A 
 NEW AND IMPROVED 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 DESIGNED FOR 
 
 EVERY CLASS OF LEARNERS, 
 
 BUT ESPECIALLY 
 
 FOR SUCH AS ARE THEIR OWN INSTRUCTORS. 
 
 Jfn Cfoo 
 
 PART I. AN EASY INTRODUCTION TO THE ELEMENTS OF THE 
 
 SPANISH LANGUAGE. 
 PART II. THE RULES OF ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX FULLY 
 
 EXEMPLIFIED; WITH OCCASIONAL NOTES AND OB- 
 
 SERVATIONS. 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX, 
 
 CONTAINING A USEFUL VOCABULARY - DIALOGUES WITH NUMERICAL 
 
 EFERENCES TO THE RULES IN THE GRAMMAR A FEW SPECIMENS 
 
 OF COMMERCIAL DOCUMENTS - AN EXPLANATION OF THE RULES 
 
 AND PRINCIPLES OF SPANISH POETRYAND SOME RULES FOR 
 
 DERIVATION. 
 
 BY L. J. A. M C HENRY, A NATIVE OF SPAIN. 
 
 jiefo 
 
 CORRECTED AND IMPROVED. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED FOR SHERWOOD, GILBERT, AND PIPER, 
 
 PATERNOSTER-ROW; 
 
 SOLD ALSO BY J. WACEY, OLD BROAD-STREET J AND DULAU AND CO., 
 SOHO-SQUARE. 
 
 1841. 
 
 
Lately Published, price 4s., 
 
 A KEY to the EXERCISES on the ETYMOLOGY and SYNTAX 
 of the SPANISH LANGUAGE, adapted to this GRAMMAR. 
 
 London : Printed by WILLIAM CLOWES and SONS, Stamford Street. 
 
AfZ- 
 
 TO HIS EXCELLENCY j <? a ( 
 
 SIR RALPH JAMES WOODFORD, BART, 
 
 GOVERNOR OP THE ISLAND OF TRINIDAD, 
 ETC. ETC. ETC. 
 
 SIR, 
 
 GRATITUDE being sometimes allowed to occupy 
 that situation in literary productions, which is, not 
 seldom, usurped by adulation, I am encouraged to hope 
 I may, without censure, gratify my feelings by prefixing 
 your name to a work which introduced me to the honour 
 of your friendly regqrd. 
 
 The liberal approbation which you were pleased to 
 bestow on the first edition of these pages, and the favour- 
 able manner in which they have been received by the 
 public, naturally incline me to consider^ them not alto- 
 gether unworthy of being thus offered as a small testimony 
 of my grateful sense of your numerous civilities and kind 
 attentions. 
 
 But great as is the honour which I confer on myself, 
 by presuming to inscribe this humble volume to so 
 respectable a name, permit me to assure you, that it is 
 at least equalled by the deference and sincerity with 
 which I have the pleasure of declaring myself, 
 
 Sir, 
 Your Excellency's faithful 
 
 and obliged Servant, 
 LUIS JOSEF ANTONIO M c HENRY 
 
 L>I*DGW. 
 
 A 2 
 OOQ 
 
JUST PUBLISHED. 
 
 EXERCISES on the ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX 
 
 IDIOMS, and SYNONYMS of the SPANISH LANGUAGE, 
 adapted to any Spanish Grammar, but more especially to that of the 
 Author. 4s. bound. 
 
 * Mr. M^Henry is advantageously known to the public as author of one of 
 the most complete, and unquestionably the most modern, Spanish grammars 
 extant ; and the present small but instructive volume is admirably adapted to 
 the Grammar, and cannot fail of being peculiarly useful to those persons who 
 direct their inquiries to the accurate distinction of words apparently, but not 
 really synonymous." Literary Panorama, March 1814. 
 
 " The author has produced unquestionably the best book of Spanish Exercises 
 which has hitherto been published ; and his addition of the Synonyms is a very 
 valuable and very necessary appendage." Gent. Mag. Sup. 1814. 
 
 ** This is an accompaniment to a Spanish Grammar by the same author, and 
 does credit to his methodizing powers. The exercises are well chosen, and the 
 grammatical rules both accurate and clear. We can recommend it to any one 
 who is desirous of attaining with ease an acquaintance with the idioms and 
 syntax of the Spanish language." British Critic. 
 
 ** In our 17th Volume we noticed Mr. M c Henry's Grammar of the Spanish 
 Language, and we cannot give a better character of the present work than to 
 say, that it is excellently adapted to accompany the former one in facilitating 
 the acquisition of the Spanish Language." Universal Magazine^ March 1814. 
 
 SYNONYMS of the SPANISH LANGUAGE 
 
 explained, and elucidated by copious Extracts from the most approved 
 SPANISH POETS. Intended as an Appendix to English-Spanish 
 Dictionaries. 12mo. 5*. 6d. boards, or 8vo., 7*. 6d, boards. 
 
 " The author of this work gives proof of much ability, many fine distinctions 
 are here pointed out, and the examples are so tastefully selected, from excellent 
 authors, that the book forms a very pleasant medley of Spanish Literature." 
 Literary Gazette, Oct. 1826. 
 
 " The perspicuous brevity and talent apparent in the Grammar and Exercises 
 of the author are not forg'otten in this work, nor is the more abstruse part of 
 the treatise deficient in interest. The various Synonyms are alphabetically 
 arranged, their meaning clearly made known, and the distinctness of each 
 pleasingly developed." Literary Chronicle, Oct. 1826. 
 
 " To facilitate the attainment of a critical as well as grammatical know- 
 ledge of the Spanish language is the object of the present work, and whoever 
 knows the difficulty of accurately distinguishing the various shades of difference 
 which prevail in words, which, by common minds, are often esteemed as entirely 
 and perfectly synonymous, will, we are persuaded, accept Mr. M c Henry's vrork 
 as a valuable aid in this department of learning. The high character gained 
 by his former works cannot be injured by that, which the value and merit of 
 the present volume must confer on him. Ladies' Museum, Oct. 1826. 
 
 "This is a most useful little work not only to beginners, but to those who have 
 made the Spanish language for some time their study, and deem themselves its 
 masters. No student of the Spanish language should be without this work." 
 New Monthly Magazine, Dec. 1826. 
 
 11 Mr. M c Henry appears to be fully compstent to the task which he has here 
 undertaken. The student will not only learn from his book how to distinguish 
 between expressions, which are translated into nearly the same words in Eng- 
 lish ; but he will also gain from it an acquaintance with many well-chosen spe- 
 cimens of the best poetry which the Peninsula has produced.** Monthly Review, 
 Dec. 1826. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IN introducing the present work to the notice of the 
 public, some reasons will naturally be expected for the 
 appearance of another Spanish Grammar, especially at 
 a time when the number has recently been so much 
 augmented by new editions as well as fresh productions. 
 
 It has been a matter of frequent complaint, that there 
 is no English-Spanish Grammar capable of affording the 
 necessary assistance to those persons who are obliged 
 to be their own instructors ; for although several of the 
 Grammars in circulation possess great merit, yet most 
 of them are written under the disadvantages which 
 inevitably arise from an author's attempting to explain 
 in a language with which he is but very imperfectly 
 acquainted. 
 
 The present work, therefore, is respectfully submitted 
 to the candid notice of the public, with the humble hope, 
 that it will be found less exceptionable in several parti- 
 culars than some of its predecessors ; its author being 
 a native of Spain, in which country he had the advantage 
 of a liberal education, and having, by a residence of 
 several years in England, acquired a considerable know- 
 ledge of the pronunciation, genius, idiom, and general 
 structure of the English language. 
 
 Anxious as the author has been to render this Gram- 
 mar peculiarly useful to those persons who cannot con- 
 veniently have access to a master, he has devoted par- 
 ticular attention to the subject of pronunciation. Not 
 contenting himself with minutely describing and eluci- 
 dating the different powers of the letters, he has also 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 exemplified, by a reference to English words, not only 
 the simple sounds which they represent, but almost every 
 variety of sound resulting from position and combina- 
 tion ; a novelty which, he would hope, may prove of 
 very considerable utility to all classes of learners. 
 
 The total ignorance of the common principles of lan- 
 guage, and even of the import of the usual grammatical 
 terms, manifested by many persons desirous of acquiring 
 a grammatical knowledge of the Spanish language, has 
 induced the writer to attempt to remedy the evil, as 
 concisely, and with as little of deterring or repulsive 
 parade and formality, as was possible, in his elementary 
 introduction to the language. This circumstance, how- 
 ever, has compelled him by developing several of the 
 properties or accidents of words, as they result from 
 mutual relation and connexion, rather than according to 
 a dry, mechanical analogy, to imitate the example of some 
 modern grammarians of deserved repute, and occasion- 
 ally to intermix, among the rules of Syntax, remarks and 
 observations, which, he is fully aware, belong, in strict 
 propriety, to the province of Etymology. But this devi- 
 ation from the more common mode of arrangement, he 
 trusts will be compensated on the score of utility or ex- 
 pediency, by a diminution of the interruptions usually 
 occasioned by tedious preliminary definitions and 
 explanations. 
 
 The author has attempted to introduce some clearness 
 and simplicity in the declension of nouns, and the conju- 
 gation of irregular verbs ; he has paid considerable 
 attention to an elucidation of the respective imports and 
 uses of the Spanish substantive verbs ser and estar , 
 and has endeavoured to remove some of the obscurity in 
 which the nature and use of the Spanish subjunctive 
 mood, especially in its imperfect tense, have hitherto 
 
PREFACE. til 
 
 been more or less involved. But these and similar par- 
 ticulars are not, perhaps, sufficiently important to be 
 entitled to special enumeration. 
 
 Throughout the whole work it has been the author's 
 particular aim to lay down the rules of Spanish Grammar 
 as concisely as possible ; and he trusts that they will, at 
 the same time, be found to be stated by him with not less 
 precision and perspicuity than they have generally been 
 in works of a similar description. The prejudicial 
 and perplexing practice adopted by some writers, 
 apparently to diminish the number of their rules, of 
 blending into one, two or more in their nature perfectly 
 distinct from each other, he has been so careful to avoid, 
 that he is not without some apprehension of having fall en 
 into the other extreme ; a circumstance, however, which 
 he presumes will be found far less injurious to the 
 learner's clear conception of the various shades and 
 modifications of one general principle. 
 
 The Appendix to the Grammar contains a brief expla- 
 nation of the principles of Spanish Prosody, and of the 
 rules, nature, and different kinds of Spanish Verse : 
 Dialogues with numerical references to the Rules in thj& 
 Grammar ; a few specimens of Letters and other Com- 
 mercial Documents ; and a summary account of the 
 more common analogies by which several classes of 
 Spanish words are regulated in their derivation from the 
 Latin ; with a short abstract exhibiting the intimate 
 relationship and resemblance subsisting between the 
 Latin and the Spanish, as well as several other modern 
 languages. 
 
 However great, the respect of the author for the 
 Spanish Academy may be, yet conscious that a strict 
 adherence to the system of that enlightened body would 
 have proved inimical to the peculiar purpose of this 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 Grammar, tie has occasionally ventured on a few incon- 
 siderable deviations from their decisions ; which it is 
 presumed will not be ascribed to any other motive than 
 a wish to add to that simplicity and facility in self-in- 
 struction, which it has been his particular aim uniformly 
 to promote. 
 
 In a word, a perusal of the table of contents will, it is 
 hoped, evince that the author has some little claim on 
 the notice of the public. He trusts that the inaccuracies 
 or misconceptions of a foreigner will be treated with 
 some degree of lenity ; and that, as he has exerted his 
 best efforts to elucidate the principles and rules of the 
 language, not, he would hope, without some success, 
 his failures will not excite illiberal animadversion, but 
 that the sincerity of the will may in some respects tend 
 to compensate for occasional blemishes in the deed. 
 
 The rapid sale of the former editions of this Grammar 
 affords evidence highly gratifying to the author, that his 
 humble endeavours have received a liberal portion of the 
 public approbation. For such encouragement, and par- 
 ticularly for the flattering reception with which the work 
 has been favoured by our most enlightened critics, he 
 feels duly grateful ; and begs leave to assure the public, 
 that no pains have been spared to render the present 
 edition as correct as possible, and still more worthy of 
 an extended patronage. 
 
 LONDON. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Page. 
 
 CHARACTERS of the Spanish alphabet, with their names 1 
 
 Of the different sounds of the letters 3 
 
 Power of the Spanish consonants in their various combinations 
 with the vowels, exemplified by similar sounds in English 
 
 words - 7 
 
 Of monosyllables, polysyllables, and diphthongs 10 
 
 Of the sound of final consonants 12 
 
 Modern orthography ... ib. 
 
 Remarks on spelling 13 
 
 A list of words which resemble in sound but differ in spelling. . ib. 
 
 Observations on syllabification 14 
 
 On some of the marks used in punctuation, with rules for the 
 
 position of the accent 15 
 
 A list of the common abbreviations 18 
 
 PROSODY 23 
 
 Observations on the acute or emphatic syllable in verbs 25 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Of the Noun 28 
 
 Of augmentative and diminutive nouns 29 
 
 Of collective nouns 30 
 
 Of gender, number, and case ib. 
 
 Observations on the impropriety of allotting more than 
 
 two cases to Spanish nouns 32 
 
 Of the Article 33 
 
X CONSENTS. 
 
 Pat?r. 
 
 Of the Adjective 34 
 
 Of comparatives and superlatives 36 
 
 Of cardinal numbers 37 
 
 Of ordinal numbers 38 
 
 Of Pronouns 40 
 
 Observation on possessive and demonstrative pronominal 
 
 adjectives 42 
 
 Of the Verb 43 
 
 Of number, person, tense, and mood 45 
 
 Of conjugations 47 
 
 Conjugation of the auxiliaries and regular verbs, with the 
 emphatic syllable of each person accented, pointing out 
 at the same time when the accent is to be written or 
 
 not 48 
 
 Of verbs used interrogatively and negatively 73 
 
 Of Participles ib. 
 
 Of Adverbs 74 
 
 Of Prepositions 78 
 
 Of Conjunctions 77 
 
 Of Interjection* 78 
 
 SYNTAX . 80 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Agreement of the Article 83 
 
 Rules to form the plural of nouns *b. 
 
 List of nouns which do not augment in the plural 8* 
 
 List of nouns wanting the singular ib. 
 
 Rules for ascertaining the gender of nouns 85 
 
 List of exceptions 86 
 
 Application of the article 92 
 
 Syntax of nouns 95 
 
 Rules to form the feminine termination of adjectives 96 
 
 Rules to form the plural of adjectives 97 
 
 Place of adjectives ib. 
 
 Agreement of adjectives ib. 
 
 Observation on the manner in which adjectives agree sometimes 
 
 with a noun plural 99 
 
 Adjectives which become defective before their nouns t'6. 
 
CONTENTS. XJ 
 
 Page. 
 
 Observations on the use of the numeral adjective uno as a sub- 
 stitute for the English indefinite article 100 
 
 Syntax of comparatives and superlatives. 102 
 
 Government of adjectives 105 
 
 Syntax of personal pronouns Ill 
 
 Syntax of possessive pronouns 116 
 
 Observations on the cases wherein the definite article is used 
 
 instead of the possessive pronoun 118 
 
 Syntax of relative pronouns 120 
 
 Syntax of interrogative pronouns 124 
 
 Syntax of demonstrative pronouns 125 
 
 Observation on the different import of esse and aquel to express 
 
 the demonstrative pronoun that in English 126 
 
 Syntax of indefinite pronouns ] 28 
 
 Of the manner of addressing persons in Spanish 133 
 
 Of the different import of the verbs ser and estar 135 
 
 Of the difference between haber and tener 140 
 
 Observation on the peculiar manner of construing to be by tener 141 
 
 A view of the inflections of the regular verbs 142 
 
 Observations on such of the regular verbs as require a change in 
 
 the root 144 
 
 Of the formation of the passive voice 145 
 
 Of the three classes into which irregular verbs are divided ib. 
 
 Paradigms of the irregular verbs 147 
 
 An alphabetical list of all the irregular verbs numbered according 
 
 to the paradigm to which they refer 177 
 
 An alphabetical list of verbs having an irregular participle.. . . . 186 
 
 View of the conjugation of impersonal verbs 188 
 
 Observation on such of the personal verbs as are sometimes con- 
 jugated impersonally 1 93 
 
 Of defective verbs 194 
 
 Of the use of the tenses of the indicative 195 
 
 subjunctive 204 
 
 Observations on the imperfect and pluperfect of the subjunctive 207 
 On the different import of the preterimperfect and the imperfect 
 
 future of the subjunctive in denoting a future action 212 
 
 Of the use of the tenses of the infinitive 214 
 
 Agreement of verbs 215 
 
 Government of verbs 217 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 Observation on the necessity of placing the preposition a before 
 
 the objective case of a verb 218 
 
 Of verbal regimen 231 
 
 Observation on the different import of joor and para before a verb 
 
 governed in the infinitive 234 
 
 Directions for placing the verbal regimen in the subjunctive . . . 238 
 
 Syntax of the gerund 23? 
 
 Of the participle 241 
 
 A list of passive participles having likewise an active signification 242 
 
 Syntax of adverbs 243 
 
 Observation on jamas, nunca, no, and muy 244 
 
 A list of prepositions which are always used in conjunction with 
 
 other prepositions 245 
 
 A list of English prepositions with a corresponding one in Spanish 247 
 
 Syntax of prepositions 250 
 
 conjunctions 251 
 
 interjections 254 
 
 Of the figures of Syntax 255 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A practical vocabulary 258 
 
 Familiar dialogues 270 
 
 Commercial documents 295 
 
 Of Spanish versification 309 
 
 On derivation - 316 
 

 PART THE FIRST: 
 
 AN 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 SPANISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and 
 of writing the Spanish Language according to cer- 
 tain established rules. It is divided into ORTHO- 
 GRAPHY, PROSODY,* ETYMOLOGY, and SYNTAX. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY treats on letters, and shows their 
 sound, power, and proper combination, in order to 
 form syllables or words. 
 
 A letter is the least division of a word. 
 
 The Spanish alphabet is composed of the follow- 
 ing characters : 
 
 A, B, C, CH, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, LL, 
 M, N, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y,Z. 
 
 * This is generally reckoned the fourth division of grammar ; but 
 as what will be observed concerning it will materially assist begin- 
 ners, it has been thought expedient to introduce it before Etymology. 
 B 
 
^ ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 
 
 Vowels are those letters which contain a perfect 
 seund in themselves. 
 
 Consonants are those letters whose sound cannot 
 be uttered without the assistance of the vowels. 
 
 The Spanish vowels are A, E, I, O, U ; and the 
 rest are consonants.* 
 
 Consonants are divided into Mutes and Semi- 
 vowels. 
 
 The Mutes are those the sound of which begins 
 with themselves, that is to say, when their sound 
 is exhibited in writing, the vowel is placed last. 
 They are B, C, CH, D, G, J, K, P, Q, T, V, Z. 
 See names of the letters. 
 
 The Semivowels are those consonants, whose 
 sound begins with the vowel ; or, in other words, 
 those letters, the sound of which cannot be shown 
 in writing without placing the vowel before. They 
 are F, H, L, LL, M, N, N, R, S, X. See names 
 of the letters. 
 
 A Key to sound the Names of the Letters 
 art, acre, even, idiom, obey, oozy, c'Aarm, /jam, 
 
 Characters. 
 
 Names. Characters. 
 
 Names. 
 
 A, 
 
 a. 
 
 I, 
 
 e. 
 
 B, 
 
 ba. 
 
 j, 
 
 hota. 
 
 c, 
 
 thd. 
 
 K, 
 
 ka. 
 
 CH, 
 
 chd. 
 
 L, 
 
 ala. 
 
 D, 
 
 da. 
 
 LL, 
 
 alh'a. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 M, 
 
 ama. 
 
 F,' 
 
 a fa. 
 
 N> 
 
 ana. 
 
 G, 
 
 ha. 
 
 N, 
 
 annid. 
 
 H, 
 
 acha. 
 
 o, 
 
 o. 
 
 * The letter Y is sometimes a vowel and at others a consonant. 
 In general it is a vowel when it follows another vowel, and a con- 
 sonant when it precedes it. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 3 
 
 Characters. Names. Characters. Names. 
 
 P, pa. 
 
 Q, koo. 
 
 R, aid or arra. 
 
 S, assa. 
 
 T, ta. 
 
 U, oo. 
 
 V, va. 
 
 X, ak^s. 
 
 Y, 
 
 Z, thdta. 
 
 Explanation of the Key. 
 
 The Italic characters of the key comprise the 
 sound of the vowels, as well as the power of the con- 
 sonants, which are employed to utter the names of 
 the Spanish letters ; therefore, by a correct reference 
 to the key, the letters may be easily named. Ex- 
 ample : suppose the name of h is required ; by com- 
 paring the letters acAa,descriptive of its name, with 
 the same letters in the key, it will be found that the 
 first a sounds as in art, that ch has the same power 
 as in the word charm, and that the last a has the 
 sound which is heard in acre. Again, by comparing 
 hota, the name of /, in the same manner, it will be 
 perceived that the h is aspirated as in ham, the o 
 long as in obey, and the last a as heard in art. 
 Those consonants which are not in Italics in the 
 column of names are to be sounded as in English. 
 
 On the Sound of the Letters. 
 
 A. 
 
 A, as before observed, sounds as in the word art ; 
 as ama, nata. 
 
 B. 
 
 B always preserves the same sound that it has 
 in English ; as bata, bala. In sounding this letter 
 the Spaniards do not press the lips hard, but only 
 join them close : see also V. 
 
 C. 
 
 C (1.) sounds as k where it does so in English; 
 as> cabo, cola, cutis, clara, craso. 
 
 (2.) When in English it has the sound of s, it 
 sounds in Spanish like thin thanks; ascebo,cinco. 
 
4 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 CH. 
 
 CH has the sound which it has in English in the 
 words charity, cherub, chilly, choke ; as chalan, 
 cherna, china, choque. See Modern Orthography, 
 page 12. 
 
 D preserves the same unvaried sound which it 
 has in English ; as dado, dedico. 
 
 E. 
 
 E, as has been mentioned, has the sound of a 
 in acre ; as edecan, elemento. 
 
 F. 
 
 F keeps the same sound as in English ; as far do, 
 forma. 
 
 G. 
 
 G (1.) before a, o, u, or a consonant, has the 
 same sound as in gap, gone, grace, &c. in Eng- 
 lish ; as gana, gota, grado. 
 
 (2.) Before e, i, y, it sounds like the English h 
 when aspirated ; asgente, giro. N.B. G is silent in 
 the words gnomonica audgnomonico. See letter U. 
 
 H. 
 
 H is never heard except when it precedes the 
 diphthong ue, and sometimes when placed between 
 two vowels : in the first instance its sound resem- 
 bles the hard sound of the English g, and in the 
 second that of p-n English h aspirated ; but in both 
 cases the aspiration is exceedingly weak. 
 
 I. 
 
 / was noticed in the alphabet as sounding like 
 the e in even ; as ida, indivisible. 
 
 J. 
 
 J always sounds like an aspirated h in English ; 
 as jamon, jar din. 
 
 K. 
 
 K always sounds as it does in English. See 
 Modern Orthography, page 12. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 5 
 
 L. 
 
 L always retains the English sound ; as lomo, libro. 
 
 LL. 
 
 LL is sounded by placing the tip of the tongue to 
 the palate, and dropping the tongue whilst emitting 
 the breath. No sound, in English, resembles it 
 exactly ; a slight resemblance of its sound may be 
 heard in the word million ; but the French // in the 
 wordjille, the gl of the Italians, and the Ifi of the Por- 
 tuguese, are the best examples which can be given of 
 the sound of this letter -, as llama, lleno, lloro, lluvia. 
 
 M. 
 
 M has always the same unvaried sound which it 
 has in English ; as madre, medio. 
 
 N. 
 
 N retains always the sound which it has in Eng- 
 lish in the word net or ten ; as nada, don. 
 
 N. 
 
 N has a peculiar nasal sound, like the French 
 gn : the English have no sound like it, except in 
 the last four letters of the word minion, which bear 
 some resemblance to the last three of the word 
 rinon in Spanish : as nino, pina. 
 O. 
 
 O preserves always the sound which it has in 
 obey ; as oda, olor. 
 
 P. 
 
 P sounds always as it does in English ; as pan, 
 pino. N. B. It is silent before n, s, or t ; and when 
 followed by h it has the sound of/. See Modern 
 Orthography, page 12. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Q, which is uniformly followed by u, always 
 sounds as in English ; as quatro, quota. See 
 Modern Orthography, page 12. 
 R. 
 
 R has a rough sound, as in Rome, rage : ex- 
 ample, Eoma, rabia ; and a smooth sound, as in 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Arabia, cart : example, arado, carta. Double r 
 has always the same sound as in English ; asperro. 
 R has a rough sound only in the following in- 
 stances : 
 
 1. At the beginning of a word; as Roma, 
 rabia. 
 
 2. After /, n, s: as malrotar, honra, desreglado. 
 
 3. After b, in words composed of the preposi- 
 tions ab, ob, sub : as abrogar, obrepcion, subrep- 
 tion ; but if ab, ob, or sub, be not prepositions, the 
 r becomes liquid, as abrazo, obra, &c. 
 
 4. In the second part of words composed either 
 of two nouns, or with the prepositions pre or pro : 
 as maniroto, cariredondo, prerogativa, prorogar. 
 Sometimes these words are divided by a hyphea : 
 as mani-roto, cari-redondo, &c. 
 
 S. 
 S sounds like ss in English ; as sola, dos. 
 
 T. 
 
 T always retains the sound it has in English in 
 the words take, ten, &c. ; as taba, tema. 
 
 U. 
 
 U sounds like the English oo in oozy ; as miido, 
 uncion. It is silent in the syllables gue, gui, que, 
 qui, unless it is dotted thus u. [See Modern Or- 
 thography, page 12.] Observe, that although in 
 the syllables gue, gui, the u is silent, theg" retains 
 the hard sound it has in guess and guilt; as 
 guerra, guia, and aguero, argiiir. 
 
 V has the uniform sound heard in English in 
 the word vain ; as vano, vivo. In pronouncing 
 this letter the Spaniards join the lower lip to the 
 upper teeth as the English do ; but the pressure 
 is very slight ; hence arises the erroneous opinion, 
 that the Spaniards pronounce b and v alike, be- 
 cause as the pressure in both instances is but 
 slight, the distinction which exists between the 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. / 
 
 two sounds cannot be easily perceived. See 
 Modern Orthography, page 12. 
 
 X. 
 
 X (1 .) It has the guttural sound of an English h 
 aspirated, when the following vowel is not marked 
 with the circumflex accent ; as xabon, xergon. 
 
 (2.) It is sounded as in exit, exercise, experience, 
 whenever it precedes a consonant, or a vowel 
 marked with the circumflex accent ; as exdcto, ex- 
 presso. N.B. The circumflex is sometimes omitted 
 if the nature of the word require the acute accent, 
 in order to mark its pronunciation; as in hexdmetro, 
 exdmen, &c. See Modern Orthography, page 12. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Y 5 as a vowel, sounds like the English e in even. 
 As a consonant, it has, before all the vowels, a sound 
 rather stronger than that which it has in English 
 before the word year : example, yerro, yugo, &c. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Z always sounds like th in thanks, thick, &c. ; 
 as zalea, zona. 
 
 Power of the Consonants, in their various Com- 
 binations with the Vowels: exemplified by 
 nearly similar sounds, heard in English words. 
 
 ba sounds like pa as heard in barbarian. 
 
 be ba bacon. 
 
 bi bee beetle. 
 
 bo bo boreal, 
 
 bu boo booby. 
 
 ca ca calm, 
 
 ce tha thalia. 
 
 ci thie Peevish* 
 
 co co cocoa, 
 
 cu coo cooper, 
 
 cha cha charm. 
 
 che cha chasing. 
 
 chi chee cheese. 
 
8 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 cho sounds like cho as heard in choke. 
 
 chu choo choosing, 
 
 da da darling. 
 
 de da daring. 
 
 di dee deedless. 
 
 do 0*0 doleful, 
 
 du doo doom. 
 
 fa /a /ather. 
 
 fe /a /amous. 
 
 fi fee feeble. 
 
 fo /o /olio, 
 
 fu /oo foolery. 
 
 ga ga garb. 
 
 ge Aa Aating. 
 
 gi hee heedless, 
 
 go go going. 
 
 gu goo goose. 
 
 ja /i Aordy. 
 
 je A Aating. 
 
 ji hee Amiless, 
 
 jo ho holy. 
 
 j u hoo hooimg. 
 
 ka ca calm, 
 
 ke ca cadence, 
 
 ki kee keeper. 
 
 ko co cocoa. 
 
 ku coo cooper. 
 
 la /a /arder. 
 
 le / /ady. 
 
 li lee leering. 
 
 lo /o lotion. 
 
 lu /oo /oosen. 
 
 ma ma margin. 
 
 me wo making. 
 
 mi me meteor. 
 
 mo wio motive, 
 
 mu woo moony. 
 
 na na warcotic. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 ne sounds like 
 
 na as 
 
 heard in name. 
 
 ni 
 
 ne 
 
 negro. 
 
 no 
 
 no 
 
 noted. 
 
 nu 
 
 noo 
 
 noon. 
 
 pa 
 
 pa 
 
 party. 
 
 pe 
 
 pa 
 
 patience. 
 
 P* 
 
 pe 
 
 period. 
 
 po 
 
 po 
 
 poker. 
 
 pu 
 
 poo 
 
 pool. 
 
 qua 
 
 qua 
 
 jwalmish. 
 
 qiie 
 
 qua 
 
 quaver. 
 
 que 
 
 ca 
 
 cadence. 
 
 qiii 
 
 quee 
 
 queerly. 
 
 qui 
 
 kee 
 
 keeper. 
 
 quo 
 
 quo 
 
 quotation. 
 
 ra 
 
 ra 
 
 rasp. 
 
 re 
 
 ra 
 
 radiance. 
 
 ri 
 
 re 
 
 regent. 
 
 ro 
 
 ro 
 
 robe. 
 
 ru 
 
 roo 
 
 roomy. 
 
 sa 
 
 sa 
 
 sarcastic. 
 
 se 
 
 sa 
 
 sapient. 
 
 si 
 
 se 
 
 secret. 
 
 so 
 
 so 
 
 sober. 
 
 su 
 
 soo 
 
 soon. 
 
 ta 
 
 ta 
 
 tardy. 
 
 te 
 
 ta 
 
 taper. 
 
 ti 
 
 te 
 
 tedious. 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 toper. 
 
 tu 
 
 too 
 
 tooth. 
 
 va 
 
 va 
 
 varnish. 
 
 ve 
 
 va 
 
 vagrant. 
 
 vi 
 
 ve 
 
 vehement. 
 
 vo 
 
 vo 
 
 vote. 
 
 vu* sounds 
 
 voo; 
 
 the oo to be sounded as in pool. 
 
 xa sounds like 
 
 ha as heard in hardy. 
 
 xe 
 
 ha 
 
 hatred. 
 
 xi 
 
 hee 
 
 heedless. 
 
 
 
 B3 
 
10 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 xo sounds like ho as heard in holy. 
 
 xu hoo hooting. 
 
 x xa .examination, 
 
 xe* xe exemption, 
 
 xi xi e^guous. 
 
 x6 xo exonerate, 
 
 xu* sounds xoo; the 00 to be sounded as in /?oo 
 
 za* tha; the a to be sounded as in art. 
 
 ze sounds like tha as heard in thaliz. 
 
 11 t/iie thievish. 
 zo tho thorax. 
 
 zu* sounds thoo ; the 00 to sound as in pool. 
 
 Sounds marked thus (*) are not heard in any 
 English word. 
 
 N. B. For the different pronunciation ofgue and 
 gue, or of gui and gui ; and also for that of the 
 sounds formed with the consonants II, n, and y ; I 
 refer the learner to the Observations which have 
 been already made concerning these Letters. 
 
 On Monosyllables y Polysyllables, Diphthongs, &c. 
 
 Words are often named according to the number 
 of syllables f which they contain : thus, a word of 
 one syllable is called a monosyllable ; of two sylla- 
 bles, a dissyllable ; of three syllables, a trisyllable ; 
 and a word containing more than three syllables is 
 named a polysyllable, which last expression is ge- 
 nerally used also to describe any word of more 
 than two syllables. 
 
 If two vowels come together in the same syllable, 
 they are called a diphthong; andif the combination 
 consists of three vowels, it is termed a triphthong. 
 The following are the diphthongs and triphthongs 
 which the Spanish Academy have decided shall be 
 so called. 
 
 f A syllable is a complete sound, sometimes represented with only 
 one vowel ; but generally consisting of more than oue letter. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 
 
 Diphthongs. 
 
 ai, as in dab/s, ye gave. 
 
 a y^ bayle, (a) dance. 
 
 ait, pemsa, (a) pause. 
 
 ei, vets, ye see. 
 
 ey, peyne, (a) comb. 
 
 ea, linea, (a) line, 
 
 eo y virgineo, virginal. 
 
 eu, detcda, debt. 
 
 ia, gracia, grace. 
 
 ie, cie\Oy heaven. 
 
 io, precs'o, price. 
 
 iu 9 cmdad, city. 
 
 oe, heroe, hero. 
 
 02, sois, ye are. 
 
 oy, \oy, I go. 
 
 wa, fragwa, (a) forge. 
 
 ue 9 dueiio, owner. 
 ui y ruido, noise. 
 
 uy, bwytre, vulture. 
 
 uo, rduo, arduous. 
 
 Triphthongs. 
 
 iai, as in preceaxs, ye value. 
 m, vactexs, ye may empty. 
 
 uai, santigwais, ye bless. 
 
 uei, averigwezs, ye may investigate. 
 
 buey, ox. 
 
 Diphthongs have been also divided into proper 
 and improper ; calling the first those combinations 
 wherein the sound of each vowel is distinctly heard ; 
 and applying the second term to the combinations 
 in which the two vowels form one sound only be- 
 tween them, or wherein one of the vowels is not at 
 all heard. In Spanish we have no improper diph- 
 thongs, unless we rank under that name the ue 
 
12 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 and id in those instances wherein the u is silent 
 after g or q. See letter U. 
 
 In regard to diphthongs it must be further ob- 
 served, that whenever one of the vowels is accented., 
 there is no diphthong , because each vowel belongs 
 then to a separate syllable, and therefore must be 
 divided and pronounced accordingly ; as lei, brio, 
 varia, efectua, temib, &c. that is, le-i, bri-o, va- 
 ri-a, &c. 
 
 Of the Sound of final Consonants. 
 
 The only consonants which can terminate a 
 Spanish word are d, /, n, r, s, #, z, they are all 
 sounded at the end of words ; but d y r, and x must 
 be particularly noticed. 
 
 d final has the sound of th in the word than. 
 
 r at the end of words has the smooth sound. 
 
 x sounds like ss in English. 
 
 Modern Orthography. 
 
 The Spanish Academy have in a late Treatise 
 introduced the following alterations : 
 
 C: seeQ. 
 
 CH has no longer the power of K, its place being 
 supplied by qu before e or i; and by c before a, o, u, 
 or a consonant; as cardcter, coro, Cristiano, queru- 
 bin, quilo, character, choir,Christian, cherub, chyle. 
 It is still preserved in some few names derived 
 from the Hebrew; but they may be always known, 
 because the vowel following the ch is uniformly 
 marked with the circumflex accent. 
 
 K is dismissed from the alphabet, but its use is 
 allowed in the spelling of proper names. 
 
 P is never to be followed by h, an/being substi- 
 tuted ; asfalange, f armada, phalanx, pharmacy. 
 
 Q. Only the syllables que,qui,&ve to be spelt with 
 q; as quemo, quicio: qua, que, qtii, quo, are to be 
 written with c ; as cual, cuatro, cuestion, cuota. 
 
 X. The gutturalsound of thisletter is discontinued, 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 13 
 
 its place being supplied byj before a, o, u, and ge- 
 nerally by g before e or i ; as jabon^ gebeque, gi- 
 cara, forgolin, jugo. When ^precedes a consonant, 
 its place may be supplied by 5 ; as estrcmo, estrano, 
 estrangero. N.B.The vowel following #is no longer 
 to be marked with the circumflex accent. 
 
 V. The striking distinction which ought to be 
 observed betwixt this letter and B, and which has 
 been so long neglected, is strongly inculcated in 
 pages 24 and 51 of the said Treatise. 
 
 Remarks on Spelling. 
 
 Words are to be written as they are pronounced. 
 
 Every letter in a word is to be sounded; u, how- 
 ever, is sometimes, and A, generally, silent. 
 
 When pronunciation is insufficient to fix the 
 spelling, regard must be had to Etymology ; as 
 ge'nero, generation, gimndstico y Jesuita, zelo, zi- 
 zafia, ceniza, ciego. 
 
 When the Etymology is uncertain, J is to be 
 preferred to G, and C to Z. 
 A List of Words which resemble in Sound but 
 differ in Spelling. 
 
 Accrbo, 
 
 harsh 
 
 Hala! 
 
 hallo ! 
 
 Acervo, 
 
 a heap 
 
 Ala, 
 
 awing 
 
 A hi, 
 
 there 
 
 Halon, 
 
 a halo 
 
 Ay! 
 
 alas ! 
 
 A Ion 9 
 
 a pinion 
 
 Hay, 
 
 there is 
 
 Hasta, 
 
 until 
 
 Corbela, 
 
 a sloop 
 
 Asia, 
 
 a haft 
 
 Corveta, 
 
 a curvet 
 
 Hatajo, 
 
 a herd 
 
 Deshojar, to 
 
 deprive of leaves 
 
 Atajoy 
 
 a cross-path 
 
 Desojar, to deprive of eyes 
 
 Haya y 
 
 a beech-tree 
 
 Envestir, 
 
 to invest 
 
 Aya, 
 
 a governess 
 
 Embestir, 
 
 to attack 
 
 He, 
 
 I have 
 
 Envestidura, 
 
 an investment 
 
 E, 
 
 and 
 
 Embestidura 
 
 , an attack 
 
 Herrar, 
 
 to shoe horses 
 
 Grabar, 
 
 to engrave 
 
 Errar, 
 
 to err 
 
 Gravar, 
 
 lo oppress 
 
 Hetica, 
 
 a phthisis 
 
 Ha, 
 
 he has 
 
 Etica, 
 
 ethics 
 
 A, 
 
 to 
 
 
 
14 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Hierro, 
 
 iron 
 
 Falon, 
 
 a Walloon 
 
 Ycrro, 
 
 error 
 
 Ralon, 
 
 a large bale 
 
 Hita, 
 
 a brad-nail 
 
 Vaqueta, 
 
 sole leather 
 
 Ita, 
 
 eta 
 
 Baqueta, 
 
 a ram-rod 
 
 Hojear, to turn over the 
 
 Varon, a 
 
 male human be- 
 
 
 leaves of a book 
 
 
 ing 
 
 Ojjear, 
 
 to glance at 
 
 Baron, 
 
 a baron 
 
 Ogear, 
 
 to start game 
 
 Varonia, 
 
 descent by male 
 
 Hola ! 
 
 hallo ! 
 
 
 issue 
 
 Ola, 
 
 a wave 
 
 Baronia, 
 
 a barony 
 
 Hondas, 
 
 slings 
 
 Vasto, 
 
 extensive 
 
 Ondas, 
 
 billows 
 
 Basto, 
 
 coarse 
 
 Huso, 
 
 a spindle 
 
 Vendicion 
 
 , a sale 
 
 Uso, 
 
 usage 
 
 Bendicion 
 
 , a blessing 
 
 Rcbelarse, 
 
 to rebel 
 
 Veneficar, 
 
 to envenom 
 
 Revelarse, 
 
 to reveal 
 
 Bcjieficar, 
 
 to benefit 
 
 Ribera, 
 
 a shore 
 
 Venefico, 
 
 venomous 
 
 Rivera, 
 
 a rivulet 
 
 Benefico, 
 
 beneficent 
 
 Sujeto, 
 
 subjected 
 
 Veta, 
 
 a mineral vein 
 
 Sugeto, 
 
 a person 
 
 Beta, 
 
 a rope's-end 
 
 Valar, 
 
 t*> hedge round 
 
 Volada, 
 
 the flight of birds 
 
 Balar, 
 
 to bleat 
 
 Bolada, the act of bowling 
 
 Observations on the manner in which Words that 
 cannot be contained in one line are to be divided. 
 
 Compound words are to be divided into their 
 two component parts : as ab-negacion, con-cavi- 
 dad, pre-dmbulo, mal-rotar. 
 
 When the second component part of a word be- 
 gins with s followed by another consonant, the s be- 
 longs to the first part; as cons-truir, ins-pirar, 
 pers-picaz. 
 
 Two vowels coming together must be parted ; 
 as Sa-avedra, le-er, pi-isimo, co-operar. 
 
 A consonant coming between two vowels be- 
 longs to the vowel by which it is followed ; as 
 a-mor, pe~na, le-chefga-llo*Jlu-xion. 
 
 * Ch and // are deemed only single consonants 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 
 
 Two consonants coming between two voweis 
 are divided : as al-zar, cas-tor, mdr-tir. 
 
 But should the first consonant be the semivowel 
 /, or any of the mutes, and the second I or r, both 
 the consonants are then joined to the vowel by 
 which they are followed : as azu-fre, ta-bla, co-bre, 
 la-cre, an-drajo. Except at-leta, and at-lante. 
 
 When 5 is preceded by Z>, /, m, n, or r, and fol- 
 lowed by another consonant at the same time, 5 
 must be joined to the consonant by which it is pre- 
 ceded : as Ams-terdam. 
 
 Four consonants coming between two vowels are 
 equally divided between them : as trans-cribir. 
 
 Of some of the Marks used in Punctuation. 
 Note of interrogation (?). 
 
 This mark is not only used at the conclusion of 
 an interrogatory; but also placed, inverted, at the 
 beginning, in order to warn the reader, unless the 
 preceding words convey a sufficient warning ; as 
 &Qu6 es lo que vm. acostumbra comer ? pregunto 
 al enfermo. Gil Bias, b. ii. c. 2. 
 
 Ahora bien me pregunto friamente el chalan, 
 quanto pide vm. por su mula ? Ibid, b, i. c. 1. 
 
 Note of admiration (!). 
 
 This note is also inverted at the beginning of 
 ejaculations, when the preceding words are not 
 sufficient to prepare the reader : as, Mirandome 
 con ternura exclamaba, O qu gracioso eres y que 
 Undo ! (Ibid. b. i. c. 5.) j Pastas dulces y viandas 
 suculentas ! exclamo suspenso y admirado el 
 doctor. Ibid. b. ii. c. 2. 
 
 Diaeresis (). 
 This is used only over the u of ue and ui, when 
 
16 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 the u is to be sounded, after g or q : as arguir, 
 question. 
 
 Circumflex ( A ). 
 
 The only use made of this mark is to denote 
 the soft sound of x 9 and the harsh sound of ch, by 
 placing it over the following vowel ; as fluxion, 
 cxdctitud^ Melchisedech. 
 
 The Accent ('). 
 
 Accent, in orthography, is the mark which is set 
 over some letters to denote the manner of their pro- 
 nunciation. In Spanish it is commonly placed over 
 that vowel on which the stress is laid in pronouncing 
 a word, if it cannot be ascertained without it. 
 
 (1.) Monosyllables having only one signification 
 are never accented ; as cal, pan, coz, maL 
 
 (2.) Monosyllables having more than one sig- 
 nification should be accented when they are more 
 slowly pronounced : as mi, me ; mi, my ; tu, thou ; 
 tu, thy ; 61, he ; el, the, &c. 
 
 (3.) The vowels d, 6, 6, u, when used either as 
 prepositions or conjunctions, should always be ac- 
 cented : as voy d Londres, padre 6 hijo, cruel 6in- 
 grato. 
 
 (4.) Dissyllables and polysyllables ending in a 
 vowel, may be accented on any vowel (the penul- 
 tima excepted) whereon the stress is laid ; as can- 
 tico, espiritu, santisimo, Bercebu, alia. 
 
 (5.) But if to some person of a verb ending in 
 an accented vowel the case of a pronoun should 
 be added, the accent must be continued although 
 it fall on the penultima : as tend, temile, ensefio, 
 ensenola, miro, mirome. 
 
 (6.) Dissyllables ending in a diphthong are 
 never accented ; as indio, Julio, agua, gloria, 
 mutuo, frague. 
 
 All words which end in y must not be accented ; 
 as Paraguay, Rey, Comboy. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 
 
 (7.) Trisyllables and polysyllables ending in two 
 vowels must be accented on whichever of the two 
 vovrels the stress happens to be laid ; as alegria, 
 puntapitf, ganziia, continu : see No. 9. 
 
 Except the first and third persons singular of 
 the imperfect of the indicative, and of the sub- 
 junctive ending in ia, which are never accented ; 
 as temia, amaria, sufria } &c. 
 
 (8.) Trisyllables and polysyllables ending in any 
 of these diphthongs, ia 9 ie, io, ua, ue, MO, must be 
 accented on any vowel (the penultima excepted) 
 whereon the stress is laid. 
 
 (9.) Words ending in ae, ao, au, ea, eo, oa, oe 
 00, (not being diphthongs,) must not be accented ; 
 as pelea, Sarao, albacea : see Prosody, No. 7- 
 
 But should these two vowels form a diphthong, 
 the word must be accented on whatever vowel the 
 stress is laid ; as heroe, linea, eterea. 
 
 (10.) Words ending in a consonant may be ac- 
 cented on any of the vowels (except the last) 
 whereon the stress is laid ; as drbol, virgen, meta- 
 morfosis, alfercz. 
 
 Except the second person singular and third 
 plural of the future indicative, which are always 
 accented on the last vowel ; as amards, vendrdn, 
 and surnames ending in ez, which never are ac- 
 cented ; as Sanchez, Fernandez, Martinez. 
 
 (11.) Verbs or nouns which require to be ac- 
 cented in the singular generally retain the accent, 
 on the same syllable, in the plural ; as vendr 9 
 vendrtfmos, sali6 9 sali&ron, drbol, drboles. 
 
 Except caracter, which changes into caracteres 
 in the plural number. 
 
 (12.) If to an unaccented person of a verb, con- 
 sisting only of two syllables, we affix one or more 
 pronominal cases, the first vowel must be then ac - 
 cented ; as oye, oyeme, compra, compramelo ; but 
 if the person of the verb consist of more than two 
 
18 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 syllables, its penultima should be then accented ; 
 as entrega, entregalo, entrggaselo, comuniquemos, 
 comuniqudmoslo. 
 
 (13.) If an adverb ending in mente be formed 
 from an unaccented adjective, the adverb remains 
 unaccented; as feliz, felizmente, humilde, hu- 
 mildemente ; but should the adjective be accented, 
 the accent continues on the same vowel in the ad- 
 verb; as fdcil, fdcilmente, dificil, dificilmente, 
 inu til) inu tilinen te . 
 
 (14.) If a dissyllabic word ending in two vowels 
 be increased by the prefixing of a monosyllable, 
 the penultima is then generally accented ; as via, 
 desvia, lia, deslia. 
 
 The other marks used in punctuation are em- 
 ployed in the same manner as they are in English. 
 
 List of the Abbreviations used in Writing. 
 
 A. C. Ano Christiano Christian year 
 
 a 8 . arrobas 25 pounds weight 
 
 A. A. autores authors 
 Adm or . administrador administrator 
 Ag to . Agosto August 
 Am . amigo friend 
 Ant. Antonio Anthony 
 App co . apostolico apostolic 
 Art . articulo article 
 Arzbpo. arzobispo archbishop 
 
 B. beato blessed 
 b. vuelta turn over 
 
 B r . bachiller bachelor of arts 
 
 B. L. M. beso las manos kiss the hands 
 
 B. L. P. beso los pies kiss the feet 
 
 B mo . P e . beatissimo Padre most blessed Father 
 
 C. M. B. cuyas manos beso whose hands I kiss 
 C. P. B. cuyos pies beso whose feet I kiss 
 Cam ra . cdmara chamber 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 
 
 Cap. 
 
 capitulo 
 
 chapter 
 
 Cap 11 . 
 
 capitan 
 
 captain 
 
 Capp n . 
 
 capellan 
 
 chaplain 
 
 Col. 
 
 coluna 
 
 column 
 
 Comis . 
 
 comisario 
 
 commissary 
 
 Comp a . 
 
 compania 
 
 company 
 
 Corr te . 
 
 corriente 
 
 current 
 
 Cons . 
 
 consejo 
 
 council 
 
 D n . 
 
 don 
 
 Mr. 
 
 D a . 
 
 dona 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 D r . 
 
 doctor 
 
 doctor 
 
 D.D. 
 
 doctores 
 
 doctors 
 
 Dho. 
 
 dicho 
 
 ditto or said 
 
 Dro. 
 
 derecho 
 
 right or duty 
 
 Diz re . 
 
 Diciembre 
 
 December 
 
 Dom. 
 
 Domingo 
 
 Sunday 
 
 Ecc. 
 
 ecclesidstico 
 
 ecclesiastic 
 
 En. 
 
 Rnero 
 
 January 
 
 x mo . 
 
 excelentisimo 
 
 most excellent 
 
 Ex cia . 
 
 excelencia 
 
 excellency 
 
 Fho, fha. 
 
 /echo, fecha 
 
 dated 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Febrero 
 
 February 
 
 Fol. 
 
 folio 
 
 folio 
 
 Fr. 
 
 fray 
 
 brother of religious 
 
 
 
 orders 
 
 Fran co 
 
 Francisco 
 
 Francis 
 
 Frnz. 
 
 Fernandez 
 
 a Spanish surname 
 
 G de or gue.guarde 
 
 preserve 
 
 Q. D. G. 
 
 que Dios guarde 
 
 whom God preserve 
 
 Gra. 
 
 gratia 
 
 grace 
 
 Gen 1 . 
 
 general 
 
 general 
 
 111 6 . 
 
 ilustre 
 
 illustrious 
 
 Ill mo . 
 
 ilustrisimo 
 
 most illustrious 
 
 Inq or . 
 
 inquisidor 
 
 inquisitor 
 
 Jhs. 
 
 Jesus 
 
 Jesus 
 
 Jph. 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Jn. 
 
 Juan 
 
 John 
 
 J". 
 
 Juan 
 
 John 
 
ao 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Lib. 
 
 libro 
 
 book 
 
 Lib*. 
 
 libras 
 
 pounds 
 
 Lin. 
 
 lined 
 
 line 
 
 Liz . 
 
 licenciado 
 
 licentiate 
 
 M. P. S. 
 
 muy poderoso senor 
 
 most powerful lord 
 
 M e . 
 
 madre 
 
 mother 
 
 M r . 
 
 monsieur 
 
 . 
 monsieur 
 
 M or . 
 
 mayor 
 
 eldest 
 
 M s . A s . 
 
 muchos anos 
 
 many years 
 
 Mag d . 
 
 magestad 
 
 majesty 
 
 Man 1 . 
 
 Manuel 
 
 Emanuel 
 
 May mo . 
 
 mayordomo 
 
 steward 
 
 Mig 1 . 
 
 Miguel 
 
 Michael 
 
 Miiiro. 
 
 minis tro 
 
 minister 
 
 Mrd. 
 
 merced 
 
 grace 
 
 Mrn. 
 
 Martin 
 
 Martin 
 
 Mrnz. 
 
 Martinez 
 
 a Spanish surname 
 
 Mro. 
 
 maestro 
 
 master 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 maravedis 
 
 maravedis 
 
 M.S. 
 
 manuscrito 
 
 manuscript 
 
 M. S. S. 
 
 manuscritos 
 
 manuscripts 
 
 N. S. 
 
 nuestro Senor 
 
 our Lord 
 
 N. S ra , 
 
 nuestra Senor a 
 
 our Lady 
 
 Nro. 
 
 nuestro 
 
 our 
 
 Nov re . 9 re . 
 
 Noviembre 
 
 November 
 
 Obpo. 
 
 obispo 
 
 bishop 
 
 Oct re . 8 re . 
 
 Octubre 
 
 October 
 
 On s . 
 
 onzas 
 
 ounces 
 
 Orn. 
 
 orden 
 
 order 
 
 P. D, 
 
 posdata 
 
 postscript 
 
 P a . 
 
 para 
 
 for 
 
 P e . 
 
 padre 
 
 father 
 
 po 
 
 Pedro 
 
 Peter 
 
 P! 
 
 por 
 
 for or by 
 
 p ta . 
 
 plata 
 
 silver or plate 
 
 p te . 
 
 parte 
 
 part 
 
 F. 
 
 puerto 
 
 port 
 
 Pg. 
 
 pdgina 
 
 page 
 

 ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 
 
 
 ' 
 
 PL plana 
 
 page 
 
 Pp co . puhlico 
 Pral. principal 
 
 public 
 principal 
 
 Pror. procurador 
 
 solicitor or proctor 
 
 Prov. provisor 
 
 vicar-general 
 
 Q e . que 
 
 that 
 
 Q do . quando 
 
 when 
 
 Q n . quien 
 
 who 
 
 Q to . quanta 
 
 how much 
 
 R 1 . R les . rea/, reates 
 
 royal 
 
 R s . re ales 
 
 rials 
 
 Rev mo . reverendisimo 
 
 most reverend 
 
 R do . reverendo 
 
 reverend 
 
 R vi . ratffii 
 
 I received 
 
 S. saw or santo 
 
 saint 
 
 S n . saw 
 
 saint 
 
 S to . santo 
 
 saint 
 
 S. M. SM mqjestad 
 
 his majesty 
 
 S. S d . s?/ santidad 
 
 his holiness 
 
 S r . or S or . sewor 
 
 sir 
 
 Seb n . Sebastian 
 
 Sebastian 
 
 S ria -. 
 
 Secret a . ysfCTetana 
 
 secretaryship 
 
 Secret ria J 
 
 
 Secret . ^ 
 
 
 ^rio v. secret aria 
 
 secretary 
 
 Secret ri J 
 
 
 Se re . 7 re - Setiembre 
 
 September 
 
 S mo . serenisimo 
 
 most serene 
 
 Serv. servicio 
 
 service 
 
 Serv or . servidor 
 
 servant 
 
 Sig te . siguiente 
 
 following 
 
 SS mo . P e . santisimo padre 
 
 most holy father 
 
 SS no . escribano 
 
 notary 
 
 S. S. S. s?/ seguro servidor 
 
 your faithful servant 
 
 Sup ca . suplica 
 
 entreaty or petition 
 
 Sup te . suplicante 
 
 petitioner 
 
 Super* 6 . superintendente 
 
 superintendant 
 
22 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Ten*. 
 
 Tom. 
 Tpo. 
 
 V.V e .Ven' 
 V.A. 
 V. B d . 
 V. E. 
 V. G. 
 Vm.Vmd. 
 
 Vms. 
 V. P. 
 
 v. s. 
 
 V. S. 
 V. S. S. 
 V. S. I. 
 
 lenient e 
 
 tomo 
 
 tiempo 
 
 .venerable 
 
 vuestra alteza 
 
 vuestra beatitud 
 
 vuecelencia 
 
 verbigracia 
 
 vuesamercedor us- 
 
 ted 
 
 ustedes 
 
 vuestra paternidad 
 vuesenoria or usia 
 vuestra santidad 
 vuesenorias 
 vuesenoria ilustrisi- 
 
 ma 
 
 V n . vellon 
 
 Vol. volumen 
 
 Vr~o. vuestro 
 
 X mo . diezmo 
 
 Xptiano. Cristiano 
 
 Xpto. Cristo 
 
 Xptobal. Cristobal 
 
 lieutenant 
 volume 
 time 
 
 venerable 
 your highness 
 your blessedness 
 your excellency 
 for example 
 atitle similar to wor- 
 ship in English 
 your worships 
 your paternity 
 your lordship 
 your holiness 
 your lordships 
 your grace 
 
 bullion 
 
 volume 
 
 your 
 
 tithe 
 
 Christian 
 
 Christ 
 
 Christopher 
 
PROSODY, 
 
 PROSODY treats on syllables; determines their 
 quantity, accent, and emphasis ; and establishes 
 the laws of versification. 
 
 In modern language the term accent is employed 
 to denote the stress which is laid on one syllable 
 in every word, in order to distinguish it from the 
 rest ; and the accented or emphatic syllable is 
 generally acute and long. 
 
 Every Spanish word contains one acute syllable 
 only, the vowel of which sometimes is marked with 
 the acute accent, but oftener it is not : when the 
 vowel is so marked, the word can offer no difficulty 
 as to its pronunciation ; but in order to assist 
 learners in discovering where the stress should be 
 laid when there is no visible mark to direct them, 
 the following rules may be attentively considered.* 
 
 1 . Monosyllables are long : as pan, mal. 
 
 2. Dissyllables and polysyllables ending in a 
 vow r el have commonly the penultima long ; as 
 pano, hortelano, Const dntinop la, dinero. N. B. In 
 the termination isimo the antepenult is long ; as 
 amabillsimo, constantlsimo. 
 
 * The Spanish Academy not having yet fixed the rules of Spanish 
 Prosody, this division of grammar can be but very imperfectly dis- 
 cussed here. 
 
24 PKOSODY. 
 
 3. Dissyllables ending in a diphthong have gene, 
 rally the first syllable long ; as serw, fend, mutuo. 
 
 4. Dissyllables ending in two vowels generally 
 have the first syllable long ; as nao, veo, no, mlo. 
 
 5. Words ending in y always have the penultima 
 , long : as rey, combdy. 
 
 6. Trisyllables and polysyllables ending in any 
 of these diphthongs, ia, ie, io, ua, ite, no, have 
 generally the penultima long ; as concordia, impe- 
 rio, desaguo. 
 
 7. Words ending in ae, ao, au, ca, eo, ia, ie, io, 
 oa, oe, oo, (these letters not being diphthongs,) 
 have the penultima long ; as decae, bacalao, arca- 
 buceo, filosofla, desafw. 
 
 8. Words ending in a consonant have gene- 
 rally their last syllable long ; as caridad, almaceti, 
 albanil, borrador. N.B. Among the exceptions 
 to this rule may be noticed those days of the week 
 which end in s, as they have the penultimate long ; 
 as Maries, V^ierries ; and all surnames in ez 9 which 
 have also the penultima long ; as Perez, Sanchez, 
 Martinez, Fernandez. 
 
 9. Adverbs ending in mente have the same sylla- 
 ble long* that the adjectives, from which they are 
 formed, have ; as facil, facilmente, mutil, muttl- 
 mente, sanfisima, santlsimamente* 
 
 10. Nouns in the plural have generally the same 
 syllable long* that was long in their singular num- 
 ber ; as arbol, ar boles, almacen, almacenes, albala, 
 dlbalaes, heroe, heroes. Except car act tr, which 
 changes into carac feres. 
 
 N.B. Most of the foregoing observations seem 
 but a repetition of what was said when treating on 
 the accent : they will, notwithstanding, be found 
 particularly useful ; for by consulting what is said 
 
 Reckoned from the first sellable of the word. 
 
PROSODY. 25 
 
 on prosody learners will discover on what syllable 
 to lay the stress ; and by referring then to accent, 
 they will find whether the said syllable should be 
 accented or not. 
 
 For the branch of Prosody which refers to ver- 
 sification see the Appendix. 
 
 Observations on the Long or Acute Syllable 
 in Verbs* 
 
 1. If the termination of a verb is an a, e, or o, 
 either alone or followed by n or s, the last syllable 
 in the root is long ; as consider -o, consider-as, 
 consider -en. 
 
 Except the first and third persons singular of 
 the perfect indicative, which always have the accent 
 on the termination ; as consider-e, consider-6. 
 
 2. Verbs have the accent on the first vowel of 
 the termination if it consists of more than one 
 vowel ; as consider-aba, consider-abamos, consider- 
 aramos, consider-asemos, am-aran. 
 
 Except the future indicative, which always has 
 the accent on the second vowel of the termination ; 
 as consider-are, correspond-eremos, suprim-ireis, 
 multiplic-aran, amaran. 
 
 3. If the termination of a verb contains an i, either 
 alone or immediately followed by an a or an s, the 
 accent is on the i ; as correspond-l, correspond-ian, 
 pcrsever-anamos, atorment-ariais, sufr-is ; but if 
 the i precede an e or an o, the accent falls on the 
 following vowel ; as correspond-io, correspond- 
 leseis. 
 
 4. Terminations of verbs ending in d or r are 
 
 * These observations are applicable to all the regular verbs, to 
 the irregulars of the first class, and to many belonging to the 
 third class. 
 
&U PROSODY. 
 
 always long; a^consider-ad^orrespond-ed^uprim- 
 id, consider-ar, correspond- er, suprim-ir. 
 
 5. When one or more pronominal cases are 
 affixed to a verb, the accent falls on the same 
 syllable that it did before ; as entrega, entregal?, 
 entrego, entregomelo. 
 
27 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY treats on words and their derivation ; 
 enumerates their different species; and shows their 
 various modifications. 
 
 Words are distinct, articulate, significant sounds. 
 
 Words are either primitive, or derivative. A pri- 
 mitive word is that which is formed from no other 
 word in the same language ; thus in Spanish, cielo, 
 heaven ; ciudad, city ; viento, wind ; are primitive 
 words. 
 
 A derivative is derived from some other word; as 
 celeste, heavenly ; ciudadano, citizen ; ventoso. 
 windy. 
 
 The Spanish language is composed of ten dif- 
 ferent species of words, commonly called parts of 
 speech : namely^ Noun, Article, Adjective, Pro- 
 noun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Con- 
 junction, and Interjection. 
 
 A Noun expresses the name of an individual, as 
 rey, king ; hambre, man. 
 
 An Article is a word prefixed to a noun to deter- 
 mine the extent of its signification ; as el rey, the 
 king; el hombre, the man. 
 
 An Adjective is a word which is joined to nouns 
 to describe their qualities ; as rey sabio, wise king; 
 hombre humilde, humble man. 
 
 A Pronoun is a word often substituted for a 
 noun, as vi al rey, pero mi hermano no le vio > I 
 the king, but my brother did not see him. 
 c2 
 
28 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 A Verb is that part of speech which serves to 
 affirm something concerning the noun ; as el rey 
 viene, the king comes. 
 
 A Participle is a part of speech derived from the 
 verb, and which resembles the adjective in some 
 of its properties , as la reyna viene, coronada, the 
 queen comes crowned; la han coronado, they 
 have crowned her. 
 
 An Adverb is a word, which, being joined to a 
 verb, serves to qualify the affirmation ; as el rey 
 gobierna sabiamente, the king governs wisely. 
 
 A Preposition is a word generally prefixed to 
 nouns, to denote their various relations ; as la co- 
 rona de la reyna, the crown of the queen, 
 
 A Conjunction serves to connect words and sen- 
 tences ; as el rey y los vasallos, the king and the 
 subjects ; la reyna 6 la princesa, the queen or the 
 princess ; yo iba y tu venias, I was going a^dthou 
 wast coming. 
 
 Interjections are words which express some 
 emotion ; as ay ! alas ! 
 
 The parts of speech are divided into Declinable 
 and Indeclinable. 
 
 Declinable are those parts which can vary the 
 manner of their signification. 
 
 Indeclinable are those which admit no variation. 
 
 Of the ten parts of speech, the following only 
 are declinable : namely, noun, article, adjective, 
 pronoun, verb, and participle. N. B. The declen- 
 sion of a verb is usually termed conjugation. 
 
 OF THE NOUN. 
 
 A Noun, or as it is commonly called a Substan- 
 tive, is the name of any thing whatever that can 
 be made the subject of discourse ; as casa, angel, 
 ra, house, angel, honour. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 29 
 
 There are two kinds of nouns, proper, and ap- 
 pellative or common. 
 
 A proper noun is a particular name exclusively 
 applied to a particular individual; as Londres, 
 Pedro, tuna., London, Peter, moon. 
 
 An appellative is a name descriptive of a class, 
 and applicable to every individual of it ; as ciudad, 
 hombre, planeta, city, man, planet. 
 
 Of Augmentative and Diminutive Nouns. 
 
 There are in Spanish some derivative nouns, called 
 as above from their expressing a large or a small one 
 of the kind denoted by their primitive ; as hombron, 
 which signifies a large man ; and hombrecito^ a little 
 man. They are formed by adding various termina- 
 tions to the primitive noun, dropping generally the 
 vowel if it end with one. The terminations which 
 are used are very numerous ; but those which are 
 most frequently adopted are, azo, on, and ote, to 
 express increase ; and ico 9 illo, ito, and nelo 9 to 
 denote decrease. The manner of applying these 
 terminations admits of so much variety that prac- 
 tice seems the only means of acquiring the proper 
 use of them : for some nouns will admit one termi 
 nation without undergoing any alteration, and will 
 require perhaps additional letters when another ter- 
 mination is applied to them; as caxon, a drawer; 
 caxonazo, a large drawer ; caxonciVo, a small drawer; 
 and others will have sometimes two terminations 
 joined to them ; as hombre, a man ; hombra^o, or 
 hombrow, or hombronazo, a large man ; muger, a 
 woman ; mugerasa, mugerorca, mugeronaza, a 
 large woman, &c. 
 
 The terminations azo, on, or ote, are indiscrimi- 
 nately used to denote increase ; but although de- 
 crease may be equally expressed by ico, illo, ito, 
 or uelo, it is to be observed, that ico and ito are 
 endearing expressions \ but that illo sometimes, 
 and uelo always, denote contempt and disgust. 
 
30 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 The foregoing terminations do not always de- 
 note increase or decrease ; thus abanico, though 
 ending in ico, signifies a fan only ; and the termi- 
 nation azo is not unfrequently added to a weapon 
 in order to express the injury which it is capable 
 of inflicting; bspistpletazo, a pistol-shot; zapa- 
 tazo, a blow with a shoe ; martillazo, a knock 
 with a hammer, &c. 
 
 I shall conclude this article with observing, in 
 regard to the gender of nouns ending in any of the 
 terminations which have been mentioned, that 
 augmentative or diminutive nouns are of the gen- 
 der of their primitives ; and that the nouns ending 
 in azo in the last-mentioned signification follow the 
 rule of their termination : therefore porrazo, a 
 blow with a club, is masculine, although its pri- 
 mitive porra, a club, is feminine. 
 
 Of Collective Nouns. 
 
 Nouns which in the singular signify many are 
 called collectives. They are divided into definite 
 and indefinite. 
 
 Definite collective nouns are those which define 
 the individuals of which they are composed ; as 
 regimiento, many soldiers ; arboleda, many trees. 
 
 Indefinite ones denote a multitude of indeter- 
 minate individuals ; as turba, a crowd ; infinidad, 
 infinity ; muchedumbre, multitude. 
 
 Of Gender, Number, and Case. 
 
 Gender is that accident or property of a noun 
 by which we are enabled to distinguish the sex. 
 
 There are two genders, the masculine and the 
 feminine; as rey, reyna, liombre, ranger, king, 
 queen, man, woman. 
 
 In Spanish, all nouns are deemed either male or 
 female, and consequently belong to one of these gen- 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 31 
 
 ders : thus tintero is masculine and pluma femi- 
 nine, although they denote an inkstand and a pen 
 only ; whilst in English they are both neuter. 
 
 N. B. This last-mentioned term is applied in 
 Spanish to those things only which are so inde- 
 finitely used, that their gender cannot possibly 
 be discovered. 
 
 Number is that property of a noun by which we 
 point out one or more of the same class. 
 
 There are two numbers : the singular which sig- 
 nifies only one ; as ciudad, rio, city, river ; and the 
 plural, which denotes more than one ; as ciudades, 
 rios, cities, rivers. 
 
 Case is that property of nouns by means of which 
 they can be exhibited in different relations. 
 
 In Spanish, nouns have two cases ; the nomina- 
 tive or subject, and the accusative or objective 
 case of the verb. 
 
 The nominative is the case wherein nouns are 
 used when we simply name them, and when we 
 affirm any thing concerning them ; as O hijo ! O 
 child ! el rey escribio, the king wrote. 
 
 The objective is the case in which nouns are 
 placed when they have a preposition prefixed, or 
 when nothing concerning them is affirmed ; as con 
 la pluma escribio el rey la carta, with the pen did 
 the king write the letter. In this last sentence the 
 nouns pluma and carta are both in the objective 
 case ; pluma, because it has the preposition con 
 prefixed ; and carta, because it is not the subject 
 of the affirmation, but the object, to which passes 
 the energy of the verb. It may be nevertheless 
 changed to the nominative, and become the subject 
 by varying the mode of the affirmation ; as la carta 
 fue escrita por el rey con la pluma, the letter was 
 written by the king with the pen ; and here both 
 rey and pluma are in the objective case, on 
 account of the prepositions con and por. 
 
32 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Examples of proper Names declined. 
 
 Sing. Norn. Pedro, Peter. 
 
 Object, a Pedro, Peter. 
 
 Sing. Nom. Juan, John. 
 
 Object. a Juan, John. 
 
 Sing. Nom. Maria, Mary. 
 
 Object. a Maria, Mary. 
 
 Sing. Nom. Ana, Ann. 
 
 Object, a Ana, Ann. 
 
 Sing. Nom. Londres, London. 
 Object. Londres, London. 
 
 Sing. Nom. Madrid, Madrid. 
 Object. Madrid, Madrid. 
 
 Observations on the Cases. 
 
 In allotting here but two cases to Spanish nouns 
 I have deviated from the arrangement of the Aca- 
 demy, which has given them six cases ; and, in con- 
 formity to the Latin language, has declined the 
 nouns as follows : 
 
 Nom. Pedro, Peter. 
 
 Gen. de Pedro, Peter's. 
 
 Dat. d or para Pedro, to or for Peter. 
 
 Ace. a Pedro, Peter. 
 
 Voc. Pedro ! O Peter ! 
 
 Abl. de, por, fyc. Pedro, from, by, &c. Peter. 
 
 The Spanish Academicians have no doubt con- 
 sidered this arrangement the best calculated to in- 
 struct Spaniards, for whom only their grammar is 
 intended : but as these cases are not affected by 
 any variation in the termination, as in Latin, but 
 formed, as in English, by the prefixing of certain 
 prepositions, I have thought it expedient to follow 
 the example of late writers on English grammar ; 
 conscious that the more the Spanish language can, 
 without altering any essential arrangement, be 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 33 
 
 made to resemble the English in structure, the 
 greater will be the facility with which Englishmen 
 will acquire it. Were we to consider inflection an 
 indispensable requisite in the formation of a case, 
 it would be difficult to prove that the Spanish sub- 
 stantives have more than one case ; but as the very 
 language which the Academy has imitated, proves 
 that there may be a difference of case without any 
 change of termination, it cannot be deemed incon- 
 sistent to say, that our nouns have two cases, 
 called a nominative and an objective case; the for- 
 mer to denote when the noun is the subject of a 
 verb, and the latter when it is not. The personal 
 pronouns, however, are an exception, their ob- 
 jective case being formed by inflection. See Pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 An Article is a word prefixed to nouns to deter- 
 mine the extent of their signification. 
 
 Articles have, like nouns, the variation of gen- 
 der, number, and case. 
 
 The masculine article in the singular is el, and 
 in the plural los ; the feminine is la in the singular, 
 and las in the plural ; and the neuter article is /#, 
 and has not a plural. 
 
 Examples of Nouns declined with the Article. 
 
 Masculine Noum. 
 
 Sing. Nom. el rey, the king. 
 Object. *al rey, the king. 
 
 Plur. Nom. los reyes, the 'kings. 
 
 Object, a los reyes, the kings. 
 
 * To account for the omission of the e belonging to the article, 
 see note b to Rule 1, in Part II. 
 
 c 3 
 
34 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Sing. Nom. el autor, the author. 
 
 Object, al autor, the author. 
 
 Plur. Nom, los autores, the authors. 
 
 Object, d los autores, the authors. 
 
 Sing. Nom. el palacio, the palace. 
 
 Object, el palacio, the palace. 
 
 Plur. Nom. los palacios, the palaces. 
 
 Object, los palacios, the palaces. 
 
 Sing. Nom. el libro, the book. 
 
 Object, el libro, the book. 
 
 Plur. Nom. los libros, the books. 
 
 Object, los libros, the books. 
 
 Feminine Nouns. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 Object. 
 
 la reyna, the queen. 
 d la reyna, the queen. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 Object. 
 
 las reynas, the queens. 
 d las reynas, the queens. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 Object. 
 
 la monja, the nun. 
 d la monja, the nun. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 Object. 
 
 las monjas, the nuns. 
 d las monjas, the nuns. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 Object. 
 
 la casa, the house. 
 la casa, the house. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 las casas, the houses. 
 
 
 Object. 
 
 las casas, the houses* 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 Object. 
 
 la carta, the letter. 
 la carta, the letter. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 las cartas, the letters. 
 
 
 Object. 
 
 las cartas, the letters. 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 An Adjective is a part of speech, which being 
 applied to nouns points out their qualities; there- 
 fore the name of the quality ascribed to the sub- 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 35 
 
 stantive is always implied in the adjective ; and 
 from the name of this quality the adjective is ge- 
 nerally derived. Grammarians technically call the 
 name of the quality the abstract, that is, the quality 
 by itself; and the adjective the concrete, that is to 
 say, the quality conjoined to some thing ; thus 
 valor, valour, is the abstract; and valeroso, 
 valiant, the concrete ; and, when joined to a noun, 
 invests it with the possession of the quality im- 
 plied ; as un gefe valeroso, a valiant chief, or a 
 chief possessed of valour. 
 
 Adjectives, like substantives, have the variation 
 of gender, number, and case. 
 
 Examples of Nouns declined with Adjectives, 
 
 Sing. Nom. el hombre hdbil, the clever man. 
 Object, al hombre hdbil, the clever man. 
 
 Plur. Nom. los hombres hdbiles, the clever men. 
 Object, d los hombres hdbiles, the clever men. 
 
 Sing. Nom. la muger virtuoso,* the virtuous woman. 
 Object, d la muger virtuosa, the virtuous woman. 
 
 Plur. Nom. las mugeres virtuosas, the virtuous women. 
 Object, d las muger esvirtuosas, the virtuous women. 
 
 Sing. Nom. la ley severa, the severe law. 
 Object, la ley sever a, the severe law. 
 
 Plur. Nom. las leyes severas, the severe laws. 
 Object, las leyes severas, the severe laws. 
 
 Sing. Nom. el prado fertil, the fruitful meadow. 
 Object, el prado fertil, the fruitful meadow. 
 
 Plur. Nom. los prados fertiles, the fruitful meadows. 
 Object, los prados fertiles, the fruitful meadows. 
 
 From the definition of the adjective which has 
 been already given, it is evident that it never can 
 be used in a sentence without having a substantive, 
 either expressed or understood, to which the qua- 
 
36 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 lity implied in the adjective is applicable. If the 
 gender of the noun understood can be defined, the 
 adjective is preceded by the article that the noun 
 would require ; as el sabio ama la virtud, a wise 
 man loves virtue ; but if the adjective qualifies 
 some thing to which we cannot ascribe a gender, 
 the adjective in that case is preceded by the neuter 
 article ; as el me'dico le dixo que no comiera 
 came, pero ella hizo lo contrario, the physician 
 told her not to eat meat, but she did the contrary. 
 
 On Comparatives and Superlatives. 
 
 Adjectives admit a variation in the manner of 
 their signification almost peculiar to themselves ; 
 for by the addition of certain words the adjective 
 may be made to express its quality, as possessed in 
 a greater or less degree by the noun which it quali- 
 fies; and this variation is called a degree of com- 
 parison. 
 
 There are two degrees of comparison, termed 
 the comparative and the superlative. 
 
 The simple form of the adjective is called the 
 positive. 
 
 The comparative is used to compare one part of 
 a class with another part of the same class : as 
 The sun is brighter than the moon, El sol es mas 
 brlllante que la luna; or one portion of a class 
 with a portion of a different class ; as The moon 
 is brighter than diamonds, La luna es mas bril- 
 lante que los diamantes ; or a portion of a class 
 with the whole of a different class ; as The sun is 
 brighter than precious stones, El sol es mas 
 brlllante que las piedras preciosas. 
 
 The superlative is used to compare a certain por- 
 tion of a class with the whole of the same class ; 
 as The sun is the brightest of all the planets, El 
 sol es el mas brillante de todos los pianetas ; Dia- 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 37 
 
 mends' are the brightest jewels, Los diamante s son 
 las joy as mas brillantes.'l 
 
 Sometimes the adjective is raised to its superla- 
 tive degree without forming any comparison ; as 
 The sun is a very bright planet, JHl sol es un 
 planeta muy brillante ; Diamonds are very bright 
 jewels, Los diamantes son piedras muy brillantes ; 
 in this case the superlative means no more than 
 that the quality of brilliancy is possessed by the 
 sun and diamonds in an eminent degree* 
 
 Some adjectives are named according to their 
 signification; as ordinal, or adjectives denoting 
 order, such as first, second, third, &c., primero, 
 secundo, tercero, fyc. ; and cardinal or numeral, 
 that is adjectives expressing numbers ; as one, 
 two, three, &c., uno, dos, tres y fyc. 
 
 Cardinal Numbers. 
 
 Uno* 
 
 one 
 
 quince 
 
 fifteen 
 
 dos 
 
 two 
 
 diez y seis 
 
 sixteen 
 
 tres 
 
 three 
 
 diez y siete 
 
 seventeen 
 
 quatro 
 
 four 
 
 diez y ocho 
 
 eighteen 
 
 cinco 
 
 five 
 
 diez y nueve 
 
 nineteen 
 
 seis 
 
 six 
 
 veinte 
 
 twenty 
 
 siete 
 
 seven 
 
 veinte y uno* 
 
 twenty-one 
 
 ocho 
 
 eight 
 
 veinte y c?os, &c. 
 
 twenty-two, &c. 
 
 nueve 
 
 nine 
 
 treinta 
 
 thirty 
 
 diez 
 
 ten 
 
 treinta y uno* 
 
 thirty-one 
 
 once 
 
 eleven 
 
 treinta y dos 
 
 thirty-two 
 
 doce 
 
 twelve quarenta 
 
 forty 
 
 trece 
 
 thirteen quarenta y uno* 
 
 forty-one 
 
 catorce 
 
 fourteen cincuenta 
 
 fifty 
 
 J We may also use the comparative to compare a part with the 
 whole of the same class ; but then some words must be introduced 
 to denote that the whole of the class is taken into the comparison ; 
 as The sun is brighter than any other planet, El sot es mas brillante 
 que mngun otro planeta ; Diamonds are brighter than all other pre- 
 cious stones, Los diamantes son mas brillantes que todas las otrat 
 piedras preciosas. 
 
38 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 cincuenta y uno* 
 
 sesenta 
 
 sesenta y uno* 
 
 setenta 
 
 setenta y uno* 
 
 ochenta 
 
 ochenia y uno* 
 
 noventa 
 
 noventa y uno* 
 
 ciento 
 
 ciento y uno* 
 
 docientos* 
 
 trecientos* 
 
 quatrocientos* 
 
 quinientos* 
 
 seiscientos* 
 
 setecientos* 
 
 ochocientos* 
 
 novecientos* 
 
 mil 
 
 dos mil 
 
 veinte mil 
 
 den mil 
 
 docientos* mil 
 
 un millon or cuento 
 
 dos millones or ciientos 
 
 tres millones or cuentos 
 
 un cuento de cuentos 
 
 dos cuentos de cuentos, fyc. 
 
 fifty-one 
 
 sixty 
 
 sixty-one 
 
 seventy 
 
 seventy-one 
 
 eighty 
 
 eighty-one 
 
 ninety 
 
 ninety-one 
 
 a hundred 
 
 a hundred and one 
 
 two hundred 
 
 three hundred 
 
 four hundred 
 
 five hundred 
 
 six hundred 
 
 seven hundred 
 
 eight hundred 
 
 nine hundred 
 
 a thousand 
 
 two thousand 
 
 twenty thousand 
 
 a hundred thousand 
 
 two hundred thousand 
 
 a million 
 
 two millions 
 
 three millions 
 
 a billion 
 
 two billions. 
 
 Unidad 
 
 decena 
 
 centena 
 
 millar 
 
 decena de millar 
 
 centena de millar 
 
 cuento 
 
 decena de cuento, fyc. 
 
 Ordinal 
 
 Primero* 
 
 segundo* 
 
 Numeration. 
 units 
 tens 
 
 hundreds 
 thousands 
 tens of thousands 
 hundreds of thousands 
 million 
 
 tens of millions. 
 Numbers. 
 first 
 second 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 39 
 
 tercero* 
 
 quarto* 
 
 quinto* 
 
 sexto* 
 
 septimo* 
 
 octavo* 
 
 nono* or noveno* 
 
 decimo* 
 
 undecimo* 
 
 duodecimo* 
 
 decimo* tercio* 
 
 decimo* quarto* 
 
 decimo* quinto* 
 
 decimo* sexto* 
 
 decimo* septimo* 
 
 decimo* octavo* 
 
 decimo* nono* 
 
 vigesimo* 
 
 vigesimo* primo* 
 
 vigesimo* segundo* 
 
 vigesimo* tercio*, &e. 
 
 trigesime* 
 
 quadragesimo* 
 
 quinquagesimo* 
 
 sexdgesimo* 
 
 septuagesimo* 
 
 octogesimo* 
 
 nonagesimo* 
 
 centesimo* 
 
 docentesimo* 
 
 trecentesimo* 
 
 quadragentesimo* 
 
 quingentesimo* 
 
 sexentesimo* 
 
 septengentesimo * 
 
 octogentesimo* 
 
 nonagentesimo * 
 
 milesimo* 
 
 third 
 
 fourth 
 
 fifth 
 
 sixth 
 
 seventh 
 
 eighth 
 
 ninth 
 
 tenth 
 
 eleventh 
 
 twelfth 
 
 thirteenth 
 
 fourteenth 
 
 fifteenth 
 
 sixteenth 
 
 seventeeth 
 
 eighteenth 
 
 nineteenth 
 
 twentieth 
 
 twenty-first 
 
 twenty-second 
 twenty-third, &c. 
 
 thirtieth 
 
 fortieth 
 fiftieth 
 sixtieth 
 seventieth 
 eightieth 
 ninetieth 
 hundredth 
 two hundredth 
 three hundredth 
 four hundredth 
 five hundredth 
 six hundredth 
 seven hundredth 
 eight hundredth 
 nine hundredth 
 thousandth. 
 
 N. B. Every word, either in the cardinal or ordinal 
 numbers, which is marked thus (*), has the last o changed 
 for an a whenever applied to a feminine noun. 
 
40 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Nouns denoting Quantity. 
 
 La tnitad the half 
 el tercio the third 
 
 el quarto the fourth 
 
 un par a couple 
 
 media docena half a dozen 
 una decena half a score 
 
 una docena a dozen 
 
 una veintena a score 
 
 una centena a hundred 
 
 un millar a thousand 
 
 un cuento a million 
 
 OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 A pronoun is a word which prevents the necessity 
 of repeating the noun, by supplying its place. 
 
 There are five sorts of pronouns: namely, Per- 
 sonal, Possessive, Relative, Interrogative, and De- 
 monstrative. 
 
 Personal. 
 
 The personal pronouns are peculiar in having 
 two objective cases, one of which never can be 
 used with, nor the other without, a preposition. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 1st Obj. case 
 2d Obj. case 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 1st Obj. 
 2d Obj. 
 
 Sing. Nom 
 1st Obj. 
 2d Obj. 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 1st Obj. 
 ?d Obj. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 1st Obj. 
 2d Obj. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Yo, I. 
 
 ' / f nie, or to me. 
 
 jwsotros* we. 
 
 te, 
 
 d ti, J 
 
 vosotros,* ye. 
 
 05, 
 
 thou. 
 
 ") 
 
 M.hee, or to thee. 
 
 el, he. 
 
 / fj Miim, or to him. 
 
 a el, $ 
 
ETYMOLOGV. 41 
 
 Plur. Nom. ellos, they. 
 
 1st Obj. los and les>* * them and to them.* * 
 2d Obj. a ellos, them, or to them. 
 
 Sing. Nom. ella, she. 
 
 1st Obj. la and e,* * her, and to her.* * 
 2d Obj. d ella, her, or to her. 
 
 Plur. Nom. ellas, they. 
 
 1st Obj. las and fes,* * them, and to them.* * 
 2d Obj. a eZ/as, them, or to them. 
 
 Sing. Nom. ello, it. 
 1st Obj. lo, \ .. 
 2d Obj. d ello, j Tt ' r to *' 
 
 <^ . /himself, herself, itself, them- 
 
 T 1 1st Obj. case se, J selves ; or to himself, to 
 ,?, ( 2d Obj. case a si, ) herself, to itself, to them- 
 l selves. 
 
 Terminations marked thus (*) have the last o changed 
 into a when they represent feminine nouns. 
 
 N.B. Where the first objective case has two termina- 
 tions, the one marked with the double asterisk corre- 
 sponds in English with the one only which bears the 
 same mark : thus the English for los is them ; and for 
 les, to them. This second termination might be pro- 
 perly termed the dative of the pronoun, and I should 
 have adopted the expression had it more frequently oc- 
 curred ; but it is distinguishable only in the plural of the 
 third person masculine ; and in both numbers of the 
 third person feminine. 
 
 Possessives. 
 
 Sing. Nom. and Obj. mio,* my or mine. 
 
 Plur. Nom. and Obj. nuestro,* our or ours. 
 
 Sing. Nom. and Obj. tuyo* thy or thine. 
 
 Plur. Nom. and Obj. vuestro,* your or yours. 
 
 Sing. Nom. and Obj. suyo t his or its. 
 
 Nom. and Obj. suya, her or hers. 
 
 Plur. Nom. and Obj. suyos,* their or theirs. 
 
 Those marked thus (*) change the o into a when 
 they relate to a feminine noun. 
 
42 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Relatives. 
 Sing. Norn, quien, who. 
 
 Obj. d quien, whom or to whom. 
 Plur. Nom. quienes, who. 
 
 Obj. d quienes, whom or to whom. 
 The other relatives are, 
 
 Norn. "I Sing 1 , qual, Plur. quales,\ who, which, and 
 and > que, que, j" that. 
 
 Obj. case ) cuyo,* cuyos,* whose or of which. 
 
 Those terminations marked thus (*) change the o into 
 
 a when relating to a feminine noun. 
 The noun to which a relative refers is called its 
 antecedent. 
 
 Interrogatives. 
 
 When the relative pronouns are used in asking a 
 question, they are called Interrogatives ; as quien 
 estd a hi ? who is there ? qual de los dos ? which 
 of the two ? &c. 
 
 Demonstratives. 
 
 Masc. Fern. Neut. 
 
 Sing. Nom. C este, esta, esto, this, 
 
 and < ese, esa, eso y 1-th t 
 
 Obj. case (^ aquel, aquella, aquello, J 
 Plur. Nom. C estos, estas, these, 
 
 and -< esos, esas, \ those 
 
 Obj. case (^aquellos, aquellas, J 
 There are some words to which grammarians have 
 given the names of indefinites, or indefinite pronouns 
 See Rules on the use of these pronouns, in Part II. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Possessives and demonstratives} are used in Spanish 
 both as adjectives and as pronouns : when they are used 
 adjectively, they are joined to some substantive with 
 which they must always agree ; as nuestro rey, our king ; 
 nuestra patria, our country ; nuestros enemigos, our ene- 
 
 J The neuter terminations esto, eso, and aqutllo, are never used 
 adjectively. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 43 
 
 mies; nuestras hazanas, our exploits; este exercito, this 
 army ; esa batalla, that battle ; estas tropas, these troops ; 
 esos soldados, those soldiers. When used as pronouns 
 they represent a noun, which either is understood or has 
 been formerly mentioned in the period, and whose gen- 
 der and number they always assume; as Esta (habilidad) 
 es unadel&s tuyas (habilidades) , This is one of thy tricks ; 
 Occupards la plaza de un mozo que murio quince dias ha, 
 porqueera de delicada complexion, la tuyaparece masro- 
 busta, y no morirds tan presto, Thou wilt fill the place of 
 a lad, who died a fortnight ago, because he was of a de- 
 licate constitution ; thine seems more robust, and thou 
 wilt not die so soon. Gil Bias, book i. chap. 4. 
 
 OF VERBS. 
 
 A verb is that part of speech generally used to 
 affirm something concerning the noun, which is the 
 subject of discourse, or, as it is commonly called, 
 the subject of the verb ; as soy, I am ; ella duerme, 
 she sleeps ; el escribio, he wrote.* 
 
 A verb may make three different species of 
 affirmation concerning its subject; and hence 
 there are three different sorts of verbs, called 
 active, passive, and neuter. 
 
 An active verb affirms that its subject is acting 
 or doing something ; as el monge predica, the 
 monk preaches ; el nino lee, the child reads. 
 
 A passive verb describes its subject as being 
 acted upon, or suffering ; as el xefe fu4 herido, the 
 
 * Affirmation is the general characteristic of a verb ; and therefore, 
 as I shall have occasion to speak of verbs being negatively used, it is 
 necessary to observe, in order to reconcile the seeming contradiction, 
 that verbs always retain their affirming property, even in a negative 
 sentence, and that to use a verb negatively means to place such 
 words either before or after it, as may counteract the impression pro- 
 duced on the mind by the affirmation ; as amdj he loved ; no am6 
 he loved not ; alguno vendrd, some one will come ; ninguno vendrd, no 
 one will come. By these examples we may see that the verbs amar 
 and venir remain unaltered, for the negatives no and ninguno make 
 no part of either of the verbs. 
 
44 KTYMOLOGY. 
 
 chief was wounded ; el reo estd encarcelado, the 
 culprit is imprisoned. 
 
 A neuter verb denotes neither the one nor the 
 other ; but merely affirms the existence of its sub- 
 ject, in a quiescent state ; or describes the con- 
 dition, posture or situation of its subject : as fu, 
 he was ; vivimos, we lived ; moramos, we dwell : 
 ella estd sentada, she is seated. 
 
 An active verb may denote two different kinds 
 of action ; and therefore active verbs have been 
 divided into transitive and intransitive. 
 
 An active transitive verb describes an action 
 which its subject may exercise upon something 
 else, called generally the accusative or object of 
 the verb ; es el cazador mato la liebre, the sports- 
 man killed the hare ; el criado asepillo el vestido, 
 the servant brushed the suit. 
 
 An active intransitive denotes an action by 
 which the agent only can be affected ; as los ninos 
 jugaron, the children played. 
 
 When the agent and the individual upon whom 
 the action is exercised are represented by the same 
 person, the verb is called reflective ; as el soldado 
 se mato, the soldier killed himself. N.B. Almost 
 all active transitive verbs may be changed into 
 reflective in Spanish. 
 
 Active intransitive verbs are sometimes changed 
 into transitive by adding to them the objective 
 case of some noun which is generally formed from 
 them ; as baylar un bayle, to dance a dance ; 
 sonar un suefio, to dream a dream ; saltar un salto, 
 to leap a leap, &c. 
 
 In order clearly to distinguish the transitive 
 from intransitive verbs, the attention must be 
 wholly directed to their meaning ; for the same 
 verb may be transitive or intransitive, according 
 to the meaning in which it is employed. Thus 
 the verb pasear is an active intransitive verb, 
 
ETYMOLOGY 45 
 
 when it signifies to walk one's self, and active 
 transitive when it denotes to make another walk, 
 or to lead him, in which sense it is frequently used 
 when speaking of horses, mules, &e. Gil Bias, in 
 speaking of the exhibition of his mule before the 
 jockey, uses the verb pasear as active transitive, 
 when he says, Pasear onla y repasearonla delante 
 del mulatero, they walked her to and fro before 
 the jockey. 
 
 OF THE ACCIDENTS OF VERBS. 
 
 Number, Person, Tense, and Mood. 
 
 Number. 
 
 A verb may have more than one subject : that is, 
 it may affirm something concerning one, or more 
 than one, individual : hence verbs require like nouns 
 a singular and a plural number; as elpdxaro vuela, 
 the bird flies ; los pdxaros vuelan, the birds fly. 
 
 Person. 
 
 There are three different classes of individuals 
 that can be the subjects of a verb; namely, the 
 speaker ; the individual to whom the discourse is 
 addressed ; or an individual who neither speaks nor 
 is addressed; and to point out this distinction, 
 verbs have three distinct persons; the first yo, I, 
 stands for the name of the speaker; the second tu 9 
 thou, is equivalent to the name of the individual to 
 whom the speaker addresses himself ; and the third 
 el, he; ella, she; ello, it; represents any other indi- 
 vidual whatever: asyo leo, I read; tu escribes, thou 
 writest; 61 pint a, he paints; ellabayla, she dances. 
 
 It has been already observed that verbs may have 
 more than one subject ; it therefore follows that any 
 of the three abovementioned persons may be the 
 subject of a verb alone or accompanied; and in 
 order to represent them when accompanied, verbs 
 have three other persons, called also first, second, 
 and third, in their plural number. The first person 
 is nosotros, or we: with this person the speaker 
 
46 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 affirms any thing concerning himself and others at 
 the same time; as nosotros caminamos, we tra- 
 velled : the second is vosotros, ye ; this person the 
 speaker makes use of when he addresses more than 
 one individual ; as vosotros sois espias, ye are spies : 
 the third person is ellos, or ellas, they ; and this 
 person is used by the speaker, when he affirms 
 any thing concerning more than one individual 
 not addressed ; the speaker not being one of the 
 number; as ellos pelearon, they fought; ellas 
 cantaron, they sang. 
 
 Tense. 
 
 The action, passion, or state of existence de- 
 scribed by a verb, may be limited to three different 
 periods of time, for it may be described as having 
 taken place ; as he visto, I have seen ; or taking 
 place ; as v eo, I see ; or as being to take place, as 
 vere', I shall see ; and for this purpose verbs have 
 another accident called tense. 
 
 Spanish verbs have seven tenses ; namely, the 
 
 present^ imperfect,* perfect indefinite,* perfect 
 
 definite* pluperfect* future imperfect, future 
 
 perfect. See Observations on the Tenses, Part II. 
 
 Mood. 
 
 Moods are certain forms of the verb, which, it 
 may be said, serve to modify the affirmation. 
 There are four moods; namely, indicative, impera- 
 tive, subjunctive,^ and infinitive. 
 
 The indicative affirms the execution of the 
 action denoted by the verb, in a positive and un- 
 conditional manner j as nosotros damos, we give ; 
 vosotros vais, ye go. 
 
 The imperative orders or entreats the execution 
 of the action ; as id vosotros, go ye ; concedednos, 
 grant us ; perdoname, forgive me. 
 
 * They are also named Preterimperfect, Preterperfect indefinite, 
 Preterperfect definite, Preterpluperfect. 
 
 t '1 his is sometimes called the potential mood. See subjunctive in 
 Part II 
 
ETYMOLOGY 4J 
 
 The subjunctive always speaks of the action as 
 contingent ; sifueremos manana, if we happen to 
 go to-morrow ; si viniera aqui, were he to come 
 here ; aunque lo conceda, though he may grant it. 
 
 The infinitive denotes the action or energy of 
 the verb in a general unlimited and indefinite man- 
 ner, without any distinction of tense or of person ; 
 as venir, to come ; ir, to go ; conceder, to grant ; 
 perdonar, to forgive. 
 
 OF CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 To conjugate a verb is to repeat it through all 
 the variety of number, person, tense, and mood, 
 of which it is susceptible. 
 
 In Spanish there are only three conjugations, 
 which are distinguished by the vowels a, e, i, 
 which regularly precede the last r of the infinitive 
 mood : therefore verbs belonging to the first con- 
 jugation have their infinitive in ar ; those of the 
 second, in er ; and verbs of the third, in ir ; as, 
 hablar, to speak; leer, to read; escribir, to write. 
 
 Verbs sometimes are named according to their 
 perfections or their imperfections, and therefore all 
 the verbs of which we have been speaking may be 
 regular or irregular, personal or impersonal, per- 
 fect or defective. 
 
 Irregulars are those verbs which deviate from 
 the regular form by which all the others are con- 
 jugated. See Part II. 
 
 Impersonais are verbs which cannot be conju- 
 gated through all the persons. See Part II. 
 
 Defectives are such verbs as want some of the 
 tenses. See Part II. 
 
 The verbs ser and haber are, from the nature of 
 their service, styled auxiliary or helping verbs, be- 
 cause they are used to form what are called the 
 compound tenses of all verbs ; and also their pass- 
 ive voice ; as, habiamos escrito, we had written ; 
 fueron heridos, they were wounded. 
 
48 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 N. B. In the following examples all the terminations of the verbs 
 have been accented, in order to assist beginners in pronouncing ; but 
 it is to be observed that the accent is to be written on the letters 
 which are printed in Roman only. 
 
 Conjugation of the Auxiliary Haber. 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. have. 
 Sing. 1. Yo he, I have. 
 
 2. Tu has, thou hast. 
 
 3. El ha, he has. 
 
 Plur. 1. Nosotros hemos or habemos,* we have. 
 
 2. Vosotros habeis, ye have. 
 
 3. Ellos han, they have. 
 
 Imperfect- had . 
 Yo habia, I had, 
 Tu habias, thou hadst. 
 El habia, he had. 
 Nosotros habiamos, we had, 
 Vosbtros hab'iais, ye had. 
 EUos habian, they had. 
 
 Perfect. had. 
 Yo hube, I had. 
 Tu hubiste, thou hadst. 
 El hubo, he had. 
 Nosotros hubimos, we had. 
 Vosotros hubisteis, ye had. 
 Ellos hubieron, they had. 
 
 Future. shall have. 
 Yo habre, I shall have. 
 Tu habr&s, thou shalt have. 
 El habrsi, he shall have. 
 Nosotros habremos, we shall have. 
 Vosotros habris, ye shall have. 
 Ellos habr&n, they shall have. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. may have. 
 Yo hay a, I may have. 
 Tu hay as, thou mayst have. 
 El hay a, he may have. 
 
 * See Haber, No. XXV. Part II. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 49 
 
 Nosotros haydmos, we may have. 
 Vosotros haydis, ye may have. 
 Ellos hay an, they may have. 
 
 Imperfect. should, might, would have. 
 Yo hubiera, hubiese,habria, I should, might, would have. 
 Tit hubieras, hubieses, habrlas, thou shouldst, mightst, 
 
 wouldst have. 
 
 El hubiera, hubiese, habria, he should, might, would have. 
 Nosotros hubi&ramos, hubi&semos, habr'iamos, we should, 
 
 might, would have. 
 
 Vosotros hubi&raiSy hubieseis, habriais, ye should, 
 
 might, would have. 
 
 Ellos hubieran, hubiesen, habrian, they should, might, 
 
 would have. 
 
 Future, if should have. 
 Si yo hubiere, if I should have. 
 Si tu hubieres, if thou shouldst have. 
 Si el hubiere, if he should have. 
 Si nosotros hubieremos, if we should have. 
 Si vosotros hubiereis, if ye should have. 
 Si ellos hubieren, if they should have. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present. Hdber, to have. 
 Gerund. Habiendo, having. 
 
 As an auxiliary, this verb is employed in the foregoing 
 tenses only ; but when it is used either impersonally or 
 as an equivalent to tener, (which latter use is nearly ex- 
 ploded,) it has habido for its participle, and is conju- 
 gated through all the compound tenses. See Impersonal. 
 Verbs, Part II. 
 
 Conjugation of Tener, To have, or To hold. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. have. 
 
 Yo tengo, I have. 
 Tu tieneSy thou hast. 
 El tiene, he has. 
 
 Nosotros tenemoSyWe have. 
 Vosotros teneis, ye have. 
 Ellos tienen y they have. 
 
50 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Imperfect. had. 
 
 Yo tenia, I had. 
 
 Tu tenias, thou hadst. 
 
 El tenia, he had. 
 
 Nosotros teniamos, we had. 
 Vosotros ten'iais, ye had. 
 Ellos tenian, they had. 
 
 Perfect Indefinite. had. 
 
 Yo tuve, I had. 
 
 Tu tuviste, thou hadst. 
 
 El tuvo, he had. 
 
 Nosotros tuvimos, we had. 
 Vosotros tuvisteis, ye had, 
 Ellos tuvi&ron, they had. 
 
 Perfect Definite. have had. 
 
 Yo he tenido, I have had. 
 
 Tu has tenido, thou hast had. 
 
 El ha tenido, he has had. 
 
 Nosotros hemos tenido, we have had. 
 
 Vosotros habeis tenido, ye have had. 
 
 Ellos han tenido, they have had. 
 
 Pluperfect. had had. 
 
 Yo hube, or kabia, tenido, I had had. 
 
 Tu hubiste, or habias, tenido, thou hadst had. 
 
 El hubo, or habia, tenido, he had had. 
 
 Nosotros hubimos, or hab'iamos, tenido, we had had* 
 
 Vosotros hub'isteis, or habiais, tenido, ye had had. 
 
 Ellos hubieron, or habian, tenido, they had had. 
 
 Future Imperfect. shall or will have 
 
 Yo tendre, I shall have. 
 Tu tendrsis, thou shalt have. 
 El tendra, he shall have. 
 Nosotros tendrmos, we shall have 
 Vosotros tendr&is, ye shall have. 
 Ellos tendr&n, they shall have. 
 
 Future Perfect. shall or will have had. 
 
 Yo habre tenido, I shall have had. 
 Tu habr&s tenido, thou shalt have had. 
 El habra, tenido, he shall have had. 
 Nosotros habr&mos tenido, we shall have had. 
 Vosotros habr&is tenido, ye shall have had. 
 Ellos hdbr&n tenido, they shall have had. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. . 51 
 
 Imperative. 
 Ten tu, have thou. 
 Tenga el, let him have. 
 Tengdmos nosotros, let us have. 
 Tened vosotros, have ye. 
 Tengan ellos, let them have. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Present. may have. 
 Yo tenga, I may have. 
 Tu tengas, thou mayst have. 
 El tenga, he may have. 
 Nosotros tengdmos, we may have. 
 Vosotros tengdis, ye may have. 
 Ettos tengan, they may have. 
 
 Imperfect. should, or might, or would have. 
 Yo tuviera, tuviese, tendria, I should, might, would have. 
 Tu tuvieras, tuvieses, tendrias, thou shouldst, mightst, 
 
 wouldst have. 
 
 El tuviera, tuviese, tendria, he should, might, would 
 
 have. 
 
 Nosotros tuvi&ramos, tuviisemos, tendr'iamos, we should, 
 
 might, would have. 
 
 Vosotros tuvi&rais, tuvieseis, tendriais, ye should, might, 
 
 would have. 
 
 Ellos tuvieran, tuviesen, tendrian, they should, might, 
 
 would have. 
 
 Perfect. may have had. 
 Yo hdya tenido, I may have had. 
 Tu hdyas tenldo, thou mayst have had. 
 El hdya tenido, he may have had. 
 Nosotros haydmos tenido, we may have had. 
 Vosotros haydis tenido, ye may have had. 
 Ellos hay an tenido, they may have had. 
 
 Pluperfect. should, might, would have had. 
 
 tenido, should have had, 
 
 f , , 
 
 or j or 
 
 Yo < hubiese tenido, I< might have had, 
 I or I or 
 
 habrla tenido, ^ would have had. 
 
 D2 
 
52 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 hubieras tenido, 
 
 ^shouldst have had, 
 
 ( or 
 
 < hubieses tenido, thou 
 1 or. 
 
 ( 
 
 < mightst have had, 
 I or 
 
 habrias tenido, 
 
 wouldst have had. 
 
 hubiera tenido, 
 
 should have had. 
 
 f 
 
 < hubiese tenido, he 
 
 ( 
 
 < might have had, 
 
 \ or 
 
 8 or 
 
 ^habria tenido, 
 
 ' would have had. 
 
 ,hubieramos tenido, 
 
 should have had, 
 
 ( 
 
 f 
 \ or 
 
 < hubiesemos tenido, we 
 
 < might have had, 
 
 1 or 
 
 1 or 
 
 habr'iamos tenido, 
 
 ^ would have had. 
 
 ,hubierais tenido, 
 
 should have had, 
 
 ( 
 
 < hubieseis tenido, ye 
 
 j or 
 
 / might have had, 
 
 1 or 
 
 ( or 
 
 habriais tenido, 
 
 ^ would have had. 
 
 hubieran tenido, 
 
 should have had, 
 
 ( , or 
 < hubiesen tenido, they 
 1 or 
 
 j or 
 
 < might have had, 
 I or 
 
 habrian tenido, 
 
 ^ would have had. 
 
 Tu 
 
 El 
 
 Nosdtros 
 
 Vosotros 
 
 Ellos 
 
 Future Imperfect. if should have. 
 
 Si yo tuviere, if I should have. 
 
 Si tii tuvieres, if thou shouldst have. 
 
 Si el tuviere, if he should have. 
 
 Si nosStros tuvi&remos, if we should have. 
 
 Si vosotros tuviereis, if ye should have. 
 
 Si ellos turner en, if they should have. 
 
 Future, perfect. if should have had. 
 
 Si yo hubiere tenido^ if I should have had. 
 
 Si tii hubieres ten/do, if thou shouldst have had. 
 
 Si el hubiere tenido, if he should have had. 
 
 Si nosotros hubieremos ten/do, if we should have had. 
 
 Si vosotros hubiereis tenido, if ye should have had. 
 
 Si ellos hubieren tenido, if they should have had. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 53 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present. 
 Tener, to have 
 
 Perfect. 
 Haber tenido, to have had. 
 
 Gerund. 
 Teniendo, having. 
 
 Compound of the Gerund. 
 Habiendo tenido, having had. 
 
 Participle. 
 Tenido, had. 
 
 Conjugation of <Ser and Estdr. 
 
 Indicative. 
 Present. am, 
 
 Yo soy, or estoy, I am. 
 
 Tu eres, or estds, thou art. 
 
 El es, or estd, he is. 
 
 Nosotros somos, or estdmos, we are. 
 
 Vosotros sdis, or estdis, ye are. 
 
 Ellos son, or estdn, they are. 
 
 Imperfect. was. 
 
 Yo era, or estdba, I was. 
 
 Tu eras, or estdbas, thou wast. 
 
 EZ era, or estdba, he was. 
 
 Nosotros &ramos, or estabamos, we were. 
 
 Vosotros irais, or est&bais, ye were. 
 
 .EZ/os era/i, or estdban, they were. 
 
 Perfect Indefinite. was. 
 
 Yo jfai, or estuve, I was. 
 
 Tw /MlsZe, or estuviste, thou wast 
 
 Elfue, or estuvo % he was. 
 
 Nosotros fuimos, or estuvimos, we were. 
 
 Vosotros fu'isteis, or etfuvtafefc, ye were. 
 
 Ellos fu&ron, or estuvi&ron> they were. 
 
54 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Perfect Definite. have been. 
 Yo he sido, or estddo, I have been. 
 Tu has sido, or estddo, thou hast been. 
 El ha sido, or estddo, he has been. 
 Nosotros hemos sido, or estddo, we have been. 
 Vosotros habeis sido, or estddo, ye have been. 
 Ellos han sido, or estddo, they have been. 
 
 Pluperfect. had been, 
 or estddo, 
 
 Yo 
 
 Jiabia sido, or estddo, 
 ^hubiste sido, or estddo, 
 Tu - or thou hadst been 
 
 or estddo, 
 sido, or estddo, 
 
 El -1 or he had been. 
 
 Jiabia sido, or estddo, 
 ^hubimos sido, w estddo, 
 
 Nosotros -< or we had been. 
 
 habiamossido, or estddo, 
 hubisteis sido, or estddo, 
 
 Vosotros -< or ye had been. 
 
 Jiabiais sido, or estddo, 
 (hubieron sido, or estddo, 
 Ellos or they had been. 
 
 \habian sido, or estddo, 
 
 Future Imperfect. shall be. 
 Yo sere, or estare, I shall be. 
 Tu ser&s, or estaras, thou shalt be. 
 El S3r, or estar&, he shall be. 
 Nosotros ser&mos, or estaremos, we shall be. 
 Vosotros sereis, or estar&is, ye shall be. 
 Ellos ser'dn, or estar&n, they shall be. 
 
 Future Perfect. shall have been. 
 Yo habre sido, or estddo, I shall have been. 
 Tu habr&s sido, or estddo, thou shalt have been. 
 El habra, sido, or estddo, he shall have been. 
 Nosotros habremos sido, or estddo, we shall have been. 
 Vosotros habr&is sido, or estddo, ye shall have been. 
 habr&n sido, or estado, they shall have been. 
 
 I had been. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 55 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Se, or estd, tu, be thou. 
 
 Sea, or este, el, let him be. 
 
 Sedmos, or estemos, nosotros, let us be. 
 
 Sed, or estdd, vosotros, be ye. 
 
 Sean, or es^ra, ellos, let them be. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. may be. 
 Yo sea, or este, I may be. 
 Tu seas, or es^s, thou mayst be. 
 El sea, or este, he may be. 
 Nosotros sedmos, or estemos, we may be. 
 Vosotros seals, or estfeis, ye may be. 
 E/fos sean, or esZew, they may be. 
 
 Imperfect. should, might, would be, 
 (fuera, fuese, seria, ^ shouldjmight , 
 
 i ., >r ., , \ would be. 
 
 ^estuviera, estuviese, estaria, J 
 
 ffueras, faeses, serias, "^ thou shouldst, 
 
 or >- mightst, 
 
 ^estuvieras,estuvieses,estarias,J wouldst be. 
 Cfaera, fuese, seria, ^ he should, 
 
 J or Vmight, would 
 
 J estuviera, estuviese, estar'a, j be. 
 ( fu&ramos, fu&semos, seriamos,^ 
 
 Yo 
 
 Tu 
 
 El 
 
 Nosotros 4 
 
 r 
 
 j estuvieramos, estuviesemos, 
 
 we snouia, 
 > might, would 
 
 1 
 
 ^ estariamos, 
 
 1 be. 
 
 Vosotros - 
 
 Cfairais, fu&seis, ser(ais t 
 c or 
 
 ") ye should, 
 >might, would 
 
 
 lestuvi&rais,estuvieseis,estar'La 
 
 isj be. 
 
 
 {fueran,fuesen, serian, 
 
 ^ they should, 
 
 Ellos - 
 
 or 
 
 xmight, would 
 
 jRstuvieran,estumesen, estarianj be. 
 
 Perfect. may have been. 
 Yo hdya sido, or estddo, I may have been. 
 Tu kayos sido, or estddo, thou mayst have been. 
 El hdya sido, or estddo t he may have been. 
 
56 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 NosStros haydmos sido, or estddo, we may have been. 
 Vosotros haydis sido, or estddo, ye may have been. 
 Ellos hay an sido, or estddo, they may have been. 
 
 Pluperfect. should, might, would have been. 
 
 I should, might, would 
 have been. 
 
 thou shouldst, mightst, 
 wouldst have been. 
 
 he should, might, would 
 have been. 
 
 we should, might, would 
 have been. 
 
 ye should, might, would 
 have been. 
 
 they should, might, 
 would have been. 
 
 Future Imperfect. if should be. 
 Si yo fiier e, or estuviere, if I should be. 
 Si tu fueres, or estuvieres, if thou shouldst be. 
 Si elfuere, or estuviere, if he should be. 
 Si nosotros fu&remos, or estuvi&remos, if we should be. 
 Si vosotros fu^reis, or estuvi&reis, if ye should be. 
 Si ellos fuer en, or estuvieren, if they should be. 
 
 Future Perfect. if should have been. 
 Si yo hubiere sido, or estddo, if I should have been. 
 Si tit hubieres sido, or estddo, if thou shouldst have 
 
 been. 
 
 Si el hubi&re sido, or estddo, if he should have been. 
 Si nosotros hubi&remos sido, or estddo, if we should have 
 
 been. 
 Si vosotros hubi&reis sido, or estddo, if ye should have 
 
 been. 
 Si ellos hubieren sido, or estddo, if they should have been. 
 
 Yo hubiera, hu- 
 
 sido, " 
 
 biese, habria, 
 
 or 
 jestddo, 
 
 Tu hubieras, hu- 
 
 sido, 
 
 bieses, habrias, 
 
 or 
 ^estddo, 
 
 El hubiera, hubiese, 
 
 " sido, < 
 
 habria, 
 
 or 
 
 
 estddo ?> 
 
 Nosotros hubira- 
 
 * sido, ' 
 
 mos, hubi&semos, - 
 
 or 
 
 habr'iamos, 
 
 ^estddo, 
 
 Vosotros hubierais, 
 
 sido, 
 
 hubieseis, habri- - 
 
 or 
 
 ais, 
 
 estddo, 
 
 Ellos hubieran, hu- 
 
 sido, * 
 
 biesen, habrian, 
 
 or 
 estddo, 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 57 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present. 
 Ser, or estdr, to be. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Haber sido, or estddo, to have been. 
 
 Gerund. 
 Siendoj or estdndo, being. 
 
 Compound of the Gerund. 
 Habiendo sido, or estddo, having been. 
 
 Participle. 
 Sido, or estddo, been. 
 
 With the following verbs the pronouns are omitted 5 
 but they may be used, if so required. 
 
 First Conjugation. Amar, To love. 
 
 Indicative. 
 Present. love. 
 
 Amo, I love. 
 Amos* thou lovest. 
 Ama, he loves. 
 
 Amdmos, we love. 
 Amdis, ye love. 
 Aman, they love. 
 
 Imperfect, loved, or was loving. 
 Awdba, I loved, or was loving, 
 Amdbas, thou lovedst, or wast loving. 
 Amdba, he loved, or was loving. 
 Am&bamos, we loved, or were loving. 
 Ambais t ye loved, or were loving. 
 Amdban, they loved, or were loving. 
 
 Perfect Indefinite. loved. 
 
 Amdmos 9 we loved. 
 Amsteis 9 ye loved. 
 Amaron, they loved. 
 
 I loved. 
 Amdste 9 thou lovedst. 
 Am6, he loved. 
 
 Perfect Definite. have loved 
 He amddo, I have loved. 
 Has amddo, thou hast loved. 
 Ha amddo, he has loved. 
 
 D3 
 
58 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Hemos amddo, we have loved, 
 Habeis amddo, ye have loved. 
 Han amddo, they have loved. 
 
 Pluperfect. had loved. 
 Hube, or habia, amddo, I had loved. 
 Hubiste, or habtas, amddo, thou hadst loved. 
 Hubo, or habia, amddo, he had loved. 
 Hub'mos, or hab'iamos. amddo, we had loved. 
 Hubisteis, or habiais, amddo, ye had loved. 
 Hubieroji, or hab'ian, amddo, they had loved. 
 
 Future Imperfect. shall or will love. 
 
 Amare, I shall love. 
 Amarus, thou shalt love. 
 Amara, he shall love. 
 
 Amar&mos, we shall love. 
 Amaris, yeshalllove. 
 Amar&n, they shall love, 
 
 Future Perfect. shall or will have loved. 
 Hdbrk amddo, I shall have loved. 
 Habr&s amddo, thou shalt have loved. 
 Habrsi amddo, he shall have loved. 
 Habremos amddo ^ we shall have loved. 
 Habreis amddo, ye shall have loved. 
 Habr&n amddo, they shall have loved. 
 
 Ama tu, love thou. 
 Ame el, let him love. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Amemosnosotros, let us love. 
 
 Amdd vos6tros, love ye. 
 Amen ellos, let them love. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. may love. 
 Ame, I may love. [ Amemos, we may love. 
 
 Ames, thou mayst love. 
 A me, he may love. 
 
 Ameis, ye may love. 
 Amen, they may love. 
 
 Imperfect. should, might, would love. 
 Amdra, amdse, amaria, I should, might, would love. 
 Amdras, amdses,amartas,thou shouldst,mightst,wouldst 
 
 love. 
 Amdra, amdse, amaria, he should, might, would love. 
 
ETYMOLOGY 59 
 
 Ama,ramos, am&semos, amariamos, we should, might, 
 
 would love. 
 Am&rais, am&seis, amariais, ye should, might, would 
 
 love. 
 
 Amdran, amdsen, amarian, they should, might, would 
 
 love. 
 
 Perfect. may have loved. 
 
 Hay a amddo, I may have loved. 
 Hdyas amddo, thou mayst have loved. 
 Hay a amddo, he may have loved. 
 Haydmos amddo, we may have loved. 
 Haydis amddo, ye may have loved. 
 Hay an amddo, they may have loved. 
 
 Pluperfect should, might, would have loved. 
 
 Hubiera, hubiese, habria, amddo, I should, might, would 
 
 have loved. 
 
 Hubieras 9 hubieses,habrias,amddo,ihoushou\dst,mightst, 
 
 wouldst have loved. 
 
 Hubiera, hubiese, habria, amddo,hz should, might, would 
 
 have loved. 
 
 Hubi&ramos, hubisemos, habriamos, amddo, we should, 
 
 might, would have loved. 
 
 Hubibrais, hubieseis, habriais, amddo, ye should, might, 
 
 would have loved. 
 
 ) hubiesen, kabrian, amddo 9 they should.might, 
 would have loved. 
 
 Future Imperfect. if should love. 
 
 Si amdre, if I should love. 
 Si amdres, if thou shouldst love. 
 Si amdre, if he should love. 
 Si am&remos, if we should love. 
 Si am&reis, if ye should love. 
 Si amdren, if they should love. 
 
60 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Future Perfect. if should have loved. 
 
 Si hubiere amddo, if I should have loved. 
 Si hubieres amddo, if thou shouldst have loved, 
 Si hubiere amddo, if he should have loved. 
 Si hubi6remos amddo, if we should have loved. 
 Si hubi6reis amddo, if ye should have loved. 
 Si hubieren amddo, if they should have loved. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present. 
 Amdr, to love. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Haber amddo, to have loved. 
 
 Gerund. 
 Amdndo, loving. 
 
 Compound of the Gerund. 
 Habiendo amddo, having loved. 
 
 Participle. 
 Amddo, loved. 
 
 Second Conjugation. Vender, To selL 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. sell. 
 
 Fendo, I sell. 
 Fendes, thou sellest. 
 Fende, he sells. 
 
 Fendemos, we sell. 
 Fendeis, ye sell. 
 Fenden, they sell. 
 
 Imperfect. sold or was selling. 
 Fendia, I sold. Fendiamos, we sold. 
 
 FendiaSj thou soldest. 
 Fendia, he sold. 
 
 Fendiais, ye sold. 
 Fendian 9 they sold. 
 
 Fendi, I sold. 
 Fendiste, thou soldest. 
 Fendi6, he sold. 
 
 Perfect Indefinite. sold. 
 
 Fendimos, we sold. 
 Fendlsteis, ye sold. 
 Fendi6ron, they sold. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 61 
 
 Perfect Definite, have sold. 
 
 He vendido, I have sold. 
 Has vend/do, thou hast sold. 
 Ha vendido, he has sold. 
 Hemos vend/do, we have sold 
 Habkis vendido, ye have sold. 
 Han vendido, they have sold. 
 
 Pluperfect. had sold. 
 
 Hube, or habia, vendido, I had sold. 
 Hubiste, or habias, vendido, thou hadst sold. 
 Hubo, or habia, vendido 9 he had sold. 
 Hublmos, or habiamos, vendido, we had sold. 
 Hubisteis, or habiais, vendldo t ye had sold. 
 Hubi&ron, or habian, vendido t they had sold. 
 
 Future Imperfect. shall or will sell. 
 
 Vender^, I shall sell. 
 Vender&s, thou shalt sell. 
 Venders,, he shall sell. 
 
 Vender&mos, we shall sell. 
 Fender&is, ye shall sell. 
 Vender&iiy they shall sell. 
 
 Future Perfect shall or will have sold. 
 
 Habr& vendido, I shall have sold. 
 Habras vendido, thou shalt have sold. 
 Habra vendido, he shall have sold. 
 Habremos vendido, we shall have sold. 
 Habrtis vendido, ye shall have sold. 
 Habr&n vendido, they shall have sold. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Vende, tu, sell thou. 
 Venda el, let him sell. 
 Venddmos nosotros, let us sell. 
 Vended vosotros, sell ye. 
 Vendan ellos, let them sell. 
 
62 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. may sell. 
 Venda, I may sell. Fenddmos, we may sell. 
 
 Fendas, thou mayst sell. 
 Venda, he may sell. 
 
 Fenddis, ye may sell. 
 Fendan, they may sell 
 
 Imperfect. should, might, would sell. 
 
 Fendiera, vendiese, venderia, I should, might, would 
 
 sell. 
 Fendieras, vendieses, venderias, thou shouldst, mightst, 
 
 wouldst sell. 
 Fendiera, vendiese, venderia, he should, might, would 
 
 sell. 
 
 Fendi&ramos, vendiesemos, venderiamos, we should, 
 
 might, would sell. 
 Vendi&raii, vendieseis, venderiais, ye should, might, 
 
 would sell. 
 
 Vendieran, vendiesen, venderian, they should, might, 
 
 would sell. 
 
 Perfect. may have sold. 
 
 Hdya vendido, I may have sold. 
 Hay as vendido, thou mayst have sold. 
 Hdya vendido, he may have sold. 
 Haydmos vendido, we may have sold. 
 Haydis vendido, ye may have sold. 
 Hdyan vendido, they may have sold. 
 
 Pluperfect. should, might, would have sold. 
 
 Hubiera, hubiese, habria, vendido, I should, might, 
 
 would have sold. 
 
 Hubieras, hubieses, habrias, vendido, thou shouldst, 
 mightst, wouldst have sold. 
 
 Hubiera, hubiese, habria, vendido, he should, might, 
 
 would have sold. 
 
 Hubi&ramos, hubi&semos, habriamos, vendido, we should, 
 
 might, would have sold. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 63 
 
 Hubi&rais, hubiseis, habriais, vendido, ye should, 
 
 might, would have sold. 
 
 Hubieran, hubiisen, habr'ian, vendido, they should, 
 
 might, would have sold. 
 
 Future Imperfect. if should sell. 
 Si vendiere, if I should sell. 
 Si vendieres, if thou shouldst sell. 
 Si vendiere, if he should sell. 
 Si vendiiremos, if we should sell. 
 Si vendi&reis, if ye should sell. 
 Si vendieren, if they should sell. 
 
 Future Perfect. if should have sold. 
 Si hubiere vendido, if I should have sold. 
 Si hubieres vendido, if thou shouldst have sold. 
 Si hubiere vendido, if he should have sold. 
 Si hubieremos vendido, if we should have sold. 
 Si hubiereis vendido, if ye should have sold. 
 Si hubieren vendido, if they should have sold. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present. 
 Vender, to sell. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Haber vendido, to have sold. 
 
 Gerund. 
 Vendiendo, selling. 
 
 Compound of the Gerund. 
 Habiendo vendido 9 having sold. 
 
 Participle. 
 Vendido, sold. 
 
 Third Conjugation, Unir, To unite. 
 
 Indicative. 
 Present. unite. 
 
 Uno, I unite. 
 Unes, thou unitest. 
 Une, he unites 
 
 Unimos, we unite. 
 Un'is, ye unite. 
 Unen, they unite. 
 
64 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Imperfect. united, or was uniting. 
 
 Unia, I united. 
 Unias, thou uriitedst, 
 Unia, he united. 
 
 Uniamos, we united. 
 Uriiais,' ye united. 
 Unian, they united. 
 
 Perfect Indefinite. united. 
 
 Uni t I united. 
 Uniste, thou unitedst. 
 Uni6, he united. 
 
 Unimos, we united. 
 Un'isteis, ye united. 
 Uni&ron, they united. 
 
 Perfect Definite. have united. 
 He unido, I have united. 
 Has unido, thou hast united. 
 Ha unido, he has united. 
 Hemos unido, we have united. 
 Habeis unido, ye have united. 
 Han unido, they have united. 
 
 Pluperfect. had united. 
 Hube, or habia, unido, I had united. 
 Hubiste, or habias, unido, thou hadst united 
 Hubo, or habia, unido, he had united. 
 Hubimos, or hab'iamos, unido, we had united. 
 Hub'isteis, or kab'iais, unido, ye had united. 
 Hubiiron, or habian, unido, they had united. 
 
 Future Imperfect. shall, or will unite. 
 
 Unire, I shall unite. 
 Unir&s, thou shalt unite. 
 Unirsi, he shall unite. 
 
 Unir&mos, we shall unite. 
 Unir&is, ye shall unite. 
 Unir&n, they shall unite. 
 
 Future Perfect. shall or will have united. 
 Habr& unido, I shall have united. 
 Habrbs unido, thou shalt have united. 
 Habrsi unido, he shall have united. 
 Habr&mos unido, we shall have united. 
 Habr&is unido, ye shall have united. 
 Habran unido, they shall have united. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 65 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Une tu, unite thou. 
 Una el, let him unite. 
 Undmos nosotros, let us unite. 
 Unid vosotros, unite ye. 
 Unan ellos, let them unite. 
 
 Una, I may unite. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Present. may unite. 
 
 Undmos, we may unite. 
 
 Una, L may umie. unamos, we may uniie 
 
 Unas, thou mayst unite. Undis, ye may unite. 
 Una, he may unite. Unan, they may unite. 
 
 Imperfect. should, might, would unite. 
 
 Uniera, uniese, uniria, I should, might, would unite. 
 Unieras, unieses, unirias, thou shouldst, mightst, 
 
 wouldst unite. 
 
 Uniera, uniese, uniria, he should, might, would unite. 
 Unieramos, uni&semos, uniriamos, we should, might, 
 
 would unite. 
 Uni&rais, uni&seis, uniriais, ye should, might, would 
 
 unite. 
 
 Unieran, uniesen, unirian, they should, might, would 
 
 unite. 
 
 Perfect. may have united. 
 
 Hdya unido, I may have united. 
 Hdyas unido, thou mayst have united. 
 Hdya unido, he may have united. 
 Haydmos unido, we may have united. 
 Haydis unido, ye may have united. 
 Hdyan unido, they may have united 
 
 Pluperfect. should, might, would have united. 
 Hubiera, hubiese, habrla, unido, I should, might, would 
 
 have united. 
 
 HubieraS) hubieses, habrias, unido, thou shouldst, 
 mightst, wouldst have united. 
 
 Hubiera, hubiese, habria, unido, he should, might, 
 
 would have united. 
 
68 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Hubi&ramos, hubitsemos, habriamos, unido, we should, 
 
 might, would have united. 
 Hubierais, hubi&seis, habriais, unido, ye should, might, 
 
 would have united. 
 Hubieran, hubiesen, habrian, unido , they should, might* 
 
 would have united. 
 
 Future Imperfect. if should unite. 
 
 Si uniere, if I should unite. 
 Si unieres, if thou shouldst unite. 
 Si uniere, if he should unite. 
 Si uni&remos, if we should unite. 
 Si uni&reis, if ye should unite. 
 Si unieren, if they should unite. 
 
 Future Perfect. if should have united. 
 
 Si hubiere unido, if I should have united. 
 Si hubieres unido, if thou shouldst have united. 
 Si hubiere unido, if he should have united. 
 Si hubi&remos unido, if we should have united. 
 Si hubiereis unido, if ye should have united. 
 Si hubieren unido, if they should have united. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present. 
 Umr, to unite. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Haber unido, to have united. 
 
 Gerund. 
 Uni&ndo, uniting. 
 
 Compound of the Gerund. 
 Habiendo unido, having united 
 
 Participle. 
 Unido, united. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 67 
 
 VIEW OP A VERB CONJUGATED AS PASSIVE. 
 
 Ser herido, to be wounded. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present am wounded. 
 
 Soy herido, I am wounded. 
 Eres herido, thou art wounded. 
 Es herido, he is wounded. 
 Somos heridos, we are wounded. 
 Sois heridos, ye are wounded. 
 Son heridos, they are wounded. 
 
 Imperfect. was wounded. 
 
 Era herido, I was wounded. 
 Eras herido, thou wast wounded. 
 Era herido, he was wounded. 
 Eramos heridos, we were wounded. 
 Erais heridos, ye were wounded. 
 Eran heridos, they were wounded 
 
 Perfect Indefinite. was wounded. 
 Fui herido, I was wounded. 
 Fuiste herido, thou wast wounded. 
 Fwe herido, he was wounded. 
 Fuimos heridos, we were wounded. 
 FuLsteis heridos, ye were wounded. 
 Fueron heridos, they were wounded. 
 
 Perfect Definite. have been wounded. x 
 
 He sido herido, I have been wounded. 
 Has sido herido, thou hast been wounded. 
 Ha sido herido, he has been wounded. 
 Hemos sido heridos, we have been wounded. 
 Habeis sido heridos, ye have been wounded. 
 Han sido heridos, they have been wounded. 
 
 Pluperfect. had been wounded. 
 
 Hube, or habia, sido herido, I had been wounded 
 Hubiste, ovhabias, sido herido, thou hadst been wounded. 
 Hubc, orhabia, sido herido, he had been wounded. 
 
68 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Hubimos, or habiamos, sido heridos, we had been 
 
 wounded. 
 
 Hubisteis, or habiais, sido heridos, ye had been wounded. 
 
 Hubiiron, or habian, sido hertdos, they had been 
 
 wounded. 
 
 Future Imperfect. shall be or will be wounded. 
 Ser& kendo, I shall be wounded. 
 Ser&s herido, thou shalt be wounded. 
 Sera, herido, he shall be wounded. 
 Seremos heridos, we shall be wounded. 
 Ser&is heridos, ye shall be wounded. 
 Ser&n heridos, they shall be wounded. 
 
 Future Perfect. shall or will have been wounded. 
 
 Habr& sido herido, I shall have been wounded. 
 Habr&s sido herido, thou shalt have been wounded. 
 Habra, sido herido, he shall have been wounded. 
 Habremos sido heridos, we shall have been wounded. 
 Habr&is sido heridos, ye shall have been wounded. 
 Habrn sido heridos, they shall have been wounded. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Se tu herido, be thou wounded. 
 Sea el herido, let him be wounded. 
 Sedmos nosotros heridos, let us be wounded. 
 Sed vosotros heridos, be ye wounded. 
 Sean ellos heridos, let them be wounded. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. may be wounded 
 
 Sea herido, I may be wounded. 
 Seas herido, thou mayst be wounded. 
 Sea herido, he may be wounded. 
 Sedmos heridos, we may be wounded, 
 Sedis heridos, ye may be wounded. 
 Sean heridos, they may be wounded. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 69 
 
 Imperfect should, might, would be wounded. 
 
 Fuera, fuese, seria, kendo, I should, might, would be 
 
 wounded. 
 
 Fueras, fueses, serias, herido, thou shouldst, mightst, 
 
 wouldst be wounded. 
 Fucra, fiiese, seria, herido, he should, might, would 
 
 be wounded. 
 
 Fmramos, fuesemos, ser'iamos, heridos, we should, 
 
 might, would be wounded. 
 
 Fuerais, fu&seis, serials, heridos, ye should, might, 
 
 would be wounded. 
 
 Fueran, fuesen, serian, heridos, they should, might, 
 
 would be wounded. 
 
 Perfect. may have been wounded. 
 
 Hdya sido herido, I may have been wounded. 
 Hdyas sido herido, thou mayst have been wounded. 
 Hdya sido herido, he may have been wounded. 
 Haydmos sido heridos, we may have been wounded. 
 Haydis sido heridos, ye may have been wounded. 
 Hay an sido heridos, they may have been wounded. 
 
 Pluperfect. should, might, would have been wounded. 
 
 Hubiera sido 
 Hubiese sido 
 Habria sido 
 
 Hu bier as sido 
 Hubieses sido 
 Habrias sido 
 
 Hubiera sido 
 Hubiese sido 
 Habria sido 
 
 >herido, 
 >herido, 
 >herido, 
 
 I should have been 
 I might have been 
 I would have been 
 
 Hubieramos sido^ 
 Hubiesemos sido \-herl 
 Habriamos sido ) 
 
 thou shouldst have been") ^ 
 thou mightst have been V g 
 thou wouldst have been j g 
 
 he should have been 
 he might have been 
 he would have been 
 
 we should have been 
 we might have been 
 we would have been 
 
 -\ " 
 i 
 
 f T3 
 
 V fl 
 
 Jl 
 
70 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Hubierais sido "^ ye should have been 
 
 Hubicseis sido >heridos, ye might have been 
 Habriais sido ) ye would have been ^ - 
 
 Hubieran sido "^ they should have been ~) ^ 
 
 Hubiesen sido ^heridos, they might have been > g 
 Habrian sido J they would have been J g 
 
 Future Imperfect. if should be wounded. 
 
 Sifiiere herido, if I should be wounded. 
 Si fueres herldo, if thou shouldst be wounded. 
 Si fuere herido, if he should be wounded. 
 Siju&remos heridos, if we should be wounded. 
 SifitAreis heridos, if ye should be wounded. 
 Sifu&ren heridos, if they should be wounded. 
 
 Future Perfect. if should have been wounded. 
 Si hubiere sido herido y if I should have been wounded. 
 Si hubieres sido herido, if thou shouldst have been 
 
 wounded. 
 
 Si hubiere sido herido, if he should have been wounded. 
 Si hubi&remos sido heridos, if we should have been 
 
 wounded. 
 Si hubiereis sido heridos, if ye should have been 
 
 wounded. 
 Si hubieren sido heridos, if they should have been 
 
 wounded. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present. 
 Ser herldo, to be wounded. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Haber sido herido, to have been wounded. 
 
 Gerund. 
 Siendo herido, having- been wounded. 
 
 Compound of the Gerund. 
 Habiendo sido herido, having been wounded. 
 
 Participle. 
 Herldo^ wounded. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 71 
 
 VIEW OF A VERB CONJUGATED AS REFLECTIVE. 
 
 Alabarse, to praise one s self. 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present. praise myself. 
 
 Yo me aldbo, Nosotros nos alabdmos 
 
 Tu te aldbas, Fosotros os alabdis, 
 
 El se aldba, , Ellos se aldban. 
 
 Imperfect. praised myself. 
 Me alabdba, Nos alab&bamos, 
 
 Te alabdbas, Os alab'dbais, 
 
 Se alabdba, Se alabdba?i. 
 
 Me alabe, 
 Te alabdste, 
 Se a/,ab6, 
 
 Perfect Indefinite. praised myself. 
 
 Nos alabdmos, 
 Os alab&steis, 
 Se alab&ron.- 
 
 Me he alabddo, 
 Te has alabddo, 
 Se ha alabddo, 
 
 Perfect Definite. have praised myself. 
 
 Nos hemos alabddo t 
 Os habeis alabddo, 
 Se han alabddo. 
 
 Pluperfect. had praised myself. 
 Me hiibe, or habia, alabddo , 
 Te hubiste, or habias, alabddo, 
 Se hubo, or habta, alabddo, 
 Nos hublmos, or habiamos, alabddo, 
 Os hubisteis, or habiais, alabddo, 
 Se hubiiron, or habian, alabddo. 
 
 Future Imperfect. shall praise myself. 
 
 Me alabare, 
 Te alabars, 
 Se alabara, 
 
 Nos alabaremos, 
 Os alabareis, 
 Se alabaran. 
 
 Future Perfect. shall have praised myself. 
 Me habr& alabddo, Nos habremos alabddo t 
 
 Te habr&s alabddo, 
 Se habr& alabddo, 
 
 Os habreis alabddo, 
 Se habrsi?i alabddo. 
 
 Aldbate tu, 
 
 Imperative. 
 praise thou thyself. 
 
72 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Aldbese e7, let him praise himself. 
 Alabemonos nosdtros, let us praise ourselves. 
 Alabdos vosotros, praise ye yourselves. 
 Aldbense ellos, let them praise themselves. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. may praise myself. 
 
 Me aldbe, Nos alabemos, 
 
 Te aldbes, Os alabeis, 
 
 Se aldbe, Se aldben. 
 
 Imperfect. should, might, would praise myself. 
 
 Me alabdra, alabdse, alabaria, 
 
 Te alabdras, alabdses, alabarias, 
 
 Se alabdra, alabdse, alabaria, 
 
 Nos alab&ramos, alab&semos, alabariamos, 
 
 Os alabarais, alab&seis, alabar'iais, 
 
 Se alabdran, alabdsen, alabarian. 
 
 Perfect. may have praised myself. 
 
 Me hay a alabddo, 
 Te hay as alabddo, 
 Se hay a alabddo, 
 
 Nos haydmos alabddo, 
 Os haydis alabddo, 
 Se hdyan alabddo. 
 
 Pluperfect. should, might, would have praised myself 
 
 Me hubiera, hubiese, habria, alabddo, 
 
 Te hubieras, hubieses, habrias, alabddo, 
 
 Se hubiera, hubiese, habria, alabddo, 
 
 Nos hubi&ramos, hubi&semos, habr'iamos, alabddo, 
 
 Os hubierais, hubieseis, habr'iais, alabddo, 
 
 Se hubieran, hubiesen, habrian, alabddo. 
 
 Future Imperfect. if should praise myself. 
 
 Si me alabdre, 
 Si te alabdres, 
 Si se alabdre, 
 
 Si nos alab&remos, 
 Si os alabareis, 
 Si se alabdren. 
 
 Future Perfect. if should have praised myself. 
 
 Si me hubiere alabddo, 
 Si te hubieres alabddo, 
 Si se hubiere alabddo, 
 
 Si nos hubieremos alabddo, 
 Si os hubiereis alabddo, 
 Si se hubieren alabddo. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. J3 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Alabdrse, to praise one's self. 
 
 Haberse alabddo, to have praised one's self. 
 
 Alabdndose, praising one's self. 
 
 Habiendose alabddo, having praised one's self 
 
 Alabddo, praised. 
 
 On Verbs used Interrogatively or Negatively. 
 
 When we ask a question, the subject conies after 
 the verb ; as ^ Vivia tu padre entonces? Was your 
 father then alive ? But the subject sometimes ele- 
 gantly follows the verb, when no question is asked; 
 %)Vivia entonces mi abuelo materno, My mother's 
 father was then alive. Gil Bias, ch. v. 
 
 N.B. When the verb is negatively used, the no 
 must precede it ; as, Yo no corno, I do not eat ; 
 No ayunara tu padre manana ? Will not your 
 father fast to-morrow ? & No ha visto vm. al rey f 
 Have you not seen the king ? Si, pero mi hi jo no 
 le ha visto, Yes, but my son has not seen him. 
 
 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 A Participle is a word derived .from a verb, and 
 resembling in its properties both verbs and adjec- 
 tives. 
 
 A Participle (so called from its participating of 
 the nature of the verb from which it is derived) re- 
 sembles its primitive, because it denotes being, 
 action, or suffering ; as, He sido pobre, I have been 
 poor ; Tu has escrito los nombres, Thou hast writ- 
 ten the names ; Se han impreso varias obras, 
 Several works have been printed. And it has also 
 the properties of an adjective, because it qualifies 
 the noun to which it is applied with the variations 
 of gender, number, and case : as, Los nombres 
 E 
 
74 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 sscritos, The written names ; En las obras impre- 
 sas, In the printed works. 
 
 Spanish verbs have two participles, called the 
 present participle, and the past participle. The 
 latter, from its being used to form passive verbs ? 
 has obtained the name of the passive participle. 
 
 All verbs have not a present participle, and in 
 many verbs it retains only its adjective property. 
 The present participle ends in ante for the first, 
 and in iente for the second, or third, conjugation. 
 
 The passive participle for the first conjugation 
 ends in ado, and for the second or third in ido. 
 Those which end otherwise are called irregular 
 participles. 
 
 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 An Adverb is a part of speech which, being joined 
 to verbs, serves to modify their signification ; as, 
 Habla concisamente, He speaks concisely. 
 
 Adverbs are also joined to an adjective, or to a 
 substantive used adjectively, or even to another 
 adverb, in order to express some circumstance, 
 degree, quality, or manner of its signification ; as, 
 El juez es muy severo, The judge is very severe ; 
 El es muy nino, He is very childish ; Lo digo 
 muy seriamente, I say it very seriously ; mas des- 
 pacio, more slowly, &c. 
 
 Adverbs formed from adjectives, or from other 
 adverbs, by the addition of a word or syllable, are 
 called compound ; and those adverbs from which 
 others are formed are termed simple : thus the ad- 
 verbs facilmente, easily ; felizmente, happily ; are 
 compounds of the adjectives fdcil, easy ; feliz, 
 happy ; and from the simple adverb mas, more, 
 is formed the compound ademas, besides \ &c. 
 
 Adverbs are divided according to their meaning 
 into several classes. Their chief divisions are into 
 adverbs of place, time, manner, or quality, quan- 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 tity, comparison, order, affirmation, negation, 
 and doubt. The following are some of those which 
 belong to each of the foregoing classes. 
 
 
 Of Place. 
 
 
 Acd, 
 
 hither. 
 
 Dentro, 
 
 within. 
 
 Aqui, 
 
 here. 
 
 Fuera, 
 
 without. 
 
 A hi, 
 
 there. 
 
 Arriba, 
 
 up. 
 
 Alii, 
 
 thither. 
 
 Abaxo, 
 
 down. 
 
 Alia, 
 
 yonder. 
 
 Delante, 
 
 before. 
 
 Cerca, 
 
 near. 
 
 Detras, 
 
 behind. 
 
 Lejos, 
 
 far. 
 
 Encima, 
 
 upon. 
 
 Donde, 
 
 where. 
 
 Debaxo, 
 
 under. &c. 
 
 Adonde, 
 
 whither. 
 
 
 
 Of Time. 
 
 Hoy, 
 
 to-day. 
 
 Siempre, 
 
 always. 
 
 Ayer, 
 
 yesterday. 
 
 Nunca, 
 
 never. 
 
 Manana, 
 
 to-morrow. 
 
 Jamas, 
 
 never. 
 
 A hora, 
 
 now. 
 
 Ya, 
 
 already. 
 
 Luego, 
 
 presently. 
 
 Amejiudo, 
 
 often. 
 
 Tarde, 
 
 late. 
 
 Antes, 
 
 before. 
 
 Temprano, 
 
 soon. 
 
 Despues, * 
 
 after. &c. 
 
 Of Manner. 
 
 Bien, 
 Mai, 
 Asi, 
 Pronto,^ 
 Redo, 
 Apriesa, 
 
 well, 
 badly, 
 thus, 
 readily, 
 strongly, 
 hastily. 
 
 Despaeio, slowly. 
 Alto, loudly. 
 Baxo, lowly. 
 * Presto,^ quickly. 
 Fuertemente, strongly. 
 
 N.B. To this class belong almost all the adverbs 
 which end ia mente. 
 
 Of Quantify. 
 
 Mucho, much. 
 
 Poco, little. 
 
 Demasiado, too much. 
 
 Bastante, enough, 
 Harto, sufficiently. &e. 
 
 * To these may be added unn vez, once ; dos teces, twice; tres 
 veces, thrice ; quatro veces, four times. &c. 
 t See the author s Synonyms, page 31. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Of Comparison. 
 
 Mas, more. Peor, worse. 
 
 Menos, less. Muy, very. 
 
 My or, better. CV*sz, almost. &c. 
 
 O/ Orrfer. 
 Primero, first. | Despues, after. &c. 
 
 O/ Affirmation. 
 Ann, even, | S^, yes, &c. 
 
 O/ 1 Negation. 
 no. I Tampoco, neither. &c. 
 
 No, 
 Ni, 
 
 nor. 
 
 O/ 
 
 Acaso, 
 
 perhaps. | Probablemente,pYobsib\y.&c 
 
 There are also many expressions which, from 
 their having the same import as adverbs, have ob- 
 tained the name of adverbial moods or expres- 
 sions; such as hacia alii, towards there, or towards 
 that place ; despues de manana, after to-morrow ; 
 sin duda, indubitably. &c. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 A Preposition is a part of speech which serves 
 to show the relation which one word bears to 
 another ; as, En el pais de los enemigos, In the 
 enemy's country. 
 
 The following are the principal prepositions in 
 Spanish : 
 
 A, 
 
 Ante, 
 
 Con, 
 
 Contra, 
 
 De, 
 
 Desde, 
 
 En, 
 
 Entre, 
 
 to or at. 
 
 Hdcia, 
 
 before. 
 
 Hasta, 
 
 with. 
 
 Para, 
 
 against. 
 
 Por, 
 
 of or from. 
 
 Segun, 
 
 from. 
 
 Sin, 
 
 in. 
 
 Sobre, 
 
 between. 
 
 Tras, 
 
 towards^ 
 
 till. 
 
 for. 
 
 by or for. 
 
 according to. 
 
 without. 
 
 upon. 
 
 behind. 
 
KTYMOLOGV. 77 
 
 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 A Conjunction has been denned to be that part 
 of speech which connects words and sentences 
 together ; as. La justicia y la misericordia son 
 atributos divmos, Justice and mercy are divine 
 attributes ; Ire a verle, y se lo preguntartf, I shall 
 go to see him, and will ask him about it. 
 
 The Spanish Academy has distributed conjunc- 
 tions into the following classes : 
 
 Conjunctive : as, y,* and ; ni, nor ; que, that. 
 Example, Pedro y Juan, Peter and John ; No sali- 
 eron ni Pedro ni Juan, Neither Peter nor John 
 went out. N.B. When the sentence begins with 
 no. the first ni may be left out. 
 
 Disjunctive : as, o,* or, either ; as Fendrd el 
 homhre 6 la myger, The man or the woman will 
 come. 
 
 Conditional : as, si, if ; como, as ; con tal que, 
 provided that. Example, Si aspiras a ser docto, 
 estudia, If thou dost aspire to be learned, study. 
 
 Causal : as, porque, because ; pues, puesque, 
 since. Example, No puedo ir, porque estoy coxo, 
 I cannot go, because I am lame ; Pues me lopre- 
 guntas, te lo contare, Since thou askest me about 
 it, I will relate it to thee. 
 
 Continuative : as, pues, then ; puesto que, since. 
 Example, Digo pues que salio de aquel peligro, I 
 say then that he came out of that danger. 
 
 Comparative : as, como, as ; asi, so \ asi como 9 
 as. Example, Blanco como la nieve, White as 
 snow ; Asi como lo digo, asi lo aprcndi, As I say 
 it, so I learned it. 
 
 * is substituted for y when (he word following the conjunction 
 begins with t, or with hi ; as, malicia t ignorancia, Padre hijo. We 
 also exchange 6 for w, when the word following begins with an o: as, 
 ondas u olas ; corderos u ooejas. 
 
78 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Adversative : as, mas, pero, but ; aunque, 
 though. Example, Quisiera ir, mas no puedo, I 
 should like to go, but I cannot ; Js rico, pero no 
 dichoso, He is rich, but not happy. 
 
 Objective : as, para que, that, or in order that ; 
 afin de que, to the end that ; Example, Te lo 
 digo para que se lo escribas, I tell it thee that thou 
 mayst write it to him. 
 
 Those conjunctions which contain only one 
 word, as, como, pero, &c. are called simple ; and 
 those which are formed with different words, as, 
 asi como,para que, &c. are denominated compound 
 conjunctions. 
 
 OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 An Interjection is a part of speech which ex- 
 presses some emotion of the mind \ as, ola ! holla ! 
 chito ! hush ! ay ! oh ! &c. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The ten parts of speech which have been explained, 
 comprise all the different species of words of which the 
 Spanish language is composed : every word therefore in 
 the language must necessarily be referred to some one 
 of these ten divisions : but as words are always attached 
 to these ten classes according to their import in the 
 sentence, a word may be made to vary its class accord- 
 ing to the various manners in which it is used : hence 
 el and tu (the and thou, the one an article and the other 
 a pronoun) may both be made to stand in the place of 
 nouns ; as is the case in the following sentences : No 
 puedo pronunciar el bien, I cannot pronounce the well ; 
 No se el accusative de tu, I do not know the accusative 
 of thou. The same word may be also found as an ad- 
 jective or adverb according to the manner in which it is 
 employed : thus, in un hombre baxo de cuerpo, a n>an 
 low in stature, low is in both languages an adjective ; 
 but, in habk vm. baxo, speak low, the adjective becomes 
 
ETYMOLOGY. ~9 
 
 an adverb in both languages. In the same manner 
 manana, to-morrow, which, in Vendre manana, I shall 
 come to-morrow, is an adverb ; in Manana es dia de 
 ayuno, To-morrow is a fast d.ay, is used as a substantive. 
 Many more instances might be adduced of the variation 
 in class which some of the parts of speech are capable 
 of undergoing ; but the foregoing examples are suffi- 
 cient to convince learners that, without a strict atten- 
 tion to the import of the word in the sentence, the 
 class to which it belongs can seldom be accurately 
 ascertained. 
 
80 
 
 SYNTAX, 
 
 SYNTAX treats of sentences, fixes the proper 
 arrangement of their component parts, and shows 
 how the various modifications of words are to be 
 correctly employed. 
 
 A sentence has been defined to be an assemblage 
 of words forming a complete sense. 
 
 Syntax is divided into two parts, Concord and 
 Government. 
 
 Concord is the agreement of one word with an- 
 other^ in number, gender, case, or person ; as, Yo 
 escribo, I write. Here yo is the first person of the 
 singular number, and escribo is also the first person 
 of the same number : these two words, therefore, 
 are said to agree in number and person. 
 
 Government or Regimen is the power of one 
 word over another when it determines its case, 
 tense, or mood ; as, La matard, He will kill her. 
 Here matard is an active transitive verb, governing 
 the pronoun in the objective case. 
 
 There are four species of concords. 
 
 1st. Between the article and noun. These agree 
 in number, gender, and case ; as, El valor de las 
 tropaSy The valour of the troops. N. B. This is 
 likewise the agreement of two nouns used in 
 apposition. 
 
 2d. Between the noun and the adjective. These 
 also agree in gender, number, and case ; as, La 
 victoria gloriosa de los valerosos patriotas, The 
 
SYNTAX. 81 
 
 glorious victory of the valiant patriots. N . B. Par- 
 ticiples adjectively used have also this species of 
 concord. 
 
 3d. Between the antecedent and the relative. 
 These always agree in gender and number, and 
 sometimes also in case ; as, Entregutf las cart as 
 & las senoras para las quales se escribie'ron, I de- 
 livered the letters to the ladies for whom they were 
 written ; Estas son las senoras para las quales se 
 escribi&ron las cartas, These are the ladies for 
 whom the letters were written. The second ex- 
 ample exhibits the relative as agreeing in gender 
 and number only with its antecedent, the relative 
 being in the objective case, whilst the antecedent 
 is in the nominative. 
 
 4th. Between the subject and the verb. These 
 agree in number and person ; as, Yo soy, I am ; 
 nosotros somos, we are ; Mos vienen, they come. 
 
PART THE SECOND. 
 
 [Having enumerated and defined the different species of words 01 
 which the Spanish language is composed, I shall in this Part lay down 
 the necessary rules to learn how to produce the correct agreement 
 and right arrangement of words in a sentence.] 
 
 RULES 
 
 OP 
 
 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 RULE 1. The article agrees in gender, number, 
 
 and case, with the noun to which it is prefixed ; as 
 
 El libra contenia los co- The book contained the 
 
 merit arias de los doc- commentaries of the 
 
 tores del'd universidad doctors of the univer- 
 
 sobre las profecias de sity on the prophecies 
 
 los prof etas. of the prophets. 
 
 Note a. Feminine nouns, beginning with a or ha, and having the 
 accent on the first syllable, take in the singular the masculine article ; 
 as, Mas el area andaba sobre las aguas, But the ark moved upon the 
 waters. 
 
 Note b. The article el loses the e after the prepositions de or a, 
 to which prepositions the consonant of the article is then joined ; as, 
 del autor, of the author ; al libro, to the book ; instead of de el an- 
 tor, d el libra. N. B. El preceding an epithet does not lose the e: 
 as, logro el dictado de el Batallador, he obtained the surname of 
 the Battler ; dieron d su rey el dictado de el Deseado^ they gave 
 their king the surname of the Desired. 
 
 Plural Number. 
 
 RULE 2. Nouns ending in a vowel which is not 
 marked with the accent, take an 5 in the plural ; as 
 Reyno, reynos. Kingdom, kingdoms. 
 
 Corona, coronas, Crown, crowns. 
 
84 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 RULE 3. Nouns which end in an accented vowel, 
 or in a consonant,* take es in the plural ; as 
 Alholi, alholies, Granary, granaries 
 Arbol, drboles, Tree, trees. 
 Imogen, imdgenes, Image, images. 
 Plor )t flores 9 Flower, flowers. 
 
 Note a. Nouns ending in ay or ey take es in the plural; as, rey, 
 reyef ; ay, aye*. 
 
 Nouns which do not increase in the Plural. 
 
 Cortaplumas, penknife; sacamuelas, toothdrawer : 
 sacatrapos, corkscrew ; brindis, a drinking toast ; Liines, 
 Monday ; Maries, Tuesday ; Miercoles, Wednesday , 
 Jueves, Thursday ; Vie rues, Friday. 
 
 The following Nouns are used only in the Plural 
 
 pot-hanger 
 
 matins 
 
 manners 
 
 nones 
 
 the breast of 
 
 birds 
 prayers 
 pap 
 
 similitude 
 tongs 
 ague 
 darkness 
 trevet 
 vespers 
 provisions 
 
 Nouns which from the nature of their meaning 
 are used in English in the singular only, do not in 
 general admit the plural in Spanish ; as, trigo, 
 wheat ; oro, gold, &c. 
 
 * If the final consonant be a z, it must be changed into c ; as, luz t 
 /Kce.i, light, lights; nariz, narices, nose noses; tdpiz, Idpicea, pen- 
 cil, pencils. 
 
 f The reward bestowed on a messenger of good news. 
 
 Albricias f. 
 
 agiftt 
 
 Hares f. 
 
 alicates 
 
 pincers 
 
 maytines 
 
 angarittas f. 
 
 hand-barrow 
 
 modales 
 
 bofes 
 
 lungs 
 
 nonas f. 
 
 calendas f. 
 
 calends 
 
 pechi/gas f. 
 
 completas f. 
 
 complin 
 
 
 despabila- 
 
 snuffers 
 
 preces f. 
 
 deras f. 
 
 
 
 pitches f. 
 
 efeftne rides f. 
 
 ephemeris 
 
 semejas f. 
 
 exequias f. 
 
 exequies 
 
 tenazas f. 
 
 fasces f. 
 
 a bundle of 
 
 terciana* 
 
 
 twigs 
 
 tinieblas 
 
 fauces f. 
 
 gullet 
 
 trcbedes f. 
 
 idus 
 
 ides 
 
 visperas f. 
 
 largas f. 
 
 delays 
 
 viveres 
 
 livianos 
 
 lights 
 
 
AND SYNTAX. 85 
 
 OF THE GENDER OF NOUNS 
 
 There are two methods of distinguishing the gen - 
 der in Spanish nouns ; first by their meaning, 
 and secondly by their termination. 
 
 RULE 4. Nouns which signify males, or which 
 denote dignities, professions, employments, &c. 
 applicable to men, are masculine ; and those which 
 signify females, or the dignities, professions, &c. 
 generally applied to women, are feminine ; as, 
 hombre, man ; cabal to, horse ; emperador, em- 
 peror ; monge, monk ; sastre, tailor, &c. and 
 muger, woman ; gallina, hen ; emperatris, em- 
 press ; monja, nun ; costurera, sempstress, &c. 
 
 N. B. Haca, a pony, is always feminine. 
 
 RULE 5. Nouns ending in e, i, ory, /, o, u, n, 
 r, s, t, x, and z, are generally masculine ; as, talle, 
 shape ; aleli, jilly-flower ; clavel, pink ; cuello, 
 neck ; espiritu, spirit ; pan, bread ; collar, collar ; 
 mes, month - } cenit, zenith ; relax, watch \ barniz, 
 varnish. 
 
 ._ ge- 
 salud? 
 
 varmsii. 
 
 RULE 6. Nouns ending in a, d, and ion, are 
 nerally feminine ; as, ventana, window ; sa( 
 health ; intention, intention. 
 
 Note a. The names of the alphabetic characters, as well as of 
 the figures of rhetoric, poetry, and grammar, (except metaplasmo, 
 pleonasmn, hyperbaton^) are feminine. 
 
 Note b. The names of sciences, arts, rivers, mountains, winds, 
 and seasons, follow the rule of their termination : hence Dibuxo, 
 Tajo, Heliconj Norte, Invierno, are masculine ; and Teoloyia, Escul- 
 tura, Tamisa, Tramontana, Primavera, are feminine ; except Etna, 
 which is masculine. 
 
 Note c. Nouns, which are used in the plural only, are of the gen- 
 der to which they would belong according to their termination, had 
 they a singular number : thus, vivercs, provisions, is masculine ; and 
 tenazas, tongs, is feminine, being the genders to which viverr and 
 tenaza ^vould be referred, had the said nouns a singular number: 
 except efemerides, fasces, fauces, I/arcs, preces, trtbedes, which are 
 feminine, 
 
86 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Note d. The names of the musical notes which compose the 
 octave are masculine j as el re, el mi, el fa, el fa, &c. 
 
 Note e. Proper names of kingdoms, cities, towns, villages, c. 
 are generally of the same gender as the common name to which 
 they belong : thus Toledo is feminine, although it ends in o, because 
 ciudadj the common noun to which it is referred, is of that gender : 
 but as there are some proper names which, contrary to this rule, 
 are, when used alone, of the gender of their termination; and as 
 the knowledge of these names cannot be obtained without consider- 
 able practice, I should recommend learners in particular to mention 
 the common as well as the proper noun, by which means the gender 
 will be universally fixed : thus, although we say el Ferrol and la 
 Espana, when mentioned alone, we express them la ciudad de Ferrol t 
 el reyno de Espana, when preceded by their common nouns. 
 
 Gender of Nouns. 
 
 Exceptions from Rule 5. 
 
 Feminine Nouns ending in e. 
 
 Aguachirle 
 
 slipslop 
 
 corambre 
 
 hide 
 
 alache 
 
 shad 
 
 corriente 
 
 stream 
 
 alsine 
 
 chickweed 
 
 corte 
 
 court 
 
 anagalide -< 
 
 plant) 
 
 costumbre 
 crasicie 
 
 custom 
 plumpness 
 
 ave 
 
 a fowl 
 
 creciente 
 
 flood tide 
 
 azumbre 
 
 a measure 
 
 cfcfiche 
 
 f the parting of 
 
 barbaric 
 
 barbarity 
 
 
 \ the hair 
 
 base 
 
 basis 
 
 cumbr 
 
 summit 
 
 calvicie 
 
 baldness 
 
 dulccaumbre sweetness 
 
 calle 
 
 street 
 
 elatine 
 
 waterwort 
 
 capelardente 
 
 a funeral pile 
 
 enante 
 
 a herb 
 
 caridtide 
 carne 
 
 caryatides 
 flesh 
 
 epipdctide 
 
 f bastard helle- 
 
 catdstrofe 
 
 catastrophe 
 
 esferoyd*. 
 
 . spheroid 
 
 certidumbre 
 
 certainty 
 
 especie 
 
 species 
 
 churre 
 
 grease 
 
 estirpe 
 
 race 
 
 clase 
 clave 
 
 class 
 key 
 
 eliopide 
 
 f sclarea fa 
 
 1 dt'd -f 
 
 climber (a 
 
 falange 
 
 phalanx 
 
 (^ 
 
 plant) 
 
 fame 
 
 hunger 
 
 cohorte 
 
 cohort 
 
 fase 
 
 phases 
 
 compares 
 
 a joint 
 
 fl 
 
 faith 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 fievre 
 
 f rente 
 
 fuente 
 
 genie 
 
 hambre 
 
 helice 
 
 helxine 
 
 hemionite 
 herrumbre 
 
 fever 
 forehead 
 fountain 
 people 
 hunger 
 helix 
 "pellitory of 
 
 the wall 
 hemionitis (a 
 
 plant) 
 rust of iron 
 
 lande 
 
 hojaldre a kind of cake 
 incertidumbre uncertainty 
 indole temper 
 
 ingle groin 
 
 . , . f intemperate- 
 
 intempene -| ^ 
 
 (a species of 
 acorn 
 
 landre -f a S^nlar 
 (^ swelling. 
 laringe larynx 
 
 laude praise 
 
 leche milk 
 
 legumbre pulse 
 lente lens 
 
 liebre hare 
 
 liendre nit 
 
 lite /itigation. 
 
 Have key 
 
 lumbre fire 
 
 mansedumbre meekness 
 menguante ebb tide 
 mente mind 
 
 mole mass 
 
 molicie effeminacy 
 
 muchedumbre multitude 
 muerte death 
 
 TJiugre 
 
 nave 
 
 nieve 
 
 noche 
 
 nube 
 
 paralaxe 
 
 paraselene 
 
 parte 
 
 patente 
 
 peplide 
 
 muck 
 
 nave 
 
 snow 
 
 night 
 
 cloud 
 
 parallax 
 
 mock-moon 
 
 portion 
 
 patent 
 
 wild purslain 
 
 pesadumbre grief 
 
 peste plague 
 
 piramide pyramid 
 
 pixide pix 
 
 planicie plain 
 
 plebe rabble 
 
 podre pus 
 
 podredumbre rottenness 
 
 progenie progeny 
 
 prole issue 
 
 quiete quietus 
 
 salumbre oxide of salt* 
 , f the Salve Re- 
 salve \ gina 
 
 sangre blood 
 
 sede see 
 
 serie series 
 servidumbre servitude 
 
 serpiente serpent 
 
 sirte quicksand 
 
 suerte chance 
 
 superficie superficies 
 
 tarde afternoon 
 
 teame akindofstons 
 
 techumbre roof 
 
 temperie temperature 
 
 tilde tittle 
 
 torre tower 
 
 trabe beamorgirder 
 
 tripode tripod 
 
 A kind of rust which salt acquires by exposure to atmospheric air. 
 
88 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 troxe 
 ubre 
 
 granary 
 udder 
 
 velambre 
 
 f certain nup- 
 \ tial rites 
 
 urdiembre 
 
 warp 
 
 vislumbre 
 
 glimmering 
 
 varice 
 
 varix 
 
 xiride 
 
 xirys(aplant) 
 
 Feminine Nouns in i or y> 
 
 Didcesi 
 
 diocese 
 
 ley 
 
 law 
 
 . , . ( 
 
 gratiola (a 
 
 metropoli 
 
 metropolis 
 
 gra -^ 
 
 herb) 
 
 palmacristi 
 
 palmachristi 
 
 grey 
 
 "flock 
 
 pardfrasi 
 
 paraphrase. 
 
 
 Feminine Nouns in I. 
 
 
 Aguamiel 
 
 hydromel 
 
 hid 
 
 gall 
 
 cal 
 
 lime 
 
 mid 
 
 honey 
 
 capital 
 
 metropolis 
 
 piel 
 
 skin 
 
 odrcel 
 
 prison 
 
 sal 
 
 salt 
 
 col 
 
 cabbage 
 
 serial 
 
 signal 
 
 decretal 
 
 decretal 
 
 vocal 
 
 vowel. 
 
 
 Feminine Nouns in ?i. 
 
 
 Arrumazon 
 barbechazo7i- 
 
 stowage 
 f fallowing 
 
 plomazon 
 
 fthe gilders' 
 \ cushion 
 
 
 (^ time 
 
 razon 
 
 reason 
 
 binazon 
 
 fthe second 
 (^ ploughing 
 
 sarten 
 sazon 
 
 frying-pan 
 season 
 
 cargazon 
 
 cargo 
 
 segazon 
 
 reaping-time 
 
 clavazon 
 
 row of nails 
 
 sien 
 
 temple 
 
 din or crin 
 
 mane 
 
 sinrazon 
 
 wrong 
 
 desazon 
 
 uneasiness 
 
 trabazon 
 
 splicing. 
 
 imdgen 
 
 image 
 
 
 
 
 Feminine Nouns in o. 
 
 
 Mano 
 
 hand 
 
 71 ao 
 
 ship. 
 
 
 Feminine Nouns in r. 
 
 
 Bezoar 
 
 bezoar 
 
 segur 
 
 axe 
 
 flor 
 
 flower 
 
 zoster 
 
 shingles. 
 
 labor 
 
 work 
 
 
 
 
 Feminine Nouns in s. 
 
 
 dnagiris 
 
 bean trefoil 
 
 apoteosis 
 
 apotheosis 
 
 antiperlstasis 
 
 an ti peri stasis 
 
 bacaris 
 
 flea-bane 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 b 'Us bile 
 
 metemsico- 
 
 {metempsy- 
 
 colap'scis isinglass 
 
 sis 
 
 chosis 
 
 crisis crisis 
 
 mies 
 
 crop 
 
 diaperisis diapedesis 
 
 paraldxis 
 
 parallax 
 
 diartrosis diarthrosis 
 
 paralisis 
 
 palsy 
 
 diesis diesis 
 
 parenesis 
 
 paranesis 
 
 enfiteusis emphyteusis 
 epiglotis epiglottis 
 
 polispdstos 
 
 f tackle of pul- 
 
 (. l^ys 
 
 et'ttes aetites 
 
 raquitis 
 
 rickets 
 
 galiopsis dead-nettle 
 
 res 
 
 head of cattle 
 
 hematites hematites 
 
 selenites 
 
 selenites 
 
 hipostasis hypostasis 
 
 sinderesis 
 
 remorse 
 
 hipotesis hypothesis 
 
 sineresis 
 
 synaeresi 
 
 Us flower de lys 
 
 sintdxis 
 
 syntax 
 
 mads mace 
 
 tesis 
 
 thesis 
 
 me tamorfo-f metamorpho- 
 
 tisis 
 
 phthisis 
 
 se \ sis 
 
 tos 
 
 cough. 
 
 See also feminine nouns in s which 
 
 are used in the 
 
 plural only, page 84. 
 
 
 Feminine Noun in u. 
 
 
 Tribu 
 
 tribe. 
 
 
 Feminine Nouns in x. 
 
 
 Salsifrax saxifrage 
 
 trox 
 
 granary. 
 
 sardonix sardonyx 
 
 
 
 Feminine Nouns in z. 
 
 
 Cerviz cervix 
 
 ninez 
 
 childhood 
 
 cocatriz cockatrice 
 
 nuez 
 
 nut 
 
 codorniz quail 
 
 paz 
 
 peace 
 
 coz kick 
 
 perdiz 
 
 partridge 
 
 cruz cross 
 
 pez 
 
 pitch 
 
 faz visage 
 
 pomez 
 
 pumice 
 
 haz bundle 
 
 raiz 
 
 root 
 
 hez dregs 
 
 sobrehaz 
 
 surface 
 
 hoz sickle 
 
 sobrepelliz 
 
 surplice 
 
 luz light 
 
 tez 
 
 complexion 
 
 matriz matrix 
 
 vez 
 
 time 
 
 nariz nose ; 
 
 voz 
 
 voice. 
 
 N. B. All nouns ending in ez, and denoting qualities 
 in the abstract, are feminine : as, estrechez, narrowness; 
 palidez, paleness. 
 
90 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 
 Exceptions from Rule 6. 
 
 
 Masculine Nouns in a. 
 
 Adema 
 
 prop 
 
 guarda- C custom-house 
 
 albacea 
 
 executor 
 
 costa \ cutter 
 
 alcavala 
 
 per-centage 
 
 guardaropa wardrobe 
 
 almea 
 
 storax 
 
 guardavela maintoptackle 
 
 anagrama 
 
 anagram 
 
 idioma idiom 
 
 aneurisma 
 
 aneurism 
 
 largomira telescope 
 
 antipoda 
 
 antipode 
 
 lema lemma 
 
 aporisma 
 
 echymosis 
 
 mand manna 
 
 apotegma 
 
 apophthegm 
 
 mapa map 
 
 axioma 
 
 axiom 
 
 paradigma paradigm 
 
 carisma 
 
 divine gift 
 
 paragwa umbrella 
 
 clima 
 
 climate 
 
 pentagra- f the musical 
 
 cometa 
 
 comet 
 
 ma \ staff 
 
 crisma 
 
 chrism 
 
 planeta planet 
 
 dia 
 
 day 
 
 poema poem 
 
 diafragma 
 
 midriff 
 
 prisma prism 
 
 diagrama 
 
 diagram 
 
 problema problem 
 
 digama 
 dikma 
 
 digamma 
 dilemma 
 
 progim- ~) 
 f- essay 
 nasma J y 
 
 diploma 
 
 diploma 
 
 sintoma symptom 
 
 dogma 
 
 dogma 
 
 sistema system 
 
 drama* 
 
 drama 
 
 sofa sofa 
 
 edema 
 
 oedema 
 
 sofisma sophism 
 
 enigma 
 entimema 
 
 enigma 
 enthymeme 
 
 ***** { sl rr he 
 
 epigram a 
 
 epigram 
 
 tema theme 
 
 esperma 
 
 sperm 
 
 teorema theorem 
 
 Etna 
 
 Etna 
 
 viva cheer or huzza ; 
 
 and all those nouns which by their meaning denote 
 males ; as, Jesuita, Jesuit ; anacoreta, anchorite ; ana- 
 baptista, anabaptist, &c. N. B. Although gloria is 
 feminine, its compounds, as, gloria patri, gloria in ex- 
 celsis, &c. are masculine. 
 
 Masculine Nouns in d. 
 
 
 Ahe chief of a 
 
 almud 
 
 a measure 
 
 Adalid 
 
 < band of war- 
 (^ riors 
 
 archilaud 
 ardid 
 
 species of lute 
 wile 
 
 alamud 
 
 a door bar 
 
 ataud 
 
 coffin 
 
 * And its compounds ; as, melodrama^ 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 91 
 
 cesped 
 
 huesped 
 
 laud 
 
 Avion 
 
 embrion 
 
 gorrion 
 
 guion 
 
 sarampion 
 
 and all the 
 
 turf or sod 
 guest 
 
 lute 
 Masculine Nouns in ion. 
 
 sud 
 talmud 
 
 south 
 talmud. 
 
 marten 
 
 embryo 
 
 sparrow 
 
 standard 
 
 measles 
 
 mornon 
 aluvion 
 
 murrain 
 alluvion 
 tumbrel 01 
 
 cart 
 sudden shock; 
 
 chirrion 
 
 antuvion 
 
 augmentative nouns which end in ion. 
 Nouns of doubtful gender. 
 
 Albald certificate 
 
 dote 
 
 anatema anathema 
 
 puente 
 
 cisma schism 
 
 canal 
 
 emblema emblem 
 
 mdrgen 
 
 hermafro- fhermaphro- 
 
 6rden\ 
 
 dita \ dite 
 
 cutis 
 
 nema seal of a letter 
 
 marl 
 
 reuma rheum 
 
 pringue 
 
 arte* art 
 
 hiperbole 
 
 dowry 
 
 bridge 
 
 canal 
 
 margin 
 
 order 
 
 skin 
 
 sea 
 
 dripping 
 
 hyperbole. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In addition to masculine and feminine nouns, there 
 are two other species called epicene and common nouns; 
 the first comprehends those nouns which, without vary- 
 ing the article, denote either the masculine or feminine 
 of a class ; as, el raton, the he or she mouse ; la rata, 
 the he or she rat ; el pato, the duck or drake. To dis- 
 tinguish them, it is necessary to add some word descrip- 
 tive of the sex ; as, el raton hembra, the she mouse ; la 
 rata macho, the he rat. Common nouns are those 
 which vary the article to show the distinction of gen- 
 ders ; as, el testigo, the male witness ; la testigo, the 
 female witness ; el homicida, the homicide (man) ; la 
 homicida, the homicide (woman) ; &c. 
 
 * In the plural it is almost always feminine ; as, el arte diabolico, 
 or el arte diabolica. the diabolic art ; las artes mecanicas, mechanic 
 arts. 
 
 f When synonymous with command it is feminine. 
 
 All the compounds of mar, as, baxamar } &c k are feminine. 
 
92 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Use of the Definite Article. 
 
 RULE 7 Nouns taken in a definite sense require 
 the article ; as 
 
 El hombre viene, The man is coming. 
 
 Las virtudesdelossantos, The virtues of the saints. 
 
 RULE 3. Nouns used in their most general sense 
 are preceded by the article ; as 
 El hombre peca, Man sins. 
 
 La mrtud es amable, Virtue is amiable. 
 RULE 9. Names of empires, kingdoms, coun- 
 tries, provinces, mountains, rivers, winds, and sea- 
 sons, generally take the article ; as 
 La Alemania, Germany. 
 
 La Inglaterra, England. 
 
 El Parnaso, Parnassus. 
 
 El OtonOy Autumn. 
 
 Note a. Empires, kingdoms, countries, and provinces, when pre- 
 ceded by a preposition, are not usually found with the article, 
 unless they are personified ; as 
 
 El c lima de Inglaterra, The climate of England, 
 
 Los esfuerzos de la Inglaterra, The efforts of England. 
 
 Note b. Kingdoms bearing the same name as their capital do not 
 admit the article; as, Ndpoles, Naples. 
 
 Note cv Custom has assigned the article under all circumstances 
 to the names of some distant empires, &c. j as, las casas del Japan, 
 the houses of Japan ; las calles de la China, the streets of China, 
 
 RULE 10. Nouns of measure, weight, &c. when 
 preceded by the indefinite article in English, as an 
 equivalent to each, require the article ; as 
 
 Cinco duros la vara, Five dollars a yard. 
 
 Dos reales la libra, Two rials a pound. 
 
 Ochenta guineas la bota, Eighty guineas a butt. 
 
 Dos veces al dia, Twice a day. 
 
 Note a. If the preposition por be used, we omit the article j as, 
 cinco duros por vara, five dollars per yard ', dos reales por libra, two 
 rials per pound. 
 
 Note b. It is to be observed, that whenever in similar instances 
 ehe indefinite article may be changed into the numeral adjective in 
 English, it is to be expressed by the same adjective in Spanish ; as 
 He sold a pound for fourpence the first day, and the following day 
 
AND SYNTAX. 93 
 
 twenty pounds at eight pence a pound. Vendio una libra por 
 quatro peniques el primer diet, y el dia siguiente veinte libras a ocko 
 peniques la libra. 
 
 RULE 11. Senor, senor a, senorito, senorita, 
 when used in the third person of both numbers, 
 require the article ; as 
 
 El senor Don Juan, Mr. John. 
 
 El senor Pacheco, Mr. Pacheco. 
 
 La senora Dona Catalina Gomez, Mrs. Catherine 
 
 Gomez. 
 La senorita Perez, Miss Perez. 
 
 Note a. Don and Dona must be placed immediately before bap- 
 tismal names, but cannot be preceded by the article nor used in the 
 plural : as, Don Juan ; Dona Maria ; los senores Don Juan Romero 
 y Don Luis Gomez.* 
 
 Note b. When a common noun is immediately placed before the 
 proper name of an individual, (to denote his dignity, profession, &c.) 
 it is generally preceded by the article ; as, El rey Jorge, King 
 George ; Y me envio al Doctor Godinez, And he sent me to Doctor 
 Godinez ; Lldmome el Capitan Rolando, I am called Captain Ro-- 
 lando : except Sa?ito ; as Santo Tomas, Saint Thomas. 
 
 RULE 12. Numerals, when denoting either the 
 day of the month or the hour of the day, generally 
 take the article ; as 
 
 El seis de Enero, The sixth of January. 
 
 El catorce de Mayo, The fourteenth of May. 
 La una, One o'clock. 
 
 Las onze, Eleven o'clock. 
 
 Las ires y quarto, A quarter after three 
 
 Las ocho menos quarto, A quarter to eight. 
 Las diez menos veinte Twenty minutes before 
 
 minutos, ten. 
 
 RULE 13. The article is generally repeated be- 
 fore every noun enumerated, especially if they 
 differ in gender ; as 
 La F6, la Esperanza, y Faith, Hope, and 
 
 la Caridad, Charity. 
 
 Los dias y las noches, The days and nights. 
 
 * See page 133. 
 
94 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Note a. When the nouns enumerated are followed by a word 
 which seems to contain them in the aggregate, the article is usually 
 omitted; as, Africanos, Asiaticos, Americanos, y Europeos todo 
 son hombres, Africans, Asiatics, Americans, and Europeans, are all 
 men. 
 
 RULE 14. Two or more nouns used in apposi- 
 tion* admit the article only before the first ; as 
 La ciudad de Londres, The city of London, the 
 capital de Inglaterra capital of England and 
 y residencia del sobe- the residence of the 
 rano. sovereign. 
 
 Jupiter, hijo de Saturno, Jupiter, the son of Saturn 
 N. B. Two nouns coming 1 together and denoting the 
 same person, admit the article sometimes before each 
 of them. See note b to Rule 17. 
 
 RULE 15. Proper names of persons, places, and 
 months, take no article $ as 
 
 Socrates, Socrates. 
 
 Roma, Rome. 
 
 Avril* April. 
 
 Note a. The days of tne week are very seldom found without the 
 article ; as, el Lunes, Monday ; el Fiernes^ Friday. 
 
 Note b, Custom has established the uniform use of the article 
 before the proper name of some places ; as, la Coruna, Corunna ; el 
 Ferroly Ferrol. 
 
 Note c. Casa, when preceded by a preposition, and used in the 
 sense of home, is seldom found with the article ; as, Vamos a casa, 
 let us go home ; estoy en casa del conde, I am at the count's ; viene 
 de casa, he comes from home ', el amo de casa, the master of the 
 house. 
 
 Note d. Nouns adverbially used are not preceded by the article ; 
 as, de corazon, heartily ; con paciencia, patiently 
 
 RULE 16. Nouns taken in a partitive sense are 
 never preceded by the article j as 
 
 Dame pan, Give me bread. 
 
 Dale vino, Give him some wine. 
 
 Danos miel, Give us honey. 
 
 Note a Some may be also expressed by algun, alguna, in tht 
 * See observation after Rule 25 
 
AND SYNTAX. 95 
 
 singular, and by algunos, algunas, and unos, unas, in the plural ; as, 
 alguna tinta, some ink ; unas plumas, some pens. 
 
 Note b. Any interrogatively used is either suppressed entirely, 
 or expressed like some ; as g hay algunas plumas ? or g hay plumas ? 
 are there any pens ? 
 
 Note c. Some before a singular noun is often expressed by un 
 poco de, a little ; as, dame im poco de pan ; un poco de su miel. 
 
 Note d. The article is omitted before adjectives, either of num- 
 ber or of order, when they are preceded by the noun to which they 
 refer ; as, Jorge Primero, George the First ; Clement e Catorce, Cle- 
 ment the Fourteenth ; Capitulo decimv, Chapter the tenth ; Tomo 
 quince, Volume the fifteenth. N. B. Numerals only are, generally, 
 used after twenty ; as El Papa Juan Veinte y dos, Pope John the 
 Twenty-second ; Tomo treinta y cinco, Volume the thirty-fifth. 
 
 Note e. The article is omitted before the titles of books, chapters, 
 paragraphs, &c. when they are not the subject or objective case of a 
 verb expressed, or the regimen of some preposition ; as, Gramdtica 
 Espanola, discurso preliminary capitulo once, parrafo segundo, verso 
 quarto ; and, La Gramatica Espanola se divide, leimos el discurso 
 preliminary el capitulo once empieza asi, el parrafo segundo es muy 
 largo, en el parrafo tercero del oapitulo veinte y quatro dice el autor, 
 &C. N. B. When the title of a book relates to a particular individual, it 
 may be expressed with or without the article ; as, Aventuras or las 
 Aventuras de Telemaco ; Obras or las Obras de Ciceron ; Cartas or 
 las Cartas de Plinio. It is however improper to use the article if all 
 the adventures, the works, or the letters be not understood. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 RULE 17. When two nouns signifying different 
 things come together in English, their order is re- 
 versed in Spanish, and the preposition de prefixed 
 to the second \ as 
 
 La naturaleza del hombre, Man's nature. 
 Cuchara de te, Tea-spoon. 
 
 Columna de mdrmol, Marble pillar. 
 
 JEl camino de Londres, The London road 
 
 Note a. If the second noun is preceded in English by the pre- 
 positions of or to, the order is preserved ; as, The authority of the 
 prince, la autoridad del principe; brother to the duke, hermano del 
 duque. N. B. To, after the words journey, voyage, walk, &c. is not 
 altered in Spanish ; as, Journey to London, viage d Londres / a walk 
 to the Park, un paseo al Parque. 
 
96 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Note b. Two substantives signifying the same thing admit .be 
 between them when the first serves as a species of epithet fur the 
 other j as, El tonto del amo, the fool of a master; el picaro'del criado, 
 the rogue of a servant. 
 
 los regimientos del rey. 
 
 Note d. Some compound nouns in English are translated by a 
 simple one j as, tetera, tea-pot \ molinillo y chocolate-mill ; car/era, 
 letter-case. 
 
 Note e. The sign (') of the English possessive case is rendered 
 by de 9 even when the noun to which it refers is not expressed after it 
 in English ; as, This house is the ambassador's, esta casa es del em- 
 baxador ; Go to the consul's, ve d casa del consul ; He was buried 
 at St. Paul\s,yMe enter r ado en la iglesia de .San Pablo. 
 
 Note f. When the noun which has the mark of the possessive 
 case is preceded by the indefinite article in English, it admits of two 
 constructions in Spanish : thus, a king's palace may be translated 
 el palacio de un rey t the palace of a king, or, un palacio de rey, a 
 palace fit for a king. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Their Feminine Termination. 
 
 RULE 18. Adjectives which end in o, an, or on, 
 have their feminine termination in a. Those termi- 
 nating otherwise are common to both genders ; as 
 
 EL muchacho holgazan, The idle boy. 
 
 La muchacha holgazana, The idle girl. 
 
 El hombre ruin, The mean man. 
 
 La mugcr ruin, The mean woman. 
 
 El dia feliz, The happy day. 
 
 La hora feliz, The happy hour. 
 
 Note a. Adjectives iu o change it into a in their feminine ter- 
 mination : as, santOj santa, holy ; bueno, buena, good ; sabio, sabia, 
 wise. 
 
 Note b. Adjectives derived from the names of countries, king- 
 doms, provinces, &c. ending with a consonant, admit an a in their 
 feminine termination j as, Espanol, Espanola, Spanish j Saxon, Saxo 
 na, Saxon ; Andaluz, Andaluza, Andalusian. 
 
 Note c. The last-mentioned species of adjectives are generally 
 expressed by the name of the country, with the preposition de pre- 
 fixed, when the adjective serves to qualify articles of commerce, &c. 
 as, manteca de Irlanda, Irish butter ; cerveza de Inglaterra, English 
 beer ; vino de Esparia, Spanish wine. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 97 
 
 Note d. The same construction often takes place when the ad- 
 jective is applied to persons ; as, El ambax'ador de Espana, the 
 Spanish ambassador ; el consul de Inglaterra, the English consul. 
 
 Plural of Adjectives. 
 
 RULE 19. The plural of adjectives is formed 
 like the plural of substantives ; as, santo, santos, 
 Saxon, Saxones> holgazan, holgazanes, haragana, 
 haraganas, ruin, ruines, feliz, felices. See Rules 
 2 and 3. 
 
 Place of Adjectives. 
 
 .RULE 20. Adjectives, and participles used adjec- 
 tively, are generally placed after their nouns; as 
 Operaciones dif idles. Difficult operations. 
 Generales vencidos, Conquered generals. 
 Soldados heridos, Wounded soldiers. 
 
 Agreement of Adjectives, 
 RULE 21. An adjective agrees with its noun 
 in gender, number, and case ; as 
 Argumento ridiculo, Ridiculous argument. 
 Conclusiones falsas 9 False conclusions. 
 
 N, B. Adjectives are always put in the masculine 
 when they qualify the feminine noun nada ; as, nada es 
 tan cierto como la muerte, nothing is so certain as 
 death. Nouns common to both genders vary the ad- 
 jective ; as, el homicidafue castigado, la homicidafue 
 castigada, the homicide was punished, 
 
 Note a. Adjectives are generally prefixed in the three following 
 instances : 1st, When they denote the inherent property of the sub- 
 ject ; as, sobre el duro mdrmol, upon the hard marble. 2d, When 
 used as epithets ; as, el ambicioso Alexandra , the ambitious Alexan- 
 der. 3d, When they are accented on the antepenult - 9 as, un intre'- 
 pido gefe, an intrepid chief : hence all superlatives in isimo are gene- 
 rally prefixed ; as, atrocisima maldad, most atrocious wickedness. 
 
 Note b. Mucho and poco should precede their noun ; as, muchot 
 enemiffoS) many enemies ; pocas tropas, few troops. 
 
 Note c. Cierto when not meaning indubitable is placed before ; 
 as, ciertas propuestas, certain proposals. 
 
 Note d. Cardinal numbers, not used to translate ordinal numbers, 
 are prefixed ; as, doce dias, twelve days ; el dia doce, the twelfth day. 
 
 Note e. Adjectives may be either prefixed or postponed when a 
 verb intervenes ; as, dif idles eran las operaciones, los enemigos eran 
 F 
 
98 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 mttc&dt, heridcs estaban los soldados, soldados habia muchos, vivtres 
 tcnian pocos. N. B. Some adjectives vary their signification with 
 their place ; as, buena vida, luxurious life ; vida buena, virtuous life j 
 papeles varios, papers on various subjects ; varios papeles, sundry 
 papers ; habitation nueva, dwelling newly built ; nueva habitation, 
 new habitation; mortal herida, dangerous wound; herida mortal, 
 mortal wound, &c. 
 
 Note f. Todo should precede the noun ; as, todo hombre ha na- 
 cido para morir^ every man is born to die ; toda action debe encami- 
 narse al bien de la sociedad, every action ought to be directed to the 
 welfare of society. N. B. If the noun be in the plural, it ought to be 
 immediately preceded by the article ; as, todos los hombres han nacido, 
 &c. todas las acetone* deben, &c. 
 
 RULE 22. Two or more nouns in the singular 
 require their adjective in the plural; and in the 
 masculine termination if they differ in gender ; as 
 JEl palacio y el templo The magnificent palace 
 
 magnificos, and temple. 
 
 La torrey la casa derri- The tower and house 
 
 badas, overthrown. 
 
 La iglesia y el hospital The church and hospital 
 
 edificados por 1, built by him. 
 
 Note a. An adjective prefixed to two nouns singular agrees, 
 generally, with the nearest ; as, the intrepid valour and resistance of 
 the patriots, el inlrfpido valor y resistencia, la intrtpida resistencia y 
 valor de los pair iotas. 
 
 RULE 23. An adjective agrees with the nearest 
 of two or more plural nouns, which differ in gen- 
 der ; as, los efectos y riquezas preciosas, las rique- 
 zas y efectos preciosos, los preciosos efectos y 
 nquezas, las preciosas riquezas y efectos, the 
 invaluable riches and effects. 
 
 Note a. An adjective cf two terminations is improper to qualify 
 two nouns which differ both in gender and in number ; as, la intre- 
 pidez y los esfuerzos eran estupendos, the intrepidity and efforts were 
 wonderful. It is better to use an adjective of one termination for 
 both, or a distinct adjective for each noun ; as, la intrepidez y los 
 esfuerzos eran admirables, or la intrepidez era maravillosa y los 
 esfuerzos cstupendos. 
 
 jVWe 6. Adjectives when connected by a verb to a title do not 
 agree with it, but with the individual to whom it is given ; as, su 
 mayestad Saxona ha estado malo, his Saxon majesty has been ill ; su 
 excellence estd indispuesto, his excellency is unwell j sus seTioria* 
 
AND SYNTAX. 91) 
 
 han sido nombrados, their lordships have been appointed j * estd'vm. 
 bueno, senor ? are you well, sir ? 
 
 Note c. The adjective which follows the reflective pronoun agrees 
 with the noun which the pronoun represents ; as, el se vio enganado, 
 he saw himself deceived ; las mugeres se enganan a si mismas, women 
 deceive themselves. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 When two or more adjectives serve to qualify a noun 
 substantive which is in the plural, they do not agree 
 with it in number, provided the plural of the substantive 
 be composed of nouns of different species, and yet in- 
 cluding but one of each species ; as, diccionario de las 
 lenguas Espanola, Inglesa, y Latina, a dictionary of the 
 Spanish, English, and Latin languages ; here lenguas 
 is in the plural, and yet the three adjectives by which it 
 is qualified remain in the singular, and cannot be changed 
 without destroying the sense. Fearful that this distinc- 
 tion will not be readily understood, because English 
 adjectives are always indeclinable, I shall endeavour to 
 illustrate the remark by stating a case. Suppose I want 
 to describe three dresses, a black, a blue, and a white, I 
 should say, description de losvestidos, negro, azul, y bianco: 
 change the number of the adjectives, and say, description 
 de los vestidos, negros, aziiles, y blancos ; it then implies 
 that there are more than one dress of each colour : alter 
 the number of the substantive, and express it, description 
 del vestido negro, azul, y bianco ; the meaning then is, 
 that there is only one dress, in which the three colours, 
 black, blue, and white, are blended together. 
 
 Adjectives which become defective when placed 
 
 before their Nouns. 
 
 RULE 24. Primer o, tercero, postrero, unof* al- 
 guno, ninguno, bueno, and malo, prefixed, lose the 
 o in the singular ; as, el primer hombre, the first 
 man ; el postrer dia> the last day; nirigunjuez, no 
 judge ; un buenpoeta, a good poet; un mal lector, 
 a bad reader. 
 
 * Un is also placed before all those feminine nouns, which re- 
 quire the masculine article, as, un area, un hambre. See Note a to 
 Rule 1st. 
 
100 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Note a. With tercero the rule is immaterial ; as, el tercef sigh, 
 or el tercero siglo. the third century. 
 
 Note b. Ciento immediately preceding a noun loses the to; as, 
 cien hombres, a hundred men ; ciento y veinte, a hundred and twenty. 
 
 Note c. Santo loses the to before the proper names of men ; as, 
 San Juan, St. John ', San Francisco, St. Francis : except before the 
 names of Domingo, Tomas, Tome, and Toribio ; as, Santo Domingo, 
 St. Dominick, Santo Tomas, St. Thomas, &c. 
 
 Note d. Grande frequently loses the de ; but more especially 
 when preceding a consonant, and when not conveying an idea of 
 size ; as, un gran matemdtico, a great mathematician ; un grande 
 odio, a great hatred ; un grande caballo, a large horse $ un gran 
 cabal/o, a famous horse. 
 
 Note e. The adjective uno t una, is used for the indefinite article, 
 a or an; as, un autor escribio en un dia una obra, an author wrote in 
 one day a work. 
 
 Note f. The adjectives alguno and ninguno must always precede 
 the noun, when the verb is not accompanied by the negative no : as, 
 he escrito algunas cartas, I have written some letters ; ningun amigo 
 tiene, no friend has he ; but when no accompanies the verb we use 
 generally ninguno, which must then be placed after the verb ; as, no 
 he escrito ningunas cartas, I have written no letters ; no tiene ningun 
 amigo, he has no friend. N. B. Alguno in the singular, and placed 
 after the noun, is often used instead of ninguno ; as, no tiene amigo 
 atguno. 
 
 RULE 25. Adject! ves, or Participles employed 
 as substantives, require the neuter article, if such 
 words as how, how much, ivhat, or that which, can 
 be prefixed to the English adjective, and, in other 
 instances, take the masculine or feminine article 
 agreeing with the noun understood ; as, Losjovenes 
 noconocen bien lo ventqjoso que les sera prepararse 
 para lo futuro, The young do not well know how 
 advantageous it will be to them to prepare them- 
 selves for the future ; Muchas son laspenas verda- 
 deras, pero las irttaginarias son mas, Many are the 
 real troubles, but the imaginary ones are more. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 On the use of the numeral adjective uno as a sub- 
 stitute for the English indefinite article a or an. 
 
 The English indefinite is sometimes expressed by the. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 101 
 
 same article in Spanish ; at others it is translated by the 
 definite article, and in many instances entirely sup- 
 pressed. 
 
 1 . The indefinite is used in both languages, when a 
 or an denotes the idea of unity in a very vague and in- 
 determinate manner ; as, a friend told me that, un amigo 
 me dixo eso ; he wrote an excellent work, escribio una 
 obra excelente. 
 
 2. It may be used in both languages, when the noun 
 is taken in a general sense ; that is to say, when the Eng- 
 lish noun can be put in the plural, without an article, or 
 the Spanish noun in either number with the definite arti- 
 cle ; as, a man without honour is contemptible; or, men 
 without honour are contemptible; unhombre sin honra 
 es depreciable ; or, el hombre sin honra es despreciable ; 
 or, los hombres sin honra son despreciables. See Rule 8. 
 
 3. The indefinite article, used before nouns of mea- 
 sure, weight, number, bulk, &c. is translated by the 
 definite. See Rule 10. 
 
 4. When a verb connects two nouns, one of which 
 denotes the country, dignity, profession, employment, 
 &c. of the other, the indefinite is generally suppressed in 
 Spanish; as, the governor was an Englishman, elgober- 
 nador era Ingles ; the duke is also a bishop, el duque es 
 tambien obispo ; the son is a better physician than the 
 father, el hijo es mejor medico que el padre. 
 
 5. When two nouns come together, used in apposi- 
 tion, the indefinite is not expressed in Spanish ; as, 
 Lord Wellington, a commander in Spain, Lor Wel- 
 lington, comandante en Espana. N.B. Nouns which 
 are used in apposition may be readily discovered, be- 
 cause they will generally admit a relative and the verb 
 to be between them ; as, my brother a banker at, &c. 
 that is, my brother who is a banker at : the Thames a 
 river of England, that is, the Thames which is a river of 
 England, &c. 
 
 6. When the indefinite precedes a noun seemingly 
 taken in part only, it is also suppressed ; as, I have an 
 inclination, tengo inclinacion ; he had a mind to go, 
 tenia gana de ir ; have you an objection ? < tiene vm. 
 reparo ? she has a memory, dla tiene, memoria. 
 
102 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 7. It is also omitted in Spanish in the tittle-page of 
 a book ; as, A New Dictionary, Diccionario Nuevo ; 
 
 8. Likewise before the numbers one hundred, one 
 thousand ; but it is not omitted before one million alone ; 
 as, a hundred men, den hombres ; a thousand pounds, 
 mil libras ; he owes a million, debe un millon. 
 
 9. It is also suppressed before the word half; as, 
 three yards and a half, tres varas y media : it is likewise 
 omitted before the integer which precedes the half, if it 
 contains but one unit; as, a yard arid a half, vara y me- 
 dia ; a million and a half, millon y medio. 
 
 10. The indefinite is not translated in ejaculations, 
 nor when placed between the substantive and adjective ; 
 as, what a pity ! / que lasiima ! so famous a victory, tan 
 
 famosa victoria; such a man, tal hombre. 
 
 11. It is omitted after the adverb like; as, he acted 
 like a man, obro como hombre ; like a hero, como heroe. 
 But if the word following the adverb be connected with 
 the following part of the sentence, the indefinite may 
 be used ; as, like a man who valued virtue, como hom- 
 bre, or como un hombre, que apreciaba la virtud. 
 
 COMPARATIVES. 
 
 RULE 26. Adjectives are compared with the 
 adverbs mas, more ; m&ios, less ; and tan, so or 
 as ; example, 
 
 Mas rico, Richer. 
 
 Mas virtuoso, More virtuous. 
 
 Menos vano, Less vain. 
 
 Tan sabio, So or as wise. 
 
 Note a. If the English adjective much be preceded by so or as, 
 the Spanish adjective tanto is employed ; as, tanto dinero, as much 
 money ; tantas penas, so many troubles. 
 
 RULE 27. Than after comparatives in English is 
 que in Spanish, unless it precedes the pronoun what, 
 expressed or understood, and then it is de ; as 
 Richer than I, Mas rico que yo. 
 
 Less vain than thou, M&ios vano que tit. 
 More than they, or than Mas de loque pensaron, 
 
 what they, thought, 
 
AND SYNTAX. 103 
 
 Note a. Than before what is sometimes translated que, when the 
 verb in the sentence is negative; as, no tiene el libra mas que lo que 
 hemos extractado, the book contains no more than what we have 
 extracted. 
 
 Note b. Than after comparatives, and preceding a noun of num- 
 ber or quantity, is que or de ; the latter seems preferable when the 
 verb is not accompanied by a negative ; as, tenemos mas de dos libras, 
 we have more than two pounds ; no tenia mas que dos hijas, he had 
 no more than two daughters ; mas de un tercio, more than one third ; 
 no mas que un tercio, not more than one third. 
 
 RULE 28. As after comparatives is como: example, 
 As beautiful as vain, Tan hermosa como vana. 
 As much money as power, Tanto dinero comopoder. 
 I read as much as I write, Tanto leo como escribo. 
 
 Note a. Instead of como w may use quan after tan before ad- 
 jectives, and quanta after tanto before verbs \ as, tan hermosa quan 
 vana ; tanto leo quanta escribo. 
 
 Note b. The English definite article before comparatives is not 
 translated into Spanish, and the expression frequently receives a 
 different turn ; as, the better day the better deed, mejor dia mejor 
 obra ; the more money the less wit, mas dinero menos ingenio ; the 
 more we play the less we learn, mas jugamos menos aprendemos, 
 or mientras mas jugamos menos aprendemos, or quanta mas juga- 
 mos tanto menos aprendemos, &c. 
 
 Note c. As after so, and followed by a verb in the infinitive, is 
 rendered que, and the second verb is put in the same tense as the 
 first : Example, he was so impious a* not to believe in God, era tan 
 impio que no creia en Dios. 
 
 Note d. If there be two comparatives, differently formed, the 
 conjunction should correspond with the last ; as, sus calles estan tan 
 bien 6 mejor empedradas que las nuestras, their streets are as well 
 paved as, or better paved than, ours ; sus navios son mas fuertes 6 d 
 lo menos tan fuertes como los nuestros, their ships are stronger than, 
 or at least as strong as, ours. 
 
 SUPERLATIVES. 
 
 RULE 29. English superlatives ending in est or 
 formed by most are rendered by prefixing the de- 
 finite article to the Spanish comparative ; as 
 
 The wisest, El mas sabio. 
 
 The most ungrateful, La mas ingrata. 
 
 Note a. The definite article is omitted before the comparative, if 
 it is already expressed before the substantive ; as, fa muger mas in- 
 grata, the most ungrateful woman : unless a verb intervene ; as, el 
 leon es el mas noble de todos los animates, the lion is the noblest of all 
 animals. 
 
104 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Note b. Mosf, or most of y when followed by a singular noun, is 
 translated la mayor parte ; as, most of the army, la mayor parte del 
 exercito ; but if the noun be in the plural, most may also be trans- 
 lated mas, with the corresponding article ; as, most of the soldiers, 
 la mayor parte, or los mas, de los soldados ; most causes, la mayor 
 partej or las mas de las causas. 
 
 Note c. The preposition in after the English superlative is trans- 
 lated de in Spanish ; as, the best house in the street, la mejor casa de 
 la calle ; the soul is the greatest wonder in the world, el alma es la 
 mayor maravilla del mundo. 
 
 RULE 30. Superlatives which in English are 
 made with very, are formed in Spanish by prefix- 
 ing muy to the adjective, or by affixing to it the 
 termination isimo ; as 
 
 Very clever, Muy hdbil, or habilisimo. 
 
 Very easy, Muy fdcil, or facilisimo. 
 
 Note a. If the adjective ends in a vowel, it is suppressed ; as, corto, 
 short ; cortisimo, very short ; alegre, cheerful ', alegrisimo, very 
 cheerful ; triste, sad ; tristisimo, very sad ; famoso, famous j famosi- 
 9tmo, very famous. 
 
 Adjectives which change their final termination before they admit 
 the termination ifimo : 
 
 Final changes into Example. 
 
 co qu, rico riquisimo. 
 
 go ffu t largo larguisimo 
 
 ble bit, afable afabilisimo. 
 
 z c, feliz felicisimo, 
 
 Superlatives in isimo irregularly formed : 
 Bonisimo, very good, from bueno, good. 
 
 fortisimo, very strong, fuerte, strong. 
 
 novisimo, very new, nuevo, new. 
 
 sapientisimo, very wise, sabio, wise 
 
 sacr at isimo, very sacred, sacro, sacred. 
 
 fidelisimo, ** very faithful, jiel, faithful. 
 
 Irregular comparatives and superlatives : 
 From Comparat. S"uperlat. 
 
 Bueno, mejor t dptimo. 
 
 malo, peor, pe*swio. 
 
 giande, mayor, maxima. 
 
 pequeno, menor, minima.* 
 
 alto, superior, supremo. 
 
 baxo, imferior, infimo. 
 
 mucho, mat. 
 
 poco 9 
 
 * This is often compared, for greater energy, as, no tenao el mat 
 minimo reparo, I have not the slightest objection. 
 
AND SYNTAX. J05 
 
 All those form a superlative in isimo according to the rules already 
 given ; as, malisimo, poquisimo, baxisimo, &c. 
 
 Note b. These positives admit also a comparative formed with 
 mtts or mcnos ; and a superlative with muy, as, mas bueno, better 
 mtnot maloj less bad ,* los mas grandes, the greatest ; muy pequenos, 
 very small. 
 
 Note c. Substantives used adjectively admit the degrees of com- 
 parison ; as, es mas caballero que tu, he is more of a gentleman than 
 thou ; el es muy hombre, he is very much of a man, or very manly ; 
 este hombre es muy mino, this man is very childish. 
 
 Government of Adjectives. 
 
 RULE 31. Adjectives generally require de be- 
 fore their regimen, if it is part of the noun with 
 which they agree ; as 
 
 Un saco ancho de boca, A sack wide at the mouth, 
 Un cuchillo boto depun- A knife blunt at the point, 
 
 ta, 
 Un vestido largo de A suit long in the sleeves. 
 
 mangos 9 
 Un hombre baxo de cu- A man low in stature. 
 
 erpo, 
 Una muger acre de ge- A woman of a sour tem- 
 
 nio 9 per. 
 
 The following adjectives belong to this rule : 
 
 Agudo de ingenio, Sharp or keen. 
 
 Alto de cuerpo, Tall. 
 
 Blanco de cara, Of a fair complexion. 
 
 Blando de corteza, Of a soft rind. 
 
 Chico de persona, Short. 
 
 Crecido de cuerpo, Overgrown. 
 
 Duro de entendimiento, Hard of comprehension. 
 
 Fuerte de condition, Of a rough temper. 
 
 Gordo de talle, Thick in the waist. 
 
 Largo de cuerpo, Long in the body 
 
 Ligero de pies, Of light feet. 
 
 Mediano de estatura, Of a middle height. 
 
 Redo de complexion, Of a strong constitution. 
 
 F3 
 
106 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Torcido de cuerpo, Twisted in the body. 
 
 Mayor de cuerpo, Taller. 
 
 Menor de edad, Less in age. 
 
 Manco de una mano, Lame of one hand. 
 
 Pdlido de semblante, Having a pale face. 
 
 RULE 32. Adjectives require en before their regi- 
 men, if it denotes that wherein the quality of the 
 adjective is conspicuous ; as 
 
 Un hombre dspero en las A man harsh in his words, 
 palabras, incansable en unwearied in his labour, 
 el trabajo,exdctoen sus exact in his payments, 
 pagos, constants en sus constant in his devo- 
 devotiones, y devoto en tions, and devout in his 
 sus oraciones. prayers. 
 
 Note a. If the regimen is an infinitive, it is also preceded by 
 en ; as, Los reyes deben ser lentos en castigar y prontos en recompen- 
 sar, Kings ought to be slow to punish and ready to reward. 
 
 The following adjectives belong to this rule : 
 
 Diligente en sits negocios. Diligent in his business. 
 
 Eocperto en las leyes, Skilful in the laws. 
 
 Incesante en sus tareas, Constant in his business. 
 
 Indefatigable en la guerra, Indefatigable in war. 
 
 Nimio e?i el proceder, Nice in his proceedings. 
 
 Parco en la comida, Sparing in his meals. 
 
 Pesado en la conversation. Tiresome in his conversa- 
 tion. 
 
 Hdbil en sus negocios , Clever in his business. 
 
 Impropio en su edad, Unbecoming at his age. 
 
 Inconstante en su proceder, Wavering in his actions. 
 
 Inflexible en su dictamen, Inflexible in his opinions. 
 
 Superior en luces, Superior in understanding. 
 
 RULE 33. If the regimen of the adjective is 
 the noun to which the quality of the adjective is 
 directed, it is generally preceded by a : as 
 
 La tirania es aborrecible a Tyranny is hateful to 
 las gentes, the people. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 107 
 
 Estafruta es agradable al This fruit is agreeable 
 paladar, to the palate. 
 
 Los limones son dgrios al Lemons are sour to 
 gusto, the taste. 
 
 RULE 34. If the noun which forms the regimen 
 is also what produces the quality implied in the 
 adjective, it is generally governed with de ; as 
 Ella estaba pdiida de miedo, She was pale with 
 
 fear. 
 El era temeroso de la muerte, He was fearful of 
 
 death. 
 
 The following adjectives belong to this rule : 
 
 Abochornado de la pregunta. Hurt at the question. 
 
 Aburrido de las desgracias, Worried by misfor- 
 
 tunes. 
 
 Alegre de las noticias, Joyful on account of 
 
 the news. 
 
 Avergonzado del castigo, Ashamed of the pu- 
 
 nishment. 
 
 Impelido de la necesidad, Compelled by neces- 
 
 sity. 
 
 Note a. If the regimen of the foregoing adjectives is an infini- 
 tive, it also requires de before it ; as, cansado de trabajar, tired of 
 working. 
 
 RULE 35. Numeral adjectives govern with the 
 preposition de a noun of dimension ; as 
 Dos varas de largo, Two yards in length. 
 
 Tt*einta pies de alto, Thirty feet high. 
 Seispulgadas de grueso, Six inches thick. 
 
 Note a. It is not requisite that the numeral adjective should pre- 
 cede the noun of dimension ; as, la pared tiene ocho varas de alto, or 
 la pared tiene de alto ocho varas, the wall is eight yards high. 
 
 Note b. If the quantity be expressed with the verb ser, or with- 
 out any verb at all, the numeral adjective must also be preceded by 
 de ; as, el pozo es de ochenta brazas de prof undo, the well is eighty 
 fathoms in depth ; la tabla es de quatro pulgadas de grueso, the plank 
 is four inches thick ; and un pozo de ochenta krazas de profundo, a 
 well eighty fathoms deep, &c. 
 
108 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Note c. The difference in the measure must be also preceded by 
 de ; as, el es mas alto que in detres pulgadas, he is taller than you by 
 three inches. 
 
 RULE 36. Adjectives denoting plenty or scar- 
 city, care or negligence, govern their regimen 
 with de ; as 
 
 Unjarro lleno de agua, A jug full of water. 
 Un vaso vacio de vino, A glass empty of wine. 
 Un hombre f alto dejuicio, A man void of reason. 
 Un hombre cuidadoso de su A man careful of his 
 
 dinero, money. 
 
 Un enfermo descuidado de A patient careless of 
 
 su salud, his health. 
 
 Note a. Abundante admits en as well as de / as, abundante de or 
 en riquezasj abounding in riches. Fertil and fecundo belong to 
 Rule 32. 
 
 The following adjectives belong to this rule 
 
 Ageno de verdad, Foreign to truth. 
 
 Escaso de medios, Nearly bereft of means. 
 
 Infecto de heregia, Tainted with heresy. 
 
 Inficionado depeste, Infected with the plague. 
 
 Limitado de talentos. Straitened in talents. 
 
 Apurado de dinero, Exhausted of money. 
 
 RULE 37. Adjectives denoting desire or dis- 
 dain, knowledge or ignorance, capacity or inca- 
 pacity, worthiness or unworthiness, innocence or 
 guilt, require also de before their regimen ; as 
 
 Deseoso de la vida, Desirous of life. 
 
 Desdenoso de sus favor es, Disdainful of his favours. 
 Cierto de las noticias, Certain of the news. 
 Incierto de las conse- Uncertain of the conse- 
 
 quencias, quences. 
 
 Digno de una corona, Worthy of a crown. 
 Indigno de alabanzas, Unworthy of praise. 
 Capaz del empleo, Capable of the employ- 
 
 ment. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 109 
 
 Inocente del asesinato, Innocent of the murder. 
 Reo de rnuerte, Guilty of death. 
 
 Note a. If these adjectives be followed by an infinitive, the same 
 preposition must be used ; as, bueno de comer, good to eat. 
 
 RULE 38. Numeral and ordinal adjectives, su- 
 perlatives, relatives, interrogates, and indefinites, 
 as well as nouns used partitively, require also their 
 regimen with de ; as 
 
 Dos de los regimientos, Two of the regiments. 
 El primero de los dos, The first of the two. 
 El mejor de todos, The best of all. 
 
 No sabiendo quien de Not knowing which of 
 
 ellos hablaba, them was the speaker. 
 
 <5 Qual de las tres vende Which of the three do 
 
 vm. ? you sell? 
 
 Qualquiera de las hijas, Any one of the daugh- 
 ters. 
 
 Muchos de los presentes, Many of those present. 
 Algunos de los oyentes, Some of the hearers. 
 
 Note a. The preposition de may be often changed into entre or 
 de entre; as, uno de, or entre , OTde entre, ellos, one of, or among, or 
 from among, them. 
 
 RULE 39. Adjectives denoting fitness or unfit- 
 ness govern their regimen with para ; as 
 
 Apto para el empleo, Fit for the employment. 
 Impropio para su edad, Improper for his age. 
 Beneyico para su salud, Beneficial to his health. 
 Util para la patria, Useful for the country 
 Idoneo para todo, Fit for every thing. 
 
 Note a. If these adjectives be followed by an infinitive, it must 
 be preceded by the preposition para ; as, bueno para comer, fit to be 
 eaten. 
 
 Note b. Compatible and incompatible require their regimen with 
 con ; as, compatible con lajusticia, consistent with justice j incompa- 
 tible con el mando, inconsistent with the command. 
 
110 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 RULE 40. Adjectives denoting facility or diffi- 
 culty require a before their regimen ; as 
 Increible a muchos. Incredible to many. 
 
 Comprehensible a pocos. Comprehensible to few. 
 Inaccessible a todos, Inaccessible to all. 
 
 Flexible a la razon, Yielding to reason. 
 
 Note a. Fdcil 9 dificil, separable, and inseparable, have always 
 their regimen with de ; as, fdcil de digestion, easy of digestion; inse- 
 parable de la virtud, inseparable from virtue. 
 
 Note b. If the regimen of any of the foregoing adjectives be an 
 infinitive, it must also be preceded by the same preposition: as, Viose 
 pues precisado d ponerme baxo laftrula de un preceptor, (Gil Bias, 
 ch. 1.) He saw himself then compelled to place me under the rod 
 of a preceptor. Fdcil de digerir, easy to be digested. 
 
 RULE 41. Adjectives denoting profit or dis- 
 profit, likeness or unlikeness, require d before their 
 regimen ; as 
 
 Provechoso d la salud, Advantageous to health. 
 Perniciosodlajuventud, Pernicious to youth. 
 Semejante d su padre, Like his father. 
 Igual d otros, Equal to others. 
 
 Inferior d su hermano. Inferior to his brother. 
 Superior d sus hijos, Superior to his children. 
 Conforme d su dictamen, Agreeable to his opinion. 
 
 Note a. Mayor and menor require de before their regimen. See 
 Rule 31. 
 
 Note b. Adjectives implying equality have sometimes their regi- 
 men with con; as, iyual con otro, conforme con su opinion, &c. 
 
 RULE 42. Adjectives denoting proximity ge- 
 nerally have their regimen with d; a? 
 Cercano d la muerte, Approaching death. 
 Inmediato d ella, Close to her. 
 
 Vecino alpalacio, Adjacent to the palace. 
 
 Junto d la casa, Adjoining the house. 
 
 Contiguo d la heredad, Contiguous to the estate. 
 
 Note a, If these adjectives have an infinitive for their regimen, 
 ' he same preposition :s employed ; as, proximo d morir, near dying. 
 
AND SYNTAX. i ] 1 
 
 RULE 43. Adjectives denoting distance have 
 generally de before their regimen ; as 
 
 Distante de la Corte, Distant from Court. 
 de Londres, Far from London 
 
 Note a. If the regimen be an infinitive, the same preposition must 
 be used ; as, Ltjos de impacientarme con las prolixas reladones de mi 
 amo, far from becoming impatient with the tedious narrations of rny 
 master. Gil Bias, b. iv. ch. 2. 
 
 RULE 44. Adjectives denoting behaviour ge- 
 nerally govern the noun to which it is directed with 
 von ; as 
 
 Amoroso con los suyos, Affectionate to his rela > 
 
 tions. 
 Atento con sus may ores, Respectful towards his 
 
 elders. 
 Ingrato con los amigos, Ungrateful to his friends. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Many of the foregoing species of adjectives have 
 their regimen with prepositions different from those 
 which have been allotted to them in the foregoing ex- 
 amples, according to the sense in which they are taken : 
 thus, for instance, the adjective dspero may have its 
 regimen with d, de, en, or con ; as 
 
 Una fruta dspera de saber, A fruit with a rough (or 
 harsh) taste. See Rule 31. 
 
 Un hombre dspero en sus costumbres, A man rough 
 (or blunt) in his manners. See Rule 32. 
 
 Una piedra dspera al tacto, A stone rough (or un- 
 even) to the touch. See Rule 33. 
 
 Un amo dspero con sits criados, A master rough (or 
 rigid) with his domestics. See Rule 44. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 1st Person. Sing. 1st Person. Plur. 
 
 Nom. yo. 
 
 1st Obj. case me. 
 2d Obj. case mi. 
 
 Nom. nosotros. 
 
 1st Obj. case nos. 
 2d Obj. case nosotros 
 
112 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 2d Person. Sing. 2d Person. Plur. 
 
 Nom. tu. 
 
 1st Obj. case te. 
 2d Obj. case tl. 
 
 Nom. vosotros 
 
 1st Obj. case os. 
 2d Obj. case vosotros. 
 
 3d Person. Sing. 3d Person. Plur. 
 
 Nom. el, ella, ello. 
 1st Obj. case le, la, lo t se. 
 2d Obj. case el, ella,ello,si. 
 
 Nom. ellos. 
 1st Obj. case los, las, les, se. 
 2d Obj. case ellos, si. 
 
 N.B. Nosotros, vosotros, and ellos change the last o 
 into a for the feminine termination. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The second person had formerly the termination vos 
 also, which is now nearly exploded, being employed by 
 Spaniards only in their addresses to persons in very ex- 
 alted stations, or by those persons in their official docu- 
 ments ; as, El rey vuestro tio dexard presto de vivir, y 
 vos ocupareis su lugar, The king your uncle will soon 
 cease to live, and you will occupy his place. Gil Bias, 
 b. iv. ch. 4. Por quanto vos Don Francisco Ximenez 
 habeis executado, &c. Forasmuch as you Don Francis 
 Ximenes have executed. 
 
 Place of the Pronouns. 
 
 RULE 45. The subject or nominative case pre- 
 cedes verbs which are not in the imperative, nor 
 used interrogatively ; as 
 
 Yo leo, /read. 
 
 Ttii hablas, Thou speakest. 
 
 Vengan ellos, Let them come. 
 
 g Viene ella ? Is she coming ? 
 
 Note a. The subject is seldom expressed except when emphasis 
 or the distinction of persons seems to require it \ as, hablo, I speak ; 
 lea, I read ; saldrc, I shall go out ; and yo leere*, y tu escriliras, I 
 will read, and thou shall write ; No era yo solo el que habia de caminar 
 con el arriero, I was not the only one who was to travel with the car- 
 rier. Gil Bias, ch. 3. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 113 
 
 b. Verbs are placed before their subject when they are used 
 to introduce a quotation, or when the transposition adds to the energy 
 of the sentence ; as, Llora, hija, (le decia ella,) llora todo quanta 
 puedas, Weep*, child, (said she to her.) weep as much as you can. 
 Gil Bias, ch. 10. No sabia yo que pensar de tal encuentro, I did not 
 know what to think of such a meeting. Ibid. ch. 3. 
 
 Note c. The English pronoun it is never translated before im- 
 personal verbs; as, it rains, llueve ; it will snow, nevard; it is im- 
 possible to believe it, es imposible creerlo ; it will concern many, 
 importard a muchos. 
 
 RULE 46. The objective case, when not pre- 
 ceded by a preposition, is affixed to infinitives, im- 
 peratives, and gerunds ; as 
 
 Amarla, To love her. 
 
 Amemosla, Let us love her. 
 
 Amando\&, Loving her. 
 
 ffabiendolsi amado, Having loved her. 
 
 .Dales algOy Give them something. 
 
 JHabiendoles dicho, Having said to them. 
 
 Note a. The terminations of the first and second persons plurat 
 of verbs lose their final letter when they are followed by nos or os ; 
 as, levantgmonos, let us rise ; sentdos, sit ye down. 
 
 RULE 47. Verbs which are not in the infinitive, 
 imperative, or gerund, have generally the objective 
 case prefixed ; as 
 
 El me ensena, He teaches me. 
 
 Tu le instruyes, Thou instructest him. 
 
 Yo lo digo, I say it. 
 
 Ella nos ve, She sees us. 
 
 Nosotros los oimos, We hear them. 
 
 Vosotros la amais, Ye love her. 
 
 Ella les diaro, She said to them. 
 
 Note a. The objective case may sometimes elegantly follow, but 
 never when the sentence does not begin by the verb ; as, llevome a 
 su casa qtiando, he carried me to his house when, &c. ; amdbame 
 tiernamente entonces, and entonces me amaba tiernamente y he loved 
 me tenderly then. 
 
 Note b. When one verb has another in the infinitive for its regi- 
 men, the objective case referring to the second verb may be always 
 
1 14 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 placed either before the governing verb, or after the regimen ; as, 
 te pudieras levantar, or pudieras Icvantarte, thou mightest rise. 
 
 Variety in the use of the Objective Cases. 
 
 RULE 48. Prepositions when expressed always 
 govern the second objective case ; as 
 
 Para mi, For me. 
 
 Sin ti, Without thee. 
 
 Contra ellos, Against them. 
 
 Note a. Miy ti, ', when preceded by con, take go after them, 
 and are joined to the preposition ; as, conmigo, contigo, consigo. 
 
 Note 6. Entre is used with the subject case of the first and 
 second persons singular, in this expression, entre tu y yo, between 
 thee and me ; but in every instance besides it governs the second 
 objective case, as, entre si, between themselves; entre nosotros, 
 between us. 
 
 Note c. The second objective case is always used after compara- 
 tives; as, tequiero mas que &, el, I love thee better than him; me dan 
 menos que a ti, they give me less than thee ; nos did tanto dinero 
 como a ellos, he gave us as much money as them. 
 
 RULE 49. When in English the objective case 
 of the first or second person is the regimen of the 
 verb, or of the preposition to expressed or under- 
 stood, we use the first case j* as 
 
 I exhorted thee, Yo te exhort^. 
 
 He conquered me, El me vencio. 
 
 She spoke to us, Ella nos hablo. 
 
 He will tell me, El me dird. 
 
 RULE 50. If the objective case of the third 
 person be the regimen of the English verb, we 
 translate it by le, los for the masculine, la, las\ for 
 the feminine, and lo% for the neuter ; as 
 He killed him, El le mato. 
 
 * Except after comparatives. See Rule 48, note c. 
 
 * Except after comparatives. See Rule 48, note c. 
 t See also Rule 51, note e. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 115 
 
 She saw them, Ella los vio. 
 
 They heard it, Ellos lo oygron. 
 
 RULE 51. If the third person in English is 
 governed by the preposition to expressed or under- 
 stood, we render it by le, les* for both genders; as 
 
 We spoke to him, Nosotros le hablamos. 
 I wrote to her, Yo le escribi. 
 
 She told them, Ella les dixo. 
 
 Note a. The third person being governed by to, in English, 
 either expressed or understood, is expressed by se if the regimen of 
 the verb be a pronoun of the third person ; as, he brought her a 
 jewel, and sent it to her, le compro unajoya, ye se la mando ; I shall 
 write them three letters, and will send them to them, les escribir 
 trcs cartas, y se las mandart ; I sent them six lines, and she read 
 them to them, yo les mandt seis renglones, y ella se los I*y6; my 
 servant will give it him, mi criado se lo dard. 
 
 N. B. For the manner in which adjectives are made to agree with 
 the reflective pronoun se, see note c to Rule 23. 
 
 Note b. When two first objective cases occur in the sentence, one 
 of which is the regimen of the verb, and the other is governed in 
 English by. the preposition to either expressed or understood, the 
 regimen of the verb is to be placed last ; as, she told it me, ella me 
 lo dixo; I was going to tell it to thee, iba a cfectrtelo ; I gave it to 
 him, yo se lo di. But if the regimen of the verb be the reflective 
 pronoun, it must be placed first ; as, he discovered himself imme- 
 diately to me, luego se me descubrio. 
 
 Note c. Both the objective cases belonging to the same person 
 are sometimes used together in Spanish, to give more energy to 
 the expression, and then the second must always be preceded by a. 
 Example, mi madre me ama a mi, my mother loves me ; su her- 
 mana te aborrece a tf, his sister hates thee ; 61 se lo mando a ella, he 
 sent it to her ; ella se ama a si, she loves herself; tl se lo conto a 
 ellas, he related it to them; yo les dixe las noticias a ellos, I told 
 them the news ; yo se las dirt a vms., I will tell them to you. 
 
 Note d. The second objective case of any of the persons ougtit 
 not to be in the sentence preceded by d, as the regimen of the verb, 
 without being accompanied by the first :-|* therefore such expressions 
 as these, a tl quiero t d ti anno, are faulty ; they should be d tl le 
 quiero, d ti te amo. The place of the second objective case in simi- 
 
 * Except after comparatives. See Rule 48, note c. 
 
 t Except after a comparative ; as, Y siempre me creian d mi mas 
 que a 61 ; and they always believed me more than him. Gil Bias, 
 ch. 5. 
 
116 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 lar cases is restricted to the following rules : 1st, If the first objective 
 case should precede the verb, the second may be placed either before 
 the first, or after the verb ; as, a tf te amo, or te amo a ti, I love thee. 
 2dly, If the first objective case follow the verb, the second must be 
 placed after the first ; as, amawdole a 61, loving him. 
 
 Note e. To construe the English pronoun */, when it represents 
 a noun of the masculine gender in Spanish, by the neuter pronoun 
 /o, is incorrrect. Lo can never be properly employed, unless the 
 object to which it refers be one to which we cannot ascribe either the 
 masculine or the feminine gender ; as, the book I bought I will send 
 (it) to thee, el libra quecompr6 to le mandar ; no : promise that thou 
 wilt bring it to me to-morrow, no : promete que me le traeras mana- 
 na ; I promise it to thee, te lo prometo It in the first two examples 
 is rendered /e, because it refers to libro, which is masculine, but 
 in the last it is construed /o, because the English pronoun does 
 not refer to the book, but to the action of bringing it the following 
 day. 
 
 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 Are mio, tuyo, suyo, nuestro, vuestro. 
 
 N.B. The o is changed into a for the feminine 
 termination. 
 
 RULE 52. Possessives always agree in gender, 
 number, and case, with the possession ; as 
 Nuestrojardin, Our garden. 
 
 De nues tr os Jar dines 9 Of our gardens. 
 Fuestra quintet, Your villa. 
 
 En vuestras quintas, In your villas. 
 
 RULE 53. Possessive pronouns, when used as 
 pronominal adjectives,* precede the noun with 
 which they agree ; as 
 
 Nuestros empenos, Our endeavours. 
 Vuestras virtudes, Your virtues. 
 
 RULE 54. Mio, tuyo, and suyo, lose their last 
 syllable when placed before the noun ; as 
 
 * That is, when they represent my, My, his, her, its, our, your, 
 their, in English. See Observation *fter Demonstratives, p. 42. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 117 
 
 Mi conducta, My conduct. 
 
 Mis palabras, My words. 
 
 Tu valor, Thy valour. 
 
 Tus hazanas, Thy exploits. 
 
 Su temeridad* His temerity. 
 
 Sus acciones, Her actions. 
 
 Sus ramas, Its branches. 
 
 Su silencio, Their silericfe. 
 
 Sus pasiones, Their passions. 
 
 RULE 55. Mio is placed after, in our addresses, 
 that is, when it agrees with the second person \ as 
 / Acuerdate, hijo mio ! Remember, my son ! 
 
 / Fenzamos^ paisanos mios ! Let us conquer, my 
 
 countrymen ! 
 / Querida patria mia! solo My dear country ! for 
 
 por ti muero, thee alone I die. 
 
 RULE 56. When possessives are used as pro- 
 nouns,* they agree in gender, number, and case, 
 with the noun which they represent, and are pre- 
 ceded by the definite article ; as 
 
 Tu casa y la mia, Thy house and mine. 
 
 De mis esfuerzosy los tuyos,Of my efforts and thine. 
 Su enemigo y el nuestro, His enemy and ours. 
 Para sus enemigos y los For his enemies and 
 
 nuestros, ours. 
 
 Nuestra bata y la suya, Our gown and hers. 
 Sus bat as y las nuestras, Her gowns and ours. 
 Vuestro ingenio y el suyo, Your genius and hers. 
 Fuestraspalabrasylassuyas^Your words and his. 
 Su inocencia y la mia, Their innocence and 
 
 mine. 
 Tus delitos y los suyos, Thy crimes and theirs. 
 
 * That is, when they are equivalent to mine, thine, his, hers, itg, 
 urs, yours, theirs. 
 
118 HULKS OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 N.B. Possessives are preceded by the neuter article, 
 when they are indefinitely used ; as, lo mio no es tuyo, 
 ni lo tuyo suyo, mine is not thine, nor thine his. See 
 Rule 25. 
 
 RULE 57. When the possessive pronoun is 
 connected with the noun by a verb, the article is 
 omitted; as 
 
 Este libro es mio, This book is mine. 
 
 Esa carta es tuya, That letter is thine. 
 
 El palacio es suyo, The palace is his. 
 
 La casa era nuestra, The house was ours. 
 
 Note a. The verb need not be expressed when the assertion is 
 an answer to a foregoing question ; as, ^ De quien es esa casa ? mia. 
 $ De quien son estos libros ? nuestros, &c. 
 
 RULE 58. When mine, thine, &c,. are preceded 
 by of) we omit the preposition and article, and 
 place the possessive after the noun ; as, 
 
 A friend of mine, Un amigo mio. 
 
 A servant of his, Un criado suyo. 
 
 An author of ours, Un autor nuestro. 
 
 One of your houses, Una casa vuestra. 
 
 Two servants of mine, Dos criados mios. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The English possessive adjective, when it agrees 
 with any part of the body, is changed into the Spanish 
 definite article in the following instances : 1st, After all 
 reflective verbs : as, she washed her hands, ella se lavb 
 las manos, i. e. she to herself washed the hands. 2d, 
 When the part of the body with which the adjective 
 agrees in English is not the subject of a verb ; as, in 
 vain I entreated pardon with tears in my eyes, en vano 
 pedia perdon con las Idgrimas en los ojos ; he gave rne 
 his hand, el me dib la mano. If the part of the body 
 with which the possessive adjective agrees does not be- 
 long to the subject of the verb, the individual to whom 
 it belongs must be represented by the corresponding 
 personal pronoun in its first objective case; as, I washed 
 
AND SYNTAX* 119 
 
 her hands, Yo le lave las manos ; i. e. I washed to 
 her the hands. I threw the bridle on her neck, Echele el 
 freno sobre el pezcuezo ; i. e. I threw to her the bridle 
 on the neck. Gil. Bias, ch. 2. 3d. When the part of 
 the body is the subject of the verb to ache ; as, my head 
 aches, me dude la cabeztt ; i. e. to me aches the head : 
 their teeth ache, les duelen las muelas ; i. e. to them 
 ache the teeth. N.B. The possessive adjective is re- 
 tained in all cases where the use of the article might 
 occasion ambiguity ; as, Dost thou come to t, ke plea- 
 sure in the work of thy hands ? <> Vienes d complacerte 
 en la obra detus manos? Gil Bias, ch. 14. And my. 
 mother wished to rear me with her own milk, Y mi 
 madre quiso criarme con su propria leche ; And until I 
 was seven years old they held me always in their arms, 
 Y hasta los siete anos me tuvieron siempre en sus brazos. 
 Ibid. ch. 5. Many of the most distinguished gentlemen 
 in Spain solicited my hand, Muchos caballeros de los 
 mas principales de Espana solicitaron mi mano. Ibid, 
 ch. 11. 
 
 The possessive adjective is also changed sometimes 
 for the definite article, although it does not agree with 
 any part of the body, if the person to whom the pos- 
 sessive refers is sufficiently denoted in some other part 
 of the sentence; as, Throw down your purse quickly 
 on the ground, otherwise I will kill you, Eche pronta- 
 mente la bolsa en el suelo, 6 si no le mato. Ibid. ch. 8. 
 
 Your is not translated vuestro in Spanish, nor yours, 
 el vuestro, except when we address persons in very ex- 
 alted stations ; as, All your power, Sire, will be useless, 
 answered Sifredo's daughter in a faint voice, Inutil 
 sera, Senor, todo vuestro poder,respondib, con desmayada 
 voz, la hija de Sifredo. Ibid. b. iv. ch. 4. 
 
 Instead of vuestro we place the definite article, or the 
 possessive adjective, (referring to the third person,) be- 
 fore the noun, and the words de vin. or, de vms. after it ; 
 as, these are your books, estos son los, or, sus libros de 
 vm. Gentlemen, your beds are ready, Senores, las, or, 
 sus camas de vms. estan prontas. Madam, I cannot 
 answer your question, Senora, no puedo rcspondcr d la, 
 or, a su pregunta de vm. N. B. The words de vm. or 
 
120 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 de vms. are frequently left out in asking a question (in 
 familiar discourse) when the noun is preceded by su 
 or sits ; as, How is your father? </ Como estd su padre 
 de vm. ? or, Como estd su padre? Are your daughters 
 in the country ? 4 Estan sus fiijas de vm. ? or, Estan sus 
 hijasj en el campo ? 
 
 Instead of el vuestro, &c. we prefix the article (which 
 the possession would require, were it expressed) before 
 the words de vm. or de vms. ; as, Gentlemen, my coach 
 and yours are at the door, Senores, mi coche, y el (coche) 
 de vms. estan a la puerta. Madam, I shall sell my 
 house and also yours, Senora, vender e mi casa, y tarn- 
 bien la (casa) de vm. Sir, the wind has destroyed our 
 garden and yours, (i. e. your gardens,) Senor, el viento 
 ha destruido nuestro jardin y los (jardines) de vm. 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 Are, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Quien, Quienes. 
 
 Qual, Quotes 
 
 Que, Que. 
 
 Cuyos. 
 
 N. B. Qual must always be preceded by the definite 
 article ; que but seldom ; and quien and cuyo never. 
 
 RULE 59. Quien^ relates to persons only, and 
 is always preceded by the preposition a when 
 governed by the verb ; as 
 
 El rey es quien lo manda, The king, (it) is, who 
 
 commands it. 
 El hombre con quien fid- The man with whom 
 
 mos, we went. 
 
 La muger quien amas, The woman whom 
 
 thou lovest. 
 
 * The o is ciianged into a in the feminine termination. 
 
 f The corresponding word to quien in English is who only. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 121 
 
 RULE 60. Qual and que refer to persons and to 
 things ;* as 
 
 JEl criado que vino,y por The servant who came, 
 elc\ua\mandlacarta, and by whom I sent 
 
 the letter. 
 
 La Have que medi6,ycou The key which he gave 
 la qual abri la puerta, me, and with whicn 
 
 I opened the door. 
 
 RULE 61. Cuyo also relates both to persons 
 .ind things, but agrees with the word by which it 
 is immediately followed; as 
 La nation cuyo rey es The nation whose king 
 
 sahio, is wise. 
 
 La calle cuyas casas The street the houses of 
 
 son altas, which are lofty. 
 
 Its equivalents in English are whose arid of which. 
 
 N.B. Cuyo is a pronoun which partakes of the na- 
 ture both of a relative arid of a possessive pronominal 
 adjective ; as the former it relates to an antecedent, the 
 possessor, and like the latter it agrees in gender and 
 number with the possession. 
 
 RULE 62. Who, having its antecedent expressed 
 in English, is generally rendered by que> especially 
 if placed close to the antecedent and agreeing with 
 it in case ; as 
 
 A king who governs Un rey que gobierna 
 
 well, rewards the bien, premia a los 
 
 men who defend the hombres que defien- 
 
 country, den la patria. 
 
 JEvery thing was en- Todo fu sufrido por 
 
 dured by Irigunda, Ingunda, quien se 
 
 who had retired to habia retirado a 
 
 Africa, Africa. 
 
 Note a. If it be required to repeat who in the sentence, it may 
 be translated que, or qual : as, a king who governs well, and who 
 
 * Their equivalents in English are who, which, and that. 
 G 
 
122 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 loves his subjects, ttn rey que gobierna bien,y que ama a BUS vasal" 
 los; the God who created us, and who punishes sinners, el Dios que 
 TIO* crioj y el qual castiga a los pecadores ; the men who came, and 
 who saw her, los hombres que vinieron, y que la vieron ; the women 
 who went, and who will return no more, las mugeres que fueron, y 
 las quales no volverdn mas. 
 
 RULE 63. Whom is generally translated quien;* 
 
 as 
 
 The man whom we saw, El hombre quien 
 
 vimos. 
 
 The women whom I sent, Las mugeres & qui- 
 en es envit. 
 
 Note a. If whom be repeated we may use either quien or qual ; 
 as, the man whom we saw, and with whom we spoke, el hombre a 
 quien vimos. y con quien hablamo* ; the women whom we sent, and 
 with whom they quarrelled, las mugeres 4 quienes enviamos, y con 
 las quales rineron. 
 
 Note b. When whom is not preceded by a preposition, it may 
 also be translated que; as, el hombre que vimos, las mugeres que 
 envi6. 
 
 RULE 64. If the English antecedent be a per- 
 sonal pronoun agreeing in case with the relative, 
 it is generally suppressed, and the definite article 
 prefixed to the relative ; as 
 
 He who spoke to me, El que me hablo. 
 
 She who wrote, La que escribio. 
 
 We who are friends, Los que somos amigos. 
 
 They who endeavour, Los que se empenan. 
 See Demonstratives, Rule 75. 
 
 RULE 65. Yo and tu must always be expressed 
 before the relative ; as 
 
 Yo que te amaba, I who loved thee. 
 Tu que me aborreces, Thou who dost hate me. 
 RULE 66. That or which is translated que ; as 
 La hacienda que compramos, The estate that we 
 
 bought. 
 
 La espada que tenia, The sword which 
 
 he had. 
 
 * See Rule 59. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 123 
 
 Note a. In repetitions we may use que or qua! ; as, la hacienda 
 que compramos, y que vendertmos, the estate which we bought, and 
 which we shall sell ; la espada que tenia, y con la qual te hirtd, the 
 sword which he had, and with which he wounded thee. 
 
 RULE G/. What\ translated lo que ;* as 
 When we cannot obtain Quando no podemos 
 what we desire, we ought lograr lo que de- 
 to content ourselves with seamos, debemos 
 what we have. contentarnos con lo 
 
 que tenemos. 
 
 Note a. What repeated is generally que, but sometimes qual may 
 be introduced ; as, lo que le di es lo que tiene, what I gave him is 
 what he has; lo que le di, lo qual le debia, es lo que tiene, what I 
 gave him,which was what I owed him, is what he has. 
 
 RULE 68. The relative que is, generally, placed 
 close to its antecedent, unless the words which in- 
 tervene form a parenthesis to the sentence ; as 
 La dicha espada cortaba The said sword cut like 
 comounanavaja,yno a razor, and there ne- 
 habia armadura (por ver was an armour 
 fuerteyencantadaque (so hardened or so 
 fuese) que se le parase powerfully enchant- 
 delante, ed) that could with- 
 
 DonQuixote,b.iii.ch.l8. stand its edge. 
 
 RULE 69. Relatives must immediately follow 
 the preposition by which they are governed ; as 
 El hombre con quien ha- The man whom we 
 
 blamos, spoke with. 
 
 El libro en que leimos, The book which we 
 
 read in. 
 
 RULE 70. Relatives must be expressed, although 
 only understood in English ; as 
 The woman I love, La muger que amo. 
 The house we live in, La casa en que vivimos. 
 The pen I write with, La pluma con que escribo. 
 
 * Except when connected with an adjective by the verb to be. See 
 Rule 25. 
 
124 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 INTERROGATIVES. 
 
 The four relatives, quien, qual, que, and cuyo, are 
 also used as interrogatives ; and correspond to 
 the English interrogatives, who, which, what, 
 and whose. 
 
 RULE 71 . Interrogatives do not admit the arti- 
 cle ; as 
 
 Quieri viene ? Who conies ? 
 
 <[ Qual tengo f Which have I ? 
 
 Que tenemos f What have we ? 
 
 I Cuyos son los libros ? Whose are the books ? 
 
 Note a. Whose is frequently translated de quien ; as, % de quien 
 son los libros ? & de quien era la casa ? 
 
 RULE 72. If the interrogation is governed by a 
 preposition, it must also precede the answer ; as 
 
 <{ Con quien vino ? With whom did he come ? 
 
 Con mi padre, With my father. 
 
 ^ Con quien secasaella? Whom doth she marry? 
 
 Con el marques, The marquis. 
 
 { En que gasta su di- In what does he spend 
 nero ? his money ? 
 
 En nada, In nothing. 
 
 i De que murio f What did he die of? 
 
 De calentura, A fever. 
 
 De quien es este pala- Whose palace is this ? 
 ci o ? 
 
 Del rey, The king's. 
 
 { A como estamos hoy ? What day of the month 
 
 is to-day ? 
 
 A doce, The twelfth. 
 
 Note a. Questions asked with cuyo or de quien require de before 
 the answer, unless it be a pronoun possessive : as, cuya or de quien 
 es esa bolsa ? de mi padre, whose purse is that ? my father's ; [ cuyas 
 wr de quien son las Haves ? mias, whose are the keys ? mine. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The First. 
 Sing 1 , este, Plur. estos. 
 
 Masculine 
 
 Feminine 
 
 Neuter 
 
 esta, 
 
 cstas. 
 
 The Second. 
 
 Masculine Sing, ese, Plur. esos. 
 
 Feminine esa, esas 
 
 Neuter eso. 
 
 The Third. 
 
 Masculine Sing* aquel, Plur. aquellos. 
 Feminine aquella, aquellas. 
 
 Neuter aquello. 
 
 N.B. Demonstratives are never preceded by the 
 articles. 
 
 When these demonstratives precede the adjective otro, 
 the first and second form with it one word, and lose the 
 final vowel ; as 
 
 First. 
 
 Sing, estotro, Plur. estotros. 
 estotra, estotras. 
 
 estotro. 
 
 Second. 
 
 Sing.esofro, Plur. esotros. 
 esotra, esotras. 
 
 esotro. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Masc. from aquel, Sing, aquel otro, PluT.aquellosotros. 
 Fem. aquella, aquella otra, aquellas otras. 
 
 Neut. aquello, aquello otro. 
 
 Demonstratives have sometimes, like adjectives, the 
 noun (to which their demonstrative property is applied) 
 expressed in the sentence; and, at other times, they re 
 present, like pronouns, a noun already mentioned : as, 
 esiejardin, esos drboles, this garden, those trees: and, 
 mijardin es mas largo que este, my garden is longer than 
 
 Masc. from este, 
 Fem. esta, 
 
 Neut. esto, 
 
 Masc. from ese, 
 Fem. esa^ 
 
 Neut eso, 
 
126 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 this ; tits drboles son mas altos que esos, thy trees are 
 loftier than those. See Observation, p. 42, Part I. 
 
 RULE 73. This is translated by the first ; as 
 I shall gain this lawsuit, Ganare* este pleyto. 
 I shall send these goods, Mandart estos ge*neros. 
 We shall see this play, Fer^mos esta comedia. 
 These troops will con- f r encerdn estas tropas. 
 
 quer, 
 We shall take this, Tomar^mos esto. 
 
 RULE 74. That may be rendered by the second 
 or third ; as 
 
 That letter, Esa or aquella carta. 
 
 Those papers, Aquellos or esospapeles. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 To point out exactly when the English demonstrative 
 that is to be translated ese, and when aquel, is attended 
 with much difficulty, since even the rules, which are 
 given by the Spanish Academy for the application of the 
 demonstratives, are insufficient. The Academy says that 
 este denotes an object nearer to the first than to the 
 second person ; ese, one exactly the reverse, in point of 
 situation ; and aquel, an object very distant from both the 
 persons. However clear this explanation of the Spanish 
 Academy may be, yet it does not remove the difficulty ; 
 because it is possible to use este, ese, and aquel, with ob- 
 jects which, notwithstanding their relative distances, 
 may differ among themselves, yet not in reference 
 to the first and second persons. For instance, if I 
 wished to tell a person who is close to me, that the 
 house in which we are, the one facing us, and one in St, 
 John's Street, are all three mine ; I should say, Esta 
 casa en que estamos, esa que esta enfrente, y aquella que 
 esta en la calle de San Juan, son todas ires mias. Now 
 it is evident that the houses in question are, at the time of 
 my remark, equally distant from the person addressing, 
 and the person addressed. Perhaps their different uses 
 may be more readily found, by considering that, in re- 
 ference to the speaker, este denotes proximity, ese mo- 
 derate distance, and aquel remoteness ; and therefore we 
 
AND SYNTAX. 127 
 
 should employ them with objects, according 1 to the ad- 
 verb, which would describe in English their local situ- 
 ation ; in which view este will represent here ; ese, there; 
 and aquel, yonder: as, esta casa en que estamos, this 
 house (here) in which we are ; esa que estd enfrente, 
 that (there) opposite; y aquella en la calle de San Juan, 
 and that (yonder) in St. John's Street, &c. 
 
 When these demonstratives relate to time, este de- 
 notes time present, ese time lately past, and aquel time 
 still further removed from the present ; as, este hombre 
 que ves, ese hombre que has visto hoy, y aquel hombre que 
 vimos la semana pasada, son parientes mios, this man 
 whom you see, that man whom you have seen to-day, and 
 that man whom we saw last week, are relations of mine. 
 
 RULE 7o. English personal pronouns, followed 
 by a relative not agreeing in case, are generally re- 
 solved by the demonstrative in Spanish ; as 
 We ought to reward Debemos premiar aquel 
 
 him who labours for que trabaja por la pa- 
 
 the country, tria. 
 
 RULE 76. That, used twice in the sentence, is 
 generally translated by aquel the second time, if 
 the objects differ in their distance, and by ese if 
 they do not ; as 
 That man who is there, Ese homhre que estd ahi, 
 
 and that that is yon- y aquel que estd alii. 
 
 der, 
 That man, and that "&$e hombre, y esamwg-er 
 
 woman who goes with que va con 6L 
 
 him. 
 
 Note a. The latter is generally translated este, and the former, 
 ese, in the corresponding gender and number ; as, virtue and vice 
 produce different effects, the former makes men happy, the latter 
 makes them miserable, la virtudy el vicio producen efectos diferentes, 
 esa hace felices d los hombres, este los hace desdiehados. 
 
 Note 6. When that (followed by of or which, expressed or under- 
 stood) refers to a noun already mentioned, the English demonstrative 
 is generally rendered by the Spanish article in the corresponding 
 number and gender; as, in his house and in that of the earl, en su 
 casa y en la del conde ; from this book and that I bought, de este 
 
128 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 libra y del que compre ; to this man and to that I saw, a este hombre 
 y al que vi. 
 
 Note c. The expression that is, used in the sense of namely, is 
 translated esto es ; as, He made us alight at an inn, which is at the 
 entrance of the village, that is, a little way out of it, Hizonos apear 
 en un meson que estd a la entrada del lugar, esto e*, un poco fuera 
 de 61. Gil Bias, ch. 3. 
 
 INDEFINITES. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Uno* 
 
 alguien 
 
 alguno* 
 
 nadie 
 
 ninguno* 
 
 mucho* 
 
 algo 
 
 nada 
 
 todo* 
 
 Plural. 
 unos 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 entrambos* 
 varios* 
 
 tales 
 otros 
 
 
 algunos 
 
 cada 
 tal 
 otro* 
 quienquiera 
 qualquiera"\ 
 qualquiera 
 cosa 
 
 ningunos 
 muchos 
 
 qualesquiera 
 
 
 todos 
 
 
 The use of the Indefinites, as far as they correspond 
 with words of similar import, in English, may- 
 be generally ascertained by the following rules : 
 
 RULE 77- One is rendered by uno ; as 
 One does not know what No sale uno que pen- 
 to think, sar* 
 I have seen the ladies, He visto a las senoras, 
 but I spoke with one pero hable con una 
 only, solamente. 
 
 RULE 78. Somebody , some one, anybody ', any 
 one, are rendered by alguien, or by alguno in the 
 singular ; as 
 
 Has anybody said it ? ^ Lo ha die ho alguien ? 
 Some one may have Alguno puede haberlo 
 
 said it, dicho. 
 
 * These, properly belonging to the class of adjectives, form their 
 feminine termination like them. See Rule 18. 
 
 j- This indefinite is sometimes used without the last letter in both 
 numbers. See Note a to Rule 84. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 129 
 
 Somebody said it, but I Alguno lo dixo, pero no 
 
 know not who, s quien. 
 
 If anybody come to seek Si viene alguien d bus- 
 
 me, say that I am not carme, di que no estoy 
 
 at home, because I en casa, por que temo 
 
 fear that some one of que ha de venir d ha- 
 
 my creditors will come cermevisita alguno de 
 
 to pay me a visit, mis acreedores. 
 
 Note a. "When anybody or any one means anybody whatever, we 
 translate it the same way as whoever. See Rule 84. 
 
 Note b. Some one or any one being followed by of, must never 
 be translated alguien y but alguno ; as, alguno de ellos^ some one of 
 them. 
 
 RULE 79. Nobody, no one, not anybody, or 
 not any one, is construed nadie, or ninguno in 
 the singular; as 
 
 He fears nobody, A nadie teme. 
 
 I see no one, A ninguno veo. 
 
 RULE 80. Something, or anything, is algo ; as 
 Hast thou anything Tienes algo que decirme ? 
 
 to say to me ? 
 I had something to Tenia algo que contarte. 
 
 tell thee. 
 
 Note a. They may also be literally translated, especially in their 
 plural ; as, vi algunas cosas que me disgustaron, I saw some things 
 which disgusted me. 
 
 RULE 81. Nothing, or not anything, is trans- 
 lated nada; as 
 Not anything he said Nada de lo que dixo la 
 
 convinced her, convencio. 
 
 His entreaties availed Nada importaron sus 
 
 nothing, suplicas. 
 
 Note a. Algo and nada, when used as substantives, admit a noun 
 after them preceded by de ; as, $ hay algo de nuevo ? is there any 
 thing new ? su hermano dc vm. tiene algo de potta, your brother is 
 something of a poet. See Rule 21. 
 
 c,3 
 
130 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 N.B. For anything as synonymous with whatever, 
 see Rule 85. 
 
 RULE 82. Some, or any, is rendered by alguno 
 in both numbers, or by unos ; as 
 
 I want books, have you Mefaltan lihros, tiene 
 
 any f vm. algunos ? 
 
 Do you know any of & Conoce vm. a algunas 
 
 these ladies ? de estas senoras ? 
 
 I know some, Conozco a unas. 
 
 RULE 83. None, or not any, is translated 
 ninguno; examples: 
 Ninguna de estas senoras None of these ladies is 
 
 es la hi/a casada, the married daughter. 
 
 -^ ninguno leocurrioque It did not occur to any 
 
 podia ser aquello una that the whole might 
 
 fiction, (Gil Bias, ch.3.) be a fiction. 
 
 RULE 84. Whoever, whosoever, whichever, or 
 whichsoever, are translated quienquiera que, or 
 qualquiera que, in both numbers ; as 
 
 Whoever thou mayest be, Quienquiera que seas. 
 Whoever may come, Qualquiera que venga. 
 
 To whomsoever you meet, A qualquiera que vm. 
 
 encuentre. 
 
 Note a. Qualquiera very frequently loses the last vowel in both 
 numbers, but this never happens unless when it is followed by some 
 noun with which it agrees; as, qualquier hombre, qualquier coaa, 
 qualesquier medios, qualesquier causas. 
 
 RULE 85. Whatever, or whatsoever, must be 
 expressed by qualquier cosa que ; as 
 
 Whatever I say, Qualquier cosa que digo. 
 
 Whatsoever thou mayest Qualquier cosa que veas. 
 see, 
 
 Note a. Whatever when used in the sense of all which is gene- 
 rally expressed by todo lo que ; as, he did whatever they bid him, 
 hizo todo lo que le manddron. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 131 
 
 RULE 86. Another, other, or others, is rendered 
 by otro in both numbers ; as 
 Send me another, Mandame otro. 
 
 These books are dear, Estos libros son caros, 
 
 but I have others pero tengo otros mas 
 
 cheaper, baratos. 
 
 Note a. When their possessive case is very vaguely used, that is, 
 when it is employed as in opposition to one's own only, it is then re- 
 solved into the Spanish adjective ageno ; as, no codicies los bienes 
 agenos, do not covet another's wealth ; me exortaron a que no tomase 
 lo ageno contra la voluntad de su dueno, they exhorted me not to 
 take the property of another, against the will of its owner. Gil Bias, 
 ch. 1. 
 
 RULE 87. Each other is translated uno otro ; 
 and one another, unos otros ; with or without the 
 article, and with the corresponding preposition 
 placed between them ; as, of each other, el uno 
 del otro, or uno de otro. 
 
 The husband and wife El marido y la muger se 
 love each other, but aman uno a* otro, pero 
 the sons and daugh- los hijos y las hijas se 
 ters hate one ano- aborrecen los unos a 
 ther, los otros. 
 
 RULE 88. Both is ambos, and several is varios ; 
 as 
 
 Have you any opportu- Tiene vm. ocasiones ? 
 
 nities ? 
 
 Yes, I have several, Si, tengo varias. 
 
 Neither of them has Nl el uno ni el otro ha 
 
 written, because both escrito, por que ambos 
 
 are ill, estan malos. 
 
 Note a. Both may be also rendered uno y otro ; as, uno y otro 
 me ffustan, I like them both. 
 
 RULE 89. Much is construed mucho, and many, 
 muchos ; as 
 Hast thou any money ? Tienes dinero ? No tengo 
 
 I have not much, mucho. 
 
132 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 You think I have no Piensa vm. que no tengo 
 troubles, but I have pesadumbres,pero ten- 
 many, go much as. 
 
 RULE 90. Each when alone is cada qual, or 
 cada uno ; as 
 
 He comprado seis tibros, 
 cada uno en un idioma 
 diferente. 
 
 Serdn premiados, cada qual 
 segun su merito. 
 
 I have bought six 
 books, each in a 
 different language, 
 
 They will be reward- 
 ed, each according 
 to his merit. 
 
 RULE 91. Each, or every, if, when joined to a 
 noun, they are synonymous, is expressed by cada ; 
 as 
 
 The daily bread de- El pan quotidiano quiere 
 notes the bread of decir el pan de cada 
 each day. dia. 
 
 Cada pregunta la acorn- 
 pafiaba con una pro- 
 funda reverencia. 
 
 He accompanied every 
 interrogatory with a 
 very low bow, 
 
 In such examples as these, cada may be properly 
 termed a distributive adjective indeclinable. 
 
 RULE 92. Every, when not denoting the same 
 meaning as each, is translated by todo in both its 
 genders and numbers ; as 
 
 Even/ one lighted his 
 candle, and each 
 retired to his room, 
 
 I examined every one 
 (that is each lady) 
 separately, until I 
 had examined every 
 one, 
 
 He gave them every 
 thing he had. 
 
 Encendidron todos sus ve- 
 las, y cada uno se reti- 
 ro a su quarto. 
 
 Examin6 d cada una de 
 por si, hasta que las 
 hube examinado d to- 
 das. 
 
 Les dio todo lo que tenia. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 133 
 
 RULE 93. All is translated todo in both its gen- 
 ders and numbers ; as 
 
 All that glitters is not Todo lo que brilla no es 
 
 gold, oro, 
 
 I invited many, but they Convided muchos^pero 
 
 did not all come, no vinieron todos. 
 
 We have received many Hemos recibido muchas 
 
 letters from you, but cartasdevm.,perono 
 
 not all those that you todas las que vm. es- 
 
 wrote, cribio. 
 
 On the Manner of Addressing, fyc. Persons in 
 Spanish. 
 
 To the names of individuals in the second or third 
 person is prefixed, as a token of respect, the word Senor 
 or Don.* Senor has a feminine termination, Senor a, 
 and gives derivation to two diminutives, Senorito and 
 Senorita, applicable to young people ; and all the four 
 have a regular plural. See Rule 11. 
 
 Don admits the feminine termination Dona, but nei- 
 ther of them is used in the plural. 
 
 Senor is used only with surnames ; as, el Senor Castro, 
 los Senores Garcias, la Senora Dorantes, la Senorita 
 Monteros, &c. 
 
 Don can only be prefixed to baptismal names ; as, 
 Don Antonio, Don Francisco de Salas, Dona Maria 
 Pina. 
 
 Senor Don is the most respectful title, and Don alone 
 holds the next rank ; as, el Senor Don Eugenio Izquierdo, 
 el Senor Don Pedro Cevallos, la Senora Dona Catalina 
 Romero, la Senorita Dona Isabel, and Don Diego Gar- 
 da, Don Luis Gomez, Dona Maria, Dona Antonia, &c. 
 
 To persons who are deemed beneath the appellation 
 of Don we prefix the word Senor to their baptismal 
 name ; as, Senor Pedro, Senora Maria Martinez. 
 
 * These words are only used in the first person by certain in- 
 dividuals in their official documents ; as, Yo Don Francisco Perez 
 Corregidor que soy } &c. 
 
134 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Instead of the definite article before the word Senor, 
 we substitute sometimes the possessive pronoun ; as, 
 mi Senora Dona Isabel, &c. but this variation ought to 
 be sanctioned by some intimacy. 
 
 In speaking: of persons who have a title, the general 
 way is to form from it an adjective in the superlative 
 degree, in the first member of the sentence, and use the 
 title in some subsequent one; as, El Excelentisimo Se- 
 nor Don Frajicisco Palafox pas6 ayer por aqul, y Su 
 Excelencia volverd manana, The Most Excellent Lord 
 Don Francis Palafox passed yesterday through here, and 
 His Excellency will return to-morrow ; El Ilustrisimo 
 Sefior Do?i Alonzo del Voile, Arzobispo de Sevilla, llego 
 ayer, y todo el clero fae a recibir a Su Ilustrisima, The 
 Most Illustrious Lord Don Alonzo del Valle, Archbishop 
 of Seville, arrived yesterday, and all the clergy went to 
 receive His Grace ; El Santisimo Padre Clemente XIV. 
 escribib varias cartas, que han sido impresas despues de 
 la muerte de Su Santidad, The Most Holy Father Cle- 
 ment XIV. wrote several letters, which have been printed 
 since the death of His Holiness. If we are unacquainted 
 with the baptismal name, it is common then to say El 
 Senor General, El Senor Obispo, &c. 
 
 N. B. Magestad, Majesty ; Alteza, Highness ; and Se- 
 noria, Lordship, are never changed into an adjective. 
 
 The use of the second person singular being entirely 
 confined to menial servants, or very intimate friends, re- 
 course is had to the words usted and ustedes, when per- 
 sons are addressed ; and to su merced and sus mer cedes, 
 when they form the subject of discourse; all which go 
 vern the verb in the third person of the number required 
 as, Senor, usted es muy urbano, Sir, you are very polite; 
 Senor es, ustedes no tienen que temer, Gentlemen, you have 
 nothing to fear ; He visto a las senoras, y sus mercedes 
 rne han dado una cartapara usted, I have seen the ladies, 
 and they have given me a letter for you; Mi padre no ha 
 podido venir, porque su merced estd malo ; pero manana 
 le escribird a vm. sobre la materia, My father has not 
 been able to come, because he is ill ; but will write to 
 you to-morrow on the subject. Usted (a corruption of 
 Vuestra merced) cannot be literally translated ; the title 
 
AND SYNTAX. 135 
 
 which most resembles it in English is Your Worship, 
 and Su merced must be construed His or her Worship. 
 In writing 1 they are abridged thus ; usted, vm. ; ustedes, 
 vms. ; su merced, smd. ; sus mercedes, smds. 
 For the peculiar manner in which adjectives are made 
 agree with Titles, see Note b to Rule 23. 
 
 On the Verbs Ser and Estar.* 
 
 Among the difficulties which Englishmen en- 
 counter in the study of the Spanish language, there 
 is, perhaps, none greater than the one attending 
 the proper choice of these verbs. A Spaniard, no 
 doubt, perceives a very striking difference between 
 them ; yet he finds it almost impossible to make 
 an Englishman sensible of the distinction, because 
 the English language has but one word to express 
 their different meanings. Ser and estar equally 
 signify in English to be ; but ser denotes an abso- 
 lute, and estar a relative existence : might I be 
 allowed the definition, I would say that ser ex- 
 presses the kind, and estar the manner of being ; 
 and therefore we find that estar is employed when 
 the existence is connected with, and as it were 
 modified by, some circumstances either of time or 
 of place. If I say, este hombre es valiente, this 
 man is valiant; I mean that this man possesses 
 that certain portion of natural courage requisite to 
 form what is meant by a valiant man : but if estar 
 be substituted, este hombre esta valiente, will then 
 mean, that the man is at that time inspired with 
 valour by some existing circumstance. In the same 
 manner, esta naranja es dgria, this orange is sour, 
 denotes that the orange belongs to a species of 
 which the acid taste is a characteristic : change the 
 verb into estar, and esta naranja esta dgria, will 
 then convey the idea that the orange might have 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 107. 
 
136 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 been sweet had it not been gathered too soon, or 
 some other circumstance prevented its reaching the 
 necessary degree of maturity. 
 
 From the foregoing remarks may be drawn the 
 following general rule : viz. That when the attri- 
 bute is inherent in, or essential to, the subject, we 
 express it by ser, and when it is only accidental or 
 contingent, we make use of estar : thus, if we saw 
 a man with a wooden leg, we should say este hom- 
 bre es coxo, this man is lame ; but a man walking 
 with crutches only, might be expressed by este 
 hombre es, or estd, coxo : with es we should denote 
 that his lameness was deemed permanent, and with 
 estd that we considered it as temporary only. This 
 however will be more clearly shown in the follow- 
 ing rules. 
 
 RULE 94. General truths and the qualities of 
 the mind are expressed with ser, and emotions 
 with estar; as 
 
 La muerte es terrible, Death is terrible. 
 
 Soy humilde, I am humble. 
 
 Eres soberbiOy Thou art proud. 
 
 Es infeliz, He is unhappy. 
 
 Estoy enfadado, I am angry. 
 
 Estas triste, Thou art sorrowful. 
 
 Esta contento, He is pleased. 
 
 RULE 95. The natural beauties of the body, 
 and its defects when deemed permanent, are de- 
 noted by ser ; as 
 
 La muchacha es bonita, The girl is pretty. 
 
 El hijo era feo, The son was ugly. 
 
 La madre es coxa. The mother is lame. 
 
 El padre es ciego, The father is blind. 
 
 RULE 96. The physical changes in the animal 
 body are expressed with estar ; as 
 
AND SYNTAX. 13J 
 
 y 
 
 El nino esta frio 9 * The child is cold (to 
 
 the touch.) 
 
 Yo estaba ciego, I was blind. 
 
 Estuv6 coxo la semana I was lame last week. 
 posada, 
 
 RULE OJ. The natural qualities of substances, 
 when taken in a general sense, are expressed by 
 ser ; as 
 
 El yelo esfrio, Ice-cold. 
 
 La miel es dulce, Honey is sweet. 
 
 La leche es blanca, Milk is white. 
 
 El plomo es pesado, Lead is heavy. 
 
 RULE 98. The chemical and mechanical changes 
 in substances are expressed with estar ; as 
 
 La leche esta dgria, The milk is sour. 
 El plomo es\,derretido, The lead is melted. 
 El agua esta caliente, The water 25 warm. 
 La carne estaba asada, The meat ivas roasted. 
 
 RULE 99. When to be connects two nouns, 
 two pronouns, two infinitives, or one of each, it is 
 translated ser ; as 
 
 The fear of God is the El temor de Dios es el 
 
 beginning of wisdom, principle de la sabi- 
 
 duria. 
 
 To forgive injuries is to Perdonar las injurias es 
 
 act like Christians, obrar como Cristianos. 
 
 Who am I ? j Quien soy Yo ? 
 
 Remember, man, that Acuerdate, hombre, que 
 
 thou art dust. tu eres polvo. 
 
 * See observation after Rule 107. 
 
138 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 RULE 100. The materials of which bodies are 
 formed are denoted by ser ; as 
 
 El vestido es de pano, The suit is of cloth. 
 
 Las medias eran de seda, The stockings were 
 
 of silk. 
 Los candeleros son de plata, The candlesticks 
 
 are of silver. 
 La mesa es de caoba, The table is of ma 
 
 hogany. 
 
 RULE 101. To be forming the passive voice, or 
 used impersonally, is, generally, translated ser ; as 
 
 Man was created, 
 Sins will be punished, 
 
 Is it not to be won- 
 dered at that virtue 
 should be so often 
 despised ? 
 
 El hombre fud criado. 
 
 Los pecados sera"n casti- 
 gados. 
 
 g No es de maravillarse 
 que la virtud sea tan 
 amenudo despreciada f 
 
 RULE 102. Possession or destination is ex- 
 pressed with ser; as 
 
 , The crown is the 
 
 king's. 
 
 The horse was mine. 
 This wine is from 
 
 Spain. 
 These wheels are for 
 
 a coach. 
 
 The flower is for her. 
 The letter was for 
 
 Scotland. 
 This machine is to 
 
 copy letters. 
 
 La corona es del rey> 
 
 El caballo era mio, 
 Este vino es de Espana, 
 
 Estas ruedas son para 
 
 un coche, 
 
 Laflor es para ella, 
 La carta era para Es- 
 
 cocia, 
 Esta mdquina es para 
 
 copiar cart as, 
 
AND SYNTAX. 139 
 
 RULE 103. Locality is denoted by estar ; as 
 
 El estaba en la calle, He was in the street. 
 
 Yo estate* a la puerta, I shall be at the 
 
 door. 
 
 El desertor estaba entre The deserter was be- 
 
 dos soldados, tween two soldiers. 
 
 El reo esta* delante del The culprit is before 
 
 juez, the judge. 
 
 Tii estabas con tu amigo, Thou wast with thy 
 
 friend. 
 
 RULE 104. Estar is employed always to con- 
 jugate a verb in the gerund ; as 
 
 Estoy escribiendo, I am writing. 
 
 Ella estaba leyendo, She was reading. 
 El estara* predicando, He will be preaching. 
 Hemos estado arguyendo, We have been arguing. 
 
 RULE 105. Before adverbs or adverbial expres- 
 sions denoting manner, we generally use estar; as 
 Esta de moda, He is in the fashion. 
 
 Estaba de rodillas y He was on his knees. 
 
 Estoy depriesa, I am in haste. 
 
 Estoy delmismoparecer, I am of the same opi- 
 nion. 
 
 Note a. The last of these sentences is often found with ser; but 
 the observation already made on the different meaning of the two 
 verbs is equally applicable in this instance ; and if we examine the 
 expression, we shall find that ser denotes my way of thinking in a 
 more general, and estar in a more limited point of view ; and that 
 soy de e&te parecer, means, this is the way I have always thought ; 
 and estoy de este parecer, this is my present opinion. 
 
 RULE 106. Ser requires the same case before 
 as after it ; as 
 
 Si yo fuera tu, If / were thou. 
 
 Si t&fueras ella, If thou wert she. 
 
 Note a. The objective case of the neuter pronoun elfo is fre- 
 
140 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 quently used with ser, and then it is generally translated so ; as, 
 vm. dice que es viey'o, pero ni vm. ni yo lo somos, you say that you are 
 oid, but neither you nor I are so; vm. picnsa que ella es rica, pero 
 no lo es, you think that she is rich, but she is not so ; crce que estog 
 enojado, y a la verdad lo estoy, he thinks that I am angry, an'd so 
 indeed I am. Sometimes it may be omitted ; as, vm. es rico, pero 
 yo wo, or pero yo no lo soy, you are rich, but I am not, or but I am 
 not so. 
 
 Note b. Although the verbs ser and estar, as has been observed, 
 may be used sometimes with the same adjective ; yet this cannot 
 always be done, therebeing some adjectives which vary their meaning 
 according as they are coupled with ser or estar ; as, ser buenoj to 
 be good ; estar bueno, lo be well ; ser malo, to be wicked ; estar 
 malo, to be ill ; ser cansado, to be tiresome ; estar cansado, to be 
 tired ; ser vivo, to be lively ; estar vivo, to be alive or living, 8{c. 
 
 Observation 
 
 The verb estar is often followed by infinitives, which 
 are preceded by the preposition para or por : with para 
 it denotes that the action or energy of the verb, which is 
 in the infinitive, is about to take place ; as, estaba el 
 brazo para descargar el golpe, the arm was ready or was 
 about to strike the blow : with por it describes the said 
 action, &c. as not having taken place, or expresses an 
 inclination on the part of the agent to execute it ; as, la 
 casa estd por acabar, the house is to finish, or is not yet 
 finished ; estoy por ir a verle, I have a mind to go and 
 see him. 
 
 Tener and Haber, To have. 
 
 Both the above verbs imply possession ; but the 
 employment of the latter is now limited to that of 
 an auxiliary, in order to form the compound tenses 
 of other verbs. 
 
 RULE 107. To have, used as an active verb, is 
 translated tener ; and, as an auxiliary, haber ; as 
 To have friends, Tener amigos. 
 
 I have relations, Tengo parientes. 
 
 To have said, Haber dicho. 
 
 We had spoken, Habiamos hablado. 
 
 Note. The verb tener is sometimes found apparently used as an 
 auxiliary. See Rule 138, note a. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 141 
 
 Observation. 
 
 When in English the verb to be precedes the adjec- 
 tives hungry, thirsty, afraid, ashamed, it is changed into 
 the Spanish verb tener, and the adjective into a corre- 
 sponding substantive : as, are you hungry ? < tiene vm. 
 hambre ? i. e. have you hunger ? we were thirsty, teni- 
 amos sed, i. e. we had thirst ; he was not ashamed, no 
 tuvo vergiienza, i. e. hehad not shame ; art thou afraid ? 
 tienes miedo ? i. e. hast thou fear ? The adjective old 
 when equivalent to of age in English is also changed 
 into a substantive ; as, he was eighty years old when 
 he died, tenia ochenta arios de edad quando murio. It 
 may also be omitted in Spanish : as, Hark ye, Gil Bias, 
 you are seventeen years old, / Ola I Gil Bias, tienes 
 diez y siete anos. The adjectives hot and cold admit 
 also the same construction provided they are applied to 
 a sentient being ; as, we shall be hot, tendremos color ; 
 he was so cold that he could not move himself, tenia 
 tanto frio que no podia moverse. But if the being be 
 supposed insensible, we use estar instead of tener ; as, 
 he was so cold (to the touch) that I thought he was 
 dead, estaba tan frio que pense que se habia muerto. 
 N. B. See To be in the right, and To be in the wrong, 
 in Colloquial Idioms, Exercises, p. 107. 
 
 RULE 108. When the auxiliaries to have and 
 to be, followed by an infinitive, denote some future 
 action, the former is translated tener que, and the 
 latter haber de ; as 
 
 We had to write, Teniamos que escribir. 
 He was to come, Habia de venir. 
 
 Note a. The verb haber when used impersonally requires also 
 que before the following infinitive ' 3 as, no hay que temer, there is 
 nothing to fear. 
 
142 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 <u . <D 
 
 . "3. - 
 Ifc'lllJ 
 
 tp3 D * "tZ 
 C O c3 
 
 H 
 
 H fl 
 o 
 
 sS '5 
 
 D 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 rt 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "8 
 
 . -5 
 
 8 ^ Q Q 
 
 111111 
 
 i'S 
 
 . a e 1 'I I 
 
 ^ h ^ S ?- ?- b 
 
 * 
 
 . ^ 
 
 I 
 ^ 
 
 Hi 
 
 PH <M CO r-t CQ CO 
 
 C - 
 
 C3 
 fcL 
 
 1 
 
 "V V 
 
 rg 
 
 
 1 
 
 . s-8 I 
 
 ^ ** 4(>4 * 
 
 riitfiij 
 
 z; .:*.> ^^; ^<^ 4 
 
 i -M CO ~ <** CO 
 hC g 
 
 X P- 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 143 
 
 'S fi 
 
 5 
 
 Q} *** ,J? 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 c g 
 
 1 3 
 
 I e I 'i 
 1 '? 't? * N C! 'S 
 
 .h .h .^ -2s -S3 
 
 & 
 
 SB o> 
 ^ 
 
 -t-s o; 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 bO 
 
 
 n 
 
 I 
 
 cC ^ 
 Q; O 
 
 fi 
 
 3 1 
 
 0) 
 
 C 
 
 
 o> 
 
 A 
 
 rn 01 CO 
 
 I -s' a 
 
 r-^ W CO 
 
 5 '* 
 
 T5 C JH O 
 
 p m 
 y .15 
 
 tf -C) _r< 
 .2 ^ ^ ^ * 
 '"S rt S) O Ig 
 
 ^ O jg 
 
 ^ cT g 
 
 tH <^ 
 *?%' 
 
 OJ 
 
144 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Explanation of the foregoing Table. 
 
 In order to understand the use of the annexed 
 view of the terminations, it is necessary to observe, 
 that all those letters which precede the" termination 
 of the infinitive, in all verbs, are called the root of 
 the verb, and that these radical letters are invari- 
 ably preserved in the conjugation of regular verbs 
 through all their tenses and persons ; as, am-ar, 
 am-aroraj am-anYm ; vend-er, vend-tara, vend-mm ; 
 sufr-er, sttfr-tlroi, sufr-idsemos, &c. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 There are some regular verbs which require a change 
 in their radical letters, in order that the final consonant 
 of their root may retain, in all the tenses, the harsh or 
 soft pronunciation which it has before the infinitive : 
 this alteration cannot occur unless the root of the verb 
 end in c, in g, in gu, and in qu, and the changes which 
 then take place are as follow : 
 
 before tcrmina- 
 changes tions begin - 
 Final into ning with Conjug. Examples. 
 
 c qu e i. buscar, busquemos. 
 
 c z a or o, n. in. veneer, venza, zurcir, 
 
 zurzo. 
 
 g gu e i. llegar, lleguen. 
 
 g j a or o, ii. in. coger, cojan, jftngir, 
 
 ftnjo. 
 
 gu g a or o, in. seguir, sigo, sigan. 
 
 qu c a or o, in. delinquir, delinco, de- 
 
 lincamos. 
 
 The first column points out how the root of the verb 
 must end to require the alteration ; the second, the let- 
 ters substituted ; the Ihird, what letters must begin the 
 termination to admit the change; and the fourth, the 
 conjugations wherein these several deviations are found. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 145 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 This voice is supplied by adding the past parti- 
 ciple of the active verb to the auxiliary ser, through 
 all its moods, tenses, and persons, making the said 
 participle agree with the person in gender and num- 
 ber ; as, ella es amada, she is beloved ; seremos 
 premiados, we shall be rewarded ; las mugeres han 
 sido alabadas, the women have been praised. 
 
 The passive voice, in English, is very frequently 
 expressed in Spanish, by prefixing the pronoun se 
 to the third persons of verbs, in their active voice ; 
 as, se oyo una voz, a voice was heard ; se han man- 
 dado tropas, troops have been sent, Sfc. Great at- 
 tention is requisite not to employ this method with 
 such nouns as would render the verb reflective, in 
 lieu of expressing its passive voice : for example; 
 Pedro es amado, means Peter is beloved ; but Pedro 
 se ama, signifies Peter loves himself ; but where no 
 ambiguity can arise, either of the methods may be 
 adopted ; as, la virtud es amada, or se ama la 
 virtud, virtue is beloved. If the agent be men- 
 tioned, the latter method can seldom be employed ; 
 therefore, Virtue is beloved by the good, should be 
 rendered, La virtud es amado por los buenos. 
 
 ON IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 These verbs may be divided into three classes. 
 
 First, Irregulars in the root : this class comprises 
 verbs which in some tenses increase, diminish, or 
 exchange, radical letters ; as, ca-er, to fall ; cayg-o, 
 I fall; dec-z'r, to say; cMrdmos, we shall say; 
 ped-zr, to ask ; pid-o, I ask. 
 
 Secondly, Irregulars in the termination. To this 
 
 class are referred all such verbs as have the letters 
 
 of their termination either increased, diminished, 
 
 or exchanged ; as, d-ar, to give ; d-cy^ I give^ &c. 
 
 H 
 
146 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Thirdly, Irregulars in the root and termination. 
 Under this class are comprehended all those verbs, 
 which, in the course of their conjugation, are sus- 
 ceptible of any of the variations above mentioned, 
 both in their radical letters and in those of the 
 termination: as, tra-er, to bring; trax-o, he 
 brought; sab-er, to know ; s-6, I know; quer-er, 
 to be willing; quer-r^, I shall be willing; quis-o, 
 he was willing ; quis-imoa, we were willing. 
 
 N.B. In the following examples of the Irregular 
 verbs, that part of the verb wherein the irregularity 
 occurs, will be printed in italics ; as, aciert-o, est- 
 oy, v-oy. 
 
 It is to be observed, that when any Irregular 
 verb is used reflectively, it retains its irregularity. 
 The letters i. p. being marked after any of the fol- 
 lowing verbs, denote that it has an irregular par- 
 ticiple, which must be looked for in the List whici 
 is given after the Irregular Verbs. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 . 
 <* 
 
 ri S S S g 
 
 } % S -C S -4 
 
 8'S-s 8 -s g 
 
 o3 co co co co ^3 
 
 O O O O O A 
 CO 
 
 C3 
 >*-/ 
 
 (/} CO CO CO 
 
 .2 *3 'S "3 '3 a 
 
 Jlais* 
 
 88882^ 
 
 fe o S S o^ 
 
 co co co en ^ 
 
 iiiiil 
 illlll 
 
 . CN 
 
 cd 
 
 CO 
 
 cd 
 
 CO 
 
 .5 
 
 
 03 
 
 B 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 .S 
 
 CO 
 
 cu 
 
 .3^ 
 
 co 
 
 
 M 
 
 t 
 
 *o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 cieras 
 
 cieses 
 
 cerias 
 
 cieres 
 
 ft! 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 co 
 
 
 
 
 
 _, 
 
 S-i 
 
 ;-. 
 
 CO 
 
 
 v 
 
 CJ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 T* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 ca 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 CO 
 
 8 
 
 CO 
 
 rt 
 'S 
 
 2 
 
 .2* 
 
 CH 
 O 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 *o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 *o 
 cu 
 
 
 
 'o 
 
 H2 
 
i48 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 &> 
 
 c 
 
 "I 
 
 g| 
 
 TO ,_U t_ 
 
 
 ils 
 
 C fl C fl < 
 
 be 
 
 2 < 
 
 en fi co 
 O ^ C H 
 
 c3 v c3 cd rt 
 
 . be be be be 
 
 > IP-* j= s 
 
 J >-8 PH 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 bfi 
 
 w 03 
 
 b 
 
 fcJD bfi 
 
 o o 
 c C 
 
 I . 
 
 3 C 
 
 .t5 o 
 
 If 
 
 8 I 
 
 1 1 
 
 '3. 
 
 g 
 
 ~ 
 ^o 
 
 c 
 
 <u g 
 
 53 
 
 QJ U 
 
 - ^i 
 
 O" fl 
 
 
 be be bn 
 c fl c! 
 
 03,0172?-, 
 
 
 s s a c 
 
 i* 
 
 <W ^3 ^) x 
 
 " 
 
 , 
 
 be bJ) be 
 
 OJ 01 0) 
 
 SR CO 05 
 
 03 . 
 
 bC 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 
 
 O ZH 
 g'g 
 
 
 1 
 
 M 85 *C 2 
 
 o3 G 
 
 
 IP 
 
 be be be be 
 
 ^ g 
 
 
 * 
 
 S c c 
 
 -S'Sb 
 
 
 
 ^ .- .,-^^ j 
 
 o -, 
 
 
 
 ^Y^ 
 
 =3 g 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 "d .2 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 M 
 
 ^- 
 
 2 
 
 c fc 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 1 
 
 si 
 
 cuO 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 <u 
 > 
 
 
 H^ 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 L 
 
 2, 
 
 
 * ^ 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 149 
 
 , S i 
 
150 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 O) 
 
 o 
 CO 
 
 .2 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 G g^ 
 O g 
 
 e \ H 
 
 (M 
 
 cj} 
 fcJD 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 c 
 
 03 
 
 i 
 
 oo 
 
 )c0 v cO b/) 
 be be be & 
 
 r- i- 
 
 .2 2 03 
 < co y ^} 
 
 03 m 
 
 O o 
 
 S S g 
 
 S3 G "3} 
 pQ C SH 
 
 be v be be be 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 g> 
 
 itl I- 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 be b'e be 
 
 , cO "O cO 
 
 be be be 
 
 a 
 
 r-* ^ be be be 
 ^.^.S,^ 
 
 "if! i 
 j 
 
 0^ BH 
 
 
 75 03 .2 03 
 
 ^ -3 -S JS -s 
 
 CD J_ 03 t- ^j 
 
 J3 v cO v 3 cO v co 
 
 be be be be be 
 
 H 
 
 l 
 
 j-, o: ^ p, 
 
 5 vc3 vtf CO vc3 
 
 be be be be be 
 
 3 P 5 S S 
 
 
 
 
 IP SP be be be 
 
 .s .SPSS 
 
 c*^ <- s .^-j.^- 1 ._,. 
 
 I 
 
 CO 
 
 be 
 
 cO 
 S 
 
 To 
 
 03 
 
 rti CO gj C 
 
 03 *fi S O 
 
 CO CO CO 03 
 
 ) be be be 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 e 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 151 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 ^4J 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 C 
 O 
 en 
 
 s 
 
 Oi 
 
 (B 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 ** a. 
 2 I 
 
 X 
 
 CD 
 
 "S 
 
 . 
 
 ,t3 C o 
 
 a 3 *^3 
 
 Plur. 1 2-3 
 vemos veis ven. 
 ve-iamos ve-iais ve-h 
 vimos visteis vie*r 
 veremos vere'is vera 
 
 tje-amos ved ve-a 
 
 ve-amos ve-ais ve-a 
 vi^ramos vierais vier 
 viesemos vieseis vies 
 
 s . 
 
 CO 
 
 ;s 
 
 CO 
 
 
 J3 
 
 "in 
 
 a> , 
 > 
 
 M 
 
 9 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 cu 
 
 '? 
 
 , via/ viamoSf viais, vian. 
 
 
 .fN . 
 
 .r. 
 
 *. 
 
 S 
 
 co IT -7^1 * 
 
 > g ' > ?> 
 
 ? 1 
 S-P-P 
 
 veria 
 
 8 
 
 0) 
 
 '? 
 
 } 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 
 
 a> 
 
 
 
 
 
 CU 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 CO CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 & V vsj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , <D 0) 
 
 CD 
 
 cu 
 
 ?s 
 
 >*>> > 
 
 8T ? S 
 
 > 
 
 'k 
 
 2 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 Oi 
 
 a 
 
 oS 
 
 ^ o .2 
 
 j 
 
 2 g > 
 
 O, K^ PL, 
 
 '43 
 
 ^3 
 * 
 
152 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 8 
 
 nd<l 
 
 -r c? s c c a 
 ? | fi 1 1 S 
 
 
 
 co 5 .22 3 .1 
 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 r .S .2 .fa .2 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 I* 
 
 cd cd cd cd 
 
 cd cd cd cd 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 rO 
 
 CO 
 
 co .2' 2 cc .2 
 
 1 
 
 ^ -I *s -i ? "s ^ ; 2 
 
 OQ co cd co j_ 73 fcn*^ "^ ^ " 
 
 bC 
 
 ,s 
 
 *co "co "cc *co *co c *co 'co "en 'co 
 cdcdcdcd cd- Q CB OS Co co 
 
 1 
 
 S 8' *>>* 
 
 - s sllsl 
 
 coOcog G flSSgS 
 
 ^ogo| | i S S 1 8 
 .1 JS M .s ^ 4^ :2 .fa 3 
 
 cococnco c ?cocococo 
 
 *<S -S 
 
 jj cd cd cd cd < 
 
 S Q cd cd cd cd 
 
 3 ^ ** .* 
 
 s 
 
 
 g S i 
 
 s 
 
 
 1 
 
 - ; 
 
 3" cd S .S 
 
 "*^ d J? 
 
 o C o 3 
 
 f* * ** cd *O >H cf J & & i* ct> 
 
 v3 Cv >r i .I-N -H MJD Ci)"-" >* "^ """ 
 cncncnco * 2 2 2 2 52 
 cdcdcdcd v3 ^cdcdcdcd 
 
 * *T *7 T 
 
 eS "2 CO W 
 
 
 
 <$ cd cd ca 
 
 
 
 T o ^ 
 
 o> . T3 .& 
 2 : ~ 
 
 -till ? 
 
 . en co ._ en 
 2 cd a; g 
 
 3 JH CO 2 2- 
 
 r 1 .S .2 .S .2 
 en co "co "en 
 
 c g -g 
 
 cd cd cd cd c 
 
 cd cd cd cd 
 
 5_i y3 S J3 
 
 
 
 OPn 
 
 
 
 ^5 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 <o 
 f ' fer,.2 ^M .fa 
 
 <e 2 L^.5 
 
 far. 2 .2 .fa ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 P*co en *cn 
 Q cd cd cd 
 
 o co *co 'en "en 
 Q cd cd cd cd 
 
 '3 
 
 bh 
 
 ^ y-*^ 
 
 S 
 
 M * ^'"H ^ 
 
 - 1 
 
 51 ?^ U 
 
 1 
 
 I ^"^ 
 > g S S 
 ft^^^&s 
 
 ftJ K P 
 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 S .S: 
 
 
 > " 
 
 
 5 
 
 'i 1 
 
 ! 1 
 
 2 S -2, 
 
 S s f 
 
 
 1 i N 
 
 ^ 2 
 
 I 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 163 
 
 O 
 S 
 
 e 
 
 
 03 
 
 I 
 
 e e g- d 
 
 cJ o s <u 
 
 *- en .2 * 
 
 i >~ > o> >- 
 
 o o o o 
 
 q 
 
 ! .2. a s 
 
 C 03 O S o < 
 
 1 S-c CC " JH rt? 
 
 Q C3 cd o3 o3 ^ 
 
 on 
 
 I : S- 
 
 a <JL: 
 
 ,2 
 I 
 
 cr 1 
 
 o 
 
 PH 
 
 1 
 
 if 
 
 |s 
 
 8 
 
 F-H O 
 
 
 
 
 
 n G 
 
 8 
 
 * '^^o ^ 
 
 ^5 . 00 o .2 ^> o 
 C S ^ oooo 
 
 I 3 
 
 ooo 
 
 V Jh ^ , v^ 
 
 -- 'd .& GQ 2 ^ * & 
 S p*^3 oooo 
 
 bb 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 ! 
 
 
 . 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 03 
 
 
 .2 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 ^o 
 
 
 
154 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (D 
 
 . 
 
 ^c . e . S3 ss S3 e _; s: 
 +* ^-rPc^^^^Sj! 
 
 O S3 *-" vS ' 1 . 1* Co ft 
 
 8-, CO i ~D v U> *tf) 0> <U ' <_ 
 
 o*'o o "o o o o o 'o o 
 
 oT 
 
 
 
 13 >2 -J .2 
 
 .22 .23 .22 03 .2 
 
 C3 03 0> - S 0) 
 
 i K n cs M 
 
 ^> CQ 03 *c3 "Sj "^ T 
 
 - ^JD*^W "^J *C *^ 
 
 r S*. !>-^ t>^>.L2 >~ 
 
 <g *5 *o "o "o *o S* b" b"o b" 
 
 .9 
 
 
 
 n & t/) O) O3 .! 
 
 '^ o b o o ^ 
 
 1 sis 1 H8|l 1 
 
 ^3 1^4 2 B o B 7 *' s ? a 
 
 o : ^> S S ^ ^ ^^^^ 2 
 *a .g y nj ^"o^o'o'o o 5 o 5 o o 'o o 
 
 
 .5 
 
 ^3 _ ^> QJ 
 
 b 
 
 00 ""^^ 
 
 5 
 
 r 
 
 5|/j "* .r. * c3 rt rt QJ "T Q) n 
 
 ^IT ^ rt ^o <g t 
 
 1 t. C/2 C3 U. ^, 
 
 C l4 HS-S ! 
 
 a u -7 T*'" 
 
 ? ? o' o"5 o 1 -h 
 
 
 
 4) 
 
 
 
 I" 5 
 
 w 
 
 Cf3 O3 O3 O3 
 
 8 : " TL 03 ^ 03 
 
 
 S fi *s GQ -Lrt ^ .1 i, ^ ;>>!5 >-. 'c 
 
 t- *S3 g '-g o "S "5 "S o" O "S O* S 
 
 *S ^ cd 
 
 p. 
 
 CT K-nOPn 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 C3 CJ OJ _ ,2 
 
 
 1 JM O3 rt 5- || 
 
 3 P-I e^n d ^ 
 
 
 , 0^ ^"O 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 B g> 
 
 Vs "V"**'^ 
 
 o .S ** 
 
 *o 
 
 ^8 ^'1 v 
 
 s i - 
 
 
 
 it S *w 3" 
 
 oS ^H ^ "*^ 
 
 3 sx, e 
 
 
 
 ~ &4 k^ PS Ct< 
 
 ft t :15 
 
 > 
 
 S | -! 
 
 1 1 
 
 5 Ji B ^ 
 
 > M GO 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 155 
 
 3 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 S fi C3 
 
 
 ' 
 
 S Ii 1 
 
 ro vcc VCQ pj 
 
 13 "o 'o 'o 
 
 eg 
 
 0000*0 
 >>>>> 
 
 o> PI 
 
 ti 
 
 |s 
 ^ 1 1 1 1 
 jj ?' >. S > 
 
 g 
 
 cc CG o w 
 2 2 G O 
 
 & 
 
 ; co 
 
 
 X 
 
 ^ o 
 
 i^ 
 
 o 9 
 
 O . <u ^ 
 
 ^ .2 2 ;g 
 
 d;.S 
 
 ^s 
 
 5 LM 
 
 faD 
 
 c 
 
 0> 
 
 
 GQ 
 
 s o 'o 'o 
 > > > 
 
 0> .M 
 
 en ;-< 
 
 'o 'o ' 
 
 8.1 
 
156 
 
 v 
 
 .S 
 
 1 
 
 02 
 
 a 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 
 
 on 
 
 a 
 
 CD 
 
 S-B, 
 
 "" CD 
 
 S-o 
 
 *- CD 
 
 O CD 
 x C 
 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 cu 
 
 CD 
 
 C 
 ctf 
 
 8 
 
 s *2 .5 
 
 ^ t_ C H3 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 157 
 
 2 
 
 O> 
 
 1 
 
 fl 
 
 g p- I G 
 ! 'g ^ | 
 
 : jc 
 
 s 
 
 cti 
 
 S s .1 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 .2 s ** 
 
 CO 03 to (_ 
 
 "C *C 'C 
 
 'S 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 'g'l-a'g 
 
 * 
 
 "-a 
 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 ^o^l S ll 1 1 
 sasJ s sljij 
 
 -. s 
 
 o 
 
 T3 
 
 T3 -fl tf ^2 
 
 0) ** .JH J5 3 
 
 0) ^ 
 
 CO -c ' 
 
 * 
 
 g S !T S 
 
 t-i CO 03 J-H 
 
 P c 
 
 it* 
 
 G S :3 
 
 CC3 t! H 
 
 O> 
 li 
 
 
 -2 
 
 ^o ^^."^ -ss ?? 
 
 C 1 ! " 
 
 4<il 
 
 
 oj * 
 
 4 J 
 
 S, S 
 
 r 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 cu 
 
 g 
 
 
 ? 
 
 .^ 
 
 g 
 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 & 
 
 ^> 
 
 
158 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 bX) 
 
 C S3 . fl 
 
 3* oj o> c eg 
 
 ? w is s-< 
 
 5 o> <u .2 <u 
 
 *T "T ,*3 *7 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 *ce "S M *33 
 g ; 48 3 ; 
 
 0000 
 T3 "C 13 "O 
 
 - 
 
 S 
 " " 
 
 1 
 
 ^ ^ jj j ;g 
 
 ^'|U . 1 1 1 1 I 
 ^^"i ^^^^ ^ 
 
 C O G 
 
 lll 
 
 
 c 
 
 C 
 
 3.3 
 
 |.S 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 X O 
 
 be 
 
 O 
 
 .-.i 
 
 S"S fi *O 
 *S j-j .1-1 
 
 o 
 
 D 
 
 C 
 
 H^ Cfl 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 159 
 
160 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGIT 
 
 CO 
 
 U 
 
 Q 
 
 g 
 
 O 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 tf 
 H 
 
 b 5 
 
 P< 
 
 i 
 
 h 
 
 "S 
 
 13 
 
 andemo 
 
 1 
 
 cd 
 
 03 JS 
 
 Si c* jJ 
 3 g 
 
 1 .5 fl i 
 
 dill 
 JJ] 
 
 Siiii 
 
 4 45 .2 -I 
 
 "T "** o3 '"* 
 
 3|~ii 
 
 sill's 
 
 e a S 
 
 los 
 
 os 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 S s s i: 
 
 1 1 03 S 
 
 ilii 
 
 1 
 
 rs 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 161 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 s 
 | 
 
 I 
 
 en a S c co 
 
 O E .2 G O 
 
 ^ 2 iT *4> c a 
 
 ,C -a t- fa G 
 
 ^ s ^ ^ ^ 
 
 .. g 
 
 83 
 
 pC5 
 
 Ss 
 
 e 
 
 Mil 
 
 -*-> -*-* 
 CO 02 
 <y ^ 
 
 03 
 CU 
 
 
 1 
 
162 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 163 
 
 o 
 
 O <J 
 
 ~2 P- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ca e ^ a" 
 
 - - 
 
 S S 
 
 CO O5 CO 
 
 o 
 
 Is 
 
 22 
 
 2 S 
 
 2 
 
 <u d 
 
 n 
 
 in H 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 fL, p- 
 
 III! 
 
 si's I 
 
 n3 
 
 o 
 
 o o s o 
 
 p^ 0, SX, A 
 
 8.8.8- 
 
 a .s ,3 
 
 w S 
 
 a ? "43 
 
 CO 
 
 , 
 
 s . 
 
 H3 ^3 -o 
 s o s o 
 sx, a, sx, A 
 
 i*i w T 7 
 
 rH^^S^^ 
 
 I 
 
 P- 
 
 7'7 r-T 
 
 ^ "Wd ^ 
 
 S S O S 
 
 1 1 S 1 
 
 
 
 ; g g g 
 
 CO fli Q} 'pa 4) 
 
 I .r- " -r 
 
 s s s o s 
 
 LJ QJ aj nj 
 
 E 3? S C 
 
 r-i '7 1 ^- "T 1 
 
 S 
 Si, 54, ft, 
 
 ^S T* 
 S 
 ft, PH 
 
164 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 3.3 
 
 *-i 
 
 .~ .. a 
 
 3 g^ |- 1 4 i/,,a 'S, o 
 8 S S . E. S 5? $ == > '-P 
 
 at 
 
 3-a 
 
 <N -2 -3 J2 ^ 
 
 ^ -S-S -"5 
 
 i co cd J5 cd 
 ! a y S o 
 
 5 5 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 &>Jf ** S Jz.% ^ 
 
 ^tjllH 
 
 ^ta^Btfji 
 
 o K +> fl. 
 
 1 a *& 
 
 1111 
 
 (i^fl:^ 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 165 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aSS.8 
 
 g 
 
 co * 
 
 
 G 
 
 i 
 
 8,8, 1,8, 
 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 03 
 
 ITis 
 1,1,1,1* 
 
 ill 
 
 nil 
 
 o S S 
 a, ^ SX, & 
 
 3 *-T O O c= O 
 
 S * ifi "SI Q-D-S^Q- Q- Si.S^a^C- ^_c= O 2 S c\ 55 
 
 X g '3 
 
 ' 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 -Qj 
 
 o 
 
 tUD.2 V I 
 r-l g: C 25 C3 
 
 8 51 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 I '". 
 
 3 5 
 & S* 
 
166 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 1 
 
 ill I 
 
 i -s S -s 
 
 r 1 o^ u* O 1 * 
 
 . a a s a 
 
 3 3 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 Q 
 
 co en < 
 "S3 *S ' 
 
 iiiJ' 
 
 ses 
 
 S3 S^aS 
 
 s -is-i 
 
 C3 S G * 
 
 " ' 
 
 
 
 ~ jj* & ^ QJ O f^ 1> 
 
 r. pj 0> t 
 
 -- C oo .2 
 
 ,2 ?, 
 2 -3 
 
 C/2 3 
 
 - cC 
 
 l 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 167 
 
 
 2sg 
 
 CO CO 
 
 '3 'S -3 
 
 SMC: 
 
 13 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 b 
 
 3 
 
 O "* 
 
 r 
 
 5 c/a co 69 to 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 0> 
 
 :2 <* 
 
 < r? 
 
 " 
 ^o 
 
 fe|| 
 ^-S 
 
 * 
 
 ? 
 
 - <u 
 
 03 CO 'V ' 
 
 eg 
 
 '? 
 
 ,? & 
 
 c 
 
 cfi ** 
 
 ce 
 
 1 -^' 
 
 1 S ' 
 
 bl) 
 
 S , 
 
 ' 
 
168 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 g 
 
 a d ^ *! 
 S.2 H 
 
 <? * 2 9 
 
 $* iT'i'-a. ? 
 
 I* > 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 t 
 
 .% 
 *s 
 
 2SS2 2 ggggg 
 
 s_.^jw^j ^j * J5 Q .+3 <<5 
 
 o J* 
 
 S3 
 
 O 
 
 *- 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 - 
 
 fl 
 
 s 
 o 
 a. 
 
 III 
 
 fee ' 
 
 
 tKt 
 
 2 
 
 " 
 
 ^ 
 
 S S 
 
 " 
 
 fe g I 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 169 
 
 
 
 0-- 
 
 o 
 
 1-s 
 
 . s . rf s 
 
 v j4 pj CJ a .53 B * .2 
 -S-^^^^^^S^ cT "tf 
 
 *H j|j .^j ^5 I I Q} qj ^3 Q^ ^PJ (1 
 
 OB CO CO CO Q Q CO el CO CO "^ r 
 
 c.S 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 iC* *^ 
 
 ^ to i 
 
 I i 
 
 c3 oj o3 o3 o3 Q o3 
 
 llz 
 
 -111 
 
 1^' 
 
 1 1 
 
 a 
 
 ^u ^ 
 13 13 13 ' 
 
 > > > 
 
 2 Q 
 o ^ 
 
 o'o 
 
 1^ 
 
 53 
 
 > <u ^ P-i 
 
 > "O f^O 
 
 so 
 
 *** pj 
 
 ^1 
 
 1 A^ 
 
 ^ 03 
 
 313 
 
 cffS 
 
 ^131313 
 
 2' 
 
 ill*. 
 
 ^13^^13 13' 
 
 a? co . 
 
 13 13 13 13 
 
 uS 
 
 e 2 
 
 X 
 
 s. 
 
 * w 
 
 o 2 a 2 
 
 O 
 
170 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 "f 
 
 11i 1 lull 
 
 r2 
 
 *o 
 
 i-S-8 
 
 ^ ^. 
 
 4-3 -K5 
 
 
 
 0> 
 43 
 
 Hi 
 
 : Q 
 
 .a - 
 
 
 ! | 
 
 ill 
 
 i 9'S 
 
 s* >a t +* 43 & & 
 
 I 
 
 <i 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 i C3 * 
 
 '3^ 
 
 Q e 
 
 a 'g 
 
 it 
 
 _rj _H >-i 2; 
 
 H "J3 '7 "V 7 
 
 S 02 n3 T3 ^ 
 
 '-S.S 222 
 
 ?- a i: 
 
 CD C fe 
 
 jj 
 
 13 
 
 0) 
 
 
 N H 
 
 -M -*J 
 
 (M 
 
 i $3 OJ 
 
 :^s^ 
 
 ^ 
 ts -S g 
 
 111 
 
 
 rt 
 
 M 
 
 CtJ C3 
 
 ,, g .jii 
 
 ^ ^ ^ i* ^ 
 
 
 S 52 8 
 
 11111 
 
 liHi 
 
 ; 4s 
 
 HH 03 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 171 
 
 fi 
 o 
 
 dii i 
 
 !.* 
 
 j^ i 
 
 'H 
 
 i 
 
 it 
 
 * I 8 
 
 
 S S 3 12 ^ 
 
 ! 43 ^ 
 
 S3 
 
 '! 
 
 *O 
 o; 
 
 ^5 
 ^ 
 
 & !S 
 
 ?3 
 
 oJ 
 43 < 43 
 
 H -< 
 
 rt <D '~ 0) 
 
 Ili-ii 
 
 >* < <J 43 <* 
 
 5-<:> ^ A 
 a s cd 
 
 ^SS ^ 43 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 O 
 > 
 J3 
 
 li 
 
 i2 
 
172 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 173 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 
 re al 
 
174 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 w 
 T3 
 
 I 
 
 v .2 
 
 Hff M 4lil 
 
 nJa 
 
 5Opn 
 
 8 * 
 
 : ^ 2: 
 
 c3 ^J S ^ 53 
 
 ^ 4 4 :s 4 
 
 ^^^^^3 
 
 i 
 
 a >^* .5 "<>' 
 
 all * 
 
 B "S *5 - 
 
 3 8 8. 
 
 IS 
 
 i 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 1/5 
 
 S3 C 
 $.22 
 
 /I. 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 t CO 
 
 O O 
 
 -s 
 
 bo 
 
 .S 
 
 CO i 
 
 ill! 
 
 i^Pi fc, 
 
 I 
 
176 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 J3 
 
 * 
 
 1! 
 
 II 
 
 S 1 
 .2 
 
 *-. s 
 
 g a 
 
 b/o S 
 
 II 
 
 bfl 
 
 P=; .a *s e o 
 
 o> s -jg a p -5 
 
 dJJ ss 
 
 ^S'g MOP. 
 
 
 
 M ^ 
 
 <N (D CD 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 M O2 
 
 " 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 177 
 
 A List of all the Irregular Verbs, numbered ac- 
 cording to the Examples which have been 
 given for their Conjugation. 
 When any verb belonging to the first class is not of 
 the same conjugation as the example by which it is to 
 be conjugated, the terminations must be borrowed from 
 the View of the Regular Terminations, page 142 : hence 
 the verb volv-er must be conjugated thus ; vuelv-o, vuelv- 
 es,vuelv-e, volv-emos, volv-eis, vuelv-en, although #o/-ar, 
 the example to which it is referred, is conjugated thus, 
 y vuel-as, vuel-a, ; vol-amos, vol-ais, vuel-an. 
 
 Abasteceri -f to furnish 
 
 amolar jx to whet 
 
 (^ provisions 
 
 andar xiv to walk 
 
 aborrecer i to hate 
 
 anochecer i to grow dark 
 
 abrir i. p. to open 
 absolveri'Z.i.p. to absolve 
 
 anteponef ^> , r 
 xix. i. p. I 10 P refer 
 
 abstraer xxu to abstract 
 
 antever v. i. p. to foresee 
 
 acaecer i to happen 
 
 apacentar n to feed cattle 
 
 acertar n to guess 
 
 aparecer i to appear 
 
 acordar ix to agree 
 
 apercebir x to provide 
 
 acordarse ix to remember 
 
 apetecer I to long for 
 
 acostarse ix to lie down 
 
 f to cover with 
 
 acrecentar u to increase 
 
 aporcar\ ix -^ earth 
 
 , , fto make dex 
 adestrar n -J 
 (^ terous 
 
 f to arrive at 
 aportar ,x | a ^ 
 
 adherir xi to adhere 
 
 apostar ix to lay wagers 
 
 adolecer i to sicken 
 
 apretar Ji to tighten 
 
 adormecer- f to grow 
 
 aprobar ix to approve 
 
 se i \ drowsy 
 
 argiiir in to argue 
 
 adquerir* xi to acquire 
 
 /^to become 
 
 advertir xi to advert 
 
 arrecirse x J numb with 
 
 agorar ix to augur 
 
 (^ cold. 
 
 agradecer i to thank 
 
 arrendar u to hire 
 
 ahitar i. p. -< , u v , 
 j[ the stomach 
 
 arrepentirse xi to repent 
 asentar n to set down 
 
 alentar n to encourage 
 
 asentirxi to assent 
 
 almorzar ix to breakfast 
 
 aserrarn to saw 
 
 amamcer i to dawn 
 
 asestar n to take aim 
 
 * Adquirir takes an e after the i; as, adquiero, &c. 
 f A term used amon^ gardene '.s 
 li 
 
178 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 asir vi to seize 
 
 colgar ix to hang up 
 
 asolar ix to raze 
 "- { t0 i k n7a y tr PS 
 
 come^VsexT to f rowmo - 
 (^ derate 
 
 comenzar n to commence 
 
 f to make 
 
 compade- "> 
 
 (_ sounds agree 
 
 ^to pity 
 
 atender n to attend 
 
 compare- 1 to come be- 
 
 atenerse xxvi to stand to 
 
 cer i J" fore 
 
 atentar n to attempt 
 
 compeler i. p. to compel 
 
 aterrar n to terrify 
 
 competir x to contend 
 
 atestar* n to cram 
 
 / f ^ &i ye P^ea- 
 
 atraer xxn to attract 
 
 7 \ sure 
 
 atravesar n to cross 
 
 componer ") 
 
 atribuir in to attribute 
 
 xix. i. p. j" tc 
 
 atronar ix to thunder 
 
 comprobariJL to corroborate 
 
 avenirse xxvn to agree 
 
 concebir x to conceive 
 
 ave?itar n to fan 
 
 concertar 11 to agree 
 
 avergon- ~)to be asham- 
 
 coftcte'riii.i.p. to conclude 
 
 zrse ix J~ ed 
 
 concordar ix to agree 
 
 6 e dean.p.1 tobless 
 
 XXVIII J 
 
 condescen- 1 to conde- 
 c?er n J scend 
 
 bregar n to contend 
 
 condoler ix to condole 
 
 c#6er xvin to contain 
 
 conducir xxiv to conduce 
 
 c#er vn to fall 
 
 conferir xi to confer 
 
 calentar n to warm 
 
 confesar n to confess 
 
 fto become 
 canecer i < . 
 
 carecer i to be deprived 
 
 confundiri. p. to confound 
 conmover \to excite 
 ix J commotions 
 
 cegar u to blind 
 
 {to be ac- 
 
 cenir x to gird 
 
 ^ j 
 
 quamted 
 
 cerner n to sift 
 
 conseguir xj to obtain 
 
 cerrar n to shut 
 
 consentir^ xi to consent 
 
 fto lay foun- 
 cimentar n | d j iong 
 
 consolar ix to console 
 Tto affree in 
 
 
 consonar ix -s 
 
 cocer ix to cook 
 
 (^ tone 
 
 colar ix to strain 
 
 constituir in to constitute 
 
 colegir x to collect 
 
 constrenir x to constrain 
 
 * When it signifies Zo a^e^/, it is regular. 
 f In allusion to the hair. 
 . I See the author's Synonyms, page 172. 
 See Colloquial Idioms, Exercises, page 1 1 0. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 179 
 
 contradict 
 
 to convert 
 
 construir in to construe 
 contar ix tp relate 
 contender n to contend 
 contener xxvi to contain 
 contradecir 
 
 xxvin. i.p. _ 
 contrahacer 1 to counter- 
 
 xvi. i. p. J feit 
 contraer xxn to contract 
 control***- \ 
 
 XXVII J 
 
 contribuir in to contribute 
 controvertirxito controvert 
 convale- ^) to recover 
 
 cer i J from sickness 
 convencir i. p. to convince 
 convenir xxvii to suit 
 convertir xi 
 
 i.p. 
 
 corregir x to correct 
 costar ix to cost 
 crecer i to grow 
 
 cubrir i. p. to cover 
 c&zr xin to give 
 
 decaer vii to decay 
 
 , . f to make the 
 
 decentarn | firgt ^ 
 
 dear xxviii Y tosay 
 
 deducir xxiv to infer 
 
 defender 11 to defend 
 
 deferir xi to defer 
 
 degollar ix to behead 
 
 demoler ix to demolish 
 demostrarix to demonstrate 
 
 denegar LI to refuse 
 
 denostar ix to revile 
 
 . -\ 
 
 depose 
 to break the 
 
 i. p. 
 
 derretir x to melt 
 desacertar n to mistake 
 desacordar ftobediscor- 
 
 ix \ dant 
 
 desalentar n to discourage 
 desaparecer i to disappear 
 desapretar ii to loosen 
 desaprobar ix to disapprove 
 desasosegar u to disturb 
 desatender u to neglect 
 desatentar 11 to perplex 
 desavenir 
 
 XXVII 
 
 descaccer i 
 
 descender n 
 descenir x 
 
 descolgar ix 
 descollar ix 
 
 J- to disagree 
 
 to droop 
 to descend 
 to ungird 
 the reverse 
 
 of colgar 
 to be a neck 
 
 taller 
 
 descomedirse x to grow rude 
 descomponer\ to discom- 
 xix. i. p. J" pose 
 
 desconocer i to disown 
 descomolar ix to afflict 
 descontar ix to discount 
 descubrir i. p. to discover 
 
 desempedrar n to unpave 
 desencerrar n to let loose 
 desengrosar ~) to diminish 
 
 ix J in thickness 
 
 desenten- "1 to feign ig- 
 
 c?erse n J" norance 
 desenterrar Vto take up a 
 
 ii J" corpse 
 
180 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 desentorpe- 
 
 cer i 
 desenvolver 
 
 ix. i. p. 
 desfallecer i 
 desflaque- 
 
 cerse I 
 desflocar ix 
 desfogarse 
 
 IX 
 
 desguarne- 
 
 ceri 
 deshacer 
 
 xvi. i. p. 
 deshelar n 
 
 to free from 
 numbness 
 
 -to unroll 
 
 to pine 
 to become 
 
 emaciated 
 to ravel out 
 to give vent 
 
 to passion 
 to take off 
 
 trimmings 
 
 -to undo 
 
 desherrar n 
 
 desleir x 
 deslucir i 
 
 to thaw 
 ("to unshoe 
 horses 
 to dilute 
 to tarnish 
 
 desmembrar n to dismember 
 
 desmeiitir xi to give the lie 
 
 desobedecer i 
 
 desolar ix 
 
 desollar ix 
 
 desovar ix 
 
 despedir x 
 
 to disobey 
 to desolate 
 to flay 
 to spawn 
 to dismiss 
 
 >-to awake 
 i. p. j 
 
 desplacer i to displease 
 desplegar n to unfold 
 despoblar ix to depopulate 
 destenir x to discolour 
 dcsterrar n to exile 
 destorcer ix to untwist 
 destrocar ix to re-exchange 
 destruir in to destroy 
 desvanecerse i to vanish away 
 desvergon- ") to grow im- 
 J" pudent 
 
 detener xxvi to detain 
 devolver ix to restore 
 dezmar n to tithe 
 diferir xi to differ 
 digerir xi to digest 
 discordar ix to disagree 
 disminuir in to diminish 
 disolver ix. i. p . to dissolve 
 
 disponer x-ixl , ,. 
 f >-to dispose 
 
 distraer xxn to distract 
 distribuir in to distribute 
 divertir xi to divert 
 cfofer ix to ache 
 
 dormir xii to sleep 
 e/egir x. i. p. to elect 
 embestir x to assail 
 embravecer- \to become 
 se i J" furious 
 
 era&rwfecme\to become 
 
 i J" brutal 
 
 emendar n to amend 
 empedrar 11 to pave 
 empezar n to begin 
 emplumecer \to become 
 i J fledged 
 
 empobrecer i to impoverish 
 emporcar ix to soil 
 
 'to become 
 
 bald 
 
 to render 
 callous 
 same as ca- 
 
 necer 
 to become 
 
 encalvecer i 
 encallecer i 
 
 encanecer 
 
 encarecer i 
 
 encender 11 
 ence?isar 11 
 encerrar n 
 
 encomendar Cto recom- 
 ii ( mend 
 
 dearer 
 "to light 
 to cense 
 to shut up 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 181 
 
 encontrar ix to find 
 
 (to string mu- 
 
 encordar ix -< sical instru- 
 (^ ments 
 
 encrudecerse i to become raw 
 
 encruele- 
 
 cer i 
 encubertar 
 
 ii 
 
 encubrir i. p 
 endentecer i 
 
 to instigate 
 to cruelties 
 to cover with 
 cloth, &c. 
 to conceal 
 to cut the teeth 
 
 endurecer i to harden 
 enftaqueceri to grow lean 
 enfurecerse ") to become 
 i j~ furious 
 
 engrandecer i to aggrandize 
 engreirse x to grow vain 
 engrosar ix to engross 
 
 , f to become 
 
 enloquecer i -j _, 
 
 enlucir i to white- wash 
 enmohecerse "(to grow 
 
 ' J 
 
 mouldy 
 
 ennegrecer i to blacken 
 ennoblecer i to ennoble 
 enrareeer i to rarefy 
 enriquecer i to enrich 
 
 {to break on 
 the wheel 
 
 enrodar ix 
 
 cnsangren- 
 
 tar ii 
 ensoberbe- 
 
 cerse i 
 entallecer i 
 entender ii 
 enternecer i 
 enter rar ii 
 entomecer i 
 
 to stain with 
 
 blood 
 to become 
 
 haughty 
 to sprout 
 to understand 
 to soften 
 to bury 
 to swell 
 
 entristecerse i to become sad 
 
 , , 7 Tto become 
 
 entullecer i 
 
 envejecer i 
 enverdecer I 
 envestir x 
 envolver ix 
 
 i. p. 
 
 enxugar i. p, 
 equivaler 
 
 XXIII 
 
 erguir* xi 
 
 errar^ ii 
 escarmentar 
 ii 
 
 tomecer 
 to grow old 
 to grow green 
 to invest 
 
 to wrap 
 
 to dry 
 
 }to be equi- 
 valent 
 ' to hold up 
 
 the head 
 to err 
 
 ~) to learn by 
 J experience 
 
 All the irregular persons of this verb must be written with an A; 
 as, hiergo, hierga, &c. 
 
 f The irregular persons of this verb are sometimes found written 
 with an h, as, hierro, hierra ; and at others with ay; as, yerro, 
 yerra ; the latter way seems preferable, because it prevents ambiguity 
 by forming a distinction between the irregular persons of errar, to 
 err; and herrar, to shoe horses , and mo.e especially as the Spanish 
 Academy always write hierro, for iron ; and yerro, for error. 
 
182 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 escamecer i to scoff 
 
 ("to rest from 
 
 escocer ix to smart 
 
 riolgar ix -< i a ]3 OUr 
 
 escribir i. p. to write 
 
 hollar ix to trample 
 
 /. fto make ef- 
 esforzarse ix-j fortg 
 
 Awzr in to flee 
 humedecer i to moisten 
 
 establecer i to establish 
 
 imbuir in to imbue 
 
 estor xv to be 
 
 impedir x to impede 
 
 estregar n to scour 
 
 imponer \ 
 
 estremecerse i to shudder 
 
 xix. i. p. j 
 
 erfremrx _fto produce 
 1 a stringency 
 
 imprimir i. p. to print 
 incluir ni.i.p. to include 
 
 ercteVin.i.p. to exclude 
 
 incurrir i. p. to incur 
 
 expedir x to expedite 
 expelir i. p. to expel 
 
 inaisponer t , j* 
 1. . >-to mqispose 
 
 exponer f 
 * . >-to expose 
 
 inducir xxiv to induce 
 inferir xi to infer 
 
 expresari.p. to express 
 
 infernar n to damn 
 
 extender n to extend 
 
 insertar i. p. to insert 
 
 extinguir i. p. to extinguish 
 extraer xxn to extract 
 
 intervenir ^\ , . , 
 xxvn j-to intervene 
 
 fallecer i to die 
 
 instituir in to institute 
 
 favorecer i to favour 
 
 instruir in to instruct 
 
 fenecer i to terminate 
 ^/fcrar i. p. to fix 
 
 introducir ") , . , , 
 xxiv i mtroc * uce 
 
 fluir in to flow 
 
 invernar n to winter 
 
 fortalecer i to fortify 
 forzar ix to force 
 
 ' >-to invert 
 i. p. J 
 
 fregar n to scrub 
 
 i?ivestir x to invest 
 
 /rar x. i. p. to fry 
 
 inxerir xi. i. p. to graft 
 
 gemir x to moan 
 
 ir xxx to go 
 
 gobernar n to govern 
 
 jugar iv to play 
 
 guarnecer i to garnish 
 
 juntar i. p. to join 
 
 haber xxv to have 
 
 lucir i to shine 
 
 hacer xvi. i. p. to make 
 hartar i. p. to satiate 
 
 7 . f to wear by 
 term | friction 
 
 heder n to stink 
 
 Hover ix to rain 
 
 helar n to freeze 
 
 maldecir ~\ , 
 
 hender n to cleave 
 
 >-to curse 
 
 XXVIII. l.p J 
 
 forz'r xi to wound 
 herrar n to shoe horses 
 
 m^ter 1 tomanifest 
 
 II. 1. p. J 
 
 hervirxi to boil 
 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 183 
 
 mantener \ 
 
 XXVI J 
 
 marchitari p. 
 
 to maintain 
 to fade 
 
 perecer i to perish 
 perftedo- \ t erfect 
 nar i. p. j 
 
 medir x 
 mentar u 
 
 to measure 
 to mention 
 
 P ^n }*>breakleg 9 
 
 mentir xi 
 
 to lie 
 
 perseguir x to persecute 
 
 merecer i 
 
 to merit 
 
 pertenecer i J to belong 
 
 S 
 
 to take a 
 
 pervertir xi to pervert 
 
 merenaar n -^ 
 
 luncheon 
 
 plegar n to plait 
 
 mohecerse i -J 
 
 to grow 
 
 poblar ix to people 
 ^?oc?er xvn to be able 
 
 moler ix 
 
 to grind 
 
 ponerxix.. i.p. to place 
 
 morder ix 
 
 to bite 
 
 predecir ~), 
 
 mon'r xn.i.p. 
 
 to die 
 
 xxvin. i p.J P redlct 
 
 mostrar ix 
 
 to show 
 
 preferir xi to prefer 
 
 mover ix 
 
 to move 
 
 prejider i. p. to seize 
 
 muir* in 
 
 to milk 
 
 jorepo/ierxix") to place be- 
 
 nacer i 
 
 to be born 
 
 i. p. J fore 
 
 negar n 
 
 to deny 
 
 prescribir i. p. to prescribe 
 
 negrecer i 
 
 to grow black 
 
 .. Y to have a pre- 
 
 nevar n 
 
 to snow 
 
 * (^ sentiment 
 
 obedecer i 
 
 to obey 
 
 presuponer ~\ to presup- 
 
 obscurecer i 
 
 to darken 
 
 xix. i. p. j pose 
 
 obstruir in 
 
 to obstruct 
 
 prevalecer i to prevail 
 
 obtener xxvi 
 
 to obtain 
 
 prevenir ") 
 
 ofrecer i 
 
 to offer 
 
 xxvii J to P revent 
 
 oir vin 
 
 to hear 
 
 prever v. i. p. to foresee 
 
 oZerf ix 
 
 to smell 
 
 probar ix to prove 
 
 omitir i. p. 
 
 to omit 
 
 producir xxiv to produce 
 
 opo/ierxix.i.p 
 
 to oppose 
 
 proferir x.i to utter 
 
 oprimir i. p. 
 
 to oppress 
 
 promover ix to promote 
 
 pacer i 
 
 to graze 
 
 proponer \ , 
 
 padecer I 
 
 to suffer 
 
 /~to propose 
 x *. ! r P* -^ 
 
 parecer i 
 
 to seem 
 
 proscribir i. p. to proscribe 
 
 pedir x 
 
 to demand 
 
 proseguir x to prosecute 
 
 pensar n 
 
 to think 
 
 prostituir in to prostitute 
 
 perder n 
 
 to lose 
 
 proveer i. p. to provide 
 
 * A term peculiar to the province of Arragon. 
 . f The irregular persons of this verb are written with an h / as, 
 huelo, huela, &c. 
 
 I See Synonyms, by the author, page 171. 
 
184 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 provenirxxvii to originate 
 quebrar n to break 
 querer xx to like 
 recaer vn to relapse 
 recluir in. i.p. to cloister 
 
 Tto boil over 
 recocer ix < 
 
 (^ again 
 
 recomendam to recommend 
 
 {to acknow- 
 ledge 
 reconvale- "\ same as con- 
 
 cer i j valecer 
 recordar ix to remind 
 recostar ix to recline 
 recrecer i to grow again 
 reducir xxiv to reduce 
 referir xi to refer 
 
 n f to blossom 
 
 reflorecer i 
 
 reforzar ix 
 regar n 
 regir x 
 regoldar ix 
 re/iacer xvi 
 
 i.p. 
 m> x 
 relucir x 
 remanecer I 
 
 rerriendar 11 
 
 remorder ix 
 remover ix 
 renacer i 
 
 rendir x 
 \*encgar n 
 i *novar ix 
 
 again 
 
 to reinforce 
 
 to water 
 
 to rule 
 
 to belch 
 
 to do over 
 again 
 
 to laugh 
 same as 
 
 to remain 
 
 to mend 
 clothes 
 
 to bite re- 
 peatedly 
 
 to remove 
 
 to be born 
 again 
 
 to yield 
 
 to abjure 
 
 to renew 
 
 rescontar ix 
 
 renir x to quarrel 
 
 repetir x to repeat 
 
 replegar n to fall back* 
 
 repojier xix ~> . 
 
 Mo replace 
 
 reprobar ix to reprove 
 reproducer 1 to produce 
 
 xxiv j afresh 
 requebrar n to cajole 
 requerir xi to require 
 resent irse xi to resent 
 
 to balance 
 accounts 
 resollar ix to breathe 
 resolver ix. i.p. to resolve 
 resonar ix to resound 
 restablecer i to reestablish 
 restituir in to restore 
 retemblar 11 to vibrate 
 retener xxvi to retain 
 
 to threaten a 
 
 relapsef 
 retenir x to dye again 
 
 retorcer ix to twist 
 retraer xxn to retract 
 
 retentar n 
 
 rewer v. i. p 
 reverdecer i 
 
 tobringback 
 
 retribuir in to compensate 
 reventar n to burst 
 to review 
 
 ro w ^ re< 
 again 
 
 reverter n to overflow 
 
 revestir x to revest 
 
 revolar ix to fly again 
 
 revolcarse ix to wallow 
 revolver ix 
 i.p. 
 
 OK 
 
 } 
 
 to ) evolve 
 
 * Speaking of the former position of an army. 
 } Alluding to illness. 
 J See page 168. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 185 
 
 f to move on 
 rocforix | wheels 
 
 substituir in to substit 
 sugerir xi to suggest 
 
 rogar ix to pray 
 
 substraer xxn to subtract 
 
 romper i. p. to break 
 saber* xxi to know 
 
 . ^" to suppose 
 i. p. j 
 
 salir xxin to go out 
 
 siiprimir i. p. to suppress 
 
 satisfacer \ [f 
 
 XVI. 1. p. J 
 
 temblar n to tremble 
 tender n to spread out 
 
 seducirxxiv to seduce 
 
 fewer xxvi to hold 
 
 seg-#r ii to reap corn 
 
 fem'r x to dye 
 
 seguir x to follow 
 
 tentar 11 to tempt 
 
 sembrar n to sow 
 
 torcer ix to twist 
 
 sentarse n to sit 
 
 tostar ix to toast 
 
 sentir xi to feel 
 
 traducir xxiv to translate 
 
 serrar u to saw 
 
 raer xxn to bring 
 
 ser xxix to be 
 
 transcendar u to transcend 
 
 servir x to serve 
 
 trascolar ix to percolate 
 
 W6 xT"p. }toplaceover 
 
 trascordarseixto forget 
 trasegar n to decant 
 
 sobresalir 5 , 
 
 trasonar ix to dream 
 
 xxin I 10 sur P ass 
 
 trasponer \ 
 
 s tf.} tohappen 
 
 trocar ix to barter 
 
 solar ix to sole 
 
 tronar ix to thunder 
 
 soldar ix to solder 
 
 tropezar n to stumble 
 
 soZer ix to be wont 
 
 vaZer xxin to be worth 
 
 soltar ix. i. p. to let go 
 
 venir xxvn to coire 
 
 sonar ix to sound 
 
 ver v. i. p. to see 
 
 sonar ix to dream 
 
 verier n to shed 
 
 sonreirse x to smile 
 
 vestir x to clothe 
 
 Tto become 
 tosegarseii | tranqui , 
 
 volar ix to fly 
 volcar ix to overset 
 
 sostener xxvi to sustain 
 
 volver ix. i. p. to return 
 
 soterrar n to bury 
 
 zaherir xi to upbraid 
 
 N. B. Most of the verbs inserted in the foregoing 
 list have other meanings than the one annexed to them ; 
 but the verb atestar only (as has been observed) loses 
 its irregularity when it varies its signification. 
 
 * See Colloquial Idioms, Exercises, page 1 12. 
 
186 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Abrir 
 
 absolver 
 
 ahitar 
 
 A List of Ferbs having the Participle irregularly 
 formed. 
 
 Meaning-. Irreg. Particip. Reg.Particip. 
 
 to open abierto 
 
 to absolve absuelto 
 
 to overload thel ,., , ., , 
 
 >ahito ahitado 
 
 antepuesto 
 
 antevisto 
 
 bendito bendecido 
 
 compulso compelido 
 
 compuesto > 
 
 concluso concluido 
 
 confuso confundido 
 
 contradicho 
 
 contrahecho 
 
 convicto convencido 
 
 converso convertido 
 
 cubierto 
 
 ajiteponer 
 antever 
 bendecir 
 compeler 
 componer 
 concluir 
 confimdir 
 ^contradecir 
 
 stomach 
 
 to prefer 
 
 to foresee 
 
 to bless 
 
 to compel 
 
 to compose 
 
 to conclude 
 
 to confound 
 
 to contradict 
 
 contrahacer to counterfeit 
 convencer to convince 
 converter to convert 
 cubrir to cover 
 
 decir to say dicho 
 
 deponer to depose depuesto 
 
 descomponer to discompose descompuesto 
 
 descubrir to discover descubierto 
 
 desdecirse to retract desdicho 
 
 desenvolver to unroll desenvuelto 
 
 deshacer to undo deshecho 
 
 despertar to awake despierto despertado 
 
 disolver to dissolve disuelto 
 
 disponer to dispose dispuesto 
 
 degir to elect electo elegido 
 
 encubrir to conceal encubierto 
 
 envolver to wrap envuelto 
 
 enxifgar to dry enxuto enxugado 
 
 escribir to write escrito 
 
 excluir to exclude excluso excluido 
 
 expeler to expel expulso expelido 
 
 exponer to expose expuesto 
 
 expresar to express expreso expresado 
 
 extinguir to extinguish extincto extinguiod 
 
 fixar to fix fixo fixado 
 
 frdr to fry frito freido 
 
 hacer to make hecho 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 187 
 
 Infinitive. Meaning. Irrej 
 hartar to satiate 
 importer to impose 
 imprimir to print 
 incluir to include 
 incurrir to incur 
 indisponer to indispose 
 insertar to insert 
 invertir to invert 
 inxerir to graft 
 juntar to join 
 maldecir to curse 
 manifestar to manifest 
 marchitar to fade 
 mon'r to die 
 omitir to omit 
 oponer to oppose 
 oprimir to oppress 
 perfeccionar to perfect 
 jwwer to place 
 predecir to predict 
 prender to seize 
 preponer to place first 
 prescribir to prescribe 
 presuponer to presuppose 
 prever to foresee 
 proponer to propose 
 prosoribir to proscribe 
 proveer to provide 
 recluir to shut up 
 rehacer to do over again 
 rcpo?ier to replace 
 resolver to resolve 
 rever to review 
 revolver to revolve 
 romper to break 
 satisfacer to satisfy 
 sobreponer to place over 
 soltar to let go 
 suponer to suppose 
 suprimir to suppress 
 trasponer to transpose 
 
 o-r>r fr CA 
 
 . Particip. Reg. Particip. 
 Aarfo hartado 
 impuesto 
 
 incluso incluido 
 incurso incurrido 
 
 inserto insertado 
 inverse invertido 
 inxerto* inxerido 
 jWTifo juntado 
 maldito maldecido 
 manifesto manifestado 
 marchito marchitado 
 
 omiso omilido 
 
 opreso* oprimido 
 perfecto perfeccionado 
 
 "orcdicho ~~ ~ ~ 
 
 preso* prendido 
 
 prescrito* prescribido 
 presupuesto . 
 
 
 'pro'Diiesto -... . . 
 
 
 provisio* proveido 
 recluso recluido 
 rehecho 
 
 revuesto - 
 
 
 
 
 roto* rompido 
 
 
 suelto soldido 
 
 supreso* suprimido 
 
 
188 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Observation on such of the foregoing verbs as have two 
 
 participles. 
 
 The irregular participles belonging to these verbs par- 
 take more of the nature of verbal adjectives than of that 
 of participles ; and therefore are never made use of to 
 form the compound tenses of the said verbs ; as, el suelo 
 estd enxutoporque el sol le ha enxugado, the floor is dry 
 because the sun has dried it. The participles marked 
 thus * are excepted, as they are often found forming the 
 compound tenses of their verbs, especially the participles 
 preso, prescrito, provisto, roto, the latter of which the 
 Spanish Academy observes is oftener used to form the 
 compound tenses of romper than its own regular parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 Impersonal Ferbs, or Verbs which are conjugated 
 in the Third Person Singular of each Tense 
 only. 
 
 Amanec-er, To grow light. 
 
 Indicat. Present amanece, it grows light. 
 
 Imperfect amanecia, it did grow light. 
 Perf. Indef. amaneci<5, it grew light. 
 Perf. def ha amanecido, it has grown light. 
 Pluperf. habia or hubo amanecido, it had 
 
 grown light. 
 
 Put. imp. amanecera, it will grow light, 
 perf. habra amanecido, it will have grown 
 
 light. 
 
 Imperative amane$c-&, let it grow light. 
 
 Subjunct. Present aunquef, &c. amanezc-a, although 
 
 &c. it may grow light. 
 
 (amaneciera, Cshould^ 
 amaneciese, it < could >*j 
 amaneceria (jmightj 
 Perfect aunque, &c. haya amanecido, though 
 &c. it may have grown light, 
 "should have^ grown 
 
 flight, 
 
AND SYNTAX. 189 
 
 Subjunc. Fut. imp. si amaneciere, if it should grow 
 
 light. 
 
 perf. si hubiere amanecido, if it should 
 have grown light. 
 f nfinit. Present amanecer, to grow light. 
 
 Perfect haber amanecido, to have grown 
 
 light. 
 
 Gerund amaneciendo, growing light. 
 Comp. ofger. habiendo amanecido, having grown 
 
 light. 
 
 Participle amanecido, grown light. 
 N.B. Anochecer, to grow dark, is conjugated in the 
 same manner, and has the same irregularity : example ; 
 anochezc-a, it may grow dark, &c. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 These two verbs are sometimes used with all the per- 
 sons, and in such instances they may be considered as 
 neuter-passive verbs, denoting merely the situation or 
 condition of their subject at the time ; as, anochecimos 
 en el campo, that is, night closed in upon us whilst we 
 were in the country ; or, we were in the country when it 
 grew dark : amanecimos en Londres, that is, the day 
 broke upon us when we were in London, or, we were in 
 London when it grew light, or, at break of day : ama- 
 necio el campo de batalla cubierto de heridos, the wounded 
 were seen covering the field of battle at break of day. 
 In some phrases amanecer may be properly translated 
 to awake, or, to arise ; and anochecer 9 to go to sleep, or, 
 to lie down ; as, anocheci bueno, amaneci malo, I went 
 to sleep well, I awoke ill ; mi padre anochecio, pero no 
 amanecid, my father lay down, but he rose no more. 
 
 Afap-or. 
 
 Indicat. Present niev-a, it snows. 
 
 Imperfect nevaba, it did snow. 
 Perf. indef. nev6, it snowed. 
 Perf. def. ha nevado, it has snowed. 
 Pluperfect habia or hubo nevado, it had 
 
 snowed. 
 
190 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Fut. imp. nevara, it will snow. 
 
 Fut. perf. habra nevado, it will have snowed. 
 
 Imperative niev-e, let it snow. 
 
 Subjunc. Present aunque, &c. 7weu-e, though, &c. 
 
 it may snow. 
 Aievara, Cshoul(T\ 
 Imperfect-^ nevase, it K might f-snow. 
 
 (jievaria, [would J 
 
 Perfect aunque, &c. haya nevado, although 
 &c. it may have snowed. 
 ^hubiera^ C should have} 
 
 Pluperf.-Z hubiese > " itJ. might have ^-snowed. 
 (^habria J * [would have) 
 
 Fut. imp. si nevare, if it should show. 
 
 perf. si hubiere nevado, if it should 
 
 have sjiowed. 
 
 Infinit. Present nevar, to snow. 
 
 Perfect haber nevado, to have snowed. 
 
 Gerund nevando, snowing. 
 
 Comp. of the ger. habiendo nevado, having snowed. 
 
 Participle nevado. snowed. 
 
 N. B. Helar, to freeze, is conjugated in the same man- 
 ner, and has the same tenses irregular : example ; hiel-o^ 
 it freezes ; hiel-e, it may freeze, &c. 
 
 Tron-ar. 
 
 Indicat. Present truen-a, it thunders. 
 
 Imperfect tronaba, it did thunder. 
 Perf. indef. trend, it thundered. 
 Perf. def. ha tronado, it has thundered. 
 Pluperfect habia or hubo tronado, ' it had 
 
 thundered. 
 Fut. imp. tronara, it will thunder. 
 
 perf. habra tronado, it will have thun- 
 dered. 
 Imperative truen-e, let it thunder. 
 
 Subjunc. Present aunque, &c. truen-e, though, &c. 
 
 it may thunder. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 191 
 
 ftronara, fshoul(T\ 
 
 t < tronase, it-^ might >t 
 
 (jronaria (would J 
 
 Imperfect < tronase, it^ might >thunder. 
 
 Perfect aunque, &c. hayatronado, though, 
 &c. it may have thundered. 
 /^hubiera"^ tro- C should have~\ thun- 
 Pluperf. < hubiese >na- t-< might have >c?er- 
 
 (Jiabria J do \jvould havej ed. 
 Fut. imp. si tronare, if it should thunder, 
 perf. si hubiere tronado, if it should 
 have thundered. 
 Infinit. Present tronar, to thunder. 
 
 Perfect haber tronado, to have thundered. 
 Gerund tronando, thundering. 
 Comp.oftheger. habiendo tronado, having thun- 
 dered. 
 Participle tronado. thundered. 
 
 N. B. Llover, to rain, is conjugated like this verb, and 
 changes also the o into ue in the same tenses : example ; 
 lluev-e, it rains ; lluev-a, it may rain, &c. Escarchar, to 
 freeze; granizar, to hail; lloviznar, to mizzle; and 
 relampaguear 9 to lighten, are all regular. 
 
 Hab-er 
 
 Indicat. Present ha-y, there is, or there are. 
 
 Imperfect habia, there was, or there were. 
 Perf. indef. hub-o, there was, or there were. 
 Perf. defin. ha habido, there has or have been. 
 Pluperfect habia or hubo habido, there had 
 
 been. 
 Fut. imp. hab-m, there will be. 
 
 perf. hab-ra habido, there will have been. 
 Imperative hay-a, let there be. 
 
 Subjunc. Present aanque, &c. hay -a, though, &c. 
 
 there may be. 
 
 fhub-iera, there should be. 
 Imperfects hub-iese, there might be. 
 [hab-ria, there would be. 
 Perfect aunque, &c. hay-a habido, though, 
 &c. there may have been. 
 
192 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 fhub-iersi} . , . C there should have*} 
 Pluperf.-< hub-iese V^ 8 01 ~-J there might have >been 
 
 (^hab-ria j ( [there would have j 
 Fut. imp. si hub-iere, if there should be. 
 perf. si hubiere habido, if there should 
 
 have been. 
 Infinit. Present haber.* 
 
 Perfect haber habido.* 
 Gerund habiendo, there being. 
 Comp. of the ger. habiendo habido, there having bee7i. 
 
 Participle habido, been. 
 
 Examples ; there is an author who says, hay un autor 
 que dice; there are philosophers who deny it; hay 
 Jilosofos que lo niegan ; there have been men who have 
 believed it, ha habido hombres que lo han creido. 
 
 Hac-er. 
 
 Indicat. Present hace, it is. 
 
 Imperfect hacia, it was. 
 
 Perf. indef. hiz-o, it was. 
 
 Perf. defin. ha hecho, it has been. 
 
 Pluperfect habia or hubo hecho, it had been. 
 
 Fut. imp. ha-rd, it will be. 
 
 perf. habra hecho, it will have been. 
 Imperative hag-a, let it be. 
 
 Subjunc. Present aunque, &c. hag-a 9 though, &c. it 
 
 may be. 
 
 /"Mc-iera, it should be. 
 Imperfect< Azc-iese, it might be. 
 
 \Jiaria, it would be. 
 
 Perfect aunque, &c. haya hecho, though, 
 &c. it may have been. 
 Thubiera^ ( should have^l 
 
 Plvperf.-< hubiese >hecho, it< might have >6 en. 
 
 (^habria j (jwould have J 
 
 Fut. imp. si Aic-iere, if it should be. 
 
 perf. si hubiere hecho, if it should have 
 
 been 
 
 * These two tenses cannot be construed in English without cir- 
 cumlocution. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 193 
 
 Infinitive Present hacer, to be. 
 
 Perfect haber hecho, to have been. 
 
 Gerund haciendo, being. 
 Comp. of the Ger. habiendo hecho, having been. 
 
 Particip. hecho, been. 
 
 N. B. This verb is used with nouns of number, in 
 chronological calculations ;* as, Is it ten years since his 
 father died ? < hace diez anos que murio su padre ? it 
 will be ten years to-morrow, manana hard diez anos. 
 It is also employed to express the state of the weather ; 
 as, it is cold, hace frto ; though it may be warm to- 
 morrow, aunque haga color manana ; it has been very 
 windy to-day, ha hecho mucho viento hoy. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 There are several personal verbs which are frequently 
 conjugated impersonally : example ; From this instant 
 I receive this young man, it. suffices that thou present 
 him to me, Desde luego recibo a este mozo, basta 
 que tu me le presentes, Gil Bias, b. ii. ch. 1. The verb 
 ser is also conjugated impersonally, and very frequently 
 employed with the noun menester, &c. or with the adjec- 
 tivesprecwo, necessario, to denote necessity ; as, it must 
 be granted, es menesterf concederlo : to melt wax it must 
 be warmed, para derretir la cera espreciso\ calentarla. 
 When the second verb has its subject expressed or un- 
 derstood in English, the said verb is put in the sub- 
 junctive with que; as, it will be requisite for us to see 
 him, or, it will be requisite that we should see him, sera 
 necessario que le veamos. The same construction takes 
 place when the verb must has its subject expressed ; as, 
 we must go, es preciso que vayamos. N. B. When to be 
 (being used impersonally) is followed by a noun or pro- 
 noun, the verb ser must agree with the said noun or 
 pronoun in number and person ; as, it is I who wrote, 
 yo soy quien escribi ; it is riches I hate, son las riquezas 
 las que aborrezco. 
 
 * The impersonal haber is sometimes found used in these species 
 of calculations : as, And that it was fifteen months since he had 
 retired to marry a girl of Castropol, Y que se habia retirado quince 
 meses habia par casarse con una moza de Castropol. Gil Bias, ch. 2. 
 
 f See the author's Synonyms, page 115. 
 K 
 
194 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 DEFECTIVES. 
 
 The following verbs are found used in those 
 tenses and persons only noticed in the annexed 
 examples. 
 
 Podrir. 
 
 Imperat. 2d person plural podrid, rot ye. 
 Subjunc. imp. 3d pers. si?ig. podriria, he would rot. 
 Infinit. Present podrir, to rot. 
 Particip. podrido, rotten. 
 
 Placer. 
 Indicat. Pres. 3d. pers. sing, place, it pleases. 
 
 Imperf. placia, it did please. 
 
 Perf. ind. plugo, it pleased. 
 
 Subjunc. Present plegue,* it may please. 
 
 Imverf -f plugiera,* it would please. 
 
 * J* (_ plugiese,* it might please. 
 
 Fut. imp. plugiere,* it should please. 
 
 * The Spanish Academy observes that these persons 
 are used in the following expressions only ; plegue, or 
 plugiera, or plugiese a Dios, would to God ; and si me 
 plugiere, if it should please me. 
 
 Yacer, To lie dead. 
 
 No part of this verb is made use of except the third 
 persons of the. present indicative, yace and yacen, which 
 are generally inscribed on tombstones. 
 
 Sol-er. 
 
 Indicat. Present suel-o, I am wont. 
 
 suel-es, thou art wont, 
 suel-e, he is wont. 
 solemos, we are wont. 
 soleis, ye are wont, 
 suel-en, they are wont. 
 Imperf. solia, I was wont. 
 
 solias, thou wast wont. 
 solia, he was wont. 
 soliamos, we were wont, 
 soliais, ye were wont. 
 solian, they were wont. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 195 
 
 USE OF THE TENSES. 
 
 All the tenses of verbs are said to denote action 
 or existence, as going on ; as being completed ; 
 or as not yet begun : this is done by means of 
 the three principal tenses of the Spanish verbs ; the 
 present, the preterite, and the future ; as, yo soy, 
 yo fui, yo sere*, I am, I was, I shall be ; yo escribo, 
 yo escribi, yo escribire, I write, I wrote, [ shall 
 write. Again, verbs are capable of describing more 
 minutely the time at which an action was, has been, 
 or will be present ; and this they do by pointing 
 out the state of one action at the commencement 
 of another ; and for this more circumstantial de- 
 scription we make use chiefly of what some gram- 
 marians call the compound tenses of verbs ; as, yo 
 habia escrito antes que el la llegase, I had written 
 before she arrived ; yo habr escrito antes que ella 
 llegue, I shall have written before she arrives. 
 
 This is the definition of tenses in general. It re- 
 mains now to show the peculiar purposes to which 
 the tenses of the Spanish verbs are applied. Tn 
 doing this I shall adopt as much as possible the 
 same phraseology with every tense, believing that 
 this method will render the distinction of each 
 tense more conspicuous as well as more easily 
 remembered. 
 
 PRESENT OF THE INDICATIVE. 
 
 1, This tense denotes the actual state of exist- 
 ence ; as, estoy malo, I am ill ; or that an action 
 is going on ; as, hablo, or estoy hablando, I am 
 speaking. 
 
 2. Customs or habits still existing are expressed 
 with this tense; as, los Espanoles duermen despues 
 de comer, the Spaniards sleep after dinner; Sin 
 embargo se deJbe confesar que son mas humanos 
 
 K2 
 
196 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 que nosotros ; porque nosotros muchas veces por el 
 dinero quitamos la vida a losinocentes,y ellospor 
 61 mismo no pocas se la perdonan a los culpados, 
 It must however be acknowledged that they are 
 more humane than we ; because we often for lucre 
 take away the life of the innocent, and they for the 
 very same thing often spare that of the guilty. Gil 
 Bias, ch. v. 
 
 3. The present character, disposition, or occu- 
 pation, is also expressed by this tense; as, Ne- 
 cesita lacayo el Capitan Torbellino, hombre cole- 
 rico, fantdstico y brutal ; grime sin cesar, jura, 
 patea, y suele estropear a los criados, Gil Bias, b. 
 i. ch. 17. Capain Torbellino wants a footman ; he 
 2.9 a choleric, fantastic, and brutal man, scolds in- 
 cessantly, swears at, kicks, and is apt to maim, his 
 domestics. 
 
 4. Axioms or general truths are declared in this 
 tense ; as, lo que es indivisible es incorruptible, 
 what is indivisible is incorruptible ; todo es vanidad 
 en este mundo, all is vanity in this world. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The present tense which is formed with the gerund 
 always, denotes in a more forcible manner, an action or 
 event as passing at the time it is mentioned ; yet even 
 this tense is sometimes employed when the action is con- 
 sidered only as in a state of progression, and therefore 
 we often say el esta escribiendo un libra, he is writing a 
 book ; meaning only that the action of writing the book 
 is in a state of progression, although the individual at 
 the time might be walking about. 
 
 Historians often use the present tense in order to give 
 animation to their relations, by representing the events 
 as happening at the time ; as, Detenido por la primera 
 guardia, insiste en ver al monarca ; corren d obtener su 
 licencia, y vuelven d conducirle d su presencia, Being 
 stopped by the first guard, he insists on seeing the 
 monarch ; they run to obtain his permission, and return 
 in order to conduct him into his presence. 
 
AND SYNTAX, 
 
 This tense is sometimes joined to expressions denot- 
 ing futurity ; as, (1st,) si yo salgo manana, If I go out 
 to-morrow ; (2d,) bl se va esta semana, he goes this week ; 
 (3d,) me voy el mes que viene, I go away next month. 
 But if we examine these sentences deliberately, we shall 
 discover that the verb in these instances denotes present 
 intention or resolution, and not future execution, and 
 that the meaning is this, (1st,) If my present intention 
 of going should be realized to-morrow ; (2d,) he intends 
 (now) to go this week; (3d,) I am (now) resolved 
 to go away next month. See Observation after the 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 IMPERFECT OF THE INDICATIVE. 
 
 1. This tense denotes former but progressive 
 state of existence ; as, yo estaba inalo entonces, I 
 was ill then ; or that an action was going on at the 
 time that another took place \ as, yo escribia 
 quando entro, I was writing when he came in. 
 
 2. Former customs or habits are expressed with 
 this tense; as, veniamos amenudo aqui, ive often 
 came here ; that is, we were wont to come, or we 
 were in the habit of coming, often here. En Atenas 
 llorabari los ninos quando los azotaban, At Athens 
 the children used to cry when they were whipped. 
 Gil Bias, b. ii. ch. 9. 
 
 3. The character, disposition, or occupation of 
 individuals no longer living, or which formerly be- 
 longed to persons now alive, is described in this 
 tense ; as, mi padre era teniente general quando 
 murio, my father was lieutenant-general when he 
 died ; su abuela era muy bonila en su mocedad, 
 his grandmother was very pretty in her youth. 
 
 PERFECT INDEFINITE. 
 
 1. This tense also denotes former, but not pro- 
 gressive state of existence ; as, estuve malo, I was 
 ill ; or that an action took place at a certain period 
 
198 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 of time, of which the present makes no part ; as, 
 vine la semana pasada, I came last week; escribf 
 ayer, I wrote yesterday ; hable anoche, I spoke 
 last night : wherein it is evident that the time at 
 which the affirmation is made forms no part of the 
 period within which the several actions took place. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Historians generally make use of this tense, which has 
 occasioned its being called by some grammarians the 
 historical preterite ; as, yo le vi morir, I saw him die ; 
 atraves6Ze el pecho el dardo de un Fenicio, the dart of a 
 Phrenician pierced his breast ; fueronsefe las riendas de 
 la mano, the reins dropped from his hand ; y cay 6 del 
 carro a los pies de los caballos, and he fell from the car 
 at the horses' feet. (Telem. b. ii.) 
 
 The difference between this tense and the imperfect 
 consists in this, that the imperfect describes an action, 
 &c. in a state of progression, at some period of time 
 prior to the present moment, necessarily implying its 
 commencement before the said period of time, and leav- 
 ing the mind generally unconscious whether the pro- 
 gression does or does not continue still ; whereas the 
 perfect indefinite, on the contrary, describes an action 
 as having commenced at a former period of time, and 
 implies its having ceased before the present moment : 
 thus, if we say el la amaba entonces, he loved her then ; 
 we point out with the tense the affection of the man as 
 in a state of progression, and which, for aught we know, 
 may still be going on ; for we may add, y el la ama 
 todavta, and he loves her still. Let us now change the 
 imperfect for the perfect indefinite, and say, el la am6 
 entonces, he loved her then ; the idea is not the same, 
 for the probability of the man's affections continuing still 
 is entirely done away : again, if I say, yo iba ayer al 
 campo, I was going yesterday into the country, the per- 
 fecting of the action remains doubtful ; for I may add 
 pero un aguaccro me lo estorvo, but a shower prevented 
 me : but if I say, yo fui ayer al campo, I went y ester- 
 
AND SYNTAX. 199 
 
 day into the country, no doubt remains respecting the 
 action being completed within the period of yesterday. 
 
 It is necessary to understand clearly the distinction 
 which we make between these two tenses, in order not 
 to misapply them, especially as this distinction is not so 
 striking in the English as in the Spanish imperfect, unless 
 the English tense be formed with the imperfect of the 
 auxiliary to be, and the present participle of the verb ; 
 as, I loved, or was loving ; I preached, or was preaching ; 
 the latter of which expressions approaches more than the 
 former to the meaning of the imperfect tense in Spanish. 
 
 PERFECT DEFINITE. 
 
 1. This tense describes a state of existence as 
 being protracted to the time of the affirmation ; as, 
 ha estado malo hasta ahora, he has been ill till now ; 
 or as having terminated within a period bounded by 
 the present ; as, ha estado malo hoy, lie has been 
 ill to-day : in like manner it denotes that an action 
 which took place some time ago has continued un- 
 interrupted till now ; as, la he querido desde que la 
 vi, I have loved her ever since I saw her : or that 
 an action took place within a certain period of 
 which the present instant forms a part ; as, hemos 
 visto muchas maravillas en este siglo. we have seen 
 many wonders this century ; no ha llovido mucho 
 este ano, there has not fallen much rain this year; 
 el pan ha estado caro este mes, bread has been deal 
 this month; no hemos ayunado esta semana 9 we 
 have not fasted this week ; lo he oido hoy, I have 
 heard it to-day ; wherein it is evident the words 
 century, year, month, week, and day, must include 
 the present instant. 
 
 2. It is also used to describe former actions of 
 individuals now living, which were not reiterated or 
 habitual; as, ha viajado mucho , he has travelled 
 a great deal ; ha escrito muchas obras 9 he has writ- 
 ten many works ; ha lei do mucho en su mocedad, 
 
200 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 he has read a great deal in his youth. N.B. As a 
 particular season of life is here mentioned, the 
 indefinite might be used , as, leyo mucho, fyc. he 
 read, &c. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In some instances the English perfect is translated by 
 the present in Spanish ; and whenever this happens, the 
 action or the state of being which is described as having 
 commenced some time back is supposed to be going on 
 at present ; as, hace dos horas que esta lloviendo, it lias 
 been raining for these two hours ; hace dos anos que estoy 
 en Londres, I have been in London these two years, desde 
 que vivimos juntos, since we have lived together. It is not 
 necessary that the progression of the action shall have 
 been uninterrupted, provided there has been some regu- 
 larity in the repetition kept up to the present time : as, 
 hace dos meses que yo escribo a mi hermana todos los 
 dias, I have written to my sister every day the two last 
 months. 
 
 The distinction which exists between this tense and 
 the indefinite, should also be particularly noticed : be- 
 cause although, in almost every instance wherein the 
 definitive is used, the indefinite may be employed, yet 
 the reverse is never admissible, and therefore the former 
 never can be a substitute for the latter. It is a charac- 
 teristic of the perfect definite (as may be seen by the 
 foregoing examples) to describe an event as having hap- 
 pened within a period of which the present instant always 
 forms one boundary ; whereas the present instant is 
 never included in the time denoted by the perfect 
 indefinite : hence, though we may say hoi le', or he leido, 
 un libro, to-day I have read a book ; escribi, or he escrito, 
 una carta esta semana, I have written a letter this week ; 
 because both the abovementioned periods reach to the 
 present time; yet we can say only lei un libra ayer, I 
 read a book yesterday ; escribi una carta la semana 
 pasada, I wrote a letter last week ; because the present 
 is excluded, both from yesterday and from last week. 
 See Observation after the Future Perfect. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 201 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 1. This tense denotes that a state of existence 
 terminated before a certain period of time, which 
 now is elapsed, had commenced 5 as, habia estado 
 malo antes, he had been ill before; or, that an 
 action was completed previously to the commence- 
 ment of a former period ; or before another action , 
 which is now also finished, was begun ; as, yo ha- 
 bia leido el libro antes que le compre, I had read 
 the book before I bought it ; yo le habia escrito 
 antes que llego, I had written to him before he 
 arrived. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The English pluperfect is translated by the imperfect 
 in Spanish, whenever the first action, &c. is described as 
 still going on at the time when the second took place ; as, 
 habia dos horas que yo estaba escribiendo quando llego 
 mi padre, I had been writing two hours when my father 
 arrived: in which example, the verb being in the imper- 
 fect tense denotes that I was actually employed in 
 writing at the time of my father's arrival. 
 
 When we wish to express not only that an action was 
 completed before another, which now is finished, was 
 begun, but also that they rapidly succeeded each other, 
 we use generally the termination hube ; as, Quando los 
 hube a todos oido, no me admire de verlos juntos. (Gil 
 Bias.) When I had heard them all, I did not wonder at 
 seeing them together ; wherein the opinion of Gil Bias 
 respecting the highwaymen is described as being formed 
 immediately upon hearing their several histories. This 
 termination is never employed except after the words 
 despues que, as'r que, luego que, quando, no bien, fyc. ; as, 
 No bien to hube dicho, quando todo el pueblo exclamo, fyc. 
 I had no sooner said it, than all the people exclaimed, 
 &c. (Telemach. b. i.) 
 
202 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 FUTURE IMPERFECT. 
 
 1. This tense expresses that a state of existence 
 will commence when the present time shall be past ; 
 as, entonces sere* yo feliz, I shall then be happy; 
 or that an action will be going on at a future 
 period : as, ceiiare* a las ocho, I shall sup at eight 
 o'clock ; or that an action will commence, or will 
 be going on, at the time that another action will 
 take place; as, cenaremos luego que vm. venga, 
 we shall sup immediately on your arrival, that is, 
 we shall begin supper ; estaremos cenando quando 
 vm. llegue, we shall be at supper when you arrive ; 
 that is, supper will be going on. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 1 . This tense denotes that a state of existence 
 will be terminated at or before a future period ; as, 
 habre'mos sido felices, we shall have been happy : 
 or that an action will be perfected at some future 
 time, or before another action will be completed : 
 in other words, this tense generally includes two 
 future actions, denoting at the same time, that the 
 completion of the first will precede that of the 
 other ; as, yo le habre escrito antes de ese dia, I 
 shall have written to him before that day ; e*l ha- 
 bra comido antes que lleguemos a su casa, he will 
 have dined before we reach his house. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 This English future is in some instances rendered by 
 the present tense in Spanish, when the completion of 
 the first action, &c. seems to take place at the very point 
 of time which is mentioned in the sentence ; as, to- 
 morrow I shall have lived in London two years, manana 
 hard dos anos que yo vivo en Londres ; that is, the com- 
 pletion of my two years' actual residence in London will 
 take place to-morrow : el ano que viene hard cinco anos 
 que estan casados, next year they will have been married 
 five years. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 203 
 
 The Spaniards sometimes employ the future imperfect 
 instead of the present, and the future perfect instead of 
 the perfect definite, when they affirm something', either 
 as present or past, of which they are not quite certain ; 
 as, Ahora vendra de cenar con su Belica, donde el y el 
 que le guia se habran emborrachado, He comes now 
 (perhaps) from supping- with his Betsey, where he and 
 the one that conducts him have (probably) got drunk. 
 (Gil Bias, b. iv. ch. 6.) Had the person who made the 
 assertion been quite certain, he would have expressed 
 himself thus, Ahora viene de cenar con su Belica, donde 
 el y el que le guia se han emborrachado. The same con- 
 struction takes place in asking a question, when the 
 mind is as it were persuaded that the interrogatory is 
 almost unnecessary ; thus, Gil Bias, conceiving his situ- 
 ation to be one of the most unhappy, puts the question 
 with the future instead of the present ; as, / O Cielo ! 
 exclame, habra situacion mas infeliz que la mia ? O 
 Heaven ! I exclaimed, is there a condition more wretched 
 than mine ? (Ibid.) 
 
 PRESENT IMPERATIVE. 
 
 This tense is used first to command ; as, con- 
 
 Jiesalo, acknowledge it ; secondly, to entreat ; as, 
 
 conce'deme el favor, grant me the favour ; thirdly, to 
 
 exhort ; as, venzamos, let us conquer ; fourthly, to 
 
 permit ; as, venga, or que venga, let him come. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 It is necessary to observe that this tense cannot be 
 used with a verb which is preceded by a negative ; but 
 that in such cases the present subjunctive is employed: 
 as, nunca lo digas, never say it ; no vayais, go ye not. 
 The second person in both numbers is the only one 
 wherein this deviation is conspicuous ; for the third per- 
 son of both numbers, as well as the first person plural, 
 are alike in both tenses : in fact, the Spanish Academy, 
 justly considering the latter as inconsistent in an impera- 
 tive mood, have uniformly rejected it in their Grammar. 
 
 N.B. The future of the indicative is sometimes used 
 
204 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 for this tense ; as, quien hubiere hallado un manojo de 
 Haves acudira al Correo, let whoever has found a bunch 
 of keys, apply at the Post-office. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE, OR POTENTIAL MOOD.* 
 
 The tenses of this mood have the same import 
 as the tenses of the indicative ; but as the sub- 
 junctive is always connected with, and dependent 
 on, some verb generally expressed in the sentence, 
 its tenses cannot, like those of the indicative, de- 
 note action or existence as certain and positive, 
 but only as doubtful and contingent. For example, 
 aunque viene manana no le verJ, although he 
 comes, shall come, or is coming to-morrow, I will 
 not see him : here the verb viene, being in the 
 indicative, denotes that the action of coming will 
 take place positively on the following day ; but if, 
 changing the verb to the subjunctive, we say^mtt- 
 que venga manana no le hablard ella, although he 
 may come, or he should come, to-morrow, she will 
 not speak to him : the verb being here in the sub- 
 junctive marks his coming as more doubtful and 
 contingent. Again, aunque mi hermano ha leido 
 mucho, sabe muy poco, though my brother has read 
 a great deal, he knows very little : here the verb ha 
 leido being in the indicative, affirms positively my 
 conviction respecting the extent of my brother's 
 reading ; and although the two sentences are con- 
 nected, yet they are not dependent on each other ; 
 for, dismiss the connexive word aunque, and they 
 will form two distinct complete sentences : that is, 
 my brother has read much ; he knows very little ; 
 but if we say, aunque tu hermano haya leido mu- 
 
 * When the second form of the verb is interpreted by such words 
 as might, could, would, &c., the mood, strictly speaking, is poten- 
 tial. When, on the contrary, it is similar in signification to the indi- 
 cative, the mood is then said to be subjunctive. But, as in both cases 
 the form of the mood is one and the same, these two terms are com- 
 monly employed indiscriminately. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 205 
 
 cho, sabe muy poco, although thy brother may have 
 read a great deal, he knows very little ; we point 
 out with the subjunctive, the doubt or suspicion 
 which we entertain respecting his reading; and the 
 last sentence is so dependant on the first, that it 
 can scarcely form without it any sense. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 1. This tense marks a contingent action as going 
 on now, or at some future time, and therefore in 
 many instances it is used for the future imperfect of 
 this mood ; as, aunque este* leyendo, como vm. dice, 
 yo quiero hablarle, although he may be reading, as 
 you say, I wish to speak to him: yo le hablar 
 manana, aunque este ocupado, I will speak to him 
 to-morrow, though he may be busy. 
 
 N. B. Another use of this tense has been already 
 noticed when treating on the imperative. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 1. This tense denotes a contingent action as 
 going on now, or as going on some time ago, or 
 as going on some time hence ; as, aunque yo la 
 amara ahora, though I ivere to love her now ; 
 queria que su hermano viniera, I wished that his 
 brother should come ; that is, I wished (at that 
 time) the arrival of his brother ; le agradeceriamos 
 que viniera mamma, we should thank him if he 
 would come to-morrow. See Observations inserted 
 after the Future of this mood. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 The perfect denotes a contingent action as com- 
 pleted some time ago, or as being finished some 
 time hence ; as, aunque me haya escrito tantas 
 cartas como dice 9 yo no he recibido ninguna, al- 
 though he may have written to me as many letters 
 as he says, I have received none ; examinarmo5 
 las cuent as, y admitiremos a todos los que hay an 
 pagado entonces, we shall examine the accounts, 
 
206 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 and we will admit all those who may then have 
 paid. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 The pluperfect represents a contingent action as 
 completed before some period of time already past, 
 or before some other action which is now also com- 
 pleted, or which would be now completed had it 
 taken place ; as, yo le hubiera escrito antes, I 
 would have written to him before ; te hubiera ve- 
 nido a ver antes que sail de aqui, pero no tuve 
 tiempo, I would have come to see you before I 
 went from here, but I had not leisure ; si me lo 
 hubiera preguntado, se lo hubiera contado, had he 
 asked me, I would have related it to him. 
 
 FUTURE IMPERFECT. 
 
 This tense represents a contingent action as 
 taking place some time hence ; as, le escribire' a 
 vm. lo que me dixere, I will write to you what he 
 may (happen to) say to me ; le perdonardn todo 
 lo que hiciere, they will forgive him every thing he 
 may do (in future) ; si escribiere quando llegue- 
 mos, if he lurite, or should write, or be writing, 
 when we arrive. 
 
 N.B. Except after the conjunction si, the present of 
 the subjunctive may, in most instances, be used for this 
 tense ; as, le escribire a vm. lo que diga, le perdonardn 
 lo que haga. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 The perfect future denotes a contingent action 
 or event as having taken place, or been completed 
 some time hence ; as, si hubiere mandado su carta 
 antes que reciba la mia, se enojard mucho, should 
 he have sent his letter before he receives mine, he 
 will be very angry ; aunque hubiere llegado ayer y 
 although he may have come yesterday; no obstante 
 
AND SYNTAX. 207 
 
 que 41 lo hubiere comprado, notwithstanding he 
 may have bought it. 
 
 N. B. This terue may be changed for the perfect of 
 the subjunctive, except after the conjunction si ; as, 
 aunque hay a llegado aye?'; no obstante que lo hay a 
 comprado. 
 
 Observations on the Tenses of the Subjunctive 
 or Potential Mood. 
 
 The definition which has been already given of this 
 mood must be attentively observed, in order to avoid the 
 error of substituting, for these tenses, those of the indi- 
 cative; an error to which we are sometimes liable, be- 
 cause the English verb is not always sufficient to direct 
 us in the choice of moods. 
 
 Neither can English conjunctions assist us, on ac- 
 count of (heir not being restricted to any mood in par- 
 ticular. For instance, when I say, if he had gained a 
 suit, he also had lost a friend, and therefore he had rea- 
 son to complain: the English plupei feet of the indica- 
 tive is preceded by the conjunction if; but as it denotes 
 no contingency, the sentence is expressed with the like 
 tense and mood in Spanish; and we should say, si ha- 
 bia ganado el pleyto, tambien habia perdido un amigo, y 
 asi tenia razon de queocarse. On the contrary, in this 
 sentence, if he had gained (that is, had he gained) the 
 suit, he would have lost a friend, and therefore he had no 
 reason to be sorry, the English pluperfect is in the 
 subjunctive mood, and preceded by the same conjunction 
 as in the last sentence ; but it denotes a contingent 
 event, as may be seen by the context, and is conse- 
 quently resolved into the pluperfect of the subjunc- 
 tive in Spanish: thus, si Imbiera ganado el pleyto, 
 hubiera perdido un amigo, y asi no tenia razon de afli 
 girse. Again, although I had been there often, 1 had 
 never seen her ; here a conjunction is again joined to the 
 indicative, but the verbs contain two positive assertions : 
 first, that I frequently visited the place ; secondly, that 
 I never saw the person : therefore the Spanish construc- 
 tion requires both verbs in the indicative; as, aunque 
 habia estado amenudo alii, nunca la habia visto. Change 
 
208 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 the verb to the subjunctive mood, and s-ay, although I 
 had been (or had I been) there often, I never should have 
 seen her ; the certainty of my having- been at the place 
 is done away, and resolved into a mere supposition ; 
 and hence b >th the verbs must be expressed with the 
 subjunctive in Spanish ; as, aunque hubiera estado alii 
 amenudo, nunca la hubiera visto. Having sufficiently 
 guarded the learner against a misconception of the sub- 
 junctive, I shall proceed to show those tenses wherein 
 greater difficulties are encountered. 
 
 No part of the subjunctive or potential mood is, un- 
 questionably, more puzzling or perplexing to foreigners, 
 or even to Spaniards, than are the imperfect and plu- 
 perfect tenses, on account of their triple termination. 
 
 The terminations ra, se, and ria, belonging to these 
 tenses, cannot always be indiscriminately used ; for, 
 although in the examples given of the conjugations, 
 &c. in Part I. it was found expedient to allot only one 
 English sign of the subjunctive to every Spanish termi- 
 nation, we must not therefore conclude that ra is always 
 the only equivalent to should; se to might; or ria to 
 would: this is so far from being the fact, that every one 
 of the three terminations may be made to correspond 
 to any of the signs, according to circumstances. 
 
 Concerning the import of the three terminations ra, 
 se, and ria, I shall observe, that in general se is used to 
 denote ability, and ria inclination ; and that ra may be 
 occasionally made to express either ability or inclina- 
 tion, according to the framing of the sentence in which 
 it is employed : thus, I may say, le di dinero para que 
 comprara or comprase el libro, y meprometio que le com- 
 praria (but not comprara,) I gave him money that he 
 might buy the book, and he promised me that he would 
 buy it ; yo comprara or compraria el libro, pero no tetigo 
 dinero, I would buy the book, but I have no money : in 
 the first sentence, as may be seen, would can be ex- 
 pressed by the termination ria only, whilst in the second 
 either ra or ria may be used. 
 
 The Spanish Academy remarks, concerning the ter- 
 minations ra, se, and ria, that the first may, in most in- 
 stances, be substituted for either of the others ; I sha 1 
 
AND SYNTAX. 209 
 
 therefore confine my observations chiefly to the second 
 atid third terminations, believing that the remark of the 
 Academy sufficiently denotes the extensive uses of the 
 first, and warning the reader at the same time, that 
 in the subsequent examples the termination ra must 
 always be deemed implied, unless the necessity for its 
 rejection should be pointedly noticed. 
 
 Of the terminations ra, se, ria. 
 
 Ofra. 
 
 This termination is generally used in ejacula- 
 tions ; as, / quien lo hubiera pensado ! who would 
 have thought it ! / Dichosa yo si el exceso de mi 
 dolor me hubiera quitado lavida! Happy me if 
 the excess of my grief had taken away my life ! 
 ; Que de penas y tormentos me hubiera ahorrado! 
 How many afflictions and torments it would have 
 spared me ! (Gil Bias, ch. 11.) 
 
 Of se and ria. 
 
 1. If the imperfect or pluperfect of the sub- 
 junctive be preceded in English by a conjunction, 
 se should generally be employed ; as, although he 
 might come, aunque viniese ; unless he would have 
 come, amenos que no hubiese venido ; provided he 
 would come, con tal que viniese, if he would come, 
 si 41 viniese. 
 
 2. When instead of expressing the conjunction 
 if, in English, the order is inverted, the same ter- 
 mination must generally be used ; as, were we to 
 practise (or if we were to practise) virtue, si noso- 
 tros practicasemos la virtud ; had she (or if she 
 had) written, &c. si ella hubiese escrito, &c. 
 
 N. B. For if> when it means the same as whether, see 
 the remarks on the termination ria, No. 8. 
 
 3. If the imperfect or pluperfect be preceded by 
 a relative, we generally employ the termination se ; 
 as, we sent money for all those who might want it, 
 
210 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 mandamos dinero para todos los que lo necesita- 
 sen ; he sent money for all those who might have 
 arrived before last month, mando dinero para to- 
 dos, los que hubiesen llegado antes del mes pasado. 
 
 4. As much as, or as many as, preceding the 
 subjunctive in English, likewise generally requires 
 the termination se; as, I gave you money to buy 
 as many as we might want, le di d vm. dinero 
 para comprar quaiitos necesitasemos ; I gave them 
 leave to eat as much as they ivould, les di licencia 
 para comer quanto quisiesen. 
 
 5. If any of the preterites of the indicative go- 
 vern the imperfect or pluperfect of the subjunctive 
 in English, with the sign might, the termination 
 se ought generally to be used ; but if the sign be 
 would, we must use the termination ria ; as, I 
 wrote to him immediately, in order that he might 
 arrive in time, and he answered that he would 
 set out last night, le escribi inmediatamente para 
 que llegase d tiempo, y me respondio que partiria 
 anoche. 
 
 N. B. In this sentence ria could not be changed to ra. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The Spanish Academy says, that, if the governing verb 
 be decir, or any other of like import, the terminations 
 se or ria may be used. This is certainly true, but their 
 use is by no means arbitrary ; their meaning, as before 
 observed, being widely different : thus, el rey dixo que el 
 embaxador viniese, means, the king said that the ambas- 
 sador might come, or he ordered the ambassador to" 
 come ; but el rey dixo que el embaxador vendria, the 
 king said that the ambassador would come, denotes 
 merely an assurance on the part of his majesty, imply- 
 ing at the same time inclination on the part of the am- 
 bassador. N. B. In this last sentence the termination 
 ra could not be substituted for ria, therefore we could 
 not have said viniera for vendria. 
 
 The Spanish Academy further adds, that if the go- 
 verning verb denote to wish, or the like, the termination 
 
AND SYNTAX. 211 
 
 se must be used. This is obvious ; for, as the termina- 
 tion ria implies inclination, and as the governing verb 
 already expresses that inclination, se must be employed 
 to denote the ability or possibility, which forms the 
 object of the wish: thus, if I say, mi madre queria que 
 le escribiese, my mother wished me to write to her (or 
 wished that I might write to her,) the verb queria ex- 
 presses that my mother had a wish ; and the termination 
 se the object of that wish : viz. that I should possess 
 ability to write. 
 
 N.B. Se is also for the same reason used with the 
 expression oxald, would to God ! as, would to God he 
 might come, oxald viniese. 
 
 6. When the imperfect or pluperfect of the sub- 
 junctive is not preceded by any conditional con- 
 junction^ the termination ria should generally be 
 employed \ as, I would go, but I am afraid, yo 
 iria, pero tengo miedo ; we would pay our debts, 
 but we have no money, pagariamos nuestras deu- 
 das, pero no tenemos dinero. 
 
 7 If the nature of the sentence should require 
 that the imperfect or pluperfect be again used in 
 the context, we do not in general repeat the same 
 termination ; as, I would go, if I were not afraid, 
 yo iria, si no tuviese miedo; though I were not 
 afraid, I would not go there, aunque no tuviese 
 miedo, no iria alia. 
 
 N.B. Ra may be repeated in the context; as, paga- 
 ramos or pagariamos, si tuvieramos ortuviesemos dinero, 
 we would pay, had we money. 
 
 8. It is necessary to observe that whenever the 
 conjunction if, in English, is used in the sense of 
 whether, the termination ria is the only one that 
 can be employed ; as, I asked him ^/bis father, or 
 whether his father, would come to-morrow, le 
 pregunttf si su padre vendria manana ; she wrote 
 to us to know if we would buy the house, ella nos 
 escribio para saber si comprariamos la casa. 
 
 N. B. When the verb by which the imperfect of the 
 
212 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 subjunctive is governed denotes promise or assurance, 
 the termination ria is the only one which can be used ; 
 as, me prometio que vendria, he promised me that he 
 would come ; te assegure que saldria, I assured thee that 
 he would go out. 
 
 The termination ria is the only one used to denote a 
 supposed action, &c. done within a period of time not 
 including the present moment ; as, Pero le pareceria que 
 dandome m mula gastaria menos en el mage, But (I sup- 
 pose) it seemed to him, that by giving me his mule the 
 journey would cost him less. Gil Bias, ch. 2. 
 
 9. When were is used in English for would be, 
 and had for would have, the former is expressed 
 with ria, and the latter with ra ; as, it tuere (that 
 is, it would be) the greatest folly to believe all that 
 is said, seria la mayor locura creer todo lo que di- 
 cen ; many crimes which had been (that is, which 
 would have been) punished at other times, were 
 then committed with impunity, muchos delitos que 
 hubieran sido castigados en otros tiempos, secome- 
 tian impunernente entonces. 
 
 10. It is almost unnecessary to observe, that 
 when in English, would, s'hould, might, are not 
 employed as signs of the subjunctive mood, but as 
 verbs, they must be translated by querer, deber, 
 podcr ; as, he would not go, that is, he was un- 
 willing to go, no quiso ir ; we should forgive our 
 enemies, that is, we ought to forgive, debemos per- 
 donar a nuestros enemigos; I know he might have, 
 that is, he had it in his power to have, written 
 before, s que pudo ha her escrito antes. 
 
 Different Significations of the Preterimperfect 
 and the Imperfect Future of this Mood. 
 
 Having observed that both the above tenses are 
 capable of expressing a future contingent action 
 
AND SYNTAX. 213 
 
 or event ; in order that they may not be, as too 
 frequently they are, misapplied, the following 
 distinction must be attentively preserved. 
 
 1 st. That all future actions or events, denoted 
 with the imperfect tense, are future only in refer- 
 ence to some other time, either expressed or only 
 implied in the sentence; but always past with 
 regard to the present moment, that is, to the time 
 at which we make the affirmation. 
 
 2dly. That the imperfect future expresses the 
 contingent action or event, as future with regard 
 to the present moment. For example ; the general 
 ordered that all those who might (happen to) desert 9 
 should be shot. In this sentence the act of desert- 
 ing is certainly future with regard to the period at 
 which the general issued his orders ; but preterite 
 or past in reference to the present time : therefore 
 the future desertion of the soldiers must be ex- 
 pressed with the imperfect of the subjunctive : 
 thus, el general mando que todos los que deserta- 
 ran, fuesen arcabuceados. On the contrary the 
 * general has ordered that all those who may desert, 
 (that is, may happen to desert,) should be shot, 
 implies that the act of deserting is future, as to the 
 present moment, because it extends beyond it ; 
 and consequently the future imperfect must be 
 employed, el general ha mandado que todos los 
 que desertaren, sean arcabuceados. 
 
 N. B. The same distinction must also be noticed 
 in the use of the pluperfect and the future perfect 
 of this mood; as, the general ordered that all 
 those who might have deserted, should be shot, el 
 general mando que todos los que hubieran deser- 
 tado, fuesen arcabuceados, the general has ordered 
 that all those who may have deserted, be shot, el 
 general ha mandado que todos los que hubieren 
 desertado, sean arcabuceados. 
 
214 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 This tense denotes an action as present, with- 
 out any distinction of persons, and at an indefinite 
 time, which time is defined by the verb that gene- 
 rally governs this mood ; as, le oi cantar ; le oygo 
 cantar; le oirtf cantar, I heard him sing ; I hear 
 him sing ; I shall hear him sing. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 This tense denotes an action as past, without 
 distinction of persons, and indefinitely in regard to 
 time ; as, me acorde' de haber cantado, me acuerdo 
 de haber cantado, me acordare siempre de haber 
 cantado, I remembered to have sung ; I remember 
 to have sung ; I shall always remember to have 
 sung. 
 
 * 
 Observation. 
 
 The infinitive partakes so much of the nature of a ver- 
 bal noun in Spanish, that it admits even to be declined 
 with the definite article ; as, a veces es fortuna el ser po- 
 bre, sometimes it is lucky to be poor ; al volver de Lon- 
 dres me encontre con tus dos cartas, on my return from 
 London I found your two letters. The infinitive is also 
 used in an absolute manner, (chiefly at the beginning- of 
 a sentence,) and then it is equivalent to some tense of the 
 verb with the conjunction si ; as, a saber yo que no hu- 
 biera venido, had I known that he would not have come ; 
 which is the same as, si yo hubiera sabido que, t &c., if I 
 had known that, &c. 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 The gerund describes an action in a state of 
 progression at a certain time, defined either by 
 
AND SYNTAX. 215 
 
 some verb which governs the gerund, or by some 
 circumstances expressed in the sentence ; as, iba, 
 va, or ird cantando per las calles, he went, goes, 
 or will go, singing through the streets ; temiendo 
 que se lo rehusen, no se atreverd a pedirlo, fearing 
 that they will refuse it to him, he will not dare to 
 ask for it. 
 
 COMPOUND OF THE GERUND. 
 
 The compound of the gerund denotes the action 
 as perfected ; as, habiendo escrito la carta, la em- 
 bie, having written the letter, I sent it ; habiendo 
 leido el libro, se le volvi, having read the book, I 
 returned it to him. 
 
 PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 This participle when joined to the verb haber 
 denotes time past ; as, habiamos escrito, we had 
 written :* when joined to the verb ser, in order to 
 form what is called the passive voice, it denotes 
 the time represented by the tense of the verb : as, 
 era, es, or sera amada, she was, is, or will be, 
 loved; but in all cases it denotes the action as 
 perfected. 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH 
 ITS SUBJECT. 
 
 RULE 109. The verb and its subject agree in 
 number and person ; as 
 El maestro ensefia, The master teaches. 
 Nosotros obedecemosy We obey. 
 Los soldados pelearon, The soldiers fought. 
 
 RULE 110. If the subject of the verb be a col- 
 lective noun, the verb may be put in the plural ; as 
 
 * See what has been said on the Use of the Compound Tenses, 
 page 195. 
 
216 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Una multitud entrdron, A multitude entered. 
 Una tropa sali^ron, A crowd went out. 
 
 Note a. It is to be observed that all collective nouns do not admit 
 the verb in the plural ; regard must be had to the nature of their 
 signification, concerning which the Spanish Academy has given the 
 following directions. 
 
 Collectives Definite,* or nouns which denote a number of deter- 
 minate persons or things, must have the verb in the singular ; as, el 
 exsrcito vencio, the army conquered ; el rebano perecerd, the flock 
 will perish ; la arboleda nos abrigo, the grove sheltered us. 
 
 Collectives Indefinite, or nouns which signify a number of inde- 
 terminate persons or things, may have the verb in the plural, as may 
 be seen in the foregoing examples. 
 
 RULE 111. A verb having different persons for 
 its subjects, agrees with the pronoun understood ; 
 as 
 
 El rey y la reyna (ellos) The king and queen 
 
 entraron (they) came in. 
 
 Tus hermanasy yo (no-) Thy sisters and I (we) 
 
 sotros) ir&nos alia will go there to- 
 
 manana, morrow. 
 
 Es preciso que sus hijas It is necessary that 
 
 y lu (vosotros) vayais his daughters and 
 
 alia, you (ye) may go 
 
 there. 
 
 RULE 112. If a verb has several subjects not 
 connected by a conjunction, it agrees generally 
 with the last ; as 
 
 Esquadras,exrcitos, di- Fleets, armies, money, 
 nero, todo se sacrifico, all was sacrificed. 
 
 ffumillaciones, condes- Humiliations, sub mi s- 
 cendentias, todo se sions, every thing 
 sufrio, was endured. 
 
 * Sac oage 30. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 21 7 
 
 Note a. If a verb has two or more subjects, and the said sub- 
 jects be connected by any other conjunctive conjunction than y, the 
 verb generally agrees in number with the last; as, no solamente la 
 madre y las hijas, sino tambien el padre habia muerto entonces y not 
 only the mother and daughters, but the father also was then dead ; no 
 solamente el padre y la madre, sino tambien las hijas habian muerto, 
 not only the father and mother, but also the daughters were dead. 
 
 Note b. If a verb has two subjects, joined by the conjunction y, 
 and postponed, it is commonly put in the singular; as, Nunca me ha 
 sido mas necesario tu auxilio y tu asistencia, Never have your assist- 
 ance and help been more necessary to me. If the subjects are in dif- 
 ferent numbers, the verb agrees with the one which is nearest to it ; 
 as, la entrada solo la conozco yo y mis camaradas, only I and my 
 comrades are acquainted with the entrance. 
 
 Note c. Verbs agree with the first person plural when their sub- 
 ject is a common noun in which the speaker is included ; as, los 
 Romanos amamos la libertad, we Romans love liberty. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 When the verb to like is rendered by gustar, or to want 
 byfaltar, the objective case of the verb in English be- 
 comes the subject of it in Spanish, and the subject of the 
 English verb is changed into the first objective case of 
 the corresponding personal pronoun, according to Rules 
 49 and 51 ; as, The congregation did not like the 
 preacher, no le gusto al auditorlo el predicador : they do 
 not like his style, 710 les gusta su estilo : children like 
 better to play than to study, mas les gusta a los ninos 
 jugar que estudiar: she will never like novels, nunca le 
 gustardn a ella las novelas : the poor always want 
 riches, and the rich often want charity, a los pobres les 
 faltan siempre riquezas, y a los ricos lesfalta amenudo 
 caridad. N. B. The verb gustar may be made to re- 
 tain sometimes the same subject, as in English, but then 
 the regimen must be preceded by the preposition de ; 
 as, los ninos gustan mas de jugar que de estudiar. See 
 also Observation after Caber, page 164 ; and to fancy, 
 Colloquial Idioms, Exercises, page 109. 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 RULE 113. An active transitive verb governs 
 the noun to which its energy passes^ in the objec- 
 tive case ; as 
 
 El la mato, He killed her. 
 
 L 
 
218 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Escribirgmos cart as y We shall write letters. 
 
 ILlla desprecia las riquezas, She despises riches. 
 
 RULE 114. Active verbs govern their objective 
 case with the preposition a, if it is a person ; as 
 Vencio al enemigo, He conquered the enemy. 
 Mataron al gefe, They killed the chief. 
 
 Mando al ambaxador. He sent the ambassador. 
 Empleo a su minis fro, He employed his minister. 
 El desprecia d su padre > He despises his father. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The foregoing rule is given here as it is stated by the 
 Spanish Academy, and as it has been copied by all the 
 writers on Spanish grammar with whom I am acquaint- 
 ed. It seems to me, nevertheless, that the preposition 
 a is not introduced, because the objective case does 
 represent a person ; but in order to point out the objec- 
 tive case of the verb, because it cannot in general be 
 discovered in Spanish by its place in the sentence ; thus, 
 Hercules killed Anteus, may correctly be expressed in 
 the six following ways ; (1st) Hercules matb a Anteon ; 
 (2d) Matb Anteon Hercules ; (3d) a Anteon Hercules 
 matb ; (4th) Matb Hercules a Anteon; (5th) Hercules 
 a Anteon matb ; (6th) a Anteon mato Hercules. It is 
 evident that in this sentence, were it not for the prepo- 
 sition a, the objective case of matar could not possibly 
 be discovered. 
 
 This being, in my opinion, the only reason for intro- 
 ducing the said preposition, it necessarily follows ; First, 
 that the preposition d may be dispensed with before 
 persons whenever the objective case of the verb is suffi- 
 ciently conspicuous without it ; as, Acabb disciendome 
 que si queria vender mi mula, el conocia un mulatero 
 que acaso la compraria, He concluded, saying, that if I 
 wished to sell my mule, he knew a jockey who perhaps 
 would buy it. (Gil Bias, ch. 2.) Secojidly, That the 
 preposition d ought to be used when the subject and 
 objective case represent inanimate substances, and both 
 are in the same number ; as, la preposition rige al nom- 
 bre, the preposition governs the noun ; los verbos rigen 
 
AND SYNTAX. 219 
 
 a sus acusativos, verbs govern their accusatives. (Gram- 
 mar of the Academy.) Thirdly, That it ought likewise 
 to be used when the subject of the verb is a person, and 
 the objective case an inanimate substance, provided they 
 are both in the same number, and the subject is only 
 understood in Spanish ; as, respetaba en aquella fuga 
 al sagrado derecho, que la hacia licita y aun necesaria, 
 I respected in that flight the sacred right, which made it 
 lawful and even necessary. (Gil Bl. ch. 14.) Fourthly, 
 That in order to prevent ambiguity it is better to omit 
 the said preposition, when the sentence contains two 
 objective cases of persons in the same number, one of 
 which is governed in English by the verb, and the other 
 by the preposition to ; as, we shall introduce the earl to 
 the marchioness, introduciremos el conde a lamarquesa; 
 we shall introduce the marchioness to the earl, introdu- 
 ciremos la marquesa al conde. Al oir semejante tasa 
 di a todos los Diablos la Sobrina del Gobernador de 
 Filipinas. (Gil Bl. ch. 18.) 
 
 RULE 115. Passive verbs require the preposition 
 
 de or por* before the noun which denotes the 
 agent; as 
 
 Dios es temido de on: por God is feared by the 
 
 los ma los, wicked. 
 
 La virtud es amada de Virtue is beloved by the 
 
 or por los buenos, good. 
 
 Ella es estimada de or She is esteemed by her 
 
 por su hermano, brother. 
 
 El es aborrecido de or He is detested by all. 
 
 por todos, 
 
 El fu6 heridopor su an- He was wounded by his 
 
 t agonist a, antagonist. 
 
 El reo fue sentenciado The culprit was sen- 
 
 por el juez, tenced by the judge. 
 
 La casa fu derribada The house was over- 
 
 por el viento y thrown by the wind. 
 
 Note a. The prepositions de or por cannot be indiscriminately 
 * See page 145. 
 
220 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 applied to the agent of a passive verb, as maybe seen in the foregoing 
 examples : regard must be had to the nature of the action signified 
 by the verb. If the action implies simply an effort of the mind, the 
 preposition de or par may in general be indifferently used ; See 
 the first four examples of this rule : but in all other cases the prepo- 
 sition por only should be generally employed ; See the last three 
 examples. 
 
 RULE 116. Neuter verbs, active intransitive, a$ 
 well as some reflective verbs, have a regimen with 
 de, which denotes what causes their effects ; as 
 
 Bramar de cor age, To roar with passion. 
 
 Enfermar de calentura, To sicken with a fever. 
 
 Correrse delapregunta, To blush at the ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Perecer de hambre, To perish with hunger. 
 
 Reventar de risa, To burst with laughter. 
 
 Saltar de gozo, To leap for joy. 
 
 Tiritar defrio, To shiver with cold. 
 
 To these the following may be also added : 
 
 Adolecer de enfermedad, To be seized with illness. 
 
 Agraviarse de algo, To take offence at something. 
 
 Alegrarse de las nuevas, To rejoice at the news. 
 
 Aver gonz arse de la respues- To be ashamed at the an- 
 ta, swer. 
 
 Calarse de agua, To be wet through. 
 
 Disgustarse de alguna cosa, To be disgusted at something 
 
 Fastidiarse de algo, To be cloyed with some thing. 
 
 Morir de dolor, To die of grief. 
 
 Convencersede lo contrario, To be convinced of the con- 
 trary. 
 
 Comerse de envidia, To be gnawed with envy. 
 
 Bufar de ira, To swell with rage. 
 
 Atemorizarse de algo, To be frightened at some- 
 thing. 
 
 Confundirse de lo que se To be confounded at what 
 ve, one sees. 
 
 Espantarse de lapregunta, To be astonished at the 
 
 question. 
 
 Airarse de la respuesta, To be angry at the answer. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 221 
 
 Llevarse de alguna pasion, To be led away by some 
 
 passion. 
 
 Ofenderse de la conducta, To be affronted at the con- 
 duct. 
 
 Abochornarse dela conver- To blush at the conversa- 
 tion, tion, 
 
 Note a. If the regimen of these verbs is an infinitive, the same 
 preposition is placed before it ; as, cansarse de trabajar, to tire one's 
 self with labour ; me alegrare" de saberlo, I shall rejoice to know it. 
 
 Note b. The verb sentirse as well as the impersonal pesar may 
 be added to this rule ; as, ella se sintid mucho de su modo de pensar, 
 she was exceedingly hurt at his way of thinking : le pes6 mucho de 
 la muerte de su marido, she was much afflicted at her husband's 
 death j me pesa mucho de haberteto dicho, I regret greatly that I told 
 it to thee. 
 
 RULE ll/. Verbs implying motion to, towards, 
 or from, a place, govern the noun denoting whence 
 the motion proceeds with cfe,the noun which points 
 otit its direction with d, and the noun expressing 
 the space through which it passes with par : 
 example ; 
 
 Fueron de Londres d They went from London 
 Chelsea, por elParque, to Chelsea, through 
 
 the Park. 
 
 Vengo de la comedia, y I come from the play, 
 me voy adonde* estuve and am going whither 
 anoche,ydonde*pien- I was last night, and 
 so quedarme hasta where I think I shall 
 manana, stay till to-morrow. 
 
 Note a. When we mean to denote the place to which the moving 
 body seems directed only, we use hdcia or para instead of d ; as, 
 vd hdcia el Parque, pero no creo que llegue alia, he is going 'towards 
 the Park, but I do not imagine he will reach it j talid para Londres, 
 he set out for London. 
 
 Note b. Verbs of motion have their regimen governed, in Spanish 
 by the preposition en or por t when it implies the space within which 
 the motion is repeated; thus we say, volar por el ayre, to fly through 
 the air ; and columpiarse en el ayre } to swing in the air, &c. 
 
 The following verbs belong to this rule : 
 Abalanzarse d los peligros. To rush on danger. 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 11. 
 
222 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Abordar una nave d otra, To bring one ship alongside 
 
 of another. 
 
 Apelar d otro tribunal, To appeal to another court. 
 Apropinquarse d alguno, To draw nigh any one. 
 Arrojarse d la batalla, To dart forwards at the bat- 
 tle. 
 
 Ausentarse de Madrid, To quit Madrid. 
 Balancear d talparte, To vibrate towards such a 
 
 side. 
 
 Caminar por el monte, To travel the mountain. 
 Ladearse d tal parte, To incline to such a side. 
 
 Acer corse d la lumbre, To draw nigh the fire. 
 Convertirse d Dios, To turn to God. 
 
 Concurrir d la junta, To attend the meeting.' 
 MandarlacartadEspana, To send the letter to Spain. 
 Traer vinos de Francia, To bring wines from France. 
 Embiar d las Indias, To send to the Indies. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 When verbs implying motion to or from a place have 
 an infinitive for their regimen, this is always preceded by 
 the prepositions de or d; examples, ire d verla, I shall go 
 and see her ; vaya vm. d buscarle, go and find him ; 
 vengo de ver d mi padre, I come from seeing my father ; 
 volvi d preguntarselo, pero ya se habia ido d visitar sus 
 enfermoSy I came back to ask him about it, but he was 
 already gone to visit his patients. N. B. The verb vol- 
 ver is also used before an infinitive, when we mean to 
 denote the repeating of the action implied in the infini- 
 tive ; as, volvi d leer la carta, I read the letter over once 
 more ; volverd d pedirlo, he will ask for it again ; 
 volvimqs d entrar en la casa, we re-entered the house. 
 
 RULE 118. Verbs of demanding, and of grant- 
 ing) or refusing, generally govern the person to 
 whom their energy is directed with the preposition 
 d ; as 
 
 Pide perdon a Dios, Ask pardon from God. 
 
 El amo nego la licencia The master denied leave 
 
 al criado, to the servant. 
 
 Los mil ducados, no me The thousand ducats, do 
 
 los pida vm. mi, not ask them of me, 
 
AND SYNTAX. 223 
 
 pidase los al Traidor ask them of the Trai- 
 Don Rafael. Gil Bias, tor Don Raphael. 
 book xi. 
 
 Under this Rule are comprehended verbs of bor- 
 rowing and lending ; as 
 Pidib prestado el diner o a su He borrowed the money 
 
 tio, from his uncle. 
 
 Prestare mi bolsa a tu hijo, I will lend my purse to thy 
 
 son. 
 
 Verbs of buying and selling. 
 Compre la casa a su mari- I bought the house of her 
 
 do, husband. 
 
 Vendib el cortijo a su curia- He sold the farm to his 
 
 do, brother in law. 
 
 Verbs of promising and offering. 
 Prometio su hija al conde, He promised his daughter 
 
 to the earl. 
 
 Ofrecio* su casaol embaxa- He offered his house to 
 dor, the ambassador. 
 
 Verbs of giving and taking away ; as 
 Dio el memorial al rey, He gave the memorial to 
 
 the king. 
 Lego una manda a la her- He bequeathed a legacy 
 
 mandad, to the society. 
 
 Robe todas sus pedrerias a I stole all the jewels from 
 lamuger de Don Rodrigo, the wife of Don Roderic. 
 
 Verbs of owing and paying ; as 
 Debo mucho a mi amigo, I owe a great deal to my 
 
 friend. 
 Pago la deuda a los alba- He paid the debt to the 
 
 ceas, executors. 
 
 Volvere el dinero al banque- I shall return the money 
 ro, to the banker. 
 
 * Ofrecer is often used in the sense of promising $ as, Te ofrezco 
 guardarle, me respondid ella prontamente, I promise thee to keep it, 
 she answered me immediately. Gil Bias, b. iv. ch. 5. 
 
224 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Verbs of questioning, declaring, recommending, 
 
 and thanking ; as 
 Pregunte al mesonero si I asked the innkeeper whe 
 
 tenia algun pescado, ther he had any fish, 
 
 Eljuez declaro lasentencia The judge pronounced the 
 
 al reo, sentence on the criminal. 
 
 Escribi & mi madre lo que I wrote what he said to my 
 
 dixo, mother. 
 
 Encomendard mi negocio He will recommend my bu- 
 
 6, un amigo suyo, siness to a friend of his. 
 
 Agradezco a vm. este favor, I thank you for this favour. 
 
 Note a. If the person to whom the energy of the verb is directed 
 is represented by a pronoun of the third person, it is translated k, 
 lesy for both genders ; as, el le did un libra, he gave to her a book ; 
 ella les concedio el favor, she granted the favour to them. See 
 Rule 51. 
 
 Note b. When the person represents not only to whom the action 
 is directed, but to whom the advantage or disadvantage accrues, we 
 use para instead of d ; as, mande* el libro para ella, I sent the book 
 for her ; entregare' al criado las cartas para su amo, I shall deliver 
 the letters to the servant for his master. 
 
 Note c. When the verb preguntar is used in the sense of to 
 inquire for, or to inquire after, it requires por before its regimen ; 
 as, pregunt al hijo por su padre, I asked the son for his father ; 
 preguntartmos por el, we shall ask after him. 
 
 Note d. Verbs of answering and replying govern with a the noun 
 to which their energy passes, whether it be of a person or thing ; as, 
 repliqu al juez, I replied to the judge ; respondere a su carta, I shall 
 answer his letter. 
 
 Note e. Hdblar has its regimen either with con or a; as, he ha 
 blado al or con el sujeto sobre el asunto, I have spoken to or with the 
 person on the subject. 
 
 Note f. Distribuir is followed by entre ; as, distribuy"6 sucauda* 
 entre los pobres, he distributed his wealth among the poor. 
 
 The following and similar verbs belong to this 
 Rule: 
 Comunicarluzdotraparte, To give light to another 
 
 place. 
 Inspirar la venganza d al- To inspire some one with 
 
 guno, vengeance. 
 
 Participar algo a muchos, To impart something to 
 
 many. 
 Permitir mucho d alguno, To allow a great deal to 
 
 some one 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 225 
 
 Restituir lo robado a su To restore what was stolen to 
 
 dueno, its owner. 
 
 Consagrarse a Dios, To consecrate one s self to God. 
 
 RULE 119. Verbs implying yielding, or resist- 
 ance, generally require a before the regimen to 
 which their energy is directed; as 
 Aunquc declare ella su Although she may de- 
 clare her opinion, I am 
 not one of those who 
 submit their opinion to 
 the opinion of others. 
 
 parecer,* yo no soy 
 
 uno de los que some- 
 ten su opinion* al die- 
 tdmen* de otros, 
 Me opondre* las leyes, 
 
 I shall oppose the laws. 
 
 Under this Rule the following and similar verbs 
 may be comprehended : 
 
 A ^andonarse d su suerte, 
 
 Acceder d la propuesta, 
 Acogerse d alguno, 
 
 Acomodarse al reglamento, 
 
 Acostumbrarse al trabajo, 
 Adherir almismo dictdmen, 
 
 Agregarse d otros, 
 
 Ajustarse d la razon, 
 Apegarse d algo, 
 Arreglarse d lo justo, 
 
 Ceder d los ruegos, 
 Cenirse d poco, 
 Condescender d los ruegos, 
 
 Hum-ittarse d alguno, 
 Rendirse d la razon, 
 
 To abandon one's self to 
 one's fate. 
 
 To accede to the proposal. 
 
 To have recourse to some- 
 body. 
 
 To conform with the regu- 
 lation. 
 
 To become used to labour. 
 
 To adhere to the same 
 opinion. 
 
 To aggregate one's self to 
 others. 
 
 To conform to reason. 
 
 To adhere to something. 
 
 To regulate one's self by 
 what is just. 
 
 To yield to the entreaties. 
 
 To limit one's self to little. 
 
 To condescend to the en- 
 treaties. 
 
 To humble one's self to 
 somebody. 
 
 To yield to reason. 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 177 
 
 s oyn 
 L3 
 
226 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Sujetarse d las leyes, To subject one's self to the 
 
 laws. 
 
 RULE 120. Verbs of comparing generally re- 
 quire d* before the noun with which the comparison 
 is made ; as 
 
 El hijo se parece al pa- The son resembles the 
 
 dre, father. 
 
 La hija se semeja a* la The daughter is like the 
 
 madre, mother. 
 
 Se ha comparado el The world has been com- 
 
 mundo & un teatro, pared to a stage. 
 
 Note a. Comparar requires con when the resemblance is tried ; 
 as, Comparemos el tiempo con la eternidad y vertmos la diferencia, 
 let us compare time with eternity and we shall see the difference. 
 
 RULE 121 . Verbs implying to belong, to con- 
 cern, to happen, to play, to suit, as well as most of 
 the impersonal verbs, generally require d* before 
 the noun to which their energy is directed ; as 
 Pertenecemos\ la tierra, We belong to the earth. 
 Los bienes de un deudor The property of a debtor 
 
 correspondent sus belongs to his credi- 
 
 acreedores, tors. 
 
 Importa a* los Cristianos, It concerns Christians. 
 Desgracias acontecen Misfortunes happen to 
 
 los incautosj the unwary. 
 
 Jugard los naipes, He will play at cards. 
 
 Todo le parecia ella un Every thing seemed to 
 
 sueno, her a dream. 
 
 Le convenia ella la pro- The proposal was ad- 
 
 puesta, vantageous to her. 
 
 Note a. Ser, when used in the sense of to belong, requires de in- 
 stead of a before the possessor ; as, la casa es de mi tio, the house 
 belongs to my uncle. See Rule 95. 
 
 The following and similar verbs are comprised in 
 
 this Rule : 
 
 Aparecerse d muchos, To become suddenly visible 
 
 to many. 
 
 * See Rule 118, note a. f See the author's Synonyms, page 171. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 227 
 
 Arrogarse algo d si, To arrogate something- to 
 
 one's self. 
 Atribuirlo d otros, To attribute it to others. 
 
 RULE 122. Verbs of condemning require the 
 punishment preceded by the preposition a; as 
 Condenardn al reo a ga- They will condemn the 
 
 leras, culprit to the galleys. 
 
 Sentenciaron al desertor They sentenced the de- 
 
 a ser arcabuceado, serter to be shot. 
 
 RULE 123. Verbs implying plenty orwant, re- 
 membrance or oblivion, have a regimen generally 
 preceded by de ; as 
 Lleno la casa de gente, He filled the house with 
 
 people. 
 
 Acuerdate de tu Criador, Remember thy Creator. 
 Se ha olvidado de mi,* He has forgotten me. 
 
 To these the following may be added : 
 
 Abundar de riquezas, To abound in riches. 
 
 Ahitarse de manjares, To be surfeited with meats. 
 
 Apercibirse de armas, To provide one's self with 
 
 arms. 
 
 Armarse de paciencia, To arm one's self with pa- 
 tience. 
 
 Bordar de oro, To embroider in gold. 
 
 Cargar de trigo, To load with wheat. 
 
 Abstenerse de la fruta, To abstain from fruit. 
 
 Ahorrar de razones, To spare words. 
 
 Descargarse de algo, To exonerate one's self from 
 
 something. 
 
 Deshacerse de la casa, To get rid of the house. 
 
 Des7iudarse del vestido, To pull off the suit. 
 
 Despoblarse de gente, To depopulate. 
 
 RULE 124. Verbs implying praising, blaming, 
 
 * Traer d la memoria, to remind, and olvidar, to forget, do not 
 admit de with their regimen ; as, le trax& a la memoria la pro- 
 mesa, I reminded him of the promise j olvido la respuesta, he forgot 
 the answer. 
 
228 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 absolving, using, repenting, jeering, and pitying, 
 generally have a regimen also with de ; as 
 
 No te alabes de valiente, 
 El se gloria de sabio, 
 
 Se arrepentio de sus de- 
 litos, 
 
 Por la noche nosjunta- 
 bamos, y nos reiamos 
 de los que se habian 
 compadecido de noso- 
 tros por el dia. Gil 
 Bias, ch. 5. 
 
 Do not extol thy cou- 
 rage. 
 
 He makes a boast of his 
 wisdom. 
 
 He repented his crimes. 
 
 At night we met, and 
 used to laugh at those 
 who had pitied us in 
 the course of the day. 
 
 Note a. When the regimen of the above verbs is an infinitive, it 
 requires the same preposition before it ; as, se arrepentio mucho de 
 no haberme pedido mas, he repented greatly not having asked me 
 more. (Gil Bias, ch. 15.) 
 
 RULE 125. Verbs implying distance or separa- 
 tion generally require de before the noun which is 
 not their own direct regimen ; as 
 
 Me cdejare de mi tierra, I shall remove far from 
 
 my country. 
 Avoid the opportunity. 
 When he awoke from 
 
 Apdrtate de la ocasion, 
 Quando desperto del 
 
 sueno, 
 Escaparon de la prision, 
 
 his sleep. 
 
 They escaped from the 
 prison. 
 
 N. B. All verbs denoting motion from a place are 
 also comprehended here. See Rule 117. 
 
 The following verbs may likewise be added : 
 
 Apearse del caballo, 
 Apearse de su opinion, 
 Apelar de la sentenda, 
 
 To alight from the horse. 
 To alter one's opinion. 
 To appeal from the sentence. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 229 
 
 Asegurarse del peligro, 
 Baxar de su autoridad, 
 
 Convalecer de enfermedad, 
 Degenerar de su nacimien- 
 
 to, 
 Deponer de un empleo, 
 
 Derivar de olra autoridad, 
 
 Descansar del trabajo, 
 Descender de buen linage, 
 Desconfi-ar de alguno, 
 Desertar del regimiento, 
 Desembarcar de la nave, 
 
 Extraer una cosa de otra, 
 
 Mudarse de casa, 
 Salir delpeligro, 
 
 Zafarse de alguno 
 
 To shelter one's self from 
 the danger. 
 
 To recede from one s autho- 
 rity. 
 
 To recover from sickness. 
 
 To degenerate from one's 
 ancestors. 
 
 To depose from an employ- 
 ment. 
 
 To derive from another's 
 authority. 
 
 To rest from labour. 
 
 To come from a good family. 
 
 To mistrust any one. 
 
 To desert from the regiment. 
 
 To disembark from the ves- 
 sel. 
 
 To extract one thing from 
 another. 
 
 To change one's dwelling. 
 
 To come out safe from dan- 
 ger. 
 
 To get one's self away from 
 any one. 
 
 RULE 126. Most verbs admit a regimen with 
 en, denoting wherein the meaning of the said verbs 
 is conspicuous ; as 
 
 Los condenardn en las 
 
 costas, 
 
 Ella crece en virtudes, 
 Dividio el sermon en 
 
 tres puntos, 
 Siempre pensare* en ti, 
 
 They will be condemned 
 
 in the costs. 
 
 She increases in virtue. 
 He divided the sermon 
 
 into three parts. 
 I shall always think on 
 
 thee. 
 
 The following verbs may be included : 
 
 Abrasarse en deseos, 
 Abundar en riquezas, 
 
 To burn with desires. 
 To abound in riches. 
 
230 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Aferrarse en su opinion, To be tenacious of one's 
 
 opinion. 
 
 Andar en pleytos, To be engaged in lawsuits. 
 
 Barar en lierra, To run aground. 
 
 Consentir en la propuesta, To consent to the proposal. 
 Dar en manias, To be seized with some 
 
 mania. 
 
 Encenagarse en vicios, To wallow in vice. 
 Esmerarse en algo, To exert one's self in any 
 
 thing. 
 
 Hallarse en la fiesta. To be present at the feast. 
 
 Imponer en algo, To instruct in any thing. 
 
 Prorumpir en Idgrimas, To burst into tears. 
 Redundar en beneficio de To redound to another's 
 otro, benefit. 
 
 Note a. If these verbs have for their regimen an infinitive, it 
 must be preceded also by en ; as, deleytarse en oir, to take delight 
 in hearing ; occuparse en leer, to employ one's self in reading / He- 
 mos menester pensar en ayudarte, We must think on helping thee. 
 (Gil Bias, b. i. ch.l.) 
 
 RULE 127. Verbs denoting behaviour generally 
 require con before the persons towards whom it is 
 directed ; as 
 
 Ella se ha airado con She is affronted with her 
 
 su hermano, brother. 
 
 El se caso con su prima, He married his cousin. 
 
 Me desahogare* con mi I will unbosom myself 
 
 padre, to my father. 
 
 Ajustarse con alguno, To settle with any one. 
 
 Note a.-^-When the verb meterse is used in the sense of to meddle, 
 or to interfere it requires con before the noun if it be a person, and 
 en if it be a thing ; as, Aconsejote, amigo Bias, que en adelante no te 
 vuelvas a meter con frayles, I advise thee, friend Bias, not to meddle 
 in future with friars. (Gil Bias, ch. 3.) No te mctas en negocios 
 agenos, Do not interfere with the affairs of others. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 When there is a noun in the sentence denoting the 
 means whereby the action of the verb is effected, it may 
 
AND SYNTAX. 231 
 
 be governed with con, de, or d, according to the follow- 
 ing rules : 1st, If the noun signifies the instrument or 
 weapon with which the action was done, it requires con 
 before it ; as, el la mato con el pie*, he killed her with 
 the foot ; con un punal, with a poniard ; con un mar- 
 tillo, with a hammer. 2d, If the noun is the name of 
 the injury or blow given with the weapon or instrument, 
 it requires to be preceded by de or con when used in the 
 singular number, and by a when in the plural ; as, el la 
 mato de, or, con un puntapie, he killed her with a kick; 
 puntapies, with kicks ; de, or, con una punalada, with 
 a stab of a poniard ; a punaladas, by several stabs with 
 a poniard; de, or, con un martillazo, with the blow of a 
 hammer ; a martillazos, by giving several blows with a 
 hammer ; Oyes, Gil Bias, trata de hacer tu deber, por 
 que te advierto que si te acobardas con un pistoletazo, te 
 levanto la tapa de los sesos. (Gil Bias, b. i. ch. 9.) Decia 
 el que el Cid Ruidiaz habia sido muy buen caballero,pero 
 que no tenia que ver con el caballero de la ardiente espada, 
 que de solo un reves habia partido por medio dosjierosy 
 descomunales gigantes, He used to say that Cid Ruidiaz 
 had been a very brave knight, but that he was not to be 
 compared to the knight of the burning sword, who with 
 a single back stroke had cut in halves two fierce and 
 monstrous giants. (Don Quixote, b. i. ch. 1.) 
 
 ON VERBAL REGIMEN. 
 
 Government, as has been already defined, is the 
 power which one word has over another, when it 
 determines its case, tense, or mood : therefore, 
 when one verb requires another in any mood in 
 particular, the second verb is said to be the Regi- 
 men or Government of the first verb. 
 
 A verb may have its regimen in the infinitive, 
 indicative, or subjunctive mood ; as, No me podia 
 mi tio proponer cosa mas de mi gusto, My uncle 
 could not propose to me any thing more to my 
 taste. (Gil Bias, ch. 1.) Dlxome este que pensaba 
 
232 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 par fir antes de amanecer, The latter said to me 
 that he meant to set out before daybreak. (Ibid, 
 ch. 2.) Pense que nunca acabase, I thought that 
 he never would have finished. (Ibid.) 
 
 The regimen of a verb sometimes admits a pre- 
 position, whether it is governed in the infinitive or 
 subjunctive mood; as, Apliqu6me despues d la lo- 
 gica, que me enseno a discurrir y argunientar sin 
 t^rmino, I applied myself afterwards to logic, which 
 taught me to reason, and to argue without bounds. 
 (Ibid. ch. 1 .) Y me dio tantas gracias como yo 
 espolazos d la mula, para que quanto antes me 
 alejase de el, And he gave me as many thanks, as 
 I kicks to the mule, that she might remove me from 
 him as soon as possible. (Ibid.) 
 
 REGIMEN IN THE INFINITIVE. 
 
 RULE 128. If two verbs come together in Eng- 
 lish, and the second is in the infinitive, this mood 
 is in general likewise used in Spanish ; as 
 
 Quiero aprender, I wish to learn. 
 
 Debemos obedecer, We ought to obey. 
 
 N. B. If the English infinitive can be resolved with a 
 conjunction into another mood, the Spanish infinitive 
 should seldom be used. See Observation after Rule 
 132. 
 
 RULE 129. Verbs denoting to dare, to begin, 
 to teach, to learn, to compel, generally require d 
 before the infinitive which they govern ; as 
 
 No me atrevo a salir, I dare not go out. 
 
 Empezo Hover, It began to rain. 
 
 Se puso a hacerlo, He set about it. 
 
 Aprenderd escribir, He will learn to write. 
 
 Me ensena a baylar, He teaches me to dance. 
 
 RULE 130. Verbs implying to submit, to oppose 
 
AND SYNIAX. 
 
 233 
 
 to exhort, or invite, to prepare, to assist, to fa 
 destined, and to accustom one's self, generally 
 require a before the infinitive which they govern ; 
 as 
 
 Me considers' obligado 
 
 responder. 
 
 Gil Bias, ch. 1. 
 Y asi le convid6 a cenar 
 
 conmigo, 
 
 Ibid. ch. 2. 
 Exhortaronme vivir 
 
 Cristianamente, 
 
 Ibid. ch. 1. 
 Yo segui al capitan, y 
 
 mientras le ayudaba a 
 
 desnudar, 
 
 Ibid. ch. 5. 
 Y disimulando mi sen- 
 
 timiento, me dispuse 
 
 a servir d una gente 
 
 tan honrada, 
 
 Ibid. ch. 5. 
 
 I considered myself ob- 
 liged to answer. 
 
 And so I invited him to 
 sup with me. 
 
 They exhorted me to 
 live like a Christian. 
 
 I followed the captain, 
 and whilst I helped 
 him to undress. 
 
 And disguising my feel- 
 ings, I prepared my- 
 self to wait on such 
 honourable folks. 
 
 Note a. Many verbs govern with the preposition a an infinitive, 
 when it denotes the means whereby is effected whatever the govern- 
 ing verb signifies ; as, 41 se mata a trabajar, he kills himself wkh 
 working ; ella se destriza a llorar, she wears herself out with weeping. 
 
 RULE 131. Verbs signifying to abstain, to 
 cease, to deprive, to finish, govern the infinitive 
 with de ; as 
 
 He abstains from drink- 
 ing wine. 
 
 Thou hast deprived me 
 of her Fight. 
 
 I shall leave off writing 
 
 Se abstiene de beber vi- 
 no, 
 
 Me has privado de ver- 
 la, 
 
 Acabare* de escribir a la 
 una, 
 
 Cesaron de atormentar- 
 me, 
 
 at one. 
 They ceased to torment 
 me, 
 
234 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Note a. The verb acabar is always used to translate the English 
 expressions to have just, or to be just ; as, I have just read your letter, 
 acabo de leer su carta de vm. ; his father is just arrived, acaba de 
 ilegar su padre. 
 
 Note b. The verb servirse in the sense of to be pleased, or to con- 
 descend, requires de before the infinitive following ; as, sirvasevm.de 
 echar algunos r sales en ese sombrero, Be pleased to throw some reals 
 into that hat. Gil Bias, b. i. ch. 1. 
 
 Note c. The verb guardarse requires de before the following in- 
 finitive, and has the peculiar property of imparting a negative quality 
 to the said infinitive : as, yo me guardare bien de hacerlo, I shall 
 take care not to do it ; Yyo me guardd bien de quexarme, &c. And 
 I took good care not to complain. Gil Bias, ch. 10. 
 
 Note d. When the infinitive follows a noun which it serves as it 
 were to qualify, it requires to be preceded by the preposition de ; as, 
 do me the favour to send me, hAgame vm. el favor de ma?idarme ; no 
 tenia gana de reir, I had no inclination to laugh ; tuvo la curiosidad de 
 preguntarmelo, he had the curiosity to ask me about it ; 01 tenia la 
 dicha de Ilegar d aquel lugar, if I had the happiness to reach that 
 place. For other infinitives requiring d or de before them, see 
 Observation after Rule 117. 
 
 Note e. When, in Spanish, the verb which governs the infinitive 
 is a reflective verb, the Spanish infinitive generally remains in the 
 active voice, although in English the sentence may require a passive 
 construction ; as, Mientras los disponian trab conversacion con la 
 mesonera, que hasta entonces no se habia dexado ver, Whilst they pre- 
 pared them I entered into conversation with the landlady, who until 
 then had not suffered herself to be seen. (Gil Bias, ch. 2.) But a 
 reflective verb may have another reflective verb for its government 
 in the infinitive ; as, Y asi no me atrevi d exponerme d una action 
 fan poco segura, And so I did not dare to expose myself to an action 
 so little safe. (Ibid. ch. 8.) N. B. The infinitive when governed by 
 mandar, or hacer, is also generally left in the active voice j as, El 
 mesoncro, que no deseaba otra cosa, hizo cocer luego la trucha, &c. 
 The landlord, who wished for nothing better, ordered the trout to be 
 dressed immediately. (Gil Bias, ch. 2.) 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Verbs often have their regimen in the infinitive with 
 the preposition para or por ;* and although in almost 
 every instance these prepositions are uniformly trans- 
 lated to in English, yet they can by no means be indif- 
 ferently applied in Spanish. 
 
 Verbs require para before their regimen when it de- 
 notes the effect or consequences resulting from the action 
 
 contained in the governing verb ; as, muevo los pies para 
 
 i 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 1. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 235 
 
 andar, I move my feet to walk, or, in order to walk ; and 
 por when the regimen denotes both the cause and effect, 
 that is to say, when we wish to express that the subject 
 of the governing verb was stimulated Ho the perform- 
 ance of the action by the effect or consequence result- 
 ing from it ; as, corro por calentarme los pies, I run to 
 warm my feet, or for the sake of warming my feet. Dios 
 nos ha dado la lengua para hablar, God has given us 
 the tongue to speak, or, in order to speak ; hay muchos 
 que por hablar dicen disparates, there are many who to 
 speak, or, for the sake of speaking, talk nonsense. Para 
 reparar esta falta determine vender mi mula, To repair 
 this error I determined to sell my mule. (Gil Bias, ch. 
 2.) Senora, el Cielo os ha enviado un libertador; le- 
 vantaos para seguirme, Madam, Heaven has sent you a 
 deliverer; rise to follow me. (Ibid. ch. 10.) Y me sen- 
 tare d la mesa solo por hacer compania a vm. comiendo 
 algiinos bocados meramente por complacerle, y por mos- 
 trar quanto aprecio siisfinezas^ And I shall sit at table 
 only to keep you company, eating some mouthfuls 
 merely to please you, and to show how much I value your 
 attentions. (Ibid. ch. 2.) Me muero por merecer el honor 
 de ser uno de sus co7npaneros 3 I long to merit the honour 
 of being one of your companions. (Ibid. ch. 7.) 
 
 The verbs estar and quedar require por before the 
 infinitive which they govern, when we mean to express 
 that the action denoted by the said infinitive has not 
 been completed ; as, la carta estaba por escribir, the 
 letter was not written ; nos quedan dos leguas por andar, 
 we have yet six miles to go. See Observation, p. 140. 
 
 REGIMEN IN THE INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 RULE 132. When two verbs come together in 
 English, and the latter is governed in the indica- 
 tive or subjunctive with a conjunction, the Spanish 
 verb will in general admit the same mood ; as 
 
 Dixonie este que pensa- The latter told me that 
 ba partir antes de a- he meant to set out 
 
230 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 manecer, y que l ten- before daybreak, and 
 
 dria cuidado de dis- that he would take 
 
 pertarme, care to awake me. 
 Gil Bias, ch: 2. 
 
 N. B. The conjunction must always be expressed in 
 Spanish, though in English it may be only understood : 
 as, me dixo que escribiria hoy, he told me he would 
 evrite to-day. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 When the verb which is governed in the infinitive in 
 English may be changed into another mood, the last 
 construction should generally be adopted in Spanish ; as, 
 At the same time he took a light and commanded me to 
 follow him, or, commanded that I should follow him, Ai 
 mismo tiempo tomb una luz y me ordeno que le siguiese. 
 (Gil Bias, ch. 4.) 1 know her to be (or, I know that 
 she is) your friend, se que ella es su amiga de vm. In 
 general it may be taken for granted, that when the 
 action, &c. denoted by the verb governed, does not 
 immediately refer to the subject of the governing verb, 
 the regimen ought not to be in the infinitive : thus, we 
 say quiero estudiar, I wish to study ; and quiero que 
 estudien, I wish them to study ; in the first example 
 the person who wishes, and the person who is to study, 
 are the same, and therefore the regimen is in the 
 infinitive ; but as in the second example the person who 
 ought to study is changed, the infinitive cannot be 
 admitted. 
 
 RULE 133. Verbs denoting faness or necessity, 
 command or permission, desire or joy, wonder or 
 doubt, and impersonals used interrogatively or 
 negatively, generally have their regimen in the 
 subjunctive ; as 
 Conviene que venga It is proper that he should 
 
 manana, come to-morrow 
 
 Es menester que vay We must go there. 
 
 amos alia, 
 Mando que rindiesen la He ordered the place to 
 
 plaza, be given up. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 23J 
 
 2V0 hay ninguno que There is no one to go. 
 
 vaya 5 
 
 Quiero que aprendas, I wish thee to learn. 
 
 Me alegro que se divier- I am glad that he amuses 
 
 ta, himself. 
 
 Me espanto que no lo se- I wonder at his not 
 
 pa, knowing it. 
 
 Dudo que venga hoy, I doubt his coming to- 
 day. 
 
 Note a. The subjunctive should be used after the following con- 
 junctions or conjunctive expressions ; dado que, granted that ; con tal 
 que, provided that ; a menos que, unless that ; no sea que, lest ; dntes 
 que, sin que, sea que, &c. ; as, dado que me escriba, no le responded, 
 granted that he should write to me, I will not answer him ; con tal 
 que restituya el dinero, provided he restores the money ; d mtnos que 
 no me pague, unless he pay me ; para que fuese a//a, in order that 
 he might go there, &c. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 It is hardly possible to enumerate the verbs which re- 
 quire their regimen in the subjunctive, because the use 
 of this mood generally depends on the nature of the 
 phrase : regard must therefore be had to what has been 
 already said concerning the indicative and the subjunc- 
 tive or potential mood.* In addition to this it ought 
 to be observed, that the rules which have been given for 
 the prefixing of certain prepositions before the verbal 
 regimen in the infinitive, will generally apply in other 
 instances ; for those verbs which require a prepo- 
 sition before their infinitive will sometimes require it, 
 and generally admit it, when they are governed with a 
 conjunction in another mood ; as, Exhortdron me a que 
 todos los dias encomendase d Dios d mi tio. (Gil Bias, 
 ch. 1.) See Rule 130. Tuve particular gusto de que 
 huviese retrucado con tdnto ayre las ultimas palabras 
 del mesonero, &c. (Ibid. ch. 2.) See Rule 131, note d. 
 No me admiro de que sea tan estimado en la corte y en- 
 tre el pueblo, ni de que muchos Senores le hay an senalado 
 pensiones. (Ibid. b. ii. ch. 7.) See note a to Rule 116. 
 
 * Seepage 195 to 213. 
 
238 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Directions for placing the Verbal Regimen in the 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 1 . The governing verb being in the present or 
 the future imperfect of the indicative, the verb 
 governed ought to be in the present or perfect of 
 the subjunctive ; as, le suplico a vm. que venga 
 aqui manana, I entreat you to come here to-mor- 
 row ; le dire a mi hermano que no saiga hasta las 
 tres, I shall tell my brother not to go out till three 
 o'clock ; dudo que haya llegado aun, I doubt his 
 having yet arrived ; celebrar6 que haya logrado el 
 empleo, I shall be happy to know that he has 
 obtained the situation. 
 
 2. If the governing verb be in the imperfect, 
 the perfect indefinite, or \h^ pluperfect of the indi- 
 cative, the regimen ought to be in the imperfect or 
 pluperfect of the subjunctive, with the termina- 
 tions ra or se ; as, mi hermana queria que vinie'- 
 ramos todos los dias, my sister wished us to come 
 every day ; el gobernador le permitio que saliese, 
 the governor permitted him to come out; temi que 
 hubiese venido la semana pasada, I was afraid 
 that he would have come last week. 
 
 3. If the governing verb be in the perfect definite 
 or the future perfect of the indicative, the regimen 
 must be in the present or the imperfect of the sub- 
 junctive with the termination ra or se ; as, el rey 
 ha mandado que el embaxador vuelva inmediata- 
 mente, the king has ordered that the ambassador 
 should return immediately ; ya le habra* dicho su 
 padre que no la vuelva d ver, his father has no 
 doubt already told him not to see her again; le 
 habra dicho que viniese para decirselo, he (most 
 likely) told him to come in order to tell it him. 
 
 These directions are not equally applicable in all 
 cases ; regard must be had to the meaning of the 
 
AND SYNTAX. 239 
 
 governing verb : thus, for example, verbs of com- 
 manding and of promising can never govern their 
 regimen in the perfect or pluperfect of the sub- 
 junctive ; because an order or a promise must 
 necessarily precede its performance. N. B. If the 
 governing verb implies promise or assurance, the 
 termination ria is the only one that can be used. 
 See page 211, No. 8.N.B. 
 
 ON THE GERUND. 
 
 RULE 134. The English participle present is 
 construed by the gerund in Spanish ; as 
 
 The news being certain, Siendo ciertas las no- 
 
 ticias, 
 
 I am writing, Estoy escribiendo. 
 
 Walking, or being walk- Paseando, or estando 
 
 ing, paseando. 
 
 I met them reading, Los encontre leyendo. 
 
 Note a. When the present participle expresses some circum- 
 stance referring to the objective case of the verbs to see, or to hear, 
 it is construed with the present infinitive ; as, I hear her singing, la 
 oygo cantar ; I never saw that play acting, or being acted, nunca v.i 
 representar esa comedia. 
 
 Note b. The participle of the verbs to go, or to come, being pre- 
 ceded in English by any tense of the auxiliary to be, is resolved in 
 Spanish into the tense in which the auxiliary verb is ; as, she MT 
 coming, ella viene ; we were going, ibamos. 
 
 RULE 135. Gerunds admit the same preposi- 
 tion before their regimen as the verbs from which 
 they are derived ; as 
 Arrepintiendose de sus Repenting his crimes. 
 
 No atreviendose & salir y Not daring to go out. 
 Rinendo con todos, Quarrelling with all. 
 
 RULE 136. The present participle, when used 
 
240 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 in English as a verbal noun, is resolved into the 
 present of the infinitive in Spanish ; as 
 
 The pleasure of speaking El gusto de hablarle. 
 
 to him, 
 
 Without seeing her, Sin verla. 
 
 He went a ivalking, El se fu a pasear. 
 
 Note a. If the English participle follow the preposition by, we 
 may use either the gerund, or the infinitive preceded by con; as, the 
 memory is increased by exercising- it, la menwria se aumenta exerci- 
 tandola, or con exercitarla. 
 
 Note b. When the participle is used in English as a verbal noun, 
 and there is a substantive of the same import in Spanish, this sub- 
 stantive should be preferred to the infinitive ; as, the fear of God 
 is the beginning of wisdom, el, temor de Dios es el principio de la 
 tabiduria ; his going is the cause of my coming, su ida es la causa de 
 mi venida. 
 
 COMPOUND OF THE GERUND. 
 
 What has been said in the three foregoing rules, 
 and in the first note of the third rule, is also appli- 
 cable to the compound of the gerund ; as, having 
 written, habiendo escrito ; having repented his 
 crimes, habiendose arrepentido de sus delitos ; the 
 pleasure of having spoken to him, el gusto de ha- 
 berle hablado ; by having represented, habiendo 
 representado, or con haber representado. N. B. 
 Instead of the compound, the simple gerund pre- 
 ceded by the preposition en is elegantly used ; as, 
 -en diciendo esto se fug, or habiendo dicho esto se 
 fu, having said this he went away. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 As the gerund is sometimes liable to occasion much 
 ambiguity in a sentence, it is better in such instances to 
 resolve it into a corresponding tense of the same verb , 
 as, we met her coming from home, la encontramos vi- 
 niendo de casa. In this sentence neither the English par- 
 ticiple nor the Spanish gerund denotes sufficiently who 
 was coming from home ; it is therefore preferable to 
 
AND SYNTAX. 241 
 
 express it thus, la encontramos quando venia de casa, 
 that is, we met her as she was coming from home ; or 
 quando veniamos de casa, as we were coming from 
 home. 
 
 ON THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 RULE 137. The participle is indeclinable when 
 it is employed to form the compound tenses of any 
 verb ; as 
 
 Mi padre habia venido, My father had come. 
 Tu hermana habia es- Thy sister had written. 
 
 Ellos han comprado la They have bought the 
 
 casa, house. 
 
 N. B. The participle ought to be generally close to 
 the auxiliary haber. 
 
 RULE 138. When the participle is not preceded 
 by the auxiliary haber , it assumes all the properties 
 of a verbal adjective, and is consequently declin- 
 able; as 
 Los hombres serdn pre- The men will be re- 
 
 miados, warded. 
 
 Ella ha estado muy di- She has been very 
 
 vertida^ much amused. 
 
 Las hazanas celebradas The extolled exploits 
 
 del ex&rcito vencido, of the conquered 
 
 army. 
 Ella parece afligida, She seems afflicted. 
 
 Note a. The verb tener sometimes governs the participle as its 
 objective case, and then the participle admits of no variation ; as, 
 tengo escrito a mi madre, I have written to my mother ; tengo, ha- 
 blado sobre el asunto, I have spoken on the subject : but when there 
 is a noun or pronoun in the sentence governed by tener , the participle 
 becomes an adjective and agrees with it ; as, tengo escrito un pliego 
 enterO) I have written a whole sheet; tengo escritas tres cartas, I 
 have written three letters. N. B. In the choice of participles the 
 regular one should be generally employed j as, ya la teniamos con- 
 vencida, we had already convinced her. 
 
 Note b. The participle is elegantly used as a case absolute, and 
 then it generally precedes, and always agrees with, some noun which 
 M 
 
242 
 
 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 is, or seems to be, independent and unconnected in the sentence ; 
 as, acabada la cena, nosfuimos a pasear t supper being over, we went 
 a-walking ; Tomada esta resolution, me levante, quando me parecid 
 gue Leonardo, y Domingo podian ya estar dormidos, This resolution 
 being taken, I arose, when it appeared to me that Leonarda and Do- 
 mingo might already be asleep. (Gil Bias, ch. 6.) Hecho este jura- 
 mento, gue estaba bien resuelto a no quebrantar, mefui a buscar algun 
 meson, This oath being taken, which I was well resolved not to break, 
 I went to look for some inn. (Ibid. ch. 14.) 
 
 Peculiar Properties of some Participles, 
 
 The following participles are also used as verba. 
 adjectives having an active signification. 
 
 Agradecido, thanked and thankful or grateful. 
 
 Atrevido, dared and daring or bold. 
 
 Callado, unmentioned and silent or reserved. 
 
 Cansado, tired and tiresome or fatiguing. 
 
 Comedido, mused and mild or gentle. 
 
 Desesperado y despaired and desperate or despairing. 
 
 Disimulado, dissembled and sly or crafty. 
 
 Entendido, understood and intelligent. 
 
 EsforzadOy encouraged and courageous or resolute. 
 
 Fingido, feigned and hypocritical. 
 
 Leido, read and learned. 
 
 Medido, measured and unassuming. 
 
 Mirado, looked at and circumspect. 
 
 Moderado, moderated and moderate. 
 
 Ocasio?iado, caused and provoking. 
 
 Osado, the same as atrevido. 
 
 Parado 9 stopped and inactive or idle. 
 
 Partido, divided and munificent or liberal. 
 
 Pausado, paused and quiet, tranquil, &c. 
 
 Porfiado, contended and pertinacious or obstinate. 
 
 Preciado, valued and valuable or precious. 
 
 Presumido, presumed and presumptuous or arrogant. 
 
 Recaiado, concealed and cautious or prudent. 
 
 Sabido, known and knowing or clever. 
 
 Sentido, felt and sensible or feeling. 
 
 Sufrido, suffered and patient or forbearing. 
 
 Transcendido, transcended and acute or keen. 
 
 Valido, availed and mighty and confident. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 243 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Yo estaba cansado de oirle, por que es muy cansado en 
 la conversation, I was tired of hearing him, because he 
 is very tiresome in conversation ; nosotros le habiamos 
 callado la verdad, por que sabiamos que no era hombre 
 callado, we had concealed the truth from him, because 
 we knew that he was not a reserved man. N. B. To the 
 foregoing 1 participles may be added those of the verbs 
 cenar, comer, and hablar, when preceded by the adverbs 
 bien or mal ; as, un hombre mal cenado, a man that has 
 not supped well ; una muger muy bien hablada, a very 
 well-spoken woman. 
 
 N. B. Participles when used as such, admit the same 
 regimen as the verbs to which they belong ; and when 
 they are employed as adjectives they follow the rules 
 which have been given for the government of adjectives ; 
 thus we say, hemos agradecido los beneficios, and somos 
 agradecidos a los beneftcios. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 On the Manner of forming some Spanish Adverbs. 
 
 Most of the adverbs which in English end in 
 ly, are formed in Spanish by adding mente to 
 adjectives; as, happily, felizmente ; humbly, hu- 
 mildemente. N. B. If the Spanish adjective 
 admit two terminations, the feminine must be 
 selected for the forming of the adverb ; as, santo, 
 santa, santamente, holily ; piadoso, piadosa, 
 piadosamente, piously. 
 
 RULE 139. When two or more adjectives are to 
 be formed into adverbs to modify the same verb, 
 the adverbial termination is added to the last 
 adjective only; as 
 
 Habla clara y concisa- He speaks clearly and 
 mente, concisely. 
 
 M2 
 
244 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Cesar escribio clara, Caesar wrote clearly, 
 
 concisa, y elegante- concisely, and ele- 
 
 mente, gantly. 
 
 Piensa sabiamente y se He thinks wisely and ex- 
 
 explica claramente, presses himself clearly. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 No rules can be given to direct learners where to 
 place the adverb, because its situation in the sentence 
 depends greatly on the manner in which it is employed : 
 nevertheless, it may be observed that adverbs of man- 
 ner, especially those ending in mente, are generally 
 placed after the verb, unless the sentence begins for the 
 sake of elegance with the adverb ; as, llegue felizmente 
 a Penaflor, I arrived happily at Penaflor ; le habia 
 dicho freqiientemente, I had frequently said to him ; no 
 hemos hecho bien, we have not done well ; inmediata- 
 mente monte en mi mula, y salt de la ciudad, I imme- 
 diately mounted my mule, and went out of the city ; 
 mal conoces la caridad de los Espanoles, thou art badly 
 acquainted with the charity of the Spaniards. The ad- 
 verb no is always prefixed to the verb which it modifies ; 
 as, no vendemos, we do not sell ; no habias comprado, 
 thou hadst not bought. Mas and menos, when they do not 
 begin the sentence, should follow the verb which they 
 modify ; as, queria mas, he wanted more ; tengo m6nos, 
 I have less. Si and no, being used as an objective case 
 to some verb, require que before them, unless they are 
 preceded by an article ; as, you say yes, and I say 
 no, vm. dice que si, y yo digo que no ; he answered not 
 a word, no respondio un si ni un no. 
 
 Observation on Jamas, Nunca, No, and Muy 
 Jamas and nunca have both the same import, and 
 may therefore be indifferently used for each other ; as, 
 jamas or nunca le habia hablado, I had never spoken 
 to her: but jamas has the peculiarity of being coupled 
 with nunca, never, and with siempre, ever, in order to 
 give more energy to the expression ; as, nunca jamas lo 
 hare, never, no never, shall I do so ; que vives y reinas 
 
SYNTAX. 245 
 
 por siempre jamas, who livest and reignest for ever and 
 ever. 
 
 No is sometimes used redundantly after comparatives, 
 in order to render the contrast more striking ; as, tnejor 
 es el trabajo que no la ociosidad, labour is better than 
 idleness ; mas vale ayunar que no enfermar, it is better 
 to fast than to be ill. N. B. In both these sentences no 
 might have been omitted without impairing the sense. 
 
 When a verb is preceded by TIO, another negative 
 word may be placed after, and the two negatives will 
 serve to strengthen each other, contrary to the practice 
 of the English language : we may therefore say, no 
 tengo nada, I have nothing ; no he visto d nadie, I 
 have seen nobody ; no lo hare nnnca, I shall never do 
 it : but if the negative word be prefixed to the verb, no 
 must be omitted ; as, nada tevgo, d nadie he visto. 
 nunca lo hare, &c. 
 
 Muy is the equivalent to the English very or very 
 much ; as, very humble, muy humilde ; very early, muy 
 temprano ; very heartily, muy de corazon; very much 
 yours, or, wholly yours, muy de vm. ; very much at your 
 service, muy al servicio de vm. &c. but muy can never 
 qualify a verb ; as, I like that very much, eso me gusta 
 muchisimo ; he very much resembles his father, separece 
 muchisimo d su padre. 
 
 ON PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 In addition to the prepositions inserted at page 
 76, Part I., and which in point of fact are the only 
 ones that the Spanish Academy esteems as such, 
 we employ several adverbs and adverbial moods 
 or expressions as substitutes for prepositions ; and 
 whenever they are so used, the noun or pronoun 
 by which they are followed must be preceded by 
 the preposition de or d ; as, cerca del palacio, near 
 the palace ; al rededor del jar din, round the gar- 
 den ; junto la casa, close to the house. It is not 
 possible to enumerate all these species of words 
 within the limits of a book of this nature ; but the 
 
246 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 following -list will be found to contain a very useful 
 collection for learners. 
 
 Words requiring de before the following noun. 
 Acerca de; as, acerca de este negocio, concerning this 
 
 business. 
 A cubierto de ; as, & cubierto de la tempestad, under 
 
 shelter from the storm. 
 Ademas de ; as, ademas de lo que vm. dixo, besides what 
 
 you said. 
 Al lado de ; as, sientate al lado de ella, sit down beside 
 
 her 
 
 Antes de ; as, antes de las nueve, before nine o'clock. 
 A pesar de ; as, a pesar de sus ruegos, in spite of his 
 
 entreaties. 
 
 Cerca de ; as, cerca de la una, near one o'clock. 
 Debaxo de ; as, debaxo de la mesa, under the table. 
 Delante de ; as, delante deljuez, before the judge. 
 Dentro de ; as, dentro de la casa, within the house. 
 Despues de; as, despues del sermon, after the sermon. 
 Detras de ; as, detras de la iglesia, behind the church. 
 Encima de; as, encimadelespejo, above the looking-glass. 
 Enfrente de ; as, enf rente de la Bolsa, opposite the Ex- 
 change. 
 
 Fueracfe; as,fuera de las murallas, without the walls. 
 Lejos de; as, lejos de la ciudad, far from the city 
 Mas aca de ; as, mas acd del Hospital, on this side of 
 
 the Hospital. 
 Mas alia de ; as, mas alia del Parque, beyond the Park. 
 
 The following require a after them. 
 Conforme a ; as, conforme a las leyes del reino, accord 
 
 ing to the laws of the realm. 
 
 Junto a ; as, junto a la Torre, close to the Tower. 
 Tocante d ; as, tocante d las reglas se observard, &c. 
 
 concerning the rules it will be observed, &c. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 A?ites and despues retain the preposition de when they 
 are followed by a verb in the infinitive, but take que in 
 any other mood; as, Antes de coiner, before dinner; 
 antes que comamos, before we dine ; despues de cenar, 
 
AND SYNTAX. 24J 
 
 after supper ; despues que vm. hay a cenado, after you 
 have supped; enfin despues de haber comido y bebido, &c, 
 after having eaten and drunk. Despues que el capitan 
 de bandoleros hizo esta apologia. After the captain of 
 highwaymen made this apology. 
 
 A List of English Prepositions with a correspond- 
 ing Preposition in Spanish. 
 
 Above, encima de; above the door, encima de la puerta. 
 
 N.B. Above, meaning beyond, cannot be rendered by 
 a preposition in Spanish ; as, above two hours, 
 mas de dos horas. 
 
 About, cercade; as, about one o'clock, cerca de la una. 
 About, for within, en ; as, he is about the house, estd en 
 
 la casa, or, en casa. 
 About, for through, por ; as, he went singing about the 
 
 streets, iba cantando por las calles. 
 About, for on, sobre ; as, a treatise about the longitude, 
 
 tratado sobre la longitud. 
 After, despues de ; as, after the sentence, despues de la 
 
 sentencia. 
 After, for according to, a or segun ; as, after the Spanish 
 
 fashion, a la moda Espanola ; after his manner of 
 
 teaching, segun su modo de ensenar. 
 Against, contra ; as, against her, contra ella. 
 Against, for fronting, en f rente de; as, we live against 
 
 the church, vivimos enfrente de la iglesia. 
 Among or between, entre ; as, among all, entre todos ; 
 
 between the two, entre los dos. 
 At, a ; at the door, a la puerta ; seated at table, sentado 
 
 d la mesa ; at nine o'clock, a las nutve. 
 At, for in, en ; at church, en la iglesia; at London, e?i 
 
 Londres; at home, en casa. 
 At, for on, en ; the best dish at table, el mejor plato en 
 
 la mesa. 
 At, for through, por; as, we went out at the window, 
 
 salimos por la ventana. 
 Before, as opposed to after, antes de ; as, he walks before 
 
 the king, viene antes del rey ; I shall arrive before 
 
 Christmas, llegare antes de Navidad. 
 
248 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Before, opposed to behind, delante de ; as, she was on 
 
 her knees before the image, dla estaba de rodillas 
 
 delante de la imdgen. 
 Behind, detras de ; as, behind the Exchange, detras de 
 
 la Bolsa. 
 Beneath, debaxo de ; as, beneath the heavens, debaxo 
 
 del cielo. 
 Beside, al lado de ; as, she was seated beside the queen, 
 
 estaba sentada al lado de la reyna. 
 Between, or, betwixt. See Among. 
 Beyond, mas alia de ; as, beyond the temple, mas alia 
 
 del templo. See N. B. after Above. 
 By, por or de; as, he was sent by the captain, fue envi- 
 
 ado por el capitan ; virtue is beloved by the good, la 
 
 virtud es amada por or de los huenos. See note a to 
 
 Rule 115. 
 
 By, for in, de; as, by day, de dia ; by night, de noche. 
 By, for close to, junto a ; as, the house is by the Tower, 
 
 la casa estd junto a la Torre. 
 For, para ; as, this flower is for her, esla flor es para 
 
 dla ; I have bought two horses for my coach, he 
 
 comprado dos caballos para mi coche ; it cannot be 
 
 denied, that for a man who has never been instructed 
 
 he explains himself well, no sepuede negar quepara un 
 
 hombreque no ha sido instruido jamas el seexplicabien. 
 For, meaning for the sake of, por ; as, he died for his 
 
 country, murio por su patria. 
 For, in behalf of, por ; he pleaded for his father, abvg '> 
 
 por su padre. 
 For, on account of, por ; he died for our sins, murio por 
 
 nuestros pecados ; for this reason, por esta razon. 
 For, during*, por ; as, I shall go there for two months, 
 
 ire alia por dos meses. 
 For, in the room of, por ; I am here for him, estoy aqul 
 
 por el. 
 For, in exchange for, por; I will give thee my watch for 
 
 thy sword, te dare mi muestra por tu espada ; I shall 
 
 sell the house for five hundred dollars, vendere la casa 
 
 por quinientos pesos. 
 For, meaning to fetch, por ; he goes for bread, and I 
 
 come for wine, va por pan^ y yo vengo por vino. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 249 
 
 From, de ; I come from Spain, vengo de Espana. 
 N. B. From in computing distances is rendered by 
 desde; as, there are six miles from London to Green- 
 wich, hay dos leguas desde Londres a Greenwich; 
 from his birth until now, desde su nacimiento hasta 
 ahora. 
 
 In, or, into, en or por ; as, in the summer, en el verano ; 
 in the morning, por la manana ; put it into the closet, 
 ponlo en el gavinete. 
 
 N. B. Into after verbs of motion (except to enter) is 
 
 rendered by a ; to go down into the cellar, baxar 
 
 a la bodega ; he entered the church, entro en la 
 
 iglesia. See also Rale 29, note c. 
 
 Near, or, nigh, cerca de ; near the altar, cerca del altar. 
 
 Of, de ; as, the seal of the letter, el sello de la carta , a 
 
 crown of gold, una corona de oro. 
 
 On, or, upon, sobre;* as, on, or, upon the chair, sobre la 
 dlla ; we spoke on, or, upon the subject, hablamos 
 sobre la materia. 
 On is also frequently rendered by en ; as, the dish is on 
 
 table, el plato estd en la mesa. 
 
 On, after the verbs to subsist, to feed, &c. is translated 
 de ; as, he feeds on hopes, and she subsists on air, el 
 se alimenta de esperanzas, y ella se sustenta de ay re. 
 N. B. On is never translated before the names of the 
 days of the week, or of the month ; as, you came 
 on the twenty-second, and I came on Tuesday, 
 vm. vino el veinte y dos, y yo vine el Martes. 
 Over, encima de ;* as, over the window, encima de la 
 ventana ; the cloud is over the mountain, la nube 
 estd encima de la montana. 
 
 Over, through, por ; we travelled over the whole coun- 
 try, viajamos por todo el pais. 
 Round, or, around, al rededor de ; we walked round the 
 
 town, nos paseamos al rededor de la ciudad. 
 Through, por ; I passed through the Park, pase por el 
 
 Parque. 
 
 Through, denoting the cause, is de ; he died through 
 hunger, murib de hambre. 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 86. 
 M3 
 
250 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Till, or, until, hasta ; he will not come until to-morrow, 
 
 no vendrd hasta manana. 
 To, a ; as, I delivered it to the owner, lo entregue al 
 
 dveno ; he goes to London, va a Londres. 
 To, after from, and having 1 the same regimen, en ; as, 
 
 from door to door, de puerta en puerta. 
 Towards, Jidda ; towards the east, hdcia el oriente. 
 Under, debaxo* dembaxo ;* as, under the bridge, debaxo 
 
 del puente; under this government, baxo este gobierno. 
 With, con; as, with the sword, con la espada; with 
 
 mildness, con dulzura. 
 Within, dentro de ; as, he is within the house, estd 
 
 dentro de la casa. 
 
 Without, sin ; as, he came without him, vino sin el. 
 Without, as opposite to within, fuera de; he was seated 
 
 without the church, estaba sentado fuera de la iglesia. 
 
 In the foregoing list no notice has been taken of the 
 prepositions by which the English verbs are sometimes 
 followed, and which seem as it were inseparable from 
 them ; as, to get at, to cast i/p, to look for, &c. because 
 in general these verbs and prepositions are construed in 
 Spanish by a verb alone ; as, alca?izar, sumar, buscar, 
 &c. Neither has any thing been said respecting Eng- 
 lish prepositions before the infinitive or participle, be- 
 cause that has been already discussed in speaking of 
 Verbal Regimen and of the Spanish Gerund. 
 
 RULE 140. Prepositions govern the objective 
 
 case;f as 
 
 Me quexo de ti, I complain of thee. 
 
 No puede vivir sin mi, He cannot live without me. 
 
 Tic quieres ir conmigo,t Thou wishest to go with 
 pero yo no quiero ir me, but I do not wish 
 contigOjf to go with thee. 
 
 Note a. The preposition segun has the peculiarity of being used 
 alone with a verb in its indicative or subjunctive mood; as, segun 
 creo, according to what I believe ; segun hayan respondido, according 
 as they may have answered, &c. Entonces el arriero, segun supe 
 con el tiempo, &c. Then the carrier, as I was afterwards informed. 
 (Gil Bias, ch. 3.) 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 5. 
 f See Notes a and 6 to Rule 48. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 251 
 
 ON CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Having described in the first part of this work 
 the nature, properties, and distribution of Spanish 
 conjunctions, and enumerated in note a to Rule 
 133, those conjunctive expressions which require 
 the subjunctive mood after them, I shall offer here 
 a few observations on some conjunctions, that, on 
 account of the various meanings under which they 
 are used in English, cannot be always resolved 
 into their equivalents in Spanish. 
 
 On But. 
 
 But, it is said, belongs both to the conjunc- 
 tive as well as to the exceptive class of English con- 
 junctions, its import as a conjunctive being "add" 
 or " moreover," and as an exceptive ef unless" or 
 "without" Considering but in this light only, I 
 should say that its equivalents in Spanish are in the 
 first instance pero or mas, and in the second sino 
 or menos ; nevertheless as this, however, is not 
 always the case, it will be necessary to examine 
 more minutely the different words for which but is 
 often substituted, giving previously two rules for 
 the construing of but, either as a conjunctive or 
 exceptive conjunction, according to the imports 
 above mentioned. 
 
 RULE 141. The conjunction but, not being 
 preceded by a negative, is expressed by pero or 
 mas ; and after a negative it is construed sino : as 
 
 I am rich, but I am not Yo soy rico, pero, or, 
 
 happy, mas no soy dichoso. 
 
 He is not happy, but No es dichoso, sino rico. 
 rich, 
 
 They all went thither, Todosfueron //a,pero, 
 
252 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 but his brother arrived or, mas su hermano 
 
 the first, Llego el primer o. 
 
 They did not go on Mon- No fueron el Limes, sino 
 
 day, but on Tuesday* el Mdrtes. 
 
 Note a. It is to be observed, that although sino is the most pro- 
 per to be used after a negative, pero or mas is preferable when the 
 verb is repeated ; as, they did not go on Monday, but they went on 
 Tuesday, no fueron el Lunes, pero or mas fueron el Mdrtes. N. B. 
 Pero is sometimes used as a substantive, and then it signifies defect ; 
 as, ella no tiene pero, she has no blemish. 
 
 RULE 142. The exceptive but being preceded 
 by an interrogative pronoun, or by a negative, is 
 expressed sino ; and not following a negative is 
 rendered m4nos : as 
 
 Who said it but you ? g Quien lo dixo sino^w.f 
 
 She eats nothing but Ella no come sino/rwta. 
 
 fruit,* 
 
 She eats all but the rind, Ella come todo menos la 
 
 corteza. 
 
 They all went thither Todos fueron alia menos 
 
 but his brother, su hermano. 
 
 Note a. When the word but is used as a substitute for some other 
 words, it is generally rendered in Spanish by the words which it 
 represents. Example : 
 
 He was hardly gone out but (when) the house fell down, Apenas 
 hubo salido quando se cayo la casa. 
 
 But (if it were not} for me, he would die with cold, si no fuera 
 por mi-, el se moriria defrio. 
 
 But that I think (if I did not think that} it would vex thee, I would 
 tell it thee, si yo no pensara que te molestase, te lo diria. 
 
 There is no one but is (that is not} a sinner, no hay ninguno que no 
 sea pecador. 
 
 He went no day into the country but he returned (that he returned 
 not) loaded, ningun diafue al campo que no volvi6 cargado. 
 
 I have but (only} one servant, tengo solo un criado. 
 
 I came but (7 came not till} yesterday, no vine hasta ayer. 
 
 * It is almost needless to observe that many of the foregoing 
 examples admit a different turn in the Spanish as well as in the 
 English : thus we might say, ella no come mas, or no come nada ma t 
 quefrutay she eats no more, or she eats nothing more, than fruit, &c. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 253 
 
 That means no more but (than) to tell me to go away, eso no qmere 
 decir mas que decirme yue me vat/a. 
 
 I am well aware that, in the last, as well as in some others, of the 
 foregoing examples, but is very improperly used : nevertheless, the 
 frequency with which such expressions occur in common discourse 
 seems sufficient to sanction their introduction here. 
 
 A s is como : example ; black as pitch, negro como la 
 pez. 
 
 As being 1 followed by so is expressed asi como : exam- 
 ple ; as he rewards virtue, so he punishes vice, asi 
 comopremia la virtud, asi castiga el vicio. 
 
 As meaning when is quando : example ; we met her as 
 we were going home, la encontramos quando ibamos 
 a cam. 
 
 N. B. For as and so used like adverbs, see Rule 26. 
 
 Neither and nor are rendered by ni : example ; he will 
 neither sell it nor give it, no quiere ni venderlo ni darlo. 
 
 Neither at the end of a sentence is translated tampoco ; 
 as, nor I neither, ni yo tampoco. N. B. When either 
 comes accompanied by a negative, it is translated like 
 neither : example ; I will not see them, nor she either, 
 yo no quiero verlos, ni ella tampoco. 
 
 Rather. This adverb when used as an adversative con- 
 junction is resolved into antes or antes Men: example ; 
 I owe him nothing, rather he owes me something, yo 
 no le debo nada, antes or antes bien el me debe algo.* 
 
 Whether is si : example ; tell me whether he will come 
 or not, digame vm. si el vendrd 6 no. 
 
 Whether in phrases like the following is expressed que: 
 example ; whether he come or not, I do not care any- 
 thing, que vetiga 6 que no venga, no se me da nada. 
 
 ON INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 An interjection, as has been already observed, is 
 that part of speech which serves to express the 
 different emotions and affections of the mind. The 
 words which may be considered as interjections in 
 
 * See Colloquial Idioms, Exercises, page 112. 
 
254 RULES OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 the Spanish, are as follow : ah, ay, ce, chito, 
 chiton, ea, 6te,fu, ha, he, ho, hola, 6, pu, ta, tate. 
 
 Of these, ah, ay, 6, are expressive of grief, joy, 
 indignation, and admiration, and therefore may be 
 said to correspond with the English hey ! ah ! O ! 
 ho ! hah ! &c. Ce, e*te, ha, he, hola, are used to 
 call the attention, and are similar to hem, lo, hip, 
 holla, &c. in English : hola is also used to express 
 wonder, and he to demand a repetition of some- 
 thing that has been told us from a distance, and 
 which we have not heard distinctly. The latter is 
 sometimes denoted in English by the word what ! 
 
 Chito, chiton are the equivalents of hush, mum. 
 Ea serves to encourage : fu is the same as pshaw ! 
 pu is used like foh ! and ta and tate are employed 
 like halt, hold, &c. There are also many ejacula- 
 tory expressions, which are considered by some as 
 interjections: such as, quita! away! viva! huzza ! 
 valgame Dios ! bless me ! 
 
 RULE 143. Adjectives employed as interjections 
 require de before the noun to which they are 
 applied ; as 
 
 ; Pobre de mi padre I Oh ! my poor father ! 
 
 / Desdichada de mi madre ! Oh ! my unhappy mo- 
 ther! 
 
 Note a. The interjection ay when used like the English woe, 
 requires de before the following noun ; as, woe to thee ! woe to them 
 who die in their sins, &c. / ay de ti ! / ay de aquellos que mueren 
 en sus pecados, &c. 
 
 Note b. The interjection tie is used with the personal pronouns 
 only, and always joined to the first objective case : as, tte\\ que viene, 
 lo she comes ! Eteme aqui ya fuera de Oviedo, Behold me here, or, 
 Lo here am I, already out of Oviedo. (Gil Bias, ch. 2.) 
 
AND SYNTAX. 255 
 
 ON THE FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 FIGURES of Syntax are a name given to certain 
 deviations from the strict observance of the rules 
 cf syntax, which are sometimes allowed, in order 
 to enhance the beauty or energy of the expression. 
 These figures are called Hyperbaton, Ellipsis, 
 Pleonasm, and Syllepsis. 
 
 Hyperbaton is the figure by which we are per- 
 mitted to invert the syntactical arrangement of 
 words : this figure admits of great variety, as may 
 be seen by the following examples : Gustabanme 
 mucho las disputas, instead of, Las disputas me 
 gustaban mucho. Here, as may be seen, the sub- 
 ject follows in lieu of preceding its own verb. 
 Llcvome d su casa, for, me Ilev6 d su casa : here 
 the pronominal objective case is placed after the 
 verb, instead of being put before, according to 
 Rule 47. See also note a to this rule. 
 
 Son tan f dices las prontitudes del ingenio, &c. 
 for, Las prontitudes del ingenio son tan felices 
 Pasearonla y repasearonla delante del mulatero 
 que con grande atencion la exdmin6 de pies d 
 cabe&a, in lieu of, Delante del mulatero que la 
 exdmino con grande atencion. 
 
 Numerous other examples might be given to 
 show the various manner in which the hyperbaton 
 is used. It ought however to be observed, that a 
 substantive is never followed by its article, nor is 
 a preposition ever preceded by its regimen. It is 
 admissible in poetry to place a noun governed 
 
256 RULES OF P;TYMOLOGY 
 
 before the noun which governs it ; but never in 
 prose : as, 
 
 De tanta confusion , no las arenas 
 Del padre tajo oyrdn los tristes ecos 
 Ni del Famoso Betis las olivas. 
 
 Don Quixote, b. ii. ch. 14. 
 Ellipsis is a figure which permits the suppres- 
 sion of one or more words. It may affect all the 
 parts of speech : as, no me hartaba de verle (de) 
 tocarle y (de) retocarle ; (here the preposition is 
 twice omitted) : y me dio tantas gracias como yo 
 (di) espolazos a la mula ; (here the verb is under- 
 stood) : siy este maravilloso secreto> que yo te comu- 
 nico y (que) la naturaleza no pudo ocultar. (Yo) 
 or dene que le sangrasen sin misericordia y (que) 
 le diesen de beber agua caliente en abundancia. 
 In the first of the two latter examples the rela- 
 tive is omitted ; and in the second the pronoun 
 and the conjunction are suppressed. 
 
 Pleonasm allows the introduction of some redun- 
 dant words : as, lo vi por mis ojos, for, lo vi only ; 
 lo escribi de mi mano, for only lo escribi. Yo mis- 
 mo, tu propio, instead of saying, yo, tu only. The 
 double introduction of the objective case used in 
 Spanish is through this figure : as, El me quiere a 
 mi ; yo te di ellibro a ti; nosotros le hemos escrito 
 a /, &c. instead of, 6l me quiere ; yo te di el libro 3 
 nosotros le hemos escrito. 
 
 Syllepsis* permits a species of false concord, 
 enabling us to make words agree not according to 
 their real import, but according to what we make 
 them represent : thus any title, which by its ter- 
 mination is of the feminine gender, whenever it is 
 applied to a man, will have an adjective, &c. in its 
 masculine termination : as, vuestra mqjestad es 
 
 * This figure seems to be a species of the ellipsis. 
 
AND SYNTAX 25/ 
 
 justo ; vuestra alteza sea servido ; & estan vms. 
 buenos caballeros ? See note b to Rule 23. In like 
 manner a collective noun in the singular is some- 
 times coupled with a verb in the plural : as, entraron 
 en la ciudad una multitud ; una tropa salieron al 
 encuentro. See note a to Rule i 10. 
 
 These are the figures which are admitted in the 
 Spanish language. It is hardly possible to lay 
 down any rules for their application. Observation 
 seems the most effectual means of acquiring the 
 right use of them : and they have been introduced 
 here in order only that learners may not be misled, 
 in the course of their reading, by supposing inac- 
 curate or imperfect any sentence wherein some of 
 the figures are employed. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 A CONCISE AND USEFUL VOCABULARY OF 
 THE MOST NECESSARY WORDS. 
 
 Of the Universe in general. 
 
 The universe, d unwerso. 
 
 the world, el mundo. 
 
 the elements, los elementos. 
 
 the sky, eljirmamento. 
 
 a star, una estrella. 
 
 a planet, un planeta. 
 
 a comet, un cometa. 
 
 a constellation, una conste- 
 
 lacion. 
 
 the sun, el sol. 
 the sunbeams, los rayos del 
 
 sol. 
 
 the moon, la lima. 
 moonlight, claro de luna. 
 new moon, luna nueva. 
 full moon, luna llena. 
 first quarter,fo/7i# creciente 
 last quarter, luna men- 
 
 guante. 
 
 an eclipse, un eclipse. 
 a storm, una borrasia. 
 a tempest, una tempestad. 
 
 the thunder, los truenos. 
 a clap of thunder, un tru- 
 
 eno. 
 the lightning 1 , los reldmpa- 
 
 gos. 
 a flash of lightning, un re- 
 
 Idmpago. 
 
 a thunderbolt, un rayo. 
 a fog, una niebla. 
 a mist, una neblina. 
 the rain, la lluvia. 
 the rainbow, el arco iris. 
 a shower, un aguacero. 
 the snow, la nieve. 
 the hail, el granizo. 
 the ice, el yelo. 
 a frost, una helada. 
 a hoar frost, una escarcha. 
 the morning dew, el rocio. 
 the evening dew, el sere.no. 
 
 a creature, una criatura. 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 259 
 
 Terms relating 
 
 A globe, un globo. 
 
 a sphere, una esfera. 
 
 a hemisphere, un hemisfe- 
 
 rio. 
 
 the horizon, el horizonte. 
 a degree, un grado. 
 the longitude, la longitud. 
 the latitude, la latitud. 
 the cardinal points, los vi- 
 
 the north, el norte. 
 
 the soufeh, elsur. 
 
 the east, el este, 
 
 the west, el oeste. 
 
 a climate, un clima. 
 
 a region, una region. 
 
 a continent, un continente. 
 
 an island, una isla. 
 
 a peninsula, una peninsula. 
 
 an isthmus, un istmo. 
 
 a cape, un cabo. 
 
 an empire, un imperio. 
 
 a kingdom, un reyno. 
 
 a republic, una republica. 
 
 a colony, w/za colonia. 
 
 a country, ?/TZ pays. 
 
 a province, ima provincia. 
 
 Terms relating 
 
 The ocean, el oceano. 
 
 a sea, un mar. 
 
 an arm of the sea, un 
 
 brazo de mar. 
 a gulf, un golfo, 
 a bay, una bafiia. 
 a road (for ships), unara- 
 
 da. 
 
 a channel, un canal. 
 a strait, un estrecho. 
 
 to the Earth. 
 
 a shire, un condado. 
 
 a mountain, una montana. 
 
 a mount, un monte. 
 
 a hill, un collado. 
 
 an acclivity, una cuesta. 
 
 a valley, 1^/1 valle. 
 
 an abyss, M/I abismo. 
 
 a desert, tm desierto. 
 
 a plain, wwa llanura. 
 
 a fen, ^rca laguna. 
 
 the shore, Za ribera. 
 
 the coast, fo cos^. 
 
 a rock, unapena. 
 
 a stone, unapiedra. 
 
 a bridge, w?i puentc. 
 
 a causeway, wrca calzada. 
 
 a ford, w/i vacfo. 
 
 the highway, eZ camino 
 
 real. 
 
 a path, ?/TZ# senda. 
 a ditch, unfoso. 
 gravel, cascajo, m. 
 sand, arena, f. 
 dust, polvo, m. 
 clay, barro, m. 
 mire, cieno, m. 
 mud, Zocfo, m. 
 
 the tide, to marea. 
 high water, pleamar 
 low water, baxamar. 
 the current, / corriente. 
 a wave, w/ia o^rf. 
 the billows, to ote. 
 a harbour, ?//t puerto 
 a lake, WTI logo. 
 a river, wn rzo. 
 a brook, un arroyo. 
 
260 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 a pond, un estanque. 
 a spring, un manantial. 
 
 a well, un pozo. 
 
 a fountain, unafuente 
 
 Terms relating to the Fire. 
 
 Fire, clfuego. 
 the blaze, la llama. 
 a spark, una chispa. 
 the smoke, el humo. 
 live coals, brasas or ae- 
 cuas. 
 
 the ashes, las cenizas. 
 the embers, el rescoldo. 
 the soot, el hollin. 
 a firebrand, un tizon. 
 a rocket, un cohete. 
 a bonfire, una fioguera. 
 
 Terms relating to the Air. 
 
 The air, el ayre. 
 
 the atmosphere, la atmos- 
 
 fera. 
 
 the wind, el viento. 
 a gale, un viento fresco. 
 
 a vapour, un vapor. 
 
 a cloud, una nube. 
 
 a whirlwind, un torbellino 
 
 a hurricane, un huracan. 
 
 a calm, una calma. 
 
 Of Time and its Divisions. 
 
 Eternity, la eternidad. 
 time, eltiempo. 
 a date, unafecha. 
 a century, un siglo. 
 a year, an ano. 
 half-year, medio-ano. 
 a quarter, un trimestre. 
 a month, un mes. 
 January, Enero. 
 February, Febrero. 
 March, Marzo. 
 April, Abril. 
 May, Mayo. 
 June, Junio. 
 July, Julio. 
 August, Agosto. 
 September, Setiembre. 
 October, Octubre. 
 November, Noviembre. 
 December, Diciembre. 
 a fortnight, quince dias. 
 
 a week, una semana. 
 
 a day, un dia. 
 
 Monday, Lunes. 
 
 Tuesday, Maries. 
 
 Wednesday, Mier coles. 
 
 Thursday, Jueves. 
 
 Friday, Viernes. 
 
 Saturday, Sdbado. 
 
 Sunday, Domingo. 
 
 an hour, una hora. 
 
 half an hour, media-hora. 
 
 a quarter of an hour, un 
 quarto de hora. 
 
 one o'clock, la una. 
 
 three o'clock, las tres. 
 
 half after six, las seis y me- 
 dia. 
 
 a quarter after nine, las 
 nueve y quarto. 
 
 a quarter to eleven, las once 
 menos quarto. 
 
VOCABULARY. 261 
 
 a minute, un minuto. noon, medio-dia. 
 
 a second, un segundo. afternoon, tarde. 
 
 the dawn, el alba. night, noche. 
 
 morning, manana. midnight, media-noche, 
 
 Remarkable Days and Seasons of the Year. 
 
 Newyear's Day, Dia de Whitsuntide, Pascua de 
 
 Ano Nuevo. Espiritu Santo. 
 
 Twelfth Day, la Epifanta. the Dog-days, la Canicula. 
 
 Twelfthtide, la Pascua de Christmas Day, DiadeNa- 
 
 Reyes. vidad. 
 
 Shrovetide, el Carnaval. Christmas time, Pascuas de 
 
 Shrove Tuesday, Maries Navidad. 
 
 de Carnestolendas. the Seasons, las Estaciones. 
 
 Ash Wednesday, Miercoles the Spring 1 , la Primavera. 
 
 de Ceniza. the Summer, el Verano. 
 
 Palm Sunday, Domingo de the Autumn, el Otono. 
 
 Ramos. the Winter, el Hibierno. 
 
 Good Friday, Viernes San- a holiday, un dia de fiesta. 
 
 to. a working- day, un dia de 
 
 Easter Sunday, Domingo trabajo. 
 
 de Resurreccion. a fast day, un dia de ayuno. 
 
 Easter time, Pascua de Lent, la Quaresma. 
 
 Resurreccion. the eve, la vispera. 
 
 Of the Human Body and its Parts. 
 
 The body, el cuerpo. an eye, un ojo. 
 
 a limb, un miembro. an eyebrow, una ceja. 
 
 a bone, un hueso. an eyelash, una pestana. 
 
 a nerve, un nervio. an eyelid, un pdrpado. 
 
 a vein, una vena. the eyeball, la nina del ojo. 
 
 an artery, una arteria. the nose, la nariz. 
 
 the blood, la sangre. the nostrils, las ventanas de 
 
 the skin, el pellejo. la nariz. 
 
 the head, la cabeza. an ear, una oreja. 
 
 the brain, el celcbro. the mouth, la boca. 
 
 the brains, los sesos. a lip, un labio. 
 
 the hair, el pelo. the tongue, lalengua. 
 
 ihe forehead, la f rente. a front tooth, un diente. 
 
 a temple, una sien. an eye tooth, un colmillo. 
 
262 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 a back tooth, una muela. 
 the cheeks, las meocillas. 
 the jaw, la quixada. 
 the gums, las encias. 
 the chin, la barba. 
 the beard, la barba. 
 the neck, el cuello. 
 the bosom, el seno. 
 the breast, elpecho. 
 the stomach, el estomago. 
 the pit of the stomach, la 
 
 boca del estomago. 
 the shoulders, los hombros. 
 the back, las espaldas. 
 an arm, un brazo. 
 the elbow, el codo. 
 
 the hand, la ma?io. 
 
 the wrist, la munrca. 
 
 the thumb, el dedo pulgar. 
 
 a finger, un dedo. 
 
 the nails, las ufias. 
 
 the toes, los dedos de lot 
 
 pies. 
 
 a foot, un pie. 
 a leg, una pierna. 
 the knee, la rodilla. 
 a thigh, ^71 muslo. 
 the heart, eZ corazon. 
 the liver, eZ higado. 
 the lungs, Zos pulmones. 
 a rib, 7/710 costilla. 
 the joints, /as coyunturas. 
 
 Of the Soul and its Faculties. 
 
 The soul, eZ alma, f. 
 the memory, Za memoria. 
 the understanding, eZ e/i- 
 
 tendimiento. 
 the will, Za voluntad. 
 desire, el deseo. 
 grief, Za pesadumbre. 
 hope, /a esperanza. 
 
 hatred, el odio. 
 jealousy, los zelos. 
 joy, el gozo. 
 love, eZ amor. 
 pride, la soberbia. 
 vanity, la vanidad. 
 anger, la cblera. 
 knowledge, el conocimiento. 
 
 The Five Senses. 
 
 The sight, la vista. 
 the hearing, el oido. 
 the smelling, el olfato. 
 
 the tasting, el gusto. 
 the feeling, el tacto. 
 
 Of bearing Apparel worn by Men. 
 
 A suit, un vestido. 
 a coat, una casaca. 
 a waistcoat, una chupa. 
 breeches, calzones. 
 stockings, medias. 
 garters, ligas. 
 shoes, zapatos. 
 buckles, hebillas. 
 
 boots, botas. 
 
 leather gaiters, botines. 
 
 cloth gaiters, polainas. 
 
 stock, corbatin. 
 
 cravat, corbata. 
 
 ruffles, los vuelos. 
 
 a pocket, una faltriquera. 
 
 a shirt, una camisa. 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 263 
 
 a handkerchief, un panu- a watch, un relox. 
 
 do. a snuff-box, una caxa de 
 a hat, un sombrero. tabaco. 
 
 a sword, un espadin. a cane, un baston. 
 
 gloves, Los guantes. an umbrella, un paraguas. 
 
 a cocked hat, un sombrero a purse, una bolsa. 
 
 de trespicos. 
 
 Of the Wearing Apparel worn by Women. 
 
 The under petticoat, el za- lace, encaxe. 
 galejo. 
 
 a white upper petticoat, 
 
 unas naguas. 
 
 a black petticoat, una say a. 
 a silk petticoat, un guar- 
 
 dapies. 
 a hoop petticoat, un ton- 
 
 tillo. 
 
 a plain cap, un gorro. 
 a dress cap, una escqfia. 
 false hair, pelo postizo. 
 the stays, la cotilla. 
 
 the lace, el cordon. 
 the tag, el herrete. 
 a gown, una bata. 
 an apron, un delantal. 
 
 N.B. The rest of women's apparel bears the same 
 name as that of men. 
 
 pins, alfileres. 
 
 a pincushion, un acerico. 
 
 earrings, los zarcillos. 
 
 bracelets, los brazaletes. 
 
 a ring, un anillo. 
 
 a guard, una sortija. 
 
 a fan, un abanico. 
 
 a bonnet, un bonetillo. 
 
 a spencer, unjubon. 
 
 a shawl, un chal. 
 
 a mantle, un capotillo. 
 
 a tippet, una palatina. 
 
 a veil, un velo. 
 
 a muff, un manguito. 
 
 clogs, los chapines. 
 
 Of Mankind 
 
 A man, un hombre. 
 
 an old man, un viejo* 
 
 an elderly man, un ancia- 
 
 710.* 
 
 a woman, una muger. 
 a bachelor, un soltero. 
 a maid, una donzella. 
 a boy, un muchacho.* 
 a lad, ?/7i mozito.* 
 a male child, un nino.* 
 
 in general. 
 
 a sucking child, un nino 
 
 de teta. 
 
 the husband, el marido. 
 the wife, la muger. 
 a widower, un viudo* 
 a male orphan, un huirfa- 
 
 no.* 
 
 an heir, un heredero.* 
 the heir at law, el mayoraz- 
 
 go* 
 
264 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 the son-in-law, el yerno. 
 the daughter-in-law, la 
 
 nuera. 
 
 the brother-in-law, d curia- 
 do .* 
 
 an uncle, un tio.* 
 a nephew, un sobrino.* 
 a brother, un hermano.* 
 a cousin, un primo.* 
 first cousin, primo* her- 
 
 the great grandfather, el 
 
 bisabuelo.* 
 a great grandson, un bis- 
 
 niet .* 
 
 a grandfather, un abuelo.* 
 a grandson, un nieto.* 
 a father, un padre 
 a mother, una madre. 
 a son, un hijo.* 
 a stepfather, un padras- 
 
 tro. 
 a stepmother, una ma- god-father, padrino. 
 
 drastra. god-mother, mudrina. 
 
 a father-in-law, un sue- god-son, ahijado.* 
 gro.* a relation, un pariente.* 
 
 N. B. The names which are marked thus* change the 
 last letter into an a when they are applied to females. 
 Names of Individuals according to their Rank, 
 
 Profession, or Employment. 
 
 The Pope, el Papa. a marchioness, una mar- 
 
 a cardinal, un cardenal. queza. 
 
 an archbishop, un arzo- a lord, un lor. 
 bispo. a lady, una senora. 
 
 a gentleman, un caballero. 
 
 a lady, una dama. 
 
 the mayor, el coj-regidor. 
 
 a judge, unjuez. 
 
 a justice of the peace, un 
 
 alcalde. 
 
 a counsel, un abogado. 
 a solicitor, un procurador. 
 a notary, un escribano. 
 a physician, un medico. 
 a surgeon, un cin/jano. 
 an apothecary,?//! boticario. 
 a chemist, un qutmico. 
 a druggist, un droguista. 
 a merchant, un comerciante. 
 
 de 
 
 a bishop, un obispo. 
 
 a dean, un dean. 
 
 a canon, un canonigo. 
 
 a vicar, un vicario. 
 
 a rector, un cura. 
 
 a curate, un teniente 
 
 cura. 
 an emperor, un empera- 
 
 dor. 
 an empress, una empera- 
 
 triz. 
 
 a king, un rey. 
 a queen, una rey na. 
 a prince, un prlncipe. 
 a princess, unaprincesa. 
 an earl, un conde. 
 a countess, una condesa. 
 a marquis, un marques. 
 
 a mercer, un mercader. 
 an exchange broker, un 
 corredor. 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 265 
 
 a shop-keeper, un tendero. 
 a clerk, un escribiente. 
 a tailor, un sastre. 
 a shoemaker, un zapatero. 
 a hatter, un sombrerero. 
 a butcher, un carnicero. 
 a baker, un panadero. 
 a grocer, un especiero. 
 a brewer, un cervezero. 
 a carpenter, un carpintero. 
 a mason, un cantero. 
 a bricklayer, un alb anil. 
 a locksmith, un cerragero. 
 a farrier, un albeityr* 
 a watchmaker, un reloxero. 
 
 a pastrycook, un pastelero. 
 a confectioner, un confitero. 
 ahairdresser, unpeluquero. 
 a glazier, un vidrie.ro. 
 a painter, un pintor. 
 a bookseller, un librero. 
 a printer, un impresor. 
 an engraver, un grabador. 
 a cobbler, wra zapatero de 
 
 viejo. 
 
 a porter, un mandadero. 
 a letter-carrier, ^n carter o, 
 the crier, e/ pregonero. 
 the executioner, e/ verdugo. 
 
 Names given to Persons according to their Native 
 Place. 
 
 An European, un Europeo. 
 an Asiatic, mi Asiano. 
 an African, un Africano. 
 an American, un Ameri- 
 cano. 
 
 an Englishman, un Ingles. 
 a Scotchman, un Escoces. 
 an Irishman, un Irlandes. 
 a Spaniard, un Espanol. 
 a native of Cadiz, un Ga~ 
 
 ditano. 
 a native of Seville, un Se- 
 
 villano. 
 a native of Madrid, un 
 
 Madrileno. 
 a native of Xerez, un Xe 
 
 rezano. 
 a native of Port St. Mary, 
 
 un Porteno. 
 a native of Rota, un Ro 
 
 teno. 
 a native of Estremadura, 
 
 un Estremeno. 
 
 aValentian,^7i Valenciano. 
 a Catalonian, un Catalan 
 a Biscayan, un Vizcaino. 
 a native of la Mancha, un 
 
 Manchego. 
 a native of Malaga, un 
 
 Malagueno^ 
 a native of Granada, un 
 
 Granadino. 
 
 a Castillian, un Castellano. 
 8 native of Asturias, un 
 
 Asturiano. 
 a native of Gallicia, un 
 
 Gallego. 
 a native of Navarre, un 
 
 Navarro. 
 a native of Arragon, un 
 
 A rr agones. 
 anAndalusian, unAndalur. 
 
 a Frenchman, un Frances 
 a native of Flanders, un 
 Flameneo. 
 
266 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 an Italian, un Italiano. 
 a Neapolitan, un Napoli- 
 
 tano. 
 
 a Genoese, un Ginebrino. 
 a native of Geneva, un 
 
 Genoves. 
 
 a Swiss, un Suizo. 
 a German, un Aleman. 
 an Austrian, un Austriaco. 
 a Saxon, un Saxon. 
 a Bavarian, un Bavaro. 
 a Dutchman, un Holandes. 
 a Bohemian,*^?! Bohemia. 
 a Hungarian, un Hungaro. 
 a Prussian, un Prusiano. 
 a Pole, un Polaco. 
 a Dane, un Dinamarques. 
 a Swede, un Sueco. 
 
 a Muscovite, un Muscovites 
 a Russian, un Ruso. 
 a Greek, un Griego. 
 a Turk, un Turco. 
 a Persian, un Persa. 
 a Chinese, MTI Chino. 
 a Carthaginian, u?i Carta- 
 
 gines. 
 
 an Arabian, im Arabe. 
 an Egyptian, im Egipcio. 
 an Algerine, WTI Algelino. 
 an Indian, MTI Indio. 
 a Moor, zm Moro. 
 a Negro, wi Negro. 
 a Creole, MTI Criollo. 
 a Mountaineer, tw Monta- 
 
 nes. 
 a Highlander, WTI Serrano. 
 
 Of a City and its Parts. 
 
 A city, wwa ciudad. 
 
 a town, w/ia vi7/a. 
 
 a village, ?//i lugar. 
 
 a hamlet, ?^?i aldea. 
 
 the suburbs, /os arrabales. 
 
 a street, w?*a ca//e. 
 
 a lane, un callejon. 
 
 a square, i/?i plaza. 
 
 the kennel, eZ ca/io. 
 
 the market, el mercado. 
 
 the fish-market, la pescade- 
 
 ria. 
 the flesh-market, la carni- 
 
 ceria. 
 the b re ad-market, lapana- 
 
 deria. 
 the slaughterhouse, el ma- 
 
 tadero. 
 
 a building, un edificio, 
 a palace, un palacio. 
 
 cas con- 
 
 a house, una casa. 
 the f ownhou 
 
 sistorial. 
 
 a parish, una parroquia. 
 the playhouse, la casa de 
 
 corned las. 
 
 the stage, el teatro. 
 the scenes, los bastidores. 
 the pit, la luneta. 
 a box, u?ipalco. 
 a monastery, unmonasterio. 
 a convent, un convento. 
 an university, una universi- 
 
 dad. 
 
 a college, un colegio. 
 an academy, unaacademia. 
 an hospital, un hospital. 
 a madhouse, una casa de 
 
 locos. 
 a prison, una cdrcel. 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 267 
 
 a coffee-house, un cafe. 
 a hotel, unafonda. 
 a cook-shop, unjigon. 
 an inn, una posada. 
 the Exchange, la Bolsa. 
 the Customhouse, laAdu- 
 
 ana. 
 the Admiralty, el Almiran- 
 
 tazgo. 
 
 the wharf, el muelle. 
 a shop, una tienda. 
 a church, una iglesia. 
 
 a chapel of ease, una ayuda 
 
 de parroquia. 
 the Post-office, el Correo. 
 an office, una ojlcina. 
 a counting-house, un escri- 
 
 torio. 
 
 a warehouse, un almacen. 
 a manufactory, unafdbrica. 
 a workshop, un taller. 
 a boy's-school,?/?i escuela. 
 a girl's-school, M/za escuela 
 
 de ninas 
 
 Of a House and its Divisions. 
 
 The ground -floor, el quarto 
 
 baxo. 
 
 a story, un alto. 
 the first-floor, el primer 
 
 piso. 
 
 the porch, el portal. 
 the court, el patio. 
 the stairs, las escaleras. 
 a step, un escalon. 
 the galleries, /os corredores. 
 a room, im quarto. 
 the dining-room, e/ come- 
 
 dor. 
 
 a parlour, WH# safo. 
 the drawing-room, el es- 
 
 trado. * 
 
 a bed room, una alcoba. 
 an ante- chamber, una an- 
 
 ticdmara. 
 
 a dressing-room, un toco- 
 
 dor. 
 
 a closet, un retrete. 
 the pantry, la despejisa. 
 the kitchen, la cocina. 
 
 cupboard, una alhacena 
 a garret, un desvati. 
 an observatory ,un mirador . 
 a tiled roof, un texado. 
 a window, una ventana. 
 a balcony, un balcon. 
 a door, una puerta. 
 the knocker, el aldabon. 
 the threshold, el umbral. 
 the cellar, la bodega. 
 the stable, to caballeriza. 
 the coach-house, fa cochera. 
 the garden, d jar din. 
 the park, eZ parque. 
 
 Of Household Furniture. 
 
 A bedstead, ima armadu- a flock-mattress, 
 
 ra de cama. chon de lana. 
 
 a feather-bed, zm plumon. a pillow, i^/i almofiada. 
 
 a mattress, WTI xergon. a sheet, zma sdbana, 
 
 N2 
 
 CO/- 
 
268 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 a pillow-case, una funda 
 
 de almohada. 
 the blankets, las manias. 
 the counterpane, la colcha. 
 a chair, una silla. 
 a table, una mesa. 
 an easy chair, un sillon. 
 a sofa, un canape. 
 the curtains, las cortinas. 
 the carpet, la alfombra. 
 a bookcase, un estante. 
 a bureau, una papelera. 
 a writing-desk, un escritorio. 
 
 the sideboard, el aparador 
 
 a mirror, un espejo. 
 
 a chandelier, una arana. 
 
 a pianoforte, ?/tt/orte/?mw>. 
 
 a wardrobe, guardaropa. 
 
 a cabinet, un gabinete. 
 
 a screen, un biombo. 
 
 a trunk, un bahul. 
 
 a box, una caxa. 
 
 a bureau drawer, una gave- 
 
 ta. 
 a table drawer, un caxon. 
 
 Of the Table, fyc. 
 
 The table, la mesa. 
 
 the tablecloth, el mantel. 
 
 a napkin, una servilleta. 
 
 a knife, un cuchillo. 
 
 a fork, un tenedor. 
 
 a spoon, una cuchara. 
 
 a saltcellar, un salero. 
 
 a plate, un plato. 
 
 a sauce-tureen, MTI# salsera. 
 
 the cruets, to ampolletas. 
 
 the pepper-box, e/ pimen- 
 
 tero. 
 the mustard-pot, e mosta- 
 
 zero. 
 
 a glass, w?i mso. 
 a decanter, una botella. 
 
 servicio 
 
 a jug, unjarro. 
 a table-service, 
 
 de mesa. 
 a tea-service, WTI servicio 
 
 dete. 
 
 the teapot, /a tetera. 
 a coffee-pot, WTZ# cafetera. 
 a chocoldte-pot, ww choco- 
 
 latero. 
 
 the mill, e/ molinillo. 
 a sugar-basin, e/ azuquero. 
 the milk-pot, Za taza rfe ^55 
 
 a cup, una tasa. 
 
 a saucer, un platillo. 
 
 Of Meat and Drink. 
 
 Flesh, came. 
 
 boiled meat, carne cocida. 
 
 roasted meat, carne asada. 
 
 fish, pescado. 
 
 beef, vaca. 
 
 mutton, carnero. 
 
 bacon, tocino. 
 
 veal, ternera. 
 venison, venado. 
 lamb, cordero. 
 ham, jamoji. 
 game, caza. 
 a chicken, un polio. 
 a fowl, una gallina. 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 269 
 
 a turkey, un pavo. 
 
 a pigeon, un pichon. 
 
 a partridge, una perdiz. 
 
 a pheasant, unfaysan. 
 
 a duck, unpato. 
 
 a goose, un ganso. 
 
 eggs, huevos. 
 
 sauce, salsa. 
 
 the vegetables, las verduras. 
 
 the pickles, los escabeches. 
 
 salt, sal. 
 
 pepper, pimienta. 
 
 mustard, mostaza. 
 
 oil, azeite. 
 
 vinegar, vinagre. 
 
 pudding, pudin. 
 
 the first course, el primer 
 
 cubierto. 
 the second course, el segun- 
 
 do cubierto. 
 bread, pan. 
 new bread, pan fresco. 
 stale bread, pan duro 
 wine, vino. 
 red wine, vino Unto. 
 white wine, vino bianco. 
 salad, ensalada. 
 cheese, queso. 
 butter, manteca. 
 beer, cerveza. 
 table-beer, cerveza floxa. 
 water, agua. 
 a meat-pie, un pastel. 
 a fish-pie, una empanada. - 
 
 a mince-pie, una costrada. 
 
 a fruit-pie, una torta. 
 
 the dessert, los postres. 
 
 grapes, uvas 9 f. 
 
 melons, melones, m. 
 
 pines, pinas, f. 
 
 oranges, naranjas, f. 
 
 pears, peras, f. 
 
 apples, manzanas, f. 
 
 peaches, melocotones. 
 
 apricots, damascos, m. 
 
 walnuts, nueces, f. 
 
 filberts, avellanas, f. 
 
 almonds, almendras 9 f. 
 
 raisins, pasas, f. 
 
 blanc manger, manjar bian- 
 co. 
 
 jellies, jaleas. 
 
 tea, te. 
 
 coffee, cafe. 
 
 chocolate, chocolate. 
 
 cream, nata. 
 
 milk, leche. 
 
 loaf-sugar, azucar depilon. 
 
 moist-sugar, azucar tercia- 
 do. 
 
 toast, tostada. 
 
 brandy, aguardiente. 
 
 rum, roti. 
 
 punch, ponche. 
 
 negus, sangria. 
 
 orgeat, orchata. 
 
 lemonade, limonada. 
 
270 
 
 USEFUL FAMILIAR DIALOGUES. 
 
 Explanation of the Marks of Reference employed 
 in the following Dialogues. 
 
 O means observation; R, rule ; the small italics refer to the notes ; 
 
 figures after R. denote the number of the rule, and after any other 
 
 letter they refer to the page. 
 N.B. Where figures are parted by a star, those on the left refer to 
 
 the page, and those on the right correspond with a similar figure 
 
 printed in the body of the page. 
 
 I. To accost, inquire after health, and take leave. 
 
 Good morning', gentlemen. Buenos dias, caballeros, R. 
 
 21. 
 A good morning to you. Tengalos, vm. muy buenos, 
 
 R.46. 
 Madam, I wish you a good Buenos tardes tenga vm., 
 
 afternoon. 
 Good night, sir. 
 I wish you a good night. 
 
 How do you do ? 
 
 Very well, at your service. 
 
 And you, how do you do ? 
 So so, or, But so so. 
 How is your mother ? 
 
 She is not very well. 
 She is rather indisposed. 
 How is all your family ? 
 
 They are all well except 
 
 my sister. 
 What ails her ? 
 
 senora, p. 134. 
 B uen as noches, senor, R. 2 1 . 
 Buenas se las de Dios 
 
 vm. R. 51, c. 
 Como estd vm ? 
 Bueno, paraservir<2 vm. R. 
 
 39, a. 
 
 Y vm. 9 como lo pasa ? 
 Asi asi, or, Tal qual. 
 Como estd su madre de 
 
 vm. ? O. 118. 
 No esta muy buena, R. 96. 
 Esta algo indispuesta, R. 96. 
 ^ Como estd su familia de 
 
 vm. ? O. 118. 
 Todos buenos menos mi her- 
 
 mana. 
 & Que tiene ? 
 
DIALOGUES. 271 
 
 She has a cough. Tiene tos. 
 
 She has a violent cold. Esta muy resfriada, R. 96. 
 
 I am exceedingly sorry for Lo siento injiniio, R. 51, e. 
 
 it. 
 
 Does she keep her bed ? <: Esta en cama? R. 103. 
 No, sir, she is in the par- No, senor, esta en la sala, 
 
 lour. ibid. 
 
 She is just gone out. Acaba de salir, R. 131, a. 
 
 I should be happy to see Me alegraria mucho de ver- 
 
 her. la, R. 116, a. 
 
 She will return presently. Volverd pronto.* 
 I have no time to see her ZVb tengo tiempo de verla 
 
 to-day. hoy, R. 131, d. 
 
 I must go to St. James's Es preciso que vaya d la 
 
 Square. Plaza de Santiago, R.I 7. 
 
 Do not go so soon. No sevayavm. tanpronto, 
 
 O. 203. 
 Stop awhile. Quedese vm.un rato,p. 101, 
 
 *1. 
 
 Indeed I cannot. Deveras no puedo. 
 
 Are you in great haste ? <J Esta vm. muy depriesa ? 
 
 R. 105. 
 Yes, sir, I have a great deal Si, senor, tengo mucho que 
 
 to do. hacer, R. 108. 
 
 I came only to inquire how Solo vine para preguntar 06- 
 
 you all were. mo estaban vms., O. 234 
 
 I thank you for this visit. Agradezcoavm. esta visita, 
 
 R. 118. 
 Gentlemen, your most obe- Senores, d la obediencia de 
 
 dient. vms., R. 1. 
 
 Madam, your most humble Senora, a los pies de vm., 
 
 servant. ibid. 
 
 Your servant, sir. Servidora de vm caballero. 
 
 Give my respects to your De* vm. muchas expresiones 
 
 mother. de mi parte a su nmdre, 
 
 R. 118. 
 Remember me to your sis- Muchas memorias d su her- 
 
 ter. mana de vm., p. 119. 
 
 Good-by. Quedese vm. con Dios. 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 31. 
 
2/2 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Good-by to you. 
 Till we meet again. 
 Farewell. 
 Adieu. 
 
 Vaya vm. con Dios. 
 Hasta la vista. 
 Que vm. lo pose bien. 
 Adios. 
 
 II. To ask a Favour. 
 
 Somebody knocks at the 
 ' door. 
 
 See who knocks. 
 Who is there? 
 A friend. 
 Sir, it is a gentleman. 
 
 Whom does he inquire for ? 
 
 For you. 
 Show him in. 
 Your servant, sir. 
 Sir, I am yours. 
 
 I come to solicit a favour. 
 You may command me. 
 
 Do me the favour to send 
 this letter to your bro- 
 ther. 
 
 I will do it with pleasure. 
 
 You may rely on being 
 
 obeyed. 
 Sir, I am very much obliged 
 
 to you. 
 You are very welcome, sir. 
 
 When will your brother re- 
 turn to London ? 
 
 Has he been long gone to 
 his villa ? 
 
 Alguno llama a la puerta % 
 
 R. 78. 
 
 Ve quien llama, R. 59. 
 < Quien esta ahi ? R. 103. 
 Genie de paz. 
 Senor, es un cabal lero, R. 
 
 99. 
 <? Por quien pregunta ? R. 
 
 118, c. 
 
 PoTvm., R. 72. 
 Que pase adelante, p. 203. 
 Servidor de vm , caballero. 
 Senor, yo lo soy de vm. t 
 
 R. 109. 
 Vengo a solicitar una gra- 
 
 cia, O. 222. 
 Mande vm. quanto guste, 
 
 p. 205, *1. 
 Hdgame vm. el favor de 
 
 mandar esta cart a a su 
 
 hermano devm., R. 131, 
 
 d. 
 Lo hare con mucho gusto, 
 
 R. 51, e. 
 Cuente vm. con que sera 
 
 obedecido, R. 23, 6. 
 Senor, viva vm. muchos 
 
 anos, R. 21, b. 
 Para servir a vm. cabal- 
 lero, O. 234. 
 ^ Quando volvera a Lon- 
 
 dres su hermano de vm. ? 
 
 O. 222. 
 6 Ha mucho que se me* su 
 
 quinta? R. 117. 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 273 
 
 He has been there three Hace tres meses que esta 
 months. alia, O. 200. 
 
 He will not come back till No volvera hasta jftnes de 
 the end of November, Noviembre 6 principles de 
 or the beginning of De- 
 cember. 
 
 I shall come and see him Vendre* 
 after I know that he is 
 
 Diciembre, p. 202, *1. 
 
 in London. 
 
 a verle *despues 
 que sepa que estd en Lo?i- 
 dres, O. 222. 
 I will send you word imme- Luego* que, llegue se lo 
 
 diately after he arrives. mandare a decir d vm. 
 I shall be much obliged. Lo estimare mucho. 
 
 III. Concerning the Time of the Day. 
 What o'clock is it? < Que hora es? 
 
 Hdgame vm* el favor de 
 decirme que hora es, R. 
 131, d. 
 
 Van a dar las doce, O. 222. 
 Es la una. 
 No han dado las dos. 
 
 Do me the favour to tell 
 me what it is o'clock. 
 
 It is very near twelve. 
 It i& one o'clock. 
 It has not struck two. 
 It is a quarter after three. 
 Half an hour past four. 
 A quarter to six. 
 
 Son las tres y quarto. 
 Las quatro y media. 
 Las seis menos quarto. 
 
 Twenty minutes after eight. Las ocho y veinte minutos. 
 Five-and-twenty minutes to Las nueve menos veinte y 
 
 cinco minutos. 
 
 Acaban de dar las diez R. 
 131, a. 
 
 Cerca de las once, p. 246. 
 
 Las once estan dando, R. 
 104. 
 
 Da el relox, p. 195, *1. 
 
 No le oygo dar. 
 
 Mire vm, su relox. 
 
 Adelanta. 
 
 Atrasa. 
 
 No anda. 
 
 Estd par ado. 
 
 Dele vm. cuerda. 
 
 nine. 
 It struck ten just now. 
 
 It is about eleven. 
 It is striking eleven. 
 
 The clock strikes. 
 I don't hear it strike. 
 Look at your watch. 
 It goes too fast. 
 It goes too slow. 
 It does not go. 
 It is down. 
 Wind it up. 
 
 See the author's Synonyms, page 165. 
 N3 
 
274 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 IV. Concerning the 
 How is the weather ? 
 
 It is fair weather. 
 
 It is foul weather. 
 
 It is hot. 
 
 It is very cold. 
 
 It has snowed. 
 
 It freezes. 
 
 It thaws. 
 
 It rains. 
 
 It mizzles. 
 
 The rain poured down in 
 
 torrents. 
 It thunders. 
 It lightens. 
 The lightning struck the 
 
 house. 
 I saw hut one flash. 
 
 I heard two claps. 
 There is a sleet falling. 
 There is a very thick mist. 
 
 A fog rises. 
 The wind is high. 
 The wind blows hard. 
 The wind blows cold. 
 
 It begins to grow light. 
 
 It begins to grow dark. 
 
 It is day. 
 
 It is night. 
 
 The sun rises. 
 
 The sun sets. 
 
 It is a starlight night. 
 
 The moon shines. 
 
 State of the Weather. 
 
 6 Que tiempo hace ? N. B. 
 
 193. 
 
 Hace buen tiempo, ibid. 
 Hace mal tiempo, R. 24. 
 Hace calor, N. B. 193. 
 Hace mucho frio, ibid. 
 Ha ?ievado. 
 Hiela. 
 Deshiela. 
 Llueve. 
 Llovisna. 
 Llovio a cdntaros. 
 
 Truena. 
 
 Relampaguea. 
 
 El rayo cay 6 en la casa. 
 
 Solo vi un reldmpago, R. 
 
 142, a. 
 
 Oi dos truenos. 
 Cae aguanieve. 
 Hace una neblina muy es- 
 
 pesa, 
 
 Se levanta una niebla. 
 Corre mucho viento. 
 Hace mucho ayre. 
 Viene el viento muy frio, 
 . R. 109. 
 Amanece. 
 Anochece. 
 Es de dia. 
 Es de noche. 
 El sol sale. 
 El sol se pone. 
 El cielo estd estrellado. 
 Hace luna. 
 
 John! 
 Sir. 
 
 V. At rising in the Morning 
 
 I Juan! 
 Senor. 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 2/5 
 
 Draw the curtains and open 
 the window. 
 
 Is there a fire ? 
 
 Yes, sir, a very good one. 
 
 Air me a shirt, and bring 
 it to me. 
 
 Here it is, sir. 
 
 Give me my gown and 
 slippers. 
 
 Give me my pantaloons. 
 
 The tailor has not brought 
 them. 
 
 Hand me, then, my kersey- 
 mere small clothes and 
 silk stockings. 
 
 They have two holes and a 
 stitch down. 
 
 Give them to the maid to 
 take them up, and give 
 me a pair of thread stock- 
 ings and the leather small 
 clothes. 
 
 Bring me some warm wa- 
 ter. 
 
 Shall I help you to dress ? 
 
 No : whilst I dress myself, 
 
 sharpen my razors. 
 Shall I shave you, sir ? 
 
 No : go and get breakfast 
 
 ready. 
 What will you have for 
 
 breakfast ? 
 Will you have coffee and 
 
 rolls, or tea and toast ? 
 No : give me chocolate and 
 
 bread and butter, and a 
 
 boiled egg. 
 Bring me my boots. 
 
 Corre las cortinas y abre la 
 
 ventana, p. 203. 
 < Hay lumbre ? 
 St 9 senor, muy buena, R.30. 
 Calientame una camisa, y 
 
 trdemela, R. 51, b. 
 Aqui esta, senor, R. 103. 
 Dame mi batay mis chine- 
 las, R. 54. 
 
 Dame mis pantalones. 
 EL sastre no los ha traido, 
 
 R. 47. 
 Vengan pues mis calzones 
 
 de oasimiro y las medias 
 
 de seda, R. 17. 
 Tienen dos puntos y una 
 
 carrera. 
 Daselas a la criada para 
 
 que los coja, y dame, un 
 
 par de medias de hilo y 
 
 los calzones de cuero, 
 
 R. 51, a. 
 Trdeme un poco de agua 
 
 caliente, R. 16, c. 
 Quiere vm. que le ayude a 
 
 vestir? R. 130. 
 No : mientras *que me visto, 
 
 afila mis navajas. 
 i Quiere vm. que le afeite, 
 
 senor? O. 236. 
 No : ve a aprontar el al- 
 
 muerzo, O. 222. 
 6 Que quierevm. almorzar? 
 
 Quiere vm. cafe conmolle- 
 tes, 6 te con tostadas? 
 
 No : dame chocolate con 
 pan y manteca, y un 
 huevo pasado por agua. 
 
 Trdeme mis botas 
 
 See the author's Synonyms, page 140. 
 
276 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 You have not cleaned them 
 
 well. 
 
 Black them again. 
 Go to the stable, and tell 
 
 the groom to saddle my 
 
 horse. 
 Sir, your horse is at the 
 
 door. 
 Here are the spurs, but the 
 
 whip is mislaid. 
 
 Give me a switch then. 
 
 I shall return at four to 
 dress ; and so take care 
 to have every thing 
 ready. 
 
 VI. At 
 
 Dinner is on the table. 
 
 No las has iimpiado bien, 
 
 R. 137. 
 
 Vuelved darlestinte,O.'222. 
 Ve a la cabalhriza, y dile 
 
 al mozo que ensille mi 
 
 caballo, O. 236. 
 Su caballo de vm. senor, es- 
 
 td dlapuerta, R. 103. 
 Aqui* estan las espuelas, 
 
 pero el Idtigo se ha extra- 
 
 viado, ibid. 
 
 Ge 
 
 entlemen, if you please, 
 let us go into the dining- 
 room^ 
 
 The proposal pleases me 
 very much. 
 
 Walk in. 
 
 1 will follow you. 
 
 No, sir ; after you. 
 
 Gentlemen, whilst you 
 spend the time in com- 
 pliments the dinner gets 
 cold. 
 
 Madam, do me the favour 
 to take the first place. 
 
 Mr. James, be pleased to 
 take the next seat to the 
 lady. 
 
 Who likes soup ? 
 
 Yo volvere d las quatro d 
 vestirme, conque cuidado 
 que lo tengas todo pron- 
 to, O. 222. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 La comida estd en la mesa, 
 p. 249. 
 
 Caballeros, si vms. gu.stan, 
 vamos al comedor. 
 
 Muchisimo me agrada la 
 propuesta, p. 245. 
 
 Pase vm. adelante. 
 
 Voy d seguir d vm.) O. 222. 
 
 No 9 senor ; despues de vm., 
 p. 246. 
 
 Senores, mientras que vms. 
 gastan el tiempo en cum- 
 plimientos se enfria la 
 comida, R. 126. 
 
 Senora, hdgame vm. el fa- 
 vor de tomar el primer 
 asiento, R. 131, d. 
 
 Senor Don Diego, sirvase 
 vm. de sentarse junto d 
 la Senora, ibid. b. 
 
 Quien quiere sopa? R. 71. 
 
 See the author's Synonyms, page 123. 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 277 
 
 Madam, will you allow me 
 to send you a slice of the 
 salmon ? 
 
 Do you like shrimp-sauce 
 or anchovy. 
 
 Boy, take the soup and fish 
 
 away. 
 Gome, gentlemen, let us 
 
 take a glass together. 
 Will you not take a glass of 
 
 wine with us ? 
 
 No, sir, I shall content my- 
 self with a glass of beer 
 for the present. 
 
 Bring us the decanters and 
 glasses, and give the gen- 
 tleman a glass of porter. 
 
 I like small beer better. 
 
 Gentlemen, your healths. 
 I thank you, sir. 
 
 Give us new bread, this 
 bread is stale. 
 
 Cut some slices of home- 
 made bread . 
 
 Mr. Peter, will you do me 
 the favour to carve that 
 fowl? 
 
 You are a better carver than 
 
 I. 
 Madam, I am going to send 
 
 you the breast. 
 Do you like the wing or 
 . the leg? 
 Is there any one who likes 
 
 the liver and gizzard ? 
 
 < Senora, gusta vm. que le 
 
 mande una tajada del 
 
 salmon? R. 1, 6. 
 (j Le gusta a vm. la salsa de 
 
 camarones 6 la de ancho- 
 
 vas? O. 217. 
 Muchacho, quita la sopa y 
 
 el pescado. R. 13. 
 Vamos, senores, echemos un 
 
 trago juntos, p. 203. 
 < No quiere vm. tomar un 
 
 vaso de vino con noso- 
 
 tros? R. 48. 
 JVb, senor, por ahora me 
 
 contentare con un vaso 
 
 de cerveza, R. 24. 
 Trdenos las botellas y las co- 
 pitas, y dale al senor un va- 
 so de cerveza fuerte, R. 13. 
 Mas me gusta la cerveza 
 
 floxa. 
 Senores, & la salud de vms., 
 
 O. 118. 
 Buen provecho le haga a 
 
 vm., R. 24. 
 Danos pan tierno, este pan 
 
 es duro. 
 Corta unas rebanadas de 
 
 pan casero, R. 16, a. 
 Senor Don Pedro, quiere 
 
 vm. hacerme el favor de 
 
 trinchar esa gal Una ? R. 
 
 131, d. 
 Vm. es mejor trinchante que 
 
 yo, R. 27. 
 Senora, voy a mandarle a 
 
 vm. laspechugas, 0. 222. 
 <j Le gusta a vm. el alon 6 
 
 lapierna ? R. 51, c. 
 < Hay a quien le guste el hi- 
 gado y la molleja ? 0. 2 1 7 . 
 
278 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Which do you prefer, boiled 
 
 or roast? 
 I will cut you a slice of the 
 
 sir-loin. 
 
 No, I thank you, I like this 
 hash better. 
 
 Do me the favour to help 
 
 yourself. 
 Eat some potatoes, greens, 
 
 or pickles. 
 The stuffing of this fowl is 
 
 very insipid. 
 Put pepper and salt to it. 
 
 What dish is that you have 
 before you ? 
 
 I have two, and I will tell 
 you what they are. 
 
 The one is minced veal, and 
 the other is stewed mutton 
 with forced-meat balls. 
 
 Bring me the melted but- 
 ter. 
 
 I am sorry I have no game 
 to offer you. 
 
 I prefer a good pullet to all 
 
 the partridges and hares 
 
 in the world. 
 I am going to cut you a 
 
 small slice of the neat's 
 
 tongue. 
 
 No, sir, no more. 
 I have eaten sufficiently. 
 That lady has scarcely eaten 
 
 any thing. 
 I begyour pardon ; you have 
 
 helped me to every thing 
 
 there was on table. 
 
 & Qual le gusta d vm. ?nas t 
 
 el cocido 6 el asado ? 
 Le cortare a vm. una taja- 
 
 da del lomo de vaca> R. 
 
 1,6. 
 JVb, viva vm. mil anos, me 
 
 gusta a mi mas bieti este 
 
 guisado, R. 51, c. 
 Hdgame vm. el favor de ser- 
 
 virse a si mismo, R. 51, c?. 
 Coma vm. patatas, berzas, 
 
 6 escabeches. 
 El relleno de esta gallina 
 
 esta muy zonzo, R. 98. 
 Echele vm. sal y pimienta, 
 
 R. 51, e. 
 Que plato es ese que tiene 
 
 vm. delante? O. 126. 
 Tengo dos, y le dire d vm. 
 
 lo que son, R. 67. 
 
 El uno es un gigote de ter- 
 
 nera, y el otro un estofado 
 
 decarnerocon albondigas. 
 
 Trdeme la salsa demanteca. 
 
 Siento mucho que. no tengo 
 ninguna caza quepresen- 
 tarles d vms., p. 245. 
 
 Yo prefiero una buenapolla 
 a todas las perdices y lie 
 bres del mundo, R. 120. 
 
 Toy d cortarle d vm. una 
 tajadita de la lengua de 
 vaca, p. 29. 
 
 No, senor, no mas. 
 
 He comido bastajite. 
 
 Esa senor a no ha comido 
 casi nada. 
 
 Perdone vm. ; vm. me ha 
 servido de quanta habia 
 en la mesa. 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 279 
 
 I hope, gentlemen, you 
 will not suffer me to eat 
 alone. 
 
 Come, colonel, what shall 
 I help you to ? 
 
 Hand me over a small slice 
 of ham, only to keep you 
 company. 
 
 Will you have fat or lean ? 
 
 I like both very well. 
 
 Madam, will you allow me 
 to help you to some ap- 
 ple-pie or to some plum- 
 pie? 
 
 Do you like crust ? 
 
 Yes, sir, but do not give 
 me too much juice. 
 
 That is enough. 
 
 I will thank you to send me 
 a small piece of cheese. 
 
 Cut yourself some bread. 
 
 What! do you like crumb 
 better than crust ? 
 
 I have not dressed the salad, 
 in order that every one 
 may dress it to his taste. 
 
 Boy, bring the cruets which 
 are on the sideboard. 
 
 Uncork that bottle. 
 
 I have lost my corkscrew. 
 
 Take mine. 
 
 This is Scotch beer, and I 
 
 should like you to taste 
 
 it. 
 
 Espero, senores, que no me 
 dexardn vms. coiner solo. 
 
 <j Vamos, senor coronet, de 
 que quiere vm. que le sir- 
 va? p. *176. 
 
 Venga una tajadita de ja- 
 mon, solo port hacer com- 
 pania d-vm., O. 234. 
 
 & Quiere vm. magro 6 gordo ? 
 
 Ambos me gustan bien, R. 
 88. 
 
 Gusta vm. senora, que la 
 sirva del pastel de man- 
 zanas 6 del de ciruelas ? 
 
 Le gusta d vm. la costra ? 
 Si, senor, pero no me de vm. 
 
 mucho zumo. 
 Basta. 
 Estimare me mande vm. un 
 
 pedazito de queso. 
 Cortese vm. pan. 
 ] Que ! le gusta a vm. el 
 
 migajon mas que la cor- 
 
 teza? O. 217. 
 Noheaderezadola ensalada 
 
 para que cada uno la ade- 
 
 rece d su gusto, R. 133, a. 
 Muchacho, traelas ampolle- 
 
 tas que estan en el apa- 
 
 rador, p. 249. 
 Destapa esa limeta, 0. 126. 
 He per dido mi tirabuzon, 
 
 R. 54. 
 
 Toma el mio, R. 56. 
 Esta es cerveza de Escocia, 
 
 y quiero que la prueben 
 
 vms., R 18, c. 
 
 } See the author's Synonyms, page 1. 
 
280 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 We will give you our opi- 
 nion. 
 
 Well, what do you think? 
 
 It is very good, but very 
 heady. 
 
 Boy, rinse those glasses. 
 
 Set the wine on the table, 
 and bring us the dessert. 
 
 Le diremos a vm. nuestro 
 
 parecer, R. 51, c. 
 Pues, que tal ? 
 Es muy buena, pero fortisi- 
 
 ma, R. 30, a. 
 Muchacho, lava esos vasos, 
 
 O. 126. 
 Pon el vino en la mesa, y 
 
 trdenos los postres, R. 46. 
 
 VII. At retiring to Rest. 
 
 John, is my bed made ? 
 The maid has just made it. 
 
 Then tell her to warm it. 
 
 Light a candle. 
 
 Open my drawer, and take 
 
 out a clean night-cap. 
 Has the washerwoman 
 
 brought my clean linen? 
 Yes, sir, there is nothing 
 
 wanting. 
 Then pay her the bill when 
 
 she comes for the foul 
 
 linen. 
 Help me to pull off my 
 
 coat. 
 Now you may go away, and 
 
 I will ring the bell when I 
 
 want you. 
 
 Draw the bed-curtains. 
 Awake me to-morrow as 
 
 soon as it is daylight. 
 I must rise very early. 
 
 Put out the candle, and go 
 to bed. 
 
 <> Juan, esta hecha mi cama ? 
 
 R. 98. 
 Acaba de hacerla la criada, 
 
 R. 131, a. 
 
 Pues dile que la caliente. 
 Enciende una vela. 
 Abre mi gavela, y saca un 
 
 gorro limpio. 
 & Ha traido la lavanderami 
 
 ropa limpia ? 
 Siy senor, no falta nada. 
 
 Puespdgale la cuenta quan- 
 
 do venga por la ropa su- 
 
 cia, p. 249. 
 Ayudarne a quitar la casa- 
 
 ca, R. 130. 
 Ahorapuedes irte, que yo to- 
 
 care la campanula quan- 
 
 do te haya menester. 
 Corre las cortinas de la cama. 
 Despiertame mananaluego* 
 
 que sea de dia 
 Esmenesterfgwe me levan- 
 
 te muy temprano, 0. 193. 
 Apaga la vela, y vete a 
 
 acostar, O, 222. 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 165. 
 -} See the author's Synonyms, page 115. 
 
DIALOGUE*. 
 
 281 
 
 VIII. To write a Letter. 
 
 Is not to day post-day ? 
 
 Why do you ask? 
 Because I have several let- 
 ters to write. 
 Give me- a quire of paper. 
 
 Open my escrutoire, and 
 
 you will find there pen, 
 
 ink, and paper. 
 There are only three sheets 
 
 here. 
 There is half a ream in the 
 
 drawer. 
 The ink is very thick. 
 
 There are two inkstands. 
 
 The pens are good for no- 
 thing. 
 
 You are very difficult to 
 please, sir. 
 
 Try them yourself. 
 
 I do not complain without 
 a reason. 
 
 Can you make pens ? 
 
 I make them my own way. 
 
 J will lend you my pen- 
 knife, and I will give you 
 a couple of quills. 
 
 Have you finished your 
 letters > 
 
 I am going to sign the last. 
 
 There is no sand in the 
 sand-box. 
 
 Here is half a sheet of blot- 
 ting paper. 
 
 & No es hoy dia de correo ? 
 
 R. 17. 
 
 & Porque lo pregunta vm. ? 
 Porque tengo varias cartas 
 
 que escribir, R. 108. 
 Deme vm. una mano de 
 
 papel. 
 Abra vm. mi papelera, y 
 
 alii encontrard vm. reca- 
 
 do de escribir. 
 Aqui no hay mas que tres 
 
 pliegos, p. 191. 
 En la gaveta hay media res- 
 ma. 
 La tinta esta muy espesa, 
 
 R. 98. 
 
 Hay dos tinteros, p. 191. 
 Las plumas no valen nada, 
 
 p. 245. 
 Senor, vm. es muy diflcil de 
 
 contentar, R. 40, a. 
 Pruebel&s vm., R. 46. 
 No me quexo sin razon, R. 
 
 15, d. 
 Sabe vm. cortar plumas ? 
 
 R. 128. 
 
 Las corto ami modo, R. 47. 
 Le prestare d vm. mi corta- 
 
 plumas, y le dare un par 
 
 de canones. 
 
 Ha acabado vm. sus car- 
 tas ? 
 
 Foy dfirmar laiiltima,p.36. 
 No hay arenilla en la salvo- 
 
 dera. 
 
 A hi* tiena vm. mediopliego 
 de teleta. 
 
 See the author's Synonyms, page 122. 
 
282 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I have not put the date to 
 
 them. 
 What day of the month is 
 
 to-day ? 
 
 The twenty-fifth. 
 Whilst I fold up this letter 
 
 make me a packet of the 
 
 other four. 
 Seal them, and then I will 
 
 write the direction. 
 Will you have me put sealing 1 
 
 wax or wafers to them ? 
 Seal the packet with red 
 
 wax, and the letter with 
 
 black. 
 
 Are you in mourning 1 ? 
 No, sir, but this is a letter 
 
 of condolence. 
 Will you have me seal 
 
 them with the arms or 
 
 with the cipher ? 
 It is immaterial. 
 If you like, I will send them 
 
 by my servant. 
 I shall be much obliged, 
 
 and tell him to pay for 
 
 them. 
 Take these letters to the 
 
 post, and do not forget 
 
 to pay the postage. 
 
 Aun* no les he puesto la 
 
 fecha, R. 51. 
 A como eslamos hoy? 
 
 A veinte y c'mco, R. 72. 
 Mie?ilra$f cierro tsta carta 
 
 hdgame vm. un pliego de 
 
 las otras quatro; R. 86. 
 Sellelas vm. y luego% les 
 
 pondre el sobrescrilot 
 Quiere vm. que les ponga 
 
 lacre u obleas? R. 133. 
 Selle vm. el pliego con lacre 
 
 encarnado, y la carta con 
 
 negro. 
 
 (jEstawn. delutoPR. 105. 
 No, senor, pero es carta de 
 
 pesame, 
 Quiere vm. que las selle 
 
 con las armas 6 con la 
 
 cifra ? 
 No importa. 
 Si vm. gusta, las mandare 
 
 con mi criado. 
 Lo estimare mucho, y di- 
 
 gale vm. que las pague, 
 
 R. 51, e. 
 Lleva estas cart as al correo, 
 
 y ?io se te olvide de pa- 
 gar el porte, R. 123. 
 
 IX. To hire a Lodging. 
 
 Will you come with me to 
 hire a lodging ? 
 
 I will accompany you with 
 
 much pleasure. 
 In what quarter of the town 
 
 do you wish to lodge ? 
 
 Quiere vm.. rern'rconmigo 
 
 a alquilar un alojamien- 
 
 to ? R. 48, a. 
 Le accompanare a vm. co?i 
 
 mucho gusto. 
 & En que barrio quiere vm. 
 
 alojar ? 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 12. 
 f See the author's Synonyms, page 140. 
 | See the author's Synonyms, page 165. 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 283 
 
 Near the Admiralty. 
 Then let us go this way. 
 
 What is the name of this 
 street ? 
 
 Broad Street. 
 
 Here is a bill. 
 
 Knock at that door. 
 
 Who is there ? 
 
 A friend, 
 
 I wish to speak to the mas- 
 ter or mistress of the 
 house. 
 
 Have you any rooms to let ? 
 
 Yes, sir. Will you have the 
 first floor or the ground 
 floor? 
 
 Neither. I want apartments 
 on the second floor. 
 
 Be pleased to come up, 
 and I will show you the 
 rooms I have. 
 
 How many do you want ? 
 
 I want a parlour and bed- 
 room with a closet for 
 myself and a garret for 
 my servant. 
 
 Must they be furnished ? 
 
 No, I have furniture. 
 These apartments suit me 
 
 very well. 
 How much do you ask for 
 
 them? 
 How long will you take 
 
 them for ? 
 
 Cerca delAlmirantazgo, p 
 
 246. 
 Vamos pues por aqui, p 
 
 *176. 
 < Como se llama esta calh 9 
 
 O. 126. 
 
 La calle ancha. 
 Aqui hay cartel. 
 Llame vm. a, esa puerta. 
 6 Quien esta ahi ?f R- 1 03. 
 Gente de paz. 
 Quiero hablar con el amo 6 
 
 el ama de esta casa, O. 
 
 236. 
 < Tiene vm. quartos de al- 
 
 quiler ? 
 Si, senor. Quiere vm. el 
 
 quarto principal 6 el 
 
 quarto baxo ? 
 Ni uno ni otro. Quiero una 
 
 vivienda en el quarto se~ 
 
 gundo. 
 Sirvase vm. de subir, y le 
 
 most-rare d vm. los quar- 
 tos que tengo, R. 131, 6. 
 <4 Quantos quiere vm. ? 
 Necesito sola y alcoba con 
 
 un retrete para mi, y un 
 
 desvanpara mi criado. 
 
 Es menester que scan al- 
 
 hajados? O. 193. 
 No, tengo muebles, R. 107. 
 Me quadran bien estos apo- 
 
 sentos, R. 121. 
 ^ Quanto pide vm. por ellos? 
 
 p. 249. 
 < Por quanto tiempo quiere 
 
 vm.. alquilarlos? 
 
 f See the author's Synonyms, page 122. 
 
284 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 less 
 
 I to 
 
 For a fortnight or three Por dos 6 ires semanas. 
 
 weeks. 
 
 It is not worth my while to Nome vale lapena el alqui- 
 than larlos por menos de un 
 mes. R. 27, 6. 
 Y quanta he de pagar al 
 mes? R. 108. 
 A razon de quarenta duros 
 
 al ano. 
 
 Me parece demasiado. 
 No puedo alquilarlos por 
 
 menos. 
 
 & Veamos el desvan ? 
 ^uesta, y bastante capaz, 
 R. 103. 
 
 Puedo yo comer aqui* con 
 vm. ? 
 
 Como vm. guste, p. 205 *1. 
 ; Y quanta quiere vm,. por 
 quarto y comida juntos ? 
 R. 22. 
 
 Treinta pesos al mes. 
 Pues, empezare el Lunes 
 
 que viene, p. 249. 
 Quando vm. gustare. 
 X. To hire a Chaise, Horse, or Boat. 
 I want a travelling coach. Necesitouncochedecamino. 
 How many mules do you ^Quantasmulas quiere vm.? 
 
 want? 
 
 Six. Seis. 
 
 Very well, whither are you Muy bien estd> adonde} 
 
 going ? va vm. ? 
 
 I am going to Seville, and Voy a Sevilla, y es menester 
 it must be at my door que este a mi puerta esta 
 
 let them for 
 
 one month. 
 And how much am 
 
 pay a month ? 
 At the rate of forty dollars 
 
 a year. 
 
 I think that is too much. 
 I cannot let them for less. 
 
 Let us see the garret. 
 Here it is, and very roomy. 
 
 Can I board with you ? 
 
 As you please. 
 
 And how much do you ask 
 for board and lodging to- 
 gether ? 
 
 Thirty dollars a month. 
 
 Well, I shall begin on Mon- 
 day next. 
 
 When you please. 
 
 this afternoon. 
 At what o'clock ? 
 At six o'cock precisely. 
 Where do you live ? 
 Opposite the Park. 
 
 tarde, R. 117. 
 6 A que hora ? R. 72. 
 A las seis en punto, R. 72. 
 < Donde\ vive vm. ? 
 Enfrente del Parque. 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 122. 
 f See the author's Synonyms, page 11. 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 285 
 
 You shall be attended to, sir. 
 Do not you want horses ? 
 
 I have no objection to take 
 
 one, if you have some 
 
 good ones. 
 There are no better. 
 Well, saddle me one, and I 
 
 will take it away with me. 
 Put no housings on him. 
 Girt him tight. 
 Put him on a martingale 
 
 and the bridle. 
 I do not like these stirrups, 
 
 they are too small. 
 These are larger. 
 I want to hire a vessel. 
 Here is the master. 
 Whither do you wish to go? 
 To Cadiz. How much do 
 
 you want for the hire ? 
 You shall give me forty 
 
 rials. 
 Very well, but I must go 
 
 instantly. 
 
 We will set sail immediately 
 you come on board. 
 
 Where is your vessel ? 
 
 Out yonder. 
 
 I must take a boat in order 
 
 to go there. 
 Here is a waterman. 
 
 Sera vm. servido. 
 
 No lefaltan a vm. cabal- 
 
 los? O. p. 217. 
 No tengo reparo en tomar 
 
 uno, si los tiene vm. bue- 
 
 nos. 
 
 No los hay mejores, p. 191. 
 Pues, ensilleme vm, uno, y 
 
 me le llevare conmigo. 
 No leponga vm.gualdrapa. 
 Aprietele vm. las cinchas. 
 Pongale vm. una gamarra 
 
 y el freno. 
 No me gustan los estribos, 
 
 son muy pequenos. 
 Estos son mayores. 
 Quiero fletar un barco. 
 Aqui* estd el patron. 
 Adonde quierevm. ir ? 
 A Cadiz, &quanto quiere 
 
 vm. por eljlete? p. 249. 
 Me dard vm. quarenta rea- 
 
 les. 
 En hora buena, pero es me- 
 
 nester que vaya inmedia- 
 
 tamente, O. 193. 
 Luegof que venga vm. 
 
 abordo nos haremos a la 
 
 vela, R. 133, a. 
 Donde estd su barco de 
 
 vm. ? O. 118. 
 Alii* fuera. 
 
 Es precisoj que tome una 
 
 lancha para ir alia, O.I 93. 
 
 A hi * tiene vm. un barquero. 
 
 XI. On setting out on a Journey. 
 Sir, I come to take my Senor, vengo d despedime 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 122. 
 f See the author's Synonyms, page 165. 
 I See the author's Synonyms, page 115. 
 
286 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 leave of you, because I 
 am going to Madrid. 
 
 When do you set out ? 
 
 To-morrow morning. 
 
 Are you going in a coach 
 or in a chaise ? 
 
 No, sir, I go on horseback. 
 
 I regret exceedingly your 
 leaving us so soon. 
 
 Sir, you favour me. 
 
 We must take a glass toge- 
 ther before you go. 
 
 Come, here is wishing you 
 
 a good journey. 
 Many thanks. 
 Is this the road to Madrid? 
 
 Go straight on till you 
 come to the first public- 
 house on the road. 
 
 How many miles are there 
 from this place to Ma- 
 drid? 
 
 Thirty miles. 
 
 Do you think I can travel 
 so much to-day ? 
 
 You have plenty of time to 
 get in before sunset. 
 
 Is the road good? 
 
 Very good. 
 
 Which way am I to take ? 
 
 When you come to the 
 cross roads turn to the 
 right. 
 
 Must I ascend the hill ? 
 
 Leave it on your left. 
 
 de vm. porqup me voy a 
 
 Madrid, R. 125 
 & Quando parte vm. ? 
 Manana por la manana. 
 Va vm. en cache, 6 en ca- 
 
 lesa? R. 134, 6. 
 No, senor, voy a caballo. 
 Siento mucho que nos dejce 
 
 vm. tan pronto. 
 Estimo el favor de vm. 
 Es menester* que echemos 
 
 untr ago juntos dntes que 
 
 vm. se vaya, R. 133, a. 
 Fay a a su buen viage. 
 
 Muchas gracias. 
 Es este el camino de Ma- 
 drid ? R. 17, a. 
 Vaya vm. en derechura 
 
 hasta que llegue a la 
 
 primer a venta. 
 6 Quantas leguas hay desde 
 
 ' aqui a Madrid? N. B. 
 
 249. 
 
 Diez leguas. 
 6 Le parece a vm. que pue- 
 
 da caminar tanto hoy ? 
 
 R. 133. 
 T ierie vm. bastante tiempo 
 
 para llegar antes que el 
 
 sol seponga. 
 & Hay buen camino ? 
 Muy bueno. 
 4 Que camino he de tomar ? 
 
 R. 108. 
 Quando llegue vm. a la en- 
 
 crucixada tome vm. d la 
 
 derecha. 
 
 6 Es preciso* subirel monte ? 
 Dexele vm. d la izquierda. 
 
 See the author's Synonyms, page 115. 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 287 
 
 May one ford the river ? 
 They ferry it over. 
 Good by, sir. 
 I wish you a good journey. 
 
 w Se puede vadear el rio ? 
 Se pasa con barca. 
 Adios, senor. 
 Dios le de a vm. buenviage. 
 
 XII. On arriving at an Inn. 
 
 Are you the ostler ? 
 
 Yes, sir, what is your plea- 
 sure ? 
 
 Take my horse and rub him 
 down well, give him a 
 good feed, but do not 
 give him drink. 
 
 Are you the landlord ? 
 
 Yes, sir, at your service. 
 
 I wish to lodge here to- 
 night. Have you good 
 rooms ? 
 
 You can see them, and 
 choose that which you 
 like best. 
 
 There is no occasion ; give 
 me a good bed, and let 
 the sheets be clean and 
 well aired. 
 
 Let me have some supper. 
 
 What will you have dress- 
 ed ? 
 
 A couple of pigeons. 
 
 Send in the boy to take off 
 my boots. 
 
 Bring in the supper as soon 
 as it is ready, because I 
 wish to go early to bed 
 
 What am I indebted to 
 you? 
 
 <$ Eres el mozo de caballos ? 
 Si, senor, que gusta vm. ? 
 
 Tomami caballoyestriegale 
 
 bien, dale un buen pienso, 
 
 pero no le des de beber. 
 
 O. 203. 
 
 Es vm. el mesonero ? 
 Si, senor, para servir a vm., 
 
 O. 234. 
 Quiero hospedarme aqui* 
 
 esta noche. & Tiene vm. 
 
 buenos quartos ? 
 Puede vm. verlos, y escoger 
 
 el que le parezca mejor, 
 
 R. 76, b. 
 No hay para que; deme vm. 
 
 una cama buena, y que 
 
 las sdbanas sean limpias 
 
 y esten enxutas. 
 Deme vm. algo de cenar. 
 6 Que quiere vm. que le ade- 
 
 rece ? 
 
 Un par de pichones. 
 Mande vm. al mozo para 
 
 que me quite las botas, 
 
 R. 133, a. 
 Trae la cena luego^ que este 
 
 pronta, por que quiero 
 
 acostarme temprano. 
 Quanto le debo a vm. ? 
 
 R. 118. 
 
 * See the author's Synonyms, page 123. 
 f See the author's Synonyms, page 165. 
 
288 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The expenses come up to El gasto sube a cincuenta 
 
 fifty rials. reales. 
 
 Here they are. Ahi los tiene vm. 
 
 Count them. Cuentelos vm. 
 
 They are very right. Estan cabales. 
 
 XIII. On consulting a Physician. 
 
 I have sentjfor you, doctor, 
 because I feel myself 
 very ill. 
 
 Indeed you do -not look 
 well. 
 
 I hare an inflammation in 
 my throat, a pain in my 
 side, and my head aches 
 a great deal. 
 
 Do you cough ? 
 
 Yes, sir, in the night. 
 
 How long have you been 
 ill? 
 
 Since the day before yes- 
 terday. 
 
 Tell me in what manner 
 this illness came on you. 
 
 At first I felt some shiver- 
 ings, then a fever came 
 on which lasted all night. 
 
 Have you taken any thing ? 
 Some wine whey only. 
 
 Have you any appetite ? 
 On the contrary I feel a 
 
 loathing against food. 
 Did you sup well the night 
 
 before you were taken 
 
 ill? 
 I felt great appetite and 
 
 He mandado por vm. senor 
 doctor, porque me siento 
 muy malo, p. 249. 
 
 A la verdad no tiene vm. 
 buen semblante. 
 
 Tengo inflamacion de gar- 
 ganta, dolor de costado, 
 y me duele mucho la ca-. 
 beza, O. 118. 
 
 6 Tose vm. ? 
 
 Si, senor, por la noche. 
 
 Quanto tiempo ha que 
 estd vm. malo ? O. 200. 
 
 Desde antes de ayer. 
 
 Digame vm. de que modo le 
 sobrevino esta indisposi- 
 tion, R. 121. 
 
 Al principio me senti con 
 escalofrios, y luego me 
 entro una calentura que 
 me durb toda la 7ioche. 
 
 Ha tornado vm, algo ? p. 
 199, *1. 
 
 Un poco de suero de leche 
 solamente. 
 
 Tiene vm. apetito? 
 
 A I cojitrario tengo mucho 
 hdstio a la comida. 
 
 & Ceno vm. bien la noche an- 
 tes decaermalo? O. 247. 
 
 Me senti con ganas, y comi 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 289 
 
 \ 
 
 more than 
 
 mi poco mas de lo regu- 
 
 lar. 
 Deme vm. el brazo para to- 
 
 marie elpulso, O. 234. 
 Hagame el favor de sacar 
 
 la lengua, R. 131, d. 
 & Que le parece d vm. de mi 
 
 enfermedad ? 
 
 ate rather 
 
 usual. 
 Give me your arm, that I 
 
 may feel your pulse. 
 Do me the favour to put 
 
 out your tongue. 
 What do you think of my 
 
 illness ? 
 Do you think it dangerous? <j Cree vm. que sea de peli- 
 
 gro ? R. 133. 
 No, sir, there is no danger No 9 senor, no hay riesgo 
 
 at present. But you por ahora. Pero es pre- 
 
 must take good care of ciso* que vm. se cuide 
 
 yourself. bien. 
 
 There is no doubt but you .ZVb hay duda de que se le 
 
 have overheated yourself. hay a recalentado d vm. 
 
 la sangre. 
 You have likewise caught Tambien le ha cogido a iym. 
 
 a cold, and consequently un resfriado> y por consi- 
 
 guiente estd obstruida la 
 transpiration. 
 
 the perspiration is ob- 
 
 structed. 
 In addition to this, your Ademas de esto, vm. se ha 
 
 stomach is overloaded. empachado. 
 
 Do you think it will be ne- 
 
 cessary to bleed me ? 
 By no means. 
 But a blister would relieve Pero un vexigatorio le ali- 
 
 you. viaria d vm. 
 
 I had rather put on leeches. Mas bien quiero echarme 
 
 sanguijuelas. 
 They would not do you so No le hariari d vm. tanto 
 
 much good. provecho, p. 211, *6. 
 
 Cree vm. que sea preciso* 
 sangrarme ? 
 De ningun modo. 
 
 What am I to drink ? for I 
 am dying with thirst. 
 
 Que he de beber? porque 
 me muero de sed, R 
 116. 
 
 Drink plentifully of mint Beba vm. en abundancia te 
 tea, or barley 
 
 or balm 
 water. 
 
 I am going to prescribe for 
 you. 
 
 de, yervabuena 6 de lo- 
 rongil, 6 agua de cebada. 
 Voy d recetarle d vm. 
 
 See the author's Synonyms, pr,ge 115. 
 O 
 
290 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Send/or these medicines. 
 
 And take them according 
 
 to the directions. 
 I will mention it to the 
 
 nurse. 
 
 Retire early to bed. 
 Put your feet in warm water. 
 Keep in bed, and keep 
 
 yourself warm. 
 Are my medicines brought? 
 
 Here they are. 
 Read the labels. 
 The emetic to be taken im- 
 mediately. 
 
 Mande vm. por estos medi- 
 
 camentos, p. 249. 
 Y tomelos segan las direc- 
 
 ciones. 
 Se lo dire a la enfermera, 
 
 R. 51, e. 
 
 Recojase vm. temprano. 
 Dese vm. un bano depies. 
 Quedese vm. en cama, y 
 
 abriguese bien. 
 & Han traido mis medica- 
 
 mentos ? 
 Aqui estan* 
 Lea vm. los rbtulos 
 Se tomard el vomitivo in- 
 
 mediatamente. 
 
 Two pills to be taken at Setomardn dos pildoras al 
 
 tiempo de recogerse, y la 
 bebida por la manana. 
 Se tomardn dos cucharadas 
 de la emulsion siempre 
 que la tos moleste, p. 
 205, *1. 
 El otro rotulo dice sola- 
 
 mente la gar gar a. 
 . XIV. On speaking to a Tailor. 
 Sir, I want to get a suit of Senor maestro, quiero ha- 
 
 black made. cerme un vestido negro. 
 
 What will you have it made 
 
 of? 
 
 The coat of French cloth, 
 the waistcoat of silk, and 
 the small-clothes of ker- 
 
 bedtime, and the draught 
 in the morning 1 . 
 
 Two table spoonfuls of the 
 emulsion to be taken 
 when the cough is trou- 
 blesome. 
 
 The other label says, the 
 gargle only. 
 
 De que le quiere vm. ? 
 
 seymere. 
 
 Here are some patterns. 
 
 How many yards do I want 
 for the coat and waist- 
 coat ? 
 
 Two yards and a half for Dos varas y media para la 
 the coat, and a yard and casaca, vara y media pa- 
 a half for the waistcoat. ra la chupa. p. 102, *9. 
 
 La casaca de pano de FraD- 
 cia, la chupa de seda, y 
 los calzones de casimiro, 
 R. 18, c. 
 
 Aqui tiene vm. muestras. 
 
 Quantas varas necetito 
 para casaca y chupa ? 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 291 
 
 What will you have the 
 
 coat lined with ? 
 With the same. 
 Make me a suit to fit well. 
 
 I shall give you satisfaction. 
 When will you bring it me? 
 
 As soon as possible, sir. 
 Will you be pleased to try 
 
 on your suit ? 
 That suit becomes you well. 
 
 I like this suit very well. 
 
 Make me a blue cloth coat 
 with gilt buttons, a pair 
 of pantaloons of the same 
 colour, and three pair of 
 nankeen trowsers. 
 
 4 De que se ha de aforrar 
 la casaca ? 
 
 De lo mismo. 
 
 Hdgamevm. un vestido que 
 me venga bien. 
 
 Quedard vm. contento. 
 
 Quando me le traerd vm. ? 
 R. 51, e. 
 
 Senor, quanta antes. 
 
 Quiere vm. probarse el ves- 
 tido ? 
 
 Ese vestido le cae* d vm. 
 bien. 
 
 Me gusta mucho este vestido. 
 
 Hdgame vm. u?ia casaca de 
 pano azul con botones do- 
 rados, un par de panta- 
 lones del mism.o color, y 
 tres pares de calzones de 
 marinero de mahon, R. 17. 
 
 XV. On speaking to a Shoemaker. 
 Make me a pair of shoes. 
 
 When do you want them ? 
 
 On Sunday without fail. 
 
 The last were good for no- 
 thing. 
 
 They did not last a fort- 
 night. 
 
 This shoe hurts me. 
 
 Your foot is not quite home 
 yet. 
 
 This shoe does not fit me. 
 
 It fits too close. 
 
 It presses on my instep. 
 
 Hdgame vm. unpar de za- 
 
 patos. 
 Para quando los quiere 
 
 vm. ? 
 
 Para el Domingo sin falta. 
 Los ultimos no valiannada. 
 
 No me durdron quince dias. 
 
 Este zapato me lastima. 
 
 Vm. no ha entrado el pie to- 
 davia. 
 
 No me viene bien este zapa- 
 to. 
 
 Estd muy ajustado. 
 
 Me aprieta un poco en el 
 empeine, O. 118. 
 
 * See Colloquial Idioms, Exercises, p. 107. 
 
 o2 
 
292 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 It will widen in a few days. Se ensanchard dpocos dias. 
 
 Well, make me another pair Bien, hdgame vm. otro par 
 like this, and a pair of como este, y un par de 
 boots, and bring 1 me the botas, y trdygame las 60- 
 boots as soon as they are tas luego que esten aca- 
 finished. badas. 
 
 I will bring them to you Las traere d vm. la semana 
 next week. que viene. 
 
 XVI. On some of the most frequent Topics of 
 Conversation. 
 
 Do you know any thing 
 new? 
 
 What news is there ? 
 
 Have you read the Gazette? 
 
 It is reported that the Turks 
 have defeated the Rus- 
 sians. 
 
 Say the contrary, for it is 
 the Russians who have 
 defeated the Turks. 
 
 I have heard so, but I be- 
 lieve not. 
 
 There have been many 
 killed on both sides. 
 
 It has not been a general 
 engagement, but of one 
 detachment against ano- 
 ther. 
 
 Do you know the number 
 of wounded ? 
 
 It is not yet known. 
 
 The enemy has retired very 
 severely handled. 
 
 They have lost all their ar- 
 tillery. 
 
 Whom do you know it 
 from? 
 
 I have heard it related by 
 persons of great veracity. 
 
 < Sabe vm. algo de nuevo ? 
 R. 81, a. 
 
 Que noticias hay ? 
 
 & Ha leido vm. la Gazeta ? 
 
 Se dice que los Turcos han 
 derrotado d los Rusos, p. 
 145. 
 
 Diga vm. lo contrario, por- 
 que son los Rusos los que 
 han derrotado d los Tur- 
 cos, p. 36, and R. 25. 
 
 He oido decir que si, pero 
 creo que no, O. 244. 
 
 De una parte y otra ha ha- 
 bido mucha gente muerta. 
 
 No ha sidofancion general, 
 sino de un destacamento 
 con otro. 
 
 Sabe vm. el numero de 
 
 heridos ? 
 
 Aun no se sabe, p. 145. 
 Los enemigos se han retira- 
 
 do muy maltratados. 
 Han per dido toda la artille- 
 
 ria. 
 <j De quien lo sabe vm. ? 
 
 R. 69. 
 Lo he oido contard persona* 
 
 Jidedignas. 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 293 
 
 What says the Spanish 
 Gazette ? 
 
 It brings the intelligence of 
 the siege of Alicant by 
 the French. 
 
 The besieged have made a 
 sally. 
 
 They have demolished the 
 works of the besiegers. 
 
 They have spiked the can- 
 non. 
 
 The . King's Regiment has 
 done wonders. 
 
 If the place be taken by as- 
 sault, they will give no 
 quarter. 
 
 The governor will never 
 capitulate, if the garrison 
 be to remain prisoners of 
 war. 
 
 Let us talk of something 
 else. 
 
 Do you know, gentlemen, 
 that the governor's daugh- 
 ter is going to be mar- 
 ried? 
 
 To whom ? 
 
 To the son of the mayor. 
 
 Ah ! that is a good match. 
 Her sister is just married. 
 
 And who is the bride- 
 groom ? 
 
 A very rich merchant. 
 
 How much has been the 
 portion ? 
 
 Thirty thousand pounds. 
 
 It is a large sum. 
 
 The husband deserves it, he 
 is a very worthy man. 
 
 <4 Que dice la Gazeta deEs- 
 
 pana ? 
 Trae elsitio de Alicante por 
 
 los Franceses, R. 25. 
 
 Han hecho una salida los 
 sitiados, R. 45, b. 
 
 Han demolido las obras de 
 los sitiadores. 
 
 Han clavado la artilleria. 
 
 El Regimiento del Rey ha 
 hecho prodigios, R. 17. 
 
 Si la plaza se toma por 
 asalto, no damn quartel. 
 
 Nunca capitulard el gober- 
 nador, si la guarnicion 
 ha de quedar prisionera 
 de guerra. 
 
 Hablemos de otra cosa. 
 
 Saben vms. senores, como 
 la hija del gobernador se, 
 casa? 
 
 i Con quien? 
 
 Con el hijo del corregidor, 
 
 R. 72. 
 
 / Hola! es buen casamiento. 
 Su hermana acaba de ca- 
 
 sarse, R. 131, a. 
 Y quien es el novio ? 
 
 Un comerdante tnuy rico. 
 Quanta lleva de dote ? 
 
 Treinta mil libras. 
 Es un dineral. 
 Lo merece el marido, es muy 
 hombre de bien, R. 30. c. 
 
294 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 And the girl is very well 
 brought up. 
 
 She will make an excellent 
 family woman. 
 
 Her mother did never in- 
 dulge her. 
 
 Her daughter will thank her 
 for it some day. 
 
 You know, no doubt, that 
 the king's physician is 
 dead. 
 
 That is the reason I have 
 seen the nephew in 
 mourning. 
 
 It is natural to suppose that 
 he has left him some- 
 thing, because the uncle 
 was very fond of him. 
 
 They say that he has left 
 him very well off. 
 
 The boy has talents. 
 
 The minister patronises 
 him greatly. 
 
 He has had the good for- 
 tune of taking his fancy,* 
 and thus has obtained^ a 
 very good situation. 
 
 That is more than the un- 
 cle could ever obtain^ 
 although^ one of the 
 princes interested him- 
 self much for him. 
 
 I do not wonder at it, that 
 prince and the minister 
 are not very great friends; 
 and I am of opinion, that 
 although^ H. R. H. had 
 
 Pues la muchacha tambien 
 
 estd muy bien criada. 
 Ella sera muy muger de su 
 
 casa, R. 30, c. 
 La madre no le consentia 
 
 nada, p. 197, *2. 
 Su hija se lo agradecerd 
 
 algundia, R. 51, a. 
 Ya sabran vms. como ha 
 
 muerto el medico del rey, 
 
 O. 202. 
 Por eso he visto al sobrino 
 
 de Into. 
 
 Es regular que le hay a de- 
 xado algo, porque el tio le 
 queria mucho, R. 45, c. 
 
 Dicen que le dexa muy bien 
 acomodado. 
 
 El muchacho tiene talento 
 
 Le ampara mucho el minis- 
 tro. 
 
 Ha tenido ladichade caerle 
 en gracia,* y asi ha lo- 
 gradof un empleo muy 
 bueno. 
 
 Eso es mas de lo que jamas 
 pudo conseguirf el tio, 
 no obstantej que uno de 
 los principes se empeno 
 mucho por el. 
 
 No lo extrano, ese principe 
 y el ministro no son muy 
 amigos; y yo soy de pa- 
 recer que aunquej . A. 
 R. se hubiese arrodillado, 
 
 * See Colloquial Idioms, Exercises, page 112. 
 j- See the author's Synonyms, page 172. 
 J See the author's Synonyms, page 162. 
 
DIALOGUES. 
 
 295 
 
 knelt, he would not have 
 obtained* his petition. 
 
 Here comes the fortunate 
 Don Anthony. 
 
 We congratulate you, sir. 
 
 On what, gentlemen ? 
 
 It is said that you have 
 
 drawn something in the 
 
 last lottery. 
 I have gained a trifle. 
 How much ? 
 
 About two hundred pounds. 
 I take a small share in each 
 
 lottery, but I never get 
 
 any thing. 
 
 TIO hubiera alcanzado* su 
 
 suplica. 
 Aqui viene el afortunado 
 
 Don Antonio, R. 21, a. 
 Senor, le damos d vm. la 
 
 enhora buena. 
 & Y de que, caballeros ? 
 Dicen que ha sacado vm. 
 
 algo en la ultima loteria. 
 
 He ganado una friolera. 
 
 & Quanto? 
 
 Ujias docientas libras. 
 
 Yo echo mi cedulita en ca- 
 da loteria, pero nunca sa- 
 co nada, p. 195, *2. 
 
 See the author's Synonyms, page 172. 
 
296 
 
 DOCUMENTOS DE COMERCIO. 
 
 CART AS DE COMERCIO. 
 
 Cadiz, 24 Enero, 1827. 
 A los Senores Preswick, Hermanos, y Compania, 
 
 en Londres. 
 Muy Senores nuestros, 
 
 CONTESTAMOS a la muy appreciable de vms. con 
 fha del 18 del corriente, y viendo que segun su parecer 
 los generos de ahi que ofrecen aqui un despacho pronto 
 y ventajoso son las lencerias, estimaremos que nos man- 
 denvms. por la primer a embarcacion que saiga para esla, 
 20 piezas de cotonia, 40 dichas de batista, y 30 dichao 
 de muselina, todas de la mejor calidad y a precios 
 equitativos. 
 
 Queda?ncs reconocidos a sus atenlas expresiones de las 
 quales nos valdremos en las occurrencias. 
 
 Celebramos mucko que se nos presente esta ocasion de 
 ofrecernos a la obediencia de vms. quienes podrdn 
 ordenamos todo lo quefuere de su agrado. 
 B. L. M. de vms. 
 
 s. s. s. 
 
 LOPEZ e Hijo. 
 
 Londres, 2 de Febrero, 1827. 
 A los Senores Lopez e Hijo, en Cadiz. 
 
 Muy Senores nuestros, 
 
 SEGUN las ordenes de vms. en sumuy apreciable del 
 24 del pasado, les incluimos factura y conocimiento de 
 ires caxas de lencerias, que de su cuenta y riesgo hemos 
 embarcado en el navio nombrado El Neptuno, al mando 
 
297 
 
 COMMERCIAL DOCUMENTS. 
 
 COMMERCIAL LETTERS 
 
 Cadiz, January 24th, 1827. 
 Messrs. Preswick, Brothers, and Company, London. 
 
 Gentlemen, 
 
 WE acknowledge the receipt of your favour of the 
 18th instant ; and observing that, according- to your 
 opinion, there is no article in your market which pro- 
 mises so advantageous and speedy a sale here as linen, 
 you will be pleased to send us, by the first vessel which 
 sails for this place, 20 pieces of dimity, 40 ditto of 
 cambric, 30 ditto of muslin ; the whole of the best 
 quality and at reasonable prices. 
 
 We beg to express our thanks for your attentive offers, 
 of which we shall avail ourselves on every occasion. 
 
 Happy in having this opportunity of tendering you our 
 services, we request you to command them with free- 
 dom. We are, gentlemen, 
 
 your most obedient servants, 
 
 LOPEZ and Son. 
 
 London, February 2d, 1827. 
 Messrs. Lopez and Son, Cadiz. 
 
 Gentlemen, 
 
 AGREEABLY to the orders contained in your 
 esteemed favour of the 24th ultimo, we enclose the in- 
 voice and bill of lading of three chests of linen, which 
 o3 
 
298 APPENDIX. 
 
 del Capitan Romero, quien mediants tener casi toda la 
 carga abordo saldrd muy pronto para esa. 
 
 Nos lisongeamos que las lencerias serdn de su gusto, 
 siendo generos todos escogidos y ventajosos asi en la 
 calidad como en el precio. 
 
 Esperando recibir de un correo & otro sus estimadas, 
 suspendemos ampliar nuestras noticias sobre el estado de 
 este mercado. 
 
 B. L. M. de vms. 
 
 s. s. s. 
 
 PRESPPICK, HERMANOS, y Compania. 
 
 FACTURA. 
 
 FA CTURA de ires caxas de lenceria, que con la marca 
 y los numeros mdrgen van embarcadas en el 
 navio nombrado El Neptuno, su Capitan Manuel 
 Romero, por los Senores Preswick, Hermanos, y 
 Compania, y a cuenta y riesgo de los Senores Lopez 
 e Hijo. A saber, 
 
 Libras. 
 
 P. H. ) No 1. 20 Piezas de Cotonia, a 3 lib. 60 
 
 C. V 2. 40 Dichas de Batista, d 5 200 
 
 Ao. 1 . a 3. J 3. 30 Dichas de Muselina, 64 120 
 
 380 
 
 Derechos y gastos 18.4.6 
 
 398 . 4 . 6 
 Comision, d 2 lib. por ciento 7.19.3 
 
 406 .3.9 
 
INVOICE. 299 
 
 we have shipped on your account and risk, on board The 
 Neptune, Captain Romero, who will very shortly sail 
 for your port, having already nearly the whole of his 
 cargo on board. 
 
 We flatter ourselves that the linen will give you 
 satisfaction, being choice goods and advantageously 
 selected both in quality and in price. 
 
 Being in daily expectation of your favours, we shall 
 defer giving further advice respecting the state of this 
 market. 
 
 We are, gentlemen, 
 
 your obedient servants, 
 PRESWICK, BROTHERS, and Company. 
 
 INVOICE. 
 
 INVOICE of three chests of linen, marked and num. 
 bered as per margin, shipped by Messrs. Preswick, 
 Brothers, and Company, on board The Neptune, 
 Emanuel Romero master, for the account and risk 
 of Messrs. Lopez and Son. To wit, 
 
 . 
 P. H. ) No. 1. 20 Pieces of Dimity, at 3/. 60 . . d. 
 
 C. > - 2. 40 Ditto of Cambric, at 5/. 200 
 No. 1 to 3.J 3. 30 Ditto of Muslin, at 4/. 120 
 
 380 
 
 Duties and charges J8.4.6 
 
 398 . 4 . 6 
 Commission at 2/. per cent 7,19.3 
 
 406 .3.9 
 
300 APPENDIX. 
 
 CONOCIMIENTO. 
 
 Yo Manuel Romero, maestre quesoy del navio, que Dios 
 
 salve, nombrado El Neptuno, de porte de 
 
 docientas toneladas, que al presente estd 
 
 surto y anclado en el puerto de Londres, 
 
 para, con la buena ventura, seguir este pre- 
 
 sente viage al puerto de Cadiz, conozco 
 
 haber recibido, y tengo cargado dentro del 
 
 dicho mi navio debaxo de cubierta, de vos 
 
 P. H. los Senores Preswick, Hermanos, y Com- 
 
 C. pania, tres caxas de lencerias, enjutas y bien 
 
 No. 1 a 3. acondicionadas, y marcadas de la marca de 
 fiiera, con las quales prometo, y me obligo, 
 llevandome Dios, en buen salvamento con el 
 dicho mi navio, al dicho puerto, de acudir 
 por vos y en vuestro nombre a los Senores 
 Lopez (5 Hijo, pagandome defate, a razon 
 de dos libras sterlinas por cada caxa, y m* 
 averias acostumbradas, y, para lo qual assi 
 tener y guardar, obligo a mi persona y 
 bienes, y el dicho mi navio fletes, y apare- 
 jos, y lo mejor parado de el. Enfe de lo 
 qual, os di tres conocimientos de un tenor, 
 jfirmados de mi nombre por mi, 6 por mi 
 Escrivano, el uno cumplido, los otros no val- 
 gan. Fecha en Londres, a 1 de Febrero, 
 1827. 
 
 MANUEL ROMERO. 
 
BIIL OF LADING. 301 
 
 BILL OF LADING. 
 
 SHIPPED, by the grace of God, in good order and 
 well-conditioned, by Messrs. Preswick, Bro- 
 thers, and Company, in and upon the good 
 ship called The Neptune, whereof is mas- 
 ter, under God, for this present voyage, 
 Manuel Romero, and now riding at anchor 
 in the port of London, and by God's grace 
 bound for Cadiz, that is to say, three chests 
 P. H. of linen, Leing marked and numbered as 
 C. in the margin, and are to be delivered in 
 
 N-). 1 to 3. the like good order and well-conditioned, 
 at the aforesaid port of Cadiz, (the act of 
 God, the king's enemies, fire, and all and 
 every other dangers and accidents of the 
 seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever 
 nature and kind soever, excepted,) unto 
 Messrs. Lopez and Son, or to their assigns, 
 they paying freight for the said goods 
 after the rate of two pounds sterling for 
 each chest, with primage and average ac- 
 customed. In witness whereof, I the said 
 master (or purser) of the said ship have 
 affirmed to three bills of lading, all of this 
 tenour and date ; the one of which three 
 bills being accomplished, the other two to 
 stand void. And so God send the good 
 ship to her desired port in safety. Amen. 
 Dated in London, February 1st, 1827. 
 
 MANUEL ROMERO 
 
302 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 LETRA DE CAMBIO. 
 
 Londres, 9 Febrero, 1827. 
 
 For Lib. 406 . 3 . 9 
 
 A treinta dias de vista, mandardn vms. pagar por 
 esta primer a (no habiendolo hecho por la segunda yter- 
 ceraj de cambio quatro cientas y seis libras sterlinas tres 
 chelines y nueve peniques, a la or den de los Senores Brick- 
 dale y Compania, valor recibido, que cargardn vms. d 
 cuenta como por aviso. 
 
 S. S. S. 
 
 PRESWICK, HERMANOS, y Compania. 
 A los Snres Lopez e Hijo, 
 en Cadiz. 
 
 Londres, 9 de Fcbrero, 1827. 
 
 A los Senores Lopez e Hijo, 
 en Cadiz. 
 
 Mny Senores nuestros, 
 
 HEMOS librado contra vms. hoy una letra de cambio 
 (d treinta dias de vista), por lib. 406 .3.9, d la or den 
 de los Senores Brickdale y Compania, la que estimaremos 
 que vms. honren y carguen d cuenta, como por aviso. 
 
 S. S. S. 
 
 Q. S. M. B. 
 PRESmCK, HERMANOS, y Compafaa 
 
BILL OF EXCHANGE. 303 
 
 BILL OF EXCHANGE. 
 
 London, February 9, 1827 
 
 For 406. 85. 9d. 
 
 AT thirty days sight, pay this our first of exchange, 
 (second and third of the same tenour and date unpaid,) 
 to the order of Messrs. Brickdale and Company, four 
 hundred and six pounds three shillings and ninepence, 
 value received, and place to account as per advice. 
 
 PRESWICK, BROTHERS, and Company. 
 
 Messrs. Lopez and Son, 
 Cadiz. 
 
 London, February 9, 1827. 
 
 Messrs. Lopez and Son, 
 Cadiz. 
 
 Gentlemen, 
 
 WE have this day drawn on you, at thirty days sight, 
 for the sum of 406. 3s. 9d. to the order of Messrs. 
 Brickdale and Company ; which we beg you to honour, 
 and place to account as per advice. 
 
 Your obedient Servants, 
 PRESWICK, BROTHERS, and Company. 
 
304 APPENDIX. 
 
 FORM OF A SPANISH PROTEST. 
 
 EN la Ciudad de Cadiz, a quatro del mes de Avril, de 
 mil ochocientos veinte y side, Ante mi, Gil Perez, Escri- 
 bano Publico del Numero de esta Ciudad, y los Testigos 
 abaxo nombrados, parecio Don Ambrosio Lamela, Vecino 
 y Comerciante de dicha ciudad, d quien doyfe, conozco, y 
 quien para efecto de protesto me exhibit) una Letra de 
 Cambio cuyo tenor es el siguiente : " Londres, Febrero 
 ' 1, 1827, p r . p s . 2300. d dos usos, mandard vm. pagar 
 " por esta primera de Cambio d la orden de Don Juan 
 " Sangredo, Dos mil y trecientos pesos, en oro 6 plata, 
 " al curso conocido aqul hoy, que sentard vm. en cuenta 
 " como por aviso de Pedro Sedillo. Al Senor Don 
 " Manual Pena, en Cadiz. Endoso, Pdguese d la orden 
 " de Don Ambrosio Lamela, Cadiz, 26deMarzo, 1823, 
 " Juan Sangredo. 99 Y despues, de copiada, mepidio la 
 presentase original d Don Manuel Pena, d cvyo cargo 
 estd librada, requiriendole, que mediante cumplirse su 
 plazo en el dia de hoy, con los dias de cortesia que son 
 de estilo, la pague luego al punto, y en su dcfecto, se la 
 proteste con todos sus Cambios, Recambios, Intereses 9 
 Costos, y Gastos, para repetirlos y cobrarlos del susodicho 
 Don Pedro Sedillo, como Librador, 6 del dicho Don Juan 
 Sangredo, como Endosador, y de quien mas hay a lugar, 
 y que todo se lo diese por testimonio. En virtud de lo 
 qual, yo, el referido Escribano Publico, pasc d la casa, 
 morada del mencionado Don Manuel Pena, y habiendo 
 preguntado en ella por el, se me respondio, por un sugeto 
 que, manifesto llamarse Don Antonio Bolsones, y ser 
 caxero de Don Manuel Pena, que este se hallaba ausente 
 en la ciudad de Sevilla. Y habiendo hecho d Don An- 
 tonio Bolsones el requirimie?ito, y protestas arriba ex- 
 plicadas, y entcradole de sus efectos, para que lo noticiase 
 
FORM OF A SPANISH PROTEST. 305 
 
 TRANSLATION OF THE PROTEST. 
 
 IN the City of Cadiz, on the fourth day of the month 
 of April, One thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven, 
 Before me, Gil Perez, Notary Public, Member of the 
 Society of Notaries of this City, and the undermentioned 
 witnesses, appeared Don Ambrose Lamela. Resident and 
 Merchant in this City, whom I certify to know, and who 
 exhibited to me a Bill of Exchange in order to have the 
 same protested, the tenour whereof is as follows : " Lon- 
 ' don, 1st February, 1827. For 2300 dollars, at two 
 ' usances, you will be pleased to pay this first of Ex- 
 
 * change, to the order of Don John Sarigredo, Two 
 
 * thousand three hundred dollars, in gold or silver, at 
 
 * the exchange known here this day, which you will 
 f place to account as per advice of Peter Sedillo. To 
 
 * Don Emanuel Perm, Cadiz. Indorsement Pay to the 
 
 * Order of Don Ambrose Lamela, Cadiz, 26th of March, 
 ' 1823, John Sangredo.'* And which being first copied, 
 
 he requested me to present the original to Don Emanuel 
 Pena, on whom the same is drawn, to require of him 
 immediate payment thereof, its term as well as the cus- 
 tomary days of grace being this day elapsed, and in de- 
 fault thereof, to protest the same against him for all its 
 Exchanges, Re-exchanges, Interests, Costs, and Charges, 
 in order to reclaim and recover the same from the afore- 
 said Don Peter Sedillo as the Drawer, from Don John 
 Sangredo as the Indorser, or from whomsoever else it 
 might concern, and to grant him a copy thereof , by 
 virtue of which I, the aforesaid Notary Public, did repair 
 to the dwelling-house of the aforementioned Don Ema- 
 nuel Pena, and having there inquired for him, I was 
 answered by a person, who represented himself to be 
 Don Anthony Bolsones, and cash-keeper of Don 
 Emanuel Pena, that the latter was absent in the city of 
 Seville; and having made the above-mentioned demand 
 of, and signified the protest to Don Anthony Bolsones, 
 and acquainted him fully with the consequences thereof, 
 
306 APPENDIX. 
 
 al citado Don Manuel Pena, dixo que no sehallabacon 
 brden ni promdencia para fiacer el pago de dicha letra. 
 Esto dib por respuesta, y mediante ella, yo el referido es- 
 cribano, y a pedimento del mencionado Don Ambrosio 
 Lamela, he protestado, como por el presente solemnemente 
 protesto, una, dos, tres, y mas veces en derecho necesarias, 
 tanto contra el Sacador y contra el Endosador de la suso- 
 dicha Letra de Cambio, como contra todos los demas que 
 convenga amds de la cantidad principal de su importe, 
 por todos los Cambios, Recambios, Costos, Gastos, Danos, 
 Menoscabos, Perjuicios, e Intereses, que enqualquiera ma- 
 nera se hay an seguido, 6 causado, y en adelante sesiguie- 
 ren, 6 causaren* por falta del pagamento de la referida 
 Letra de Cambio. Hecho y Protestado en Cadiz, d qua- 
 tro del mes de Avril, de mil ochoclentos veinte y siete. Lo 
 fir mb Don Ambrosio Lamela, siendo Testigos Don Juan 
 Manuel Romero, y Don Luis Gomez, Ante mi, Gil Perez. 
 Concuerda con su original en mi Registro, d que me re- 
 mito, y para entregar d Don Ambrosio Lamela, y d su 
 pedimento, mandk sacar esta copia que signo yfirmo en 
 Cadiz, en el dia de sufecha. 
 
 GIL PEREZ. 
 
 Los que abajo firmamos Escribanos Publicos, de esta 
 Ciudad, certificamos en quanto podemos, que Gil Perez, 
 de quien va dada, signada, y firmada, la precedente 
 copia, como se titula, es Escribano Publico, del Numero 
 de esta Ciudad, fiel, legal, y de entera confianza, y dsus 
 semejantes siempre se ha dado, y da, entera fe y credito 
 en juicios y fuera de ellos, y para que conste damos la 
 presente en esta dicha Ciudad de Cadiz, fecha ut supra, 
 Andres Corzuelos, Fabric io Nunez, Fernando Perez de 
 la Fuente, Escribanos Publicos. 
 
tfORM OF A SPANISH PROTEST. 307 
 
 in order that he might communicate the same to the 
 aforesaid Don Manuel Pena, he answered that he was 
 without orders or effects to make the payment of the 
 said Bill. This he gave for an answer ; and on account 
 thereof, and at the request of the above-mentioned Don 
 Ambrose Lamela, I the aforesaid Notary have protest* 
 ed, as by these Presents I do solemnly protest once, 
 twice, thrice, and as often as by law is requisite, as well 
 against the Drawer and Indorser of the said Bill of Ex- 
 change as against all others whom it may concern, in 
 addition to the principal amount of its value, for all 
 Exchanges, Re-exchanges, Costs, Charges, Damages, 
 Deficiencies, Loss, and Interests, which in any manner 
 whatsoever have accrued or been occasioned, or that 
 may hereafter accrue or be occasioned, for want of pay- 
 ment of the aforesaid Bill of Exchange. Done and 
 Protested in Cadiz, on the Fourth day of April, One 
 thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven. This Don 
 Ambrose Lamela signed, the witnesses being Don John 
 Emanuel Romero and Don Lewis Gomez. Before me, 
 Gil Perez. Conformable to its original in my Register, 
 to which I refer myself, and in order to deliver to Don 
 Ambrose Lamela, and at his request, I caused this copy 
 to be extracted, which I sign and subscribe in Cadiz, on 
 the day of the date thereof. 
 
 GIL PEREZ. 
 
 We, the underwritten Notaries Public of this City, do 
 certify as far as we are able, that Gil Perez, by whom 
 the foregoing copy is granted, signed, and subscribed, is, 
 as he styles himself, a Notary Public, Member of the 
 Society of Notaries of this City, faithful, legal, and of 
 entire confidence, and that to all his similar acts full 
 faith and credit ever have been and are given in judg- 
 ment and thereout. In witness whereof we have 
 granted these Presents in this said City of Cadiz, dated 
 ut supra, Andrew Corzuelos, Fabrice Nunez, Ferdinand 
 Perez de la Fuente, Notaries Public. 
 
308 APPENDIX. 
 
 THE ENGLISH FORM OF THE PRECEDING 
 PROTEST. 
 
 On this Day, the Fourth of April, One thousand eight 
 hundred and twenty-seven, at the request of Don Am- 
 brosio Lamela, bearer of the First Bill of Exchange, 
 whereof a true copy is on the other side written, I, Gil 
 Perez of Cadiz, Notary Public, by Royal Authority duly 
 admitted and sworn, exhibited the said First Bill of Ex- 
 change to Don Antonio Bolsones, Clerk of Don Emanuel 
 Pena of this City, upon whom the same is drawn, and 
 demanded payment of the same, (the time limited for 
 payment since the presentation thereof by me the said 
 Notary having elapsed,) whereunto the said Don An- 
 tonio Bolsones answered, that Don Emanuel Pena was 
 absent in the City of Seville, and that he the aforesaid 
 Don Antonio was without orders or effects to pay the 
 said Bill. Wherefore, I the said Notary, at the request 
 aforesaid, have Protested, and by these Presents do 
 solemnly Protest, as well against the Drawer of the said 
 First Bill, as all others whom it may concern, for Ex- 
 change, Re-exchange, and all Costs, Charges, Damages, 
 and Interests, Suffered and to be Suffered, for want of 
 payment of the said First Bill. Thus done and Pro- 
 tested in Cadiz, in the presence of Don Juan Manuel 
 Romero and Don Lewis Gomez. 
 
 Quod Attestor, 
 
 GIL PEREZ 
 
OF VERSIFICATION. 309 
 
 OF VERSIFICATION. 
 
 HAVING in a former place explained the nature of the 
 prosodial accent, and its service in pointing 1 out, for the 
 current pronunciation, the emphatic syllable in every 
 word of more than one syllable, I have now merely 
 to notice its peculiar service in Spanish poetry, syllabic 
 emphasis being the chief standard by which the Spanish 
 metrical feet are regulated. 
 
 It has been already observed, that every Spanish word 
 of more than one syllable contains one accented or em- 
 phatic syllable ; but, in order more fully to understand 
 the principle upon which Spanish verse is constructed, 
 a few observations seem necessary. 
 
 First, Monosyllables cannot be said, strictly speak- 
 ing, to have, per se, any syllabic emphasis. But in as- 
 sociation in verse with other syllables, they may, accord- 
 ing- to the nature of the line, be either emphatic or un- 
 emphatic ; some of them, however, seem more inclined 
 to be emphatic than others, and vice versa ; and some 
 are altogether tractable or pliant. 
 
 Secondly, Besides the common prosodial accent, it 
 is often necessary to use another not equally strong, 
 sometimes called the poetic accent, in order to preserve 
 the measure, especially with polysllyables : thus, in pro- 
 nouncing the word fortunddamente, which has the pre- 
 dominant accent on the third syllable, we are compelled 
 to lay an inferior degree of stress on the first and fifth, 
 forming thereby three trochees, and in the word afortu- 
 nddamente, which is accented on the fourth, we lay the 
 inferior stress on the second and sixth, and by these 
 means produce a line or rather word of three iambuses, 
 hypermeter. 
 
 Thirdly, It may be observed, that, through the natu- 
 ral drift of the rhythm, the prose accent is sometimes 
 compelled to bend to the poetical ; syllables naturally 
 emphatic being passed over rather remissly, and unem- 
 
310 APPENDIX. 
 
 phatic syllables receiving greater stress than their real 
 nature strictly authorizes. 
 
 A.nd, Lastly, Although Spanish verse be regulated 
 by emphasis, a certain balance of quantities essentially 
 contributes to its general harmony. Where gravity 
 and solemnity are intended in the measure, it will be 
 found that long or important syllables preponderate, and 
 where the movement is intended to be quick and lively, 
 there will be found to be a surplus of short or unimpor- 
 tant syllables. 
 
 Of the Division of Perse according to the Feet. 
 
 Verses are divided into Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapes 
 tic,~so named from the prevailing foot in each of them 
 The iambic consists of two syllables, the latter of which 
 is emphatic; &s,tembr,feliz,te-m6r,fe-liz. The trochaic 
 has its first emphatic and second unemphatic; as, temo, 
 hdbil, te-mo y hd-bil. The anapestic has two unemphatic 
 syllables followed by one emphatic; as, cariddd, corazon, 
 ca-ri-ddd, co-ra-zon. 
 
 Other feet might be mentioned, but they do not often 
 occur. Iambics and trochaics are said to be in common 
 time, anapestics in triple time ; the two former indeed 
 may be considered as kindred measures, both belonging 
 to the even cadence. Feet of three syllables are seldom 
 introduced in the even cadence, or cadence in common 
 time. 
 
 In the iambic measure, the syllabic emphasis is ge- 
 nerally on the even syllables; in the trochaic, on the 
 uneven or odd syllables ; and in the anapestic, on every 
 third syllable. 
 
 The unemphatic syllables will be distinguished by 
 the mark of a short quantity ( w ), and the emphatic by 
 that of a long quantity ("). 
 
 The shortest iambic measure is an iambus hypermeter, 
 or with double rhyme : 
 
 Se mue\ve, 
 La nd[ve 9 
 Mas le\ve, 
 Que un d\ve. 
 
OF VERSIFICATION. 31 1 
 
 Spanish heroics are in Iambic measure, consisting of 
 five feet, and, being generally in double rhymes, contain 
 eleven syllables ; 
 
 Pdsto\res que \ dormis\ en Id \ mdja\da. 
 A Trochee is often introduced as the first foot in Iam- 
 bic verse ; and Lope de Vega frequently places a trochee 
 in other parts of the line ; but it never can correctly 
 form the last foot ; 
 
 Graves ( mird\dos y \ mirdr \ sud\ves 
 Y qudn\to el mar \ el ay\re el suejo encier\ra 
 Si me \ quieres | ofrez\co a tu \ belle\za. 
 The shortest Trochaic measure consists of a trochee, 
 and half a foot, with double rhyme ; 
 Cldros | rl\os. 
 Zelos | fri\os. 
 
 In Trochaic measure an iambus sometimes is intro- 
 duced ; 
 
 Ni me | dexa el\lldn\to 
 Decir | como \ que\do. 
 
 Trochaic verses never exceed five feet, and seldom 
 contain so many : the following is an example of three 
 feet with double rhymes : 
 
 Hombre \ que smldsco \ sor\ba. 
 
 Anapestic verses are of different dimensions ; but do 
 not exceed four feet. The first syllable of the first foot 
 is generally omitted : 
 
 Los d\mmos dr\den en Dws \ abrasd\dos. 
 
 Of Rhyme. 
 
 Rhymes may be either in couplets, the first and second 
 line rhyming together, or they are alternate, the first and 
 third, and the second and fourth, icspectively rhyming. 
 There are, too, other varieties, especially in irregular 
 compositions. In rhymed verses the boundary of the 
 line is easily observed in recitation. Where there is no 
 rhyme, it must be distinguished chiefly by the final 
 pause, which, when it does not coincide with the sen- 
 tential, is a pause merely of suspension, there being no 
 depression in the tone of the voice. 
 
312 APPENDIX 
 
 The Spaniards have two sorts of rhyme, the conso- 
 nante or full rhyme ; and the asonante or imperfect 
 rhyme. The consonants requires a similarity of letters, 
 from the last accent in both lines : 
 
 Pues defended el reyno rostros Cellos 
 
 Que yo pondrv la planta en vuestros cellos. 
 
 The asonante allows greater latitude, requiring- a si- 
 milarity of vowels only, while the consonants may be 
 different ; thus, ligero forms an asonante with cubierto y 
 amores with noches ; melones with azotes, &c. 
 
 The same word may be also used at the end of both 
 lines, without infringing on the laws of rhyme, if it be 
 taken in different meanings , thus, sagrado, sacred, may 
 rhyme with sagrado, an asylum, &c. 
 
 Of the Division of Verse according to the Rhyme. 
 
 Spanish verses are arranged into three different 
 classes, called Agudos, Llanos, and Esdruxolos. 
 
 Agudos or single rhymes have the accent on the last 
 syllable ; as, 
 
 Mas aunque muerapor ti 
 No te lo dare d entender : 
 Por que no me quiero ver, 
 Como te viste por ml. 
 
 Llanos or double rhymes are accented on the penul- 
 timate; as, 
 
 No mas y Ninfa cruel, ya estas vengdda, 
 No pruebes tu furor en un rendido, 
 La culpa d costa mia estd pagdda, 
 Ablanda ya ese pecho endurecido, 
 Y resucita un alma sepultdda, 
 En la tiniebla escura de tu olvido, 
 Que no cabe en tu ser valor y suerte, 
 Que un pastor como yo pueda ofenderte. 
 Most of the Spanish verses belong to this class. 
 Esdruxolos or triple rhymes have the accent on the 
 antepenultimate; as, 
 
 Silvano mio 9 una ajicion rarisima, 
 Una beldad, que ciega luego en viendola, 
 Un seso y discrecion ejccelentisima, 
 
OF VERSIFICATION. 313 
 
 Con una dulce habla que en oyendola, 
 
 Las duras penas mueve. enterneciendolas. 
 Que sentiria un amador perdiendola ? 
 There are also a few compositions in blank verse, of 
 which the following lines from Boscan may serve as a 
 specimen : 
 
 Canta con voz suave y dolorosa, 
 O musa, los amores lastimeros, 
 Que en suave dolor fueron criados : 
 Canta tambien la triste mar en medio, 
 Ya Sesto de una parte, y de otra Abyde, 
 Y amor acd y alia ye?ido, y viniendo, 
 Y aquella diligenie lumbrecilla 
 Testigofal, y dulce mensagera 
 De dosjieles y dulces amadores. 
 mereciente luz de ser estrella f 
 Luciente y principal en las estrellas, 
 Que fueron desde acd al cielo enviadas 9 
 Y alcanzaron alia notables nombres. 
 Pero comienza ya de cantar y Musa, 
 El proceso y el Jin de estos amantes: 
 El mirar, el hablar, el entenderse, 
 El ir del uno 9 el esperar del otro, 
 El desear y el acudir conforme, 
 La lumbre muerta, y a Lteandro muerto. 
 But the most curious of all the Spanish poetical com- 
 positions, are certain species of verse, wherein the conso- 
 nante falls about the middle of the next line, of which 
 the following 1 is a specimen, taken from Garcilazo : 
 Pastores que dormis en la majdda. 
 En la cerrdda noche d sueno suclto 9 
 Mirad resuelto el ayre tenebroso 
 En luminosoy alegre, y claro dia, 
 La sombrafria huye, el orizonte 
 Del alto monte bianco y encarnddo 
 Con el dorado rayo resplundece : 
 Ya no parece estrella en todo el cido. 
 El duro yelo su rigor quebrdnta : 
 La tierna pldnta aljofares derrdma, 
 Bala el cordero, y el novillo brama. 
 Probably these lines may formerly have been arranged 
 differently. 
 
314 APPENDIX. 
 
 Of Scanning. 
 
 To scan a verse is to divide it into its constituent feet. 
 The principal difficulty attending the measuring of 
 Spanish verses is experienced in words containing a com- 
 bination of two vowels: this difficulty may, however, be 
 diminished by attending to the following remarks. 
 
 When the prosodial accent does not fall on either 
 of the two vowels, they are reckoned a diphthong : 
 
 Dicho\sos vosoltros aquien \ los cmda|c?os. 
 When two vowels come together, and the prosodial 
 accent falls on the second, they are then also generally 
 counted a diphthong: but if the accent is on the first, 
 each vowel is generally reckoned. 
 
 Los a\nimos arjden en Dios | abrasdldos. 
 Mari|a V~ir\gen be\lla md\dre espb\sa. 
 If the first of two adjoining vowels is a or e, they 
 are generally counted separately : 
 
 Que en w|da os quema|zs enfue\go amoro\so. 
 N. B. U being the first, and preceded by g or q, is 
 iever counted unless marked with the diaeresis: see the 
 last example. 
 
 Ue is also generally reckoned a diphthong in deriva- 
 tives from a primitive, the first syllable of which con- 
 tains one vowel ; as, ruego from rogar , xuelto from 
 soltar ; muero from morir ; nuevo from novedad, &c. 
 
 De Sdn\tos Farolnes al mun\db ya muer'fos. 
 When one word ends with a vowel, and the following 
 begins also with a vowel, the first vowel is elided : 
 
 Entro | con 6?|lla aquel | que tdn\tos da\nos. 
 If the accent falls on the final vowel of a word, it is 
 in general not elided : 
 
 Entro | en un \ jardin \ heri\do de | amor. 
 When the first word ends in a vowel, and the second 
 begins with an h, the elision is optional : 
 Ni al | terror \ de horren|rfa gue[rra. 
 Su amor, \ pues no \ se han | habld\do, 
 Y ver\se han ( podi\do ape\nas. 
 A vowel, in general, is not elided when it is followed 
 by y, used as a consonant : 
 
 Do estdn\do los cuer\pos cay |dos 
 
OF VERSIFICATION. 315 
 
 When y is preceded by a vowel, it is counted sepa- 
 rately, if the accent falls on it. See the third foot in 
 the last example, and 
 
 Y qudn\to el mar \ el ay|re el sue\lo encie\rra. 
 
 The Spanish and Portuguese epic, or heroic, verse, 
 differs not from the English and Italian. But the dra- 
 matic verse of the Spanish poets, whose dramatic works 
 are abundant, is greatly different. It is the truncated, 
 four-footed iambic verse, i. e. an acephalous or headless 
 iambic, which is in reality what is termed a three-footed 
 trochaic, called by the Spaniards Versos de.pie quebrado 
 or of a broken foot, a favourite lyric measure of the 
 Italian poets, but never used by them for dramatic 
 dialogue : 
 
 Pu8\8i dmdr\gd Id \ verdad, 
 
 Quie\ro echdr\ld de \ Id bo\ca; 
 
 Y | si dl dl\md su \ hiel to[ca, 
 
 Es\conder\la es ne\cedad. 
 
 The Spanish poets use it also commonly as a lyric 
 measure, generally in stanzas of four verses, with im- 
 perfect or asonante rhymes ; of which Bishop Percy has 
 the following specimen towards the end of his Relics of 
 Ancient English Poetry : 
 
 Ri\o ver\de, ri\6 ver\de> 
 
 Quan\to cuer\po en ti \ se ba\na ; 
 
 De | Crutia\7ws y \ de Mo\ros, 
 
 Muer\tos por \ Id du\ra espd\da. 
 The imperfection of the rhymes common among the 
 Spanish poets should apparently be attributed neither 
 to negligence nor unskilfulness in the poet, nor to a de- 
 fect in the language : indeed, so far perhaps from im- 
 plying imperfection, it may rather imply perfection, as 
 it indicates that the Spanish lyrical poetry wants less 
 assistance from the adventitious ornament of rhyme 
 than other modern European languages. 
 
316 APPENDIX. 
 
 ON DERIVATION. 
 
 THE Spanish is a language which owes its origin 
 to the Latin, with some mixture, however, of other 
 languages, left either by the first settlers in the coun- 
 try, or by subsequent invaders. That the Latin has 
 principally contributed to its formation is manifest 
 from the analogy between both languages, which is so 
 close that it has enabled some Spanish authors to com- 
 pose, in verse as well as prose, works which may justly 
 be styled bilingues. 
 
 As the knowledge of a language which claims so 
 close an affinity to the Latin may be a desideratum with 
 the classical scholar ; and since, therefore, whatever 
 may tend to accelerate its acquisition to him, will not 
 prove wholly unacceptable, the following remarks are 
 submitted to his consideration. 
 
 In attempting to trace Spanish derivations to the 
 Latin origin, such words will be first noticed as have 
 their terminations still preserved in its primitive form , 
 next, the changes which the Latin vowels are apt to 
 undergo ; and lastly, the consonants which are esteemed 
 equivalent and commutable. But as several of these 
 deviations have been indispensably requisite, conform- 
 ably to the pronunciation of the Spanish language, the 
 following preliminary remarks seem to be not altogether 
 unnecessary. 
 
 First, t is always exchanged for c or z when the sound 
 of either is equivalent; as, gratia, gracia; ratio, razon. 
 
 Secondly, ch before a or o is exchanged for c, and 
 before e or i for qu ; as, charus, caro ; chorus, coro ; 
 cherubim, querubin; chirurgicus, quirurgico. 
 
 Thirdly, Latin words beginning with s followed by 
 another consonant have the s preceded by e ; but the s 
 oitly is suppressed when it precedes a soft c; as, 
 spiritus, espiritu; scientia, ciencia. 
 
 Fourthly, No other consonants than d, I, n, r, s, x, z, 
 can end a Spanish word. 
 
 Fifthly, No word can end with a double consonant. 
 
 Sixthly, No consonants are duplicated except c,l, n, r. 
 
ON DERIVATION. 31J 
 
 Of Words preserving the Latin termination. 
 
 Spanish substantives and adjectives are frequently 
 Latin ablatives in the singular, and in the plural Latin 
 accusatives : as, missa, misa, misas ; modus, modo, mor 
 dos ; ars, arte, artes; caro, carne, carnes ; spiritus, 
 espiritUj espiritus ; species, especie, especies ; molestus, 
 molesto, molesta, molestos, molestas ; prudens, prudente, 
 prndentes. 
 
 N.B. If the noun is neuter, the Spanish plural takes 
 the general inflection, or terminating consonant, of the 
 declension to which the neuter noun belongs ; as, tern- 
 plum, templo, temples; auxilium, auxtlio, auxilios ; 
 crimine, crimen, crimenes. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 Nouns of the fourth declension change the u into o in 
 both numbers ; as, manu, mano, manos ; except splritu 
 and tribu. 
 
 Adjectives of two terminations exchange the i for e 
 in the singular $ as, tristi, triste, tristes ; levi, leve, lever. 
 
 Adjectives in bilis drop the first i in both numbers ; 
 as, amabili, amable, amables ; terribili, terrible, terribles. 
 
 The last e or i of an ablative is often suppressed in the 
 singular, when preceded by a single consonant which can 
 end a word; as, sale, sal, sales ; pane, pan, panes; amore, 
 amor, amores ; vili, ml, viles ; docili, docil, dociles. If 
 the remaining final consonant is r, it is sometimes ex- 
 changed for /, especially when the accent does not fall 
 on the last syllable ; as, arbore, drbol, drboles; carcere, 
 cdrcel, cdrceles; marmore, mdrmol, mdrmoles. 
 
 If, after the suppression of the final e, the consonant 
 is inadmissible as final, it is necessarily changed ; 
 hence ce is exchanged for z ; as, pace, paz, paces ; cer- 
 vice, cerviz, cervices; ge for y, in both numbers; as,rege, 
 rey, reyes ; lege, ley, leyes ; and te, when it is preceded 
 by ta or tu 9 into d, in both numbers ; as, potestate, 
 potestad, potestades ; virtute, virtud, virtudes ; and if 
 the antepenultimate syllable of a noun ends in a vowel, 
 the penultimate t is often likewise exchanged for d ; as, 
 pietate, piedad, piedades ; caritate, caridad, caridades ; 
 humilitate, humildad, humildades. 
 
318 APPENDIX. 
 
 Latin infinitives,* particularly those of the first con- 
 jugation, often become Spanish infinitives, by only 
 dropping the last vowel ; as, am are, amar ; dare, dar; 
 stare, estar ; ponere, poner ; dormire, dormir. 
 
 Of the occasional Changes of the Vowels 
 
 The following are the changes in the vowels most 
 frequently observable : 
 
 Of a for e ; as, tracto, trecho ; lac, leche. 
 
 Of au for o ; as, auro, oro ; tauro, toro ; mauro, 
 moro. 
 
 Of e for #, for i 9 or for ie ; as, fremere, bramar ; 
 equalis, igual ; scribere, escribir ; terra, tierra ; dente, 
 diente ; meto, miedo. 
 
 Of i for e ; as, infirmo, enfermo ; timor, temor; ilia, 
 ella. 
 
 Of o for e y or for ue; as, fronte, frente; forte, faerie ; 
 nostro, 7iuestro ; absolvo, absuelvo. 
 
 N. B. When an initial o is thus changed, the word 
 must be preceded by an h ; as, os, hueso ; ovo, huevo. 
 
 Of u for o ; as, musca, mosca ; unda, onda ; dicto, 
 dicho ; lecto, /ec^o. 
 
 When one of the vowels of a diphthong is retained, 
 it is generally the second; as, setate, edad ; tsedio, tedio; 
 aeterno, eterno ; coelo, cielo. 
 
 Of the Convertibility of Consonants. 
 
 With respect to the changes which consonants under- 
 go in derivation, the following general remarks are not 
 undeserving of notice : 
 
 (1.) 6, v, /, p, are considered as equivalent ; as, nabo, 
 napo ; abierto, aperto ; abril, aprili ; bramido, fremitu ; 
 vibora, vipera ; robar, rapere ; sabor, sapore ; saber, 
 sapere ; soplar, sufflare ; trebol, trifolio. 
 
 (2.) c, ch y g y j, q, y, are considered equivalent and 
 commutable. Amigo, amico ; arcilla, argilla; lago, 
 
 * The other parts of a verb may be seen in the Table of regular 
 inflections at page 142 ; or in the Paradigms of the irregular verbs. 
 
ON DERIVATION. 319 
 
 o, foco ; agua, aqua; echar, ejiceie; techa, 
 tegula ; techo, tecto ; arquiUo, arculo ; calidad, quali- 
 tate ; cocer, coquere ; cotidiano, quotidiano ; queso, 
 caseo ; gritar, quiritare ; moiige, monacho ; pregon, 
 preconio ; jaula, caula ; ayudar, adjuvare ; ayunar, 
 jejunare ; ya, jam ; yacer, jacere ; yelo, gelu ; yema 
 gemma; yo, ego ; yugo, jugo ; majada, magalia; lenteja, 
 lenticulo. 
 
 (3.) d, t, z, are considered equivalent and commut- 
 able : Agudo, acuto ; bondad, bonitate ; mudar, mu- 
 tare ; medir, metire ; red, rete ; salud, salute ; cabeza, 
 capite ; pozo, puteo ; razon, ratio ne ; juzgar, judicare. 
 
 (4.) I is converted into j and g. Consejo, consilio ; 
 abeja, apicula ; majar, malleare ; ojo, oculo ; ore/a, 
 auricula ; muger, mulier. 
 
 (5.) c, f, p, are converted into I when they precede 
 that letter ; as, llamar, clamare ; Have, clave ; llama, 
 flamma; llaga, plaga; llanto, plancto ; llorar, plorare; 
 ttuvia, pluvia. 
 
 (6.) f is converted into h ; as, haba, faba ; hacer, 
 facere ; hado, fato ; heno, foeno ; herir, ferire ; hiel, fel ; 
 higo, fi co ; huir, fugere ; hurto, furto. 
 
 (7.) m is converted into n; as, linfa, lympha; tan 
 tarn. 
 
 (8,) gn, nn, mn, are converted into n; as, leno, 
 ligno ; ano, anno ; otono, autumno ; sueiio, somno. 
 
 It may likewise be added, that in derivation words 
 are sometimes found lengthened, and at other times 
 abridged ; as, esperanza, spes ; corazon, cor ; aptamente, 
 apte ; optimamcnte, optime ; comer, comedere ; tos, 
 tussis; oir, audire; velar, vigilare; ya, jam; mas, magis. 
 
 Many other peculiarities of the language might have 
 been noticed ; but these are the most important to any 
 one who is solicitous to gain a knowledge of the 
 Spanish. 
 
 The following abstract is annexed to exhibit the inti- 
 mate relationship and resemblance subsisting between 
 the Latin and tho Spanish, as well as several other 
 knodern languages. 
 
320 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 11 Homo quid am 
 \unus] habuit duos ji- 
 lios : 
 
 12 Et dixit adoles- 
 centior[minor\ ex illis 
 patri, Pater, da mihi 
 portionem substanti<e 
 qua me contingit. Et 
 divisit illissubstantiam. 
 
 13 Et nonpost mul- 
 tos dies, congregatis 
 [conjunctis] omnibus, 
 adolescentior Jllius per- 
 egre pro feet us est in 
 regionem longinquam, 
 et ibi dissipavit sub- 
 stantiam suam vivendo 
 luxuriose. 
 
 14 Et postquam om- 
 nia [totum] consump- 
 sis*et,factaest [super- 
 venit] fames valida 
 [grandis] in regione 
 tllu, et ipse caepit eg ere 
 \_esse indigens]. 
 
 15 Etabiitetadhee- 
 sit uni civium regionis 
 illius; et misit [man- 
 davit] ilium in villam 
 suam ut pasceret por- 
 cos. 
 
 16 Et cupiebat[de- 
 siderabat~\ implere ven- 
 trem suum de siliquis 
 quas porci manduca- 
 bant [comedebant] ; et 
 nemo illi'dabat. 
 
 17 In se autem re- 
 versus, dixit, Quanti 
 mercenarii in domo 
 [easa~\ patris met abun- 
 dant panibus., ego au- 
 tem Me fame pereo ! 
 
 LUKE, CHAP. XV. 
 
 SPANISH. 
 
 1 1 Un hombre hu- 
 bo dos hijos : 
 
 12 Y el menor de 
 ellos dixo a su padre, 
 Padre, dame la por- 
 cion de substancia que 
 me toca [touches E.] : 
 y dividi6 a ellos la sub- 
 stancia. 
 
 13 Y no despues de 
 muchos dias, juntan- 
 dolo todo, el hijo me- 
 nor peregrino a una 
 region lejana, y alii 
 dissipo su substancia 
 viviendo luxuriosa- 
 mente. 
 
 14 Y despues quelo 
 hubo consumido todo, 
 sobrevino una hambre 
 grande en aquella re- 
 gion, y el empezo a 
 estar indigente. 
 
 15 Y fu6 y recurri6 
 [se adhiri6] a uno de 
 los ciudadanos de a- 
 quella region ; y le 
 mando a su villa para 
 que apacentase puer- 
 cos. 
 
 16 Ydeseaba llenar 
 su vientre de las gar- 
 robas que los puercos 
 comian; y nadie le 
 daba. 
 
 17 Y vuelto en si, 
 dixo, j Quantos mer- 
 cenaries en casa de 
 mi padre abundan en 
 pan, mas yo aquf pe- 
 rezco de hambre ! 
 
 PORTUGUESE. 
 
 1 1 Hum homem tin- 
 ha dous filhos : 
 
 12 E aisse o mais 
 mofo delles a seu pay, 
 Dame a parte da fa- 
 zenda que me perten- 
 ce ; e elle Ihes reparti6 
 a fazenda. 
 
 13 E despois de nao 
 muitos dias, ajuntan- 
 do o filho mais moo 
 tudo, partiose a hua 
 terra muy longe, e ali 
 desperdif ou sua fazen- 
 da, vivendo disoluta- 
 mente. 
 
 14 E des que ja te- 
 ve tudo desperdi9ado, 
 veyo hua grande fome 
 naquella terra, e co- 
 mefou a padecer ne- 
 cessidade. 
 
 15 E foi e ache- 
 gouse a hum dos cida- 
 daos daquella terra ; o 
 qual o mandou a sua 
 quinta para que apa- 
 centasse os porcos. 
 
 16 E desejava en- 
 cher seu ventre das 
 mondaduras que co- 
 miao os porcos ; mas 
 ninguem lhas dava. 
 
 17 E tornado em 
 si, disse, Quantos jor- 
 naleiros de meu pay 
 tern abundancia da 
 pam, e eu aqui pere- 
 90 de forae 1 
 
ON DERIVATION. 
 
 321 
 
 ITALIAN. FRENCH. 
 
 i I Un uomo avea 1 1 Un homme avoit 
 due tigliuoli : deux ills: 
 
 12 Ed il piu giova- 
 ne disse al padre, Pa- 
 dre dammi, la parte 
 dell' avere la quale 
 mi tocca. II padre 
 dunque sparti loro le 
 facolta, 
 
 13 E pochi giorni 
 appresso, il figliuolo 
 piu giovane, raccolta 
 ogni cosa, se ne ando 
 in viaggio in paese lon- 
 tano ; ed ivi dissipo le 
 sue facoltEl, vivendo 
 dissolutamente. 
 
 14 E, dopo ch'egli 
 ebbe speso ogni cosa, 
 una gran carestia ven- 
 ne in quel paese ; tal- 
 che egli comincio ad 
 aver bisogno. 
 
 15 Ed andato, si 
 mise con uno de' ter- 
 razzani di quella con- 
 trada ; il quale lo 
 mando a' suoi campi, 
 a pasturare i porci. 
 
 16 Ed egli deside- 
 rava d'empiersi il cor- 
 po delle silique, che 
 i porci mangiavano : 
 ma niuno gliene dava. 
 
 17 E ri tomato a 
 se medesimo, disse, 
 Quanti mercenaj di 
 mio padre hanno del 
 pane largamente, ed io 
 mi muojo di fame ! 
 
 12 Et le plus jeune 
 dit a son pere, Mon 
 pere, donne-moi la 
 part du bien qui m'ap- 
 partient : et il leur 
 partagea ses biens. 
 
 13 Et peu de jours 
 apres, quand le plus 
 jeune fils eut tout ra- 
 masse, il s'en alia de- 
 hors en un pays eloi- 
 gne ; et la il dissipa 
 son bien en vivant 
 prodigalement. 
 
 14 Et apres qu'il 
 eut tout defense, une 
 grande famine survint 
 en ce pays-la: et il 
 commenfa d'etre dans 
 la disette. 
 
 15 Alors il s'en alia 
 et se mit avec un des 
 habitans du pays ; qui 
 1'envoya dans ses pos- 
 sessions pour paitre les 
 pourceaux. 
 
 16 Et il de"siroit dc 
 rernplir son ventre des 
 carouges que les pour- 
 ceaux mangeoient ; 
 mais personne ne lui 
 en donnoit. 
 
 17 Or, etant rentre" 
 en lui-meme, il dit, 
 Combien y a-t-il de 
 mercenaires dans la 
 maison de mon pere, 
 qui ont du pain en a- 
 bondance, et moi je 
 incurs de faim ! 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 11 A certain man 
 had two sons : 
 
 12 And the younger 
 of them said to his 
 father, Father, give 
 me the portion of 
 goods that falleth to 
 me. And he divided 
 unto them his living. 
 
 13 And not many 
 days after, the younger 
 son gathered all to- 
 gether, and took his 
 journey into a far 
 country, and there 
 wasted his substance 
 with riotous living. 
 
 14 And when he had 
 spent all, there arose a 
 mighty famine in that 
 land ' 9 and he began to 
 be in want. 
 
 15 And he went and 
 joined himself to a ci- 
 tizen of that country j 
 and he sent him into his 
 fields to feed swine. 
 
 16 And he would 
 fain have filled his bel- 
 ly with the husks that 
 the. swine did eat ; and 
 no man gave unto him. 
 
 17 And when he 
 came to himself, he 
 said, How many hired 
 servants of my father 
 have bread enough and 
 to spare, and I perish 
 with hunger ! 
 
322 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 LATIN. SPANISH. PORTUGUESE. 
 
 18 Surgam [me le- 18 Me levantar 18 Levantarme hei 
 
 vabo] et ibo ad Patrem ir6 a mi padre, y le e irme hei a meu pay, 
 
 meum, et dicam ei, Pa- dir6, Padre, pequ6 e dirlhe hei, Pay, 
 
 ter,peccaviin [contra] contra el Cielo y ante contra o Ceo e perante 
 
 cesium et cor am \ante\ tf , ti pequei, 
 
 19 Et jam non sum 
 dignus vocari[clamari^ 
 filius tuus : fac me sic- 
 ttt unum de mercena- 
 ries tuis. 
 
 20 Et surgens [_se le- 
 vans\ venit ad patrem 
 suum. Cum avtem ad- 
 hue longe esset, vidit il- 
 ium pater ipsius, et mi- 
 sericordid motus est, et 
 accurrens cecidit super 
 coltum fjus, et oscula- 
 tus esi [basiavit'] eum. 
 
 2 \ Dixitque eifilius, 
 Pater, peccavi in Cos- 
 lum et coram te ; jam 
 non sum dignus vocari 
 JUius tuus. 
 
 19 Y ya no soy dig- 
 no de ser llamado hi- 
 jo tuyo : hazme como 
 a uno de tus mercena- 
 ries. 
 
 20 Y levantandose 
 vino a su padre. Como 
 aun estuviese lejos, le 
 vio su padre, y movi- 
 do de la misericordia, 
 corriendo a 61 cay6 
 sobre su cuello, y le 
 bes6. 
 
 21 Y el hijo le dixo, 
 Padre, pequ6 contra 
 el Cielo y ante ti; ya 
 no soy digno de ser 
 llamado hijo tuyo. 
 
 19 Janaosou digno 
 de ser chamado teu fil- 
 ho : fazeme como a hum 
 de leus jornaleiros. 
 
 20 E levantandose 
 hia a seu pay. E como 
 ainda estivesse de lon- 
 ge, vio-o seu pay, e 
 moveu-se de intima 
 compaixao, e correndo 
 para elle derribou-se 
 sobre seu pescopo, e 
 beijou-o. 
 
 21 Eofilholhedis- 
 se, Pay, contra o Ceo 
 e perante ti pequei; 
 ja nao sou digno de ser 
 chamado teu filho. 
 
 22 Dixit autem pa- 22 Mas el padre 22 Mas o pay disse 
 ter ad servos suos, Cito dixo a sus "siervos, Sa- a seus servos, Tirai o 
 proferte stolam [vesti- cad ei optimo vestido, principal vestido, e 
 mentum\ primam [op- y vestidle, y poned vesti-o ; e ponde anel 
 timam] etinduite [ves- anillo en su mano, y em sua mao, e ^apatos 
 tite'] ilium, et date [po- calzado en sus pies : em seus pes. 
 
 nile] annulum in ma- 
 num ejus, et calcea- 
 menta in pedes ejus : 
 
 23 Et adducite[con- 23 Y conducid la 23 E trazei o be- 
 ducite~\ vitulum sagi- vitela gorda, y matad- zerro gordo, e mataio ; 
 Katum, et occidite la ; y comamos y rega- e comamos, e alegre- 
 [mactate~] ; et mandu- lemonos \regale E.] : monos : 
 
 cemus [comedamut] et 
 epulemur : 
 
 24 Quia hie fltus 24 Porque este hijo 24 Porque este meu 
 meus mortuut fuerat, mio estaba muerto, y filho morto era, e re- 
 et revixit ; perierat, et revivi6 ; se habia per- viveo ; tinha se perdi- 
 inventu* est. Et coepe- dido, y es hallado. Y do, e he achado. E co- 
 runt epulari. comenzaron a rega- meparao-se a alegrar. 
 
 larse. 
 
 *** d f ew trivial alterations have been made in the old Spanish 
 translation, the more to assimilate the two languages. 
 
ON DERIVATION. 
 
 323 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 18 lo mi levero e 
 me ne andro a mio 
 padre, e gli diro, Pa- 
 dre, io ho peccato con- 
 tra il Cielo e davanti a 
 te. 
 
 19 E non sono piu 
 degno d' esser chia- 
 mato tuo figliuolo : 
 fammi come uno de' 
 
 "tuoi mercenaj. 
 
 20 Egli dunque le- 
 vatosi, venne a suo 
 padre. Ed, essendo 
 egli ancora lontano, 
 suo padre lo vide, e ne 
 fu mosso a gran pie- 
 ti; e, corso, gli si 
 getto al collo, e lo ba- 
 cio. 
 
 21 Ed il figliuolo 
 gli disse, Padre, io ho 
 peccato contra il Cie- 
 lo e davanti a te ; e 
 non sono piu degno d' 
 psser chiamato tuo fi- 
 gliuolo. 
 
 22 Ed il padre disse 
 a' suoi servitori, He- 
 cate fuori la principal 
 veste, e vestitelo ; e 
 mettetegli un anello 
 in dite, e delle scarpe 
 ne' piedi : 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 18 Je me leverai et 
 m'en irai vers mon 
 pere, et je lui dirai, 
 Mon pere, j'ai peche 
 centre le Ciel et de- 
 vant toi, 
 
 19 Et jenesuis plus 
 digne d'etre appelle 
 ton fils : fais-moi com- 
 me a 1'un de tes mer- 
 cenaires. 
 
 20 II se leva done 
 et vint vers son pere. 
 Et comme il 6toit en- 
 core loin, son pere le 
 vit, et fut touch e de 
 compassion, et cou- 
 rant a lui, se jetU a son 
 cou, et le baisa. 
 
 21 Mais le fils lui 
 dit, Mon pere, j'ai 
 pe"che centre le Ciel et 
 devant toi : et je ne 
 suis plus digne d'etre 
 appelie' ton fils. 
 
 22 Et le pere dit a 
 ses serviteurs, Appor- 
 tez la plus belle robe, 
 et 1'en revtez, et 
 mettez lui un anneau 
 au doigt, et des sou- 
 liers a ses pieds : 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 18 I will arise and 
 go to my fatner, and 
 will say unto him, Fa- 
 ther, I have sinned 
 against Heaven and 
 before thee, 
 
 19 And am no more 
 worthy to be called thy 
 son : make me as one 
 of thy hired servants. 
 
 20 And he arose 
 and came to his father. 
 But when he was yet 
 a great way off, his 
 father saw him, and 
 had compassion, and 
 ran, and fell on his 
 neck, and kissed him. 
 
 21 And the son said 
 unto him, Father, I 
 have sinned against 
 Heaven and in thy 
 sight ; and am no more 
 worthy to be called thy 
 son. 
 
 22 But the father 
 said unto his servants, 
 Bring forth the best 
 robe, and put it on 
 him ; and put a ring on 
 his hand, and shoes on 
 his feet : 
 
 23 E conducete il 23 Et amenez-moi 23 And bring hither 
 vitello ingrassato, ed le veau gras, et le tuez; tne fatted calf, and 
 ammazzatelo , e man- et fesons bonne chere kill it , and let us eat 
 giamo, e rallegriamoci. en le mangeant : and be merry : 
 
 24 Perche questo 24 Car mon fils que 24 For this my son 
 friio figliuolo era mor- voici toit mort, mais was dead, and is alive 
 to, ed e tomato a vita; il revit ; il 6toit perdu, again ; he was lost, and 
 era perduto, ed e sta- mais il est retrouve". is found. And they 
 to ritrovato. E si mi- Et ils commencement a began to be merry, 
 fcero a rallegrarsi. faire bonne chere. 
 
 THE END. 
 
t Justice compels us to say, that this is the most complete Spanish 
 Grammar extant for the use of Englishmen. It fully performs the 
 promises in the title-page." British Neptune, Aug. 18i2. 
 
 (t We think this Grammar decidedly preferable, in its arrange- 
 ment, to the one commonly used ; nor is its arrangement only su- 
 perior, its contents are likewise more valuable and more suited to the 
 wants of a learner." Universal Magazine, May 18 12. 
 
 " So far as a cursory inspection may be supposed to enable us, we 
 think favourably of this performance." Literary Panorama. June 
 1812. 
 
 " The author has paid more than ordinary attention to the subject 
 of pronunciation. The rules are laid down with brevity and distinct- 
 ness, and sufficiently illustrated by examples ; and in short we think 
 that this work of Mr. M'Henry will be a useful guide to those who 
 wish to form an acquaintance with the language of Spain." Critical 
 Review, July 1812. 
 
 " The author is eminently qualified for the task which he has 
 undertaken, and which he has performed with equal ability and suc- 
 cess. He has certainly produced the most generally useful Grammar 
 of the Spanish language which we have seen. His rules are plain 
 and easily intelligible ; his method is simple and perspicuous ; and his 
 explanations are such as greatly to facilitate the acquisition of the 
 Spanish tongue to those who have not the means of procuring the 
 assistance of a master." Antijacobin Review, May 1812. 
 
 " Considerable pains are taken in this Grammar in stating the rules 
 by which the construction of Spanish sentences is governed ; and we 
 think that some of the author's elucidations, particularly those in 
 which he discriminates between the use of the verbs Ser and Estar, 
 p. 135, and of the tenses of the subjunctive, p. 240, will prove 
 satisfactory and useful." Monthly Review, July 1815. 
 
 The Author, having been frequently solicited by 
 strangers to direct them in the choice of an English 
 Spanish Dictionary, has no hesitation to declare, that 
 Neuman's Dictionary is, decidedly, entitled to the 
 preference, 
 
 Printed by W. CLOWES and SONS, Stamford Street. 
 
APPROVED SCHOOL BOOKS, 
 
 on ^Foreign Sanguagcg, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 SHERWOOD, GILBERT, * PIPER, 
 
 23, PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 
 SHERWOOD, GILBERT, & PIPER, beg to invite the attention of Parents, 
 and especially of all persons concerned in Education, to the following valuable 
 SCHOOL BOOKS, which are in daily use in most of the best conducted Seminaries; 
 and they hope that their acknowledged merit will be a recommendation to their more 
 general adoption. 
 
 BELL'S NEW ART OF READING AND SPEAKING. 
 
 PRACTICAL ELOCUTIONIST. ELEGANT EXTRACTS 
 
 from the most esteemed Modern Writers and Orators, arranged according to a 
 New System of improved Punctuation, adapted to the nature of the Voice ; Emphatic 
 Words and Sentences made prominent to the Eye and Understanding of the Student ; 
 the Principles of Elocution and Theory of Inflection simplified, and divested of all un- 
 necessary complexity . The whole calculated to form accomplished Readers and Speakers. 
 
 By ALEXANDER BELL, Professor of Elocution. 
 Bound and lettered, 5s. 6d. 
 
 The Extracts are Practical Lessons of the Arts of Reading and Speaking. In all 
 preceding works on Elocution, the Student is merely told what is necessary to excellence 
 in these arts ; this work renders the attainment of excellence easy and certain. The 
 examples selected are from the works of Sir Walter Scott, Dr. Chalmers, Goldsmith, 
 Dodsley, Junius, Edwards, Canning, H. More, Howison, Sterne, Morgan, Sherlock, 
 General Foy, Tickner, Addison, Dr. Adam Smith, Hervey, Paley, Leigh Hunt,Tillotson, 
 Austin, Blair, Washington Irving, &c. &c. 
 
 By the same Author, 
 
 OTAMMERING and other IMPEDIMENTS of SPEECH. The 
 
 ^ means to eifect a complete and permanent removal of all Vocal Obstructions. 
 12mo. Is. Qd. bound and lettered. 
 
 WILLIAMS'S EPITOME OF KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 PRECEPTOR'S ASSISTANT, or SCHOOL EXAMINER; 
 
 being MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS in GENERAL HISTORY, LITERATURE, and 
 SCIENCE. A New and Enlarged Edition, price 5s. bound and gilt, embellished with 
 beautiful steel-plates and woodcuts. 
 
 This unrivalled work forms an ENCYCLOP^EDIAN EPITOME of KNOWLEDGE 
 in GENERAL LITERATURE, SCIENCE, and HISTORY, and is admirably adapted 
 to stimulate curiosity, expand and form the minds of youth, and supply that informa- 
 tion which can only be obtained by extensive and multifarious reading ; in truth, the 
 various and interesting facts and principles which it contains are not only capable 
 of furnishing youth with a respectable portion of every species of general knowledge, 
 and of inculcating habits of observation and reflection in the juvenile mind, but also 
 of increasing the knowledge and attainments of the old, and of supplying them with 
 an inexhaustible fund of information on General Science and Polite Literature. 
 
C 2 Books printed for Shenvood and Co. Paternoster Row. 
 
 WILLIAMS'S PARENT'S CATECHISM of USEFUL and 
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. New and improved Edition, price 2s. bound. 
 tit This interesting 1 volume is admirably calculated to furnish learners with that 
 kind of useful and general knowledge which can be gleaned only from various read- 
 ing and conversation, and the absence of which seems to imply a deficiency or imper- 
 fection in the established systems of School Education. 
 
 "The Rev. David Williams's excellent works on education, entitled the * Preceptor's 
 Assistant' and the ' Parent's Catechism,' the first mentioned of which may be justly 
 styled the Sun and Polar 'Star of School Books, are productions of great and uncom- 
 mon merit, and are admirably adapted to the purposes of education." 
 
 Gentleman's Magazine, 
 
 BALDWIN'S MIRROR OF POPULAR KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 MIRROR of POPULAR KNOWLEDGE : containing TEN 
 J*i THOUSAND POINTS of USEFUL and NECESSARY INFORMATION, 
 
 adapted to the capacity of Youth. To which are added, SCIENTIFIC RECREATIONS, 
 or the WHY and BECAUSE of SCIENCE. With an Epitome of English History. By 
 the Rev. PERCY BALDWIN, M.A. Price 2*. 6d. 
 
 " The taking a taste of every sort of knowledge is necessary to form the mind, and 
 is the only way to give the understanding its due improvement, to the full extent of 
 its capacity." Bacon. 
 
 OPEAKING LATIN VOCABULARY, by the REV. DAVID 
 
 WILLIAMS, M.A. ; containing the Latin of the English Words which occur in 
 the usual parlance of social life, and relating to its common necessaries and occupa- 
 tions, classified and arranged, for the purpose of aiding the memory of the learner. 
 
 The method in which the Greek and Latin Languages are usually taught (said the 
 late Dr. Parr) is bad. According to the present mode, the memory, and not the 
 judgment, is too much exercised, and thus the learner's mind becomes a mere WORD 
 BOOK. If, in teaching languages, professors would condescend to teach not from 
 books, but, from the best of all teachers, the natural habits of the human mind, they 
 would soon discover the true method in which language ought, to be taught in a word, 
 in the same way in which a child acquires his mother tongue ; by obtaining, first of 
 all, the names of the commonest and simplest objects, and their connexions, and pro- 
 ceeding gradually to their combination into phrases and sentences. On this plan the 
 SPEAKING LATIN VOCABULARY is constructed. Price Is. 6d. 
 
 N 
 
 HAIGH'S LATIN DICTIONARY. 
 
 EW SCHOOL DICTIONA.RY, LATIN and ENGLISH; 
 
 designed for the JUNIOR FORMS, and comprising upwards of SIXTEEN THOUSAND 
 WORDS OF PURE LATINITY; intended to furnish young people with all the assistance 
 they require from a dictionary, till they are capable of deriving benefit from the au- 
 thorities set down in Ainsworth ; with a compendium of Ancient Classical Biography, 
 the Roman Calendar^ and its explanation. By THOMAS HAIGH, A.M. New and 
 improved Edition, neatly printed in a pocket size, price 4$. bound. 
 
 " The study of Latin, like many other subjects, is overloaded by the accumulated de- 
 tails of school books, and children are terrified by the very means used to aid them. 
 But for such a stock of it as society demands of well-educated men, certain selections 
 and popular authors maybe used, according to the discretion of the tutor ; while, for a 
 Dictionary, the light one of Haigh is preferable to either Entick or Ainsworth for the 
 junior classes, and would carry a youth through Terence, Caesar, Nepos, Sallust, Virgil, 
 Horace, Ovid, Phaedrus, Juvenal, Florus, Eutropius, Scriptores Romani, and Electa ex 
 Ovidio et Tibullo. What more than these fourteen books can be wanted for the general 
 purposes of a liberal education ?" Phillips on Education. 
 
 " This is just such a Latin Dictionary as we have long wished to meet with ; it con- 
 tains every thing that is necessary for the junior classes. It must have a very exten- 
 sive circulation, and we are sure it will be very acceptable to those for whose use 
 it is intended." Educational Review. 
 
Books printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster Row. 3 
 
 ttt J&C!)COl 3$00&$ " 
 
 "CONTINUED. 
 
 ALSO, BY MR. HAIGH. 
 
 nONJUGATA LATINA; a Collection of the purest and most 
 
 ^ usual Latin Words, distinguished into classes, according to their frequency, and 
 arranged according to their Derivations ; by the use of which a greater stock of Words 
 will be acquired by the pupil in six months than is generally obtained in half as many 
 years. Price 3s. &d. bound. 
 
 TI AIGH'S THEORY and PRACTICE of LATIN INFLECTION; 
 
 being Examples, in the form of Copy-Books, for Declining Nouns and Verbs, the 
 Words being arranged Systematically, and changed at each case of a Noun, and 
 each Person of a verb, to exhibit, when written, a COP1A VERBORUM, under 
 their respective Modifications of Ending. In Two Parts, price 3*. &d. each. 
 
 TT EY to the THEORY and PRACTICE of LATIN INFLECTION, 
 
 -*^- with the Nouns and Verbs declined throughout; indispensable to Young 
 Teachers, and particularly useful to all Tutors till they become familiar with the 
 system. Price 5s. 
 
 THIRST STEPS to LATIN CONSTRUING and COMPOSITION ; 
 
 containing " LATIN GRAMMAR EXERCISES" adapted to the Eton or any other 
 Latin Grammar, and Introductory Lessons to EUTROPI us, PKLEDRUS, andNKPOs; 
 classified so as to assist the Learner in rendering Latin into English. Price 2s. bound. 
 By a GRADUATE of the UNIVERSITY of CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 OYNTAXEOS SYNOPSIS ; or, a New Latin Delectus, combined 
 ^ with Practical Exercises arranged under the proper Rules of Syntax, and adapted 
 to the Eton Grammar. By J. HARVEY. Price 2s. Qd. bound. 
 
 THIRST LESSONS in LATIN READING and GRAMMAR, with 
 
 Exercises and Composition, on a new and easy plan. In Two Parts, with a Dic- 
 tionary to each. Fourth Edition. Price of Part I. 2s. bound ; of Part II. 3*. bound. 
 By THOS. MACGOWAN, one of the Masters of the Academy, Hope Street, Liverpool. 
 
 IMPROVED LATIN GRAMMAR, (also by Mr. MACGOWAN,) 
 
 * extracted from Latin Readings, with additions for the use of the higher classes. 
 Second Edition, 2s. bound.. 
 
 MODUS EXAMINANDI; or, Questions in Parsing- for the 
 *f* Latin Language ; and on the Greek Verb. Price Qd. ; or 5s. per dozen. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT to the ETON LATIN GRAMMAR; designed 
 ' to supply the Deficiencies of that Work ; and which, in its present state, the 
 Learner can obtain only from the Oral and Casual Instruction of the Master, 
 or must pick up by Chance and Copious Reading. By the Author of " FIRST 
 STEPS to LATIN CONSTRUING and COMPOSITION." Price 9d. 
 
4 Books printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster Row. 
 
 MR. BELLENCER'S USEFUL ELEMENTARY WORKS. 
 
 1VTODERN FRENCH CONVERSATION ; containing Elementary 
 
 -W* Phrases, and New Easy Dialogues, in French and English, upon the most familiar 
 subjects. By W. A. BELLENGER. Thirteenth Edition, with considerable Additions 
 and Improvements, price 2s. Gd. bound. 
 
 MEW CONVERSATIONS, ELEMENTARY PHRASES, and 
 
 * EASY DIALOGUES, in the French, English, and German Languages, on the most 
 familiar subjects ; forming- a Hand-book for Travellers in France and Germany, and a 
 Manual for Schools. By W. A. BELLENGER. New Edit, with numerous Additions, 
 18mo. price 4s. cloth. 
 
 "These works contain, in a small compass, Dialogues, in Question and Answer, on 
 every subject connected with the daily occurrences of social life- They are not only the 
 most useful and the best elementary books extant for school business, but as pocket 
 manuals for travellers they are invaluable, as the information they contain is as neces- 
 sary as to eat, drink, and sleep. The Author has gone put of the old beaten track, and 
 lias hit upon such Dialogues as were really wanted, which are well conceived and ably 
 executed. All persons travelling on the Continent would do well to have these books 
 with them." Literary Gazette. 
 
 f)NE HUNDRED FABLES, selected and imitated from LA 
 ^ FONTAINE. By Mr. BELLENGER. Intended for all persons about to learn the 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE ; with a DICTIONARY, in which all the words are grammatically 
 explained. Second Edition, carefully corrected, price 2s. 6'rf. 
 
 Beginners. Price Is. 
 
 *** To have in one small volume those French words which are first wanted, 
 with such short phrases as may be termed the Elements of Speech, and which 
 children always learn first in their Mother Tongue, has been the object in presenting 
 this book to the public ; but the utility of it is not confined to children alone, it 
 extends to every class of persons desirous of attaining knowledge of the French 
 language. 
 
 "DELLENGER's DICTIONARY of the IDIOMS of the FRENCH 
 
 JJ and ENGLISH LANGUAGES, in Two Parts. Part I. French and English; 
 Part II. English and French. Second Edition, considerably improved. The French 
 part by the ABBE M'QUIN ; the English by THOS. HAIGH, A.M. Price 8s. bound. 
 
 M. DESLYONS'S FRENCH TUTOR, AND DIALOGUES. 
 
 DRENCH TUTOR; or, PRACTICAL EXPOSITION of the 
 
 best French Grammarians, being a Key to the easy Acquirement of the Necessary 
 Rules to Write and Speak the FRENCH LANGUAGE : containing Familiar Exercises 
 and Questions on every Rule, to serve for Examination and Repetition. THIRD 
 EDITION, improved. By MONSIEUR DESLYONS. Price 4s. 
 
 This work also contains an Examination upon all the Rules for the constant 
 repetition of them, and to enable Principals of Seminaries to examine the progress of 
 their Pupils, and Parents that of their Children. 
 
 T)ESLYONS> FRENCH DIALOGUES, Practical and Familiar; 
 
 constructed so as to enable all persons at once to practice conversing in the 
 French Language. New Edition ; to which are added, FAMILIAR LETTERS in FRENCH 
 and ENGLISH, adapted to the capacities of Youth. Price 2*. Qd. 
 
Books printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster Row. 
 
 -*- 
 
 MR. CERUTTI'S INTRODUCTORY WORKS. 
 
 ASY INTRODUCTION to the RUDIMENTS offhe ITALIAN 
 LANGUAGE, designed as an Elementary Guide or First Book, for the especial 
 use of Governesses and Private Families; being: an Abridgment of the NEW THEO- 
 RETICAL ITALIAN GRAMMAR. By ANGELO CERUTTI. Trice 5s. Qd. 
 
 riERUTTTS THEORETICAL ITALIAN GRAMMAR ; or, a 
 
 * Course of Lessons in the Italian Language; with anew set of Exercises, all of 
 them extracted from Italian Classic Authors, giving this Grammar a superiority over 
 any other similar work. Second Edition, considerably improved, price 10s. 6c?. 
 
 The following 1 opinion of this work is extracted from the Times : 
 
 " We have been induced, on account of the reputation of the Author, to cast an eye 
 over the Italian Grammar of Mr. Aiigelo Cerutti, a Second Edition of which has just 
 
 ill-digested observations and examples fatigue infinitely more than they instruct, and 
 where rules are profusely given, without any explanation of the grounds on which they 
 have been framed, or the causes of the numerous exceptions from them, will readily 
 appreciate the value of a Grammar in which principle and practice are successfully 
 united, and which renders this work a safe guide to the Student who maybe ambitious 
 of acquiring' a correct arid classical Italian style." 
 
 KEY to the EXERCISES, contained in the NEW IIALIAN 
 GRAMMAR. BY ANGELO CERUTTI. Price 5s. 
 
 IV1R. IVS'HENRY'S ELEMENTARY BOOKS. 
 
 TVfEW and IMPROVED SPANISH GRAMMAR, dcsiffnpd for 
 ^ every Class of Learners, but especially for such as are their own Instructors ; 
 containing, 
 
 1. A VOCABULARY of all WORDS and PHRASES, Spanish and English, used in 
 
 DOMESTIC LIFE. 
 
 2. USEFUL and FAMILIAR CONVERSATIONS, Spanish and English, in EASY DIA- 
 
 LOGUES, relative to Travellers and Travelling. 
 
 3. FORMS and PRECEDENTS of COMMERCIAL LETTERS, and other DOCUMENTS. 
 
 The whole complete in one volume, price 8*. bound. 
 
 EXERCISES on the ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, IDIOMS, &c. 
 -L* of the SPANISH LANGUAGE. Fifth Edition, price 4s. bound. 
 
 1TEY to the same. Bj the Author. Price 4s. 6d. bound. 
 
 QYNONYMES of the SPANISH LANGUAGE explained; 
 
 * intended as an Appendix to all English-Spanish Dictionaries. 12mo. 5s. 6d. ; 
 or printed in 8vo. to bind up with Spanish Dictionaries, price 7s. 6tf . 
 
 " Mr. M* Henry is a native of Spain, and is advantageously known to the public as 
 author of one of the most complete, and unqustionably the most modern, Spanish gram- 
 mars extant ; and his instructive volume of Exercies is admirably adapted to the 
 Grammar, and cannot fail of being peculiarly useful to those persons who direct their in- 
 quiries to the accurate distinctions of words apparently, but not really, synonymous." 
 
6 Books printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster Row. 
 
 REV. D. WILLIAMS ON ARITHMETIC AND GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PRACTICAL and SCIENTIFIC ARITHMETIC, adapted to the 
 real Occurrences of Life and Business, and illustrated with a variety of Methods 
 of Calculations, both mentally and by inspection. By the Rev. DAVID WILLIAMS, 
 M.A. 3s. bound. 
 
 WILLIAMS'S ENTERTAINING GUIDE to ARITHMETIC. 
 
 ' * 2v. bound. 
 
 WILLIAMS'S GEOGRAPHICAL MIRROR, with a comparative 
 
 View of Ancient and Modern Geography, and an interesting and popular selection 
 of Notices respecting- the Manners, Customs, Curiosities, &c. of the various Nations of 
 the World. Price 3s. 6rf. 
 
 T ESSONS on WORDS and OBJECTS ; with EASY and AMUSING 
 L* EXPERIMENTS, for the Parlour and School. By JOHN SMITH. Second 
 Edition, 2s. Qd. 
 
 INTRODUCTION to MERCHANTS' ACCOUNTS; or. 
 
 -*- Commercial Book-keeping- by Double Entry: with Principles of forming- a set 
 of Books by Single Entry. For the Use of Schools and Counting-houses. By W. 
 TATE. 4*. bound. 
 
 CMITH'S (Thos.) LESSONS on ARITHMETIC, in Principle and 
 ^ its Practice ; for the Instruction of Youth of both Sexes ; and more especially 
 for that of Young- Merchants, Tradesmen, Mechanics, and Farmers. Price 3s. 6d. 
 
 " He who takes up this arithmetical work with the expectation of seeing only what 
 he has seen before, will be surprised and gratified at the novelty it contains." 
 Athenaeum. 
 
 " It is not possible for any one to peruse it without feeling his mind enlarged, and 
 his thinking powers called into action." London's Gardener's Magazine. 
 
 AS A PRIZE FOR PROFICIENCY IN WRITING. 
 
 PENMAN'S REPOSITORY; containing- several correct 
 *- Alphabets, a valuable selection of Flourishes, and a variety of new Designs. By 
 the late WILLIAM MILNS, Member of St. Mary Hall, Oxford, and Master of the 
 City Commercial School, London. Price 10s. 6rf. 
 
 *** Nothing contribututes so much to establish freedom and expedition in writing 
 as frequent practice in striking simple, bold nourishes, capital letters, &c. Those, 
 therefore, who wish to acquire this excellence, will meet with a greater variety of ex- 
 amples in this work than in any other of the kind. The want of correct alphabets in 
 the black hands having long been complained of, the most minute attention has been 
 paid to them in this work ; and, as no expense has been spared in the engraving, it is 
 presumed they will prove a standard for such as wish to acquire precise ideas of their 
 characters. The admirers of the fanciful parts of penmanship will here find them- 
 selves amply gratified ; a greater variety of curious flourishes, as birds, beasts, fishes, &c. 
 being introduced, than can be found in any other publication; but, at the same 
 time, so unconnected with the rest, as by no means to interfere with the more 
 useful parts. 
 
 1V/TILITARY MENTOR ; being- a Series of Letters written by 
 IVl a GENERAL OFFICER to HIS SON, on his entering the Army, comprising 
 a Course of elegant Instructions, calculated to unite the characters and accomplish- 
 ments of the Gentleman and the Soldier. 2 vols. 5th edition, price 12*. bds. 
 
Books printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster Row. 7 
 
 REV. J. GOLDSMITH'S GRAMMAR OF BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 GRAMMAR of BRITISH HISTORY, displaying-, separately, 
 N ENGLAND and WALES, and SCOTLAND and IRELAND, from remote anti- 
 quity to this age ; with Anecdotes of the Progress of Society and Manners. By the 
 Rev. J. GOLDSMITH. With Maps and Engravings, price 3s. 6d. Also, 
 
 QUESTIONS to the same, price Is.; and a 
 KEY to the same, price 9d. 
 
 BOOTH ON ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 PRINCIPLES of ENGLISH COMPOSITION, illustrated by 
 
 Examples; with Critical Remarks. By DAVID BOOTH, Author of the "The 
 Analytical Dictionary." Price 6s. cloth. 
 
 MISS PHILLIPS ON THE GLOBES. 
 
 TfAMILIAR LESSONS and PROBLEMS on BOTH GLOBES, 
 
 with numerous Examples and Exercises, for the Use of Teachers and Schools. 
 By Miss PHILLIPS. Printed as a Quarto Copy- Book. Price 3s. 6d. 
 
 The form and method of this Book will recommend it to the preference of all 
 Teachers, as a Key both to Geography and Astronomy. The object of the Authoress 
 has been to facilitate this study as a branch of general liberal Education. 
 
 KEY to the PROBLEMS in the above, price 9d. 
 
 MRS. BROOKE'S DIALOGUE. 
 
 "HIALOGUE between a LADY and her PUPILS, describing- a 
 *-* Journey through England and Wales, with a detail of the Arts and Manufactures 
 of each City and Town ; and descriptions of Natural History. Third Edition, con- 
 siderably enlarged. By the Rev. JOHN EVANS, A.M. 12mo. price 5s. bound. 
 
 CHAMBERS'S GEOGRAPHICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL WORKS. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONS and EXERCISES, blended 
 ^ with Historical and Biographical information ; and an Appendix, containing 
 Questions on Astronomy. Fifth Edition, 2s. bound. 
 
 QUESTIONS and EXERCISES on Mrs. TRIMMER'S INTRO- 
 ^l DUCTION to the KNOWLEDGE of NATURE. Price 6d. 
 
 THE GEOGRAPHICAL and BIOGRAPHICAL COMPEN- 
 
 DIUM : containing concise Memoirs of Illustrious Persons, a Gazetteer of 
 Remarkable Places, and forming not only a useful Class Book for Juvenile Students, 
 but a Key to the Author's Geographical Questions and Exercises. 2s. bound. 
 
 " In the useful and instructive, we find the author of the works before us following 
 in the track of those whose labours have smoothed the paths of science." Lit. Gaz. 
 
 FAWCETTS SHORT-HAND. 
 
 STENOGRAPHY REMODELLED: a Treatise developing- an 
 k* entirely new system of Short-Hand Writing on the basis of Grammar and the 
 Analogy of Language. By J. FAWCETT. 12mo. 5s. cloth. 
 
8 Books printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster Row. 
 
 aaaorfe* of art 
 
 MR. VARLEY'S WORKS ON DRAWING AND COLOURS. 
 
 1. PRACTICAL TREATISE on the ART of DRAWING in 
 
 PERSPECTIVE ; adapted for the study of those who draw from Nature; by 
 which the usual Errors may be avoided. By JOHN VARLEY. Illustrated with nume- 
 rous Examples. Price 7s. 
 
 2. VARLEY'S TREATISE on the PRINCIPLES of LAND- 
 
 SCAPE DESIGN ; with General Observations and Instructions to Young 
 Artists. Illustrated with Sixteen highly-finished Views, viz. 
 
 1. Principles of Light and Shade. 
 
 Two Views. 
 
 2. Principles of Objects Reflected in 
 
 Water. Two Views. 
 
 3. Epic and Pastoral. Two Views. 
 
 4. River Scene, and Ouse Bride, York. 
 
 Two Views. 
 
 6. Principles of Skies : Fine Weather ; 
 
 Stormy Weather. Two Views. 
 
 7. Marine : Holy Island ; Coast near 
 
 Bamborougn Northumberland. 
 Two Views. 
 
 8. General Landscape and Mountain- 
 
 ous Landscape. Two Views. 
 5. Sunshine and Twilight. Two Views. 
 
 Folio, price 5s. each Number ; or complete, price j(?2, neatly half-bound. 
 
 Mr. T. SMITH (Art of Drawing) says, " The celebrated water-colour painter, J. Varley, 
 is the only one who has ever attempted to write on the theory of effect systematically, 
 and his works I most strongly recommend to those students who are well advanced." 
 
 3. yARLEY'S STUDIES for DRAWING TREES ; consisting 
 
 * of the Rudiments of Foliage. The OAK, the WEEPING WILLOW, the CHES- 
 NUT, and the ELM, represented in Five Quarto Plates. Price 5s. 
 
 4. T/ ARLEY1 S SPECIMENS of NINETEEN PERMANENT 
 
 COLOURS. Price 5s. 
 
 MR. SMITH ON DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 5. YOUNG- ARTIST'S ASSISTANT in the ART of DRAW- 
 
 ING in WATER COLOURS, exemplified in a course of Twenty-nine Pro- 
 gressive Lessons, viz. 
 
 Animals, I Flowers, 
 Fruit, Still-Life, 
 
 Portrait, I Landscape, I Architecture, and 
 Miniature, | Perspective, | Sculpture; 
 
 calculated to afford those who are unacquainted with the Art, the means of acquiring 
 a competent Knowledge without the Aid of a Master ; with full instructions for 
 
 Designs and Woodcuts. Price 15s. neatly bound. 
 
 6. TflGHT EASY LESSONS on the ART of DRAWING in 
 4-M PERSPECTIVE ; illustrated with numerous Cuts, and adapted as an ELE- 
 MENTARY GUIDE for the Use of STUDENTS. By THOMAS SMITH. Price Is. 6d. 
 
 THE JESUITS' PERSPECTIVE, BY CHAMBERS. 
 
 7. PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE ; or, an Easy Method of repre- 
 * senting NATURAL OBJECTS according- to the RULES of ART, applied 
 
 and exemplified in all the variety of cases, as LANDSCAPES, GARDENS, BUILDINGS, and 
 FIGURES; a work highly necessary for PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, ARCHITECTS, EM- 
 BROIDERERS, STATUARIES, JEWELLERS, TAPESTRY WORKERS, and all persons con- 
 cerned in Designing. Translated from the French, by E. CHAMBERS, F.R.S. In One 
 Volume, 4to. with 150 Copper Plates, price ,1. 11s. 6d. 
 
 t-1-f This work has been highly esteemed by Artisans as a text-book, and always 
 recommended as indispensable to a pupil. Very few copies remain on hand. 
 
Books printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster-Row. 9 
 
 TTNIVERSAL, COMMERCIAL, and POLITE LETTER. 
 ^ WRITER ; or, a complete and interesting Course of Familiar and Useful Corres- 
 pondence. In Four Parts : 
 
 1st. EDUCATION. Epistolary Rules ; Observations on Style, Grammar, &c.; In- 
 structions for Addressing Persons of all Ranks ; Forms of Complimentary 
 Cards ; Juvenile Correspondence, &c. in a Series of Original Letters, from 
 Parents, Teachers, Pupils, &c. 
 
 2nd. BUSINESS. Useful Forms in Law, Forms of Bonds, Indentures, Deeds, Letters 
 of Attorney, Wills, Petitions, &c. : in a Series of Letters from Merchants, 
 Tradesmen, Creditors, Debtors, &c. 
 
 3rd. MISCELLANEOUS. Public Correspondence on various Topics, partly original 
 and partly selected. 
 
 4th. FAMILIAR SUBJECTS, Love, Courtship, Marriage, &c. 
 
 Adapted to the use of both Sexes. By the Rev. JOSEPH POTTS, M. A. 2s. 6d. bound. 
 
 REV. W. D. CONYBEARE'S LECTURES. 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE of THEOLOGICAL LECTURES, 
 
 -*-^ in Three Parts. Part I. On the evidences of Religion, natural and revealed. 
 II. On the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible. III. On the peculiar Doctrines 
 of Christianity. Delivered in Bristol College, by the Rev. W. D. CONYBEARE, 
 F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the Institute of France, &c. &c. A New Edition, 
 considerably improved, price 8s. cloth, lettered. 
 
 " We are glad to see the waxing popularity of this volume : it speaks well for the 
 public. Such a work every man of any education should read, for every man may 
 understand, and almost every man can afford to obtain it." Gentleman's Magazine. 
 
 " Mr. Cpnybeare has collected much valuable information in a small compass, and 
 his work will be found of service to Biblical students." Christian Observer. 
 
 " The critical Lectures of the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, delivered at the British Col- 
 lege, as Manuals for Theological Students, are beyond praise." Monthly Review. 
 
 " It is a work of profound learning, in union with sound orthodoxy, unaffected 
 candour and liberality, and a truly catholic spirit." Eclectic fieview. 
 
 NEWTON'S ASTRONOMY. 
 
 FAMILIAR INTRODUCTION to the Sciences of ASTRONOMY 
 
 J- and the USE of the GLOBES. Illustrated by fifty-four explanatory Diagrams, 
 with a Description of the Orrery and Armillary Sphere. By W. NEWTON, 
 Author of the new and improved Globes, and Maps of the Stars. 3-y. 6rf. bd. 
 
 TAYLOR'S GEOMETRY. 
 
 TTSEFUL GEOMETRY, practically exemplified by a Series of 
 ^ Diagrams, with clear and concise Directions; shewing the Construction, Divi- 
 sion, Inscribing, Circumscribing, and Proportions of PLANE FIGURES : calculated to 
 assist the Young Beginner, and every one who uses the Rule, the Square, and the 
 Compasses. With Notes, and a VOCABULARY, explaining, in familiar words, the 
 meaning of Technical Terms. By CHARLES TAYLOR. Price 5s. 
 
 " In a prefatory address to the reader, Mr. Taylor has set forth his pretensions in 
 compiling it with remarkable simplicity and modesty ; and our sense of justice in 
 aiding his views towards preparing the intellectual soil for the cultivation of that sub- 
 lime science mathematical truth, is not exceeded by the gratification we experience 
 in performing such a duty." Repertory of Patent Inventions, May 1833. 
 
 GRANT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 GRAMMAR of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE: containing- a 
 ^ complete Summary of its Rules, with an Elucidation of the general Principles of 
 elegant and correct Diction, accompanied with critical and explanatory Notes, 
 Questions for Examination, and appropriate Exercises. By JOHN GRANT, A.M. 
 Price 6s. bound. 
 
 V This Grammar is used as a Text-Book in London University College. 
 
10 Books printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster Roiv. 
 
 IVTACGOWAN'S PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR, with 
 
 L copious Exercises ; being 1 an effectual Introduction to accurate Composition. 
 Second Edition, price 2s. bound. 
 
 FENELON'S MANUAL OF PIETY, ETC. BY MRS. MANT. 
 
 Elegantly printed, in a neat Pocket Volume, and embellished with a new Portrait, 
 price 2,9. in boards, or 3s. bound and gilt, forming a very suitable Present for 
 Young Persons, or as a Reward-Book in Schools, 
 
 MANUAL of PIETY; containing- PIOUS THOUGHTS con. 
 
 L cerning the KNOWLEDGE and LOVE of GOD; DIRECTIONS for a HOLY 
 LIFE, and the ATTAINING CHRISTIAN PERFECTION : and PIOUS REFLEC- 
 TIONS of EVERY DAY in the MONTH. Translated from the French of FENELON, 
 Archbishop of Cambray, by Mrs. MANT. 
 
 *** For the accommodation of the Public, the above little Books are sold separately, 
 price Is. each, in boards ; or 2*. in imitation of morocco. 
 
 T^ENELON'S PIOUS REFLECTIONS for EVERY DAY in the 
 
 MONTH. Translated by Mrs. MANT. Sixteenth Edition. To which is added, 
 a Sketch of the Life of the Author ; and a Father's Advice to his Son. 
 
 A very neat Edition of the Pious Reflections, with appropriate Poetical Illustrations 
 to each Day, printed on large post paper, 2s. 6d. bound and gilt. 
 
 "PENELON'S PIOUS THOUGHTS concerning- the KNOW- 
 LEDGE and LOVE of GOD, and other Holy Exercises. To which are added, 
 DIRECTIONS for a HOLY LIFE, and the ATTAINING CHRISTIAN PERFECTION. 
 
 ** These much-esteemed little Manuals of the Archbishop of Cambray have 
 been very favourably received by the Public ; and the Publishers being desirous of 
 extending their circulation to the fullest possible extent, take leave to recommend 
 them as suitable Books for Presents or Distribution to the Clergy and Heads of 
 Families, at 10s. 6d. per Dozen, in boards. 
 
 f.|-t Be particular in asking for, or ordering, the Editions translated by Mrs. MANT, 
 and published by SHERWOOD & CO. 
 
 HART'S HYMNS-GENUINE EDITION. 
 
 New and beautiful Miniature Edition, price 1*. &d. or neatly bound in roan, 2s. 
 
 TTYMNS, composed on VARIOUS SUBJECTS, with the Author's 
 - Experience, the Supplement, and Appendix. By the Rev. J. HART, late 
 Minister of the Gospel in Jewin Street. 
 
 *** The attention of the public is particularly called to this new and beautiful 
 Edition of Mr. HART'S Hymns, and the Publishers beg to inform those Congregations 
 who use his Collection, that this is the only Edition in which the pages are printed 
 according to the Author's Original Arrangement ; a circumstance of great importance 
 in giving out the Hymns, for public worship. As this Edition is printed under the 
 authority of the Author's Assignment, the public will please to notice that ail other 
 Editions except SHERWOOD'S are spurious. 
 
 TABLET OF MEMORY FIFTEENTH EDITION. 
 
 THE NEW TABLET of MEMORY; or, MIRROR of CHRO- 
 L NOLOGY, HISTORY, STATISTICS, ARTS, and SCIENCE : comprehending every 
 Memorable Fact and Item of Information in those Departments of Knowledge, from 
 the Earliest Period to the Year 1838, classified under distinct Heads, and arranged 
 Alphabetically, with their Dates ; with a full and exact Chronology of Eminent Men 
 of all Countries and Conditions. Fifteenth Edition, greatly enlarged and corrected, 
 and continued to 1838, price 6s. bound in cloth and lettered. 
 
Books printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster Row. 11 
 
 to 
 
 EDITED BY THE PROPRIETOR, 
 
 JOHN SMITH, LECTURER, LIVERPOOL. 
 
 THE SYSTEM COPY-BOOKS; a New Series, in Six Numbers; 
 - complete in every lesson in Writing 1 , with 175 Copy-heads, and careful instructions 
 throughout. Price Gd. each Number ; or 3s. the set. 
 
 No. 1. Strokes, Hangers, Pothooks, and Links; 
 
 No. 2. Single Letters in their gradational order; 
 
 No. 3. Junctions of Letters, and a set of Capitals ; 
 
 No. 4. Regular Exercises in Words, Large Hand; 
 
 No. 5. Regular Exercises in Words, Round Hand; 
 
 No. 6. Regular Exercises in Words, Small Hand. 
 
 THE PATENT DURABLE WRITING LEAF, for educational 
 uses of the pen, in spelling, composition, translations, &c. Is. 6d. single; 3s. double. 
 
 THE PATENT DELLBLE INK POWDER, for CHILDREN'S 
 
 INK, principally adapted to the Patent Durable Leaf above named, but also important 
 for general purposes in a family. Price 6d. per packet ; School packets, 2s. 6d. 
 
 THE ROYAL WHITE SLATE, for ciphering mapping-, 
 
 sketching, drawing, &c. The freshness and purity of its surface is constantly renew- 
 able. Price 2s. 6d. to 5s. 
 
 THE ROYAL POCKET TABLET, for Memoranda. This is a 
 novel and elegant specimen of art. Price 2s. 6d. to 5s. 
 
 THE ARITHMETICAL SCALES. The scales are in four sets 
 (one for each rule, namely, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), so 
 as to serve for one, two, three, or four pupils at a time. Price of the whole, com- 
 plete, in four mahogany boxes, 1. 10s. 
 
 THE PLAYFUL TEACHER, or YOUNG SCHOLAR'S 
 
 LETTER-BOX. Ample directions are given, suggesting games at spelling, calcula- 
 tions, literary dominos, &c. for the family circle, or preparatory school-room. 10s. 
 
 THE PARSING HARMONICON, an agreeable Toy. With 
 
 directions for use. Price 5s. 
 
 SMITH'S KEY to PLEASANT EXERCISES in READING, 
 
 PARSING, and MENTAL ARITHMETIC. (This little work includes the celebrated 
 Imaginary Grammatical Picture, and also the Anatomy of Numbers.) Price 2s. 6d. 
 
 SMITH'S LESSONS on WORDS and OBJECTS, with 
 EASY and AMUSING EXPERIMENTS, for the Parlour or the School. By the 
 Author of the above. Price 2s. 6d. 
 
 SMITH'S ANATOMY of NUMBERS , a series of Early 
 Lessons in Arithmetic, on a new Plan. By the Author of the above. Price 6d. 
 
 PALMER'S FAMILY PRAYERS. 
 
 COLLECTION of FAMILY PRAYERS from the Devotional 
 
 ' WRITINGS of BAXTER, WILLISON, WATTS, HENRY, BENNET, DOD- 
 DRIBGE, and others, with various occasional Forms. Selected and revised by the 
 late Rev. S. PALMER, of Hackney. Second Edition. Price 3s. 6d bound. 
 
 WILLTAMS'S BIBLE EXERCISES; or, SUNDAY RECREA- 
 
 v * TIONS. Price Is. 6d. KEY to ditto, 2s. 
 
12 Hooks printed for Sherwood and Co. Paternoster Roiv. 
 
 MASON ON THE LORD'S SUPPER. 
 
 " Feed on the Lord Jesus Christ, in thy heart, by faith with thanksgiving." 
 
 THE CHRISTIAN COMMUNICANT; or, a suitable Companion 
 to the LORD'S SUPPER : containing MEDITATIONS on every part of the 
 Liturgy used by the Church of England at that DIVINE ORDINANCE. By W. MASON, 
 Esq. With a recommendatory Preface, by the late Rev. WM. ROMAINE, M.A. 
 A new Edition, printed vith 'large letter, revised and corrected by the Rev. H. 
 C, MASON, A.M. Price 3s. 6d. gilt and lettered. 
 
 By the same Author. 
 
 PARLOUR PREACHER: a Pack of Cards for all who are 
 
 determined to win Christ. Price Is. 
 
 Also, 
 
 "RELIEVER'S POCKET COMPANION ; or, One Thing- needful 
 *-* to make Poor Sinners rich, and Miserable Sinners happy. Price Is. 6d. bound. 
 
 UNIFORM WITH "THE MILLION OF FACTS." 
 
 11 '. have often regretted that we have not &uch a Dictionary of the Chemical, Mechanical, and 
 Useful Arts, practised in civilized society, as would enable a willing savage, or a barbarous 
 people, at once to profit by all our discoveries." FRANKLIN. 
 
 ARTS of LIFE arid CIVILIZATION; with Accounts of all the 
 -tt- USEFUL PRODUCTS of NATURE and INDUSTRY, and Practical Details of 
 Processes in Manufactures, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Building-, Mechanics, and other 
 Social Sciences, alphabetically arranged, according to the best Authorities and 
 latest Discoveries. In 1400 columns of Nonpareil type, forming a very thick volume 
 in duodecimo. By SIR RICHARD PHILLIPS. Price 14s. bound, 
 
 It is a work of Processes, and of Practical Details relative to whatever men do 
 in Society ; and it applies, in a satisfactory manner, to every pursuit of Protit, 
 Industry, and Production from the Workshop to the Laboratory from the Kitchen 
 to t^e Boudoir -and from the Farm to the Ornamental Garden. On all these sub- 
 jects it is a perfect Library of ind.spensable and constant Reference. 
 
 W ILLIAMTELL ? or, SWITZERLAND DELIVERED. From 
 V the French of the CHEVALIER DE FLORIAN, by W. HEWETSON : with a 
 Life of the Author, by Jauflret. Price 3s. half-bound. 
 
 T IFE of SIR RICHARD WHITTINGTON, KNT. Four Times 
 
 -*-* Lord Mayor of London, in the Reigns of Edward III. Richard II. and Henry V. 
 Compiled from Authentic Documents, containing many important particulars 
 never before published respecting that illustrious man. By the Author of "MEMOIRS 
 of GEORGE BARNWELL." Second Edition. Price 3s. 
 
 IVTEMOIRS of GEORGE BARNWELL, the unhappy subject of 
 1'J- LILLO'S CELEBRATED TRAGEDY : derived from the most Authentic Source, 
 and intended for the Instruction of the Rising Generation. By a DESCENDANT 
 of the BARNWELL FAMILY. Price 3s. 
 
 T IFE and ADVENTURES of ROBINSON CRUSOE. By 
 ** DANIEL DE FOE. The Three Vols. complete in One, illustrated with 12 Plates, 
 price 5s half-bound. 
 
 ELEGANT MINIATURE EDITION. 
 
 T)LAIR'S GRAVE, GRAY'S ELEGY, and PORTEUS on 
 ' DEATH. The whole complete in one small volume, accompanied with the Lives 
 of their respective Authors, and embellished with an elegant Frontispiece. Price 
 Is. boards. . 
 
14 DAY USE PL 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 LOAN DEPT. 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 -^r-AMr% i r\ 
 
 DBRARY USB 
 
 nncsv^ -^ *--* 
 
 nnn -t /*\ ir^ A 1A CXU i 
 
 JUN21 ttfil 
 
 APR 19 64*10 rm 
 
 
 OCI173i ? * 
 
 LIBRARY USE 
 
 
 JUN221960 
 
 RECEIVED 
 
 120ct6UC 
 
 OCTi8'bo-]i ! j\M 
 
 g C!E 
 
 LOAN DEPT. 
 
 irYi.JiN"' * 
 OPT 1 9 lUkt 
 
 
 \J\j\ -S- w wvl 
 
 
 13 Ma/62 Jp 
 
 
 REC'D LD 
 
 
 MAY 241962 
 
 
 A 
 
 l9Apr'64RW 
 
 
 
 
 ^l^:^-^ 60 Uni^S^o/SSSSml. 
 
YA 04724