EDVCAT10/1AL 
 
 AMD AODRESSE 
 
1 
 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 
 
 OF THE 
 
 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 
 
 Class 
 
 
 
 
 
EDUCATIONAL STUDIES AND 
 ADDRESSES 
 
EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 AND 
 
 ADDRESSES 
 
 BY 
 
 T. G. ROOFER 
 
 RARy 
 
 Of THE 
 OF 
 
 LONDON 
 BLACKIE & SON, Limited, 50 OLD BAILEY, E.G. 
 
 GLASGOW AND DUBLIN 
 1902 
 
UE.7-7S 
 
 GENERAL 
 
TO 
 
 CHARLOTTE M. MASON 
 
 THIS COLLECTION OF ADDRESSES 
 
 DELIVERED BEFORE VARIOUS BRANCHES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PARENTS' NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL UNION 
 
 WHICH SHE HAS FOUNDED 
 
 IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 
 BY THE AUTHOR 
 
 104650 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive 
 
 in 2007 witii funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 littp://www.arcliive.org/details/educationalstudiOOroopricli 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The following papers were, most of them, read 
 before various branches of the Parents* National 
 Educational Union, and have nearly all appeared 
 in the Parents' Review. The aim of the writer has 
 been to assist the members of that association, and 
 others who are concerned with education, to main- 
 tain an interest in studies which are not the less 
 important because they are not novel. Sound 
 principles that are old may easily be laid on the 
 shelf and forgotten, unless in each successive gen- 
 eration a few industrious people can be found who 
 will take the trouble to draw them forth from the 
 storehouse. 
 
 Some of the papers deal with the art of instilling 
 a sense of law and order into the minds of young 
 children. Bishop Dupanloup's fine remark, " I will 
 respect liberty in the smallest child", can hardly be 
 too often present in the thoughts of teachers. The 
 meaning of law as expounded by Lord Russell of 
 Killowen may be taken as a clear statement of the 
 theory which underlies the art of commanding men 
 as practised by Lord Collingwood. Considered 
 together, the opinions of the admiral and the 
 lawyer form an excellent introduction to the 
 
8 PREFACE 
 
 understanding of conduct which leads to social 
 and civil order. 
 
 The study of S6guin is an attempt to satisfy 
 enquirers who wish to know more of the physician 
 to whom Dr. Shuttleworth dedicates his book on 
 Mentally-deficient Children. The seed which S^guin 
 sowed matured rapidly into a rich harvest, but it is 
 something more than gratitude that should impel 
 students of education to revert to the sower and 
 the seed-time, for there is always something in the 
 seed which never appears in the fruit. The life of 
 S^guin is, as Dr. Shuttleworth implies, an inspira- 
 tion to all who have the care of children. 
 
 The study of Don Quixote is an effort to show 
 that object-lessons need not necessarily be confined 
 to natural objects like flowers, insects, or animals. 
 Such lessons may also deal with literature, but in 
 this case a book is the "object" which is studied. 
 There is some danger at present lest, in making up 
 for past neglect of nature, the transcendent value 
 of literature may be overlooked. To preserve the 
 balance between studies in nature and studies in 
 human nature the collection is completed by an 
 address on Manual Training, and an account of 
 a School Garden. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 SfiGUIN 11 
 
 V Manual Training 31 
 
 Obedience, or the Place of Military Discipline in 
 
 Education 43 
 
 Lord Collingwood's Theory and Practice of Edu- 
 cation ..-_-. ---72 
 
 Gaiety in Education, or a Study in Augustine and 
 
 Calvin 89 
 
 Individualism in Education 108 
 
 The Tree of Knowledge and the Tree of Life - 124 
 
 On Spencer's ** Education" 135 
 
 Geography in Elementary Education - . . 149 
 
 On Methods of Teaching Geography - - - 171 
 
 Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra i8i 
 
 An Experiment in School Gardening , , - 201 
 
EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 AND ADDRESSES 
 
 SEGUIN 
 
 Henry Taylor says, "The world knows nothing 
 of its greatest men". At any rate, while the educa- 
 tional world is ringing with the praise of Pestalozzi 
 and Froebel, I am not sure that it is aware that 
 there is another name worthy to be associated with 
 these two master minds, and forming a triad uniting 
 the intellectual forces of Switzerland and Germany 
 with that of France. 
 
 The name which I would associate with the 
 names of Pestalozzi and Froebel is that of S6guin ; 
 and it is of Seguin that I propose to give some 
 account, commencing with a short biography, and 
 afterwards describing his famous experiment in 
 training what he calls an Idiot Hand and an Idiot 
 Eye. 
 
 In 1880, there died in New York, Edward 
 Seguin, at the age of sixty-nine, a man who, on 
 account of his lifelong devotion to the science 
 and art of restoring, or at least elevating in the 
 
12 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 scale of living beings, children wholly or partially 
 imbecile and children of feeble intellect, well de- 
 serves to have his name recorded in the Liber 
 Aureus reserved for the few men whose lives 
 have been of great service to all the human race, 
 without being the cause of the least harm to any 
 part of it. 
 
 S^guin was born in Burgundy, in 1812, and 
 came of a family of physicians of good standing 
 and repute. He had a long line of ancestors who, 
 for many generations, took a leading place as 
 physicians in the Department of La Ni^vre. 
 After receiving a complete education at the 
 College of Auxerre, and then in the Lyc6e St. 
 Louis at Paris, he studied medicine under a 
 famous master of the subject, known as Itard, 
 and also under Esquirol, the psychologist and 
 " alidniste ". Both Itard and Esquirol were pro- 
 foundly interested in psychological studies, and 
 Seguin had an opportunity of watching the ap- 
 parently unsuccessful efforts of Itard to develop 
 the mental powers of an idiot known as the 
 Sauvage de L'Arveyron. At the early age of 
 twenty-five his genius led him to the profound 
 discovery which perhaps initiated the study of 
 physiological education, and certainly advanced 
 the art of training imbeciles in a most unexpected 
 way, and, what is more, the whole science and art 
 of education. For of course other philanthropists 
 had tried to teach idiots before Itard, and notably 
 Vincent de Paul, but with what success is shown 
 by the description of Idiocy in the Dictionary of 
 Medicine published in 1837, where it is stated to 
 
SfeGUIN 13 
 
 be " the absence of mental faculties, or the almost 
 complete nullity of the cerebral faculties"; and 
 farther on, "it is in vain to combat idiocy; in 
 order to restore the intellectual powers it would 
 be necessary to remedy the conformation of 
 cephalic organs which no means have been found 
 hitherto of modifying at all". This was the 
 traditional theory of idiocy, and until it was 
 superseded little progress could be made in 
 assisting idiots. Seguin was led by his own 
 researches to consider that idiocy was not so 
 much due to the malformation of the brain as 
 to its arrested development, which was the result 
 of causes often pre-natal. He seems to have been 
 the first to perceive that the nervous system was 
 an organic whole, and that the brain was not the 
 sole organ of intelligence, independent of the peri- 
 pheral nerves. He believed that the brain could 
 not be properly said to act as a single organ 
 without parts, and that as in any organism the 
 successful working of the whole depends upon 
 the harmonious action, interaction, and reciprocal 
 action of all the parts, so defective intellect might 
 be due not to the absence of parts, but to the 
 want of co-ordination of action among existing 
 parts. 
 
 His idea of a remedy for this arrested develop- 
 ment was training of a physiological kind. He 
 contended that by a suitable physiological train- 
 ing of all the senses it would be possible to restore 
 the idiot to a place in society, even if a humble 
 one, and to make his spark of reason smoulder, 
 even if it would never burst into a flame. 
 
14 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 While Seguin was working at Bicetre, he con- 
 ducted experiments at his own expense, to meet 
 which he earned money by writing for the press 
 and by other hterary labours. He wrote articles 
 for one of the principal journals in Paris, of various 
 kinds, including art criticism, and certain others, 
 more filled with feeling and fire, on political and 
 social subjects. 
 
 This brought him into connection with the most 
 brilliant literary circle that existed in Paris during 
 the century. Among them were Ledru - RoUin, 
 Louis Blanc, Michel Chevalier and Victor Hugo. 
 All of these were disciples in the school of St 
 Simon, P^re Enfantine, and Olinde Rodrigue, and 
 all alike believed in an approaching revolution 
 when society would be reconstituted on the prin- 
 ciple of the greatest happiness of the greatest 
 number. 
 
 Among others, he came to know Louis Napoleon, 
 while in his Republican days, but in 1850 he found 
 it necessary, for political reasons, to exchange 
 France for America somewhat hastily, leaving no 
 address on his departure. He had, however, 
 before quitting Paris, as the result of several 
 years of study, written his epoch-making work on 
 the moral training, the hygiene, and the educa- 
 tion of idiots and defective children. This work, 
 which was published in 1846, was crowned by the 
 Academy and made the text-book on the subject 
 in England and every civilized country. Mean- 
 while the working of Seguin's method had been 
 demonstrated at the Paris Hospital for Incurables 
 at Bicetre, and had attracted much attention. 
 
S]fiGUIN 15 
 
 In America, partly by his writings, and partly 
 by his influence, and partly by personal inter- 
 vention, he founded, or caused the foundation of, 
 various training-places for idiots. Though well 
 qualified in every way as a general practitioner, 
 and easily able to win a good practice and a 
 lucrative one by the charm of his manner and 
 his profound knowledge and skill, he was never 
 able to tear himself from his special line of study, 
 the proper treatment of idiots, to which he was 
 ready to sacrifice everything; and, not unnaturally, 
 his interest in the education of imbeciles extended 
 itself to education in general. His book on Idiocy 
 and its Treatme7it by the Physiological Methody 
 is one which ought to be read by every serious 
 student of educational literature. Seguin pursued 
 his researches in various directions, and, among 
 other applications of his scientific method, he 
 devoted much attention to the temperature of 
 the blood, and it is to him we owe the use of the 
 clinical thermometer, without some knowledge of 
 which no intelligent mother would in these days 
 undertake the hygienic supervision of her family, 
 to say nothing of its use by medical men. Much 
 again might be said of his views relating to the 
 kindergarten, but time allows it not. He died too 
 soon to complete his work. Educationist, philo- 
 sopher, philanthropist, man of science, he was 
 perfect in all relations of life. Happy in his 
 marriage, he left a son able to carry on the 
 tradition of his family, and a group of friends in 
 many countries on either side of the Atlantic 
 inspired by his enthusiasm in the service of man. 
 
1 6 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 He was the honoured recipient of a letter from 
 Pius IX thanking him for his services in the cause 
 of humanity. He was a lover of literature and 
 fine art; he was devoted to plants, animals, and 
 children ; he was a philanthropist in whose philan- 
 thropy there was nothing morose or spiteful, and 
 all forms of social life, in what time he could spare 
 for them, came to him as a welcome refreshment. 
 Bold and independent in his views, he was kind 
 and courteous to all, to his opponents as much as 
 any, meeting attacks, however unworthy, with a 
 Gallic shrug of the shoulders. Burning with in- 
 dignation over social or political injustice, he never 
 condescended to a disposition of intolerance, and 
 not the least remarkable feature in his character 
 was his sympathetic respect for religious creeds in 
 which he himself had no share. He died without 
 wealth, an exile from his country, leaving, how- 
 ever, a heritage far greater than millions of dollars, 
 viz., institutions all over the world which strengthen 
 humanity in its weakest part, and ideas and 
 scientific methods which posterity will assimilate 
 and carry out to greater perfection. His name 
 lives not merely an honour to the land of his 
 birth, France, the land of chivalry, but also to 
 America, and indeed it merits the proudest ad- 
 dition — huinani generis deais. 
 
 I have endeavoured to describe the man. I pass 
 on to show the workman in his workshop. Before 
 introducing you to the student in his own retreat, 
 I will exhibit him as a critic of one of our English 
 institutions. He was appointed to make a report 
 for a special commission on the training of im- 
 
 (MWO) 
 
SEGUIN 17 
 
 beciles in all parts of the world for the first 
 exhibition of Vienna. He visits an English 
 Institution among other places in 1867. "The 
 Enghsh", he says, "have determined to have the 
 greatest Asylum for Idiots in the world, and so 
 far as money and good-will could avail they have 
 it. But the institution is under a Board of 
 Governors, and the physician is under their con- 
 trol. Hence they have a machine which is driven 
 by men clothed in authority, instead of an organ- 
 ization resting on the tender sympathy and quick 
 perception of a woman who is philosophically 
 directed by some man familiar with the most 
 recent anthropological discoveries. 
 
 ^' Modus docendi. Some sixty children formed 
 a class which the teacher had divided into two 
 parts. In front a few infants were being taught 
 to read, while the rest sat behind with slates, under 
 orders to write a copy from a black-board. A 
 glance sufficed to make me put the following 
 questions to myself: — (i) Was it possible for the 
 children to write this letter, (2) at such a distance 
 from their teacher, (3) on a slate resting on their 
 knees, (4) with a pencil that left but a slight mark 
 on a surface polished by long use, (5) with a hand 
 feeble, uncertain in movement, unprepared by pre- 
 liminary exercises, guided by imperfect compre- 
 hension, the difficulty further increased by the 
 feeble powers of reasoning characteristic of such 
 children, who have lived long without instruction, 
 and grown accustomed to act automatically.-^ The 
 slates gave me my answers. They were covered 
 with vague, meaningless lines, often scarcely 
 
 (M930) B 
 
1 8 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 visible, which, signifying nothing to the writers, 
 spoke volumes to me. 
 
 " There is another defect which is characteristic 
 of great institutions where children are trained 
 for public inspection. In each large class there 
 were a certain number of those who may be 
 termed false idiots, i.e. children who are hardly 
 normal, but suffer from the effects of epilepsy, 
 chorea, and the like. These children are pushed 
 forward at the expense of the genuine idiots. Of 
 course they can answer all sorts of difficult ques- 
 tions, and their proficiency imposes on the public. 
 Even this concession is not enough for the visitors. 
 Idiots must be served in all sorts of sauce; there 
 must be musicians, mathematicians, architects, and 
 what not. Utilize time and money, which ought 
 to be shared by the whole of a class, in developing 
 among a few children such special faculties as 
 have survived the shipwreck of the rest, and you 
 may astound fools and thus most effectively 
 advertise your institution. Yet it is all useless. 
 The musician, the architect, or the mathematician, 
 having but one faculty developed, remains none 
 the less idiotic, and his possession will by no 
 means give him a place in society. It is useless 
 to develop one faculty at the expense of the rest; 
 if this is true of idiot asylums, it applies equally 
 to ordinary schools and to the Universities. The 
 English have yet to learn the principles of Physio- 
 logical Instruction." 
 
 This visit took place in iS6y, and five years 
 later S^guin gave a far more satisfactory report 
 
 I will now attempt to show S6guin at work on 
 
SEGUIN 19 
 
 his own method, as explained to the world in a 
 pamphlet on the Idiot Hand mid the Idiot Eye^ 
 or the training of an idiot child in New York. 
 The following is the description of the Idiot Hand. 
 The hand was small, the nails were dry and brittle; 
 the fingers were short and badly finished; there 
 seemed no power of resistance to pressure; there 
 was no use in the hand whatever; in all respects 
 its conformation exhibited characteristics which 
 are the opposite of those which mark manual 
 dexterity. Movement, however, there was, but it 
 was automatic, having for its centre and lever the 
 wrist. Vigorous as this automatic action could be, 
 the child was quite unable to carry out the simplest 
 direction which involved voluntary action. While, 
 however, the hand was incapable of finer adjust- 
 ments, the arm could be moved as a whole up or 
 down, although with little precision in the move- 
 ment, and at times even this action was beyond 
 the child's power. The mistress commenced the 
 process of educating this Idiot Hand by acting 
 first on the shoulder, exercising in order, first the 
 muscles of the shoulder, then those of the fore-arm, 
 and then those of the wrist and hand itself Thus 
 voluntary movement was gradually extended down- 
 wards from the shoulder to the extremity of the 
 fingers. The exercises were done at first through 
 imitation of the teacher, but the child soon learnt 
 to do them for himself as directed. 
 
 Thus the education commenced with purely 
 physical exercises. The movements of the hand 
 which ordinary children learn unconsciously and 
 almost imperceptibly may be thusroughly classi- 
 
20 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 fied, viz.: holding (both passively and intentionally), 
 seizing, raising, lifting, dropping, throwing, snatch- 
 ing, squeezing, bending, breaking, beating, striking, 
 modelling, combining, uniting, joining, dividing, 
 parting, severing with knife or scissors or saw, 
 according to the resistance offered by the material. 
 The Idiot Hand was incapable of any of these 
 movements. The first step in education was 
 purely physical, consisting of a suitable series of 
 exercises for the arm, hand, and fingers. The 
 intellectual worth of these exercises depends upon 
 the way they are ultimately done, their precision, 
 their rapidity, their unity, their adjustment, their 
 promptness, and their subjection to control and 
 will. The problem of getting the child to imitate 
 his teacher's action in, say, raising his arm, is far 
 from simple. He has to take notice of what his 
 teacher is doing, to form a clear mental image of 
 it, to transmit this image, along with the intention 
 to execute the actions which go to make it up, to 
 the limbs concerned. There is a triple series of 
 acts, involving registration, volition, and execution. 
 The resistance which idiocy, active or passive, 
 opposes to the teacher's efforts is for his or her 
 skill and patience to overcome. The mistress 
 reached the tips of the fingers of the Idiot Hand 
 by commencing with the shoulder; and subse- 
 quently group after group of nerves and muscles 
 previously given up to automatism was gradually 
 won for voluntary action, and a set of apparatus 
 that was merely brute was made subject to the 
 sway of reason. The process of training was from 
 great centres to smaller, and centrifugal. In time 
 
SEGUIN 21 
 
 the delicate action of the peripheral nerves and 
 muscles reacted on the central, and then improve- 
 ment and training proceeded centripetally. 
 
 As an example of the difference in the power to 
 act according as the impulse is derived from regions 
 nearer or farther from the central axis, it was 
 noticed that the child could drive a nail with a 
 hammer before it could prick a hole on a given spot 
 on a piece of paper. To use a hammer requires 
 no movement below the wrist; it is a shoulder 
 movement; on the contrary, the use of the pin 
 demands little action on the part of the great 
 flexor and extensor muscles of the arm, but much 
 complicated adjustment of the finer muscles of the 
 fingers. 
 
 What was the result at the end of a year of this 
 daily training of the sense of touch, this develop- 
 ment of interaction or reciprocal action between 
 the brain centres and the peripheral nerves? The 
 child's hand had learnt to help itself, to occupy 
 itself, and to amuse itself; it ceased to be shoved 
 into the child's mouth and bitten, or to strike the 
 child's companions, although the automatic move- 
 ments did not entirely cease. The touch was 
 developed so far that the child would appreciate 
 the ordinary difi*erences of temperature in air, 
 water, and food, and would recognize and name 
 blindfold, by mere sense of touch, some fifty objects. 
 
 The eye also, being exercised in company with 
 the hand, although strictly subsidiary in its use, 
 learnt to distinguish typical forms, first the things 
 themselves, next coloured pictures of them, and 
 then sketches or outlines, and by a simple transi- 
 
22 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 tion the child was taught to cut out these things in 
 paper. He also learnt to arrange objects of vary- 
 ing size according to their comparative dimensions. 
 As the child had shown a natural taste for 
 flowers, and especially sweetly-scented flowers, he 
 soon learnt in the garden the names of some thirty, 
 to say them correctly, and many more with less 
 certainty. This love of flowers made him wish to 
 plant and tend them ; he also had a vase of flowers 
 on his mantel-piece, and renewed the water daily 
 with punctuality, and, though busy with other occu- 
 pations, he never forgot the right time to attend 
 to this duty. Under these influences the sudden 
 and violent emotions with which he had been 
 afflicted before his training, the sudden flow of 
 blood to the head, and senseless actions of passion 
 and rage, gave way to a calmer and sweeter dis- 
 position. These results showed themselves, after 
 a little more than a year, in the following changes 
 in his features. His mouth was no longer seen 
 with hanging lower lip, his head was upright on 
 the axis instead of lolling over to one side, and 
 the curious semicircular depression of the forehead 
 between the eyes had nearly vanished. The whole 
 of this system of training is based upon the prin- 
 ciple of physiological decentralization. It would 
 have been impossible as a system, although flashes 
 of the principle have crossed the vision of educa- 
 tionists from the beginning, unless the idea of the 
 sovereignty of the brain had not been profoundly 
 modified by the appreciation of the immensely 
 important part played in the intellectual develop- 
 ment by the peripheral nerves and the muscles. 
 
S^GUIN 
 
 23 
 
 The first year of training was devoted, in the 
 way described, to the Idiot Hand; the second was 
 spent in educating the Idiot Eye, and in an 
 analogous manner. 
 
 The manual training of the first year had been 
 concerned with the muscles of the arm and hand, 
 the joints of these limbs, and with the sense of 
 touch. By the sense of touch the child learnt to 
 comprehend many objects, and to express in words 
 the impressions which he derived from his sense 
 of touch. He learnt to recognize many objects, to 
 hold things, to put things down, to grasp, throw, 
 &c., and acquired the command over his hand in 
 many operations either immediately useful or in- 
 dispensable for progress, such as washing and 
 dressing, or holding a pencil or a knife. It took 
 him a year before his hands, at first as flaccid as 
 in death, could button a button or brush his coat. 
 After this he would strengthen his hands by 
 whittling a stick with a jack-knife, and render 
 his fingers more supple and pliant by tracing 
 lines on a slate; he would also learn to throw or 
 catch a ball, though awkwardly, and to manipulate 
 clay so as to form a few models. 
 
 In commencing with the eye training, the doctors 
 found the state of the eye as imperfect as that 
 of the hand. Both eyes suffered from lateral 
 nystagmus, that is, the eyeballs rolled from side 
 to side with " a short uneasy motion ", and the 
 range of their movement was small. The pupils 
 were of unequal size. He also suffered from 
 hypermetrophy. The optic nerves also were 
 atrophied. 
 
24 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 Nystagmus in idiots is of two kinds. It is either 
 the rolling or oscillating movement above described, 
 or else it is a tendency to fix the eyeball with a 
 stare upwards and sideways towards one corner. 
 During S^guin's treatment of this child it was 
 ascertained by oculists that this movement of the 
 eye was akin to the movements known as St. 
 Vitus' dance or chorea, and this discovery led him 
 to seek a remedy in physical training. The eye is 
 educated through the hand. It was S6guin's object 
 to bring the eyeball to repose, to direct it steadily 
 upon an object, and by use of the hand in con- 
 junction with the eye to give intelligence to the 
 act of looking. It is well known of how much 
 use the hand is in guiding the eye, especially in 
 directing and fixing the attention. The hand of 
 an adroit person has almost a language of its own. 
 The Idiot Eye must first be trained through the 
 Idiot Hand. The child must learn to use the 
 index digit for pointing out objects. Special 
 exercises are needed to develop tliis habit as 
 thoroughly as possible. This exercise is by no 
 means so easy as might appear. The child was 
 taught by use of the index finger to seek and find, 
 to look out for and to look at, to watch and to 
 follow, moving objects and objects at rest. A 
 wide sweep of the hand would fix his eyes on an 
 object, and small movements of the fingers would 
 prevent his attention from wandering off it again. 
 But sometimes his eyes would close when pointing 
 rightly at an object, or else while his finger pointed 
 at the object his eye wandered away from it, while 
 he cried all the same: "Look, look". On such 
 
S^GUIN 25 
 
 occasions Seguin never lost patience, nor did he 
 resort to short and wicked words, much less blows. 
 He wrote treatises instead on the obstinate fixing 
 of the will, due, as he argued, to the inhibitory effect 
 of the nerves upon the muscles when a sort of nerve 
 storm is raging, an effect which he carefully dis- 
 tinguished from wilful opposition. The exercises 
 which were necessary during the first year to 
 overcome the flaccidity of the muscles of the 
 hand were continued during the second year, 
 and while at first the hand helped the eye, after 
 a bit the eye, being improved, helped the hand, 
 and the exercises having for their main object the 
 improvement of either organ, the other being for 
 the time subsidiary, at last met in a region where 
 it is no longer possible to say which of the two 
 is the principal one aimed at. 
 
 One of the ways of training the eye by the hand 
 was to get the child to trace over a pattern supplied 
 to him by the teacher on paper. At first sight this 
 might seem training the hand by the eye, but it is 
 not so. The hand has to follow a line marked out. 
 To do this it calls upon the eye in a sort of reflex 
 way to help it to follow the line correctly. Thus 
 hand and eye are fixed on one point, and have to 
 move together in one direction, but the hand sets 
 the eye to work. 
 
 Eye exercises have been systematically devised 
 for enabling the child to direct its gaze at will and 
 with attention, upwards, downwards, and sideways, 
 and the occupations of tracing patterns, pricking 
 them, and cutting them out with scissors have all 
 been found useful in reducing the disorders of the 
 
26 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 organs of vision, which have kept them cut off 
 from communication with objects around them 
 and caused the Idiot Eye. 
 
 Modelling has also been found useful. It was 
 soon seen that a hand which had learnt to perform 
 many of the useful services above described, such 
 as dressing, &c., and also to use dumb-bells and go 
 through athletic exercises, was still much too nerve- 
 less to make an impression on soft clay. The first 
 step in overcoming the difficulty was to get the 
 child to squeeze an india-rubber ball and let it go 
 again, until the rhythmical contraction and ex- 
 pansion of the ball communicated itself to the 
 hand. 
 
 When the child was thus brought so far that he 
 could act upon his material and impress upon it 
 some shape, he was given some clay to work upon. 
 As he could not use his fingers to much purpose, 
 owing to their weakness, he rolled the clay between 
 his palms. A kindergarten teacher would expect 
 this action to have shaped a ball. It did not. The 
 resulting shape was a sort of cylinder, unequally 
 conical at either end. The reason of this was the 
 imperfection of the touch. To make a ball there 
 must be muscular action combined with a sense of 
 touch, which produce together the rotary motion 
 needed to make a spherical shape. If muscular 
 activity is present alone, the clay becomes irregu- 
 larly cylindrical. The child, however, as his sense 
 of touch had gone through much preliminary 
 training, soon proved equal to making a ball of 
 clay. To form a cube or a pyramid in clay, 
 besides action of muscle and touch, a third thing 
 
S^GUIN 27 
 
 is required. The eye must be brought into play. 
 And here at once a trap is set for the unwary 
 teacher. It is hard to make a cube by use of hand 
 and eye. The kindergarten teacher therefore 
 shows her pupil how to flatten first one side of a 
 piece of clay and then another on a slate or desk, 
 until six flat sides are produced. No doubt this 
 is an excellent way to make a cube if it be your 
 object to make a cube; but that is not the intention 
 of the teacher of the idiot He wants to enable 
 the child to impress an idea of form on matter by 
 an infinite variety of acts of pressure on the part 
 of the nervous-muscular mass concentrated at the 
 ends of the fingers. To instruct a child, whether 
 normal or idiot, for show, let him use the table as 
 a mould, and instead of his two eyes the legs of 
 a pair of compasses to measure distance. But 
 this is not education. It is to mistake means for 
 ends, and to make the hand and eye dependent 
 upon mechanical aid just when by carefully graded 
 exercises of increasing difficulty they are prepared 
 to act independently of such crutches. The effect 
 of it is to make the Idiot Hand and Eye return to 
 the automatism from which you have been rescuing 
 them so painfully. 
 
 It is not likely that the works of art in the way 
 of drawing and modelling produced by such an 
 artist as the child with hands and eyes as described 
 would reach a high standard absolutely, so as to 
 please others, but here are the results won for 
 himself He has learnt to express a mental 
 image in clay, which, although imperfect, reveals 
 to him the action of mind and will on matter; he 
 
28 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 has learnt to act at the instigation of another, to 
 carry out his wish, and to form and carry out a 
 wish of his own. His eye responds infinitely better 
 than before to his hand in the way of directions, 
 presentations, ideas and suggestions, and impulse; 
 the oscillations of his eyeballs have decreased ; the 
 fixing of his eyeball at an angle is rarer and less 
 persistent. The child's vision, the " idiot eye ", is 
 more under the control of his own will and that of 
 those around him. The transition from things and 
 acts to speech has been in this manner. His voca- 
 bulary is now reasonably correct ; things and their 
 names have been presented together, and in pre- 
 senting objects care has been taken to name them 
 along with their qualities, movements, character- 
 istics; and, in addition to this, much attention has 
 been paid to contrast, and along with a given 
 quality its opposite had been cited; similarly, 
 analogous ideas had been introduced where appro- 
 priate. Thus, nothing had been spoken of without 
 setting alongside of it some contrast or some 
 analogous conception or object Pictures, too, 
 and portraits he loved to look at, having learnt 
 to give value to every detail. In this way he 
 knows by their face and actions a number of great 
 men.^ 
 
 " But ", someone will say, " seven or eight years 
 old, and the child has not been learning to read 
 or write. When will his education really begin.^" 
 " When ", says S^guin, " his mind shall have been 
 stored by the exercise of his senses with a number 
 of correct impressions of objects. Let him remain 
 
 *Scc Arckiva of Medicine, October, 1879. 
 
m SEGUIN 29 
 
 in an 'analphabetic' condition until his preliminary 
 stock of ideas gives him some chance of being able 
 to follow what he reads, and then he will not be 
 exposed to the absurdity of being set to read by 
 some teacher, really more imbecile than himself, 
 what he does not understand a word of. Let him, 
 for some time at any rate, be set to read what he 
 has himself helped his teacher to compose and 
 what he has himself written." 
 
 If it be asked. How can the study of defective 
 intellect of cretinous children really throw light on 
 the mental growth of healthy and normal children ? 
 the answer is to be found in Seguin's discovery, 
 that the normal intellect depends upon the inter- 
 action and proper co-ordination of various parts of 
 the nervous system. 
 
 To understand the co-ordination of the parts of 
 a complex machine the first thing is to learn the 
 function of each part separately. 
 
 Now in a normal child the various parts of the 
 nervous organism work so rapidly and promptly 
 that it is almost impossible to follow the process 
 of co-ordination. It is indeed quick as thought. 
 
 In the cretinous child, owing to want of co- 
 ordination, different movements can be studied 
 before they are combined into a whole. The 
 method of training such children consists in doing 
 for them artificially what in the ordinary child is 
 done naturally. 
 
 With the necessary modifications, what is good 
 for the abnormal child is a basis for dealing with 
 the normal child. The study of the slow move- 
 ments of the defective intellect is like examining 
 
30 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 minute structures with a microscope. Analysis is 
 rendered possible. Very minute intervals and 
 distances become apparent under a lens which 
 escape observation without it. 
 
 Imbecile and defective children, the blighted 
 flowers in the kindergarten — ^these were the objects 
 of Sdguin's life-work. Let the world cherish his 
 memory. Many ladies are following in his steps. 
 Let them find some refreshment in the fact that 
 their act of mercy is not merely as the nurse at 
 the rear of the battle-field of life, attending to the 
 disabled, but that their labours also place them 
 among the pioneers who are preparing the way 
 for the advancement of the knowledge of the 
 human mind. 
 
MANUAL TRAINING 
 
 Lecture to Teachers at the 
 Bradford Educational Exhibition, December, 1899 
 
 I HAVE often had the pleasure of taking part in 
 conferences on manual training, and I cannot say 
 anything new. My object to-day is to review the 
 reasons for its adoption which influence its ad- 
 vocates. The movement spreads continuously, in 
 ever-widening circles. Its progress during the 
 last twenty years has been perhaps slower than 
 some might desire, but the ground won is held, 
 and the advance is sure. The growth resembles 
 that of the oak and not of the mushroom. After 
 all, there is plenty of time in the next century. 
 
 Manual training is advocated on many grounds: 
 it is a necessary part of sound intellectual training; 
 the laws of sound health demand its practice; and 
 art, science, and industry all require its support. 
 I, however, addressing teachers in West Riding 
 schools, wish to emphasize the ideas of its first 
 founders — the spirit of men like Uno Cygnseus, 
 the father of Finnish elementary schools, and 
 Herr Salomon, the founder of Swedish manual 
 training. 
 
 These men never ceased to dwell on the idea 
 that all education must be spiritual. "Work in 
 education is work for God ", they affirm, and " all 
 education is something sacred ". Their thoughts 
 
 31 
 
32 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 are the conceptions of men who regard education as 
 something higher than a mere industrial question. 
 Improved education has something higher in view 
 than increase in corn and oil and wine, as if a large 
 school were but the entrance or porch to a still 
 larger barn or granary. These men set the needs 
 of humanity in the forefront, and their first aim 
 is the sound training of the child, to make him 
 become as perfect a human being as his nature 
 permits him to be made. They desire that every 
 child that is born shall become complete as a man, 
 and not a mere animated tool for use in industry 
 or commerce — mere labour for the cheapest market. 
 Manual training is essential to the proper develop- 
 ment of all human beings. The West Riding, un- 
 less I am mistaken, is yet a land where music and 
 song are loved without stint. Let the Yorkshire 
 dalesmen cling to this precious birthright, and not 
 think for one moment that advocates of manual 
 training bid them make any sacrifice of the Muses 
 for merely material gains, or toss away the solid 
 end of life, which is ideal, to win the luxuries of 
 fine raiment and the like, which are the realities 
 of kings* palaces. Our aim is to make life not 
 emptier, but fuller; to make the vision of the poet 
 and the meaning of music more fruitful and in- 
 spiring; and to awaken wider sympathies between 
 man and man. We wish to contribute to the 
 solidarity of the human race by enlarging the 
 early experience of each member. We wish to 
 avoid cramping and confining the growing mind 
 through a one-sided and narrow book -training. 
 Our desire is to set the roar of the mill and the 
 
MANUAL TRAINING 33 
 
 clang of the forge to the music of great thoughts 
 and great tunes. Manual and literary training 
 must be combined. 
 
 Perhaps some one will ask why manual training 
 is more necessary in schools at the present time 
 than it was in the days of our fathers. A moment's 
 reflection will supply a complete answer. During 
 the past hundred years a great change in the con- 
 ditions of industrial life has been in process, and 
 the change has had an important bearing upon the 
 way we all live at the end of the nineteenth century. 
 If you talk, for instance, with almost any farmer 
 whose years number enough to have whitened his 
 hair, he will tell you how in the days of his youth 
 every household was a miniature technical school. 
 In every homestead, each day of the week and 
 each season of the year provided different occupa- 
 tions, which called into play the active use of the 
 hand, alike for men and women, aided by boys 
 and girls. Monday, it might be, there was baking; 
 Tuesday, brewing; Wednesday, perhaps threshing; 
 Thursday, thatching; Friday, constructing a hovel, 
 or some rough carpentry. The women spun and 
 wove. In different neighbourhoods different things 
 were made ; but in every home all were busy with 
 their hands. In these days, all those things that 
 once had to be made at home are purchased at 
 a store, or brought round by a tradesman's cart. 
 Machinery saves hand labour, and nothing is 
 made at home. The hand has no chance of being 
 trained at all. Now it is clear that in old days, 
 when the hand was trained at home by many and 
 varied occupations, all that the school had to do 
 
 (M930) C 
 
34 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 was to supplement this manual work by a certain 
 amount of book-learning. In the present day, if 
 the training of the hand is omitted at school, the 
 hand is never trained at all. 
 
 Yet the training of the hand is essential. 
 Students of anatomy, and biology, and mental 
 science — men like Sir James C. Browne in this 
 country and Professor Marshal in Leipzig — are 
 agreed as to the overwhelming importance of the 
 proper development of the muscles of the hand 
 during childhood, and especially before the age of 
 fourteen, by which period the nervous and muscular 
 apparatus concerned in the skilled use of the hand 
 is more or less complete, and cannot so well be 
 modified. Further, it is insisted on that the 
 proper development of the brain itself depends 
 upon the proper and varied employment of the 
 hand in early years. This fact may appear a 
 paradox to many, but the clearest illustration of 
 it is to be found in the observation made by 
 anatomists in dissecting the brain of a person 
 who has lost a limb in infancy and has died in 
 maturity. It appears that the part of the brain 
 tissue which was connected through nerves with 
 that lost limb is dwarfed, atrophied, and un- 
 developed. What happens when a limb is lost 
 altogether happens also to some extent when the 
 limb is little exercised. "Men", says Marshal, 
 "who attach little importance to manual training 
 are blind. Scales must fall from their eyes before 
 they can see how intimately humanity and civiliza- 
 tion are bound up with the use of the hand, and 
 admit the fact that no man's head-work is as com- 
 
MANUAL TRAINING 35 
 
 plete as it might be unless he has learned the use 
 of his hands." 
 
 It cannot, I think, be denied that the character 
 of the average home has changed since it has 
 ceased to be a miniature technical school. There 
 are fewer educational incentives in it, and more 
 opportunities for amusement. Hence there is less 
 practical intelligence, less of the spirit of industry, 
 less thrift, and less moral earnestness. 
 
 Education in which the use of the hand is no 
 less suitably attended to than the use of books, 
 will lead to a life more healthy, more happy, and 
 more natural than a training confined to literary 
 studies. Modern literary taste might easily im- 
 prove. If school life is reduced to a mere cram 
 of text-books studied for examination purposes, 
 and supplemented by professional athleticism, 
 what can be expected of the scholars in later 
 life but a contemptuous performance of the 
 drudgery of business during the day, followed by 
 the false excitement of betting and gambling, 
 varied with the banalities of music-halls, after the 
 day's work? 
 
 But the handwork in the school must be of the 
 right kind. Beware of industrialism in education. 
 Beware of thinking it proper or possible to make 
 money out of a child's labour, and in so doing to 
 educate him at the same time. There are here 
 and there farmers and gentlemen in country dis- 
 tricts who would send a boy to scare crows from 
 morning to dusk, and call that occupation educa- 
 tion — technical education, of course. In towns 
 there are those who would set children, for ex- 
 
36 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 ample, to gum envelopes all day, and call that 
 mental training, or character-forming, or technical 
 education. 
 
 Children at school cannot be prepared for a 
 special calling in after-life. If any zealous person 
 imagines this to be possible, a glance at the bulky 
 volume called The London Trades Directory would 
 be enough to correct him. The important point 
 to consider is rather this: Has their school life 
 tended to unfit the children for their calling in 
 after-life? Do the children, on leaving school, find 
 themselves content to take up whatever occupation 
 they may have to earn their living by? An edu- 
 cation which unfits the scholar for his subsequent 
 career as an apprentice to a trade or calling is 
 most unsatisfactory. It ought to be possible to 
 avoid this defect without attempting what is quite 
 impossible — to prepare a school-child for a trade. 
 Mere book-learning which is not supplemented by 
 handwork does tend to unfit children to take up 
 work which demands the use of the hand. 
 
 It must not, however, be supposed that the train- 
 ing of the. mind is to be sacrificed to the training 
 of the muscles. Apart from the use of the hand, 
 the brain itself as an organ is imperfectly developed. 
 The early exercise of the muscles of the hand 
 develops the brain as much as the development 
 of the brain aids the growth of the finer muscular 
 activities. It is not possible to choose between 
 training the intellect and training the muscles. 
 Both must be trained together to make a complete 
 man. 
 
 To put this in another way. Nervous force is 
 
MANUAL TRAINING 37 
 
 brought into play in the reception of impressions 
 through the senses; again, as often as muscular 
 reaction follows the stimulation of the nerves, 
 nervous force is also brought into play. For 
 health in mind and body, there must be a balance 
 between these two kinds of nervous activity — be- 
 tween the force which is chiefly receptive and the 
 force which is chiefly creative, as between imports 
 and exports. 
 
 There is in most children a wholesome desire to 
 perform acts, if not constructive, then destructive. 
 It is the fault of the teaching if this desire is not 
 guided into habits of making rather than marring. 
 The true remedy for stupid and cruel displays of 
 force in hobbledehoys, and of ** Hooliganism ", is 
 manual training. 
 
 Manual training, then, must be considered as a 
 part of general education, and must be introduced 
 into the school routine for its own sake, and not 
 because it subserves the purpose of technical edu- 
 cation. The method of instruction must on no 
 account be assimilated to workshop training or 
 that of technical schools. It must be systemati- 
 cally developed on lines suited to this conception 
 of it as a part of general education, as in Sweden 
 and Germany. It must not be taught on any 
 system which is simply industrial. For this reason, 
 the school children must not devote all their time 
 to perfecting a few joints and mere preliminary 
 exercises. They must construct simple articles 
 of which some use can be made, and the use of 
 which they can see. 
 
 If we ask for what standards and classes manual 
 
38 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 training is needed, the answer is, " For all ". It 
 must begin with the kindergarten, and must con- 
 tinue in the lower standards, and so on through 
 the school. The later we commence hand and eye 
 training, the harder it is to secure success. If when 
 children first go to school their senses of touch and 
 sight are neglected, the number of children with 
 purblind vision and blunted tactile perception will 
 be greater in proportion to this early neglect. 
 
 In dealing with elementary schools, it is most 
 important not to confuse elementary training with 
 advanced training. This confusion is easily and 
 constantly made. Of course, advanced training 
 must be specialized training; it would be faulty 
 if it were not. Elementary training must not be 
 specialized; it is faulty if it is. If you are training 
 an apprentice in joinery, you will, doubtless, find it 
 better to use English carpenters' tools, in spite of 
 some of them being, as compared with American 
 tools, somewhat antiquated. If, however, you are 
 not dealing with a joiner's apprentice, you are not 
 limited to common English joiners* tools, and the 
 particular kind of tool which you use depends upon 
 quite other considerations. The knife, no doubt, is 
 not a joiner's tool, but it is the primary tool with 
 which some of the finest work is done. The 
 gardener, for example, docs not bud or prune or 
 graft with a chisel or plane, but with a knife. It is 
 worth bearing in mind, by the way, that John 
 Hunter, the famous surgeon, in his youth practised 
 woodwork. 
 
 The aim of all elementary education must be of 
 a general description; the aim of advanced training 
 
MANUAL TRAINING 39 
 
 is skill in a particular trade. In elementary train- 
 ing various faculties must be partly trained, and 
 then when mature the scholar will select, as cir- 
 cumstances may determine, some one of them by 
 which he will elect to make his living, and develop 
 it fully and completely and professionally. 
 
 Much that is spoken with truth about specialized 
 and advanced training is wholly out of place and 
 misleading when the subject dealt with is the 
 general education of the child in early years and 
 in the elementary school. 
 
 Attention to these considerations is important, 
 because if they are neglected, the result may be 
 the teaching of the more or less adroit use of a few 
 tools, the structure of materials, and the tricks of 
 construction, and yet in the end disappointment 
 will arise. Instead of an improved general edu- 
 cation, there will be only so much more com- 
 mercialism, and so much more cheap labour. 
 
 The object of education is to awaken spontaneity 
 in the child. How can this be done if the teaching 
 constantly holds before his mind that he is being 
 trained for a particular purpose, and that his every 
 action as a child has a direct bearing on his future 
 occupation.? Rather should the ultimate end or 
 utilitarian value of his handwork be kept out of 
 sight, or at least in the background. Let his 
 childish activities occupy his thoughts wholly for 
 their own sake. 
 
 It does matter what thoughts are running 
 through a child's mind when he is at work. Let 
 him in his manual training make for his mother a 
 penholder or a wooden spoon, or a cardboard port- 
 
40 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 folio for his father or sister. Let him work for 
 others without reward, and so procure a few 
 precious moments of self-forgetfulness. If the 
 child in the elementary school is allowed to spend 
 all his time in making joints which are laid aside 
 when finished, no account is taken of the child's 
 heart. The past cannot return, and the home has 
 ceased to be a centre of practical training; there- 
 fore children must acquire this at school. 
 
 Mr. Worthington was appointed by the Board of 
 Trade as a special commissioner to enquire into 
 and report upon the condition of British trade in 
 South America. He reports a falling off of Eng- 
 lish trade, and attributes it to (i) English ignorance 
 of the decimal system, and (2) to inferiority of 
 English packing. "The French cases arrive in 
 good condition, whereas the English arrive badly 
 broken." Mr. Johnson writes from Brussels that 
 English trade has lost its influence. "We are 
 beaten only in small matters of general neatness." 
 Manual dexterity, which leads to neatness, must 
 be cultivated at school or nowhere. We cannot 
 afford to send the children out into the world with 
 hands untrained in habits of neatness and accuracy. 
 
 Lessons in drawing must be connected with 
 practice in cutting out and constructing models of 
 various kinds: in the lower standards the material 
 may be paper and cardboard; in the upper stan- 
 dards it may be wood. Handwork may be em- 
 ployed in illustrating lessons in elementary science. 
 If children do not thus learn the use of their hands, 
 either at home or school, the general level of 
 manual dexterity must fall lower and lower; and 
 
MANUAL TRAINING 41 
 
 this depreciation involves, according to the best 
 authorities, a loss of brain-power and general in- 
 telligence. Machinery can replace the human 
 hand, but it cannot act as a substitute for the 
 human brain. 
 
 In conclusion, I will confirm my own opinion by 
 a brief quotation, on the subject of manual training, 
 from William James, a famous American writer on 
 psychology, a pupil of the German Miinsterberg. 
 William James's recent book. Talks with Teachers 
 on Psychology^ is a most important one for all 
 teachers to read. In it will be found the following 
 remarks : — 
 
 "Manual training will give us citizens of an 
 entirely different intellectual fibre. Laboratory 
 work and bench work engender a habit of ob- 
 servation, a knowledge of the difference between 
 accuracy and vagueness, and an insight into 
 nature's complexity, and into the inadequacy of 
 all abstract verbal accounts of real phenomena, 
 which, once wrought into the mind, remain there 
 as lifelong possessions. They confer precision; 
 because if you are doing a thing, you must do it 
 definitely, right or wrong. They give honesty; 
 for when you express yourself by making things 
 and not by using words, it becomes impossible to 
 dissimulate your vagueness or ignorance by am- 
 biguity. They beget a habit of self-reliance; they 
 keep the interest and attention always cheerfully 
 engaged, and reduce the teacher's disciplinary 
 functions to a minimum. Of the various systems 
 of manual training, the Swedish Sloyd seems to 
 me by far the best, psychologically considered." 
 
42 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 In the introduction of manual training into this 
 country Bradford has been one of the most active 
 of pioneers. The work has been taken up in the 
 right spirit, and carried forward upon right lines. 
 After all, this is only as might be expected. The 
 country owes it to a member for Bradford that a 
 national system of education became an accom- 
 plished fact. We naturally look to those who laid 
 the foundation to give us ideas for the completion 
 of the edifice. 
 
OBEDIENCE 
 
 OR 
 
 THE PLACE OF MILITARY DISCIPLINE IN 
 EDUCATION 
 
 "Obedience for its own sake is the worst of vices." — Headmaster 
 at the Headmasters' Conference 
 
 For a most amusing description of disobedient 
 children no better reference can be found than 
 Acton Bell's novel, Agnes Grey, and more espe- 
 cially the following graphic scene, when the heroine 
 was a sorely-tried governess in Mr. Bloomfield's 
 family: — 
 
 " I particularly remember one wild snowy after- 
 noon after my return in January; the children 
 had all come up from dinner, loudly declaring 
 that they meant ' to be naughty ', and they had 
 well kept their resolution, though I had talked 
 myself hoarse and wearied every muscle in my 
 throat in the vain attempt to reasoji them out of 
 it. I had got Tom pinned up in a corner, whence 
 I told him he should not escape till he had done 
 his appointed task. Meantime Fanny had pos- 
 sessed herself of my work-bag and was rifling 
 its contents — and spitting into it besides. I told 
 her to let it alone, but to no purpose, of course. 
 'Burn it, Fanny,' cried Tom; and this command 
 she hastened to obey. I sprang to snatch it from 
 the fire, and Tom darted to the door. ' Mary Ann, 
 
 43 
 
44 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 throw her desk out of the window/ cried he: and 
 my precious desk containing my letters and papers, 
 my small amount of cash, and all my valuables, 
 was about to be precipitated from the three-storey 
 window. I flew to rescue it. Meanwhile Tom had 
 left the room and was rushing down the stairs, 
 followed by Fanny. Having secured my desk I 
 ran to catch them, and Mary Ann came scamper- 
 ing after. All three escaped me and ran out of 
 the house into the garden, where they plunged 
 about in the snow, shouting and screaming in 
 exultant glee. While I stood just without the 
 door, trying by grim looks and angry words to 
 awe them into subjection, I heard a voice behind 
 me in harshly piercing tones, exclaiming, * Miss 
 Grey, is it possible? What in the devil's name 
 can you be thinking about?' 'I can't get them 
 in, sir,' said I, turning round and beholding Mr. 
 Bloomficld, the father of the three hopefuls, with 
 his hair on end and his pale-blue eyes bolting 
 from their sockets. ' But I insist upon their being 
 got in,' cried he, approaching nearer and look- 
 ing perfectly ferocious. * Then, sir, you must call 
 them yourself, if you please, for they won't listen 
 to me,' I replied, stepping back. 'Come in with 
 you, you filthy brats, or I'll horsewhip you every 
 one,' roared he; and the children instantly obeyed. 
 * There, you see, they came at the first word.' * Yes, 
 when yoti speak.' ' And it's very strange that when 
 you take care of them you've no better control over 
 'em than that' " 
 
 Who that has had the care of children without 
 possessing that liking for them, which is said to 
 
OBEDIENCE 45 
 
 be an acquired taste, does not sympathize with 
 poor Miss Grey? And yet, although this young 
 lady, possessed as she was of great abiHty and a 
 trenchant faculty of observation, and also fortified 
 with some philosophy of education, met with such 
 disastrous failure, many good-natured unsophis- 
 ticated girls of only twelve or thirteen years 
 would have reduced the lively trio of juvenile 
 anarchists to happiness, good temper, and good 
 order without the slightest consciousness of having 
 done anything at all remarkable. These are facts 
 of common experience. What is the explanation 
 of them? Perhaps the power of securing obedience 
 is a divine gift, and it may be that no explanation 
 of it can be given. This, at any rate, was the 
 opinion of him who among the Athenian com- 
 manders most deserves the title of scholar and 
 gentleman. 
 
 "Men differ greatly", wrote Xenophon, "in 
 respect of fitness to rule. One captain of a ship, 
 for instance, will bring his men into port, after a 
 long day's rowing, full of good humour and mutual 
 congratulations in spite of being exhausted by their 
 work, and bathed with perspiration. Another will 
 put into port after accomplishing only half the dis- 
 tance, his men hardly breathed by their exercise, 
 and yet grumbling, discontented, and full of hatred 
 towards their captain. So, too, in the army there 
 are generals who can neither get hard work out 
 of their men nor inspire them to face danger, and 
 whose companies take to themselves credit for dis- 
 obeying orders, instead of feeling the disgrace of it." 
 
 " There are other generals," continues Xenophon, 
 
46 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 "divinely great and excellent, who secure willing 
 obedience, and whose men are prepared to go 
 through fire and water with them, regarding good 
 discipline as the highest honour, and the opposite 
 the deepest disgrace. Their men may be relied 
 upon for working their hardest whether alone or as 
 one of a company. It is the same in civil affairs," 
 he adds; "success in business accrues not to him 
 who relies on rewards and punishments, but rather 
 to him whose serene presence stimulates the 
 workmen to energy, perseverance, and cheerful 
 obedience. Let us reserve", he says, "our ad- 
 miration for the master whose men, if they catch 
 sight of him, are spurred on to mutual rivalry and 
 burn with ambition to excel. Such a man ", says 
 Xenophon, " has something of the kingly character 
 in him, and I am not sure", he says, "that it is 
 possible for anyone to learn this art by seeing 
 it done or by hearing about it, for I do not believe 
 that this faculty of obtaining willing obedience is 
 entirely human, but I rather think it is divine, and 
 that God grants it to those who are initiated in 
 true wisdom, whereas the exercise of despotism 
 over men against their will is an office which they 
 reserve for those whom they consider worthy to 
 live the life which Tantalus is said to live in hell, 
 fearing a second death." 
 
 Now it may be that as regards the art of control, 
 whether of children or of men, there is no theory 
 which will completely match the practice; but as 
 the power to secure obedience lies at the root 
 of all efforts to train children, prudence commands 
 some critical study of those teasing and tantalizing 
 
OBEDIENCE 47 
 
 problems which present themselves to all, and 
 trouble the thoughtful and conscientious few. " I 
 find no difficulty in securing obedience from my 
 children," says one. " And what is your counsel?" 
 ** It is just this. Suppose my little boy is playing 
 in the drawing-room, I tell him, ' you may play as 
 long as you're good'. He begins to be naughty. 
 I ring the bell; the nurse comes down and the boy 
 goes up. He forfeits the pleasure of my company. 
 The plan is simplicity itself." " Implicit obedience," 
 says another, " that is my system. I will have that 
 and nothing less. Miss Grey's mistake was rea- 
 soning with her charges. As to her Tom, she 
 should have thumped him with the back of a hair- 
 brush, and all that scene would have been avoided. 
 Reasoning! the only argument a boy understands 
 is the persuasive penny cane." 
 
 Implicit obedience! Well, the most perfect ex- 
 amples of implicit obedience and prompt execution 
 of an order are to be found in war. The philoso- 
 pher, like the dramatist, may be permitted to pass 
 at once from the nursery to the battle-field with 
 abrupt transition. Here is a description of the 
 behaviour of thoroughly well disciplined German 
 troops when reduced to terrible straits in the 
 Franco-German war: — 
 
 " It would be impossible to overrate the conduct 
 of the two German regiments, which, with failing 
 ammunition, with companies and drafts of com- 
 panies dispersed or intermixed, under the eye 
 only of subordinate leaders, delivered their fire as 
 carefully and in as absolute compliance to orders, 
 as if they were on the rifle ranges in peace time. 
 
48 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 For two days they had been on outpost duty in 
 contact with the enemy, and they had eaten no 
 food save what they carried in their haversacks. 
 During the day of battle they had been marched 
 backwards and forwards in heavy country, and 
 mostly in retreat under fire, and now at three 
 o'clock, almost physically exhausted, they had to 
 stand for two hours on the defensive. The men 
 were so absolutely worn out that, as an officer 
 of the regiment relates, the repulse of the French 
 was followed by no cheer, no outspoken expression 
 of triumph ; the men sank down, and, leaning with 
 their backs against any support available, gazed 
 blankly before them, or even slept; but on the 
 call to meet the renewed assault, every man roused 
 himself from his lethargy, and awaited in perfect 
 silence the next order to fire. Never has there 
 been finer illustration of real discipline than that 
 afforded by the battalion officers, the non-com- 
 missioned officers, and the rank and file of the 
 38th Brigade at the battle of Beaune-la-Rolande." 
 No one can doubt that there are occasions in 
 life when a training in the practice of implicit 
 obedience, of prompt unreflecting blind execution 
 of orders, is vital. A little child who has strayed 
 out into the roadway, and is in imminent danger 
 of being run over, would be saved from that fate if 
 he were prompt in obeying his mother's orders, 
 "Come here", instead of being in the habit of 
 loitering and enquiring. Shall we, then, rest satis- 
 fied with this principle of training, and accept it as 
 solid rock on which to erect the superstructure of 
 the child's character? 
 
OBEDIENCE 49 
 
 Curiously enough, an incident in the same battle 
 makes us doubt whether the principle of unreason- 
 ing obedience is quite complete by itself. A small 
 force of Germans, inside Beaune, a mere handful, 
 were being hard pressed by the development of 
 a concentrated attack upon them of some dozen 
 battalions of the French 20th Corps. Suddenly 
 there appeared, as if to their rescue, Captain Feige, 
 with a small additional force. Captain Feige had, 
 however, received orders to march through Beaune, 
 and pass on to a meeting-place on the other side 
 of the village, and even while he entered the village 
 he received a second order to proceed to this 
 destination without delay. Captain Feige, how- 
 ever, on learning the state of affairs in the village, 
 determined to disobey the twice-repeated orders 
 which he had received, and to remain in the village 
 to strengthen the scanty force available to meet 
 the French attack, and he adhered to his decision 
 in spite of receiving a third order. The French 
 attack was decisively repulsed, and unstinted and 
 in unmeasured terms is the commendation be- 
 stowed upon Captain Feige by the historian of 
 the event for accepting the responsibility of dis- 
 obeying orders. There seem, then, to be occasions 
 even in military affairs when disobedience to orders 
 is commended, and implicit obedience discounten- 
 anced. 
 
 Let me return from the scene of war to the 
 nursery. A father one day, according to a story 
 which I heard from the lips of Mr. Spurgeon, lifted 
 his little boy of four years old into his arms, and 
 carried him into the garden to amuse him with the 
 
 (M930) D 
 
50 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 sight of the flowers. Hearing himself called, the 
 father hurried away to see what was wanted, first 
 setting his baby boy down on the doorstep, 
 and bidding him to sit there till he came back. 
 Business, however, absorbed the father's attention, 
 and he left home for the day, forgetful of his little 
 son on the step. In the evening, on his return he 
 found the little fellow still seated where he had 
 placed him in the morning, never having stirred 
 the whole day. Is this state of mind, I mean the 
 state in which such implicit childlike obedience is 
 possible, one which is desirable.-* Ought we to 
 wish to establish in the child a spirit of blind un- 
 reasoning obedience to orders such as is essential 
 to military discipline? 
 
 We all depend upon each other. We are not 
 like so many Robinson Crusoes living on lonely 
 islands without even a man Friday. Human 
 society is pot a mere aggregate of individuals, and 
 in mere self-protection ostracizes those whose in- 
 dividuality and self-assertion are inconsistent with 
 social life. Men must live a large part of their 
 lives in obedience to usage and conventional rules, 
 for otherwise there would be no society. Social 
 life would be impracticable. But there is a differ- 
 ence between the kind of obedience which is 
 necessary for a member of ordinary society and 
 that required in the army, corresponding to the 
 difference between social and military life. A unit 
 of an army is not exactly like the unit of a state. 
 A man may be, and I think ought to be, a unit of 
 the national army as well as a unit of the nation, 
 but the discipline of the army is one thing, and the 
 
OBEDIENCE 5 1 
 
 discipline of society is another. In an army you 
 look for its perfection in its value as a fighting 
 machine. An army is a weapon of war. 
 
 In war, human action must be simplified and 
 reduced to its simplest terms. Army discipline 
 is not merely a set of regulations designed to pre- 
 serve order among a vast array of men. Army 
 discipline is the result of long-continued habit, 
 which makes the very muscles of the soldier in- 
 stinctively obey the word of command, so that 
 under whatsoever stress of circumstances, danger, 
 and death he hears that word of command, even 
 though his mind be too confused and astounded 
 to attend, yet his muscles obey. 
 
 The discipline of social life is, however, of a 
 much more complex character than this muscular 
 obedience, for the reason that the aims of social 
 life are manifold and diverse, while the aim of 
 military life is single and concentrated. When the 
 aim is single, the means to it are comparatively 
 simple, and when you know exactly what you 
 have to do, there is less difficulty in finding the 
 means to do it. But the aim of social life is not 
 simple. It may be made to appear simple. It 
 may, for instance, be stated that the aim of social 
 life is to make men lead a good life. Complexity, 
 however, enters into the question as soon as we 
 enquire, what is the good life.'* The members of a 
 social community, say a club or a large school, are 
 apt to be very exacting in their insistence upon 
 conformity to the smallest details of its usages. 
 The members of it who live in obedience to rules 
 of life thus enforced, obey laws which do not 
 
5a EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 depend upon reflection, but only upon imitation. 
 The consequence is, that they may easily reach 
 a stage when their conventional habits are wholly 
 independent of their hereditary temperaments and 
 faculties. Suppose that a man in this stage happens 
 to be separated from the society in which he has 
 grown up and all its conventional restraints. What 
 surprises are in store! What unexpected revolu- 
 tions of character take place! The economist 
 becomes a spendthrift, the courteous become selfish, 
 the considerate become cruel, and occasionally the 
 perfect gentleman appears in a new character as 
 the perfect blackguard. More than this, natural 
 aptitudes are obscured and remain undeveloped 
 amid conventional restraints. A possible worker 
 for the advancement of science, in consequence of 
 social pressure may become a commonplace athlete 
 or sportsman. For the same reason a man of mere 
 muscle may become a clergyman or a lawyer, and 
 a post which requires energy and confidence may 
 be filled by a man who is lethargic and desponding. 
 For every man's character is twofold in its 
 nature. There is for the one part a group of 
 dispositions, tendencies, and possibilities which is 
 inherited, while another part consists of practices 
 and opinions which are imitative and entirely due 
 to the society in which he lives. The educator has 
 to study the natural or hereditary dispositions of 
 the child and work upon them with discrimination, 
 repressing or modifying some, and encouraging 
 others. Military training is like a steam-roller, 
 which, passing over a stretch of ground, makes an 
 excellent road, but crushes out other virtue in the 
 
OBEDIENCE 53 
 
 soil. The discipline of the educator is like the 
 gardener's craft, which takes into account the 
 suitability of each plot of ground and the adapt- 
 ability of it to varied purposes, and also the 
 capacities and limitations of the plants which he 
 proposes to cultivate. 
 
 A fault which arises from hereditary defect must 
 be dealt with in a different way from one which 
 arises through accidental or transitory circum- 
 stances. A fault which may lead to a bad habit 
 must be dealt with in a different way from one 
 which is a habit, and a fault which has become a 
 second nature must be dealt with in a different 
 way from one which is a fault of nature. There 
 are faults committed by the child, and there are 
 faults in the child. 
 
 One child is untidy by natural disposition, 
 another because no one has shown him how to 
 be tidy. One child is cruel by disposition, and 
 torments his companions or dumb animals because 
 of the unsympathetic hebetude of his nature; 
 another is cruel through heedlessness and want 
 of knowledge. Some are born cowards, and others 
 are made cowards by the excessive timidity of 
 those who train them. Some are born gluttons, 
 and some are made greedy by mistaken kindness. 
 Some are by nature deceitful and unreliable, others 
 by mistaken approval of some chance art of deceit, 
 which ended in a laughable incident to the amuse- 
 ment of their elders. Some children are by nature 
 inattentive, others because they have never been 
 trained to pay attention. As a rule, the mother 
 is a better judge than the father of these dis- 
 
54 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 tinctions, and her mistakes will be due rather to 
 the heart than the understanding. Intellectual 
 deficiency is not unfrequently due to some physical 
 imperfection which has escaped notice, such as a 
 slight defect in hearing, or in the sense of sight. 
 The causes, then, of children's disobedience are 
 manifold, and cases require very different treat- 
 ment 
 
 Obedience, such as is the first duty of a soldier, 
 is of a more limited description. Let us think for 
 a moment more exactly of the nature of military 
 obedience, or the instinctive response of the muscles 
 to the word of command, in other words, the dis- 
 cipline of parade. How quickly can an order be 
 executed? The art of obedience to an order may 
 be divided into three periods, which correspond to 
 three operations of the nervous system. There are 
 afferent nerves, or in-carrying nerves, which bring 
 a stimulus from the skin to the brain; these set in 
 motion some of the complicated nerve-cells of the 
 brain, and these, in their turn, stimulate the efferent 
 nerve, or nerves carrying nervous force outwards 
 from the brain to the muscles. It is important to 
 note this threefold division of nervous action, be- 
 cause from experiment it appears that while neither 
 practice, nor training, nor education can do much 
 to increase the speed of the action of the in-carry- 
 ing or out-carrying nerves, they can do a great 
 deal to enhance the rapidity with which the 
 nervous force is discharged from the brain -cells, 
 and in co-ordinating the action of different centres. 
 
 The in-carrying nerves are often called sensory 
 nerves, and the out-carrying nerves, motor nerves. 
 
OBEDIENCE 55 
 
 The work of the brain is Hke an obstruction be- 
 tween the word of command received by the 
 sensory nerve and the execution of the order by 
 the motor nerve. The period during which the 
 cells of the brain are doing their work is longer 
 than the time needed for the action of the other 
 two. Training, however, shortens the middle in- 
 terval, while, as I have said in respect of the other 
 two, although they differ in different people, it 
 does not appear that practice or training can do 
 much to quicken their action. The time taken by 
 the brain in receiving a word of command and 
 converting it into the corresponding action can be 
 shortened, mainly in one way, and that is by con- 
 stant repetition or drill. That which tends to 
 extend the time is, of course, such action of the 
 brain as is connected with reflection or doubt or 
 uncertainty of purpose. All that is characteristic 
 of reasoning and consciousness must be eliminated 
 if obedience to an order is to be as prompt as 
 nerve and muscle can make it. 
 
 What is the least possible time in which a word 
 of command can be heard and acted on — say the 
 order, ''Halt"? 
 
 Physiologists have reckoned that, roughly speak- 
 ing and on the average, the sum of the three periods 
 above described, viz., the period taken by the in- 
 carrying or sensory nerve, the period taken by the 
 nerve -cells of the brain, and thirdly, the period 
 taken by the out-carrying or motor nerves in their 
 respective action, amounts in the aggregate to one- 
 sixth of a second. The ideal of drill, then, is that 
 a soldier is able to act on an order within a sixth 
 
56 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 of a second of the utterance of it by the command- 
 ing officer. This, then, is the theory of "smartness". 
 In military affairs this kind of smartness is pretty 
 much confined to three or four sets of muscles, 
 namely, those of the legs, feet, arms and hands, 
 for these are the muscles concerned with march- 
 ing and handling a rifle. It would appear that 
 while in general education these muscles ought 
 to be trained to prompt and perfect working, the 
 training ought not to be limited to these as in 
 military drill, but that every care should be taken 
 to make a child prompt in all its movements. The 
 power to carry out a command promptly is the 
 basis of all obedience. Doubtless it is mechanical 
 rather than moral or rational, but it may be re- 
 garded as a power which it is important to exercise 
 and develop as a foundation for moral and rational 
 obedience. 
 
 It is to be observed that this power may be 
 encouraged by exercises which are almost wholly 
 pleasant to the little child, and this is one of the 
 inner and less obvious values of kindergarten games 
 and drills. Of course, if the exercises are care- 
 lessly done, if the games are played, as we say, 
 "without spirit", if directions are only half fol- 
 lowed, if there is any dilatoriness or slackness in 
 the execution of orders, they fail of their effect in 
 training the child to acquire that power of acting 
 with promptness and precision which may be 
 called muscular obedience. Hence the immense 
 advantage of teaching children to play together 
 in organized games. They may be taught to 
 insist on each other's playing the game properly 
 
OBEDIENCE 57 
 
 and exactly, and to learn the practice of correct 
 play, and to avoid overlooking mistakes of care- 
 lessness, confusion, or insubordination. They will 
 learn from themselves not to tolerate mistaken 
 kindness, which allows a slipshod and flabby 
 practice even of a game. I need not say that 
 in my opinion cricket and football professionally 
 taught and played are simply a continuation of the 
 kindergarten games, and, like them, of the highest 
 educational value. 
 
 I accept, then, military discipline thus explained 
 as the physical basis of obedience, and think that 
 it may well be imparted to children through games 
 and drills; but obedience must be moral and rational 
 before it is really human. For military drill can 
 be taught to a horse and other animals, such as 
 birds, and even performing fleas. Some children's 
 movements resemble those of grasshoppers. I 
 never heard of a performing grasshopper, but be- 
 fore training some mercurial youths I should re- 
 commend the teacher to practise his 'prentice hand 
 upon drilling a pair of these creatures with their 
 vigorous but unpredictable boundings. Starting 
 with a training which partakes of the nature of 
 military drill, and prompt obedience or power to 
 execute an order smartly, whether the order be 
 " fire " or " fetch your grammar ", I proceed to con- 
 sider the nature of moral and rational obedience. 
 
 I have said that a good many practical people 
 insist upon the absurdity of reasoning with a little 
 child. It is urged that a child seldom understands 
 reasoning, and if he does he may win a triumph 
 over you, either because he is clever in making the 
 
53 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 worse appear the better cause, or because his Hmited 
 experience prevents him from seeing what nonsense 
 he talks, or even because he happens to have right 
 and reason on his side. 
 
 Miss Agnes Grey's fault, it may be said, was 
 that she overlooked this truth, making herself 
 hoarse with reasoning and argument. A child's 
 treasury of ideas and experience is nearly empty. 
 He knows little of the results of actions. For a 
 boy there are no such things as noise, disorder, or 
 dirt He regards all this with pleasure, or at least 
 with pure indifference. He will go birds'-nesting 
 in his new hat and coat, and laugh aloud at "wisest 
 aunt telling of saddest tale". He enjoys crude 
 colour, strong lights, and hideous contrasts. He 
 loves caricature, while things out of harmony and 
 proportion amuse him in the same way as their 
 grossness. A mile long ribbon of scarlet geranium, 
 yellow calceolaria, and blue lobelia, at which Mr. 
 Morris would have shrunk, would make a boy cry 
 " how jolly ", and then he would gather the flowers 
 and stamp on the border. Children, again, often 
 seem much more heartless than they really are. 
 Their want of sympathy, and readiness to inflict 
 pain, whether on animals or on grown-up people, 
 is often due to ignorance. It is of no use to appeal 
 to principles of humanity with a cruel boy, such 
 as Agnes Grey describes, who tore off the legs of 
 living fledgelings, because you are appealing to the 
 very principles which you wish to instil into the 
 child, and which as yet he has not acquired. I do 
 not think, however, that it is always a mistake to 
 reason with a child, but rather that it is easy to 
 
OBEDIENCE 59 
 
 reason in a mistaken way. When you have estab- 
 lished a good principle in a child's mind, then you 
 can reason from it. He forgets it, or fails to see 
 its application. You can remind him of it, or ex- 
 plain the application. 
 
 How, then, should Agnes Grey have dealt with 
 her heartless Tom.^ I expect that if she had 
 managed to procure for him some animal which 
 he could have kept as a pet and learnt to take care 
 of, watching it and interesting himself in its ways, 
 she could have effected a considerable change for 
 the better. This, I take it, is pure Frcebelian 
 doctrine. At least he would have shown kindness 
 to one animal, and the disposition could be further 
 cultivated. If a child is unkind or even cruel to 
 younger or weaker children, it is useless to reason 
 about the evils of tyranny and selfishness. The 
 remedy is to place the small "bully" in the position 
 of protector to some particularly weak child. Simi- 
 larly, if a boy or girl evince a taste for staring 
 contrasts in colour, there is no use in appealing 
 to the general principles of aesthetics. The remedy 
 is to call their attention to the arrangement of 
 colour in some beautiful picture, or in some beauti- 
 ful piece of textile fabric. 
 
 The child can act upon mental images before 
 he can act (consciously) upon abstract principles. 
 He can be kind, for instance, to a playfellow at 
 school who has just left home for the first time, 
 long before he can appreciate at all adequately 
 the golden maxim, " Do unto others as you 
 would they should do unto you ". Simple acts 
 which he may be led to perform with a little 
 
6o EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 tact on the part of his elders will form a reser- 
 voir in his mind, from which subsequently rea- 
 soned action may flow in steady stream. A boy 
 can divide the contents of a hamper among his 
 companions long before he can assimilate the 
 doctrine of the " greatest happiness of the greatest 
 number". There is a wide difference between 
 wholly ignoring the undeveloped reasoning powers 
 of the child, and adapting your appeal to reason 
 to his miniature intellect. It is waste of time to 
 appeal to principles before they are formed in his 
 mind. The right way to build up good principles 
 is to make a judicious use of carefully chosen 
 occasions, and wherever it is possible, without 
 wearying the child, to explain the bearing of the 
 action. 
 
 If a child is accustomed never to learn the reason 
 for a command, he is apt to look upon all directions 
 as purely arbitrary, and he tacitly believes, and 
 acts on the belief, that he may without offence 
 do almost anything he is not expressly forbidden. 
 "Jack, don't rest your dusty feet upon the cushion 
 of the opposite seat. It is not nice for the next 
 passenger to sit on a dusty seat. You may spoil 
 somebody's dress." If you give a reason where 
 you conveniently can, and where the reason is 
 easily understood by the child, you may implant 
 in him a belief (sometimes unfounded) that you 
 always have a good reason for controlling his 
 actions, and that you don't give unnecessary and 
 merely harassing directions. If an appeal to rea- 
 son is of little value to the child, it is of great value 
 to the parent or teacher. An order or command 
 
OBEDIENCE 6l 
 
 involves a virtue in two persons. There must 
 be a virtue in the issuer of the order as well as 
 in the recipient. Agnes Grey had to deal with 
 high-spirited children. She would regard them as 
 thoroughly disobedient. They would regard her 
 as always thwarting them and restraining them 
 from doing what they wished. She would appear 
 never as a help, but always as a hindrance to their 
 pleasures. The more exuberant the vital force in 
 children the more lively are their actions, the more 
 unexpected their turns and changes of amusement. 
 The caprice of the moment is the " lawless law of 
 their behaviour". No action seems to lead up to 
 any other. 
 
 At one moment all is harmony and friendship 
 in a group, an instant later all is quarrelling and 
 discord. Their companionship, like an April day, 
 is an alternation of sunshine and showers, laughter 
 and tears. The children's acts in this case are not 
 in themselves good or bad. They are, however, 
 apt to be appraised as moral actions according to 
 a false standard, and to be praised, or blamed, 
 or viewed with indifference, amusement, or indig- 
 nation, according as they affect grown people. 
 This more or less chance attitude of their elders 
 towards juvenile high spirits does not help to 
 establish in the child a sense of justice. It is not 
 just to laugh at a child for his smart saying where 
 it amuses, and punish him when it gives offence. 
 The fact is, that no wise person will leave their 
 children to their own caprices for long together. 
 The habit of acting with heed is not always easy 
 to establish, and even the burnt child does not 
 
62 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 always heed the fire. Future trouble arises when 
 a child is habitually left to act from mere physical 
 impulse without the accompaniment of any mental 
 effort in directing the action and giving it purpose, 
 and thereby subjecting the physical impulse to 
 mental control. Aimless romping, with its accom- 
 paniment of noise, may reduce the exuberance of 
 animal spirits, but it tends to enslave the will. 
 
 One remedy is to help children to find out and 
 play at properly-organized games, such as prisoners' 
 base for young boys, cricket and football for older 
 ones, where shouting and muscular activity are 
 directed to some purpose, and hence become 
 necessarily subject to the players' control. Let 
 us follow the boy who has been left to play at 
 his own caprice into later life. He becomes a 
 youth, a hob-a-de-hoy. The feeling " I can", grows 
 with his growth and strengthens with his strength. 
 The well-founded sense of his power issues in a 
 desire to do, but his vague desire to do is unac- 
 companied with any operation of the intellect. 
 Unaccustomed to act with a purpose even in play 
 he has acquired the opposite habit, and finds action 
 which is directed or controlled most distasteful 
 He seems to love to act in opposition to order and 
 sound advice, and to desire to do what is forbidden ; 
 he shuns domestic life and orderly circles, seeking 
 company which is coarse, vulgar, and often cruel. 
 ^^ Fait ce que vous votidrez" is his motto, and 
 although seeking to do what he likes, he finds 
 sooner or later how different doing what you like 
 is from liking what you do. High spirits are 
 naturally associated with manliness, but it does not 
 
OBEDIENCE 63 
 
 seem necessary that sturdy children should develop 
 upon the unattractive lines which I have described. 
 The old plan on which many sensible people have 
 acted since recorded time is the right one. Much 
 attention must be paid to finding right occupations 
 for children throughout the day, and paying as 
 much attention to their so-called play as to their 
 so-called work. 
 
 I am not sure that we sufficiently realize that the 
 chief value of the so-called work or lessons which 
 children do is its purposefulness, and this charac- 
 teristic should belong also to playtime. This also, 
 in my opinion, is pure Frcebelianism. The real 
 difference between work and leisure should be 
 between occupations which are more exacting in 
 their demands on the intellect and those which are 
 less so. No good game like cricket or football 
 is mere play. Neither is it right that any lesson 
 should appear to a child to be an aimless expendi- 
 ture of energy like a tread-mill. I am no advocate 
 for never leaving children to themselves, or de- 
 priving them of the chance of self-determination 
 according to the prompting of their natural dis- 
 position, but I think it is the duty of every educator 
 to supervise children sufficiently to see that the 
 occupations of their leisure, however apparently 
 trivial, are purposeful, even if it consist in early 
 years of making the humble mud-pie, or throwing 
 stones at a mark, instead of at one another or at 
 glass windows. The child at play, who, when asked 
 what he is playing at, can only reply " Nothing", is 
 not developing himself at all, but passing his time 
 at the mercy of fortune, which is not always kindly. 
 
64 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 It is almost entirely through Froebel that the real 
 meaning and use of play have been made intelligible 
 to everyone who will devote a little attention to 
 the subject. Animal spirits — exuberant vital force 
 — must not be repressed, but judiciously directed 
 and turned to some definite purpose. They must 
 be made constructive, or else they tend to become 
 destructive. 
 
 I began by contrasting two methods of securing 
 obedience, reasoning and force. Agnes Grey tries 
 to make disobedient children obey her by reasoning. 
 Their father reduces them to obedience at once by 
 violent language and threats. " Come in, you filthy 
 brats, or else I'll horsewhip you every one!" The 
 failure of Agnes Grey was due to inexperience. It 
 is useless to appeal to principles before they are 
 formed in the mind of the child. She did not 
 really apply the method which she intended, and 
 her failure is no proof that her method was wrong. 
 Nevertheless, in its ultimate result, the obedience 
 secured by their father would have done the 
 children more harm than the naughtiness which 
 Miss Grey failed for the moment to put an end to. 
 
 Mr. Broomfield relied on his coercive power and 
 nothing more. He constrained the will of his 
 children by mere force, practically physical force. 
 His system was the opposite of that of Froebel. 
 Now it seems to be a crude but not uncommon 
 conception of law which defines it " the command 
 of a superior who has coercive powers to compel 
 obedience and punish disobedience", because if this 
 be correct, force is the governing idea of law, and 
 it is hard to reconcile force with the intelligent 
 
OBEDIENCE 65 
 
 assent of those who are subject to its influence. In 
 place of force, if we wish to act in Froebel's spirit, 
 we must substitute customary action founded on 
 general consent. Obedience to authority is dearly 
 purchased at the cost of forfeiting respect for law 
 or for the superior who executes it. Even as 
 regards military organization it must be remem- 
 bered that army discipline is the discipline of the 
 army. The commanding officer is no dictator 
 issuing arbitrary orders at his own caprice. An 
 officer who plays this part — and there have been 
 such — soon stirs up a mutiny. The officer is the 
 mouthpiece of the army. His commands are known 
 to be necessary for the safety and success of the 
 army, and his order is but the signal for each to 
 do what he has already a mind to do. Similarly, 
 if an officer punishes one of the men, there is be- 
 hind him the force of the opinion of the rest. They 
 know that if a man sleeps on his watch or neglects 
 a serious duty the correction must be stern. The 
 discipline of each is essential to the collective 
 safety of all. A French officer not long ago was 
 detected in supplying the enemy with plans of his 
 country's forts. He was cashiered in the presence 
 of his regiment, his sword broken, his regimental 
 badges torn off, and he was dismissed as a civilian. 
 The punishment is like a great disaster in nature, 
 such as a stroke of lightning or an earthquake. 
 The force behind is overwhelming. There is 
 dignity in its irresistibleness. The army acts 
 through its officers for its own good. The culprit 
 is as a reed cottage in the path of an avalanche. 
 On the contrary, in a small community such as the 
 
 (M930) E 
 
66 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 family, there can be nothing really corresponding 
 to military discipline, for, in the first place, the 
 offender's own good is of primary importance; and 
 secondly, there is no collective force or common 
 interest seriously jeopardized by juvenile delin- 
 quencies — if, for instance, he swims a paper boat 
 on some freshly-made soup — such as invest the 
 discipline of the army with so much dignity. 
 
 The child, again, is not such an inconsiderable 
 item in a family as a soldier in the army, when 
 either member is compared with its respective whole. 
 It appears, then, that it does matter very much in 
 what spirit and by what means obedience is en- 
 forced among young children, for upon these things 
 depends the conception which children, when they 
 are grown up, will have of law and of their duty to 
 the state and their country. If obedience is based 
 on force alone, they will grow up with the idea 
 that the state is as a policeman regulating traffic 
 in a crowded thoroughfare, an ofl^cer who is more 
 respected than loved for this office. Law will be 
 the dictatorial command of a superior, and obeyed 
 mainly because that superior, be the superior one 
 or many, has power to enforce the dictates of his 
 or their caprice. A wise parent will early implant 
 in the mind of the child that he gives an order not 
 out of pure self-will, but in respect to some higher 
 principle which controls his action. The captain 
 of a training ship, which had caught fire, stopped 
 a panic-stricken cadet who was hurrying over the 
 ship's side as though he were the only person to be 
 rescued, with the remark — " That is not the way at 
 sea, my lad ; fall into your place ". There can be 
 
OBEDIENCE 67 
 
 no common life, whether in nursery, or school-room, 
 or home, or town, or country, without the obser- 
 vance of certain rules of conduct, and even young 
 children may soon be taught to feel this before 
 they understand it. They may be taught " this is 
 our way here", or "this is not our way here". The 
 child must doubtless learn to do many things in 
 response to his parents' plain order, " I tell you to 
 do it"; but by judicious use of occasion he may be 
 made to feel that law is not his parents' word, and 
 that behind the order there is something more than 
 chance or the wish of the moment, something 
 which is general in its application, and equally 
 applying to all, and certain. The child may be 
 made to feel that he has a better self and a worse 
 self, and that the parent is by his dictates helping 
 the child's better self against his worse, and even 
 in giving his command obeying the dictates of a 
 command himself. 
 
 A curious instance of this perception of a double 
 self in a little child may be found in that charm- 
 ing book, W. v.: Her Book (Isbister). "We 
 lowly folk dine before most people think of lunch- 
 ing, so dinner was ready when we arrived home. 
 Now as decorum at table is one of the cardinal 
 virtues, W. V. dines by proxy. It is her charming 
 young friend Gladys who gives us the pleasure of 
 her company. It is strange how many things this 
 bewildering daughter of mine can do as Gladys, 
 which she cannot possibly accomplish as W. V. 
 W. V. is unruly, a chatterbox, careless, or at least 
 forgetful of the elegancies of the social board; 
 whereas Gladys is a model of manners, an angel in 
 
68 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 a bib. W. V. cannot eat crusts, and as for por- 
 ridge, * I am surprised that your little girl does not 
 like porridge. It is so good for her.'" What we 
 want is, that boys as they grow up to manhood 
 should feel that law is not what is commanded by 
 the school, college, club, regiment, association, or 
 country to which they belong, but that these in- 
 stitutions enforce what is law, that is, practice and 
 customs actually approved by the bulk of the mem- 
 bers, for where this is not the case, no constitution 
 can long hang together. The spirit of Tom Brown, 
 in which the natural and proper attitude of every 
 healthy schoolboy is assumed to be one of oppo- 
 sition to the school authorities, cannot be really 
 sound. 
 
 Perhaps I may appear to enunciate a paradox, 
 but it seems to me far more important that a 
 child should grow up with a respect for authority, 
 than that he should be reduced to such mechani- 
 cal obedience to orders as is indispensable in an 
 army if it is to be a perfect fighting instrument. 
 It is not always that the directest road is the 
 shortest way home, and the prompt response to 
 orders which may be secured by the domestic mar- 
 tinet may be the foundation of a character which 
 develops into libertinism. An apparent failure to 
 secure momentary obedience may not in the end 
 spoil the child, if there is a consistent and un- 
 interrupted effort to inspire the child with a love 
 for the sweet reasonableness which is far removed 
 from opposition to authority. As with nations, so 
 with nurseries; our aims should be to narrow the 
 domain of mere force as the governing factor, and 
 
OBEDIENCE 69 
 
 to substitute a love of order and abhorrence of 
 what is mean, and cruel, and vile, and a ceaseless 
 devotion to justice and mansuetude. It may be as 
 Xenophon says, they who secure willing and cheer- 
 ful obedience are possessed of a divine gift, and that 
 this is incommunicable and mysterious, and that 
 for most people in authority nothing is left but the 
 exercise of despotic power over the will, and that 
 kind of life which he compares to the torments of 
 hell. 
 
 But most virtues thus exalted as superhuman are 
 really of the simplest and plainest, and nearest to 
 man, in short, most human. The secret of the 
 success in command is unselfishness and considera- 
 tion for others. A command, as I have said, implies 
 two people, one to give and one to receive. If he 
 who gives an order can always put himself readily 
 into the position of him who is to receive it, and 
 never issues an order which he would not himself 
 be willing to accept as reasonable, and does not 
 hesitate to give his order when it is reasonable, 
 though he may be misunderstood for the moment, 
 and occasionally make mistakes, yet in the end 
 without any mystery he will rule with divine 
 authority, and escape the terrors of Tantalus in 
 his second life always dreading a second death. 
 
 In conclusion, I will briefly resume the substance 
 of my remarks. The foundation of the habit of 
 obedience is muscular training which leads to the 
 prompt response of the muscles to the will. The 
 most striking example of such training, and the 
 results of it, are seen in military drill, and examples 
 have been given from actual warfare in which the 
 
70 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 muscles of the soldier obeyed the force of habit 
 under circumstances which might overpower reason. 
 
 The kindergarten games and drills are well 
 adapted for training the muscles of young children 
 to prompt action. Military discipline, however, is 
 distinguished from the law-abiding behaviour which 
 is the foundation of civic life. Success amid the 
 carnage of battle depends upon a blind habit of 
 obedience, whereas in civic life obedience must be 
 rational. In education we must begin with mus- 
 cular training and muscular obedience, but we must 
 not rest satisfied until we have instilled into the 
 child a sense that law is not the arbitrary will of 
 his elders, but rather the rule that is acted on by 
 sensible people, and enforced by general consent. 
 The formation of blind habits of obedience to the 
 exclusion of reflection is not the training which 
 leads to a just appreciation of law, and is not the 
 way to build up the character of the young citizen. 
 In all education there must be something austere, 
 and even severe, but unless severity is combined 
 with sympathy and consideration it is apt to 
 develop a spirit of opposition to authority. 
 
 Those who are interested in the study of this 
 subject should not fail to read (i) for its military 
 aspect, Lieut. Stewart Murray's Discipline (Gale 
 & Co., Aldershot, 2J. 6d), and (2) for the legal 
 aspect, the speech of the Lord Chancellor, Lord 
 Russell of Killowen, to the Congress of the 
 American Bar, at Saratoga Springs, in August, 
 1896. This great speech, reported in The Times^ 
 August 2 1 St, 1896, deserves to be widely known in 
 this country, as it explains the nature of law in 
 
OBEDIENCE 7 1 
 
 language which a layman can follow. So great 
 was its effect at the time, that the vast audience, 
 consisting of nearly 5000 persons, many of them 
 lawyers, who are not given to sentiment, arose 
 spontaneously to their feet at its conclusion, and 
 cheered vociferously for a quarter of an hour. 
 
LORD COLLINGWOOD'S THEORY AND 
 PRACTICE OF EDUCATION 
 
 The British Empire has its base upon the water, 
 and it is due to the dauntless trio, Jervis, Nelson, 
 and Collingwood, that India, Australia, and Canada 
 are under the English instead of the French flag. 
 Jervis made the British fleet, which had dissolved 
 into groups of mutinous ships owing to shameful 
 mismanagement. Jervis had the iron strength of 
 will and intellect which reorganized a corrupt 
 system and provided Nelson with an armament 
 which his genius rendered invincible. "Jervis", 
 said Dr. Busby, "made Nelson, he made him a 
 greater seaman than himself, and then did not 
 envy him." This is a fine remark, and indeed it 
 is hardly possible even to speak of any of these 
 three men without our language and thoughts 
 rising to an elevation above the common and 
 ordinary level of social intercourse. Collingwood 
 was distinguished by his superior education, his 
 love of study, his contempt for display, and the 
 depth of his religious feeling. While to Nelson 
 fell the lot of the most glorious death that man 
 can die — the death of the hero on the field of 
 victory, Collingwood's fate was to drag out a 
 weary, overworked, and overstrained existence, 
 longing for rest, and home, and wife and children, 
 but determined to cling to active life so long as 
 his country required his services. "What", he 
 
LORD COLLINGWOOD'S THEORY 73 
 
 writes to his brother-in-law, Mr. J. E. Blackett, in 
 1793, May Day, "should I suffer in this convulsion 
 of nations, this general call of Englishmen to the 
 standard of their country, should I be without 
 occupation? a miserable creature! While it is 
 England let me keep my place in the front of 
 the battle." And this determination Collingwood 
 carried out. Of fifty years' service in the navy 
 forty -four were passed in active employment 
 abroad. On one occasion he kept the sea for the 
 almost incredible space of twenty -two months 
 without dropping anchor. This was at a time 
 when a three months' absence from port was held 
 to be a severe and unusual strain on the health 
 and perseverance of the crew. It was his character 
 and superior education, and study of education and 
 its kindred study of occupation in daily life, which 
 made possible to Collingwood such an unparalleled 
 achievement. 
 
 Two years before his death he sends his picture 
 to Lady Collingwood, painted by an artist who 
 was reckoned the most eminent in Sicily. "I am 
 sorry", he says, "to learn my picture was not an 
 agreeable surprise. You expected to find me a 
 smooth - skinned, clear - complexioned gentleman 
 such as I was when I left home, dressed in the 
 newest taste, and like the fine people who live gay 
 lives ashore. Alas! it is far otherwise with us. 
 The painter was thought to have flattered me 
 much; that lump under my chin was but the loose 
 skin from which the flesh has shrunk away: my 
 face is red, yet not with the effect of wine, but of 
 burning suns and boisterous winds; and my eyes, 
 
74 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 which were once dark and bright, are now faded 
 and dim. The painter represented me as I am; 
 not as I once was. It is time and toil that have 
 worked the change, and not his brush." 
 
 For it was not merely his ceaseless military- 
 occupation that wore him out. His correspondence 
 was immense, and so highly esteemed was his 
 judgment that he was consulted from all quarters, 
 and on all occasions, and on a great variety of 
 questions. His counsel was in demand, not only 
 respecting military and naval affairs, but also in 
 matters of general policy and even of trade. His 
 death was due to the effects of long-continued 
 confinement on board ship and constant bending 
 over his desk. I think, before I conclude, you will 
 agree with me that his views upon the subject of 
 education are worth pondering over by the thought- 
 ful, even after the interval of a century. 
 
 He was by nature and education a man of culti- 
 vated and refined taste, and of great simplicity of 
 character. He united great intellectual power with 
 great amiability, and these two gifts are rarely 
 united in a man. His occupations at home were 
 reading, especially works on history, from which it 
 was his habit to compose well-written abridgments. 
 His recreations were drawing and cultivating his 
 garden at Morpeth, on the banks of the limpid 
 stream of Wansbeck. A brother admiral, who 
 had sought him through the garden in vain, at last 
 discovered him with his gardener, old Scott, often 
 mentioned in his correspondence, to whom he was 
 much attached, in the bottom of a deep trench 
 which they were busily occupied in digging. His 
 
LORD COLLINGWOOD'S THEORY 75 
 
 affection for his wife and children is expressed in 
 his letters to Lady Collingwood in a most pathetic 
 way, and though long withheld by a sense of public 
 duty from returning home, he endeavoured in the 
 midst of his perpetual contest with the elements, 
 with the enemy, and with his own seamen, whose 
 dispositions were as boisterous and untractable as 
 the Atlantic storm, to guide the education of his 
 two little girls by correspondence. In various 
 letters he deals with the training of both boys and 
 girls, and the opinion of so remarkable a man and 
 so successful an administrator and disciplinarian 
 is of the highest interest and value. He never 
 preached what he did not practise, and if it be 
 asked what was the cause of his success in keeping 
 his crew at sea for such a length of time without 
 sickness, the answer can be readily given. No 
 society in the world of equal extent was so healthy 
 as his flagship. She had usually 800 men, and 
 though on one occasion remained at sea more than 
 a year and a half without going into port, during 
 the whole of that time she never had more than six, 
 and generally only four, on the sick list. Now for 
 the explanation of this phenomenal achievement. 
 " My wits ", he writes, " are ever at work to keep 
 my people employed, both for health's sake and to 
 save them from mischief We have lately been 
 making musical instruments, and have now a very 
 good band. Every moonlight night the sailors 
 dance, and there seems as much mirth and festivity 
 as if we were in Wapping itself" 
 
 Lord Collingwood was a saint, but he was 
 human, and not a Puritan. Occupation of the 
 
76 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 right kind was the key-note of his educational 
 system, and it seems the safest and most practical 
 for all engaged in education. For himself, he 
 writes, "when wild war's deadly blast is blown 
 and gentle peace" returns, and he can honourably 
 retire from the sea — a fond hope destined never 
 to be fulfilled — " I must endeavour to find some 
 employment, which, having at least the show of 
 business, may keep my mind engaged and prevent 
 that languor to which from constitution I am more 
 subject than other people, but which never intrudes 
 upon my full occupation ". "It has always been 
 my maxim ", he writes, " to engage and occupy my 
 men, and to take such care for them that they 
 should have nothing to think of for themselves 
 beyond the current business of the day." 
 
 So, too, he writes to his wife: " I beseech you to 
 keep my dearest girls constantly employed, and 
 make them read to you, not trifles, but history, in 
 the manner we used to do in the winter evenings — 
 blessed evenings indeed! The human mind will 
 improve itself in action, but grows dull and torpid 
 when left to slumber. I believe even stupidity 
 itself may be cultivated." 
 
 Another cause of Lord Collingwood's success in 
 maintaining the health of his crew was his attention 
 to detail and knowledge of sanitary matters beyond 
 his time. He took great care to ventilate his ship 
 and the hammocks of the men, by creating as much 
 circulation of air below as possible and keeping 
 their quarters dry, rarely permitting scrubbing 
 between decks. Thus, in addition to attention to 
 diet and amusement, he kept his crew in spirits, 
 
LORD COLLINGWOOD'S THEORY 77 
 
 and as they were assured of justice, kindness, and 
 comfort, it is no wonder they knew him under the 
 name of the " Sailors' Friend ", and that many a 
 gallows-bird with which our ships were then 
 manned spoke of him as " father to the men ". 
 
 Lord St. Vincent, in putting down the spirit of 
 mutiny in the Mediterranean fleet, would draft the 
 most ungovernable characters into Collingwood's 
 ship. "Send them to Collingwood, and he will 
 bring them to order." Yet, while other captains 
 resorted to capital punishment, Collingwood seldom 
 even inflicted corporal punishment. On one occa- 
 sion a seaman was sent from the Romulus, a man 
 who had pointed one of the forecastle guns, shotted 
 to the muzzle, at the quarter-deck, and, standing 
 by it with a match, threatened to fire on the officers 
 unless he received a promise that no punishment 
 should be inflicted upon him. On the man's arrival 
 on board the Excellent, Collingwood, in the presence 
 of many of the sailors, said to him with great stern- 
 ness of manner: "I know your character well, but 
 beware how you attempt to excite insubordination 
 in this ship, for I have such confidence in my men 
 that I am certain I shall hear in an hour of every- 
 thing you are doing. If you behave well in future 
 I will treat you like the rest, nor notice here what 
 has happened on another ship ; but if you endeavour 
 to excite mutiny, mark me well, I will instantly 
 head you up in a cask and throw you into the sea!" 
 Under the treatment which he met in the Excellent 
 this man became a good and obedient sailor, and 
 never afterwards gave any cause of complaint. 
 
 As his experience in command and his knowledge 
 
78 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 of the dispositions of men increased, his abhorrence 
 of corporal punishment grew daily stronger, and 
 in the latter part of his life more than a year 
 often passed away without his having resorted to 
 it He used to tell his ship's company that he 
 was determined the youngest midshipman should 
 be obeyed as implicitly as himself, and that he 
 would punish with severity any instance to the 
 contrary. When a midshipman made a complaint 
 he would order the man for punishment the next 
 day, and in the interval, calling the boy down to 
 him, would say, " In all probability the fault was 
 yours; but whether it were or not, I am sure it 
 would go to your heart to see a man old enough 
 to be your father disgraced and punished on your 
 account, and it will therefore give me a good 
 opinion of your disposition if, when he is brought 
 out, you ask for his pardon". The punishments 
 which he substituted for the lash were various, such 
 as watering the grog, or excluding the culprit from 
 mess and employing him on every sort of extra 
 duty. He never used discourteous or violent lan- 
 guage. One of the secrets of his success in keeping 
 order was the quickness and correctness of his eye, 
 through which he was enabled in an instant to 
 detect anything that was out of order. His re- 
 proofs on these occasions, though always short, 
 were conveyed in the language of a gentleman 
 and were deeply felt, so that he was considered by 
 all to be a strict disciplinarian. He was extremely 
 careful to avoid giving vexatious and harassing 
 orders. When captain of the Excellent his ship 
 was signalled to approach the Admiral's ship. 
 
LORD COLLINGWOOD S THEORY 79 
 
 Captain Collingvvood went on board, and found 
 the order was merely for the Excellent to receive 
 two bags of onions. "Bless me!" he exclaimed. 
 "'Is this the service, my Lord St. Vincent? is this 
 the service, Sir Robert Calder? Has the Excellent' s 
 signal been made five or six times for two bags 
 of onions? Man my boat, sir, and let us go on 
 board again." Nor would he, though repeatedly 
 pressed by Lord St. Vincent to stay dinner, accept 
 the invitation, but refused and retired. 
 
 He complained to the Admiralty that some of 
 the younger captains were in the habit of con- 
 cealing by great severity their own unskilfulness 
 and want of attention, beating the men into a state 
 of insubordination, and that such vessels, though 
 increasing the number, diminished the efficiency of 
 the fleet. He complained that insubordination was 
 due to the folly or the cruelty of those in command 
 as much as to the perverseness of the men. 
 
 I have endeavoured to give some idea of 
 CoUingwood's theory and practice of discipline, 
 because this subject is the foundation of all sound 
 education, and ignorance of it is the cause of half 
 the failures. I pass on to his general views. " The 
 education", he writes to his daughter, "of a lady, 
 and indeed of a gentleman too, may be divided 
 into three parts. The first is the cultivation of the 
 mind, that they may have a knowledge of right and 
 wrong, and acquire a habit of doing acts of virtue 
 and honour. By reading History you will perceive 
 the high estimation in which the memories of good 
 people are held, and the contempt and disgust 
 which are affixed to the base, whatever their rank 
 
8o EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 in life. The second part of education is to acquire 
 a competent knowledge how to manage your affairs, 
 whatever they may happen to be; to know how to 
 direct the economy of your house, and to keep 
 exact accounts of everything which concerns you. 
 Whoever cannot do this must be dependent on 
 somebody else, and those who are dependent on 
 another cannot be perfectly at their ease. Skill 
 should be attained in Arithmetic, which, indepen- 
 dently of its great use to everybody in every 
 condition of life, is one of the most curious and 
 entertaining sciences that can be conceived. The 
 third part is to practise those manners and that 
 address which will recommend you to strangers. 
 Boldness and forwardness are disgusting, but shy- 
 ness and shrinking from conversation with those 
 with whom you ought to associate are also repul- 
 sive and unbecoming. There are many hours in 
 every person's life which are not spent in any- 
 thing important, but it is necessary that they 
 should not be spent idly. Music and dancing are 
 intended to fill up the hours of leisure. Nothing 
 wearies me more than to see a young lady at 
 home sitting with her arms across or twirling 
 her thumbs for want of something to do. Poor 
 thing! I always pity her; for I am sure her head 
 is empty, and that she has not the sense even to 
 devise the means of pleasing herself" 
 
 It is perhaps hard to find in the English language 
 a more admirable description of a cultivated person 
 than in the following letter: — 
 
 " Let me, my dearest child, impress upon you 
 the importance of temperate conduct and sweet- 
 
8i 
 
 ness of manner to all people, on all occasions. It 
 does not follow you are to agree with every ill-judg- 
 ing person, but after showing them your reason for 
 dissenting from their opinion, your argument and 
 opposition to it should not be tinctured with any- 
 thing offensive. Never forget for one moment 
 that you are a gentlewoman, and all your words 
 and all your actions should mark you gentle. 
 Next for accomplishments. No sportsman ever 
 hits a partridge without aiming at it, and skill is 
 acquired by repeated attempts. It is the same 
 thing in every art; unless you aim at perfection 
 you will never attain it. Never, therefore, do 
 anything with indifference. Whether it be to 
 mend a rent in your garment, or finish the most 
 delicate piece of art, endeavour to do it as per- 
 fectly as possible. When you write a letter, give 
 it your greatest care that it may be perfect in all 
 its parts as you can make it. Let the subject be 
 sense, expressed in the most plain, intelligible, and 
 elegant manner that you are capable of. If in a 
 familiar epistle you should be playful and jocular, 
 guard carefully that your wit be not sharp so as 
 to give pain to any person, and before you write a 
 sentence examine it, even the words of which it is 
 composed, that there be nothing vulgar or in- 
 elegant in them. Remember that your letter is 
 the picture of your brains, and those whose brains 
 are a compound of folly, nonsense, and imperti- 
 nence are to blame to exhibit them to the con- 
 tempt of the world and the pity of their friends." 
 
 Looking to the subjects of instruction. Lord 
 Collingwood writes : " I hope my girls will write 
 
 (M930) F 
 
83 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 a French letter every day to me or their mother. 
 I should like them to be taught Spanish, which is 
 the most elegant language in Europe and very 
 easy. I would have them taught geometry; it 
 expands the mind more to the knowledge of all 
 things in Nature, and better teaches to distinguish 
 between truths and such things as have the ap- 
 pearance of being truths, yet are not, than any 
 other. To inspire them with a love of everything 
 that is honourable and virtuous, though in rags, 
 and with contempt for vanity in embroidery, is the 
 way to make them the darlings of my heart. 
 
 " As to reading, it requires a careful selection of 
 books, nor should they ever have access to two at 
 the same time, but when a subject is begun it 
 should be finished before anything else is under- 
 taken. How would it enlarge their mind if they 
 could acquire a sufficient knowledge of mathe- 
 matics and astronomy to give them an idea of 
 the beauty and wonders of the creation. I am 
 persuaded that the generality of people, and par- 
 ticularly fine ladies, only adore God because they 
 are told that it is proper and the fashion to go to 
 church; but I would have my girls gain such 
 knowledge of the works of creation that they 
 may have a fixed idea of the nature of that 
 Being who could be the Author of such a world. 
 Whenever they have that, nothing on this side the 
 moon will give them much uneasiness of mind. I 
 do not mean that they should be Stoics, or want 
 common feelings for the sufferings that flesh is 
 heir to, but they would then have a source of con- 
 solation for the worst that could happen." 
 
LORD COLLINGWOOd'S THEORY 83 
 
 He laid great stress on the value of keeping a 
 diary, and when his daughters set out for London 
 in order to be presented at Court after their father's 
 promotion to the peerage, he writes to his wife: 
 " I wish that in these journeys the education of 
 our children nnay not stop; but that on the road 
 they may study the geography of that part of 
 England through which they travel, and keep a 
 regular journal, not of what they eat and drink, 
 but of the nature of the country, its appearance, 
 its produce, and some gay description of the 
 manners of the inhabitants. I hope you will 
 take your time in town, and show my girls every- 
 thing curious. I am sure that you will visit the 
 tomb of my dear friend. Alas the day that he 
 had a tomb! 
 
 "Do not let our girls be made fine ladies; but 
 give them a knowledge of the world which they 
 have to live in, that they may take care of them- 
 selves when you and I are in heaven. They must 
 do everything for themselves, and never read novels, 
 but history, essays, travels, and Shakspere. What 
 they call books for young persons are nonsense. 
 They should frequently read aloud, and endeavour 
 to preserve the natural tone of voice, as if they 
 were speaking on the subject without a book. 
 Nothing can be more absurd than altering the 
 voice to a disagreeable and monotonous drawl 
 because what they say is taken from a book. The 
 memory should be strengthened by getting by 
 heart such speeches and noble sentiments from 
 Shakspere or Roman history as deserve to be 
 imprinted on the mind." 
 
84 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 Lord Collingwood's objection to novels is thus 
 expressed: "Above all things keep novels out of 
 their reach. They are the corrupters of tender 
 minds, they exercise the imagination instead of 
 the judgment, make them all desire to become the 
 Julias and Cecilias of romance, and turn their 
 heads before they are enabled to distinguish truth 
 from fictions merely devised for entertainment. 
 When they have passed their climacteric it will 
 be time enough to begin novels." In another 
 place he urges his daughters to study geography, 
 and whenever there are any particular events 
 happening, to examine the map and see where 
 they took place. "You are", he tells them, "at a 
 period of life when the foundation of knowledge 
 has to be laid, and of those manners and modes of 
 thinking which distinguish gentlewomen from Miss 
 Nothings. A good woman has great and im- 
 portant duties to do in the world, and will always 
 be in danger of doing them ill unless she have 
 acquired knowledge. Never do anything that 
 can denote an angry mind; for although every- 
 body is born with a certain degree of passion, 
 and will sometimes from untoward circumstances 
 feel its operation and be what is called out of 
 humour, yet a sensible man or woman will not 
 allow it to be discovered. Check it and restrain 
 it, and never make any determination until you 
 find it has entirely subsided; and never say any- 
 thing that you may afterwards wish unsaid." 
 
 Again he writes to his girls: "It is exactly at 
 your age that much pains should be taken; for 
 whatever knowledge you acquire now will last 
 
LORD COLLINGWOOD'S THEORY 85 
 
 you all your lives. The impression which is 
 made on young minds is so strong that it never 
 wears out; whereas everybody knows how difficult 
 it is to make an old snuff-taking lady comprehend 
 anything beyond pam or spadille. Such persons 
 hang very heavy on society. Remember, gentle 
 manners are the first grace which a lady can 
 possess. Whether she differ in her opinion from 
 others or be of the same sentiment, her expression 
 should be equally mild. A positive contradiction 
 is vulgar and ill-bred." 
 
 I have dealt with Lord Collingwood's views of 
 the education of girls, and I do not think the 
 newest of new High Schools have much to add 
 to his principles. It remains to give his ideas 
 about the education of boys. 
 
 He writes to Mrs. Hall: "You have now three 
 boys, and I hope they will live to make you very 
 happy when you are an old woman. But let me 
 tell you, the chance is very much against you unless 
 you are for ever on your guard. The temper and 
 disposition of most people are formed before they 
 are seven years old, and the common cause of 
 badness is the too great indulgence and mistaken 
 fondness which the affection of a parent finds it 
 difficult to veil, though the happiness of the child 
 depends upon it. Your measures must be syste- 
 matic; whenever they do wrong, never omit to 
 reprove them firmly but with gentleness. Always 
 speak to them in a style and language rather 
 superior to their years. Proper words are as 
 easily learned as improper ones. When they do 
 well and deserve commendation, bestow it lavishly. 
 
86 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 Let the feelings of your heart flow from your eyes 
 and tongue ; and they will never forget the effect 
 which their good behaviour has upon their mother, 
 and this at an earlier time of life than is generally 
 thought." 
 
 He objects to too early specialization for the 
 career of an officer. Instead of going too early 
 to sea, he suggests the following plan : — " I would 
 recommend them to send their young son to a 
 good mathematical school, and teach him to be 
 perfect in French and Spanish or Italian; and if 
 he spend two years in hard study he will be better 
 qualified at the end than if he came at once to sea. 
 If parents were to see how many of their chickens 
 go to ruin by being sent too early abroad, they 
 would not be so anxious about it." 
 
 What Lord Collingwood desiderated most of all 
 was that his lieutenants should have learnt to work 
 hard and to be observant. He thus pours con- 
 tempt on the youth who cannot work. " 1 am told 
 the boy's want of spirits is owing to the loss of his 
 time when he was in England, which is a subject 
 that need give his mother no concern, for if he 
 takes no more pains in his profession than he has 
 done he will not be qualified for a lieutenant in 
 sixteen years, and I should be sorry to put the 
 safety of a ship and the lives of the men into such 
 hands. He is no more use here as an officer than 
 Bounce [Lord Collingwood's old dog], and not 
 near so entertaining. She writes as if she expected 
 that he is to be a lieutenant as soon as he has 
 served six years, but that is a mistaken fancy, and 
 the loss of his time is while he is at sea. He is 
 
LORD COLLINGWOOD'S THEORY 87 
 
 living on the Navy and not serving in it. If he goes, 
 he may stay, for I have no notion of people mak- 
 ing the service a mere convenience for themselves 
 as if it were a public establishment for loungers." 
 
 Of another youth he says, " Young has 
 
 returned to me, but I have little hope of his being 
 a sailor. He does not take notice of anything nor 
 any active part in his business; and yet I suppose 
 when he has dawdled in a ship for six years he will 
 think himself very ill-used if he is not made a 
 lieutenant. Offices in the Navy are now made the 
 provision for all sorts of idle people." 
 
 Lord Collingwood recommends the following 
 course for young midshipmen. " If his father in- 
 tended him for the sea he should have been put 
 to a mathematical school when twelve years old. 
 Boys make little progress in a ship without being 
 well practised in navigation, and fifteen is too old 
 to begin, for very few take well to the sea at that 
 
 age. If, however, Mr. is determined, he 
 
 should lose no further time, but have his son taught 
 trigonometry perfectly before he begins navigation. 
 If the boy has any taste for drawing it will be a 
 great advantage to him and should be encouraged." 
 
 Again he writes of another youth: " I would 
 recommend his father taking him home and putting 
 him to a good mathematical school, perfecting him 
 under his own eye in navigation, astronomy, me- 
 chanics, and fortifications. He knows enough now 
 of ships to make the application of what he learns 
 easy to him, and when his head is well stocked he 
 will be able to find employment and amusement 
 without having recourse to company which is as 
 
88 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 often bad as good. He has spirit enough to make 
 a good officer and an honourable man, but he must 
 make his studies a business to which he must be 
 entirely devoted. Drawing is the best kind of re- 
 creation. If he be sent immediately to sea he may 
 become a good sailor, but not qualified to fill the 
 higher offices of his profession, or to make his way 
 in them." 
 
 Lord Collingwood's views upon education merit 
 the attention of all who are interested in the sub- 
 ject, but they seem to possess a special value at 
 the present time when the newspapers are full of 
 letters discussing the training of naval officers. 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION 
 
 OR 
 
 A STUDY IN AUGUSTINE AND CALVIN 
 
 Few will deny in these days that gaiety has a 
 leading place in education. The belief in gaiety 
 as an important factor in the training of a child 
 has not always prevailed. A joyless childhood 
 has been, and perhaps occasionally is still, the lot 
 of many children. This is apparent in many 
 biographies, and is confirmed by common observa- 
 tion. There have always been some persons who 
 would start children on the voyage of life by 
 reading to them a funeral service. They had 
 better cheer the little craft as it clears the harbour 
 bar, because the heavens will grow black often 
 enough before the other shore is reached, and 
 abundance of animal spirit is needed to weather 
 the storms of life in safety. 
 
 Although our mental states are closely depen- 
 dent upon physical health, brief experience is 
 enough to demonstrate the frequent triumph of 
 a cheerful mind over great bodily infirmity; and 
 among mysteries there is none more unaccountable 
 than the power possessed by the human spirit of 
 continuing strong, healthy, and creative in an ailing, 
 crazy, and rickety frame. The merriest in a group 
 of people is often he who has the least cause for 
 mirth and greatest excuse for depression of spirit. 
 Gaiety of heart is of course often an advantage of 
 
 ^8 R A r? p 
 
 Or THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY J 
 
9© EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 natural disposition; but, like most other virtues, 
 it is for average human beings largely a matter of 
 training. 
 
 It has always been the view of some, that chil- 
 dren have by nature too much animal spirit, and 
 that, so far from cultivation, what is needed is con- 
 tinuous repression. Disinterested spectators for 
 the most part disapprove such repression, and 
 delinquencies in later life are often justified or 
 excused by the remark that "as children, the 
 delinquents were kept in hand very tightly at 
 home", "fast bind, fast find", or similar, more or 
 less, sympathetic comments. A joyless childhood 
 will seldom be followed by a frank and straight- 
 forward manhood. Most children are by nature 
 inclined to be gay, and their gaiety approves itself 
 to common sense. What cause, then, leads some 
 parents and guardians to frustrate nature.? There 
 are some even who agree with a certain farmer's 
 advice about boys: "Whenever you see a boy, beat 
 him. If he is not naughty, he is going to be." 
 Some grown persons who are not sympathetic 
 become easily wearied with the mirth of a child, 
 which bubbles over in froth and clamour and noisy 
 activity. Other people, again, note how quickly 
 in some children mirth becomes over-excitement, 
 and is followed by an inevitable reaction of depres- 
 sion, and may fear this tidal flow of animal spirits 
 as injurious to mind and body. 
 
 Other people, again, knowing that in most cases 
 a child's feelings towards his parents must be a 
 mixture of love and fear, find it easier to work on 
 the fears than on the affections of their offspring. 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION 9I 
 
 Hence they are a little afraid of laughter when he 
 comes "holding both his sides". Laughter seems 
 to them the mutiny of the flesh against the sove- 
 reignty of reason. Yet if we judge from the effects 
 on the body of a hearty laugh, we must own that 
 there is medicine in it. The biologist tells us that 
 " laughter is a series of short expirations, more or 
 less accompanied with noise, depending chiefly on 
 vigorous contractions of the diaphragm, and accom- 
 panied by involuntary contractions of the facial 
 muscles, especially the zygomatic". 
 
 Most animals can make a noise of some kind, 
 but only men can laugh. From a physical point 
 of view, doubtless the definition which is given 
 above covers all kinds of laughter; but it is pro- 
 bably impossible to bring within the limits of a 
 definition all its psychological aspects, often as 
 this has been attempted, from the days of Aristotle 
 until now. 
 
 It has been said, with some show of truth, that 
 the character of the laugher is apparent in the 
 vowel sound which is audible in his laugh. For 
 instance, laughter in "a" (or "a" sounded as in 
 father), " Ha, ha, ha", marks a choleric temperament 
 like that of Sir Anthony Absolute. Laughter in 
 "o" is the sign of a generous, hearty, and sanguine 
 nature. Then there is the melancholy laugh and 
 the nervous laugh, which are vocalized respectively 
 with the sound of "a" in late, and "e". Lastly, 
 there is the laugh of rogues, hypocrites, and cynics, 
 where the vowel sound is half smothered, and 
 may be expressed as "u", spoken like the French 
 diphthong "eu". 
 
92 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 Some poisons, such as belladonna, were said to 
 cause artificial laughter, by contracting the muscles 
 mechanically, and as these toxic plants grew in 
 Sardinia, men spoke of a forced laugh or grin as 
 Sardonic. This paper deals only with laughter 
 which is an expression of mirth. Children should 
 have only to do with laughter in "o". The expres- 
 sion of their mirth should be round and complete 
 and full-breathed. No feeling of anger or sorrow 
 or hyprocrisy should check the full expression 
 of their vocal chords. Then we can say with 
 Rabelais, 
 
 " Oh sweet and heavenly sound to hear them laugh". 
 
 Laughter is really a necessary factor in physical 
 education, and is of no less consequence in the 
 other two branches of education described re- 
 spectively as intellectual and moral training, for 
 physiologists tell us that laughter is conducive to 
 health, because it facilitates digestion, strengthens 
 the frame, and is a remedy against feelings of 
 fatigue and weariness of spirit. Laughter helps 
 both heart and lungs to do their duty better, and 
 tends to improve circulation and digestion. Food 
 becomes more nourishing under its influence, and 
 the blood is better purified, for the blood of the 
 laugher has no time to linger in the great organs, 
 as it loves to do in persons of morose temperament, 
 but, as under the spell of Mercury (the god, I mean, 
 and not the drug), dances forward, "and runs 
 trickling up and down the veins. Such virtue hath 
 that idiot laughter." 
 
 But laughter playing such a part in physical 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION 93 
 
 training-, it would be strange if there were nothing 
 corresponding to these benefits in its effect on the 
 child's moral welfare, as though it were only medi- 
 cine for the body. What sort of a child is it that 
 never laughs? It is either one who has no vital 
 energy to spare and requires all his little stock of 
 vital force to keep body and soul together, or else 
 one who morbidly concentrates all his physical 
 strength upon particular and limited spheres of 
 reflection; a brooding child, whose book of life is 
 edited without the lighter chapters, which so much 
 enliven the rest of the pages; an early genius, or 
 perhaps a budding lunatic. A sad child is a sad 
 specimen of childhood, for the child who seldom 
 laughs is apt to brood over small social troubles 
 such as must arise from daily intercourse with his 
 companions, and also over mental perplexities which 
 are suggested to him unwittingly, through remarks 
 which are made in his presence by parents, teachers, 
 and others, or by chance conversation and general 
 reading. The child who never laughs is apt to be 
 morose, sullen, and unforgiving, remembering wrong 
 and planning little schemes of revenge. 
 
 Yet laughter is the right way to allay the natural 
 irritation arising from small acts of injustice, whether 
 intentional or otherwise, which throw frequent sha- 
 dows across the path of life, from the font to the 
 lychgate. The worst lesson which a child can 
 learn from the teaching of the world is the laugh 
 of the cynic, because it tends to make trifles of 
 things serious. On the other hand, one of the best 
 of lessons is the mirth of Mark Tapley, which 
 makes trifles of serious troubles, and not merely 
 
94 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 grins and bears, but bears with lightness of humour. 
 
 I sometimes think English people find it harder 
 to get over small annoyances with levity than 
 French people do. I once saw a party of English 
 people in holiday attire, approach incautiously too 
 near a llama in the Zoological Gardens. Of course 
 the gentle creature spit at them in his peculiar 
 way, and spoilt their smart clothes. They too 
 went away quite spoilt in temper for the rest of 
 the afternoon. Soon after, a still smarter party of 
 French people were treated by the llama with the 
 same attention, and instead of exhibiting any sign 
 of irritation the ladies laughed till the cause for 
 annoyance was completely forgotten. 
 
 The spirit of fun arises in a child in a different 
 way from that in which it originates in grown-up 
 people. When we cease to be children, what 
 makes us laugh is amusing thoughts. While we 
 are children, what amuses us is amusing sights. 
 Of fun in the child we may say " it is engendered 
 in the eye, and is by gazing fed". A young school- 
 boy may get so far as to enjoy what Sydney Smith 
 allowed to be the lowest kind of wit, claiming for it 
 in consequence the right to be called the foundation 
 of all wit, namely, a pun; but there is a previous 
 stage, where mirth is born only of unexpected 
 turns in things visible. If the wind carries off a 
 man's hat, and he has to chase the same down the 
 street, the small boy will have no compassion for 
 the misfortune. He simply laughs without con- 
 straint. If a pompous alderman, or policeman in 
 his solemn pacing down the pavement, happens to 
 slip and fall, so that instead of walking onwards he 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION 95 
 
 sits on a flag-stone, the small boy will laugh till 
 tears roll down his cheeks, not that he is amused 
 because someone is in trouble, but because the 
 unexpected transition from a position of assured 
 superiority to one of little dignity tickles the boy's 
 fancy. 
 
 We must not be disappointed if young children's 
 jokes seem to us, of riper years, no laughing 
 matter; nor if we find, on the other hand, that 
 what amuses us bores them to death. It is wise 
 to look at the outside world as much as possible 
 from their point of view. After all, much good 
 may be learnt, even in riper years, by looking at 
 some things with the eyes of a child. A sense of 
 fun would save many a dignitary from attacks of 
 excessive dignity. Biography shows that the more 
 childlike the man, often the more manlike his con- 
 duct. The fact is, a child needs a large reserve of 
 gaiety. His life is apt to appear to him a constant 
 succession of small checks to his wishes, which he 
 finds opposed either by the constitution of things, 
 as when he cries for the moon, or the will of his 
 elders, as when he is forbidden to sit up till mid- 
 night. If he cannot take all these small hindrances 
 to contentment laughing, he will be liable to pass 
 a rather unhappy time in childhood. How then, 
 once more, has laughter come to be looked upon 
 by some with suspicion? Clemens of Alexandria, 
 for instance, wrote that laughter does not become 
 a Christian; and the second Council of Carthage 
 uttered anathema on jokes which move laughter 
 ( Verba joculatoria risum moveiitid). The Preacher, 
 too, deprecated mirth — "Sorrow is better than 
 
96 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 laughter, for as the crackling of thorns under a 
 pot, so is the laughter of fools". 
 
 Of course laughter forms no exception to human 
 endowments. It is liable to abuse. Can anything 
 be rational which cannot be used irrationally.^ 
 Laughter weakens the will for the moment, and 
 therefore in bad company it is well avoided. But 
 because a soldier is prudent who wears his armour 
 in the midst of the enemy, shall he never take it 
 off even among friends.-* 
 
 Laughter, again, as a mere expression of coarse 
 sensuality cannot be defended: such laughter is 
 unworthy of a Christian. There is, too, a merri- 
 ment which loosens moral fibre, as laughter at vice, 
 or laughter at other people's infirmities, or at the 
 suffering of animals. There is, too, a peculiarly 
 hateful laughter arising from a sense of physical 
 or intellectual superiority, — the "insolens laetitia" 
 or " hubris " of the ancient Romans and Greeks. 
 
 But, after all, though life is a thorn-bush there 
 are roses on it. I suppose the Calvinists have^ 
 since the Reformation period, been among those 
 who have brought up youth after the strictest 
 methods. They held mirth in suspicion. There 
 is much in the life of a modern child which to an 
 old Calvinist would have appeared wrong, because 
 he would have thought it distracting and deleterious 
 to concentration and simplicity. 
 
 The Calvinists loved to simplify life. They 
 aimed, as it were, at dignity of outline, such as is 
 seen in a fine building when viewed at a distance^ 
 rather than at the infinite grace of workmanship, 
 in minor details, which crowd on the sight when 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION 97 
 
 the spectator approaches nearer. Music, for in- 
 stance, and dancing and drawing, and the love of 
 colour and form and harmonious sound, appeared 
 to them dangerous occupations for children. Such 
 delights seemed to be distracting, and at any rate 
 superfluous. The theatre, the novel, and the poem, 
 are likely, they thought, to lead the mind away 
 from the main purpose of life and the " chief end 
 of man ". It was difl"erent in the Mediaeval Church. 
 This absence of gaiety was no part of the precept 
 or practice of the church. The impression which 
 many persons receive from a Gothic cathedral is 
 one of gloom and sadness. For myself I am more 
 struck by the revelation of sympathy with the 
 varied exuberance of life which I find expressed 
 there. It is true that the focus of all the design 
 is centred on the Cross and the solemnity of the 
 Passion, but in minor details there is an evident 
 determination to assimilate the world as a whole 
 and take it as it is, the evil with the good. Every 
 column is covered with fruit or foliage, and the wall 
 spaces are filled with carvings of scenes of harvest 
 or vintage, or other common pursuits of mankind. 
 Quaint birds and animals peep out from among 
 the leaves, and even human frailties receive their 
 share of the artist's attention, while types of laugh- 
 ing faces are frequent enough, not to mention 
 endless grotesques which move to merriment. In 
 the present day we seem to be somewhat over- 
 oppressed by the mystery of pain, while in those 
 days the sense of this unfathomable mystery was 
 tempered by a rich feeling of sympathy with the 
 abundant manifestations of joy in creation. Chris- 
 
 (M930) G 
 
98 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 tendom would then have understood Kant's view, 
 that children must be accustomed to unrestrained 
 laughter, because mirth stamps a merry look on 
 the face, and by degrees stamps itself also on the 
 mind and leads to a disposition to friendliness, 
 gaiety, and benevolence. At the present day, 
 perhaps, in the mystery of things, joy, not pain, is 
 the greatest. We seem nowadays so familiar with 
 the sense of effort in creation and the struggle 
 for existence, and the failures in life's struggle, 
 that we forget the other scenes in life's drama. 
 Many seem to be so depressed as to feel that 
 sorrow is the only fact in the order of things. The 
 only text all seem to take to heart is, " The whole 
 creation groaneth and travaileth together in pain". 
 The fact is, children in many cases require a train- 
 ing in gaiety of spirit as much as in the develop- 
 ment of other faculties. " Fast bind, fast find ", as 
 Hood wittily put it. The influence of the gloomy 
 genius of Mr. Calvin has been the wreck of many 
 a young person, although in those that survived 
 the effect of it, how strong was their character, 
 how determined in purpose, how tenacious in dis- 
 couragement, and how obstinate in opposition! 
 
 Regarding this type of character everyone must 
 feel some respect for the rigid spirit which would 
 develop the nature of the child by repression, and 
 secure concentration of the light of life by cutting 
 off all the side rays. 
 
 In the present day a wholly different conception 
 of training lies at the base of our ideas of education. 
 Our desire now is to train the best faculties which 
 the child possesses, and as many of them as possible, 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION 99 
 
 in a harmonious way. No greater misfortune, I 
 think, can befall a child who has a gift for music 
 or drawing or sculpture, than to miss the chance 
 of cultivating and improving his talent Yet the 
 influence of Calvin has spread widely and deeply. 
 Now there is no spiritual movement of importance 
 which has not some truth in it commensurate with 
 its success and popular acceptance. There is, so 
 far as I can see, really nothing in Calvin himself 
 which necessarily leads to suppression of faculties 
 in children. I will quote what Calvin did say 
 about intercalating periods of solemn thoughtful 
 repose in the routine of life, his views namely on 
 the Sabbath:— 
 
 " Does the Fourth Commandment order us to work on six 
 days that we may rest on the seventh? 
 
 " Not exactly, but in handing over to men six days to 
 work, it excepts the seventh that it may be devoted to repose. 
 
 " Does it forbid all labour on the seventh day? 
 
 " This commandment has a special and peculiar bearing. 
 The observance of a day of rest was part of the Jewish law, 
 and as such was abrogated by Christ's advent. 
 
 " Had then this commandment a special application to the 
 Jews alone, so that it was temporary and transient? 
 
 " Yes, in so far as it related to Jewish ceremonies. 
 
 "Is there then anything in the commandment beyond 
 Jewish ceremony? 
 
 "It was given for three reasons. 
 
 " Name them. 
 
 " First, to show in a figure spiritual repose. Secondly, to 
 maintain the constitution of the church. Thirdly, to lighten 
 the lives of servants. 
 
 "(i) What do you understand by spiritual repose? 
 
 " We keep a holy day that God may work in us. 
 
 "How do we keep holy day? 
 
lOO EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 " We crucify our flesh. That is, we give up our own will 
 that we may be governed by the Spirit of God. 
 
 " Is it sufficient that we do this on the seventh day only.' 
 
 " Nay, rather without ceasing. As we have once begun so 
 we must continue to the end of our lives. 
 
 " Then why is a stated day set apart to show in a figure 
 spiritual repose? 
 
 " It is not necessary that the truth should agree with the 
 figure of it in every particular. It is enough if certain features 
 of the truth are figured forth. 
 
 " Then why is the seventh day prescribed for the purpose 
 rather than any other? 
 
 " The number VII is used in Scripture to denote perfection. 
 It is therefore suited to denote perpetuity. At the same time 
 it denotes that this spiritual rest commences only in this life, 
 and will not be perfect till we migrate from the world. 
 
 " But what is the meaning of this that the Lord urges us 
 to rest after His example? 
 
 " Having made an end of creating the world in six days, 
 He devoted the seventh to the consideration of His work. 
 To stimulate us to similar meditation He sets His example 
 before us. For nothing is more desirable than that we should 
 form ourselves after His image. 
 
 "(2) But should the meditation of the works of God be 
 continuous, or is it enough that one day in seven should be 
 devoted to that occupation? 
 
 " No ; we should exercise ourselves in it day by day, but 
 by reason of our weakness one day is specially set apart for 
 the purpose. And this is the constitution of which I spoke. 
 
 " What then is the order to be observed on that day? 
 
 " People are to meet together to hear Christ's teaching, to 
 join in public prayers, and to make public profession of their 
 faith. 
 
 " (3) Now explain what you said about the Lord wishing to 
 provide for the relief of all who are employed as servants. 
 
 "Some relaxation should be given to those who are not 
 their own masters. 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION lOI 
 
 " This is necessary even for the maintenance of the consti- 
 tution of the state ; for where one day is set apart for rest, 
 people accustom themselves to work during the remainder 
 of the week. 
 
 " Now let us consider how far this commandment refers 
 to us. 
 
 "As regards the ceremonial observance, since the truth 
 and substance of it were in Christ, I say that it is abrogated. 
 
 "How? 
 
 " By virtue of His death the old man is crucified in us, and 
 we are called to newness of life. 
 
 " Then what part of the commandment remains to apply 
 to us? 
 
 " That we should not neglect the institutes which conduce 
 to the spiritual constitution of the Church ; especially that 
 we should attend the holy meetings to hear God's word, to 
 celebrate His mysteries, and to pray to Him, according to 
 the ordinances. 
 
 " But does the figure convey nothing further to us? 
 
 " Yes it does. We must consider the substance of it. As 
 we are grafted in the body of Christ, and made members of 
 Him, we should cease from our own ordinary occupations 
 and resign ourselves to the governance of God." 
 
 In these words Calvin endeavours to describe an 
 element of seriousness which he would see included 
 in every healthy life. I read in them nothing aus- 
 tere, much less pedantic. It is on record that on 
 one occasion Calvin played bowls with his friends 
 on Sunday, but the elders in Calvinistic families 
 think it prudent to suppress this record. 
 
 I see nothing in Calvin's description of the 
 Christian Truth, which he recognized as predigi- 
 tated by the ceremonial law of the Jewish Sabbath, 
 inconsistent with playing at bowls on Sunday, un- 
 less, indeed, playing at bowls were a man's ordinary 
 
I03 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 occupation. He would clearly not divide life into 
 Sundays and week-days, as if, by a convenient 
 division of labour, thoughts might be all secular 
 during the week, and all religious on Sunday. I 
 find in him, again, no sympathy with people who 
 make a cross for themselves and then take a pride 
 in believing that they are nobly bearing one sent 
 by Providence. Calvin would encourage contem- 
 plation, and, that time might be found for it, desired 
 rest from manual toil on Sundays. But the train 
 of thought would control action instead of being 
 wholly dependent on it. What people did on 
 Sunday would be in harmony with their medita- 
 tion, and what there was of constraint in Sunday 
 occupation would follow from the temper natural 
 to meditation. Calvin would hardly have expected 
 that the mere negative conduct of withholding from 
 this or that pastime, would of itself lead to spiritual 
 meditation. 
 
 Let us suppose, for instance, that you want a 
 little girl to feel aware that there is something in 
 the world of greater consequence than dolls, her 
 chief solace and joy. Suppose you commence by 
 depriving her of that joy forcibly. Will that tend 
 to elevate her thoughts.^ What you need to do is 
 to suggest, by some means or other, ideas which 
 will lead her, of her own accord, to forget her doll, 
 or even put it away. Doubtless this is much more 
 difficult than external constraint. But to empty 
 the mind of one set of ideas is not to fill it with 
 another. The supposition, that if you remove the 
 doll, you will create a vacuum in the mind which 
 can then be filled with what you please, seems to 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION IO3 
 
 evince ignorance of the way in which the mind 
 works. 
 
 There is a kind of hving and organic connection 
 between the succession of thought, and it is no 
 easy matter to change at will the current ideas in 
 a child's mind. My own belief is, that if a child's 
 head is full of some train of thought, or some 
 object, and you wish to substitute something dif- 
 ferent, so far from suppressing the pre-existing 
 thought or object, you had better commence with 
 it as a base for your efforts. You want, for ex- 
 ample, to talk about kind and unkind behaviour. 
 The child plays with her doll. I should not 
 remove the doll. I should deal with it as the 
 child's companion, and pass through stories about 
 it to stories of life, real or imaginative, and so to 
 parables, till the lower is absorbed into higher 
 imagination, and the common world in an ideal 
 world. It is no wise method of training to deprive 
 a child on Sunday of amusements and occupations 
 which please him, unless you can substitute others 
 which please him more. How can instruction be 
 made attractive.!^ Hardly, if the teacher under- 
 takes it as an irksome task. If the lesson is 
 annoying and wearisome to the teacher, it cer- 
 tainly will not be anything different to the learner. 
 
 Even serious subjects cannot be rightly dealt 
 with among children without a certain amount of 
 gaiety, and an exaggeration of seriousness in the 
 teacher is instantly detected by the scholar. Chil- 
 dren are genuine touchstones of pretence. 
 
 Plato remarks, " No study pursued under com- 
 pulsion remains rooted in the memory; hence you 
 
I04 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 must train the children to their studies in a playful 
 manner, and without any air of constraint". 
 
 Through this truth I am brought to St Augus- 
 tine. I have always been much impressed by his 
 sympathy with the wrongs of children. 
 
 " I was not incompetent to study," he says, " but 
 I did enjoy my games, and then I was punished by 
 those who did no other than myself" " But", he 
 continues, " the lighter occupations of grown-up 
 people pass with them as business, while children 
 are punished by their elders for similarly amusing 
 themselves, and no one pities the children." 
 
 To me there is something remarkably instructive 
 and suggestive in the contrast between St. Augus- 
 tine and Calvin in their treatment of the significance 
 of the Jewish Sabbath to Christians. The contrast 
 is not due merely to the difference in character and 
 temperament between the two men. I seem to feel 
 a difference due to time and development and ex- 
 perience of many human generations. 
 
 There is in Calvin a certain practical sense. He 
 feels the need of a discipline for the spirit as well 
 as for the understanding. Even the spirit of pure 
 religion he sees cannot be entirely free from the aid 
 of conventional ordinances. The Jews substituted 
 the letter for the spirit, and observance of con- 
 ventional ceremonies did duty for justice, mercy, 
 and righteousness. 
 
 The experience of many generations of Chris- 
 tians seemed to lead the most thoughtful men of 
 the Reformation period to look back a little, and 
 lean once again rather more heavily on the staff 
 "Bands", and rather less on the staff "Beauty". 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION I<^5 
 
 They were compelled to believe more in the regu- 
 lation of daily life, and, figuratively speaking, to 
 substitute a fixed and definite tithe in place of 
 committing themselves unreservedly to the precept, 
 ** Give alms of all that thou hast". 
 
 I shall, perhaps, be more clearly understood if I 
 describe St. Augustine's treatment of the Sabbath. 
 He has what seems to modern ideas a curiously 
 subtle and almost fanciful chain reasoning on its 
 significance. 
 
 " Whatever a man finds to do," he writes, " if he 
 does it in such a spirit that he expects to obtain 
 earthly advantage, then he does it in the spirit of 
 a hired workman, and therefore he does not observe 
 the Sabbath; for the love towards God must be 
 without the expectation of payment, and there is 
 no Sabbath for the soul except in that which God 
 loves. Eternal rest: there is none except in the 
 love of God, who alone is eternal, and this alone 
 is complete holiday and the spiritual sabbath of 
 sabbaths. God laboured not for six days that 
 He might rest on the seventh — that is a carnal 
 idea. 
 
 " God made all things, and, behold, all was very 
 good. And God rested on the seventh day from 
 all the works which He did. Would you also rest? 
 Then begin by doing works which are very good. 
 Do you do what that holiday means; for holiday 
 is the spiritual quiet of the heart. Quiet of the 
 heart comes from the calm of a good conscience; 
 therefore he keeps the true Sabbath who sins not. 
 Let this be the instruction for those who are to 
 observe the Sabbath : * Thy service shall not be for 
 
Io6 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 wages, for those who sin work for the wages of 
 sin '." 
 
 St Augustine thus draws a paradoxical but bold 
 and original conclusion, that there is no rest for 
 a sinner, because he is a hired workman receiving 
 pay for his work. It seems to me that fully to 
 realize and appreciate the height and depth of this 
 conception needs the mind of a saint. St. Augus- 
 tine describes a state of mind in which the desire 
 to avoid error and the aspiration after right con- 
 duct will render exact conventional regulation of 
 life no help, and possibly a hindrance. 
 
 In Calvin we seem to descend from this almost 
 superhuman elevation of character to the practical 
 man of religious sentiment who believes that nine 
 people out of ten, apart from conventional arrange- 
 ments for religious exercise, will neglect it alto- 
 gether. He would seem to agree with Montalem- 
 bert: "II n'y a pas de religion sans culte; et il 
 n'y a pas de culte sans Dimanche". 
 
 It was ordered in 1584 that one-half of all the 
 people in every house above twelve years of age, 
 not being sick or lawfully hindered, be at the be- 
 ginning of every sermon every Sunday in the 
 morning, and one from every house at the be- 
 ginning of every sermon in the afternoon, of every 
 Sunday and festival day, and likewise on every 
 Wednesday, upon pain of 2Q>d, on Sundays and 
 \2d. on other days, and strictest orders were made 
 for Sunday closure of tradesmen's shops. 
 
 Sunday lessons and occupations! How many 
 people when grown up look back to them with 
 a sense of disgust, as if they were a weekly drug 
 
GAIETY IN EDUCATION IO7 
 
 that turns the sickening memory! How many- 
 wrecked lives have been caused by irrational Sun- 
 day conventionalities! Yet God forbid that the 
 English Sunday should ever be a day either of 
 paid labour or noisy public holiday. There is no 
 sin that I know of in making a noise, but generous 
 youth will not be unwilling on Sunday to suppress 
 the youthful tendency to noisy behaviour, feeling 
 the greater pleasure of not disturbing other people 
 who desire to be quiet. Perhaps, in return, people 
 who want to be quiet on week-days will not be un- 
 willing to recognize the sacrifice which youth thus 
 makes to please them on Sundays, and, above all, 
 will avoid the hypocrisy of pretending that their 
 demand for peace is only for the good of youth, 
 when it is really a thing agreeable and salutary 
 chiefly to themselves. For life without gaiety is 
 a cake without sugar, or, rather, it is unleavened 
 bread. 
 
INDIVIDUALISM IN EDUCATION 
 
 " The Medietval Church fell because it undertook to do so much Jor 
 men's souls that men felt they were losing consciousness that their souls 
 after all were their <w«."— Bishop Creighton. 
 
 There is, perhaps, a not uncommon feeling that 
 the older type of school in its curriculum did too 
 little to provide for individual tastes, and there 
 is also a feeling that class teaching is overdone. 
 Children passing through large schools in large 
 groups or classes lose, it is thought, their indivi- 
 duality, and, therefore, rather the opposite type 
 of teaching should be aimed at, namely, that no 
 two children should follow the same routine, and 
 that individual teaching rather than class teaching 
 should be the rule. Every individual bent of the 
 child's mind should be sought out with scrupulous 
 care and developed in the way that is most charac- 
 teristic of him. Let children grow up all good, if 
 possible, but at any rate let no two be quite alike. 
 It is not the school, nor the class, nor the subject 
 of instruction, but the individual child that the 
 teacher is really concerned with. So much stress 
 is laid on individuality by some writers. 
 
 What, then, is want of individuality.? Is it when 
 a person is not easily distinguishable from his com- 
 panions.? A hundred workhouse boys, for instance, 
 are hardly to be distinguished one from another, 
 at any rate by a stranger. When we speak of 
 want of individuality in a boy, do we mean that 
 he is one of a number all alike, resembling pebbles 
 
 tot 
 
INDIVIDUALISM IN EDUCATION IO9 
 
 on a beach, "the unnumbered pebbles by the surges 
 idly chafed " ? When we regard each pebble as a 
 separate and handy thing for throwing at a mark, 
 we think of it also as wanting in characteristic 
 shape, since all alike are ground down by the surge 
 to forms more or less spherical, and one stone is 
 as good as another for our purpose. Are we, then, 
 to find fault with a boy for wanting individuality 
 because he acts and talks exactly like a hundred 
 others, each as complete in their own way as him- 
 self? Or are we, again, to talk of a boy as wanting 
 individuality, because in thought and action he is 
 so much assimilated to his parents or teachers that 
 his being seems merged in them and his thoughts 
 seem mere repetition of theirs? Do we not say 
 that an object has the greatest individuality when 
 it is most unlike its own kind, say a crow with 
 whitish feathers? We certainly say that an old 
 apple-tree has individuality, when in its twisted, 
 gnarled, and irregular stems and branches its own 
 particular past history may be easily read. 
 
 Do we, however, speak of individuality in a boy 
 who is quite unlike others, say, wears long hair 
 and plays with a doll, or who doesn't see any use 
 in a pocket-knife? Or do we after all rather call 
 that individuality when a boy does the same as 
 others, only in a different way, either better or 
 worse? If the last view is true, then any character, 
 however individual, has much in it that is common 
 to it and others, and is not, therefore, an isolated 
 human unit. When we complain of a school 
 routine, that it tends to destroy individuality, we 
 mean, probably, that it turns out boys all alike, 
 
no EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 whether of a high quah'ty, or of average capacity, 
 or of a low tone. In such a case we ask are they 
 all alike, because they all assimilate the tone and 
 teaching of the school? But if a boy has been 
 brought up at home, and is quite unlike average 
 boys in important particulars, should we say that 
 he has a marked individuality? 
 
 I think it no paradox to say that a boy goes to 
 school to get rid of individuality, namely, that 
 kind which is stamped upon him by home life in 
 being unlike other boys. In losing, however, one 
 kind of individuality, which is apt to be either anti- 
 social or unserviceable, or at least what Dr. Johnson 
 called " not clubbable ", he really gains a new per- 
 sonality, which ought to be the old one, not abol- 
 ished, but modified and intensified and improved. 
 
 If a boy takes with him to school no sense of 
 individual responsibility, and if he is in none of 
 his thoughts or actions other than imitative, sub- 
 servient, receptive, and obedient, the character he 
 will acquire at school will be just that which stamps 
 the average boy at that school, good or bad as it 
 may be. If he brings to school a feeling of re- 
 sponsibility and obeys and imitates with intelli- 
 gence and reflection, his intercourse with boys and 
 masters will not form a new and merely average 
 character, nor will it abolish his old individuality, 
 but rather enhance it. 
 
 A boy should learn at school the value of doing 
 as others do, where nothing of consequence is in- 
 volved in conventional practice. He should also 
 learn to respect the individual opinions of others 
 while maintaining his own, and learn the limits 
 
INDIVIDUALISM IN EDUCATION III 
 
 between wilful and rational opposition. That 
 which is awkward, boorish, graceless or shy, and 
 eccentric should disappear under the influence of 
 converse with other boys. 
 
 But the old-fashioned grammar-school performed 
 its work very badly. The ways of the scholars 
 were often unworthy of a gentleman, the course of 
 studies was the same for all boys alike, and took 
 no account of the varied occupations of life or the 
 varied endowments of boys. After sixteen, most 
 boys must, in these days, learn to make up their 
 mind whether they will pursue a more literary or 
 a more scientific training, and whether they intend 
 to adopt a practical career or lead a life of study, 
 and their instruction should (within limits) be 
 varied accordingly. But a boy must learn to do 
 as others do in many matters. How can the indi- 
 viduality of a boy, then, be respected at school? 
 Judging from these considerations, it will be 
 admitted that a negative answer must be given 
 to the question: Can you make a boy most him- 
 self by leaving him alone and giving him particular 
 private tuition .>* Individuality is better developed 
 at school than at home, and no child can grow 
 up strong in mind and body without interference. 
 
 Then comes the question: When should inter- 
 ference be recommended, and how far should it 
 extend } Everyone can see the harm of false con- 
 trol, but all education implies control, and, in some 
 form, compulsion. The reason why many people 
 object to compulsory religion, compulsory morality, 
 and compulsory learning, is, that such religion, vir- 
 tue, and learning can hardly be distinguished in 
 
112 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 reality and practice from the absence of them ; yet 
 no society can really exist without compulsion in 
 some form. In a pack of wolves or wild animals 
 with social instincts, the members who fail in their 
 duty are destroyed by the rest, and in more com- 
 plex human associations compulsion in some form 
 or other is inevitably exercised. Yet freedom is 
 often spoken of as a " natural " thing. 
 
 Poets seem to yearn after a freedom with which 
 in their fancy they invest nature. " Follow nature," 
 they seem to say, "she alone is free." Wordsworth 
 wrote : — 
 
 " How does the meadow flower its bloom unfold? 
 Because the lovely little flower is free 
 Down to its root, and in that freedom bold ; 
 And so the grandeur of the forest tree 
 Comes not by casting in a formal mould, 
 But from its own divine vitality ". 
 
 Students of science, on the other hand, differ 
 here from poets. What most impresses and often 
 oppresses them is the prevalence of law in nature, 
 and the whole progress of learning tends to force 
 upon us the fact that in nature there is nothing 
 capricious and nothing arbitrary or mutable. The 
 wind which seemed so long to have a "liberal 
 charter" is now, after years of patient research, 
 known to blow in obedience to regular laws. It 
 is only imperfect knowledge that leads us to think 
 that growth of living matter is uncontrolled. The 
 results of vitality are a compromise between in- 
 ternal and external forces. Neither child nor 
 flower can grow up free from external force, but, 
 of course, the force must be suited to its needs. 
 
INDIVIDUALISM IN EDUCATION II3 
 
 For there is a principle in the application of com- 
 pulsion to human beings. There is a state of man 
 which is neither slavery nor anarchy. It is wild 
 nature that really lives in slavery, however free it 
 may appear to poets. The principle for men is, 
 that so far as possible the compulsion must be 
 directed to setting free energy for good, which 
 without it is impeded or wasted. 
 
 In each particular case it is impossible to say 
 without much consideration whether compulsion 
 is necessary or not. In itself, compulsion is not 
 an evil. The mistaken application of it is most 
 injurious. What makes compulsion unpopular is 
 its abuse and not its use. Even in a game of 
 football, if the boys do not compel each other to 
 "play the game", they will get no game at all, 
 and no pleasure in their aimless scrimmage. 
 
 It is easy to see that compulsion which prevents 
 an immediate evil may, after a time, give rise to a 
 crop of others, and that the evil may be increased 
 by the remedy. The law, for instance, by which 
 public-houses are closed on compulsion at a certain 
 hour seems to have worked very well. The reason 
 is, because it only exercises a little unobjectionable 
 force in urging every ale-house politician and club- 
 man in the direction he is really not unwilling to 
 go, namely home, in decent time. It is asserted, 
 however — probably with truth — that if, without 
 abolishing the demand for what is sold in public- 
 houses, you abolish public-houses altogether, your 
 compulsory measure would lead to an immense 
 consumption in private-houses, clubs, and the like; 
 compulsion works well in one case and not in 
 
 (M930) H 
 
114 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 another. Again, the English people like to rest 
 on the seventh day, and machinery is therefore, 
 by lying idle, often taxed or mulcted of one 
 seventh of its use. Few people, however, object 
 to the law which prohibits manufacture and trad- 
 ing on Sunday. The nation secures a day of rest 
 by this compulsion. What would, however, be 
 the effect of compelling everyone to go to church 
 according to an old statute.'* The evil would far 
 outweigh the good. Uniform practice in such a 
 matter is another question. 
 
 All civilized nations now most wisely insist on 
 all children attending school. The attendance at 
 school is a matter of discipline, and it is an indis- 
 pensable part of the training of the ordinary family. 
 Except in rare cases, the family training which is 
 the basis of all education needs the supplement of 
 a good school where the motives and movements 
 of human life may play upon the child's growing 
 organism more freely than they can in the narrow 
 sphere of home, and yet not without some check. 
 The methods of instruction and the course of 
 studies, however, remained too long stereotyped, 
 the successful scholar becoming in the next gen- 
 eration the school teacher, and repeating over 
 again with no significant alteration precisely the 
 same routine which had answered his purpose, in 
 spite of the fact that manufacture, trade, and even 
 professions keep on changing to suit the growing 
 complexity of modern life. An Elizabethan cur- 
 riculum consisting of ancient languages is imper- 
 fectly adapted to the time in which we live, and 
 yet the vis inertia that has to be overcome before 
 
INDIVIDUALISM IN EDUCATION II 5 
 
 any important alteration can be made is so great, 
 that probably private schools will be the first to 
 inaugurate them. Probably in the end the efforts 
 of private schoolmasters will create an opinion so 
 favourable to a new type of school, that the old 
 grammar-school routine will be seriously modified, 
 and in time a boy's career at school will be very 
 unlike the excessive book cram at a German gym- 
 nasium on the one hand, or the one-sided physical 
 development of a mere athlete, such as characterizes 
 the rather low aims of some English public schools. 
 "How", said George Kingsley to the South Sea 
 Islander, "do you make your living?" "Oh, we! 
 we play games." More clearly than before it is 
 seen to be the teacher's business to seek out the 
 natural endowments of each boy, but inasmuch 
 as in most cases these are of an average type, a 
 common education and routine is both possible 
 and desirable. The demand to have one teacher 
 for one child is as false in theory as impracticable. 
 We have, however, to be keenly alive to the ex- 
 ceptional types, and deal with these prudently. 
 
 For most even of these highly -gifted children, 
 one of the best lessons that they can possibly learn 
 is the use and value of what is average, and we 
 have to help them so to develop their special gift, 
 that they may not, by a mistaken reliance on their 
 one talent, become foolish in matters where what 
 is ordinary and usual is of far greater importance 
 than what is exceptional. School should offer the 
 average boy opportunities of measuring himself 
 with those whose talents are far beyond his own, 
 and at the same time it must enable the boys of 
 
Il6 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 exceptional talent and aspirations to develop them- 
 selves prudently, and to live in society with their 
 fellow fools and their fellow brutes, for these are, 
 after all, their brothers, with whom they will have 
 to get on in after-years, or else pass their lives, as 
 many men of genius have done, in perpetual dis- 
 content and misery. School must, however, not 
 exaggerate the average qualities of average boys. 
 An injurious influence was formerly exercised by 
 the first class English public schools, in that they 
 made the average boy think too little of his powers 
 and the clever boy too much. " Modesty ", said 
 jesting Jowett, " is only a virtue in youth ", and 
 perhaps even this excessive belief in one's self does 
 more good than harm. At any rate " a mixture 
 of a lie doth ever add pleasure ". But the feeling 
 engendered by the Homeric treatment of the rank 
 and file compared with the Hectors, Achilleses, and 
 Ajaxes worked badly on the careers of the ordinary 
 boys. They felt themselves one of a genus, a 
 specimen, a black ant on a forest ant-heap, or a 
 sombre - clad sparrow amid the thieves of the 
 harvest They became shorn of their individu- 
 ality. Their spirit of self-assertion was unduly 
 depressed. They started to face the world in 
 despair of their own powers. School-life, instead 
 of making them manly and self-reliant, made them 
 tarae and wanting in forgetivc power. 
 
 While, then, there is a growing demand that in- 
 dividuality may be more respected, on the other 
 hand some .say the crop of individualism in modern 
 life is too heavy, and that the spirit of Rousseau, 
 while destroying obedience to traditional practices 
 
INDIVIDUALISM IN EDUCATION ny 
 
 and conventional customs, has replaced it with a 
 love of disobedience for its own sake. It has been 
 said that old-fashioned behaviour and principles 
 which had some admixture of sound sense have 
 been replaced by sophistical and fallacious state- 
 ments which have none. 
 
 Undoubtedly the hardest task of the educator is 
 to help a growing youth to know himself, for that 
 involves a wide knowledge of others. A boy has 
 to learn to play his part with others, and not to 
 live in solitude. He has to learn that the great 
 organic communities with and in which he has to 
 live and work, the state, the church, the army, or 
 other professions, are not mere aggregates of in- 
 dividuals, each getting something for himself which 
 alone determines his association with the others 
 like political parties. He has to learn that great 
 organic associations depend on the due expansion 
 of the individual will ; and that each member must 
 learn to undei;stand himself and others by expand- 
 ing each his own will until it embraces the wills of 
 others, and thus to become a member of a corporate 
 and, in the ecclesiastical phrase, a mystical union. 
 
 There is, however, a type of individualism which 
 is the purest vulgarity. " Who ", says Amiel, " has 
 not been repelled by the conduct of the young men 
 standing at the corners of the village -green on 
 Sunday evenings .!* The starlight is superb. The 
 night is peace, harmony, and fragrance. The 
 youths howl breakdown songs, purposely out of 
 tune and harsh, they grin and make coarse or 
 brutal remarks and jests on passers-by. Why all 
 this? It is instinct. It is the imperious need of 
 
Il8 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 self-assertion. It is the feeling they must assert 
 themselves to be what they are; they must oppose 
 themselves as such to everyone else; they must 
 set themselves in contrast sharp and clear with all 
 around, with nature, with poetry, with order, with 
 society, with harmony, with the adoration which 
 raises us to God. It is I, I, I, before all; I by 
 opposition, I by vulgarity, by contortion of face, 
 by coarse chaff, by impertinent caprice, by inde- 
 pendence and self-sovereignty, by exultant spon- 
 taneity, I for myself, a self-sufficient, invincible 
 monad, outside, not inside God's creation. It is 
 I as Satan tempted Adam, I as the centre of all, 
 I to be as God." 
 
 This conduct is a gross and coarse caricature of 
 man's most precious privilege to be himself; it is 
 the abuse of personal responsibility, it is the night- 
 mare of the conception of freedom. Yet these 
 young musicians of Bremen, the ass, the cock, 
 and the dog, may learn wisdom in time. Let 
 them alone, let them continue their base concert 
 till its repulsiveness appals even themselves. The 
 sense of shame must grow up from within. Better 
 this individuality than none at all. For it is certain 
 that modern thought often does tend to the prac- 
 tical suppression of individuality. Materialism and 
 socialism both overlook and misunderstand the true 
 value of human personality and efface it, the one in 
 the sum of natural facts, the other in society. 
 
 As there is a danger of sacrificing the whole for 
 a part, as when a child is momentarily indulged, 
 regardless of his whole career, or when the majesty 
 of the law is unvindicated owing to favour in a 
 
INDIVIDUALISM IN EDUCATION II9 
 
 Special case, so there is a danger of sacrificing a 
 part for the whole, as when a boy at school with 
 a special taste finds no opportunity of pursuing it 
 because it lies outside the routine of the school. 
 What is inconsistent with the bond of union that 
 holds any society together must be got rid of, but 
 the wisest may easily confuse what is with what is 
 not essential, hence the reformer is easily excom- 
 municated or martyred, and man has ever behaved 
 most shamefully to those who have served him best. 
 
 To develop individuality, boys ought to have 
 some time alone, and some place where they can 
 follow their own thoughts. Amiel remarks finely: 
 " In the depths of self leave some room for the 
 vague, undecided, and mysterious; leave a corner 
 of the land uncultivated where chance seeds may 
 grow as the wind conveys them; leave a few 
 branches to shelter strange birds; leave an altar 
 unascribed where there is a place for a strange 
 god. Allow some novel thoughts to grow without 
 much criticism. If the soil is of the right sort and 
 well cultivated, bad seeds will not take root, and 
 only what is good will flourish there." 
 
 The greatest difficulty of the teacher is to possess 
 the tact and skill to know how much fallow-time 
 to leave his scholars. This inner hidden individual 
 life must not be choked and destroyed by the 
 exigencies of social organization. Character is 
 suppressed if the individual is made a mere instru- 
 ment of the body or community to which he 
 belongs. The true social aim is to frame a society, 
 such that each member governs himself, hard as 
 it is to establish this type of government. The 
 
I20 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 Latin people, it is said, cannot establish self- 
 government nor accept truth as a whole. They 
 seek miracles and objects of faith and worship at 
 Lourdes and elsewhere. They petrify abstractions, 
 and never penetrate into the inner sanctuary of 
 the heart where ideas are not yet fashioned apart 
 and completely defined. Instead of seeking truth, 
 they build a fort round an accepted position and 
 defend it from attacks of critical enquiry. Their 
 daily life is determined exclusively by custom, 
 tradition, and convention, however contrary to 
 reason and sound criticism. It was this conven- 
 tionality that Rosseau undermined, but the Latin 
 people still dread individual responsibility for them- 
 selves and do not train their children to it. "The 
 English family", it is well maintained by Amiel, 
 "is the opposite of this. Each member has his 
 place, and fills it in an orderly way. Each has 
 his duty, and the rights of each are respected; 
 children are happy, smiling, and trusting, and yet 
 discreet. They know they are loved, but they do 
 not presume on this. English mothers practise 
 a firm impersonal rule which is the base of all 
 law. Children feel they have rights and are not 
 obeying arbitrary and capricious commands. * Dieu 
 et mon droit' is a principle imbibed by Englishmen 
 with their mother's milk." 
 
 If, then, the English family is so good a type of 
 a social community, cannot we imagine, according 
 to Frcebel's views, a school which shall be designed 
 as an extension of it rather than a substitute. 
 Such an institution would aim at a position be- 
 tween the old-fashioned school and family life. It 
 
INDIVIDUALISM IN EDUCATION 121 
 
 would be wider than the family circle, but the 
 masters would not be out of relation to the boys 
 when not instructing them, nor mere companions 
 in games. The masters and boys would have 
 common occupations in farm and garden and 
 workshop, and in expeditions for surveying, science 
 studies, and practical handwork and military train- 
 ing. The boys would not be left too much to 
 themselves, nor subjected to the degrading espion- 
 age of the pitiful pio7i of the French schools. In 
 such a school there will be a place for both sexes, 
 and the brutalities of Tom Brown's experience will 
 be avoided, while the effeminacy of a smug boarding- 
 house will be equally absent. Hard and rough 
 work out of doors will check the growth of squeam- 
 ishness, and evening occupations, in the way of 
 music, literature, recitations, readings, play-acting, 
 and the like, will cultivate refinement. We want 
 nothing soft, and yet nothing brutal or brutish. 
 
 We can imagine a school in the country, where 
 hardihood can be cultivated amid fresh air, open 
 windows, and cold water, where life is simple and 
 varied, and the evils of excessive subdivision of 
 labour are avoided. 
 
 The effect of a one-sided education is obvious. 
 We have excessive division of labour, distributing 
 life into sharply-divided states of toil and amuse- 
 ment; work without pleasure in it, and amusement 
 without intellect. We have a vast heap of human 
 misery which we pity and cannot alleviate; we 
 have abolished slavery in word, but there are 
 masses of men who are not yet free and cannot 
 develop their individual capacities. 
 
122 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 We can imagine a school where the masters lead 
 a common life with the boys, dressed like them for 
 practical activity in the field, and not in black cloth 
 gowns or cassocks, working at gardening or plough- 
 ing, directing the boys at work with them, where 
 the child is not isolated from the society of adults 
 out of lesson -time, and where adults find a real 
 and not a pretence or toy occupation in utilizing 
 the child's force as far as it goes in work which is 
 useful for the establishment. We can imagine that 
 time at this school will not divide itself into sharply- 
 cut sections of work and play, hated restraint fol- 
 lowed by lawless relaxation, but rather consist of 
 interchange of occupation, continuous but varied, 
 some lighter, some severer, some taxing muscle, 
 some brain. 
 
 We can imagine that in such a school there 
 would be established a collective corporate life, in 
 which, however juvenile, each member would learn 
 self-reliance and individual responsibility. The 
 life would call out spontaneous activity, and not 
 merely depend on drill, hurry, force, and uniformity. 
 Each will be a law unto himself and no man's 
 slave, but he will not on that account obey his own 
 arbitrary will and caprice. His law will be based 
 upon the will of all, which is his own will expanded 
 till it comprehends the will of others. " Each on 
 himself relied as on his arm alone the moment lay 
 of victory." The transition from such a school to 
 life would not then be felt as passing from a con- 
 dition of restraint to freedom, but rather from 
 freedom to greater freedom, a transition which 
 actually and really implies passing from a state 
 
INDIVIDUALISM IN EDUCATION 12$ 
 
 of restraint to greater restraint, from less need of 
 self-control to greater need of it, from few chances 
 of offence to many chances. 
 
 In such a school the idea of liberty which grows 
 up in the mind will not be absence of restraint and 
 order, not unorder, not anarchy, not false individu- 
 alism, not disregard of others, not absence of ex- 
 ternal control, but rather constant consideration 
 of others, and constant adjustment of the relation 
 of self to other people. The virtue that here grows 
 up will be not negative, as of those who are good 
 because they are constrained to be good by force 
 external to themselves, but active virtue, such as 
 springs from having lived in a society where good 
 lives are led and where a good life has been led, 
 thanks to the environment of a well -organized 
 community. 
 
 Reform in education must be slow. It must be 
 a compromise between past and present. 
 
 New types of schools want the prestige and 
 distinction that invest older schools. All honour 
 to those who in faith make trial of new movements, 
 and face the future without a craven shrinking 
 before risk, and do not take timid refuge in the 
 shelter of the imposing and magnificent, but attenu- 
 ated and moth-eaten garments of the past. 
 
THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE AND 
 THE TREE OF LIFE 
 
 Address at the Annual Conference of 
 THE Parents' National Educational Union, 1898 
 
 Last year, on a corresponding occasion, I had an 
 opportunity of laying before you some account of 
 the Institution which has been founded for some 
 years in Berlin, where women of all ranks can learn 
 both the science and the art connected with rearing 
 and teaching children, and the management of the 
 house. Frau Schrader's work, has, I read, been 
 treated of this week before the Frobel Society. It 
 appears to me that among the many branches of 
 its work which a Parents' National Educational 
 Union should bear constantly in mind, the exten- 
 sion of undertakings of this kind is one of the most 
 important. 
 
 We hear, and some of us experience in our own 
 own families, much of the strife of nations in the 
 present day, and it looks as if our country, at the 
 end of this century, might be again, as it was at 
 the end of the last, fighting for its existence as an 
 imperial power. It seems well, therefore, to bear 
 in mind the immense importance of making the 
 most of every living child, both physically and 
 mentally. It was a fine thought of Pestalozzi's, 
 that the character of a people could be raised by 
 
THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE 1 25 
 
 maternal — that is home — education, which is the 
 base of the work of the RN.E.U. This conception 
 of education, I should like to point out, differs 
 much from the views of Plato, the founder of all 
 educational theory. In Plato's view education is 
 the way in which the national principles and char- 
 acter are realized in the individual member of the 
 nation. It is the nation that must somehow guide 
 the development of the child through the mother. 
 The child is thus to be brought up, as at Sparta, 
 largely under influences which are external to the 
 family. There is little left in such a system for 
 the free development of the individual. 
 
 Miss Mason says rightly, education must make 
 for the evolution of the individual. The highest 
 ideal of morality in the ancient view of education 
 was the character of a good citizen in a good state. 
 Such an ideal is no mean one ; we all ought to have 
 it; but while aiming at nothing lower we ought to 
 aim at something higher. For Christianity, build- 
 ing upon and extending the views of the Hebrews, 
 has taught us to look beyond the daily needs of 
 the society into which we are born. Beyond and 
 above the laws of the nation there is the conception 
 of the Laws of God. It would appear that if 
 freedom of development and natural growth under 
 judicious and far-sighted guidance are held the 
 right system of education, then this can only be 
 worked out effectively through family life. Of 
 course lazy people are apt to confuse such true 
 development on the part of the child with the 
 principle of laissez-faire on the part of the mother 
 and father. But the truth is, that unrestricted 
 
126 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 growth of the child is impossible without much 
 attention on the part of all those in charge of him. 
 The analogy of the garden is complete. A flower 
 will not bud and bloom in natural perfection unless 
 the gardener defends it from all injurious influences, 
 and this art requires much science. There is no 
 member of the P.N.E.U. who does not look on the 
 nation as an aggregate of families and as depending 
 for its welfare upon the successful organization of 
 family life, in which the members of the common- 
 wealth are developed to the utmost in spirit, mind, 
 and body. It is through the family that the char- 
 acter of the nation can be raised, and that character 
 includes the growth of the body as well as of the 
 soul. 
 
 The P.N.E.U., then, in endeavouring to direct 
 the attention of parents and all who assist them, 
 whether teachers, doctors, nurses, or others, to the 
 need of a more systematic study of the moral, 
 spiritual, and physical nature of the child, is work- 
 ing in accordance with the beliefs, and hopes, and 
 recommendations of the wisest and best of men 
 from hoar antiquity to the present hour. It seems 
 to me, therefore, that the P.N.E.U. ought to en- 
 courage what, for want of a better description, I 
 will term technical education of women, in all 
 matters relating to family life, or as Mrs. Steinthal 
 has put it, the Utilitarian Education of Girls. It 
 appears to me that in every country and in every 
 large town there should be an institution where 
 girls and women of all classes in society could 
 study the art and theory of all that appertains to 
 home life. In France and Germany and Holland 
 
THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE 1 27 
 
 much has been done to supply instruction of this 
 type, and, quite apart from all other advantages, I 
 venture to think there is some evidence that these 
 races are growing physically stronger and that the 
 number of stunted and ill -developed children is 
 decreasing. I am not sure whether, when we read 
 the account of those who devote their lives to 
 assisting the lowest stratum of English society — 
 the stratum which I am afraid is correctly de- 
 scribed as the dregs of all the classes rather than 
 a special class, — we can feel sure that the Eng- 
 lish are keeping up the standard of bone and 
 muscle which existed before the congregation of 
 the inhabitants in big towns and manufacturing 
 centres. 
 
 The following is a recent statement of a Medi- 
 cal Officer of Health, who thereby defends a 
 parent from the charge of cruel neglect on the 
 score that he is only dirty. The Medical Officer 
 of Health writes, iiiter alia: — "If dirt on children 
 be taken to be neglect, within the meaning of 
 the Acts quoted, there will be no end to these pro- 
 secutions. Very poor people are as a rule dirty, 
 and generally verminous. ... It is hopeless to 
 expect that this, or any town, can ever be free of 
 its naturally sluttish people and their dirty homes. 
 It never struck me that such should be looked at 
 in the light of criminals, nor that imprisonment is 
 in the least likely to improve their condition. 
 Under the Public Health Acts we deal with them 
 in a comparatively gentle way, giving notice of 
 requirements, with sufficient time for carrying them 
 out. . . . Surely the better way of getting sanitary 
 
128 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 deficiencies amended would be to direct the atten- 
 tion of the sanitary authority to them. We are 
 open to receive complaints and give them our 
 attention, and possibly the object of the N.S.P.C.C. 
 will be as well served by their inspector bearing- 
 this in mind." 
 
 It is clear that civilizing influences must work 
 from above downwards. What can Sanitary 
 Authorities do without deep-seated public support, 
 and the public can only give this support where 
 properly instructed. At present men attribute 
 dirt, disease, and death to the visitation of God 
 instead of to their crass and criminal ignorance. 
 
 Some may say home education ought to be 
 studied at home. The answer to this objection is, 
 that no home is so perfectly organized that every- 
 thing can be taught in it which is desirable to be 
 learnt Institutions are needed. One of the most 
 complete of British institutions of this type known 
 to me is that which exists in Edinburgh for techni- 
 cal training in domestic work, called the Edinburgh 
 School of Cookery and Domestic Economy. Here 
 there are elementary and advanced classes in 
 cookery, dressmaking, and millinery, plain needle- 
 work, laundry-work, hygiene, home nursing, house- 
 keeping, and book-keeping. There are also courses 
 laid out for housewives and lady housekeepers. 
 Besides these courses special provision is made for 
 the training of teachers, including high class, plain 
 class, and artisan cookery. Doubtless in London 
 the Polytechnics are attempting similar work, and 
 at the Battersea Polytechnic the courses are per- 
 haps in some respects of a higher type, and corre- 
 
THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE 1 29 
 
 spond more nearly to the ideal of such institu- 
 tions as I will presently endeavour to describe it. 
 Another admirable institution is the Yorkshire 
 Ladies' Council of Education with head -quarters 
 at Leeds. 
 
 It is my opinion that the number of institutions 
 of this kind should be largely extended, and I 
 cannot but believe that those who wish to do their 
 country some service and help to leave it better than 
 they find it should take every opportunity of sup- 
 porting this movement. Unluckily the amount of 
 wealth accumulated in the country is so enormous 
 that to be called an educated person is perhaps 
 becoming equivalent to having a dilettante know- 
 ledge of literature, science, or art, and no practical 
 knowledge of the material needs of life and living, 
 which are relegated to other people and paid for 
 as menial service. 
 
 Now it may seem that the drift of my remarks 
 has been to reduce the occupations of women to 
 domestic drudgery, and that it tends to advance 
 the materialization of society, which is already 
 over- materialized. It may also seem that the 
 title of my paper has been selected because I 
 prefer the tree of life to the tree of knowledge. 
 However, I wish to advocate something very 
 different. The tree of knowledge should some- 
 how be grafted into the tree of life. I wish 
 to raise the arts of living and not cut down 
 the tree of knowledge. I can see no reason why 
 knowledge should be pursued by ordinary persons 
 for its own sake out of all relation to the needs of 
 daily life. I do not see why knowledge should be 
 
 (M930) I 
 
130 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 degraded because it is studied in relation to prac- 
 tical affairs. It seems to me that some means 
 must be found of reconciling formative and utili- 
 tarian purposes in our studies. I cannot help 
 thinking that the technical schools for girls and 
 women on the Continent are just so far superior 
 to most of those which have been attempted in 
 England, because, while in our own country the 
 studies in the technical schools for women are 
 purely utilitarian, and the students pursue nothing 
 but a special course or courses in cookery, or laun- 
 dry-work, or nursing, omitting all studies of a 
 general nature, abroad the course of practical 
 studies is held incomplete without lessons in lan- 
 guage, history, geography, moral conduct, and 
 other branches of science. 
 
 In Frau Busch's Woman's Industries School, in 
 Leipzig, the object is to give the students a theo- 
 retical and practical knowledge of all the duties 
 that belong to the management of family life, and 
 to inspire them with a love of industry and readi- 
 ness to attend to business. The aim is thus 
 strictly practical. But yet the time-table pro- 
 vides the students with regular exercises in their 
 native language and literature. 
 
 In Munich, a Continuation School has been 
 established consisting of a three-year course, in 
 which girls are taught the care and education of 
 children from the first cry onwards. They learn 
 the most recent contributions of science to the 
 subject of breathing and ventilation, food and 
 digestion, care of teeth, warmth, temperature and 
 clothing, sickness and nursing. Besides the physi- 
 
THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE I3I 
 
 cal development of the children, the instruction 
 deals with their intellectual development. The 
 students learn about the senses and their mode of 
 operation, the development of presentation of ideas, 
 feeling, and instinct. The aid of a sensible medi- 
 cal man, teaching in the light of modern science, 
 thus rescues the young children from mistaken 
 treatment arising out of prejudice, bad tradition 
 and custom, and neglect. The instruction is prac- 
 tical as well as theoretical, and is treated on broad 
 lines, so that general principles are not obscured 
 in a multiplicity of detail. The students learn the 
 arts of the kindergarten by visiting such institutions 
 in the town and assisting in the occupations of the 
 infants. A doctor shows them how to fill up a 
 nurse's report, take temperature, and select suit- 
 able nourishment in sickness. Bishop Fraser once 
 said that the right sort of instruction for a youth 
 was the kind which ended in his knowing where 
 to look for the varied information which he would 
 be constantly requiring when grown up. Many of 
 the Germans now pride themselves on surpassing 
 other nations in versatility. It is no doubt very 
 difficult indeed to combine versatility with stability 
 of character. The pluck and pertinacity of the 
 British bull-dog are worthy of all admiration, but 
 the expansion of science and the application of it 
 to industry, the growth of new wants and the 
 fresh means of supplying them, all make modern 
 life more and more complex. We may sigh for an 
 Arcadian simplicity and homelier living, but the 
 trend of civilization is not in that direction, and it 
 is useless to find fault with what is not in itself 
 
132 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 necessarily bad. For it is the abuse of modern 
 opportunities and not the use of them that is to 
 be deplored. The hard thing is to live up to all 
 the new advantages that surround us. The in- 
 crease of opportunity implies increase of educated 
 effort to make a worthy use of it 
 
 There is no valid reason why practical house- 
 wifery and the rearing and training of children 
 should not be intellectual pursuits. Almost every 
 action may be based on science, but there is a 
 tendency in the present time to take little account 
 of literature and philosophy, whether mental or 
 moral, in technical schools. I read a letter from 
 a girl who had passed from a good elementary 
 school to a Polytechnic. She described her routine 
 and its results, and was justly proud of first-class 
 certificates (beautiful ornaments) in cooking, wash- 
 ing, and dressmaking. The acquisition of these 
 arts is worth the effort. They are the sound fruit 
 of the tree of life, but none of them are by them- 
 selves stimulating, inspiring, or elevating, apart 
 from the products of the other tree. It is not a 
 question of book versus bench, or knowledge versus 
 action, but of the working of a mind on a mind. 
 There is a valuable paper in Hand and Eye for 
 March, and also printed in the Report of the Sloyd 
 Association of Great Britain and Ireland for 1898, 
 by Mr. Sidney H. Wells, Principal of the Battersea 
 Polytechnic, upon the influence of the technical 
 education movement on the profession of teaching. 
 He shows the danger of substituting a cook or a 
 carpenter for a schoolmaster or schoolmistress, and 
 the effect of separating kitchen practice from the 
 
THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE 1 33 
 
 methods of true education. It must not be for- 
 gotten that the disciplinary value of athletic train- 
 ing has been vastly enhanced since it has been 
 undertaken by educated men instead of merely 
 professionals. 
 
 One of the chiefest differences is the mind of 
 the teacher. Skilled artisans or cooks, whose 
 early training has been such that they have never 
 exercised their minds upon the great problems of 
 conduct and government, of history, literature, or 
 art, will seldom see beyond the material product 
 of their skill. They can communicate their art 
 and make boys into carpenters or girls into cooks, 
 but they cannot reach the spirit. Therefore I 
 earnestly hope that ladies and gentlemen who 
 have enjoyed the advantages of a liberal education 
 may take up, as some few have already done, this 
 new and difficult task of grafting the tree of know- 
 ledge on the tree of life. I hope that many local 
 charities which are now devoted to antiquated and 
 useless purposes may be devoted to establishing 
 technical schools for girls and women, in which 
 utilitarian training shall not be divorced from for- 
 mative studies. There is need of men and women 
 who will devote themselves to educational work 
 of this kind. It will be largely a work of self- 
 sacrifice. There is little recompense of reward in 
 it, whether in a pecuniary way or in respect of 
 honour or glory. To follow the beaten track and 
 supply the demand of the current market is far 
 more lucrative to the producer than making fresh 
 experiments, which, like all valuable experiments, 
 though they are fruitful whether they succeed or 
 
134 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 fail, often do fail. Nevertheless, those who apply 
 themselves earnestly to this work may have the 
 satisfaction which Schiller says comes to all great- 
 minded people, that they are living for posterity. 
 
ON SPENCER'S "EDUCATION" 
 
 A BOOK that is written for a particular time, if it 
 be written by a great author, often becomes a book 
 for all time. Few will deny that Herbert Spencer 
 is one of the most considerable of the famous series 
 of English thinkers, and although not everyone 
 accepts his principles of philosophy, yet even those 
 who differ from him will perhaps admit, with Lord 
 Beaconsfield, that we should be grateful to any 
 philosopher, however much we may disagree with 
 him. 
 
 Herbert Spencer's treatise on education should 
 unquestionably be studied thoughtfully by every- 
 one who pretends to make any enquiry into this 
 most intricate and difficult, and I may even say 
 tedious subject. I call it tedious because I cannot 
 deny that the elevated thoughts on which all of it 
 depends hardly serve to raise to the level of a high 
 argument the petty details which must needs make 
 up the present round of child-life. The incidents 
 of the nursery day by day must needs seem trivial, 
 unless parents and others are something of prophets 
 and can see the future through the present, the ful- 
 filment in the promise, and the hope of the empire 
 in the success of their training. 
 
 It is most important to bear in mind in the out- 
 set, that Spencer does not claim to be writing a 
 detailed treatise upon education. His aim is to 
 state a few general principles, and to notice a few 
 methods in illustration of them. The reason why 
 
 135 
 
136 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 it is so important to bear this fact in mind is be- 
 cause it is only so that the reader can avoid the 
 common error of hunting in vain for what is not 
 in the book, and never intended to be there, and 
 thus allowing his disappointment to make him 
 overlook the valuable suggestions which it really 
 contains. 
 
 A book that is written to meet the wants of a 
 particular time is unavoidably limited by the special 
 circumstances of that time. When Spencer was 
 writing this book, and looked around at the gen- 
 eral state of culture in England, when he regarded 
 the average type of graduate put forth annually in 
 hundreds by the universities, he would not fail to 
 be struck by gaps in their studies. Natural Science 
 was without any devotees, there was no History 
 School, and the German language — the key to all 
 serious study — was seldom mastered. There was 
 not one Science master in most of the Public 
 Schools at that time. 
 
 Spencer had no idea of revolutionizing the edu- 
 cational arrangements of his day; for, as a philoso- 
 pher, he stated clearly enough that systems are not 
 made, but grow. Sound ideas require time for ful- 
 filment. They may be sown broadcast, but the 
 minds of men do not work in a single season like 
 the soil of a field. Ideas have not only to be 
 understood, but they have also to be reconciled 
 with previously existing ideas, and adapted to the 
 mental furniture of the current generation. The 
 human whole — mind, body, spirit, — however we 
 divide it up, is seen to be far too complex to play 
 tricks with. Old experience, which is part of a 
 
ON spencer's "education" 137 
 
 working system, may be more effective than sound 
 ideas that, being new, are not yet worked into a 
 system. The nature of the required changes must 
 be explained in the first instance, but means for 
 carrying them out can only be discovered with 
 patience and by taking plenty of time. 
 
 In Spencer's first chapter he discusses what 
 knowledge is most worth, and gives the first place 
 to science. I think that, since he was writing in 
 days when the science that was acted on in daily 
 life was almost mediaeval in its character owing to 
 the general ignorance of the advance of learning, 
 he was justified in giving a very prominent place 
 to Natural Science. He saw that the kind of 
 education that was given both to boys and girls 
 tended rather to the acquisition of accomplish- 
 ments than to power to accomplish. When, he 
 says, a mother is mourning over a first-born that 
 has sunk under scarlet fever, which might not have 
 been so serious a complaint if the offspring's health 
 had not been enfeebled by over-study, it is small 
 consolation to her that she can read Dante in the 
 original. 
 
 He saw that industry of all kinds, whether agri- 
 cultural or manufacturing, was becoming more and 
 more dependent upon the study of science. He 
 saw that the result of the struggle for existence 
 among nations was resting more and more upon 
 the amount of science which each of them applied 
 to the affairs of daily life. He points out that the 
 ability of a nation to hold its own against other 
 nations depends on the skilled activity of its units. 
 
 He saw the appalling infant mortality, nearly 
 
138 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 half the babies born in some districts dying in 
 their first year; he saw the weak and sickly sur- 
 vivals that lived to be a burden rather than an aid 
 to the state, and then he insisted on the need for 
 some widely-spread study of the science of health, 
 and the structure and maintenance of the human 
 body. 
 
 Science in those days was thought to be irre- 
 ligious, or at least drawing men away from religion. 
 Spencer maintains that true science is essentially 
 religious. Devotion to science is a tacit worship. 
 It is sad, he says, to see men learned and critical 
 over the Homeric poetry and passing by without 
 a glance that grand epic written by the finger of 
 God upon the strata of the earth. Devotion to 
 science is not a mere lip-homage, but a homage 
 expressed in actions, not a mere professed respect, 
 but a respect proved by the sacrifice of time, 
 thought, and labour. Only the genuine man of 
 science can truly know how utterly beyond human 
 conception is the universal power of which nature, 
 life, and thought are manifestations. Thus Spencer 
 asks. What knowledge is most worth? and answers 
 — Science. Science is needed for maintenance of 
 life and health; science is needed for gaining a 
 livelihood ; science is needed for the due discharge 
 of parental functions; science is needed for the 
 discharge of the citizen's duties. It is science 
 that saves religion from becoming mere enthu- 
 siasm or degrading superstition; it is science that 
 directs the intellect into profitable studies, and it 
 is science that rescues morality from becoming 
 mere conventional behaviour. Education has four 
 
ON spencer's "education" 139 
 
 aspects — physical, intellectual, moral, and religious 
 — some study of science is necessary for each. 
 
 I have said Spencer's Education was written 
 for a special time. Perhaps in these days it is no 
 longer necessary to make such an elaborate defence 
 for science, but I am quite sure that when the 
 book was written Spencer's language was not too 
 strong. Science was tabooed in most of the 
 schools and frowned upon in innumerable pulpits. 
 We may be grateful to Spencer for his advocacy 
 of science as an indispensable part of education. 
 
 In respect of moral training I think his attitude 
 is equally satisfactory. As he wishes to make in- 
 tellectual education less bookish, and to cause more 
 attention to be paid to the art of applying know- 
 ledge, so he would make moral training less con- 
 ventional. He would have the moral law an inner 
 and not an outward necessity. It must be a spirit 
 growing up within and not merely imposed from 
 without. It grows from within when you con- 
 stantly cultivate good feeling in the child and 
 encourage acts according to them. It grows from 
 without when moral conduct is the result of threats, 
 bribes, and ill-considered arbitrary punishment. 
 After spending her own youth in playing pieces 
 on the piano, in fancy needle-work, in reading 
 story-books and novels, and in party going, a 
 woman knows nothing of the nature of the 
 emotions of her children. She thinks some are 
 wholly bad, which is not true of any one of them, 
 and that some are wholly good, which is also not 
 true of any one of them. Ignorant of the basis 
 of feeling upon which moral life must be built, she 
 
I40 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 knows nothing of the effects produced on it by this 
 or that treatment. It is the same with fathers: 
 acting on the caprice of the moment, or false prin- 
 ciples adopted without examination, they alienate 
 their sons, drive them into rebellion by harshness, 
 and ruin them and their families. Better some 
 knowledge which would tend to put an end to this 
 than exclusive attention to Greek plays. The 
 study of literature and art should be built upon 
 a foundation of science, or else education is like 
 the craft of a gardener, who, in aiming to produce 
 a big flower, starves the plant. Education certainly 
 involves sound discipline, and discipline is born of 
 firmness, but firmness is often confused with stern- 
 ness, and parents have often been stern, and even 
 harsh and cruel, with the impression that they 
 were maintaining discipline. Mere discipline, mere 
 external laws, do not produce morality. Many a 
 gentle boy and girl have followed the primrose way 
 to the everlasting bonfire through such ignorant 
 mismanagement. Their parents have succeeded in 
 making them dread, not wrong-doing, but punish- 
 ment I think that some theological systems, 
 parodies rather than examples of Christian teach- 
 ing, have supported this mistaken treatment At 
 any rate, when Spencer wrote, it was still worth 
 while to lay great stress upon the distinction, old 
 as recorded time, between enslaving the spirit of a 
 child and guiding him into good feeling; between 
 the fear of hell and the love of heaven; between 
 the dread of the consequences of wrong-doing and 
 the affection for the higher life; between the sj)irit 
 of Wordsworth's Ode to Duty, and of Calvinism. 
 
ON SPENCER'S "EDUCATION" I41 
 
 Education must be non-coercive. As Bishop 
 Dupanloup said: — "I will respect human liberty 
 in the youngest child". Multiplied restrictions are 
 to be avoided. The aim is to arrange the child's 
 occupations so as to thwart his will as little, not as 
 much, as possible. Aimless asceticism is an evil, 
 not a virtue. Spontaneous activity must be directed, 
 not cherished. Co-ordinate and organize the child's 
 impulses with fear and trembling, dreading sup- 
 pression, and fearing, like a clumsy pruner, to cull 
 off a vigorous shoot, instead of merely repressing 
 exuberant growth. Watch and attend on nature; 
 do not substitute artificial for natural occupations — 
 understanding by natural what is suited to the age 
 and disposition of the child. Encourage the child 
 to seek and follow advice rather than to replace 
 his will by your own. Let your aim be self- 
 development in the child through wisely directed 
 habits and occupations rather than superinducing 
 an alien mind. Spencer guards himself against 
 the idea that he supposes for one moment that 
 you can produce a child of nature by leaving a 
 child to be brought up by nature, as though he 
 advocated entire laissez-faire. To assist nature 
 there is no need to unduly interfere with nature. 
 Because you do not swaddle a baby in yards of 
 winding cloth you need not therefore let him roll 
 off a cot on to the floor and injure his spine. By 
 harsh training the child may be mastered, but in 
 the end, when the youth has to leave home and 
 enter on the responsibilities of life, the only useful 
 part of his moral training is that which has led to 
 self-mastery. If the spirit of the relation between 
 
142 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 the child and his parents and guardians is one of 
 antagonism, if the parent looks on the child as 
 always naughty, and the child on the parent as 
 always morose, the present life is miserable, and 
 the future almost desperate. Encourage the child 
 to aim at small conquests, and take a delight in 
 small triumphs. Set before boys some generous 
 purpose to achieve and live for. Let childhood 
 ripen in the child, and be as much as may be 
 his helper, adviser, and experienced friend, rather 
 than a despot or tyrannical autocrat 
 
 If right conduct in the moral training, and the 
 pursuit of knowledge in the intellectual, are made 
 habitually repugnant, there will be a prevailing 
 tendency to discontinue both as soon as parental 
 constraint comes to its inevitable conclusion. 
 
 It may be that at the present time there is not 
 much need to insist upon it, that in the main the 
 process of his education must be pleasurable to the 
 child, or else it will probably be a failure; but 
 when Spencer wrote this fact needed emphasiz- 
 ing. 
 
 As regards methods of teaching, Spencer did 
 yeoman service to the cause of education in re- 
 iterating the value of Pestalozzi's principles, and 
 restating them in the clearest way. Exercise 
 the limbs and the senses before burthening the 
 memory, substitute experiment, and observation, 
 and manual training for rote work. Deal with 
 concrete objects before abstract, even in number 
 and geometry. Take the child out of doors and 
 let nature enter inside the school -room. Take 
 notice that there are mental powers in the child, 
 
ON spencer's " EDUCATION " 143 
 
 but that they do not become active all at once, 
 but in a certain order. Study that order and 
 follow it. The powers of the mind are developed 
 by use. Search out appropriate exercises and 
 study the individual child and his peculiarities. 
 Sympathy with the child's difficulties, and tact 
 in dealing with them, are essential. Above all, 
 knowledge of books must not be pursued without 
 the training of hand and eye, nor without the 
 practice of drawing, painting, and constructing 
 objects in paper, cardboard, and the like; because 
 handwork more than any other enables the child 
 to feel what it can do of itself " I made it", is 
 ever a feeling of triumph, and gives a sense of 
 power to do and confidence in self This kind 
 of work develops courage to attack difficulties, 
 patience in fighting with them, and perseverance 
 through failure. 
 
 It would seem to me doubtful whether the his- 
 tory of civilization throws as much light upon plans 
 for educational systems as Spencer supposes. It 
 seems to me that modern researches leave us less 
 certainty than prevailed some time back, as to the 
 precise course of this history; and, although the 
 embryo seems to follow in abbreviated stages the 
 development of the race to which it belongs, I see 
 little but a fanciful analogy in supposing that the 
 mind of the child must progress on the same lines 
 as the intellectual expansion of mankind. This, 
 however, is a minor matter, and critics of Spencer 
 attach, I think, too much importance to the dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 Lastly, I come to Spencer's chapter on moral 
 
144 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 education. I think in this part of his book there is 
 a certain clumsiness, natural to a philosopher, and 
 "one who has no children", but in spite of this the 
 chapter deserves the approbation of all members 
 of the P.N.E.U. for one bold and remarkable state- 
 ment 
 
 The end of education is to prepare the young for 
 the duties of life. Then, says Spencer, is it not 
 surprising that not an hour should be devoted to 
 preparation for the gravest of all responsibilities, 
 the management of a family. Whether as bearing 
 on the happiness of parents themselves, or whether 
 as affecting the characters and lives of their children 
 and remote descendants, we must admit that a 
 knowledge of the right methods of juvenile culture 
 — physical, intellectual, and moral — is a knowledge 
 of extreme importance. This topic should be the 
 final one in the course of instruction passed through 
 by each man and woman. The subject which in- 
 volves all other subjects, and therefore the subject 
 in which education should culminate, is the theory 
 and practice of education. This view of education 
 is surely at the root of the principles of the 
 P.N.E.U. For this reason the members of the 
 Union should deal respectfully with Spencer's 
 book, even though they differ on certain points. 
 
 Educational systems, Spencer is well aware, and 
 emphasizes the fact, like political constitutions, are 
 not made, but grow. Improvement must needs be 
 slow, but, however slow, improvement implies the 
 use of means, and among the means is discussion. 
 The Parents' Union is the most important society 
 for stimulating such discussion, and we should be 
 
ON spencer's "education" 145 
 
 grateful to Spencer for insisting on the importance 
 of discussion. Undoubtedly many people hold 
 that what demands much discussion is not much 
 worth discussing. Spencer is on the side of those 
 who value discussion. Discussion is rather to aid 
 us in avoiding mistakes than to elaborate some 
 uniform scheme of education. Few will deny that 
 it is worth while to hold up an ideal of family disci- 
 pline. Ideals, if rational, are in their nature un- 
 attained, but not exactly unattainable, and they 
 are indispensable beacon lights or guides. We 
 cannot cease from war in our time, but the ideal of 
 Universal Peace is still the highest ideal of inter- 
 national law. 
 
 Moral discipline, says Spencer, should be based 
 upon natural consequences. Let parents see that 
 their children experience the true consequences 
 of their conduct, neither warding them off nor 
 intensifying them. I always feel that natural 
 consequences as a base for discipline is inadequate. 
 The examples that Spencer gives cover too little 
 ground. 
 
 If a child is unpunctual let him suffer for his un- 
 punctuality. He may, however, be late for school 
 and punctual for the school-feast. A child may 
 learn not to play with fire by a slight burning of 
 the finger from an awkward use of a lucifer match, 
 but he may burn the house down and himself in it, 
 so that there is no child to discipline. If a small boy 
 slides down the banisters, are you to warn him and 
 then leave him till he falls off and breaks his arm 
 or leg, or worse .'' The natural consequence is too 
 often out of all proportion to the offence. Spencer, 
 
 (M930) K 
 
146 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 however, is conscious of this, for he admits that a 
 three-years' urchin playing with an open razor 
 cannot be allowed to learn by the discipline of 
 consequences. 
 
 I feel that Spencer is adopting an often useful 
 device for a particular fault or class of faults, and 
 raising it to the dignity of a general principle, with 
 almost comic effect I think, however, that even 
 if the device could be carried out consistently it 
 would be insufficient It seems to me that there 
 is no really moral principle involved in it, and that 
 the idea is contrary, or at least inconsistent with 
 Spencer's own view that moral conduct must be 
 conscious and not superimposed; that the child 
 must learn to take a pleasure in the right conduct, 
 and to be averse to the wrong. If parents give wise 
 orders, their children ought to be glad to obey 
 them because they love their parents. This is an 
 ideal Parents cannot always give wise orders. 
 Who is wise enough for these things? Children 
 cannot always avoid testiness, irritability, restless- 
 ness, and the like. 
 
 But, after all, Spencer seems to me to have been 
 rather opposing the principle of severe punishment 
 than insisting overmuch on his own recipe. He is 
 absolutely true to human nature when he remarks 
 that harsh and unsympathetic treatment makes 
 children harsh and unsympathetic in after-life. He 
 was opposing, and rightly, excess of control, over- 
 regulation, and hothouse virtue. The child must 
 not be allowed to think that what passes for right 
 conduct is nothing else but his parents' arbitrary 
 will. There is all the difference between enforcing 
 
ON spencer's "education" 147 
 
 what is right and setting up the idea that what is 
 right is merely what you enforce. 
 
 Spencer rightly objects to the style — " How 
 dare you disobey me?" " I'll make you do it, sir." 
 " I'll teach you who is master!' A skilful parent 
 or guardian can secure a spontaneous conformity 
 to parental wishes, leading to self-control, by means 
 of which obedience is secured without needless cross 
 and harsh demonstrations of authority. Mould the 
 will, do not break it; make children obedient, but 
 not submissive; give boys gradually greater and 
 greater responsibility. What unwise parents call 
 giving their sons liberty and freedom from con- 
 straint, wiser parents will show to be imposing on 
 them increased responsibility for self, which is a 
 saving of trouble to parent and increase of trouble 
 to child, little as he thinks so unless taught. 
 
 To sum up, I have endeavoured to show that 
 Herbert Spencer's book on Education is worth 
 your study. Do not look for what is not there, 
 namely, a complete system of education, but rather 
 profit by what is written. Much of it is consistent 
 with common sense — the need for science, the 
 inadequacy of the mediaeval quadrivium, the need 
 for pleasurable labour in learning, the need for 
 moulding rather than breaking the spirit of chil- 
 dren, the counterblast to a repressive system which 
 once prevailed. Lastly, he is most to be approved 
 for his approval of Pestalozzi. Do not lay too 
 much stress on punishment by natural conse- 
 quences, nor the idea that the education of the 
 individual must follow the development of cultiva- 
 tion in the human race. These are really minor 
 
I4S EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 matters. On the other hand, as you beh'eve in the 
 principles of the Parents' National Educational 
 Union, at least respect Spencer for boldly placing 
 the goal of all education in the being properly 
 qualified to undertake parental responsibility. 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION^ 
 
 DEFECTS OF EARLIER METHOD 
 
 It cannot be denied that of all the subjects which 
 belong to elementary education there is none 
 which is more attractive than geography. It is 
 almost the only one, except what is called the 
 science of common things, which keeps the teacher 
 and scholar in touch with new discoveries and 
 fresh developments. 
 
 Yet geography remained for a long time one of 
 the dullest of subjects, because it consisted in learn- 
 ing by heart lists of mountains and rivers, with 
 their heights and lengths, often without even the 
 identification of their locality on the map. 
 
 To make a subject interesting, details must be 
 presented in relation to each other. One fact must 
 be dealt with in such a way as to explain another. 
 As Professor Mackinder has said, the teacher's 
 aim should be to show not only "where", but 
 also "why". 
 
 The defects of the old methods of teaching 
 geography may be summed up as follows: — 
 
 First, geographical learning was not based upon 
 object teaching, but upon names and numbers, 
 which had little meaning for the child, and no 
 interest. A pitman in the north of England, 
 looking at a poster which advertised a course of 
 
 ^A paper read at the British Association meeting, Bradford 
 U9 
 
15© EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 University Extension Lectures on the Age of 
 Elizabeth, was heard to remark: "Age of Eliza- 
 beth! well, I'm blessed if I care how old she was". 
 Many a child in former days had the same kind 
 of feeling about the length of the Yang-tse-kiang. 
 The facts were as dead as a skeleton, and could 
 communicate no vital force to the intellects of the 
 scholars. 
 
 Secondly, whereas the key to the understanding 
 of the rest of the surface of the earth is to be found 
 in the study of that part of it which adjoins the 
 child's home, this fact was quite ignored. Obser- 
 vations made by the child, under guidance, will 
 enable him to use the words hill, plain, stream, and 
 the like, with some meaning behind the terms. 
 So, too, by watching the varying height of the 
 sun, the changes of the season, the rainfall, the 
 first appearance of familiar birds and flowers, the 
 rise and fall of the tide, and such matters, the child 
 can lay a sure foundation for the intelligent study 
 of more advanced geography. 
 
 Thirdly, the map was supposed to speak for 
 itself Little attention was paid to the interesting 
 and important art of map reading. The truth is, 
 that to the untrained eye a map is a confused mass 
 of lines and names and colours. As Shakespeare 
 says: "He laughed till there were as many lines 
 in his face as on the Map of the World, with the 
 Indies added ". 
 
 Fourthly, there was not sufficient introduction 
 to the construction and use of the map. Children 
 should be shown how to record on paper the 
 direction and length of short walks. They should 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 151 
 
 be taken to commanding views, and shown how to 
 place, according to the compass, some of the chief 
 features in the landscape. They should learn to 
 pass from observation of nature to modes of repre- 
 sentation of nature, and they should feel the need 
 for marks to represent hills and rivers and towns 
 before they study elaborate maps. They should 
 pass, in short, from the object to the symbol or 
 diagram of it. 
 
 Fifthly, the children's studies were almost ex- 
 clusively confined to political geography, and too 
 little attention was paid to physical and astrono- 
 mical geography, which are the basis of the other. 
 Boundaries of states change; the form of the earth 
 abides. 
 
 Sixthly, geographical details were not sufficiently 
 connected as cause and effect, and they were not 
 regarded from various points of view. Each coun- 
 try which is studied, although no great amount of 
 detail is really needed for the purpose, should, 
 when the study is complete, present to the scholar 
 a connected whole. 
 
 Seventhly, a great many details were learned by 
 heart which reaHy had no value whatever to the 
 beginner — as, for instance, the names of all the 
 rivers that flow off eastwards from the Scandi- 
 navian mountains to the Baltic Sea. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE COURSE BASED ON 
 OBJECT-LESSONS 
 
 The systematic and continuous study of geo- 
 graphy should be deferred till the child is eight or 
 
15a EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 nine years of age. Before this stage, coloured or 
 other pictures of England and foreign countries 
 may be shown, and romantic stories of adventures 
 by land and sea may be told or read, and attractive 
 poems, like " Ralph the Rover ", may be recited or 
 read to the children, and talked over. Walks may 
 be taken, and the geographical features of the 
 country may be pointed out. The sunrise and 
 star-rise may be watched, and the beauty of brooks, 
 rivers, and the " innumerable laughter of the sea " 
 may be enjoyed as opportunity permits. When a 
 child is eight or nine years old, however, the study 
 may become more precise. By use of slates or 
 paper ruled in squares, and by taking a side of a 
 square for a foot or a yard, the child may learn to 
 construct a plan of the class-room to scale, and also 
 to make such measurements of the walls as are 
 necessary for the purpose. I think work of this 
 kind, on square-ruled paper, although simple, is of 
 very permanent value, and that it is fruitful learn- 
 ing, because it suggests numerous useful applica- 
 tions of itself later on. 
 
 An excellent book on teaching geography through 
 object-lessons, by Mr. Frew (Blackie), shows how 
 children may learn to make graphic records of 
 short walks or even longer expeditions. That a 
 plan shows size and shape and direction, and that 
 a line carefully drawn from point to point as the 
 direction of the walker changes, may record the 
 turns he takes in the course of a long walk, are 
 facts worth mastering, and not really hard for a 
 child to master if taught in a practical way, by 
 doing, and not by reading. 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 53 
 
 The next best help to the understanding of the 
 right use of geographical terms is a relief map or 
 model of the locality of the home. Along with the 
 model there should be a photograph of it, because 
 this forms an admirable introduction to the idea 
 of a map. The difficulty of the map-maker is to 
 indicate on a flat surface the relief of the land. 
 The difficulty of the child is to think how a flat 
 surface like a map can possibly indicate a moun- 
 tainous or hilly country. 
 
 The third stage after the use of the model and 
 the photograph of it is the pictorial map, or bird's- 
 eye view ; and the last stage is the ordnance map 
 of the same district. For young children, as for 
 newspaper readers, a bird's-eye view is an excellent 
 introduction to a real map. Some may say that 
 this careful gradation of difficulties, and this pre- 
 senting them one at a time, are unnecessary. They 
 are wrong. Clearness of apprehension and clear- 
 ness of thought are gained in early years by this 
 slow and methodical practice. For want of it 
 great mistakes are often made by men of un- 
 doubted ability. 
 
 Children can learn from a model of their country 
 most of the important geographical terms in a 
 concrete form. 
 
 Such a model presents the various types of 
 elevated land, such as the isolated hill, ranges of 
 hills, masses of high land, passes in ranges of hills 
 and valleys, and ways of communication. It en- 
 ables the beginner to obtain a clear idea of rivers, 
 and not merely rivers, but river basins. Water- 
 sheds also are easily studied, and similar facts. 
 
154 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 By suitable questioning, based upon the model, 
 reasons can be drawn out for the rise of a town 
 in a particular situation. The idea that there is 
 little that is really arbitrary or matter of chance 
 even in the site of a town or village may be well 
 developed, and simple ideas of reasoning conveyed 
 in an effective way, even to young children. 
 
 Geography is the study of the earth as the stage 
 on which the drama of the human race is played 
 out; hence traces of former inhabitants can be 
 noted, with a view to connecting geography with 
 history. The difference in climate between dif- 
 ferent parts of the district may be noted and ex- 
 plained. Where the hills catch the Atlantic winds 
 and condense the moist air into vapour; where the 
 downs form pasture for sheep; where the lower- 
 lying sands and clays bear forests; and where the 
 earliest flowers and fruits appear — such funda- 
 mental facts as these are hard neither to observe 
 nor to understand. 
 
 MAP READING 
 
 This now brings us to the foundation of all real 
 study of geography — namely, the wall-map. 
 
 The scholar, so far, has proceeded after the fol- 
 lowing method: first, observation; second, descrip- 
 tion ; and third, representation — first the eye, then 
 the lips, and lastly the pencil. He has learned to 
 use his eyes; he has learned to describe what he 
 sees in correct terms, and by using complete sen- 
 tences ; and lastly, he has learned how geographical 
 details can be represented on paper. A map 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 55 
 
 should no longer be a dead and mute mass of 
 lines, colours, and names, but a living and speaking 
 interpretation of natural facts. 
 
 In studying the wall-map of England, it is a 
 great advantage to have a graduated series, in 
 which one set of facts is presented at a time. The 
 first of a series will be purely physical, showing 
 hills and rivers; the next map may show counties, 
 towns, and railways; the next, industrial or eco- 
 nomic facts and easy statistics. It is a great pity 
 that we have not a few boldly- drawn historical 
 maps of England, for use in elementary schools, 
 showing England under the Romans, Anglo-Saxon 
 England, and mediaeval England. 
 
 Of course there comes a time when the scholars 
 must pass from what they themselves can observe 
 and record to what others have observed and re- 
 corded. The great difference between mediaeval 
 and modern education lies in this, that whereas in 
 the Middle Ages the teacher omitted all this basis 
 of observation and commenced at once with com- 
 municating to the child the experience of others, 
 so that all was taken by the learner on trust, and 
 an uncritical habit of mind was cultivated, at the 
 present time the best schools attempt to base their 
 teaching on the direction of the child's individual 
 faculties and means of acquiring knowledge. The 
 wall-map is a record of the observations of others, 
 and the child can only properly understand it if he 
 has made and recorded similar observations for 
 himself 
 
 Now there are wall-maps and wall-maps. If the 
 map is to be the interpreter of nature, it must in- 
 
156 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 terpret nature correctly: every line must have a 
 meaning. It is not good enough if it gives merely 
 the political divisions, with a few vague indications 
 of mountain chains, but without delineation of 
 highlands and lowlands, peaks and passes, water- 
 sheds and valleys. 
 
 Map reading, which is the proper use of the 
 wall-map, is a kind of reversal of the process of 
 the study of home geography. In studying home 
 geography the child begins with a natural fact, 
 such as a river or a hill, and learns how to re- 
 present its position and character on paper. In 
 reading a wall-map, the scholar begins with the 
 symbol or representation of natural facts, such as 
 watersheds and valleys and mountains, and by 
 means of them works his way to the natural fact 
 which such symbols represent Hence the extreme 
 importance of the right study of home geography. 
 The symbols on the wall-map are vague and 
 meaningless unless a content and significance are 
 given them by the previous study and practice of 
 the building up of local plans and maps. The 
 pupil must learn to translate the symbols of the 
 wall-map back into the forms of nature which they 
 represent 
 
 The teacher can then, if he have the use of a 
 good wall-map, by judicious questioning, direct the 
 scholar's attention to noteworthy physical and other 
 facts, and lead the scholar first to observe, and then 
 to draw inferences from what he observes. 
 
 This kind of analytical study of a map is easy 
 enough if the map is really good. If, for instance, 
 the rivers are marked in their course up to their 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 157 
 
 true source, if passes in mountain ranges are shown, 
 if river basins can be made out, then the child need 
 not be told that the Rhine rises in Mount St. 
 Gothard; he can quickly find it out from the 
 wall-map, under the guidance of a developing 
 question. Similarly, the termination of the North 
 and South Downs in two headlands — namely, the 
 South Foreland and Beachy Head respectively — 
 can easily be discovered by the child himself, if 
 aided in the manner described. 
 
 Gradually the child acquires skill in drawing 
 inferences, and thus he continues to proceed by 
 the triple process of observation, description, and 
 representation, much as he did when studying 
 home geography. By observing the map, the 
 child may be helped to infer much about the level 
 and vertical forms of land which he has never seen, 
 together with its river systems and its topography. 
 He may also learn to infer the main character of 
 the climate and the consequent productions of the 
 soil. 
 
 The first wall-map that the child will study care- 
 fully will be that of the country in which he lives ; 
 not, of course, that even the younger children 
 should never be shown a wall-map until this stage 
 is reached. On the contrary, even the youngest 
 children may look at a globe and a map of the 
 world showing the British possessions, and a map 
 of England. Before beginning the systematic 
 study of a subject, it is useful to learn something 
 about it in an informal way; the study of geo- 
 graphy may be imperceptibly introduced, and first 
 glimpses may anticipate more thorough inspection. 
 
158 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 Besides the hills, rivers, counties, and towns of 
 England, a few striking facts of exports and im- 
 ports should be introduced by aid of Whitaker's 
 Almanac or Sell's Commercial Intelligtuce^ a few 
 contrasts of rainfall east and west, and a few facts 
 of historical geography. In this way a child early 
 learns the existence of the various branches of the 
 subject — namely, of physical, political, historical, 
 and commercial geography, and the kind of differ- 
 ences between them. 
 
 Tables may be made in which the trade of a few 
 towns is set out in a graphic way, and thus curious 
 facts come out — as, for instance, that London im- 
 ports more than twice as much as Liverpool, but 
 exports only half as much. 
 
 GRAPHIC EXERCISES 
 
 This leads up to the mention of the value of 
 graphic work in geography. The first branch of 
 graphic work is, of course, drawing maps. Where 
 the teacher requires a more or less interesting ex- 
 ercise in drawing and tinting, the scholar may 
 practise copying on a large scale a map of Europe 
 or of any country as a whole. Such map drawing, 
 however, does less than might be imagined for the 
 study of geography. Map drawing should be a 
 form of object teaching. What is object teaching.^ 
 It is the employment of all the possible means by 
 which the learner may acquire an exact conception 
 of an object, whether this conception is a mental 
 image, or, in more abstract studies, what may be 
 called a whole of reasoning. The use of map 
 drawing should be much the same as that of 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 59 
 
 making diagrams in other studies. For instance, 
 in studying physiology, a carefully-drawn muscle 
 or nerve or gland in a diagrammatic form is much 
 clearer to understand than the confused mass of 
 flesh from which it has been dissected. The 
 map, then, should not be drawn by the scholar 
 before he has studied the wall - map with the 
 greatest care. 
 
 Secondly, each map which the scholar draws 
 should serve some definite purpose. For instance, 
 his sketch-map may show that he can trace on the 
 map and set down on paper the basin of the 
 Thames or the Ganges; or it may show the direc- 
 tions of a journey from London to Madrid, and the 
 relative positions of the leading towns on the way, 
 which is a kind of elementary traversing; or it 
 may show the disposition and arrangement of the 
 cotton towns around Manchester, and the like. 
 In most cases these sketch-maps are best worked 
 out in conjunction with the teacher, but the 
 teacher's sketch-map should never supersede the 
 observation of a good wall-map. It is impossible 
 for sketches to be as accurate as the wall-map, 
 and, apart from wall-maps, sketch-maps encourage 
 vagueness instead of leading to precision. The 
 sketch-maps should proceed from simpler studies 
 to more complex ones. No one should attempt to 
 draw a map of a country as a whole until the 
 leading features have been dealt with separately. 
 Analysis should precede synthesis. 
 
 Then, again, while maps should be as neat as 
 possible, they should emphasize the important 
 features. For instance, in English maps of the 
 
l6o EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 Pennine Hills the marked depression between the 
 Aire and the Ribble is seldom indicated, yet this 
 has determined the course of the Leeds and Liver- 
 pool Canal and of the Midland Railway; and some 
 maps made in Germany show it quite clearly, but 
 not always those made in England. It is only 
 when the sketch-map is thus employed to simplify 
 the real map, and in close connection with it, that 
 it can be considered object teaching. Map draw- 
 ing, then, should be a constructive exercise, and 
 not mere copying. It should be the external 
 presentation of a mental conception. It should 
 not be a part of a process of learning by memory, 
 but rather a means of proving that a right im- 
 pression has been obtained. 
 
 In drawing sketch-maps, the details should be 
 simplified with consideration, so as to emphasize 
 salient features. For instance, in sketching the 
 Rhine or Danube, only the leading bends need be 
 attended to, and towns or tributaries associated 
 with them should be emphasized. A good basis 
 for a sketch-map is a cross, consisting of a meridian 
 of longitude crossing a parallel of latitude, both 
 carefully chosen. 
 
 Map drawing is not the only form of graphic 
 geography. Striking statistics of trade and com- 
 merce can be made clear by the use of paper ruled 
 in squares, and those who teach commercial geo- 
 graphy should proceed some way with exercises of 
 this kind. " Graphic illustrations ", says Quetelet, 
 " often afford immediate conviction of a point which 
 the most subtle mind would find it difficult to per- 
 ceive without such aid." 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION l6l 
 
 CONNECTION WITH HISTORY AND 
 OTHER STUDIES 
 
 The principle of the correlation of studies should 
 not be neglected. Of course the principle should 
 not be pushed too far, but by a judicious applica- 
 tion of it one study may reinforce another instead 
 of forming a distraction to it. While, for instance, 
 England is being studied in the geography lessons, 
 and especially the counties, let the early period of 
 English history be read, which explains their for- 
 mation. Also let some of the pieces for recitation 
 illustrate some of the scenes which are described in 
 the geography lesson. Let, for example, Kingsley's 
 beautiful lyric, "Go, Mary, call the cattle home, 
 across the sands of Dee," be learned when Cheshire 
 is studied. 
 
 Simple records of rain and temperature and 
 wind, and the first appearance of birds and flowers 
 and fish, throw much light on climatology. Object- 
 lessons also help the understanding of the circula- 
 tion of water, the formation of ice, glaciers, and ice- 
 bergs. In some places interesting records could 
 be kept of the tides, and the temperature of water 
 at different times of the year, whether in the sea or 
 in rivers or springs, and similar facts which bear 
 on climate. 
 
 Much spirit is awakened in young students of 
 geography by expeditions for practical work. 
 Such expeditions are growing more common in 
 England, but the following account of the organ- 
 ization of school expeditions as they have been 
 made in France is worth attention. 
 
 (M930) L 
 
1 6a EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL EXCURSIONS 
 IN FRENCH SCHOOLS 
 
 The scholars in some French schools carry with 
 them on such expeditions all that is necessary in 
 a handy form, but no more than is necessary, and 
 the cost is reduced as far as possible; and they 
 learn to make themselves at home wherever they 
 find themselves. The arrangements described are 
 made for children between the ages of ten and 
 fifteen. 
 
 Each scholar, and of course also each adult, 
 taking part in the expedition carries a canvas bag 
 — if waterproof, so much the better — containing a 
 plate, made of unbreakable material, and a cup, 
 a knife and fork, and spoon, and a small towel or 
 napkin. 
 
 There are three types of expeditions, according 
 to the time devoted to them. 
 
 The first consists of a short day's walk into the 
 hills, forests, or other places where there are no 
 houses or inns to be met with. The scholars take 
 provisions for the day in their bags, along with the 
 other things above mentioned. 
 
 In the second type of expedition, somewhat more 
 comfort, not to say luxury, is secured by hiring a 
 horse and cart to accompany the expedition. In 
 this way more substantial food can be taken, and 
 also urns and kettles for making tea. Aided by 
 a cart, the expedition can cover more ground. 
 
 The third type of expedition is one which ex- 
 tends over at least one night, and it may be for 
 several nights. 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 163 
 
 The details of this kind of expedition have to be 
 carefully thought out and prearranged. The chief 
 conductor places himself in communication with 
 teachers of the schools in the places in which he 
 intends to stop for food or lodging. The principal 
 meal is thus ordered beforehand at a given hour. 
 The payment is made either at so much per head, 
 which is always rather expensive, or the materials 
 are ordered and paid for, and the trouble of pre- 
 paring them remunerated separately. The party 
 may well dine in a shed or barn, and undertake 
 much of the trouble of arranging the meal, and 
 thus save labour, which means money. 
 
 The cost of sleeping arrangements is reduced by 
 the following means: — 
 
 Each scholar has two sacks — one made of 
 mattress cloth, which is open down the side, and 
 capable of being laced up, in order that it may be 
 filled with straw. Straw is not spoiled by being 
 used once for this purpose. The other sack is 
 made of coarse cotton, into which the sleeper can 
 insert himself in order to lie warmly and comfort- 
 ably on the other. Sybarites can make a pillow by 
 wrapping up some straw in their towel. 
 
 In the expeditions which extend over one night, 
 the scholars carry in their knapsack, as well as 
 their cup, plate, &c., as before mentioned, some 
 soap, a tooth-brush, and a comb. The morning 
 toilet is made in the open air. Head, neck, and 
 trunk to the waist are rubbed and scrubbed either 
 at the pump, if at hand, or in a river. 
 
 The sleeping-sacks, and in the case of prolonged 
 expeditions the necessary change of linen, are 
 
164 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 either conveyed in a cart accompanying the party, 
 or sent forward by train. 
 
 The excursion is planned beforehand with a 
 certain amount of elasticity, so that any chance 
 occasion of special interest may be taken advantage 
 of, or any breakdown made good, without much 
 confusion or disorganization. 
 
 The map of the route is carefully studied. The 
 best for use is one which shows the contours. Our 
 English ordnance coloured contour maps are the 
 envy of the French. It is a good plan to place a 
 sheet of glass over the map and trace the route 
 upon it. Another way is to make a map of the 
 route, and multiply it by any manifolding process, 
 and provide each member of the party with a copy. 
 The scholars discuss their route beforehand, both 
 under the guidance of their teachers and among 
 themselves. There is first the physical geography 
 of the country to consider, then the natural history, 
 places of interest, industrial facts, and the like. 
 
 During the expedition, time is found for practice 
 in traversing with a prismatic compass, for using 
 the barometer, the pedometer, the pocket sextant, 
 and the Abney level. Suitable apparatus is also 
 taken for studying the flowers, and the nature of 
 the soil and rocks and fossils. Of course there is 
 also a small pharmacy and ambulance in case of 
 wounds, indisposition, or similar accidents. 
 
 The speed of progress varies. Sometimes the 
 party saunters along, looking carefully at various 
 objects of interest, scenery, flowers, birds, and cul- 
 tivation of land, and taking notes; sometimes it 
 marches at a steady pace, making straight for some 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 65 
 
 goal. The way in the latter case is much enlivened 
 by music, either by singing school songs or by a 
 small band. 
 
 It only remains to add that, before starting, the 
 party is carefully drilled in packing their knap- 
 sacks, in making their straw couches and unmaking 
 them, and putting them away in the assigned place. 
 
 Expeditions like this have been made during the 
 summer holidays, and as many as fifty scholars 
 have spent as much as fifteen days on a tour. On 
 one occasion some sixty scholars made a week's 
 tour in Belgium. Such expeditions strengthen the 
 body as well as the mind, and girls as well as boys 
 take part in them. It is to be wished that they 
 should be undertaken in this country as they are 
 abroad. 
 
 LOCAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES 
 
 In conclusion, I will give a brief account of the 
 Southampton Geographical Society, because I hope 
 to prove by it that for promoting and deepening 
 the interest in the study of geography there is no 
 more excellent way than to establish similar local 
 geographical societies — if possible, in connection 
 with the Royal Geographical Society. Such 
 societies have been formed at Liverpool, Man- 
 chester, and Newcastle. The Royal Scottish Geo- 
 graphical Society is, of course, not adequately 
 described as local; it is imperial. The work of 
 these societies is well known, and the efforts made 
 by the Manchester Geographical Society to en- 
 courage the study of geography in day and evening 
 schools formed the subject of an interesting paper 
 
1 66 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 which was read before the British Association in 
 1896, under the title of "Practical Geography in 
 Manchester". 
 
 The youngest of these societies is the South- 
 ampton Geographical Society, and a brief account 
 of its aims and mode of working will, it is hoped, 
 be of interest to the members of this section. 
 
 The Southampton Geographical Society was 
 founded in 1897. The aim of the society is chiefly 
 educational; its purpose is to acquire and diffuse 
 geographical knowledge in the town and district 
 by uniting the efforts of all who are interested in 
 the science of geography. In the first place, lec- 
 tures are held periodically from October to April. 
 These are of two kinds. Those which come before 
 Christmas do not form a continuous course, but 
 are given by travellers who have visited foreign 
 countries and are able to spread information which 
 they have obtained at first hand. The stimulating 
 effect of such a lecturer's words influences the 
 minds and hearts of the students as no amount 
 of accumulation of learning by reading books can 
 ever do. The society has enjoyed the privilege of 
 hearing, among many others, Mrs. Bishop on the 
 Yang-tse River, and Miss Kingsley, whose heroic 
 death is still so fresh in our memories, on West 
 Africa. Mr. V. Cornish has shown us how to 
 study the waves of the sea and sand waves. The 
 Chamber of Commerce in Southampton has also 
 helped to supply lecturers. The second portion of 
 the session, between Christmas and Easter, is de- 
 voted to a continuous course on some special branch 
 of geographical study. Dr. Mill has lectured on 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 67 
 
 the principles of geographical instruction in special 
 connection with British colonies. Mr. Dickson has 
 lectured on the physical geography of the oceans, 
 and recently Mr. Herbertson has treated of South 
 Africa. A special feature of the society is the 
 attempt which is being made to carry out the 
 suggestion of Archbishop Benson, which he made 
 at a missionary conference at St. James's Hall, 
 in London, in 1894. "The scientific study of 
 missions", he said, "is a thing which is beginning, 
 and could only begin after people in general had 
 got some idea of the philosophy of history. The 
 business of the great missionary societies has been 
 to plant the faith. The scientific study of the 
 results of their work as a great historical subject, 
 revealing a view of the enormous importance of 
 the idea of missions, such as has been thought out 
 by Mr. B. Kidd, is work for thoughtful people who 
 desire to form sound and philosophical conceptions 
 of what missions really mean in the evolution of 
 human society." 
 
 This is a copious and generous study for those 
 who wish to know something of the place of mis- 
 sions in current history, whereto they are growing, 
 and how they may be helped, and, it may be, where 
 they have made mistakes. It is the business of the 
 wisest and most thoughtful, of the most experienced 
 and well read, to develop and propagate this study. 
 In accordance with this suggestion, the society has 
 listened to a paper from the Archdeacon of Trini- 
 dad, upon the general geography and the social 
 and industrial condition of the island as it is to-day, 
 with special reference to mission work and its 
 
l6S EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 effect on the negroes. The winter session, then, 
 is devoted to lectures. During the summer months 
 expeditions are arranged for the purpose of study- 
 ing geography in a practical way. 
 
 Day expeditions are made to places in the 
 neighbourhood. The company divides itself into 
 groups, each group being in charge of a competent 
 guide. One group, in charge of a late member of 
 the Ordnance Survey Office, maps out, by aid of a 
 prismatic compass, a track of a small area in the 
 New Forest. Another group devotes itself to the 
 forest trees in the same area, another to the botany, 
 and another to the insect life. At the end of the 
 day the company meet together, and the various 
 guides give a brief report of the results of the day's 
 proceedings. 
 
 In some cases these expeditions take the form of 
 an object-lesson in illustration of some part of the 
 spring course of lectures. For example, after the 
 lectures on the ocean by Mr. Dickson, the society 
 hired a steamer, and, under the guidance of Mr. 
 Garstang, of the Plymouth Marine Laboratory, an 
 expedition was made to the Solent, in the course 
 of which a compari.son was made and tabulated of 
 the results of investigations into two stations — one 
 in the Solent off Spithcad, and the other off 
 Netley, in the brackish tide of the Southampton 
 Water. The temperature and density of the water 
 at varying depths were ascertained by use of the 
 -deep-sea thermometer and the water-bottle. The 
 fauna and flora of the surface and the bottom 
 were explored by a fine silk tow-net and a trawl. 
 The results of this expedition, besides profoundly 
 
GEOGRAPHY IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 69 
 
 interesting the company, proved of some scientific 
 value to Mr. Garstang. 
 
 The society is also promoting the publication of 
 a set of maps of the county for use in schools, 
 which will show, in bold and not too minute ren- 
 dering, its (i) physical geography; (2) geology; 
 (3) archaeology; (4) history; (5) industries. It is 
 also collecting a library and sets of lantern slides, &c. 
 
 The inaugural lecture of the Southampton Geo- 
 graphical Society was given by Sir Clements 
 Markham, who, in an address which kindled in 
 the audience something of the enthusiasm with 
 which he is himself inspired, laid down the lines 
 on which it has been attempted to work the 
 society. In wishing it all success, he gave a cor- 
 dial welcome to the members, and offered them 
 the privilege of consulting the library and the map- 
 room of the Royal Geographical Society, together 
 with special opportunities of attending lectures and 
 purchasing publications. 
 
 A widely-spread interest in the study of geo- 
 graphy seems almost indispensable to the adminis- 
 tration of this great empire. The century dies, as 
 it was born, amid the clash of arms. The opera- 
 tions of war are in everybody's thoughts. Is it not 
 an assured fact, that at the commencement of the 
 war in South Africa our maps were sadly inade- 
 quate, and that for want of better ones the move- 
 ments of our troops were seriously hampered .!* 
 There are two points in connection with this 
 defect which are germane to the subject of geo- 
 graphical instruction. 
 
 In the first place, the early mapping of a country 
 
170 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 depends largely upon surveys of farms and hold- 
 ings. If boys learned at school how to measure 
 and map land, the surveys of farms and estates in 
 new countries would be much more useful and 
 reliable. 
 
 Secondly, we are told that the interest in ord- 
 nance work in this country is so slight that the 
 nation would not be prepared to sanction the ex- 
 penditure of money on mapping our colonial pos- 
 sessions. If the interest in the study of geography 
 were half as widely disseminated as the interest in 
 sport, the country would be keen to provide good 
 maps of its foreign possessions. The expenditure 
 would not be grudged, and it would not be neces- 
 sary to wait for calamity in war before the chief 
 details of each part of our vast territories were 
 mapped with sufficient accuracy. 
 
 Similarly, a knowledge of the work which is 
 being done by the Plymouth Marine Laboratory, 
 with its almost surprising possibilities of aiding 
 fishery and even meteorology, would secure public 
 approbation, and a readiness to devote public funds 
 to its extension. In the same way, exploration of 
 the unknown parts of the Globe, such as the Ant- 
 arctic Ocean, would command ungrudging financial 
 support, as what people are interested in they are 
 ready to pay for. 
 
 The establishment of similar societies in all 
 large centres would conduce to the progress and 
 welfare of the British Empire. May their number 
 increase and multiply! 
 
ON METHODS OF TEACHING 
 GEOGRAPHY ^ 
 
 Britain has no need to fear comparison with 
 other nations so far as exploration and com- 
 mercial enterprise are concerned. In these re- 
 spects no nation deserves more honour. But it 
 must be admitted that our country falls short in 
 one respect. In answer to the question: "What 
 have the British done to extend the theoretical 
 study of geography?" the answer must be "Little 
 or nothing". Deeds, however, that give rise to no 
 thought are incomplete. Yet Britain is the chosen 
 home of philosophy. The names of Alcuin, of 
 Duns Scotus, of Roger Bacon, of Lord Bacon, of 
 Locke, of Hume, and their followers are sufficient 
 to prove that theory has not been left entirely to 
 other countries. Cavendish, Lyall, Darwin, Joule, 
 and Maxwell have led the world in the applica- 
 tion of philosophy to natural science. It remains 
 true, however, that Britain awaits the birth of an 
 epoch-making writer on geography. We have no 
 such series of geographers as Humboldt, Ritter, 
 and Peschel, whose names add so much lustre to 
 the fame of German learning. 
 
 In British schools geography has ever been a 
 dull and uninteresting subject It has been a 
 dreary recitation of names and statistics, of no 
 
 * Address delivered at the Annual Meeting of the Geographical Associa- 
 tion, at the College of Preceptors, January, 1901. 
 xyx 
 
172 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 interest to the learner, and of little use except, 
 perhaps, in the sorting department of the post- 
 office. Yet our consular reports are full of 
 reminders that British ignorance of the theory of 
 geography is not bliss. They point out the ad- 
 vantage which better-informed nations possess in 
 the keen struggle for trade. In France almost all 
 the chief commercial centres possess geographical 
 societies. As an example of the work of one 
 of these valuable associations may be mentioned 
 the Paris Commercial Geography Society. The 
 following are the objects of it according to its 
 report : — 
 
 (i) To place science at the disposal of commerce, 
 and to put theory in practice. 
 
 (2) To aggrandize France by developing industry 
 
 and commerce abroad. 
 
 (3) To receive and sift information from all parts 
 
 of the world, and store up facts which may 
 be freely drawn upon by all who can turn 
 such knowledge to good account, whether for 
 commerce or for theoretical study. 
 
 (4) To extend the study of everything which pro- 
 
 motes agriculture, manufacture, or trade, both 
 at home and in the colonies. 
 
 (5) To show the mass of the people that they are 
 
 interested in the produce, exports, and imports 
 
 of their own and other countries, and that 
 
 knowledge leads to foresight, and foresight 
 
 leads to power. 
 
 Surely such a society ought to exist in every 
 
 large town in a commercial country like ours, and 
 
 be affiliated to the Royal Geographical Society. 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 1 73 
 
 As nothing is so practical as sound theory, my 
 first aim in this paper is to give some idea of the 
 methods of studying geography which have been 
 devised in Germany. 
 
 Since Humboldt the improvement of the study 
 of geography has been attempted in several dif- 
 ferent ways. None of these methods is complete 
 in itself, none of them is without value, and all of 
 them ought to be present to the mind in preparing 
 the simplest course of lessons in geography. In 
 briefly reviewing these methods, it must be borne 
 in mind that each of them has been developed in 
 great detail by some school of German writers, and 
 that it is impossible in a short space to do more 
 than open up a glimpse of a wide prospect. 
 
 The first is the Analytic Method. The student 
 starts with the Earth as a whole, and divides it 
 systematically into oceans and continents and 
 countries. The Globe, as a whole, is analysed 
 into parts, and these are subdivided again. This 
 plan is not suited to beginners, for it presupposes 
 much knowledge. Moreover, this method of ana- 
 lysing a subject as a whole into its parts implies a 
 finality and completeness which is far from being 
 yet acquired in our geographical learning. Never- 
 theless, even at an early stage a child may be in- 
 troduced, in a cursory way, to a globe and a map 
 of the world. A preliminary view of the whole 
 forest may with advantage precede a detailed study 
 of the trees, provided it be only a means of mark- 
 ing out the tract that has to be studied, and not 
 the actual method of attacking the study. 
 
 The next is the Synthetic Method. Proceeding 
 
174 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 on this plan, the student deals with a small part of 
 the Earth's surface, and then adds to this a study 
 of an adjoining part, and so on, by continuously 
 successive additions, until the whole Globe has 
 been mastered. It is the converse of the first 
 method. This method ignores the fact that geo- 
 graphy is a living study, and that all parts of the 
 Globe are not equally worth studying. Moreover, 
 it nearly always happens, especially to us in the 
 British Isles, that there is some special region of 
 the Globe on which public attention is riveted, 
 and then it is important to learn about this 
 country rather than about one which is not 
 marked out for any special study. Nevertheless, 
 most teachers would deal with England, Scotland, 
 Ireland, and France in close succession, so that, by 
 successive steps, the scholars may arrive at a com- 
 prehensive idea of Western Europe before examin- 
 ing more distant parts. 
 
 The third is the Associative Method. There are 
 some few sciences whose field is so well defined 
 that their subject-matter is but little intermixed 
 with other branches of learning. Such, for instance, 
 is geometry, and, to a great extent, chemistry; 
 but others, like geography, geology, political 
 economy, and the like, seem rather to be com- 
 posed of parts of several sciences. If we think 
 for a moment of sciences as circles, and then of 
 several circles intersecting at a given point, we 
 have the presentment of a fresh science, which 
 differs from any one of them taken by itself, and 
 yet is made up by the common ground which is 
 shared by all of them. The study of geography 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 1 75 
 
 draws upon the sciences of astronomy, physics, 
 biology, ethnology, statistics, archaeology, history, 
 cartography, and many more. 
 
 Because it associates several distinct sciences 
 for a particular purpose, geography is called an 
 Associating Science. It links together many 
 branches of study which are otherwise dissociated. 
 Of course this plan does not consist in amal- 
 gamating history, geology, astronomy, and the 
 rest into one science under a new name. This 
 would be absurd. Rather, it consists in showing 
 the bearing of each of these sciences on the other 
 in a certain sphere of study; how they depend on 
 each other, and how they support each other in 
 dealing with a particular range of facts. 
 
 This method seems a matter of common sense, 
 but, like much of this nature, it was only obvious 
 after some deep thinkers had worked it out. For 
 want of observance of this principle, there may still 
 be seen on some time-tables lessons quite discon- 
 nected under the heads geography and physical 
 geography. 
 
 For an admirable example of a geographical 
 study on the associative method, reference should 
 be made to Dr. Mill's paper upon two sheets of the 
 Ordnance Survey in the neighbourhood of Arundel, 
 recently published in the Journal of the Royal 
 Geographical Society. He dreams of a day when 
 all England may be studied on similar lines; but 
 before this can be done the public interest in the 
 5tudy of geography must be widely extended, and 
 especially in local geographical work. 
 
 The fourth is the Grouping Method. This con- 
 
176 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 sists in classifying geographical facts of the same 
 kind. On this plan kindred facts and phenomena 
 are dealt with together. One section may treat of 
 the Capitals of the World, showing how their sites 
 have been determined. Another section may deal 
 with the Chief Ports of the World, showing their 
 origin and their growth or decay; another section 
 may deal with Glaciers; another with Islands; 
 another with Zones of Vegetation; another with 
 the position of Fortresses and Delimitation of 
 Frontiers; and so forth. This method is clearly 
 not for beginners; it is only suitable for an ad- 
 vanced class, because it presupposes much know- 
 ledge. At the same time it helps to deepen the 
 advanced study of geography, and there is much 
 literature which facilitates its pursuit. Facts already 
 known are placed in a fresh light. It connects dis- 
 tant places together and suggests comparison. It 
 leads the student to search for principles, and to 
 comprehend more clearly that there are laws which 
 underlie apparently dissociated facts and pheno- 
 mena. 
 
 Elis6e Reclus, for instance, has shown the curious 
 rhythmical distribution of towns along the old high- 
 ways or coach-roads radiating from the capital of 
 a country. The traveller meets with a larger town 
 about every twenty miles and a smaller one every 
 eight or ten. In other words, the towns are spaced 
 according to the distance a well-loaded coach and 
 horses could cover without stopping for lighter or 
 more substantial refreshment. The growth of rail- 
 ways seems to have tended to increase the town 
 and decrease the village. In the absence of good 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 1 77 
 
 means of locomotion large towns arise with diffi- 
 culty, and nowadays, however remote, do not 
 remain long unprovided with a railway approach. 
 It is this method which suggests the study of the 
 position of towns at the foot of mountain passes, 
 at the head of estuaries, at fords, or at places where 
 bridges can be made over rivers. 
 
 The fifth is the Concentric Method. This plan 
 consists in teaching even the youngest class a brief 
 outline of all the geography that it is intended the 
 children shall study while they are in the school. 
 The brief outline which is studied in the lowest 
 class is expanded in the next class, and again in 
 the next, like the gradual filling in of a slight 
 sketch to the fulness of a photograph. This 
 method meets the objection that it is absurd for 
 the child to know a plan of his school and the 
 name of the next street and remain ignorant of the 
 main features of the Globe. 
 
 This procedure, the concentric, seems to me the 
 best for studying history, because the fundamental 
 conception of history is continuity, the continuity 
 of a people under changing conditions of govern- 
 ment and civilization. Disjointed stories and anec- 
 dotes and short periods do not give children that 
 sense of a stream of time, nor the perception of the 
 dramatic unity, which lie at the root of national 
 feeling. 
 
 As regards the elements of geography, however, 
 except to a very limited extent, there is no such 
 systematic whole to be studied that the concentric 
 method can be applied with advantage. 
 
 The sixth is the Comparative Method. This con- 
 
 (M930) M 
 
 ' ^ OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
I 78 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 sists in comparing- the various leading phenomena 
 of one country with those of another. This plan 
 has done perhaps as much as any to deepen the 
 study of geography. Comparison leads to the 
 appreciation of contrasts; it leads to questioning; 
 for example, it forces on the attention the curious 
 parallel between Australia and South Africa, be- 
 tween the equatorial forests in the Western and 
 Eastern Hemispheres, between the physical features 
 of North and South America, and between the 
 local features of New York and Southampton as 
 seaports. The Basin of the Yorkshire Ouse or 
 Humber certainly makes the geography of the 
 Mississippi much more intelligible. 
 
 This method cannot be left out of account in 
 any course of lessons on geography, however ele- 
 mentary. 
 
 The last method that calls for notice is the 
 Constructive MetJiod (Ritter). This consists in 
 teaching the scholars to draw what they are being 
 taught. It is applicable to most of the other 
 methods. Copying a map may be a useful exer- 
 cise in drawing, but it does not teach much geo- 
 graphy. The better way is for the scholars to 
 study the wall-map or small hand atlases of their 
 own, such as Philip's Comparative Atlas of Geo- 
 graphy, under the guidance of developing questions, 
 and then for the scholars to give precision to their 
 impressions by making sketch-maps which illustrate 
 special details. By commencing with the hills and 
 river basins they may afterwards construct the 
 country as a whole. Knowledge so built up is 
 more likely to be correct than that which depends 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 1 79 
 
 Upon the reproduction of a whole map of a country 
 before it has been dealt with in detail. It is best 
 for the teacher to have a good wall-map and the 
 scholar a hand atlas, so that the scholar can follow 
 the teacher as he demonstrates. Other interesting 
 studies may be made on this plan. As an intro- 
 duction to this work, children may be taken to a 
 neighbouring eminence, and, having in their hands 
 a " graphed " map of the locality, they may mark 
 on it in red chalk all that they can actually see 
 around them. 
 
 Another stage of the same process is for the 
 children to take the bearings of various objects 
 which are in view from some eminence, and con- 
 struct a sketch-map of the landscape that is visible 
 before them. 
 
 Or, again, children may have in their hands 
 "graphs" of the World on Mercator's Projection, 
 and mark with red chalk all the places noted for 
 this or that product. It is best to use a different 
 " graph " for each product. Thus may be shown 
 the various tea-producing places, the various sugar 
 plantations, and so forth; where wool is grown, 
 where cotton. Maps thus constructed may be 
 used for comparison with maps which show the 
 distribution of temperature, rainfall, &c. The 
 reasoning which connects these phenomena is so 
 easy that a child may follow it What is simple 
 is not always the less profound. Diagrams can be 
 drawn showing the slope of a country, say from 
 Johannesburg to Durban, or from De Aar to Cape 
 Town, or from the Bernese Oberland to the mouth 
 of the Rhine. 
 
l8o EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 The road-books prepared for cyclists are most 
 helpful. Figures which mean but little to the 
 reader may, when presented in a graphic form, 
 be most striking and suggestive. By use of paper 
 ruled in squares, comparative tables of area and 
 population may be made most interesting, and so, 
 too, the ratio of the population to area. Then, 
 again, comparative tables of leading exports and 
 imports may be made interesting, if put in a dia- 
 grammatic form. To represent varying quantities 
 by comparative areas on squared paper is most 
 instructive. The great advantage of this construc- 
 tive work is that scholars can be taught to work 
 out these diagrams for themselves, and in a class 
 of scholars of ordinary intelligence, some unex- 
 pected and interesting observations are sure to be 
 made. 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA 
 A LITERARY OBJECT-STUDY 
 
 In 1570 the Turks took Cyprus. Christendom 
 was alarmed at the encroachment of Mahometan 
 forces, and Spain, Venice, and Rome formed 
 a Holy League against Selim II, laying aside 
 their old dissensions for the purpose of making 
 a united attempt to bridle the Ottomans, and curb 
 the power not only of the Turks, but of the Moors 
 of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. Under Don John 
 of Austria the most formidable fleet ever seen 
 in the Mediterranean attacked and defeated the 
 Turkish Fleet on the 7th October, 1571, in the 
 Gulf of Lepanto. On board one of the galleys, 
 named Marquesa, lay Cervantes, a boy of fourteen, 
 down in his cabin, sick of a fever. On coming 
 into action, the ship was in the van, and he was 
 urged by his captain to remain in his bed; but 
 he refused, asking what would be thought of him 
 if he did not do his duty, and declared he was 
 resolved to die fighting for God and duty, rather 
 than remain in shelter and nurse his health. 
 Accordingly he was at his own wish placed in 
 the post of chief danger, namely, in a boat hang- 
 ing from the galley's side and much exposed to 
 the enemies' fire. He performed his part in that 
 day's work so valiantly as to attract the notice 
 of his commanders, and even of Don John himself. 
 The famous battle of Lepanto, which broke the 
 
 x8x 
 
l82 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 Spell of the invincibility of Turkish arms by sea, 
 was among the most glorious feats of Spain at 
 the zenith of her greatness, and remained in the 
 memory of Cervantes as the proudest event of 
 his life. During the fight he received two gun- 
 shot wounds in the chest and one in the left hand, 
 which was rendered useless for life — "to the greater 
 glory of the right ", as he said in the spirit of Don 
 Quixote, his great creation; and his countrymen 
 love to dub him " El Manco de Lepanto ", the 
 maimed hero of Lepanto. Cervantes continued 
 in service against the Turks, both by land and 
 sea. He describes in the story of the captain 
 in Don Quixote^ which is founded on facts of 
 his own life, the feeble effort of the allied fleet 
 against the Turks anchored in Navarino Bay, 
 and afterwards he was present at the capture 
 of Goletta in Tunis, which is also referred to in 
 the same story. His experience of warfare by 
 land and sea afforded him that knowledge of 
 men and things without which Don Quixote would 
 not have touched the heart of mankind as it has 
 done. To this war, also, must be attributed the 
 traces of the art and culture of Italy which are 
 manifest throughout his works. 
 
 In 1575, on his way from Naples to Spain, he 
 was captured off Minorca by Algerine pirates. 
 The treatment of their prisoners by these pirates 
 was most cruel, and the captivity of Cervantes 
 was of the hardest. He bore it with a courage 
 and constancy which would alone have entitled 
 him to be ranked as a hero. The books of 
 chivalry contain no episode more romantic. The 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA I 83 
 
 fabled deeds of Amadis de Gaul and the knights- 
 errant, which had kindled his youthful imagination, 
 did not surpass his real adventures, for the exag- 
 gerations of chivalry and romance were even 
 surpassed in the lofty spirit with which he 
 discharged his knightly duty. It was a miserable 
 five years. Evil seemed to triumph over him. 
 Lost to his friends, lost to all hope of living the 
 high heroic life which he had set before himself to 
 live, subjected to hardships, tyranny, and caprice, 
 he bore all with indomitable spirit, cheering the 
 despondent, sharing what little he had with others, 
 helping the sick, risking danger in the cause of 
 Christian faith, and ever bearing himself as a true 
 soldier of the king and as a noble gentleman. His 
 sweetness, his magnanimity and daring, secured 
 him an extraordinary influence, not only over his 
 fellow-prisoners, but even over his jailer Hassan, 
 a Venetian renegade who was famous as a terror 
 to Christendom. 
 
 Cervantes' life and sorrows are the key to the 
 understanding of Don Quixote. Like the Knight 
 of the Sorrowful Figure, Cervantes started his life's 
 adventures full of glowing visions of chivalry, 
 impatient of wrong-doing, eager to set wrong right, 
 and aid the weak. 
 
 The so-called realities of the world might well 
 have suppressed all this faith in the ideal, and 
 dwarfed his soaring spirit. But Cervantes was no 
 commonplace vapouring adventurer. His misfor- 
 tunes ennobled his soul, and he emerged from them 
 sweeter in temper and stronger in mind than ever. 
 
 When thirty-seven years old, Cervantes married. 
 
184 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 His own family, though not a noble one, was good, 
 and his wife was of equal birth. He wrote a poem 
 called Galatea, criticised by himself among the 
 books in Don Quixote's library, and certain 
 dramatic works, but nothing of first-class merit. 
 At this period of his life he was engaged in pro- 
 viding grain and oil and wine for victualling the 
 Spanish Armada, wandering among Andalusian 
 villages for the purpose, and incidentally enrich- 
 ing his experience of men. 
 
 Cervantes lived in great poverty, and Don 
 Quixote, according to his own statement, was 
 *' born in a jail ", like The Pilgrim's Progress ; 
 the cause of his imprisonment not being certainly 
 known. It was in 1604 that Don Quixote was 
 published, when Cervantes was sixty years old, 
 and it should be noticed that the same year saw 
 the publication of Shakespeare's Hamlet. 
 
 It is needless to say that its popularity caused 
 it to pass through six editions. Since the inven- 
 tion of printing, in 1479, no book had had so 
 many readers. The Romance of Amadis de Gaul 
 had led to much feeble and insipid imitation. 
 Here was a burlesque or satire upon that kind 
 of literature, from which, however, unlike any 
 other satire, the best features were selected for 
 approbation, and while that which was rotten 
 was pruned away, that which was sound was 
 placed in a pure and clear light never to be lost 
 to humanity. Here were humour and fun in its 
 utmost abandon; here was wisdom, simple, deep, 
 homely, with refined philosophy; here were true 
 charity and widest sympathy with humanity in 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA I 85 
 
 all its Strength and frailty; here was a fresh and 
 lively picture of national life, containing all its 
 elements. 
 
 Don Quixote's primary aim was, no doubt, like 
 that of all true artists, to please and amuse. His 
 book was a pastime for melancholy and gloomy 
 spirits, but he also meant to laugh out of current 
 literature the romances of chivalry which were 
 harmful alike to morals and taste. He succeeded 
 in his aim. After Cervantes, false chivalry died, 
 and much false sentiment. 
 
 Those who care more for historical truth than 
 poetry may find in Don Quixote a type of Spanish 
 nobility and in his servant a type of Spanish pea- 
 santry. The rest of Cervantes' literary career, and 
 how his tales suggested to Walter Scott the idea 
 for his novels, and the story of his death in the 
 year that Shakespeare died, 1616, do not concern 
 us now. The next study after the biography is 
 the contents of the famous Romance. It should 
 be noticed that while Cervantes admits in his 
 preface that the ecstasies of Don Quixote may 
 not seem to the reader so novel and unexpected, 
 the character of Sancho Panza is claimed as 
 wholly original. 
 
 The pursuit of knowledge had, in the sixteenth 
 century, led men to seek it, not in old books or 
 traditional learning, but in all that is near and close 
 around in nature and human nature. The student 
 and the poet alike endeavoured in that age to 
 grasp with both hands what was within reach. 
 Truth and purity and justice were not laid up 
 somewhere in the sky, but intelligible realities 
 
l86 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 here on earth. The true remedy for Don Quixote's 
 ecstasy lay in the homely wisdom of his faithful 
 disciple. It was not by abandoning the ideal that 
 relief might be found, but by merely fixing his 
 feet more firmly on God's earth and seeking virtue 
 in all that lay at hand and about him. The Eliza- 
 bethan dramatists did the same as Cervantes. The 
 ways of men and women, and the loveliness of 
 woods and meads and streams, were their inspi- 
 ration, and they reached out after what was far 
 without despising what was near. 
 
 People have endeavoured to construct lists of 
 the best hundred books in the world. So far as 
 purely literary works are concerned, there are not 
 fifty, not a score! There are Homer, the Greek 
 Play-writers, then the Roman Virgil, and, after 
 him, there are none of that rank until Cervantes 
 and Shakespeare. The list is a very short one. 
 
 All things change, but the most stable thing 
 throughout recorded time is human nature. The 
 few great writers of the world have dived so deeply 
 into the springs of human action, and displayed 
 their secrets with such art and charm, that how- 
 ever habits, customs, and countries may vary, man 
 delights in the image of himself which these authors 
 mirror for him in their pages. In these few great 
 books man's nature is presented as a whole, and 
 not from any partial view or in any single aspect. 
 The good is of the highest, but the evil is not left 
 out of the picture. 
 
 In commencing Don Quixote the reader must 
 beware of prepossessions and expectations, other- 
 wise, looking for what is not there, he will be 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA 187 
 
 disappointed and overlook what it really contains. 
 It is in the spirit of a little child that all great 
 works of genius must be approached. The mental 
 attitude must be purely receptive and not critical. 
 To depreciate anything which the verdict of the 
 human race has pronounced upon favourably is 
 the mark of a small mind. 
 
 The reader of Cervantes must not look for a 
 carefully-woven plot such as is ingeniously con- 
 trived in a modern novel. He must not, on the 
 other hand, think that in the absence of such a 
 plot there is no unity at all, and that the book 
 consists of a number of mad adventures inartisti- 
 cally thrown together. 
 
 If the structure of the book is not at first ap- 
 parent, that is a reason for allowing the thoughts 
 to dwell upon it for a long time, and for returning 
 to it again and again. 
 
 One great charm of the book is that the reader 
 is transported into an unfamiliar country and into 
 a novel society. His narrow, insular, and limited 
 sympathies are widened and extended. If Don 
 Quixote is not composed like a modern novel, it 
 is not, therefore, quite unlike any other literature. 
 It must be remembered that it was written in 
 Spain, and that Arabian influence is stronger in 
 that country than anywhere else in Europe. Hence 
 for the type of narrative to which Don Quixote 
 belongs it is natural to think of the Arabian Nights 
 Entertainment. This is possible and probable. 
 The manuscript from which Galland's version of 
 this delightful book was made (in 1704) certainly 
 existed in 1 548, that is, at the time Cervantes was 
 
1 88 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 bom. The long series of stories in the Arabian 
 Nights have no connection with each other. They 
 form a miscellany. At first sight the adventures 
 of Don Quixote appear to be disconnected in the 
 same way. The author's hidden and perhaps sub- 
 conscious art, it is for the reader to detect. The 
 stories are, however, connected psychologically. 
 One adventure relieves the next by a sort of 
 contrast; furious combats are followed by love 
 scenes, the extravagant and exuberant fun, the 
 blunders and blows which arc so attractive to 
 boys, are relieved by serious disquisitions, and all 
 the time jest and earnest are so interwoven that 
 the reader finds himself half in tears over the jest 
 and making merry at what is earnest. Cervantes, 
 as he says in his preface, set himself the task of 
 satirizing extravagant tales of chivalry, but he 
 aimed at preserving what was best in chivalry 
 while sweeping away what was rubbish. Hence 
 in quite an early chapter the reader is introduced 
 to the library of Don Quixote, who only "loses 
 his stirrups " when he is dealing with chivalry. 
 The reader should not skip the "grand scrutiny 
 made by the priest into Don Quixote's Library '*. 
 The chapter throws some light on the Spanish 
 Inquisition, and it also shows how large the 
 growth of Romantic literature had become; and 
 it further proves that Cervantes was by no means 
 willing to destroy the first and original books of 
 chivalry, such as Avtadis de Gaul, which had some 
 merit, but only the ridiculous imitations, which had 
 none. 
 
 Cervantes helps to maintain the unity of his 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA 1 89 
 
 story by grouping the adventures around an inn, 
 and this device should be compared with Chaucer's 
 Canterbury Tales, for he also assembles all his 
 story-tellers at the Taberd inn, in Southwark. Of 
 course the advantage of this device is that it en- 
 ables the writer to introduce into his story all sorts 
 and conditions of men — nobles and peasants, priests 
 and soldiers, court ladies and peasant girls — in the 
 most natural way in the world. How widely 
 spread was the taste for books on chivalry, Cer- 
 vantes indicates more than once, showing that not 
 only educated people enjoyed them, but that even 
 reapers and other labourers loved to listen to them 
 in the harvest-field or elsewhere. He shows what 
 charms they had for men, for the servant girl, for 
 the young lady; the men enjoying the combats, the 
 servant girls the love scenes, and the young ladies 
 the impassioned complaints of the knights for their 
 absent mistresses. Tales of romance touched some 
 of the many chords of the human heart in no un- 
 worthy manner. It was not in Spain alone that 
 this kind of romance was universally popular. It 
 was just the same in our own country, and besides 
 the Arthurian Romances, enshrined in the pages of 
 Malory and reproduced for us by Lord Tennyson, 
 there are many others, some of which are being 
 published, as for instance the tale of The Green 
 Kfiight and Sir Gawain. The green knight being 
 beheaded lifts up his head and rides away with it. 
 It should be noticed that these mad stories of 
 chivalry throw some light on the fables told of 
 mediaeval saints. The Church, finding such ad- 
 ventures in possession of men's minds, saw that 
 
190 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 it was easier to transfer them from a region wholly 
 secular to a religious atmosphere than to eradicate 
 from an ignorant age what was so vastly pleasing 
 to it, and hence fables of St. Denys and the like 
 are but the reflection in religious teaching of 
 similar tales in profane or secular learning. In 
 the amusing discussions between Don Quixote, 
 who defends his belief in all the fables of romance 
 and pins his faith on all that is printed, and the 
 Canon, who regards them as a tissue of lies, it is 
 easy to see the never-ending contest between those 
 who desire to sift what is genuine in history from 
 what is imaginary. 
 
 But if the matter of romance had become wild 
 and foolish, the style of it was not less ridiculous. 
 Cervantes gives a specimen. " Scarcely had ruddy 
 Phoebus extended over the face of this wide and 
 spacious earth the golden filaments of his beautiful 
 hair, and scarcely had the little painted birds with 
 their forked tongues hailed in soft and mellifluous 
 harmony the approach of the rosy harbinger of 
 morn, who, leaving the soft couch of her jealous 
 consort, had just disclosed herself to mortals 
 through the gates and balconies of the Man- 
 chejan horizon, when the renowned knight Don 
 Quixote de la Mancha, quitting the slothful down, 
 mounted Rozinante, his famous steed, and pro- 
 ceeded over the ancient memorable plain of Mon- 
 tiel." Shakespeare, it will be remembered, lays 
 the plot of two of his plays in Spain, namely, 
 Love's Labour's Lost and Much Ado About Nothing. 
 The fantastical Spaniard Don Adriano de Armado 
 also writes in this absurd style: " So it is, besieged 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA I9I 
 
 with sable-coloured melancholy, I did commend 
 the black oppressing humour to the most whole- 
 some of thy health-giving air, and as I am a gentle- 
 man betook myself for a walk ", &c. From such 
 a style the world was delivered by Cervantes and 
 Shakespeare until some modern newspapers re- 
 vived it in this country. 
 
 But along with the decay of romance and the 
 dissatisfaction with excessive conventionality which 
 substituted ceremony for heart-felt courtesy, there 
 sprang up a reaction in favour of what was called 
 Nature. Cervantes leads us from town and vil- 
 lage to the wild hills and the heart of the Sierra 
 Morena. The story of the shepherd Chrysostom, 
 who kills himself for love of Marcela, who will not 
 marry him, is full of pathos and leads to profoundly 
 interesting disquisitions which should by no means 
 be skipped as dull and unimportant. Though they 
 interrupt the narrative they are the real substance 
 of the book, and the adventures are in a manner 
 a sugar coating to a pill. What a pretty natural 
 scene is conveyed in the few words which describe 
 the funeral of Chrysostom ! " They discerned 
 through a cleft between two high mountains 
 about twenty shepherds coming down, all clad 
 in jerkins of black wool and crowned with gar- 
 lands, some of which, as appeared afterwards, were 
 of yew and some of cypress. Six of them carried 
 a bier covered with various flowers and boughs. 
 They made haste therefore to reach them, which 
 they did just as the bier was set down upon the 
 ground, and four of the shepherds with pickaxes 
 were making the grave in the hard rock under a 
 
192 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 tree near the fountain." Only more charming- 
 than this is Shakespeare's funeral of the fair 
 Imogene in Cymbeline. 
 
 The danger, however, of passing from excess of 
 conventionality to the opposite extreme, the excess 
 of freedom falsely ascribed to nature, is amusingly 
 dwelt on by Cervantes in the scene where Quixote's 
 niece, during the Inquisition into the books, urges 
 the burning, not only of the works on chivalry 
 which had made her uncle mad, but also of books 
 of poetry. "These", said the priest, "do injury to 
 none." " Oh, sir," said the niece, " pray order them 
 to be burnt, for should my uncle be cured of this 
 distemper of chivalry, he may possibly, by reading 
 such books, take it into his head to turn shepherd^ 
 and wander through the woods and fields singing 
 and playing on a pipe, and what would be worse 
 still turn poet, which they say is an incurable and 
 contagious disease." Shakespeare also in his Tem- 
 pest ridicules this kind of return to nature in the 
 amusing scene where Gonzalo tries to comfort 
 Alonzo after their shipwreck on the enchanted 
 Island of Prospero. 
 
 "Had I plantation of this Isle, my Lord, 
 r the commonwealth, I would by contraries 
 Execute all things : for no kind of traffic 
 Would I admit ; no name of magistrate. 
 Letters should not be known ; riches, poverty, 
 And use of service, none ; contract, succession, 
 Bourn, bound of land, tilth, vineyard, none ; 
 No use of metal, corn, or wine, or oil, 
 No occupation ; all men idle, all, 
 And women, too, but innocent and pure. 
 No sovereignty " 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA I 93 
 
 "Yet he would be king of it!" says one of the 
 other courtiers ; and then the courtiers make fun of 
 the garrulous old man's "natural" commonwealth. 
 Don Quixote, in a similar manner, apostrophizes 
 the Golden Age, and Cervantes, like Shakespeare, 
 makes merry over the idea of a restoration of that 
 purely fabulous past. " In that blessed age all 
 things were in common," says Don Quixote, con- 
 templating an acorn; "to provide their ordinary 
 sustenance no other labour was needed than to 
 raise their hands and take it from the sturdy oaks 
 which stood liberally inviting them to taste their 
 sweet and relishing fruit. The limpid fountains 
 and running streams offered them in magnificent 
 abundance their delicious and transparent waters. 
 In the clefts of the rocks the industrious and 
 provident bees formed their commonwealths, offer- 
 ing to every hand without interest the fertile pro- 
 duce of their delicious toil. All, then, was peace, 
 all amity, all concord." Such ideas have reap- 
 peared in Rousseau, Defoe, and other writers in- 
 numerable, and will forever dangle like forbidden 
 fruit before the eyes of fond enthusiasts. 
 
 But now it is time to dwell a little on the Knight 
 of the Sorrowful Figure himself and his faithful 
 squire, for in these is taught more finely than any- 
 where else in the world's literature the strange and 
 sad fact that conduct which awakens laughter may 
 not always be ridiculous. The Knight sets out on 
 his mad adventure with high purpose, namely, to 
 redress wrongs and win fame among men. It is 
 impossible to separate the Knight's high aim from 
 the crazy means he takes to achieve it. Cervantes 
 (ugso) K 
 
194 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 assists the reader in his effort to grasp poor frail 
 human nature, ever, as Goethe says, leaping up to 
 heaven for a moment and then falling back to 
 earth like grasshoppers, by placing beside the 
 Knight the honest peasant, who has no imaginative 
 ideal like his master, but longs only for material 
 prizes, and who, in spite of his belief in what is 
 undoubtedly real and material, is led as far into an 
 unreal world as his master. It is Sancho who re- 
 minds the enthusiast that men may " go out into 
 the world to seek better bread than wheaten", and 
 "that to do good to the vulgar is to throw water 
 into the sea", but yet he looks to be governor of 
 an island and make his wife a countess. Events 
 soon show Quixote that his efforts to redress griev- 
 ances only create them or make them worse. " I 
 do not like your way of redressing grievances; I 
 do not understand your way of righting wrongs," 
 said the bachelor master, Alonzo Lopez; "for from 
 right you have set me wrong, having broken my 
 leg, which will never be right as long as I live, and 
 the grievance you have redressed for me is to leave 
 me so aggrieved that I shall never be otherwise, 
 and to me it was a most unlucky adventure to 
 meet you who are seeking adventures." The 
 Knight tilts with vain bravery at windmills, and 
 trembles with false alarm at the noise of a fulling 
 mill in the darkness of night. Yet he is ever better 
 than his actions. He has the noble art of self- 
 deception. It is, after all, that art which has re- 
 dressed the wrongs of mankind. " The case was 
 hopeless; yet he hoped." This is, after all; the true 
 spirit of Christian reformers, from St Paul to the 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA 1 95 
 
 last missionary. Don Quixote finely retorts on 
 Sancho, who laughs at his misfortune, " Know, 
 Sancho, that one man is no more than another, 
 only inasmuch as he does more than another"; and 
 " if a man should try and fail, at least he has the 
 satisfaction of knowing that if he did not achieve 
 great things he died attempting them". Sancho, 
 however, makes the far-reaching remark, that some- 
 times we set out in search of one thing and find 
 another, a proverb that reminds us of Saul, the son 
 of Kish, who set out to seek for his father's asses 
 and found a kingdom. 
 
 Thus it should be noticed that although Quixote's 
 adventures end so unfavourably for himself, and 
 though his squire never gets his coveted island 
 nevertheless their wanderings lead at last to the 
 good of others; and the happy union of the pairs 
 of lovers Cardenio and Lucinda on the one hand, 
 and Don Fernando and Dorothea on the other, 
 may be set down to the account of Don Quixote 
 all in his favour. This theme of lovers at cross- 
 purposes should, of course, be compared with the 
 plot of Shakespeare's Midsummer- Night's Dream^ 
 where Hermia and Helena are crossed in love with 
 Lysander and Demetrius. 
 
 Among the parallels with Shakespeare's plays 
 is one of the most striking dramatic effects in the 
 book by which Cervantes brings about an interview 
 between the crazy Don Quixote, whose brain has 
 been turned by too much study and ill-directed 
 imagination, with the tattered knight Cardenio, 
 who, crossed in hopeless love, has fled for refuge 
 to the wilds of the Sierra Morena Mountains. The 
 
196 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 contrast between the two types of mental derange- 
 ment, romantic and real, is very remarkably drawn. 
 With this strange meeting might perhaps be com- 
 pared the interview between Shakespeare's Timon 
 of Athens, the misanthrope whose ingratitude 
 had made him mad, with Apemantus, whose self- 
 abnegation was chiefly pure affectation. It is only 
 a master mind who can bring into juxtaposition 
 two characters, both eccentric and strong, and both 
 outwardly resembling each other, but with a marked 
 inner difference. 
 
 The romantic attachment of knights to fair 
 ladies, in whose name they undertake their most 
 dangerous exploits, is a feature in chivalry which 
 Cervantes evidently treats with respect. In one 
 passage he is at pains to show how this zeal for 
 his lady's name may be reconciled with the knight's 
 commendation of himself to God; and by way 
 of contrast he presents Sancho as quite unable to 
 understand any such ideal affection, whether for 
 things human or divine. " How dull and simple 
 thou art, Sancho!" said Don Quixote; "knowest 
 thou not that in our style of chivalry it is to the 
 honour of a lady to have many knights-errant who 
 serve her merely for her own sake, without indulg- 
 ing a hope of any other reward for their zeal than 
 the honour of being admitted among the number 
 of her knights?" " I have heard it preached," quoth 
 Sancho, " that God is to be loved with this kind of 
 love, for Himself alone, without our being moved 
 to it by hope of reward or fear of punishment; 
 though for my part I am inclined to love and serve 
 Him for what He is able to do for me." "The 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA 1 97 
 
 Devil take thee for a bumpkin," said Don Quixote, 
 "thou sayest ever and anon such apt things that 
 one would almost think thee a scholar." "And 
 yet, by my faith," quoth Sancho, " I cannot so 
 much as read." Passages like these help us to 
 understand !the veneration paid in the mediaeval 
 church to the Virgin Mary. 
 
 One topic more is worthy of special attention. 
 The greatest of the immortals have included it 
 in their works. Homer in the horses of Achilles 
 Shakespeare in the scene between Launce and his 
 dog, Cervantes in the passages of the Goatherd 
 and his Nanny-goat, and Sancho and Dapple his 
 ass. " Suddenly they heard a sound of a little bell 
 from a thicket near them, and at the same instant 
 a beautiful she-goat, speckled with black, white and 
 gray, ran out of the thicket, followed by a goatherd 
 calling to her aloud to stop and come back to the 
 fold. The fugitive animal, trembling and affrighted, 
 ran to the company, claiming as it were their pro- 
 tection. But the goatherd pursued her and seizing 
 her by the horns addressed her as a rational creature. 
 
 " ' Ah, wanton and spotted thing, how hast thou 
 strayed of late! What wolves have frightened 
 thee, child.? Wilt thou tell me, pretty one, what 
 this means.'' But what else can it mean but that 
 thou art a female and therefore cannot be quiet. 
 A plague on thy humours and on all theirs whom 
 thou resemblest! Turn back, my love, turn back; 
 for though not content, at least thou wilt be more 
 safe in thine own fold and among thy companions, 
 for if thou who shouldest protect and guide them 
 go astray, what must become of them.^" 
 
198 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 " The party were much amused, and the canon 
 told the goatherd that it was useless to oppose a 
 female, who would as such always have her own 
 way. * Come, do not be angry, but eat and drink 
 with us, and let the wayward creature have her 
 will,' offering him at the same time the hind 
 quarter of a cold rabbit on the point of a fork. 
 The goatherd thanked him and accepted the offer, 
 and then, being in a better temper, he said: * Do 
 not think me a fool, gentlemen, for talking seriously 
 to this animal, for, in truth, my words are not with- 
 out meaning, and though I am a rustic I know the 
 difference between conversing with men and beasts.' 
 ' I doubt it not,' said the priest, * indeed, it is well 
 known that the mountains breed learned men, and 
 the huts of the shepherds contain philosophers.' 
 
 "'At least, sir,' said the goatherd, 'they contain 
 men who have some knowledge gained from ex- 
 perience.' " 
 
 Later, when Sancho recovered his lost ass which 
 Ginesillo had stolen, seeing the latter riding on the 
 lost friend, he cried: "Ah, rogue, leave me my 
 darling, let go my life, rob me not of my comfort, 
 quit my sweetheart, leave my delight, fly, rapscal- 
 lion, fly; get you gone, thief, give up what is not 
 your own." 
 
 So much railing was needless, for at the first 
 words Ginesillo dismounted in a trice, and, taking 
 to his heels, was out of sight in a moment. Sancho 
 ran to his Dapple, and, embracing him, said: "How 
 hast thou fared, my dearest Dapple, delight of my 
 eyes, my sweet companion?" Then he kissed and 
 caressed him as if he had been a human creature. 
 
MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA I 99 
 
 The ass held his peace, and suffered himself to be 
 thus kissed and caressed by Sancho without answer- 
 ing one word. This affection for our humble com- 
 panions and for the animal creation is a special 
 feature of our own day. 
 
 But now I must bid farewell to the Knight of 
 the Sorrowful Figure, conscious that I have but 
 touched the fringe of his robes, and unworthy to 
 do that His name is the mark of every foolish ven- 
 ture that is bound to fail, but perhaps it should be 
 noticed that not quite every foolish venture is called 
 quixotic, but only those that are for some worthy 
 cause. Therefore, in spite of all that is ridiculous 
 in our associations with this name, there is still 
 something half-sublime which lurks among them. 
 Life may pass away for us mainly in getting and 
 spending, but few people die before they have been 
 brought face to face with action that is not for 
 themselves; it may be at home, it may be on the 
 battle-field. Few will live their lives through with- 
 out at some time giving, and giving gladly, with 
 no expectation of any return, and where this is 
 done for a worthy end the spirit of chivalry is not 
 far off, and where it is done, as it often is done, for 
 an end which onlookers can see to be out of all 
 proportion to the sacrifice, there appears the very 
 spirit of Don Quixote itself. May <it never die! 
 When it does, mankind will indeed be without 
 hope. " Study well these books," as Don Quixote 
 says, " for, believe me, you will find that they ex- 
 hilarate and improve your mind. Of myself I can 
 say, that since I have been a knight-errant I am 
 become valiant, polite, liberal, well-bred, generous, 
 
200 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 courteous, daring, affable, patient, a sufferer of 
 toils, imprisonments, and enchantments." This 
 noble recklessness is well summed up by our New 
 Forest poet, with certain of whose verses I will 
 conclude: 
 
 " You will carry the flag, the old torn rag, 
 You will carry the flag to the fore. 
 Mid the press and the strain and the deadly rain, 
 Where our fathers passed of yore. 
 
 " You will stand by the flag when faint hearts fly, 
 And the best that you have you'll give. 
 For the men who have learnt for a cause to die 
 Are the men who learn to live." 
 
AN EXPERIMENT 
 IN SCHOOL GARDENING 
 
 THE SCHOOL GARDENS AT THE BOSCOMBE 
 BRITISH SCHOOL 
 
 STARTING A SCHOOL GARDEN 
 
 There are two ways of setting boys to work at 
 gardening. They may either cultivate a plot in 
 common, or each boy may be provided with a plot 
 of his own. The latter plan is the better, because 
 it offers superior educational advantages. If, for 
 example, a boy is one of a group cultivating a 
 garden, he cannot know for certain what is the 
 effect of his share in the work. It is only when 
 a boy is sole master of a plot of his own that he 
 can be sure what the results of his efforts really are 
 — whether meritorious or defective. 
 
 THE OBJECTS OF SCHOOL GARDENING 
 
 A school garden must not be treated as though 
 it were an allotment. The difference is important, 
 because, if it is ignored, the school garden may 
 prove a pecuniary success but an educational 
 failure. The owner of an allotment naturally seeks 
 to make the greatest commercial profit out of 
 his parcel of land. In the school garden, on the 
 other hand, the boys have partly to receive instruc- 
 tion in the rudiments of the gardener's craft, ac- 
 cording to the best methods, and partly to find 
 
202 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 illustrations for their lessons in natural science, 
 and to make practical application of them. In 
 an allotment the owner often finds it pay better 
 to grow one or two kinds of crops, either for the 
 sake of the demand for them in his market, or 
 because the soil is best suited for them. The 
 school-boy should learn how to raise a variety of 
 crops, and will benefit educationally as much by 
 failure as success. Indeed, where the conditions of 
 soil and climate are so favourable that, be the gar- 
 dening good or bad, the crop is always forthcoming, 
 though the undertaking may prove a greater com- 
 mercial success, yet as an educational exercise it 
 will have less value than where nature is unkindly 
 and hard to subdue. 
 
 Again, the object of a school garden is certainly 
 not to put boys as apprentices to gardening. Some 
 boys, no doubt, who learn gardening will become 
 gardeners in a professional way when they grow 
 older, but it would be wholly out of place in school 
 unless it served a general purpose as well as having 
 a technical aim. 
 
 SCHOOL GARDENS ARE A PART OF GENERAL AS 
 WELL AS TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 A very slight acquaintance with modern text- 
 books and their readers, whether dealing of the 
 farm, or the garden, or the home, is sufficient to 
 show that while many of the plain facts of modern 
 science are assumed by the writers to be matters 
 of general knowledge, most of the readers continue 
 to regard such facts as outside their province and 
 
SCHOOL GARDENING 20$ 
 
 belonging to the peculiar domain of men of science. 
 
 Now, some knowledge of the nature of a few of 
 the chief gases and other elements is really indis- 
 pensable for the farmer, the gardener, and house- 
 wife, and it may be acquired in more ways than 
 one. While a girl may study it in connection with 
 cooking and cleaning, a boy may have it brought 
 home to him in connection with a garden plot. 
 The kind of experiments which may be made and 
 studied with advantage in connection with school 
 gardens are described in Laurie's Food of Plants 
 (Macmillan), and in an extremely practical and 
 suggestive paper by the Professor of Botany in 
 the Durham College of Science, Mr. M. C. Potter, 
 which was published in the Record of the Associa- 
 tion for Promoting Technical and Secondary Edu- 
 cation. Mr. J. H. Crawford published in Natural 
 Science (July, 1892), a plan for making an agri- 
 cultural museum, which offers valuable suggestions 
 for associating practical garden work with the 
 study of elementary science in the class-room. 
 
 The result of this combined indoor and outdoor 
 instruction will be to spread a much-needed type 
 of general as well as technical knowledge. The 
 rising generation will learn what is the true nature 
 of an experiment, what are the methods of modern 
 science, in what way observations are made and 
 inferences drawn from them, what are the sources 
 of error, and how it comes about that a merely 
 practical man may as easily underrate as overrate 
 the researches of the laboratory. 
 
204 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 THE DIVISION OF THE GROUND 
 
 (i) Size, Shape, and Arrangement of the 
 Individual Plots 
 
 Each boy, then, should have a plot to himself, 
 and in the Boscombe School gardens there are 
 plots for twelve boys. The plots must not be too 
 large, because the boys cannot work more than two 
 afternoons a week. The shape, again, is important, 
 because it is desirable that the boys should be able 
 to perform much of their gardening while standing 
 on the paths between the plots, instead of having 
 to step on the border for every operation. The 
 plots, therefore, measure thirty feet in length, and 
 are only ten feet in width. The four corners of each 
 plot are carefully marked by substantial squared 
 pegs firmly driven into the ground. Each plot is 
 numbered, and the numbers are written clearly and 
 boldly on the face of the pegs. 
 
 The longer axis of each plot extends in the 
 direction of east to west, and the width is in the 
 direction of north to south. This arrangement 
 facilitates the cropping. The vegetables are 
 planted in rows across the plots, from north to 
 south, because this plan gives them the best 
 chance of thriving. Each particular kind of vege- 
 table is planted in the same line right across all 
 the plots, so that although in the separate plots 
 the rows are short, being only ten feet long, yet, 
 when the whole set of plots is looked at in one 
 view, the vegetables are seen to be planted in long 
 rows extending right across the garden in regular 
 
SCHOOL GARDENING 205 
 
 lines from the north boundary to the south. The 
 conaparative success of each boy is thus apparent. 
 
 THE CROPPING OF A PLOT 
 
 I will now describe the first cropping of one of 
 the plots. All the others were cropped in the 
 same way. A succession of late autumn and 
 winter vegetables was arranged to follow. 
 
 Broad beans. 
 
 Hollow crown parsnips. 
 
 White Spanish onions. 
 
 Bedfordshire champion onion. 
 
 Radishes. 
 
 Lettuce (two rows — cos and cabbage). 
 
 Potatoes (three rows — early, medium, and late). 
 
 Brussels sprouts. 
 
 Cauliflower. 
 
 James' intermediate carrot. 
 
 Shorthorn carrot. 
 
 Pineapple beet. 
 
 Cabbage (Wheeler). 
 
 Drumhead savoy. 
 
 Autumn cauliflower (Veitch's Autumn Giant). 
 
 Scarlet runners. 
 
 The scarlet runners were planted on the side 
 next the road, and served as a screen against the 
 depredations of roughs and idlers, who, in the 
 absence of the boys, would occasionally steal their 
 best vegetables. 
 
 (2.) Other Plots for Working in Common 
 Besides the ground which was taken up by the 
 
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 PLAN OF SINGLE PLOt 
 

 
 
 
 
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 GENERAL PLAN OF SCHOOL GARDEN. 
 
2o8 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 twelve plots and the paths between them, the en- 
 closure contained space for two other purposes. 
 
 {a.) Along the south side there was a border, 
 about one hundred feet in length and ten 
 in width, for growing certain vegetables 
 which did not lend themselves readily to 
 separate treatment in the twelve plots, such 
 as asparagus, marrow, and seakale. Here, 
 too, were planted several pot-herbs, such as 
 thyme, sage, marjoram, &c., and also seed- 
 lings to be pricked out later in the other 
 plots, such as lettuce, celery, leeks, sprouts, 
 and cabbage. 
 
 (b.) At the east end of the ground there was 
 space for four plots of the same size as the 
 twelve others — namely, thirty feet by ten — 
 in which certain fruit-trees were planted, 
 including standard apples, pears, and plums, 
 and also such bush fruit as currants, goose- 
 berries, and raspberries. Room was also 
 found for some tomatoes, a strawberry bed, 
 and a few herbaceous flowers, by way of 
 ornament, and some roses. In the north- 
 east corner a small frame, six feet by four 
 feet, was placed for the purpose of growing 
 seedlings, which might thus be preserved 
 through the winter for early spring plant- 
 ing. In these plots the boys learnt how to 
 bud roses, to train fruit-trees, and to make 
 grafts in different ways. 
 
SCHOOL GARDENING 209 
 
 CARE OF TOOLS 
 
 The ground was enclosed by a barbed -wire 
 fencing, which was stretched upon strong posts. 
 Inside this fence was planted a privet hedge, in 
 which were set at intervals a few trees, such as 
 poplars, maple, birch, and ash. 
 
 At the gate of the enclosure a wooden hut was 
 built for the accommodation of the tools and seeds. 
 It is made of tarred boards, with a corrugated-iron 
 roof In its dimensions it is nine feet square, and 
 its height at the back is nine feet, sloping towards 
 the front to six feet, where the entrance is made. 
 The floor is paved with brick, and suitable shelves 
 are provided. Each plot has a set of tools assigned 
 to it, and each tool is numbered to correspond with 
 the plot to which it belongs. Each set of tools 
 hangs from a peg, which is numbered in corres- 
 pondence with the tools. The boys are taught to 
 keep their tools scrupulously clean by aid of lin- 
 seed oil and paraffin, and to put them away in an 
 orderly manner after using them. 
 
 LIST OF TOOLS 
 
 The following is a list of the tools which are 
 provided for each plot. The sizes given are 
 adapted to boys' use: — 
 
 I Dutch hoe (four-inch). 
 
 I Draw hoe (four-inch). 
 
 I Fork (four-prong). 
 
 I Spade (seven inches wide and eleven inches long). 
 
 I Rake (ten-comb). 
 
 (M930) O 
 
310 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 Besides these there are other tools for common 
 use. The following is a list of them: — 
 
 List of tools to be used in common. 
 
 I Besom. 
 
 1 Mallet. 
 
 2 Wheelbarrows. 
 
 1 Water-can. 
 
 2 Boat-baskets. 
 
 4 Lines, sixty feet in length. 
 
 The plans on pages 206, 207, show the details 
 of the arrangements which have been described. 
 
 THE EFFECTS OF GOOD AND BAD GARDENING 
 CONTRASTED 
 
 The soil was of the worst possible description, 
 consisting of almost pure gravel. The boys had 
 obviously to overcome natural difficulties. Culti- 
 vation was commenced by trenching to a depth of 
 two feet, which involves digging out three spits. 
 Stable manure was applied somewhat liberally at 
 the bottom of the trench. The summer of 1896 
 was very dry, but, owing to this "bastard" trench- 
 ing, although there was no artificial watering, the 
 fine growth of the crops in these plots as compared 
 with the scanty show in neighbouring gardens, 
 where there was far less labour expended, proved 
 the truth of the old saying, "justissima tellus", for 
 the honest earth well repaid all the toil. The pro- 
 duce of the gardens received certificates of merit at 
 more than one horticultural show. The contrast 
 between the results of good and bad gardening 
 
SCHOOL GARDENING 211 
 
 forms a most telling object-lesson, and the differ- 
 ence in the crops, according as the boys are more 
 or less skilful, or as they are careful or careless, is 
 well demonstrated by the arrangement of the rows 
 of vegetables which cross the plots in a straight line. 
 In the report of the Woburn Fruit Farm for 1897 
 (Longmans), a method is described of making ap- 
 proximate measurements of the comparative loss 
 of growth which is due to neglect and bad method. 
 The instructor of the Boscombe School gardens, 
 who is himself a nurseryman, is attempting to 
 teach the boys to practise the method of measure- 
 ment there described. 
 
 THE YOUNG GARDENER'S DIARY AND ACCOUNT- 
 BOOK 
 
 The boys are taught to make rough notes on the 
 ground, recording the operations of each day, the 
 dates of planting seeds, and the names of the sorts 
 selected. Hints are added as to the distance be- 
 tween the rows of plants, and also between the 
 plants in a row, and a record is made of the kind 
 of manure which is used, and other matters. A 
 daily record of the weather is kept, and the amount 
 of rainfall observed and noted. The notes are 
 afterwards worked up in a systematic form, and 
 serve as a gardener's diary of great value for future 
 use, when in later life the boys do some gardening 
 of their own. 
 
 A few extracts from one of these diaries are here 
 subjoined : — 
 
212 EDUCATIONAL STUDIES 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM BOY'S GARDENING DIARY 
 
 " March 1 5. — Sowing onion seed. White Spanish 
 and Bedfordshire Champion. One row of 
 each, one foot apart; made drill about three 
 inches deep; after sowing the seed, raked 
 the soil over them and patted it down with 
 the spade. 
 
 "March 22. — Trenching and manuring. The 
 broad beans and peas are showing above- 
 ground. 
 
 " March 23, 26, 29. — Trenching, manuring, and 
 weeding. 
 
 "April 2. — Finished trenching on all the plots 
 to-day. Edging and weeding paths. 
 
 " May 14. — Sowed one row of cabbage lettuce in 
 the experimental plot. Dressed the cabbage 
 plants with four different kinds of artificial 
 manure, namely — 
 
 Two rows with nitrate of soda. 
 Two rows of nitrate silicate. 
 Two rows with native guano. 
 One row with ichthemic guano." 
 
 ACCOUNT-BOOKS 
 
 Each boy sold the produce of his own plot, and 
 the money so earned was brought to the instructor, 
 who received it and entered the amount in an 
 account -book, reserving a separate page for each 
 plot Each boy also kept an account-book of his 
 own, so that he might feel sure that he received 
 his proper share. The money is divided, and one- 
 
SCHOOL GARDENING 213 
 
 half is devoted to the purchase of seeds for the 
 next season, while the other half is given to the 
 boys in proportion to their earnings. In this way- 
 some boys earned as much as eight shillings in the 
 year, while the average was about six shillings. 
 
 In conclusion, I may add that a year's garden 
 work had a strikingly beneficial effect upon the 
 growth and physical development of the boys who 
 had thus done their part to carry out the somewhat 
 neglected instruction to man to go forth "and till 
 the ground from whence he was taken". 
 
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