past, faaent)e, getting. faaet, got. Regular Verbs. § 128. The regular verbs are divided into two classes; (a.) those which have the termination et>e in the imperfect, consisting of three syllables, and ending in et in the past participle, belong to the first conjugation ; and (6.) those that have the termination te in the imperfect, consisting of two syllables, and ending in t in the past participle, belong to the second conjugation. The regular verb effte, to love, is conjugated according to the first conjugation, as follows : — Active Voice. Indicative. Present. Imperfect. Singular, Singular. jeg efffer, I love. jeg efffe^e, I loved. t)u elffer, thou lovest. t>\x elffeDe, thou lovedst. ^an e(ffer, he loves. Ijan elffet>e, he loved. Plural, Plural. l)i elffe, we love. t)i efffete, we loved. 3 e(ffe, you love. 3 z{\hU, you loved. i>e efffe, they love. it efffeDe, they loved. 44 VERBS. Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular. jeg ijat elffct, I have loved. jcg ^at)t)e elfirct, I had loved. Plural. Plural. t)i ijdU Clffet, we have loved. t)i ija\>H cfffet, we had loved. Future absol. Future exact. Singular. Singular, jeg ffat or M elfte, I shall jeg faaer ctffet, I shall have or will love. loved. Plural. Plural, \>i ffude or Dille elffe, we t)i facie cfffet, we shall have shall or will love. loved. Present. Optative, Perfect. Singular, jeg e(fte, I may love. Plural, t)i elffe, we may love. Singular, jeg i}i i}a\>t efffet, we may have loved. Future absol. Future exact. Singular, Singular. jeg fhiKe or t)i[{e elf f e, I should jeg faae elff et, I should have or would love. loved. Plural. Plural, t)i ffude or t)i(Ie elf f e, we should ^i faae elff et, we should have or would love. loved. Imperative, Present. Perfect. Singular, Singular, elft (t)u), Ijan elffe, love ijz efffet, let him have loved. VERBS. 45 Plural. Plural, effter(3),t)ee{fte,love(you), i)a\>n elffet (3), have loved let them love. (you), tie ^a^e elftet/ let them have loved. Infinitive, Present. Perfect, efffe, to love. ijiX\>t efffet, to have loved. Future absol. Future exact, f f Ulle or ^ille e(ff C, to be about faac e(ff et, to be about to have to love. loved. Participles, Present. Past. c(ffenl>e, loving. efjfet, loved. Passive Voice. The active verbs are formed into passives, by the addi- tion of an ^, in the following manner : — Indicative, Present. Imperfect. Singular. Singular, jeg efffe^, I am loved. jeg elffete^, I was loved. Plural, Plural. ^i elfte^, we are loved. ^i elffcte^z we were loved. Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular, jcg et* efffct, I have been jeg Mv elffet, I had been loved. loved. Plural. Plural. t)i eve elffeDe, we have been t)i ^ave elffete, we had been loved. loved. 46 VERBS. Future absol. Future exact. Singular. Singular. jeg ffal or Dil ctffe^, I shall jeg faaer Wxzt elffct, I shall or will be loved. have been loved. Plural. Plural. ti ffulle or bide elffe^, vi^e ti faae ijcevet efffebc, we shall shall or will be loved. have been loved. Optative, Present. Singular. jeg Clffc^, I may be loved. Plural. t)i elffe^, we may be loved. Future absol. Singular, jeg ftufle or \>'\[k efffe^, I jeg faae Wxit elftec, I should should or would be loved. have been loved. Plural. Plural. i)i ffufle or Dilte elffe^, we t)i faae DccvetelffeDe, we should should or would be loved. have been loved. Perfect. Singular, ;eg Wu elftet, I may have been loved. Plural, bi t)(Xve efffebe, we may have been loved. Future exact. Singular. Imperative, Present. Singular, elffe^ (t)U), be (thou) loved I)an efffe^, let him be loved. Plural, Clffe^ (3), be (you) loved. U Zl{h^, let them be loved. Perfect, Singular, t)0:t* efffet (t)U), have (thou) been loved. ij^n Wxt efffet, let him have been loved. Plural. Dccver efffete (3), have been loved (you). l)e Wxt elffete, let them have been loved. VERBS. 47 Infinitive. Present. Perfect. cfffe^, to be loved. i)ate efffet, to have been loved. Future absol. Future exact, ffufle or t)ille elffe^, to be faae t)ccvet efffet, to be about about to be loved. to have been loved, § 129, The regular verb tcifc,* to travel, is conjugated according to the second conjugation, as follows : — Indicative, Present, Imperfect. Singular. Singular. jeg veifer, I travel, do travel, jeg t*eif?e, I travelled, or did or am travelling. travel. Plural. Plural. t)i teife, we travel, do travel, t)i tcille, we travelled, or are travelling. Perfect. Pluperfect, Singular. Singular. jeg ijav veip, I have trav- jeg f)aDl>e rei|I, I had trav- elled, elled. Plural. Plural, l)i t)(XH Xtift, we have trav- t)i ^at)t>e reijl, we had trav- elled, elled. Future absol. Future exact. Singular, Singular, ;eg ffaf (t)il) veife, I shall jeg faaev vei|l, I shall have (will) travel. travelled. Plural. Plural. t)i ffufle {i>i{k) veife, we shall Di faae Xti\t, we shall have (will) travel. travelled. * This verb being intransitive has no passive. This is, however, no dis- tinction for the second conjugation, as many are transitive. 48 VERBS, Present. Optative. Perfect. Singular, M ^^i{^f I "^^y travel. Singular. jeg i)i faae veijlt, we should have should or would travel, travelled. Imperative, Present. Perfect. Singular. Singular. tei^ (t>u), travel (thou). f)at) vei)l (I'U), have trav- elled (thou). Plural Plural teifcr (3), travel (you). ijaUx xn\t (3), have trav- elled (you). Infinitive, Present. Perfect. veife, to travel. ()a1)e teill, to have travelled. Future absol. Future exact, ftude (i)i(Ie) veife, to be about faae vei)l, to be about to have to travel. travelled. Participles, Present. Past. veifen^e, travelling. vei|T, travelled. VERBS. 49 Irregular Verbs. § 130. The irregularities of these verbs consist in their all having, in the imperfect tense of the active voice, only one syllable, and that, besides, most of them change the vowel of the principal form, which vowel-change also often takes place in the past participle, ^ 131. As a specimen of the conjugation of irregular verbs, I present the active voice of the verb jtn^e, to find. The passive voice of all irregular verbs, that is, of all irreg- ular transitive verbs, is formed like that of regular verbs. Indicative, Present. Singular. ;eg ftul)er, I find. Plural. \>\ jtnt>e, we find. Perfect. Singular. jcg {)av filUtJet, I have found. Plural. t)i f;at)e fuuDet, we have found. Future absol. Singular. jcg ffat (Di() ftu^e, I shall (will) find. Plural. S>\ fhide (t)i(le) jtute, we shall (will) find. Imperfect. Singular. ;eXft flm^eC, I had found. Plural, \>'x ^at)te funbet, we had found . Future exact. Singular. jcg faaer funtet, I shall have found. Plural, S>'\ faae fun^et, we shall have found. Present. Singular. jcg ftnt)e, I may find. Optative, Perfect. Singular, jcg ^at)C fiml>et, I may have found. 50 VERBS. Plural, Plural. \)i ftube, we may find. t)i ^al)e fmxHt, we may have found. Future absol. Future exact. Singular. Singular. ;eg ff ulle (t)ifle) ftnt)e, I should jeg faae fimt>et, I should have or would find. found. Plural. Plural. ti ffulle (t)il(e) ftn^e, we i)i faae funbet, we should have should or would find. found. ^ Imperative. Present. Perfect. Singular. Singular. ftnb (tu), find (thou). f;al) fuaibCt (Mi), have found (thou). Plural. Plural. ftntev (3), find (you), ^a1)Ct fuul>Ct (3), have found (you). Infinitive. Present. Perfect, jtttte, to find. l;a^e fun^et, to have found. Future absol. Future exact. (luIfe(t)ifIe)ttnt)e,tobeabout faae fun^et, to be about to to find, have found. Participles. Present. Past. ftnbent)e, finding. fuatliet, found. Defective Verbs. § 132. These verbs could partly be classed under the second conjugation, but they have no passive voice, and no present imperative mode in the active. They are six in VERBS. 51 number; viz. bui*t)e, ought, tUXt>C, to dare, funite, to be able, ffude,* maatte, to be allowed, t)i(Ie. Indicative. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Singular. [[^ ) _ ^_ [[^ )bmt>c, tnxH, fuuDe, Du > b&v, t&tf fan, maae Plural. Plural. mavatte. Pel Singuiui. omguiar. Har burtet, tuvtet, K5 |l)at)De, buvtiet, tuvDet, j funnet, xmatuu ?"^ j hniuet, maattet. ^) , ^ ^ ) buvDc, tuvt)e, fuuDe, Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular. m Ml Plural. Plural. ^nf)at)e buvDet, tuvt)ct, ^^ UaDbe hntM, mm, ^^ \ immtf maattet* ^ j funnet, maatut Future absol. Future exact. Singular. Singular. K5 Uhi bxittt, tnxU, imu K^ H^aer buvDet, tnxM, ban ) ^^^' waatte. l^^^ j f unnet, maattct. Plural. Plural. ^ UMk bxixH, tuvbe, fum ^^ ) f^^^ '^"^'^^f' f«^*^^f/ ?««-' ^^ j ue, maatte* ^^ j h^^/ i^^^^^^t- Present. Perfect. Singular. Singular. )<^B UuvDc, tuvDe, fmme, '^^ ^f?^^e bixvm, tuvtct, Sui ^-^-^^^^- Tan^ inxxxxH, xnmut * c, tiiv^ J U, funne, maatte. Plural. ^g j ^e, funne, maatu. Plural. 2* r f unnet, maattct. te j Future exact. Singular, ^^^ )faae bnvM, tuvtct, ban j f ""^^^^' maattct. faac 6nvl)ct, tuvtct, fun- net, maattet. Imperatuie^ Present. Perfect. Singular. (Wanting.) ^atj (t)u) burtet, tuvtet, fun- net, maattet. Plural. ^at)ev (3) bnvtet, tuvt)et, funnet, maattet, Irifinitive, Present. Perfect. hivt)e, tuvt)e, funne, xmmt. ijiVoz 6uvtet, tuvt)et, funnet, Future absol. Future exact, ffufle (t)i((e) bui-te, twxU, faae bwxUt, i\xx\itt, funnet, funne, maatte. maattet. Participles, Present. Past. buv^enDe, tuft>enl>e, funnen- buvt)et, twxut, funnet, maat- te, maatteuDe. tet» VERBS. 53 Observations on the Verbs. § 133. Obs. 1. With the intransitive verbs t)C£VC, 6Iit)e, ^Ct)te, as also the passive falter, the complement, when it is a noun, stands in the nominative ; e. g. ij^w cr ©e(t)at, he is a soldier ; i)m 6fi^CV Captain til 9ti;taav, he is to be captain next new-year ; ^au tjeDtei* spctev, his name is Pe- ter ; Ijan fatDe^ gveDCfif, he is called Frederick. Never- theless, the verbs \)0:ve and b(i\)C have, if the pronoun ^it is the subject, their complement, when this is a personal pronoun, in the accusative ; e. g. tet CV mig ; t)Ct CV t»ig ; i)et CI* mig, font ^av gjovt t)Ct, it is I who has done it; lit blitjcv ^am, fom ^av tjccvet 5D?etlei- Ijcvfot, it will be he who has done this ; or the contrary, Dct CV 53ovtCt, tn ffal fcerttagc, it is the table which you shall take away; where ^^OV^Ct is nominative. ^ 134. Obs, 2. Some verbs receive their object in the dative, most of which are such verbs as contain the idea of something; e. g. ^ennc SomcMc tet)agcv ntig (dative), this comedy pleases me; ©^nncn ligncv * (that is, ev lit) ftu iD?Ot)ev, the son looks like his mother; t)Ct ni;ttei* mig iffc, it is of no use to me. § 135. Obs, 3. Some double transitive verbs take both their objects in the accusative ; e. g. l}an fat^ev fig hl^\)ig, he calls himself Ludwig ; l}an lavcv min ®&\\iX ©ngclff, he teaches my sister English. § 136. Obs, 4. Some, both intransitives and transitives, are united in the accusative with a kind of pleonastic ob- ject, of the same signification as the verb; e. g. l}an git fin ®ang, he went his way ; ijiKW ff j-O^l) Ct @hl^, he fired a shot ; likewise, (\t IXQwwwz en '^XQXXi, to dream a dream ; &c. In like manner, some intransitives become now and then, as * On the contrary, (jan ttgttcr (that is, fammenttgner) ftu ^^ige (accusative) mcb en lilie, he compares his maiden with a lily. 5* 54 VERBS. actual transitives, united with an object in the accusative ; 8. g. ijim gif fin Tlmt) trcct, that is, Inm trcettct>e l)am Ht> at gaae )lcevf t, she beat her husband in walking ; likewise, at (^be ecu 3f);cl, to run one to death. § 137. Obs. 5. Some verbs, as the six defective verbs, the verbs later, |U*CCbcr, mCCgtCV, &c., are seldom or never used with any other object than an infinitive ; e. g. ^an b&V ^i&n t)ct, he ought to do it; gvum Iat>ei* bete, om t>e s>\i fomme, the lady requests you to come ; ):)an |lv«bet* at fuftfeve fit livbnt), he strives to finish his work ; tjm magtei* ueppe at bare faatau en ^^i;vt)e, he is scarcely able to carry such a burden.* The verb gitev is fi*equently united with the past partici- ple instead of the infinitive ; e. g. ^un giteu neppe V&Xt fig (for v^ve fig) af ©tet)Ct, she is too lazy to move a step. ^ 138. Obs. 6. The Danish language has certain forms of expression, in which a verb in the passive, although its subject has nothing to agree with in the next sentence, ap- pears in the participial mode, and forms a s^rt of consequen- tial accusative, in which the participle agrees with its sub- ject in gender, number, and case ; e. g. "^Htt fagt, git l^an bovt, t. e. t)a Mtt t)av fagt, this said, he went away. In a like manner are the verbal compounded adjectives or parti- ciples used, which are not used as verbs ; e. g. I) an gjOVtC tet mig naft)it)ente, he did it without my knowledge. § 139. Obs, 7. When the subject 3 or 2)e is used in- stead of the second person in the singular, the verb stands nevertheless in the singular ; e. g. 3 ffall gaae, ^eter, you shall go, Peter ; 2)e bllDev t)og i}ei* til SD?it»t)ag, min ^en, you will remain here to dinner, my friend ; not, 3 ftuKe, 2)e bli\)t § 140. Obs. 8. There are peculiar constructions of the * When these verbs are used with the pronoun ttt as the object, the infin- itive gj^re is understood 5 e. g, tet tH jeg, t). e. t»et t^r jeg 9J-^re, I dare do it. VERBS. 55 Danish language, when the active infinitive is used, espe- cially after adjectives, in the signification of the infinitive passive ; e. g. tjau cv Ict at t>\?cvtafe (D. e. ijixn ot)cvtafc^ (et), he is easily persuaded. § 141. Obs.9. In regard to number and person, the verb must agree with its subject ; e. g. 2)u t)ect>)l, t)Ct t)av CU au^cn @ag mcb mici, thou knowest, it was a different case with me : gugtene f[i;t)e i iuften, the birds fly in the air. ^ 142. Obs. 10. When a verb has more than one sub- ject, it must stand in the plural, although these separately are singular, when they are not united by disjunctive con- junctions ; e. g. iut>\)ig eg ^an^ ^rot)ev tjau av\)ct mange spengc, Louis and his brother have inherited much money. § 143. Obs. 11. When a subject in a sentence is un- derstood from a preceding sentence, the verb must never- theless agree with the subject understood ; e. g. 55>aul)evne ffjultc fig in en ®v&ft, lagDc an paa govmant)cn, og f^;-a^e bam paa ©tetct), the peasants aimed at the leader, and shot him on the spot. § 144. Obs, 12. When two verbs come together in one sentence, the last must stand in the infinitive ; e. g. |eg t)il tic, I will be silent. § 145. Catalogue of some of the most common Irregular Verbs, Infinitive. 6et>e, to pray. bite, to bite. lnn^c, to bind. bt)tc, to bid. bin)t>e, to break. bfftt>t)C, to possess. blM, to remain. bvingC, to bring. lHn|U, to burst. Present. ;eg bct)er. )cg 6it)cr. ;cg Inntcr. ;eg bi}Dcv. jcg bvi^Der. jeg bcft^^cl^ ;cg Hit)cr. jeg bringer. jeg bvijUr. Imperfect. jeg bat). jeg bet). ;eg bant>t. jeg b&t>. jeg bv^D. jeg bcfat). jeg ble\). jeg brang. jeg bvall. Past. Jbe^etor ?be^t. biDt. bnnt)et. bn^t. bvut>t. befaDt. ble\)en. bvunget. bvuften. 56 VERBS. Infinitive, bare, to bear. buvt)C, ought, tVMClC, to draw, tviffc, to drink. t)Vi\?C, to drive. ftnt)e, to find. fin)fe, to freeze, faae, to get. jtl)t)C, to flow. fIi)Ve, to fly. fcrc\aac, to perish, gitje, to give, gra\)e, to dig. gribc, to grasp. 9i;t)C, to pour. gaac, to walk, greet) e, to weep. IjCDe, l)CttC, to be ) called (by name). ) ^jc(pc, to help. Ijollc, to hold, jage, to drive, hunt, fuibc, to pinch, fomme, to come, hmuc, to be able. hn;be, to creep, lee, to laugh, ligge, to lie down. laDe, to let, to allow. lit)e, to suffer. ICKgge, to lay, put, or place some thing. [i;De, to lie. pibe, to whistle. rite, to ride. vil^e, to tear, fee, to see. Present. jeg barer, beer. )c3b4)r,Iought. jeg brager. |eg Drifter. )eg tri^er. jeg jtuDer. jeg fvxaer. jeg t^i}ber. jeg tli)\)er. I eg forgaaer. jeg git)cr. I eg grat)er. jeg griber. eg gi;ber. 4 eg gaaer. eg grccber. leg ^eber. leg t))efper. ieg poller, leg jager. leg fulber. eg fommer. eg fan. ieg fri}ber. ieg leer. H ligscv. ieg (aDer. leg liber. jeg fpi>er. jeg piber. jeg riber. jeg rit?er. jeg feer. Imperfect. ieg bar. ieg bur be. eg t)rog. ieg bracf. eg bre\). eg fmtt leg f{'&^. eg Itf. ieg jt^b. eg ^H' eg forgif. eg ga\). grot), jeg greb. jeg gj^b. jeg gif. jeg grab. jeg ^eb. jeg l}jalp. jeg l}olt)t. jeg jog. jeg imk jeg fom. jeg hinbe. jeg fr^b. jeg [oe. jeg laae. jeg (ob. jeg leeb. jeg Ug. jeg peb. jeg reb. jeg re\). jeg faae. Past. baaret. burDet. traget. DruePet. bre\)et. fiiubet. frofl-et. fvxaet. jl^get. forgaaet. git)et. gra\)et. grcbet. |gi}betor (gi;^f. gaaet. graDt. i l)eDet, ) i)m. t}jutpet. ^oKet. jaget. hiebet. fommee. hinuet. leet. figget. laoet. libet,abt. ' jeg lagger. jeg fagbe. (agt. (4^get, j rebeu, ( ribt. re\)et. feet. ADVERBS. 57 Infinitive. Present. fiDbe, to sit. jeg flt>^ct^ fuige, to sneak. jfg fuic^Ct*. fpint)e, to spin. ;eg fpiutcr. fpringc, to spring. jeg fpvingcv. Jlige, to ascend. jeg ltigei\ |He(c, to steal. jeg j^iefcr. jiaae, to stand. jeg jlaaer. fMVge, to swear. jeg ftJCCVgCl*. ffi;De, to shoot. jeg ff^ter. ftjinte, to vanish. jcg ft)iuDer. ff icere, to cut. jef ff iccvev. fi;n.Ac, to sing. jeg f^ngev. fi)nfe, to sink. |eg fi;nfer. fh-it)e, to write. )eg ffriucr. fcetCC, to set, to place. ;cg fcettcr. ta^c, to take. )fg tagcv. tvccffe, to draw. jeg trccffcr. tvctfe, to hit. jeg tvoeffer. tvatx, to step. jeg tvoet>er. t\)iuge, to force. jeg tt)ingei% ^in^e, to gain. jeg l)lut»ei*. t)it)e, to know. jeg t)et). t?rit)e, to wring. jeg \)vi^er. tjccve, to be. jeg er. The rest of the irregular verbs will practice. Imperfect. Past. jeg fab. iaH. jeg fueg. fueget. jeg fpaul)t. fpuntet. jeg fprang. fpi-uuget. jeg t^eg. llcget. jeg jliaf. jtiaafet. jeg jut). jUaet. jeg ff j^t). fhibt. jegf\)aut)t. fi>imbet. jeg ffar. fhiavet. jeg fang, fuuget. jeg fauf. funtet. jeg ffvet). ffi-e\)et- jeg fatte. fat. jeg tog. taget. jeg ti-af. tvuffet. \c^ ti-af. tnitfet. jeg tvaab. traabt. jeg tl>ang. t\)uuget. jeg i>anl)t. tJuuDet. jeg Di|U. Di|t. jeg \)veD. t)vit>t. jeg \)ar. ^oevet. be easily acquired by CHAPTER IX. ADVERBS. ^ 146. The adverb is that part of speech which expresses the nearer circumstances with which an action, passion, quality, or even the circumstance itself, is represented to be 58 ADVERBS. connected ; e. g. teuue |lti;gge ^dxi xit>n fmuft, this ugly fel- low rides beautifully; gvcbevif efffc^ ^-ailigcu af fine govoefs t>ve, Frederick is highly beloved by his parents; ^t}i(ip tjdt XM^ \)CCVCt fiittig, Philip has been industrious to-day ; iottZ Cr en megct fmuf ^ige, Lotte is a very beautiful girl ; M CI* o\)cvmaa^e \)e[ tmit af ttnm 3)reng, this boy is exceed- ingly well thought of. ^ 147. The adverbs are, according to their significa- tion, divided into the following classes. I. Adverbs of place, which signify the place to which the quality expressed by the verb belongs, and which are of four kinds : — (a.) Conveying the idea of the place; e. g. t)er, there; ()Ct*, here; i}\)Ot, where; l)\)Ori, wherein; ,iut)e, within; ut>e, without; nct)c, below; ommc (e. g. ijaw cr omme ^o^ o^, he is over by us) ; ()jemme, at home ; (fee. {b.) Conveying the idea to the place ; e. g. f)it>, hither ; {jer^it), hereto ; i)\)OXtil, whereto; t^ijm, thither, thereto; in^, in, into; ub, out; op, up ; om (e. g. gaacoiu til ijain, go round to him) ; XU^, down ; ^jcm, home ; &/C. (c.) Conveying the idea from the place; e. g. tcvfra, therefrom ; ^\)OVfva, wherefrom ; Ot)Cuft*a, from above ; ^jcmmefra, from home ; &c. (d.) Conveying the idea through the place ; e. g. ut)at), outward ; l}n*U^a^, out of this plaxie ; ^el•ig;euuem, through that place ; bl)OVig;enucm, through which place ; &.c. II. Adverbs of time, which signify the time to which the quality expressed by the verb belongs, and which are either (1.) of a definite time, or (2.) of an indefinite time. 1. Definite adverbs of time : — (a.) With the idea of present time ; as, nu, now ; it)ag, to-day ; iaav, this year ; nucm|lunl)Cr, now-a-days ; &c. (6.) With the idea of past time ; as, xxi)^, of late ; tiU font, formerly; igaar, yesterday; ifjov, last year; imOVgC^, this morning; far, before; &c. ADVERBS. 59 (c.) With the idea of future time ; as, iTvajl*, presently ; pt)cn, afterwards ; imorgCIl, to-morrow ; 0\)evmOVgcn, the day after to-morrow ; tjiVtfttV, hereafter ; &c. 2. Indefinite adverbs of time : naavfom^cf)?, whenso- ever ; unbevtiten, now and then ; |lunt)Om, sometimes ; fiU ^e, late; diXtU, tit>Iigeu, early; aftib, always; a(M*ig, never; tctit)^, in time ; Iccnge, a long while ; &lc, III. Adverbs of number, which express the quality de- noted by the'verb as being more often or more seldom in connection with the subject, are either, — (a.) Definite; as, ecugang, once; togange, twice; 6lc.; or, (6.) Indef- inite; as, ofte, tit>t, often; fjetteut, seldom; 6lc. IV. Adverbs of form, which signify the manner in which the quality expressed by the verb is thought to be united with an object ; e. g. ^t)0v{e^e6, how ; faafete^, thus ; tige? IcDe^, likewise ; fom, ligcfottt (e. g. tjan b(ixn f(g a^ font ((igcfom) en gal 50?anD, he appears like a mad man) ; forg-- jel)C^, in vain ; i(^e, not well ; \)d, well (e. g. M n \>d fagt, it is well said) ; iligcmaate, in like manner; cfter^aam ten, by degrees ; &c. V. Adverbs of degree, which express the greater or less degree in which the quality signified by a verb or an adjec- tive appears ; e. g. fontieget, too much ; tiffllfte, fully ; me- get, much; uof, enough; noffotU, sufficiently ; faa (e. g. t)an ev faa got), he is so good) : (;\jov (e. g. ^bor mccgtig tjm CV ! how powerful he is ! ) ; faavc, exceedingly ; foevl)eIe^, particularly ; gauffe, aftele^, entirely ; tcmmcligeu, tolera- bly ; faat)it)t (e. g. faai>it)t ttraa tjan gaae, ei DiDere, so far he must go, no farther) ; no:)lett/ Omtveut, about ; afene, ih fun, only ; &c. VI. Adverbs of avowing and denying, which express the quality signified by the verb, whether they are connect- ed with the subject or not ; e. g. ja (e. g. ijdv t>U gjOVt t>et (definite question)? ja, have you done it ? yes); jo (e. g. tu fom ^0g \>d ingen ©fa^C til (indefinite, doubtful ques- 60 ADVERBS. tion) ? jo, I hope no accident happened to you ? yes) ; fan^e^ ligcn, truly ; \)i(fcfi^Ctt, certainly ; \>x\t, certain ; uci, no : Hit, not; ei, no; iugenluut)e, by no means; &c. VII. Adverbs of reason, which express the cause why the quality denoted by the verb is found in connection with the subject ; e. g. tcrfor, therefore ; l)evot)CV, thereat ; ^\>OVO\)Cr, whereat ; t)evt)C^, thereby ; ^\)OVt)Ct>, whereby ; tcraf (as, tevaf fommet t)ct, hence it comes) ; tevmet), therewith; ^\)ovmet> (e. g. ^^ovme^ ^av ;eg fovtjent Dct? wherefore have I deserved it ?) ; l)a (e. g. M tO^e ta x\)}:m i J5^Cint>cn, then they took the axe in the hand). VIII. Adverbs of doubt and wishing, which express, that the quality signified by the verb is only possible or desirous ; e. g. maaffce, perhaps; muligcn, possibly ; caitffee, may be; ntcu (e. g. mou M CV ijam, wonder whether it is he) ; ^it>, would that. IX. Adverbs of order, which express that the denoted quality is in connection with the subject in a certain rela- tion ; e. g. f&t\1, first; ^evnoell, next; fvewt>efcg, further- more; t)iDCl*e, farther; i;^cnncve, moreover; &c. X. Adverbs of explaining, which announce the commu- nication of an explanation or nearer determination of one or the other idea, which formerly is mentioned without such determination; e. g. nemlig, namely; faafom, whereas. XI. Adverbs of combination, which express that the signified quality is in connection with more than one sub- ject at one time, or that more than one quality is in con- nection with one and the same subject ; e. g. tiffautmcu, together; tifljobe, jointly ; famtfigCU, generally; Ogfaa, also, further ; tillige, together, at the same time ; &c. Observations on the Adverbs. § 148. Obs. 1. For the rest, adverbs might be wholly formed of adjectives ; e. g. [jiin n fmuf, Og tanl)fev fttUlf t, ADVERBS. 61 she is beautiful, and dances beautifully ; ijmx Ct m;bclig, Og [)\\n fl^ngCl* Ul)^cIigt, she is exquisite, and sings exquisitely. ^ 149: Obs. 2. Adverbs are also formed of adjectives in ig, by adding the syllable en ; e. g. ijxnx l)ant)fei* mjttii^m, she dances charmingly ; some adjectives in ig are, never- theless, used as adverbs unchanged ; e. g. ^cn Ct)ig gOt)e ®ut), the eternally good God; tm gUt)l>ommc(ig (i^j&mxt Sigtev, the heavenly beautiful poet. § 150. Obs. 3. The comparatives and superlatives of those adverbs which are formed of adjectives are like those of the adjectives; e. g. ©op^ie tcguev Utxt tixt) ^CUtC^ &jO(\Ut ; men @\}f well, better, best; tit)t, tieve, tietl, often, oftener, oftenest. ^&\:, before, fJOV]}, first, are defective adverbs. ^ 152. Obs. 5. To the adverbs belong also several small words, under the name of inseparable particles, which are only used in connection with other words ; these are, — 1. an, which, nevertheless, in some cases can be placed after the other word ; as, anmotet, solicit, rtntager and tagcv an, accept ; 2. be; as, bef^avev, answer ; 3. bi ; as, Sifag, a secondary cawse ; it is, nevertheless, placed alone in at llaae een bi; 4. er; as, evfjent^e, to acknowledge ; 5. fov; as, fovfmaacr, despise; 6. mi^ ; as, tniff;cn^e, to misjudge; 7. fam ; as, famtl)l'f er, consent; 8. n; as, Ull)ffc, misfortune ; 9. lint) ; as, unbflp, to escape ; &c. 62 PREPOSITIONS. CHAPTER X. PREPOSITIONS. § 153. The preposition is that part of speech which expresses the different relations in which two or more things, brought in connection, stand to each other ; e. g. S5ogCU liggev paa ^otHt ellci- uut)eu 35ovt>et, the book lies on the table or under the table. The prepositions in the Danish language are the following. I. Prepositions which denote a relation to place : — {a.) With the idea of the place : a or aa (see ^ 155, 06s. 2); bag or bagtJCl), behind ; fclan^C or t6lan^t, among; eftCV, after; fct* or fovait, before; fovbi, past; fov\)et), in front ; 1)0^, by, with, at, in, about ; i or llt)i, in ; imcdem or mcdem, between ; iuteu or int)Cnfov, within ; nel)cnfor, be- low ; MC^\t, next ; 0\)CU or OtJCnfov, above ; Ot)Cr, over ; ])ixa, upon; nten or ut)Cnfor, without; xnxHt, under; t)et), by, at, on, about. (6.) With the idea to the place : at>, towards, to ; imo^, against, towards ; til, to, towards, at, about, by, in, on, for; tt:ot>^; in spite of. (c.) With the idea, from the place : af, of; fva, from; UMf, out of; Ubeufra, from without. (d.) With the idea through the place : gjenucm or i^jm- nem, through. (e.) With the idea about the place : OtU/ omfviug, about, around. II. Prepositions which express a relation to time : fJ9t, before (that is, some time ago) ; fi^CU/ by and by, afterwards. Many of the above-named prepositions of place are also used as prepositions of time. PREPOSITIONS. 63 III. Prepositions which express a reason : fovmcbcfflt, on account of. IV. Prepositions which express an accompaniment or want thereof: met>, with ; famt, and, as also; foi*Ul)Cn, UDen, without (any thing or any body). Observations on Prepositions. § 154. Obs. 1. Prepositions in Danish all govern the accusative. When fva, ^0^, til, stand in the genitive, — as, fta 35a9even^, from the baker's ; ^0^ 2(mtmant>en^, by the bailiff's; tit ©metCU^, at the smith's,— the expression can be regarded as elliptical, and is generally completed with J^UU^/ house, understood. ^ 155. Obs, 2. The preposition a or aa happens in these sentences : ijM^ gaaer a t)ig ? what is the matter with you ? hlt> a ijdm \ t). e. hlt> paa ^am, call him ; io a (San- gen, ^ e. ^O paa (Sangen, two at a time, li is wrongfully used instead of til ; as, fem a fCjC £D?ife, t). e. fcitt til fe]C $DIife, five to six miles. ^ 156. Obs. 3. lib is used both of time and of place in the following expressions : tet laffcr at) Tifttti, evening is coming; op ab 35;evget, up the mountain ; ut at) (t). e. igjeuitcm, through) J)4)reu, out of the door ; &c. § 157. Obs. 4. 3g|euucm, imcdem, imob, are used without connection, but gicuucm, meflem, mob, with con- nection ; e. g. at gjejtucmbfabe, but 6lat)e igjennem, to thumb over (a book) ; mcflemfomtl, interposition, but bet fom noget imeKem t>cm, something came between them ; jeg mct)f(gcr, but jeg ftget* imot), I oppose. § 158. Obs. 5. When a preposition stands with a gen- itive that does not name a person, these connected words are considered as adverbs, and are often written as one word ; e. g. ifaut>ag^, last Sunday, itvlg, to-day, &c. 64 CONJUNCTIONS. CHAPTER XI. CONJUJNCTIONS. ^ 159. That part of speech is called a conjunction, which denotes a connection between words or sentences which are related to, or connected with, each other, and also signifies the nature of this relation and connection ; e. g. 3o()auue^ 09 ^UCt ^i^ llD fammcu, John and Peter went out together ; I;an fuute ei fcmme, tlji tjan t)av fi;3, he could not conie, for he was sick. The conjunctions may be denoted as follows : — I. Those that express both the connection between words which belong to the same sentences, and between single sentences mutually, are, — {a.) Copulatives, properly connecting, that, 1. express either the reference of several subjects to the same predi- cate, or, on the contrary, the connection of several predi- cates with the same subject; e. g. 3ot}anne^ Og ^Ctev gif UD, John and Peter went out; faat)cl jcg fottt tu cv l)an^ 33cU/ you are his friend as well as I am ; ^ct CI* ^ce(0 gOt)t, ^eet^ OUbt, it is part good, part evil ; or, 2. that express the connection of several sentences, so that they would be thought in connection, or the one sentence as belonging to the other; e. g. jcg gif bovt, Og mill &mx fufgte me^ mig/ I vvent away, and my son went with me ; jcg bat), at i)M\ tt>ilt>e fJOl^Z UlCb mig, I prayed that he would follow me; jcg S)i[ t)i^c, cm ^aii fommci* til mig, I wish to know. if he is coming to me. (b.) Disjunctives, separating, which express, that either one only of several subjects should be united with, the predi- cate, or, on the contrary, of several predicates, that one only should be united with the subject, or that no connection CONJUNCTIONS. ^ of the subjects and predicates takes place, or that they denote as uncertain which of the several subjects and predicates should be united ; e. g. axUn cr 50?ant>cn cllcr ^oneil ()|emme, either the man or the wife is at home ; tjan cr cnten ful^ cKer gaf, he is either drunk or mad ; ^^evfcn 9}Tanl)eu cdei* Sfonen ci* ^jemme, neither is the man nor the wife at home ; [jixn er ^\)ei*ten fulD cHer gal, he is neither drunk nor mad ; cuteu ei* 5Dlaut)en &^tlf Cfler 5f onen er gJCVVig, either is the man wasting, or the wife avaricious ; ()t)cvfen CI* 3}Iaut)cn &\>^d, eller Soxmx gjetang, neither is the man wasting nor the woman avaricious. II. Those that express only the connection between single sentences mutually are the following: — (a.) Concessives, acknowledging, which express, that a predicate can be thought connected with a subject under circumstances which otherwise make this connection im- probable ; e. g. ffj^ubt i}(xn cv ^oDeMng, fultet iiaxi ^og, although he is immensely rich, still he starves ; iI}t)OVt)Cl ijmx n H 55aru, gv(Kt» Ijxxxx ^og ei, ^a ^un fafbt, although she is a child, still she wept not when she fell; t)Cl {bene, adv.) fj9t> er M {quidem, conj.) eu '^r-o^t^ ; men bel)re l)ct op^ tragen, well born is indeed a consolation ; but better well brought up. {b.) Adversatives, contradictory, which express, that ei- ther the same subject or several subjects should be consid- ered as with predicates contradicting each other or mutually different ; e. g. t^an er rig, men ^um, he is rich, but ignorant ; Clara er \>d fmu^, t)og er l?en&e^ &&\}n* fmutfere, Clara is indeed handsome, still her sister is handsomer ; ^au cr bkxxxx at)\)aret, a({igc\?ef \)e^bli\)er tjm at Mxt uartig, he has been cautioned, nevertheless he continues to be un- civil. (c. ) Conditionals, which express the connection of a predicate with a subject, under condition of another predi- cate's connection with the same or another subject ; e. g. 6* 66 CONJUNCTIONS. t>crfom bu 6c^agcr, faa fan t)ii nu gaae 6ovt, if you please, then you can now go away ; \)S>i& ^t \)i[, huiUC X>i nil gaac til 33ovt>^, if agreeable to you, we might now sit down to dinner. (d.) Conclusives, which express the connection of a predicate with a subject, as a consequence of another predicate's connection with the same or another subject ; e. g. et 9}tcnnefte n et Dm ; 3ctt^ cr et SOTcnncffe ; attfaa Ct* 3cu^ Ct ^91*/ a man is an animal ; Jens is a man ; con- sequently Jens is an animal ; t)m ct cioD ; l)ei*fov clffc \)i ifdin, he is kind ; therefore we love him. (e.) Causals, which, by the connection of a predicate with its subject, express the reason why another predicate shall be thought connected with the same or another sub- ject ; e. g. M ijiXM er t)oi* J^C'fbonb, faa b&v \>i ti^te l}am, as he is our master, we ought to obey him ; fovDi i}(Xn n 30^, er ^au elffet, because he is kind, he is loved. (f.) Consecutives, which express the connection of a predicate with its subject, with regard to the time at which another predicate is represented to be connected with the same or another subject ; e. g. Da IjdM gif bovt, fa(bt t)an, when he went away, he fell ; ^au fottl fav|t, cftcvat Some- tini t)av bcgi}ut>t, og gi^ bovt, fm*cnb t)eu ^av tikntc, he came first, after the comedy had commenced, and went away before it ended. (g.) Proportionals, which express the relation of the connection of different predicates with the same or different subjects; e. g. ;o vigere Saju^ bfct), jo gjervigcre bU\> t)a«, the richer Caius became, the more miserly he became ; jo mere tt forfulgtc 9tapo(eon, H\lo mccgtigcve hU\) tjcm, the more they pursued Napoleon, the more mighty he became. Observations, ^ 160. The conjunctions are properly adverbs, which, when they are used to connect words or sentences, receive INTERJECTIONS. 67 this name, but, when they are not used as such, again re- turn among the adverbs. Therefore one and the same word in different significations can be used either as an ad- verb, a conjunction, or a preposition ; e. g. for ; as, {)au be^el• fov (prep.) fin 25vot>er, men i)m feev ft^ nof for (adv.),* he prays for his brother, but he will look out for himself; like- wise om; as, jeg bel)cu cm (prep.) govlatclfe, I beg for pardon ; ijan jlocj flu Svol)CV om (adv.), he threw his broth- er down ; )eg \)U^e uof \>iu, cm (conj.) ijan ftufte ^ccve ^ev, I would like to know if he should be here ; also far ; as, ;cg faae ^ am far (adv.), I saw him a while ago; i)an f ommcr S>X\\ far (prep. ) ^unlf he certainly will come before Christmas ; l)au \)ar ^er far (the same as farcuD, conj.) t)i faae O^ for, he was here before we knew it. CHAPTER XII. INTERJECTIONS. § 161. The interjections are not really words, but mere sounds, which express feeling, apprehension, and are brought under the following classes. I. Interjections of wonder : 0} ! heigh ! ^idcmCCnt) ! O strange 1 naa ! really ! II. Interjections of exclamation : ! O ! a^ ! ah ! III. Interjections of aversion : t)CCf ! away ! f p ! fie ! a! fob! IV. Interjections of grief : ei ! O ! o t)CC ! alas! a^a! ah! V. Interjection of bodily pain : au ! * When the adverb for ia connected with the verb, it takes the addition of the vov/el e ; as, at ta^i ftg noget for, but at foretage ftg no^et, to occupy one's self. 68 NUlVlERALS. VI. Interjections of joy: (?ci ! f)eifa ! f)Opfa ! of;! ho! hop ! O ! VIL Interjections of approbation : i^ ! well ! naa ! brave- ly ! na ! hem ! soho ! XI. Interjections of requesting silencfe : t\)^ I hush ! ^\)il^! hist! CHAPTER XIII. NUMERALS. § 162. The numerals denote either the quantity or or- der of the unity, and are therefore divided into cardinals and ordinals. The Cardinals are : Sen (eet), one. ©e]l*ten, sixteen. ^0 (t\)ent>c), two. ©r)tten, seventeen. 1U (tvent>e), three. 2CtCcn, eighteen. give, four. , Stittcn, nineteen. gem, five. ^t}t)e, twenty. @e|C, six. eenogt^\)e, twenty-one. @^\), seven. 'ilvct)it)e, thirty. Om, eight. 8^v9en)\)e, forty. g^i, nine. ^iXl\>tu\i\\Ht\)S>t, fifty, c^^^ ten. ^vefint>^tl)t)e, sixty. eiUc, eleven. J5cil\)f)evt)ftnD^t^t)e, seventy. 3:ob, twelve. giivftut>^n;t)e, eighty. 5:vettCU, thirteen. ^a(t)femftu^^n)\)e, ninety. gjOVteu, fourteen. ^UUtvet)?, a hundred. gemtCU, fifteen. ^3:ufcnt>C, a thousand. DITISION OF TIME. The Ordinals are ; gm'tle, first. 2(nt>cn, second. 2:veDie, third. g;ei*l)e, fourth, gcmte, fifth. @)nu, sixth. ©i}\)cnt)e, seventh. OtUwU, eighth. 3tiellt>e, ninth. ^ieut)C, tenth. ^IU\)U, eleventh. 'io(\)te, twelfth. ^IveCtenDe, thirteenth, gjovtcute, fourteenth. gcmtCUte, fifteenth. ©C]CtCUt)er sixteenth. ©^ttenbe, seventeenth. litUwU, eighteenth. ^tittcu^C, nineteenth. 3:l)l)Cn^e, twentieth. ®enogti)t)eube, twenty-first. ^reMDte, thirtieth. §i;vgCtl)t)eul)C, fortieth, J5a(^trefiul>^t^\)eut)e, fiftieth. 5:vefiut^ti;i^cnl)e, sixtieth. J5^^i^fifVt)fiul)^t9t)ent)e, seven- tieth. giivfluD^t^t)Ctt^e, eightieth. J5aIt)femf(nt>^tt)t)euDe, nine- tieth. J5unt)tCM)C, hundredth. ?:ufcul)e, thousandth. § 163. From the ordinals are formed two kinds of car- dinals, by placing before them ljat\) and felt) ; as, ()alt)femte, four and a half; fcf^f9\)ett^e, myself witji six more men. CHAPTER XIV. DIVISION OF TIME. ^ct 2(avtufcu&e, a thousand Set 2(av^unt)vcl)e, a century, years. Sct 'Zfav, a year. govaav, or ^aav, spring, ©ommer, summer. ©ftcvaar, or ^q^^ autumn. 25iuter, winter. 70 DIVISION OF TIME. Santtavi, January. gcbniavi, or (SUgemaauet), February. Tlat^, or S8aavmaanel>, March. 2Cpi*iI, or (Svccfmaanet), April. COtai, or 35Iom|lcvmaanet), May. ^mxi, or ®ommennaane^/ June.' ^nli, or ^&(m(imtt>f July. !KugutI, or J^^lUmaancl), August. ©eptembev, September. October, or J^^gtcmaauct), October. StotJCmbcr, or SBiutCVmaanet), November. Seccmbcv, or 3u[ema^uc&, December. ©^nt)ag, Sunday. 3:ov^l)ag, Thursday. SDtant)ag, Monday. gvetag, Friday. 3:iv^t)ag, Tuesday. i&\>tX^(X^, Saturday. i)n^t)ag, Wednesday. Slat, night. govmi^^ag, forenoon. SDTit>nat, midnight. SDTtt)t)ag, noon. $OtorgCn, morning. Sftn•mi^t)ag, afternoon. ©ofcu^ opgang, sunrise. @oIen^ uc^gaug, sunset. Sag, day. 2(ften, evening. 3:imc, hour. SDtinut, minute. ©efuuD, second. SWEDISH GRAMMAR. CHAPTER I. ALPHABET. § 1. The Swedish language is expressed by means of twenty-eight letters. Letters. A, a, . Ah. B,b, Bay. C, c, Say. D, d, Day. E, e, Eh. F, f, Eff. . G, g, Ghay. H, h, Hoh. I,i, . . . Ee. J,j, Yod. K, k, Koh. L,l, Ell. M, m, Emm, N, n, Enn. 0,0, O. P,P, Pay. Q, q, Koo. R,r, Err. S, s, Ess. PRONUNCIATION. T,t, ......... Tay. U, u, Go. V, V, " . • Vay. X, X, . • Ex. Y, y, Ipsilon, Z, z, . Ssetah. A, a, . Au. A, a, . . . , . . . . . Ay. O, 6, . O. § 2. The compound letters are like those of the Danish. CHAPTER II. PRONUNCIATION. § 3. Sounds of Simple Vowels. a. Sounded nearly as a in the. English.word ^ar ; e. g. Almdgtigj almighty ; jag, I. e. Nearly like a in the English xvord fate; e. g. evig, ever; Ekndighet^ misery. . '. i. Like the English c in wz^e;. e..g. Tidf time; ickc, not. 0, Like th^ English o \vir^mi%t e,.g, Mor^ nipther ; Ord, word. . , ■ ^ ^ w. Like the English u. in ruh ; . e. .g. Qud, God ; ut^ out. y. As the French u in du ; e. g, ^yn, sight ; Ynnest, fa- vor. • y.. . V- tt. Nearly as the Eng-lish q in hng"; e. g. ^Ir, year ; lang, long. a. As the English a in name;, e. g. drhar, honorable; vdrdig, worthy. .... D. As the French eu in. feu; e. g. Brod] bread ; Ore, ear. PRONUNCIATION. Observations, § 4. Obs. 1. The Swedish vowels are, hard, a, o, ?/, a ; and soft, e, i, y, «, o. ^ 5. Obs, 2. Every vowel must be distinctly pro- nounced. ^ 6. Obs, 3. All the vowels are sometimes long and sometimes short, that* is, the same sound being more or less protracted. E. g. a is long in Gafve, gift ; and short in Landj land. The distinction, however, has reference only to accented syllables. ^ 7. Obs. 4. When two vowels occur together, they must both be sounded; ^s, beediga, to swear to; Fiende^ enemy. § 8. Sounds of the Simple Consonants. b. Sounded as in the English word bay ; e. g. Brody bread ; Nabo, neighbour. c. Like A:, unless it stands before e, i, y, a, o, when it is sounded as s; e. g. Castanie, chestnut, pronounce Ka^tanie ; Citron^ lemon, pronounce Sitron, d. As in the English word do ; e. g. Dansk, Danish ; ex- cept at the end of a word, where it is sounded somewhat hard, as dt ; e. g. hatad^ hated. f. As in the English word off, when it is not at the end of a word, or the last letter in a syllable, in which cases it is differently sounded (see ^ 9, Obs. 1). E. g. in the first case, where it has its original sound, fragay to ask ; ofta, often. g. As the English g in go^ except at the end of a syllable when preceded by another consonant (see § 10, Obs. 2). E. g. in the first case, where it has its original sound, Gafse, gift ; nagon, any. h. As the English h in he; e. g. Hus, house; Godhet, 7 4 PRONUNCIATION, kindness; except when it stands before J and v (see §11, Obs. 3). j. Sounded a little harder than the vowel i ; e. g. jag^ I ; g, not. k. As in English, but is distinctly sounded before n; e. g. K?id, knee ; knytta, to tie. /. As in English; e. g. Lif, life; hlott^ only. m. As in English; e. g. Menska, man ; Xawi, comb, w. As in English; e. g. w«r, when ; kan, can. jj. As in English ; e. g. Landskap, landscape; profva, to prove. g'. Sounded as k] e.g. Qya/, agony; Qvimia, woman. This letter is always followed by the letter v, r. Nearly as r in the English words warm^ her ; e. g. Vd- c?er, weather ; jRe^erm^, government. 5. As the English 5 in sound; e. g. Samtalj conversation ; susa, to purl. t. As in English ; e. g. Tapper het, bravery ; titta^ to peep. V, As in English ; e. g. Vagn, wagon ; farvdl, farewell. X. As the English x mjix; e. g. Fixstjerna^ fixed star. § ^' ^^^' ^* When the letter /stands at the end of a word, it is always sounded like v; e. g. gif^ give, bref, letter, pronounce giv, brev. When it is followed by the letter v it loses its sound entirely ; e. g. behofva, to need, lefva, to live, pronounce behova, leva. § 10. Obs. 2. Gj at the end of a syllable, when preceded by another consonant (except w), is generally sounded asj ; e. g. TaJg, tallow, Vargskin, wolfskin, pronounce talj, varjskin. § 11. Obs. 3. When the letter h stands before j and v, it loses its aspiration ; e. g. Hjelpy help, hvilken, which, pronouncej^j//?, vilken. PKONUNCIATION. O § 12. Obs. 4. In words derived from the Latin, when t is followed by a vowel, it is generally sounded like 5; e. g. PortioUy portion, sound porsion, § 13. Obs, 5. Consonants must not be pronounced as double unless written so ; e. g. Hat^ hate, vis, wise, pro- nounce hawty vees ; but when doubled, they should always be sounded so ; e. g. Hatt^ hat, viss^ certain.* § 14. Sounds of Combined Consonants. ch occurs only in foreign words and proper names, and is pronounced before the hard vowels (and at the end of words) as A:, before the soft as tj ; e. g. Cha- ron, China, pronounce karon, tjina (cawron, chee- nah). ch. Sounded as ck in English ; e. g. Ackt, purpose; icke^ not. ff. When ^occurs, each letter is distinctly sounded ; e. g. Roffel, rifle ; Puffert, pistol ; &/C. tz does not occur in the Swedish language; if it be found, it is in words taken from other languages, and is then sounded as ts ; the same may be said of sz. Observations, § 15. Obs, 1. In all cases not noticed above, when two or more consonants come together, each is distinctly sounded. * Herefrom must be excepted ; — (a.) Such consonants as have a double sound in themselves, as j, x, and for the most part m; e. g. ej, not, vox, wax, kom, come, pronounce komm. [b.) When two consonants end a sylla- ble, the former commonly sounds double j e. g. stark, strong, verk, work, pronounce starrk, verrk. But here it requires some knowledge to tell which or how many letters originally belong to a syllable •je.g.n in sanka, to sink, is not doubled, because we spell sdn-ka ; but in sdnkning, sinking, it is, because n and k here belong to the same syllable, as sSnk-ning. (c.) The last consonant in a short syllable, as n and d in gifven, fiatad, given, hated. {d.) The letter n, when the last in a short syllable, is doubled, as in han, he, hon, she, din^ thy, Man, man 5 &c. 6 ORTHOGRAPHY. § 16. Obs. 2. Th has lost its original sound in the Swedish language ; when it occurs, it is sounded as t alone. Accent. § 17. In regard to the stress laid on a particular sylla- ble in a word, the following general rules should be attended to. Monosyllabic words, ending with a double consonant, or with a consonant that has a double sound, or with two consonants, of which the former sounds double (see note (6.), p. 5), are pronounced short; e. g. Skinrij skin ; lam, lame ; Markj field ; &c. The others, as well as those end- ing with a vowel, long ; e. g. Ek, oak ; tog^ took ; ga, go ; se, see ; &c. Here it must be observed, that, to monosyllabics in n must, in order to have the long sound, be added the article en^ neut. et, and also the numeral en, one, which last, for the sake of distinction, ends in the neuter gender with tt {ett). All that can be said farther is, that the accent falls com- monly upon the most important syllable, or that part of the word which is the invariable root ; but this is best acquired by hearing a Swede pronounce. CHAPTER III. ORTHOGRAPHY. Letters. § 18. Obs. 1. Formerly the Swedish text was very similar to that of the present Danish ; but now all Swedish books are printed in the Latin characters (those which are employed in the English). The Swedish current hand is the same as the English. ARTICLE. 7 § 19. Obs. 2. The capital letters are used in all cases in which they are used in English, excepting that the pronoun of the first person, jag^ is usually written without a capital, if not commencing a sentence. Further, in Swedish, all nouns, and all words used as nouns, begin with a capital letter, as also all pronouns denoting a person addressed. E. g. Manden, the man ; Spisan, the cat ; Du, thou. CHAPTER IV. ARTICLE. § 20. There are two articles in Swedish, viz. the defi- nite, and the indefinite. § 21. The indefinite is en, a or an, for the masculine and feminine genders, and et, a, for the neuter ; e. g. en Ko^ nungy a king ; en Drottning, a queen ; et Ting, a court held in the country. § 22. The definite state is also expressed by en and et; but in this case the article is added to the noun ; e. g. Ko- nungenj the king; Drottningen, the queen; Tinget, the court. Peculiarities of the Articles. § 23. I. If the noun ends with a vowel, then only n or t is added to make it definite ; e. g. Hustru, wife ; Arbete, work ; definite, Hustrun, Arbetet, not Hustruen, Arbeteet.* § 24. II. Such nouns as end with an and en, and have no plural, do not admit the addition of the definite article ; e. g. Fruktan, fear ; Bar gen, security ; &c. * From this rule must be excepted words of the third declension ending with i, and nouns of that declension adopted from foreign languages 3 as also monosyllabic nouns of the fourth declension j e. g. Knil, knee 5 jBz, bee 3 definite, KnClet, Biet. 7* 8 ARTICLE. § 25. The e of the definite article is also generally left out, when the word ends with el or cr, and is not monosyl- labic ; e. g. Mantel, mantle ; Hunger^ hunger ; definite, Manteln, Hungern.^ § 26. III. The article en, neut. et, has an obsolete plural, ene or ena ; as, sma ena, little ones ; and although it is no longer used by itself in writing, it is constantly added to plural nouns to make them definite, when, however, only the termination ne, or na, is retained ; e. g. Konungarney not Konungarene, the kings ; Bonorna^ not Bonorena, the beans.t § 27. IV. The adjectives have all a definite termina- tion, namely, e or «, added to the positive degree, as glade or glada ; and an e (the comparative degree has e before) to the superlative, as gladaste^ gen. gladastes ; thus the positive singular in the definite state is the same as the positive plural, which the context must distinguish, as also whether the adjective stands in the singular or plural, which, when definite, are always alike. For instance, store Konung, great king ; store Konungar, great kings ; store Konungar finnas, great kings are found. Here store is used three different ways; the first is definite singular, the second, defi- nite plural, and the third is a simple plural. § 28. V. Of the pronouns, none partakes so much of the nature of an article as den, neut. det ; for, besides always making the following adjective definite, it also, when used as a pronoun (signifying that or that very) places the sub- stantive f in the definite state ; e. g. jag har den Boken, I * Except those of the fifth declension, which retain the e of the article, both in singular and plural, but throw away the e of their own termination; e. g. Hagel, hail 5 definite, Haglet, not Hagelt or Hagelet. t Nouns of the fifth declension (except those ending with are) are here an exception ; as they leave out the e or a final of the plural article, retain- ing only en to make them definite in the plural 3 e. g. Ha^el, hail, Ben, bone ; plural definite, Haglen, Benen, not Hagelena, Benna. X Except proper names, and sometimes words denoting the affections of the mind (when used emphatically) ; e. g. Hat, hate, Karleky love, &c. NOUN. 9 have that book. But it is often used as a mere demonstra- tive particle, when it leaves the substantive in the indefinite state ; e. g. den Skilnad som dr, the difference which is; and it then answers to the in the English. It must also be observed here, that deniie, this, when used more demonstratively (signifying the same as denhdr, this very), always requires the following substantive to be defi- nite ; thus, denna Boken^ means, this (very) book ; denna Bok, simply, this book. CHAPTER V. NOUN. General Statement. §29. Nouns in Swedish are of the masculine, femi- nine, or neuter gender. There are two numbers, singu- lar and plural ; and six cases, viz. nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative. Gender of Swedish Nouns. § 30. The different genders in Swedish have no fixed characteristics. They seem, however, as if the declension nearest decided them ; thus, all nouns of the first are femi- nine ; all of the fourth and fifth, neuter. Whether nouns of the second and third declension, be masculine or feminine is not easily ascertained ; but as the same article (en) is ap- plied to both, we might admit of a common gender by the introduction of den (that or it) for han and ho?i (he and she). 10 NOUN. Declension of Swedish Nouns. § 31. The variation of nouns in Swedish may be best classified under five declensions, which are distinguished by their terminations in the plural. § 32. The cases are expressed by the context or by par- ticles. One only is inflected, viz. the genitive, which is formed by adding an s to the nominative ; as, Ringj gen. Rings. The particles thus used are af, of; at, to ; fran, from. JFirst Declension^ Plural in or. § 33. Nouns of this declension end with a in the singu- lar, which is left out in the plural, and are all feminine. Ex. : Penna, pen. Singular. Plural, N. Penna. N. Pennor, G. Pennas. G. Pennors. D. A. > p D. A. V. &, A. C ^^^^^' V. & A. Penna, tr' ^* \ [ Pennor, Second Declension, Plural in ar. § 34. To nouns of this declension belong those of dif- ferent terminations in the singular, and are either mascu- line or feminine. (See § 38, Obs, 1.) Ex. of Masc. : Konung, king. Singular. Plural. N. Konung, N. Konungar. G. Konungs, G. Konungars, v! & A. } ^^^^^S' v! & A. } ^o^^^S^^^' Ex. of Fem. : Sjdl, soul. Singular. Plural. N. SjdL N. Sjdlar. G. Sjdls. G. Sjdlars, D. A. ) o-.., . D. A. V.& A. I ^aZ. • y] ^ ^ I Sjdlar NOUN. 11 Third Declension, Plural in er. § 35. Nouns of this declension are also variously termi- nated in the singular, and are masculine or feminine. (See §43, 06s. 6.) Ex. of Masc. : Planet, planet. Singular. N. Planet. Plural. N. Planeter, G. Planets, G. Planeters. ^■^^]pianet. ?:&A.}^^«"^'^'-- Ex. of Fern. : : Mark. , land, ground. Singular. N. Marie. Plural. N. Marker, G. Marks. G. Markers, ?:&A.J^-^- y'.tA.]^'"''^'- Fourth Declension, § 36. Nouns of this declension are all neuter, and ter- minate in the singular with a vowel, to which an n is added in the plural. (See § 44, Obs. 7.) Ex. : Hjerta, heart. Singular, Plural. N. Hjerta. N. Hjertan. G. Hjertas. G. Hjertans, V.' & A. J ^'"■"'- v! & A. } ^■«'-'««- l^yif/t Declension, § 37. Nouns of this declension, or such as are the same in the singular and the plural, are neuter,* and of different terminations. (See § 45, Obs. 8.) * Except those ending in are^ which are masculine j e. g. Bagare, baker and bakers. 12 NOUN. Ex. : Rum, room and rooms. Singular. Plural. N. Rum. N. Rum. G. Rums. G. Rums, D. A. > ^ D. A. ) ^ V.&A. /^^"^- V.&A. 1^^^^- Observations on the Nouns. § 38. Obs. 1. Some nouns are only used in the sin- gular ; as, Hopp, hope, Talg, tallow, Hjelpj help, and those ending in an, as Ldngtan, longing ; others only in the plural ; as, Fordldrar, parents, Kidder, cloths ; and some have an irregular plural ; as, Gas, goose, pi. Gdss ; Oga, eye, pi. Ogon. § 39. Obs. 2. Nouns of the second declension, ending with e in the singular, leave out the e in the plural ; e. g. Raky pole, pi. Palar ; but all other vowels remain. § 40. Obs. 3. The plural termination ar suffers no con- traction, though the noun ends with a vowel ; e. g. Sky^ sky, pi. Skyar ; A, river, pi. Aar ; O, island, pi. Oer. §41. Obs. 4k. In the singular number, if the letter preced- ing the last in a word of this declension be a vowel, then that vowel is left out in the plural ; e. g. Himmel, heaven, pi. Himlar ; Afton^ evening, pi. Aftnar. But if the word be monosyllabic, the vowel must be retained ; e. g. Sten, stone, pi. Slenar ; Dal, dale, pi. Dalar. § 42. Obs. 5. In a few nouns belonging to this declension, the in the singular is changed into 6 in the plural ; e. g. Modcr, mother, pi. Mpdrar ; Dotter, daughter, pi. Ddttrar. § 43. Obs. 6. If a noun of the third declension end in the singular with a Vowel, r only is added in the plural ; e. g. Hiistru, wife, pi. Hustrur, not Hustruer ; Sko, shoe, pi. Skor, not Skoer.^ In some words of this declension, * Nouns of the neuter gender (all of which end with i) are excepted from this rule j e. g. Bryggeri, brewery, pi. Bryggerier. Also words adopt- NOUN. 13 also, the vowel in the singular is changed into another in the plural ; e. g. Hand, hand, pi. H'dnder ; Fot, foot, pi. Fotter, § 44. Obs. 7. If nouns of the fourth declension admit of the definite article in the plural (a few do not), they only add a (not /?a), as they terminate with n; thus, we write Klddena (o^ Kl'dde, cloth, pi. Kldden), not Klddenna, § 45. Obs. 8. When nouns of the fifth declension, ending in «re, are put in the definite state, they are inflected after the second (to which declension they might have been referred, if they had not been the same in singular and plural). The reason for it is this ; they seem to have a double singular, one with and one without the e final, of which the former is used when the word stands absolute, the latter, when it is joined to another noun, or to a proper name ; e. g. Fiskare^ fisherman ; Fiskerbat, fishing-boat ; Skr'addare, tailor ; Skraddar Lant, Lant, the tailor. They follow in this the same rule as other uncompounded nouns ending with e; thus, we say ew Herre, a gentleman, but Herr Lant, Mr. Lant, and not Herre Lant, Now the plural number, if inflected after the absolute singular form Fiskar, Skraddar, must of course (see ^ 41, Obs, 4) be Fiskrar^ Skrdddrar, and definite Fiskrarne, Skraddrarne, which last is commonly used in speaking, but the indefinite state in the plural is the same as that of the singular ; e. g. en Fiskare, mange Fiskare, many fishers. § 46. Obs. 9. A few nouns have a double termination in the plural, when the gender of the word must tell which is the original, and to what declension they should properly be referred ; thus, Brdde {et), board, has in the plural Brdden and Brader, and must be referred to the fourth declension ; Man (en), man, husband, pi. Maimer and AldUf ed from foreign languages, of whatever gender they may be, provided they belong to this declension ; e.g.'Akademie, academy, pi. Akadender ; Arme, army, pi. Armeer ; Slc. 14 NOUN. to the third; Tyg {et), stufF, pi. Tyg and Tyger, to the fifth ; Mil (e/i), mile, pi. Milar and Mil, to the second de- clension. § 47. Ohs, 10. Nouns ending with 5 and x do not admit of the addition of 5 in the indefinite genitive case ; as, Is, ice ; Prins, prince ; Vax, wax ; we cannot write Iss, Prinss, VaxSj nor do we ever use an apostrophe, as Is^s, Prins'Sj Vax^s, for this would indicate the absence of an e, and that the genitive was Ises^ &c. It therefore remains the same as in the nominative case ; as, en Matros Skicklighety the ability of a sailor, not Matross or Matros^ s. But this genitive case is mostly avoided by construing the word with the particle af) as, Skonheten af en Vers, the beauty of a verse; Tjockheten of en Is, the thickness of an ice; instead of en Vers Skonhet, en Is Tjockhet. § 48. Obs, 11. When nouns denoting quantity, num- ber, weight, and measure are placed before other substan- tives, as descriptive of them, it is seldom necessary in the Swedish language that the particle q/' should be expressed; thus, we speak and write correctly, en hop Folk, a crowd of people ; et dussin Knappar, a dozen of buttons ; et par Skor, a pair of shoes ; en tunna Ol, a barrel of beer ; et stycke Land, a piece of land; et glas Fm, a glass of wine.* ^ 49. Ohs. 12. A few nouns in the Swedish, as well as in the English, are used collectively in the singular, al- though they have a plural; e. g. fanga Fisk, to catch fish, not Fiskar ; tre Fot lang, three feet long, not Fotter ; Tiundra tusen Man, hundred thousand men, not Man, * If the substantive^ so described, stands in the definite state, we always find the particle expressed 3 e. g. et glas af Vinet, one glass of the wine. ADJECTIVE. 15 CHAPTER VI. ADJECTIVE. General Statement. § 50. Adjectives in Swedish are varied in two general ways, viz. by comparison and by declension. These varia- tions are both made by the addition of one or more letters to the original simple form. Comparison. ^ 51. There are in Swedish, as in English, three degrees of comparison ; the positive, comparative, and superlative. All adjectives may be compared, whose sense will admit of comparison. § 52. The regular variation of adjectives in comparison is effected by adding are to the simple form for the com- parative degree, and ast for the superlative :* e. g. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Blot, soft, blotare, softer, blotast, softest. Vis, wise, visare, wiser, visast, wisest. Ljuf, sweet, Ijufvare, sweeter, Ijufvast, sweetest. Gron, green, gronare, greener, grojiastf greenest. ■§ 53. When adjectives end in al, el, en, or cr, the a or the c in these syllables is frequently dropped for the sake of euphony ; e. g. gammal, old, comp. gamlare, not gnmmdlare ; dubbel, double, comp. dubblare, not dubbelare ; &c. § 54. Some adjectives change the vowel in the com- parisons ; e. g. lang, long, I'dngre, Idngst, not langre, langst ; ung, young, yngre, yngst, not ungre, ungst. Others have lost their positive degree, which may be more or less * A few leave out the a, retaining only re and st j e. g. hSg, high, IWgre, lidgst, not hDgare, hOgast. 8 16 ADJECTIVE. traced in other languages of the same origin ; thus, for in- stance, dldre, didst, older, oldest, have no positive degree in the Swedish, &.c. § 55. Several adjectives exhibit irregular forms of com- parison ; e. g. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Lille, little, mindre, less, minst, least. Gody good, bdttre, better, bast, best. Ond, bad, vdrre, worse, vdrst, worst. Hog, high, hdgre, higher, ^ hogst, highest. Declension. § 56. Adjectives are in Swedish declined in the geni- tive case, by adding an s to the nominative; e. g. glad, o-lad, gen. glads, comp. gladares. The superlative degree does not admit of an absolute or indefinite genitive case ; we cannot say gladasts ; and if we say gladastes, we speak definitely. When adjectives end in s, they admit of an ab- solute or indefinite genitive case only in the comparative degree, as visares. Vis's is as improper as visasts, § 57. Adjectives have three genders, of which the mas- culine and feminine singular are always the same; as, glad Man, glad man, glad Mode?*, glad mother ; but the neuter is formed by adding a t, as gladt Folk, unless the word ends with t or en. In the former case it is the same through all the genders ; as, fast, strong, salt, salt ; in the latter, en is changed into et ; as, liten, neut. litef. (See § 62, Obs. 3.) § 58. The plural number is formed by adding e or a to the positive singular ; as, glad, pi. glade or glada* The comparative and superlative degrees are the same in both * E was formerly meant for the masculine gender only, as a is still for the feminine and neuter; but in later times a is (with a few exceptions) used as well for the masculine as for the other two genders, just as eu- phony requires. ADJECTIVE. 17 numbers ; as, vis, pK vise or visa, comp. visare, superl. vi- sast, § 59. Adjectives ending with a are through all the gen- ders the same both in the singular and plural ; as,6ra, good, ringa, poor, stilla, quiet, &c. Observations on the Adjectives. § 60. Obs. 1. Such adjectives as do not admit of a regular comparison express the comparative and superla- tive degrees by mer and mast, more, most ; or mindre and minst, less, least. Of this kind are chiefly all ending with ad (except glad), and such as are formed of proper names, all of which end in sk', as, platonisJc, Platonic ; romersic, Ro- man ; we cannot say platonisJcare, romerskast, &lc. ^ 61. Obs. 2. As the superlative does not, strictly speaking, imply the highest degree, but only a degree be- yond the comparative, we put before it the particle aldra, very, when we wish to raise it still more in signification ; as, det aldraminste, the very least ; aldraddmjukaste, very hum- blest ; &c. § 62. Obs, 3. Adjectives ending with en change that termination into et in the neuter gender, except the five fol- lowing monosyllabics : gen, short ; Men, slender ; len, soft ; re», clean ; sen, late ; which there add a ^ ; as, gent, klent, lent, rent, sent. And of such adjectives as end with t (which it has elsewhere been stated remain the same through all the genders), the following nine (also monosyllabics) form an exception ; e. g.fet, fat ; flat, level ; het, hot ; hvit^ white ; lat^ idle ; r'dt, straight ; slat, smooth ; sot, sweet ; vat, wet. These end the neuter gender with tt ; as, fett, flatt, hett, hvitt, latt, r'dtt, sldtt, sott, vatt, § 63. Obs, 4. As adjectives, when placed in the defi- nite state, are the same in all genders, except that the vowels e and a vary in the positive degree (see § 27), the neuter termination t is then always left out; as, det hoga hus, the lofty house, not det hogta hus (after the indefinite hogt). 18 ADJECTIVE. The same is to be observed in the plural number, whether the adjective be definite or indefinite. ^ 64. Obs. 5. Liten, neut. litet, little, is irregular in the definite state, as well as in the comparisons (see ^ 49). For the plural number, which litcn has not, we use a quite different word, viz. smciy small, which is also irregular in the comparisons, viz. smdrre, smarst, not smaare, smaast. § 65. Obs. 6. When an adjective is formed from two other adjectives, as blekgul, pale yellow (from blek, pale, and guly yellow), the latter only is inflected ; thus, in the genitive case we say hlekguls^ not hlehsguls. Form and Position of Adjectives. § 66. As to the place of an adjective, when joined to a substantive, the Swedish language acknowledges precisely the same rules as the Danish ; e. g. en stor Dag, a great day ; langa Armer, long arms ; Mannen ar lycklig^ the man is happy ; lycklig ar den Man, happy is the man ; Alexander den Slore^ Alexander the Great; den store Alex- ander, the great Alexander ; and it is the same when ad- jectives are explained as participles ; e. g. en Sak ryslig at se pa, a thing horrible to look at ; &c. § 67. An adjective (pronoun or participle used as an adjective) agrees with its substantive in gender and number ; e. g. stor Man, great man ; stort Has, great house ; stora Hattar^ great hats ; min Syster, my sister ; mitt Hus, my house ; en dlskad Moder, a beloved mother ; et dlskadt Barn, a beloved child ; &lQj, But not so in the cases ; in the nominative they are always alike; but if the substantive stands in the genitive case, with its adjective before it, the substantive only is so inflected ; e. g. en stor Mans Hatt, the hat of a great man, not en stors Mans Hatt ; and defi- nitely stora Mannens Hatt, not storas, &c. § 68. If an adjective be joined ^o a proper name, as ex- pressive of its rank, order, or qualifications, as Gustaf Adolf ADJECTIVE. 19 den tappre, Gastavus Adolphus the brave, and the context requires that name to be in the genitive case, then the ad- jective only is so inflected ; as, Gust af den first es Verlc, the work of Gustavus the First, not Gustafs den firstes ; and such adjectives being always preceded by the pronoun, or rather demonstrative particle, den, are always definite. § 69. When an adjective stands absolute, or without its substantive, it may also be inflected in the genitive case ; as, en stors^ a great one's, and definitely denstoraSy pi. destoras, the great ones'.* § 70. If two or more substantives in the singular require a verb to be plural, the following adjective is also placed in the plural ; e. g. Handen, Fingret, och Ringen voro stora, the hand, the finger, and the ring, were great, not stor ; but if the verb remains in the singular, the adjective remains there also; e. g. Handen^ Fiiigret, och sjelfva Ringen var stor, the hand, the finger, and the ring itself was great ; not stor a, unless we say voro, § 71. An adjective is placed in the definite state without its substantive being so, — 1st. After the definite pronouns; e. g. du vise Man, thou wise man ; din stora Stad, thy great city ; not du vis Man, din stor Stad, except after den and denne, which, chiefly when signifying dender and denhdr, re- quire the substantive also to be definite (see § 28). The word egen, neut. eget^ occurs, used both definite and indefi- nite, after a definite pronoun ; we may say, min egna Van, and min egen Van, my own friend, and although egna is gram- matically correct, yet daily use and universal custom have made egen more common and more correct. 2d. After the interjections, they may be expressed or not; e.g. O! store Konung, great king; Ack! lyckliga Dag, happy day ; except when the indefinite article stands between ; e. g. O ! en stor Konung, Ack ! en lycklig Dagj * This construction is seldom met with when the adjective is indefinite. 8* 20 PRONOUN. or when a pronoun follows after the adjective and separates it from its substantive ; e. g. Ack ! lycklig du Konung ; Ack ! sail den Konung, som, &c., O, happy the king, who, &c. 3d. When a noun (pronoun or participle), that belongs to the same sentence, precedes it in the genitive case ; e. g. Komingens vackra Stad, the king's beautiful city; en an- nans goda Halt, the good hat of another ; den simmandes hvita Arm, the white arm of the swimming (man) ; not vacker, god, hvit. This relates also to the definite numerals, when used as adjectives (see § 149, note). § 72. An adjective is indefinite, although its substantive be definite, when it is emphatically used as a predicate (and not preceded by den) ; thus, when we say in English, Great is the man, or The man is great, the Swedish has it, stor dr Mannen, and Mannen dr stor ; and this, whether they stand close to each other, or are separated by one or more inter- vening words ; as, Huset, som synes pa Af stand, Jian vara stort, the house, which is seen at a distance, may be great. § 73. An adjective agrees with its substantive in all other cases, as well as in those mentioned above. CHAPTER VII. PRONOUN. General Statement. § 74. There are two general classes of pronouns in Swedish, as in Danish, viz. substantive and adjective. Be- sides this, every pronoun is in itself either definite or indefi- nite, which best appears from the power it has on the ad- jectives in the definite state, whilst the indefinite leaves the adjectives also indefinite. The definite are chiefly the per- PRONOUN. 21 sonal, possessive, and demonstrative pronouns ; of indefinite pronouns, some are substantive and some adjective. Personal Pronouns. § 75. In Swedish, as in Danish, there is a peculiar pro- noun for each person, and the pronouns of the first and second persons are of the same form for every gender, that of the third alone being varied for the masculine, feminine, and neuter genders in the singular, while its form is the same for all the genders in the plural. § 76. The pronoun of the first person is declined as follows : — Singular. Plural. N. jag, N. vi, D. A. ? . G. vores. V.&A.^ ^^^- D.A. ) V. & A. ) ^^^* § 77. The pronoun of the second person is declined as follows: — Singular. Plural. N. du. N. /. D. &/ A. dig, G. eders, V. du, D. & A. eder or jer, A. dig. V. /. A. eder. § 78. The pronoun of the third person is declined as follows : — Singular, Masculine. Feminine. JYeuter. N. han. N. hon, N. det, G. hans, G. Jiennes, G. dess. D. & A. ham. D. & A. henne. D. A. V. han. V. ho7i. V. & A. ham. A. henne. 22 PjRONOUN. Plural for the three Genders, N. de, G. deres, D. & A. dem, V. de. A. c?e?w. Possessive Pronouns, ^ 79. The possessive pronouns are : — First Person, Singular. Plural, min, neut. mitt. mine or mina, var, neut. vart. vare or vara. Second Person, Singular. Plural, din, neut. ditt. dine or dina. eder, neut. edert, edre or ec?ra. Third Person, Singular. Plural, sin, neut. sitt, sine or szwa. Example : — han tog sin Hatt^ he took his (own) hat ; han tog hans Hatt, he took his (another's) hat ; de toge sina Hatter, they took their hats.* Demonstrative Pronouns. ^ 80. The demonstrative pronouns are : — Singular, Plural. N. den, neut. det, N. de G. dens, " dets, G. deres, ^' ^' \ den " det ^' ^ ^' ^^'^' A. dem. * There are some who never use 5in and sina, when the preceding noun or pronoun to which it refers stands in the plural j but always, in that case, deras ; e. g. de toge deras Hatter, they took their hatsj de alska deras {sitt) Barn, they love their child. PRONOUN. 23 Singular, N. denne or denna, neut. delta, G. dennes or dennas, neut. deltas, DA) V Ar' A I ^^'^'^^ ^^ denna, neut. cfe^^a. P/wraZ. N. c/e5se or dessa, G, dessas, y\t A i desse or dessa. Singular. Plural, andre or andra. andre or andra. G. andras, G. andras. § 81. The singular of this pronoun (as well as s/e//*) is the same as the plural, which, if not made definite by de^ leaves the following substantive in the indefinite state; e. g. andra Hat tar, or de andra Hattarne, other hats, the other hats. This latter observation, however, does not relate to sjelf, which, when used as an adjective pronoun, always places its substantive in the definite state ; we cannot say, sjelfva Hattar, but sjelfva Hattarne, the very hats. Relative Pronouns. § 82. The relative pronouns are : — Singular. Plural. N. hvilken, neut. hvilket. N. Jivilke or hvilka, G. hvilkens, " hvilkets. G. hvilkas. This pronoun is also used as interrogative. Interrogative Pronouns. ^ 83. The interrogative pronouns are : — Singular, Plural. N. Iio or hvem, neut. hvad, N. ho or hvem. G. kvems, neut. hvems, G. hvems. 24 PRONOUN. § 84. Som^ the common subjunctive pronoun, answers to who, which, and that. It is used both after persons and things, and never begins a sentence. § 85. Hvar, neut. hvart, every, gen. hvars ; this geni- tive, when not compounded, answers to whose. ^ 86. 3Ian is the impersonal pronoun, commonly trans- lated as one or we ; e. g. man kan ej\ one cannot ; hvad shall man gora ? what shall we do ? The rest of the pronouns are easily learned by practice ; and such as are compounded are generally inflected as when single ; thus the neuter gender of hvarannan, every other, is hvartannat ; the genitive case of hvarochen, every one, is hvarochens. Observations on the Pronouns. § 87. Obs, 1 . The personal pronoun du, thou, is much more used in the Swedish language than it is in the Eng- lish ; man and wife always address each other by that name; parents use it when speaking to their children, and intimate friends in speaking to each other.* § 88. Obs. 2. In common conversation we pronounce the words mig^ dig, sig, as if they were written mej^ dfj, sej, and this is so generally the case, that, in order to speak like others, we are obliged to conform to it. But in oratorical delivery this mode of pronouncing must be carefully avoided. § 89. Obs, 3. Before the second person plural (/) custom has put an n (?«*), which letter is the characteristic of that person in all verbs; as, hafen, hafuen, varden; and, being used in questions, the final n of the verb seems in- sensibly to have fallen in with the personal pronoun ; as, hafveni instead of hofven I ; and thus, probably, was ni * For tu, tin, then, and thenne, which mode of spelling occurs in the Bible and the code of civil laws, we now write du, din, den, denne. PRONOUN. 35 brought into use instead of /, and is now pretty generally admitted, not only in conversation, but even in writing. § 90. Ohs. 4. Du (except in the before-mentioned cases) and I or ni are never used but when speaking to in- feriors. We then address a boy or girl as du, and a man or woman as ni. When we write or speak to superiors, or such as we owe respect or wish to be polite to, we use the words, Herre, sir ; FrUy madam ; Froken, Mansell, Jungfru,^ miss, &c. ; which are then (except those that end with w, as Baron, and also the word Mamselt) put in the definite state ; as, vill Herren get 1 1 do you wish to go, sir ? hat Frun sett det 7 have you seen it, madam ? but, vill Froken ga ? har Mamsell sett det 1 In the plural number all these complimentary words and titles are put in the definite state ; as, liar Baronerna varit der 1 have you been there, barons? hum ma Damerna (of Dam, lady) ? how do you do, ladies? This relates also to the family names Fader, Moder, Bro- der, and Syster; as, ha Systrana sett det ? have you seen it, sisters? but in the singular these must be indefinite ; as, har Syster (not Systrtn) sett det ? If, besides the words Herre and Fru, the title of the person is also mentioned (which in politer addresses always is observed), then these words remain in the indefinite state, but the title is placed in the definite ; as, vill Frit Majorskan komma 1 not Frun \ and in this case the final e of the word Herre is, as before stated (see ^ 45, Ohs. 8), always omitted ; as, vill Hcrr Majoren komma 1 &/C. § 91. Ohs, 5. Honom (of han), henne (of hon), and det, suffer a strange contraction in common speaking. Instead of saying honom, they only add an n to the preced- * We address a nobleman's daughter as FrDken ; a gentleman's daughter as Mamsell ; and one of the third class as Jungfru, which signifies virgin or maid. t The word Herre is (in the definite state) pronounced Hem, and even frequently written so. 26 PRONOUN. ing word ; e. g. liar du setVn, for liar du sett honom ; and instead of henne and det, they add in the same manner na and t; e. g. 5e'n«, for se henne ; se pa't, for se pa det ; but these abbreviations, though too commonly used in familiar conversation, are far from being elegant, and ought to be avoided as much as possible. ^ 92. Ohs, 6. Vars is an obsolete genitive sing, of var, and occurs only in the Scriptures. Eders, the gen. sing, of eder, is used before titles ; as, Eders Nad, your grace ; Eders Hogliet, your highness ; Eders Kungliga Majestdt, your royal majesty. As / or ni can never be used but when they are rendered in the nominative, or rather vocative case, the word Eder supplies the other cases, and is then always contracted into Er. We cannot say, jag gof det at ni^jag har sett /, but jag gaf det at er, I gave it to you, jag har sett er, I have seen you. The same contraction we find even when Eder is used as an adjective ; as, Er son ar stor, your son is great ; and in the neuter gender, lir det Ert Barn ? is it your child ? ^ 93. Obs. 7. Although the pronoun sin, neut. sitt, is used as an adjective, it never occurs in the nominative case. We cannot say, Han och sin Far (contr. for Fader) Icomma; Han sade at sin Mor (contr. for Moder) ar hemma ; but Han och lians Far komm, he and his father came ; Han sade at hans Mor var hemma, he said that his mother is at home. ^ 94. Ohs. 8. The indefinite pronoun nagon, any, is in the neuter gender nagot, and in the plural nagre or na- gra, gen. nagras. Ingen, no or none, is in the neuter iiitet, pi. inga. Intet is in common conversation frequently used for ej or iclce ; d.s,jag han det intet (e/), I have it not; but we cannot with propriety so use it in writing. § 95. Ohs. 9. The demonstrative pronoun den, that, is sometimes used as a relative (for som or hvilken), when the preceding noun is indefinite ; we may say. En V'dg, den VERBS. 27 jag lean ga, a road that I can go ; but not (it seems), Vdgen den jog kan get; for Vdgen, being definite already (and we may resolve it into den Vdg)^ needs no further definition, and we therefore write, Vdgen, som jag kan ga. § 96. Ohs, 10. Hvilkeny when used either in ques. tions, or as a relative, must agree in gender and number with the noun to which it refers ; e. g. hvilken {Man) sag du? which (man) did yjou see? hvilket [Hus) vil du se? what (house) will you see? and in the genitive case, hvilkens {hvilken Mans) dr det ? hvilket s {hvilket Sdlskaps) dr det? to what company does it belong? han soker den Lon, hvilken han vet sig fortjena, he seeks the reward which he is conscious he deserves ; han fruktar for Hafvet hvilket han tror vara farligt, he fears the sea, which he believes to be dangerous, § 97. Ohs, 11. The pronoun hvad, what, is often (chiefly in questions) followed by the particle yor; e.g. hvad for Fisk ? what kind of fish ? hvad for en Man ? what man ? But this is not to be admitted in classical writing. CHAPTER VIII. VERBS. General Statement. § 98. Swedish verbs, like the verbs in Danish, are either transitive or intransitive. Transitive verbs are those which necessarily suppose some object on which they may operate ; intransitive verbs are those which require no such object ; e. g. besitta, to possess, is a transitive verb, since it requires an object, something to be possessed ; but sofva, to sleep, is intransitive, for we cannot sleep any thing. ^ 99, Reflexive verbs in Swedish are so called because 9 28 VERBS. the thing expressed by the verb falls back, as it were, upon the subject ; e. g. jag dhkar niig^ I love myself. ^ 100. Verbs are either simple or compound. Com- pound verbs are formed by joining particles to the simple verbs ; e. g. utfora, to export, is compounded of the sim- ple verb forn^ to carry, and z//, out. § 101. Swedish verbs, like Danish, are varied by means of voice, mode, tense, number, and person. § 102. The voices are as in Danish. § 103. There are five modes, the infinitive, indicative, potential, optative, and imperative. Besides, there are two participles, the present and perfect. ^ 104. There are three tenses in the infinitive mode, viz. the present, perfect, and future ; five in the indicative, viz. the present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and future ; and one, the present, in the imperative and optative modes. ^ 105. There are two numbers, the singular and plural. The distinction of number belongs to all the tenses of the verb, except those of the infinitive. ^ 106. There are three persons to each number, cor- responding with the persona] pronouns, viz. the first, second, and third. § 107. In Swedish, as in Danish, many of the verbs are irregular in their conjugation. These irregularities bear a considerable similarity to the irregularities of Danish verbs. Regular verbs are conjugated by mere changes of termination, and the aid of auxiliary verbs; irregular verbs exhibit changes in the substantial part of their form. Auxiliary Verbs. ^ 108. The proper auxiliary verbs in Swedish are four in number, viz. att hafva^ to have, att vara, to be, att varda, and att hlifva, to become.* * Jog" blifver and ja§ varde)' are translated; I be, Twill be, I become, VERBS. 29 § 109. The auxiliary verb att hafva^ to have, is con- jugated as follows : — Infimtive, Present. att hafva, to have. Perfect. att hafva hafty to have had Future. att skola hafva^ to be about to have. Indicative, Present, Singular, jag hnfver or Aar, I have. du hofver or har^ thou hast. hariy hon, det hafver or Aar, he, she, it has. Plural, vi hafva, we have. I hafven, you have. de hafva, they have. Perfect. Singular, jag har haft, I have had. Participles, Present. hafvande, having. Past. haft, had. Imperfect. Singular, jag hade, I had. du hade, thou hadst. han hade, he had. Plural vi hade, we had. I haden, you had. de hade, they had. Pluperfect. Singular, jag hade haft, I had had. I grow, according as the meaning of the sentence may require ; e. g. om jag blifver liemma, if I be at home ; han varder kommande, he will be com- ing ; han vardt stor, he became great j han hlef fet, he grew fat, &c. The verb blifver may also denote to remain j e. 2,- jag blifver har, I remain here ; but practice will soon teach the different uses and significations of these verbs. 30 VERBS. First Future. Second Future. Singular. Singular. jag shall hafva, I shall have, jag skulle hafva, I should have. du shall hafva, thou shalt du shulle hafva^ thou shouldst have. have. han shall hafva, he shall han shulle hafva, he should have. have. Plural. Plural. vi shola hafva, we shall vi shulle hafva, we should have. have. / sholen hafva, you shall I shullen hafva, you should have. have. de shola hafva, they shall de shulle hafva, they should have. have. Potential. Present. Imperfect. Singular, Singular, jag mh hafva, I may have. jag matte hafva^ I might have. du ma hafva, thou mayst du matte hafva, thou mightst have. have. han ma hafva, he may have, han matte hafva, he might have. Plural, Plural, vi maga hafva, we may have, vi matte hafva, we might ^ have. I magen hafva, you may I matten hafva, you might have. have. de maga hafva, they may de matte hafva, they might have. have. VERBS. SI: Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular. jag ma hafva hafty I may jag matte hafva haft^ I might have had. Singular, hafve jag, may I have. hafve duy may thou have. hqfve han, may he have. have had. Optative, Plural. hafvom vi, may v^e have. hafven I, may you have. hafve de, may they have. Imperative. Singular. Plural. haf dUy have thou. Idt oss hafva, let us have. hafve han or Idt honom haf- haf J or hafven I, have you. va, let him have. Idt dem hafva, let them have. § 110. The auxiliary verb att vara, to be, is conjugated as follows : — Infinitive. Participles. Present. Present. att vara, to be. varande, being. Perfect. Past. att hafva varit^ to have been. varit, been. Future. att skola vara, to be about to be. Indicative, Present. Imperfect. Singular. Singular. jag dr, I am. jag var, I was. du dr, thou art. du var, thou wast. han dr, he is. han var, he was. 32 VERBS, Plural, Plural. vi aro, we are. vi voro, we were. / arerij you are. J voren, you were. de dro, they are. de voro, they were. Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular, jag hafver or har varit, I jag hade varit, I had been, have been. First Future. Second Future. Singular, Singular. jag shall vara^ I shall be. jag skulle vara, I should be. Potential, Present. Imperfect. Singular. Singular. jag ma vara, I may be. jag matte vara, I might be. Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular. jag ma hafva varit, I may jag matte hafva varit, have been. might have been. Optative. Singular, • Plural. vare jag, may I be. varom vi, may we be. vare du, may thou be. varen I, may you be. vare han, may he be. vare de, may they be. Imperative, Singular, Plural. var du, be thou. I'dt oss vara, let us be. Idt honom vara or vare han, var I or varen I, be you. let him be. Idt dem vara, let them be. VERBS. 3a § 111. The auxiliary verbs att varda and att blifva, to become, are conjugated as follows : — Injimtive. Present. att varda* to become. Perfect. att vara vorden, to have be- come. Future. att sJcola varda, to be about to become. Indicative, Present. Singular. jag varder, I become. du vardeVy thou becomest. han varder, he becomes. Plural. vi varda, we become. I varden, you become. de varda, they become. Perfect. Participles, Present. vardande, becoming. Past. vorden, become. Singular, Imperfect. Singular, jag vardt, I became. du vardtj thou becamest. han vardt, he became. Plural, vi vordo, we became. I vorden, you became. de vordo, they became. Pluperfect. Singular, jag dr vorden, I have be- jog var vorden, I had be- come, come. First Future. Second Future. Singular. Singular. jag shall varda, I shall be- jag skulk varda, I should be- come, come. * Blifva is conjugated in the same manner as varda. 34^ VERBS. Potential. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Singular. jag ma varda, I may be- jag matte varda^ I might be- come, come. Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular, jag ma vara vorden, I may jag matte vara vorden, I have become. might have become. Optative. Singular, Plural. varde jag, may I become. vardom vi, may we become. varde du^ may thou become, varden I, may you become. varde han, may he become. va?'de de, may they become. Imperative. Singular. Plural. vard duj become thou. Idt oss varda, let us become. Idt honom varda or varde han^ vard I or varden I, become let him become. you. Idt dem varda, let them be- come. Regular Verbs. ^ 112. The regular verbs are conjugated by a change of termination, and the aid of the auxiliary verbs. The regular verb att dlska, to love, is conjugated as fol- lows ! — Active Voice. Infinitive. Participles. Present. Present. att dlska. dlslcande. Perfect. Past. att hafva dlskad. dlskad. Future. att skola dlska. TERBg. 86 ♦ Indicative, Present. Imperfect. Singvldr. Singular. jag dlskar. jag dlskade. du dlskar. du dlskade. Jian dlskar. han dlskade. Plural. Plural. vi dlska. vi dlskade. Idlsken, , I dlskaden. de dlska. de dlskade. Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular. jag hafver or har dlskad. jag hade dlskad. First Future. Second Future. Singular. Singular. jag skall dlska. Potential, jag skulk dlska. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Singular. jag ma dlska. jag matte dlska. Perfect. Pluperfect. Singular. Singular. jag 7na hafva dlskad, jag matte hafva dlskctd. Optative, Imperative. Singular, Singular. dlske jag, du, han. dlska du. dlska han or Idt honom dlska. Plural. Plural. dlskom vi. Idt OSS dlska. dlsken L dlska I or dlsken I, dlske de. Idt dem dlska. 36 VERBS. Passive Voice. The active verbs are formed into tion of an s, in the following manner passives by the addi- Infinitive. Present. att dhkas. Participles. Present. dlskandes. Perfect. att vara dlskad. Past. dlskad. Future. att skola dlskas. Present. Singular. jag dhkas. Indicative. Imperfect. Singular. jag dLskadcs. Perfect. Singular. jag ar dlskad. Pluperfect. Singular. jag var dlskad. First Future, Second Future. Singular. jag skall dlskas. Singular, jag skulle dlskas. Present. Potential. Imperfect. Singular, jag mh dlskas. Singular, jag matte dlskas. Perfect. Singular. jag ma vara dlskad. Pluperfect. Singular. jag matte vara dlskad. Optative. Singular. ma or matte jag^ du, han dl- skas. Plural. ma or matte vi, i, de dlskas. Imperative, Singular. Idt mig^ dig, honom dlskas. Plural Idt OSS, I, de dlskas. VERBS. Irregular Verbs. § 113. The irregular verbs, as before said, exhibit changes in the substantial part of their forms. The change of termination for the persons is the same as in the regu- lar verbs. In Swedish, as well as in other languages, is found a considerable number of irregular verbs ; as a speci- men of the conjugation of these, I present the verb att finncij to find. Infinitive* Present. att finna. Perfect. atta hafva funnit. Future. att skola finna. Present. Participles. Present. finnande. Past. funnit. Indicative. Singular, jag finner. du finner. han finner. Plural. vi finna, I finnen, de finna. Perfect. Singular. jag hafver or har funnit. First Future. Singular. jag skall finna. Imperfect. Singular, jag fann, du fann. han fann. Plural, vi funno. I funnen. de funno. Pluperfect. Singular, jag hade funnit. Second Future. Singular, jag skulle finna. 38 VERBS. Potential. Present. Singular. jag ma Jinn a. Perfect. Singular. jag ma hafva funnit. Optative. Singular. fmne jag, du^ han» Plural, finnom vi. Jinnen I. Jinne de. Imperfect. Singular, jag matte fnna. Pluperfect. Singular. jag matte hafva funnit. Imperative. Singular, finn du, Idt honom finna. Plural. Idt OSS fnna. finn or finnen I. Idt dem finna. Irregular verbs that have the same signification as pas- sive verbs have the inflections as such, which are thus formed like those of regular verbs. § 114. Catalogue of some of the most common Irregular Verbs. Present. Imperfect. Infinitive. att bedja, to beg. att bita, to bite. att binda, to bind jag beder or ber.jag bad. < jag biter, jag binder. ait besitttty to possess, jag besitter. att blifvaAorem-dm, \ . ,,.^ to be, to become, att bringa, to bring att bjuda, to bid. att brista, to burst. att brinna, to burn. att bryta, to break. ver. jag bringar. jag bjuder. jag brister. jag brinner. jag bryter. jag bet jag band. \ jag besatt. jag blef } jag bragte. jag bjod. jag brast. jag brann. jag brdt. Past. bedit or bedt. bitit. bundit, bunden, besuttit. blifven^ blifvit. bragt. bjudit. brusten. brunnit. brutit. VERBS. Infinitive. aft b'dra, to bear. att bora, ought. att draga, to draw. att drickay to drink. att drifva, to drive. attfinna, to find. att fiyta, to flow. att fly ^a, to fly. attfr§sa^ to freeze. ait fa, to get. att for ga, to perish. att gifva, to give. att gripa, to grasp. att gjuta, to pour. att grata, to weep. att gr'dfva, to dig. «/# ga, to go. a<^ Ae/a, to be called ) (by name). ) aH hjelpa, to help. att holla, to hold. attjaga, to drive, to > hunt. ) att klifva, to climb. att knipa, to pinch, a^^ knyta, to knit. G^^ komma, to come. «^^ krypa, to creep, a^^ kunna, to be able g/^ Zfi, to laugh. att lida, to suffer, a^^ ligga, to lie down, fl/^ Ijuga, to lie. a^/ /a/a, to let, allow. att Idgga, to lay, put \ or place some- > thing. j Imperfect. Past. lag bar, { .o * •^ ° ( baren, jag borde, bort, jag drog, jag drack. Present. jag bar. jag bor, jag droger. jag dricker, jag drifver, jag dref, jagfinner, jag fann . jagflyter, jagflot, jag fly mr. jag flog, jctg fryser. jag fros. jag far. jagflck. jag for gar. jag gifver. jag gaf. jag griper. jag grep. jag gjuter. jag got. jag grater. jag gret. jag grdfver. jag grof. jag gar. jag gick. jag heter. jag hjelper. jag Jialp. jag hollar. jog ho 11. jagjager. jag jog. jag klifver. jag kniper, jag knyter. jag kommer, jag krypcr. jag kan. jag ler. jag lider. jag ligger. jag Ijuger, jag later. jag Idgger. 10 dragit. druckit. J drifvit, I drefven. funnit. { flutit flogit. frusit, fatt. jag forgick.forgatt. gifvit. gripit. gutit. grafif, grdfvit. gatt. jag hette. hetat. hulpit. hollit. jogit. klifvit. knipit. knutit. kommit. krupit. knnnat. lett. lidit. legat. Ijugit. latit. jag kief, jag knep. jag knot, jag kom. jag krop. jag kunde. jog ^og. jag led. jag lag. jag log. jag Idt. jag lade. lagt. 40 Infinitive. att njuta, to enjoy. aft pipa, to whistle. att rida, to ride. att rifva, to tear. att sCf to see. att sitta, to sit. att sjunga, to sing. att sjunka, to sink. att skjuta, to shoot. att sicrifva, to write. att skrika, to cry. att spinna, to spin. att springa^ to spring. att stiga, to ascend. att skdra, to cut. att stjdla, to steal. att svdra, to swear. att sthy to stand, att sdtta, to set, to place. att taga, to take. att tr'dffa, to hit. att trdda, to step. att tvingaj to force. att vinntty to gain. Present. jag njuter, jag piper, jag rider, jag rifver, jag ser. jag sitter, jag sjunger, jag sjunker. jag skjuter. jag skrifver, jag skriker, jag spinner. ,jag springer, jag stiger. jag skdrer. jag stjdler. jag svdrer. jag star. Imperfect. jag njdt, jag pep, jag red. jag ref. jag sag. jag satt. jag sjdng. jag sjonk. jag skot. jag skref, jag skrek, jag spann. jag sprang, jag steg. jag skar, jag stal, jag svor. jag stod. > jag sdtter, jag satte. jag tager. jag trdffer. jag trdder. jag tvinger. jag vinner. att veta, to know. jag vet. att vara, to be. jag dr. att vilja, to be about. Jo'^ vil. att vrida, to writhe, jag wider. att vdxay to grow. jag vdxer. jag vdxte. < jag tog. jag traf. jag trad, jag tvang. jag vann. jog viste. jag var. jag ville. jag vred. Past. Tijutit, pipit, rideti, rid. rifvit. sett, setat, sjungit, sjunkit, skjutit. skrifvit. skrikit, spunnit. sprungit, stigit. skurit. St u lit. svurit, stadt. satt. tagit. trdffad, trddt, tvungit, vunnit, vetat^ vist. varit. velat, vridit, vdxt. Observations on the Verbs. § 115. Obs. 1. When we do not want to determine any certain person or persons of a verb, we use the pronoun many which, on that account (and not because it is used before impersonal verbs, which it never can be), is called VERBS. 41 impersonal, though, strictly speaking, it comprehends all the persons ; as, man kan Idtt se det, one can (or may) easily see it ; man har sagt mig det, I am told so ; &c. This is also the case in Danish. § 116. Obs. 2. The auxiliary verbs receive often a positive signification, by the stress laid -on them in pronun- ciation ; thus, for instance, jag kan ga, jag skall blifvay may be explained three different ways. If we lay the stress on kan and skall, it signifies that it is in my power [jag kan) to go, and that I absolutely must {jag skall) remain ; and if we let it rest on ga and blifva, the mean- ing depends then on the signification of those verbs; lastly, we may lay all the stress on jag, if we wish to express ivho it is that kan ga or skall blifva. This may also be said of the Danish. § 117. Obs. 3. Of the auxiliary verbs some often ap- pear by themselves, and have then also a positive sense ; thus, Jiafva signifies to possess, blifva, to remain, kunna, to know, &/C. ; e. g. jag kan min Idxa, I know my lesson ; jag blifver i London, I remain in London ; lian har stora Egendomar, he possesses large estates ; &c. But this practice must teach. This may also be said of the Danish. § 118. Obs. 4. As att fa, to get, to receive, is often used as an auxiliary verb in the Swedish, it must be ob- served that it is translated into English in different ways, as the meaning of the sentence may require ; thus, jag far der hora talas am honom, we translate, I will there hear him spoken of; jag far ga dit om jag vill, I may go there if I like ; jag fick icke gora det, I was not permitted to do it ; jag jick ej Tid, I had no time ; du far laf att gora det, it is your right to do it ; de fick deras Penningar, they received their money ; &/C. § 119. Obs. 5. When a whole sentence, or an infini- tive mode, is the subject of a verb, it is always put in the singular number and third person ; as, deras fornojda An- 43 VERBS, sigter var dtt som fagnadc mig, (literally) their happy countenances was it that pleased me ; at dhka silt Fader^ nesland dr en angendm Pligty to love one's country is a joyful duty ; for these phrases may be resolved thus : — det var deras fdmojda Ansigter som fdgnade mig ; det dr en angendm Pligt att dlska sitt Fddernesland ; whereby det becomes the nominative in the sentence. § 120. Obs. 6, The active verbs in the Swedish ex- press their passives in the following manners : jag dlskas^ jag dr dlskadf and jag blifvcr or varder dlskad; of which the first, or jag dlskas, indicates what is done or exists in the present moment ; the second, or jag dr dlskad, means what has already existed some time and still exists ; and the third, jag blifver or varder dlskad ^ has reference to a time which succeeds the present ; thus, if I s^y jag hatas, jag vdrmesy it means, that I am now in the actual state of being hated or warmed ; jag dr hatad, jag dr vdrmd^ im- plies, that 1 have been so for some time, and still continue so ; and jag varder hatad, jag blifver vdrmd, that I am to be so. But to explain it by another example, let us take the verb sticka, to sting, to stab. If we want to express that two persons are now in the act of being stung, we say, de stickas; if they are stung already, de dro stuckne ; and if they are to be stung, de blifva stuckne. And in the im- perfect tense, jag dlskades means, I was loved ; jag var dlskad, I was and had been loved ; and jag vardt or blef dlskad, I became loved (not having been so before). § 121. Obs. 7. For the sake of perspicuity the com- pounded passive forms are sometimes used instead of the simple. I will show the necessity of this by an example. The passive of the verb att sla, to beat, i^jag slas, imperf. jag slogs; but there is also a demi-passive or deponent verb, att slass, to fight, which has the imperfect tense the same as the other, or jag slogs. Now if I was to say, Bi/s- sarna slogos, it might either signify that the Russians VERBS. 43 fought, or that the Russians were defeated ; we therefore in the latter case use varda or blifva ; as, Ryssarne slogos tappert vid Svefisksund, men blefvo slagne, the Russians fought bravely at Svensksund, but were defeated.* § 122. Obs. 8. Of the impersonal verbs, as well in Danish as in Swedish, some appear in an active, and others in a passive form ; as, det regnar, it rains, det dagas, it begins to dawn, of the verbs att regna, to rain, and att dagas, to dawn. It must, however, be observed, that verbs of all kinds may be used as impersonal in the Swedish, in the same manner as they are in the English ; as, der gick et Ryckte, there was a rumor ; det syntes sa, it appeared so ; de saga mycket som icke dr sant, they say much that is not true ; man kunde ej komma in, one could not get in ; &c. § 123. Obs, 9. As imperatives not only imply a com- mand, but also frequently a wish, or exhortation, — as, bevara Gud viir Kungy God save our king ; strid Hjelte strid, fight, hero, fight, — we use the sign of the future tense when we wish to enforce a command ; as, dii skall arbeta, thou shalt work ; Ni skolen gora det, you shall {or must) do it. § 124. Obs. 10. The sign of the infinitive mode {att) is often left out in the Swedish, where in the English it must be expressed ; thus, we write correctly, jag bor gora det, I ought to do it ; jag ser Idsa, I see to read ; &lc, § 125. Obs. 11. The forms of the participles may be learned from the paradigms. Here I will only, the better to distinguish, them to beginners, observe, that the present participles, both active and passive, occur after the auxiliary verbs vara, varda, and blifva^ and the past participles after hafva ; as, jag dr, jag varder, jag blifver hatande and hatad, I am, I will be hating and hated ; but jag hafver * All the difference I can trace between varda and blifva is, that varda seems to be used when a greater emphasis is required, and that it implies a stronger assertion than blifva. Besides, it never occurs in a positive sense, as blifva does, but always as an auxiliary verb. 10* 44 VERBS. hataty I have hated, jag hafver hatats, I have been hated ; det dr gjordt, it is done ; jag har gjort det, I have done it ; &/C. § 126. Obs. 12. The present active participle occurs often in the English where the Svv^edish does not admit of it. We can neither begin a sentence with it, nor use it immediately after another verb ; thus, if we would translate '* having no money to lay out/' and ** I cannot help admir- ing him," we could not say, hafvande inga Penningar att Idgga ut ; jag kan ej underlata beundrande Iionom ; but must in the former case begin the sentence with a particle, and in the latter, place the verb in the infinitive mode ; as, sasom jag har inga Penningar att Idgga ut ; jag kan ej underlata att beundra honom. Neither can we use it after any of the particles, as is often the case in English. The following expressions should thus be rendered into Swed- ish : — After having done that, I came home, sedan jag hade gjort det, kom jag hem ; I am prevented from doing liyjag dr hindradfran att gora det; I saw it whilst I was sitting there, jag sag det medan jag satt der ; &c. This participle occurs, however, sometimes with the preposition i (in) before it; as, han ofvergar mig i talande, he excels me in speaking ; but even here I think it more correct to use the infinitive mode, although it might be alleged that the verb so used is no longer a participle but a noun. This participle is always used when it could not be exchanged for the infinitive mode without altering the meaning of the sentence ; as, han stod der talande, he stood there speaking ; han stod der att tala would be, he stood there in order to speak. Besides, it implies a longer continuation of the present, and is more descriptive than the infinitive mode ; as, jag horde honom talande, I heard him speaking, means more than, jag horde honom tala; but in this case it is a verbal adjective, and may, as such, even begin a sentence ; as, talande stod han der, &c. This participle is further in- VERBS. 45 fleeted with an 5 in the genitive case ; as, en iaiandes, en dhkandeSy which must not be confounded with the gerun- dial forms. The difference between the active gerund and the participle may be learned from the following example : — han motte mig ridandes, he met me riding ; here ridandes is the gerund and refers to han ; but if we say, han motte mig ridande, then ridande is the participle, and refers to § 127. Obs, 13. Should the preposition till (to), which is the sign of the passive gerund, not add an s to the par- ticiple when it stands before it, it remains active, and is best translated by the infinitive mode; as, jag ndmner det till bevisande of hans heder, I mention it to prove his honor. § 128. Obs. 14. The auxiliary verb hafva is often suppressed (even in writing) when no confusion in the sentence arises from it, which in the English in similar cases would be unavoidable ; as, om han hatat mig sa sJculle jag glomt det, for om han hade hatat mig sa skulls jag hafva glomt det, if he (had) hated me, I should (have) forgotten it ; omjag endast haft tid, for omjag endast hade haft tid, if I only (had) had time ; &/C. Besides, hafva is contracted into /ta, and hafver into har, which is also ad- mitted both in speaking and writing. § 129. Obs. 15. In the present tense of the verb vara the contraction (in speaking) is still greater, for here often one letter only is retained ; as j jag a glad att de a hdr, for jag dr glad att de dro hdr ; and in the imperfect tense we shall hear va used for all the persons ; as, jag, du, han va glad att vi, I, de va der, I, &/C., was glad that we, &/C., were there. In the same manner we say blir for blifver (which also appears in writing); ska for shall; skull for skulle ; &c. The other verbs suffer more or less contrac- tion in speaking. 46 PARTICLES. CHAPTER. IX. PARTICLES. §130. The Swedish particles are of four kinds; viz. adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections. ^ 131. An adverb is a part of speech joined to other words to express the quality or circumstances of them ; and as these vary, the adverbs are of different kinds. Some have relation to time, others to place, probability, doubt, quantity, &>c. ; as, nu, now ; hemma, at home ; Aar, here ; troligenj likely; om, if; myckct, much; &c. ^ 132. Of the adverbs, a few admit of comparison ; as, ofttty often, of tare, oftasl ; fort, quickly, foriare, fortast; endeh, partly, merendels, mdstendels, § 133. When adjectives are used as adverbs, they al- ways appear in the neuter gender : as, naturligt, naturally ; hogt, highly ; hastigt, hastily ; and sometimes adverbs are formed from them by adding ligen ; as, hogligen, storligen. If the adjectives end with tig (as naturllg)^ only en is added ; as, jiaturligen, &c. ^ 134. Conjunctions join words and sentences together ; as, ochj and: ocA:, also ; ndmligen^ namely; mm, but; eller, or ; mitingen, either ; hvarken, neither ; fy, for ; ehuru, although ; &c. ^ 135. The prepositions are words set before nouns or pronouns, to express the relations of persons, places, and things to each other ; as, jcfg hor ga till honom, I ought to go to him ; such are under , under ; ofvcr, over ; pa and uppa, on or upon ; efter^ 'after ; fran, from ; i and uii, in; &c. § 136. Of the interjections, or words that express any sudden emotion of the mind, from the sensation either of pleasure or pain, the following are the most common : PARTICLES. 47 O! add O! alas! hn! (exclamation of despair) ;/«?/; / (of horror); oj! (of pain) ; si! Jo! ve ! woe! ha! ho! fy! fie ! &€. Observations on the Parlicles, some of loJiich have no Cor^ respondents in the English. ^ 137. Sa is the sign of the subsequent meaning of the sentence ; as, om jag kan sa vill jag, if I can I will ; and always places the nominative after its verb ; as, ndr han kom dit sa sade mannen till hononij not, sa mannen sade, when he came there the man said to him.* ^ 138, The affirmative particle sannerligen-y indeed, verily, is negative when the following nominative stands before its verb; as, sannerligen jag kan, indeed I cannot ; but affirmative, if vice versa ; as, sannerligen kaiijag, indeed I can : and if a negative particle is added to the sentence, it does not alter this rule, but only strengthens the asser- tion ; as, sannerligen jag kan icke, indeed I cannot ; san- nerligen kan jag icke, indeed I can. The place of the nominative and its verb should therefore be particularly attended to, as the meaning of the whole sentence often depends on it. § 139. Der, there, and har, here, signify the being in a place ; dit and hit, thither and hither, the going to and coming from a place ; as, han Hr hdr, he is here ; kom hit, come hither ; han stod der, he stood there ; han gick dit, he went thither. § 140. Ait, which is the sign of the infinitive mode, signifies also the same as that ; as, de hoppas att han vill komma, they hope that he will come.f ^141. The interrogative particle /w, having no corre- spondent in the English, is there best expressed by giving * Sa is often suppressed, but the construction is still the same j as, ndr jag kom, sade han, not han sade. t The pronoun det is sometimes used instead of att; as, de hofpas del han vill komma, &c. 48 PARTICLES. the meaning the turn of an affirmative question; ^Sj jog kan ju icke del 1 is not that impossible for me ? Han dr ju stor? is he not great? But when it precedes an adjec- tive in the comparative degree, it answers to the ; as, ju mer desto bdltrcj the more the better. ^ 142. Vdl is another interrogative particle without a correspondent, and musf be rendered by indeed, I suppose, I liope^ &c., as the meaning of the sentence may require ; as, det Icunde da val, that you could, indeed ; Jian 'dr val icke hemma ? he is not at home, I suppose ? Iian dr val hdr 1 he is here, I hope? Vdl signifies also welll and for the interjection loelll the Swedish language has na vdl! vdlan! § 143. Nog, enough, must also sometimes be rendered by indeed; as, han vill nog gdra det, om du her honom, he will indeed {or certainly) do it, if you tell him. ^ 144. The interrogative particle monne is used in plain questions ; as, monne det dr sant 1 do you think it is true ? monne han honimer ? is it expected that he will come ? &c. ^ 145. Between ja andjo, which are both translated by yes, this difference is to be observed ; that jo is used after questions in which there is a negative particle; as, var han ei der ? was he not there ? jo ; and ja where there is no such particle ; as, kom han dit ? did he come hither ? ja. <5> 146. Qvar is variously translated, as may be seen from the following examples : dr nagot qvar? is any thing left ? han salt qvar, he kept sitting ; dr hon dnnu qvar 7 is she still here? Doktoren hlefqvar, the doctor remained; &c. ^ 147. The inseparable particles, such as he, for, miss, 0, an, &/C., in besird, to bestrew, rordom, prejudice, miss- fdrstand, misunderstanding, olycklig, unhappy, smtaga, to accept, are easily learned by practice. ^ 148. The following words, which might be called demi-adverbs, are formed by joining a particle to a noun either in the nominative or genitive case. They are all such as constantly occur : i morgon, to-morrow ; i ofver- morgon, the day after to-morrow ; om bord, on board ; om NUMERALS. 49 sondagy next Sunday ; i mondogs^ last Monday ; i fjoly last year : at are, or at ares, next year ; i viir, next spring ; i va- ras, last spring ; till hands^ at hand ; //// lianda^ to hand ; efter hand, little by little ; ofver hufvud, upon an average ; till sjos, at sea ; utom lands, abroad ; inom lands, within one's country ; &c. Numerals. § 149. There are two kinds of numerals, the indefinite and the definite. The indefinite (commonly called cardi- nal) leave the following noun in the indefinite state; the definite (or ordinal) require it to be definite ; * as, en gong, one time ; forsta gongen, first time ; sexton ar, sixteen years ; sextonde aret, sixteenth year. The Indefinite or Cardinal, En, 1. Elfva, 11. Tjugoen 9 21. Tva, 2. Tolf, 12. Trettio, 30. Tre, 3. Tretton, 13. Fortio, 40. Fyra, 4. Fjorton, 14. Femtio, 50. Fern, 5. Fern tony 15. Sextio, 60. Sex, 6. Sexton, 10. SJuttio, 70. Sju, 7. Sjutton, 17. Attotio, 80. Atta, 8. Aderton, 18. Nittio, 90. Nie, 9. Nit ton, 19. Hundrade, 100. Tie, 10. Tjugo, 20. Tiisende> , 1000. The Definite or Ordinal, Forsta, 1st. Sjefte, 6th, Andra, 2d. Sjunde, 7th. Tredje, 3d. Attonde, 8th, Fjerde, 4th. Nionde, 9th. Femte, 5th. Tionde, 10th, * Except when a pronoun is used before them, or when a noun, pronoun, or participle; that belongs to the same sentence, precedes them in the geni- tive case ; as, i mitt sextonde ar, in my sixteenth year j Konungens andra Son, the king's second son ; for in these cases the definite numerals are under the same rules as adjectives; and leave the following substantive in the indefinite state. 50 DIVISIONS OF TIME. Elfte, nth. Tjuguforsta, 21st. Tolfte, 12th. TrettioJide, 30th. TnittomU, 13th. Fortionde, 40th. Fjortondc, 14th. Ftmtionde, 50th. Femtondcy 15th. Sextionde, 60th, SexUmde, 16th. Sjuttionde, 70th. Sjuttnnde, 17th. Attionde, 80th. Adertonde, 18th. Nittionde, 90th. Nittonde, 19th. Himdradde, 100th. Tjugonde, 20th. Tusende, 1000th. § 150. Divisions of Time. o o Ett Artiisen, a thousand Ett Arhundra, a century, years. Ett Ar, a year. Var, spring. Host, autumn. Sommar, summer. Vinter, winter. Jcmimri, January. Februari, or Gojcmauad, February. Mars, or Varmanad, March. April, or Grdsmanad, April. Maj, or Blomstermanad, May. Juni, or Sommarmanad, June. Juli, or Homanad, July. Augusti, or Skordemanad, August. September, or Hostmanad, September. Oclctober, or Slagtmanad, October. November, or Vintermanad, November. December, or Julmanad, December. Sondag, Sunday. Tors dag, Thursday. Mondag, Monday. Fredag, Friday. Tisdag, Tuesday. Lor dag, Saturday. Onsdag, Wednesday. Natt, night. Middo g, noon. Midnatt, midnight. Eftermiddag, afternoon. Morgon, morning. Solens nedergang, or Sol- Solens uppgang, sunrise. bergningen, sunset. Dag, day. Aft on. evening. Formiddag, forenoon. Timma, hour. Mmut, minute. Sekund, second. 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