Arthur Eaton 
 
THE' 
 
 DYNAMICAL THEORY 
 
 FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 BY 
 
 ARCHIBALD TUCKER RITCHIE. 
 
 " Through faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the 
 Word of God ; so that things which are seen were not made of things 
 which do appear." 
 
 HEBREWS xi. 3. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 
 PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 
 MDCCCL. 
 
GRKENWICII: PHIXTK1) BY W. II. CllOCKFORD. 
 
CONTENTS OF VOL. I. 
 
 Theorems Nos. 1 to 10 relating to Astronomy. Nos. 11 and 12 to Geo- 
 graphy. Nos. 13 to 37 to Geology. Nos. 38 to 44 to Light. Nos. 
 45 to 50 to Light and Light and Heat. Nos. 51 to 55 to Physics. 
 Nos. 56 to 58 to the Atomic Theory, Radiation, and Evaporation. 
 Nos. 59 to 66 to Electricity and Magnetism. Nos. 67 to 82 to Me- 
 chanics and Dynamics. No. 83 to Friction. Nos. 84 to 88 and 94 
 to Meteorology. Nos. 89 to 93 and 95 to 97 to Fluids, Liquids, and 
 Evaporation. Nos. 98 to 104 to Earths and Soils. Nos. 105 to 108 
 to Ores, Metals, and Native Salts. Nos. Ill to 112 to Crystalliza- 
 tion. Nos. 113 to 124 to Botany. Nos. 125 to 127 to Fossil Botany. 
 No. 128 to Vegetable Decomposition. Nos. 129 to 137 to the 
 Animal Kingdom. Nos. 138 and 139 to Animal Respiration and 
 Decomposition 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Preliminary Observations. Subject of Argument in the present Section. 
 Early Conception of a Principle of Limitation involved in the Mosaic 
 Record. " The Moving Thing that hath Life." Definition of the 
 Living Principle. Faint Line of Separation between Vegetable and 
 Animal Vitality. Difference determined; and also that between 
 Vertebrate and Invertebrate Animals. The former accurately de- 
 fined and described for the purpose of being eliminated from the 
 argument. The same method adopted with respect to certain Mol- 
 lusca, Articulata, and Radiata. Apulmonic Tribes of animals defined 
 generally. Described particularly and very fully, and confirmed by 
 general testimony. Enquiry into the supposed Nature and Habits 
 of the Extinct Races of Inferior Animals. Evidences of the Extinction 
 of their Races, and of the successive Creation of others. The De- 
 sign and Object of their Temporary Existence briefly alluded to, 
 with a view to resume, and dwell, in the sequel, upon both of these 
 points 78 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Review of the progress made in the previous Chapter. Followed up by 
 exhibiting the description of Fossil Animal Remains which have 
 been discovered in the older formations. Consolidated Lists of their 
 Exuviae from the Chalk downwards. General Notices respecting 
 the same. The whole compared with the Animal Remains which, 
 by dependance on Scripture, might have been expected to have been 
 disembedded from the older Strata, and found substantially, and 
 with few exceptions, to correspond. Some Explanations respecting 
 the points of disagreement. Remains of Vertebrate Animals disco- 
 vered in localities supposed to belong to the Formations of the Anti- 
 rotatory Period .127 
 
 690915 
 
IV. CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Adaptation of the Apulmonic Invertebrate Animals to the state of the 
 creation previous to the Earth's rotation around its axis. Origin of 
 Calcareous Rocks, and the influential part which the primitive Ani- 
 mal Organisms performed in producing them. Increase of these 
 rocks in an ascending series. Evidences for their existence deduced 
 from geological writers. And a summary of the subjects treated of 
 in this section, with an application of the whole to the progressive 
 development of the Dynamical Theory 152 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The subject of argument of this Section stated. The Vegetation of the 
 Non-rotatory period neither flowering nor of seed-bearing plants. 
 Striking analogy in this respect to the apulmonic creatures which 
 were the subject of the previous Section, pointing to a common 
 cause ; and, therefore, requiring to be treated in a similar manner. 
 The Dicotyledonous class of plants fully described. The Monocoty- 
 ledonous also minutely characterised, and both of these great divisions 
 eliminated from the argument as having been formed during the 
 Mosaic week. These, however, not comprising the entire Vegetable 
 Kingdom, leave the Acotyledons as a residue, which are considered 
 to have been willed into existence during the period of non- rotation. 
 This latter class closely delineated, and their functions particularized 185 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Summary application of what has been established in the foregoing Chap- 
 ter. DICOTYLEDONS comprehend all plants " bearing fruit whose 
 seed is in itself upon the earth." MONOCOTYLEDONS embrace " the 
 herbs yielding seed." But the Vegetable Kingdom being examined 
 into, a third description of plants is discovered, bearing neither 
 flowers, fruits, nor seeds, called ACOTYLEDONS, and these are sup- 
 posed to have been created during the non-rotatory period. Lists 
 of Fossil Plants, given in corroboration, from the chalk formation 
 downwards, and from two distinct sources from Geological writers, 
 and from the works of Fossil Botanists. General observations con- 
 firmatory of these lists. Brief explanations respecting vestiges of 
 flowering plants occasionally included in the foregoing lists. Review 
 of the progress made thus far. Adaptation of the imperfect, flower- 
 less plants to the state of the creation during the anti-rotatory period ; 
 and their capability of having grown and propagated in a submerged 
 condition confirmed, by contrast with the incapability of flowering 
 plants to have existed without either light, atmosphere, or dry land 216 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The assumed condition of the primitive vegetation compared with Botani- 
 cal descriptions of Cryptogamous plants. Characters and habitats of 
 these given in detail, and found to coincide with the supposed state 
 of the submerged vegetation of the anti-rotatory period. Motives 
 for supposing that there was only one general elevation of the ter- 
 raine portion of the earth. The absence, in lists of fossil flora, of 
 certain orders of Acotyledonous plants accounted for. Capability of 
 plants growing in the waters of the primeval ocean, although this 
 held in solution saline materials , 247 
 
CONTENTS. V. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Another brief review of the progress made, and its application to the de- 
 velopment of the general argument. Adaptation of the Plants of the 
 non-rotatory period to the state of creation during that epoch. 
 Fronds and folliacious appendages of Cryptogam es described con- 
 trasted with the respiratory expansions of Phanogames ; and the de- 
 sign of the former being demonstrated, they are shown to be in 
 harmony with the effects which the flowerless plants were intended 
 to produce, namely, absorption from the surrounding water, reten- 
 tion of carbonic acid, and deposition, by their roots, to assist in 
 forming the carboniferous strata. Short concluding observation: 
 the continuity with which the subject has been traced to the present 
 convergent point 269 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The subject of argument of the present Section succinctly stated. Depo- 
 sition of the stratified masses. Proof that the materials which com- 
 pose the strata existed in the primeval ocean. The Earth accurately 
 weighed before the deposition commenced, and after it ceased, and 
 found, in either case, to be the same. In contin era! 
 
 sources of doubt respecting the origin of the strata removed, and 
 clearly shown that underneath the stratified masses of the Earth's 
 crust there is an impervious base of amorphous crystalline rock. 
 Order of superposition laid down, in accordance with the classifica- 
 tion of M. de la. Beche. Table given, and corroborated by general 
 extracts. Wherever the surface of the Earth has been geologically 
 examined it is found to have been, at one time, submerged in the 
 waters of the ocean. And, in conclusion of this Chapter, that all 
 stratified rocks afford evidence of having been deposited from water 304 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Further inferences respecting the existence of the elements of the strata 
 in the primitive ocean ; and of the crystalline base on which they 
 universally repose. Attendant circumstance of the Earth in perfect 
 accordance with the work of deposition then going on. Character 
 and component elements of the lower stratified, or non-fossiliferous 
 rocks, given with the design of showing that their elements existed 
 in the primitive menstruum. Endeavours to describe the process by 
 which these elements were abstracted from the water with which 
 they were thus combined. The immediate influence of the luni-solar 
 current exemplified by the theory of the tides. Geological con- 
 struction of the iion-fosiliferous rocks confusedly crystalline. Their 
 specific gravity given, and the influence of attraction in their forma- 
 tion. Aqueous crystallization, and the predominating influence 
 which it exercised at this early stage of the creation. Capacity of 
 water for becoming chemically impregnated with mineral elements 
 shown and corroborated by the waters of Carlsbad and other mineral 
 springs. Chemical affinity; its universality and influence. Brief 
 summary in conclusion of this, as a preparation for succeeding 
 Chapters 329 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Position assumed, that the primeval water was chemically saturated with 
 the mineral elements of the strata ; and could, therefore, according 
 
VI. CONTENTS. 
 
 to the laws of affinity, arrive at a static condition of chemical equili- 
 brium. To produce" any change of this state there must have been 
 the intervention of a power beyond materialism, and the employ- 
 ment of an agency exempted from the law of gravitation. Aqueous 
 crystallization apparently the first means made use of to produce that 
 change by the Creator : evidences of this discoverable in the earlier 
 strata. Animal and vegetable vitality next introduced to continue 
 the same effect. Wisdom shown by the sequence of these agencies, 
 and their influence on the progressive work of the creation. The 
 vast extent and depth of the calcareous formations. Beneficence in 
 the design of the relative position which these hold in the order of 
 superposition. The mineral elements how dissolved and held in 
 combination by the primitive menstruum and their affinities; how 
 they operated in causing deposition when the general equilibrium 
 was disturbed by aqueous crystallization, and by animal and vege- 
 table life. The wise adaptation of these constraining agencies to over- 
 come chemical affinities, and to form substances which otherwise 
 would have been injurious to future life. In conclusion, animal 
 death, and the effects produced by the gaseous exhalations arising 
 from their decomposition 362 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The consequence of the introduction of any new element into chemical 
 compounds of numerous ingredients. Evidences to show that clays, 
 sandstones, and shales are composed of the same materials, which 
 are assumed to have been held in solution by the primitive ocean. 
 Chemical agency in the formation of the Old Red Sandstone. Geo- 
 logical evidence for the existence of extensive stratified masses of 
 clays, sandstones, and shales underneath the Coal Measures. The 
 succession of animal life during the period alluded to clearly deduced 
 from the progressive change of the primitive ocean, and confirmed 
 by the results of geological research. Wisdom of the arrangement 
 which placed calcareous strata underneath the coal deposits, and 
 between the latter and the igneous rocks which were ejected, amidst 
 such intense heat, arising from the friction occasioned by the proto- 
 rotation of the earth around its axis 401 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Prefatory observations respecting the universal warmth which prevailed 
 in the water of the non-rotating sphere. Chemical action the prin- 
 cipal secondary agency employed in producing that result. Effects 
 of animal and vegetable vitality again alluded to. The consequences 
 arising also from the death and decomposition of animals and plants 
 particularly investigated with reference to the purification of the 
 ancient ocean ; more especially the effects of ammoniacal exhalations 
 arising from the putrefaction of animal remains. Geological data, 
 and actual results adduced in corroboration. The "blending" arid 
 the "thinning out" of the strata attempted to be accounted for by 
 the Dynamical Theory. And, in conclusion, an endeavour to ex- 
 plain, according to the same principles, by what means the primitive 
 ocean changed its character from turbid, fresh water, to the saline 
 and pellucid seas of the present period 420 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Prefatory observations. Condition of the earth during the period alluded 
 to. Introduction of Light into the material universe. Contrast 
 
CONTENTS. Vll. 
 
 between the prolonged operations of the non-rotatory period, and 
 the sudden completion of the work of creation during the Mosaic 
 week. The relative qualities of Light its cuasi-ubiquity, expansion 
 through visible space, velocity of propagation, and vividity. Heat 
 the cause of expansion in material bodies. The source of external 
 Light and Heat received by the Earth. Identity of these two subtile 
 influences. Sun-light the direct cause of Heat. Attraction and Ex- 
 pansion the antagonistic forces which maintain all matter in its con- 
 stitutional state of equilibrium. Deduction from these facts, that 
 Darkness, in the language of Genesis, means Attraction. Philolo- 
 gical and scientific analogies in favour of the same conclusion . 461 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Explanation as to the possibility of the Earth and other planets, with their 
 respective satellites having, in accordance with astronomical laws, 
 revolved in space around the common centre of the system, long 
 previous to the illumination of the sun. Further proofs that Dark- 
 ness, in the language of Genesis, implies Attraction. Consequence 
 of this fact upon the development of our Theory. Existence of the 
 primeval Light before it was divided from the Darkness, and the im- 
 portant bearing of this truth on the subject under discussion. A few 
 concluding observations on the subjects treated of in this chapter . 488 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Some of the immediate effects of the Light with reference to its dynami- 
 cal power. During the first three days it was not concentrated 
 around the Sun, consequently different from the light at present 
 received. The expansive influence of Light and Heat act in oppo- 
 sition to Attraction. The repulsive power of Light investigated and 
 established. The introduction of Light into the material universe 
 equal to the introduction of a new/orce. Laws of force and motion 
 investigated with reference to this event. Expansion being a force, 
 and the bodies of the solar system being incapable of expanding 
 beyond their prescribed orbits, they must have expended or met this 
 new force by rotation around their respective axis show that the Earth 
 has a double movement in space, and that the diurnal rotation is 
 perfectly independent of the periodical revolution around the Sun. 
 Scriptural corroborations of these important conclusions. Sunlight 
 the residue of the primary light. Evidences to prove the enormous 
 amount of Heat and Light which come from the Sun, and the appli- 
 cation of this to our general argument 501 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Geological Phenomena in proof of the Earth's period of Non-rotation, 
 divided into external and internal evidences, the former consisting of 
 abstract mechanical laws applied to geological manifestations. Cen- 
 trifugal impetus, engendered by rotation, the admitted cause of the 
 equatorial protuberance of the Earth, and of the oblate form of other 
 planets of our system. Geographical data in corroboration of the 
 former assumption. Internal or geological evidences to the same 
 effect. Origin of Continental Ridges and of Oceanic Hollows. 
 Mechanical-dynamic Laws brought forward to account for the ele- 
 vation of the horizontal concentric strata of the non-rotating sphere. 
 Their change of position, and the vast extension of surface occa- 
 sioned by the spherical earth having been suddenly transformed into 
 a spheroid of rotation 527 
 
Vlii. CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Geological evidences required for the application of the dynamical in- 
 fluences of protorotation. Relative thinness of the earth's crust 
 when compared with its semi-diameter. The existence of this 
 " outer shell" of the earth established. Relative densities of the 
 materials composing the amorphous, and the stratified formations of 
 which it consists. Concluding deduction from these investigations 
 that the relative distances from the centre of gyration being con- 
 sidered equal, the greater density of the older amorphous masses 
 would occasion their being impelled further from the centre ; and 
 consequently cause them to perforate, or to raise up the superincum- 
 bent or lighter strata, when the whole concentric mineral envelope 
 of the non-rotating sphere burst asunder and became transformed 
 into continental ridges, oceanic hollows, hill and dale, by the centri- 
 fugal impetus of the Earth's protorotation, occasioned by the intro- 
 duction of the Light and its division from the Darkness . . 539 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Introductor advertencies. Modification, according to latitudinal zones, 
 of the dynamical influence of the Earth's first diurnal motion. 
 Several distinct effects which proceeded coevally from the centrifu- 
 gal impetus engendered by protorotation. Evidences of this having 
 taken place after the stratiform masses had been deposited and 
 become indurated, deducible from the diversified surfaces assumed 
 by the terraine and by the aqueous portions of the Earth, as co- 
 results of the same cause. Evidences to the same effect derived 
 from the great continental ridges and oceanic depressions of the 
 globe. And finally, the strong testimony which these geological and 
 geographical manifestations, together with the filling up of the equa- 
 torial inequalities with deep and widely-spread masses of travelled, 
 mineral debris and earthy matter, bear to the correctness of the 
 Dynamical Theory 549 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FORMATION OF THE EARTH, 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 SCRIPTURAL EVIDENCES AND SCIENTIFIC THEOREMS. 
 
 Theorems Nos. 1 to 10 relating to Astronomy. Nos. 11 and 12 to Geography. 
 Nos. 13 to 37 to Geology. Nos. 38 to 44 to Light. Nos. 45 to 50 to Light and , 
 Light and Heat. Nos. 51 to 55 to Physics. Nos. 56 to 58 to the Atomic 
 Theory, Radiation, and Evaporation. Nos. 59 to 66 to Electricity and 
 Magnetism. Nos. 67 to 82 to Mechanics and Dynamics. No. 83 to Fric- 
 tion. Nos. 84 to 88 and 94 to Meteorology. Nos. 89 to 93 and 95 to 97 
 to Fluids, Liquids, and Evaporation. Nos. 98 to 104 to Earths and Soils. 
 Nos. 105 to 108 to Ores, Metals, and Native Salts. Nos. Ill to 112 to 
 Crystallization. Nos. 113 to 124 to Botany. Nos. 125 to 127 to Fossil 
 Botany. No. 128 to Vegetable Decomposition. Nos. 129 to 137 to the 
 Animal Kingdom. Nos. 138 and 139 to Animal Respiration and Decom- 
 position. 
 
 MANY years have elapsed since the fundamental principles 
 of the Cosmographical Theory, whose development occupies 
 the following pages, presented themselves to our mind. 
 
 Some of these have been passed under a tropical sky, and 
 others in the more cloudy and sombre regions of our native 
 land ; vicissitudes of circumstances, and changes in life, and, 
 consequent thereon, variations of mental habitudes have inter- 
 vened indeed, have intentionally been permitted to intervene 
 until the undeniable effects of time warn us to postpone no 
 longer in order that, by every possible test, we might prove 
 the soundness of the remarkable but indestructible conclusion 
 to which our earlier studies had led us namely, THAT THE 
 
 EARTH DTD NOT ALWAYS ROTATE AROUND ITS AXIS. 
 
2 . -: /;: :DVNAMIQAL THEORY OF THE 
 .t s*5.^i**" :*.*:** 
 
 In estimating the probable effect which the announcement 
 of this truth is likely to produce on the minds of others, 
 especially of those whose attention may not have been directed 
 to the studies which are indispensable for due preparation, we 
 have considered that, naturally, as much, probably much 
 greater, reluctance will be experienced by them in admitting 
 this truth than what we ourselves experienced when first it 
 presented itself to our imagination when we even shrunk 
 from it as if it had been a monstrous lie, seeking to insinuate 
 itself amongst the simpler and more obvious lessons which we 
 had been taught by philosophy ! 
 
 The remembrance of these impressions, and of the anxiety 
 which we then experienced when called upon, by its importu- 
 nate recurrence, to make our election to admit it at once, or 
 to thrust it away from us entirely induces us, now, to be very 
 considerate when similar prejudices arise in the minds of others ; 
 and in all our arguments, to select the evidences which we may 
 have occasion to bring forward, so as to remove every obstacle, 
 and to make the way clear for the reception of this important 
 truth, and of all those others, which, as natural consequences, 
 emanate from it ; while, on the other hand, we trust that 
 henceforward the erroneous dogma of rotation ab initio, with all 
 the grievous errors into which it has led us, and has been the 
 means of perpetuating, may be entirely swept away, never to 
 re-appear. 
 
 Withal, we are fully aware that it is extremely difficult for 
 the inhabitants of a world, wheeled round by its diurnal motion 
 through space, and constrained to take this elementary motion 
 into all their calculations, to believe that it was not always so 
 that there once was a period of non-rotation. 
 
 Those, who from the moment they open their eyes on this 
 fair earth, perceive the light of the sun, and grow up under 
 its cheering and fostering influences, will most reluctantly give 
 themselves up to the persuasion that there once was a time 
 a period of long duration, when the central orb afforded no 
 light, and when the earth recognised it only as the convergent 
 centre of attraction the great sustaining counterpoise which 
 enabled it to revolve through unillumined space. 
 
 It is no easy task to persuade mankind, that the sparkling, 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 3 
 
 briny seas, which are now so easily excited and lashed into 
 foam by the ambient atmosphere, were once a dark, unruffled 
 and atmosphereless mass of turgid waters, charged to repletion 
 with the mineral elements of those stony concretions which 
 now engirdle the terraqueous globe, and which have been 
 thrown up as barriers to restrain the very waters from whence 
 they themselves were deposited. 
 
 Nor is it a less arduous undertaking to convince those who 
 delight in the invigorating influences of the health-giving 
 atmosphere ; that, for ages, this sphere existed without so 
 indispensable a means of sustaining voluntary motion and 
 that myriads of apulmonic creatures, " more numerous than 
 the sands on the sea shore for multitudes," were all the while 
 employed as the humble and submissive agents of the Creator, 
 in producing one of its component elements ; in elaborating 
 that, without which no being, endowed with the faculty of loco- 
 motion, could either have breathed, moved, or lived. 
 
 All these, nevertheless, are truths : truths of the utmost 
 importance. Of this, the perusal of the following treatise can 
 hardly fail to convince every unbiased mind, even although 
 our relative position towards the world's inhabitants involves 
 the alternative, either that we are in a trance ; have been for 
 so many years enjoying the most soul-satisfying dream, whereby 
 the records of revelation have appeared to be at one with the 
 discoveries of science, and to have kept pace with these 
 wherever they have been made, where every closed lock seems 
 to undo, and every barred door to fly open at our approach, 
 and on the announcement, that there once was a period when 
 the earth had no rotation; or mankind, ont he contrary, have 
 been in a profound slumber, as regards this important fact, 
 for nearly six thousand years ! This is our true relation to 
 each other at the present moment. But it is full time that 
 the spell should be broken, and the rightful position of each 
 be justly determined. 
 
 With this intention, responsible as it is to stand against the 
 arrayed opinions of a whole world, we have resolved to be the 
 first to break this long-continued silence, and endeavour to 
 convince all mankind, that we have all the while been enter- 
 taining no day dream ; but that what we assert is a reality, and 
 
 B 2 
 
4 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 stands upon the authority of the immutable word of God, 
 from which, assisted by the discoveries of science, we can 
 derive the necessary data to prove, that during the period 
 called in Scripture " the beginning," THE EARTH HAD, IN 
 
 REALITY, NO ROTATION AROUND ITS AXIS. 
 
 With respect to the scientific evidences, we here take occa- 
 sion to premise what will very soon force itself upon the 
 reader's notice that they are entirely derived from the writ- 
 ings and the researches of others : whatever merit attaches to 
 them, belongs exclusively to their authors, not to us. We 
 are to be regarded merely as the mind through which these 
 matured truths have been made to pass ; and by which they 
 have been arranged, combined, and applied according as, we 
 believe, they were designed to be, by the plan of creation ; 
 traced out from all eternity ; progressively but slowly deve- 
 loped for many ages, but rapidly unrolled during the first 
 six days of the Mosaic week ; when the whole was finished, 
 and made a glorious and a perfect fabric, in which even the 
 all-searching eye of Omniscience could discover no defect, but 
 by Him was pronounced to be " good." 
 
 The jeweller pretends neither to have made the orient 
 pearls, nor to have formed or discovered the sparkling gems of 
 which his work consists. Their proper selection, their arrange- 
 ment, and the workmanship of studding them are alone his. 
 So we, in like manner, disclaim all pretension to be the makers 
 of those jewels of nature. Natural truths, which, like beau- 
 teous pearls, cannot be made by man ; although man's industry, 
 in either case, is required to bring the objects of his enter- 
 prize from underneath the depths to the light of day, to re- 
 move whatever conceals them, and to display them to the 
 admiration of the beholders. 
 
 Neither do we pretend to have discovered, to have wrought 
 up, or to have polished any of those radiant gems residuals 
 of ancient organisms which the intelligence and assiduity of 
 scientific naturalists have happily enabled them, in these latter 
 days, to find; and which they have with so much skill extri- 
 cated from the embedding rocks, and fitly framed together, 
 until they have stood forth in perfect truthfulness, in all their 
 endless variety of strange and uncouth forms; reflecting back 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 5 
 
 upon an astonished world the almost bewildering light of 
 antiquity ; of an incipient creation ! 
 
 To none of these achievements do we put forth any preten- 
 sion. But we do pretend to have discovered an ancient and a 
 massive crown once the glory of all from which, by neglect, 
 these beauteous gems and costly pearls have been allowed to 
 fall ; and to have found, besides, a casket containing abun- 
 dance of fine gold and of silver seven times purified, wherewith 
 to repair the crown, and to reset the jewels. And ever since 
 we made these discoveries, and have become their custodier, 
 we have wrought assiduously have given our eyes little sleep, 
 and our eyelids little slumber, while busied with the soul- 
 satisfying labour of endeavouring to furbish the crown ; to 
 replace those ornaments of inestimable value which conferred 
 upon it so much lustre ; and to restore it to all its former 
 splendour ! 
 
 One after one, as we took up and handled these radiant 
 jewels, and while we admired their beauty, we have sought 
 anxiously and prayerfully, that we might be directed to restore 
 it to that precise part from whence, in the lapse of ages, it 
 had fallen ; and as each jewel assumed its place, and com- 
 mingling in radiance, shed a lustre on every other, and toge- 
 ther displayed the full symmetry and beauty of the crown on 
 which they were thus inwrought, we have at length been made 
 to exclaim Behold how glorious ! How worthy of the great 
 Creator, who by His wondrous wisdom and His power did 
 frame and fashion them all at first ! 
 
 Before, however, we proceed to the development of our 
 cosmographical conceptions, or enter upon the intricacies of 
 argument, it may be conducive to give a short summary of 
 those principles of belief which will be found at the bottom 
 of them all ; and which, indeed, alike constitute their ground- 
 work, and support their subsequent superstructure. 
 
 We believe, in the first place, that the Bible contains a 
 revelation from God : and that " a revelation" is a discovery 
 by God to man of Himself that is, of His attributes, His 
 works, or His will, over and above what he has been pleased 
 to make known by the light of nature or reason. 
 
 We believe that, as no material thing is self-created, all 
 
6 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 must possess a condition which has not emanated from mate- 
 rialism, and, therefore, to attain a perfect knowledge of what- 
 ever the senses make known to us, we must, after receiving 
 all the answers which nature can give to our enquiries, appeal 
 to a source above and beyond it. For nature cannot answer 
 all the questions requisite to be put to it, in order to compre- 
 hend its objects thoroughly, and, having thus to apply to a 
 source beyond nature, we must appeal to the Bible ; the only 
 revelation from God the Creator. 
 
 We believe, besides, that the Bible can afford whatever 
 explanation is wanting, by the light of reason, for a perfect 
 comprehension of the works of creation ; that in it nothing 
 is overlooked, nor is thee in it -anything redundant ; and 
 that the words of the first chapter of Genesis detail, in the 
 only way in which man can be made to comprehend it, the 
 unfolding of the plan of creation devised from all eternity; 
 that these words embody NATURE'S CONSTITUTIONAL CODE, 
 which it cannot fail implicitly to obey ; and, therefore, to 
 understand it thoroughly, we must become acquainted with 
 them. We believe that whatever is mentioned in the first 
 chapter of Genesis as having been either created, made, sus- 
 pended, or changed by God, has from thenceforth become a 
 primary, permanent cause, with no intervening cause between 
 it and the Creator; and, therefore, all attempts to investigate 
 the unrelated or intimate nature or composition of such, must, 
 as a matter of course, prove entirely fruitless. That we can 
 know only what is revealed respecting it, and acquire an in- 
 timacy with its relative nature in respect to other material 
 substances around. 
 
 While, all results not directly mentioned in the first chapter 
 of Genesis, but which are implied, are secondary causes, ema- 
 nating themselves from primary causes, and together pro- 
 ducing those effects which, from their persistency, are termed 
 natural. And that all alike of whatever description origi- 
 nated from God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy 
 Spirit, " without whom was not anything made that is made." 
 
 We believe, that previous to the Mosaic week, and during 
 the protracted period called the beginning, God did create 
 certain substances, organic and inorganic, whose existence 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 7 
 
 (although they are not particularly described) is assumed, 
 and clearly inferred by the inspired historian in his subsequent 
 narrative. And, further, that during the six working days of 
 the Mosaic week, each day consisting of twenty -four natural 
 hours, these primary substances were wrought up, transformed, 
 or modified by the Creator into the varied objects which now 
 compose the material universe. 
 
 That while unfolding the numerous conceptions which have 
 conspired to produce the most prominent dogma of this theory, 
 namely, that during the period abovementioned, the Earth 
 had no rotation around its axis, we finally believe, that scien- 
 tific research has attained a state of perfection sufficient to 
 enable us, by judiciously blending its truths with those of 
 revelation, to produce such a system of cosmogancy as shall 
 entirely satisfy the human mind, as shall meet all its require- 
 ments, by convincing the understanding while it invigorates 
 our faith in the Word of God. 
 
 This desirable consummation has been all along the sole aim 
 and design of our undertaking. 
 
 To accomplish this we have, for many years, dedicated such 
 portions of our time and attention as could with propriety be 
 abstracted from more ordinary labours, and such as are usually 
 given up to recreation. We have striven, by all means in our 
 power, to infuse into these volumes every particle of know- 
 ledge which we either possess or can by possibility acquire. 
 In fine, we have done what we could for the cause of truth, 
 sacred and secular. With a willing heart and a sincere inten- 
 tion we have laid the results of our assiduous labours at the 
 feet of the Creator, and upon the altar of His word; and 
 while we deeply lament that we have not had it in our power 
 to present a more perfect or acceptable offering, we feel as- 
 sured that what we do present will neither be rejected, nor 
 will our hope be lost for "none ever were ashamed who 
 placed their confidence in God !" And we have, therefore, 
 now merely to desire, that we each may be blessed in the 
 execution of our respective duties: we, in endeavouring to 
 make plain what we have to say; the reader, in his endea- 
 vours to comprehend, to advantage, what we shall lay before 
 him. 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 The residue of this section will be dedicated to the princi- 
 ples upon which the Dynamical Theory is founded. The 
 general reader will understand, that they are intended merely 
 to be references for the elucidation of our subsequent dis- 
 course. We commence with the evidences from Scripture. 
 They are as follow : 
 
 " In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. 
 " And the earth was without form, and void ; and darkness 
 was upon the face of the deep : and the Spirit of God moved 
 upon the face of the waters." Gen. i. 1, 2. 
 
 Genesis ii. 4. xxiv. 3. 2 Kings xix. 15. 1 Chron. xvi. 26. xxix. 11. 
 
 2 Chron. ii. 12. Ezra v. 11, 12. Nehem. i. 5. ix. 6. Job x. 21, 22. 
 
 xxvi. 57. xxxviii. 47. Psalm viii. 3. xxiv. 1, 2. xxxiii. 6. Ixxxix. 
 
 11, 12. xcv. 35. xcvi. 5. cii. 2527. civ. 59. ex. 1, 2. cxi. 
 
 27. cxv. 15. cxxiv. 8. cxlviii. 16. Prov. viii. 2226. Isaiah 
 
 xlii. 5. xliii. 1015. xliv. 6. xlv. 57, 12, 18. xlvi. 59. xlviii. 
 
 18, 12, 13. Ii. 1216. Ixvi. 1, 2. Jer. x. 1013. xxiii. 24. xxvii. 
 
 5. xxxii. 17, 27. xxxiii. 2. Ii. 15, 16. Lam. v. 19. Ezek. xiv. 1221. 
 
 Dan. ii. 22. Zech. xii. 1. Mark xiii. 19. John i. 13. Acts iv. 24. 
 
 xv. 1821. xvii. 2226. Rom. i. 20. 1 Cor. ii. 10, 11. Col. i. 1217. 
 
 Heb. xi. 3. 2 Pet. iii. 5, 6. Rev. i. 8 11. x. 6. xiv. 7. 
 
 " And God said, Let there be light : and there was light. 
 "And God saw the light, that it was good : and God divided 
 the light from the darkness. 
 
 " And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called 
 Night. And the evening and the morning were the first 
 clay." Gen. 1-35. 
 
 Psalms Ixxiv. 16. civ. 2. Isa. xlv. 7. Jer. xxxiii. 2025. Ezek. 
 xiv. 1221. Dan. ii. 22. Amos iv. 13. v. 8. 2 Cor. iv. 6. Blair's 
 Chron. Tables, copper plate edition, p. 1, Sabbath 23d October, 4004 
 years B. C. 
 
 " And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of 
 the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. 
 
 " And God made the firmament, and divided the waters 
 which were under the firmament from the waters which were 
 above the firmament: and it was so. 
 
 " And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening 
 and the morning were the second day." Gen. i. 6 8. 
 
 Judges vi. 3640. 1 Kings viii. 35, xviii. 44, 45. 2 Chron. vii. 13. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 9 
 
 Job ix. 8. xxvi. 8, 9. xxviii. 25, 26. xxxvi. 2729. xxxvii. 1016. 
 xxxviii. 810. Ps. viii. 3. Ixxiv. 16. xcvi. 510. xcvii. 6. cii. 
 2527. civ. 2. cxxxvi. 5, 6. cxlvii. 8. cxlviii. 38. Prov. viii. 27, 
 28. Isaiah xlii. 5. xlv. 12 18. xlviii. 13. li. 12 16. Jer.x.ll, 12. 
 
 11. 15, 16. Amos iv. 13. Ezek. xiv. 1221. Haggai i. 10. Zech. viii. 
 
 12. xii. 1. 1 Pet. iii. 5. James v. 18. Rev. x. 6. 
 
 " And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be 
 gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear : 
 and it was so. 
 
 " And God called the dry land Earth ; and the gathering 
 together of the waters called he Seas : and God saw that it 
 was good." Gen. i. 9, 10. 
 
 Nehem. ix. 6. Job xxxviii. 8 11. Ps. xxxiii. 79. xcv. 35. 
 cxxxvi. 6. Proverbs viii. 27 29. xxx. 4. Isaiah xlii. 5. xlviii. 13. 
 Jer. v. 22. Ezek. xiv. 1221. Hosea ii. 2123. Amos iv. 13. Jonah 
 i. 9. ii. 5, 6. Acts iv. 24. 2 Pet. iii. 5, 6. Rev. x. 6. xiv. 7. 
 
 " And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb 
 yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind, 
 whose seed is in itself, upon the earth : and it was so. 
 
 " And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed 
 after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in 
 itself, after his kind : and God saw that it was good. 
 
 " And the evening and the morning were the third day." 
 Gen. i. 1113. 
 
 Gen. ii. 59. 1 Kings iv. 33. Ps. Ixxiv. 16. cxlvii. 8. cxlviii. 9. 
 Isa. xlii. 5. Iv. 10. Zech. viii. 12. Heb. vi. 7. Rev. x. 6. 
 
 " And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of 
 the heaven, to divide the day from the night ; and let them be 
 for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years : 
 
 " And let them be for lights in the firmament of the heaven, 
 to give light upon the earth : and it was so. 
 
 " And God made two great lights ; the greater light to rule 
 the day, and the lesser light to rule the night : he made the 
 stars also. 
 
 " And God set them in the firmament of the heaven, to give 
 light upon the earth, 
 
 " And to rule over the day and over the night, and to 
 
10 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 divide the light from the darkness : and God saw that it was 
 good. 
 
 " And the evening and the morning were the fourth day." 
 Gen. i. 1419. 
 
 Gen. viii. 22. xv. 5. Job ix. 8. xxxviii. 31 33. Ps. viii. 3. xix. 
 1 6. Ixxiv. 16, 17. civ. 19. cxxxvi. 79. cxlvii. 4. cxlviii. 3 5. 
 Isa. xxxviii. 7, 8. xlv. 12. Jer. xxxi. 35, 36. Ezek. xxxii. 7, 8. Joel 
 iii. 15. Amos v. 8. Rev. x. 6. 
 
 " And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the 
 moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above 
 the earth in the open firmament of heaven. 
 
 " And God created great whales, and every living creature 
 that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after 
 their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind : and God saw 
 that it was good. 
 
 " And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, 
 and fill the waters in the seas ; and let fowl multiply in the 
 earth. 
 
 "And the evening and the morning were the fifth day." 
 Gen. i. 2023. 
 
 Gen. viii. 17. ix. 117. 1 Kings iv. 33. Job xli. 134. Ps. 1. 10, 
 11. Ixxiv. 16, 17. civ. 25, 26. cxlvi. 6. cxlviii. 7. Ezek. xiv. 12 21. 
 Rev. x. 6. 
 
 " And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature 
 after his kind, cattle and creeping thing, and beast of the earth 
 after his kind : and it was so. 
 
 " And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and 
 cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the 
 earth after his kind : and God saw that it was good." Gen. i. 
 24, 25. 
 
 Gen. ii. 19. vi. 6, 7. vii. 21. viii. 13, 2024. ix. 117. Job 
 xxxix. 130. xl. 1524. Ps. 1. 10, 11. cxlviii. 10. Jer. xxvii. 5. 
 xxxii. 27. 
 
 " And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our 
 likeness ; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, 
 and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 11 
 
 the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon 
 the earth. 
 
 " So, God created man in his own image ; in the image of 
 God created he him ; male and female created he them. 
 
 "And God blessed them; and God said unto them, Be 
 fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it ; 
 and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl 
 of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the 
 earth." Gen. i. 2628. 
 
 Gen. ii. 717. iii. 12, 13, 20. v. 1, 2. vi. 6, 7. ix. 117. Deut. 
 xxxvii. 18. Job iv. 17. x. 8, 9. Ps. vii. 68. c. 3. cxlviii. 1113. 
 Prov. xiv. 31. Eccles. xii. 7. Isa. xvii. 7. xlii. 5. xlv. 9 11. liv. 5. 
 Jer. xxvii. 5. xxxii. 7. Dan. v. 21 25. Hosea viii. 14. Zech. xii. 1. 
 Mai. ii. 10. Mark x. 6. Luke iii. 38. Acts iii. 27. iv. 24. vii. 20 50. 
 xiv. 15. xvii. 2227. 1 Cor. xv. 4547. Ephes. iv. 36. 1 Tim. ii. 
 13. James iii. 9. 1 Pet. i. 1720. 2 Pet. i. 17, 18. 1 John 14. 
 Rev. x. 6. Blair's Chron. Tables, p. 1, Friday, 28th Oct., 4004 B. C. 
 
 " And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bear- 
 ing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every 
 tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed ; to you 
 it shall be for meat. 
 
 " And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the 
 air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, wherein 
 there is life, / have given every green herb for meat : and it 
 was so. 
 
 " And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, 
 it was very good. And the evening and the morning were the 
 sixth day. 
 
 " Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the 
 host of them. 
 
 " And on the seventh day God ended his work which he 
 had made ; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work 
 which he had made. 
 
 "And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it; 
 because that in it he had rested from all his work which God 
 created and made." Gen. i. 2931. ii, 13. 
 
 Gen. ii. 4, 5. ix. 1 17. xiv. 22. xviii. 25. Exod. xx. 11. Deut. 
 v. 1214. 2 Kings xix. 15. 1 Chron. xvi. 26. 2 Chron. ii. 12. Ezra 
 v. 11, 12. Job xii. 10. xxxviii. 111. Ps. xxiv. 1, 2. xxxiii. 9. xc. 
 14. xcv. 15. xcix. 6. ciii. 7. civ. 13 24. cxv. 15. cxix. 89 91. 
 
12 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 cxxiv. 8. cxlvi. 5, 6. cxlvii. 1 9. Prov. xvi. 4. xxii. 2. xxvi. 10. 
 xxx. 4, 5. Eccles. iii. 1115. viii. 17. xi. 5. Isa. vi. 3. xxxvii. 16. 
 xl. 1214, 28. Ezek. xiv. 1221. Matt. xii. 8. xvii. 3, 4. Mark ii. 
 27, 28. ix. 4, 5. Luke ix. 30. xvi. 31. John v. 4547. Acts iii. 22. 
 vi. 1114. vii. 2033. xvii. 2229. 1 Cor. x. 26. 2 Cor. iii. 713. 
 Ephes. iii. 911. Colos. i. 1217. Heb. iii. 16. iv. 4. Judc i. 9. 
 Rev. i. 8 11. iv. 11. x. 6. Rev. xv. 3. xix. 5 16. 
 
THEOREMS. 
 
 1. That the EARTH is a spheroid of rotation, whose equa- 
 torial exceeds its polar diameter about twenty-six miles, the 
 former being 7,925, the latter 7,899 miles. That the oblate- 
 ness of this ellipsoid deduced from actual measurement, al- 
 though somewhat less than mathematicians affirm it should 
 be, from calculations based on its dimensions, time of rotation, 
 component materials, law of gravity, and centrifugal force, 
 nevertheless corresponds as nearly as the data for calculation 
 will admit. Arid that a sphere contains the greatest volume 
 of all bodies of equal surface. 
 
 Astronomy, by Sir John Hcrschel, new edit. Cab. Cyc. pp. 117, 121, 
 122. System of Astronomy, by Margaret Bryan, 1797, pp. 27, 69. 
 Geology, by H. de la Beche, p. 1. Whitehurst's Theory, pp. 315 
 (difference between diametres 36 miles). Mechanics, Cab. Cyc. pp. 
 24, 157, 158. Geology, by M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 1618. Huttonian 
 Theory, by Playfair, pp. 448504. Watts on the Ellepticity of the 
 Earth, Edin. Phil. Jour. No. VI. pp. 288293. Encyclopedeae Metro- 
 politana, by Prof. Airey. Mrs. Somerville on the Connection of the 
 Sciences, pp. 8, 48, 5863, 410. Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist. p. 28. Prof. 
 Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 39, 40. Phillips's Geology, p. 7. 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 195, 196. Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Sir John Her- 
 schel, p. 98. De Luc's Letters, p. 71, 72. Meteorology, by Dr. Thom- 
 son, 1849, Introduction. 
 
 2. That the EARTH is a non-luminous body, receiving its 
 external light and heat from the sun. And that the heat 
 received is a fixed quantity, subject to the following invariable 
 law, namely, " that the momentary supply varies in the exact 
 proportion of the angular velocity, i. e., of the momentary in- 
 crease of longitude ;" from which it follows, that equal amounts 
 of heat are received from the sun in passing over equal angles 
 
14 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 round it, in whatever part of the ellipse these angles may be 
 situated. 
 
 Astronomy, Cab. Cyc., by Sir John Herschel, new edit. pp. 10, 194, 
 198, 211, 212. Heat, Cab. Cyc. pp. 350, 382. Optics, by Sir D. Brew- 
 ster, Cab. Cyc. p. 2. Mrs. Somerville on the Connection of Sciences, 
 pp. 11, 19, 82, 85, 86, 254, 265, 277. Geology, by H. T. de la Beche, 
 p. 5. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, pp. 7679, 169172. Chemis- 
 try, in Cab. Cyc. p. 91. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, pp. 164 166. 
 Phenomena and Order of the Solar System, Dr. Nichols. System of the 
 World, by M. Lambert. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. 36, 
 et seq. 
 
 3. That the EARTH has a double movement in space ; one 
 by which it revolves around its own axis in 24 hours solar 
 time, or in 23 hours 56' 4.09" sideral time, and another move- 
 ment whereby it performs its periodical revolution, in an 
 invariable plane, around the sun, in what is termed the tro- 
 pical year, of 365 days 5 hours 48' 49"-7. That these two 
 motions are entirely independent of each other. And that 
 if the Earth did receive its double movement from a single im- 
 pulse, it is considered, by computation, that the impulse must 
 have passed through a point about twenty-five miles from its 
 centre. 
 
 Astronomy, Cab. Cyc. by Sir John Herschel, new edit. pp. 74, 205, 
 206. System of Astronomy, by Margaret Bryan, 1797, pp. 191 205. 
 Mrs. Somerville on the Sciences, pp. 9, 10, 71, 75, 8183, 88, 93, 419, 
 438. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, pp. 14, 33, 34, 145. 
 
 4. That the orbital revolutions of the EARTH and other 
 planets around the sun, almost in the plane of its equator, and 
 of the satellites around their primaries, are caused by the com- 
 bination of the sun and the planets' mutual attraction, and an 
 original projectile impulse ; whilst the whole system is con- 
 nected and regulated by the law, of the squares of their peri- 
 odical times being proportional to the cubes of their mean dis- 
 tances from the sun. That the same laws maintain the comets 
 in their more elliptical orbits, their eccentricity depending 
 wholly on the direction and force of the original impulse which 
 put them in motion. 
 
 Mechanics, Cab. Cyc. pp. 80, 127. Astronomy, by Sir John Herschel, 
 Cab. Cyc. pp. 232235, 269. System of Astronomy, by Margaret 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 15 
 
 Bryan, 1797, pp. 191205. Mrs. Somerville on the Sciences, pp. 6, 9 
 11, 15, 16, 379, 423. Prof. WhewelTs Bridg. Treat, pp. 151, 157. Nat. 
 Philos. Cab. Cyc. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 272, 273. Mechanism of 
 the Heavens, by Dr. Nichols, Edin. 1837. Phen. and Order of the Solar 
 System, by Dr. Nichols, pp. 108124. System of the World, by M. 
 Lambert. 
 
 5. That the EARTH and other planets have their axis in- 
 clined at various degrees of obliquity to the plane of their re- 
 spective orbits, and that these latter are at different degrees of 
 obliquity to the ecliptic. That the sun, and such of the 
 planets as afford sufficient data for astronomical calculations, 
 are known to have rotatory motion ; that of the sun being 
 performed in days 25.01154, whilst it also describes a small 
 irregular orbit about the centre of gravity of the system. And 
 that the mean density of the sun is computed to be to that of 
 the earth as 0.2543 is to 1.0. 
 
 Astronomy, by Sir John Herschel, Cab. Cyc. pp. 192195, 209, 240, 
 243287, 416. System of Astronomy, by Margaret Bryan, 1797, p. 
 252, et seq. Ferguson's Astronomy, vol. v. p. 17. Mrs. Somerville on 
 the Sciences, pp. 1214, 2729, 76, 184. Geology, by H. T. de la 
 Beche, p. 6. Prof. WhewelTs Bridg. Treat, pp. 14, 165, 166. Architec- 
 ture of the Heavens, Nichols, pp. 175 177. Phen. and Order of the 
 Solar System, pp. 70, 126, 136, 142, 177, et seq. System of the World, 
 by M. Lambert, p. 37, et seq. 
 
 6. That the vicissitude of seasons experienced by the 
 EARTH is owing to its globular form, the obliquity of the 
 plane of the equator to that of the ecliptic, the parallelism of 
 the earth's axis, and to the orbital motion of the earth around 
 an illumined sun imparting light and heat. 
 
 Astronomy, by Sir John Herschel, Cab. Cyc. pp. 194266. System 
 of Astronomy, by Margaret Bryan, pp.252 282. Mrs. Somerville on 
 the Sciences, pp. 27, 28, 85, 100. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, p. 17. 
 Mechanics, Cab. Cyc. p. 14. Phen. and Order of the Solar System, pp. 
 31, 32, 42, 63 65. System of the World, by M. Lambert. Meteorology, 
 by Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. xx. xxiii. 
 
 7. That owing to a secular motion in the position of the 
 major axis of the solar ellipse, arising from a direct motion of 
 the perigee and the retrogradation of the node of the earth's 
 equator on the ecliptic (called the precession of the equinoxes), 
 which conjointly accomplish an entire revolution in 20.984 
 
16 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 years, a corresponding, gradual, but entire change is going on 
 in the relative positions of the major axis and the line of the 
 equinoxes; which, about 4,000 years before the Christian era, 
 coincided with each other. 
 
 And that this secular change is the necessary consequence 
 of the rotation of the earth and the disturbing action of the 
 sun and moon on the redundant matter accumulated about the 
 earth's equator. 
 
 Astronomy, by Sir John Herschel, pp. 170 173, 313 334. Geology, 
 by Dr. John Ure, pp. 13, 14. Prof. Playfair's Works, vol. ii. pp. 411 
 413, vol. iv. pp. 305307. System of Astronomy, by Margaret Bryan, 
 1797, pp. 96, 256. Mrs. Somerville on the Sciences, pp. 2125, 32 
 36, 6276, 9194, 99, 161166, 309, 438, 439. Heat, Cab. Cyc. p. 
 195. Nat Philos. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 273, 276, 277. 
 
 8. That about three-fourths of the earth's surface is 
 covered by the ocean ; and, therefore, the aqueous is to the 
 terrestrial surface as 3 is to 1. That the mean depth of the 
 ocean has been variously estimated, the least being from three 
 to four miles, the greatest from four to five miles. That the 
 mean specific gravity of the earth's outer crust is to that of the 
 aqueous portion as 5 is to 2, whilst its entire mean density is 
 considered to be five times that of water. 
 
 Any Treatise on Geography. Geology, by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 2 
 5. Dr. Young's Lectures, p. 47. Laplace's System, vol. ii. p. 116. 
 Meteorology, supplement, Ency. Britan. Espy on the Philosophy of 
 Storms, 1841. Astronomy, by Sir John Herschel, pp. 22, 23. Prof. 
 Playfair's Works, vol iii. pp. 438, 439, iv. p. 302. Dick's Christian Phil, 
 p. 60. Prof. WheweU's Bridg. Treat, p. 52. Mrs. Somerville on the 
 Sciences, pp. 63, 89, 106. Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 21, 32. 
 Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 55. Phillips's Geol. pp. 8, 9, 
 22, 23, 277282. Edin. New Philos Jour. vol. viii. 1827. Mechanics, 
 by Laplace, Toplis, pp. 260266, et seq. Phen. and Ord. of Solar Sys- 
 tem, p. 142, et seq. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. xix. 
 
 9. That the MOON a non-luminous satellite 2,160 miles 
 in diameter receives its heat from the sun, its light from the 
 sun and earth ; has a triple revolution in space : one by which 
 it accompanies its primary around the sun, and a binary move- 
 ment (performed by the same motion in 27 daysThrs. 4-3' 11"), 
 consisting of its siderial path around the earth, and rotation 
 around its axis. That owing to this double revolution by a 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 17 
 
 single movement, together with its libration, and slight ob- 
 liquity of axis, the same hemisphere, increased by a narrow 
 zone occasionally seen on either side, presents itself invariably 
 towards the earth. 
 
 And that no indications of either continents or oceans pre- 
 sent themselves on its earthward disc, although it affords 
 manifestations of being extremely mountainous, the elevations 
 appearing to have originated from volcanoes, now extinct. 
 
 Astronomy, by Sir John Hcrschel, Cab. Cyc. System of Astronomy, 
 by Margaret Bryan, 1797, pp. 272282, 293298. Connexion of the 
 Sciences, pp. 6980. Phen. and Order of the Solar System, pp. 149 
 173. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. 337- 
 
 10. That according to investigations made by M. de La- 
 place, for the purpose of determining the stability of the equi- 
 librium of the sea, it has been discovered, 
 
 " That the equilibrium of the sea must be stable, and its 
 oscillations continually tending to dimmish if the density of its 
 waters be less than the mean density of the earth ; and that its 
 equilibrium would not admit of subversion unless the mean 
 density of the earth was equal to that of water or less." 
 
 Prof. Playfair's Review of Laplace, vol. iv. p. 304. Mrs. Somerville 
 on the Sciences, pp. 56, 114. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, pp. 177 
 180. Astronomy, by Sir John Herschel, Cab. Cyc. Phillips's Geol. pp. 
 22, 277, 282. Mechanics, by Laplace, Toplis, pp. 244 270. 
 
 11. That on taking a general view of the great geogra- 
 phical outlines of the world it is seen to be divided, in direc- 
 tions nearly parallel to its axis of rotation, into three great 
 continental ridges, namely, that of North and South America, 
 with the intervening archipelago. 2nd, Europe and Africa ; 
 and 3rd, Asia and New Holland, with the Polynesia, which 
 intervene. 
 
 That there is a remarkable similitude in the general contour 
 of these three great divisions, especially between the first and 
 the last, seeming to indicate that their form is due to a common 
 cause. And that within the equatorial zone are situated the 
 most extensive table lands, and the greatest number of islands. 
 
 Any map of the world. 
 
 C 
 
18 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 12. That the continents, and even the islands, are found 
 to possess a flora of species peculiarly their own. That whilst 
 a considerable number of plants are common to the Northern 
 regions of Asia, Europe, and America, where these continents 
 almost unite, towards the south, where they widely diverge, 
 the floras of these three great divisions of the globe differ very 
 materially, even in the same parallels of latitude. 
 
 And that, upon the principle of distinct floral foci of crea- 
 tion, the whole earth has been divided, by botanists, into a 
 certain number of botanical districts, differing from each other 
 almost entirely in their specific vegetation. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 294 309. Lyell's Princi- 
 ples of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 69 75, 131. Mrs. Somerville on the Sciences, 
 pp. 278285. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. ii. p. 68. Old Red Sand- 
 stone, by Miller, pp. 196198. 
 
 13. That wherever any considerable portion of the 
 EARTH'S surface has been examined by geologists, it has 
 invariably afforded proofs of having been, at one time, sub- 
 merged in the waters of the ocean. 
 
 Lyell's Principles of Geology, vol. i. pp. 49, 51, 146, 153, 155. vol. ii. 
 pp. 312318, and map. vol. iii. pp. 9, 23, 126, 130135, 150, 151, 213, 
 239, 240, 330, 331. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, p. 15, et seq. 
 Playfair's Huttonian Theory, pp. 1, 4 6, 40, 144, 145. Laplace's Sys- 
 tem, vol. ii. p. 116. Werner on Veins, p. 110. Turner's Sacred History. 
 Manual of Geology, by H. T. de la Beche. Jamieson's Illust. of the Cu- 
 vierian Theory, pp. 297, 298. Edin. Phil. Jour. No. xv. pp. 116, 117. 
 Dr. Fleming's Letter, xvii. pp. 226 230. Nat. Phil, by Sir J. Herschel, 
 Cab. Cyc. pp. 144, 283. Edin. Jour. Nat. History, pp. 67, 68. Bake- 
 welTs Introduction to Geol. and any other similar work. Geology, by 
 Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 299 334. vol. ii. p. 360. Ancient World, by 
 D. T. Ansted, pp. 5, 6. Old Red Sandstone, by Miller, Edin. Phillips's 
 Treat, on Geology, pp. 45, 47, 48, 5156, 166, 190200, 259, 276295. 
 Lyell's Elem. of Geology, vol. i. pp. 10, 7277, 147, 181191. Con- 
 nexion of the Sciences, p. 87. De Luc's Letters, pp. 9, 20, 2933, 41, 
 127, and throughout. 
 
 14. That the stratified rocks afford sufficient evidence of 
 having been formed in succession, horizontally and tranquilly 
 by deposition from water, although, in many instances, bearing 
 marks of the water having been gently undulated. 1 That they 
 differ in many respects from the primary amorphous masses. 2 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 19 
 
 And that the series of the strata is usually found to be con- 
 stant, " the order in which they succeed one another, when 
 present altogether, being never reversed. 3 
 
 1 Playfair's Huttonian Theory, pp. 4, 21, 42 46, 144, 145, 231, 235. 
 Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, pp. 15, et seq. espec. 129. Werner on 
 Veins, pp. 10, 11. Edin. Philos. Jour. No. xvi. p. 227. Bakewell's 
 Intro, to Geology. Hist, of British Animals, p. 16. Lyell's Principles 
 of Geology, vol. i. pp. 82, 99, 159. vol. iii. pp. 2, 6, 8, 35, 213, 255, 365. 
 Geology, by H. T. de la Beche. Jamieson on Cuvier. Theory, p. 297. 
 Cuvier's Eloge. of Werner. Nat. Philos. by Sir J. Herschel, p. 284. 
 Connex. of the Sciences, pp. 62, 63, 89. M'Culloch's Geology, vol. i. pp. 
 12, 67, 463. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 17, 36, 44. Lyell's 
 Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 10, 22, 3234, 41, 146, 191. vol. ii. p. 388, 
 et seq. Athenamm, No. 985, p. 935. Vindiciae Geologic!, pp. 11, 29. 
 Phillips's Geol. pp. 32, 42, 57, 95, 154, 259, 292. De Luc's Letters, pp. 
 4, 30, 5565. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, Edin. 1841. Ancient 
 World, by Ansted, 1847, p. 122, et seq. 
 
 2 Geology, by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 420, 491, 492, 508. Humboldt's 
 Superposition, pp. 13, 14. Cuvierian Theory, p. 298. Lyell's Prin. of 
 Geology, vol. i. p. 201. vol. ii. pp. 9, 14, and Gloss, p. 79. Geol. by 
 M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 463. Ancient World, Ansted, 1847, p. 6, et seq. 
 
 3 Phillips's Treat, on Geol. pp. 3337, 41, 42. Ancient World, by 
 Ansted. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, pp. 177 179. 
 
 15. That when the stratified masses are examined in their 
 order of superposition, they are frequently found to blend 
 with each other in mineralogical character. And when traced 
 continuously to any distance, in a horizontal direction, are 
 found to " thin out" and run into each other, with an almost 
 imperceptible line of junction. 
 
 Baron Humboldt on Superposition, pp. 41, 42, 465, 477. Lyell's Prin. 
 of Geol. vol. iii. pp. 8, 14, 38, 375. Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 262, 
 404, et seq. Playfair's Huttonian Theory, pp. 83, 84. Geology, by 
 M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 68. vol. ii. p. 217. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, 
 vol. i. p. 38, 39. Ancient World, by Ansted, p. 76, et seq. Lyell's Elem. 
 of Geol. vol. i. pp. 6, 2739, 198, 208. vol. ii. pp. 74, 108. Phillips's 
 Geology, pp. 40, 59. Old Red Sandstone, by H. Miller, Edin. 
 
 16. That, with the exception of some of the inferior, the 
 stratified rocks contain innumerable vestiges of vegetable, 
 zoophytic, and animal existences, some of which are of gigantic 
 dimensions in comparison with recent equivalents. 1 
 
 That there appear to have been successive creations in each 
 
 of these divisions of animal, vegetable, and zoophytic life. 2 
 
 c 2 
 
20 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 And that they have by their exuviae contributed largely to 
 the formation of the carboniferous and calcareous strata. 
 
 The calcareous matter increasing in an ascending series, is 
 yet found to be during every epoch precisely similar in its 
 component elements. 3 
 
 1 Humboldt on Superposition, pp. 50, 211, 265, 307, 387. Jamieson's 
 Cuvierian Theory, pp. 336 355. Geol. by H. T. de la Beche. Consoli- 
 dated List of Fossil Remains. Playfair's Huttonian Theory, pp. 59, 147. 
 Nat. Phil, by Sir John Herschel, p. 283. Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist. No. ii. 
 p. 58. Turner's Sacred Hist. Botany, by Professor Henslow, p. 311. 
 Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, 1786, p. 29, et seq. Lyell's Prin. of 
 Geol. vol. i. pp. 2, 105, 115, 168. vol. iii. p. 327. New Walks in an Old 
 Field, Edin. 1841. Ancient World, by Ansted, 1847. Phillips's Intro, 
 to Geol. p. 49, et seq. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 8, 61 67, 
 199201, 294. De Luc's Letters. 
 
 2 Geology, by H. T. de la Beche. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, 
 1786, pp. 44 49. Humboldt on Superposition, p. 50, et seq. 211, 287, 
 350, 391, 402. Playfair's Hutt. Theory, p. 163, 164. Hist, of British 
 Animals, p. xv. Bakewell's Introduction to Geol. Jamieson's Cuvierian 
 Theory, pp. 336 355. Dr. Fleming's Hist, of Zoology, vol. i. p. 26. 
 Edin. Phil. Jour. No. xvi. pp. 226230. Turner's Sacred Hist. New 
 Walks in an Old Field, Miller, Edin. 1841. Lyell's Prin, of Geol. through- 
 out. Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, p. 283. M'Culloch's Geol. vol. 
 ii. p. 415. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 6, 62, 116, 295, 334, 417. 
 Ancient World, by Ansted, London, 1847. Phillips's Geol. pp. 49, 51, 
 88. Vindiciae Geol. pp. 8, 30. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 45, 
 181, 391, 408. vol. ii. 46, 153, 243, 435. 
 
 3 Lamark on Microscopic Molusca, vide Milloilites. Playfair's Hut- 
 tonian Theory, pp. 5, 144. De la Beche's Geology, pp. 205, et seq. 
 Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. i. pp. 2, 115. vol. ii. pp. Ill, 307, 310. vol. 
 iii. pp. 47, 163, 239. Dr. Fleming's Phil, of Zoology, vol. i. p. 26. 
 M'Culloch's Geol. vol. i. p. 12. vol. ii. pp. 57, 207, 262, 414. Buck- 
 land's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 62, 112. Ancient World, by Ansted, 
 London, 1847, p. 54, et seq. Phillips's Geol. pp. 88, 117. De Luc's 
 Letters throughout, especially pp. 53 56, 127. 
 
 17. That from the evidence afforded by the position and 
 dislocation of the stratified masses, it is considered that they 
 have been elevated from where they were originally deposited 
 into the inclined positions they now occupy, and by the 
 agency of a force which acted from below upwards. 
 
 And that the time occupied in their elevation was very 
 brief comparatively with that which elapsed during their for- 
 mation. 
 
 Prof. Playfair's Huttonian Theory, p. 40. et seq. 219. Geology of 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 21 
 
 England, by Smith, Edin. Review, No. Iviii. p. 318. Bakewell's Intro, 
 to Geol. Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 24, et seq. Whitehurst's 
 Theory of the Earth, pp. 115 130. Humboldt on Superposition, p. 69. 
 Connexion of the Sciences, p. 89. Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. i. pp. 102, 
 156, 456. vol. iii. pp. 8, 105, 148151, 180, 195, 284307, et seq. 
 Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 88, 126. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. 
 Treat, vol. ii. pp. 3, 541. Phillips's Geol. pp. 5962, 140, 187, 210, 260, 
 262276, 280. Lyell's Elem. of Geol. vol. i. pp. 9496, 101, 146, 296. 
 vol. ii. pp. 14, 20, 22, 356, 362. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 
 1841. VindicicE Geol. p. 11. Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Sir J. Herschel, 
 p. 284. De Luc's Letters, 1st and 2nd. Ancient World, Ansted, 1847, 
 p. 106, et seq. 
 
 18. That in contrasting the secondary with the tertiary 
 formations, a marked difference is observable in many respects 
 between them ; the former being generally more continuous in 
 their series and more equal in mineralogical character than the 
 latter, and especially than their more recent portions, which 
 are found situated in detached basins surrounded by primary 
 and secondary formations, in very many instances without 
 either being deranged or altered by them. 
 
 Geol. of England, by Smith, Edin. Review, No. Iviii. p. 318. Lyell's 
 Prin. of Geol. vol. i. p. 155. vol. ii. 313. vol. iii. pp. 15, 23, 229, 289, 
 296, 303, 309, 320, et seq. Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 192, 193, 
 197199. Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 313, 324, 478. Prof. 
 Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 77, 527. Ancient World, by Ansted, 
 pp. 6 23, 73, 265, 266. Phillips's Geol. pp. 43 62, and diagram, and 
 pp. 161178. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 31, 270, 284, 327 
 330, 381. vol. ii. pp. 34, 313, 334, 348, 365. Botany, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 
 311314. 
 
 19. That the state of perfect preservation in which the fossil 
 remains of plants and shells are frequently found affords con- 
 clusive evidence that, in such instances, they grew and lived 
 not far from where they are now found embedded. And that 
 none of the plants belonging to the coal formations have been 
 recognised as being of marine origin. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. p. 311. Geol. by H. T. de la 
 Beche, p. 439, et seq. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, 1786, p. 59, 
 et seq. esp. 121. Lyell's Geol. vol. i. pp. 27, 117, 118. Philos. of 
 Zoology, by Dr. Fleming, vol. ii. p. 88. Turner's Sacred History. 
 Writings of M. Ad. Brougniart on Fossil Vegetation. New Walks in 
 an Old Field, Miller, 1841. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 85. Geol. 
 by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 437, 438. vol. ii. p. 359. Dr. Buck- 
 
22 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 land's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 16, 17, 634. Ancient World, by Ansted, 
 London, 1847. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 106120, 128 
 130, 133135. Phillips's Geol. pp. 47, 54, 107, 118. De Luc's Letters 
 generally, but esp. 2nd Letter, pp. 56 58. 
 
 20. That considering the granitic, trappean, serpentinous 
 and other rocks of similar origin to have been injected amongst 
 the stratified masses ; and that evidence still remains of great 
 heat having been present when and where these protrusions 
 took place shown as well by the structure of the igneous in- 
 jections themselves as by the fused, altered, rent condition, 
 and slaty cleavage of the rocks contiguous to them it is, like- 
 wise, considered that the extent of the alteration and the in- 
 sensible transition of the altered mass, are in direct proportion 
 to the volume of that which has been injected. 
 
 Playfair's Huttonian Theory, pp. 2133, 54, 63, 84, 89, 182190, 
 247. Humboldt on Superposition, p. 46. Werner on Veins, pp. 122, 
 124 126. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth. Geology, by H. T. 
 de la Beche, pp. 24, 486 489, 491 495, 506, 510, 575, et seq. Edin- 
 burgh Review, No. Ixxiii. p. 243, Art. Trans. Carnd. Soc. Lyell's 
 Prin. of Geol. vol. iii. pp. 12, 79, 108, 367373, 374. M'Culloch's 
 Geol. vol. i. pp. 126128. vol. ii. pp. 98, 127, 208. Prof. Buckland's 
 Bridg. Treat, vol i. p. 55. vol. ii. p. 9. Ancient World, by Ansted, pp. 
 6 32, et seq. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 13 18, 191. vol. ii. 
 pp. 214226, 241, 255263, 264292, 300305, 350, 401434. 
 Phillips's Geol. pp. 44, 61, 75, 82, 90, 110, 140, 231239. Old Red 
 Sandstone, by Miller, Edin. 
 
 21. That all geologists make use of terms indicating that 
 their discourses have reference to an " external crust," " outer 
 coating," or as it is sometimes called, " shell" of the earth, but 
 generally without explaining to what depth these are con- 
 sidered to penetrate into the viscera terrce : yet, sufficient has 
 been said to show that these expressions are considered to 
 refer to that which has limits not far from the surface ; and, 
 even, in a few instances, an attempt has been made to draw a 
 clear line of separation, at no great depth below the surface, 
 between the solid crust and the supposed internal masses. 
 
 MSS. by M. Elie de Beaumont, as given by M. de la Beche, pp. 2, 518. 
 Astron. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 22, 23. Nat. Philos. by the same, 
 Cab. Cyc. p. 288. Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 9497. Con- 
 nexion of the Sciences, pp. 90, 260. Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. iii. p. 8. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 23 
 
 defined at p. 68, Append. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 1841. 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 140, defined. Brook's Chrystallography, 
 Intro, p. i. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 37, 38. Ancient 
 World, by Ansted, 1847, p. 15, et seq. Ly ell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. 
 pp. 13, 191. vol. ii. 141, 192, 349, 354369. Phillips's Geol. pp. 5, 
 6978, 108, 250258. Vindiciae Geol. p. 29. De Luc's Letters, 
 pp. 104108. 
 
 22. That thick and extensive beds of breccia and con- 
 glomerate, in which the fragments are generally united by 
 calcareous and other mineral substances, are found to intervene 
 amongst the various series of the older and the secondary 
 stratified masses, especially in the vicinity of mountain chains, 
 and above and below the coal formations. 
 
 Playfair's Huttonian Theory, pp. 5, 45, 51, 209211. Lyell's Prin. 
 of Geol. Append, vol. iii. p. 64. Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 214 219, 
 323, 329, 400403, 405 408, 491. Jamieson's Illust. of Cuvierian 
 Theory, p. 301. Humboldt on Superposition, pp. 269, 276 278. Geol. 
 by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 89, 226, 459, 464. vol. ii. pp. 222224. 
 New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 1841. Lyell's Elements of Geol. 
 vol. i. pp. 7, 76, 101, 365. vol. ii. pp. 148, 298, 356, 370. Vindiciae 
 Geol. p. 29. De Luc's Letters, pp. 66, 67. Phillips's Geol. pp. 92, 104, 
 115, 126, 293. 
 
 23. That although a diversity of opinion prevails among 
 geologists as to the origin, classification, and the nomenclature 
 by which the greater groups of rocks composing the earth's 
 outer surface are to be designated ; nevertheless, an accordance 
 has been come to as regards the unstratified amorphous masses 
 in contradistinction to all the stratified ones of every denomi- 
 nation. 1 
 
 That they also concur in considering the primary rocks, 
 besides being deficient in organic remains, to be more compact 
 and crystalline in texture than the others, 2 and generally more 
 elevated in their positions. 3 That they appear, in very many 
 instances, to have been thrust up from beneath the strata, rais- 
 ing these up also, whether they have perforated or not wholly 
 cut through them ; in the former case remaining flanked by 
 stratified masses, which repose upon them in evident uncon- 
 formity. 4 
 
 1 Comparative Tables in Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 38, 500. 
 Humboldt on Superposition, pp. 30, 41, 114, 130, 133, 357. Lyell's 
 
24 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Prin. Geol. vol. iii. pp. 5, 10, 108, 324, 332, 374, 386393. Jamiesou's 
 Cuvierian Theory, pp. 298300. Sir H. Davy's Agricult. Chemistry. 
 Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. ii. pp. 6880. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. 
 Treat, vol. i. p. 39. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 1841. Ancient 
 World, by Ansted. LyeU's Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 4, 10, 21, 182 
 187, 191, 209. Phillips's Geol. pp. 42, 45, 68, 69, 95, 259. De Luc's 
 Letters, No. 1, pp. 7, 8, 6065. 
 
 2 Manual of Geol. by H. T. de la Beche. Playfair's Huttonian Theory, 
 pp. 84, 85. Jamieson's Cuvierian Theo. pp. 297, 298. Edin. Phil. Jour. 
 No. xv. p. 121. No. xvi. p. 244. Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. iii. pp. 10, 
 108, 117, 334, 353, 364, 377. Geol. by M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 12. Brooke's 
 Crystallography, p. ii. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 5, 36, 
 40, 55. LyeU's Elements of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 246, 247. Phillips's Geol. 
 p. 259. 
 
 3 Geol. by H. T. de la Beche. Edin. Philos. Trans. No. xv. p. 121. 
 Humboldt on Superposition, pp. 68, 69. Playfair's Hutt. Theory, pp. 52, 
 83, 209. Cuvier's Eloge. of Werner. Nat. Philos. by Sir John Her- 
 schel, pp. 284, 285. LyeU's Prin. of Geol. vol. i. p. 156. vol. iii. pp. 
 10, 37, 79, 353. Prof. Playfair's Works, vol. iii. pp. 410, 413. Lyell's 
 Elements of Geol. vol. i. p. 21. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 
 1841. 
 
 4 Geol. by H. T. de la Beche. Playfair's Hutt. Theory, pp. 47, 50, 83, 
 209, 230, 247, 311. Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. i. pp. 61, 101, 156. vol. 
 iii. pp. 77, 117, 164, 185, 364. Gloss, p. 79. Lithological Survey of 
 Schehallion, Playfair's Works, vol iii. pp. 403 440. New Walks in an 
 Old Field, Miller, 1841. Capt. Ross's 2nd Voyage, 18291833. Capt. 
 Parry's Voyage to Nothern Seas. Jamieson's Cuvierian Theory, p. 298. 
 Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 12. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat. 
 p. 36. vol. 2. pp. 3, 4. Phillips's Geol. pp. 42, 5557. Lyell's Elem. 
 of Geol. vol.- ii. p. 264, et seq. 
 
 24?. That there exists an essential mineralogical difference 
 between the older crystalline rocks, such as granite, trap, por- 
 phyry, serpentine, and others of that age and denomination, 
 considered to be of igneous origin, and those which have been 
 ejected from modern volcanoes, distinguished by the name of 
 lavas, 1 a difference attributed to the greater pressure under 
 which the older masses were formed, to the non-action of the 
 atmosphere and consequent retention of their gaseous or 
 volatile parts, and to the more gradual manner in which they 
 have cooled down. 2 
 
 1 Geol. by De la Beche, pp. 493, 501. Nat. Philos. Cab. Cyc. p. 269. 
 Playfair's Hutt. Theory, pp. 67, 80, 260, and his own Works, vol. i. pp. 
 97108. Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. i. pp. 147, 456. vol. ii. pp. 11, 108, 
 117, 124, 353, 359, 364. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, p. 245, 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 25 
 
 et seq. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. p. 14. vol. ii. pp. 189 195, 
 201 254, almost throughout. Phillips's Geol. pp. 187, 238, 240. 
 
 2 Geol. by De la Beche, pp. 5, 475, 47. Nat. Philos. Cab. Cyc. pp. 
 269, 270. Playfair's Hutt. Theory, pp. 21, 68, 135, 181, 184, 260. 
 Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. i. p. 148. vol. iii. pp. 108, 124, 353, 360, 363, 
 370. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, p. 245, et seq. Prof. Buck- 
 land's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 41. Lyell's Elements of Geol. as above. 
 Phillips's Geol. as above. 
 
 25. That GRANITE is found to be essentially the same 
 wherever it hitherto has been examined. That it is in the 
 deeper regions of the globe, where granite has its origin, that 
 that of trap must also be looked for. That whatever difference 
 may exist between -these rocks, whether in their relation to the 
 strata or their mineralogical character, they are remarkably 
 analogous in almost every important general circumstance. 
 
 And that there is good reason even for considering that 
 granite, porphyry, and trap have had a common origin. 
 
 Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 145160, 196. vol. ii. pp. 8183, 
 93,102,412. Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. iii. pp. 361 363. Playfair's 
 Works, vol. i. p. 95, et seq. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 
 46 48, and map in vol. ii. Phillips's Geol. pp. 32, 33, 42 45. An- 
 cient World, by Ansted, pp. 16, 17. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. 
 pp. 14, 20. vol. ii. pp. 186, 191197, 200, et seq. De Luc's Letters, 
 Intro, pp. 58, 142. Letter 2nd, p. 67. Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, p. 
 486, et seq. Old Red Sandstone, by Miller. 
 
 26. That the granitic, trappean, serpentinous, and por- 
 phyritic descriptions of amorphous rocks generally constitute 
 the nucleii or centres of mountain ranges, and together with 
 their recumbent strata attain the greatest elevations through- 
 out the world. 1 And that conjointly they occupy a con- 
 siderable portion of its terrestrial surface. 2 
 
 1 Playfair's Hutt. Theory, pp. 84, 343. Jamieson's Cuvierian Theory, 
 p. 298. Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 484, 485. Sir H. Davy's 
 Agricult. Chemistry. Lyell's Prin. Geol. vol. i. p. 115. vol. iii. pp. 10, 
 283, 353. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 1841. Capt. Ross's 
 Voyage, 1829, p. 33. Playfair's Works, vol. ii. pp. 403440. Geol. by 
 Dr. M'Culloch, vol i. pp. 132, 133. vol. ii. p. 89. Literary Gazette, 
 5th Nov. 1836, pp. 714, 715. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. ii. pp. 
 310. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 147, 185, 345424. Vin- 
 dicisc Geol. p. 18. Phillips's Geol. pp. 42, 60, 71 79. De Luc's 
 Letters, No. 1, pp. 7 9, 60 63. 
 
 2 Playfair's Hutt. Theory, pp. 342, 350. Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, 
 
26 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 pp. 483 485. Capt. Ross's Voyage during 18291833. Lyell's Prin. 
 of Geol. vol. Hi. pp. 108, 381. Literary Gazette, 5th Nov. 1836, p. 714. 
 Geol. by Prof. Phillips, pp. 32, 33, 42. De Luc's Letters. LyeU's 
 Elements of Geol. vol. ii. p. 186, et seq. 
 
 27. That in mountain ranges certain axis of elevation are 
 recognizable ; while the outlines of the former frequently as- 
 sume lengthened* irregular, conical forms, with one or more 
 peaks, whose nucleii and apices usually consist of primary 
 rocks. 
 
 And that it may be considered as an established fact, both 
 in geology and geography, that these ranges are, in general, 
 comparatively less elevated in extreme latitudes. 
 
 Geol. hy H. T. de la Beche, pp. 484486, 490, 513. Playfair's Hutt. 
 Theory, p. 307. Jamieson's Cuvierian Theory, p. 298, and map. 
 LyeU's Prin. Geol. vol. i. p. 61. vol. iii. p. 353. Playfair's Works, vol. 
 iii. pp. 410 413. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 1841. Any 
 geological map of mountain ranges. Any scale of the comparative 
 heights of mountains. Edin. Phil. Jour. No. xvi. pp. 233, 234. 
 Phillips's Geol. pp. 59 62. Captains Ross and Parry's Voyages to the 
 Arctic Regions. The Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 56, 86. Lyell's 
 Elements of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 30, 185, 277304, 371373. Phillips's 
 Geol. pp. 8, 60, 71, 93, 266270. Ancient World, by Ansted, 1847, pp. 
 106, 107, et seq. De Luc's Letters, No. 1, pp. 7, 60. 
 
 28. That it is not only the greater geographical height of 
 the inter-tropical mountains which denotes the presence of a 
 comparatively increased force in the regions where they are 
 elevated, but their geological structure corroborates the same 
 assumption. For, " rocks similar to those which constitute 
 the ridge of Jura in the Alps, are found to occupy the plains 
 of England ; and basalts which repose on the granites of the 
 Andes are discovered beneath the limestone of Skye." 
 
 Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 8. De Luc's Letters throughout, 
 espec. pp. 6062. Letter 3rd pp. 106, 107. 
 
 29. That when a view is taken of any geological map, it is 
 observed that the formations represented by it are intersected 
 by veins of granite, porphyry, senite, trap, serpentine, green- 
 stone, &c., and by dykes of similar material, especially of trap 
 and basalt. That whatever may be the nature or position of 
 the formations through which they pass, the general direction 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 27 
 
 of the main trunks of these veins and dykes is perpendicular 
 to the earth's surface, although their branches frequently 
 diverge and weld the several formations together in a re- 
 markable manner. And that overlying masses of the same 
 materials are frequently found on the surface as if they had 
 overflown from the veins while in a state of fusion. 
 
 Playfair's Hutt. Theory, pp. 55, 63, 74, 81, 87, 313. Geol. by H. T. 
 
 de la Beche, pp. 491 493. Trans. Camb. Soc. Edin. Review, No. Ixxiii. 
 
 pp. 239 248. Lyell's Prin. Geol. vol. i. pp. 71, 302. vol. iii. pp. 12, 
 
 36, 90, 357, 371, 372. Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. ii. pp. 90, 95, 143. 
 
 Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, map in vol. ii. pp. 3 5. Phillips's Geol. 
 
 pp. 42, 62, 111, 112, 186. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. p. 12. vol. 
 
 ii. pp. 185187, 202, 212219, 262, 357372. 
 
 30. That two distinct classes of mineral veins are found 
 to exist in the earth's outer crust one of which proceeds 
 from inwards outwards, having their basis in the interior, and 
 their apici nearest to the surface ; and the other, termed Faults 
 and Fissures, proceeding from outwards inwards, with their 
 apici in the interior and their basis on or near to the surface. 
 And that displacement of the strata is almost invariably atten- 
 dant on the faults above referred to. 
 
 Werner on Veins, pp. 50 59, 64, 90, 104, 110, et seq. Humboldt on 
 Superposition, pp. 413, 414. Playfair's Hutt. Theory, pp. 61 66, 74, 
 87, 311. Lyell's Prin. Geol. vol. iii. pp. 36, 353357, 371. Geol. by 
 Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 139145, 163165. Geol. by H. T. de la 
 Beche, p. 165, et seq. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 542 
 545. Geol. of England and Wales, by Rev. W. Conybear, part. i. p. 
 348. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 12, 127 134. vol. ii. pp. 
 213, 311. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 1841, sectional view in 
 frontispiece. Vindiciae Geol. pp. 18 21. Phillips's Geol. pp. 62 
 108, 110, 260265. De Luc's Letters, No. 3, pp. 125128. 
 
 31. That in the COAL MEASURES there is considerable 
 persistency of character ; those termed " independent" being 
 usually found in strata conformably to and overlying the 
 mountain limestone and the old red sandstone ; the whole 
 three formations appearing to have been moved simultaneously, 
 by the influence of great force, from where they were originally 
 formed. That the magnesian limestone and new red sand- 
 stone, which usually overlie the coal measures, are, on the 
 other hand, unconformablc to them and more horizontal in 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 their position. That the lower portion of the new red sand- 
 stone series is generally formed of conglomerate and strata. 
 And, finally, that there is a decided difference between the 
 coal found in the independent formations, and the lignite or 
 brown coal of the more recent deposits. 
 
 Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. ii. pp. 295334. Geol. by H. T. de la 
 Beche, pp. 413 448. Art. Coal, Dr. Ure's Chem. Die. Prof. Buck- 
 land's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 64, 524. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. 
 pp. 29, 30. vol. ii. pp. 95, 104, 105, 121, 131, 145, 279297. Ancient 
 World, by Aiisted, p. 73, et seq. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 
 1841. Vindiciae Geol. pp. 18 21. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 86. 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp, 202, 311. De Luc's Letters, 
 iv. pp. 110, 155157, 162. Ancient World, by Ansted, 1847. 
 
 32. That the formation called the NEW RED SANDSTONE 
 GROUP is considered to be of mechanical origin and of hetero- 
 geneous composition ; containing different kinds of fossil salts 
 associated with gypsum, and much conglomerate and breccia. 
 
 That, conjointly with the oolitic group, it frequently con- 
 tributes to form extended tracts of level land, having aided in 
 filling up immense hollows on the earth's surface at a time 
 when, or immediately after, this latter had undergone a great 
 and widely extended revolution in its physical form, and in 
 the condition of its vegetable and animal life. 
 
 And that although most usually the deposits of rock salt are 
 associated with the strata of the new red sandstone formation, 
 yet they are not unfrequently found in the oolitic, cretacious, 
 and even in the tertiary formations. 
 
 Lyell's Prin. Geol. vol. iii. pp. 228230, 333, 392. Humboldt on 
 Superposition, pp. 308 324, 345. Dr. Murray's Elements of Chemistry, 
 vol. ii. p. 291. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 142. Geol. by H. T. de la 
 Beche. Smith's Geol. of England, in No. Ivii. Edin. Review, p. 330. 
 Hist, of British Animals, by Dr. Fleming, p. xvi. Cuvier's Eloge. of 
 Werner. Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 274, 482. vol. ii. pp. 37, 
 214, 227, 232, 260, 288294. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 
 Edin. 1841. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 3, 71, 390. 
 Ansted's Ancient World, pp. 106 118, 130, et seq. Lyell's Elements 
 of Geol. vol. i. pp. 104, 140, 201, 367 370. vol. ii. pp. 90 96, 102, 
 134, 242, 282, 350, 357. Phillips's Geol. pp. 65, 114, 120140. De 
 Luc's Letters, iii. pp. 131 136. 
 
 S3. That whatever may have been the nature and extent 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 29 
 
 of the revolution, alluded to in the preceding theorem as 
 having affected the earth's surface, it and its attendant circum- 
 stances seem to have exercised a direct and material influence 
 over the widely extended deposits, the " OOLITIC" and the 
 "CRETACIOUS GROUPS;" the CHALK formation being con- 
 sidered the most recent of the secondary series; after whose 
 deposition there appears to have taken place a manifest change 
 in the state and condition of our planet, and also in its veget- 
 able and animal existences. 
 
 Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, p. 259, et seq. Humboldt on Super, pp. 
 68, 377. Bakewell's Intro, to Geol. Playfair's Hutt. Theory, pp. 25, 
 26. Edin. Phil. Jour. No. xvi. p. 228. Lyell's Prin Geol. vol. i. pp. 
 154158, 161, 550. vol. ii. p. 313. vol. iii. pp. 16, 18, 172, 243, 320, 
 342. Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 138, 292, 482. vol. ii. pp. 
 262, 263. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 7177, 267, 273, 
 282, 334375, 450. Phillips's Geol. pp. 33, 34, 92, 140, 154, 161, 186 
 194. Ansted's Ancient World, pp. 106110, 254, 267, 400. Lyell's 
 Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 194, 270, 337, 346, 386, 421. vol. ii. pp. 
 74, 79, 308313, 349, 401403. Old Red Sandstone, by Miller, Edin. 
 1841. 
 
 34. That in several parts of Europe and America immense 
 quantities of travelled debris, gravel, and massive Bowlders, 
 termed by Sir H. de la Beche " THE ERRATIC BLACK GROUP" 
 are found either resting on or embedded in the soil. That the 
 bowlders and larger debris, when they have been traced to the 
 nearest fixed group of the same rnineralogical character, are 
 generally found to have come from a considerable distance. 
 That those bowlders in Britain, Germany, Russia, and North 
 America, whose sites and derivations are ascertained, have 
 been identified with mountain chains existing to the north of 
 where they now lie ; whilst those in South America seem, on 
 the contrary, to have originated from localities southward of 
 their present resting places. Finally, the position of the gravel 
 and smaller detrites appears to have been materially modified 
 by local formations. 
 
 Playfair's Huttonian Theory, pp. 384, 385, 393, 394. Geol. by H. T. 
 de la Beche, p. 169, et seq. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, 1786, 
 pp. 63 66, et seq. Jamieson's Cuvierian Theory, pp. 300, 301. Lyell's 
 Prin. Geol. vol. i. p. 202. vol. iii. p. 148. Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. 
 ii. p. 364, 365. Literary Gazette, Feb. 3, 1836, p. 104, and Sept. 3, 
 1836, p. 565, both by Prof. Murchison. New Walks in an Old Field, 
 
30 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Miller, 1841. Phillips's Treat, on Geol. pp. 201, 205216. Ansted's 
 Ancient World, pp. 323326. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 142, 
 164, 222225, 231234, et seq. vol. ii. p. 282, et seq. De Luc's 
 Letters, Intro, p. 25. 1st Letter, pp. 17, 27, 38. 
 
 35. That a satisfactory explanation of the trade winds has 
 been given upon certain well-known and established principles, 
 amongst which the following are relevant to the present 
 subject: 
 
 1st. That all portions of the earth's surface have a velocity 
 of rotation in direct proportion to the radii of the circle of 
 latitude to which they correspond. 
 
 2nd. That the air, when relatively and apparently at rest, 
 is only so because it participates in the motion of rotation 
 proper to that part of the earth. 
 
 3rd. That, consequently, when currents of air set towards 
 the equator from the north or south, they must lag, hang back, 
 or drag upon the surface, in a direction opposite to that of 
 the earth's rotation, or from east to west. And, lastly, 
 
 That the polar currents, from a deficiency of rotatory 
 velocity, tend by their friction near the equator to diminish 
 the velocity of the earth's rotation ; while, on the contrary, 
 the equatorial currents carry the excess of rotatory motion 
 north and south. 
 
 Astron. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 128132. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. 
 Treat, p. 99. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, 1786, p. 148, et seq. 
 System, of Astron. by Margaret Bryan, 1797, p. 309, et seq. Connexion 
 of the Sciences, pp. 8, 87, 115, 137, 433, 441. Capt. Hall's Voyages 
 and Travels, 2nd series, vol. i. p. 162. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. 
 pp. 34, 140, 224. vol. ii. p. 301. Prin. of Meteorology, by Hutchinson. 
 Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. 380 382. 
 
 36. That the great size of fossil plants, and the magnitude 
 of fossil shells, when compared with their respective recent 
 equivalents, afford reason to suppose that there existed, when 
 and where they grew and lived, as great a warmth of tempe- 
 rature* as now exists within the tropics, and, perhaps, even 
 greater. That this warmth was general throughout the 
 
 * This "warmth of temperature" must be carefully distinguished from the 
 heat which is alluded to in the 20th and 29th theorems, and which is considered 
 to have occasioned the fusion observable in the primary and secondary forma- 
 tions. AUTHOR. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 31 
 
 northern, and such parts of the southern hemisphere as have 
 yet been examined. 
 
 And it is also considered that there existed in the medium 
 wherein they grew and lived a much greater proportion of 
 carbonic acid than is consistent with present animal and vege- 
 table life. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 313, 314. Botany, in Libr. 
 of Usef. Know. p. 89. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 85, 256 272. 
 Manual of Geol. by H. T. de la Beche. Lyell's Prin. Geol. vol. i. pp. 
 105 118, 145. vol. iii. p. 55. Gloss, p. 72. Elem. Philos. Plants, 
 Decandolle and Sprengel, p. 276. Humboldt on Superposition, pp. 46, 
 52. Etlin. Jour. Nat. Hist. p. 63. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. 
 i. pp. 452, 462, et seq. Capt. Parry's Voyage, Edin. Pbil. Jour. No. vii. 
 p. 152. Fossil Flora, by Lindley and Hutton, vol. i. Ancient World, 
 Ansted, p. 80, et seq. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. p. 285, 382. vol. 
 ii. p. 125. Phillips's Geol. pp. 96, 118, 289. De Luc's Letters, p. 110, 
 also Letter v. Architecture of the Heavens, Nichols, p. 106. Old Red 
 Sandstone, H. Miller, 1841. 
 
 37. That, besides the phenomena alluded to in the fore- 
 going theorems, reference is made, generally, in Geological 
 Treatises : 
 
 1st. To the changes which are taking place, as the effects 
 of causes now in operation, such as the action of the sea, its 
 encroachments and subsidencies, tides, currents, lakes, and 
 rivers, volcanoes, earthquakes, deposits from springs, and the 
 formation of coral reefs and islands. And 
 
 2nd. To the fossil osteological remains of extinct animals, 
 found in various formations, which the industry of geologists 
 has brought to light, arranged, described, and designated by 
 names, usually derived from Greek compounds, expressive of 
 their anatomical developments, and which seem to prove, 
 almost invariably, that the former possessors of these fossilized 
 bones, were wholly distinct from, and not varieties of living 
 species. 
 
 Prof. Buckland's Bridg Treat, vol. i. pp. 79, 94, et seq. Ancient 
 
 World, by Ansted, London, 1847. Old Red Sandstone, Miller, Edin. 
 
 1841. Lyell's Prin. and Elements of Geol. Vindiciae Geol. pp. 6 9, 
 
 from Cuvier, pp. 3038. PhiUips's Geol. pp. 184, 211221, 226. De 
 
 Luc's Letters, and any modern work on Geology. 
 
 38. That LIGHT, according to the Newtonian hypothesis, 
 
32 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 is supposed to consist of inconceivably minute, material par- 
 ticles, emitted by luminiferous bodies, and moving through 
 space with the velocity of 192,000 miles in a second of time. 
 That, according to the Undulatory Theory, an exceedingly 
 thin and elastic medium called ETHER is supposed to fill all 
 space, and to occupy the intervals between the particles of 
 materials bodies; and that the vibrations or undulations of 
 this etherial medium cause the sensation of LIGHT. 
 
 But, whatever may be the mode by which it is considered 
 that light becomes perceptible, its universality and the almost 
 immeasurable distance at which it is perceived throughout 
 space, as well as the amazing rapidity of its vibrations requi- 
 site to convey sensations of colour are alike remarkable. 
 
 Optics, by Sir D. Brewster, Cab. Cyc. pp. 2, 134, 283. Nat. Philos. 
 by Sir John Herschel, pp. 94, 195 217, 248, et seq. Progress of Philos. 
 Science, by J. Thomson, pp. xxxiv. xxxix. System of Astron. by Margaret 
 Bryan, pp. 5 15. Connex. of the Sciences, pp. 38, 186 188, 190 1 93, 
 220 224. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 32. Prof. Whewell's 
 idem, pp. 129, 130. Chemistry, Cab. Cyc. pp. 40 42, 373 375. Heat, 
 idem, p. 400. Electricity, idem, pp. 226, 227. Daniel's Philos. of Che- 
 mistry, pp. 164 175, 191. De Luc's Letters, pp. 74 80. Architecture 
 of the Heavens, Nichols, 1837. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, 
 p. 80, et seq. 
 
 39. That a pencil of LIGHT can be decomposed either by 
 refraction or by absorption into three primary spectra: namely, 
 a red, a yellow, and a blue spectrum ; or into seven distinct 
 colours when the secondary ones are included, viz : red, 
 orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. That it 
 likewise can, by the application of certain refracting and ab- 
 sorbing media, be polarized, or separated into two distinct 
 pencils ; one having its pole+45 and another whose pole is 
 45. And, that the angle at which LIGHT falls on any 
 object and the intervening media very materially affect the 
 the nature of the result. 
 
 Optics, by Sir D. Brewster, Cab. Cyc. pp. 6672, 144147, 159 
 169, et seq. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 177, 180, 200, 225, 452. 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 295297, 399. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, 
 pp. 179181, 193207. Botany, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 195198. Hunt 
 on Light, pp. 3739. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. 37, 
 218, et seq. 
 
 40. That there are two hypothesis respecting the con- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 33 
 
 stitution of Solar Light) by one of which it is considered to 
 be comprised of different physical principles ; and by the 
 other it is supposed to consist of a number of distinct rays 
 capable of being diversely deflected, and possessing different 
 qualities according as they vary in refrangibility. Yet, by the 
 adherents of both hypothesis it is admitted, that the solar ray a 
 do possess chemical properties. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 298 303, 399. Optics, idem, by Sir D. 
 Brewster, pp. 90 93. Art. Ligbt, in Dr. Ure's Chem. Diet. pp. 578 
 580. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 225 227. Daniel's Philos. of 
 Chem. p. 456. Hunt on Light. Taylor's Scient. Mem. vol. iii. p. xi. 
 Feb. 1843. De Luc's Letters, p. 78. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 
 1849, p. 37, et seq. (founded on numerous concurring authorities). 
 
 41. That the surface, lengthways, of the solar spectrum 
 is crossed by dark lines of different breadths, and amounting 
 in number to nearly six hundred. That when sun or moon- 
 light is employed in the experiment, their number, order, and 
 intensity are found to be invariable. And that similar bands 
 are perceived in light from the fixed stars, and from that 
 afforded by electricity ; but in the light given by a lamp or 
 candle none of these fixed lines are perceptible. 
 
 Optics, by Sir D. Brewster, Cab. Cyc. pp. 8588, 142. Connexion 
 of the Sciences, pp. 180 182. Astron. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 202, 
 203. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 183, 457. Hunt on Light, pp. 40, 
 41. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. 80. 
 
 4$. That some late and delicate experiments in optics 
 having proved that rays from the sun, even when transmitted 
 obliquely, are not polarized, whereas those which emanate 
 from encandescent bodies possess this remarkable property, it 
 follows as a consequence, that solar light does not issue from 
 an encandescent solid or fluid, but rather as Herschel pre- 
 viously supposed from an exterior film which is the source of 
 its light ; and that the intensity of the sun's light diminishes 
 from the centre to the circumference of the solar disc. 
 
 Astron. by Sir John Herschel, Cab. Cyc. p. 212. Connexion of the 
 Sciences, pp. 254, 255, 310. Geol. by Dr. Ure, Intro, p. xxxvi. Prof. 
 Whewell's Bridg. Treat, p. 171. Heat, in Cab. Cyc. p. 314. Architec. 
 of the Heavens, Nichol, 1837. Phen. and Order of the Solar System, 
 idem, pp. 170 199. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. 83, ct seq. 
 D 
 
34 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 43. That common light moves in straight lines. That 
 when it falls upon any surface, whether plane or curved, the 
 angle of its reflection is equal to the angle of its incidence. 
 That the intensity of radiant heat and light decreases in direct 
 proportion to the square of the distance. And that one non- 
 luminous body may receive light from another non-luminous 
 body and discharge it upon a third ; but in every case the 
 light must come from a self-luminous body. 
 
 Optics, by Sir D. Brewster, Cab. Cyc. pp. 1, 6, 2325. Connexion 
 of the Sciences, pp. 170 176, 189. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. p. 91. 
 Astron. by Sir John Herschel, p. 212. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. p. 1 66. 
 
 44. That the following are some of the best ascertained 
 effects of sunlight upon the vegetable kingdom, namely : 
 
 1st. The quantity of water lost to a plant by evaporation, 
 and its power of absorption from the soil are in proportion to 
 the quantity of light. 
 
 2nd. Light causes the decomposition of the carbonic acid 
 of vegetation ; and, by solidifying the tissue, renders the parts 
 most exposed to it the hardest. And 
 
 3rd. The green parts of plants, when exposed to the direct 
 light of the sun, absorb from the atmosphere carbonic acid, 
 which they decompose, and give back the oxygen. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 92, 175, 186. Botany, in 
 Lib. Useful Know. pp. 8488. Hunt on Light, pp. 200202. Me- 
 teorology, by Dr. Thomson, p. 15 (founded on numerous concurring 
 evidences) . 
 
 45. That two distinct hypothesis have been proposed re- 
 specting the nature of RADIANT HEAT. 
 
 By one it is considered to be a material substance sui 
 generis, capable of combining with other bodies, and by such 
 combination producing the various effects attributed to heat. 
 By the other it is regarded, not as a material substance, but 
 as a quality of matter ; bodies when heated being supposed to 
 be in a certain state in which their constituent molecules, or 
 the molecules of some subtle fluid which pervades them, are 
 put into a state of vibration ; and this vibration is considered 
 the cause of heat. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 26, 379, 392 403. Chemistry, by Donovan, 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 35 
 
 Cab. Cyc. pp. 4042, 375378. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 164, 
 208, 228, 685. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 411. Disc, on Nat. 
 Philos. by Herschel, pp. 195, 310 323. Pollock's Attempt to Explain 
 the Nature of Heat. 
 
 46. That the results of careful and repeated experiments 
 prove, {< that light and heat either do not possess the property 
 of gravitation, or possess it in so small a degree as to be 
 wholly inappreciable by any known means of measuring it." 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 394 396. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 
 239, 240. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 102. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. 
 pp. 373 375. Electricity, in idem, pp. 1, 227. Daniel's Philos. of 
 Chem. p. 102. Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, p. 300. Hydro- 
 statics, in Cab. Cyc. p. 142. 
 
 47. That a comparison of the natural phenomena, in which 
 the effects of LIGHT and HEAT are manifested, affords reason 
 to infer the existence of a connexion so intimate between them 
 as to warrant the belief of their identity. Nevertheless, 
 although the instances are rare in which light does not emanate 
 from incandescent bodies; yet, on the other hand, intense 
 heat may be excited and communicated without being accom- 
 panied by visible light. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 2225, 294, 339353, 379381, 398. A 
 Paper read before the Royal Society by Herschel, May 15, 1800, p. 295. 
 Dr. Faraday's Exper. Researches, vol. ii. System of Astronomy, by 
 Margaret Bryan, 1797, pp. 5 15. Connexion of the Sciences, preface, 
 also pp. 226233, 237249, 251, 355. Disc, on Nat. Philos. by 
 Herschel, Cab. Cyc. p. 314. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, p. 136. Lec- 
 tures at the Lond. Instit. by Prof. Grove, 1843 and 1844. Chemistry, in 
 Cab. Cyc. pp. 40 42, 91. Hydrostatics, in idem. Electricity, in 
 idem, pp. 162, 163. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 164166, 208, 217. 
 De Luc's Letters, pp. 7680. 
 
 48. That by a concurring chain of deductive reasoning, 
 drawn from the effects of the different heating powers of the 
 component colours of the solar spectrum, when applied to 
 substances reflecting various colours and degrees of heat; 
 together with the corroborating testimony of the augmented 
 heat of concentrated light, it is considered to be established, 
 beyond the possibility of doubt, that, in these cases, sunlight 
 is the direct cause of heat. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 345 350, 382. Connexion of the Sciences, 
 D 2 
 
36 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 p. 229. Optics, by Sir D. Brewster, Cab. Cyc. pp. 81), 317, 321. 
 Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. p. 91. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, pp. 99, 
 209. 
 
 49. That the attraction of affinity distinct from that of 
 cohesion, and the highest degree of heterogeneous attraction, 
 its ratios being determinate quantities is supposed to be co- 
 existent with matter. 
 
 That it is one of the few forces known to act by election, 
 and is productive of the most important results in nature. 
 
 And, that during chemical action, heat is either developed 
 or absorbed; whilst caloric and water are the agents most 
 usually employed to facilitate and conduct chemical operations. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 3, 21, 25, 191193, 294296, 310, 354, 387. 
 Disc, on Nat. Philos. in Cab. Cyc. pp. 310313. Caloric and Com- 
 bustion, Ure's Chem. Diet. pp. 353, 368. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 
 22, et seq. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 225. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. 
 pp. 23 27, 384 386, et seq. Electricity, in idem, p. 162. Daniel's 
 Philos. of Chemistry, pp. 101, 219, 306, 325, 338, 397, 444, 523, 685. 
 Physiol. and Anatomy of Man, by Todd and Bowman, London, 1845, 
 vol. i. pp. 2, 3, et seq. Dr. Faraday's Chem. Manipulations. 
 
 50. That the first and most usual effect of heat is to in- 
 crease the size of the bodies to which it is imparted, by 
 causing them to dilate or expand. 
 
 That, although these effects are produced in different 
 degrees and by different methods, according as the body to 
 which heat is applied be solid, liquid, or aeriform, yet it may 
 be considered as a physical law to which there is no real 
 exception, that an increase in the temperature will be accom- 
 panied by an increase of volume, and a diminution of tempe- 
 rature by a diminution of volume. And that the force with 
 which solids and liquids expand or contract by heat or cold is 
 prodigious. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 810, 2883, 162, 173175, 187189, 393. 
 Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 117 120, 243. Chemistry, by Hugo 
 Reid, pp. 22, 23. Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 19, 20. Heat, in Chem. 
 Diet. pp. 253255, 278. Disc, on Nat. Philos. in Cab. Cyc. pp. 319 
 322, 343. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 10, 42 48, 5458. Daniel's 
 Chem. Philos. pp. 685687. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. 
 98, et seq. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 37 
 
 51. That the phenomena arising from attraction and 
 those from repulsion indicate the presence of two antagonist 
 forces acting at the same time on the particles of all bodies, 
 and maintaining them in a state of equilibrium; which be- 
 comes more or less disturbed according as either of these forces 
 preponderates. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 2, 8, 11, 17, 185199, 343. Chemistry, by 
 Hugo Reid, pp. 2023. Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, 
 Cab. Cyc. pp. 89, 321. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 117, 241 243. 
 Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 37 44, 49, 58. Hydrostatics, in idem, p. 
 2. Electricity, in idem, pp. 225, 226. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, 
 pp. 13, 17, 99, 450. Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 8, 67. Meteorology, 
 by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. 3.70. 
 
 52. That an irresistible body of analogies leads to the con- 
 viction, that the same physical properties, which observation 
 and experience disclose in the smaller masses immediately 
 surrounding us, are possessed by the infinite systems of bodies 
 which fill the immensity of space. That the distribution of 
 heat is regulated by the same laws amongst the bodies of the 
 universe as among those which exist on our globe. That the 
 earth absorbs and radiates heat in the same manner as every 
 body on its surface, and therefore, if there were no external 
 source of heat, the earth would be gradually cooled down and 
 the temperature of all bodies would fall indefinitely. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 186, 379382. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, 
 p. 76. Dr. Faraday's Researches, vol. ii. pp. 284 293. Daniel's Philos. 
 of Chem. p. 215. Constitut. Sidereal System, Lond. Edin. and Dub. 
 Mag. Feb. 1843. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 29, 363, 381 389, 
 401 411. Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. p. 80. Architect, of the Heavens, 
 Nichol, 1837. Phen. and Order of the Solar System, pp. 218 234. 
 
 53. That when a liquid passes into a solid state a sudden 
 and considerable change of dimension is frequently observed ; 
 and that it may be considered as a general truth, to which, 
 however, there are exceptions, that bodies which crystallize 
 when they freeze, expand in doing so ; while bodies which do 
 not crystallize in solidifying, for the most part .suffer con- 
 traction. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 128 131. Chemistry, in idem, pp. 52 58. 
 
38 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 54. That water in vacuo boils at 88 of Fahrenheit ; but, 
 under the usual pressure of the atmosphere it requires 212. 
 While, in order to maintain water in a state of vapour, the 
 sum of its latent and sensible heats cannot be less than from 
 1,130 to 1,212. 
 
 That different bodies undergo the process of liquifaction at 
 different temperatures, called their points of fusion. In like 
 manner, different liquids undergo the process of ebullition, 
 under equal pressure, at different temperatures. 
 
 And, lastly, that the states of solidity, liquidity, or of vapour, 
 are not essentially connected with the nature of bodies, but 
 are wholly incidental 011 their temperature. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 15, 118, 127, 143, 151, 166, 183, 194. Dr, 
 Ure's Chem. Diet. p. 283. Chemistry, by H. Read, pp. 36, 37, 101. 
 Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 243 250. Chem. in Cab. Cyc. pp. 52 
 67, 7375. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. p. 191. Espy on the Philos. of 
 Storms, 1841. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. 1719 
 
 55. That oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen gases have 
 been severally submitted, by the first chemists of the age, to 
 the enormous pressure of eight hundred atmospheres, without 
 their having succeeded in reducing either of them to the liquid 
 state; although many other gases have been liquidized by 
 their vigorous and well-directed exertions ; and that hitherto 
 no satisfactory explanation has been given of the condition in 
 which the atmospheric elements exist in union. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 167, 177 179, 192, 344. Connexion of the 
 Sciences, p. 119. Phillips's Geol. p. 26. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 
 52, 97, 133, 138, et seq. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, pp. 57, 100, 
 310, 322. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. 7, et seq. 
 
 56. That the atomic theory is understood, by some, to 
 imply that all substances are composed of atoms, on whose 
 magnitude, density, and form their nature and qualities 
 depend. Others, however, assume these atoms to be not 
 particles of matter but centres of force, highly elastic, vary- 
 ing in the disposition and relative intensity of the forces around 
 their respective centres ; and to be in contact with each other. 
 But all alike concur in the belief that, as these atoms are un- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 39 
 
 changeable, they must be incapable of wear, remaining the 
 same now as when created. 
 
 Dr. Dalton's Chemical Philos. vol. i. Nat. Philos. in Cab. Cyc. by 
 Herschel, pp. 37 42, 323. Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 185, 291293. 
 Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 117 128. Dr. Faraday's Experimental 
 Researches, vol. ii. pp. 284 293. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 13 40, 
 361, 384391. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, pp. 7, 313, 325, 678 
 695. Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 6 16, 67. Phillips's Geology, p. 
 257. Physiol. and Anatomy of Man, by Todd and Bowman, London, 
 1845, vol. i. pp. 2, 3, et seq. 
 
 57. That when any physical effect is transmitted in straight 
 lines, especially if these lines proceed in various directions 
 round the point whence the effect originates, the phenomena is 
 called radiation. The effect is said to be radiated, and the 
 lines along which it is transmitted are called rays. 
 
 That radiation, in this sense of the term, is a property of 
 heat, and is independent of any power of transmission which 
 may reside in the air ; while it is proved, that the particles 
 forming the surface of a body are not the only ones which 
 radiate, but that this effect also proceeds from particles at a 
 certain small depth within the surface. 
 
 Connexion of the Sciences, p. 226. Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 21, 294, 
 314. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 84 86. Daniel's Philosophy of 
 Chemistry, pp. 209, 214, et seq. 
 
 58. That if heat be applied to a solution of salt and water, 
 the repulsive force will cause the atoms of water to separate 
 from the atoms of salt and carry the former away in pure 
 vapour, while the salt will remain in the form of crystals ; the 
 same degree of repulsive force not being capable of overcoming 
 the natural cohesion between its particles. 
 
 That precisely similar results will ensue if a solution of the 
 same material be exposed to vaporization ; which, if con- 
 tinued for a sufficient length of time, will cause the water to 
 disappear altogether, and leave a crystalline mass of salt 
 behind. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 192, 207, 244. Dr. Ure's Chemical Diet. 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 115, 116. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. p. 19. 
 Electricity, in idem, vol. ii. p. 81. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, pp. 
 77, 222225. Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. p. 14. 
 
40 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 59. That ELECTRICITY is a physical agent, possessing the 
 properties of a self-expansive fluid. 
 
 That all bodies, when in a state of solution, are conductors 
 of electricity. That the mutual attraction or repulsion of 
 two electrified bodies is directly proportional to the quantity 
 of the fluid on the one multiplied by that which is on the 
 other, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance 
 between the two. And that, although several varieties of 
 electricity are known to exist, dependant on the manner in 
 which the electric force is excited, yet they are sufficiently re- 
 lated to one another to justify the conclusion that they all 
 originate from a common principle, and are the effects of one 
 individual power. 
 
 Electricity, in Cab. Cyc. vol. ii. pp. 355, 479482. Connexion of the 
 Sciences, pp. 121, 123, 288, 307, 335. Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. p. 75. 
 Discourse on Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 327, 330 333. 
 Lectures in Lond. Inst. by Prof. Grove, 1843, 1844. Harris on Thunder- 
 storms, 1843. New Treat, on Mechanics, London, 1841, pp. 8 10. 
 Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. 270 281, et seq. 
 
 60. That ELECTRICITY is confined, almost exclusively, to 
 the surface of bodies, penetrating only to a depth scarcely 
 appreciable. That the quantity which bodies are capable of 
 receiving is neither proportional to their mass, nor is it 
 affected by their component materials, but depends chiefly 
 on the extent of their surface and their form. That the 
 electric fluid is most easily retained by a sphere ; next by a 
 spheroid ; while it readily escapes from a point; and a pointed 
 object receives it with the greatest facility. 
 
 Electricity, Cab. Cyc. Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 331, 
 332. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 289 294. Harris on Thunder- 
 storms, 1843. Exper. Researches, by Dr. Faraday, vol. ii. 
 
 61. That Light, Heat, and Motion are intimately con- 
 nected with electrical phenomena. That the most splendid 
 artificial light known is produced by attaching pencils of char- 
 coal, diamond, c., to the extremities of the wires of a voltaic 
 current, and bringing the points thus prepared into contact. 
 That the most intense heat is generated by electrical action, 
 especially by voltaic electricity. And that some eminent phi- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 41 
 
 losophers are inclined to attribute the light and heat of the sun 
 
 to electrical agency. 
 
 Electricity, in Cab. Cyc. Harris on Thunderstorms, 1843. Disc, on 
 Nat. Philos. by Herschel, p. 331. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 294 - 
 313, 353 355. Stait's Electrical Light, Mining Journal, Jan. 1849. 
 Meteorology, by Thomson, 1849, pp. 271, 368, et seq. 
 
 62. That there is a strong analogy between MAGNETISM 
 and ELECTRICITY. The agency of attraction and repulsion is 
 common to both, and subject in them to the same laws; 
 their intensities varying inversely, as the square of the distance 
 between the bodies is affected by them. That a like analogy 
 extends to magnetic and electrical induction. 
 
 And that there is such a perfect correspondence between 
 the theories of magnetic attraction and repulsion, and electro- 
 dynamic forces in conducting bodies, that they not only are 
 the same in principle, but are determined by the same for- 
 mulae. While experiment concurs with theory in proving 
 that, with the exception of electrical transference, the identity 
 of these two unseen influences is complete. 
 
 Electricity, in Cab. Cyc. Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Herschel, pp. 324, 
 339. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 324 327,331,338,341. Prof. 
 Whewell's Bridg. Treat, pp. 110115. 
 
 63. That ELECTRO-MAGNETISM (electricity modified by 
 the physical influences peculiar to certain substances), by over- 
 coming retardation arising from friction, and the obstacle of a 
 resisting medium, maintains perpetual motion. That the 
 force emanating thus mutually from the electric current and 
 the magnetic needle, acts at right angles to the electric current. 
 
 " Such circumferential action, arising from the tangential 
 direction of two opposite forces," being unlike any other 
 power hitherto discovered ; for, all other known forces ema- 
 nating from a point and acting upon any other, act in the 
 direction of a line joining these two points ; and that in all 
 experiments, undertaken with the design of eliciting the phe- 
 nomena of electro-magnetism and of magneto-electricity (the 
 converse of each other) rotation round an axis is generally 
 found to accompany them. 
 
 Electricity, in Cab, Cyc. Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Herschel, pp. 93, 
 
42 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 339. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 305 309, 328, 338, 456. Edin. 
 Philos. Jour. No. xi. p. 179. No. xv. p. 282. No. xvi. pp. 368372. 
 
 64. That the magnetic action has a circular motion round 
 the connecting wire of a voltaic current, whose course, always 
 constant with respect to each of the poles of a magnet, is 
 similar to the direction of the earth and other planets around 
 the SUN, and about their respective axis ; that currents of 
 electricity, analogous to these are constantly flowing round 
 the earth, at right angles to the magnetic meridian. 
 
 And by some it is considered, that the arrangement of the 
 materials composing the outer crust of the globe may be such 
 as to constitute a voltaic girdle, sufficient, though of feeble 
 electric powers, to produce terrestrial magnetism. 
 
 Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, p. 573. Electricity, in Cab. Cyc. 
 Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Herschel, p. 328. Electro-Magnetism, by Dr. 
 Roget, in Lib. Useful Know. Magnetism, in Pop. Encyc. pp. 833 837. 
 Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 305, 324, 328, 348. Prof. Whewell's 
 Bridg. Treat, p. 114. Electricity, in Cab. Cyc. p. 208. Edin. Philos. 
 Jour. No. vii. p. 174. 
 
 65. That ELECTRICAL INDUCTION is that remarkable in- 
 fluence which is exerted by electrified bodies on other bodies 
 at such distances as to prevent the transfer of any part of the 
 charge, but by which a polar state is communicated to the 
 body under induction, so as to confer upon it equal but oppo- 
 site powers by a common condition. 
 
 That the magnetic force of a conducting wire is capable of 
 acting by induction on soft iron, and of communicating per- 
 manent polarity to steel ; this latter induction taking place in- 
 differently through all kinds of matter. 
 
 And that the laws of TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, although 
 inconsistent with those which belong to a permanent magnet, 
 are perfectly accordant with the conditions peculiar to a body 
 in a state of transient magnetic induction. 
 
 Electricity, in Cab. Cyc. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 291, 347 353. 
 
 66. That in light, heat, electricity, and magnetism, prin- 
 ciples are exhibited which, although they do not occasion any 
 appreciable change in the weight of bodies, manifest their 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 43 
 
 presence by the most remarkable mechanical and chemical 
 effects. 
 
 And that these agencies are so connected as to afford 
 every reason to believe they will ultimately be referred to 
 some one power of higher order, in conformity with the 
 general economy of the system of the world ; in which the 
 most varied and complicated effects are produced by a small 
 number of comprehensive laws. 
 
 Experimental Researches in Electricity, by Dr. Faraday, vol. ii. p. 15. 
 Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 309, 352355, 412, 413. Prof. Whewell's 
 Bridg. Treat, p. 138. Harris on Thunderstorms, 1843. Meteorology, 
 by Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. 271, 278, et seq. 
 
 67. That one of the most important qualities of matter in 
 mechanical investigation is INERTIA, or that property which 
 results from its inability to produce in itself spontaneous 
 change or action, either from a state of rest to that of motion, 
 or vice versa, to diminish any motion which it may have re- 
 ceived from an external cause, or to change its direction. 
 
 That, since by this quality of inertia t a body can neither 
 generate nor destroy motion, it follows : that when two bodies 
 act on each other, in any way whatever, the total quantity of 
 motion in any given direction after the action takes place, 
 must be the same as before. And that any two bodies are 
 considered to have equal quantities or masses of matter when 
 they possess equal inertia. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 2733, 37, 38, 44, 6374. Chemistry, 
 in idem, p. 2. Electricity, in idem. p. 225. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. 
 pp. 9, 10. Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 222, 297. 
 Mechanics, by Laplace, Toplis, 1814, pp. 23 30. New Treat, on 
 Mechanics, London, 1841, pp. 2, 83. 
 
 68. That the molecules of bodies are not placed together 
 merely in unrelated juxtaposition, but either cohere and resist 
 separation, or mutually repel each other ; while the mutual 
 approach, by attraction of particles placed at a distance from 
 each other, or their further separation by repulsion, are effects 
 of the same class, both of which are termed FORCE. That, 
 therefore, " whatever produces or opposes the production of 
 motion or pressure in matter is force ;" in which sense it is 
 
44 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 the name or symbol for the unknown cause of a known effect. 
 That FORCE, when manifested by the mutual approach or 
 cohesion of bodies, is called ATTRACTION ; separable into as 
 many branches as it has distinct modes of displaying itself. 
 But when FORCE is indicated by the remotion of bodies from 
 each other it is called repulsion or expansion. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 6 8, 49, 63. Discoveries by an Italian 
 Philos. Lit. Gazette. Lectures, by Prof. Grove, Lond. Instit. 1843-4. 
 Chemical Diet. Dr. Ure's, pp. 253, 278. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 
 2730. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, pp. 11, 1318. Disc, on Nat. 
 Philos. Herschel, pp. 225 228. Mechanics, by Laplace, Toplis, 1814, 
 p. 1, 30. New Treat, on Mechanics, London, 1841. 
 
 69. That the tendency to assume and maintain a state of 
 equilibrium the effect of counteracting forces is a prevailing 
 condition of the material universe ; that it is exemplified alike 
 by the invariable plane passing through the centre of gravity 
 of the solar system, around which, as a fixed centre, the great 
 secular changes of the system oscillate ; by the static forms 
 assumed by fluid bodies under rotation ; by the normal con- 
 dition of the ocean and of the atmosphere ; and by the combi- 
 nations produced by the satisfaction of chemical affinities ; that 
 the stability of the equilibrium or difficulty of subverting it, 
 is in proportion to the magnitude and importance of the con- 
 stituted body ; and that it cannot be disturbed, in any of its 
 states, without the operation of a sufficient and corresponding 
 cause. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 65, 74, 116. Connexion of the Sciences, 
 pp. 306, 307. Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, Cab. Cyc. 
 pp. 90, 222, 275, 281. Architecture of the Heavens, Nichol, pp. 185 
 187. Phen. and Order of the Solar System, idem, pp. 231, 232. 
 Harris on Thunderstorms, pp. 4, 10. Ancient World, by Ansted, 1841, 
 pp. 384, et seq. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. 370. Baron 
 Humboldt's Cosmos. 
 
 70. That the law of GRAVITATION, is " That the mutual 
 attraction of two bodies increases as their masses are increased, 
 and as the square of the distance between them is diminished; 
 and it decreases in proportion as their masses are decreased, 
 and as the square of their distance is increased." That this 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 45 
 
 law which is irrespective of the quality of matter extends 
 not only over the planetary system, where its effects have been 
 submitted to rigorous calculation, but is supposed to pervade 
 the whole material universe ; and that, as the motions'of celes- 
 tial bodies are independent of their absolute magnitudes and 
 distances, if all the bodies of the solar system, their mutual 
 distances, and their velocities were to diminish proportionally, 
 they would describe curves in all respects similar to those in 
 which they now move. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 7579, 81102. Astron. by Sir John 
 Herschel, ditto, pp. 237, 389 394. System of Astron. by Margaret 
 Eryan, pp. 22, 186 205. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 1 7, 381, 
 407409,412. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, pp. 6 9. Treat, 
 on Double Stars, by M. Arago, Edin. Jour. Science. Prof. Whewell's 
 Bridg. Treat, pp. 214 239. Dr. Faraday's Experimental Researches, 
 vol. ii. pp. 284293. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 3, 4, 2729. Disc, 
 on Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 56, 72, 255, 280. 
 Philos. of Chemistry, by Daniel, pp. 20, 21. Architecture of the 
 Heavens, Nichol, 1837, pp. 152, 153, 211, et seq. Mechanics, by La- 
 place, Toplis, pp. 52, 285, 286. New Treat, on Mechanics, London, 1841, 
 pp. 7, 31. Phen. and Order of the Solar System, Nichol, pp. 208 281. 
 
 71. That as results of the principles mentioned in the pre- 
 ceding theorems, there have been deduced by Sir Isaac 
 Newton, the followng three comprehensive rules, called the 
 laws of motion, namely : 
 
 1st. Every body must persevere in its state of rest, or of 
 uniform motion in a straight line, unless it be compelled to 
 change that state by forces impressed upon it. 
 
 2nd. Every change of motion must be proportional to the 
 impressed force, and must be in the direction of that straight 
 line in which the force is impressed. 
 
 3rd. Action must always be equal and contrary to re- 
 action ; or the action of two bodies upon each other must be 
 equal and directed towards contrary sides. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 30, 3846. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. 
 Treat, p. 232. Mechanics, by Laplace, Toplis, 1814, p. 2. New Treat, 
 on Mechanics, London, 1841, p. 1. 
 
 72. That when a body has a motion of rotation, the line 
 round which it revolves is called an axis ; in which case every 
 
46 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 point in the body must move in a circle whose centre lies in the 
 axis and whose radius is the distance of the point from it. 
 That, sometimes, when the body revolves, the axis, itself, is 
 moveable, and, not unfrequently, in a state of actual motion ; 
 the motions of the earth and planets being examples of this 
 kind. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. p. 128, 129. New Treat, on Mechanics, 
 London, 1841. 
 
 73. That the same causes which produce pressure on a 
 body when restrained, will produce motion if the body be free. 
 Accordingly, if a body be moved by any efficient cause, it 
 will, by reason of the CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, FLY OFF; and the 
 moving force with which it will thus retreat from the centre 
 round which it revolves will be the measure of the centrifugal 
 force. The following are the expression of its laws : 
 
 1. Equal weights revolving with the same velocity at 
 equal distances from the centre will have the same centrifugal 
 force. 
 
 2. Equal weights with equal angular velocities, at distances 
 from the centre in the proportion of one to two, have their 
 centrifugal forces in the same proportion. 
 
 3. Equal weights at equal distances, with velocities as one 
 to two, have their centrifugal forces as the square of their an- 
 gular velocities. 
 
 4. Equal weights at distances as two is to three, and with 
 velocities as one to two, have their centrifugal forces in the 
 proportion of their respective distances multiplied by the 
 square of their velocities. And 
 
 5. Weights which are as one to two at equal distances, 
 with the same velocity, will have their centrifugal force in- 
 creasing as the mass of the moving body increases. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 98101, 105. Mechanics, by Laplace, 
 Toplis, pp. 4952. New Treat, on Mechanics, pp. 7384. White- 
 hurst's Theory of the Earth, pp. 9 11. 
 
 74. That to the centrifugal force, arising from the rotation 
 of the earth around its axis, and to its greater opposition to 
 gravity in the equatorial regions, is attributed the protube- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 47 
 
 ranee of its form in those, regions : or the excess of the equa- 
 torial beyond the polar diameter. And that this opinion is 
 corroborated by the excessive oblate form, and corresponding 
 rotatory velocity of Jupiter. The axis of the planets in 
 general being less than the diameters perpendicular to the 
 axis. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. p. 105, et seq. System of Astronomy, by 
 Margaret Bryan, 1797, p. 27, et seq. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 
 8, 3436, 76. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, 1786, pp. 914. 
 Astron. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 108123. Phillips's Geology, p. 7. 
 Phen. and Order of the Solar System, p. 224. 
 
 75. That forces, in general, are classed according to the 
 duration of their action into instantaneous and continued; 
 the effect of the former being produced in an infinitely short 
 time. If the body which sustains it be previously quiescent 
 and free, it will move with a uniform velocity in the direction 
 of the impressed force ; but if the body be so restrained that 
 the impulse cannot put it into motion, then the fixed points 
 or lines which resist the motion wilt receive a corresponding 
 shock, called percussion, at the moment of the impulse ; and 
 which, like the force that caused it, is instantaneous.. 
 
 A continued force will produce a continued effect, with 
 corresponding results. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc, pp. 129 131. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, 
 p. 15. 
 
 76. That if a point on which a force be applied is free to 
 move in a certain direction not coinciding with the applied 
 force, it will be resolved into two elements, one of which 
 will be in the direction in which the point is free to move, 
 and the other at right angles to that direction. The point 
 will move in obedience to the former element, and the latter 
 will produce percussion or pressure on the point or line which 
 restrains the body. 
 
 And, that should the forces impressed on the body, whether 
 continued or instantaneous, be such as, were it free, would 
 communicate to it a motion, which the restraining circum- 
 stances do not forbid it to receive, then the fixed points or 
 
48 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 lines which restrain the body sustain no force ; the phenomena 
 will be the same, in all respects, as if those points or lines 
 were not fixed. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 130, 131. 
 
 77. That if a solid body, moveable on a fixed axis and sus- 
 ceptible of no motion, except one of rotation on that axis, be 
 submitted to the action of instantaneous force, one or other 
 of the following effects must ensue : 
 
 1st. The axis may resist the force and prevent any 
 motion. 
 
 2nd. The axis may modify the effect of the force, sustaining 
 itself a corresponding percussion ; and the body will receive a 
 motion of rotation ; or 
 
 3rd. The force applied may be such as would cause the 
 body to revolve round the axis, even were it not fixed ; in 
 which case the body will receive a motion of rotation, but the 
 axis will suffer no percussion. 
 
 That the same results proceed from the application of con- 
 tinued forces 
 
 1st. The axis may entirely resist the effects of continued 
 forces, and suffer a percussion which can be estimated by the 
 rules for the composition of forces. 
 
 2nd. It may modify the effect of the applied forces, and 
 sustain a pressure ; the body receiving a motion of rotation, 
 subject to constant variation, owing to the incessant action of 
 the forces, or 
 
 3rd. The forces may be such as would communicate to the 
 body the same rotatory motion if the axis were not fixed ; in 
 which case the forces will produce no pressure on the axis. 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 129 132. 
 
 78. That when a solid body revolves on its axis all its 
 parts are whirled round together, and each performing a com- 
 plete revolution in the same time ; consequently, the angular 
 velocity is the same for all. The tendency of each particle to 
 fly from the axis, arising from the centrifugal force, is resisted 
 by the cohesion of the parts of the mass, and, in general, the 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 49 
 
 tendency is expended in exciting a pressure or strain upon 
 the axis, whose amount depends upon the figure and density 
 of the body and the velocity of its motion. 
 
 That the following forms of solid bodies are exempted from 
 any strain upon the axis during rotation, namely, a globe re- 
 volving on any of its diameters, the densities being the same at 
 equal distances from the centre ; a spheroid, or a cylinder, 
 revolving on its axis, the densities being equal at equal dis- 
 tances from the axis, and 
 
 That since no pressure is exerted on the axis, the state of 
 
 the body will not be changed if, during the rotation, the axis 
 
 cease to be fixed. The body will continue, notwithstanding, 
 
 to revolve round the axis, and the axis will retain its position. 
 
 Mechanics, Cab. Cyc. pp. 129131, 140142. 
 
 79. That the power of a force to produce rotation is accu- 
 rately estimated, not by the force alone, but by multiplying 
 the distance of the direction of the force from the axis (called 
 the leverage) by the force itself, the product of which is an 
 important datum in mechanics, and is called the moment of 
 the force around the axis. And, that if the moment, or sum 
 of the moments of the forces which tend to turn a body in one 
 direction be equal to the moment or sum of the moments of 
 forces which tend to turn it in the opposite direction, they 
 will mutually neutralize each other and produce equilibrium. 
 
 Mechanics in Cab. Cyc. pp. 133 136. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 
 82. Mechanics, by Laplace, Toplis, pp. 69, 70. New Treat, on 
 Mechanics, London, 1841. 
 
 80. That if the force applied to a body be directed upon 
 the axis, and at right angles to it, no rotatory motion will be 
 produced. 
 
 If a sphere, at rest in space, receive an impulse passing 
 through its centre of gravity, all its parts will move with an 
 equal velocity in a straight line. And, that if the impulse 
 does not pass through the centre of gravity, its particles having 
 unequal velocities, will have a rotatory or revolving motion at 
 the same time that it is translated in space. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. p. 133. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 9. 
 E 
 
50 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 81. That there is a certain point called the centre of gy- 
 ration, at which, if the whole mass were concentrated, it would 
 receive from an impulse the same velocity round the axis. 
 And, that the perpendicular distance from the centre of 
 gyration to the axis is termed the radius of gyration. 
 
 That of all axis, taken in the same body parrallel to each 
 other, that which passes through the centre of gravity has the 
 least radius of gyration. That the product of the numerical 
 expression for the mass of the body and the square of the 
 radius of gyration is called the moment of inertia. That the 
 velocity of rotation which a body receives from any given im- 
 pulse is great in exactly the same proportion as the moment of 
 inertia is small. 
 
 And, that from all these principles it follows, that a given 
 impulse at a given distance from the axis will communicate 
 the greatest angular velocity when the axis passes through 
 the centre of gravity. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 136 138. Mechanics, by Laplace, 
 Toplis, 1814, pp. 208, 209. 
 
 S2. That the point of a plane where the direction of an 
 impressed force meets it when no percussion on the axis is 
 produced is called the centre of percussion. 
 
 That there are many positions of an axis which may have 
 no centre of percussion that is, there will be no direction in 
 which an impulse could be applied without producing a shock 
 upon the axis. 
 
 That one of these positions is when it is a principal axis 
 passing through the centre of gravity ; and as this is the only 
 case of rotation round an axis in which the latter will sustain 
 no pressure from the centrifugal force of the revolving mass, 
 it follows, that the only case in which the axis sustains no 
 effect from the action produced is one in which it necessarily 
 must suffer an effect from that which produces the motion. 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 139145. 
 
 83. That in FRICTION the amount of the resistance in- 
 creases according to the roughness of the surfaces, and the 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 51 
 
 force with which these, moving upon one another, are pressed 
 together. Surfaces being equal, a double pressure will pro- 
 duce a double friction. That these results are but slightly 
 affected by the velocity with which the surfaces move upon 
 each other. 
 
 And, therefore, any body moving under the effects of a 
 given force will, in proportion to the increase of the asperity 
 and pressure, be the more speedily deprived of its velocity, 
 and reduced to a state of rest. That FRICTION is a great 
 source of heat independently of fire or flame ; and that it also 
 excites electrical influences. 
 
 Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 260 268. Playfair's Hutt. Theoiy, p. 
 186. Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 313330. Prof. Whewell's 
 Bridg. Treat, pp. 238 250. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. p. 42. Heat, in 
 idem, pp. 27, 385403. Electricity, in idem, pp. 230232, 259261. 
 vol. ii. p. 283. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, pp. 47, 60, 99101. New 
 Treat, on Mechanics, London, 1841, p. 2. 
 
 84. That the ATMOSPHERE is an aerial ocean surrounding 
 the earth in all directions, and of which the surface of the land 
 and sea forms the bed. That its density diminishes with 
 extreme rapidity as it proceeds upwards; and, eventually, 
 at a height not exceeding fifty miles, reaches a real and definite 
 boundary. That this upper surface is estimated to be pre- 
 cisely where the specific elasticity of the air is balanced by the 
 power of gravitation. And, that the mean temperature of space 
 is considered to be 58 below the zero point of Fahrenheit. 
 
 Astronomy, by Sir John Herschel, Cab. Cyc. pp. 23, 26. System of 
 Astronomy, by Margaret Bryan, 1797, p. 73, et seq. Art. by Dr. 
 Woolaston, in Edin. Phil. Jour. No. xiii. Note, by Mr. Smith, in same 
 period. No. xvi. p. 416. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 121, 133136. 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 37. Dick's Christian, Philos. p. 106. 
 Phillips's Geology, pp. 23, 24. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. p. 94. Heat, 
 in idem, p. 234. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry, pp. 33, 58, 174, 324. 
 Nat. Philos. in Cab. Cyc. by Sir John Herschel, p. 231. Espy on 
 Philos. of Storms, 1841. Prin. of Meteorology, by G. Hutchinson, p. 3, 
 4, et seq. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. 227, 71, 96. 
 Manual of Barometers, by John H. Belville, Greenwich, 1849. 
 
 85. That the ATMOSPHERE is composed of serial fluids, 
 chiefly oxygen and nitrogen, in the ratio of one volume of the 
 
 E 2 
 
52 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 former to four of the latter ; or, more correctly, one hundred 
 parts of atmospheric air contain 20 T 2 o of oxygen and 79 T % of 
 nitrogen. It also contains variable quantities of carbonic acid 
 gas and of aqueous vapour. That the two first of these have 
 never either been liquidized or rendered incandescent ; while 
 the amount of moisture varies according to the dew point and 
 state of the barometer. That although in certain states it is 
 815 times lighter than water, it exerts a pressure on the sur- 
 face of the earth equal to 151bs. for every square inch : a pres- 
 sure which prevents the sun's rays from converting water and 
 all other fluids into vapour. That it is permanently elastic, its 
 tension increasing in proportion to its density ; admits of 
 considerable variation in the quantity of its associated watery 
 vapour ; and, that a gas and a vapour, occupying the same 
 space, have a tension equal to their combined tensions. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 220, 221. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 133, 
 et seq. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 28 83. Dick's Christian 
 Philos. pp. 107, 108. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, pp. 96110. 
 Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 99, 103, 145 151. Heat, in idem, pp. 
 167, 177, 179, 356. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 33, 42, 76, 308, 314 
 316, 318, 319, 338, 349. Espy on the Philos. of Storms, 1841. Prin. 
 of Meteorology, by G. Hutchinson, pp. 4, 5, et seq. Meteorology, by 
 Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. 2-^18, 23, 24. Manual of Barometers, by John 
 H. Belville, Greenwich, 1849. 
 
 86. That every gas has, at least, two ingredients in its 
 composition, namely, some gravitating matter, which may be 
 called its base or principal part, and the subtile fluid, caloric 
 or heat, and perhaps light and electricity; which, when 
 present in sufficient quantity, cause the base or radicle to 
 appear in a gaseous form. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 101, 102. Brooke's Elements of Crys- 
 tallography, p. xlix. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. p. 52. 
 
 87. That, with respect to the oxygen and nitrogen gases 
 of the air, although the expansive principle acts powerfully in 
 repelling from each other the particles of the same gas, it does 
 not act between those of different gases. 
 
 That by the " diffusion principle of gases" when two are 
 put together they will finally be arranged as if each occupied 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 53 
 
 the whole space and the other was not present ; the heavier 
 being caused to ascend, and the lighter to descend. 
 
 That this is the case with the gases of the atmosphere, and 
 that there seems to exist a power acting upon permanent 
 gases capable of counteracting, to a certain extent, the effects 
 of the attraction of gravitation, and thereby forming an ex- 
 ception to what has hitherto been considered a universal law. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 2883. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. 
 pp. 7376. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 146151. Heat, in idem, 
 pp. 187, 188. Physiol. and Anatomy of Man, by Todd and Bowman, 
 London, 1845, vol. i. p. 3, et seq. 
 
 88. That when a space is filled with a mixture of gas and 
 vapour, these two bodies act, under changes of volume, in ex- 
 actly the same manner as they would if each separately occu- 
 pied the whole space ; the gas dilates and contracts, changing 
 its pressure and temperate with its density. 
 
 The vapour obeys the same law, so long as no part of it is 
 condensed into a liquid ; but as compression renders condensa- 
 tion more easy by the more rapid development of heat, when 
 much compression is used, a portion of that caloric necessary 
 to maintain the vapour in the aeriform state will escape. A 
 corresponding quantity of the vapour will become liquid ; and 
 the remainder will be mingled with the gas, having the same 
 tension which it would have if the gas were not present. 
 
 Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 221, 225, 226. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, 
 pp. 8688, 96110. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 7375. Me- 
 teorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. 7, 97, et seq. 
 
 89. That a LIQUID is a body, in which the attraction of 
 cohesion is so far overcome as to admit of its yielding to the 
 slightest pressure ; and of the particles easily changing their 
 relative position with respect to one another without separating 
 the mass, or repelling each other as those of seriform sub- 
 stances do. That fluids have a direct tendency to find and 
 maintain their level, owing to the combined results of gravi- 
 tation (whereby each particle is attracted to the centre of the 
 earth) and the perfect mobility of the particles among them- 
 selves. And that liquids possess the property of transmitting 
 
54 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 pressure on every direction, each pressing equally on all the 
 particles that surround it, and being equally pressed upon 
 by them. 
 
 Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 231 234. Hydro- 
 statics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 4 12, 26 30, 52. Connexion of the Sciences, 
 pp. 118, 119. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid. Mechanics, by Laplace, 
 Toplis, 1814, p. 125, et seq. 
 
 90. That in every fluid the particles which are beneath 
 sustain the pressure of those above them in proportion to their 
 perpendicular depth, uninfluenced by the size or shape of that 
 which contains the fluid. That the pressure exercised by 
 water is estimated at nearly one pound on each square inch 
 for every two feet of depth. And, that of all the various 
 states of liquidity, WATER is that which has become the ge^ 
 neral type ; and to which all others are referred. 
 
 Hydrostatics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 2329. 
 
 91. That the great Reservoir of WATER, from which 
 all other kinds are, in the first instance, derived, is the ocean, 
 which, extending over three-fourths of the surface of the globe, 
 affords an inexhaustible supply. 
 
 That, by repeated analyses, sea water has been found to 
 consist of the following ingredients in every 500 grains, 
 namely : 
 
 478.420 of pure water 
 13.300 muriate of soda, or culinary salt 
 2.333 sulphate of soda 
 0.995 muriate of lime 
 4.955 muriate of magnesia 
 
 Wherefore, the ocean, besides the elements of pure water,* 
 contains muriatic and sulphuric acids, soda, magnesia, and 
 lime, together with traces of iodine, bromine, and, occasion- 
 ally* potash. That its specific gravity is to that of pure water 
 as 1.0277 is to 1. And that the solution of salts or of acids 
 in water increases the power of that liquid for the transmission 
 respectively of heat, or of the electric fluid. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 1 15 120. Connexion of the Sciences, 
 * 1 part hydrogen, 8 parts oxygen. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 55 
 
 pp. 227, 228, 230, 231. Geol. by de la Beche, p. 3. Prof. Buckland's 
 Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 557. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, p. 53. 
 Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 122 125. Heat, in idem, pp. 200, 251. 
 Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 319, 372, et seq. Prin. of Meteorology, 
 by Hutchinson, p. 17, et seq. Meteorology, by Dr. Thompson, 1849, 
 Introduction. 
 
 92. That the water of the Caspian Sea, the Lakes of 
 America, and of most other natural inland reservoirs of the 
 world, is fresh ; and not saline like that of the ocean. 
 
 Any geographical work. 
 
 93. That the watery vapour of the atmosphere is due to 
 the influence of HEAT ; which, infusing the repulsive principle 
 into the waters of the seas, rivers, and lakes, causes them to 
 ascend in an aeriform state. 
 
 That the ocean undergoes a continual process of evapora- 
 tion, and dismisses into the atmosphere a quantity of pure 
 water, proportionate to its extent of surface, to the tempera- 
 ture of the air, and to its state of saturation. 
 
 That whenever the temperature of the air is reduced below 
 the limit at which the suspended vapour is maintained in a 
 state of saturation, condensation takes place, and rain or aque- 
 ous clouds are produced. 
 
 And, that by these alternate processes the terraine surface 
 of our globe is supplied with fresh moisture and with water 
 necessary to sustain the organization, and to maintain the 
 functions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 53, 115117. Lyell's Prin. of Geol. 
 vol. i. p. 269. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, pp. 53, 87, 96110, 211 
 214, 228235. Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 211214, 228235, 249, 250. 
 Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 557. Espy on the Philos. of 
 Storms, 1841. Vindicise Geol. p. 13. Phillips's Geol. p. 13. Chem. 
 in Cab. Cyc. p. 150. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 149, 156, 160. 
 Prin. of Meteorology, by G. Hutchinson, pp. 9 18, et seq. Manual of 
 Barometers, by Belville, Greenwich, 1849. Meteorology, by Dr. Thom- 
 son, 1849, p. 97, et seq. 
 
 94. That the following seem to be the most obvious prin- 
 ciples, whose combinations and mutual action on each other 
 
56 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 govern and modify the meteorological state of the atmosphere, 
 namely : 
 
 The existence of a constituent temperature for the main- 
 tenance of water in a state of vapour. The opposite tenden- 
 cies of air from the colder to the warmer parts; and of vapour 
 from the warmer to the colder parts of the atmosphere and 
 terraqueous surface. The different rates at which the tempe- 
 rature and tension of air and of vapour decrease as they ascend 
 from the surface of the earth or sea. The different capacities 
 for heat of those two component parts of the earth's surface. 
 And, lastly, the unequal distribution of the electric fluid in 
 the nephalic masses of the atmosphere, and its tendency to a 
 state of equilibrium. 
 
 Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, pp. 86 112. Whitehurst's Theory of 
 the Earth, 1786, p. 148, et seq. Daniel's Essay on Meteorology. 
 Phillips's Geol. p. 13. Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 65, 211214. Daniel's 
 Philos. of Chem. pp. 157, 286. Espy on the Philos. of Storms, 1841. 
 Prin. of Meteorology, by Hutchinson, Intro. Manual of Barometers, 
 by Henry Belville, Greenwich, 1849. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 
 Glasgow, 1849. 
 
 95. That the VAPORIZATION of a Fluid is accelerated by 
 the increase of its temperature, and more so when heat is 
 applied to a surface free from external pressure ; in a vacuum 
 vaporization is almost instantaneous. The agitation of the 
 surface likewise increases the effect. That, in general, the 
 rate of evaporation from the surface of the water, in all states 
 of the atmosphere, will be proportioned to the tension of va- 
 pour which would saturate the atmosphere, diminished by the 
 tension of the vapour actually in the atmosphere. 
 
 And that, as different substances are subject to vaporiza- 
 tion at different temperatures, this peculiarity is frequently 
 employed in chemistry and the arts as an efficacious method of 
 precipitating solutions by separating them from the water 
 with which they are combined. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 53. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 
 241, 242, 248, 250. Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 18, 146149, 154175, 
 200223, 227232, 238244, 263. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, 
 pp. 86 88. Prin. of Meteorology, by Hutchinson, pp. 26, 89, et seq. 
 Chemistry, Cab. Cyc. p. 150. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 139141, 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 57 
 
 149151, 154, 318, 319. Espy on the Philos. of Storms, 1841. Me- 
 teorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, p. 97, et seq. 
 
 96. That the comparatively feeble affinity of WATER for 
 bodies which is sufficient merely to dissolve them without 
 materially altering their properties or retaining them in too 
 firm chemical union constitutes one of its chief advantages : 
 various solid bodies, when dissolved, manifesting properties 
 which would not otherwise have been discovered ; but by its 
 means, the cohesion of their particles being overcome, and 
 being, by this simple carrier (water), brought into close and 
 universal contact of their particles, they are rendered more ca- 
 pable of chemical combination. 
 
 That Water, by its dissolving power, enables one sub- 
 stance to be separated from another, or from a number of 
 other bodies with which it may be associated. And that the 
 properties of water, with relation to light, heat, and elec- 
 tricity, render it the fittest agent which can be employed in 
 conducting chemical operations. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 109111, 139. Phillips's Geology, p. 
 202. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 7, 364, 389391. Heat, in Cab. Cyc. 
 pp. 348, 387. Hydrostatics, in Cab. Cyc. p. 3. Daniel's Philos. of 
 Chem. pp. 6971, 129, 319, 441, 450, 525532. Electricity, in Cab. 
 Cyc. vol. ii. p. 392. Prin. of Meteorology, by Hutchinson, p. 160, et 
 seq. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 227, 231. De Luc's 2nd and 3rd 
 Letters. Pop. Hist, of Brit. Algse, pp. 60 62. 
 
 97. That geologists generally concur in the opinion that 
 the sea is the residium of a primitive ocean, which, at one time 
 or other, seems to have covered the dry land which now con- 
 stitutes the habitable surface of the globe. That from it were 
 deposited the mineral ingredients which compose the inor- 
 ganic portion of the stratiform masses of the earth. That 
 this separation simultaneously prepared the primitive ocean 
 for becoming the present sea. And, lastly, it has been main- 
 tained, especially by some of the earlier geologists, " That 
 there are no operations now taking place in the sea, which 
 bear the slightest analogy to those productions of mineral sub- 
 stances in strata which took place formerly on our globe." 
 
 Phillips's Geology, pp. 54, 95, 207. Whitehurst's Theory of the 
 
58 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Earth, 1786, pp. 1527, 86. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 120. Letter 
 by Dr. Fleming, in Edin. Philos. Jour. No. xv. p. 121. Geol. by Dr. 
 M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 497. Vest, of Creation, p. 73. Fowne's Actonian 
 Prize Essay. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 445, 446. De Luc's 
 Letters. Ancient World, by Ansted, 1847, p. 108, et seq. 
 
 98. That EARTHY MATTER consists generally of some 
 metallic substance in chemical combination with oxygen, form- 
 ing an oxide. That the combination of earthy metals with 
 oxygen usually takes place when favoured by a sufficient ele- 
 vation of temperature. That this constitutes the important 
 change which many metals undergo when heated under expo- 
 sure to the air. And that, to facilitate this combination, it is 
 necessary to raise their temperature considerably, to some me- 
 tals it being even requisite to apply very intense heats. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 144. Brooke on Crystallography, pp. 
 xlviii. liv. Chemistry, by Dr. J. Murray, vol. ii. pp. 123, 124. Chern. 
 in Cab. Cyc. pp. 115120. Electricity, in Cab. Cyc. p. 179. Daniel's 
 Philos. of Chemistry, p. 420, et seq. 
 
 99. That the great mass of mineral matter which consti- 
 tutes the crust of the globe is composed of the following sub- 
 stances, namely : 
 
 1. Silex, or flinty earth : 2. Alumina, or earth of clays ; 3. 
 Lime; 4. Magnesia; 5. Soda; 6. Potash; 7. Iron, chiefly 
 as an oxide; 8. Baryta; 9. Strontia ; 10. Glucina ; 11. 
 Yttria ; 12. Thorina; and 13. Zirconia. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 147 167. Dr. lire's Chem. Diet. pp. 
 408, 409. Elements of Chem. by Dr. Murray, vol. ii. pp. 64 68, 123 
 125. Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 194. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. 
 Treat, vol. i. p. 69. Prof. Phillips's Geol. pp. 27 29, 45, 46. Lyell's 
 Elements of Geol. vol. i. p. 22. vol. ii. pp. 196211, 226333. Heat, 
 in Cab. Cyc. p. 126. Chemistry, in idem, pp. 115 120. Electricity, 
 in idem, pp. 172 179. 
 
 100. That LIME is never found pure in nature ; but exists 
 always in chemical combination with other substances, chiefly 
 carbonic acid, in which state it is so abundant as to compose 
 about l-8th of the entire crust of the globe. It is also very 
 abundant as a sulphate ; as a phosphate it constitutes 86 per 
 cent of the bones of animals and of men. And in various saline 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 59 
 
 combinations, especially as a muriate, it exists in the waters of 
 the ocean, in that of springs, and in vegetable and animal 
 matter. It is considered by many to be the product of animal 
 secretion. And possesses the singular quality of being much 
 more soluble in cold than in hot water. 
 
 Murray's Elements of Chem. vol. ii. pp. 81 89. Chemistry, by 
 Hugo Reid, pp. 105, 150, 155157. Dr. Ure's Chem. Diet. pp. 246, 
 247. Brooke's Crystall. pp. xlix. Ivii. Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. 
 i. pp. 202, 216, 221, 237. vol. ii. pp. 256, 257, 262, 413. Prof. Buck- 
 land's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 577. Lyell's Elem. of Chem. vol. 1. p. 23. 
 Chem. in Cab. Cyc. pp. 32, 118, 119. 
 
 101. That by experiment it has been proved, that if car- 
 bonate of lime be heated under a pressure equal to 1,700 feet 
 of sea water ; or to a column of liquid lava 600 feet high, so 
 as to prevent the escape of its carbonic acid, it may be melted 
 at a temperature even not higher than 22 of Wedgewood's 
 scale. That by this process it acquires considerable hardness 
 and closeness of texture, approaching, in these qualities, as 
 well as in fracture and specific gravity, to the finer kind of 
 limestone or marble. And latterly it has been discovered, that 
 even without compression carbonate of lime may be fused 
 by the sudden application of violent heat, or by submitting it 
 to heat in a large mass. 
 
 Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. iii. p. 370. Elem. of Chem. by Dr. Murray, 
 vol. ii. p. 85. Dr. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 41. Lyell's Elem. 
 of Geol. vol. i. p. 106. vol. ii. pp. 258260, 406. Phillips's Geol. pp. 
 76, 259. Disc, on Nat. Philos. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 269, 270. 
 
 102. That CARBONIC ACID abounds in nature, and ap- 
 pears to be produced under a variety of circumstances. It 
 composes 44-100ths of the weight of limestone, marble, calca- 
 reous spar, and other natural varieties of calcareous earth. 
 That on the application of a pretty strong heat to the various 
 kinds of limestone (carbonate of lime), the carbonic acid is 
 evaporated and the lime remains. 
 
 And, that the basis of all effectual cements used in con- 
 structing works designed to be either occasionally or perma- 
 nently under water, must be made from the hydrate of lime. 
 Dr. Ure's Chem. Diet. pp. 2527, 585. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, 
 
60 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 pp. 151 157. Lyell's Elem. of Geol. vol. i. pp. 25, 26. Chem. in 
 Cab. Cyc. pp. 33, 118, 119, 257. Optics, by Sir D. Brewster, Cab. Cyc. 
 p. 144. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 326, 356. 
 
 103. That Quartz consists almost entirely of silica, with a 
 little alumina and oxide of iron. 
 
 That Felspar in 100 has 63 parts of silica, 17 alumina, 13 
 potash, 3 of lime, and 1 oxide of iron. 
 
 That Mica is composed of 46 parts of silica, 31 of alumina, 
 8.50 potash, 8.50 oxide of iron, 1.50 oxide of manganese, the 
 remainder fluoric acid and water. That Hornblend has silica 
 42, alumina 12, oxide of iron 30, lime 11, magnesia 2.25, and 
 the rest manganese. 
 
 That Steatite consists of 64 parts silica, magnesia 22, 
 water 5, and oxide of iron 3. That common Limestone is 
 composed of 56 parts of lime and 44 of carbonic acid. That 
 Earthy Chlorite has 43 per cent, oxide of iron, 26 of silica, 
 18 of alumina, magnesia 8, and muriate of soda 2 per cent. 
 That Gypsum (selmite) consists of 33 parts lime, 46 sulphuric 
 acid, and of water 21 parts ; and that Rock Salt contains in 
 1 ,000 parts, 983 of muriate of soda, 6 parts sulphur of lime, 
 the remainder being insoluble matter. 
 
 From which analyses it is obvious that silica, alumina, lime, 
 magnesia, potash, soda, and the oxides of iron and manganese 
 are, by far, the most abundant ingredients in the rocky parts 
 of the earth, appearing to compose about 99-100ths of the 
 entire mass of the outer crust of our planet. Whilst baryta, 
 strontia, glucina, yttria, zirconia, and thorina, though occa- 
 sionally found, are thus shown to be of comparatively rare 
 occurrence. 
 
 Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 33, 115, 120, 232. Lyell's Elem. of 
 Geol. vol i. pp. 90, 381. vol. ii. p. 205, and tables, pp. 210, 328, 381. 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 147157. Phillips's Geol. pp. 2529. 
 Brooke's Crystall. pp. xlviii. Ixiv. 
 
 104. That, in order to form a just idea of SOIL which 
 consists of small stones and sand, impalpable earthy matter, 
 decaying animal and vegetable substances, and small quan- 
 tities of salts it is necessary to conceive different rocks to be 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 61 
 
 decomposed and ground to fineness, some of their soluble 
 parts dissolved in water, and that water adhering to the mass, 
 and the whole mixed with the remains of vegetables and 
 animals in different stages of decay, together with small por- 
 tions of salts ; the earthy matter, however, constituting their 
 chief proportion. And that, when the mineral ingredients of 
 soils are traced to their ultimate elements, they are found to 
 consist chiefly of silica, alumina, magnesia, and the oxides of 
 iron and of manganese. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 158 167. Dr. Ure's Chem. Diet. pp. 
 1561 61, 736, 757759. Whitehurst's Theory of the Earth, pp. 217 
 219. Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 11. Agricult. Chemistry, 
 by Sir H. Davy. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. ii. pp. 69, 70. 
 Lyell's Elem. of Geol. vol. ii. p. 188. Vindiciae Geol. p. 17. Chemistry, 
 in Cab. Cyc. pp. 115120. Botany, in idem, pp. 176, 299. 
 
 105. That METALLIC ORES which are metals in combina- 
 tion either with sulphur, charcoal, oxygen, and even with 
 other metals, or with silica, alumina, and lime are commonly 
 found in narrow fissures, termed lodes or veins, predominating 
 in the primitive and transition series, and which are usually 
 filled up with some crystalline mineral different from the rock 
 in which they occur. 
 
 That they are supposed to have been produced by electrical 
 agency developed by the violent contact and friction of rocks 
 of various kinds containing, previously, metalliferous elements. 
 And, that the same lode frequently contains a metallic pyrite, 
 and, within a short distance, separated merely by a common 
 argillaceous substance, some other modification of the same 
 metal, whilst the lode itself is generally saturated with water 
 containing various salts. 
 
 Lyell's Elem. of Geol. vol ii. pp. 342, 363. Werner on Veins. Trans- 
 actions of Brit. Asso. at Bristol, 1836, Lit. Gazette. Prof. Buckland's 
 Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 548553. vol. ii. p. 108. Prof. Whewell's 
 Bridg. Treat, p. 114. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 166. Phillips's 
 Geol. pp. Ill, 112. Electricity, Cab. Cyc. pp. 169172. Daniel's 
 Philos. of Chemistry. 
 
 106. That when a general view is taken of METALLIC 
 VEINS on any geological map, the following prominent and 
 
62 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 characteristic features present themselves to the observation, 
 namely : 
 
 1. That they either entirely originate from, or predomi- 
 nate in the primary masses and the transition series. 
 
 2. That, generally, they run in straight lines and in direc- 
 tions oblique to the surface ; veins of different materials 
 cutting each other at right angles, and, not unfrequently, per- 
 pendicular to the lines of stratification. 
 
 3. That, unlike faults and dykes, mineral veins do not 
 cause dislocation of the strata ; but seem, whilst they have 
 evidently passed through, to have left them undisturbed in 
 their relative positions. And 
 
 4. That when veins cut each other at right angles they are 
 usually different in their contents. 
 
 Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 458555. vol. ii. pp. 147 
 149, map and notes. Lyell's Elem. of Geol. vol. ii. on metals in veins. 
 Phillips's Geol. pp. 84, 91, 111, 112, 263276. Vindicige Geologic!, pp. 
 1821. Geology, by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 521524. 
 
 107. That COAL of which there are two principal species, 
 black and brown, and several sub-species, all varying in the 
 proportion of their elementary constituents is generally ad- 
 mitted to be of vegetable origin; and, although consisting 
 essentially of carbonaceous matter, yet there is frequently 
 present a soft, bituminous substance which communicates to it 
 peculiar properties. That, on being distilled, it affords a con- 
 siderable quantity of ammonia. And it is thought that 
 pressure and the continued action of water have been the 
 principal agents in transforming the original vegetable matter 
 into bituminous coal. 
 
 Dr. Ure's Chem. Diet. pp. 339 341. Chem. by Hugo Reid, p. 157. 
 Prin. of Geology, by Lyell, vol. ii. p. 216. Botany, in Lib. Useful Know. 
 Murray's Elem. of Chem. vol. ii. p. 368. Vestiges of Creation, p. 80. 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. p. 310. Geol. by Dr. M'Culloch, 
 vol. ii. pp. 350 353, 358, 414. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. 
 pp. 64, 454459. Lyell's Elem. of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 106, 279281. 
 
 108. That NATIVE SALTS, such as saltpetre (nitrate of 
 potash), green vitriol (sulphate of iron), rock salt (muriate of 
 soda), sal ammonia (muriate of ammonia), borax or tincal 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 63 
 
 (biborate of soda}, alum (sulphate of alumina and potash), and 
 natron (carbonate of soda), are found fossil in the earth in 
 regular and symmetrical crystalline forms. And, that they 
 yield rapidly to any force applied to them, and are capable of 
 being fused by heat. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 142. Dr. Murray's Elem. of Chemistry, 
 vol. ii. pp. 289 291. Mineralogy, by Prof. Jamieson, vol. iii. pp. 1 
 45. Murchison's Geol. Invest, in Russia, Poland, &c. Chemistry, in 
 Cab. Cyc. p. 114. Daniel's Philos. of Chemistry. 
 
 109. That in chemical language ALKALIES are bodies which, 
 besides possessing other minor properties, combine with acids, 
 so as to neutralize and impair their activity. That METALLIC 
 OXIDES are metallic substances combined with oxygen without 
 being in a state of an acid. That the characteristic and indis- 
 pensable property of an Acid is to unite in definite proportions 
 with the Alkalies, Earths, and Metallic Oxides, and form 
 thereby the important class of substances called Salts. That 
 " a salt" therefore, denotes a compound in definite proportions 
 of acid matter with an alkali, earth, or metallic oxide ; and 
 that the carbonates, sulphates, muriates, &c., of soda, lime, 
 and magnesia, &c., are formed by the union of these acids 
 with the basis which give them their respective denomina- 
 tions. 
 
 Dr. Ure's Chem. Diet. pp. 5, 135, 673, 709, et. seq. Dr. Murray's 
 Elem. of Chem. vol. ii. p. 70, et seq. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid. 
 Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 101, 109113, 121. Daniel's Philos. of 
 Chemistry, pp. 431, 445 449. 
 
 110. That besides pure water the most common ingre- 
 dients in mineral springs are carbonic acid, sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen, carbonates, sulphates, and muriates of soda, of lime, 
 and of magnesia, and carbonate and sulphate of iron. And 
 those of more rare occurrence are sulphurous acid, nitrogen 
 gas, sulphate of alumina, muriate of manganese, siliceous earth, 
 fluoric acid, lithnia, strontia, potash, and hydriodic acid. 
 
 That as mineral contents are in chemical solution, they 
 rarely, even when in great abundance, affect the clearness of 
 the water. That to hold a large quantity of silex in solution, 
 it seems requisite that the water should be raised to a high 
 
64 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 temperature. And that, notwithstanding their mineral cha- 
 racter and the high temperature of some of the springs, con- 
 fervee and other plants thrive in and close around them. 
 
 Dr. Murray's Elem. of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 376. Chemistry, by 
 Hugo Reid, pp. 133137. Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. i. pp. 227243. 
 Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 139147. Botany, by Prof. Henslow, 
 Cab. Cyc. p. 173. Lyell's Elem. of Geol. vol. i. pp. 67, 89, 381. vol. ii. 
 p. 407. Phillips's Geology, p. 147. Gardiner's Essay on Mineral and 
 Thermal Springs. 
 
 111. That when substances are rendered fluid, with per- 
 fect mobility amongst their particles, either by igneous fusion 
 or by solution, and are suffered to pass with adequate slowness 
 into the solid state, the attractive forces called homogenous 
 attraction frequently re-arrange these particles into regular 
 polyhedral figures or geometrical solids ; to which the name 
 of CRYSTALS has been given. That mere approximation of 
 the particles is not, however, alone sufficient to produce crys- 
 tallization, they must also change the direction of their poles 
 from the fluid colocation to their position in the solid state, 
 which may be effected by the following means, namely : 
 
 1. By vibratory motion, communicated either from the at- 
 mosphere or any other moving body. 
 
 2. By contact of any part of the fluid with a point of a 
 solid of similar composition previously formed, or other sub- 
 stance. 
 
 3. By the slow and continued agency of voltaic electricity 
 operating in water. 
 
 That darkness, in most instances, favours crystallization. 
 
 That heat, likewise, exercises considerable influence on 
 these phenomena; and, lastly, that the same substance, in 
 crystallizing, not unfrequently assumes a diversity of forms ; 
 though, in general, the same substance, under similar circum- 
 stances, assumes the same form. 
 
 Disc, on Nat Philos. by Sir John Herschel, pp. 239246, 290293. 
 Lyell's Elem. of Geol. vol. i. pp. 76 89. vol. ii. 390400. Daniel's 
 Philos. of Chem. pp. 78 99, 603. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 17 19. 
 Heat, in idem, pp. 195 199. Brooke on Crystallography. Prof. 
 Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 36. Vestiges of Creation, p. 170. 
 Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 124128, 312. Dr. Ure's Chem. Diet, 
 pp. 379, 380. Transactions of Brit. Asso. Sept. 1836. Electricity, in 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 65 
 
 Cab. Cyc. vol. ii. pp. 379 380'. Botany, in Cab. Cyc. p. 6. Mechanics, 
 in Cab. Cyc. pp. 14, 15. 
 
 112. That most of the rocks which compose the mineral 
 crust of the earth are in a crystallized state. Granite, for 
 example, consisting of crystals of quartz, felspar, and mica ; 
 Marble of crystals of carbonate of lime, &c. And that the 
 whole phenomena attendant on crystallization go to prove 
 that substances having the same crystalline form must consist 
 of ultimate atoms, having the same figure and arranged in the 
 same order, so that the form of crystals is dependant on their 
 atomic constitution. 
 
 Geology, by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 486 511, et seq. Lyell's Eleni. 
 of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 390400. Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 
 122, 123. Brooke on Crystallography, pp. xlviii. Ixiv. Dr. lire's 
 Chem. Diet. pp. 379381. Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 124128. 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 147157. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. 
 Treat, vol. i. pp. 574579. Heat, in Cab. Cyc. p. 186. Daniel's Philos. 
 of Chem. p. 78, et seq. Prof. Phillips's Treatise, pp. 69 80. 
 
 That ever since BOTANY has merited the name of a 
 science there has been a difference in the opinions of its 
 followers as to the principles which ought to govern the 
 systematic classification of the interesting objects to which 
 it relates. And even in the present day, while the Linruzan 
 and natural methods mutually diffuse light on each other, 
 they resist a thorough and cordial reconciliation. That the 
 Linnaan system is founded chiefly on the leading distinc- 
 tions of phanogamous and cryptogamous construction, and the 
 varied relations of certain parts of the floral organs of the 
 former division ; whilst the natural system is based not only 
 on these characteristics, but, likewise, on a comparison of the 
 internal structure, nutritive organs, method of vegetation, and 
 seeding processes of the various plants composing the vege- 
 table kingdom, all of which are, by it, resolved into three 
 classes, namely : Acotyledous, Monocotyledons, and Dycoto- 
 ledous. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 30, 136155. Flora 
 Scotica, by Sir William Jackson, Hooker. Botany, in Pop. Encyclo. 
 pp. 638 640. Botany, in Lib. Useful Know. pp. 14 18. General 
 Review of Living Beings, Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist. p. 18. 
 F 
 
66 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 114. That the ACOTYLEDONOUS or CRYPTOGAMOUS CLASS 
 includes an extensive series of plants, grouped under several 
 ORDERS, differing considerably in many paticulars, but the 
 whole agreeing in the important circumstance of never bearing 
 flowers. That, having no flowers, they produce no true 
 seeds, but, in lieu thereof, the higher tubes are furnished 
 with minute gravular bodies, capable of becoming distinct 
 plants, called sporules ; not separable into distinct parts with 
 radicle, plumule, and cotyledons, like the seeds of phanoga- 
 mous plants. 
 
 That these sporules possess the power of producing from 
 any part, either stem or root, as circumstances may require, 
 while it is quite otherwise with true seeds. That acotyledo- 
 nous plants increase acrogenously, and, as a class, they consist 
 of the following orders, namely : 
 
 I. Fungi ; IT. Lichens ; III. Algae ; IV. Characeae ; V. 
 Hepaticeae; VI. Musci ; VII. Filices; VIII. Lycopodineae ; 
 IX. Marcilaceae ; and X. Equisetaceae. 
 
 Flora Scotica, by Hooker, part ii. pp. 3 161. Botany, by Prof. 
 Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 11, 17, et seq. Botany, in Lib. Useful. Know, 
 p. 108. Edin. Review, No. xcix. p. 154. Connexion of the Sciences, 
 p. 456. General Review of Living Beings, Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist. p. 18. 
 Philos. of Plants, by Decandolle and Sprengel. Prof. Buckland's 
 Bridg. Treat, vol. ii. p. 453. Lyell's Elem. Geol. vol. i. p. 67. De 
 Luc's Letters, pp. 110, 157, et seq. Pop. Hist. Brit. Algae, by Dr. 
 Landsborough. 
 
 115. That considerable difference of opinion prevails re- 
 specting the classification of the CRYPTOGAMIC plants, owing to 
 the great dissimilarity between the higher and the lower tribes 
 of the class. The former contained in the division " Ducta- 
 losas" having green expansions, much resembling leaves in 
 their general appearance, and possessing stomata, but differ- 
 ing from them in other respects, especially in bearing the 
 fructification upon their fronds ; whilst the lower tribes of 
 cryptogamic plants included in the group called " Cellu- 
 lares" are homogenous in their structure, with nutrative or- 
 gans not distinguishable into roots and leaves, and many of 
 them parasitic ; seldom green and without stomata. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 27, 76, et seq. Mosses, by 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 67 
 
 Dr. George Gardiner, 1839. Classification, by Sir William Hooker, 
 compared with those by Decandolle and Sprengel, and by M. Cuvier. 
 
 1 1 6. That in the MONOCOTYLEDONS consisting of several 
 orders there is no distinction between the pith, the wood, 
 and the bark, but their stems consist, generally, of a cylin- 
 drical, though sometimes of an angulated mass of cellular tissue, 
 in which are bundles of vascular tissue without medullary rays. 
 That they are called Endogence, from the newly-formed ma- 
 terial developing itself towards the innermost part of their 
 stems. That an albuminous mass forms the main bulk of 
 most of the monocotyledonous seeds, having the embryo placed 
 within it ; the general character of these seeds being that of 
 a cylindrical body tapering towards the extremities, from one 
 of which, in due time, protrudes the radicle, and from the 
 other arises a single, conical, and almost solid cotyledon. 
 
 Flora Scotica, by Sir W. J. Hooker, pp. 161194. Botany, by Prof. 
 Henslow, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 33, 43, 49, et seq. Botany, in Lib. Useful 
 Know. pp. 9 24, 55 57. Smith's Intro, to Botany, p. 59. Edin. 
 Jour. Nat. Hist. p. 18. Philos. of Plants, by Decandolle and Sprengel. 
 Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. ii. p. 453. Connexion of the 
 Sciences, p. 282. 
 
 117. That the DICOTYLEDONOUS CLASS is distinguished 
 by the existence of pith in the centre of the stem, by increasing 
 exogenously, that is, by fresh material being yearly arranged 
 externally between the former wood and bark, and by medul- 
 lary rays proceeding from the centre to the circumference of 
 their woody parts. 
 
 That the seeds are furnished with two fleshy lobes called 
 " Cotyledons" attached to a rudimentary germ concealed be- 
 tween them ; the cotyledons during the first stages of germi- 
 nation becoming imperfect leaves to protect the plumule and 
 to nourish the young plant until the radicle be developed into 
 a root ; and, finally, that this natural order comprises the more 
 perfect plants and trees, and those whose internal structures 
 and component tissues are most complex. 
 
 Flora Scotica, by Sir. W. J. Hooker, pp. 194297. Botany, by Prof. 
 Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 3133, 43, 62, et seq. Botany, in Lib. Useful 
 Know. pp. 924, 55. Edin. Jour, of Nat. Hist. p. 18. Philos. of 
 F 2 
 
68 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Plants, by MM. Decandolle and Sprengel. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. 
 Treat, vol. i. p. 453. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 282. 
 
 118. That all the phenomena attending the flowering of 
 plants, and the dihescence of the various receptacles which 
 are instrumental in the fertilization and maturation of the 
 seed and fruit, and the dissemination of the former, fully at- 
 test the absolute necessity of these complicated operations 
 being conducted in atmospheric air; the presence of much 
 moisture being prejudicial to the peculiar development of the 
 pollen. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 50, 79110, 195, 263268, 
 et seq. Botany, in Lib. of Useful Know. pp. 3842, 108. Prof. 
 Whewell's Bridg. Treat, pp. 19, 2325, 27, 47 49, 51. Any other 
 Botanical Treat. Nat. Syst. Hunt on Light, pp. 181202. Lindley 
 and Button's Fossil Flora, vol. i. p. xv. Pop. Hist. Brit. Algae, by Rev. 
 Dr. Landsborough, 1849. 
 
 1 19. That immediately after the flower has become fully 
 expanded, some portions of it begin to decay; but the ovarium 
 and sometimes the calyx, and other parts continue to grow, 
 and assume a very different appearance they become the 
 FRUIT ; while the ovula, having been subjected to the ferti- 
 lizing influence of the pollen, also undergo certain remarkable 
 changes, and become the SEED. 
 
 That these fruits, thus enclosing their seeds, assume a great 
 variety of forms and characters, some being soft and pulpy, 
 others hard, woody, dry, and membranaceous ; but, in general, 
 they may be classed under some one or other of the following 
 denominations, namely: the legume; the drupe; the nut; 
 the akenium ; the glans ; capsule ; gourd ; berry ; pome ; sa- 
 mara, or the siliqua. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 102 109. Botany, in Lib. 
 Useful Know. pp. 47 52. Any other Treatise on Botany, or on 
 Horticulture. 
 
 120. That, according to the opinions of the most eminent 
 botanists, it is light, heat, water, and air, and the conjoint 
 action of the first three of these upon the irritable membranes, 
 which enable plants, by virtue of their extensibility, elasticity, 
 and hygrometrical powers to perform the phenomena of con- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 69 
 
 traction and endosmose ; by means of which they absorb and 
 digest their food, circulate their fluids, develope their organs, 
 increase in size, and reproduce themselves. 
 
 Botany in Cab. Cyc. by Prof. Henslow, pp. 170184, 190203, 
 293295, 298. Botany, in Lib. Useful Know. pp. 81, 84. Prof. 
 WhewelTs Bridg. Treat, pp. 115, 116. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 
 460 462. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 279. Hunt on Light, p. 200. 
 Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora, vol. i. p. xv. Physiol. and Anatomy 
 of Man, by Todd and Bowman, London, 1845, vol. i. p. 13, et seq. 
 
 121. That the time required to admit of plants arriving at 
 maturity varies from some months to several years. And that 
 vegetation exerts a conservative influence in protecting land 
 from denudation by water, it being well known that a covering 
 of herbage and plants protects a loose soil from being carried 
 away by heavy rains, or even by the ordinary action of a river. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 238, 239. Prin. of Geol. 
 by Mr. Lyell, vol. ii. pp. 204209. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, p. 27. 
 
 122. That of all organized substances plants are, perhaps, 
 the most susceptible of modification in their nature and cha- 
 racteristic properties by the influence of climate, soil, and 
 other circumstances. 
 
 " A bitter maritime plant having, by these means, been 
 metamorphosed into two distinct species of garden vegetables 
 as unlike each other as each is to the parent plant." 
 
 That although these are extreme cases, and not strictly 
 within the limits of causes purely natural, where extent of 
 change has a more restricted limit, still it is admitted that 
 considerable alterations can be effected on plants in a state of 
 nature by modifications of soil and climate. 
 
 Prin. of Geol. by Mr. Lyell, vol. ii. pp. 32 36, 50. Botany, in Cab. 
 Cyc. by Prof. Henslow, pp. 120, 294, 309. Old Red Sandstone, Miller, 
 Edin, 1841, pp. 39, 40. 
 
 123. That roots and seeds will not vegetate unless they be 
 placed only at a limited depth beneath the surface of the 
 ground. That the roots and stems of almost all plants de- 
 velope themselves in opposite directions the latter having a 
 tendency to grow upwards, whilst the former goes downwards. 
 
70 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 And that there can be no doubt but a direct connexion 
 exists between " gravity" and " light ;" and these tendencies 
 which the roots and stems of plants, generally, manifest of 
 growing in opposite directions. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 10, 280293. Chemistry 
 of Nature, by Hugo Reid. Turner's Sacred History, pp. 127 135, 
 founded on Mr. Porteun's assertion. 
 
 124. That, besides the carbonic acid elaborated by plants 
 within themselves by means of the oxygen imbibed from the 
 atmosphere and by the carbonaceous matter contained in their 
 sap, they absorb it also from the air, and receive it com- 
 bined with the water taken in by their spongioles. 
 
 That so long as plants remain in the dark the greater part of 
 the carbonic acid is retained, but not fixed in the form of an 
 organic compound until stimulated by the light, when its de- 
 composition is effected ; the carbon becomes fixed, and nearly 
 all the oxygen with which it was united, is exhaled into the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 175, 184191, 201, 202. 
 Dr. Ure's Chem. Diet. p. 26. Botany, in Lib. Useful Know. pp. 79 
 90. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, pp. 115117. Daniel's Phil, of 
 Chem. pp. 315 318. Physiol. and Anatomy of Man, by Todd and 
 Bowman, London, 1845, vol. i. p. 22, et seq. 
 
 125. That FOSSIL remains of VEGETATION are abundant 
 in many geological formations, but especially in the Coal 
 Measures ; and that the periods of the formations thus abound- 
 ing in fossilized relicts of vegetation have been grouped into 
 the following four grand epochs, namely : 
 
 1. From the earliest secondary rocks to the uppermost beds 
 of the coal measures; in which upwards of three hundred 
 distinct species have been recognised ; the higher tribes of the 
 cryptogamous plants comprising about two-thirds of the whole 
 number. 
 
 2. The New Red Sandstone series ; affording only a few 
 species of fossil plants. 
 
 3. From the lowest beds of the oolitic series to the chalk, 
 inclusive. The few species found in the green sandstone and 
 chalk being chiefly of marine origin ; and 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 71 
 
 4. The beds above the chalk, where dycotyledons begin to 
 prevail, and plants of terrestrial, lacustrine, and marine species 
 entirely different from those of the previous divisions. While 
 the fruits which have been found are referable to existing 
 genera. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 310 314. M. Adol. 
 Brougniart on Fossil Vegetation. Fossil Flora, by MM. Lindley and 
 Hutton. Prin. of Geol. by Mr. Lyell, vol. i. p. 169. Elem. Phil, of 
 Plants, by MM. Decandolle and Sprengel, pp. 276, 277. Manual of 
 Geol. by H. T. de la Beche, pp. 413, 430, et seq. Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist, 
 p. 58. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, pp. 63, 453, 463, 490523. 
 Athenaeum, No. 985. Ancient World, by Ansted, London, 1847. 
 Phillips's Geology, pp 289, 290. 
 
 126. That the result of investigations into FOSSIL FLORA 
 have led eminent geological naturalists to the following conclu- 
 sions respecting the three great geological periods, namely : 
 
 1. That during the First or Transition epoch, which in- 
 cludes the Coal Measures, there was a predominance of vas- 
 cular cryptogamia, and a comparative rarity of gymnospermous 
 phanerogames. 
 
 2. In the second, an approximation to equality of vascular 
 cryptogamia, and of dicotyledons, composed entirely of gym- 
 nosperous phanerogames. 
 
 3. In the Tertiary, a predominance of dicotyledons, and 
 paucity of vascular cryptogamic plants. And 
 
 4. That during each of these three periods remains of 
 monocotyledonous plants occur, although sparingly. 
 
 Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 520. Botany, by Prof. 
 Henslow, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 310314. Lyell's Elemen. of Geol. vol. i. p. 
 285. Vestiges of Creation, pp. 88 94. 
 
 127. That although the fragments of fossil vegetables often 
 possess great beauty, and their tissue may be distinguished 
 under a microscope as completely as in recent species ; yet, in 
 general, the remains of ancient plants are not so perfectly pre- 
 served as the skeletons of animals or the coverings of mollusca ; 
 those parts (the flowers and seeds) upon which the distinction 
 of species and their classification chiefly depend, being very 
 rarely met with and most frequently detached. And that, as 
 
72 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 it is principally from these imperfect remains that a com- 
 parison between the ancient and present flora can be instituted, 
 such data are by no means adequate to ensure an accurate 
 determination of specific differences, although they afford 
 means of ascertaining truths of high interest. 
 
 Under such circumstances it has been agreed to refer the 
 fossil vegetable remains to genera whose names are modifica- 
 tions of the recent genera. 
 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 18, 310 314. Edin. 
 
 Jour. Nat. Hist. p. 23. Phillips's Treat, on Geol. p. 286. Ancient 
 
 World, by Ansted, p. 80. Vestiges of Creation, pp. 84 88. Fossil 
 Flora, by Lindley and Hutton, vol i. Introduction. 
 
 128. That when the principle of life has departed from 
 vegetable substances exposed to the atmosphere, they begin 
 spontaneously to decompose, and their remains, entering into 
 new combinations, form carbonic acid, water, carbonic oxide, 
 and carburetted hydrogen ; these modifications continuing 
 until nothing remains but the saline, earthy, and metallic sub- 
 stances originally contained in the vegetable matter. But 
 when the exclusion of the atmosphere and considerable pres- 
 sure take place, the former circumstance removing the agency 
 of oxygen, and the latter preventing the formation of elastic 
 products, the decomposition does not proceed beyond the ac- 
 cumulation of a carbonaceous residium ; from which it is 
 probable have been derived the several varieties of bitumen 
 and coal. 
 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 178180. Elements of Chem. by 
 Dr. Murray, vol. ii. p. 570. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 33, 286, 342. 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 7, 14. Physiol. and 
 Anatomy of Man, by Todd and Bowman, London, 1845, vol. i. pp. 10 
 12, et seq. 
 
 129. That all material substances may be classed under 
 two divisions : Organised and Unorganised. That the want of 
 organization is the peculiar characteristic of mere inert matter, 
 affords an evidence of the absence of the living principle, and 
 proves that it never has been present in these bodies ; while 
 the slightest trace of organization discoverable in any natural 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 73 
 
 body is a complete proof that life is, or at least once was, pre- 
 sent in it. 
 
 That organised beings have been sub-divided by universal 
 consent from the earliest ages into ANIMALS and PLANTS ; 
 the latter possessing only the simpler powers of vegetation ; 
 and that, notwithstanding this classification, it is extremely 
 difficult, and has hitherto baffled the attempts of naturalists 
 to point out the precise limits which separate these two king- 
 doms of organised existences. 
 
 Animal Kingdom, by Cuvier, Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist. pp. 3 5. 
 Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 5 8. Chemistry, by Hugo 
 Reid, pp. 169 172. Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. p. 30. Architecture of 
 the Heavens, pp. 119, 120. Old Red Sandstone, Miller, Edin. p. 43. 
 Physiol. and Anatomy of Man, by Todd and Bowman, London, 1845, 
 vol. i. pp. 3 21, et seq. Dr. Pring on the Laws of Organic Life. 
 
 130. That the ANIMAL KINGDOM, from the most perfect 
 of its beings down to the verge of that indistinct line where it 
 comes into contact with the vegetable kingdom, may be com- 
 prised within two grand divisions, namely Vertebrate and In- 
 vertebrate* The former being provided with a skull and 
 vertebral column for the protection of the brain and spinal 
 marrow ; the latter being destitute of both of these defences. 
 
 And that all the beings comprising the first great division, 
 when in their perfect state, possess the faculty of voluntary 
 motion ; while amongst the invertebrate, although there are 
 some species likewise possessed of the power of locomotion, 
 and others which are endowed with it in a limited degree, 
 there are many which soon become fixed to external sub- 
 stances, and remain, during the whole period of their natural 
 existence, in that condition. 
 
 Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist. pp. 13, 18, 19. 
 Hist, of British Animals, by Dr. Fleming, pp. 2, 46, 129. Philos. of 
 Zoology, by idem. Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. pp. 5 8, 
 155168. Old Red Sandstone, by H. Miller, Edin. 1841. Physiol. and 
 Anatomy of Man, by Todd and Bowman, London, 1845, vol. i. p. 4, 
 et seq. 
 
 131. That all the INVERTEBRATE animals which have not 
 the power of locomotion are natives of the water, whose flue- 
 
74 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 tuations continually bring new objects into contact with their 
 organs of sensation, and by that means supply them with food ; 
 and that, although it is difficult to draw a line of distinction 
 between those which are endowed with the faculty of voluntary 
 motion and those which are not, yet such a distinction does 
 actually exist, and is, therefore, capable of being delineated. 
 
 Philos. of Zoology, by Dr. Fleming, vol. i. pp. 46, 129. Vestiges of 
 Creation, pp. 247 260. Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, Edin. Jour. Nat. 
 Hist. Physiol. and Anatomy of Man, by Todd and Bowman, London, 
 1845, vol. i. p. 67, et seq. 
 
 132. That, with a very few exceptions, the organised exis- 
 tences classed under the denominations of Zoophyta, the whole 
 of the Crinoidea and Blastoidece, and among the Mollusca, 
 the Acephala, Brachiopoda, and Cirrhopoda must be consi- 
 dered as fixed to one spot during the whole of their perfect 
 existence. 
 
 Philos. of Zoology, by Dr. Fleming, vols. i. and ii. Hist, of British 
 Animals, by idem. General Review of Living Beings, Edin. Jour. Nat. 
 Hist. p. 19. Prof. Btickland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 417. Ancient 
 World, by Ansted, pp. 38, 9295. Vestiges of Creation, pp. 178, 203. 
 
 133. That scarcely any fact in experimental geology is 
 better established than "that the generations of organized 
 bodies, which have successively inhabited the progressive sur- 
 face of our globe, differ from the present generation in pro- 
 portion as their exuviae are farther removed from its actual 
 surface; or, in proportion as the period during which they 
 lived is more remote from the present time." 
 
 That there is not a single instance on record amongst geolo- 
 gical data to warrant the assumption that any species, once 
 extinct, ever was recreated during a succeeding period of the 
 ancient world ; and that products, trilobites, spirifer, ortho- 
 ceratiteSy ichthyolites, ammonites, belemnites, and numerous 
 others of similar category are examples of organised marine 
 bodies having become extinct. 
 
 Jameson's Cuvierian Theory, pp. 336 338. Foss. Organic Remains, 
 by M. Alex. Brogniart, in No. xvi. Edin. Phil. Jour. pp. 226 230. 
 Geog. Essay on Superposition, by Humboldt, pp. 48, 57. Nat. Philos. 
 by Sir John Herschel, Cab. Cyc. pp. 282284. New Walks in an Old 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 75 
 
 Field, Miller, 1841. Conchol. by Capt. Brown, pp. 5865. Hist, of 
 British Animals, by Dr. Fleming, pp. xiv. to xviii. Manual of Geol. by 
 H. T. de la Beche, p. 193, et seq. Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol i. p. 82. 
 vol. ii. p. 133. vol. iii. pp. 59, 253, 254. Prof. Buekland's Brid. Treat- 
 vol. i. pp. 62, 113. Ansted's Ancient World, London, 1847, pp. 54 56. 
 LyeU's Elements of Geol. vol. i. pp. 10, 199211. Phillips's Geol. pp. 
 51, 107, 287289. Vestiges of Creation. 
 
 134. That the remains of plantae, zoophyta, and testacea, 
 are not more profuse and extensive throughout the fossili- 
 ferous formations, up to the chalk, than the non-appearance 
 of vestiges of true birds is remarkable ; and that no fragment 
 of a [quadruped, bird, or reptile has yet been obtained from 
 any of the carboniferous strata in any part of the world. 
 
 Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. i. p. 171. vol. ii. p. 254. vol. iii. p. 253. 
 Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist. pp. 12, 62. Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. 
 pp. 85, 86. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. i. p. 355. Phillips's Geology, 
 p. 289. Ancient World, by Ansted, pp. 90, 91, 208. Vestiges of Cre- 
 ation, Table of Classification. Old Red Sandstone, by H. Miller. 
 
 135. That when the AUTHOR OF NATURE creates an 
 animal or plant, all the possible circumstances in which its 
 descendants are destined to live are foreseen, and a correspond- 
 ing organization is conferred upon it to enable the species to 
 perpetuate itself as long as is consistent with His omniscient 
 purposes under all the circumstances to which it will inevitably 
 be exposed. 
 
 Lyell's Prin. of Geol. vol. ii. p. 24. Manual of Geol. by H. T. de la 
 Beche. Prof. Whewell's Bridg. Treat, p. 18. Geology, by H. T. de 
 la Beche, pp. 476, 477. New Walks in an Old Field, Miller, 1841. 
 Lyell's Elements of Geology, vol. ii. pp. 435, 436. Phillips's Geology, 
 pp. 285290. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 324, 371, 372. Vestiges 
 of Creation, pp. 164, 217220, 331. Ancient World, by Ansted, pp. 
 4751. 
 
 136. That all Fish all that inhabit the waters, except the 
 crustaceous and testaceous animals are of the same specific 
 gravity as the fluid they live in. That these classes breathe 
 atmospheric air. 
 
 That the molluscuous and conchiferous divisions of the animal 
 kingdom possess no skeleton ; their muscles being attached to 
 
76 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 the skin, which forms a soft envelope or mantle, whose most 
 important appendix is the shell. 
 
 That this latter is secreted by the corium, and increases by 
 coatings in the inner surface, being regulated in form by the 
 body of the animal, with whose existence it is coeval, and can- 
 not be dispensed with ; and that the solid matter of the shell 
 consists of carbonate of lime united by a small portion of 
 animal matter resembling coagulated albumen. 
 
 Philos. of Zoology, by Dr. Fleming, vol. ii. pp. 401, 402. Cuvier's 
 Animal Kingdom, Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist. pp. 13, 19, 25, 28. Dr. Ure's 
 Chem. Diet. p. 741. Turner's Sacred History, pp. 195199. Chem. 
 by H. Reid, p. 181. Dr. J. M. Good's Stud. Med. vol. i. pp. 138, 
 494 523. Paper, by Mr. Hatchett, read before the Royal Society, 1800. 
 Daniel's Philos. of Chem. p. 68. Lyell's Elements of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 
 298, 299. 
 
 137. That the evidences afforded by the examination of 
 fossilized zoophyta, mollusca, conchifers, pisces or planta seem 
 alike to indicate the existence of some general law pervading 
 the primitive fluid wherein they grew and lived which re- 
 quired that they should encrust themselves with some solid 
 intermedia between it and their interior parts ; whether these 
 coverings assumed the character of stony particles, testaceous 
 or conchiferous coverings, enamelled plates, or vegetable tu- 
 bercules, or scales, &c. 
 
 Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora. New Walks in an Old Field, 
 Miller, Edin. Ancient World, by Ansted, 1847. 
 
 138. That ANIMAL RESPIRATION which consists in the 
 alternate inhalation of a portion of air into the lungs, its 
 transformation there, and subsequent exhalation occasions, by 
 means of the diffusion principle of gases, and of membraneous 
 endosmose a reinvigorating interchange of gases. The oxygen 
 of the atmosphere abstracting and occupying the place of the 
 carbonic acid of the venous blood, which acid is exhaled in a 
 gaseous form. 
 
 That the changes which take place in the elements concerned 
 in the process of respiration have a relation to the elevated 
 temperature of certain Orders of animated beings ; and that 
 there is, likewise, an immediate connexion between the power 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 77 
 
 of accelerating voluntary motion and the function of respira- 
 tion, action of the lungs, and the circulation of the blood. 
 
 Murray's Intro, to Chem. vol. ii. pp. 588 591. Dr. J. M. Good's 
 Stud. Med. pp. 494523. Botany, by Prof. Henslow, Cab. Cyc. p. 187. 
 Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 57, 58, 6164. Edin. Jour. Nat. Hist, 
 pp. 24, 25. Dr. Ure's Chem. Diet. p. 704. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 
 317322,329,332. Heat, in idem, pp. 389 391. Daniel's Philos. of 
 Chem. p. 318. Botany, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 156, 157, 187, 236. Hunt on 
 Light, pp. 199 201. Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, 1849, pp. 14, 15, 
 19 21. Physiol. and Anatomy of Man, by Todd and Bowman, 1845, 
 vol. i. pp. 3, 24, et seq. 
 
 139. That on the decomposition of animal substances taking 
 place, when moisture and a certain degree of heat is present, 
 putrefaction commences, the elements of the animal matter 
 enter into new combinations, and generally pass off in the 
 gaseous form ; ammonia being always disengaged in consider- 
 able quantity : phosphu retted, sulphuretted, and carburetted 
 hydrogen, and carbonic acid are likewise separated, and only 
 an inconsiderable portion of earthy matter remains when the 
 process is finished. 
 
 Murray's Elements of Chemistry, pp. 655, 676, 677. Dr. Ure's 
 Chem. Diet. pp. 112 117, 695, 696. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 
 180, 181. Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 131, 145, 301, 338340, 342, 
 343. Daniel's Philos. of Chem. pp. 324, 371, 603, 641645, 677. Old 
 Red Sandstone, by H. Miller, 1847. Physiol. and Anatomy of Man, by 
 Todd and Bowman, London, 1845, vol. i. pp. 4, 10, 12, et seq. 
 
SECTION II. 
 
 THE ANIMAL EXISTENCES OF THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Preliminary Observations. Subject of Argument in the present Section. Early 
 Conception of a Principle of Limitation involved in the Mosaic Record. 
 " The Moving Thing that hath Life." Definition of the Living Principle. 
 Faint Line of Separation between Vegetable and Animal Vitality. Differ- 
 ence Determined; and also that between Vertebrate and Invertebrate 
 Animals. The former accurately defined and described for the purpose 
 of being eliminated from the Argument. The same method adopted with 
 respect to certain Mollusca, Articulata, and Radiata. Apulmonic Tribes 
 of animals defined generally. Described particularly and very fully, and 
 confirmed by general testimony. Enquiry into the supposed Nature and 
 Habits of the Extinct Races of Inferior Animals.. Evidences of the Ex- 
 tinction of their Races, and of the Successive Creation of others. The 
 Design and Object of their Temporary Existence briefly alluded to, with 
 a view to resume and dwell, in the sequel, upon both of these points. 
 
 THE quotations from Scripture and the Theorems which are 
 contained in the preceding Section are intended, as we have 
 already stated, to constitute the groundwork of our subsequent 
 reasoning. On the one hand we have given, from the Record 
 of our Faith, the enunciations of the Spirit of Truth relative 
 to a period when there was no created being to bear witness 
 to what was done : " Where wast thou when I laid the foun- 
 dations of the earth ? declare if thou hast understanding !" 
 And, on the other, we have selected, from the writings of the 
 learned and the laborious in research full and complete evi- 
 dence of that which exists and is appreciable by the senses. 
 The one reveals to us how all things were formed ; the other 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY. 79 
 
 displays the state in which they are found after having come 
 from the hands of their and our Creator. Assisted by both, we 
 shall endeavour to thread our way through the various branches 
 of argument designed to bring out, in clear and consistent 
 manifestation, the beauteous system of belief which these in- 
 fallible sources of information and evidence, when taken toge- 
 ther, are capable of affording to the mind of man. 
 
 But, before we proceed one step further, and while we are 
 yet on the very threshold, we take occasion pointedly to ob- 
 serve that, unless our readers are prepared to receive the an- 
 nouncements of Scripture with as implicit confidence as they 
 would a thrice demonstrated problem, it will avail them little 
 to endeavour to accompany us. We shall be losing sight of 
 each other at almost every turning and winding of the long and 
 intricate path which lies before us : for, we consider it an axiom 
 that there is only one reliable source of information respecting 
 that which was, and of events which occurred immediately pre- 
 ceding the present order of things ; especially as the preceding 
 did not stand in the relation of natural cause to the succeeding, 
 as its effect ; but indispensably required, in order that it might 
 become so, intervening acts of Omnipotent will and power. 
 
 Before we commence our discourse we have to make a few 
 observations, as to the method which we propose to adopt in 
 conducting these investigations. 
 
 To avoid unnecessary repetition, and to render the work as 
 concise as possible, we shall only give a limited number of au- 
 thorities in support of such points as it may be deemed necessary 
 to establish; for, where unanimity prevails, further evidence 
 would render the discussion diffuse, and distract the attention : 
 where it does not, a multiplicity of quotations would only in- 
 crease the difficulty. In making the selection we shall be 
 guided alone by expediency; preferring, in general, those 
 quotations which most clearly and concisely describe the points 
 of the subject to be established, and which afford the best evi- 
 dences in their favour. In order to convince the understand- 
 ing it may, in some cases, perhaps, be requisite to bring for- 
 ward proofs in support of points which might be assumed 
 by common consent. But to compensate for this, we shall 
 endeavour to restrict our own observations to such as may be 
 
80 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 necessary to bind one link of the argumentative chain to an- 
 other : and the whole, we trust, to the minds of our readers. 
 
 Some difficulty exists in making a proper selection of the 
 first link to be examined, for the whole is bound together in 
 a circle, the one dependant on the other ; no point presents 
 itself in well marked and visible separation so that it might be 
 laid hold of, and enable us, link by link in continuous succes- 
 sion, to unravel the whole. We have, however, after mature 
 reflection, adopted the only plan which bids fair to obviate 
 this difficulty, namely : to commence at whatever part of the 
 argument appears to be most conducive to its eventual suc- 
 cess, and ad interim, assume as established whatever other 
 conditions may be necessary for the perfect support of that 
 which first occupies our attention, and afterwards to return 
 upon those which have been thus assumed, and prove them 
 also, on the precise understanding, that should we fail to esta- 
 blish whatever may have been made use of provisionally, then 
 the superstructure will fall to the ground along with that on 
 which it was erected. The point we have chosen to com- 
 mence with has likewise this recommendation, that it is the 
 most analogous to that where the narrative commences in 
 Scripture : an influential motive of recommendation with us, 
 and we trust also with our readers. 
 
 In conformity with this resolution we shall, for the present, 
 consider the EARTH as a sphere, surrounded by an atmos- 
 phereless ocean of different composition from the actual seas, 
 and under the influence of the same forces which at present 
 govern its orbital motion, revolving in darkness round an unil- 
 lumined sun, but without rotatory motion. And having done 
 so, we shall endeavour to prove as the first position in our 
 continued and important chain of argument, that these primi- 
 tive, dark, and atmosphereless waters were the abode of innu- 
 merable races of living apulmonic creatures, independent alike 
 of light or atmospheric air for life or motion ; the greater 
 part consisting of descriptions which either were entirely fixed, 
 or moved but imperfectly. That of these there were several 
 successive generations. And that this position is as consistent 
 with the true meaning of Scripture as it is accordant with the 
 results of philosophical investigation and of geological research. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 81 
 
 It may, perhaps, be attended with beneficial effects, were 
 we to retrace the outlines of the path by which we ourselves 
 arrived at the conclusion that, during the protracted period of 
 non-rotation, the primeval waters were the abode of innumera- 
 ble and successive races of apulmonic creatures, to the exclusion 
 of all, of every description, which depend for locomotion on 
 atmospheric air. 
 
 Long after we became convinced that the Earth had revolved 
 for ages in a state of non-rotatory motion around the unillu- 
 mined sun ; had been the abode of certain classes of mollus- 
 cous animals, whose shelly coverings are everywhere discover- 
 able in its stratified masses ; and that all this had been previous 
 to the Mosiac week, we were under the most painful perplexity 
 as to how such a state of matters could be made reconcileable 
 with the announcements of Scripture ; prepared, as we were, 
 to give up everything which might be at variance with this 
 standard of our faith : believing, at the time, most firmly, as 
 probably all do who have not paid the like attention to these 
 points, while they possess equal confidence in the word of God, 
 that no warrant was to be found in it for the conclusion that 
 anything could possibly have existed which was not made during 
 the Mosaic week. The consequent state of mind was, of 
 course, far from enviable. It was positively distressing, for, 
 relying most implicitly on the words of the Divine Record, 
 and ready to sacrifice every thought which might be inimical 
 to it, we could not, on the other hand, close our eyes to the 
 full glare of noon-day light, to the convictions of our senses, 
 which led us to conclude, by what we saw around us, that the 
 remains of those marine animals, found everywhere on the face 
 of the earth, and high above the present level of the ocean, must 
 have been deposited previously to the revolution of the globe 
 around its axis ; consequently, before the formation of the 
 light, and while as yet the primeval ocean surrounded its entire 
 spherical surface. 
 
 Assailed thus powerfully and equally by contending opinions, 
 both of which appeared to carry the evidence of conviction, 
 while they seemed to resist a cordial reconciliation with each 
 other, we were completely at a loss which way to turn. During 
 one of these fierce and protracted contests, when every argument 
 
82 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 had been tried, and every instancia cruces had been brought 
 forward in vain ; when, almost worn out with the intensity and 
 tenacity of the jarring principles within, and about to seek rest 
 by abandoning the philosophical evidences altogether and ad- 
 hering implicitly to the words of inspiration, it occurred to us, 
 as a last resource, that, perhaps, the expressions therein made 
 use of might admit of such an interpretation as would pave the 
 way to a thorough reconciliation between the two ; and thus 
 save us from making such a sacrifice as that which we felt 
 inclined to make to secure, as we thus thought, the tranquil 
 enjoyment of our scriptural tenets, but which, in fact, would 
 have had the effect of greatly lessening that enjoyment. 
 
 Fortunately, the Bible, which at that juncture lay most con- 
 venient for immediate consultation, was the celebrated Spanish 
 one by the Very Rev. F. Scio de San Miguel ; on taking it 
 up and referring to the passage in question, we found the fol- 
 lowing explanation, which, unphilosophical as it may appear, 
 supplied the first step towards unravelling the difficulty : 
 
 " God also said, Let the waters produce animated reptiles* (more 
 literally, " reptiles of living minds"), and birds which fly above the 
 earth under the firmament of heaven. Gen. i. 20. 
 
 This, although a very unscientific explanation of the passage 
 commented on, nevertheless was made the means of awakening 
 us to a conception of the truth, faint, it must be confessed, at 
 
 * That is, animated reptiles, or those which have life. Fishes are so called, 
 because what is principally recognized in them is the head and tail ; and as 
 they are deficient of limbs (literally of both legs and arms], they appear to move 
 as if dragging themselves through the water. And thus the word " reptile" is 
 alike applicable to fishes which swim and to animals which drag themselves 
 along the ground.* 
 
 * " Dixo tambien Dios; produzcan las aquas reptil,* de anima viviente, yave 
 que vuele sobre latierra debaxo del firmamento del cielo." 
 
 " Esto es, Reptiles animados, o que tengen vida, asi llaman a los peces, porque lo que prin- 
 cipalmente se reconoce en elloa, es la cabeza y-la cola ; y-como carecen de pies y de brazos, parece 
 que van arrastrando por las aquas. Y, asi el Reptil se aplica tanto al pez que nada, como al 
 animal que va rastrando por la tierra." Biblia por el M. R. P. Phelipe Scio de San Miguel. 
 Tomo \,pagina 8. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 83 
 
 first, but sufficient, notwithstanding, to mark where the point 
 of junction lay between two masses of undeniable evidences. 
 
 On turning from the Spanish theologian's explanation to 
 that given in our own version, we were struck with the appa- 
 rent analogy, and at the same time with the seeming care 
 which had been employed in framing that part of Scripture. 
 The words " moving creature that hath life" kept possession 
 of our mind with the tenacity of that which is destined to take 
 root and flourish with the glow of vitality itself. 
 
 But, as already indicated, the imperfect explanation afforded 
 by the Spanish translation, led only to the first step of our 
 enquiry into the real facts of the case. It directed our atten- 
 tion, with undeviating steadiness, to the principle, which in- 
 duced the peculiar wording of this portion of Scripture and 
 that principle was, that a line of division had been intended to 
 be clearly and emphatically drawn between certain races of 
 marine creatures which were, by the Command itself to start 
 into being, and certain other tribes of the same grand division 
 of animal life, which had existed previously. 
 
 Convinced of this, our next step was to ascertain, if practi- 
 cable, the direction of this line of demarcation, or the point 
 where it commenced on the scale of creation. After much 
 thought it occurred to us, that if the revealed were perfectly 
 known and applied to the whole existing races of animated 
 creatures, all those which are over, as it were, must have been 
 willed previously into being. For the revealed might be known, 
 but the wwrevealed could only thus be inferred, and afterwards 
 be confirmed by a comparison with fossil exuviae. Subsequent 
 enquiries into the more precise meaning of the words used at 
 the commencement respectively of the 20th and 21st verses, 
 convinced us that their nearest synonimes are "And God said. 
 Let the waters swarm forth living swarming creatures, and let 
 
 them produce abundantly, and fill the waters in 
 
 the seas," &c., which description, when applied to the collective 
 tribes of creatures known to inhabit the waters, seemed to ex- 
 clude a vast multitude. It could not, we imagined, compre- 
 hend those which are fixed to other bodies ; those which creep 
 along the bottom of the ocean ; nor any which do not possess 
 the faculty of moving freely and rapidly. In short, all that 
 
 G 2 
 
84 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 are independent of atmospheric air to sustain them in life and 
 to enable them to move. Every creature so constituted, what- 
 ever may be their form or constitution, we concluded, was 
 known by the inspired historian to have existed previously, 
 and, therefore, had been carefully and deliberately excluded 
 from the Creative Command on the fifth day of the Mosaic 
 week. 
 
 From the moment we came to this conclusion we never 
 doubted but that the principle which led us to it would afford 
 the long-wished-for explanation of this hitherto inscrutible 
 arcana; and our attention, thus freed from doubt, became 
 wholly directed to ascertain whether the discoveries of philo- 
 sophy would bear out these robust, but incipient conceptions. 
 We proceeded by the way of differential reasoning, if we may 
 be permitted so to express ourselves, and the more we read, 
 studied, examined, and compared, the more firmly we became 
 convinced that we were on the right path. That those marine 
 animals which do not depend for motion on atmospheric air 
 were capable of existing previously to the formation of the 
 light ; that they only could fulfil the purposes which were then 
 to be wrought out ; and, knowing this, the inspired historian 
 meant, as we have said, carefully and deliberately to exclude 
 them from the narration given of the operations of the first 
 part of the fifth day. The result of these researches, in further 
 confirmation of our assumption, we now proceed to lay before 
 our readers. 
 
 We shall commence, by enquiring, in accordance with the 
 differential method, whether naturalists acknowledge a class 
 or division of beings which correspond with the definition we 
 have just given ; observing, in general, that whatever creatures 
 did exist before the formation of the atmosphere must have been 
 inhabitants of the water. 
 
 Let us first, then, examine the evidences in favour of what 
 it is to be possessed of life, or of the living principle. By the 
 first part of the hundred and twenty-ninth Theorem it will be 
 seen " That the want of organization is the peculiar charac- 
 teristic of mere inert matter ; affords an evidence of the ab- 
 sence of the living principle ; and proves that it never has 
 been present in these bodies during their formation or increase, 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 85 
 
 while the slightest trace of organization discoverable in any 
 natural body is a complete proof that life is, or at least once 
 was, present in it. These are the words of Professor Henslow, 
 in his Treatise on Botany in the Cabinet Cyclopaedia. We 
 shall see, presently, how fully his proposition is borne out by 
 the opinions of other writers. 
 
 " Life," says Baron Cuvier, " being the most important of all the 
 properties of created existence, stands first in the scale of characters. 
 It has always been considered the most general principle of division ; 
 and, by universal consent, natural objects have been arranged into 
 two immense divisions, ORGANIC beings (comprising animals and 
 plants) ; and INORGANIC beings (comprising minerals)." 
 
 And again, 
 
 " In conclusion, we shall repeat, that all living bodies are endowed 
 with the functions of absorption (by which they draw in foreign 
 substances) ; of assimilation (by which they convert them into orga- 
 nized matter) ; of exhalation (by which they surrender their super- 
 fluous materials) : of development (by which their parts increase in 
 size and density) ; and of generation (by which they continue the 
 form of their species). Birth and death are universal limits to their 
 existence : the essential character of their structure consists in a 
 cellular tissue or network capable of contractibility ; containing in 
 its meshes fluids or gases, ever in motion ; and the bases of their 
 chemical composition are substances easily convertible into liquids 
 or gases ; or into proximate principles, having great affinity for 
 each other. Fixed forms, transmitted by generation, distinguish 
 their species, determine the arrangement of the secondary functions 
 assigned to each, and point out the part they are destined to perform 
 on the great stage of the universe. These organised forms can neither 
 produce themselves nor change their characters. Life is never 
 found separated from organization ; and, whenever the vital spark 
 bursts into a flame, its progress is attended by a beautifully orga- 
 nized body."* 
 
 " Notwithstanding this vast and exuberant presence of organic 
 existence," says Professor Ansted, "it is yet true that we cannot even 
 imagine the nature of the broad line of demarcation which seems, as 
 
 * Edinburgh Philos. Journal. 
 
86 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 it were, to form an impassable gulf between that which we call living, 
 and that which is only dead matter. 
 
 " Life is no less a mystery to us now, than it was when man first 
 speculated on its nature. We know not what it is, why it is, or 
 how it is ; we know, only, that it exists and is everywhere present. 
 The development of one form of life from another may, therefore, 
 well remain undetermined, since we cannot even guess at the nature 
 of that first change which produces organization, and which thus 
 acts upon organic nature."* 
 
 " It is very difficult," say Messrs. Todd and Bowman in their ad- 
 mirable Physiological Treatise, " to define a precise boundary between 
 the vegetable and animal kingdoms. The lowest animals exhibit so 
 much of the plant nature that naturalists are as yet undecided as to 
 the true location of some species. The common sponge, for instance? 
 is claimed for each kingdom. 
 
 But " living objects, generally, are strongly contrasted with the 
 
 inanimate bodies (which have never lived) At the same 
 
 time, there are many points of resemblance between them ; and as 
 both owe their origin to the same creative mandate, and are reducible 
 to the same elementary constituents, so they are subject, in a great 
 degree, to the same physical laws, and are to be investigated accord- 
 ing to the same principles of physiological enquiry. 
 
 "We propose, in the first place, to compare living, or organized 
 bodies, with inanimate, mineral, or unorganized bodies, and to ex- 
 plain what is meant by the term LIFE 
 
 " 1. Every living being is organized that is, composed of dif- 
 ferent parts or organs, each of which has its definite structure, by 
 which it differs from other parts, and is capable of fulfilling a certain 
 end 
 
 " The various bodies that compose the mineral kingdom do not 
 exhibit the same distinctness and variety of structure in their com- 
 ponent parts, nor is there any adaptation of their parts to separate 
 functions ; they are, therefore, called unorganized or inorganic, and 
 chemical analysis resolves them into those simple elements which 
 admit of no further sub-division. 
 
 " Organized bodies are found in two states or conditions. The 
 one, that of life, is a state of action, or of capacity for action. The 
 other, that of death, is one in which all vital action has ceased, and 
 
 * Ancient World, 1847, p, 31)1. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 87 
 
 to which the disintegration of the organized body succeeds as a natu- 
 ral consequence 
 
 " The term LIFE, then, may be regarded as denoting an ultimate 
 fact in science, which may be thus expressed : that certain com- 
 pounds of matter which, as being artfully arranged in a particular 
 form for a special end, and associated together by a certain mecha- 
 nism, are called organized do, by their co-operation with physical 
 and chemical forces, manifest a train of phenomena, which are of the 
 same, or of an analogous kind, for all organized beings ; that is to 
 say, they manifest the phenomena of LIFE Life is trans- 
 mitted from one living being to another ; the life of the present 
 generation of animals and plants has its source in that of a pre- 
 vious generation. 
 
 " And if we trace a race upwards through generations innumerable 
 to that which first flourished on the earth, we find the true source 
 of vital creation to be in Him * in whom we live, and move, and 
 have our being.' "* 
 
 Having ascertained from these authorities what the charac- 
 teristics are which constitute an organized or living being, it 
 becomes necessary to delineate, as clearly as possible, the dis- 
 tinguishing properties of the animal from the vegetable king- 
 dom. 
 
 By the one hundred and twenty-ninth Theorem it will be 
 perceived that the lower boundaries of these two divisions of 
 organized existences are so contiguous, indeed so frequently 
 blended, that it " has hitherto baffled the attempts of natu- 
 ralists to point out the precise limits which separate them;' for, 
 to this day, there are some objects which it is very doubtful 
 under which class they ought to be arranged. Observe what 
 Professor Henslow says in continuation of these words which 
 we have selected for the Theorem : 
 
 " Among the higher tribes of organized bodies, indeed, there is 
 no difficulty in pointing out numerous lines of demarcation between 
 the two kingdoms ; but, as we descend in the scale of each, we find 
 an increasing similarity in external characters, and a closer approxi- 
 mation between the analogies existing in many of those functions 
 
 * Physiology and Anatomy of Man. London, 1845, pp. 21, 22, 3, 14, 15. 
 
88 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 which mark the presence of the living principle, both in the animal 
 and in the vegetable kingdoms. 
 
 " Indeed, so very closely do the limits of these two great kingdoms 
 approximate, that it is even now a matter of doubt whether the Con- 
 ferva Comoides, which has hitherto been considered as an aquatic 
 plant, does not more properly pertain to the lower confines of the 
 animal kingdom. An opinion which has been adduced from observa- 
 tion by Mons. Gaillon, and confirmed by the later investigations of 
 MM. Desmazieres and Chauvin." 
 
 We have just been informed that the common sponge is in 
 the same predicament. 
 
 But difficult as it may be to effect this separation, an at- 
 tempt has been made to accomplish it; and with relation to the 
 hundred and thirtieth Theorem it may be observed, that the 
 following seem to be the conditions which essentially consti- 
 tute the animal state of organic existence ; those which do 
 not possess these qualifications taking their rank in the vege- 
 table kingdom : "1. Animals are possessed, in some form or 
 other, of an alimentary cavity, or intestinal canal. 2. They 
 are endowed with a circulating system. 3. That, besides the 
 three elements, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, which both 
 plants and animals contain, the latter have a fourth, namely, 
 azote or nitrogen, which enters more largely into their compo- 
 sition. 4. They possess the power of respiration. And, 
 lastly. That, perhaps, the super-addition of sensibility to the 
 common living principle, is requisite to complete the charac- 
 teristic property of animals." 
 
 Baron Cuvier, in the Introduction to his "Animal Kingdom," 
 confirms these positions by stating 
 
 " The power of voluntary motion in animals necessarily requires 
 corresponding adaptations, even in those organs simply negative. 
 Animals cannot, like plants, derive nourishment from the earth by 
 roots ; and hence, they must contain within themselves a supply of 
 aliment, and carry the reservoir with them. From this circumstance 
 is derived the first trait in the character of animals. They must 
 possess an intestinal canal, from which the nutritive fluid may pene- 
 trate by a species of internal roots, through pores and vessels into 
 all parts of the body 
 
 " The complicated functions of animals require organized sys- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 89 
 
 terns, which would be superfluous in vegetables ; such as the mus- 
 cular system for motion, and the nerves for sensation. It was also 
 necessary that the fluids should be more numerous and varied in 
 animals, and possessed of a more complicated chemical composition 
 than in plants, in order to facilitate the action of these two systematic 
 arrangements. Therefore, another essential element was introduced 
 into the composition of animals, of which plants, excepting some few 
 tribes, are generally deprived ; and while plants usually contain only 
 three elements, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, animals add to these 
 a fourth, namely, azote or nitrogen. This difference in chemical 
 
 composition forms the third trait in the character of animals 
 
 " Respiration forms the fourth characteristic of animals, and is the 
 most distinguishing function of the animal frame, namely, that which 
 forms its essential difference from all other beings, and, in a manner, 
 constitutes it an animal. So important is its influence over the 
 whole body that we shall presently be able to show that animals per- 
 form the functions of their nature with greater or less perfection, ac- 
 cording as their respiration is more or less perfect." 
 
 In addition to these luminous definitions, it is only requisite 
 to give that which has been adduced by Professor Henslow, 
 as the remaining condition of animal existence : 
 
 " Perhaps," he says, " until the contrary shall be distinctly proved, 
 we may consider the superaddition of ' sensibility' to the living 
 principle as the characteristic property of animals ; a quality by 
 which the individual is rendered conscious of its existence or of its 
 wants, and by which it is induced to seek to satisfy those wants by 
 some act of volition. It has been supposed and both analogy and 
 experiment appear most fully to confirm the supposition that a 
 sense of pain is very nearly, if not entirely, absent in the inferior 
 tribes of animals. Even in the higher tribes, certain parts of the 
 body are incapable of receiving pain ; and there seems to be no ab- 
 surdity in considering that an animal may be endowed with just so 
 much sensibility as may be sufficient to prompt it to select its food, 
 though, at the same time, its body may be so organised as to be in- 
 capable of transmitting painful sensations." 
 
 We can now distinguish an organised being from mere inert 
 matter which constitutes the mineral kingdom ; and in con- 
 tinuation, have acquired such a knowledge of the characteristic 
 peculiarities of an animal, as to distinguish it from a plant. 
 
90 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 In short, we now know what a " creature" is which hath "animal 
 life" In continuation, we shall enquire whether any of these 
 are so circumstanced as to be independent of light and atmos- 
 pheric air ; commencing with such as, being immovable during 
 the whole period of their existence, are most decidedly indif- 
 ferent to both these influences. In effecting this, we wish it 
 to be clearly understood, that the immovability to which we 
 allude is that which is akin to the immovability of a tree ; 
 whose static condition cannot be questioned, although its seeds 
 may be wafted by the winds, or borne by the waters to a dis- 
 tance, there to take root, and, in turn, from thence to spread 
 further and further over the face of the earth. In like manner, 
 we assert that any mollusc or zoophite which ultimately ad- 
 heres to a rock, and thereafter continues fixed, is an immovable 
 creature, although it should be proved that its spawn separates 
 itself from the parent mollusc ; and, either by the currents of 
 of the water, or even by rotiferous motion, succeeds in reaching 
 a convenient distance from the original bed ; there, like the 
 race to which it belongs, to become a permanent fixture, and 
 to send forth, in turn, animals of its own kind, ephemerally 
 endowed with the faculty of locomotion. We maintain that, 
 in respect of fixity, these two extensive groups of created ex- 
 istences are precisely upon a par, and that the immovability of 
 the ostrea or the patella can no more be questioned than that 
 of a shrub or a tree. While by " restricted motion" we mean 
 such as, during the whole course of their existence, creep upon, 
 or burrow in the bottom of the ocean, and are incapable of 
 swimming freely. In short, all those whose motion is not the 
 effect of aerated blood, even although they should, by means 
 of the surrounding element, be capable of restricted movements 
 of mechanical origin. 
 
 In conducting our inquiries into this matter, we shall adopt 
 the method of eliminating from the extremes, those animals 
 whose nature and conformation leave no doubt as to their pos- 
 sessing the power of locomotion, close in by degrees upon the 
 more questionable descriptions, situated upon the very line of 
 demarcation, and, at last, arrive at such as are positively de- 
 prived of the faculty in question. 
 
 By the hundred and thirtieth Theorem it is asserted " That 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 91 
 
 the animal kingdom, from the most perfect of its beings down 
 to the verge of that indistinct line where it comes into contact 
 with the vegetable kingdom, may be comprised within two grand 
 divisions, namely, VERTEBRATE and INVERTEBRATE. The 
 former being provided with a skull and vertebral column for 
 the protection of the brain and spinal marrow. The latter 
 being destitute of both of these defences" 
 
 This is so rudimentary a truth in natural history, and so 
 well known to all who have paid the slightest attention to its 
 study, since Lamark adopted this method of classification upon 
 positive and negative principles, that it is scarcely necessary to 
 delay our investigations to prove it. We shall, therefore, pro- 
 ceed to give the description of animals which constitute its 
 positive branch the VERTEBRATE : 
 
 " VERTEBRATED ANIMALS," says Baron Cuvier, " the first of 
 whose forms is that of man, and of the animals most resembling him, 
 have the brain and the principal trunk of the nervous system enve- 
 loped in a bony covering, composed of the cranium (or skull), and the 
 vertebrae (or bones of the neck, back, and loins). To the sides of 
 this medial column are attached the ribs, and the bones of the limbs, 
 forming collectively the framework of the body. The muscles, in 
 general, enclose the bones which they set in motion, and the viscera 
 are contained within the head and trunk. They are all supplied with 
 red blood, a muscular heart, a mouth with two jaws, one being placed 
 either above or before the other, distinct organs of sight, hearing, 
 smell, and taste, in the cavities of the face, and never more than four 
 limbs. The sexes are always separate, and the general distribution 
 of the medullary masses with the principal branches of the nervous 
 system, are nearly the same in all. Upon examining attentively 
 each of the parts of this extensive division of animals, we shall al- 
 ways discover some analogy among them, even in species apparently 
 the most removed from each other ; and the leading features of one 
 uniform plan may be traced from man to the lowest of the fishes."* 
 
 We need seek no further evidence on this point : whoever 
 reflects for a moment must be convinced that the very pos- 
 session of a skull and vertebral column, with their contents and 
 
 * In Appendix A there will be found a Synoptical Table of the entire animal 
 kingdom, according to Baron Cuvier, to which please refer. 
 
92 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 accompaniments, the brain and spinal nervous cord, is sufficient 
 proof that their possessors live and move themselves. But 
 that we may know what animals belong to this class, we sub- 
 join the list given of them by the same illustrious anatomist. 
 
 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 DIVISION I. VERTEBRATA. Subdivided into four Classes. 
 
 1. MAMMALIA. Man and beasts with warm blood; heart with 
 
 two ventricles ; females suckling their young with milk ; 
 viviparous, excepting the Montremata, which are either 
 viviparous or ovoviparous. 
 
 2. AVES. Birds, with warm blood ; heart with two ventricles ; 
 
 no mammae ; oviparous ; body covered with feathers ; and 
 organised for flight. 
 
 3. REPTILIA. Reptiles, with cold blood ; heart with one ventricle ; 
 
 having lungs, or sometimes only gills or branchiae ; ovi- 
 parous or ovoviparous, generally amphibious. 
 
 4. PISCES. Fishes, with cold blood ; heart with one ventricle ; 
 
 no lungs, but breathing by branchiae ; generally oviparous ; 
 body organized for swimming. 
 
 We at once, and without hesitation, eliminate from our 
 future argument, the whole of the multitudinous tribes of 
 animals which comprise these four classes, MAMMALIA, AVES, 
 REPTILIA, and PISCES. They were all called into existence 
 on the fifth and sixth days of the Mosaic week. Not one of 
 them existed previously.* 
 
 In the other three divisions, MOLLUSCA, ARTICULATA, and 
 RADIATA, some of the classes are as decidedly on the same 
 side of the line of demarcation ; and we proceed to single them 
 out, that they also may be set apart from our future argument. 
 
 * In making this assertion we are well aware of the difficulty which may 
 arise respecting the fourth great class, PISCES ; hut, besides having reference to 
 true fishes only, or such as are possessed of perfect organs of locomotion, we are 
 prepared to explain, in the sequel, the peculiar difficulties which beset this part 
 of our discourse. Meanwhile, we shall proceed on the assumption that no true 
 fishes which aeriated their blood by gills or branchiae did exist during the prepa- 
 ratory stage of the world, or before the Mosaic week. AUTHOR. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 93 
 
 DIVISION II. MOLLUSC A. Subdivided into six Classes. 
 
 1. CEPHALOPODA. Cuttle fishes, having the mantle furnished 
 
 with a shell, and united under the body, forming a mus- 
 cular sac ; head connected with the mouth of the sac, and 
 crowned with long and strong fleshy limbs for swimming 
 with and seizing their prey ; two large eyes ; and two gills 
 placed in a sac ; sexes separate. 
 
 2. PTEROPODA. Marine animals without feet; with two fins, 
 
 placed one on each side of the mouth ; head distinct ; her- 
 mophrodites. 
 
 DIVISION III. ARTICULATA. Subdivided into four Classes. 
 
 2. CRUSTACEA. Marine animals, with a crustaceous envelope ; 
 
 having articulated limbs attached to the sides of the body ; 
 blood white ; always with articulated antennae or feelers 
 in front of the head, and generally four in number ; distinct 
 organs of circulation ; respiring through branchiae. 
 
 3. ARACHNIDES. Spiders, with the head and breast united in a 
 
 single piece ; and with the principal viscera situated in a 
 distinct abdomen behind the thorax ; without attennae ; 
 oviparous. 
 
 4. INSECTA. Insects, divided into three distinct parts, the head, 
 
 thorax, and abdomen ; always with two antennae, and six 
 feet. 
 
 DIVISION IV. RADIATA. Subdivided into five Classes. 
 
 2. ENTOZOA. Intestinal worms, with no distinct organs of circu- 
 
 lation or respiration ; body generally elongated and organs 
 arranged longitudinally, without head, eyes, or feet. 
 
 3. ACALEPHJE. Medusa, or sea nettles, without organs for circula- 
 
 tion or respiration ; with only one entrance to the stomach. 
 
 5. INFUSORIA. Animalcules, or minute microscopic animals, found 
 
 in fluids, or vegetable infusions. As their internal struc- 
 ture is but little known, from their extreme smallness, this 
 class will probably be found, hereafter, to contain animals 
 which ought to be placed in some of the higher divisions. 
 
 These eight classes, CEPHALOPODA, PTEROPODA, CRUSTACEA, 
 ARACHNIDES, INSECTA, ENTOZOA, ACALEPH.E, and INFUSORIA, 
 may also, we think, without any fear of regret hereafter, be 
 
94 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 eliminated at once as pertaining to " the moving creature that 
 hath life ;" and, for the same reason, will not again require to 
 be referred to, or brought forward. 
 
 It is extremely difficult, when treating of a description of 
 animals whose habits are so little known to us as those of the 
 inferior tribes of MOLLUSCS, RADIATA, and ZOOPHYTA, to 
 be able to draw the line of separation between those endowed 
 with the faculty of locomotion and those which are deprived of 
 it : a difficulty by no means lessened by having to infer the 
 habits of extinct races by comparison with living congeners. 
 Fortunately, however, our limitations are sufficiently plain ; 
 and render us independent of very minute lines of distinction. 
 If a creature was dependent for life and motion on atmos- 
 pheric air it is on the one side : if it was not, it is on the other. 
 Nevertheless, to enumerate all that are on either side of that 
 great boundary line would lead us into details too diffuse and 
 inconsistent with the design of this work. We shall, therefore, 
 adduce the distinguishing characteristics of entire groups, which 
 sufficiently evidence the immovability of numerous included 
 tribes of submerged aquatic animals. The following, which is 
 Baron Cuvier's classification, is the most appropriate for our 
 purpose : 
 
 DIVISION II. MOLLUSCA. 
 
 4. ACEPHALA. Aquatic animals, generally with a bivale or mul- 
 
 tivalve shell ; without an apparent head or limbs ; mouth 
 concealed between the folds or in the bottom of the mantle ; 
 hermophrodites ; branchiae external ; incapable of loco- 
 motion. 
 
 5. BRACHIOPODA. Marine animals, without a head ; having two 
 
 fleshy arms, furnished with numerous filaments ; bivalve 
 shells, incapable of locomotion. 
 
 6. CIRRHOPODA. Barnacles, enclosed in a multivalve shell, with 
 
 numerous articulated limbs or cirrhi, disposed in pairs, in- 
 capable of locomotion. General structure approaching to 
 articulated animals. 
 
 DIVISION IV. RADIATA. 
 4. POLYPI. Small gelatinous animals, with only one entrance to 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 95 
 
 the stomach surrounded with tentacula ; generally adhering 
 together and forming compound animals. 
 
 We shall probably have occasion, before we quit this branch 
 of our general subject, to exhibit some further particulars re- 
 specting the animals comprising these classes, and have to refer 
 to them repeatedly during the whole treatise ; but in the mean- 
 time it is considered to be deducible from the direct, though 
 unconscious testimony of a man, whose evidence it will be 
 somewhat difficult to set aside, that the three first ACEPHALA, 
 BRACHIOPODA, and CIRRHOPODA belong to the great divi- 
 sion of " the immovable creature that hath life ;" are indepen- 
 dent of atmospheric air, and as such must rank accordingly in 
 all deductions which may, hereafter, be legitimately drawn 
 from that fact. It will also, we think, be readily conceded 
 that the Polypi with some slight exceptions which include 
 the Zoophyta, may be added to those which find themselves 
 also on the immovable side of the line of demarcation. 
 
 Of the Third Division, ARTICULATA, we have already allo- 
 cated the Second) Third, and Fourth classes to the great group 
 of animals fully possessing the faculty of locomotion ; therefore, 
 we have only now to account for the several Orders comprising 
 the 
 
 1. CLASS. ANN^LIDES. Of this class we consider the 
 several orders are composed of molluscs ; having the 
 power freely to change their position at will, being 
 generally, without shelly coverings, and consequently 
 irrelevant to our present argument, except the 
 
 1. ORDER. SEDENTARLE, consisting of the following four 
 tribes and fourteen genera, all of which are protected 
 by a testaceous tube which they never leave during 
 life ; and have the branchiae at one extremity of the 
 body, namely : 
 
 TRIBE I. SEPULUCE^E. Genus 1. Megilus ; 2. Galeolaria; 
 
 3. Vermilia ; 4. Serpula; 5. Spirorbis. 
 " II. AMPHIHIT^A. Genus 6. Amphihita; 7. Tere- 
 hella; 8. Sybellaria ; 9. Pectinaria. 
 
96 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 TRIBE III. MALDONIJE. Genus 10. Dentalium; 11. Bro- 
 
 chus; 12. Cornuoide ; 13. Clymene. 
 " IV. DORSALUE. Genus 14. Siliquaria.* 
 
 To these several tribes and genera we lay our formal claim, 
 as pertaining to the grand Scriptural division of animals which 
 live, but move not voluntarily and freely from place to place. 
 
 This brings us to the two remaining classes of the Cuvierian 
 arrangement of the Animal Kingdom, which our adherence to 
 the great leading distinctives already so often alluded to has 
 constrained us to leave to the last, in consequence of there 
 being found amongst them a great proportion of beings relative 
 to which it is difficult to determine on which side of the line 
 of demarcation they should be placed. Our own opinion the 
 result of much attention leads us to conclude that, with the 
 exception of the Pulmonata, the greater proportion will eventu- 
 ally be found to belong to that great group of living creatures 
 which do not move by means of aeriated blood* 
 
 The two classes alluded to are 
 
 II. Division (Cuvierian) MOLLUSC A. 
 
 III. Class. Gasteropoda. 
 
 IV. Division. RADIATA. 
 
 I. Class. Echinodermata. 
 
 The general classification we have thus given seems to em- 
 brace the animals which, with great deference, we consider 
 distinctively characterized as those which may not be consi- 
 dered " the moving creature that hath life,' 1 and known as such 
 to the inspired writer of Genesis to have existed in the prime- 
 val ocean, unendowed with the faculty, in its plenary sense, of 
 self movement; in a condition somewhat analogous to that of 
 the globe they inhabited, which was without rotatory motion, 
 uncheered by the light of the sun, and as yet without an at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 But in order that we may be benefitted, in a greater degree, 
 by our present labours when we come to apply the results to 
 future reasoning, and endeavour to identify those tribes which 
 we consider to have belonged to the non-rotatory period with 
 
 * Conchologist's Text Book, pp. 148159. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 97 
 
 the lists of fossil exuviae brought to light by geologists, we 
 shall go somewhat more into detail with respect to those which 
 we consider to have belonged to the primitive division. The 
 following are the essential outlines of the particulars given by 
 Dr. Fleming in his Treatise on British Animals of the GASTE- 
 ROPODA, exclusive of the Pulmonifera,* namely 
 
 SECT. II. GASTEROPODA. Organs of progressive motion fitted 
 for creeping. 
 
 DIVISION II. BRANCHIFERA. Respiring in water. 
 
 TRIBE I. NUDIBRANCHIA. Marine. 
 Genus Doris, Policera, Tergipes, Tritonia, Montagna, Eolida, 
 
 Valvata, Patella, Chiton. 
 TECTIBRANCHIA. Applysia, Pluerobranchia, Bulba. 
 
 TRIBE II. PECTINABRANCHIA. 
 
 DIVISION CRYPTOBRANCHIA. 
 HOLOSTOMATA. 
 
 TuRBONiDyE. * Marine. Turbo, Phasianella, Turritella, Cin- 
 gula, Odostomia, Monodonta, Scalaria, Cyclos- 
 trema, Delphirmla, Cirus, Skenea, Euomphalus. 
 ** Fluviatile. Paludina, Ampullaria, Melania. 
 NERITAD/E. * Marine. Nerita, Natica. 
 
 ** Fluviatile. Neritina. 
 TROCIIUSID^E. Trochus, Solarium, Janthina, Velutina. 
 
 DIVISION I. SOLENOSTOMATA. 
 
 A. CONUSID^E. Conus, Terebellum, Seraphs. 
 
 B. CYPR^ADA. Cypraea (Cypreovula). 
 
 C. OVULAD.E. (Ovula), Volva, Calpurna. 
 
 D. VOLUTADJE. Voluta, Volvaria, Mitra, Cancellaria. 
 
 E. MARGIN ELLAD.E. Marginella, Columbella. 
 
 F. OLIVADJE. Oliva, Ancillaria. 
 
 G. TORNATELLAD^E. Tornatella, Acteon. 
 H. BELLEREPHON. Bellerephon. 
 
 DIVISION II. Shell turrited, whorls sub-conical, slightly embracing. 
 
 BUCCINID.E. Cassis, Morio, Nasa, Ricinula, Purpura, Monoceras, 
 (Concholepas), Harpa, Dolium, Buccinum, Eburnea. 
 
 
 We have almost exclusively restricted these enumerations to the names of 
 Genera, to admit of comparison with those discovered fossil in the strata. 
 
 H 
 
98 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 PECTINABRANCHIA. 
 
 MURICIDEJE. Turbinella, Fasciolaria, Terebra, Pyrula, Fusus, 
 
 Pleurotoma, Ranella, Murex, Typhis, Triton. 
 CERITHIADJE. * Marine. Cerithium, Strutheolaria. 
 
 ** Fluviatile. Potamedum, Melanopsis (Pirena). 
 STOMBUSIDJE. (Stombus), (Pterocera), Rostellaria. 
 SCRUTIBRANCHIA. /. Shell ear-shaped. Haliotis (Padola), 
 
 (Stomatia). 
 
 II. Shell oblong or conical, Crepidulidcz. 
 * Marine. Plate of the cavity spirally decarrent. 
 
 Calyptroea, Infundibulum, Crepidula, Pileolus. 
 ** Fluviatile. Navicella. 
 CAPULID^E Capulus (Carinaria). 
 FISSURELLAD^E. Fisurella, Emarginula, Scissurella.* 
 
 The following are the particulars given by the same inde- 
 fatigable naturalist, of the Mollusca Acephala, and Branchio- 
 poda ; which we transcribe in continuation of the division of 
 the immovable " creature that hath life." 
 
 MOLLUSCA. ACEPHALA. 
 
 ORDER IT. 
 
 MOLLUSCA. ACEPHALA. Destitute of a distinct head or neck ; 
 no rudiments of organs of hearing and sight : 
 organs of the two sexes incorporated in the same 
 individual. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 CONCHIFERA. Covering testaceous. 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 BRANCHIOPODA. All the species are marine and permantly 
 
 attached. 
 
 PEDUNCULATA. Lingula, Tesebratula, Spirifer, Magas. 
 SESSELIA. Discina, Criopus, Pentamerus, Productus. 
 
 DIVISION II. BIVALVIA. 
 ASIPHONIDA. /. Valves closed by one abductor muscle. 
 
 A. Shell free, or adhering to other bodies by byssus. 
 
 British Aiiinmls, pp. 281 'MtG. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 99 
 
 PECTONID^E. Shell compact. Pecten, Lima, Plagiostoma, Pe- 
 dum. Shell foliated. Gryphaea, Vulsella, Pla- 
 cuna. 
 PERNADJE. Pema, Gervillea, Crenatula, Inoceramus, Malleas. 
 
 AA. Shell fixed or cemented to other bodies. 
 OSTREAD/E. Ostrea, Hinnites, Dianchora, Anomia. 
 SPONDYLID^;. Spondylus, Plicatula. 
 
 II. Valves closed by two abductor muscles. 
 
 A. Hinge with teeth. 
 
 ARCADE. Area, Cucullea, Pectunculus, Nucula. 
 TRIGONIAD/E. Trigonia, Castalia, Avicula. 
 
 AA. Hinge without teeth. Meleagrina, Pinna. 
 SIPHONID;E. Cloak more or less closed, forming syphons. 
 
 I. One syphon only. 
 A. Shell transverse. 
 
 MYTILIDZE. Mytilus, Modiolus, Lithodomus. 
 UNIONTDTE. Hinge simple. Anodon (Iridina). 
 
 Hinge with teeth. Unio, Alismadon. 
 
 AA. Shell with prominent beaks. 
 CARDITAD^E. Cardita, Venericardia, Crassatella. 
 
 II. Cloak closed anteally and retrally, with three 
 
 openings towards the middle of the ventral mar- 
 gin. TRIDACNAD^E. 
 
 III. Cloak open anteally. 
 
 A. Shell ear-shaped. CHAMAD-E. Chama, Diceras, 
 Etheria. CARDIAD^E. Isocardia, Hippopodium, 
 Cardium, Pholadomya, Cypricardia. 
 
 A A. Shape various. CORBULAD^E. Corbula, Equi- 
 valve. MACTRAD.E. Mactra, Goodallia, Lep- 
 ton, Kellia, Loripes, Ervillia, Amphidesma. 
 
 Ligament external. DONACID.E. Donax, Capsa, 
 Tellina. 
 
 No lateral teeth. Psammobia, Astarte, Lucina, 
 Myrtea. 
 
 Three teeth at least. CONQUES of Lamark. 
 
 * Marine. VENERIDA^. Cyprini, Cytherea, Venus, 
 Venerupis. 
 
 ** Fluviatile. CYCLAD/E. Cyclas, Cyrena, Galateola. 
 
 IV. Cloak closed ventrally, &c. 
 
 A. Lodged at the extremity of a calcareous tube, with 
 which it is more or less intimately connected. TE- 
 H 2 
 
100 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 REDINID^E. Teredo, Xylophaga, Fistulana, Cla- 
 
 vagella. 
 
 A A. Destitute of a secreted calcareous tube. 
 PHOLAD.E. Pholas, Gastrochsena. 
 SOLANIDJE. No accessory valves. Solen, Sanguinolaria, Hia- 
 
 tella, Panopsea, Glycemeris. 
 MYADJE. Ligament internal. Mya, Lutraria, Sphenia, Pandeora, 
 
 Galeoma. 
 MOLLUSCA TUNICATA. DicHiTONiDA. All the British Dichito- 
 
 nida are fixed. 
 A. Body simple. 
 
 a. Apertures furnished with four rays. Pandocia. 
 
 a a. Apertures with indistinct rays, or more than four. 
 
 b. Body pedunculated. Clavellina. 
 
 b b. Body sessile. Pirena, Ciona, Phallusia. 
 AA. Body compound. 
 
 Polyzona, Sydneum, Alpidium, Botryllus.* 
 
 For the necessary particulars of the Class Cirripeda, we are 
 indebted to another work on Conchology ; which, among other 
 distinguishing characteristics, declares that all the Molluscs of 
 this division " are incapable of locomotion" f 
 
 CLASS CIRRIPEDA. Divided by Lamark into two orders. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 PEDUNCULATE. The body supported by a tubular moveable pe- 
 duncle, the base of which is attached to ex- 
 traneous substances in the ocean. It consists of 
 the following genera : 
 
 Genus. 1. Otion. 2. Cineras. 3. Pollicipes. 4. Sarpellum. 
 5. Anatifa. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 SESSILIA. Body without a peduncle, and inclosed in a multivalve 
 
 shell ; seated immediately on marine bodies or 
 
 rocks. It is composed of, 
 Genus. 1. Prygoma. 2. Creusia. 3. Acasta. 4. Adna. 
 
 5. Balanus. 6. Coronula. 7. Tubicinella.J 
 
 * History of British Animals, pp. 367 471. 
 f Captain Brown on Conchology. J Conchologist's Text Book, p. 148. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 101 
 
 And lastly, again we turn to Dr. Fleming for such a de- 
 scription of the Echinodermata and Polypi, as the British 
 shores afford ; which, although necessarily restricted in the 
 latter division, will yet be sufficient to convey a distinct 
 general idea of the existences which come under these de- 
 nominations. 
 
 ECHINODERMATA. 
 SECTION I. ORDER I. Free. 
 
 A. ECHINID^E. Covering of immovable testaceous plates, with- 
 out projecting arms. 
 
 I. ANOCYSTI. Vent in the dorsal surface. Cidaris, Echinus, 
 
 Clypeus (Cassidula, Nucleolitis). 
 
 II. PLEUROCYSTI. Echinarachnius, Spatangus. 
 
 III. CATOCYSTI, Echinocyamus (Echinanthus, Echinodiscus), 
 
 Conulus (Echinoneus), Echinocorys. 
 AA. Covering crustaceous and moveable. 
 FISTULID^E. Holothuria, Cuvieria, Mulleria. 
 ASTERIAD.E. Asterias, Ophiura, Astrophyton, Comatula, Mar- 
 
 supites. 
 
 SECTION II. Destitute of suckers for locomotion. 
 Sipunculus, Priapulus. 
 ORDER II. Fixed. 
 
 CRINOID^E. Apiocrinites, Pentacrinus, Encrinites. 
 
 II. Plates of the body articulating imperfectly. 
 
 Poteriocrinites. 
 
 III. Plates of the body adhering by sutures. 
 Cyathocrinites, Caryocrinites, Actinocrinites, 
 
 Rhodocrinites, Platycrinites. 
 
 IV. Plates of the body anchylosing. 
 Eugeniacrinites. 
 
 BLASTOIDJE. Margin of the oral disc destitute of arms. 
 Pentremites. 
 
 " The fossil remains of Crinoideasis," says Professor Buckland, 
 " have long been known by the name of Stone Lilies or Encrimites, 
 and have lately been classed under a separate order by the name of 
 CRINOIDEA. 
 
 This order comprehends many genera and numerous species, and 
 is arranged by Cuvier after the Asterse in the division Zoophytes. 
 
102 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " Nearly all these species appear to have been attached to the bot- 
 tom of the sea, or to floating extraneous bodies."* 
 
 POLYPI. 
 
 I. CARNOSA. Polypi connected with a fleshy substance, and 
 consisting of, 
 
 I. Free ; marine ; moving by the contraction or ex- 
 
 pansion of the fleshy part ; form symmetrical ; 
 axis of the body supported by a bone contained 
 in a sac. 
 
 Pennatula, Virgularia. 
 
 II. Fixed or stationary. 
 
 A. Polypiferous matter covering a solid axis ; a. 
 axis with stellular discs. LAMELLILER^E. 
 
 b. Stellular discs terminal. 
 
 Sarcinula, Lithostrotion, Caryophyllea, Tur- 
 binolia, Cyclolites. 
 
 bb. Stellular discs aggregated. 
 
 Explanaria, Astrea, Porites, Pocillopora. 
 
 a a. Axis destitute of stellular discs, b. Axis cor- 
 neus and flexible ; polypiferous basis creta- 
 ceous ; the axis with spines. 
 
 c. Polypi developed. GORGONIAD^E. 
 
 Gorgonia, Primnoa. 
 c c. Polypi not developed. CORALLINADJE. 
 
 lania, Corallina, Halimeda. 
 bb. Axis stony. 
 
 I sis. 
 
 B. Polypiferous basis destitute of a continuous solid 
 
 axis. a. Polypi developed. b. With eight 
 tentacula ; the basis fibrous. 
 
 Lobularia, Cydonium, Cliona. 
 
 b b. Polypi with tentacula exceeding eight in num- 
 ber; basis nearly uniform. 
 
 Alcyonium, Cristatella. 
 a a. Polypi not developed. SPONGIAD^E. 
 
 Tethya, Halichondria, Spongia, Grantia. 
 
 * Bridgewater Treatise, p. 417. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 103 
 
 II. CELLULIFERA. 
 
 Polypi lodged in calcareous shells ; imperforate at the 
 base, and consisting of, 
 
 I. Substance rigid stony. 
 
 I. Cells in the form of minute pores, imbedded. 
 
 MlLLEPORAD^E. 
 
 Millepora. 
 
 II. Cells tubular and produced beyond the surface. 
 
 TUB1PORAD;E. 
 
 Tubipora, Favosites, Tubulipora, Discopora, 
 Filipora, Terebellaria. 
 
 III. Cells utricular, adjacent, or superimposed. 
 
 ESCHARD.E. 
 
 Eschara, Retepora, Cellepora, Berenicea, Hip- 
 pothoa, Alecto. 
 
 II. Substance flexible. FLUSTRAD^E. 
 
 Farcimia, Flustra. 
 
 III. THECATA. 
 
 Polypi surrounded by a membraneous tube, covering 
 the subdivisions of their compound body, and 
 consisting of 
 
 I. Sheath slightly calcareous ; cells single, or in rows. 
 
 Cells enlarged, in rows, united or single. CELLARIAD^E. 
 Cells united with the orifices opening on the upper 
 
 surface. 
 
 Cellularia, Tricellaria, Crisia. 
 Cells in pairs, attached by the back, the orifices with 
 
 opposite aspects. 
 
 Notamia. 
 Cells single. 
 
 Eucratia, Anguinaria. 
 
 II. Sheath membranaceous, cells enlarged externally and lateral. 
 
 SERTULARIAD.E. 
 
 I. Base of the cells broad, coalescing with stem, and 
 on opposite sides. 
 Sertularia, Dynamena, Thuiaria. 
 Cells unilateral. 
 
 Antennularia, Plumularia, Serialaria. 
 
104 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 II. Base of the cells narrow or pedunculated. 
 
 Campanularia, Valkeria, Cymodocia. 
 
 III. Sheath membranaceous, cells simple, extremi- 
 ties of branches. TUBULARIADJE. 
 Tubularia, Plumatella. 
 
 IV. NUDA. 
 
 Polypi naked, the mouth with marginal tentacula. 
 Coryna, Hydra. 
 
 V. VIBRATORIA. 
 
 Polypi having the mouth furnished with vibrating 
 hairs.* 
 
 We have thus, with great- care, endeavoured to trace the line 
 of separation between " the moving creature that hath life," 
 and the Testaceous, Molluscous, and Zoophytic inhabitants of 
 the ocean which are endowed with life, but not with the faculty 
 of free and rapid locomotion, with as much distinctness and 
 continuity as the state of information on that particular de- 
 scription of animal life will permit. 
 
 In conducting this investigation we have necessarily been 
 actuated by the different relation in which we stand towards 
 the existences which are ranged on the opposite sides of that 
 distinguishing boundary line. " The moving creature that 
 hath life" (more easily characterised by the possession of organs 
 indicative of motion), not being essential as evidences to prove 
 our future assumptions, we have, at once, discarded them from 
 our attention and our memories ; while, on the other hand, 
 we have sought, by a detailed recapitulation of the various 
 Classes, Orders, Tribes, and Genera deduced from the authen- 
 ticated and the most elaborate classifications of modern Con- 
 chologists to arrest the attention, whilst we impressed the 
 memory with particulars respecting those creatures actually 
 ascertained to be, or which are considered on that side of the 
 line which implies that either entire immovability or restricted 
 motion is their lot ; an additional labour which we have under- 
 taken, not only with the design of more effectually separating 
 those two divisions, but in order that, when we come to com- 
 
 * History of British Animcils, i>p. 472, 505553. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 105 
 
 pare the description of animals which we consider to be of 
 primitive origin, with the fossil remains brought to light by 
 geologists, we may be enabled to arrive at more satisfactory 
 and more correct conclusions. 
 
 Perhaps, before we proceed to adduce more general evidence 
 on the same point, a concise recapitulation of those Divisions 
 and Classes of the Animal Kingdom which we consider in- 
 capable in the full acceptation of the term of free loco- 
 motion may be beneficial. They are as follow : 
 
 DIVISION II. 
 
 Class III. Gasteropoda, less Pulmonata. 
 IV. Acephala. 
 V. Brachiopoda. 
 VI. Cirripeda. 
 
 DIVISION III. 
 Class I. Annelides. Order Sedentariae. 
 
 DIVISION IV. 
 Class I. Echinodermata. 
 IV. Polypi. 
 
 To which may be added several extinct families; such as 
 the Productae, Spirifer, Trilobites, Orthoceratites, Belemnites, 
 and many others. 
 
 The following corroborating testimony is from the pen of 
 Dr. Fleming, and although couched in general terms, is de- 
 serving of attention, considering the assiduity and success of 
 his researches into this particular branch of natural history. 
 He says 
 
 " Besides possessing the faculty of sensation and voluntary motion, 
 I likewise am able to move my limbs in such a manner as to change 
 the position, not of one organ merely, but of my whole body, or to 
 shift from one place to another. This new action is termed Loco- 
 motion. It requires for its performance, not merely the conditions 
 requisite for sensation and voluntary motion, but likewise an ar- 
 rangement of organs so constructed as by their action on the sur- 
 rounding elements, whether of air, earth, or water, the body may be 
 displaced. Quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fishes, possess such an 
 arrangement of organs, and exhibit the locomotive power in a great 
 degree of perfection. But as we descend in the scale, we find many 
 
106 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 animals in which such an organization does not exist, and that live 
 on the same spot from the commencement to the termination of their 
 existence. 
 
 " Those animals, however, are all natives of water, and although 
 they be thus stationary themselves, the fluctuations of the element in 
 which they live produce a variety in the scene, and daily bring new 
 objects in contact with their organs of sensation. 
 
 " Among the invertebral animals, in which the faculty of locomo- 
 tion is not present in every species, there does not appear to be any 
 link in the chain, or any system of organs connected with other 
 functions, which regulate the presence or absence of locomotion. 
 The Monas, usually considered as the lowest term of animal life, and 
 in which neither mouth nor vessels can be perceived, is an animal- 
 cule which resides in water, and performs all its locomotive evolu- 
 tions with considerable rapidity. The Oyster, on the other hand, in 
 which a heart, bloodvessels, brain, gills, and stomach, may be easily 
 observed, has one valve of its shell cemented to the rock, and de- 
 pends on the bounty of the waves for all the objects of its sensation 
 and nourishment.* 
 
 "The fourth method," continues Dr. Fleming, "termed Cementa- 
 tion, employed by animals to preserve themselves stationary, consists 
 in a part of their own bodies being cemented to the substance on 
 which they rest. This takes place in the common mussel, by means 
 of strong cartilaginous filaments, termed the byssus, united in the 
 body to a secreting gland, furnished with powerful muscles, and, at 
 the other extremity, glued to the rock or other body to which it con- 
 nects itself. In other cases, as in the oyster, the shell itself is 
 cemented to the rock. This method of resisting the action of the 
 disturbing forces of the air and the water is unknown among the 
 vertebral animals. In the Mollusca it occurs in those with shells 
 
 termed byssiferous tm& fixed Among the Zoophytes, the 
 
 adhesion between them and the substance on which they grow is 
 generally accomplished by means of a cement, connecting (as in 
 nearly all animals fixed by cementation) their bodies for life to 
 the spot where they first adhered. f 
 
 To close the evidence for this part of the argument, we only 
 require to know upon what authority the extinct families of 
 
 * Philosophy of Zoology, by Dr. Fleming, &c., vol. i. pp. 46, 47. 
 f Ibid, pp. 129, 130. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 107 
 
 Molluscous animals are to be considered as having been inca- 
 pable of free locomotion. Direct proof of this is altogether 
 unattainable : the very circumstance of their being extinct 
 precludes the possibility of their nature and habits being 
 thoroughly known ; while every naturalist is aware of the 
 danger of trusting to analogy for just inferences, particularly 
 where fossil shells alone are left as the means of instituting the 
 comparison. To proceed, however, with whatever indirect proof 
 we can procure, we shall first ascertain what is said by geolo- 
 gists of the state in which the remains of the extinct mollusca 
 are found ; for to their researches is due the greater part of 
 the knowledge we possess of fossil testacea. 
 
 " The organic character of the Zechstein approaches," says Sir 
 Henry de la Beche, " as far as researches have yet gone, that of the 
 next, or Carboniferous group ; Productce, which abound in the Car- 
 boniferous limestone, being not only discovered in the Zechstein, but 
 also Spirifers, shells which also abound in the carboniferous lime- 
 stone.* 
 
 " We next arrive, in the ascending order, to the Muschelkalk. 
 We here have evidence that probably at the same epoch a deposit of 
 calcareous matter took place, if not continuously, at least at various 
 places from Poland to the south of France inclusive ; and that the 
 marine animal life distributed over this surface was nearly of the same 
 kind. But it is a remarkable circumstance that this life was not iden- 
 tical with that which existed at the time when the Zechstein was 
 formed ; the organic character of the two rocks is distinct. ..... 
 
 In whatever manner this may be considered, the fact appears certain, 
 that circumstances had arisen, changing the character of marine life 
 over certain portions of Europe ; that certain animals abounding 
 previously, and appparently for a great length of time (for, as will 
 be seen in the sequel, they are enveloped in various thick and older 
 deposits), have disappeared never to reappear, at least, as far as we 
 can judge from our knowledge of organic remains. f 
 
 " The Grauwacke group occurs in Norway, Sweden, and Russia. 
 It forms a portion of Southern Scotland, whence it ranges, with 
 breaks formed by newer deposits, down Western England into Nor- 
 mandy and Brittany. It appears abundantly in Ireland. A large 
 
 Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, p. 406. t Ibid, p. 407. 
 
108 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 mass of it is exposed in the district constituting the Ardennes, the 
 Eifel, the Westerwauld, and the Taurns. Another mass constitutes 
 a large portion of the Hartz mountains, while smaller patches emerge 
 in other parts of Germany on the north of Magdeburgh, and other 
 places. In all these situations there is, notwithstanding, small varia- 
 tions, a general and prevailing mineralogical character which points 
 to a common mode of formation over a considerable area. From all 
 the accounts, also, that have been presented to us by Dr. Bigsby 
 and the American geologists, we have every reason to consider that 
 a deposit closely agreeing in relative antiquity and in its general 
 mineralogical and zoological characters exists extensively in North 
 America ; so that there is evidence to show that some general causes 
 were in operation over a large portion of the Northern hemisphere, 
 and the result was the production of a thick and extensive deposit 
 enveloping animals of similar organic structure over a considerable 
 surface.* 
 
 " In this catalogue (that of the organic remains of the grauwacke 
 group) we find a mixture of existing and extinct genera, which is re- 
 markable when we consider the great antiquity of the rocks con- 
 taining them The most abundant shells belong to the 
 
 genera Orthoceratites, Producta, Spirifer, and Terebratula 
 
 " Products are common in this and the carboniferous groups, and 
 existed during the deposit of the Zechstein. Spirifers, which also 
 abounded during the deposit of the grauwacke and carboniferous 
 series have been observed up as high as the lias, where three species 
 of the genus Spirifer have been detected, one (Spirifer Walcotii) 
 being a very common and characteristic shell. The Terebratulce^ 
 which, even admitting the Swedish division, are found in the prece- 
 ding series, if not in the higher part of this, extend upwards to the 
 present day, many species being now known. Taking, therefore, 
 this natural group as it existed at this early period, in which we 
 should probably include the carboniferous limestone, and tracing it 
 upwards through the various rocks, we find that the Products first 
 disappeared and then the Spirifers, while the Terebratula have been 
 preserved through all the changes which have taken place on the 
 
 surface of our planet The Trilobite family seem now to 
 
 have entirely disappeared from among existing animals, and we may, 
 perhaps, venture to infer, from our present information respecting or- 
 ganic remains, that it became extinct before the Products ; and we 
 
 * Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, p. 455. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 109 
 
 are almost certain it ceased to exist long before the Spirifers ; for 
 neither in the muschelkalk nor in the lias has the smallest trace of 
 them ever been detected. 
 
 " Unlike the Trilobites, the Crinoidea common in this early period 
 are continued up to the present day, though the genera observed in 
 the grauwacke series and in the carboniferous group seem to have 
 disappeared previously to the deposit of the oolitic series, when 
 other genera were called into existence, one of which, Pentacrinites, 
 is discovered in the present seas 
 
 " Among the corals will be found several genera now existing ; 
 and it deserves notice that throughout the series of fossiliferous rock, 
 wherever there is an accumulation of polypifers, such as would justify 
 the supposition of coral banks or reefs, the genera Astrea and Cary- 
 ophyllia are present, genera which, according to the more recent ob- 
 servations of naturalists, in addition to Meandrina, and one or two 
 others, are the principal architects of coral reefs at the present day."* 
 
 Professor Jameson, in his Illustrations of the Cuvierian 
 Theory of the Earth, when treating of Werner's views of the 
 natural history of petrefactions, mentions that 
 
 " He (Werner) first made the highly important observation, that 
 different formations can be discriminated by the petrefactions they 
 contain. It was during the course of his geognostical investigations 
 that he ascertained the general distribution of organic remains in the 
 crust of the earth. He found that petrefactions appear first in tran- 
 sition rocks. These are but few in number, and of animals of the 
 Zoophytic or testaceous classes. In the older floetz rocks they are 
 of more perfect species, as of fish and amphibious animals ; and in 
 the newest floetz and alluvial rocks, of birds and quadrupeds, or 
 
 animals of the most perfect kind He also was led to 
 
 believe, from his numerous observations, that sea plants were of 
 more ancient origin than land plants. A careful study of the genera 
 and species of petrefactions disclosed to him another important fact, 
 viz., that the petrefactions contained in the oldest rocks are very 
 different from any of the species of the present time ; that the newer 
 the formation the more do the remains approach in form to the 
 organic beings of the present creation ; and that, in the very newest 
 formations, fossil remains of the present existing species occur. He 
 
 * Manual of Geology, pp. 469 471. 
 
110 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 also ascertained that the petrefactions in the oldest rocks are much 
 more mineralised than those in the newer rocks, and that in the 
 newest rocks they are merely bleached or calcined."* 
 
 "It was remarked," says M. Alex. Brougniart, "more than a 
 hundred years ago, that there almost always occurred differences 
 between the shell fish and other animals which at present live in the 
 seas and on the surface of the earth, and those which occur in a 
 fossil state in all countries. This first view has been confirmed by 
 a more detailed examination, and has by degrees led to another, 
 which maintains that the deposits of organic remains buried in the 
 crust of the earth are arranged, as it were, by successive generations, 
 in such a manner that all the remains of any one deposit have a par- 
 ticular sum of resemblance to one another, and a general sum of 
 difference with the deposits above and below it. It has also been 
 thought, that this last sum becomes so much the higher, or the 
 difference so much the greater, in proportion as the deposits are more 
 distinct or more removed from one another in a vertical direction. 
 This rule, which was at first cautiously assumed, and only for certain 
 localities, has been found applicable to almost all the places observed 
 in the different parts of the globe, and to all the remains of organ- 
 ized bodies buried in its beds, whether they belong to the class of 
 animals or to that of vegetables. The exceptions which appeared to 
 present themselves have either vanished under a more scrupulous ex- 
 amination, or have been explained by the discovery of particular 
 circumstances which have given rise to them. Thus, in reducing 
 this rule to the general exposition which we have made, it does not 
 appear liable to any real objection, and all geologists are now agreed 
 in thinking that the generations of organised bodies which have suc- 
 cessively inhabited the surface of the earth, differ from the present 
 generation in proportion as the debris are further removed from the 
 surface of the earth, or, which nearly comes to the same thing, in 
 proportion as the periods at which they have lived are more remote 
 from the present time. It follows from the same rule, that this dis- 
 tinct succession of generations would present itself only in the struc- 
 ture of the crust of the globe. It would also of itself be sufficient 
 to establish the fact, as has been remarked by M. Cuvier, that this 
 crust has not been formed by a single operation. But this character 
 of succession in the formation of the beds of the earth is frequently 
 
 * Jameson's Illustrations of Cuvier's Theory of the Earth, pp. 33fi 338. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. Ill 
 
 associated with other very remarkable differences, such as the nature 
 of rocks, their structure in the great scale, their known order of 
 superposition, the minerals which accompany them, &c. &c. Now 
 these mineralogical circumstances are almost always found in agree- 
 ment with the characters which are taken from the general re- 
 semblance of organised bodies in deposits, considered as of the same 
 formation from their geognostical characters ; and they are also pretty 
 constantly found in agreement with their difference in the opposite 
 case."* 
 
 "Geologists have begun, of late years," says another writer, "to 
 survey the structure of the earth in more minute and patient detail 
 than their predecessors ; to compare, by map and section, its most 
 interesting provinces ; to contemplate the individual facts directly, 
 and not through the dark and distorting medium of a master's cos- 
 mogany ; and to examine, with zoological skill, the organic inscrip- 
 tions of its different strata. In thus studying to decypher the volume 
 of its shelly records, they have explored many mysteries, inscrutable 
 
 by Werner, Hutton, and others of their schools In this 
 
 new field of knowledge, the English nation stands pre-eminent ; 
 against no mean rivalry, however, of the naturalists of France. Emu- 
 lation has here produced the happiest effects ; for while the mineral 
 superpositions of England have received admirable illustration from 
 the sagacity of Smith, Greenough, McCulloch, Conybeare, Phillips, 
 Buckland, De la Beche, Webster, Weaver, Winch, and several other 
 members of the London Society ; Brougniart, and Von Buch, have 
 revealed many wonders in French, Swiss, and Italian geology, and 
 the two Cuviers, Blainville, Lamarck, and Defranee have thrown 
 surprising light on the zoology of fossils. By directing his profound 
 knowledge of comparative anatomy, to antediluvian osteology, Sir 
 Everard Home has gathered fresh laurels ; nor have the German and 
 Italian mineralogists been forgetful of their fame in this difficult 
 career. The joint labours of all these philosophers have been em- 
 bodied by a master's hand, along with his own unrivalled studies in 
 the Ossemens Fossiles of Baron Cuvier ; a magnificient production of 
 which, it is difficult to say, whether the science, eloquence, or can- 
 dour, be most worthy of admiration. 
 
 " By such conspiring researches, an interesting gradation has been 
 
 * Art. II. On fossil organic remains as a geognostic character, by Alexander 
 Brougniart, Member of the Institute of France, &c. &c. in No. xvi. of Edin. Phil. 
 Journal, pp. 22f 228. 
 
112 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 traced in the species of organic exuviae distributed throughout the 
 secondary strata, in their order of superposition. Each successive 
 mineral bed is the sepulchre of a peculiar colony of shell fish. 
 These relics of life have thus acquired singular importance. They 
 furnish stereotype pages, so to speak, by which the corresponding 
 or equivalent geological formations may be read and recognised in 
 every terrestrial zone, however interrupted the mineral planes may 
 be by ravines, mountains, or seas."* 
 
 Baron Humboldt states that, 
 
 " Nearly at the same period Nicholas Stenon first distinguished, 
 ' the primitive rocks anterior to the existence of plants and animals 
 on the globe, and consequently never containing any organic re- 
 mains, from the secondary rocks superimposed on the former and 
 filled with animal remains.' 
 
 " M. Brougniart (whose labours joined to those of MM. La- 
 marck, Defrance, Beudant, Desmarest, Prevost, Fernssac, Schlotheim, 
 Wahlenberg, Buckland, Webster, Phillips, Greenough, Warburton, 
 Sowerby, Brocchi, Soldani, Cortesi, and other celebrated mineralo- 
 gists have so much advanced the study of subterraneous conchology\ 
 has recently pointed out the striking analogies which fossil bodies 
 present in certain formations of Europe and North America 
 
 "Among the zoological characters applied to geognosy, the absence 
 of some fossils often characterises formations better than their pre- 
 sence. This is the case with the transition rocks ; we find, in 
 general, only madrepores, encrimites, trilobites, orthoceratites, and 
 shells of the family of terebratulae ; that is to say, fossils, of which 
 some species not identical, though analogous, are found in very 
 modern secondary beds, but in these transition rocks many other 
 remains of organised bodies are wanting, which appear in abundance 
 above the red sandstone. "-f 
 
 The following concise but concurring extracts deserve atten- 
 tion, not only on account of the diligence displayed by their 
 author, but likewise from the recentness of his work, which 
 warrants the assumption of the latest discoveries being referred 
 to in it : 
 
 * A New System of Geology, by Dr. Ure, pp. 47, 48. 
 
 f Geognostical Essay on the Superposition of Rocks, by Alex, de Humboldt. 
 pp. 48, 57, 58. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 113 
 
 " The first thing that strikes a geological naturalist," says Mr. 
 Ansted, "in looking over the numerous fossils from the silurian 
 rocks is the apparent want of fishes, and, indeed, of all vertebrated 
 animals. Abundant proof is afforded that these rocks were formed 
 at the bottom of water : some in shallow parts ; others in the deepest 
 recesses of the ocean, but nowhere throughout their wide spread in 
 all parts of the world, have they yet yielded the smallest fragment 
 that could be referred to a fish. It is, therefore, pretty clear, either 
 that fishes had not been created, or that the conditions for their de- 
 velopment were so unfavourable that they were extremely rare 
 
 Until the termination of the first great epoch, the silurian, there seem 
 indeed only to have been introduced successive modifications and 
 additional species of the Invertebrated type, and not until its close 
 did the fishes appear, as if preparing the way for the next period 
 marked by the prevalence of these more highly organised beings. . . 
 
 It is important to remember, however, that almost all the 
 
 great natural divisions of the Invertebrata began at once and to- 
 gether to perform their work on earth There is no appear- 
 ance of any regular order of succession. ..... They seem to have 
 
 been truly contemporaneous, and doubtless were introduced as the 
 group best fitted to perform the functions of their existence."* 
 
 The following extract from the address at the opening of 
 the Southampton meeting, by Sir R. J. Murchison, the Presi- 
 dent, so eloquent and conclusive in itself, bears so directly on 
 the point we seek to establish, that we gladly introduce it 
 amongst the others : 
 
 " When our associate, Conybeare, reported to us at our second 
 meeting, on the actual state and ulterior prospects of what he well 
 termed the ' archaeology of the globe,' he dwelt with justice on the 
 numerous researches in different countries which had clearly esta- 
 blished the history of a descent as it were into the bowels of the 
 earth which led us, in a word, downwards through those newer 
 deposits that connect high antiquity with our own period, into those 
 strata which support our great British coal-fields. Beyond this, 
 however, the perspective was dark and doubtful 
 
 Res alta terr& et caligine mersas. 
 Now, however, we have dispersed this gloom ; and by researches, 
 
 * Ancient World, by Ansted, London, 1847, pp. 25, 47 31, 395, 396. 
 
 I 
 
114 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 first carried out to a distinct classification in the British Isles, and 
 thence extended to Russia and America, geologists have shown that 
 the records of succession, as indicated by the entombment of fossil 
 animals, are as well developed in these very ancient or palaeozoic 
 strata as in any of the overlying or more recently formed deposits. 
 After toiling many years in this department of the science, in con- 
 junction with Sedgwick, Lonsdale, De Verneuil, Keyserling, and 
 others of my fellow-labourers, I have arrived at the conclusion, that 
 we have reached the very genesis of animal life upon the globe, and 
 that no further ' vestigia retrorsum' will be found, beneath the pro- 
 tozoic or lower silurian group in the great inferior mass of which 
 no vertebrated animal has yet been detected, amidst the countless 
 profusion of the lower orders of marine animals entombed in it." 
 
 We should scarcely be doing justice to our subject were we 
 to close the evidence for this part without giving the following 
 graphic attestation by an indefatigable and intelligent contem- 
 porary : 
 
 " The fact seems especially worthy of remark," says Mr. Miller, 
 " that the organisms of some of the newer formations differ entirely in 
 widely-separated localities from their contemporary organisms, just 
 as, in the existing state of things, the plants and animals of Great 
 Britain differ from the plants and animals of Lapland or of Sierra 
 Leone. A geologist who has acquainted himself with the belemnites, 
 baculites, turrilites, and sea urchins of the cretaceous group in Eng- 
 land and the north of France, would discover that he had got into an 
 entirely new field among the hippurites, sphaerulites, and mummu- 
 lites of the same formations in Greece, Italy, and Spain ; nor, in 
 passing to the tertiary deposits would he find less striking dissimila- 
 rities between the gigantic mail-clad megaletherium and huge mas- 
 todon of the Ohio and the La Plate, and the monsters, their contem- 
 poraries, the hairy mammoth of Siberia, and the hippopotamus and 
 rhinoceros of England and the continent. In the more ancient geo- 
 logical periods, ere the seasons began, the case is essentially different ; 
 the contemporary formations when widely separated are often very 
 unlike in mineralogical character, but in their fossil contents they 
 are almost always identical. In these earlier ages the atmospheric 
 temperature seems to have depended more on the internal heat of 
 the earth, only partially cooled down from its original state, than on 
 the earth's configuration, or the influence of the sun. 
 
 " Hence a widely-spread equality of climate, a green-house equali- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 115 
 
 zation of heat, if I may so speak ; and hence, too, it would seem 
 a widely-spread fauna and the same tribes of animals seem to have 
 ranged over spaces immensely more extended than those geogra- 
 phical circles, in which, in the present time, the same animals are 
 found native. 
 
 " The fossil remains of the true coal measures are the same to the 
 westward of the Alleghany mountains as in New Holland, India, 
 Southern Africa, the neighbourhood of Newcastle, and the vicinity 
 of Edinburgh. 
 
 "And I entertain little doubt that, on a similar principle, the still 
 more ancient organisms of the Old Red Sandstone will be found to 
 bear the same character all over the world."* 
 
 The following remarkable and corroborative announcement 
 with which Dr. Fleming concludes some lengthened expositions 
 respecting the succession of animal life through several distinct 
 geological epochs will, we are assured, be perused with much 
 interest, and be relied upon as the sincere convictions of a 
 theologian and naturalist, on whom we have already drawn 
 largely for information, and who, while he dedicates the leisure 
 moments allowed him from his pastoral duties to the advance- 
 ment of science, inculcates sound religious doctrines into the 
 minds of his people :-j~ 
 
 " It may be supposed by some that the preceding statements 
 are at variance with the generally received interpretation of the ac- 
 count of the Creation as given by MOSES Four successive creations 
 and extinctions of animals and vegetables are here represented as 
 having taken place previously to the existing order of things, and it is 
 assumed that the present races of animals and vegetables, the com- 
 panions of Man, did not exist on the globe during any of the ante- 
 cedent epochs. But the most sincere friend of Revelation need be 
 under no alarm, even should he be anxious to establish the authority 
 of the Bible over a wider field than the Moral History of our race. 
 
 " If the sacred Historian be considered as referring to the earlier 
 eras in the commencement of his narrative only, ' In the beginning 
 God created the heaven and the earth,' and to have contemplated, 
 
 * Old Red Sandstone, 3rd edition, pp. 197, 198. 
 
 t Dr. Fleming is now Professor of Natural History in the Free Church Col- 
 lege at Edinburgh. 
 
 I t 
 
116 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 in what follows, the creation of the animals and vegetables of the 
 Modern Epoch, it will be found that the deductions of science, and 
 the records of inspiration harmonize, as the Word and Works of God 
 must do, if rightly interpreted. The question, indeed, lies within 
 very narrow bounds. Are the zoological and geological epochs esta- 
 blished as true in science ? If those who are qualified to judge shall 
 pronounce in the affirmative, then must every interpretation of that 
 brief portion of the sacred page inconsistent therewith be rejected 
 as spurious, and the advocates of error consigned to occupy a page 
 in the History of Prejudice along with the persecutors of Galileo."* 
 
 The following extracts, with which we shall conclude this 
 branch of philosophical evidence, are from Mr. Lyell's Prin- 
 ciples of Geology : 
 
 " The French naturalists showed that the specific characters of 
 fossil shells and vertebrated animals might be determined with the 
 utmost precision, and by their exertions a greater degree of accuracy 
 was introduced into this department of science. It was found that, 
 by the careful discrimination of the fossil contents of strata, the con- 
 temporary origin of different groups could often be established, even 
 where all identity of mineralogical character was wanting, and where 
 
 no light could be derived from the order of superposition 
 
 A close comparison of the recent and fossil species, and the inferences 
 drawn in regard to their habits, accustomed the geologist to contem- 
 plate the earth as having been, at successive periods, the dwelling- 
 place of animals and plants of different races By the 
 
 consideration of these topics the mind was slowly and insensibly 
 withdrawn from imaginary pictures of catastrophies and chaotic con- 
 fusion, such as haunted the imagination of the early cosmogonists, 
 and numerous proofs were discovered of the tranquil deposition of 
 sedementary matter, and the slow development of organic life.""}- 
 
 " Brocchi has remarked, when hazarding some interest- 
 ing conjectures respecting the * loss of species,' that a modern na- 
 turalist had no small assurance, who declared ' that individuals alone 
 were capable of destruction, and that species were so perpetuated 
 that nature could not annihilate them, so long as the planet lasted, 
 or, at least, that nothing less than the shock of a comet, or some 
 
 * History of British Animals, by J. Fleming, D.D., &c., Minister of Flisk, 
 pp. 1618. 
 
 t Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 82. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 117 
 
 similar disaster could put an end to their existence.'* The Italian 
 geologist, on the contrary, had satisfied himself that many species of 
 testacea, which formerly inhahited the Mediterranean, had become 
 extinct, although a great number of others, which had been the con- 
 temporaries of these lost races, still survived. He came to the opi- 
 nion that about half the species which peopled the waters when the 
 Sub- Appenine strata were deposited, had gone out of existence ; and 
 in this inference he does not appear to have been far wrong. -f 
 
 " In reference to the organic remains of the different groups which 
 we have named, we may say that about a thirtieth part of the Eocene 
 shells are of recent species, about one-fifth of the Miocene, more 
 than a third, and often more than a half of the older Pliocene, and 
 9-10ths of the newer Pliocene. "J 
 
 " No geologists," says the same accomplished writer, " who are in 
 possession of all the data now established respecting fossil remains, 
 will, for a moment, contend for the doctrine of successive develop- 
 ment of animal and vegetable life, and their progressive advance- 
 ment to a more perfect state, in all its detail, as laid down by 
 Sir H. Davy. But naturalists not unacquainted with recent dis- 
 coveries, continue to defend the ancient doctrine in a somewhat 
 modified form. They say that in the first period of the world (by 
 which they mean the earliest of which we yet have procured any 
 memorials), the vegetation consisted almost entirely of cryptogamic 
 plants, while the animals which co-existed were almost entirely con- 
 fined to zoophytes, testacea, and a few fish. Plants of a less simple 
 structure succeeded in the next epoch, when oviparous reptiles began 
 also to abound. Lastly, the terrestrial flora became most diversified 
 and most perfect when the highest orders of animals, the mammifera 
 and birds were called into existence. " 
 
 By those full, impartial, and concurring evidences, it will 
 have been sufficiently seen, as stated in a propositional form 
 in the hundred and thirty-third Theorem, that several extinct 
 families of testaceous and zoophytic animals have, by their 
 petrified remains, been discovered by geologists to have become 
 extinct; not in one formation only, but in a succession of 
 
 * Necker, Phytozool. Philosoph. p. 21. Brocchi, Conch. Foss. Subap. tome i. 
 p. 229. 
 
 t Principles of Geology, vol. ii. p. 133. 
 
 J Ibid. vol. iii. p. 59. Ibid, vol. i. p. 168. 
 
118 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 geological formations ; not in one part alone of the surface of 
 our planet, but in groups over its whole extent. 
 
 It may have occurred to some that we have been too elabo- 
 rate in the evidences we have given of facts so well authen- 
 ticated ; but we have to remind them that the general position 
 we have now taken up of the primitive animal life having 
 been restricted to beings which were indifferent to light and 
 atmospheric air, and either incapable, or almost incapable, of 
 locomotion occupies rather a prominent part in the ground- 
 work of our future reasoning, and, for the same cause, requires 
 to be fully proven and well-secured. We, therefore, repeat 
 the assertion, that throughout a succession of geological epochs, 
 several numerous families of testacea and zoophyta have be- 
 come extinct; and that this is found to be the case wherever 
 the earth's surface has been adequately examined. 
 
 In continuation we shall recapitulate the hundred and thirty- 
 fifth Theorem, that tvhen the AUTHOR OF NATURE creates 
 an animal or plant, all the possible circumstances in ivhich its 
 descendants are destined to live are foreseen, and a corres- 
 ponding organization is conferred upon it to enable the species 
 to perpetuate itself as long as is consistent with If is omniscient 
 purposes, under all the circumstances to which it will inevitably 
 be exposed. 
 
 From such a self-evident proposition it is presumed that no 
 one will be disposed to dissent. The admission of power and 
 disposition to create, must be allowed to involve the power and 
 the will to have over-ruled all concomitant circumstances, as 
 far as was consistent with the general plan of creation. 
 
 Our conviction of the truthfulness of those two bodies of 
 evidence derived from distinct sources, added to the particular 
 character of that which has reference to the fact of the testacea 
 and zoophyta having, by families and by epochs, become ex- 
 tinct, places us in rather a rigid dilemma. On the one hand, 
 we cannot doubt the validity of their having become extinct ; 
 on the other, we cannot abate in any manner our dependence 
 on the power and the care of a superintending Providence. 
 To unravel the difficulty and to reconcile those points, while, 
 at the same time, we bring out of the whole a corroboration of 
 our assumption of the degrees of immovability of the creatures 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 119 
 
 which then encrusted the solid parts at the bottom of the pri- 
 mitive waters, will be the chief design of what we are now 
 about to bring forward. 
 
 Satisfactorily to account for the extinction of those mollusca 
 and zoophyta at several epochs and over the surface of this 
 planet, we shall be under the necessity of adopting one of the 
 two following inferences which alike presume the direct in- 
 terference of the Deity, namely, either that they were en- 
 tombed by a succession of vast and general revolutions of the 
 earth's stratified surface, extending simultaneously over the 
 whole circuit of the globe, and so completely extirpating seve- 
 ral races of its living inhabitants, that not one escaped whereby 
 its species might have been perpetuated ; or, that it was merely 
 a development of the plan of creation in Providence, which 
 brought about their extinction, when they had performed the 
 object of their being, by exhausting the waters of those peculiar 
 elements on which they could alone subsist. 
 
 The former of these assumptions involves very many impro- 
 babilities, is at variance with the conclusions which are derived 
 from the facts established by geologists, and is inconsistent 
 with other general and prevailing laws of materialism ; besides 
 which, it is wholly incompatible with the principles of this 
 theory (as we shall have occasion to prove in the sequel), to 
 suppose that any such general and overwhelming revolution, 
 or even any partial disturbance of the stratified envelopes of 
 our sphere, ever took place, until, by the introduction of Light 
 into the material universe, the earth was caused to rotate 
 around its axis, and to occasion one mighty revolution amongst 
 all the masses, which for ages previously had been accumu- 
 lating in tranquillity at the bottom of its dark and atmosphere- 
 less circumfluent waters ; and which, consequently, took place 
 at a period long subsequent to that in which the animated im- 
 movable beings we are now treating of had ceased to live, and 
 had been profoundly entombed beneath the successive deposi- 
 tions of strata from the associated elements of the primitive 
 ocean. 
 
 The rejection, therefore, of that alternative reduces us to 
 the necessity of adopting the other ; and while we fully accord 
 with the sentiments expressed in the hundred and thirty-fifth 
 
120 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Theorem, we feel assured, in the words of an eminent geologist, 
 that '* whatever the kind of animal life may have been which 
 first appeared on the surface of our planet, we may be certain 
 that is was consistent with the wisdom and the design which 
 has always prevailed throughout nature, and that each creature 
 was peculiarly adapted to that situation destined to be occu- 
 pied by it."* At the same time, we feel as fully convinced 
 that several tribes and families of animals of the lower orders 
 have become altogether extinct. Their solid remains disco- 
 vered in the strata sufficiently attest the fact. 
 
 But we have already seen in a former part of this chapter, 
 " that the slightest trace of organization discoverable in any 
 natural body, is a complete proof that life is, or at least once 
 was, present in that body ;" and, in continuation, that one of 
 the necessary conditions of a living being is "that of generation, 
 by which they continue the form of their species," and that 
 " fixed forms, transmitted by generation, distinguish each spe- 
 cies, determine the arrangement of the secondary functions 
 assigned to each, and point out the part they are destined to 
 perform on the great stage of the universe. That organized 
 forms can neither produce themselves nor change their cha- 
 racter. Life is never found separated from organization ; and 
 whenever the vital spark bursts into a flame, its progress is 
 attended by a beautifully organized body."-f 
 
 Now, we have undeniable proof, by means of fossil remains, 
 that organization, and consequently the living principle, once 
 existed ; and, if the living principle, then the necessary con- 
 ditions of life ; and, if the necessary conditions of life, then 
 the power, by generation, of transmitting the form of their 
 species ; arid, if the form, then the arrangement of the secondary 
 functions assigned to each, and the part they are destined to 
 perform on the great stage of the universe. 
 
 Recurring, however, to what has been established by the 
 unanimous conclusions of geologists and comparative anato- 
 mists, that, although endowed with all those requisites, nume- 
 
 * De la Beche's Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, p. 476. 
 t For a corroboration of this definition see Messrs. Todd and Bowman on 
 the Physiology and Anatomy of Man, vol. i. p. 10, et seq. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 121 
 
 rous families of the lower class of animated beings have ceased 
 to exist, are no longer found holding a place amongst the in- 
 numerable living forms which inhabit the surface of the earth, 
 we take up these and ask, how can they be applied so as to 
 prove that they were indifferent to light and atmospheric air, 
 and, consequently, were not possessed of the faculty of free 
 locomotion ? 
 
 It has been asserted on the authority of those who have de- 
 dicated their attention to the subject, and we cordially sub- 
 scribe to their assertions, " that there could be no organic 
 change wrought in the animal by its own agency ; that fixed 
 forms transmitted by generation distinguish their species, and 
 determine the arrangement of the secondary functions assigned 
 to each." This, then, precludes the possibility of change in 
 the conformation of animal form itself, and guards, at the same 
 time, against the error of supposing that any transmutation 
 took place from form to form. It also proves that had the 
 attendant circumstances remained unaltered, the existing ani- 
 mals must have continued to have lived, and to have transmit- 
 ted their forms to their succeeding generations. But they did 
 not do so, therefore there must have been a change, and such a 
 change in the surrounding medium from whence they drew 
 their subsistence as to occasion their gradual decrease, and 
 ultimately, to cause their utter extinction. 
 
 One of the fundamental principles of this theory is, that 
 the introduction of animal life into the world during the non- 
 rotatory period, was with the design of interposing animal vi- 
 tality and secretion between the solid materials and the liquid 
 waters; to disturb the chemical equilibrium to which the 
 primitive fluid was ever prone to revert ; to abstract certain 
 earthy and acidulous elements held by it in combination, as 
 shall be more fully shown in the sequel of this treatise ; and 
 to transform these ingredients into animal bodies and testa- 
 ceous and zoophytic coverings, the direct tendency of which 
 was to effect a change in the constituent elements of the primi- 
 tive ocean. It must also be observed that, owing to the pecu- 
 liarity of the concomitant circumstances, the ocean could not 
 be replenished with the materials which were thus being ab- 
 sorbed from it, which were taken away once for all and trans- 
 
122 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 formed at its base into other distinct substances, and thus they 
 became fixed and stored up for the future designs of the pro- 
 vident Creator. 
 
 Any change once begun under such circumstances as are 
 here alluded to, namely a living active agency operating 
 upon an unrenewable amount of material could tend alone 
 but to one result: an exhaustion of the material on which the 
 animal subsisted; and consequent thereon, an extinction of the 
 animal itself. 
 
 Another fundamental principle of this theory is, that neither 
 the successive stratiform beds of rock deposited at the bottom 
 of the primitive ocean nor the ocean itself were in a state of 
 readiness to be transformed into their present condition until 
 immediately before the first rotation of the earth ; consequently 
 a succession of distinct vegetable and animal forms would be 
 indispensable to bring both to that degree of perfection. As 
 one race of the latter exhausted its peculiar food and became 
 extinct, another race would require to be willed into existence 
 to occupy its place and to continue the labour of assimilation, 
 purification, and solidification. If any races were so consti- 
 tuted as to subsist on that which remained in the waters during 
 the whole protracted time from the beginning until the period 
 of rotation (and we know that many elements did so remain), 
 these races would exist through all the vicissitudes which 
 necessarily extirpated others of more restricted assimilation. 
 
 While with reference to the employment of animal and vege- 
 table agency for the purpose of simultaneously preparing the 
 ocean and the earth's mineral crust, we may observe, that 
 during the period in question and in an element such as water, 
 which admits of its associated ingredients on their equilibrium 
 being disturbed so easily to obey the laws of gravity and to 
 take a downward tendency, the bottom of the ocean was, of 
 all others, the most suitable position for the colocation of the 
 multitudinous artificers which it had pleased the Creator then 
 to employ. It was also the most benign, for the lowest 
 stratum of water would be that in which the last particle of 
 sustenance would be found by them. To have conferred the 
 power of their going elsewhere in quest of what could not have 
 been found, would, on the other hand, have been inconsistent 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 123 
 
 with our ideas of the Creator's goodness ; while it would have 
 been positively inimical to His future plans, as we shall here- 
 after make manifest. 
 
 When we come, in regular sequence, to treat of the fossil 
 vegetable remains of the era to which we now allude, it will 
 be shown that there was a succession, likewise, of distinct fami- 
 lies of plants. That the epochs of their existence are clearly 
 demonstrated by their fossil remains which are discovered in the 
 strata. That by this undoubted test it is known that in many 
 instances they grew coevally with the existence of certain mol- 
 luscous and zoophytic animals, likewise now extinct. That 
 the greater part being furnished with roots, they must have been 
 attached to the bottom, consequently, were fixed during the 
 whole period of their existence to the spot where they once 
 took root. From all these considerations we cannot recognize 
 any reason why we should admit the fixity of the plants, and 
 doubt or deny the degrees of immovability which we contend 
 for in the other ; and the more so, as the absence in the ani- 
 mals of the usual organs necessary for locomotion is as direct 
 a corroboration, though negatively so, in their case, as the posi- 
 tive proof of roots is in the case of plants. Fixity is the general 
 law governing the latter ; hence the presence of organs adapted 
 thereto is sufficient to complete the identity. Motion, on the 
 other hand, is the general law of animal life ; therefore the 
 absence of organs fitted to effect this must be admitted as a 
 proof, equally valid, of their incapacity to fulfil the require- 
 ments of their general law of being. 
 
 It has been asserted, " that all the fixed animals of the pre- 
 sent day are inhabitants of the water, whose fluctuations bring 
 food within their reach :"* and, although this is very different 
 from maintaining what the direct line of our argument would 
 demand, that all animals which depend for food on the sur- 
 rounding element must, necessarily, be fixed, yet, we feel as- 
 sured, there is a sufficiency of presumptive proof scattered 
 throughout the writings of geologists who have given the sub- 
 ject their earnest attention, to show that the extinct mollus- 
 cous and zoophytic creatures which inhabited the profundity 
 
 * Dr. Fleming's British Animals. 
 
124 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 of the primeval waters, were either fixed, or had not the fa- 
 culty in its usual general acceptation of locomotion. How, 
 otherwise, could such passages as the following be found in 
 their pages ? 
 
 " From our present information respecting organic remains, we 
 may venture to infer that Trilobites became extinct before the Pro- 
 ducts. We are nearly certain they ceased to exist before the Spi- 
 rifers ; for, neither in the Muschelkalk, nor in the Lias has the 
 smallest trace of them ever been detected It is a remark- 
 able circumstance connected with the coal measures of the south of 
 
 England, that marine remains have not been detected in them 
 
 Which seems to show that there was something which prevented the 
 presence of marine animals a circumstance the more remarkable as 
 we have seen that such animals abounded almost everywhere during 
 the formation of the Carboniferous limestone."* 
 
 " All geologists are now agreed in thinking that the generation of 
 organized bodies which have successively inhabited the earth, differ 
 from the present generation in proportion as their debris are further 
 removed from the surface ; or, as the period of their existence is re- 
 mote from the present time."f 
 
 " These records of a former state of nature afford a sort of rude 
 chronology, by whose aid the successive depositions of strata may 
 
 be marked out, each characterized by some peculiarity 
 
 which enables us to recognize the deposits of any period in whatever 
 
 part of the world they are found ; the order of succession 
 
 appearing to have been the same in any part of the globe." J 
 
 " The animal remains in the most ancient series of European sedi- 
 mentary rocks, from the Grauwacke to the coal inclusive, consists 
 
 chiefly of corals and testacea The number of organic 
 
 forms which have disappeared from the oldest strata may be con- 
 jectured from the fact, that their former existence is, in many cases, 
 revealed to us merely by the unequal weathering of an exposed face 
 of rock, by which certain parts are made to stand out in relief. 
 
 " Out of 1,122 species of fossil testacea obtained from the Paris 
 
 basin, 38 only can be identified with the species now living 
 
 Some of these thirty-eight species have a wide geographical range, 
 
 * De la Beche, pp. 470, 430. f Alex. Brougniart. J Sir J. Herschel. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 125 
 
 when found recent ; and are, therefore, fitted to exist under a variety 
 of circumstances."* 
 
 And, lastly, we find the following passages in a recent 
 work : 
 
 "A very superficial glance at general natural history will show 
 that, however great the difference may be between the groups cha- 
 racteristic of any two geological periods at the same spot, a difference 
 therefore corresponding to a lapse of time, the distinction is equally 
 marked at the present day, in living groups with respect to space. . . 
 
 " There is hardly any fact in natural history more distinctly the 
 result of observation, or more valuable as suggesting a great law of 
 nature, than the strictly co-ordinate relation which space and time bear 
 
 to the development of organic existences Their range in a 
 
 fossil state was as considerable in a vertical direction as it is now 
 horizontally with regard to the recent species. "-f- 
 
 All of which passages and many others of a similar bearing 
 which might be collated from the writings of geologists go to 
 infer the restricted locality of the numerous races which are 
 thus shown to have become extinct. 
 
 For, even were we to relax our confidence in the wisdom 
 and benignity of the Creator, and suppose that having willed 
 those animal forms into existence, for the purpose of purify- 
 ing the waters, draining them of certain ingredients, and lock- 
 ing up those, otherwise noxious, materials in a solid, insoluble 
 form, at the bottom of the ocean ; while they at the same time 
 contributed layer by layer to the outer crust of the Earth 
 HE endowed them with faculties of locomotion, not only to 
 impede the accomplishment of His own plans of infinite wis- 
 dom, by rendering uncertain the accumulation of their remains 
 in any given locality, but to admit of their going in search of 
 what the waters (by animal action and secretion) had been in- 
 capable of supplying ! we repeat, that were we even capable 
 of adopting so improper a view as this would infer, we still 
 would have to explain why, both in form and in the massive- 
 ness of their outward coverings, they were creatures apparently 
 
 * Lyell's Principles of Geology. 
 
 t Ancient World, by Ansted, pp. 381 387. 
 
126 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 so ill adapted for locomotion, and how it could possibly happen, 
 that throughout a width of surface, such as that occupied by the 
 "coal measures of the south of England, no marine remains 
 should ever have been detected,"* unless what we are so anxious 
 to establish be conceded, namely, that animal life, which we 
 know existed coevally, was restricted to forms which were 
 either altogether deprived of the power of locomotion, or en- 
 dowed with it in a very limited degree. 
 
 Thus, it would appear, that all the evidences, direct as well 
 as presumptive, tend to prove this leading peculiarity with re- 
 spect to the animal inhabitants of the waters which surrounded 
 the globe during the period of non-rotation, while as yet there 
 was no atmosphere, and " darkness was upon the face of the 
 deep." In the sequel of this section we shall endeavour to 
 show, the perfect adaptation of creatures such as testacea and 
 zoophyta, for performing what was then in progress of execu- 
 tion and at the same time we shall point out the incapability 
 of forms possessing locomotion, in the plenary sense of the 
 term either to have performed that work, or to have existed 
 in the then condition of the world. 
 
 Meantime, perhaps, the strongest light in which the ques- 
 tion can be put after what has been adduced would be to 
 imagine the difficulty attendant on any attempt to wrest the 
 mass of evidence, which can be collected on the subject, so as 
 to sustain the opposite position ; to endeavour to prove, that 
 the animals of the primitive ocean were possessed of the 
 faculty of moving themselves, at will, from place to place ; and 
 that, too, when from the concomitant circumstances of the 
 period alluded to, every part of the circumfluent ocean must 
 have been as nearly as possible alike. 
 
 Before leaving this part of our subject, we would take occa- 
 sion to point out with precision, that what has been said has 
 had no reference whatever to the fossil remains of those ex- 
 tinct monstrous animals which have been discovered in the 
 tertiary and other recent strata. They, too, have been ex- 
 tirpated by a fiat of the Omnipotent, but which originated, we 
 firmly believe and hope, hereafter, satisfactorily to prove, from 
 a very different cause. 
 
 De la Beche, 2nd edition, p. 439. 
 
SECTION II. 
 
 THE ANIMAL EXISTENCES OF THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Review of the progress made in the previous Chapter. Followed up by exhi- 
 biting the description of Fossil Animal Remains which have been disco- 
 vered in the older formations. Consolidated Lists of their Exuviae from 
 the Chalk downwards. General Notices respecting the same. The whole 
 compared with the Animal Remains which, by dependance on Scripture, 
 might have been expected to have been disembedded from the older strata, 
 and found substantially, and with few exceptions, to correspond. Some 
 Explanations respecting the points of disagreement. Remains of Verte- 
 brate Animals discovered in localities supposed to belong to the formations 
 of the Anti-rotatory Period. 
 
 WE have thus, step by step, and by the most careful investi- 
 gation, reached another resting-place on our onward and up- 
 ward course. At the previous stage we became acquainted 
 with the necessary conditions of animal life, and wherein it 
 differs from mere vegetable existence. 
 
 We are now assured by the concurring testimony of some of 
 the most accomplished naturalists of the age, that several ex- 
 tensive and numerous sections of the animal kingdom are en- 
 tirely destitute of the faculty of locomotion, and others of it, in 
 its plenary signification ; and consequently all alike independent 
 of atmospheric air. In very many and very important instances 
 this fact is spontaneously and directly asserted. In other cases 
 it is as conclusively inferred ; while, with respect to those ex- 
 tinct races where no direct proof can be adduced on either side, 
 all the attendant circumstances of the several instances, and 
 
128 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 the reasoning founded on them, concur in evidencing that they, 
 too, pertain to that great division of animals which live, but 
 do not freely move : completing, as we presume, by those con- 
 curring testimonies, the proofs in favour of the concluding part 
 of the hundred and thirty-first Theorem : " although it is ex- 
 tremely difficult to draw the line with perfect precision which 
 separates the beings possessed of locomotion from those which 
 are fixed, yet, such a distinction does actually exist, and is, 
 therefore, capable of being delineated." 
 
 Were we seeking to establish the mere fact of the existence 
 of animal forms destitute of the power of voluntary motion, we 
 should here rest satisfied, and consider we had accomplished 
 what we desired to do; but, when it is considered how 
 studiously the whole division of creatures so constituted seem 
 to have been excluded from the command, which, on the fifth 
 day of the Mosaic week, called into existence " the moving 
 creature that hath life ;" and then take into account, how 
 clearly and how conclusively we have been enabled, by the 
 assistance of the most eminent and searching naturalists, to 
 establish the fact of there being so many distinct tribes of 
 Testacea and Zoophyta, which did not, indeed could not, have 
 sprung into being on the promulgation of that command which 
 called forth forms, possessing a faculty to which they cannot 
 make pretension there can be little hesitation in admitting 
 that the immovable creatures, and creatures with restricted 
 power of motion, had been willed into existence before ; and, 
 strange as the means may appear, that they, nevertheless, 
 formed part of the agency employed by the Omniscient Creator 
 " in the beginning, when He created the heavens and the earth." 
 Nor should we permit any limitation of our own mental capa- 
 city so far to derogate from a just appreciation of the attributes 
 of God as to hesitate in admitting this assumption, which our 
 judgment, founded on the palpable evidence of the senses, so 
 clearly demands. No man, endowed with reason, for an instant 
 doubts or pretends to deny that the world in its finished state, 
 with all its inhabitants, are the workmanship of God's hands ; 
 an irresistible concession which confessedly implies His power 
 (when required for the accomplishment of ulterior plans), 
 to have exercised what, to us, appears a minor degree of 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 129 
 
 creative energy ; if, in reality, it can be considered a more re- 
 stricted manifestation of wisdom and power, to have constrained 
 a simpler form of animal life to work out and accomplish any 
 portion of the great and progressive plan of the Creation ! 
 For, in fact, it sometimes occurs to us, that those who would 
 undertake to prove that it implies, on the contrary, a greater 
 display of power than to cause more complex animals to per- 
 form certain functions, would prevail in the argument. 
 
 Our next endeavour must be to follow up the Vantage ground 
 which we have gained, by exhibiting, from the compilations of 
 geologists, the classes, orders, genera, and species of the fossil 
 animal exuviae discovered embedded in the strata; and, by 
 comparing them with those which we have pre-supposed to 
 have been, to exhibit the analogy which exists between the 
 two an accordance as perfect as the state of scientific research 
 either warrants or renders desirable ; for a nearer approxima- 
 tion, so far from being more conclusive, would, on the con- 
 trary, be indicative of a lesser degree of proof, " experience 
 having taught" the most accomplished geologists of the day, 
 " to appreciate, at their proper value, the numberless chances 
 to which organic remains are subjected of being classed in geo- 
 logical catalogues, in situations very different from those which 
 correspond to their true position in nature."* 
 
 Guided by this caution we shall proceed to display, in the 
 sequel of this chapter, the satisfactory coincidence between the 
 forms which really existed, and those which, by a priori de- 
 ductions, we presumed would in accordance with the pro- 
 gressive development of the great plan of Creation be found 
 embedded in the stratified formations of the earth's outer crust 
 during its non-rotatory period. 
 
 According to the lists given in the most approved geological 
 manuals, the following compose the animal organic remains 
 found embedded in the rocks alluded to.f They are given in 
 
 * MM. De la Beche and Lyell. 
 
 f The organic remains, of a testaceous character, pertaining to the tertiary 
 formations, will be found fully detailed in Mr. LyelPs Principles of Geology. 
 They occupy no less than 43 pages of the Appendix, and are well worthy of 
 being referred to. 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 geological succession from the chalk formations downwards ; 
 and in a consolidated abstract. 
 
 OF THE CRETACEOUS GROUP. 
 
 ZOOPHYTA. 
 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species- 
 
 Achilleum . 
 
 3 Manon . 
 
 5 Scyphia 
 
 7 
 
 Spongia 
 
 12 Spongus 
 
 2 Tragos . . 
 
 5 
 
 Alcyonium 
 
 2 Choanites . 
 
 3 Ventriculites . 
 
 3 
 
 Siphonia . 
 
 2 Hallirhoa . . 
 
 1 Serea 
 
 1 
 
 Gorgonia . 
 
 1 Millepora . 
 
 4 Eschara 
 
 10 
 
 Cellepora . 
 
 7 Retepora . 
 
 5. Flustra . . . 
 
 3 
 
 Ceriopora . 
 
 . 20 Lunulites . . 
 
 I Orbitolites 
 
 1 
 
 Lithodendron 
 
 2 Caryophillia . 
 
 2 Fungia . 
 
 3 
 
 Chenendopora 
 
 1 Hippalimus 
 
 1 Diploctenium . 
 
 2 
 
 Meandrina . 
 
 1 Astrea . 
 
 14 Pagrus . 
 
 1 
 
 Nullipora . 
 
 1 Turbinolia 
 
 2 
 
 
 POLYPIFERS. Genera not determined. 
 
 
 RADIARIA 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Apiocrinites 
 
 1 Pentacrinites . 
 
 1 Cidaris . 
 
 10 
 
 Glenotremites 
 
 1 Galerites . 
 
 9 Clypeus . . 
 
 1 
 
 Asterias, not determined. 
 
 Echinus 
 
 7 Clypeaster . 
 
 3 Echinoneus 
 
 4 
 
 Cassidulus . 
 
 1 Ananchytes 
 
 9 Spatangus 
 
 29 
 
 Nucleolites 
 
 10 Marsupites 
 
 1 
 
 
 ANNULATA. SEDENTARIA. 
 Serpula, 9 species determined, and one not determined. 
 
 Pollicipes, 2 species. 
 
 CIRRIPEDA. 
 
 CONCHIFERA. 
 
 Magas Pumilus 
 
 Thecidea, 3 species 
 
 Terebratula, 53 species 
 
 Crania, 8 species 
 
 Orbicula, species not determined 
 
 Sphaera Corrugata 
 
 Trigonia, 11 species, and one 
 
 not determined 
 Nucula, 11 species 
 Pectunculus, 3 species 
 Area, 6 species, and one not 
 
 determined 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 131 
 
 Podopsis, 6 species 
 Spondilus ? Strigilus 
 Plicatula, 2 species 
 Pecten, 31 species, and one not 
 
 determined 
 Lima Pectinoides 
 Plagiostoma, 15 species, and one 
 
 not determined 
 Avicula Caerulescens, and another 
 
 not determined 
 Inoceramus, 17 species, and one 
 
 not determined 
 Gervillia Aviculoides, and two 
 
 others 
 
 Crenatula Ventricosa 
 Hippurites, 7 species, and one not 
 
 determined 
 
 Sphaerulites, 9 species 
 Ostrea, 19 species 
 Hinnites? Dubuisoni 
 Exogyra, 5 species 
 Gryphaea, 9 species 
 Modiola, 2 species 
 Pachymya Gigas 
 Chama, 5 species 
 
 Cucullaea, 7 species, and one 
 not determined 
 
 Cardita, 4 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Cardium, 5 species 
 
 Venericardia, species not de- 
 termined 
 
 Astarte Striata, and one species 
 not determined 
 
 Pinna, 7 species 
 
 Mytilus, 4 species 
 
 Mytiloides Labriatus 
 
 Thetis, 2 species 
 
 Venus, 9 species 
 
 Lucina Sculp ta 
 
 Tellina, 3 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Corbula, 7 species 
 
 Crassitella Latissima & another 
 
 Lutraria, 2 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Mya, 5 species 
 
 Teredo, species not determined 
 
 Pholas? Constricta 
 
 Fistulana Pyriformis 
 
 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Dentalium, 5 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Patella Ovalis, and one not de- 
 termined 
 
 Pileopsis, species not determined 
 
 Helix Gentii 
 
 Auricula, 3 species 
 
 Melania, species not determined 
 
 Paludina Extensa 
 
 Ampullaria, 2 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Nerita Rugosa 
 
 Natica, 2 species, and one not de- 
 termined 
 
 K 2 
 
 Cassis Avellana 
 
 Dolium Nodosum 
 
 Ebunia, species not determined 
 
 Voluta, 2 species 
 
 Nummulites, 2 species and one 
 not determined 
 
 Solarium Tabulatum ? 
 
 Cirrus, 4 species 
 
 Pleurotomaria, species not de- 
 termined 
 
 Trochus, 10 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Nautilus, 8 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
132 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Vermetus, 4 species, and one not Actinocamax Verus 
 
 determined Scaphites, 3 species, and one 
 Sigaretus Concavus not determined 
 
 Delphinula, species not determined Lenticulites, 2 species 
 
 Turbo, 4 species Lituolites, 2 species 
 
 Turritella, 2 species, and one not Planularia, 2 species 
 
 determined Nodosaria, 2 species 
 
 Cerithum Excavatum, and one not Belemnites, 6 species, and one 
 
 determined not determined 
 
 Pyrula, 2 species . Turrilites, 5 species, and one 
 Murex, 2 species not determined 
 
 Pterocera Maxima Baculites, 5 species 
 
 Rostellaria, 6 species, and one not Hamites, 20 species 
 
 determined Fnsus Anadratus 
 
 Strombus Papilionatus Miliolites, 2 species 
 Ammonites, 50 species 
 
 CRUSTACEA. 
 Astacus, 4 species, and one not Eryon, species not determined 
 
 determined Arcania, species not determined 
 
 Pagurus Faujasii Eytaea, species not determined 
 
 Scyllarus Mantelli Coryster, species not determined 
 
 PISCES. 
 
 Squalus Mustelus I andGaleus? Esox Lewesiensis 
 Muraena Lewesiensis Amia ? Lewesiensis 
 
 Zeus Lewesiensis Fish, genera not determined 
 
 Salmo Lewesiensis Fish, teeth and palates 
 
 REPTILIA. 
 
 Mososaurus Hoffmanni Reptiles, genera not determined 
 
 Crocodile of Meudon 
 
 " From an inspection of the foregoing list, it would appear that 
 the remains of mammalia have not yet been detected in the cre- 
 taceous group."* 
 
 OF THE WEALDEN ROCKS OF ENGLAND, 
 
 CONCHIFERA AND MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Carduim Turgidum ? and one not Unio, 5 species 
 determined Succinea ? 
 
 Manual of Geology, by H. T. de la Bechc, 2nd edition, pp. 271297. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 133 
 
 Pinna? Paludina, 3 species 
 
 Venus ? Potamides, species not deter- 
 
 Ostrea, species not determined mined 
 
 Cyclas, 3 species, and one not de- Melania, 2 species 
 termined 
 
 PISCES. 
 Lepisosteris, Silurus, and remains of fish, genera not determined. 
 
 CRUSTACEA. 
 Cypris Faba. 
 
 REPTILIA. 
 
 Crocodilus Priscus, and a species Reptiles of the genera Trionyx, 
 not determined Emys, Chelonia, Plesiosau- 
 
 Leptorynchus rus, and Pterodactylus 
 
 Iguanodon Tortoise * 
 
 Megalosaurus 
 
 FOSSIL ORGANIC ANIMAL AND ZOOPHYTIC 
 REMAINS OF THE OOLITIC GROUP. 
 
 ZOOPHYTA. 
 
 Achilleum, 6 species Ceriopora, 9 species 
 
 Manon, 3 species Agaricia, 3 species 
 
 Scyphia, 39 species Lithodendron, 2 species 
 
 Tragos, 9 species Caryophyllia, 8 species 
 
 Spongia, 2 species, and one not Anthophyllum, 3 species 
 
 determined Astrea, 20 species, and one not 
 Alcyonium, species not determined determined 
 
 Fungia Orbiculites, and one spe- Aulopora Compressa 
 
 cies not determined Entalophora Cellarioides 
 
 Cyclolites Elliptica, and one spe- Favosites, species not de- 
 
 cies not determined termined 
 
 Turbinolid Dispar, and one spe- Spiropora, 4 species 
 
 cies not determined Eunomia Radiata 
 
 Turbinolopsis Ochracea Crysaora Damsecornis, and 
 Cyathophyllum, 2 species another 
 
 Meandrina, 3 species, and one not Theonoa Chlathrata 
 
 determined Idmonea Triquetra 
 
 * Manual of Geology, pp. 303305. 
 
134 
 
 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Cnemidium, 9 species 
 Limnorea Mammillaris 
 Siphonia Pyriformis 
 Myrmecium Hemisphaericum 
 Gorgonia Dubia 
 
 Millepora Dumetosa, and 6 others 
 Madrepora, species not determined 
 Eschara, species not determined 
 Cellepora, 2 species, and one not 
 
 determined 
 Retepora ? 
 Flustra, species not determined 
 
 Alecto Dichotoma, and one 
 species not determined 
 
 Berenicea Diluviana, and one 
 species not determined 
 
 Terebellaria, 2 species 
 
 Cellaria Smithii 
 
 Thamnasteria Lamoarouxii 
 
 Explanaria Mesenterina, and 
 one species not determined 
 
 Polypifers, genera not de- 
 termined 
 
 RADIARIA. 
 
 Cidaris, 18 species, and one not 
 
 determined 
 Cidaris (spines of) 
 Echinus, 6 species, and one not 
 
 determined 
 Galerites, 3 species 
 Clypeaster Pentagonalis, and one 
 
 species not determined 
 Nucleolites, 6 species, and one not 
 
 determined 
 
 Ananchytes Bicordata 
 Spatangus, 4 species, and one not 
 
 determined 
 
 Solanocrinites, 3 species 
 Comatula, 4 species 
 
 Clypeus, 6 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Echinites, genera not de- 
 termined 
 
 Echinites (spines of) 
 
 Ophiura Milleri and 2 others 
 
 Encrinites, 2 species 
 
 Eugeniacrinites, 5 species 
 
 Apiocrinites, 8 species 
 
 Pentacrinites, 14 species, and 
 one not determined 
 
 Crinoidea, genera not de- 
 termined 
 
 Rhodoerinites Echinatus 
 
 Asterias, 8 species 
 
 ANNULATA. 
 
 Serpula Squamosa, with 49 other species determined, and one not 
 determined. Lumbrionia, 6 species 
 
 CONCHIFERA. 
 
 Spirifer Walcotii 
 Delthyris, 2 species 
 Terebratula Intermedia, and 56 
 
 other species 
 Orbicula Reflexa and 2 species, 
 
 and one not determined 
 
 Hippopodium Ponderosum 
 
 Isocardia, 7 species, and one 
 undetermined 
 
 Cardita, 3 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Cardium, 11 species 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 135 
 
 Lingula Beanii 
 
 Ostrea, 22 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Exogyra Digitata ? and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Gryphaea, 14 species 
 
 Plicatula Spinosa 
 
 Pecten, 20 species 
 
 Plagiostoma, 17 species, and one 
 undetermined 
 
 Myoconcha Crasa 
 
 Posidonia Bronni 
 
 Lima, 10 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Avicula, 11 species 
 
 Inoceramus Dubius 
 
 Gervillia, 7 species, and 1 not stated 
 
 Perna, 3 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Crenatula Ventricosa, and one 
 undetermined 
 
 Trigonellites, 2 species 
 
 Pinna, 6 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Mytilus, 5 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Modiola, 19 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Nucula, 9 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Pectunculus, 2 species 
 
 Area, 6 species, and one not de- 
 termined 
 
 Cucullaea, 13 species, and one not 
 determined 
 
 Astarte, 12 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Venus, species undetermined 
 
 Cytherea, 4 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Pullastra, 2 species, and one 
 undetermined 
 
 Donacites Alduini 
 
 Corbis, 2 species 
 
 Tellina Ampliata 
 
 Psammobia Laevigata 
 
 Lucina, 3 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Sanguinolaria, 2 species, and 
 one undetermined 
 
 Corbula, 4 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Crassina, 7 species 
 
 Mactra Gibbosa 
 
 Amphidesma, 5 species 
 
 Lithodomus, species not de- 
 termined 
 
 Chama, 2 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Unio, 7 species 
 
 Trigonia, 13 species, and one 
 undetermined 
 
 Lutraria Jurassi 
 
 Gastrochaena Tortuosa 
 
 Mya, 8 species 
 
 Pholadomya, 16 species, and 
 one undetermined 
 
 Panopaea, 2 species 
 
 Pholas, 2 species 
 
 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Dentalium Giganteum, and Cylin- Ampullaria, species not de- 
 
 dricum, and one species un- 
 determined 
 
 Patella, 7 species 
 
 Emarginula Scalaris 
 
 termined 
 
 Natica, 5 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Nerita, 4 species 
 
136 
 
 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Peleolus Plicatus 
 
 Ancilla, species not stated 
 
 Bulla Elongata 
 
 Helicina, 4 species 
 
 Auricula Sedgvici 
 
 Delphinula, species not deter- 
 mined 
 
 Solarium, 2 species 
 
 Cirrus, 5 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Trochus, 21 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Rissoa, 4 species 
 
 Turbo, 9 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Phasianella, 2 species 
 
 Turritella, 5 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Nerinea Tuberculata, and one 
 species undetermined 
 
 Cerithium, 2 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Planorbis Euomphalus 
 
 Melania, 4 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Paludina, species not determined 
 
 Pleurotomaria, 2 species 
 
 Tornatilla, species not deter- 
 mined 
 
 Vermetus, 2 species, and one 
 undetermined 
 
 Buccinum Unilineatum, and one 
 species undetermined 
 
 Myoconcha Crassus 
 
 Terebra, 4 species 
 
 Belemnites, 28 species, and one 
 undetermined 
 
 Hammites, species not deter- 
 mined 
 
 Orthoceras Elongatum 
 
 Nautilus, 10 species, and one 
 not stated 
 
 Ammonites, 172 species 
 
 Trigonellites, 4 species 
 
 Onychoteuthis Angusta 
 
 Murex, 2 species 
 
 Rostellaria, 4 species, and one 
 undetermined 
 
 Pteroceras Oceani, 3 species 
 
 Actaeon, 5 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Loligo, 2 species 
 
 Sepia Hastiformis, with remains 
 of ink bags 
 
 Sepia, beaks or Rhyncolites 
 
 Pagurus Mysticus 
 Eryon, 2 species 
 Syllarus Dubius 
 Palsemon, 3 species 
 
 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 Astacus, 3 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 Crustacea, not yet determined 
 
 INSECTA. 
 Insects of the Libellula family Elytra of Coleopterous insects 
 
 PISCES. 
 
 Dapedium Politum Fish, palates and teeth 
 
 Clupea Sprattiformis Ichthyodorulites of different 
 
 Fish, species not yet determined kinds 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 137 
 
 REPTILIA. 
 
 Pterodactylus, 7 species, and one Racheosaurus Grasilis 
 
 unknown Geosaums Bollensis 
 
 Crocodilus, 2 species Lacerta Neptunia 
 
 Gavial, 2 species Plesiosaurus, 6 species, and one 
 Crocodile of Mans, and remains undetermined 
 
 not determined Ichthyosaurus, 4 species, and 
 Tileosaurus one undetermined 
 
 Megalosaurus Bucklandi, and a Saurian bones 
 
 species not known Tortoise, in Stonesfield slate 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 Didelphis Bucklandi.* 
 
 ORGANIC REMAINS OF THE MUSCHELKALK. 
 
 REPTILIA. 
 
 Plesiosaurus, Ichthyosaurus, and a great Saurian genus not de- 
 termined. 
 
 CRUSTACEA. 
 Palinurus Sueurii. 
 
 MOLLUSCA AND CONCHIFERA. 
 
 Nautilus Bidorsatus Mytilus, 2 species 
 
 Ammonites, 3 species Myacites, 4 species 
 
 Buccinum Obsoletum Pecten Reticulatus 
 
 Turritella Terebralis Ostrea Spondyloides 
 
 Dentalites, 2 species Cardium Striatum 
 
 Terebratula, 4 species Plagiostoma, 4 species 
 
 Trigonia, 2 species Avicula Sociales 
 
 ANNULATA. 
 Serpula, 2 species 
 
 RADIARIA. 
 
 Two species of Encrinites. Asterias Obtusa f 
 
 Ophiura, 2 species 
 
 ORGANIC REMAINS OF THE RED OR VARIEGATED 
 SANDSTONE. 
 
 " M. Elie de Beaumont notices that at Domptail (Vosges) this 
 * Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, pp. 332380. f Ibid, pp. 393, 394. 
 
138 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 rock contains abundantly the casts of shells, for the greater part of 
 the same genera, and even of the same species, as those discovered 
 in the Muschelkalk. And M. Voltz remarks, that the red sand- 
 stone of the Vosges presents the following shells : Terebratula, 
 Trigonia, Pecten, Plagiostoma, Avicula (Mytilus), Sociales, Tur- 
 ritella? Natica?"* 
 
 ORGANIC REMAINS OF THE ZECHSTEIN AND 
 COPPER-SLATE. 
 
 REPTILIA. 
 Monitor of Thuringia. 
 
 PISCES. 
 
 Palaeothrissum, 6 species, and one Fish, genera not determined 
 undetermined 
 
 MOLLUSCA AND CoNCHIFERA. 
 
 Turbo? Producta, 7 species 
 
 Pleurotomaria ? Spirifer, 4 species 
 
 Melania? 5 species Terebratula, 8 species, and one 
 
 Ammonites, species not determined undetermined 
 
 Axinus Obscurus Modiola Acuminata, and one 
 
 Area Tumida species undetermined 
 
 Cucullaea Sulcata Mytilus Squamosus 
 
 Avicula Gryphseoides Pecten, species not determined 
 
 Ostrea, species not determined Plagiostoma ? 
 
 Astarte ? Venus ? 
 
 RADIARIA. 
 
 Cyathocrinites Planus, Encrinites, and Crinoidea ; genera not de- 
 termined, f 
 
 ZOOPHYTA. 
 
 Retepora Flustracea, and ditto Virgulacea ; Polypifers, genera not 
 
 determined. 
 
 ORGANIC REMAINS OF THE COAL MEASURES. 
 
 CONCHIFERA. 
 
 Pentamerus Knightii Unio, 2 species 
 
 Lingula Striata Nucula, 2 species 
 
 Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, p, 395. t Ibid, pp. 397 399. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 139 
 
 Vulsella Elongata and Breois Saxicava Blainvillii 
 
 Pecten, 2 species Hyatella Carbonaria 
 
 Mytilus Crassus Mya, 3 species 
 
 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Euomphalus Pentangularis Orthoceratites, 5 species 
 
 Turritella, 2 species Nautilus ? 
 
 Bellerophon, 2 species Ammonites, 6 species 
 
 PISCES. 
 Ichthyodorulites, and fish palates.* 
 
 ORGANIC REMAINS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS 
 LIMESTONE. 
 
 ZOOPHYTA. 
 
 Millepora, 5 species Catenipora, 5 species 
 
 Cellepora Urii Tupipora Tubularia 
 
 Retepora Elongata Syringopora Csespitosa 
 
 Caryophyllia, 7 species Calamopora Polymorpha 
 
 Fungites, 2 species Favosites, 4 species 
 
 Turbinolia, 5 species Lithostrotion, 3 species 
 
 Cyathophyllum Excentricum Amplexus Coralloides 
 Meandrina, species not determined Polypifers, genera not de- 
 Astrea, 2 species termined 
 
 RADIARIA. 
 
 Pentremites, 3 species Potereocrinites, 2 species 
 
 Platycrinites, 7 species Rhodocrinites Verus 
 
 Actinocrinites, 5 species Cyathocrinites, 2 species 
 
 Milocrinites Hieroglyphicus 
 
 ANNULATA. 
 Serpula, Lithuus, and Compressa. 
 
 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Pentamerus, 3 species Modiola Goldfussii 
 
 Spirifer, 22 species Nucula Palmae 
 
 Terebratula, 25 species Area Cancellata 
 
 Crania Prisca Chama ? Antiqua 
 
 Producta, 28 species Hippopodium Abbreviatum 
 
 Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, pp. 419, 420, 
 
140 
 
 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Vulsella Lingulata 
 Ostrea Prisca 
 Hinnites Blainvillii 
 Pecten, 3 species 
 Mytilus Minimus 
 
 Patella Primigenus 
 Planorbis ^Equalis 
 Natica, 4 species 
 Melania, 2 species 
 Ampullaria, 2 species 
 Melanopsis Coronata 
 Nerita, 3 species 
 Turbo, 5 species 
 Helix ? Cirriformis 
 Turritella, 2 species 
 Buccinum, 5 species 
 Bellerophon, 8 species 
 
 Cypricardia ? Annulata 
 Cardium, 3 species 
 Tellina Lineata 
 Sanguinolaria Gibbosa 
 Megalodon Cuculatus 
 
 CONCHIFEIIA. 
 
 Conularia, 2 species 
 Orthoceratites, 18 species 
 Pyramidella Antiqua 
 Delphinula, 8 species 
 Cirrus, 2 species 
 Euomphalus, 13 species, and 
 
 one undetermined 
 Pleurotomaria Delphinulata 
 Trochus Catenulatus 
 Nautilus, 9 species 
 Ammonites, 3 species 
 
 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 Calymene, 4 species, Asaphus Cordatus, Paradoxicus Spinulosus, 
 Trilobites, genera not determined. 
 
 PISCES. 
 Ichthyodorulites, and Tritores or fish palates.* 
 
 ORGANIC ANIMAL AND ZOOPHYTIC REMAINS OF 
 THE GRAUWACKE GROUP. 
 
 ZOOPHYTA. 
 
 Manon, 2 species 
 
 Scyphia, 4 species 
 
 Tragos, 2 species 
 
 Gorgonia Antiqua 
 
 Madrepora, species undetermined 
 
 Stromatopora Concentrica 
 
 Cellopora Antiqua, and one species 
 undetermined 
 
 Retepora, 2 species, and one un- 
 determined 
 
 Astrea Porosa, species undeter- 
 mined 
 
 Columnaria Aveolata 
 
 Catenipora, 3 species, and one 
 undetermined 
 
 Syringopora Verticillata 
 
 Tubipora, species not determined 
 
 Calamopora, 7 species 
 
 Aulopora, 4 species 
 
 Agaracia Lobata 
 
 * Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, pp. 421 429. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 141 
 
 Ceriopora Verrucosa, and 4 others 
 Flustra, species not determined 
 Anthophyllum Bicostatum 
 Turbinolia, species not determined 
 Cyathophyllum Dianthus, and 16 
 
 other species 
 Strombodes Pentagonus 
 
 Lithodendron Caespitosum 
 
 Caryophillia, species not deter- 
 mined 
 
 Favosites, 5 species 
 
 Mastrema Pentagona 
 
 Amplexus Coralloides, and one 
 species undetermined 
 
 RADIARIA. 
 Actinocrinites, 7 species, and one Sphaeronites, or Echinosphse- 
 
 undetermined 
 Cyathocririites, 4 species, and one 
 
 undetermined 
 Platycrinites, 4 species 
 Rhodocrinites Verus and 4 others 
 
 rites, 4 species 
 Penticrinites Prisus 
 Cuprosocrinites, 2 species 
 Milocrinites, 2 species 
 Euglinacrinites Mespiliformis 
 Eucalyptocrinites Rosacius 
 
 ANNULATA. 
 
 Serpula, 4 species 
 
 CONCHIFERA. 
 
 Thecidea? Antiqua 
 Spirifer, 18 species 
 Terebratula, 23 species 
 Strygocephalus, 2 species 
 Calceola, 2 species 
 Strophomena, 6 species 
 Producta, 12 species 
 Gryphsea, species not determined 
 Pecten, and 2 not determined 
 
 Plagiostoma, species not de- 
 termined 
 
 Megalodon Cucullatus 
 Trigonia, species not determined 
 Cardium, 6 species 
 Cardita, 4 species 
 Isocardia, 2 species 
 Cypricardia ? 
 Posidonia Becheri 
 
 MOLLUSCA, 
 
 Patella, species not determined, 
 
 and 3 more in doubt 
 Peleopsis Vetusta 
 Melanopsis Coronata 
 Melania, 2 species 
 Natica, species undetermined 
 Nerita, species undetermined 
 Solarium Fasciatum 
 Cirrus Acutus 
 Pleurotomaria Cirriformis 
 
 Delphinula jEquilatera 
 Turritella Abbreviata, and one 
 
 undetermined 
 Murex ? Harpula 
 Buccinum, 4 species 
 Bellerophon, 8 species, and one 
 
 undetermined 
 Orthoceratites, 29 species, and 
 
 one undetermined 
 Cyrtoceratites, 4 species 
 
142 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Eumophalus Catillus, and three Lituites, 2 species 
 
 others, and one undetermined Nautilus, 9 species (3 are called 
 Trochus Ellipticus Ellipsolites by Sowerby) 
 
 Turbo Bicarinatus, and 2 others Ammonites, 3 species, and one 
 Conularia, 3 species, and one undetermined 
 
 undetermined 
 
 CRUSTACEA. TRILOBITES. 
 
 Calymene, 13 species Ampyx Nasutus 
 
 Asaphus, 16 species Olenus Bucephalus 
 
 Oxygia, 4 species Agnostus Pisiformis 
 
 Paradoxides Tessini, and 4 others Isotelus, 2 species 
 
 Nileus Armadillo, and Glomerinus Trilobites, species not de- 
 
 Illaenus, 3 species termined 
 
 PISCES. 
 
 Ichthyodorulites, Fish bones and a tooth ; and casts referable to 
 vertebrae of fish.* 
 
 " Even yet," says Mr. Hugh Miller, " after many thousand Trilo- 
 bites have been carefully examined, it remains a question with the 
 oryctologist, whether this crustacean of the earlier period was fur- 
 nished with legs, or creeped on an abdominal foot like the snail. "f 
 
 We could bring forward innumerable other catalogues and 
 lists of animal exuviae, found to have been embedded in the 
 imperishable mineral coatings with which the earth was suc- 
 cessively invested while as yet it lay extended at the bottom of 
 the dark and atmosphereless abyss of water by which it was 
 everywhere surrounded during its non-rotatory period. " These 
 marks," as Sir John Herschel so appropriately expresses him- 
 self, " of a former state of nature, so wonderfully preserved (like 
 ancient medals and inscriptions in the ruins of an empire) which 
 afford a sort of rude chronology by whose aid the successive 
 depositions of the strata in which they are found, may be marked 
 out in epochs more or less definitely terminated ;" J but we sup- 
 press them as they would only be repetitions of those we have 
 
 * Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, pp. 455 469. 
 
 f New Walks in an Old Field, p. ix. 
 
 1 Discourse on Nat. Philos. Cab. Cyc. p. 284. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 143 
 
 given from the pains-taking and indefatigable geologist, M. de 
 la Beche, and would, on that account, lend little assistance in 
 the way of conviction ; while they might clog the memory and 
 embarrass the attention. 
 
 A comparison of the description of animals which the lists 
 of organic remains now given reveals to us as having tenanted 
 the bottom of the primitive ocean during the earliest geological 
 epochs, with those which we concluded would be found there, 
 affords an additional confirmation of the correctness of our 
 views, inasmuch as it makes apparent the remarkable coin- 
 cidence which, in general, exists between the one and the 
 other. 
 
 Confiding implicitly in the announcements of Scripture, we 
 were induced to apply to it, and ask What description of 
 animal life should be found inhabiting the primeval ocean pre- 
 vious to the formation of the light, and before the Earth re- 
 volved around its axis ? The clear and unhesitating reply 
 was All, except (( the moving creature that hath life" depen- 
 dent on light and air ; for these were subsequently created. 
 
 With this answer fresh on the memory, we turned to those 
 naturalists who have given the subject a life-time's attention, 
 and said to them " Scripture, in whose assertions we repose 
 perfect confidence, informs us that the living beings which in- 
 habited the world's ocean before the introduction of light into 
 the material universe, and ere the Earth revolved round its 
 axis, must have consisted alone of those which are either de- 
 prived of locomotion, or possess that faculty restrictedly. Do 
 you know of any such ? what are they ? and where do they 
 usually dwell ?" The ready and precise answer to those en- 
 quiries was " We do know of many tribes of animals, some 
 of which are totally incapable of locomotion, while others pos- 
 sess it only in a slight degree. They are all inhabitants of the 
 water ; and we have classed them under the distinctive groups 
 of Zoophyta, Radiaria, Conchifera, and Mollusca" 
 
 Assured by this impartial and spontaneous testimony that 
 numerous families of creatures of the description sought actu- 
 ally exist, that they are all exclusively inhabitants of the water; 
 and, having learned their distinctive congregate appellations, 
 we passed on to another department of the learned and the 
 
144 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 laborious in research, and entreated them to inform us, what 
 description of animal life do the petrified remains which they 
 have met with embedded in the successive layers of the earth's 
 outer crust, reveal to them to have chiefly inhabited the water, 
 during the period when those rocks were being deposited and 
 indurated. The reply which they gave us, after referring to 
 the tabulated lists which they had compiled during their geo- 
 logical investigations, has just been submitted, and is found to 
 be, as near as possible, a counterpart of the answer received 
 to our previous enquiry. 
 
 The majority of the living forms made known to us by their 
 exuviae seem to have belonged to that great division which in- 
 habits the water, and are either wholly incapable of locomotion, 
 or whose motions are restricted; and, when reduced to scien- 
 tific classification, they range themselves, with a few exceptions, 
 under the orders zoophyta, radiaria, conchifera, and mollusca. 
 But, notwithstanding that by this a general conviction of iden- 
 tity is borne in upon the mind, and leads to so much satisfac- 
 tion ; yet, as we have said above, when we run the e;ye over 
 the consolidated lists of animal remains, we neither can conceal 
 from ourselves, nor will it escape the penetration of others, 
 that there are serious difficulties to be got over, or to be satis- 
 factorily explained, before the reconciliation can be considered 
 thoroughly complete. 
 
 Although comparatively few, and some even of doubtful 
 classification, yet there do appear attached to the bottoms of 
 all lists of organic remains, the names of animals which, during 
 lifetime, were possessed of the power of free and swift locomo- 
 tion ; and, therefore, to the amount of the proof which they 
 afford, contribute to weaken the evidence of those lists full 
 and complete as they are in every other respect in favour of 
 the position we are so desirous to establish. They are like 
 " the dead fly in the ointment/' which must either be got rid 
 of, or it will spoil the whole. Another difficulty also exists, 
 though not so manifestly, on the face of the evidence adduced, 
 and which might, therefore, escape the observation of our 
 general readers, did not prudence and candour induce us to be 
 the first to point it out. We allude to the apparent contra- 
 diction which arises from supposing that the primitive ocean 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 145 
 
 was not composed of salt water, whilst the radiaria, zoophytic, 
 conchiferous, and molluscous exuvice discovered in the strata 
 are analogous to the testaceous envelopes of similar animals 
 which now inhabit our present seas, implying a seeming incom- 
 patibility between the habits of these two divisions of animal 
 life the ancient and the modern. 
 
 The former, and by far the most formidable difficulty, seems 
 divisible into two distinct parts. First, that which respects 
 animals whose powers of locomotion, from our imperfect 
 knowledge of their construction, cannot be thoroughly ascer- 
 tained, though no doubt can be attached to their geological 
 position and era; and, secondly, as regards animals whose or- 
 gans of motion are so perfect, and whose habits are so well 
 known, that no doubt can be entertained as to their power of 
 moving freely from place to place, although their geological 
 position may, for the same reason, be exposed to doubt, and 
 open to discussion. We shall, in the first instance, occupy 
 ourselves with the ultimate division of the case, and after 
 making some brief preliminary remarks, leave the discussion 
 in the hands of those who are better qualified by their expe- 
 rience to conduct it ; while we claim the full benefit of what- 
 ever reasoning we may find in geological works upon the sub- 
 ject; inasmuch as the advantage is clearly on the side of those 
 who contend in favour of the certainty of locality and geolo- 
 gical epoch of fixed animals, or of such as are of slow and im- 
 perfect motion, whose remains can only be found associated 
 with the strata amongst which they had their residence when 
 in life ; while, on the contrary, the remains of animals which 
 were capable of moving freely and rapidly from place to place 
 might be, and no doubt are, discovered embedded in localities 
 indicative of great divergency in geological epoch from that 
 which had witnessed their living existence on the earth ; and, 
 from the same cause, have become greatly misplaced in geolo- 
 gical chronology. This will appear much more apparent after 
 having heard the evidences we intend to bring forward, and, 
 having learnt in whose hands we design to leave the case, 
 assured that when their attention has been directed to the 
 point, they will do every justice to the subject, and treat it 
 with the most truthful impartiality. 
 
 L 
 
146 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 While, as an earnest of what may be expected, we have 
 much pleasure in giving the following short extracts from some 
 recent works on the subject: 
 
 " We shall now," says Mr. Lyell, " consider in what manner the 
 remains of animals may become preserved in rents or cavities 
 
 " As the caves and fissures may remain open throughout periods 
 of indefinite duration, and may become the receptacles of the remains 
 of species inhabiting a country at very different epochs, it requires 
 the utmost care to avoid confounding together the monuments of 
 occurrences of very different dates. Dr. Buckland, in his indefati- 
 gable researches into this class of phenomena, has often guarded 
 with great skill against such anachronisms, pointing out the compara- 
 tively recent preservation of some organic relics which have become 
 mingled in a common tomb with those of older date. 
 
 " Fissures are very common in calcareous rocks, and they are, 
 usually, in the course of ages, filled up in part by small, angular 
 fragments of limestone, which scale off under the influence of frost 
 and rain. Vegetable earth and land shells are washed in at the 
 same time, and the whole mass often becomes cemented together by 
 calcareous matter dissolved by rain water, or supplied by mineral 
 springs. In an uncultivated country the edges of such fissures are 
 usually overgrown with bushes, so that herbivorous animals, espe- 
 cially when chased by beasts of prey, or when carelessly browsing 
 on the shrubs, are liable to fall in and perish. Of this kind is a 
 fissure still open in Buncombe Park, in Yorkshire, where the skele- 
 tons of dogs, sheep, goats, deer, and hogs, have been found lodged 
 upon different ledges that occur at various depths in a rent of the 
 rock descending obliquely downwards. 
 
 " Above the village of Selside, near Yugleborough, in Yorkshire, 
 a chasm of enormous, but unknown depth occurs in the scar-lime- 
 stone, a member of the carboniferous series. ' The chasm,' says 
 Professor Sedgwick, ' is surrounded by grassy shelving banks ; and 
 many animals, tempted towards its brink, have fallen down and 
 perished in it. The approach of cattle is now prevented by a strong 
 lofty wall, but there can be no doubt that, during the last two or 
 three thousand years, great masses of bony breccia must have accu- 
 mulated in the lower part of the great fissure, which probably 
 descends through the whole thickness of the scar-limestone to the 
 depth of perhaps five or six hundred feet.'* 
 
 * Principles of Geology, vol. ii. pp. 225227. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 147 
 
 " There is, however," continues the same gentleman, " as yet, no 
 well authenticated instance of the remains of a saurian animal 
 having been found in a member of the carboniferous series." And 
 in a note he adds, " It is, indeed, stated that, among other fossils col- 
 lected from the mountain limestone of Northumberland, the Rev. 
 Charles V. Vernon Harcourt has been fortunate to find a saurian 
 vertebra, together with patellae and echinal spines, and an impression 
 of a fern analogous to those of the coal measures in the mountain 
 limestone. (Annual Report of the Yorkshire Phil. Soc. for 1826, 
 p. 14.) But I am informed by Mr. Harcourt himself that the ver- 
 tebra was discovered in loose alluvium."* 
 
 And in a subsequent part of his work, Mr. Lyell further 
 mentions 
 
 " It will appear evident, from what we have said in the second 
 volume respecting the fossilization of terrestrial species, that the 
 imbedding of their remains depends on rare casualities, and that they 
 are, for the most part, preserved in detached alluvions, covering the 
 emerged land, or in osseous breccias and stalagmites formed in 
 caverns or fissures, or in isolated lacustrine formations. These fis- 
 sures and caves may sometimes remain open during successive geo- 
 logical periods, and the alluvions, spread over the surface, may be 
 disturbed again and again, until the mammalia of successive epochs 
 are mingled and confounded together. Hence we must be careful 
 when we endeavour to refer the remains of mammalia to certain ter- 
 tertiary periods, that we ascertain, not only their association with 
 testacea of which the date is known, but, also, that the remains 
 were intermixed in such a manner as to leave no doubt of the for- 
 mer existence of the species. "f 
 
 Sir Henry de la Beche says 
 
 " By some it will be considered that too much space has been 
 
 allotted to lists of organic remains in the following pages ; 
 
 for practical purposes, however, there was no alternative between 
 rendering them as perfect as the author's means of information would 
 permit, or of omitting them altogether. It must, however, be con- 
 fessed that, though constructed, apparently, from the best authorities, 
 
 * Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 148. 
 t Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, vol. iii. p. 60. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 these lists require severe examination ; for, unfortunately, the study 
 of organic remains is beset with two evils, which, though of an oppo- 
 site character do not neutralize each other so much as at first sight 
 might be anticipated ; the one consisting of a strong desire to find 
 similar organic remains in supposed equivalent deposits, even at 
 great distances ; the other being an equally strong inclination to 
 discover new species. 
 
 " There can be little doubt that from these and other sources of 
 error, the same organic remains, particularly shells, often figure in our 
 catalogues under two names ; and that the exuviae of certain animals 
 are marked as discovered in situations where they have never been 
 found. Notwithstanding these difficulties, it will, however, be evi- 
 dent, from a glance at the catalogues of organic remains, that a great 
 mass of information has been gradually collected on this subject 
 alone, from which the most important results must follow, even 
 though the various lists may require considerable correction."* 
 
 And we have, more recently, the ingenuous confession of 
 another geological naturalist to pretty much the same effect : 
 
 " If, therefore," says Mr. Ansted, " in spite of the advantages of 
 the pretty accurate mapping of Europe, and the detailed and minute 
 knowledge of a positive kind which we possess geologically, there is 
 still doubt and hesitation in determining the ancient history and the 
 exact succession of deposits, it may well be supposed that not less, 
 but much greater, difficulty exists with regard to other countries 
 (India and China for example), of which we know far less." 
 
 And again 
 
 " Man may at some future day be able to comprehend this great 
 plan of development (that of ancient animal existence) ; but he is not 
 yet in that condition, and in his attempt to include its laws within 
 the compass of his imagination, and express their true relation in 
 language, he has hitherto always failed. "f 
 
 " The convulsions and revolutions of the geological world," ob- 
 serves Mr. Miller, " like those of the political, are sad confounders 
 of place and station, and bring into close fellowship the high and the 
 
 * Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, Preface, pp. v. vi. 
 t Ancient World, 1847, pp. 329, 382. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 149 
 
 low ; nor is it safe in either world such have been the effects of 
 the disturbing agencies to judge of ancient regulations by existing 
 neighbourhoods, or of original situations by present places of occu- 
 pancy. ' Misery,' says Shakspeare, ' makes strange bed-fellows.' 
 The changes and convulsions of the geological world have made 
 strange bed-fellows too. I have seen fossils of the upper lias and 
 of the lower red sandstone washed together by the same wave out 
 of what might be taken, upon a cursory survey, for the same bed, 
 and then mingled with recent shells, algae, branches of trees, and 
 fragments of wrecks on the same sea beach."* 
 
 These evidences when taken at their full value, and con- 
 sidering by whom they are given, will go a great way to relieve 
 us from any unnecessary anxiety as to the prejudicial influence 
 which it might have been feared the affixation of a few names 
 of Reptilia to the lists of organic remains of the several for- 
 mations would have occasioned. For, by what has been said, 
 it is evident that numberless accidents may have entombed 
 the remains of reptiles very distinct in geological epoch ; or, 
 what is the same thing, much, earlier in rocky stratification 
 than their true epochs, when the places which they inhabited 
 during their existence on the surface .is duly taken into ac- 
 count. 
 
 With respect to the other division of this same difficulty 
 namely, the discovery of animal exuviae in situations of which 
 there can be no doubt as to geological correctness, although from 
 the paucity of our knowledge of their individual conformation 
 and habits there may be serious doubts as to their having pos- 
 sessed the power of locomotion, in its proper signification it 
 appears to us, that the strongest line of defence which we can 
 take up is to express our firm conviction that no animal which 
 encrusted the bottom of the ocean during its period of non- 
 rotation was, or could be, possessed of the faculty of freely 
 moving from place to place ; that such ability was alike incon- 
 sistent with, and would have been prejudicial to, the develop- 
 ment of the great plan of Creation, as we understand it to have 
 been carried out. That locomotion, where all the surrounding 
 
 * Old Red Sandstone, 3rd edition, p. 156. 
 
150 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 elements were alike, would have been a superfluous endow- 
 ment, and, therefore, was not conferred ; and finally, ivithout 
 an atmosphere there could have been no voluntary motion im- 
 pelled or sustained by aeriated blood. With these declarations 
 of our belief we leave this point to clear up itself when the 
 great Scriptural announcements of the plan of Creation shall 
 be better understood, more faithfully applied to the researches 
 of philosophy and science, and more generally believed in. 
 Then, we have no doubt, those seeming anomalies will give 
 place to juster views, and more correct classifications ; so that 
 what now threatens to be a serious difficulty, will wholly dis- 
 appear, and give place to a perfect, consistent, and convincing 
 system of Cosmography. 
 
 We have now only to notice the remaining point in doubt, 
 namely, the conflicting circumstance of the primitive waters 
 being considered to have been fresh, while numberless remains 
 of exuviae correspond to living congenors inhabiting our 
 present briny seas. In doing this, besides alluding to the 
 minuteness of the difference of conformation which might en- 
 able a conchifer or mollusc to inhabit fresh water, we have to 
 point out to our readers, that the primitive ocean contained all 
 the elements of its present saline nature, although differently 
 combined, and then to give the following conclusive extract 
 from one of our most argumentative geologists, which seems 
 to have been written so expressly for the occasion, although 
 he was then treating of the origin of the Paris and Isle of 
 Wight basins, that with it we shall close this part of our evi- 
 dence : 
 
 " The sources of the organic fossils," says Dr. McCulloch, " are 
 no less obvious. But I must not pass from these without in- 
 quiring into their value in determining the marine or other nature of 
 these strata. This is especially necessary, as the theory, and the 
 mistakes of fact, together, have been among the chief sources of er- 
 roneous judgment in these cases, and will remain so as long as this 
 engrossing pursuit shall occupy all the attention of geologists, and 
 this hypothesis shall continue to rule. If to mistake respecting a fish 
 has been sufficient to confound the class of Oeningen, it is easy to 
 see what more may have happened and may happen again ; not only 
 in such instances, but in the judgment respecting alternating deposits. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 151 
 
 " I do not give catalogues of species and genera I "shall 
 
 only, therefore, name among the living genera of fresh water Lym- 
 neus, Planorbis, Physa, Paludina, Ampullaria, Cerithium, Melanopsis, 
 Melania, Nerita, Cyclas, and Unio. Of these Lymneus, Planorbis, 
 Physa, Paludina, Cerithium, Melanopsis, Melania, and Nerita, are 
 found in the fossil state ; and Paludina, Ampullaria, Cerithium, Me- 
 lama, and Nerita, are common to fresh and salt water. Of the shells 
 called exclusively marine, Modiolus, Mytilus, and Corbula, live in 
 fresh water ; and different species of Anodon, Cyclas, Unio, Tellina, 
 Cardium, and Venus, some belonging to fresh and others to salt water 
 are found promiscuously in the Gulph of Livonia. Our own muscles 
 and oysters, and many more, thrive better in fresh water than in 
 salt ; and reversely, many fresh water shell fish can live in salt 
 water, and those of salt marshes are especially indifferent on this 
 subject."* 
 
 * Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 327, 328. 
 
SECTION II. 
 
 THE ANIMAL EXISTENCES OF THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Adaptation of the Apulmonic Invertebrate Animals to the state of the creation 
 previous to the Earth's rotation around its axis. Origin of Calcareous 
 Rocks, and the influential part which the primitive Animal Organisms per- 
 formed in producing them. Increase of these rocks in an ascending series. 
 Evidences for their existence deduced from geological writers. And a sum- 
 mary of the subjects treated of in this section, with an application of the 
 whole to the progressive development of the Dynamical Theory. 
 
 OUR information respecting the circumstances connected 
 with animal life at the period to which allusion is now made 
 having been brought to a point which enables us to proceed 
 with the general argument ; and having, to a certain extent, 
 removed the obstacles which presented themselves to our pro- 
 gress, we shall endeavour, in the next place, to make apparent 
 the perfect adaptation of the description of animals which we 
 consider did exist to the then condition of our planet, on the 
 supposition already assumed, of its being unilluminated, with- 
 out rotation, and enveloped by an atmosphereless ocean, dif- 
 fering in composition from what it does at present, and, after- 
 wards, adduce some of the more apparent reasons why animal 
 life should at that period have been confined to beings of 
 simpler conformation, and, comparatively, of sedentary habits. 
 In developing this plan of procedure we shall commence by 
 showing the nature and functions of lungs and gills. 
 
 " The aeriating organs of animals," says Dr. Fleming, "may be 
 divided into two kinds, lungs (pulmones), and gills (bronchise), both 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY. 153 
 
 destined to accomplish the same end. The lungs are suited for 
 bringing free air into contact with the blood, and therefore belong to 
 those animals which have their residence on land. The gills are 
 calculated to separate air from water, with which it is always united, 
 and bring it into contact with the blood, and belong therefore to 
 those animals which reside in the sea or in fresh water. It is to be 
 observed, however, that many animals which reside in the water 
 breathe by means of lungs, and are obliged, at intervals, to come to 
 the surface to respire, such as whales ; but there are no animals 
 which reside on the land and are furnished with gills which are 
 obliged to return to the water to respire. 
 
 " Whether the aerating organs be lungs or gills, it appears to be 
 the object of nature in their construction to expose a large surface 
 to the contact of the air. This object is accomplished by their divi- 
 sion into numerous cells and leaf-like processes, or by their extension 
 on the walls of cavities, or the surface of pectinated ridges. The 
 blood brought to the organs by the pulmonic vessels is there distri- 
 buted by their terminating branches. Although still retained in 
 vessels, it can, nevertheless, be easily acted upon by the air on the 
 exterior."* 
 
 After describing the accompaniments to those important 
 organs, Dr. Fleming further observes : 
 
 " In order to ascertain the changes which the blood undergoes 
 when thus exposed to the influence of the air, it will be necessary 
 to attend, in the first place, to the changes produced in the air 
 itself It is observed that the air which is alternately in- 
 spired and ejected becomes unfit for future use ; and is likewise ren- 
 dered incapable of supporting combustion. The analysis of this 
 altered air indicates the change to have taken place in its oxygenous 
 portion. A part thereof has disappeared, and an equal bulk of 
 carbonic acid is found occupying its place. The quantity of oxygen 
 in this carbonic acid is equal to that which has been abstracted from 
 the air. In this case, either carbonic acid escapes from the blood 
 and an equivalent bulk of oxygen is absorbed ; or, the blood fur- 
 nishes the carbon only, with which the oxygen of the air unites. 
 The former supposition was long countenanced by chemists ; the 
 latter is at present the prevailing opinion, "-f 
 
 * Philosophy of Zoology, vol. i, pp. 348, 349. 
 t Ibid, pp. 350, 351, and 137th Theorem. 
 
154 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " In respiration or breathing," says Mr. Hugo Reid, " the oxygen 
 of the air is diminished one-third in quantity ; and, either it is con- 
 verted into carbonic acid by combining with carbon in the lungs ; 
 or, the oxygen of the air is absorbed and retained in the lungs, and 
 carbonic acid is given off; or, both take place, so much oxygen 
 being absorbed, and so much being given off in the state of carbonic 
 acid. It is not certain which of these is the true theory of respi- 
 ration, but it is certain that carbon (in union with oxygen) is ex- 
 pelled from the lungs during respiration And there seems 
 
 reason to believe that the main use of respiration is to expel a super- 
 fluous quantity of carbon from the body, and that the oxygen of the 
 air effects this by uniting with the carbon, and thus converting it 
 into a gaseous substance (carbonic acid gas), in which form it is 
 more easily got rid of."* 
 
 And thus is proved, in the words of the hundred and thirty- 
 eighth Theorem " that ANIMAL RESPIRATION, which consists in 
 the alternate inhalation of a portion of air into the lungs, its 
 transformation there, and subsequent exhalation, occasions, by 
 means of the diffusion principle of gases, and of membraneous 
 endosmose a reinvig orating interchange of gases. The oxygen 
 of the atmosphere abstracting and occupying the place of the 
 carbonic acid of the venous blood, which acid is exhaled in a 
 gaseous form." 
 
 The next process to which we have occasion to direct the 
 attention for a moment, is the formation of the shelly sub- 
 stance which constitutes the envelope, or, as it has by some 
 been called, the external skeleton of the conchiferous mol- 
 luscs, and other descriptions of marine animals. 
 
 Messrs. Todd and Bowman say 
 
 " Among the in vertebrated classes there are hard parts 
 
 which serve as bases of support for the soft parts The 
 
 calcareous plates of the star-fish (asterius}, and sea urchin (echinus}, 
 the hard coriacious covering of insects, the hard external integuments 
 of Crustacea, and the infinitely various shells of the gasteropoda and 
 conchifera, must all be regarded in the light of hard parts performing 
 the offices above referred to."f 
 
 * Lectures on Chemistry, pp. 61, 62. 
 
 t Physiology and Anatomy of Man, vol. i. p. 79. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH, 155 
 
 Dr. Fleming asserts 
 
 " That the most important appendix to the skin of the molluscous 
 animals appears to be the shell. This part is easily preserved, ex- 
 hibits fine forms and beautiful colours, and has long occupied the 
 attention of conchologists. The matter of the shell is secreted by 
 the corium, and the form which it assumes is regulated by the body 
 of the animal. It is coeval with the existence of the animal, and 
 appears previous to the exclusion from the egg ; nor can it be dis- 
 pensed with during the continuance of existence. The solid matter 
 of the shell consists of carbonate of lime, united with a small por- 
 tion of animal matter, resembling coagulated albumen. 
 
 " The mouth of the shell is extended by the application of fresh 
 layers of the shelly matter to the margin, and its thickness is in- 
 creased by a coating on the inner surface. These assertions are abun- 
 dantly confirmed by the observations of Reaumer, whose accurate 
 experiments have greatly contributed to the elucidation of concho- 
 logy. If a hole be made in the shell of a snail, and a piece of skin 
 be glued to the inner margin so as to cover the opening, the shelly 
 matter will not ooze out from the broken margin of the fracture and 
 cover the outside of the skin , but will form a coating on its inner 
 surface ; thus proving it to have exuded from the body of the ani- 
 mal. When a portion of the mouth of the shell of a snail is broken 
 off, and a piece of skin glued to the inner margin, reflected out- 
 wardly, and fixed on the body of the shell, the defective part is 
 again supplied, and the matter added to the inner surface of the skin, 
 thus leaving the interposed substance between the new-formed por- 
 tion and the fractured edge. Similar experiments, repeated on a 
 variety of shells, both univalve and bivalve, by different naturalists 
 leave no room to doubt that shells increase in size by the juxta- 
 position of shelly matter from the common integuments 
 
 The layers of growth may often be distinguished on the surface of 
 the shell, in the form of striae or ridges, more or less elevated, but 
 
 parallel to the margin of the aperture In some univalve 
 
 shells, the layers of growth parrallel to the opening cannot be dis- 
 cerned By careful management, however, with the file, 
 
 the shell may be separated into a central layer contiguous to the 
 skin, and a peripheral layer, both similar in structure, though fre- 
 quently differing in colour. The shells exhibiting such characters 
 have been termed Porcellanous, from their dense structure and the 
 
 fine polish which their structure presents The shells of 
 
 the first kind which we have noticed, from being formed of cones or 
 
156 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 layers applied to the inner edge of the margin, and extending beyond 
 it, have an imbricated structure. Those of the second kind, con- 
 sisting of layers regularly superimposed, have, consequently, a lami- 
 nated structure ; but between the two kinds there are numerous 
 intermediate links, formed by a combination of the two processes."* 
 
 " The most simple form," says Professor Ansted, " in which an 
 animal constructs a shelly habitation consisting of a number of com- 
 partments may be understood by examining any univalve shell. 
 The greater part of the animal is inclosed in a muscular sac called 
 a mantle, capable of depositing carbonate of lime. 
 
 " As soon as one coat is deposited, which, of course assumes the 
 shape of the muscular mantle, the simple shell is perfected. If, as the 
 animal grows, it is developed in a spiral form, the shell increases at 
 the aperture ; but if the extremity does not adapt itself to the original 
 shell, and remains always of the same size, it must, as it increases, 
 withdraw itself from its former compartment, and build a wall of 
 partition, and in this way we have the first step towards the formation 
 of the shell of the ammonite or nautilus, &c."f 
 
 Dr. Ure says 
 
 " Marine shells may be divided, as Mr. Hatchett observes, into 
 two kinds ; those that have a porcellanous aspect with an enamelled 
 surface, and, when broken, are often in a slight degree of a fibrous 
 texture ; and those that have generally, if not always, a strong epi- 
 dermis, under which is the shell, principally or entirely composed of 
 the substance called nacre, or mother-of-pearl. 
 
 " The porcellanous shells appear to consist of carbonate of lime, 
 cemented by a very small portion of animal gluten. This animal 
 gluten is more abundant in some, however, as in the patellae. 
 
 " The mother-of-pearl shells are composed of the same substances. 
 They differ, however, in their structure, which is lamellar, the gluten 
 forming their membranes regularly alternating with strata of car- 
 bonate of lime. In these two the gluten is much more abundant." J 
 
 " Testaceous shells," says Capt. T. Brown, " are composed of 
 carbonate of lime, combined with a small portion of gelatinous 
 matter ; while those of the Crustacea are composed of phosphate of 
 lime, along with the animal matter. Testaceous shells are, in 
 general, permanent coverings for the inhabitants, and the animal is 
 
 * Philosophy of Zoology, vol. ii. pp. 401 404. 
 t Ancient World, pp. 243, 244. J Chemical Dictionary, p. 741. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 157 
 
 of a soft simple nature, without bones of any kind ; arid attached to " 
 its domicile by a certain adhesive principle possessed by some of 
 the muscles The shells of crustaceous animals are pro- 
 duced all at once ; those of the testacea evidently are formed by the 
 animal gradually adding to them either annually or periodically."* 
 
 As we are at a loss to find any analyses of the composition, 
 or an account of the manner of being formed, or of the specific 
 gravity of the ponderous plates of massive scales which enve- 
 loped, as with coats of armour, the ancient fish-like forms 
 which inhabited the primitive waters during certain of its 
 epochs, we have been under the necessity of substituting infe- 
 rential evidence, derived from the admirable descriptions given 
 of them by recent writers. We shall endeavour to make these 
 as concise as possible. 
 
 " Such," says Mr. Miller, when describing the Pterichthys, " at a 
 first glance, is the appearance of the fossil. The body was of very 
 considerable depth, perhaps little less deep proportionally from back 
 to breast than that of the tortoise, the under part was flat, the upper 
 rose towards the centre into a roof-like ridge, and both under and 
 upper were covered with a strong armour of bony plates, which re- 
 sembling more the plates of the tortoise than those of the crustacean, 
 received their accessions of growth at the edges or sutures 
 
 " Next to the Pterichthys I shall place its contemporary, the Co- 
 
 costens of Agassiz Both were covered with an armour of 
 
 thickly tuberculated bony plates, and both furnished with a verte- 
 brated tail. The plates of the one, when found lying detached in 
 the rock, can scarcely be distinguished from those of the qther ; there 
 are the same marks as in the plates of the tortoise, of accessions of 
 growth at the edge the same porous bony structure within, the 
 same kind of tubercules without. The forms of the creatures them- 
 selves, however, were essentially different." 
 
 And further on, after referring to the trilobites Asaphus 
 CundatuSy he proceeds 
 
 " The fish and the crustacean are wonderfully alike 
 
 They illustrate admirably how two distinct orders may meet. They 
 exhibit the points, if I may so speak, at which the plated fish is 
 
 * Conchologist's Text Book, p. 12, Theorem 157. 
 
158 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 linked to the shelled crustacean." The Cocostens being a stage fur- 
 ther towards a fish than the Cephalaspis. 
 
 " Of these ancient families the Osteolepis, or bony scale, may be 
 regarded as illustrative of the general type. It was one of the first 
 discovered of the Caithness fishes, and received its name, in the days 
 of Cuvier, from the oseous character of its scales, ere it was ascer- 
 tained that it had numerous contemporaries, and that to all and each 
 of them the same description applied 
 
 " In their more striking characteristics the three genera, Dipterus, 
 Diplopterus, and Osteolepis, seem to have nearly agreed. In all 
 alike, scales of bone glisten with enamel ; their jaws, enamel without 
 and bone within, bristle thick with sharp pointed teeth ; closely 
 jointed plates, burnished like ancient helmets, cover their heads, and 
 seem to have formed a kind of outer table to skulls externally of 
 bone and internally of cartillage ; their gill-covers consist each of a 
 single piece, like the gill-covers of the sturgeon ; their tails were 
 chiefly formed on the lower side of their bodies ; and the rays of their 
 fins, enamelled like their plates and their scales, stand up over the 
 connecting membrane, like the steel or brass in that peculiar armour 
 of the middle ages whose multitudinous pieces of metal were fastened 
 together on a ground-work of cloth or of leather. 
 
 " All their scales, plates, and rays present a similar style of orna- 
 ment. The shining and polished enamel is mottled with thickly-set 
 punctures, or rather punctulated markings ; so that a scale or plate, 
 when viewed through a microscope, reminds one of the cover of a 
 saddle. 
 
 " In the Glyptolepis the most characteristic parts of the creature 
 are the scales. They are of great size compared with the size of the 
 animal. An individual not more than half-a-foot in length ex- 
 hibits scales fully three-eighth parts of an inch in diameter 
 
 Each scale consists of a double plate, an inner and an outer. The 
 structure of the inner is not peculiar to the family or the formation : 
 it is formed of a number of minute concentric circles, crossed by 
 still minuter radiating lines. All scales that receive their accessions 
 of growth equally at their edges, exhibit internally a corresponding 
 character ; and hence the name of the ichthyolite. The plates of the 
 head were ornamented in a similar style. In all the remains of this 
 curious fish which I have hitherto seen, the union of the osseous 
 with the cartilaginous, in the general frame-work of the creature, is 
 strikingly apparent. The external skull, the great shoulder-bone, 
 and the rays of the fins, are all unequivocally osseous ; the occipital 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 159 
 
 and shoulder-bones, in particular, seem of great strength and mas- 
 siveness, and are invariably preserved, however imperfect the speci- 
 mens in other respects ; whereas, even in specimens the most com- 
 plete, and which exhibit every scale and every ray, however minute, 
 and shew unchanged the entire outline of the animal, not a frag- 
 ment of the internal skeleton appears. 
 
 " The Diplocanthus Longispinus was first discovered by the writer 
 about three years ago, and is a still more striking representative of 
 this order than even the Cheir acanthus. The scales, minute, but 
 considerably larger than those of the Cheir acanthus, are of a rhom- 
 boidal form, and so regularly striated the striae converging to a 
 point at the posterior termination of each scale that when ex- 
 amined with a glass, the body appears as if covered with scallops. 
 
 " The Diplacanthus, though the smallest ichthyolite of the forma- 
 tion yet known, is by no means the least curious. The scales, which 
 are of such extreme minuteness that their peculiarities can be detected 
 by only a powerful glass, resemble those of the Cheiracanthus ; but 
 the ridges are more waved, and seem, instead of running in nearly 
 paralled lines, to converge towards the apex. The creature, unlike 
 the Cheiracanthus, seems to have been furnished with jaws of bone : 
 there are fragments of bone upon the head, tuberculated apparently 
 on the outer surface ; and minute cylinders of carbonate of lime 
 running along all the larger bones, where we find them accidently 
 laid open, show that they were formed on internal bases of car- 
 tilage. 
 
 " The Osteolepis was cased, I have said, from head to tail, in 
 complete armour. The head had its plaited mail, the fins their 
 male of parellel and jointed bars ; the entire suit glittered with 
 enamel ; and every plate, bar, and scale, was dotted with micro- 
 scopic points. Every ray had its double or treble punctulated 
 group ; the markings lie as thickly in proportion to the fields they 
 cover, as the circular perforations in a lace veil ; and the effect, 
 viewed through the glass, is one of lightness and beauty. In the 
 Cheirolepis an entirely different style obtains. The enamelled 
 scales and plates glitter with minute ridges, that show like thorns in 
 a December morning varnished with ice. Every ray of the fins 
 presents its sculptured prominences, every scale its bunch of prickle- 
 like ridges. A more rustic style characterized the Glyptolepis. The 
 enamel of the scales and plates is less bright ; the sculpturings are 
 executed on a larger scale, and more rudely finished, &c." 
 
160 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 And in conclusion from Mr. Miller on this particular branch 
 of our subject : 
 
 " Shall I venture," says he, " to throw out a suggestion on the sub- 
 ject in connexion with another suggestion which has emanated from 
 one of the first of living geologists? Fish, of all existing creatures, 
 seem the most capable of sustaining high degrees of heat, and are 
 to be found in some of the hot springs of Continental Europe, where 
 it is supposed scarce any other animal could live. Now, all the 
 fish of the ancient type are thickly covered by a defensive armour 
 of bone, arranged in plates, bars, or scales, or all the three modes 
 together, as in the Asteolepis, and one-half of its contemporaries. 
 
 " The one-sided tail is united invariably to a strong cuirass ; and 
 it has been suggested, by Dr. Buckland, that this strong cuirass may 
 have formed a sort of defence against the injurious effects of a highly 
 heated surrounding medium. The suggestion is, of course, based 
 purely on hypothesis. It may be stated in direct connexion with it, 
 however, that in the lias the first richly fossiliferous formation over- 
 lying that in which the change occurred we find, for the first time in 
 the geological system, decided indications of a change of seasons. 
 
 " The foot-prints of winter are left impressed amid the lignites of 
 the cromarty lias. In a specimen now before me, the alternations 
 of summer heat and winter cold are as distinctly marked in the 
 annual rings as in the pines or larches of our present forests ; 
 whereas, in the earlier lignites, contemporary with ichthyolites of the 
 ancient type, either no annual rings appear, or the markings, if pre- 
 sent, are both faint and unfrequent. 
 
 "Just ere winter began to take its place among the seasons, the fish 
 fitted for living in a highly heated medium disappeared : they were 
 created to inhabit a thermal ocean, and died away as it cooled down. 
 Fish of a similar type may now inhabit the seas of Venus, or even 
 of Jupiter, which from its enormous bulk, though greatly more dis- 
 tant from the sun than our earth, may still powerfully retain the 
 internal heat."* 
 
 Carbonate of lime, according to the concurring testimony of 
 all chemists, is composed of 43.6 of carbonic acid, and 56.4 of 
 lime.f 
 
 * Old Red Sandstone, pp. 81, 85, 113, 114116, 124126, 131133, 161. 
 t Dr. Ure's Chemical Dictionary, p. 245, &c. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 161 
 
 " M. de la Beche," says Prof. Buckland, "has recently published 
 a list of the specific gravity of living shells of different genera, from 
 which he shows that their weight and strength are varied in accom- 
 modation to the habits and habitations of the animals by which they 
 are respectively constructed The greatest observed den- 
 sity was that of a Helix, the smallest that of an Argonauta. The 
 shell of the lanthina, a floating, molluscous creature, is among the 
 smallest densities. The specific gravity of all the land shells ex- 
 amined was greater than that of Carara marble ; in general more 
 approaching to Arragonite. The fresh water and marine shells, with 
 the exception of the Argonauta, Nautilus, lanthina, Lithodomus, 
 Haliotus, and great radiated crystalline Teredo from the East Indies 
 exceeded Carara marble in density. This marble and the Haliotus 
 are of equal specific gravities."* 
 
 These expositions, therefore, show: 1st. That the prin- 
 cipal end attained by pulmonic respiration is to throw off, 
 through the medium of carbonic acid, a superfluous quantity 
 of carbon from the circulating system. 2nd. That respira- 
 tion by lungs necessarily implies the residence of the pos- 
 sessor in atmospheric air. 3rd. That the conchifera, mollusca, 
 cirripeda, zoophyta, and radiata are not furnished with lungs, 
 but with bronchiae of an extremely rudimentary description, 
 even in most of these classes ; that they are principally situated 
 within their shelly cavities, and are subject to the will of the 
 animal. 4. That the testacea secrete their shelly coverings, 
 by means of the corium, endogenously or by additional layers 
 from within, to which they are continually adding. 5. That 
 the heavy encasements of the ancient fish resembled more tlie 
 testaceous coverings of molluscs than the pliant and buoyant 
 scaly cuticles of recent fish ; and were adapted rather for crea- 
 tures inhabiting the profundity of an atmosphereless ocean, than 
 to sucb as are dependent for life on atmospheric air, and must 
 necssarily ascend occasionally to the aeriated strata of the 
 sea, or altogether to its surface. And lastly. That the shells 
 of testaceous tribes are principally composed of- carbonate of 
 lime, which, in turn, is a composition of carbonic acid and 
 lime, in the proportions of 44 and 56 in 100 parts ; while the 
 
 * De la Beche's Geological Researches, 1834, p. 76'. 
 M 
 
162 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 density, generally, of these shelly envelopes exceeds even that 
 of Carara marble. 
 
 An intimate connexion seems thus evidently to subsist be- 
 tween the non-existence of an atmosphere, the want of lungs, 
 and the formation and secretion (not the exhalation) of car- 
 bonic acid ; for, had carbon been required to have been ejected 
 through the medium of carbonic acid, lungs would not have 
 been denied to the tribes which then inhabited the water; 
 and if lungs, then a corresponding atmospheric medium. But 
 so far from lungs and an atmosphere being then conducive to 
 the plans of the Creator, we shall have occasion, presently, to 
 confess, that they would have been positively inimical, and, 
 therefore, they were withheld : for the great object then de- 
 sired was the formation of carbonate of lime. And carbonate 
 of lime was actually being accumulated by the instrumentality 
 of the internal functions of the testaceous tribes ; while it was, 
 at the same time, being transformed into their beautiful, se- 
 cure, and convenient envelopes ; thus exhibiting the goodness, 
 blended with the wisdom of God, for, that which yielded sup- 
 port, fixity, and defence against the pressure of the surrounding 
 element to these ancient submerged animals, was also so dis- 
 posed as to yield carbonate of lime in a ratio equal to that 
 which the periphery bears to the central bulk of any form what- 
 ever. 
 
 We have only to extend our researches a little farther, to 
 be convinced of the perfect adaptation of the means to the 
 end, and of the harmony which prevailed between the state of 
 animal life and of the earth at the period we allude to ; for, it 
 will be remembered, that carbonate of lime is composed of car- 
 bonic acid and lime. We have satisfactorily accounted for the 
 source and application of the carbonic acid ; to account for the 
 lime, we must come to the unavoidable conclusion that its 
 component elements were absorbed or extracted from a men- 
 struum holding it in combination ; for life, as we have seen, 
 animating forms which were either altogether fixed, or pos- 
 sessed only of restricted power of motion, and surrounded 
 by a tranquil medium, they had no other means of being 
 supplied with the elements of lime than by the water in 
 which they were immersed, while the tidal fluctuations of the 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 163 
 
 primitive ocean, occasioned by luni-solar influences, would be 
 the means of bringing successive parts of the water within the 
 reach of those which were absolutely fixed, and enable them 
 to abstract those elementary principles necessary for the for- 
 mation of carbonate of lime an assumption corroborated by 
 the fact that whatever may be the diversity of their form, or 
 their other constituent characteristics, carbonate of lime is 
 invariably found to compose a great proportion of their fossil- 
 ized remains. 
 
 The operation alluded to, so essential for their own well- 
 being ; so admirably adapted for the great end in view that 
 of combining in them, and by means of their animal secretion, 
 the requisite proportions of calcium with carbonic acid ; perhaps 
 we might even go farther, and say the formation by animal 
 agency of calcium itself, and then effecting its union with car- 
 bonic acid not only tended to abduct from the ancient ocean 
 the primary elements necessary to effect those purposes, but 
 by locking them up together, they became innocuous and in- 
 soluble, and capable of being preserved in that condition for 
 the requirements of future beings. The water was drained of 
 elements which, if left uncombined, would have been positively 
 hurtful to future life ; while, at the same time, the disturb- 
 ance of the chemical equilibrium which was thereby effected, 
 greatly tended, simultaneously, to promote the precipitation 
 of other materials from the ocean holding them in combination. 
 
 We wish it particularly to be borne in mind, that the per- 
 fect adaptation of the species of animal life to the then con- 
 dition, and to the progressive development of the earth's mate- 
 rial crust, was one of the means which most effectually pro- 
 moted and accelerated the whole operation. 
 
 By its being so planned, that the superflous, and conse- 
 quently the otherwise injurious portion of carbon taken into 
 the animal circulation should be got rid of, not by ejection, as 
 now done through the medium of gills and lungs, and by com- 
 bination with the oxygen of atmospheric air, but by internal 
 secretion, and being by the agency of the corium formed into 
 carbonic acid, and united with calcium into carbonate of lime, 
 the sub-aqueous surface of the earth, wherever it was deemed 
 requisite, became gradually enveloped by a calcareous crust 
 
 M 2 
 
164 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 composed of the exuviae of myriads of marine testacea, won- 
 derfully destined, while enjoying the successive functions of 
 their degree of animal life, to promote thereby the plans of 
 the Creator. These slow, but unerring instruments in the 
 work of calcareous elaboration, at the same time that they en- 
 coated themselves in their variegated shelly defences, unitedly 
 encrusted that portion of the sub-oceanic surface to which 
 many of them were affixed for life, and others nearly so, by 
 the unalterable and wise decree of the Omnipotent. While 
 they were thus destined and occupied, and well adapted by 
 their species to the then condition of the surrounding creation, 
 there appear to have been other concomitant objects wrought 
 out by the agency of those animal elaborators. They were, 
 as we have already so frequently asserted, and shall, by and 
 by further insist upon, the only means which could be em- 
 ployed to disturb the chemical equilibrium of the water, and, 
 thereby, to promote precipitation of other elements besides 
 those required for their own outward defences. They were 
 also producing and accumulating molluscous animal matter, of 
 which one peculiar ingredient, after they had become extinct, 
 assumed almost an etherial buoyancy, and ascended through 
 the mass of waters to the very surface ; nay, we might even 
 venture to assert, throughout the whole of intervening space, 
 to constitute the material bases of the etherial fluid, or of the 
 primary light ; there to await the further development of the 
 great plan of Creation. All these ends, so essential to the 
 object then in view, seem to have been intimately connected 
 with partial or total immovability of construction ; fixation, or 
 degrees of fixation, could alone ensure the encrusting of the 
 earth where such was necessary. The profundity of the ocean 
 was the only locality where this could be done by a living 
 agency; Water the only medium for holding the requisite 
 component elements in suspension, in equality throughout, and 
 in adaptation for being readily imparted in the quantities and 
 proportions required by animal life successively developed ; 
 Vacuum , or the absence of the atmosphere, the most effectual 
 means for the perfect retention of these accumulated exhala- 
 tions, associated with the primitive waters ; whilst on the part 
 of its inhabitants fixation being so indispensable, movement 
 
.FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 165 
 
 or fluctuation of the surrounding and containing fluid became " 
 as essential ; hence the adaptation of the luni-solar current, 
 which, even before the illumination of the sun, or the diurnal 
 motion of the earth, must have been continually flowing round 
 the non-rotating sphere. 
 
 Fortunately for the perfect establishment of the position 
 which we have assumed, the presumptive evidence arising by 
 contrast from the supposition of an opposite state of animal 
 life during the period we allude to, when the several suits of 
 strata were in progress of formation and enduration, is as con- 
 clusive in our favour. Animals endowed with locomotion (even 
 could they have existed, which, before the atmosphere was 
 formed, we consider impossible), would not have been adapted 
 for the object designed. Had they been swift, free, swim- 
 ming creatures, they must have been of nearly equal specific 
 gravity with the element in which they moved ; consequently, 
 could not have been encased in a shelly coating of carbonate 
 of lime weighing 2.7, or nearly three times the weight of the 
 same bulk of water.* Deprived of this solid covering they 
 would have left no calcareous exuviae to promote the object 
 for which the testacea, zoophyta, &c., were willed into exist- 
 ence. Had they been without this shelly defence against the 
 pressure of an ocean, such a state would have been incon- 
 sistent with the goodness of God. On the other hand, had 
 they been provided with ponderous testaceous coatings, and, 
 at the same time, furnished with pulmonary organs befitting 
 locomotion, and endowed with senses, organs, and perceptions 
 of a higher grade of animal life, this condition, also, would 
 have been at variance with our conceptions of the justice and 
 benignity of the common Creator of the universe. For, how 
 nugatory would have been the power of freely moving at will, 
 whilst under such a load, without the requisite atmospheric 
 air or light to have enabled them to use their faculties of mo- 
 tion ! 
 
 Nor will the difficulties, under this suppositional view of 
 the case, be in any degree lessened by supposing that many 
 of the animals of the primitive ocean were akin to the Cepha- 
 
 * Ure's Chemical Dictionary, p. 245. 
 
166 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 lopoda, such as the ammonitic exuviae have led some to sup- 
 pose ; for even in that case, they would have been dependent 
 on atmospheric air to have assisted them in transporting freely 
 from place to place their shelly abodes a dependence which 
 puts an end to the supposition of such a conformation, the at- 
 mosphere not having been then in existence. On the other 
 hand, all these irreconcileable anomalies vanish when we as- 
 sume the living creatures, which dwelt at the bottom of the 
 primeval waters, to have consisted of those which are either 
 incapable of locomotion, or only partially endowed with that 
 faculty, and impelled by water. Their conformation and habits 
 are in perfect accordance with the state of the world at that 
 time, and with all its attendant circumstances. Light and dark- 
 ness are equally the same to them. They are not dependent 
 on atmospheric air. Their wants are amply supplied by the 
 carrier water wherein they dwell ; whilst, in the particular 
 instance to which we allude, all that was going on within these 
 zoophytic and testaceous creatures, every atom of matter which 
 they assimilated to their molluscous bodies, or to their zoophytic 
 or testaceous coverings, was an atom added to and towards the 
 promotion of the work then going on : for ages every pulsation 
 which took place in their imperfect circulating system along 
 the whole underline of the dark and silent waters was a beat to- 
 wards the accomplishment of the great plan of Creation ! And, 
 when that work was so far accomplished as afterwards to admit 
 of its being completed, and when it pleased the Omnipotent to 
 reveal to us the very words in which His commands were given 
 for that purpose, we find no discrepancy even there, between 
 what we have supposed and what actually took place : for, with 
 an evident foreknowledge of their pre-existence, they were stu- 
 diously and deliberately excluded from the Command which, on 
 the fifth and sixth days of the Mosaic week, willed all the 
 remaining tribes of animal beings into existence. True to the 
 fiat of the Creator, " the waters' and " the earth" produced on 
 those days " the moving creature that hath life ; fowl that may fly 
 in the open firmament of heaven ; cattle, and creeping thing, 
 and beast of the earth after his kind ;" all of them being animals 
 possessing powers of free locomotion, dependent on atmospheric 
 air and influences ; and which, in union with those previously 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 167 
 
 created " in the beginning" completed the animal kingdom, as 
 it is now known to be. 
 
 As a summary of the whole of this part of our argument, 
 and in addition to what we have been made aware of the 
 effective adaptation of the particular description of animal life 
 which has been assumed, for the furtherance of the work then 
 required ; and, while we firmly assert that the primeval atmos- 
 phereless waters were the abode of innumerable tribes of living 
 creatures, we as firmly believe that not one of them could 
 accelerate its own movements at will by means of aeriated 
 blood; and, notwithstanding, that myriads of animals had, 
 for ages, encrusted the bottom of the ocean, there was not, 
 until the fifth and sixth days of the Mosaic week, a pair of 
 perfect gills or lungs within the whole range of the solar 
 system ! 
 
 Although, after what has been so clearly and circumstantially 
 stated, and considering the lists of organic remains which have 
 been adduced, it is not very probable that any well-founded 
 doubt can exist respecting the origin of the calcareous forma- 
 tions; or the important part which the exuviae of marine animals 
 have exercised in their construction ; yet, to defend ourselves 
 against the possibility of any such lurking suspicion in the 
 mind, and to put the matter in the clearest possible point of 
 view, we shall have recourse to part of the sixteenth Theorem, 
 and to some of its innumerable authorities. The former as- 
 serts That with the exception of some of the inferior, the stra- 
 tified rocks contain innumerable vestiges of vegetable, animal, 
 and zoophytic remains Some of which are of gigan- 
 tic dimensions in comparison with recent equivalents 
 
 And that they have by their exuvite contributed largely to the 
 formation of the carboniferous and calcareous strata. The 
 calcareous matter increasing in an ascending series, yet found 
 to be, during every epoch, precisely similar in its component 
 elements. 
 
 It likewise forms a part of the hundredth Theorem, in regard 
 to lime itself, which is, by many, considered to be the product 
 of animal secretion. 
 
 In giving the evidences, we shall restrict ourselves to those 
 having reference to animal remains. The fossilized vestiges 
 
168 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 of vegetation will occupy our attention in their proper place. 
 To proceed : 
 
 " The origin of the limestones," says M. de la Beche, " is of far 
 more difficult explanation than the sandstones and slates in which 
 they are included. We cannot well seek it in the destruction of 
 pre-existing calcareous rocks ; for, as far as our knowledge extends, 
 such rocks are of comparative rarity among the older strata. In 
 fact, the quantity of calcareous matter present in the grauwacke 
 group greatly exceeds that discovered in the older rocks ; and the 
 same remark applies to many of the newer deposits when considered 
 with reference to the grauwacke series. If we take the mass of de- 
 posits, up to the chalk inclusive, we shall find that, instead of a 
 decrease of carbonate of lime, such as we should expect if that con- 
 tained in each deposit originated solely from the destruction of pre- 
 existing limestones, the calcareous matter is more ahundant in the 
 upper than in the lower parts of the mass ; and we may hence con- 
 clude that this explanation is insufficient. 
 
 " If, as has been done with other limestones, we attribute the 
 origin of the grauwacke limestone in a great measure to the exuviae 
 of testaceous animals and polypifers, we must grant the animals car- 
 bonate of lime with which to construct their shells and solid habita- 
 tions. This they may have obtained either in their food, or from 
 the medium in which they existed. The marine vegetables are not 
 likely to have supplied them with a greater abundance of carbonate 
 of lime at that time than at present. Those that were carnivorous 
 might acquire much carbonate of lime by devouring other animals 
 more or less possessed of this substance ; but the difficulty is by no 
 means lessened by this explanation ; for the creatures devoured must 
 have procured the lime somewhere . It would appear that we should 
 look to the medium in which testaceous animals and polypifers ex- 
 isted, for the greater proportion, if not all, of the carbonate of lime 
 
 with which they constructed their shells and habitations 
 
 This supposition would lead us to expect, that as the sea was gra- 
 dually deprived of its carbonate of lime, limestone deposits would 
 become less and less abundant ; and, consequently, that calcareous 
 rocks would be most common when circumstances were most favour- 
 able, that is to say, during the formation of the older rocks. This, 
 however, is precisely the reverse of what has happened. Hence we 
 may infer that the origin of the mass of limestone deposits must be 
 sought otherwise than in the attrition or solution of older and stra- 
 
FORMATION OF THE DEARTH. 169 
 
 tified rocks, or from the exuviae of marine animals deriving their 
 solid parts from a sea which has gradually been deprived of nearly 
 
 all its carbonate of lime 
 
 " It has been usual to consider the lime of calcareous deposits as 
 derived from limestone rocks, through which waters charged with 
 carbonic acid percolated ; the carbonic acid dissolving a certain por- 
 tion of the lime, which is thus held in solution by the water until it 
 reaches the surface, where it is thrown down in the shape of lime- 
 stone. 
 
 " This explanation may suffice for the small deposits we observe 
 in calcareous countries ; but it is insufficient for the productions of 
 limestones generally : for it assumes that the solution of a small 
 quantity of lime obtained from older rocks is, as previously noticed, 
 capable of producing an immense deposit of the same substance. 
 
 Lime has been derived somewhere ; and we have reason 
 
 to believe from the interior of the earth ; otherwise there is a diffi- 
 culty in explaining the observed phenomena It is also 
 
 worthy of attention that when the limestones occur, then also do 
 the organic remains generally become more abundant, appearing as 
 if the calcareous rocks and the organic remains were connected with 
 each other. 
 
 " That the animals, by secreting carbonate of lime from the me- 
 dium in which they lived, somehow contributed considerably to the 
 mass, we are certain, as their remains now constitute a large portion 
 of it ; but that they were the means through which all the carbonate 
 of lime was derived from the waters may very justly be doubted ; 
 more particularly as in certain districts not a trace of animal exuviae 
 can be detected in such limestones.* If carbonate of lime were 
 present in some situations and not in others, animals such as the 
 Crinoidea, Testacea, and Polypifers, would naturally flourish more 
 in the former than in the latter, as they could there more readily 
 obtain the lime necessary for them ; and we should, consequently, 
 expect to find the remains more common there than elsewhere. In 
 limestones devoid of organic remains we appear to have evidence of 
 carbonate of lime being abundant in such situations unconnected 
 with animal life ; and we may consider it derived from the interior 
 and dispersed through the waters over a given space, where it has 
 
 * The augmented powers of the microscope have done much since this para- 
 graph was written'to display the existence of animal remains where none was 
 before suspected. AUTHOR. 
 
170 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 been gradually deposited. When, however, the remains of shells 
 and corals are present, and nearly constitute the mass of the rock, 
 other causes may have produced the effects required, precisely as 
 coral reefs and accumulations of shells now occur in one place and 
 not in another, either in consequence of shelter, proximity to the 
 surface of the sea, or other favorable circumstances."* 
 
 And again M. de la Beche proceeds : 
 
 " To discover that there may have been some connection between 
 the animals with solid parts, and a facility of procuring carbonate of 
 lime on the surface of the globe, appears perfectly consistent with 
 the design manifested in the creation ; because it asumes such de- 
 sign at all periods, and constant harmony between the forms of 
 creatures and their mode of existence. If we imagine a mass of 
 animals to be suddenly called into life, each properly provided with its 
 solid parts, the carbonate of lime contained in these bodies would 
 no doubt be sufficient for a constant quantity of the same animal 
 during a succession of ages; for, by devouring each other, this 
 necessary substance would be transmitted from one creature to 
 another. We are, however, certain that this has not been the case ; 
 for the solid parts of animals which have been successively imbedded 
 in various rocks, constitute a very large proportion of certain of those 
 rocks, and, if withdrawn from the fossilliferous deposits generally, 
 would very considerably diminish their thickness. Therefore, if the 
 exuviae of animals had not been entombed, and if the supply of 
 carbonate of lime had not been greater than that which could have 
 been derived from a mere destruction of one animal by another for 
 the purpose of food, the surface of our planet would not have been 
 what it now is ; and, consequently, the fitness of things for the end 
 proposed being constant in creation, the general condition of animal 
 and vegetable life would not have been such as we now find it."f 
 
 The opinion of Dr. McCulloch respecting the origin of 
 limestone formations is very interesting, as he has directed his 
 attention closely to that branch of geological research ; and, 
 with much satisfaction, therefore, we have selected the fol- 
 lowing apposite passages from amongst innumerable others in 
 his late publication : 
 
 " The formation of coral islands proves that enormous and solid 
 
 * Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, pp. 450452. t Ibid, p. 459. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 171 
 
 masses of calcareous rock are the produce of animals alone ; and 
 when we reflect on the magnitude of some of these, we have no 
 reason to be surprised at the extent of those rocks which, among 
 the secondary strata, are composed chiefly of shells. Were we even 
 to suppose that every particle of the largest bed of limestone known 
 was originally part of a shell, we should, as far as the bulk of the mass 
 is concemed, assume nothing that would be discountenanced by the 
 magnitude of the great coral reef of New Holland. If the most 
 minute animals of creation can thus by their numbers execute, 
 unassisted, works of such enormous magnitude, and, as navigators 
 think, within spaces of time comparatively limited, it is far from 
 unreasonable to believe that the succession, through unnumbered 
 ages, of animals so far exceeding these in bulk, and in the relative 
 quantity of their calcareous produce, should have generated all the 
 calcareous strata in the secondary series. 
 
 " It is not necessary here to ask whence the calcareous matter has 
 been derived, or to suppose that it is an animal product. That 
 difficulty is at present, unquestionably, insurmountable ; but in this 
 case it is of no moment. It can form no objection to the power of 
 oysters or pectines in producing, by their own energies, a bed of 
 limestone ; because the fact, however inexplicable, is rendered un- 
 questionable by the generation of coral from sea water 
 
 " Thus it may fairly be inferred, that while the siliceous and ar- 
 gillaceous secondary strata have been formed from the ruins of more 
 ancient rocks, a large part, at least, of the calcareous is the produce 
 of animals. Hence, also, it must appear, that from the operations 
 of animals, the quantity of calcareous earth deposited in the form of 
 mud or stone, is always increasing ; and that, as the series far ex- 
 ceeds the primary in this respect, so a third series, should one here- 
 after arise from the depths of the sea, will exceed the last in the 
 proportion of its calcareous strata 
 
 " The arenaceous and argillaceous rocks have been generated 
 from the ruin of former ones, and the limestones are the produce of 
 
 animals Considering that the degredation of land can 
 
 never have ceased, I see no means of accounting for deep limestone 
 masses, unmixed with arenaceous and argillaceous strata, except by 
 considering these as the coral banks of a former earth ; the present 
 ones being the obvious types of the past, as they are the only lime- 
 stone formations with which other strata cannot alternate. And 
 that opinion is justified by the predominance of corals in these ; 
 while if they also contain shells, this is no more than occurs in the 
 
172 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 present coral reefs. Co-relatively, where limestone beds alternate 
 much with arenaceous and argillaceous strata, the conclusion must 
 be, that these were formed chiefly by colonies or beds of shell fishes, 
 while that opinion is also sufficiently borne out by the nature of the 
 
 embedded fossils 
 
 "In applying this reasoning, therefore, to the lias of England, 
 the obvious inference is, that after the deposition of the red marl, 
 an increase of the organic creation became the source of the calca- 
 reous beds in this series ; while being as yet but few, in comparison 
 to what their power of propagation was hereafter to render them, the 
 argillaceous and arenaceous deposits from the submarine land bore 
 a larger proportion to them than in that subsequent condition in 
 which the series of the oolite was formed. There is no mystery in 
 these calcareous beds, or in this intermixture. The colony of 
 animals, wherever existing, formed the limestone ; it was a less 
 rapidly populous one at its commencement than afterwards ; and 
 thence are the limestones more scanty below than above, compared 
 to the other associated strata : while, when it was extirpated, from 
 whatever causes, the deposition of the land, always proceeding, 
 formed the intervening strata, separated into land and clay in the 
 usual manner, until the re-establishment of a new colony enabled a 
 new calcareous bed to be formed."* 
 
 The celebrated naturalist Lamark, in one of his works, 
 affords also the following interesting evidence on this point : 
 
 " The meliolites is a shell of most singular form, and perhaps one 
 the most interesting to study, on account of its multiplicity in nature, 
 and the influence which it has upon the condition and size of the 
 masses at the surface of the earth, or which compose its external 
 crust. It is one of those numerous examples which prove that, in 
 producing living bodies, what nature seems to lose in size, she fully 
 regains in the number of individuals, which she multiplies to infinity, 
 and with a readiness almost miraculous. The bodies of these minute 
 animals exert more influence on the condition of the masses com- 
 posing the earth's surface, than those of the largest animals, such as 
 elephants, hippotami, whales, &c,, which, although constituting much 
 larger individual masses, are infinitely less multiplied in nature. In 
 the environs of Paris, some species of meliolites are so numerous, 
 
 * Geology, by Dr. McCulloch, vol. i. pp. 216219, and vol. ii. pp. 256', 257, 
 261, 262 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 173 
 
 that they form almost the principal part of the stony masses of 
 certain ranges." 
 
 Mr. Lyell says 
 
 " No shells are more usually perfect than the microscopic, which 
 abound near Sienna, where more than a thousand full-grown indi- 
 viduals are sometimes poured out of the interior of a single univalve 
 of moderate dimensions." 
 
 Again 
 
 " The testacea, of which so great a variety of species occur in the 
 sea, are a class of animals of peculiar importance to the geologist, 
 because their remains are found in strata of all ages, and generally 
 in a higher state of preservation than those of other organic beings. 
 Climate has a decided influence on the geographical distribution of 
 species in this class ; but as there is much greater uniformity of the 
 temperature in the waters of the ocean than in the atmosphere which 
 invests the land, the diffusion of many marine molluscs is ex- 
 tensive." 
 
 He further states 
 
 " A modern writer has attempted to revive the theory of some of 
 the earlier geologists, that all limestones have originated in organised 
 substances. ' If we examine,' he says, * the quantity of limestone 
 in the primary strata, it will be found to bear a much smaller pro- 
 portion to the siliceous and argillaceous rocks than the secondary, and 
 this may have some connection with the rarity of testaceous animals 
 in the ancient ocean.' He further infers that in consequence of the 
 operations of animals, * the quantity of calcareous earth deposited in 
 the form of mud or stone is always increasing ; and that as the 
 secondary series far exceeds the primary in this respect, so a third 
 series may hereafter arise from the depths of the sea, which may ex- 
 ceed the last in the proportion of its calcareous strata.' 
 
 " If these propositions went no farther than to suggest that every 
 particle of lime that now enters into the crust of the globe, may 
 possibly in its turn have been subservient to the purposes of life by 
 entering into the composition of organized bodies, we should not 
 deem the speculation improbable ; but when it is hinted that lime 
 may be an animal product combined by the powers of vitality from 
 some simple elements, we can discover no sufficient grounds for such 
 an hypothesis, and many facts which militate against it." .... 
 
174 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 In conclusion Mr. Lyell says 
 
 " So wonderfully minute are the separate parts of which some of 
 the most massive geological monuments are made up ! When we 
 desire to classify, it is necessary to contemplate entire groups of 
 strata in the aggregate ; but if we wish to understand the mode of 
 their formation, and to explain their origin, we must think only of 
 the minute subdivisions of which each mass is composed. We must 
 bear in mind how many thin, leaf-like seams of matter, each contain- 
 ing the remains of myriads of testacea and plants, frequently enter 
 into the composition of a single stratum, and how great a succession 
 of these strata unite to form a single group ! We must remember, 
 also, that volcanoes like the Plombdu Cantal, which rises in the im- 
 mediate neighbourhood of Aurillac, are equally the result of suc- 
 cessive accumulation, consisting of reiterated flows of lava and 
 showers of scoriae ; and we have shown, when we treated of the high 
 antiquity of Etna, how many distinct lava-currents, and heaps of 
 ejected substances are required to make up one of the numerous 
 conical envelopes whereof a volcano is composed. Lastly, we must 
 not forget that continents and mountain chains, colossal as are their 
 dimensions, are nothing more than an assemblage of many such 
 igneous and aqueous groups, formed also in succession during an in- 
 definite lapse of ages, and superimposed upon each other."* 
 
 Mr. Miller, in his usual graphic style, affords the following 
 evidence :f 
 
 " Of late," says he, " the geologist has learned from Murchison to 
 distinguish the rocks of these two great geological periods the 
 lower as those of the Cambrian, the upper as those of the Silurian 
 group. The lower representative of the first glimmering twilight 
 of being of a dawn so feeble that it may seem doubtful whether, in 
 reality, the gloom had lightened must still be regarded as a period 
 of uncertainty. Its ripple-marked sandstones, and its half-coherent 
 accumulations of dark coloured strata, which decompose into mud, 
 show that every one of its many planes must have formed in suc- 
 cession an upper surface of the bottom of the sea In one 
 
 locality it would seem as if a few worms had crawled to the surface, 
 
 * Principles of Geology, vol. ii. pp. 307310. vol. iii. pp. 47, 163, 239, 240. 
 
 t In order to adapt this passage to our work, and the object we have in 
 view, we have very reluctantly been obliged to abstract it more than we other- 
 wise should have wished. AUTHOR. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 175 
 
 and left their involved and tortuous folds doubtfully impressed on 
 the stone But even these worms of the Cambrian sys- 
 tem can scarcely be regarded as established There is less 
 
 doubt, however, regarding the existence of the upper group of 
 rocks the Silurian. 
 
 " The depth of this group, as estimated by Mr. Murchison, is 
 equal to double the height of our highest Scottish mountains. 
 And four distinct platforms of beings range in it, the one over the 
 other, like storeys in a building. Life abounds in all these plat- 
 forms, and in shapes the most wonderful : the peculiar encrinites of 
 the group rose in miniature forests, and spread forth their sentient 
 petals by millions and tens of millions amid the waters ; vast ridges 
 of corals, peopled by their innumerable builders numbers without 
 number rose high amid the shallows ; the chambered shells had 
 become abundant the simpler testaceae more so ; extinct forms of 
 the graptolite or sea-pen existed by myriads ; and the formation had 
 a class of creatures in advance of the many-legged annelids of the 
 other. It had its numerous family of trilobites crustaceans nearly 
 as high in the scale as the common crab creatures with crescent- 
 shaped heads, and jointed bodies, and wonderfully constructed eyes, 
 which, like the eyes of the bee and the butterfly, had the cornea 
 cut into facets resembling those of the multiplying glass 
 
 " The locomotive powers of the trilobite seem to have been little 
 superior to those of the chiton (which in many other respects it very 
 much resembled). If furnished with legs at all, it must have been 
 with soft rudimentary membranaceous legs, little fitted for walking 
 with ; and it seems quite as probable, from the peculiarly shaped 
 under margin of its shell, formed like that of the chiton for adhering 
 to flat surfaces, that, like the slug and the snail, it was unfurnished 
 with legs of any kind and crept on the abdomen 
 
 "Another and superior order of existences had sprung into being 
 at the fiat of the Creator creatures with the brain lodged in the 
 head and the spinal cord enclosed in a vertebrated column. In the 
 period of the upper Silurian, fish properly so called, and of very 
 perfect organization, had become denizens of the watery element, 
 and had taken precedence of the crustacean, as, at a period long 
 previous, the crustacean had taken precedence of the annelid. . . . 
 
 " The fish bed of the upper Ludlow Rock abounds more in osseous 
 remains than an ancient bury ing-ground. The stratum, over a wide 
 area, seems an almost continuous layer of matted bones, jaws, teeth, 
 spines, scales, palatial plates, and shagreen-like prickles, all massed 
 
176 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 together, and converted into a substance of so deep and shining a jet 
 colour, that the bed, when * first discovered, conveyed the impression,' 
 says Mr. Murchison, * that it enclosed a triturated heap of black 
 beetles.' And such are the remains of what seem to have been the 
 first existing vertebrata. 
 
 " Thus ere our history begins, the existence of two great systems, 
 the Cambrian and the Silurian, had passed into extinction, with the 
 exception of what seem a few connecting links, exclusively molluscs, 
 that are found in England to pass from the higher beds of the 
 Ludlow Rocks into the lower or Tilestone beds of the old Red 
 Sandstone."* 
 
 " The exuviae of at least four platforms of being lay entombed, 
 furlong below furlong, amid the grey mouldering mud stones, the 
 harder arenaceous beds, the consolidated clays, and the concretionary 
 limestones, that underlay the ancient ocean of the Lower Old Red. 
 The earth had already become a vast sepulchre, to a depth beneath 
 the bed of the sea equal to at least twice the heighth of Ben Nevis 
 over its surface. "-j~ 
 
 These extracts from the writings of geologists who have 
 given the subject their careful attention, both in situ, in the 
 field of labour, as well as in the retirement of their closets, can- 
 not fail to be otherwise than conclusive and convincing to every 
 one of the paramount influence which the fossil exuvice of ma- 
 rine animals have exercised in the formation of calcareous 
 strata. 
 
 The derivation of the elements which enter into the compo- 
 sition of the carbonate of lime, of which those remains consist ; 
 or whether this, or even calcium itself, be or be not the pro- 
 duct of animal vitality and secretion, do not affect the main 
 question so long as it is unanimously admitted by all that the 
 greater proportion of the calcareous and calcareo-argillaceous 
 deposits are composed of the fossilized remains of what once 
 were living creatures. 
 
 * Note by Mr. Miller. " Upwards of eight hundred extinct species of animals 
 have been discribed as belonging to the earliest, or Potozoic and Silurian period, 
 and of these only about one hundred are found in the overlying Devonian 
 period, while but fifteen are common to the whole palaeozoic period, and not 
 one extends beyond it." M. de Verneuil and Count D'Archiac quoted by Mr. 
 D. T. Ansted, 1844.) 
 
 f Old Red Sandstone, 3rd edition, pp. 266 272. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 177 
 
 We could, were it in any way conducive to the scope of 
 our general argument, bring forward numerous evidences in 
 favour of opposing hypotheses regarding the source of the cal- 
 careous material of which these rocks are composed. We 
 might find men, apparently equally competent to judge, 
 bringing forward facts and instituting arguments to prove 
 assumptions quite incompatible with each other ; but as most 
 of those investigations interesting for the research they dis- 
 play, and the facts they abound with, adduced from personal 
 experience are based upon, and have reference to causes now 
 in operation, they do not affect our general subject any fur- 
 ther than by shewing, that animal agency is still requisite to 
 preserve " the Seas" in that normal state of purity to which 
 the primeval waters were brought, before the Creator consi- 
 dered them fit to be separated from the " dry land." 
 
 The evidence which conclusively proves that tuifa and cal- 
 careous marl are accumulated only in those lakes and other 
 receptacles of water into which springs flow, which percolate 
 through the surrounding formations, supposed to consist of 
 similar material, may, with equal effect, be employed to demon- 
 strate the expediency, nay, the necessity of polypifers and 
 conchiferous molluscs being made instrumental, on a more ex- 
 tensive scale, in freeing the wide tropical oceans of that super- 
 abundance of lime which their heated waters cannot sustain : 
 for the well-established, though anomalous fact in chemistry, 
 that water, when warm, dissolves less lime than when cold* 
 should not be overlooked in any hypothesis connected with 
 this subject, and especially in any attempt to account for the 
 increase of calcareous deposits in proportion as they approach 
 the exterior of the Earth's outer crust. To this to the ma- 
 terial increase of numbers which marine animals, when un- 
 molested, undergo by propagation and to the immense mass 
 of limestone debris which, in common with that of other rocks, 
 would be spread abroad by the centrifugal impetus of the first 
 rotation, we feel disposed to attribute the greater abundance 
 and more general prevalence of calcareous matter, according as 
 the formations are more recent. 
 
 * The hundredth Theorem. 
 
 N 
 
178 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 The admission which thus seems so irresistible that the 
 primitive waters contained the elements, and that apulmonic 
 animal life became, by secretion, the active agency by which 
 those elements were gradually abstracted from the surrounding 
 medium, accords so admirably with the conception of the re- 
 ciprocal influence of the liquid upon the solid portions of the 
 globe the one contributing towards the formation of the 
 other, and the perfecting of both being the result of their 
 mutual progress that we cannot, if we would, separate them 
 from each other in our imagination. We cannot conceive 
 otherwise than that the deposition from the primitive men- 
 struum was as indispensable towards the purification of the 
 waters, and to prepare them for becoming " the seas' of the 
 present day, as that the rocky material was requisite for the 
 completion of the solid strata which was being formed beneath. 
 It was, in fact, the same operation. What the primitive 
 ocean resigned to render it the sea, the mineral bed beneath 
 acquired to solidify it into a rocky stratum ; whenever the in- 
 terchange became sluggish, by the aqueous medium assuming 
 a static condition of equilibrium, to which chemical compounds 
 in large masses are ever prone, fresh excitement was given to 
 the work of progression by the creation of a more searching 
 and influential race of animal existences. The equilibrium 
 by this means became disturbed, and the abstraction and solidi- 
 fication again went on. That this is in strict consistency with 
 the opinions generally entertained at the present day, we must 
 be allowed to insist upon. No one for a moment doubts that 
 the stratified masses underwent a protracted course of pro- 
 gressive preparation to fit them for the important part which 
 they had to perform in the economy of the earth's formation ; 
 and we can, therefore, recognise no just cause to deny to the 
 less consistent oceanic waters, which also were from " the be- 
 ginning," the necessity of undergoing some analogous process 
 of preparation to enable them also to perform their part in the 
 newer economy, when the earth should be no longer slumber- 
 ing without rotatory motion, and bearing them tranquilly over 
 all its surface ; but when they should be confined within nar- 
 rower troughs of much greater profundity, and be the limpid, 
 sparkling seas of our present day. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 179 
 
 We can conceive no other condition of the primitive waters 
 and of the earth before their present states were conferred 
 upon each of them, but if any one else can, let him come for- 
 ward and clearly demonstrate it. Meanwhile, in corroboration 
 of our opinion, we shall, without adducing any of the evidences, 
 recapitulate the words of the ninety -seventh Theorem. 
 
 That geologists generally concur in the opinion, that the sea 
 is the residium of a primitive ocean, which, at one time or 
 other, seems to have covered the dry land which now constitutes 
 the habitable surface of the globe. That from it were deposited 
 the mineral ingredients which compose the inorganic portion 
 of the stratiform masses of the earth. That this separation 
 simultaneously prepared the primitive ocean for becoming the 
 present sea. And, lastly, it has been maintained, especially 
 by some of the earlier geologists, "That there are no operations 
 now taking place in the sea, which bear the slightest analogy 
 to those productions of mineral substances in strata which took 
 place formerly on our globe." 
 
 We have only now to take into consideration the circum- 
 stance of the calcareous formations increasing in an ascending 
 series from the grauwacke to the chalk inclusive, and to com- 
 pare this with the analogy of the natural increase of apulmonic 
 animal life, in order to be convinced that there exists an inti- 
 mate connexion between them. 
 
 The horizontality of surface of the primitive earth, assumed 
 to be a perfect sphere surrounded everywhere by an equal 
 depth of water,* entirely precludes any recourse being had to 
 the supposed influence during the non-rotatory period of 
 springs, volcanoes, fissures, or disintegration. To be consistent 
 we must discard them from all arguments having reference to 
 that period and condition of our globe ; however much we 
 may be disposed to admit the influential part they perform at 
 present, and under entirely different circumstances, in sup- 
 plying our seas, lakes, and rivers with the calcareous material 
 required by their present inhabitants to fabricate their shelly 
 
 * The surface of a sphere whose diameter is 8,000 miles, may, for all prac- 
 tical purposes, be considered level. When we say " an equal depth of water," 
 we do so irrespective of the luni-solar wave which travelled round the non- 
 rotatoring earth. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 and beautifully diversified coverings. In the former economy 
 we must alone look to the important uses which were made of 
 apulmonic animal life, testaceous and zoophy tic, for the proper 
 explanation of the phenomenon in question. Deposition from 
 the primeval ocean, chemically charged with numerous ingre- 
 dients possessing different degrees of affinity for each other, 
 was a principal object sought ; but, in a chemical compound of 
 inert matter, when once the affinities of the several ingredients 
 are satisfied or completed (and to this state, after every partial 
 disturbance whether this be effected by the abstraction of 
 some materials, or the addition of others compounds are ever 
 prone to recur), the static condition of the equilibrium they 
 assume, cannot, of themselves, be altered, for " matter can 
 neither generate motion nor change in itself, nor alter the di- 
 rection or the velocity of that which may be impressed upon 
 it ;" and we must, therefore, of necessity, look to some other 
 sufficient cause a cause independent of the medium itself 
 for the disturbance of the equilibrium, and the acceleration of 
 the deposition of the material held in solution. It appears, 
 from the concurring evidence of all geologists, that the forma- 
 tion of calcareous matter went on increasing in an ascending 
 series, and we should, therefore, look for a power which also 
 went on augmenting. An inert precipitate, falling from a 
 mass where chemical affinity was tending thereby to produce 
 an equilibrium amongst its ingredients, would have gradually 
 declined in energy. 
 
 A local living agency, radiating from foci of creation, repro- 
 ducing themselves with that rapidity which comparative secu- 
 rity" from the rapacity of other creatures permits; coating 
 themselves with carbonate of lime, as we see them now do, 
 whose component elements they abstracted from the surround- 
 ing medium ; and, by these increments of abstraction, occa- 
 sioning a simultaneous deposition of other ingredients from the 
 primitive ocean, seem to fulfil all the conditions of the problem, 
 and to leave no desideratum unsatisfied ; so that we can hardly 
 acknowledge the necessity of seeking for any cause beyond the 
 agency of the testaceous and zoophytic animals with which, 
 as we have so clearly demonstrated, the submarine surface of 
 the earth was densely encrusted ; and more especially so, as 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 181 
 
 this, which forces itself so strongly upon our notice, may be 
 considered competent to have produced the effect. This con- 
 viction will be materially strengthened when we come to 
 adduce the analogous fact, placed on clear, undeniable record, 
 that the Vaters were commanded, and immediately did produce 
 the more recent congeners of those testacese and zoophyta. For, 
 upon the presumed principle that no secondary agent of the 
 Creator was ever called upon to perform any part of the great 
 work of creation without having the necessary materials placed 
 at its disposal, we are led, by analogy, to conclude, in corrobo- 
 ration of our previous position, that the primitive waters of 
 our sphere, before rotation was impressed on it, did contain 
 those elements which, by the enduring, tranquil agency of 
 the more simple forms of marine animal life, produced those 
 vast and pervading calcareous coatings of the earth's mineral 
 crust which, unless we knew the effects of persevering indus- 
 try, we might be apt to consider entirely disproportionate to 
 their puny powers. 
 
 The consideration of these wonderful facts, however, and of 
 the well-authenticated circumstance of the prevalence at the 
 bottom of the ancient ocean of innumerable living forms, 
 which we know, from their exuviae, did encrust themselves 
 with carbonate of lime, will, when taken in combination, 
 strengthen our belief as to the importance of the labour which 
 they performed, and the danger of either undervaluing it, or 
 of ascribing it to other origin ; otherwise we shall not only 
 overlook a very important and influential secondary cause, but 
 omit to attribute to that cause a commensurate effect. In a 
 subsequent part of this treatise we shall have occasion to show, 
 in continuation of what has already been stated, that, in ad- 
 dition to the work assigned to these successive races and forms 
 of apulmonic creatures of encrusting the shell of the earth 
 with carbonate of lime at the bottom of the primitive ocean 
 they were destined, all the while, by the wisdom of the Creator, 
 to produce a peculiar animal secretion, required for the for- 
 mation of the life-sustaining atmosphere, and designed to be 
 associated in it with another, without which no air-breathing 
 animal could, for one moment, have existed. 
 
 And that, however wonderful this arrangement may seem, 
 
182 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 it is equalled only by the wise forethought which devised that 
 this subtile and buoyant element should, in its primary form, 
 have been produced and set free at the bottom of the ocean ; 
 its ascent, as it percolated in this state through the super- 
 incumbent waters, contributing very essentially to the work 
 of precipitation which was then going forward throughout 
 their whole expanse. 
 
 We trust it may not be out of place to endeavour, here, to 
 generalize the evidence which we have gone through in detail 
 as far as it bears upon the necessity if we may be allowed so 
 to express ourselves for there having been a succession of 
 sub-marine animal life, to ensure the success of the co-relative 
 operation during the protracted process of encrustation with 
 calcareous material and the purification of the waters. 
 
 The fact that the primitive earth was enveloped by a men- 
 struum which, ab initio, contained the calcareous elements in 
 chemical combination, when contrasted with that of the ratio 
 of encrustation having kept pace with the increasing power 
 of the water to retain these elements in its grasp, necessa- 
 rily implies a change in the inermediate living and operative 
 agency. 
 
 As the work beneath went on increasing, just in proportion 
 as the reluctance to part with the means went on augmenting 
 above, from whence alone the necessary supply could be ob- 
 tained, there appears to have been no other method, consistent 
 with the laws prescribed for the creation, of bringing about 
 the double effect then contemplated, short of a change in the 
 agency, and an increase of its power of abstraction and assimi- 
 lation; an increase of warmth in the containing medium being 
 added as an essential auxiliary. While it ought to be borne 
 in mind, as an additional reason for coming to this conclusion, 
 that as the waters were undergoing a gradual change, as from 
 Z to A, while the earth, benefiting thereby, was simulta- 
 neously altering its state, as from A to Z, the same living 
 agency could not, during the whole intervening period, have 
 effected the interchange which was necessary between the two 
 mutating bodies. 
 
 In conclusion of this part of our discourse we have to ex- 
 press our hope of having, in the first place, shown the close 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 183 
 
 analogy which existed, during the primeval era, between the- 
 forms, the nature, and the functions of the living creatures 
 which then encrusted its submerged surface, with the absence 
 of light and of an atmosphere ; and not only this, but also the 
 object had in view, by their priority of existence ; inasmuch 
 as they appear to have been the instrumentality made use of 
 to elaborate part of the material bases of which the light and 
 the atmosphere are composed. 
 
 The precise wording of Scripture leaving no doubt on our 
 minds, that whereas "in the beginning God created the 
 heaven and the earth," so thereafter, nothing material was 
 created ; and, consequently, as the etherial fluid, however 
 closely bordering on immaterialism is yet matter, it must, 
 during the period of non-rotation, have, likewise, been cre- 
 ated. 
 
 And, finally, we consider that by the exposition which we 
 have given, we have established, as far as the state of infor- 
 mation on the subject will permit, the position we assumed at 
 the commencement of this section namely, That before the 
 rotation of the earth around its axis, or during the period 
 called in Scripture " the beginning," the primitive, dark, and 
 atmosphereless waters were the abode of innumerable races of 
 living apulmonic creatures, independent alike of light or at- 
 mospheric air for life or motion. The greater part consisting 
 of descriptions which either were entirely fixed, or moved but 
 imperfectly ; and that of these there were several successive 
 generations. And, having done this, we have wrought out, 
 as far as this particular branch of evidence is available for 
 that purpose, the proof we have to afford. That during the 
 same Scriptural period of indefinite duration, there was formed 
 and forming, by the united instrumentality of animal and 
 vegetable secretion and decomposition, of crystallization, and 
 of ordinary deposition, the materials which were afterwards to 
 constitute all the geological and meteorological phenomena ; 
 when they should, by the centrifugal impetus engendered by 
 the protorotation of the earth, be placed in their respective 
 positions. And that, by the same instrumentality, the primi- 
 tive waters were, likewise, undergoing due preparation for 
 
184 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 their present condition. And in effecting this we have mani- 
 fested the dependence which philosophy ought to have on 
 Scripture, our position being as consistent with the true mean- 
 ing of the inspired narrative, given in Genesis, as it is accor- 
 dant with the results of philosophical investigation, and of 
 geological research. 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 THE VEGETABLE ORGANISMS OF THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The subject of argument of this Section stated. The Vegetation of the Non- 
 rotatory period neither flowering nor seed-bearing plants. Striking ana- 
 logy in this respect to the Apulmonic Creatures which were the subject 
 of the previous Section, pointing to a common cause ; and, therefore, 
 requiring to be treated in a similar manner. The Dicotyledonous class of 
 plants fully described. The Monocotyledonous also minutely characte- 
 rized, and both of these great divisions eliminated from the argument, as 
 having been formed during the Mosaic week. These, however, not com- 
 prising the entire Vegetable Kingdom, leave the Acotyledons as a residue, 
 which are considered to have been willed into existence during the period 
 of non-rotation This latter class closely delineated, and their functions 
 particularized. 
 
 IN following out the plan which has been laid down for the 
 consideration of our subject, the attention must now, for a 
 short time, be directed to an interesting group of natural 
 objects, which contributed very materially to the formation of 
 the stratified masses, as well by constituting, in themselves, 
 the greater portion of the coal-measures, as by the influence 
 which they exercised over the imperfect animal life then in 
 existence ; and also by occasioning depositions from the sur- 
 rounding primeval fluid. We allude to the Flora of the ancient 
 world, as represented by the FOSSIL VEGETABLE REMAINS 
 found embedded in the strata. 
 
 It may be as well to understand, that we proceed upon the 
 supposition that, during the protracted period when they ex- 
 isted and grew in succession, the circumstances of our planet 
 
186 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 were identical with those premised when treating of the apul- 
 monic animal kingdom, namely That it was an unillumined 
 sphere, without rotatory motion, and circumbounded by an 
 atmosphereless ocean of considerable depth ; higher in tempera- 
 ture, and differing considerably in the combination of its associ- 
 ated elements when compared with the present seas. 
 
 The point then to be established is That although in the 
 primeval ocean there grew innumerable plants, of which there 
 were several successive creations, yet they did not belong to 
 any class possessing true seeds, or fruits having seeds within 
 themselves, requiring dry land and atmospheric air for their 
 full development and the performance of their several func- 
 tions. 
 
 This branch of our enquiry is involved in still greater diffi- 
 culties than the previous one, from the fact that there is not, 
 as in the case of the animal creation, so broadly a marked line 
 of distinction drawn between those objects of the vegetable 
 kingdom which were created at the beginning, or during the 
 period of non-rotation, and those willed into existence on the 
 third day of the Mosaic week. We would beg, however, to 
 be understood as implying by this observation, not that the 
 indistinctness of the line of demarcation is attributable to the 
 Creator, to whom the essential difference is clearly known, 
 but to the imperfect intelligence of man in classing those ob- 
 jects into groups even in their recent condition, and much 
 more so in their fossil state ; especially when the objects of 
 research approach the boundaries of the lower denominations 
 of plants, in which the absence of flowering and seeding pro- 
 cesses and other essential distinctives often leave the investi- 
 gator at a loss ; while the difference between aquatic and ter- 
 restrial plants is very indistinctly observed; or rather, not 
 observed at all ; as a proof of which the former is associated in 
 the great class Cryptogamia, as one of its orders. 
 
 Despite, however, of these difficulties, we trust, successfully 
 to shew that the great mass of fossil plants found in the strata 
 were distinct in their nature and characters from those willed 
 into existence by the command, narrated in the llth and 12th 
 verses of the 1st chapter of Genesis, in the concise yet com- 
 prehensive words : " And God said, Let the earth bring forth 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 187 
 
 grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit_ 
 after his kind, whose seed is in itself upon the earth : and it 
 was so. And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding 
 seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed 
 was in itself after his kind : and God saw that it was good." 
 
 It is when looking at the subject in the point of view in 
 which we have placed it, that a striking analogy is recognized 
 a strong mannerism, if we may be allowed so to express our- 
 selves in the primitive works of creation. There was no 
 atmosphere ; and, accordant therewith, the animals were apul- 
 monic, and, consequently, deficient in their power of loco- 
 motion. The plants had neither flowers, seeds, nor fruits, 
 but rudimentary sporules, possessing neither radicle nor plu- 
 mule, and, consequently, alike insensible to light or darkness ; 
 while none of their processes seemed to have required dehis- 
 cence, which can alone be brought into operation by atmospheric 
 air. As there had been a succession of animal life, adapted 
 to the several stages through which the primitive formations 
 passed, and as the change in the condition of the primitive 
 waters demanded ; so, in like manner, there appears to have 
 been a series of changes in the then vegetable kingdom, cor- 
 responding to the changes in the condition of our planet. 
 And, lastly, the description of plants discovered in the strata 
 have a close analogy to recent plants of imperfect formation, 
 or those denuded of floral and fructifying, or seeding processes, 
 properly so called; or, in other words, they correspond to 
 those which, under the conceptions formed, might, a priori, 
 have been expected to have been found there. Besides, when 
 we come to apply the result of our previous investigations, we 
 shall find strong presumptive evidence for concluding that all 
 the plants of the primeval era were aquatic. The primitive 
 animals were inhabitants of the water ; their remains are found 
 wherever geologists have investigated ; consequently, the whole 
 globe must, at one time or other, have been under water ; and 
 we have no authority for supposing one condition of the earth 
 for the Animal, and, at the same period, a different condition 
 for the Vegetable kingdom. The proof which goes to show 
 that the earth was circumbounded by oceanic waters in the 
 one case, cannot, as their geological eras were identical, be set 
 
188 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 aside, or weakened in the other. But, that all may be able to 
 form their opinions on more circumstantial data, we shall go 
 on to examine the evidences leading to this conclusion, in 
 doing which, as it will greatly contribute to perspicuity and 
 conviction to adopt such a plan of investigation as shall dispose 
 simultaneously of whole groups of plants, we shall do so ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 Pursuing this method, we shall commence by acquiring a 
 knowledge of the CLASSES which compose the whole vegetable 
 kingdom, according to the natural system of botany ; together 
 with the various orders, genera, &c., of those classes which it 
 may be essential to particularize. For this purpose we refer 
 to the concluding words of the hundred and thirteenth The- 
 orem ; and proceed to give the evidences upon which they are 
 founded. 
 
 Professor Henslow says 
 
 " With very few exceptions, nearly all plants may be referred by 
 any botanist at a single glance, and with unerring certainty, to their 
 proper classes ; and a mere fragment, even of the stem, leaf, or some 
 other part is often quite sufficient to enable him to decide this 
 question. The names of these three classes are derived from one of 
 the ehief characteristics which prevails through nearly all the species 
 included under each of them separately. This we shall presently 
 explain ; but the reader may understand these names to be DICOTY- 
 LEDONS, MONOCOTYLEDONS, and ACOTYLEDONS ; and that the two 
 former of these classes have, respectively, the names of Exogence, 
 and Endogence. The former being derived from peculiarities con- 
 nected with the structure of the seed ; the latter from a consideration 
 of the internal organization of the plants themselves 
 
 " In the very slight sketch here given of the primary groups 
 under which all plants may be arranged, we have not pretended to 
 notice any terms which different botanists have applied to them ; 
 but we shall now collect the substance of what has been said in the 
 form of a table to assist the memory of the reader. 
 
 EMBRYO. STRUCTURE. FRUCTIFICATION. 
 
 1. Dicotyledons 
 2. Monocotyledons 
 
 3 } 
 
 ' > Acotyledons 
 
 Exogenae 
 Endogenae 
 ( Ductulosae 
 \ Cellulares 
 
 > Phenerogamae 
 Cryptogamiae."* 
 
 * Botany, by Professor Henslow, pp. 30, 37. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 189 
 
 The author of the article on Botany, in the Library of 
 Useful Knowledge, when treating of the natural grouping of 
 plants, expresses himself thus : 
 
 " In their internal structure stems are apparently constructed 
 upon several different plans ; in the bamhoo they are hollow, with 
 transverse partitions ; in the cane they are solid, and of an uniform 
 density ; in the oak they are hardest in the centre ; in the cocoa- 
 nut they are softest in the centre ; in many climbers they have an 
 uniform density, and appear pierced with multitudes of cylindrical 
 channels parallel with the bark. In ferns the wood has a singularly 
 twisted appearance ; and finally, in many herbaceous plants it seems 
 to consist of a mass of succulent substance, with a few fibres mixed 
 among it. But it has been ascertained that all these variations are 
 to be reduced to three primary forms, viz., EXOGENS, or those which 
 have their woody system separated from the cellular and arranged 
 in concentric zones ; ENDOGENS, in which the woody and cellular 
 systems are mixed together into a confused mass ; and ACROGENS, 
 which consist of a cylinder growing at its point only, arid never 
 augmenting in thickness after it once is formed."* 
 
 The following table, presenting a comprehensive view of the 
 classification of plants, is taken from Baron Cuvier's work: 
 
 " The VEGETABLE KINGDOM containing living beings with roots, 
 without sensation, or voluntary motion : 
 
 DIVISIONS. CLASSES. 
 
 1. A-COTYLEDONS. Agamons, or rather 1. Aphyllse 
 
 cryptogamous plants, without stamens 2. Folliacese 
 or pistils 
 
 2. MONO-COTYLEDONS. Plants, having the 
 
 embryo with only one cotyledon, 
 
 perianth simple, consisting of a calyx 
 
 only; floral organs, generally three, 1. Hypogynia 
 
 or multiples of three ; nerves of the 2. Perigynia 
 
 leaves generally longitudinal ; stem 
 
 composed of cellular tissue, with 3. Epigynia 
 
 scattered vascular fascionti. 
 
 Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 14. 
 
190 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 3. DI-COTYLEDONS. Plants, having their 
 embryo with two cotyledons, except- 
 ing the coniferae, where are often from 1 . Monochlamydese 
 three to ten verticillate cotyledons ; 
 all of the parts of the stem disposed 2. Dichlamydeae. 
 in concentric layers ; flowers generally 
 with a calyx and corolla, the parts of a Corolliflorae 
 which are usually five, or some mul- b Calcyflorae 
 tiple of five ; nerves of the leaves c Thalamifloras.* 
 generally ramified. 
 
 The author of the Sacred History gives the following ex- 
 planation of the motives of the divisions which exist in the 
 Natural System of Botany : 
 
 " The seed contains the emhryo plant in the little corculum, 
 which all, on being carefully opened, display. It is familiarly 
 called the heart of the walnut, the little figure at the one end of all 
 nuts and kernels. Vessels extend from this to the substance in 
 which it lies, which has received the name of cotyledon. If this be 
 single, as in the grasses and corn, it is MONOCOTYLEDONOUS ; if, as 
 in the larger herbs and trees, it consists of two lobes, they are 
 called DICOTYLEDONS ; and, if no such are discernable at all, they 
 are termed ACOTYLEDONOUS plants, which in some, and, perhaps, in 
 most countries are the most numerous." 
 
 These quotations will be sufficient to convince any one 
 that all known plants arid the number known and classed, 
 recent and fossil, is very great may either be referred to, or 
 distinguished by comparison with some one of the three classes 
 enumerated. In. order to be able to do this when requisite, our 
 next step will be to unfold more minutely their distinguishing 
 characteristics. We begin with the DICOTYLEDON s.f 
 
 In the hundred and seventeenth Theorem it is stated, " That 
 the Dicotyledonous class is distinguished by the existence of 
 pith in the centre of the stem, by increasing exogenously, and 
 
 * Edinburgh Journal of Natural History, p. 18. 
 
 t This, according to some hotanists, is Sub-Class 1st of CLASS 1st, VASCU- 
 LARES, or FLOWERING PLANTS. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 191 
 
 by medullary rays proceeding from the centre of the circum>- 
 ference of their woody parts. That the seeds are furnished 
 with two fleshy lobes called cotyledons attached to a rudimen- 
 tary germ concealed between them." 
 
 By this definition it will be observed that the plants com- 
 posing the Dicotyledonous class possess numerous peculiarities 
 of construction, by which they can be distinguished from the 
 other two. But the characteristics to which we are most de- 
 sirous of directing the attention for the present, are their man- 
 ner of seeding, and the construction of their stems, for on 
 those two points will hang the burden of the proof required to 
 substantiate our future argument. Therefore, with this de- 
 sign, as well as with that of preparing the way for certain 
 explanations which are to follow, we beg the reader's attention 
 while we submit a brief, but instructive detail of the repro- 
 ductive organs of the phanogamous plants in general. 
 
 The writer on Botany in the Library of Useful Knowledge, 
 already alluded to, says 
 
 " All the parts hitherto treated of belong to what are called the 
 
 organs of nutrition, or of vegetation Everything which is 
 
 developed subsequently to the leaves, belongs to the organs of re- 
 production, or of fructification ; the sole office of which is to secure 
 the perpetuation of species by Seed, an action they are enabled to 
 perform by the nutritient properties of the stem and leaves. . . . 
 
 " A perfect flower consists of three principal parts ; namely, the 
 floral envelopes, trie fructifying system, and the fertilizing system. Of 
 these, the two last are always present, either both together or in 
 separate flowers ; the first may be either present or absent, not being 
 absolutely essential to a plant. The floral envelopes, generally, 
 consist of two different parts, the calyx and the corolla 
 
 " When the Calyx is distinguishable from the corolla, which is not 
 always the case, it is commonly known by being smaller, greener, 
 and more leaf-like, or more permanent. But such characters will 
 not invariably indicate it. In fact there seems no means of defining 
 the calyx better than as the most exterior whorl of the floral en- 
 velopes ; and, consequently, the name is so applied, whatever the 
 colour, size, or other characters of the exterior whorl may be ; and 
 hence, if there is only one whorl, that one is the calyx 
 
 " The Corolla, although it is only to be known with certainty 
 
192 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 from the calyx by its being placed between that part and the sta- 
 mens, is often, nevertheless, the most conspicuous part of the plant, 
 because the gay colours and the fragrant odours of flowers are 
 
 generally resident in it 
 
 " The office of the floral envelopes is in part to act as a protection 
 to the fertilizing and fructifying organs when they are young, and to 
 guard them from sudden variations in temperatures, being interposed 
 
 between those parts and the atmosphere 
 
 " The Fertilizing system, called by many modern writers the an- 
 drteceum, consists of organs which are technically named stamens, and 
 usually consist of two parts, viz. a slender white stalk, or filament, 
 and a yellow or brown head, or anther, which is the essential part ; 
 the filament being of no more importance to the latter than the foot- 
 stalk to the leaf. 
 
 " An accurate idea of the normal state of the filament and anther 
 may be taken from the lily. In that plant the filament is a long, 
 fleshy, awl-shaped, greenish-white body, the surface of which is fur- 
 nished with stomates, and the centre with a bundle of vessels. On 
 its point is placed the anther, which is a narrow reddish-brown body, 
 having a deep furrow passing down its longer diameter, and being 
 thus separated into two parallel lobes. The part that unites the 
 lobes is a continuation of the filament, and is called the connective. 
 Each lobe before it opens, is marked in front with a shallow furrow, 
 which passes from end to end of the lobe. In course of time the 
 sides of the lobe contract and separate at the last-mentioned furrow, 
 which consequently opens and allows a brownish-orange powder 
 named pollen to fall out ; the two sides of the lobe when they thus 
 separate are called valves, and the furrow itself the suture or line of 
 
 dehiscence This may be considered typical of all filaments, 
 
 and of all anthers. Both these parts are, however, subject to 
 
 numerous important modifications 
 
 " The Pollen, which looks like very fine dust, is the most curious 
 and varied part of vegetation. It consists of a multitude of little 
 grains, whose figure, generally uniform in the same species, have 
 some hundred modifications of form in different species, and vary in 
 size from the l-30th to the 1 -240th of a line in diameter. . . . The 
 matter which is ejected from the pollen appears, under a microscope 
 of low power, to be merely a turbid fluid, denser than the water into 
 which it is discharged ; upon magnifying glasses of sufficient power 
 being applied, it is found to consist of oblong particles about the 
 1 -5000th part of an inch in diameter, and spheroidal molecules 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 193 
 
 varying in size from the 1-15, 000th to the 1-25, 000th of an inch in 
 diameter, according to the computation of M. Dollond. It is gene- 
 rally believed that these particles are the rudiments of embryos, and 
 that the effect of fertilization is to convey one of them into the ovule. 
 
 " The Fructifying system, or gynceceum, is the part round which all 
 the other parts are arranged ; it is generally the pistil, and consists of 
 certain component parts called carpels, which are either distinct from 
 each other, or all grown together into one body ; or, if the pistil con- 
 sists of but one carpel, then the terms pistil and carpel have the 
 same meaning. 
 
 " A carpel consists of ovary and ovules, style and stigma. The 
 ovary is the lower portion, which is hollow, and within which is a 
 double line corresponding with an external suture, and called the 
 placenta. The ovary tapers upwards into a slender horn or thread, 
 called the style, on the point of which there is a humid space, desti- 
 tute of cuticule, which is the stigma. Of these parts the ovary and 
 stigma are present in all carpels, but the style is not absolutely 
 essential. 
 
 " The Stigma is subject to alterations, but generally it is undi- 
 vided, and consequently the number of stigmas indicates the number 
 of carpels, of which a syncarpous pistil consists 
 
 " To the naked eye the Ovule is an oval grain of a mother-of- 
 pearl colour, and seems merely a bag of gelatinous matter ; but in 
 reality it is an organ whose structure is by no means so simple. It 
 consists of a central part, called the nucleus, over which are placed 
 one, two, three, or four membranes, called from their position the 
 primine, secundine, tercine, and quartine ; the primine being the most 
 external 
 
 " The Fruit of a plant is the fertilized ovary arrived at maturity, 
 and consequently both organs must have the same structure in all 
 their more essential points ; for the plan upon which the ovary is to 
 be constructed is finally determined at the period when fertilization 
 takes place 
 
 " We proceed next to some observations upon the normal con- 
 dition of the fruit Some descriptions of fruit are always 
 
 closed up to the latest hour of their existence, as the cocoa-nut ; 
 others have the property of bursting into separate pieces or valves 
 when ripe 
 
 " In order to avoid circumlocution, the numerous varieties which 
 occur among fruits have been classified by botanists, and names 
 given to the most important of their modifications. 
 
 o 
 
194 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " The Follicle may be considered as a carpel in its ripe state, open- 
 ing by its ventral suture only, and consequently to be typical of all 
 modifications of fruit, as the carpel itself is of all modifications of 
 pistil. 
 
 " The Legume , is hardly susceptible of a definition, so various 
 the forms under which it occurs. Its most genuine state is as we 
 find it in the pea, where it is a follicle opening by both dorsal and 
 ventral sutures into two valves Such legumes as sepa- 
 rate transversely into distinct pieces are sometimes called lomenta, 
 or lomentaceous. 
 
 " The Achenium, or grain, is a carpel which is one-seeded, does 
 not open when ripe, and has no suture at all. It is what the old 
 botanists called a naked seed, because it resembles a seed in size 
 and texture. 
 
 " A Cariopsis is an achenium with a thin shell, which grows so 
 close to the skin of the seed as to be inseparable and undistinguish- 
 able ; such is the fruit of wheat, maize, and other kinds of corn. 
 
 " A Utricle, is a cariopsis with a thin loose shell ; it would be 
 an achenium if the shell were hard ; it occurs in goosefoot ( Cheno- 
 podium), and often divides transversely. 
 
 " A Nut is an achenium in everything, except that it results from 
 a compound pistil, and is really composed of several carpels, although 
 all of them may be abortive except one. The hazel-nut, the ches- 
 nut, the acorn, are familiar instances of this. 
 
 " The Key is either an achenium, or a nut with the summit ex- 
 panded into a wing, as in the ash and sycamore. 
 
 " The Drupe is an achenium with the shell separable into two 
 layers, of which the inner is hard and bony, forming a stone or endo- 
 carp, and the other soft and juicy, forming a flesh. The fruits of the 
 peach, the plum, the cherry, are drupes. The walnut is a drupe, 
 the endocarp of which separates into two valves, each of which has 
 an imperfect spurious dissepiment projecting from the back, and 
 cutting the seed into deep lobes. 
 
 " The Berry (bacca), is composed of several carpels, which, when 
 ripe, are a mere mass of pulp, in which the seeds lie buried, as the 
 grape and the gooseberry. 
 
 " The Gourd (pepo), is a berry with a hard rind, like a melon. 
 
 " The Pome is a sort of fleshy berry, in which the inside of the 
 cells is dry, so that the seeds do not lie in the pulp ; it is composed 
 of a few carpels surrounded by a fleshy calyx, to which they grow, 
 and may either have a thin and papery, or a thick and bony lining 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 195 
 
 to its cells. The former, which occurs in the apple, may be con- 
 sidered as a combination of fleshy follicles with a fleshy calyx ; the 
 latter, which we find in the medlar, as a union of drupes to a fleshy 
 calyx. 
 
 " The Siliqua is a dry fruit, with two valves that separate from a 
 frame to which the seeds are attached ; in the cabbage it is long and 
 narrow ; in the shepherd's purse it is short and broad. 
 
 " Finally, the Capsule is a general term for all dry fruits which 
 are composed of more carpels than one, and which dehisce when 
 ripe ; its application is even extended by combining it with modify- 
 ing words ; thus a berried capsule is a fruit having the ordinary 
 structure of a capsule, with a soft juicy shell, and not dehiscing ; 
 and so on. Taken in its most general sense, it is the most variable 
 in appearance of all the organs of fructification. 
 
 " Besides the foregoing, there are several fruits which are not pro- 
 duced by single flowers, but which are formed by the adhesion of a 
 considerable number of flowers into a single mass. Such is the fir- 
 cone, the pineapple, and the mulberry. These may either be con- 
 sidered as varieties of the strobilus, or cone ; or with some others 
 may be looked upon as forming a section in a methodical arrange- 
 ment of fruits, in which latter case they would have several different 
 names. 
 
 " The Seed. While changes are coming over the pistil, the ovules 
 are also undergoing a metamorphosis still more interesting and im- 
 portant. No sooner has the mysterious influence of the pollen been 
 introduced into the ovule, than its foramen closes up ; its integu- 
 ments extend and harden, the pulpy substance within them con- 
 solidates, and in the midst of the latter, within the kernel, close to 
 the foramen, there appears a minute, yellowish, opaque speck, which 
 gradually enlarges and projects forwards into the centre of the kernel, 
 absorbing the fluid that surrounds it, and, by degrees, assuming the 
 appearance of an organised body which it ultimately becomes, in the 
 form of an embryo plant. 
 
 " The interior integument, within which, under the name of kernel, 
 
 all this goes on, absorbs its food from the placenta When 
 
 fully formed, the seed separates from the placenta, retaining a scar, 
 called the hilum or eye, at the spot where the separation takes place. 
 
 The embryo is originally formed in the midst of the pulpy 
 
 substance of the kernel, and is nourished by it during its growth. 
 This pulpy matter bears apparently much the same relation to the 
 embryo plant as the white of an egg to an embryo bird ; and nence 
 
 o 2 
 
196 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 it has obtained the name of albumen. Usually this substance is so 
 wholly absorbed by the embryo that no trace of it is left behind. . . * 
 
 " From what has gone before, it is clear that the ovule is the 
 origin of the seed ; and as nearly all ovules are originally enclosed 
 within a carpel, there can be no such thing as naked seeds except in 
 a very few instances. What the old botanists called naked seeds 
 were usually achenia ; and true naked seeds are hardly known 
 beyond coniferous and cycadeous plants. 
 
 " The Embryo is so extremely varied in its structure that it is 
 absolutely necessary to take some one form as typical of the re- 
 mainder, if the endless modifications it exhibits are to be correctly 
 understood. For this purpose let a b of the following figure repre- 
 sent the central portion or axis of any embryo, and c c two seed- 
 
 \c 
 
 leaves called cotyledons, growing from it. The part from a to b will 
 then represent a stem, of which a, called the plumule, is the growing 
 point ; b, the radicle, is the root ; and the intermediate space between 
 the radicle b, and the base of the cotyledon c, an internode ; upon 
 which supposition the plumule will be auxiliary to both cotyledons 
 at once. From this form of embryo all our ideas of that organ may 
 be derived ; it represents more particularly what is called a dicoty- 
 ledonous embryo, in which not only there are two cotyledons, but 
 they are opposite to each other ; let the number of cotyledons be 
 increased, all other things remaining as before, and it is polycoty- 
 
 ledonous, as in fir-trees Commonly, the embryo is straight, 
 
 or but slightly curved ; but in certain plants it is rolled up in a 
 singular way."* 
 
 Professor Henslow says 
 
 " Beans, peas, almonds, the kernel of our stone fruits, &c., afford 
 
 * Botany, in Lib. Useful Know. p. 9, et seq. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 197 
 
 us familiar examples of the structure of the seeds of dicotyledonous 
 plants. When the outer skin is removed, we find that they are com- 
 posed of two large fleshy lobes termed * cotyledons,' which are 
 attached to a small rudimentary germ almost entirely concealed be- 
 tween them. The entire mass forms the ' embryo,' and the skin 
 which invested it the 'seed cover.' "* 
 
 Having thus become minutely acquainted with the Seeding 
 processes of Dicotyledonous plants, we shall, from the same 
 authorities, briefly describe how their stems are formed, and 
 the manner of their increase, whence they derive the name of 
 " exogens" 
 
 " The central part, or axis, of a plant," says the distinguished 
 botanist we have been quoting from, " to which the leaves and 
 flowers are attached, is technically called the caudex, to which the 
 English word trunk seems equivalent, notwithstanding its being 
 generally applied to the thick bole of a tree. 
 
 " It consists of two portions ; the ascending trunk, or stem, and 
 the descending trunk, or root. Between these there is no absolute 
 separation, each being an extension of the other in an opposite direc- 
 tion ; the ascending trunk, or stem, having from its earliest exist- 
 ence an invincible tendency to grow upwards into the air and light, 
 the descending trunk, or root, an equally irresistible determination 
 to the earth, away from the light 
 
 " In their internal structure roots and stems are nearly alike, ex- 
 cept that the former are rarely hollow, although many stems are ; 
 and that in the plants called exogens, which have a pith in the 
 
 centre of their stem, the root has no pith In most plants 
 
 the stem is solid : in grasses and umbelliferous plants it is hollow." 
 
 Having so recently given an explanation of the internal 
 structure of the stems, and of the primary forms to which their 
 variations are referable, j- a repetition here may be avoided, and 
 we shall therefore pass on to a brief examination of each 
 respectively. 
 
 " A stem formed upon the exogenous plan, when cut through trans- 
 
 * Botany, in Cab. Cyc. 
 t See pages 188, 189. 
 
198 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 versely, exhibits a central pith, surrounded by one or more circles of 
 wood, on the outside of which is a ring of bark, which is connected 
 with the pith by a number of lines passing through the wood called 
 
 medullary processes In plants whose stems exist only for 
 
 a single year, there is but one circle of wood ; and if such stems are 
 very succulent, it may even be difficult to ascertain the presence of 
 wood at all. But it will always be found, upon close inspection, 
 that some trace of woody matter exists, arranged in a definite manner 
 
 between the pith and the bark Let us briefly examine the 
 
 structure of the various parts that make an exogenous stem. 
 
 " The Pith is a spongy column which extends from the collar, 
 where it usually ceases, to the extremities of the branches. When 
 
 young it is succulent ; when old it becomes dry It is 
 
 united with the medullary rays or plates, or processes, as they are 
 more correctly called, by an infinite multitude of points arising from 
 over all its surface 
 
 " The Medullary Processes which thus arise from the pith, of 
 which in fact they are mere extensions, pass straight into the bark, 
 cutting the intervening wood into a number of wedges, the broad 
 end of which is next the outside of the stem 
 
 " The office of these processes is very important. They are the 
 great means of communication between the circumference and the 
 centre of a stem, and are what enable the fluid matter, which passes 
 down the bark, to reach the wood which is next the pith. Their 
 component parts are placed with their longer diameter perpendicular 
 to the bark ; a position which is the most favourable to perform 
 their functions 
 
 " The Bark consists of an external layer of a spongy substance 
 which is usually green, and of an interior layer of fibrous matter 
 which touches the wood. Of these layers the external is called the 
 cortical integument, and the interior the liber. Every year an ad- 
 dition of new liber is made, in the form of a concentric zone within 
 that of the preceding year It is through the bark exclu- 
 sively that the returning fluid of a plant descends to the root ; and 
 it is in this part that many secretions are chiefly stored up 
 
 " The nature of the wood will be best understood by examining 
 the structure of a single zone, and considering all the other zones 
 subsequently formed to be merely repetitions of it. Next the pith 
 is placed what is called the medullary sheath, which is a stratum 
 of air vessels forming a sort of casing to the pith, but interrupted 
 perpetually by the medullary processes which pass through it. On 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 199 
 
 the outside of the medullary sheath is a mixture of large vessels and 
 fibrous matter, the former predominating ; and on the outside of all, 
 finishing the concentric zone, is a deep mass of fibrous matter, with 
 a number of small vessels intermixed ; in all the other zones exactly 
 the same structure is repeated as long as the plant continues to 
 grow ; so that the trunk of the largest exogenous tree is a mere re- 
 petition of woody or cortical zones ; the youngest of the latter 
 being formed within-side the older, and the youngest of the former 
 
 outside the older In some plants, scarcely any vessels are 
 
 to be distinguished among the fibrous matter of the wood, or there 
 is but little apparent distinction between the different zones ; but, in 
 the main, the structure just described is that of exoyens in general."* 
 
 Whatever degree of attention may have been given to the 
 perusal of these leading characteristics of the plants composing 
 the class occasionally termed EXOGEN.E, but more usually 
 DICOTYLEDONS, it will have been sufficient to convince any 
 one that none of them could have existed during the long, but 
 indefinite preiod when the earth was without rotation, enve- 
 loped in darkness, and circumbounded by water. They all 
 require light, atmospheric air, and dry land ;f not only for 
 their perfection and reproduction, but even for their very exist- 
 ence. It may not, besides, be inopportune to observe, with 
 more particular reference to the woody fibre of their exoge- 
 nous stems, that as " every year an addition of new liber in 
 the form of a concentric zone beyond that of the previous one 
 is made to them," each zone being the material index of the 
 vicissitudes of summer and winter, marked with undeviating 
 precision by the finger of time within the stems of the Dicoty- 
 ledons, these zones could not have been formed before the 
 seasons were instituted by the lighting up of the sun, by the 
 same Omnipotent Being who chose to reserve this central orb 
 in darkness for many ages ; of which event we thus acquire 
 additional and concurring testimony by every new object of in- 
 vestigation. 
 
 It will also have been observed that under whatever deno- 
 
 * Lib. of Useful Knowledge, pp. 916. In order to restrict these quotations 
 within due bounds we have been obliged to curtail them more than we other- 
 wise would. Their perusal, in the original, would amply repay the reader. 
 
 t Theorems 118 and 120. 
 
200 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 ruination the plants composing the Dicotyledonous class may 
 be called, they all " produce fruit whose seed is in itself ;" 
 whether we designate them as the legume, or that implied by 
 it, the bean, or the pea; or by drupe, nut, glaus, capsule, 
 berry, or pomum,* they are all alike "fruit after his kind 
 whose seed is in itself upon the earth ;" and, consequently, 
 whether these are produced in a tree as majestic as the oak, 
 or as diminutive as the radiola millegrana, they alike come 
 under this clear and comprehensive classification. Indeed, 
 there is no definition which, in so few words, can be made to 
 group together, by one common characteristic, such an infinite 
 number and so great a diversity of plants as those composing 
 the Dicotyledonous Class : while the wonderful wisdom which 
 selected the fruit or seeding processes as the one grand com- 
 mon feature, becomes the more apparent when it is remembered 
 that all the other parts of the plant are subservient to this one 
 essential object the means of perpetuating itself by repro- 
 duction ; and that, however diversified the intermediate pro- 
 cesses may be which lead to this, they all meet, as it were, by 
 myriads of distinct approaches at this common comprehensive 
 resting-place "Fruit after his kind whose seed is in itself" 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that the Dico- 
 tyledons constitute a great proportion of the plants of the 
 earth, that they are much diversified in different countries, 
 some being more common to one part than to others ; and, 
 what is still more remarkable, it appears pretty well established 
 by the concurring testimony and the researches of botanists, 
 that there are plants of this class, as well as of the Monocoty- 
 ledonous kind peculiar almost exclusively to certain localities 
 and detached islands, showing that there have been distinct 
 foci of creation in the vegetable kingdom. This fact is very 
 essential to be borne in mind, and we beg it may be noticed, 
 as we shall have occasion to recur to it in another place. 
 
 As it may be conducive alike to unity of design and to the 
 attainment of a more perfect knowledge of this great division 
 of the vegetable kingdom, to enumerate the several orders 
 which are comprised in it, we do so, selecting for that purpose, 
 
 * 119th Theorem. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 201 
 
 and for motives which shall hereafter be explained, the clas- 
 sification given by Sir William Jackson Hooker in the Flora 
 Scotica ; in which he commences with the imperfect, and goes 
 up to the Fasculares, or Flowering Plants. 
 
 Accordingly, Class III. are DICOTYLEDONS, and are thus 
 described : 
 
 " Embryo, with two or more cotyledons, plumule in the centre of 
 their point of junction ; the inferior end of the embryo itself elon- 
 gated into a radicle, and not containing any secondary radicles in its 
 substance. Stem increasing by external layers or additions, with an 
 evident distinction between bark and wood. Leaves usually varied, 
 rarely nerved." 
 
 The following numerous Natural Orders are classified under 
 this division, namely : 
 
 1. Coniferae 
 
 25. Gentianeae 
 
 48. Rhamneae 
 
 2. Corylaceae 
 
 26. Apocinese 
 
 49. Celesstrineae 
 
 3. Salicinae 
 
 27. Oleineae 
 
 50. Hypericinae 
 
 4. Ulmaceae 
 
 28. Ericese 
 
 51. Aceraceae 
 
 5. Urticeae 
 
 29. Vaceineae 
 
 52. Tiliaceae 
 
 6. Aristolochiae 
 
 30. Monotropeae 
 
 53. Malvaceae 
 
 7. Euphorbiaceae 
 
 31. Campanulaceae 
 
 54. Geraniaceae 
 
 8. Rosedaceae 
 
 32. Compositae 
 
 55. Oxalideae 
 
 9. Thymeleae 
 
 33. Dipsaceae 
 
 56. Balsamineae 
 
 10. Polygoneae 
 
 34. Valerianeae 
 
 57. Lineae 
 
 11. Clenopodeae 
 
 35. Rubiaceae 
 
 58. Caryophylleae 
 
 12. Plantagineae 
 
 36. Caprifoliaceae 
 
 59. Sempervivae 
 
 1 3 . Plumbagineae 
 
 37. Lorantheae 
 
 60. Portulacese 
 
 14. Primulaceae 
 
 38. Umbellifera 
 
 61. Droseraceae 
 
 15. Lentibulariae 
 
 39. Saxifrageae 
 
 62. Cistese 
 
 16. Verbenaceae 
 
 40. Grossulariae 
 
 63. Violacese 
 
 17. Melampyraceae 
 
 41. Halorageae 
 
 64. Polygaleae 
 
 18. Labiatae 
 
 42. Onagrariae 
 
 65. Cruciferae 
 
 19. Scrophularinae 
 
 43. Cucarbitaceae 
 
 66. Fumarieae 
 
 20. Orobancheae 
 
 44. Salicariae 
 
 67. Papaveraceae 
 
 21. Solaneae 
 
 45. Illecebreae 
 
 68. Nymphyaceae 
 
 22. Boragineae 
 
 46. Rosaceae 
 
 69. Berberidese 
 
 23. Convolvulaceae 
 
 47. Leguminoseae 
 
 70. Ranunculaceae* 
 
 24. Polemoniaceae 
 
 
 
 * Flora Scotica, pp. 194, 297. We consider it almost superfluous to point 
 
202 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Before concluding this part of the subject, it may he well 
 to bring before the mind the perfect conformity in the con- 
 dition of the earth at the period when it is recorded that this 
 class of the Vegetable Kingdom, which require, as we have 
 seen they do, light, atmospheric air, and dry land for their ex- 
 istence and perfection.* The inspired historian reveals to us 
 that they were willed into being on the latter part of the third 
 day, that is, after the primary light, the atmosphere, and dry 
 land had been formed " And God said, Let there be a fir- 
 mament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the 
 waters from the waters. And God made the firmament, and 
 divided the waters which were under the firmament from the 
 waters which were above the firmament : and it was so. And 
 God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the 
 morning were the second day. And God said, Let the waters 
 under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let 
 the dry land appear : and it was so. And God called the dry 
 land Earth ; and the gathering together of the waters called 
 he Seas : and God saw that it was good."f 
 
 With us this amounts to positive convincing proof; with 
 others it may not be allowed greater weight than presumptive 
 evidence ; while, with not a few, we fear, it will scarcely be 
 admitted as evidence at all, until the conviction of its authen- 
 
 out, that as this flora is confined solely to Scotland, there must, of course, be 
 a great many more Natural orders, both in the Monocotyledonous and Dicoty- 
 ledonous divisions in other countries, besides those which are detailed by Dr. 
 Hooker. It will, however, be seen in the sequel, that our object shall have 
 been fully attained should a conception be acquired of the kind of plants which 
 usually are classed in those two divisions, especially in the first, and by esta- 
 blishing determinately the Natural orders which belong to the Acotyledonom 
 division, on which our future argument will materially depend. Fortunately 
 types of all those in this last division which are known in any country are like- 
 wise found in Scotland one of the chief motives for our having selected the 
 Flora Scotica as a text book. 
 
 * Theorems 118 and 120. MM. Lindley and Hutton, when reasoning re- 
 specting the probable state of Melville Island during the ancient epoch, and 
 showing the impossibility of such plants as are found in those latitudes growing 
 there now for want of light, say, " For light is an agent without which no 
 growing plants can exist, at the present day, for a single week, even in a low 
 temperature, without suffering serious injury." 
 
 t Genesis, i. 610. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 203 
 
 ticity breaks in upon them, when their tardy willingness to 
 believe it, alas ! will be of little avail. It is distressing to 
 think how faint, even now, the evidence of the Word of God, 
 the Omnipotent Creator of all things, appears to the minds of 
 many, when contrasted with the mere conclusions of philo- 
 sophy ; the reality passing for a dim and distant shadow ; the 
 philosophical conclusions for a reality. The day will come, 
 however, and we hope is not very distant, when it will be the 
 chief wisdom of the philosopher, while he investigates into and 
 admires the works of the Creator, to pore over the writings of 
 the inspired volume in a proper and necessary frame of mind, 
 and endeavour to comprehend and to apply the words of God 
 to unravel what, otherwise, may appear mysterious in His 
 works. 
 
 We must now proceed to acquire a knowledge of the cha- 
 racteristics which distinguish the MONOCOTYLEDONOUS class,* 
 the second division of plants according to the natural system. 
 We shall begin by recapitulating the definition given of them 
 in the hundred and sixteenth Theorem : " That in the Mono- 
 cotyledons consisting of several orders there is no distinction 
 between the pith, the wood, and the bark, but their stems con- 
 sist, generally, of a cylindrical, though sometimes of an angu- 
 lated mass of cellular tissue, in which are bundles of vascular 
 tissue, without medullary rays. That they are called Endo- 
 gencz, from the newly -formed material developing itself towards 
 the innermost part of their stems. That an albuminous mass 
 forms the main bulk of most of the monocotyledonous seeds, 
 having the embryo placed within it ; the general character of 
 these seeds being that of a cylindrical body tapering towards 
 the extremities, from one of which, in due time, protrudes the 
 radicle, and from the other arises a single, conical, and almost 
 solid cotyledon." 
 
 In order to acquire a somewhat more intimate knowledge 
 of the structure, properties, and habitudes of the numerous 
 and delicate plants composing this group, it will be necessary 
 for us to go into a few details to enable us hereafter to judge 
 
 * By some botanists this is called Sub-class second of CLASS first, VASCU- 
 LARES ; or FLOWERING PLANTS. 
 
204 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 of the correctness of the conclusions deduced from them. 
 First, of the SEEDS. 
 
 "The general structure of the seeds of the Monocotyledonous 
 class of plants," says Professor Henslow, " may he exemplified by 
 the examination of a grain of Indian corn, wheat, &c. ; or of a seed 
 of an onion, lily, &c. An albuminous mass forms the main bulk of 
 most of these seeds, and the embryo is placed within it towards the 
 centre, or one side. The embryo is not so distinctly developed in 
 the seeds of this class as in those of the dicotyledons ; and its seve- 
 ral parts cannot always be readily recognized before germination has 
 commenced. Its general character is that of a cylindrical body, 
 tapering more or less at the extremities, from one of which protrudes 
 the radicle, and from the other arises a single, conical, and almost 
 solid cotyledon. This elongates, and is ultimately pierced by a 
 leaf, rolled into a conical form, and which was at first completely 
 invested by the cotyledon."* 
 
 In the Library of Useful Knowledge it is stated that 
 
 " All the foregoing modifications are easily intelligible upon 
 reference to the typical form of the embryo ; but there are others 
 called Monocotyledonous, because they have only one cotyledon ; in 
 which the analogy between them and the supposed type is at first 
 sight not apparent. Take, for instance, the embryo of a cocoa-nut ; 
 it is a taper, fleshy body, somewhat club-shaped at one end, and 
 abruptly blunted at the other ; no trace of cotyledon, plumule, or 
 radicle is externally discoverable. If, however, it is divided with 
 a thin and sharp knife from top to bottom into two equal parts, it 
 will be found that near the blunt end there is an internal conical 
 tumour directed upwards : this is ascertained by the germination of 
 a cocoa-nut to be the young plumule ; and this being known, it fol- 
 lows that the abruptly blunted end of this embryo is the radicle, and 
 the other the cotyledon ; hence it derives its name of Monocoty- 
 ledon."-^ 
 
 "Endogenous stems apparently differ very much from exogens, 
 for they have neither pith, nor medullary processes, nor bark, nor 
 wood, properly so called ; but consist of a confused mass of bundles 
 of woody substance lying in the middle of a spongy matter. In the 
 palm we find an external cortical integument without liber ; the 
 
 * Botany, Cab. Cyc. f Ibid, p. 56. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 205 
 
 bundles of woody matter so arranged as to be much more numerous 
 and compact at the circumference than towards the centre. In the 
 cane, which is another kind of palm, the woody bundles are distri- 
 buted equally throughout the whole substance. In the asparagus, 
 the aloe, and other soft-stemmed species, the woody bundles are not 
 only equally distributed, but are so soft as to be scarcely recognized 
 for the same thing as the hard fibres of a palm stem. Now, if we 
 compare a stem of this sort with that of an exogen, we are, at first 
 sight, unable to discover any analogy between them ; but upon a 
 more careful inspection it will be discovered that the principal or- 
 ganic difference consists in the woody matter of exogens being 
 arranged in wedge-shaped parcels plunged into the spongy substance 
 of the stem, and disposed in annual zones ; while in the endogens 
 the woody matter is neither collected into wedge-shaped parcels, nor 
 arranged in annual concentric zones, but is broken up into fibrous 
 
 bundles plunged without order into the spongy mass 
 
 Another, and a more remarkable deviation from the general struc- 
 ture of endogens, is met with in grasses, the stems of which are 
 generally hollow between the nodes where the sides are connected 
 by transverse partitions ; but the arrangement of matter in the solid 
 shell being entirely that of palms, grasses cannot be considered to 
 offer an exception to the law of endogenous structure. 
 
 " Arborescent Endogens being exclusively natives of hot countries, 
 where Europeans have seldom an opportunity of examining minutely 
 into matters which require the long and patient investigation of resi- 
 dent observers, nothing certain is known of the channels through 
 which the ascending and descending currents pass in their stems. 
 From analogy it is presumed that the sap rises by the woody bun- 
 dles, and descends through the soft spongy matter ; but this is en- 
 tirely conjectural."* 
 
 In continuation of our investigation, and of the working out 
 of the problem which we are so desirous to solve, we shall briefly 
 enquire what ORDERS of plants are grouped together under 
 the denomination of MONOCOTYLEDONS or ENDOGENS; and 
 whether they are of the description which are commonly called 
 " herbs" Professor Henslow has asserted as an axiom " That 
 the proportion of Dicotyledons to Monocotyledons, and of 
 woody species to the herbaceous increases as we approach to 
 
 * Library of Useful Knowledge, pp. 17, 18. 
 
206 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 the equator :" consequently, we have only to reverse the axiom 
 to be made aware, that a northerly region will more greatly 
 abound with Monocotyledons / and, applying this to practice, 
 we shall appeal to the Flora Scotica as the most apposite text 
 book to which we can refer for the purpose of enquiring whe- 
 ther MONOCOTYLEDONS may be considered HERBS. The 
 following orders and their characteristics are taken from the 
 work in question : 
 
 CLASS II. MONOCOTYLEDONS. 
 
 ORDER I. Grammes. Stems fistulose, generally simple, and her- 
 baceous, sometimes branched, rarely 
 shrubby. 
 
 II. Cyperacece. Stems slender or triangular; sometimes 
 
 with an indefinite number of angles, 
 usually without joints, sometimes join- 
 ted and branched. 
 
 III. Restiacece. Herbs, or under shrubs. 
 
 IV. Juncece. In conspicuous herbs with small flowers, 
 
 which are often brown, rarely petaloid. 
 
 V. Butomece. Not particularised ; but Butomus is an her- 
 
 baceous plant. 
 
 VI. Melanfhacece. Not particularised ; yet Tofieldia, 
 
 which is one of the genera of Melan- 
 thaceae, is described as ' scarce a span 
 high.' (p. 14). 
 
 VII. Asparagece. Not particularised; but Asparagus, 
 
 Ruscus, Convallaria, and Paris, are 
 all herbaceous. 
 
 VIII. Asphodelece. Not particularised ; but OrnitJiogalum, 
 
 Scilla, Hyacinthus, and Allium, which 
 are of it, are decidedly herbaceous. 
 
 IX. LilliacecE. Not particularised ; although Tulipa, 
 
 which is in it, is herbaceous. 
 
 X. Amaryllidece. Not particularised ; yet Narcissus, and 
 
 Gelanthus are both herbaceous. 
 
 XI. Iridece. Herbs, rarely under shrubs. 
 
 XII. Alismacece. Aquatics. 
 
 XIII. Hy&rocliaridece. Also aquatics. 
 
 XIV. Orchidece. Stem simple ; rarely divided, leafy or 
 
 sheathed. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 207 
 
 ORDER XV. Aroidece. Herbs or under- shrubs. 
 
 XVI. Juncaginece. Rigid herbs with narrow radicle leaves. 
 
 XVII. Fluviales. Floating herbs, with very vascular leaves 
 
 and stems. 
 
 In describing generally " The Organization of the Stems" 
 of this class, Professor Henslow says 
 
 " In Monocotyledons there is no distinction between the pith, wood, 
 and bark ; but their stems consist of a cylindrical mass of cellular 
 tissue, through which bundles of vascular tissue are distributed in 
 a scattered manner. Every fresh development of new matter is 
 carried towards the centre of the stem, and, as the stem elongates, 
 the outer parts become more and more solidified, whilst the inner 
 remain soft. These stems possess no traces of medullary rays. 
 The plants of this class are termed * Endogencej from the circum- 
 stance of the newly-formed materials being always developed towards 
 the innermost part of their stems. A piece of cane is a familiar 
 example for illustrating this structure ; but we have no woody 
 plants in our climate belonging to this class ; and very few even 
 which possess herbaceous stems, if we except the hollow culms of 
 the grasses, where the development of the materials towards the 
 centre is not sufficiently rapid to keep pace with the elongation of 
 the stem, and the tissue is in consequence ruptured."* 
 
 These investigations, conducted in so detailed a manner, of 
 the seeding processes, the construction of the stem, the for- 
 mation of the leaves, and the designation as herbs of the second 
 natural division of the vegetable kingdom, all concur in proving 
 that, when compared, they agree in every possible point of 
 view, with their simple but comprehensive classification in 
 Genesis, so often referred to "the herb yielding seed after 
 his kind upon the earth." They come up completely to, but 
 do not exceed, those standard characteristics. They are herbs 
 bearing seed ; but are not trees bearing fruit with seed in 
 itself. To produce seed they require to flower, and although 
 some are aquatic, yet they all flower in the open air, and re- 
 quire sun-light to enable them to perform their various func- 
 
 * Botany, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 34, 35, 
 
208 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 tions : consequently they stand in the same relative position 
 with respect to the darkness and circumfluent ocean which 
 enveloped the primitive earth, as do the Dicotyledons. Like 
 them, they could not have grown while the globe was in that 
 condition ; and, for the same reason, the period they are re- 
 corded as having been brought into existence that is, after 
 the light and the atmosphere had been formed, and the dry 
 land separated from the waters is peculiarly and convincingly 
 appropriate. 
 
 We have now, however, to look upon those two great and 
 comprehensive classes the DICOTYLEDONS and MONOCOTY- 
 LEDONS in another point of view, and one which leads to 
 considerable intricacy and difficulty. They seem, bettveen 
 them, to embrace the whole of the plants recorded to have been 
 formed by the earth, in consequence of the powers conferred 
 upon it by the Almighty, on the latter part of the third day of 
 the Mosaic week : the one referring especially to " herbs yield- 
 ing seed ;" the other comprehending all " fruit trees yielding 
 fruit after his kind whose seed is in itself upon the earth ;" and 
 thus they oblige us to look to the previous creative influences 
 of the Divine will, for the origin of all plants which do not 
 fulfil either of those two conditions. 
 
 In working out the conclusions to which these remarkable 
 and apparently embarrassing facts may lead us, whatever may 
 be the obstacles we shall have to encounter and we fear 
 from the difficulty of classifying some of the flowerless, leaf- 
 less, imperfect plants of the cryptogamic orders, these obstacles 
 may neither be few nor easily overcome we must not allow 
 ourselves to be deterred, as this would imply less than due 
 reverence for the Almighty. For, by the evidence of our 
 senses we are constrained to admit that there were numberless 
 varieties of plants in existence for ages before He chose, for 
 His own wise and gracious purposes, to record the last act of 
 creative influence with respect to the vegetable kingdom ; and 
 therefore, in shrinking from, or even in being fearful to assume 
 such a position, which is borne out by undeniable evidence, 
 we do despite alike to the power and to the wisdom of the 
 Omnipotent Creator. As far as such hesitation has any weight 
 or any value, it goes to detract from the perfection of the 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 209 
 
 creation, and to circumscribe His acknowledged power. If we 
 willingly concede that God did create those plants which pro- 
 duce seed, and those trees which bear fruit with seed in itself 
 and we do not see how either can be denied it would amount to 
 nothing short of a want of consistency to deny His having pre- 
 viously willed into existence those other descriptions of plants 
 required for the progressive perfection of the work of creation, 
 when, " in the beginning He created the heaven and the earth," 
 although we have not been expressly told when or how they 
 were brought forth, during the dark and submerged condition 
 of the earth. Our senses convince us indubitably, that they 
 were there ; reason and analogy point out to us their uses and 
 their habitudes ; while Revelation leaves us not the semblance 
 of a motive for either doubting their existence, or for attribut- 
 ing their creation to any other than to God. 
 
 With this explanation, and begging it may be borne in mind, 
 that our chief difficulty will arise from that which is expe- 
 rienced in classifying the objects of research, in consequence of 
 their imperfect nature, we shall now proceed to acquire a know- 
 ledge of the Third, or remaining division of the Plants known 
 by the denomination of ACOTYLEDONS. Before commencing 
 this, it may be well to observe, that a material difference ex- 
 ists between the more perfect tribes of the Acotyledons, called 
 Ductulosce, which are reproduced by flowerless sporules (sub- 
 stitutes for seeds), although possessing neither radicle nor plu- 
 mule such as those of ferns, mosses, marchantia, &c., and the 
 still less perfect and more simple forms of the cryptogamia, 
 termed cellulares, among which are fungi, lichens, and alga, 
 whose manner of reproduction is involved in obscurity and un- 
 certainty ;* while it is also to be remarked, that the lower we 
 proceed on the descending scale, the less dependent these plants 
 seem to be on the influence of light, and the more attached to 
 dampness and moisture, until we come to an order, the Alga, 
 whose natural element is water.f 
 
 According to the hundred and fourteenth Theorem, which 
 treats of the cryptogamous plants, they are distinguished as 
 
 * See this difference stated in a prepositional form in the 115th Theorem. 
 t Pop. Hist, of British Algae, hy the Rev. Dr. Landsborough, 1849. 
 
 P 
 
210 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 follows : The Acotyledonous or Cryptogamous Class includes 
 an extensive series of plants, grouped under several Orders, 
 differing considerably in many particulars, but the whole 
 agreeing in the important circumstance of never bearing 
 flowers. That, having no flowers, they produce no true seeds, 
 but, in lieu thereof, the higher tribes are furnished with minute 
 granular bodies, capable of becoming distinct plants, called 
 sporules ; not separable into distinct parts with radicle, plu- 
 mule, and cotyledons, like the seeds of phanogamous plants. 
 That these sporules possess the power of producing from any 
 part, either stem or root, as circumstances may require, while 
 it is quite otherwise with true seeds. That acotyledonous 
 plants increase acrogenously. 
 
 We shall commence the evidences in support of this Theorem 
 by quotations from a work which recommends itself by its in- 
 trinsic merits, and by the care and assiduity bestowed by its 
 author on the Cryptogamic class of plants, in a field of labour 
 where they peculiarly abound we allude to the Flora Scotica 
 while the evidences to be adduced will likewise prove, that the 
 Tripartite division, pointed out by the internal structure and 
 general formation of the stems, leaves, and floral envelopes, is 
 not an arbitrary, but a natural classification; for when the 
 divisions into which the various objects of the Vegetable King- 
 dom arrange themselves, when their seed lobes and sporules, or 
 modes of germination, are made the criterion of separation, it 
 will at once, and with satisfaction, be observed, that they are 
 in perfect unison with that which the stems and leaves pre- 
 viously pointed out. 
 
 The Second Part of the work in question is devoted to the 
 Natural Arrangement ; and " here I may claim," says Sir 
 William Hooker, " the merit of being the first who has made 
 such an attempt with the indigenous plants. This section 
 begins with the Cryptogamia, which in the Linnaean system 
 immediately follows the 23rd class, or the last included in the 
 first part of the work, and may thus be said to occupy its right 
 place, whichever method of classification may be followed."* 
 
 * Preface to the Flora Scotica, pp. ix, x. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 211 
 
 "PART II. 
 
 " CLASS I. ACOTYLEDONS. Jussieu. 
 
 " (Cryptogamia, Linnceus. Acotyledons, and part of Monocoty- 
 ledons. Ferns of De Candolle and Brown. Agamae and Exem- 
 bryonatae, Richards). 
 
 " Fruit, or organs of reproduction without any Cotyledon. 
 
 " Vegetation. In all, with the exception of the Ferns, the structure 
 seems to be entirely cellular, and hence the term ' Cellular es, applied 
 to them by De Candolle, in opposition to * Vascular es^ or those 
 plants which, in addition to the cellular structure, have tubular 
 vessels as in the Cotyledonous plants and the Ferns; on which 
 account De Candolle and Brown have removed these into the 2nd 
 class, or Monocotyledons. 
 
 " This class contains the following distinct Natural ORDERS : 
 
 " I. Fungi. II. Lichens. III. Algae. IV. Characeae. V. Hepa- 
 ticae. VI. Musci. VII. Filicis. VIII, Lycopodineae. IX. Mar- 
 sileaceae. X. Equisetaceae."* 
 
 The botanical writer, from whose work we have already 
 so copiously extracted, says 
 
 " The foregoing observations have carried us, somewhat super- 
 ficially, it must be confessed, but at the same time consecutively, 
 through all the principal circumstances which occur in the life of a 
 perfect plant. 
 
 " All that relates to imperfect plants, or those which are increased 
 by simple division of their own substance, and not by seeds, is 
 equally explicable by the same rules, with the single exception of 
 their reproduction. Upon this head it is necessary that we should 
 offer a few special remarks. 
 
 " It must be obvious, upon consideration, that plants in which 
 there exists neither stamen nor pistils, and in which there conse- 
 quently cannot take place any of those phenomena we have lately 
 been examining, must also be destitute of seeds ; for a seed is nothing 
 but a sac of mucous matter in a particular state of organization 
 into which either the germ of a new individual has been conveyed, 
 or wherein its existence has been produced by some unknown ac- 
 tion of pollen. 
 
 * Flora Scotica, Part ii. p. 3. 
 P 2 
 
212 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " That nature has not, however, neglected the means of propa- 
 gating the lower tribes of plants is plain from their great abundance 
 in favourable situations ; and, upon examination, we find that if 
 they have not reproductive organs like those of plants of a higher 
 organization, they are furnished with matter of another kind, which 
 answers the purpose equally well. This matter consists of what are 
 called sporules or spores, and is lodged in parts which may be con- 
 sidered analogous in their function to carpels, although they have 
 not only no resemblance in structure to those parts in flowering 
 plants, but also very little among each other ; the spore cases being 
 sometimes elaborate pieces of organization, as in ferns and mosses, 
 and sometimes mere simple tubes buried in the substance of the 
 plant, as in lichens, fungi, &c. 
 
 "In the more perfect of the tribes of flowerless plants, there 
 can be no doubt that spores act precisely like seeds in reproducing 
 the species ; for if those from the leaves of ferns, or from the urn of 
 a moss are sown, as they have often been, they uniformly produce 
 the same species as that from which they were derived. In regard 
 to these plants, then, no difference exists between seeds and spo- 
 rules, except as to the origin, organization, and mode of develop- 
 ment of the latter. Instead of having their centre divided into 
 plumule and radicle, to which one or two cotyledons are attached, 
 they are mere homogeneous masses of cellular substance ; and in- 
 stead of uniformly growing from two constant points of their sub- 
 stance, from one upwards and from the other downwards, they are 
 capable of sprouting into root or stem, indifferently from any point of 
 their surface ; the nature of the part which the spores produce de- 
 pending not upon pre-existing organization, but upon accidental 
 circumstances. When they begin to grow, that portion of the sur- 
 face which is exposed to light extends into a stem, and that which 
 is turned to darkness and humidity becomes root 
 
 " Let us not, however, be led astray by specious theories con- 
 cerning bodies so far beyond the cognizance of our senses ; but, in 
 the absence of demonstrative evidence to the contrary, let us believe 
 the great Author of Nature to be consistent with himself in all His 
 works, and to have taken care to enable the most humble sea-weed 
 to be multiplied by some means as certain and unchangeable as is 
 provided for the most stately lord of the forest. We may rest as- 
 sured, for all philosophy, and all observation, and all reason prove 
 it, that there is no such thing in nature as blind chance, but that all 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 213 
 
 things have been carefully and wisely designed with reference to the 
 particular circumstances under which they exist."* 
 
 With respect to the reproductive organs of Cryptogamous 
 plants, Sir Wra. Jackson Hooker expresses himself in the 
 following impressive words, to which we beg particular atten- 
 tion : 
 
 " The more intimately we become acquainted with the reproduc- 
 tive organs of the Acotyledonous or Cryptogamic plants, the more 
 apparent is it, in my opinion, that there are no sexes as in the pha- 
 nogamous plants, no stamens, and no pistils, nor anything analogous 
 to them ; consequently, no true seed, which can only be produced 
 through their co-operation. The structure of the seeds themselves 
 (more properly sporules), tends greatly to confirm such an opinion ; 
 there being in reality no distinction into cotyledon, radicle, or plu- 
 mule ; in short, no embryo, any more than is in the little bulbs seen 
 upon the stalks of the onion tribe, and on the polygonum, viviparum, 
 &c., which yet equally produce perfect plants. A sporule has 
 alike the power of producing from every part, either stem or root, as 
 circumstances may require ; but it is quite otherwise with the true 
 
 " ^cotyledons," says Professor Henslow, "include an extensive 
 series of plants, grouped under several orders, which differ consider- 
 ably in many particulars. The whole agree, however, in the im- 
 portant circumstance of never bearing flowers like those of the two 
 former classes : hence they are termed ' cryptoyamic,' in contradis- 
 tinction to ' phanogamic,' which is applied to all flowering species. 
 Having no flowers they produce no true seeds ; but in lieu of them 
 are furnished with what certainly bears a considerable resemblance to 
 seed, viz. : small minute granular bodies capable of becoming distinct 
 plants. The manner in which these 'sporules,' as they are termed, 
 are produced, is very various in the different orders of this class, but 
 forms no part of our present enquiry. They are also variously 
 shaped, but generally spherical or spheroidal, and are not separable 
 into distinct parts with radicle and cotyledon, like the seeds of pha- 
 nogamous plants. In germinating, the sporules are developed by 
 an increase of cellular tissue, which appears in the form of rounded 
 masses and filamentous chords. Among the higher tribes roots are 
 
 * Botany in Library of Useful Knowledge, pp. 117 119. 
 t Flora Scotica, Part ii. p. 3, 
 
214 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 afterwards produced, and a part which is more or less elevated above 
 the soil is the representative both of the stem and leaves of phano- 
 gamous plants combined. In the lower tribes, however, there is 
 seldom any separation of parts into distinct organs, but the functions 
 of nutrition are carried on in an obscure manner by the general 
 mass. 
 
 " Acrogens, as the cryptogamia are called, are totally different in 
 the organization of their stems from either the Exogens or Endogens. 
 In ferns, which are most remarkable both for their size and singu- 
 larity of structure, the stem is a cylinder usually hollow ; if solid, 
 having the centre filled with spongy substance, destitute of bark, 
 with neither woody bundles nor woody wedges interposed among 
 the general substance of the stem. The shell of this cylinder, which 
 answers to the woody part of other plants, is composed of exces- 
 sively hard plates, folded upon themselves in such a manner that a 
 section of them represents a number of sinuous lines doubling about 
 among spongy matter. These never increase in thickness, number, 
 or quantity after being once formed ; but they seem as if they were, 
 as in all probability they are, mere prolongations of the woody matter 
 lying inside the footstalks of the leaves ; whereas exogens increase 
 by addition to the outside of their wood, and endogens by addition 
 to the inside of their stem ; whence their respective names have 
 been formed. Acrogens seem to have little or no power of increase 
 in diameter, but simply to lengthen by continual extension of their 
 points ; their name has been contrived from this circumstance. 
 
 " To these principal variations of the mode of growth in the stems 
 of plants, should, perhaps, be added a fourth form, of which little 
 notice has hitherto been taken by botanists. This, which may be 
 called the centrifugal, occurs in fungi, lichens, and the lower orders 
 of plants ; and consists of a fleshy or spongy mass, or of filamentous 
 processes radiating from a common centre. 
 
 " In many respects this is the same as the Acrogenous, of which, 
 indeed, it may be considered a mere variety ; for its ramifications 
 do not increase much in thickness after they once are formed ; it 
 nevertheless deserves to be specially explained. In an obscure 
 plant called Marchantia, Mirbel found that a little thin green plate 
 was first formed by the action of the reproductive grains or seedlets ; 
 and that it was from the edges of this plate, when once fully formed, 
 that all the succeeding expansions took place, as from a common 
 centre, but always upon the same plane ; so that in such plants the 
 central part is the oldest, and the circumference the youngest. This 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 215 
 
 is very apparent in lichens, which, when very large, are always dead 
 in the centre, while they continue to go on growing from every part 
 of their margin. These appearances are external indications of the 
 centrifugal growth of the subterranean stems of certain agarics, which 
 originally spring from a common point, continually spreading out- 
 wards upon the same plane, the central or first-formed parts perish- 
 ing as the circumferential or latest-formed parts develope."* 
 
 * Botany in Library of Useful Knowledge, pp. 9 19. 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 THE VEGETABLE ORGANISMS OF THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Summary application of what has been established in the foregoing Chapter, 
 DICOTYLEDONS comprehend all plants "bearing fruit whose seed is m 
 itself upon the earth." MONOCOTYLEDONS embrace "the herbs yielding 
 seed." But the Vegetable Kingdom being examined into, a third descrip- 
 tion of plants are discovered, bearing neither flowers, fruits, nor seeds, 
 called ACOTYLEDONS, and these are supposed to have been created during 
 the non-rotatory period. Lists of Fossil Plants, given in corroboration, 
 from the chalk formation downwards, and from two distinct sources 
 from Geological writers, and from the works of Fossil Botanists. General 
 observations confirmatory of these lists. Brief explanations respecting 
 vestiges of flowering plants occasionally included in the foregoing lists. 
 Review of the progress made thus far. Adaptation of the imperfect, 
 flowerless plants to the state of the creation during the anti-rotatory 
 period ; and their capability of having grown and propagated in a sub- 
 merged condition confirmed, by contrast with the incapability of flower- 
 ing plants to have existed without either light, atmosphere, or dry land. 
 
 THE copious explanations and botanical descriptions, taken 
 from the accomplished writers on that interesting division of 
 natural objects, which we have given in the preceding chapter, 
 will have sufficiently prepared the mind for accompanying us 
 while, in this, we make the application which alone induced 
 us to enter so fully into them. The position we shall endea- 
 vour, with their aid, to establish is That considering the Dico- 
 tyledonous Class of plants comprehends indiscriminately all 
 those "which bear fruit whose seed is in itself upon the earth ;" 
 and the Monocotyledonous division, in like manner, includes 
 all "herbs which yield seed" and that these two, together, em- 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY. 217 
 
 brace all descriptions of vegetable objects willed into existence 
 during the Mosaic week ; and, considering it to be equally well 
 known, by reason and observation, that there does exist an- 
 other great division of the Vegetable Kingdom, whose charac- 
 teristics do not at all correspond with the Command which 
 was then given ; while we have no motive for supposing that 
 the Creative power of the Omnipotent might not have been 
 put forth at any period, or at several consecutive periods 
 during the non-rotating condition of the Earth, we are con- 
 strained to conclude, and are prepared to prove, that before 
 the world revolved around its axis there did exist beneath its 
 waters innumerable plants of great secreting powers pertaining 
 to, or very much resembling, the Jlowerless ACOTYLEDONOUS 
 class of the present day, which, by means of their cryptogamic 
 construction, and other peculiarities, were there enabled to 
 exist, to propagate, and to acquire vast dimensions, while as a 
 further, and, indeed, the only effectual corroboration of this 
 view of the case (considering the epoch to which we allude), 
 we shall, in continuation, submit two distinct, but correspond- 
 ing consolidated lists ; one abstracted from M. de la Beche's 
 manual of the fossil vegetable remains discovered in the seve- 
 ral stratified masses, from the chalk down to the non-fossilife- 
 rous rocks of primary formation ; and the other from Messrs. 
 Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora, in which the objects are 
 classed botanically, together with notes from other scientific 
 writers on the same interesting subject. The well-established 
 character of these authorities warrants the expectation, that 
 perfect confidence will be placed in those lists and explana- 
 tions ; while the surprising conformity which they make mani- 
 fest between the result of actual discoveries, and the a priori 
 conclusions we have arrived at, by perfect dependence on 
 Revelation on the one hand, and on scientific researches on 
 the other, will, we earnestly trust, lead ultimately to the com- 
 plete establishment of the truth, and to the supremacy of the 
 Word of God over every imagination of the heart of man. 
 We proceed with our evidences. 
 
218 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 '* Vegetable Organisms in the Chalk and other formations, in the de- 
 scending series, viz. : 
 
 CONFERVJE. 
 
 Confervites fasciculata, C. segagropiloides, species not determined. 
 
 Fucoides orbignianus, F. strictus, F. tuberculosus, F. difFormis, F. 
 intricatus, F. Lyngbianus, F. Brongniarte, F. Tar- 
 gioni, F. canaliculatus, F. furcatus, F. Stokii, F. 
 encelioide, F. Brardii, F. Selaginoides, F. lycopodi- 
 oides, F. frumentarius, F. pectenatus, F. digitatus, 
 F. antiquus, F. circinatus, and species not deter- 
 mined. 
 
 NAIADES. 
 Zosterites Cauliniaefolia, Z. liniata, Z. Bellovisana, Z. elongata. 
 
 CYCADE;E.* 
 Cycadites Nelsonii. 
 Pterophyllum Williamsonis. 
 Zamia Pectinata, Z. Patens, Z. longifolia, Z. pennaeformis, Z. Ele- 
 
 gans, Z. Goldiaei, Z. acuta, Z. laevis, Z. Youngii, Z. 
 
 Feneonis, Z. Mantelli. 
 Zamites Bechii, Z. Bucklandi, Z. Lagotis, Z. hastata. 
 
 EQUISETACE/E. 
 
 Equisetum Columnare, E. infundibuliforme, E. dubium. 
 Calamites Suckowii, C. decoratus, C. undulatus, C. ramosus, C. 
 
 cruciatus, C, Cistii, C. dubius, C. cannaeformis, C. 
 
 C. Pachyderma, C. nudosus, C. approximatus, Stein- 
 
 hauri, C. radiatus, C. Voltzii, and species not de- 
 
 termined. 
 
 FILICES. 
 
 Pachypteris lanceolata, P. ovata. 
 
 Pecopteris Reglia, P. Desnoyersi, P. Polypodioides, P. denticulata, 
 P. Phillipsii, P. Whitbiensis, P. Blechnoides, P. Can- 
 dolliana, P. cyathia, P. arborescens, P. platorachis, 
 P. polymorpha, P. Oreopterides, P. Bucklandi, P. 
 aspera, and 34 other species. 
 
 * The Cycadees form the passage from the palms to the ferns, Sprengel 
 The Cycadese have great proximity to the ferns. Lindley. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 219 
 
 Sphcenopteris hymonophylloides, S. (?) macrophylla, S. Willianu- 
 
 sonis, S. crenulata, S. denticulata, S. furcata, S. 
 elegans, S. stricta, S. artemisiaefolia, S. delicatula, 
 S. dissecta, S. lineans, S. Brardii, S. trifoliolata, S. 
 Schlotheimii, S. fragilis, and 14 other species. 
 
 Neuropteris Gailliardoti, N. acuminata, N. Villiarsii, N. rotundifolia, 
 N. Loshii, N. tenuifolia, N. heterophilla, N. flexuosa, 
 N. gigantea, N. oblongata, N. cordata, N. Schewch- 
 zeri, N. angustifolia, N. acutifolia, N. crenulata, N. 
 macrophylla, N. oriculata. 
 
 Pteniopteris latifolia, P. Vitata. 
 
 Cyclopteris orbicularis, C. trichomanoides, C. obliqua, C. plabellata. 
 
 Lonchopteris Dournaisii, L. Mantelli, 
 
 Odontopteris Brardii, O. crenatula, O. minor, O. obtusa, O. Schloth- 
 eimii. 
 
 Schizopteris anomala. 
 
 Sigittaria* punctata, S. apendiculata, S. peltigera, S. laevis, S. cana- 
 liculata, S. Cortei, S. elongata, S. reneformis, S. 
 Hipprocrepis, S. Candollii, S. oculata, S. orbiculares, 
 S. tessellata, S. Knorrii, S. elliptica, S. transversalis, 
 and 16 other species. 
 
 Carpolithus Mentelli. 
 
 MARSILLIACEJE. 
 
 Splienophyllum Schlotheimii, Sph. Emarginatum, Sph. truncatum, 
 Sph. dentatum, Sph. quadrefidum, Sph. dissecta. 
 
 LYCOPODIACE^.f 
 
 Lycopodites piniformis, L. Gravenhorstii, L. Haeninghausii, L. em- 
 bricatus, L. phlegmarioides, L. tenuifolius, L. (?) 
 filiciformis, L. (?) affinis, L. Lepidodendron, and 
 several species not determined. 
 
 Selaginites patens, S. erectus. 
 
 * By referring to vol. i. pp. xvii. to xx. of MM. Lindley and Button's Fossil 
 Flora, our readers will find a very interesting discussion respecting this de- 
 scription of extinct plant Sigillaria, which, together with Stigmaria, M. Adol. 
 Brongniart and his reviewer consider as belonging to the Cryptogamous class. 
 
 f Mr. Lyell, in his Glossary, p. 72, gives the following explanation of Lyco- 
 podiacece : " Plants of an inferior degree of organization to Coniferae, some of 
 which they very much resemble in foliage ; but all recent species are infinitely 
 smaller. Many of the fossil species are as gigantic as recent Conifersc. Their 
 mode of reproduction is analogous to that of ferns. In England they are called 
 club-mosses." 
 
220 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Lepidodendron selaginoides, Lep. Elegans, Lep. Bucklandi, Lep. 
 ophiurus, Lep. mgosum, Lep. Underwoodii, Lep. 
 taxifolium, Lep. insigne, Lep. Sternbergii, Lep. 
 longifolium, Lep. ornatissimum, Lep. tetragonum, 
 Lep. Venosum, Lep. Rodianum, Lep. Cordatum, 
 Lep. Volkmanianum, and 25 other species. 
 
 Cardiocarpum majus, C. Pomiari, C. Cordifornie, C. ovatum, C. 
 acutum. 
 
 Stiff maria reticulata, S. Weltheimiana, S. intermedia, S. ficoides, 
 S. tuberculosa, S. rigida, S. minima. 
 
 PALIVLE. 
 
 Flabellaria borassifolia. 
 Naeggerathia foliosa. 
 
 CAWKJE. 
 
 Cannophyllites Virletii. 
 Clathraria Lyellii. 
 
 MONOCOTYLEDONS OF UNCERTAIN FAMILIES. 
 
 Stenbergia angulosa, Stenb. approximata, Stenb. distans. 
 
 Poacites equalis, P. striata. 
 
 Trigonocarpum Parkinsonii, Tr. naeggerathia, Tr. ovatum, Tr. cylin- 
 
 dricum. 
 Musocarpum prismaticum, M. difforma, M. contractum. 
 
 VEGETABLES OF WHICH THE CLASS is UNCERTAIN. 
 
 Annularia ininuta, A. Brevifolia, A. fertilis, A. floribunda, A. longi- 
 folia, A. spinulosa, A. radiata. Asterophyllites* 
 equisetiformis, Ast. rigida, Ast. pygmaea, Ast. hip- 
 puroides, Ast. longifolia, Ast. tenuifolia, Ast. delica- 
 tula, Ast. Brardi, Ast. diffusa. 
 
 Volkmannia polystachya, V. Distachya, V. Erosa. 
 
 Dicotyledonous wood, perforated by some boring shell. Cones of 
 Coniferae. Ferns (?) in Green Sands. 
 
 CLASS UNCERTAIN. 
 Mammalaria Desnoyersii. Many undescribed vegetables, Lyme 
 
 * No traces of them found among existing vegetables. They are named 
 from the stellated disposition of the leaves round the branches. Buckland's 
 Bridg. Treat, vol. i. p. 479. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 221 
 
 CONIFERS. 
 
 Thuyites divancata, Th. expansa, Th. acutifolia, Th. Cupresiformis. 
 Taxites podocarpoides. 
 
 LILIA. 
 Bucklandia squamosa. 
 
 Being desirous of affording every information to our readers ; 
 and considering that a degree of cross-examination into the 
 facts of the case may lead to more thorough conviction ; we 
 shall, in continuation of the lists now given of FOSSIL PLANTS, 
 as they are grouped together geologically, present an abstract 
 list of the same fossils arranged botanically by Messrs. Lindley 
 and Hutton. As we shall confine ourselves to plants found 
 within the same geological range wherein those in the former 
 lists were disembedded, no genera discovered in formations more 
 recent than the CHALK will be included, a circumstance which 
 will explain the occasional interruption in the numbers of the 
 genera. As regards the apparent discrepancy occasioned by 
 so many being ranged under the Floivering Classes, we have 
 only to remit the case for elucidation to a better understanding 
 and to more perfect means of identifying the fossil fragments. 
 
 EXOGEN^E; OR DICOTYLEDONS. 
 
 EUPHORBIACE^. 
 
 ? Genus 11. Stigmaria. (Variolaria Sternb. Mammillaria Ad. 
 
 Bron. Ficoidites Artist) 
 5 or 6 species in the Coal formation. 
 1 species (?) in the Oolite. 
 
 Genus 13. 
 Genus 14. 
 
 Pinites. 
 Pence. 
 
 CONIFERS. 
 \ Wood only known. 
 
 3 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 1 species in the Coal formation ; 
 others in the Oolite. 
 
 ff Leaves only known. 
 
 1 species in the Oolite. 
 
 Genus 19. Voltzia. f f Branches, leaves, and fruit known. 
 
 4 species in the New Red Sand- 
 stone. 
 
 Genus 17. Taxites. 
 
222 
 
 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Genus 21. Cupressites. 1 species in idem. 
 
 Genus 23. Thuytes. ff Branches only known. 
 
 4 species (?) in the shistose Oolite. 
 
 fff Doubtful Coniferse. 
 
 Genus 24. Brachyphyllum. 1 species in the lower Oolite. 
 Genus 25. Sphenophyllum. (Rotularia Sternb). 
 
 8 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 Genus 26. Cycadites. 
 Genus 27. *Zamia. 
 
 Genus 28. PteropJiyllum. 
 
 Genus 29. Nilsonia. 
 
 CYCADE.E. 
 Leaves only known. 
 
 1 species in the Grey Chalk. 
 
 15 species in the Lias and Oolitic 
 
 formations. 
 6 species in Marl and Sandstone of 
 
 the Lias. 
 1 species in Quadersandstein. 
 
 1 species in the lower Oolite. 
 
 2 species in Sandstone of the Lias. 
 
 f f Stems only known. 
 Genus 30. Cycadeoidecz -. 2 species in Portland stone. 
 
 DICOTYLEDONS OF DOUBTFUL AFFINITY. 
 
 ? Genus 31. Phyllotheca. I species in the Coal formation. 
 
 Genus 32. Annularia. (Bornia Sternb.) 
 
 6 or 7 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 Genus 33. Asterophyllites (Bruckmannia Sternb). 
 
 12 species in the Coal formation. 
 1 species in Transition beds. 
 
 (Obs. This genera is probably an extremely heterogenous 
 assemblage of all fossils with narrow veinless leaves, not united in a 
 cup at their base). 
 Genus 34. Bechera. 1 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 ENDOGEN^E; OR MONOCOTYLEDONS. 
 
 MARANTACE^E. 
 Genus 35. Cannophyllites. 1 species in recent bed of Coal. 
 
 ASPHODELEJE. 
 
 f Stems only known. 
 ? Genus 36. BucJclandia. 1 species in Stonesfield Slate. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 223 
 
 Genus 37. Clathraria. 1 species in the Green Sand. (?) 
 
 ? Genus 38. Convallarites. -f-f Leaves only known. 
 
 2 species in the Variegated Sands- 
 stone. 
 
 Genus 42. Flabellaria. 
 
 Genus 44 
 Genus 45 
 
 PALM^E. 
 Leaves only known. 
 
 I species in the Plastic Clay. 
 1 species in the Coal formation. 
 Nteggerathia. 2 species in the Coal measures. 
 Zeugophyllites. 1 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 FLUVIALES. 
 
 Genus 47. Zosterites. 4 species in Lower Green Sand. 
 
 1 species in the Lias. (?) 
 
 MONOCOTYLEDONS OF DOUBTFUL AFFINITY. 
 
 f Stems only known. 
 Sterribergia. (Columnaria Sternb.) 
 
 3 species in the Coal formation. 
 f f Leaves only known. 
 
 Poacites. Several species in the Coal for 
 
 mation. 
 
 f *j- f Fruits only known. 
 
 Genus 54. Trigonocarpum. 5 species in the Coal measures. 
 Genus 56. Musocarpum. 2 species in idem. 
 
 FLOWERING PLANTS OF UNCERTAIN CLASS. 
 
 Genus 58. jEthophyllum. 1 species in the New Red Sandstone. 
 Genus 59. Echinostachys. 1 species in idem. 
 Genus 60. Palceoxyris. 1 species in the New Red Sandstone. 
 
 CELLULARES ; OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 
 
 EQUISETACE.E. 
 
 Genus 51 
 
 Genus 52. 
 
 Genus 61. *Equisetum. 
 
 ? Genus 62. Calamites. 
 
 Genus 63. Pachypteris. 
 
 2 species in the Lias and Oolite. 
 2 species in the Coal formation. 
 2 species in Transition beds. 
 Several species in the Coal formation. 
 4 species in the New Red Sandstone 
 and Coal. 
 
 FILICES. 
 
 2 species in Inferior beds of Oolite. 
 
224 
 
 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Genus 64. Spenopteris. 
 
 Genus 65. Cyclopteris. 
 
 Genus 66. Glossopteris. 
 
 Genus 67. Neuropteris. 
 
 Genus 68. 
 Genus 69. 
 Genus 70. 
 Genus 71. 
 
 Odontopteris. 
 Anomopteris. 
 Tceniopteris. 
 Pecopteris. 
 
 Genus 72. Lonchopteris. 
 
 Genus 73. 
 Genus 74. 
 Genus 75. 
 
 Clathropteris. 
 Schizopteris. 
 Filicites. 
 
 Genus 76. Caulopteris. 
 
 1 species in Sand below the Chalk. 
 
 2 species in the New Red Sandstone. 
 5 species in the Oolitic formation. 
 28 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 4 species in the Coal formation. 
 1 species in Transition series. 
 
 1 species in the Oolite. 
 
 2 species in the Coal measures. 
 1 species in the Oolite. 
 
 1 species in the Lias. 
 
 24 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 3 species in the New Red Sandstone. 
 
 2 species in the Muschelkalk, &c. 
 
 5 species in the Coal measures. 
 
 1 species in the New Red Sandstone. 
 
 3 species in the Lias and Oolite. 
 60 species in the Coal formation. 
 10 species in the Oolite. 
 
 2 species in the Lias. 
 
 2 species in the Coal formation. 
 1 species in the Green Sands. 
 1 species in the Lias. 
 1 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 1 species in New Red Sandstone. 
 
 2 species in Marl of Lias. 
 
 1 species in the Coal measures. 
 
 LYCOPODIACEJE. 
 
 Genus 77. Lycopodites. 10 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 3 sp. in the Oolite, Lias, and Chalk, 
 
 Genus 78. Selaginites. 2 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 Genus 79. Lepidodendron. Several species in idem. 
 
 Genus 80. Ulodendron. 2 species in idem. 
 
 Genus 81. Lepidophyllum. 5 species in idem. 
 
 Genus 82. Lepidostrobus. 5 species in idem. 
 
 ? Genus 83. Cardiocarpon. 5 species in idem. 
 
 ALG^E. 
 
 Genus 86. Confervites. 2 species in the Chalk Marl. 
 
 Genus 87. Fucoides. (Agacites SchlotJi). 
 
 4 species in Transition rocks. 
 7 species in Bituminous Shale. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 225 
 
 3 species in the Oolite. 
 11 species in the Chalk. 
 
 PLANTS OF UNCERTAIN AFFINITIES. 
 
 Genus 88. Sigillaria. 40 species in the Coal formation. 
 
 Genus 89. Folkmannia. 3 species in idem. 
 
 Notes, referable to the foregoing concentrated lists of fossil 
 vegetable remains, extracted from Professor Buckland's Bridge- 
 water Treatise : 
 
 FILICES, OR FERNS The most numerous of the Vascular Crypto- 
 gamic plants. The circumstances most favourable to 
 their growth are humidity, shade, and heat. In the 
 Coal formation there are about 120 known species 
 of Ferns, forming about a half of the entire known 
 Flora of this formation ; these species represent but 
 a small number of the forms which occur among 
 living Ferns, and nearly all belong to the tribe of 
 Polypodiaceae, in which tribe are found the greater 
 number of existing arborescent species. The stems of 
 these arborescent Ferns are distinguished by certain 
 peculiarities from those of all Monocotyledonous plants. 
 
 EQUISETACE^E Well known in this climate as the common Horse- 
 tail of our swamps and ditches ; reaches from Lap- 
 land to the Torrid Zone. Divided (the fossil ones) 
 by Brongniart into Equiseta and Calamites. The 
 former rare in a fossil state. The latter are charac- 
 terised by large and simple cylindrical stems, articu- 
 lated at intervals. Sometimes marked by verticillated 
 branches, and attain to great size. Latitude seems 
 to have had no effect on the size of fossil equisetaceae. 
 (p. 461). 
 
 LEPIDODENDRON In some points of their structure they have been 
 compared to Conifera ; but in other respects, and in 
 their general appearance, with the exception of their 
 great size, they very much resemble Licopodiacece, or 
 Club-moss tribe. Professor Lindley states that the 
 affinities of existing Lycopodiaceae are intermediate 
 between Ferns and Coniferas on the one hand, and 
 Ferns and Mosses on the other. They are related to 
 Ferns in the want of several apparatus, and in the 
 Q 
 
226 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 abundance of axilar ducts contained in the axis, to 
 conifers in the aspect of the stems of some of the 
 larger kinds, and to mosses in their whole appearance. 
 The internal structure of their stems is intermediate 
 between Lycopodiacecc and Conifera. Lindley and 
 Hutton state, that Lepidodendra are, after Calamites, 
 the most abundant class of fossils in the Coal forma- 
 tions of the North of England,* occurring from twenty 
 to forty-five feet long. By means of Lepidodendron 
 a better passage is established from Flowering to 
 Flowerless Plants than by either Equisetum or Cycas, 
 or any other genus. 
 
 SIGILLARIA Plants unknown in modern vegetation, and of which 
 the duration seems to have been limited to the epochs 
 of the Transition period, are dispersed throughout 
 the sandstones and shales that accompany the Coal ; 
 colossal ; generally filled with sand or clay, and 
 are supposed to have been without any transverse 
 dissepments, and hollow throughout. The bark, 
 which alone remains, probably surrounded an axis 
 composed of soft and perishable pulpy matter like 
 living equisetaceae. . . . M. Brongniart enumerates 
 42 species of Sigillaria, and considers them to have 
 been nearly allied to arborescent Ferns, with leaves 
 very small in proportion to the size of the stems, and 
 differently disposed from those of any living Ferns. 
 Lindley and Hutton show strong reasons for considering that 
 Sigillaria were Dicotyledonous plants, entirely distinct from Ferns, 
 and different from any plants in the existing system of vegetation. 
 
 FAVULARIA, MEGAPHYTON, BOTHRODENDRON, and ULLODENDRON 
 Same group of fossil plants to which the Sigillaria 
 belongs all exhibiting a similar disposition of scars 
 arranged in vertical rows. They are separated into 
 the following five families, distinguished by the form 
 of their stems and their scars : 
 
 1. Sigillaria. 2. Famdaria. 3. Megapliyton. 
 
 4. Bothrodendron. 5. Ullodendron. 
 
 In the three first genera of this group, the scars appear to have 
 * Bridge-water Treatise, p. 483, et seq. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 227 
 
 given origin to leaves ; in the two latter they indicate the insertion 
 
 of large cones. 
 
 STIGMARIA An extraordinary family of extinct fossil plants, stig- 
 maria ficoides, dome shaped trunk or stem, 3 or 4 
 feet diameter. Both its surfaces slightly corrugated, 
 and covered with indistinct circular spots, many 
 horizontal branches varying from 9 to 15, and some 
 of them supposed to have been from 20 to 30 feet 
 long ; their leaves have been traced to the length of 
 3 feet, and have been said to be much longer ; the 
 branches are covered with spirally disposed tuber- 
 cules, resembling the papillae at the base of the spines 
 of Echini ; and from each tubercule there proceeded 
 a cylindrical and probably a succulent leaf. The 
 form of the trunk and branches show that they could 
 not have risen up into the air ; but must either have 
 trailed on the ground or floated in water. 
 
 ASTEROPHYLLITES So called from the stellated disposition of the 
 leaves round the branches, are still more obscure in 
 their nature than the foregoing, and no traces of them 
 are found among existing vegetables, nor in any 
 strata more recent than the Carboniferous series, and 
 many years may elapse before they are understood." 
 
 Conclusion respecting the Plants of the Coal Measures. 
 
 " The plants which have contributed most largely to the highly 
 interesting and important formation of the Coal, are referable prin- 
 cipally to the genera Calamites, Ferns, Lycopodiacece, Sigillaria, and 
 Stigmarice. These materials have been collected chiefly from the 
 carboniferous strata of Europe. The same kind of fossil plants are 
 found in the coal mines of North America, and we have reason to 
 believe that similar remains occur in Coal formations of the same 
 epoch under very different latitudes, and in very different quarters 
 of the globe, e. g., in India and New Holland, in Melville Island 
 and Baffin's Bay. 
 
 " The most striking conclusion to which the present state of our 
 knowledge has led, respecting the vegetables which gave origin to 
 coal, are 1st. That a large proportion of these plants were vascular 
 cry ptog amice ^ and especially Ferns ; 2dly. That among the Crypto- 
 gamic plants, the Equlsetacece attained a gigantic size ; 3dly. That 
 Dicotyledonous plants, which compose nearly two-thirds of living 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 vegetables, formed but a small portion of the Flora of these early 
 periods ; 4thly. That although many extinct genera and certain 
 families have no living representatives, and even ceased to exist 
 after the deposition of the Coal formation, yet they are connected 
 with modern vegetables by common principles of structure, and by 
 details of organization which show them all to be parts of one grand 
 and consistent and harmonious design."* 
 
 Sir Henry de la Beche, in his Manual of Geology, when 
 treating of the fossil flora, especially those found in the Coal 
 measures, expresses himself thus : 
 
 " We have reason to conclude, that in Poland, Western Germany, 
 Northern France, Belgium, and the British Isles, there were some 
 common causes in operation at the same epoch, producing the en- 
 velopment of a great abundance of terrestrial vegetables, of a nature 
 which could not, from the want of the necessary heat, now flourish 
 
 in the same latitudes The vegetable remains are often of 
 
 considerable size. M. Brongniart observes, that stems are found 
 in the planes of the strata more than 50 or 60 feet long ; and that 
 they may be traced in some of the galleries of the Continental coal 
 mines for more than 40 feet without observing their natural ex- 
 tremity Respecting the general character of the vegetation 
 
 of that period, M. Brongniart observes, that it is remarkable 1st 
 for the considerable proportion of the vascular cryptogamic plants, 
 such as Equisetacece, Filices, Marsilacece, and Licopodiacete ; and 
 2nd for the great development of the vegetables of this class, so that 
 they have attained a magnitude far beyond those of the same class 
 now existing, thus proving that circumstances were particularly 
 favourable to their production during the period under considera- 
 tion, .... indeed, he concludes, with much apparent probability, 
 that the climates in which the coal plants existed were even warmer 
 than those of our equinoxial regions, "f 
 
 " When we examine," says MM. de Candolle and Sprengel, " the 
 remains of the primeval world, we find the first traces of vegetable 
 impressions in the slate formations. These remains of the former 
 vegetable world belong almost entirely to the lower families : they 
 consist, for the most part, of Grasses, Reeds, Palms, and Ferns, 
 the latter, however, being almost always destitute of fruit. BUT 
 
 * Professor Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise, pp. 479 481. 
 
 f Manual of Geology, pp. 441 447, 2nd Edition, London, 1832. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 229 
 
 ALTHOUGH THESE FORMS CANNOT BE REFERRED TO ANY ONE OF THE 
 
 SPECIES WHICH ARE AT PRESENT KNOWN, they have yet so much 
 the appearance of tropical productions, that we are forced to admit 
 a very high degree of heat at the surface of the earth during its 
 former state, which heat must at that time have been diffused over 
 all the zones, because we find the same productions in the slate for- 
 mation of all parts of the earth.* In order to explain this, it has been 
 supposed, that the plane of the ecliptic, during the former state of the 
 globe, was completely different in its position, and that, consequent- 
 ly, our planet had then another situation with respect to the Sun. 
 But Bode, the worthy veteran of Prussian astronomers, has shown, 
 that the plane of the ecliptic has been for 65,000 years (!!) between 
 the 20th and 27th degree ; and that at present it is about 23 minutes 
 less, and consequently, the former solution must be entirely aban- 
 doned."! 
 
 The following corroborating extracts are of peculiar interest, 
 as they mark Mr. Turner's acquiescence in, and approval of, 
 the information given by those from whom he quotes. 
 
 " That vegetable remains abound in that series of rocks and 
 masses which constitute the Coal formations is universally agreed. 
 Plants were therefore in being before the coal strata originated ; and 
 it is also now the general sentiment, that our coals are a transmuta- 
 tion of vegetable matter into that state an extended mass of mineral 
 peat or turf."J 
 
 * It seems, indeed, that all the carbonaceous matter of the more ancient 
 Slate formation ought to he considered as the oldest remains of plants which 
 had been growing, but which had been stopped in their progress ; and that all 
 calcareous matter ought to be considered as the remains of a begun, but sup- 
 pressed creation of animal bodies. In what manner mineral substances are 
 formed from corrupting vegetables, we perceive from the production of iron 
 pyrites in our peat mosses, where it is found in layers under the thin, broad, 
 reed leaves, after they have become putrid. 
 
 f Elements of the Phil, of Plants, Edin. Trans, pp. 276, 277. 
 
 J M. Marcel de Serres considers the remains of the first period of vegeta- 
 tion to have formed the Coal beds. "They are remarkable for their little 
 variety ; for the simplicity of their organization ; and for the largeness of their 
 size. They seem to be referable to two chief classes of the vegetable kingdom 
 to the vascular cryptogames, as the ferns, the horse-tails, and the club-moss 
 tribe ; and to the monocotyledons, but of these only a few that resemble palms 
 and arborescent plants." Geognosie, p. 22. 
 
230 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 In a note pertaining to the division of his work Mr. Turner 
 gives the following interesting information relative to the fossil 
 vegetable remains : 
 
 "M. Al. Brongniart's tableau, No. 17, gives a long list of them, 
 of which the substance is ' No kind of marine plants ; all land 
 ones; Equisetacese, Calamites 12 species. Of Ferns, 21 kinds of 
 Sphaenopteris ; 2 kinds of Cyclopteris ; 1 1 of Nevropteris ; 1 Gloss- 
 optera ; 46 species of Pecopteris ; a Lonchopteris ; 5 kinds of Odon- 
 topteris ; 41 of Sigillaria. Of Marsileaceae or the Pepperwort tribe 
 7 species. Of the Lycopodiaceae 10 species ; 2 of Selaginites ; and 
 34 of Lepidodendron ; 5 of Lepidophyllum ; 4 of Lepidostrobus ; 5 
 of Cardiocarpum ; and 8 of Stigmaria ; 3 of Palms ; a Canna, and 
 14 species of Monocotyledons.' ' 
 
 Mr. Lyell says 
 
 *' Between two and three hundred species of plants are now enume- 
 rated as belonging to the carboniferous era, and of these a very few 
 only are Dicotyledonous.''^ 
 
 Professor Henslow observes 
 
 " The history of vegetation could not be completed without some 
 enquiry respecting those plants which existed on the earth in its 
 primeval state, during the extended geological epochs which elapsed 
 before the establishment of the present order of things. Traces of 
 this ancient vegetation are very abundant in certain strata, but more 
 especially in the ' Coal measures? the important mineral combustible 
 obtained from them being nothing else than vegetable matter in an 
 altered and fossilized state. In general, we do not find the remains 
 of plants so perfectly preserved as the skeletons of vertebrate 
 animals, or the testaceous coverings of mollusca. It is also rare to 
 meet with those parts (the flower and seeds) upon which the distinc- 
 tion of species and their classification chiefly depend, but still the 
 fragments which remain often possess very great beauty ; and many 
 specimens of wood are so exactly preserved, that their tissue may be 
 distinguished under a microscope as completely as in recent species. 
 As it is principally from these fragments of stems, and the im- 
 pressions of leaves, that any comparison between the ancient and 
 
 * Turner's Sacred History, pp. 179 181. 
 f Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 169. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 231 
 
 present flora of our planet must be instituted, it will be evident that 
 such data must generally be far too imperfect to admit of any 
 accurate determination of specific differences, though they may afford 
 us sufficient materials for ascertaining several truths of high interest. 
 The class, order, sometimes the precise genus, may be ascertained 
 to which a fossil vegetable belongs, even though we possess only a 
 small fragment of the plant. More frequently, these fossils bear an 
 analogy to some recent genera, which they closely resemble, but to 
 which they cannot be accurately referred. In such cases this re- 
 semblance is indicated by referring them provisionally to a genus 
 whose name is a modification of the recent genus : thus ' Lycopodites* 
 is a genus of fossil plants allied to ' LycopodiumJ but too imperfectly 
 known to have its characters fully pointed out. 
 
 " It was soon remarked, when the study of fossil vegetables began 
 to attract the attention of botanists, that those from the coal measures 
 were distinct from the plants now existing on the surface of the 
 earth, and that they more nearly resembled the species of tropical 
 climates than such as grew in the temperate zones. Subsequent 
 researches have shown that the species embedded in different strata 
 likewise differ from each other, and that on the whole there are 
 about fourteen distinct geological formations in which traces of vege- 
 tables occur. According to Mons. Brongniart they first appear in 
 the schists and limestones below the coal. These contain a few 
 Cryptogamic species (about thirteen), of which four are marine algae, 
 and the rest ferns, or the allied orders. In the coal itself above 300 
 distinct species have been recognized, among which those of the 
 higher tribes of cryptogamic plants are the most abundant, amount- 
 ing to about two-thirds of the whole. Many of them are arborescent, 
 and parts of their trunks are found standing vertically in the spots 
 where they grew. There are no marine plants in this formation. 
 A few palms and graminag are the chief Monocotyledons ; and there 
 are several Dicotyledons which have been considered analogous to 
 
 Apocynae, Euphorbaciae, Cactae, Coniferae, &c The great 
 
 predominance and size of arborescent ferns and other tribes of Duc- 
 tulozae constitute the main feature of the formation. 
 
 " Above the Coal we arrive at the New Red Sandstone ; in some 
 of the formations subordinate to this series a few species of fossil 
 plants occur. In the Oolitic series they become more abundant, and 
 some beds are remarkably characterised by the prevalence of the 
 genus Zamia, together with some Coniferte, Liliacece^ and many 
 Ferns, the latter being very distinct from those in the former for- 
 
232 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 mations. In the Green Sandstone and Chalk few species have been 
 hitherto found, and these are almost all marine. Among the 
 Tertiary strata (or those above the Chalk) the Dicotyledons begin to 
 prevail to a far greater extent than they did before, and the plants 
 are entirely different, including terrestrial lacustrine, and marine 
 species. Several fruits are referable to existing genera, as Acer, 
 Inglans, Salix, Ulmus, Cocos, Pinus, &c. 
 
 "It is remarkable that scarcely any species has been found in 
 more than one distinct formation, and none has occurred in any two 
 which are separated by a long epoch. Hence it appears to be a 
 natural conclusion, that there have been successive destructions and 
 creations of distinct species 
 
 " Judging from analogy, from the characters, and relative pro- 
 portions of the species in different classes, the temperature of those 
 parts in which the plants of the first period were growing, must have 
 been both hotter and moister than the climate in any part of the 
 earth at present. It has been plausibly conjectured that the atmos- 
 phere was more charged with carbonic acid at those early periods of 
 our planet's history, when gigantic species of cryptogamic plants 
 
 formed the main feature of its vegetation Since the fossil 
 
 plants, which have been found in the arctic regions, are analogous 
 to those which now grow in tropical islands, it seems likely, that not 
 only must they have enjoyed a higher temperature, but also a more 
 equable diffusion of light than those regions now possess."* 
 
 We earnestly trust that these copious extracts and lists, 
 which we have given even at the risk of being thought tire- 
 somely profuse, will be considered sufficient to prove the exist- 
 ence of vegetable remains in the older stratified masses, and 
 fully to have exhibited their character ; should, however, fur- 
 ther evidence still be wished for, reference may be made to the 
 geological works mentioned in the course of this Treatise, from 
 which these extracts have been taken, where all required in- 
 formation will be found. 
 
 No explanation beyond the notes and surmises mentioned 
 in the course of these proofs can be given for the apparent 
 anomaly caused by the occasional presence of some Monocoty- 
 ledons and of a few Dicotyledons amongst the fossil vegetable 
 remains. Vestiges of each may have more recently sunk down 
 
 * Botany in Cab. Cyc. pp. 310313. Also the authority for 36th Theorem. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 233 
 
 into fissures and crevices, and there become fossil, appearing 
 to belong to geological periods much more remote than those 
 in which they grew ; while we may with confidence avail our- 
 selves of what Messrs. Lindley and Hutton and Prof. Henslow 
 assert, which forms the basis of the hundred and twenty -seventh 
 Theorem,* respecting the difficulty of comparing the muti- 
 lated fossil vestiges with their recent analogies, while we rely 
 with composure on a more thorough examination for the 
 elucidation of the difficulty ; feeling thoroughly convinced 
 that no Monocotyledonous or Dicotyledonous plant, properly 
 so called, which required floral envelopes for the develop- 
 ment of its seed, did, or could possibly have existed previous 
 to the light, the atmospheric air, and the elevation of the dry 
 land above the waters: while, as regards the perplexities 
 attendant on the classifications of fossil plants, to which Pro- 
 fessor Henslow so clearly alludes in his work, they could not 
 possibly be described in more clear or forcible language than 
 that which has been employed by those joint labourers who, 
 more than any others, have been inconvenienced by them. 
 
 " Unfortunately," say Messrs. Lindley and Hutton, in the preface 
 to their great work, " Fossil Botany is beset with difficulties of a 
 peculiar character ; the materials that an enquirer has to work upon 
 are not only disfigured by those accidents to which all fossil remains 
 are exposed, but the parts found are those which in recent vege- 
 tation would be considered of the smallest degree of importance. 
 There is, in most cases, an almost total want of that evidence by 
 which a botanist is guided in the examination of recent specimens, 
 and not only the total destruction of the parts of fructification, and of 
 the internal organization of the stem, but what contributes more to 
 the perplexity of the subject, a frequent separation of one part from 
 another ; of leaves from branches, of branches from trunk ; and, if 
 fructification be present, the separation of it even from the parts of 
 the plant on which it grew, so that no man can tell how to collect 
 the fragments that remain into a perfect whole ; for, it must be re- 
 marked, that it is not in botany as in zoology, where a skilful anato- 
 mist has no difficulty in combining the scattered bones of a broken 
 skeleton. 
 
 * To which please refer. 
 
234 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " In botany, on the contrary, the component parts of both foliage 
 and fructification are often so much alike in outline, which is all 
 that the fossil botanist can judge from, as to indicate almost nothing 
 when separated from each other, and from the axis to which they 
 appertain. It is only by the various combinations of these parts 
 that the genera and species of plants are to be recognized, and it is 
 precisely these combinations that in fossils are destroyed."* 
 
 Should any of our readers be disposed hastily to conclude 
 that these assertions ought to invalidate the whole of the evi- 
 dence sought to be adduced by the findings and announce- 
 ments of Fossil Botanists ; labouring, as they do, under such 
 disadvantages, and so much exposed to the possibility of giving 
 a wrong decision when classing the petrified fragmental speci- 
 mens which time and many casualties have spared for their 
 inspection ; we would beg to remind any such, that besides 
 the circumstance of ferns and some allied cryptogamic plants 
 being those whose remains have best resisted the lapse of ages, 
 and are found most perfect and entire, the negative character 
 of the proof which most corroborates our position enables us 
 in this case 3 to avail ourselves, alike, of what exists and what 
 does not. Guided by the announcements of Scripture, we 
 did not expect tbat there should have been found either true 
 "seed of herbs" or true "fruit of trees with seeds in them" 
 although we counted on the discovery of reproductive pro- 
 cesses of some kind or otber. Consequently, the absence of 
 the two former the pbanogamous means of propagation so 
 far from militating against our argument, has a tendency all 
 tbe other way ; and as such we adopt and recommend it to 
 our readers. 
 
 Considering tbis a convenient resting-place, from whence to 
 take a brief review of tbe ground we have gone over in this 
 and the previous chapter, which has unavoidably been much 
 broken and uneven, we shall briefly recapitulate what has been 
 done, not only in order to refresh the memory, but, likewise, 
 the more effectually to apply what we have acquired to what 
 has yet to be accomplished. 
 
 * Fossil Botany, by Lindley and Hutton. See also p. xxvii. of same volume, 
 and p. vi. of part I. of volume II. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 235 
 
 By an enquiry into the characteristics of the first great 
 CLASS of plants, the Dicotyledons or Exogence, we found that 
 they corresponded so closely to the group mentioned in Scrip- 
 ture which " bear fruit having seed in itself" that they com- 
 pletely filled up that division of the Vegetable Kingdom. By 
 a similar investigation into the nature and structure of the 
 second class, called Monocotyledons or Endogence, we disco- 
 vered that, being " herbs bearing seeds" merely, they, in like 
 manner, completed the group designated in Genesis "the herb 
 yielding seed." But as these two classes do not, however, 
 exhaust the whole of the known plants, but leave to be ac- 
 counted for the flowerless, seedless plants, called Cryptogames, 
 of which neither allusion to, nor direct mention is made in 
 Genesis, we were forced to conjecture, with due allowance for 
 the difficulty of arranging them, and the consequent imper- 
 fection of their classification, that the plants of this descrip- 
 tion, or such as shall be declared flowerless, seedless, or fruitless 
 had been willed into existence by previous fiats of the Creator 
 during the period of the earth's non-rotation, and at those 
 particular junctures in the due development of the plan of 
 Creation when their agency was most required, while as yet 
 there was no sun-light, and the Earth, being without rotation, 
 was immersed in a universal ocean. On this point we were 
 particularly desirous to explain the probable consequences of 
 the indistinct line of separation between plants possessing 
 perfect seeds and those having no claim to such, when inves- 
 tigations are being made amongst the orders of Cryptogamia, 
 where these characteristics are involved in obscurity and un- 
 certainty ; and where, moreover, only vestiges of fossil plants 
 form the objects of examination. Confirmed, however, in the 
 belief that the flowerless, seedless, fruitless plants were not 
 formed on the third day of the Mosaic week, but had been 
 previously brought into existence by GOD the Creator of all 
 things, we next directed our attention to the character of the 
 fossil remains themselves, which we presented to the reader 
 in abstract consolidated lists, with the additional evidence 
 of the explanations and notes of those writers who have 
 most dedicated themselves to the investigation of these objects 
 of natural history, and the result was that a direct corrobo- 
 
236 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 rative testimony was afforded as to the soundness of the lead- 
 ing views adopted by us. The vast majority of the fossil 
 plants being unconsciously declared by men who never anti- 
 cipated such an application of their evidence to belong chiefly 
 to the cryptogamous class of plants. 
 
 And, on the whole, we consider it to be hardly possible to 
 meet with greater success in any similar enquiry than that 
 which we have experienced in this branch of our argument. 
 The conviction we entertained of the truth of Scripture and 
 of the Omniscience of its Author the Creator also of the 
 objects of our research led us to conclude, when applied 
 to the experience of botanists that a grand division of the 
 vegetable kingdom had been created before the period of rota- 
 tion, and were of a description corresponding to the then 
 condition of the world. On further research we found the 
 geological botanists of our present era busy with extensive 
 repositories of fossil plants which they had dug up from the 
 bowels of the Earth, and which without any reference to the 
 source of our information they had described and classed as 
 correctly as the peculiar circumstances attending their dis- 
 covery would permit. And when we compared the vestiges 
 thus discovered with those whose origin we were in quest of, 
 we found the two to correspond in almost every particular ; 
 so much so that wherein the opinion of these intelligent bota- 
 nists agree and this is happily the case with respect to the 
 great majority of the plants they concur in referring them to 
 those Orders of imperfect plants whose formation is not re- 
 corded by the Sacred Historian : and wherein any are inclined 
 to refer them to higher classes or orders, there is not unfre- 
 quently a difference of opinion amongst them ; the plurality 
 of votes seeming to be in favour of the disputed fossils having 
 belonged to the flowerless Cryptogames. 
 
 Having thus, with much care and success, surmounted the 
 prefatory part of our labours in this section, we must now 
 direct the attention for a short time to the adaptation of those 
 imperfect, flowerless plants to the condition of our planet at a 
 period when it was without light, without diurnal rotation, 
 and circumbounded by an atmosphereless ocean. In doing 
 this, we shall have to pursue a path somewhat similar to that 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 237 
 
 which, in a corresponding part of the preceding section, we 
 had to tread, when shewing the close adaptation of the animals 
 of the ancient world to the state of the Creation during their 
 occupancy of the earth ; and, to a certain extent, the con- 
 straint we are thus placed under, will add another, and no 
 mean proof, to the many already adduced, of the justness of 
 our views ; similar influential causes having produced, in either 
 case, analogous results. 
 
 We shall commence, therefore, by a detailed investigation 
 into the nature and functions of the respiratory organs of 
 plants, which principally consist of their green parts the 
 leaves. 
 
 The writer on Botany, in the Library of Useful Knowledge 
 says 
 
 " The stem of a plant is clothed with what are collectively called 
 its appendages, or appendages of the axis, consisting of leaves and 
 their modifications, and of flowers with their parts. The former, 
 taken with the stem itself, are called organs of vegetation, or nutri- 
 tion ; the latter of fructification or reproduction. 
 
 " Leaves are usually those expansions of the bark into which 
 slender processes of the wood and fibre insinuate themselves, and 
 within which, after shooting beyond the surface of the stem, they 
 expand and branch in every direction, filling the whole of the pulpy 
 substance with a net-work of tough and stiff fibres, which serve to 
 sustain the mass of the leaf. The leaf is therefore in intimate con- 
 nection with both parts ; with the bark on the one hand, and with 
 the wood on the other ; consisting of the portions of the systems of 
 these two important parts intimately intermingled, but each capable 
 of acting singly as well as in concert. The pulpy substance which 
 expands from the surface of the bark and forms the principal part 
 of the leaf is technically named the parenchyma, and the fibres that 
 maintain it veins. The latter are also frequently called nerves or 
 nervures in botanical language, although improperly ; for they are 
 merely channels through which fluids are impelled, and they have 
 no connection, as far as we know, with any action resembling the 
 nervous system of animals 
 
 " The universal presence of leaves upon all plants ; their highly 
 complicated structure ; the intimate connexion which it has been 
 shown they maintain between the systems of the wood and the bark ; 
 their extremely high development in many cases ; and their multiplied 
 
238 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 variety of forms, all lead to the opinion that they are organs of the 
 most essential importance. This is confirmed by their internal 
 structure, independently of experiment. 
 
 " Most leaves are not thicker than a piece of paper or parchment, 
 and appear to the naked eye as nothing more than a thin green 
 plate, so that an ordinary observer would never suspect that their 
 internal structure, which no eye, unassisted by glasses, can investi- 
 gate, was one of the most complicated and highly organized cha- 
 racter ; and yet there is no part among those with which plants are 
 furnished which is more complex. It is necessary, indeed, that it 
 should be so, in order to be enabled to perform the important func- 
 tions of digestion, respiration, and perspiration, for which it is des- 
 tined 
 
 " The anatomical structure of the leaf appears distinctly connected 
 with its functions of respiration and evaporation. That side of the 
 leaf which is next the sun being most exposed to heat, the cylin- 
 drical bladders that form it are placed with their narrow ends next 
 the cuticle, by which means they not only each present the smallest 
 evaporating surface, but are so circumstanced with respect to each 
 other, as to be able with the least difficulty to absorb fluid from 
 each other as they empty. The bladders next the lower surface 
 not being exposed to the same kind of external influence, do not 
 require the same kind of internal adjustment of their parts, but are 
 arranged with wide intervals between them, which communicate 
 with the chambers below the numerous breathing pores of the lower 
 surface. Here, then, the functions of respiration are best performed : 
 each bladder, on the one hand, exposes the greatest possible extent 
 of surface to the action of the oxygen or carbonic acid that may be 
 received by the breathing pores ; and has, on the other, the greatest 
 possible power of parting ; firstly, with the oxygen which results 
 from the decomposition of the carbonic acid in these vegetable 
 stomata, and secondly, with the superfluous water which is not 
 evaporated by the upper surface through the cuticle. It will be 
 observed that in the water-lily, in which the most cavernous part of 
 the parenchyma is next the upper surface, the leaf floats with its 
 lower face upon the water ; respiration, consequently, cannot take 
 place at the under surface, and the function, of necessity, is trans- 
 ferred to the upper, where the stomata all are. 
 
 " From these statements it is to be inferred that leaves are a sort 
 of pneumatic apparatus, of a highly curious and elaborate structure ; 
 and that the variations which occur in their internal organization 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 239 
 
 are beautiful adaptations of the parenchyma to the particular cir- 
 cumstances under which the leaves themselves are placed. 
 
 " Light, heat, and water, are the external agents which, acting 
 upon the vital principle, set all the machinery of vegetation in 
 motion. No one of these causes will, by itself, produce the effect, 
 although their continuation be of the most powerful kind. 
 
 " Light, as we shall hereafter see, causes the decomposition of 
 carbonic acid, fixing the carbon in the interior of the tissue, and thus 
 solidifying the more delicate parts, or altering the chemical nature 
 of others. It is the grand cause of the varied colours of vegetation, 
 and may be considered as being, in part, what produces a motion of 
 the fluids. In its absence plants are weak, sickly, and soon perish. 
 
 " Heat, by drying the atmosphere, produces evaporation, which is 
 one of the great means by which the crude fluids become inspissated 
 and altered in their nature ; it causes the expansion of the gases 
 which plants contain, distends their tissue, and renders the latter 
 more capable of performing its contractile and hygrometrical func- 
 tions. 
 
 " Water relaxes all the parts, dissolves the soluble matters which 
 are laid up in a plant in a state of torpidity, and softens the tissue 
 till it is capable of receiving the influence of temperature. It is, 
 moreover, the medium by which the nutritious principles that are 
 deposited in the earth are absorbed by the roots, and conveyed from 
 one part of the system to another. 
 
 " To sum up in a few words all that has thus far been stated, it is 
 light, heat, and water, acting in concert upon the irritable membrane, 
 which enable plants, by virtue of their extensibility, elasticity, and 
 hygrometrical powers, to perform the phenomena of contraction and en- 
 dosmose, by means of which they absorb and digest their food, circulate 
 their fluids, develope their organs, increase in size, and reproduce 
 themselves."* 
 
 " Under the name of respiration, we shall include all that is con- 
 nected with the inhaling and giving off of gaseous matter. This 
 function is chiefly connected with the absorption of oxygen and car- 
 bonic acid, and their expiration. By a vast number of experiments 
 chemists have determined that the green parts of plants placed in 
 the sun absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and decompose 
 it, giving back the oxygen ; and that at night they absorb oxygen 
 from the atmosphere, giving off carbonic acid : it is also probable 
 
 * See 120th Theorem. 
 
240 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 that they part with a small quantity of carbonic acid during the day 
 These conditions are necessary in order to secure the dis- 
 engagement of oxygen by leaves : firstly, the parts must be green ; 
 secondly, they must be exposed to the direct action of the solar 
 rays ; and thirdly, there must be carbonic acid in the water. 
 
 " The circumstance that green parts alone, with a few exceptions, 
 are capable of giving off oxygen, sufficiently proves that it cannot 
 result from what atmospheric air may adhere to the leaves under 
 
 experiment That it is, in fact, a vital action is proved 
 
 by dead leaves, still green, having no power of emitting gaseous 
 matter until they begin to decompose. 
 
 " It is not sufficient to place leaves in bright light to procure the 
 emission of oxygen by their leaves in water ; it must be under the 
 direct rays of the sun. De Candolle found the purest day -light, 
 the brightest lamplight, insufficient to produce the phenomenon ; 
 a very curious result when we consider how large a part of vege- 
 tation is seldom exposed directly to the solar rays. Of course 
 nothing like emission of oxygen w r ould occur at night. 
 
 " From this and many other considerations, we are forced to con- 
 clude that oxygen is absorbed by plants at night. This gas does 
 not, however, remain in the system of the plant in an elastic state, 
 for neither the air-pump nor heat will disengage it ; but it appears 
 to incorporate itself with the tissue, since solar light readily disen- 
 gages it. The inference therefore is, that it is absorbed at night, 
 and combines with the carbon already existing, forming carbonic 
 acid, and that the latter is decomposed by the sun, as has before 
 
 been shown From whence, it may be enquired, is the 
 
 large quantity of carbonic acid obtained which is thus necessary to 
 the support of plants? Certainly not from the atmosphere alone, for 
 it does not usually contain one part in a thousand of carbonic acid. 
 There can be no doubt that this gas is supplied principally by the 
 Earth, in which it exists in great quantity ; that a part is obtained 
 from the atmosphere ; and that a certain other portion results from 
 the combination of the oxygen of the atmosphere with the carbon of 
 vegetation ; and it would seem as if a repeated decomposition and 
 recomposition of carbonic acid was the principal phenomenon in res- 
 piration.* Hence it appears that while animals vitiate 
 
 the atmosphere by respiring carbonic acid, plants purify it by ab- 
 sorbing it. It may be said, indeed, that they also deteriorate it, by 
 
 * See 124th Theorem. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 241 
 
 abstracting its oxygen ; but it is to be remembered that if they 
 
 inhale it at night, they return it in the day-time 
 
 " What we have now seen of the action of the leaves and green 
 parts of plants will enable us to appreciate the adaptation of their 
 internal structure to perform their functions. We have found them 
 to consist of a number of little cells or bladders, so loosely cohering 
 that the air has room for free circulation between them ; and that, 
 by the way in which they are arranged, they present the greatest 
 possible surface to the action of the atmosphere. Although they 
 are enclosed in a thick cuticle, yet they are provided with openings 
 through it, called stomates, by means of which free admission for 
 air is secured, and through which it may be expelled again with 
 facility when they are submersed, and are, consequently, neither 
 exposed to irregularities of temperature nor of dryness in the air. 
 They have no occasion for either cuticle or stomates ; for the water 
 in which they float carries the air dissolved in it to every part ; and 
 consequently, submersed plants have neither. It is true that Mons. 
 de Candolle entertains doubts whether the stomates are not rather 
 organs of evaporation ; but when we consider the relation they bear 
 to the air cavities in leaves we can scarcely doubt that they are 
 really respiratory organs ; nor does it appear clear why they should 
 not, in fact, perform the functions both of perspiration and respira- 
 tion. If we hold a leaf of Laurustinus over a candle, so as to heat 
 the air contained in it without burning the leaf itself, the air will be 
 expelled through the stomates with such force as to extinguish the 
 flame."* 
 
 In corroboration of the foregoing, we give the following 
 quotations from Professor Henslow's work on Botany : 
 
 " The first actual change produced in the sap is effected by a 
 process analogous to animal respiration. The air is inhaled by the 
 leaf and the fresh surfaces of other parts of the plant, and its oxygen 
 then unites with the carbonaceous matters contained in the sap, and 
 the result is carbonic acid. The greater part of this gas is then held 
 in solution by the sap ; and the whole, or very nearly, azote which 
 has separated from the oxygen is exhaled. Besides the carbonic 
 acid thus formed by the plant itself, the trifling proportion every- 
 where found in the atmosphere is also inhaled ; and a still larger 
 
 * Botany, in Library of Useful Knowledge, pp. 21, 2831, 79, 80, 8790. 
 
 R 
 
242 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 quantity is introduced in the water absorbed by the spongioles. 
 Hence it appears that a three-fold provision is made for maintaining 
 a supply of this necessary ingredient.* So long as plants remain 
 in the dark, no fresh change takes place in this condition of things ; 
 the carbonic acid is retained, but is not fixed in the form of an or- 
 ganic compound. This further result requires the additional stimulus 
 of light, and then the decomposition of the carbonic acid is effected ; 
 the carbon becomes fixed under the form of an organizable com- 
 pound, and all, or nearly all, the oxygen with which it is united is 
 exhaled into the atmosphere. So long, then, as plants continue to 
 vegetate in the dark they tend to vitiate the atmosphere by abstract- 
 ing its oxygen, and also by the emission of some portion of the 
 carbonic acid which they generate ; but when they are exposed to 
 the light, they not only restore the oxygen which they had previously 
 abstracted from the atmosphere, but also give out another portion 
 of this gas which they set free by the decomposition of the carbonic 
 acid contained in the air, as well as that which was in the water 
 imbibed by the spongioles. In animal respiration, the carbonic 
 acid is immediately expelled from the lungs as soon as it is formed, 
 and the function is then considered complete ; and perhaps it would 
 be more logical to divide the function of vegetable respiration into 
 two processes, one of which should comprise the formation, and the 
 
 other the decomposition of carbonic acid 
 
 " When all these parts of plants which are capable of assuming a 
 green tint, but more especially the leaves, receive the stimulus of 
 light, they immediately decompose the carbonic acid contained in 
 the sap. The result of this action is the retention of the carbon, 
 and the expiration of the greater part of the oxygen into the sur- 
 rounding atmosphere. The most obvious effect produced by this 
 fixation of carbon is the appearance of that green colour which we 
 
 find in nearly all leaves and in some other organs The 
 
 fixation of the carbon by plants appears to be the first step in that 
 elaborate process by which brute matter is converted into an orga- 
 nisable compound, that is to say, into a material capable of being 
 afterwards assimilated into the substance of an organised body. 
 Many effects popularly ascribed to the action of air, are, in fact, due 
 to the agency of light. Thus, trees which grow in elevated or in 
 isolated situations are more vigorous than others of the same spe- 
 cies which grow in forests or in shady places ; and those on the 
 
 * 124th Theorem. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 243 
 
 skirts of a wood are finer than those in the interior The 
 
 loss of light in stoves and greenhouses, by diminishing the effects of 
 exhalation, renders plants more liable to be frozen than others of 
 the same description which are growing in the open air. 
 
 " Although the decomposition of carbonic acid by the green parts 
 of plants is perpetually carried on under the stimulus of diffused 
 light, and its effects may even be rendered apparent by the action 
 of lamp-light, which gives a slight tinge of green to plants when 
 grown in a cellar, yet in these cases the process is carried on too 
 slowly to allow of our collecting the oxygen which is set free. But 
 when plants are placed in the direct rays of the sun, the action is so 
 much more rapid, that the oxygen may then be collected in sufficient 
 quantity to produce a striking result. 
 
 " A certain portion of free oxygen is necessary for the formation 
 of the carbonic acid generated by the process of respiration ; but 
 when this carbonic acid is decomposed and the carbon fixed, the 
 same oxygen which is set free will serve again for a fresh formation 
 of carbonic acid so long as there remains any carbonaceous materials 
 in the sap. This may assist us in explaining an interesting fact 
 described in the Gardeners' Magazine, vol. x. p. 208. It is there 
 stated that many plants, especially ferns, have been readily grown 
 in the smoky atmosphere of London, by placing them in boxes fur- 
 nished with glass coverings hermetically sealed. In this state they 
 have lived and increased in size during several years without any 
 immediate communication with the atmosphere.* 
 
 The following succinct corroborative evidence is from the 
 recent work of a philosophical Meteorologist, and we give it 
 with much pleasure : 
 
 ' This leads us to refer to a speculation of M. Adolphe Brong- 
 niart, upon the formation of those carboniferous beds which are so 
 widely distributed over our globe, and without which civilization 
 would not have rapidly advanced. To this geologist it has occurred 
 that, during that era of our earth's history, the atmosphere was 
 much more largely charged with carbonic acid gas than now or 
 previously. 
 
 During that era there seems to have been an ascendancy in the 
 vegetable over the animal kingdom ; for, while immense numbers of 
 
 * Botany, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 186194. 
 R 2 
 
244 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 trees and arborescent ferns and smaller plants existed, scarcely a ves- 
 tige of land animals is to be found. If we suppose that during that 
 period there was a larger proportion of carbonic acid in the air than 
 now, it would be most favourable to vegetable life, while the excess 
 would be detrimental to that of animal existence. 
 
 " No sooner were those vast coal fields deposited, than we find 
 a manifestation of animal life, and, finally, its predominance. We 
 find much luxuriant vegetation in the presence of those waters which 
 are richly charged with carbonic acid gas."* 
 
 These explanations of the phenomena attending the organi- 
 zation, the respiration, and the evaporation of perfect flowering 
 plants, together with the manner in which they form and de- 
 compose carbonic acid, are amply sufficient to shew that sun- 
 light and atmospheric air are indispensably requisite for effect- 
 ing those important functions of the vegetable economy ; and 
 consequently, it is quite unnecessary to prove that none of the 
 flowering plants requiring these essential elements could have 
 existed previously to the formation of the light and of the 
 atmosphere, and are, therefore, to be considered as not having, 
 in any way whatever, contributed to those widely-extended 
 and important labours performed by the agency of plants 
 during the protracted period of non-rotation. They may, we 
 think, after a few further explanations, be eliminated entirely 
 from our future argument. They did not then exist. 
 
 But, in order to leave no lingering doubt unremoved, let us 
 next enquire whether they could have fulfilled the end of 
 their being their reproduction had they been submerged in 
 water. We shall first recapitulate the hundred and eighteenth 
 Theorem : That all the phenomena attending the flowering of 
 plants and the dihescense of the various receptacles which are 
 instrumental in the fertilization and maturation of the SEED 
 and FRUIT, and the dissemination of the former, fully attest 
 the absolute necessity of these COMPLICATED OPERATIONS 
 BEING CONDUCTED IN ATMOSPHERIC AIR. The presence of 
 much moisture being prejudicial to the peculiar development 
 of the pollen; and, in continuation, we shall give a few corro- 
 
 * Introduction to Meteorology, by Dr. Thomson, pp. 13, 14. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 245 
 
 borative extracts, the Theorem itself being almost sufficiently 
 conclusive : 
 
 " It is further essential," says Prof. Henslow, " that the pollen 
 rhould be protected from the influence of moisture ; and, conse- 
 quently, we find that aquatics, as the water lily (Nymphtealba), 
 elongate their flower stalks until the blossoms float upon the surface 
 of the water. In the water-soldier ( Stratiotes Aloides), water-violet 
 (Hottonia Palustus), and others, the entire plants float to the surface 
 of the water during the period of flowering, but live submerged at 
 other times. In the Zostera Marina the flowers are arranged within 
 a cavity filled with air ; and thus, although they are developed 
 beneath the surface, they are protected from the immediate contact 
 of the water. 
 
 " If ripe pollen be placed in a tub of water and examined under 
 a miscroscope, in a few seconds it will be seen to dilate, burst, and 
 violently expel a cloud of minute granules. These granules are 
 still contained within the inner membrane of the pollen grain pro- 
 truded through the ruptured outer membrane, but which is difficult 
 to be observed on account of its extreme tenuity. It thus forms a 
 sort of rude sack, termed " a pollen tube," and contains a liquid, 
 the * fovilla,' in which are dispersed a number of very minute 
 
 * pollen granules.' In consequence of the effect thus 
 
 produced on pollen by water, it is liable to injury in rainy seasons, 
 and the fertility of the seed is often impaired 
 
 " The salt of sea water produces an injurious effect upon the seeds 
 of plants, and completely destroys the vitality of those which are 
 long subjected to its influence."* 
 
 "When the flower unfolds," observes the writer on Botany in the 
 Library of Useful Knowledge, " the anther is a tolerably solid, moist 
 body, filled with moist pollen. The grains of the latter contain a 
 fluid more dense than the tissue that forms a covering for them, and 
 rapidly absorbs its moisture from the anther case. ^ As soon as this 
 has happened to any great extent, the tissue of the anther case con- 
 tracts, and at first rends into grated cells of various forms ; as the 
 dryness is increased, these latter contract still farther, and exer- 
 cising a general power over the whole surface of the lining would, 
 in the end, be rent into still finer portions, if it were not for the 
 
 * Botany, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 263, 266, 303. 
 
246 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 slight degree of cohesion which exists between the valves of the 
 anther at the sutural line."* 
 
 These quotations, which we have considered it necessary to 
 give as conclusively as possible, sufficiently prove that atmos- 
 pheric air is not more essential to the entire phenomena 
 connected with the development and reproduction of the 
 Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous plants than that an 
 undue degree of moisture is prejudicial to these functions : 
 consequently, deprivation of the light and atmospheric air 
 and submersion in water would have been altogether des- 
 tructive of those important functions in flowering plants. They 
 could not, in such a condition, have existed. But, on the 
 other hand, as the most perfect wisdom pervades the whole 
 design of Creation, it is but just to conclude that an adequate 
 motive existed for the adoption of whatever principle may be 
 evidently traceable in it. There is a principle peculiarly 
 observable in the formation of the Vegetable Kingdom. The 
 two great classes of plants which were called into existence 
 after the formation of the light, the atmosphere, and the " dry 
 land," were flowering plants, whose submersion in water, as we 
 have just seen, would have been wholly destructive of their 
 propagation; while those which existed before were flower less 
 plants possessing neither stamen, stigma, nor pollen, radicle 
 nor plumule ; therefore it is allowable to conclude that light 
 or atmospheric air were not indispensably essential, nor was 
 water inimical to the maturation, or to the subsequent deve- 
 lopment and germination of their reproductive bodies, whether 
 these were sporules, cones, or dot-like bodies. 
 
 * Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 109. 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 THE VEGETABLE ORGANISMS OF THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD, 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The assumed condition of the primitive vegetation compared with Botanical 
 descriptions of Cryptogamous plants. Characters and habitats of these 
 given in detail, and found to coincide with the supposed state of the sub- 
 merged vegetation of the anti-rotatory period. Motives for supposing 
 that there was only one general elevation of the terraine portion of the 
 earth. The absence, in lists of fossil flora, of certain orders of Acoty- 
 ledonous plants accounted for. Capability of plants growing in the waters 
 of the primeval ocean, although this held in solution saline materials. 
 
 THE important results to which we came at the conclusion 
 of the preceding chapter will be greatly confirmed should it 
 be found that what, in it, was deduced from reasoning a priori ', 
 agrees with that which experimental botanists declare to pre- 
 vail amongst those interesting objects of the vegetable king- 
 dom which are now under our consideration ; for, if those two 
 branches agree we can scarcely any longer entertain a doubt. 
 According to the foregoing consolidated lists, the plants found 
 in the stratified masses which have been identified and classed 
 consist of 1. Algae. 2. Filices. 3. Characeae. 4. Lycopodiaceae. 
 5. Marsiliaceae. 6. Equisetaceae. 7. Naiades or Fluviales. 8. 
 Cycadeae. 9. Euphorbiaceas, with a few Coniferae and Palmae, 
 some Cannae, and others still uncertain as to class and genera, 
 which consequently cannot be taken into account. But to 
 those which have been identified we shall affix, in the order 
 
248 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 in which they stand, a succinct account of their usual characte- 
 ristics and habitats. 
 
 "ACOTYLEDONS. 
 " ORDER III. ALG.E. 
 
 " Vegetables, for the most part aquatics, destitute of roots, or fur- 
 nished only with a fibrous or scutate base for the purpose of attach- 
 ment merely ; having, for fructification, seeds or sporules 
 
 " Many species of this singular, and, generally speaking, beautiful 
 order of plants, frequently float in the water without any point of 
 attachment to extraneous substances. Their colour is various, often 
 green, brown, red, &c."* 
 
 And, again, from the pen of an amiable naturalist, who has 
 dedicated much of his attention to this humble but interesting 
 order of the "Algae," we have the following in his recent pub- 
 lication : 
 
 " Algce form part of that great Class to which Linnaeus has given 
 the name of Cryptogamia, because they are flowerless ; but, like 
 ferns and mosses, and other plants of the same great class, they 
 
 possess what answers the purpose of flowers The fronds of 
 
 Algae are not only variable in form but also in substance. Some 
 are like masses of jelly ; others are very gelatinous ; others are like 
 silk threads ; others are cartilaginous ; some as tough as leather ; 
 
 and others as firm as wood The prevailing colours which 
 
 they exhibit are green, olive, and red in all their variety of shades. 
 Those of a green colour generally grow in shallow water, the olive 
 in deeper, and the red in deeper still, although in these respects 
 there are several exceptions 
 
 "Algae, or sea-weeds, have a wide geographical range, for I sup- 
 pose wherever there is sea, sea-weeds of some kind are found. To 
 a considerable extent, they seem to obey the same laws as land 
 plants. Every zone presents a peculiar system of vegetation. "-(- 
 
 " ORDER VII. FILICES. 
 
 " Fructification only of one kind on the same individual. Cap- 
 sules spiked or raccined, or mostly collected into clusters of various 
 
 * Flora Scotica, Part ii. p. 74. 
 
 t Popular History of British Algae, by the Rev. Dr. Landsborough, 1849, 
 pp. 935. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 249 
 
 shapes (son) upon the back of the leaf or frond, naked or covered 
 with an involucrum, often surrounded by an elastic ring, opening 
 irregularly, or without a ring, and opening with a regular fissure. 
 
 Seeds or sporules minute In the tropics the caudex forms a 
 
 trunk resembling that of the palms."* 
 
 Of the stations of the various species enumerated, eight are 
 particularised as being in " marshes and bogs ;" " woody and 
 wet rocky places ;" " rocks by the sea side ;" " wet rocks and 
 along the shores of Loch Lomond (the osmunda regalis, the 
 largest and handsomest of the British ferns) ;" and " meadows 
 and moist places." The remainder seem to prefer shady woods 
 and fissures of rocks. "f 
 
 MM. De Candolle and Sprengel (in the Elements of the 
 Philosophy of Plants), say 
 
 " The remains of the former vegetable world belong almost en- 
 tirely to the lower families ; they consist for the most part of 
 Grasses, Reeds, Palms, and Ferns, the latter being almost always 
 destitute of fruit. ,J 
 
 According to Professor Henslow 
 
 " In the oolitic series fossil plants become more abundant, and 
 some beds are remarkably characterized by the prevalence," amongst 
 others, " of many ferns very distinct from those in the former for- 
 mations.'^ 
 
 "A Fern," says Mr. Francis, "is a flowerless plant, which has a 
 fibrous root, vascular stem, veined leaves, reticulated cuticle fur- 
 nished with stomata, and bears spores as fruit in capsular receptacles. 
 The Ferns and their allies form the first order of the Linnaean class 
 CRYPTOGAMIA, and their structure shows such an intermediate cha- 
 racter between the Vasculares and Cellulares, that all systems of 
 classification have assigned them this station among vegetables. 
 They are without flowers, have but imperfectly formed vessels, and 
 no deposition of real woody fibre, therefore cannot with propriety 
 be arranged with Phanogamous plants, while their semi-vascular 
 texture, and their fully developed leaves shew their organization to 
 be greatly above that of any other order of cryptogamic plants. 
 
 * Flora Scotica, Part ii. p. 152. f Ibid, pp. 152158. 
 
 t Ibid, p. 276. Botany, in Cab. Cyc. p, 312. 
 
250 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 "Although the True Ferns have a direct analogy with the Palmae 
 and Cycadeae, the connexion between them and other orders is more 
 apparent in the Pteroides or Fern Allies, particularly the Equiseta 
 
 and Lycopodia Thus the tribes under consideration, which 
 
 are divided according to the modern system into FILICIALES, LYCO- 
 PODALES, and EQUISATALES, the first the True Ferns, the other the 
 Pteroides or Fern Allies, altogether form valuable, because well- 
 connecting links in the great chain of nature. 
 
 " Ferns abound chiefly in the more woody and moist counties. 
 Our larger species luxuriate on the banks of ditches 
 
 " Moisture and shade are equally necessary to all the Fern tribe ; 
 they grow, therefore, for the most part in northern aspects, and on 
 damp porous stones."* 
 
 " The reproduction of ferns," continues the same author, " is a 
 subject involved in much obscurity. Hedwig, Bernhardi, and others 
 have proposed theories to explain this intricate matter, but without 
 
 success At present nothing whatever has been discovered 
 
 of the origin of the germinating principle in any of the cryptogamic 
 orders ; nor the laws which regulate the formation and development 
 of their spores. 
 
 " As regards our present tribe, so keen has been the search, that 
 every part of the plant has been subjected to the minutest investiga- 
 tion ; not only the thecae, their ring, and their cover, but the spiral 
 vessel of the rachis, the stomata upon their cuticle, and the glands 
 which are sometimes found attending upon them."-f* 
 
 "ORDER IV. CHARACE^E. 
 
 "Fructification of two kinds. Nucleus 4, bracketed, standing 
 solitary, &c. Seeds, or sporules, very minute, whitish, spherical, &c. 
 
 " Vegetation. Aquatic plants never rising above the surface of 
 the water, fixed into the mud by slender fibrous radicles issuing 
 from a swollen portion of the stem," &c. "A minute fossil body 
 frequently found in chalk, which is spirally twisted, and which was 
 formerly considered to belong to the animal kingdom, is, I believe, 
 now generally allowed to be the kukule of chara. Various species 
 have been discovered, and they are called by the French, gyrogo- 
 mites."J 
 
 "As the chara," says Mr. Lyell, "is an aquatic plant, which 
 
 * Francis on Ferns and their Allies, 1837, Introduction, pp. 1, 2. 
 
 f British Ferns, p. 5. t Flora Scotica, Part ii. pp. 108, 109. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 251 
 
 occurs frequently fossil in formations of different eras, and is often 
 of much importance to geologists in characterising entire groups of 
 strata, we shall describe the manner in which the recent species have 
 
 been found in a petrified state In some species, as in chara 
 
 hispida, the plant, when living, contains so much carbonate of lime 
 in its vegetable organization, independently of calcareous incrusta- 
 tion, that it effervesces strongly with acids when dried," &c.* 
 
 " ORDER VIII. LYCOPODIACE.E. 
 
 "Fructification bracteated, auxilliary, or spiked. Capsules 
 frequently of two kinds on the same plant, 1-3 celled, 2-3 valved, 
 containing many minute granules ; or a few larger corpuscles. Roots 
 fibrous. Stems herbaceous or woody, simple or branched, often 
 creeping. Of five habitats, two are ' wet heathy places, and by the 
 sides of lakes,' and ' boggy places by the sides of rivulets on the 
 highland mountains,' the others are on rough, stony, heathy moun- 
 tains.'^ 
 
 Mr. Lyell explains Lycopodinea as 
 
 " Plants of an inferior degree of organization to coniferae, some 
 of which they very much resemble in foliage, but all recent species 
 are infinitely smaller. Many of the fossil species are as gigantic as 
 recent coniferae. Their mode of reproduction is analogous to that 
 of ferns. In England they are called club-mosses." Glossary, p. 72. 
 
 " ORDER IX. MARSILEACE^E. 
 
 "Fructification radical. Involucrum sub-spherical, not opening, 
 coriaceous, or membranaceous. One or many celled. Aquatics. 
 Hob. bottoms of the highland lakes, and damp places that are over- 
 flowed during winter, but not common, &c." 
 
 " ORDER X. EQUISETACE^E. 
 
 " Fructification terminal, spicate, consisting of peltate polygonous 
 scales, on the under side of which are from 4-7 involucres, which 
 open longitudinally, and contain numerous naked (?) seeds, unfolded 
 by four filaments bearing anthers (?) at their extremities. 
 
 " Vegetation : stems rigid, leafless, jointed, striated, the articula- 
 tions sheathed at the base, the branches whorled. 
 
 "Habitat, 'wet marshes;' ' shady marshes,' and 'the brinks of 
 
 * Principles of Geology, vol. ii. pp. 280, 281. f Flora Scotica, p. 159. 
 
252 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 stagnant waters;' 'moist shady places;' 'lakes and ditches,' 
 ' ditches and wet soils.' " 
 
 " MONOCOTYLEDONS. 
 " ORDER XVIII. FLUVIALES. 
 
 " ( Part of Naiades. Juss.) 
 
 " Flowers unisexual or bisexual. Ovary 1 or more superior. 
 Seed solitary, pendulous, or suspended. Embryo without albumen, 
 having a contrary direction to the seeds, with a lateral cleft for the 
 emission of the plumule. Floating herbs with very vascular leaves 
 and stems. Flowers inconspicuous."* 
 
 CYCADE^E. 
 
 By referring to Messrs. Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora, 
 it will be perceived, that the fossils classed under this Order 
 are known only by their leaves, and are found in the lias, 
 the oolite, and the grey chalk formations. 
 
 " The Cycadece form the passage from the palms to the ferns" 
 Sprengel. 
 
 " The Cycadece have great proximity to the ferns." Lindley. 
 
 "The associated fossil plants (in the coal formation), although 
 imperfectly known, tend to the same conclusion (an elevated 
 temperature), the Cycadece constituting the most numerous family." 
 Lyell, vol. i. p. 116. 
 
 In addition to these descriptive notices we consider it 
 opportune to subjoin the following extracts of a more general 
 character. They will likewise prove the extreme warmth 
 which everywhere prevailed during the period we are now 
 treating of:- 
 
 " We learn," says Mr. Lyell, " from the labours of M. Ad. Brong- 
 niart, that there existed at that epoch during the formation of the 
 Coal measures, Equiseta upwards of ten feet high, and from five to 
 six inches in diameter ; tree ferns of from forty to fifty feet in 
 height, and arborescent Lycopodiaceae of from sixty to seventy feet 
 high. Of the above classes of vegetables, the species are all small 
 
 * Flora Scotica, Part ii. p. 192. The Naiades are placed by MM. De Can- 
 dolle and Sprengel, in their Elements of the Philosophy of Plants, amongst the 
 Acotyledons. Seep. 139. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 253 
 
 at present in cold climates ; while in tropical regions there occur, 
 together with small species, many of a much greater size, but their 
 development at present, even in the hottest parts of the globe, is in- 
 ferior to that indicated by the petrified forms of the coal measures. 
 An elevated and uniform temperature, and great humidity in the air, 
 are the causes most favourable for the numerical predominance and 
 the great size of these plants within the torrid zone at present." In 
 a note to this paragraph it is added, " Martins informs us that on 
 seeing the tessellated surface of the stems of the arborescent ferns in 
 Brazil, he was reminded of their prototypes in the impressions which 
 he had seen in the coal mines of Germany."* 
 
 Mr. Miller, in his usual graphic style, expresses himself 
 as we have already quoted with reference to animal exuviae 
 with respect to this uniformity of ancient flora, in the following 
 remarkable words : 
 
 " In the more ancient geological periods, ere the seasons began, 
 the case is essentially different. The contemporary formations, when 
 widely separated, are often very unlike in mineralogical character, 
 but in their fossil contents they are almost always identical. In 
 these earlier ages, the atmospheric temperature seems to have de- 
 pended more on the internal heat of the earth, only partially cooled 
 down from its original state, than on the earth's configuration or the 
 influence of the sun. Hence a widely spread equality of climate 
 a green-house equalization of heat, if I may so speak ; and hence, 
 too, it would seem, a widely spread flora. The green-houses of 
 Scotland and Sweden produce the same plants with the green- 
 houses of Spain and Italy ; and when the world was one vast green- 
 house, heated from below, the same families of plants seem to have 
 ranged over spaces immensely more extended than those geogra- 
 phical circles in which, in the present time, the same plants are 
 found indigenous. 
 
 " The fossil remains of the coal measures are the same to the 
 westward of the Alleghany Mountains as in New Holland, India, 
 Southern Africa, the neighbourhood of Newcastle, and the vicinity 
 of Edinburgh. And I entertain little doubt that, on a similar prin- 
 ciple, the still more ancient organisms of the old red sandstone will 
 be found to bear the same character all over the world. "-f- 
 
 * Principles of Geology, vol. i. pp. 116, 117. 
 t Old Red Sandstone Formations, pp. 197, 198. 
 
254 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Although we have already and so recently put on record 
 Sir Henry de la Beche's opinion, yet, as it is of interest, we 
 again briefly recur to it : 
 
 " Respecting the general character of the vegetation we find en- 
 tombed in the carboniferous rocks of the Northern hemisphere, M. 
 Ad. Brongniart observes, that it is remarkable, 1st. for the consider- 
 able proportion of the vascular cryptogamic plants, such as the Equi- 
 setacece, Filices, Marsileacece, and Lycopodiacece ; 2nd. for the great 
 development of the vegetables of this class, proving thereby that 
 circumstances were particularly favourable to their production during 
 the period under consideration 
 
 " This view leads us to another consideration. There certainly 
 was a similar vegetation about the same period (for whether the 
 American coal measures may be, like those of Ireland, somewhat 
 older, does not alter the question) over parts of Europe and North 
 America ; we may, therefore, infer a similar climate over a large 
 portion of the Northern hemisphere, such as we have not at present, 
 for it was at least tropical, and very probable ultra-tropical."* 
 
 In confirmation of Mr. LyelTs opinion Mrs. Somerville 
 says 
 
 " Now it appears that most of the European, North Asiatic, and 
 North American Continents and Islands, were raised from the deep 
 after the coal measures were formed, in which the fossil tropical 
 plants are found ; and a variety of geological facts indicate the ex- 
 istence of an ancient and extensive archipelago throughout the 
 greater part of the Northern hemisphere."f 
 
 Professor Henslow says 
 
 " Many local circumstances produce remarkable modifications in 
 the relative proportions between the species of different classes and 
 orders in regions under the same parallels of latitude. Thus, for 
 instance, ceteris paribus, the cryptogamic tribes flourish most in 
 moist regions. The places best adapted to the growth of ferns are 
 the islands in tropical climates, in some of which, as in St. Helena, 
 one half of the flora is composed of them. It is remarkable that in 
 
 * Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, pp. 429 431. 
 f Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 86, 87. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 255 
 
 this respect, and as regards the existence of arborescent species in 
 this order, the ancient flora of our coal fields appears to approximate 
 very closely to that of islands situate in the midst of an extended 
 ocean and in low latitudes. The same causes which appear favour- 
 able to the increase of cryptogamic species, seem also to produce a 
 diminution in the proportions which dicotyledons bear to monoco- 
 tyledons."* 
 
 And we shall conclude this part of our evidence with a few 
 sentences from the work of those indefatigable fossil botanists, 
 Messrs. Lindley and Hutton : 
 
 " In the coal formation, which may be considered the earliest in 
 which the remains of land plants have been discovered, the flora of 
 England consists of Ferns in amazing abundance ; of large Coni- 
 ferous trees of species resembling Lycopodiacece, but of most gigantic 
 dimensions ; of vast quantities of a tribe analogous to Cactece or 
 Euphorbaciacece, but perhaps not identical with them ; of some 
 palms and other monocotyledons, and, finally, of numerous plants 
 the exact nature of which is as yet extremely doubtful. About 
 two to three hundred species have been detected in this formation, 
 of which two-thirds are Ferns This vegetation, thus incon- 
 ceivably rich and luxuriant, grew amidst an atmosphere that would 
 
 have been fatal to the animal kingdom, in consequence 
 
 then of the greater abundance of carbonic acid gas than now. . . . 
 To this there are no botanical objections : whether such an atmos- 
 pheric condition was unfit for animals is not our province to en- 
 quire 
 
 " It may be observed that no trace of any glumaceous plant has 
 been met with, amongst the fossil flora, even in the latest tertiary 
 period ; although we know that grasses now form a portion, and 
 usually a very considerable one, of every recent flora of the world, 
 from New South Shetland to Melville Island inclusive ; it may, 
 indeed, be conjectured, that before the creation of herbiverous ani- 
 mals, grasses and sedges were not required, and, therefore, are not 
 to be expected in any strata below the Forest marble and Stones- 
 field slates, but it is difficult to conceive how the animals of the 
 upper tertiary beds could have been fed if grasses had not then been 
 present."-f* 
 
 * Botany, in Cab. Cyc, p. 309. 
 
 t MM, Lindley and Button's Fossil Flora, Introduction, vol. i. pp. x. xi. xxiii. 
 
256 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 The general impression left upon the mind, after perusing 
 these copious extracts, is, that the plants which constituted the 
 carboniferous portion of the coal measures delighted in warmth, 
 carbonic acid gas, and moisture, and having enjoyed these three 
 requisites in an abundant degree, they increased to gigantic 
 proportions when compared with recent equivalents : while the 
 more particular inferences to be drawn from the same quotations 
 are, that with respect to the Algae, Marsilacece, Equisetacece, 
 Naiades, and Characece, undoubted evidence has been ad- 
 duced, to prove, that water being their natural element, in it 
 they grow and propagate. But it is not equally conclusive 
 with respect to the remaining orders, the Filices, Lycopo- 
 dineacecB, and perhaps the Cycadete; for it has only been 
 shown that certain of their species prefer moisture and the 
 proximity of water as their favourite localities. 
 
 However, when in unison with Professor Henslow, we re- 
 flect, that "fossils bear an analogy to some recent genera, 
 which they closely resemble, but to which they cannot be ac- 
 curately referred ; the resemblance being indicated by classify- 
 ing them provisionally with a genus ; for example, ' Lycopo- 
 dites,' a genus of fossil plants allied to ' Lycopodium,' but too 
 imperfectly known to have its characters fully pointed out ;"* 
 and at the same time discover, by a glance at the several 
 habitats of the Filices, such a diversity in their stations, and 
 consequently in their nature, as to induce the Asplenium 
 alternifolium to flaunt in the sunny crevices of Alpine rocks, 
 while the graceful Osmunda regalis dips in the waters of the 
 lakes which are formed by these mountains, it will not surprise 
 any one if we should entertain but little anxiety as to the 
 eventual decision of the question ; for it may ultimately be 
 discovered, that the fossil Ferns, Lycopodineaceez, and Cyca- 
 dete, were of a nature capable alike of growing and propaga- 
 ting under water ; and as we shall hereafter have occasion to 
 show, that unless they grew under water they did not grow at 
 all, while by their remains found in the ancient strata their 
 existence cannot for a moment be doubted, the only proper 
 inference which can be drawn is, that they grew submersed in 
 
 * Botany, in Cab. Cyc. p. 311. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 257 
 
 the ocean which circumbounded the Earth during its period of 
 non-rotation. 
 
 This opinion is greatly strengthened by Dr. M'Culloch's 
 reasoning on the origin and nature of the coal formations ; for 
 the whole of his arguments relating to this interesting geo- 
 logical question go to prove, as conclusively as language is 
 capable of effecting it, that the independent coal formations 
 have arisen from the remains of aquatic cryptogamous plants, 
 with a few exceptions, which he supposes not to have been of 
 submerged habits. But as the coal immediately overlies, and 
 is in turn overlain by marine formations, to reconcile this with 
 his preconceived hypothesis, of Coal proceeding from Peat, as 
 at present formed, he is under the necessity of assuming that 
 the submarine strata of mountain limestone was raised above 
 the level of the ocean in order to enable these aquatic and 
 lacustrine peat-forming plants to generate sufficient of that 
 material ; and this being done, they are supposed to have been 
 depressed by another revolution, to permit the submarine de- 
 posits, the magnesian limestone, and the new red sandstone to 
 be formed above them again ; when, by a succeeding revolu- 
 tion, they were raised to the position which they have occupied 
 since the duration of the historical period ; while, to account 
 for the occasional intermixture of marine formations contempo- 
 raneously with the coal formations themselves, he is obliged to 
 suppose, that besides extensive lakes and marshes, there also 
 existed innumerable estuaries in the ancient world. 
 
 Now, as we shall, in the sequel, make it abundantly evident, 
 that there has been only one general elevation of the strata, 
 which will likewise satisfactorily explain the apparent de- 
 pression of the coal fields and their overlying rocks, we con- 
 sider Dr. M'Culloch's evidence, although indirect and uncon- 
 cious, the most conclusive which can be produced in favour of 
 the submarine nature of the plants whose remains have formed 
 the Coal of the great or independent formations. 
 
 In proof of what has just been said, relative to Dr. M'Cul- 
 loch's opinion, the reader will please to peruse the following 
 succinct quotations from the work to which we have alluded: 
 
 " The progress of fossil botany," says he, when treating of these 
 formations, "is as yet so imperfect, and those remains are often 
 
 s 
 
258 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 so broken and obscured, that not much has been done towards their 
 effectual description and arrangement. For that information which 
 does not fall within the plan of this work, the reader must be referred 
 to Sternberg, Schlotheim, Brongniart, and others, or to the abstract 
 of Conybeare and Phillips. It is sufficient to remark that plants of 
 aquatic habits seem to prevail among them ; the predominant re- 
 mains being those of gigantic vegetables resembling equisetums 
 accompanied by others analogous to ferns and tycopodiums, and, as 
 it is thought, to palms ; with some which appear to possess no exact 
 
 living analogies The genera in all seem to be very 
 
 limited, as far as they can be determined from such imperfect spe- 
 cimens ; but it is imagined that the species exceed three hundred, or 
 approach to four 
 
 '* Maritime peat appears to have been almost forgotten by the 
 writers on this subject ; but it is formed under the sea by the Zos- 
 tera Marine abundantly, while it is produced in another manner by 
 the plants of salt marshes 
 
 " It is essential to remark that the old red sandstone, the moun- 
 tain limestone, and the coal series are all disturbed ; being elevated, 
 undulated, and fractured in various ways, as I have often already 
 been compelled to notice. And it must similarly be recollected 
 that a new order commences with the magnesian limestone and the 
 red marl ; or that they are placed on the coal series and the inferior 
 strata in an unconformable position, while the lower parts also pre- 
 sent that conglomerate structure which, everywhere throughout na- 
 ture, accompanies a new order in rocks 
 
 " Such are the organic appearances connected with coal ; all of 
 them bespeaking a terrestrial, not a sub-marine, origin, for the 
 general series in which it is found. Their aquatic nature equally 
 indicates the growth of these vegetables in low, moist forests, in 
 marshes, or on the borders of lakes or rivers. In the repetition of 
 different strata, we see the successive deposition of earthy matters 
 of different natures, afterwards consolidated into sandstone or shale, 
 or else remaining unconsolidated ; while the repetition of carbona- 
 ceous beds, no less than the deposition of vegetable strata alter- 
 nating with the laminae of the shales, shows that successive genera- 
 tions of plants had followed successive depositions of earth. To 
 the same circumstances of repose, the solution of soluble earths, 
 pressure, and, it is probable, to heat, we must attribute equally the 
 consolidation of the rocks and the conversion of the vegetable depo- 
 sits into coal. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 259 
 
 ' '* Although the vegetable nature of these remains thus indicates 
 the terrestrial origin of the series, the subjacent limestone contains 
 marine remains. These strata, then, as I remarked under former 
 general views, have been formed under the sea, of which the bottom 
 must have been elevated prior to the deposition of the coal beds. 
 That the vegetables could not have been transported from their 
 places of growth to that position is no less proved by the integrity 
 of the most delicate specimens than by the erect trunks of trees 
 above-mentioned. Yet, though assuredly formed on the supra- 
 marine land, it may still seem difficult to account for the great thick- 
 ness of many deposits, and for the frequent alternations of rocks and 
 of vegetable matter. The existence of deep lakes, at some period 
 and under various modifications, is necessary to explain the pheno- 
 mena ; though it may be difficult to conceive the exact details of 
 the changes, and the condition of the surface necessary for their 
 
 production It is not difficult to explain the presence of 
 
 marine bodies, or even of complete marine strata, if such there really 
 are in any coal series. It is merely to suppose an estuary instead of 
 a lake ; and it has already been shown that the mode of deposition 
 and the alternation of the substances are at present similar in both. 
 " From the marine origin of the strata above the coal series, it 
 has formerly been shown that those parts of the surface which were 
 once above the water, and which received the deposits of land vege- 
 tables, have been subsequently immersed beneath an ocean during 
 the period of unknown, but great duration, requisite for the accu- 
 mulation of such enormous masses. The last change restored to 
 the surface of the Earth, and often to great elevations, those strata 
 which had once before occupied it, accompanied by all those which 
 are found above it, and by many of those which lay below. Such 
 changes could not have taken place without violence and derange- 
 ment, and to them we must attribute those fractures, dislocations, 
 and flexures of the coal strata, no less than those of the other rocks 
 which have undergone analogous changes."* 
 
 The whole of Dr. M'Culloch's reasoning proceeds on the 
 admitted supposition that the vegetation of the coal measures, 
 throughout, was composed of Cryptogamous plants of aquatic 
 habits. On tbis point he never manifests the slightest doubt; 
 indeed so much the reverse, that the difficulties of his position 
 
 * Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. ii. pp. 310313, 341. 
 
 S 2 
 
260 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 arise entirely from the soundness of his belief on those two 
 points, inasmuch as he found it a difficult task, under his own 
 preconceived ideas of the condition of the earth's surface, 
 during the period of their growth and propagation, to account 
 for their presence ! It was not considered necessary by him, 
 and consequently by those with whom on this point he con- 
 currred, to prove that the plants were cryptogamous and 
 aquatic, for on that they were agreed ; but it appeared compara- 
 tively so to account for their presence under supposed circum- 
 stances, and surrounded by other demonstrations which do not 
 entirely conform with our present ideas of aquatic plants. 
 This obliged him to imagine several successive elevations and 
 depressions of the earth's surface even unequal depressions 
 in the same locality the credibility of which stood merely on 
 his own supposition, and which, without further proof, might 
 have been balanced by any other gratuitous assumption. But 
 his other position of the cryptogamous character and aquatic 
 habits of the plants having been by collateral evidences satis- 
 factorily made good, it follows that they should have been 
 considered by him, not only to have been aquatic, but capable 
 of gr owing and of propagating when submerged. Had Dr. 
 M'Culloch admitted this additional feature, and asserted, as 
 we do, that there was only one general elevation and depression 
 of the rocky formations of the earth, that which took place 
 when it was made first to revolve, all the difficulties attending 
 his argument, so far as it went, would have immediately dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 But it must not be supposed that because we have adopted 
 those views we have overcome all the difficulties which beset 
 our path when endeavouring to explain our hypothesis, or to 
 make it acceptable to others. Very far from it. We are 
 scarcely across the threshold ; and are, besides, exposed to the 
 imminent danger of proving too much on the one hand, or too 
 little on' the other. Indeed, peculiarities of those two kinds 
 obtrude themselves as obstacles to our advance beyond our 
 present position. We are in danger of being considered to 
 have " proved too much," unless we can give some satisfactory 
 reason for the absence of several orders of cryptogamic plants 
 which, on the supposition that all of this class were excluded 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 261 
 
 from the creative command given on the third day of the 
 Mosaic week, should, consequent!}', have been discovered 
 amongst the fossil remains of the ancient flora ; but which 
 are not generally mentioned by geological botanists as forming 
 part of their collections ; and, on the other hand, of having 
 "proved too little" unless we can explain the state of the 
 primeval water so satisfactorily as to show that plants usually 
 requiring fresh water could have lived, grown, and propagated 
 at the bottom of the original circumfluent ocean. We shall 
 take these difficulties in the order in which they stand, and 
 first endeavour to account for the absence of Fungi, Lichens, 
 Hepaticece, and Musci, which have not, we understand, been 
 discovered fossil or perfectly identified in any of the geological 
 formations below the chalk ;* while it must be remembered, 
 that the point being wholly negative, the proofs, to the limited 
 amount obtainable, will partake of the same character. 
 
 "ACOTYLEDONS. 
 
 " ORDER I. FUNGI, Linn. (Fungi, and part of Algce, Juss. 
 Fungi, and part of Hypoxylia, Decand.) 
 
 " Plants growing upon the ground, or parasitic on other vege- 
 table substances, rarely (never?) aquatics, and scarcely ever green, 
 filamentous, gelatinous, spongy, corky, coriaceous, fleshy, or mem- 
 
 branaceous The seeds or sporules are either internal, as 
 
 in Sph&ria, Bovista, or external, as in Agaricus, &c. After being 
 once dried they do not revive by the application of moisture, like 
 the greater number of plants in this class ; and, generally speaking, 
 they are of very short duration, soon decaying, and frequently be- 
 coming putrid in decay. "f 
 
 * Since writing this we have seen the following corroborative passage in MM. 
 Lindley and Button's Fossil Flora, vol i. p. xviii., when they were endeavouring 
 to comhat the opinion of M. Ad.Brongniart and his reviewers, "that nothing but 
 cryptogamous and monocotyledonous plants existed in the Coal measures," they ask, 
 " what trace is there of the simplest forms of flowerless vegetation in the Coal 
 measures, such as Fungi, Lichens, Hepaticece, or Mosses ? to say nothing of Con- 
 ferva. Many of these would have communicated their casts as distinctly to the 
 matter which enclosed them as Ferns or Lycopodiacea, had they existed ; but 
 no traces of them are found; while we have," say they, "on the contrary, 
 in their room, the most perfectly organized plants of the Flowerless or Cryp- 
 togamic class, namely, Ferns, Lycopodiacece, and supposed Equisetacea." 
 
 t Flora Scotica, Part II. pp. 3, 4. 
 
262 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " ACOTYLEDONS. 
 
 " ORDER II. LICHENS, Ach. (Lichens, and part of Hypoxylia, 
 Decand. Part of Algae, Juss. Genus Lichen, and some Byssi, Linn). 
 
 " Universal recept. (thallus, crust, or frond), polymorphous, 
 without roots, perennial, abounding in excessively minute bodies for 
 the purposes of propagation, either embedded in the substance or 
 scattered upon its surface, or included in peculiar organs, which 
 have been considered the fruit (partial receptacles, or apothecia ; by 
 some called shields, or scutella and tubercules)."* 
 
 "With regard to the most simple forms of vegetation," says the 
 writer on botany, from whom we have so often quoted, " such as 
 Fungi, Lichens, and Sea-weeds, the subject is involved in so much 
 greater mystery (than the higher bodies of cryptogamic plants) that 
 there are to this day botanists of no mean reputation who believe 
 such plants to be produced by means almost analogous to equivocal 
 generation, "f 
 
 "ACOTYLEDONS. 
 "ORDER VI. Musci. 
 
 " Fructification of two kinds. Capsules, in an early stage, covered 
 with a calyptra, tipped with a style, which bursts transversely and 
 regularly, and rises up mostly with a pedunculated and opercu- 
 lated capsule, .... and spherical pedicellated reticulated bodies, 
 concealed for the most part in peculiarly shaped leaves, which have 
 been considered anthers. Plants of small size, of a more or less 
 compactly cellular structure, readily reviving by the application of 
 moisture after being dry. 
 
 " The following are some of the stations of this extensive and 
 widely extended order of plants. To avoid being diffuse the genera 
 only have been particularised : 
 
 SPLAGNUM Bogs, marshes, and growing in water in boggy places. 
 GYMNOSTOMUM Wet and moist rocks, ditches, and banks near the 
 
 sea. 
 WEISSIA Turf bogs, and oozy shady rocks, clayey places, and moist 
 
 banks. 
 DICRANUM Moist banks, marshes, very wet situations, and sides 
 
 of streams and rivers. 
 TRICHOSTOMUM In rivulets. Moist banks. 
 
 * Flora Scotica, Part II. p. 35. f Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 118. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 263 
 
 FONTINALIS Rivers and lakes. Alpine and sub-alpine rivulets. 
 HOOKERIA Moist banks in woods, &c. 
 
 HYPNUM Banks of rivers and lakes, and spots occasionally over- 
 flowed with water. Bogs and marshy places."* 
 
 "ACOTYLEDONS. 
 
 ORDER V. HEPATICE.E. Juss. Decand. (part of Algae, Linn. 
 Calyptratte Deoperculat<z, Mohr.) 
 
 "Fructification, generally of two kinds. Capsules in an early 
 stage covered with a calyptra, tipped with a style (?), and then often 
 surrounded by a perianth or calyx, at length bursting the calyptra 
 irregularly. Minute plants, frequently frondose, sometimes (as in 
 Jungermannia) folliferous ; substance loosely cellular in general, 
 easily reviving after being dried, by moisture. Sometimes the 
 areclae of the cells have an evident pore, as in Marchantia and Tar- 
 gionia. 
 
 " The following are some of the stations of the genera belonging 
 to this order : 
 
 RICCIA Turfy marshes among the Scottish mountains. 
 JUNGERMANNIA Moist rocky places, marshy grounds, bogs, and 
 
 boggy places, and growing in water. 
 TARGIONIA Moist banks. 
 MARCHANTIA Shady moist rocks, wet rocks and banks, and moist 
 
 shady banks by the sides of rivulets. "f 
 
 These evidences are all that recent botany affords us. They 
 amount to very little as far as our argument is concerned, as 
 they merely prove the imperfect, rudimentary character of 
 the missing plants, and their capability of having existed in 
 moist, wet places, or perhaps submerged in some of their con- 
 ditions ; but they afford a very slender clue indeed when we 
 seek to unravel the mystery of their non-appearance (we 
 would not say absence) amongst their associated Orders in the 
 fossil remains of the primitive world. We must, therefore, 
 turn with increased earnestness to collate from the writers on 
 fossil botany whatever they may have put on record in this 
 matter. The Orders of the inferior plants which we wish to 
 account for, are, 1st. Fungi; 2nd. Lichens; 3rd. Hepaticete; 
 
 * Flora Scotica, Part II. pp. 120152. f Ibid, Part II. pp. 109120. 
 
264 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 and 4th. Musci. Now, we find that indefatigable investigator 
 Dr. M'Culloch, expressing himself thus : " I have proved in 
 the Geological Transactions what has been denied, namely, 
 that minute vegetables are preserved in chalcedony. These 
 
 are the so-called Moss Agates In my collection 
 
 three or four mosses, one possibly a Jungermannia, and a 
 Lichen, which admit of no dispute."* As Jungermannia is 
 an Hepaticece, and he alludes besides to a Lichen, and to 
 some Mosses, we have thus three of the Orders in question 
 accounted for in one short, but pithy sentence, in which the 
 writer points to proof positive, asserting that in his collection 
 those fossil vegetables exist, may be examined and believed 
 in, for they " admit of no dispute. "f 
 
 Mr. Lyell when engaged in that part of his geological 
 treatise which required him to explain the origin of peat 
 states, that 
 
 " The generation of peat when not completely under water is 
 confined to moist situations, where the temperature is low, and 
 where vegetables may decompose without putrefying. It may con- 
 sist of any of the numerous plants which are capable of growing in 
 such stations ; but a species of moss ( sphaegnum palustre), constitutes 
 a considerable part of the peat found in marshes of the north of 
 Europe ; this plant having the property of throwing up new shoots 
 
 in its upper part, while its lower extremities are decaying 
 
 Reeds, rushes, and other aquatic plants may usually be traced in 
 peat ; their organization is often so entire that there is no difficulty 
 in discriminating the distinct species." 
 
 At another place he says 
 
 " From the researches of Dr. M'Culloch it appears that peat is 
 intermediate between simple vegetable matter and lignite : the con- 
 version of peat into lignite being gradual, and being brought about 
 through the lapse of time, and the prolonged action of water."J 
 
 Our esteemed friend, the Rev. Dr. Landsborough, thus 
 
 * Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 414. 
 
 f In the Fossil Flora, Musci and Characea: will be found, Gen. 84, 85, but 
 botb above the chalk. 
 
 J Principles of Geology, vol. ii. p. 216, 217, 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 265 
 
 appropriately expresses himself, when bearing testimony to 
 an analogous fact : 
 
 " He, who by a word clothed the rocks and channel of the sea 
 with so much riches and beauty, and who said, respecting the mira- 
 culous supply of food in the wilderness, " Gather up the fragments 
 that remain, that nothing be lost," allows not even the fragments of 
 sea-weed to be lost. Man has learned the wisdom of gathering up 
 those that are within his reach, but a kind Providence allows not to 
 be lost the immense masses that are buried at the bottom of the sea. 
 
 " He who in primeval ages stored up the remains of ancient 
 forests, converting them into coal for the succeeding generations of 
 men, at the same time stored up the wreck of marine matter in the 
 form of stone, of which the palace and the cottage might be built. 
 We cannot examine a limestone quarry without seeing that it must 
 have been consolidated in the depths of the sea. 
 
 " Though sea-weeds, being more perishable than the shelly coats 
 of animals, are less frequently observed in marble or limestone, yet 
 they are occasionally seen. In a quarry near to Ardrossan, I saw 
 numerous dark impressions of a large sea-weed, resembling Halidrys. 
 
 " Nay, we have practical proof (by Marshall's Patent Intonaca 
 Compost), that the dejecta membra of sea-weeds buried in the mud, 
 are well fitted to contribute to its consolidation."* 
 
 But, perhaps, no evidence whatever can be more conclusive 
 on this point than that which is afforded by the experiments 
 of Professor Lindley, an account of which we prefer taking 
 from Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise, as we acquire 
 thereby their conjoint testimony, which, on a subject of this 
 description, must be considered paramount to any other. 
 
 " The following are the results of Professor Lindley's experi- 
 ments on the durability of plants immersed in water ; 177 specimens, 
 including representatives of all those which are either constantly 
 present in the coal measures, or as invariably absent, having been 
 immersed in a tank of water for two years, he found 
 
 1. That the leaves and bark of most dicotyledonous plants are 
 wholly decomposed in that period, and that of those which do resist 
 it, the greater part are coniferce and cycadecc. 
 
 * Pop. Hist, of British Algce, pp. 6568. 
 
266 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 2. That monocotyledons are more capable of resisting the action 
 of water, particularly palms and scitamineous plants ; but that 
 grasses and sedges perish. 
 
 3. That fungi, mosses, and all the lowest forms of vegetation 
 disappear. 
 
 4. That ferns have a great power of resisting water if gathered 
 in a green state, not one of those submitted to the experiment 
 having disappeared; but that their fructification perished." 
 
 On these Dr. Buckland remarks in a note 
 
 " It may be further noticed, that as both trunks and leaves of 
 angiospermous dicotyledonous plants have been preserved abundantly 
 in the tertiary formations, there appears to be no reason why, if 
 plants of this tribe had existed during the secondary and transition 
 periods, they should not also occasionally have escaped destruction 
 in the sedimentary deposits of these earlier epochs."* 
 
 The result of this evidence respecting those minor classes 
 of the cryptogamous plants whose infrequency amongst the 
 fossil specimens found in the strata has occasioned this enquiry, 
 seems to be, that while, on the one hand, the experiments of 
 Professor Lindley afford sufficient reason for removing any 
 anxiety which might arise from their prevailing absence, where 
 fossil remains of other orders are so abundant ; the testimony, 
 on the other hand, of Dr. M'Culloch and concurring writers 
 shows, that they are occasionally met with in a fossilized state ; 
 thus making it manifest that the experience of fossil botanists 
 corresponds precisely with what might have been expected from 
 the perishable nature of those minute cryptogamous plants, 
 and the attendant circumstances during the period of their 
 existence : a corroboration which ought entirely to remove 
 any lurking doubt that may have remained. 
 
 Generally, it may be asserted with regard to them, that their 
 rudimentary character forming, as by concurring testimony 
 they seem to have done, the primary elements in coal through 
 its gradations of peat, lignite, &c. would necessarily expose 
 them to be wholly obliterated by transmutation during a lapse 
 of ages into carbonaceous material ; it being physically impos- 
 
 * Prof. Buckland's Bridg. Treat, vol. i. pp. 410, 481. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 267 
 
 sible to possess both the coal fully formed and the separate 
 elementary materials of which it is composed ; while, in other 
 cases where circumstances were not conducive to their trans- 
 mutation into coal, the effects produced by immersion, as 
 shown by Professor Lindley, may have taken place, and the 
 rudimentary, perishable descriptions of plants have disappeared, 
 although the higher and more robust grades of cryptogames 
 resisted the action and became fossilized. 
 
 It has not unfrequently occurred to us that, reposing with 
 confidence on the truthfulness of the record of Scripture, and 
 on the soundness of the views we have adopted by its assist- 
 ance, we might have left this question to adjust itself in the 
 course of time, and when discussion had more thoroughly 
 brought to light the direction which the line of separation 
 takes between flowering andjlowerless plants in the Vegetable 
 Kingdom. Perhaps we would not have mooted this question 
 at all, had it not been from a feeling, something between a 
 desire to leave no weak point behind us unexplored, and that 
 of pushing our principle as far as it will go ; and with it to 
 test the soundness of the conclusions of those who have dedi- 
 cated themselves to the fields of labour through which we now 
 wend our way. Should it be considered rather too bold an 
 attempt, in the present state of the question, to endeavour 
 to reconcile and thoroughly to make at one so general an 
 assumption as the non-rotation of the earth while darkness 
 reigned over it, with the minute and intimate nature, habits, 
 and perfect adaptation of the lowest orders in the most inferior 
 class of plants ; and that, too, notwithstanding the divergency 
 of opinion prevailing amongst botanists as to their systematic 
 classification, it must be attributed only to the perfect con- 
 fidence in the general soundness of our views, and in the 
 firmness of the foundation on which they all repose ; while 
 we think it does not add a little to their corroboration to 
 find that, without the slightest diminution of our general 
 confidence, it is precisely at the same point where botanists 
 have not sufficiently made up their minds as to the classifica- 
 tion of the objects of their research, that we begin to falter 
 and be at a loss how to proceed. We firmly believe that the 
 faithful application of the comprehensive rule laid down in 
 
268 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 Scripture will clear up both of our paths, and show us that 
 although during the protracted period of non-rotation and 
 darkness there existed at the bottom of the atmosphereless 
 ocean innumerable families of plants t not one of them was 
 furnished with any traces of either flowering or seeding pro- 
 cesses t in the true and full acceptation of these terms. That, 
 in fine, although for ages previously there had been myriads 
 of what are now called imperfect flowerless plants secreting 
 carbonaceous material for future purposes, there was not, 
 until the period represented by the third day of the Mosaic 
 week, a single perfect or flowering, seeding plant within the 
 whole range of the solar system ! 
 
 The difficulty of another description, to which we alluded, 
 namely, that of " proving too little," still remains to be dis- 
 posed of. For, after it has been made out that the whole of 
 the objects comprising the cryptogamous class of plants have 
 been discovered in a fossil state, and that they could have 
 existed and propagated in a submerged condition, the doubt 
 still remains whether they could have done so in the waters of 
 the primeval ocean, considering them to have been impreg- 
 nated with saline materials, as manifested, amongst other 
 vestiges, by the extensive deposits of salt found in the new 
 red sandstone, and other associated formations. Before, 
 however, this explanation can be satisfactorily given, or con- 
 clusively understood and relied on, we shall require to have 
 our labours considerably more advanced, and our cosmographi- 
 cal views further unfolded. When that is the case we have 
 no doubt but we shall make it abundantly evident that 
 although in reality the waters of the primeval ocean did con- 
 tain all the elements which go to the formation of salt, yet 
 other co-existent ingredients held these in a different state of 
 combination, and caused the entire mass to be altogether 
 distinct from the saline waters of our present seas. We shall 
 then, also, be in a position satisfactorily to account for the de- 
 position of culinary and other native salts in the new red sand- 
 stone and associated formations, and thus at one and the same 
 time remove two obstacles to the complete establishing of the 
 one great fact, That during a long but indefinite period of its 
 early geological history, the Earth did not rotate around its axis. 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 THE VEGETABLE ORGANISMS OF THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Another brief review of the progress made, and its application to the develop- 
 ment of the general argument. Adaptation of the Plants of the non- 
 rotatory period to the state of creation during that epoch. Fronds and 
 folliacious appendages of Cryptogames described contrasted with the 
 respiratory expansions of Phanogames; and the design of the former 
 being demonstrated, they are shown to be in harmony with the effects 
 which the flowerless plants were intended to produce, namely, absorption 
 from the surrounding water, retention of carbonic acid, and deposition, 
 by their roots, to assist in forming the carboniferous strata. Short con- 
 cluding observation : the continuity with which the subject has been 
 traced to the present convergent point. 
 
 HAVING reached another convenient resting place, we may 
 again look around us for a moment on commencing this chap- 
 ter, to consider what has been done, and to see how far we 
 have advanced in the general argument, which has been some- 
 what delayed by the investigation of those two minor points 
 which threatened to oppose our progress, when we had 
 acquired a sufficiently accurate knowledge of the distinguish- 
 ing characteristics of the three classes into which all known 
 plants are grouped by the natural system of botany ; and had 
 compared them, thus arranged, with the comprehensive de- 
 scription given in Scripture of the creation of vegetable sub- 
 stances,* in doing which we found, that this latter had refer- 
 ence merely to seeding and fruit bearing plants, to the exclu- 
 
 * Genesis i. 11, 12. 
 
270 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 sion of all others a singular anomaly which constrained us 
 to look elsewhere and to other manifestations of creative 
 energy for the origin of the flowerless, seedless, fruitless plants. 
 During our research we found, that writers on fossil botany 
 had announced their having discovered amongst the stony 
 tombs of earlier geological periods, the fossilized remains of 
 plants, some of them in perfect preservation, resembling in 
 almost every respect the Cryptogames or Acotyledons, whose 
 origin we were in quest of: a remarkable coincidence in 
 epoch, locality, and character of no small importance to our 
 argument, and leaving little doubt on the mind, that the com- 
 mand given on the third day of the Mosaic week had exclusive 
 reference to the two more perfect classes of flowering, seeding 
 plants in correspondence with the altered condition of our 
 planet after the formation of the light ; whilst the Crypto- 
 games had existed during the period of darkness or of non- 
 rotation. This led to a new set of enquiries, namely, to prove 
 the adaptation of this latter class to the primeval condition of 
 the earth ; but as direct evidence of this was not attainable, 
 we endeavoured indirectly to make good that position, by 
 showing that the two other classes, comprising the flowering 
 plants, could not possibly have then existed ; although these 
 disabilities neither apply by assumption, nor yet by the 
 direct experience of botanists, against the possibility of at 
 least the greater proportion of the cryptogamous plants, or 
 plants analogous to them, growing under the supposed cir- 
 cumstances of the earth previous to its rotation. While en- 
 gaged in these enquiries we brought out, in the clearest man- 
 ner possible, that the respiratory functions of plants, which 
 reside in their leaves and other green parts, together with the 
 decomposition of carbonic acid, and the fixation of carbon, 
 depend on the direct light of the sun's rays acting upon 
 these folliaceous appendages.* These facts being at direct 
 variance with a state of matters which would apply to plants 
 existing during the non-rotatory period, and while as yet there 
 was no sun-light (the fundamental principles of this theory), 
 it consequently becomes imperative on us, in continuation, to 
 
 * Theorems, Nos. 44, 118, and 120. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 271 
 
 show the adaptation of cryptogamous plants, such as the dis- 
 coveries of geologists have revealed to us, were the occupiers 
 of the submerged surface of the earth to the other attendant 
 circumstances of the period alluded to ; and, at the same time, 
 to point out the probable uses to which they were applied, in 
 the exercise of their functions, by the all-wise Creator, during 
 the protracted ages which anteceded the formation of the 
 light. 
 
 To effect this purpose we must first direct the attention to 
 part of the hundred and fifteenth Theorem, relating to the 
 fronds and imperfect leaves of the cryptogamous plants, and 
 follow it with a more detailed description of these appendages, 
 in order that their physiological structure and uses may be 
 thoroughly understood. 
 
 " The higher tribes of cryptogamic plants," says Professor Hens- 
 low, "contained in the division * Ductaloste' have green expansions, 
 much resembling leaves in their general appearance, and, like them, 
 possessing stomata ; but differing from them very considerably in 
 some respects, especially in bearing the fructification upon their 
 surface. These have, therefore, received a distinct appellation, and 
 are called * fronds ;' and that part of a frond which is analagous to 
 
 the petiole is termed the * stipes.' In several tribes the 
 
 fronds possess nerves, but in many cases they are composed entirely 
 
 of cellular tissue The lower tribes of cryptogamic plants 
 
 included in the division ' cellulares,' are very often homogenous in 
 their structure, and of different degrees of consistencies, from highly 
 gelatinous to tough and leathery. When they consist of a plane 
 membranaceous lamina, as in the lichens, this is termed a ' thallus ;' 
 but when more or less branched, the name of frond is retained. 
 They are either terrestrial, aquatic, or marine. Many of them are 
 parasitic, seldom green, and without stomata."* 
 
 " In ferns," says Mr. Francis, " the FROND is in its leafy part 
 thin, veiny, and green. The veins do not extend longitudinally 
 through the leaf in any species, as in the monocotyledons, but 
 diverge in a branched form (dichotomously divided) from the base 
 of the leaf, or from the mid rib ; differing, however, from those in 
 dicotyledonous plants in not containing woody fibre, and being uni- 
 form in size throughout all their ramifications Ferns 
 
 * Botany, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 7678. 
 
272 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 are several years before they come to maturity, until which their 
 
 essential characteristics are not always obvious 
 
 " The circinate vernation, or curling up of the unexpanded frond, 
 which prevails in all the dorsal ferns, is almost peculiar to this tribe 
 and two of their allies, namely, the palmae and the cycadeae. If the 
 frond is simple, so is the vernation; but when the frond is sub- 
 divided, the vernation becomes equally compound, the larger divi- 
 sions first opening, and, by degrees, the branches, pinnae, and 
 lobes."* 
 
 To these general descriptions of the folliaceous appendages 
 of Cryptogamic plants, we shall add a more particular account 
 of those of each ORDER, from the work, already so often re- 
 ferred to, by Sir William Jackson Hooker : 
 
 FUNGI In the larger sense of the word, the whole may be con- 
 sidered as fructification, since distinct from it there is 
 no stem, there are no branches, no leaves, no frond, 
 and very rarely a simple base. 
 
 LICHENS The Lichens bear a closer affinity to the Fungi than to 
 any other order. Sometimes they are formed of a 
 simple pulverulent crust or frond ; sometimes mem- 
 branaceous, coriaceous, gelatinous, lobed, and vari- 
 ously branched ; at all times destitute of leaves. 
 
 ALG^E Fronds are either gelatinous, filamentous, membranaceous, 
 or coriaceous. 
 
 CHARACEJE Stems slender, confervoid, tubular throughout, pel- 
 lucid or covered with a calcareous crust, very brittle 
 when dry, and generally foetid, branched ; branchlets 
 whorled, often aculeated. Walloth has given a most 
 admirable account of the fructification of this curious 
 tribe of plants, from which it appears evident that it 
 has no claims to be ranked among the perfect plants, 
 and that its nearest affinity is with the Confervce and 
 Ulvce among the Algce. 
 
 HEPATIC/E Minute plants frequently frondose, sometimes (as in 
 Jungermannia ) folliferous ; the leaves often divided, 
 never really nerved. 
 
 Musci Bearing leaves which are very rarely indeed divided, often 
 nerved, entire, or toothed, or serrated to the margin. 
 
 * British Ferns, p. 4. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 273 
 
 FILICES There is, usually, a subterraneous horizontal stem or 
 caudex. Fronds, before expansion, circinate ; they 
 are simple and entire, or variously divided and 
 branched, and cut into lobes and segments or leaflets, 
 of various forms. Substance varying from mem- 
 branaceous to coriaceous. 
 
 LYCOPODINEJE Leaves small, undivided, numerous, scattered, or 
 alternate and distichous, often stipulated. 
 
 MARSILIACE^E ' Isoetes.' Leaves all radicle, 5 6 inches long, sub- 
 ulate, semi-cylindrical, fleshy. ' Pilularia.' Leaves 
 2 3 inches long, subulate-filiform, clustered. 
 
 EQUISETACE^E Stems rigid, leafless, jointed, striated, the articula- 
 tions sheathed at the base ; the branches whorled. 
 
 NAIADES Floating herbs with very vascular leaves and stems.* 
 
 These extracts demonstrate evidently that we are now 
 treating of a group of plants whose leafy expansions are rela- 
 tively imperfect when we take those of the higher Orders as a 
 standard ; and on comparing them analogically with the res- 
 piratory organs of the testaceous and conchiferous mollusca, 
 we find a very close analogy existing between them. These 
 latter are, in a similar manner, defective in pulmonary appa- 
 ratus, which, in the animal economy, constitutes the point of 
 contact between atmospheric air and the circulating fluids of 
 the higher tribes. The Cryptogamia are imperfect in their 
 folliaceous appendages, which are the respiratory organs of 
 more perfect plants, and the means of communication between 
 their circulating system and the surrounding atmosphere ; 
 while both, respectively, are provided with modifications of 
 these corresponding organs, in the vegetable and animal exis- 
 tencies, well adapted to execute the functions which devolved 
 upon them under analogous circumstances ; in both instances 
 differing materially from the duties which the more perfect 
 orders of either kingdom have now to perform, when the earth 
 has undergone a vast and material change ; the modifications 
 alluded to in the construction, and consequently in the func- 
 tions of both animals and plants, agreeing admirably with the 
 
 * Flora Scotica ; also British Ferns, and British Algae. 
 T 
 
274 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 alteration which, we maintain, took place about the same 
 period in the material universe. 
 
 From a corresponding similarity in the organization re- 
 spectively which thus prevailed in the animals and plants of 
 the non-rotating period of the Earths existence, we may 
 justly infer an analogous object in the design which induced 
 it. This analogy, as a general feature, is very clearly pointed 
 out in a recent standard work on physiology and anatomy. 
 
 " The function," say Messrs. Todd and Bowman, " which has 
 for its object the propagation of species, Generation, presents many 
 points of resemblance in plants and animals. 
 
 " In the former it is cryptogamic or phanogamic ; in the latter 
 non-sexual or sexual. In the phanogamic and sexual, the junction 
 of two kinds of matter furnished by the parents is necessary to the 
 development of fertile ova. In the cryptogamic and non-sexual 
 generation, the new individual is developed by a separation of par- 
 ticles from the body of the parent, by which the new formation is 
 nourished only until it has been so far matured as to be capable of 
 an independent existence." 
 
 And again 
 
 " In plants there is no nervous system ; there is no mental pheno- 
 mena. The motions of plants correspond in some degree with those 
 movements of animals in which neither consciousness nor nervous 
 influence participate. Such movements are strictly organic, and 
 result from physical changes produced directly on the part moved."* 
 
 In the case of the Mollusca, by the imperfection of their 
 respiratory organs with respect to that which surrounded 
 them, and a corresponding facility of disposing of inhaled 
 elements internally, together with their independence of at- 
 mospheric air, it was designed as in reality it was accom- 
 plished to facilitate the formation of carbonate of lime, by 
 abstracting calcium from other acids possessing a stronger 
 affinity for it than carbonic acid, and constraining these two 
 through the agency of the molluscous corium, to unite toge- 
 ther in due proportions, and to constitute the innocuous and 
 
 * Physiology and Anatomy of Man, vol. i. pp. 25, 27, 28. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 275 
 
 insoluble material, carbonate of lime, whereby the waters not 
 only were purified from and deprived, to a certain extent, of 
 carbonic acid and of calcium, but the two were safely locked 
 up together in store for future purposes of usefulness ; while 
 that which was thus elaborated and constructed, became a 
 secure defence to its molluscous inhabitant against the pres- 
 sure of the surrounding medium. 
 
 It will be seen, when we have developed our plan of argu- 
 ment a little more, that by the imperfection of the leafy 
 expansions of the cryptogamia and their independence of 
 light the great decomposer of carbonic acid in the vegetable 
 economy it was intended, and did facilitate in like manner, 
 the accumulation of their peculiar secretions, not only in them- 
 selves, but also by their instrumentality, there were storing 
 up, in the water, elements destined to aid in the formation of 
 the atmosphere, and likewise for more terraine purposes in 
 the sub-soil or strata then forming underneath the primeval 
 ocean surcharged with the corresponding elements. These 
 latter secretions consisted principally of carbon and soda; but 
 were also extended to some others of less general prevalence ; 
 while both the solid precipitate and the gaseous exhalation 
 were equally essential for the wants and the comforts of beings 
 which were to be brought into existence subsequently, and 
 for whose wants the Creator was even then providing with 
 that goodness and forethought which characterize all His 
 plans and arrangements. 
 
 Our more immediate duties, therefore, are to show That 
 the imperfect construction of the folliaceous appendages of 
 the Cryptogamia, or of plants resembling them, was designed 
 to produce effects within the sphere of their action analogous 
 to those proceeding from the circumscribed and defective respi- 
 ratory organs of the apulmonic molluscous animals of the same 
 period of the Earths geological history. To do this we 
 must again have recourse to the same method which has 
 hitherto been found so successful ; although it requires us to 
 pursue what may with propriety be called the differential 
 method of reasoning. We mean that, after having acquired 
 a^brief but comprehensive idea of the several divisions of the 
 Vegetable Kingdom, in order to arrive at a knowledge of the 
 
 T 2 
 
276 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 functions of those which existed during the non-rotating 
 period, and with whose habits and character we can possibly 
 have no direct acquaintance, we must, first, show the result 
 of an opposite state of matters on plants differently constituted, 
 and then, by inference, deduce the effects likely to have taken 
 place by the action of the imperfectly formed cryptogamia, 
 under the supposed circumstances of the Earth at the time to 
 which we allude; and, by way of confirmation, afterwards 
 compare these deductions with established facts. Having 
 already acquired a knowledge of the principal effects produced 
 on vegetation by the action of the sun's rays, we must now 
 direct the attention to another result, no less important, which 
 proceeds from the influence of LIGHT. 
 
 Dr. Roget, in his Bridgewater Treatise, says 
 
 " An important chemical change is effected on the sap of plants 
 by their leaves when they are subjected to the action of light. It 
 consists in the decomposition of the carbonic acid gas, which is 
 either brought to them by the sap itself, or obtained directly from 
 the atmosphere. In either case its oxygen is separated, and disen- 
 gaged in the form of gas ; while its carbon is retained, and composes 
 an essential ingredient of the altered sap 
 
 " The remarkable discovery that oxygen gas is exhaled from the 
 leaves of plants during the day-time was made by Dr. Priestly. To 
 Sennibier we are indebted for the first observation that carbonic 
 acid is required for the disengagement of oxygen in this process, 
 and that the oxygen is derived from the decomposition of the car- 
 bonic acid 
 
 " It is in the green substance of the leaves alone that this process 
 is conducted : a process which, from the strong analogy that it bears 
 to a similar function in animals, may be considered as the respira- 
 tion of plants. The effect appears to be proportionate to the 
 
 number of stomata which the plant contains.* Neither 
 
 the roots, nor the flowers, nor any other part of the plant which 
 have not this green substance at their surface, are capable of decom- 
 posing carbonic acid gas. They produce, indeed, an effect which 
 is in some respects the opposite of this ; for they have a tendency 
 
 * It is worthy of observation that Dr. Roget mentions in a previous page of 
 his work (vol. i.) that stomata are never found in the leaves or stems of sub- 
 merged plants, nor even on the under surfaces of the leaves of aquatic plants. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 277 
 
 to absorb oxygen, and to convert it into carbonic acid, by uniting 
 it with the carbon they themselves contain. This is also the case 
 with the leaves themselves whenever they are not under the influence 
 
 of light This reversal at night of what was done in the 
 
 day may, at first sight, appear to be at variance with the unity of 
 plan which we should expect to find preserved in the vegetable 
 economy ; but a more attentive examination of the process will 
 show that the whole is in perfect harmony.* 
 
 " The function by which the fluids are thus aerated," according 
 to Messrs. Todd and Bowman, " is called Respiration. In plants 
 the introduction of atmospheric air conveys nutriment to the 
 organism ; carbonic acid and ammonia are thus introduced ; the 
 former is decomposed, its carbon is assimilated, and its oxygen is 
 exchanged for a fresh supply of atmospheric air. As the agent in 
 the decomposition of the carbonic acid is light, it is evident that the 
 generation and the evolution of oxygen can take place only in the 
 day-time. Consequently, during the night, the carbonic acid, with 
 which the fluids of the plant abound, ceases to be decomposed, and 
 is exhaled by the leaves. Hence plants exhale oxygen in the day- 
 time, and carbonic acid at night, f 
 
 " When the food of a plant enters the roots," observes another 
 writer, " it passes upwards, undergoing some chemical change, and 
 dissolving whatever soluble matters it meets with in its course ; so 
 that, without having been exposed to any of those conditions by 
 which it is ultimately and principally affected, it is considerably 
 altered from its original nature before it reaches the leaves. 
 
 "It has already been remarked that a portion of the water which 
 plants suck up, combines with the tissue and enters into the general 
 constitution, where it becomes fixed, as the water of crystallization 
 in minerals. This apparently takes place in the course of the 
 ascent of the sap, before the latter reaches the leaves and becomes 
 exposed to that sort of decomposition and alteration which is here 
 called digestion, and with the phenomena attendant upon which we 
 
 are best acquainted What we find it most necessary 
 
 to insist upon in this place, are the three following axioms, to which 
 the experiments of careful observers and skilful reasoners have led : 
 1. The quantity of water lost to a plant by evaporation and its power 
 of absorption from the soil, is in proportion to the quantity of Light ; 
 
 * Dr. Roget's Bridgewater Treatise, vol. ii. pp. 29 33. 
 t Physiology and Anatomy of Man, vol. i. p. 24. 
 
278 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 2. Light causes a decomposition of the carbonic acid of vegetation ; 
 and, consequently, by solidifying the tissue, renders the parts most 
 exposed to it the hardest ; 3. The digestion of plants chiefly consists 
 in a loss of water by evaporation, and in an acquisition of carbon, by 
 
 the decomposition of carbonic acid 
 
 " From these experiments of M. de Candolle it may seem proved 
 that the action of solar light is the great exciting cause of suction 
 at the one end, and of evaporation at the other end of a plant ; and 
 that in the night-time plants gain weight, while they lose it in the 
 day-time. Is it not, however, clear that, to speak rigorously, 
 although we may talk of light as being the sole cause of these 
 phenomena is it not rather the dryness of the atmosphere, caused 
 by the heat of sun-light, as compared with the moisture of the air 
 in the absence of the sun ? Thus, in a dry sitting-room, to which 
 the sun has no access, plants undoubtedly perspire by their leaves 
 and absorb by their roots, more than if they were exposed to the 
 sun in a moister atmosphere."* 
 
 Professor Henslow also says 
 
 " Light is, as we have seen, the chief agent in stimulating the 
 vital properties of plants, and its effects are apparent in a great 
 number of their phenomena, such as the absorption of the sap, the 
 exhalation of moisture, and the decomposition of carbonic acid."f 
 
 The evidences for the thirty-sixth Theorem bear particu- 
 larly upon the point now under consideration ; we shall, 
 therefore, direct the attention to some of them, although they 
 may have been already referred to: merely reminding our 
 readers, as regards the Theorem itself, that it goes to prove, 
 in consequence of the great size of the fossil flora, and mag- 
 nitude of the fossil shells, that there must have existed where 
 they grew and lived a much higher temperature than even 
 now within the tropics. That it seems to have been alike 
 prevalent everywhere, and that the waters must have con- 
 tained a greater proportion of carbonic acid than what the seas 
 now do. 
 
 " Geologists," observes Sir Henry de la Beche, " have discovered 
 
 * Botany, in Library of Useful Knowledge, pp. 84, 85. 
 
 t Botany, in Cab. Cyc. p. 298. See 44th and 120th Theorems. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 279 
 
 that the superficial temperature of the earth has not always remained 
 the same, and that there is evidence of a very considerable decrease. 
 This evidence rests on the discovery of vegetable and animal 
 remains entombed in situations where, from the want of a congenial 
 temperature, such animals and vegetables would now be unable to 
 exist. Undoubtedly this inference rests on the supposed analogy 
 between animals and vegetables now existing, and those of a similar 
 general structure found in various rocks, and at various depths 
 beneath the earth's surface ; but as we now find every animal and 
 vegetable suited to the situations proper for them, we have a right 
 to infer design at all periods, and under every possible state of our 
 earth's surface ; and therefore to consider that similarly constituted 
 animals and vegetables have, in general, had similar habitats. . . . 
 The vegetable remains are often of considerable size. M. Brongniart 
 observes that in the coal strata of Dortmimd, Essen, and Bochum, 
 stems are found in the planes of the strata more than fifty or sixty 
 feet long, and that they may be traced in some of the galleries for 
 more than forty feet without observing their natural extremities. 
 Vegetables of large size have also been detected in Great Britain. 
 Mr. Witham mentions one in Cragleith quarry as being forty-seven 
 feet in length from the highest part discovered to the root. The 
 
 bark is described as converted into coal 
 
 " According to M. Adolphe Brongniart, if we look at the arbo- 
 rescent ferns and the mass of the other plants, we must consider the 
 vegetation of the carboniferous group to have been produced in 
 climates at least as warm as those of the tropics ; and, as we now 
 find plants of the same class increase in size as we advance towards 
 warm latitudes, and as the coal-measure plants exceed the general 
 size of their existing congenors, he concludes with much apparent 
 probability that the climates in which the coal plants existed were 
 even warmer than those of our equinoctial regions."* 
 
 Professor Henslow, in treating of the fossil flora of the 
 ancient world, says 
 
 " Judging from analogy, from the character and relative propor- 
 tions of the species of different classes, the temperature of those parts 
 in which the plants of the first period were growing must have been 
 both hotter and moister than the climates in any part of the earth 
 
 * Manual of Geology, pp. 6, 429, 431. 
 
280 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 at present. It has been plausibly conjectured that the atmosphere 
 was more charged with carbonic acid at these early periods of our 
 planet's history, when gigantic species of cryptogamic plants formed 
 
 the main feature of its vegetation Since the fossil plants, 
 
 which have been found in the arctic regions, are analogous to those 
 which now grow in tropical islands, it seems likely, that not only 
 must they have enjoyed a higher temperature, but also a more 
 equable diffusion of light than those regions now possess."* 
 
 The following concurring evidence is from the standard 
 work on Fossil Botany, to which we have already so fre- 
 quently had occasion to refer : 
 
 " Up to this time" that of the formation of the lias and oolitic 
 group " the features of ancient vegetation were exclusively extra 
 European and chiefly tropical ; but immediately succeeding the 
 chalk a great change occurred, and a decided approach to the flora 
 of modern days took place in some striking particulars 
 
 " It is a very remarkable fact that in former ages the range of 
 the species of plants was far more extensive than at the present 
 
 day M. A. Brongniart assures us that the plants of the 
 
 North American coal mines are for the most part perfectly identical 
 with those of Europe, and that they all belong to the same genera ; 
 the same is stated of fossils from Greenland and from Baffin's Bay. 
 That ours are very much the same as the rest of Europe is certain. 
 
 " And, therefore, a Fossil Flora of Great Britain applies not only 
 to the rest of Europe, as might have been expected, but also to very 
 distant countries. "f 
 
 Having so recently brought forward Mr. Miller's remarks 
 on the general suffusion of heat over the Earth's surface during 
 the early period alluded to, and cited his popular illustration 
 of a " universal green-house," we need here only remind our 
 readers of his concurring testimony. J 
 
 " Of the decrease in temperature of the Northern hemisphere," 
 observes Mrs. Somerville, " there is abundant evidence in the fossil 
 
 * Fossil Botany, Cab. Cyc. p. 313. 
 
 t Lindley and Hutton, vol. i. pp. xi. xxiii. 
 
 1 Old Red Sandstone, pp. 197, 198. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 281 
 
 plants discovered in very high latitudes, which could only have ex- 
 isted in a tropical climate, and which must have grown near the spot 
 where they are found, from the delicacy of their structure and the 
 perfect state of their preservation. This change of temperature has 
 been erroneously ascribed to an excess in the duration of spring and 
 summer in the Northern hemisphere, in consequence of the eccen- 
 tricity of the solar ellipse. The length of the seasons varies with 
 
 the position of the perihelion of the earth's orbit In the 
 
 present position of the perihelion, spring and summer, North of the 
 Equator, exceed by about eight days the duration of the same 
 seasons south of it. And 10,492 years ago, the southern hemis- 
 phere enjoyed the advantage we now possess from the secular varia- 
 tion of the perihelion. Yet Sir John Herschel has shown, that by 
 this alteration neither hemisphere requires any excess of light or 
 heat above the other ; for, although the earth is nearer to the sun, 
 while moving through that part of its orbit in which the perihelion 
 lies than in the other part, and consequently receives a greater 
 quantity of light and heat, yet, as it moves faster, it is exposed to 
 the heat for a shorter time. In the other part of the orbit, on the 
 contrary, the earth being further from the sun, receives fewer of his 
 rays, but, because its motion is slower it is exposed to them for a 
 longer time. And as in both cases the quantity of heat and the 
 angular velocity vary exactly in the same proportion, a perfect com- 
 pensation takes place. So that the eccentricity of the earth's orbit 
 has little or no effect on the temperature corresponding to the 
 difference of the seasons."* 
 
 Mr. Lyell says 
 
 " That the climate of the Northern hemisphere has undergone an 
 important change, and that its mean annual temperature must once 
 have resembled that now experienced within the tropics, was the 
 opinion of some of the first naturalists who investigated the contents 
 of ancient strata. Their conjecture became more probable when the 
 shells and corals of the secondary rocks were more carefully ex- 
 amined ; for these organic remains were found to be intimately 
 connected by generic affinity with species now living in warmer 
 
 latitudes When the botanist turned his attention to the 
 
 specific determination of fossil plants, the evidence acquired the 
 
 * Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 85, 86. See also 2nd Theorem. 
 
282 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 fullest confirmation, for the flora of a country is peculiarly influenced 
 by temperature ; and the ancient vegetation of the earth might more 
 readily than the forms of animals, have afforded conflicting proofs, 
 had the popular theory been without foundation. When the ex- 
 amination of animal and vegetable remains was extended to rocks 
 in the most northern parts of Europe and North America, and even 
 to the Arctic regions, indications of the same revolution in climate 
 were discovered." 
 
 A little further on he continues 
 
 " We may select the great Carboniferous series, including the 
 transition and mountain limestones, and the coal, as the oldest sys- 
 tem of rocks of which the organic remains furnish any decisive 
 evidence as to climate. We have already insisted on the indications 
 which they afford of great heat and uniformity of temperature, ex- 
 tending over a vast area, from about 45 to 60, or, perhaps, if we 
 include Melville Island, to near 75 North latitude."* 
 
 These evidences prove the fact of the general belief enter- 
 tained, in consequence of the size and other appearances of 
 the vegetable remains, of the universal prevalence of a tem- 
 perature, in the original ocean, much exceeding that of the 
 present seas ; and that, too, for a long but indefinite period, 
 during which, according to this Theory, the Earth was un- 
 illumined by the rays of the Sun. All that can be brought 
 forward to explain this seeming anomaly will be carefully ad- 
 duced in its proper place ; meantime it will be sufficient for 
 our present purpose that we have established it to be the pre- 
 vailing belief, " That the temperature of the primitive ocean, 
 throughout its whole extent, was as great as that which at 
 present prevails within the tropics, or perhaps greater, and 
 that it contained a larger proportion of carbonic acid gas than 
 is, at present, consistent with animal life." 
 
 By these incontrovertible evidences we are shut up into a 
 position from which, at first sight, it appears rather difficult 
 to escape; for by them it has been shown, 1st, That Light, 
 Heat, and a moderate degree of Moisture are the essential 
 requisites for the increase of the objects forming the present 
 
 * Principles of Geology, vol. i. pp. 105, 106, 145. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 283 
 
 Vegetable Kingdom. 2nd. That during the formation of the 
 older strata there grew and propagated innumerable gigantic 
 plants ; a fact which necessarily implies the simultaneous and 
 abundant prevalence of what are considered the essential 
 requisites for enabling them to do so ; while, in opposition to 
 this, although we willingly admit the existence everywhere 
 throughout the strata as shown by their vestiges of im- 
 mense cryptogamic and other allied plants during the period 
 alluded to, we deny the presence of Sun-light, maintain the 
 existence of a universal circumfluent ocean, and the presence 
 of considerable surface warmth. The difficulty of escape from 
 this apparent dilemma is not in any degree lessened when we 
 appeal to writers on kindred subjects, for we find, that, as a 
 combination of this kind has never been anticipated, very little 
 can be gleaned from their writings bearing directly on the sub- 
 ject. Nevertheless, we must endeavour to grope our way, in 
 the hope that these seemingly conflicting evidences may only be 
 fences to prevent us from straying, and, eventually, to lead us 
 to the truth. What, then, do the assertions which have been 
 made on this subject by botanical writers amount to? 
 We find it stated by one of them 
 
 " That the quantity of water lost to a plant by evaporation, and 
 its power of absorption from the soil, is in proportion to the quantity of 
 light ;" and " That the action of solar light is the great exciting cause 
 of suction at the one end and of evaporation at the other end of a 
 plant." Although it is not absolutely denied, " that these pheno- 
 mena may not be produced rather by the dryness of the atmosphere, 
 caused by the heat of sun-light, as compared with the moisture of the 
 air in the absence of the sun."* 
 
 But let the circumstances to which these announcements 
 have reference, and the ends designed to be effected by them, 
 be alike duly considered. They apply to plants growing on 
 SOILS, prepared during the lapse of ages for their reception, 
 with depth and consistency sufficient to uphold them through- 
 out every vicissitude of the atmosphere, and which contain the 
 requisite salts and other materials for their nourishment ; for 
 
 * Botany in Lib. of Useful Knowledge, pp. 84, 85, and p. 278 of this work. 
 
284 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 enabling them to obtain their full vigour, and to display all 
 their natural attractions. They are, in fact, the conditions of 
 soil, light, and atmospheric elements adapted to form and 
 sustain those beautiful and useful vegetable expansions of the 
 earth's surface ; destined, while they attract by every elegance 
 of form, to prepare inert matter for the sustenance and the 
 support of animal and rational life, which, without their inter- 
 mediate agency in the elaboration of crude matter, would 
 cease to exist. Contemplated in these, which are their true 
 points of view, they manifest the wisdom of the plan which, 
 when such is their design, did place the efficient cause of their 
 absorption, vegetation, and increase in a luminary far beyond 
 the earth ; by which means that which is to be formed the 
 vegetable substance is intermediately placed between the 
 source of nutrition and the absorbing power, between the soil 
 and the sun, and surrounded besides by a fostering atmos- 
 phere impregnated with elements suitable for assimilation ; 
 while the immense proportional distance, by conferring paral- 
 lelism on the influencing power, the rays of light, causes per- 
 pendicularity of position, and equality of effect. 
 
 These, therefore, are the attendant conditions of the vege- 
 table kingdom of the present day, and all the relative circum- 
 stances are in perfect harmony with the design for which they 
 were called into being. They, consequently, could not have 
 existed under a totally different state of matters, which must 
 be inferred to have prevailed during the period of non-rotation. 
 But if the actual vegetable kingdom be, in every respect, suited 
 to the earth, the air, and the sun-light, we have a right to con- 
 clude, that the plants of the primeval world, before those con- 
 ditions existed, would, in like manner, be adapted to the 
 attendant circumstances of the earth at that time. If in place 
 of the soil being there for their support and sustenation, it 
 was, itself, to be deposited, they would be independent of it, 
 or, perhaps, instrumental in accumulating it. If there was no 
 atmosphere, but, on the contrary, a deep surrounding fluid, it 
 is natural to suppose they would not require the former, and 
 be capable of deriving nourishment from the latter ; and that 
 while as yet there were no rays of bright sun-light to excite 
 the several functions of air-breathing plants, those that existed 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 285 
 
 in the " darkness" would be wholly indifferent to the sun's 
 enlivening influences. 
 
 When we more narrowly scan, with an unbiassed and com- 
 prehensive view, what appears, from the revelations afforded 
 by the researches of geologists, to have been taking place at 
 the bottom of the primitive water, while as yet " the Earth 
 was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of 
 the deep," we find these anticipations to be completely borne 
 out ; for if we turn for a moment from the consideration of 
 the Earth and its vegetable covering in their present state of 
 perfection, to enquire whether the same reasoning will hold 
 good, or if the same application of means would have suited, 
 had they been directed to the submarine vegetation of the 
 primeval world, we shall find, with regard to it, that in place 
 of the soil having been perfected for the growth of the plants, 
 these, imperfect as they were, appear to have been the means 
 employed to form the carboniferous deposits, by acting as 
 absorbents on the surrounding medium, and elaborating, by 
 their vegetable chemistry and vitality, the earthy ingredients 
 which the waters held in solution, whereby they contributed 
 towards the formation of the carbonaceous and alkaline de- 
 posits by those peculiar secretions which they alone could 
 supply; and, further, by disturbing the equilibrium of the 
 ocean they accelerated the deposition likewise of other earthy 
 matter; and, indeed, the debris of the strata which they 
 mainly aided to form, contributed the principal ingredients of 
 the soil employed at present in cultivation ! 
 
 Indeed, so concurrent is the prevailing opinion, on this 
 point, as regards Algae, that many seem to think that plants 
 of this order derive the whole of their nourishment from the 
 water by means of their general surface, the roots serving no 
 other purpose than to attach them to the rocks on which they 
 grow. Or, in some cases, still more independent of their 
 radicle terminations, as the widely extended masses of gulf- 
 weed, a species of Sargassum, which, hitherto, has never been 
 found attached by roots. 
 
 Those ends having been manifestly held in view, the wisdom 
 and adaptation of the arrangement are made evident by the 
 Creator having ordained that " Darkness should be on the face 
 
286 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 of the deep ;" because " Light being the great exciting cause 
 of suction at one end of a plant, and of evaporation at another" 
 Light would have been inimical to the whole scope of the 
 operations then in progress. On the contrary, what was re- 
 quired, and, consequently, what was in operation, was an influ- 
 ence which should stimulate the plants in a direction opposite 
 to that in which the sun-light is now known to act upon them, 
 and thereby to occasion an active absorption from the sur- 
 rounding fluid through their organization, whereby they might 
 appropriate and afterwards assimilate in themselves the nutri- 
 tious ingredients with which the water was charged ; so that 
 in place of that which should be absorbed being derived, as it 
 partly is at present, from the soil, it should be abundantly 
 abstracted from the surrounding water, and, by vegetable 
 chemistry, be locked up in the strata, for the future uses and 
 necessities of the world's inhabitants ; while the waters them- 
 selves should, by the same agency, become simultaneously 
 prepared to perform their important part, also, as the seas of 
 the present day. 
 
 This view of the case receives considerable confirmation 
 when we reflect, 1st. That there positively did grow in the 
 ancient water gigantic plants, either of the Cryptogamic orders, 
 or closely allied to them ; the fossil vestiges which remain 
 proving this by the evidence of the senses. 2nd. That these 
 plants could have been in contact with only two distinct sub- 
 stances, or bodies, namely, with the soil and with the water. 
 And 3rd. That they were, themselves, chiefly the means of 
 forming the soil ; consequently, as there was little preparatory 
 soil, and the plants are admitted to have grown, and to an im- 
 mense size, there is no alternative left but to conclude, that 
 as their principal means of subsistence was not in the soil, it 
 must have been in the water : we mean, in a degree analogous 
 to the sustenance which plants of the present day derive re- 
 spectively from the earth and from the atmosphere. 
 
 If such was the case (and we hardly know how it can be 
 doubted), we should, on investigation, discover a peculiarity of 
 structure in those ancient submarine plants which would 
 adapt them to perform their peculiar functions with an effect 
 analogous to what recent trees and plants are enabled to 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 287 
 
 do through their roots and folliaceous appendages. In place 
 of finding comparatively slender stems and wide spreading 
 roots to support them in the ground and to afford them the 
 requisite nourishment, we should discover trees and plants 
 with their outer surfaces widened by every possible contri- 
 vance, punctured by absorbing apparatus as the means of im- 
 bibing from the surrounding waters, whose stems, in place of 
 spreading out into boughs and branchlets, and being covered 
 with thin and delicate leaves and decked with flowers, should 
 be less ramified, and furnished with other analogous and useful 
 appendages equally well adapted to the element in which they 
 grew, and not being subject to the viscissitudes to which trees 
 growing in the atmosphere are exposed by its sudden and 
 violent movements, and which are, on that account, provided 
 with roots to uphold them against the winds those submarine 
 plants should be furnished with roots much less in proportion 
 to their stems, and by no means so wide spreading, as the still 
 tranquil ocean of the primitive world never exposed its vege- 
 table inhabitants to similar trials, but on the contrary sustained 
 them while they grew, at the bottom of its dark waters, and 
 enabled them to perform their part in the development of the 
 plan of creation. 
 
 The following extracts confirm this so completely, that, 
 although somewhat long, we cannot refrain from quoting 
 them : 
 
 " The Tree-ferns of the tropical regions exhibit several characters 
 by which they may be compared with the ancient plants dug up 
 from our coal mines. When Dr. Martins saw the first specimens of 
 Poly f odium Corcovadense, so remarkable for the tesselated surface of 
 its caudex, he was struck not only with the novelty of the circum- 
 stance, but immediately called to mind the figures of certain petri- 
 fied forms described by Sternberg under the name of Lepidodendron ; 
 on comparing which, with the stems of eight arborescent species 
 collected in his journey, he found them connected by so intimate an 
 affinity, that he could entertain no doubts of their generic identity, 
 and was convinced in fact that their characters were perfectly con- 
 cordant 
 
 " The Filicites quadrangnlatus, called palmacites quadrangulatus by 
 Schlotheim, occurs in the older coal formation, at the coal mines of 
 
288 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Opperoda, and Manebach. It corresponds with the stem of the 
 polypodium corcovadense Almost all writers agree in re- 
 presenting the family of Palms as having existed among the first 
 vegetables, and as being frequently found buried along with the 
 other fossil remains. Nor is it to be doubted, says Martins, that 
 their remains, viz., the stems, fronds, and fruits occur in the older 
 coal formation, although they are much less frequent than is com- 
 monly believed, the arborescent ferns having been frequently taken 
 for them 
 
 " Various genera of arborescent grasses, allied to the Bambusia, 
 seem to have been much more frequent than palms in our antidilu- 
 vian plains. To these fossil plants the older writers applied the 
 name of Calamites. They are now referred to Equisetums by Mons. 
 A. Brongniart. The Caciphorte, Draccence, Pandani, Yuccce, and 
 Vellosice constitute another tropical series allied to the palms, which 
 also make their appearance among our primeval plants. The marks 
 by which they may be distinguished are chiefly connected with 
 the circumstance, that the stems are invested all round with the 
 semi-amplexicaul base of the leaves which remain after the upper 
 parts have fallen off, and hence they resemble a surface covered with 
 imbricate scales, spirally arranged in various ways, according to the 
 various disposition of the leaves. It appears that the scales being 
 imbricated upwards are not distinct from each other in their whole 
 extent, and therefore may easily be distinguished from the scales of 
 
 Filicites, so called There exist in our coal mines numerous . 
 
 examples of petrified forms, frequently several feet long, remarkable 
 for tubercules or polygonal impressions distinct from each other, and 
 longitudinally disposed in straight lines, separated by parallel 
 grooves or ridges, and marked with a simple cicatrix impressed in 
 the specimen itself upon the carbonaceous bark, but elevated in the 
 impression or cast. These vegetables belong to the genus Cacti, all 
 shrubs of warm climates, and are called Cactites .... A genus of 
 fossils described by Count Sternberg, under the name of Syringo- 
 dendron, agrees in many of its characters with the Cactites, nor can 
 it be doubted that it belongs to the succulent, or fig tribe of vege- 
 tables. 
 
 " There is a very remarkable fossil, with branches attenuated 
 upwards, and having the whole surface covered with leaf-bearing 
 scales, arranged in an imbricated manner, neither referable to the 
 genus Yucca nor to that of Cactus, to which Sternberg has given the 
 name Lepidodendron dichotomum 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 289 
 
 " With regard to this plant, as well as the preceding genera, it 
 deserves to be remarked that, like ferns, they are all vegetables 
 furnished with a singular structure of organs subservient to respira- 
 tion, and highly adapted for inhaling nutritious juices from the 
 atmosphere. It is well known that the Cacti, as well as most 
 succulent plants, derive their nourishment more from their relation 
 to the air than to the Earth. The Yuccce and LychnapTiorce which 
 choose for their habitation a dry, sandy soil that has undergone 
 little preparation from the decomposition of previously existing 
 vegetables, were peculiarly adapted for clothing a recently formed 
 world much warmer than the present. By such plants, vegetable 
 matter would rapidly accumulate to the extent that we find in our 
 coal strata."* 
 
 What has now been said, together with the evidences which 
 have been adduced, will, we trust, be sufficient to show the 
 adaptation of the primeval plants to the primeval condition of 
 the world ; and, thereby, to convince us that only as they then 
 existed could they have performed the object, and wrought 
 out the design of their being. We have still, however, some 
 points to look into before we dismiss this part of our subject 
 altogether. We have to endeavour to explain how the de- 
 composition of the carbonic acid and the fixation of the carbon 
 took place ; and to show, if possible, what became of that 
 which was not decomposed, and of the other materials which 
 may be supposed to have been imbibed by those plants, 
 deprived, as they were, of sun-light to cause decomposition and 
 exudation, and stinted, as most of them appear to have been, 
 in folliaceous appendages. This undertaking is by no means 
 easily accomplished ; and in attempting it we are met, at the 
 very outset, by rather an imposing difficulty, arising from the 
 seeming incompatibility of some of our positions with admis- 
 sions which are considered to be equally tenable. Not the 
 least formidable of these consists of the following : 
 
 The denial, on the one hand, of the existence of sun-light, 
 the great decomposer and solidifier of ligneous material. On 
 the other, the fact that Coal not only is of vegetable origin, 
 but, as appears by the fossil vestiges found intermingled in the 
 
 * New System of Geology, pp. 445 450. 
 
 U 
 
290 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 formations, that it must have accumulated from plants which 
 acquired enormous magnitude, while, at the same time, it is 
 an axiom in Botany, that the amount of the decomposition of 
 carbonic acid and the fixation of woody matter take place in 
 direct proportion to the quantity of light ; or, as expressed by 
 writers on those subjects, " Light causes decomposition of the 
 carbonic acid of vegetation, and, consequently, by solidifying 
 the tissue, renders those plants the hardest which are most 
 exposed to it."* 
 
 The only explanation, in the present state of our informa- 
 tion, respecting those arcanae of the primeval world which we 
 can offer is, that the fixation of carbon in forming the woody 
 fibre, having reference principally to that which takes place in 
 the plants of the Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous classes, 
 while the whole scope of our argument rests on the assump- 
 tion that the older Coal formations originated in submerged 
 Acotyledons, or plants similar thereto, it becomes a question, 
 whether these objections, or any that may arise from the 
 ascertained functions of the other two classes, ought to be 
 admitted against the latter, even supposing it to be satisfac- 
 torily established that the chemical gradation is uninterrupted 
 between the lignites which proceed from Monocotyledonous 
 and Dicotyledonous plants, and the coal of the older formation ; 
 which, although evidently of vegetable origin, yet arose, as 
 we have so frequently insisted upon, from the accumulation 
 of plants whose character and habits show them to have been 
 closely allied to cryptogames, one of whose chief characteris- 
 tics is indifference to LIGHT. 
 
 In following up this subject, therefore, it will be necessary, 
 before making any further enquiries into the disposal of the 
 carbonic acid, and the fixation of the carbon, to ascertain by 
 which part of the vegetable economy the former is considered, 
 by botanical physiologists, to be elaborated. 
 
 " The formation of carbonic acid," says Professor Henslow, 
 " takes place in the leaf, beneath the epidermis ; but whether the 
 air penetrates through the stomata or not is still uncertain. That 
 
 * Botany in Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 85. See the whole passage 
 included between pp. 85 87. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 291 
 
 it cannot be universally introduced through these organs is apparent, 
 since many leaves have no stomata ; and in these cases, at least, 
 the action takes place through the intervention of the delicate mem- 
 brane, of which the vescicles of the cellular tissue are composed. 
 If a section perpendicular to both surfaces of a leaf be examined 
 under the highest powers of the microscope, the interior will be 
 observed chiefly made up of cellular matter, or ' parenchyma,' 
 whose vescicles are loosely aggregated, so that large intercellular 
 passages exist in communication with each other through its whole 
 substance. That these passages are filled with air is readily shown 
 by placing a leaf under water, and beneath the receiver of an air- 
 pump. Upon exhausting the receiver, the air contained in the 
 leaf will be seen to escape through the petiole ; and upon removing 
 the receiver, the water will then find its way into the leaf, and 
 
 occupy the interstices which were originally filled with air 
 
 " At present so little has been ascertained of the conditions under 
 which this air has been introduced into the vessels, or of the peculiar 
 office which it is destined to perform, that we can do no more than 
 just mention the fact, and state the opinion of some botanists, who 
 have considered it probable that in these situations also it is subser- 
 vient to the process of respiration, and who conclude that it is not 
 impossible there may exist a strong analogy between the manner in 
 which this function is performed by plants and by some of the 
 inferior tribes of animals."* 
 
 If, therefore, it be the case that the leaves elaborate carbonic 
 acid, it follows, that the more reduced the size of the leaf, 
 and the more inperfect its structure, the less will be the for- 
 mation of carbonic acid; and, consequently, the less the neces- 
 sity of decomposition and exudation. And, as it has been 
 already shown, from undoubted authority, that the whole of 
 the Orders and Genera which compose the Acotyledonous class 
 of plants are defective in folliaceous appendages, we have a 
 right to conclude that those operations were by them performed 
 only to a limited extent. In this we enjoy another convincing 
 illustration of the wonderful harmony which prevailed between 
 their conformation and the state of the creation at the period 
 of their existence. The design was, not to exude, but to retain 
 
 * Botany, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 187, 188. 
 U 2 
 
292 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 carbonic acid in the system of the plants, and, therefore, those 
 appendages, which, by decomposing and exuding this acid, 
 would have frustrated that object to a certain extent, and 
 thereby have proved inimical to the design intended, were 
 very feeble in these vegetable elaborators. 
 
 Nor should the idea be overlooked which has been suggested 
 above, " That leaves under the circumstances mentioned 
 perform the function of vegetable respiration in a manner 
 analogous to that in which the same operation is carried on 
 in the inferior races of animals;" for the establishment of 
 what is thus so unconsciously admitted, or rather conjectured, 
 is the very point we have been endeavouring, throughout the 
 whole of this section, to establish as one of the principal steps 
 towards the elucidation of the uses made of those vast forests 
 of submerged Acotyledons, which abounded during the period 
 of darkness and non-rotation. 
 
 That the mind may be relieved from any doubt which may 
 arise from the idea that an adequate substitute might have 
 been provided to carry on these operations by other parts of the 
 plants, we give the following passage from the botanical writer 
 to whom we have been already so frequently indebted : 
 
 " With regard to plants not green, which botanists usually call 
 coloured, their function seems to be to absorb oxygen without fixing 
 it, and they appear to possess no power of decomposing carbonic acid 
 when they have formed it. Such is said to be the case with roots, 
 old trunks, petals, stamens, ripe fruits, mushrooms, and certain 
 lichens. A part of their carbonic acid escapes into the air, a part 
 is dissolved in their fluids, especially in the roots, whence it passes 
 upwards into the system.* 
 
 These opinions, given by physiological botanists, of the 
 process by which carbonic acid is decomposed by living plants, 
 and carbonaceous material becomes fixed in the two higher 
 classes, when applied to the case of Submerged Acotyledons , 
 would lead us to conclude that taking their deficiency in the 
 operative organs, and the entire absence of the requisite ex- 
 
 * Botany, in Library of Useful Knowledge, p. 90. Confirmed by Dr. Roget's 
 Bridgewater Treatise, in vol. ii. p. 32. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 293 
 
 ternal stimulants into account, they would be found to be re- 
 markable for their paucity of woody fibre throughout the masses 
 of their trunks and branches. The following evidences, taken 
 from the works of geological botanists who have directed their 
 attention to this particular feature of fossil plants, will, we 
 think, fully corroborate this assumption : 
 
 EQUISETACE.E Reaches from Lapland to the torrid zone. Latitude 
 seems to have had no effect on the size of fossil equi- 
 setacese. Calamites (Equiseta) characterised by large 
 and simple cylindrical stems. 
 
 FILICES OR FERNS The most numerous of the vascular crypto- 
 gamic plants. In the coal measures about 120 known 
 species, forming one-half of the entire known flora of 
 this formation. . . . The stems of these arborescent 
 ferns are distinguished by certain peculiarities from 
 those of all monocotyledonous plants. 
 
 LEPIDODENDRON With the exception of their great size they very 
 much resemble the Lycopodiacece or Club moss tribe. 
 .... The internal structure of their stems is inter- 
 mediate between these and Coniferae After 
 
 Calamites the Lepidodendron are the most abundant 
 class of fossils in the English coal formations. 
 
 SIGILLARIA Abound most in the transition series. Are colossal. 
 Stems are generally filled with sand or clay, and sup- 
 posed to have been without any transverse dissep- 
 ments, and hollow throughout. The bark, which 
 alone remains, probably surrounded an axis composed 
 of soft and perishable pulpy matter similar to that of 
 living Cact<%. The stems fluted from top to bottom 
 by an external covering, separable like true bark 
 from the soft internal axis, or pulpy trunk ; this is 
 usually converted into pure coal. The remaining 
 characteristics of the Sigillaria and allied group of 
 fossil plants, Favularia, Megaphyton, Bothrodendron, 
 and Ulodendron, have been so lately given that it 
 would be superfluous to repeat them here. 
 
 STIGMARIA Both surfaces of the external rim of the stem are slightly 
 corrugated. Branches covered with spirally disposed 
 tubercules. The form of the trunks and branches 
 show that they could not have risen up into the air, 
 
294 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 but must have either trailed on the ground or floated 
 in water.* 
 
 The following corroborative evidence is taken from the Fos- 
 sil Flora : 
 
 STIGMARIA (Variolaria, Sternb. Mammillaria, Ad. Brong. Ficoi- 
 dites, Artist) Stem originally succulent, marked 
 with roundish tubercules arranged in a direction more 
 or less spiral ; internally a distinct woody axis, com- 
 municating with the tubercules by woody processes. 
 Leaves arising from the tubercules, succulent, entire 
 and veinless, except in the centre, where there is 
 some trace of a mid rib. 
 
 ASTEROPHYLITES (Bornia, Sternb.) Stem scarcely tumid at the 
 articulations, branched leaves verticillate, linear, 
 acute, single mid rib. (Fruit a one seeded (?) ovate 
 compressed nucule, bordered by a membranaceous 
 wing, and emarginate at the apex). Brong. 
 
 Note. This is probably an extremely heteroge- 
 nous assemblage, comprehending nearly all fossils, 
 with narrow veinless verticillate leaves, not united 
 in a cup at their base. 
 
 BECHERA Stem branched, jointed, tumid at the articulations, 
 deeply and widely furrowed ; leaves verticillate, very 
 narrow, acute, and ribless. 
 
 STERNBERGIA (Columnaria, Sternb.) Stem taper, slender, naked, 
 cylindrical, terminating in a cone, marked by trans- 
 verse furrows, but with no articulations. Slight re- 
 mains of a fleshy cortical integument. 
 
 EQUISETACEJE and CALAMITES Stems jointed, regularly and closely 
 furrowed, hollow, divided at articulations by a dia- 
 phragm ; covered with a thick cortical integument. 
 (? Leaves verticillate, very narrow, numerous, and 
 simple). 
 
 LYCOPODITES Branches pinnated. Leaves inserted all round the 
 stem in two opposite rows, not leaving clean and well- 
 defined scars. 
 
 LEPIDODENDRON (Sagenaria, Sternb.) Stems dichotomous, covered 
 near extremity with simple linear leaves. Areolae, &c. 
 
 * Professor Buckland's Bridgcwatcr Treatise, vol. i. pp. 479 481. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 295 
 
 ULODENDRON Stems covered with rhomboidal areolae. Scars 
 large, few one above the other, composed of broad 
 cuneate scales, radiating from a common centre, and 
 indicating the former presence of organs that were 
 perhaps analogous to the cones of Coniferae. 
 
 SIGILLARIA (Rhytidolepis ; Aveolaria; Favularia; Catenaria, &c., 
 Sterrib.) Stems conical, deeply furrowed, not jointed, 
 scars placed between the furrows in rows, not arranged 
 in a distinctly spiral manner, smooth, much narrower 
 than the intervals which separate them.* 
 
 After perusing these evidences it cannot be doubted that 
 there was the design which of course was accomplished of 
 throwing the bulk of the carbonaceous material, which the 
 ancient plants were capable of elaborating, into the exterior 
 rim of their stems and branches. 
 
 The element in which they appear to have floated would, 
 while it supplied them with nutriment, very materially con- 
 tribute to this by upholding their pulpy or semi-hollow bulky 
 trunks, and permitting them to send forth their spirally 
 arranged branches in every direction around them.f The 
 whole arrangements respecting these ancient plants existing 
 as they did at so early a period of the Earth's history ex- 
 hibit another fine example of the admirable adaptation of 
 means to an end which characterises all the handiworks of the 
 Omnipotent. 
 
 The evident intention being to create carbonaceous matter 
 by means of the periphery of these huge vascular plants, there 
 was no element by which they could have been better upheld 
 
 * Fossil Flora, by Lindley and Hutton, vol. i. 
 
 t We consider the spiral arrangement of their branches, leaves, and fronds 
 or cones, which seems to have been general, very strong presumptive evidence 
 of their having floated in water. It is asserted of the stigmaria that they either 
 did so, or " trailed on the ground." Had this latter been their habit, would their 
 branches have proceeded in regular order all round the stems ? Would not the 
 spiral arrangement have been interrupted wherever the trunk rested on the 
 ground ? It is maintained from their debility, in comparison with their great 
 size and length, that they must have done the one or the other the attendant 
 circumstances are adverse to one of the suppositions that of trailing on the 
 ground ; but are in strict accordance with the other. Can there, therefore, be 
 any doubt as to which opinion should be ultimately adopted ? We think not. 
 
296 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 than water, and there is no imaginable form better calculated 
 to confer strength upon and to increase the extent of the 
 external surface of any cylindrical body whatever than by 
 fluting, that is, by forming it into ridges and depressions 
 parallel to the line of its axis ; nor is there any other con- 
 struction which would enable a plant, in contact with a 
 surrounding fluid from which it was deriving nourishment and 
 support, more effectually to be supplied with both. And, in 
 the instance in question, we find that these means were 
 effectually adopted. 
 
 We think, likewise, that we can discover what, with all 
 deference, may be called a degree of mannerism in these 
 arrangements. 
 
 In the case of the molluscous and zoophytic agency the 
 object then was to create carbonate of lime for the benificent 
 purposes intended, and this was effected by causing the innu- 
 merable forms of these creatures to encrust themselves with 
 ponderous coatings of that stony material. 
 
 In the instance we are now more immediately considering, 
 the design seems to have been to create carbonaceous matter 
 (and perhaps to form free oxygen), by an agency in the 
 vegetable world corresponding to the imperfect molluscs of 
 the animal kingdom ; and, in carrying this into execution, 
 they were caused to secrete carbonaceous matter throughout 
 the whole extent of their comparatively rigid exterior around a 
 soft and vascular central axis ; whereby it is to be assumed that 
 the greatest amount of the destined material could be elabo- 
 rated in the least possible time, while it conferred relatively 
 the greatest degree of strength to the plant itself. 
 
 In continuation of this part of our argument we may remark, 
 that there is every reason to suppose that plants possess the 
 power of throwing off, by their roots, whatever is hurtful to 
 them which may have entered into their circulation. On this 
 point the following quotations are very conclusive : 
 
 " That roots give off, in some cases, a peculiar matter has been 
 known for some time. Brugmans was the first to observe it in the 
 heartsease ; and it was afterwards remarked in the elm and some 
 other plants. No one, however, seems to have suspected this to be 
 a general function of vegetation before M. de Candolle, who as long 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 297 
 
 ago as the year 1805 called attention to this curious subject. It 
 now appears from experiments conducted by M. Macaire, of Geneva, 
 that to throw off excretions by the roots is a general property of 
 
 plants, and one of their most important vital actions 
 
 The faculty, indeed, which plants possess of getting rid of excre- 
 tions by the roots would seem to be a necessary condition of their 
 life ; for if they had not such a power, the faecal matter which they 
 now part with would be re-dissolved by the ascending sap, and 
 carried back into their system to their own destruction. Macaire 
 showed by a simple experiment that a plant if poisoned will disem- 
 barrass itself of the offending matter by its roots, if it has the oppor- 
 tunity. He took a plant of Mercury (Mercurialis Annua), and divided 
 its roots into two parcels, one of which he introduced into a weak 
 solution of acetate of lead, and the other parcel into pure water ; at the 
 end of a few hours, the water which was originally pure had become 
 imperceptibly impregnated with acetate of lead, which had therefore 
 been taken into the circulation by the roots on one side of the 
 plant, and thrown off again by the roots on the other."* 
 
 Dr. Roget, in his Bridgewater Treatise, affords the follow- 
 ing confirmatory evidence : 
 
 " It had long been conjectured by De Candolle that the noxious 
 particles contained in the returning sap of plants are excreted or 
 
 thrown out by the roots The truth of this sagacious 
 
 conjecture has been established in a very satisfactory manner by 
 the recent experiments of M. Macaire,^ by which he * ascertained 
 that neither the roots nor the stems of the plants he employed when 
 completely detached and immersed in water could produce this 
 effect,' which he therefore concludes is the result of an exudation 
 from the roots continually going on while the plant is in a state of 
 healthy vegetation. 
 
 " By comparative experiments on the quantity of matter thus 
 excreted by the roots of the Phaseolus Vulgaris, or French bean, 
 during the night and the day, he found it to be much more con- 
 siderable at night ; an effect which it is natural to ascribe to the 
 interruption in the action of the leaves when they are deprived of 
 light, and when the corresponding absorption by the roots is also 
 
 * Botany, in Library of Useful Knowledge, pp. 104, 105. 
 f For an account of these experiments see the fifth volume of the " Memoire 
 de la Societc de Physique, &c., de Geneve." 
 
298 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 suspended. This was confirmed by the result of some experiments 
 he made on the same plants by placing them during the day time in 
 the dark, under which circumstances the excretion from the roots 
 
 was found to be immediately much augmented 
 
 " The same fact was also proved by another set of experiments 
 on the Mercurialis Annua, the Seneui Vulgaris, and the Brassica 
 Campestris. The roots of each specimen, after being thoroughly 
 cleaned, were separated into two bunches, one of which was put 
 into a diluted solution of acetate of lead, and the other into pure 
 
 water in a separate vessel. After some days the water 
 
 in the latter vessel was found to contain a very perceptible quantity 
 
 of acetate of lead Similar experiments were made with 
 
 lime water and with a solution of common salt, and were attended 
 with like results. De Candolle has ascertained that certain mari- 
 time plants which yield soda, and which flourish in situations very 
 distant from the coast, provided they occasionally receive breezes 
 from the sea, communicate a saline impregnation to the soil in their 
 immediate vicinity, derived from the salt which they doubtless had 
 imbibed by their leaves."* 
 
 It now only requires to be ascertained whether plants which 
 are denied the sun-light contain more carbonic acid than those 
 ivhich enjoy its rays; and if aquatic plants actually deposit 
 carbonic acid from their roots ; and, fortunately, both these 
 points have been established beyond the possibility of a doubt, 
 as will be seen by the following quotations : 
 
 Mr. Murray, writing to the Edinburgh Philosophical Jour- 
 nal, says 
 
 " While in London, last winter, I made a considerable number of 
 experiments on the hyacinth, &c., growing in bulb glasses ; the 
 bulb being carefully washed with distilled water, was seated on the 
 glass filled also with distilled water, and the whole covered with a 
 bell glass. In two or three days the water was highly saturated 
 with carbonic acid gas, and this being precipitated with lime-water, 
 potassa, or caustic barryta, afforded a brisk effervescence on the 
 affusion of diluted acid. The immediate milkiness which ensued on 
 agitating the fluid with lime water, was proof enough, though it was 
 well to carry the experiment to its ultimatum. In numerous repeti- 
 tions I found it uniform, and showed it to some of my friends. 
 
 * Dr. Roget's Bridge-water Treatise, vol. ii. pp. 45 50. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 299 
 
 "By using lime-water much diluted with distilled water, the 
 interior surface and bottom of the bulb-glass were encrusted with 
 minute rhombs of carbonate of lime, perfectly diaphanous. 
 
 "From a seedsman in Fleet Street I got a bulb and bulb-glass ; the 
 roots had already shot down fibres into the water four or five inches 
 long, and it was fast advancing into flower. The fibres of this plant 
 when I received it were ragged at the tips, and tingent or gaping, 
 and they were also quite transparent. Water had filled these tubes, 
 and given rise to a beautiful phenomenon ; for the descent of the 
 air-bells was thus exhibited, and closed the evidence, if further 
 proof had been necessary. 
 
 " This fact will certainly tend to explain some apparent anomalies. 
 In experiments made on plants in relation to their amelioration of 
 the atmosphere, contaminated by respiration, wherein no beneficial 
 change [or a bad one] was exhibited, it must be evident that, as 
 carbonic acid is excreted by the roots, the confined atmosphere 
 might be deteriorated by the gas arising from the earth when the 
 soil in which the vegetable grows is saturated. Besides, these expe- 
 riments may change our views in relation to the phenomena of 
 agriculture, while it will satisfactorily explain the prompt transit of 
 caustic earths into carbonates ; and thus may be a hint valuable 
 even to the geologist."* 
 
 M.M. de Candolle and Sprengel say 
 
 " The exhalation of oxygen gas is closely connected with a 
 remarkable property of leaves, namely, their green colour. As this 
 colour in the rainbow stands exactly in the middle, between the 
 two outermost tints, the red and the violet as it is bounded on the 
 one side by the yellow and on the other by the blue as all experi- 
 ments further show that the red and yellow tints are more of an 
 oxygenous, and the blue and violet more of a hydrogenous nature 
 it is extremely probable that the green colour is the effect of a 
 neutralization between the two extreme colours, or that it arises, 
 when the light has attracted exactly as much oxygen as was required 
 by the hydrogen and carbon which remained. And this theory 
 seems to be confirmed by the following observations : All plants 
 so long as they are withdrawn from the light of the sun are of a 
 
 * Letter by Mr. Murray, in Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, No. xiv. pp. 
 329, 330. 
 
300 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 pale yellow colour, and regain this same hue when, as in the instance 
 of the Endive and Cardoon, they have heen covered with earth and 
 blanched. In this condition they are rich in oxidized juice, as their 
 sweet taste and the tenderness of their parts show. Besides, these 
 blanched plants give out nothing but carbonic acid water, saccharine 
 matter, and mucilage.*" 
 
 On consulting any work on chemistry, it will be seen that 
 the Algce produce soda and potash combined with carbonic, 
 sulphuric, and muriatic acids; and we have seen by the 
 remarks of Dr. Roget that marine plants deposit saline sub- 
 stances when placed in circumstances favourable for doing so. 
 
 The following direct testimony corroborative of these facts, 
 from a different source, will, no doubt, be perused with 
 interest : 
 
 " In a commercial point of view," says Dr. Landsborough, " our 
 British sea-weeds rise in national importance on account of kelp 
 
 which is made from them When M'Culloch visited the 
 
 Hebrides in 1818 the total product of kelp from these islands was 
 estimated at 6,000 tons, which, at 20 per ton, must have realized 
 
 the sum of 120,000 We shall pass over the method of 
 
 making the kelp from Lamincevia digitata, Fucus serratus, Nodosus, 
 fyc., and follow the material to Glasgow, where there are at present 
 twenty establishments, some of them very extensive, for the lixivia- 
 tion of kelp and the manufacture from it of iodine, &c 
 
 " The object of the lixiviator, as he is called, is to separate the 
 various salts which the kelp contains. The most insoluble are those 
 which are first separated, consisting of the sulphate of potash, the 
 carbonate, muriate and sulphate of soda, and the muriate of potash. 
 
 " The most soluble remain in the solution. In the solution the 
 iodine and other very soluble salts are found, and it is from them 
 the liquor, called the mother liquor, that iodine is extracted."f 
 
 And with this satisfactory testimony we may close the 
 evidences for this part of our subject, and proceed to sum up 
 what has been said during the present chapter. 
 
 * Elements of the Philosophy of Plants, p. 201. 
 t History of British Algae, pp. 60, 61. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 301 
 
 We have followed this branch of our general subject through 
 all its windings, until we have reached a point which establishes 
 the fact, that it is a property common to plants to throw off by 
 their roots whatever might otherwise be prejudicial for them 
 to retain ; that they likewise deposit carbonic acid by their 
 roots, or accumulate it within themselves when deficient in 
 those radical appendages ; and that some of the cryptogamic 
 plants produce carbonic, muriatic, and sulphate of soda and of 
 potash. These evidences corroborate, to a certain extent, the as- 
 sumption, that the elaboration of carbonaceous matter and the 
 storing of it up for future purposes in certain forms, together 
 with the deposition of some of the stratified masses, were 
 within the scope, and appear to have been the principal ob- 
 jects contemplated, and fully accomplished, by the submerged 
 vegetation during the non-rotating period of the primitive 
 world. Indeed, we have only to take into account the inex- 
 haustible stores of carbonaceous matter which exist in the 
 great coal formations, the large proportion of carbon which 
 enters into the composition of almost all vegetable soils, and 
 the volume of carbonic acid locked up [to be released at 
 pleasure] in the extensive calcareous formations which every- 
 where abound, to be convinced of the amount of work per- 
 formed during that protracted period by the instrumentality 
 of vegetable chemistry, the plants which performed it being 
 immersed in the waters of the primeval ocean, whilst " the 
 earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the 
 face of the deep." 
 
 The evident and close adaptation of means to the end, which 
 we recognize in all these arrangements, evinces, in the most 
 undeniable manner, that no other class of plants, except one 
 which does not correspond with the description of either of 
 those given in the first chapter of Genesis, could then have 
 existed ; for, if any other could have performed the work re- 
 quired, they would have been there associated with the ancient 
 flora ; while, in another respect, there is a perfect accordance 
 between this state of matters in the primeval world and the 
 announcements made by the inspired historian, who, evidently 
 cognisant of this fact, omitted to enumerate the flowerless, 
 seedless, fruitless plants, when putting on record the creation 
 
302 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 of the other two perfect classes.* The knowledge of this as 
 clearly points to the alone source from whence it could have 
 been derived. 
 
 Nothing, perhaps, tends more to corroborate the view we 
 have adopted of the entirely distinct eras of the creation of 
 the flowerless, seedless, fruitless, and of the phanogamous 
 plants, than the contrast which is afforded by a comparison 
 between the well-authenticated restriction of the recent Flora, 
 of more perfect construction, to foci of creation treated of so 
 much in what is called botanical geography; and the univer- 
 sality and equality of the wide-spread and everywhere abound- 
 ing cryptogames of the primeval world. The former, affected 
 by the divergent inequalities of the earth's surface, kept apart 
 from each other, as it were, by insular and continental dis- 
 tances, and bearing the stamp of differences of climate and of 
 soil. The comprehensive command applicable to the whole 
 terraine surface, " Let the Earth produce grass," having, by its 
 climateric zones, been modified into perfect adaptation to each, 
 and thereby having caused distinct foci of vegetation amongst 
 the phanogamous classes. The primeval flora, seemingly in- 
 different to all these influencing causes, found embedded 
 everywhere, and everywhere alike, so that in the language of 
 M. de la Beche, " there certainly was a similar vegetation 
 about the same period over parts of Europe and North Ame- 
 rica, which leads to the inference, that there was a similar 
 climate over a large portion of the northern hemisphere, such 
 as we have not at present, for it was at least tropical, if not 
 ultra-tropical;" and this Messrs. Lindley and Hutton fully 
 corroborate when they offer the following cogent reasons as 
 a general recommendation of their admirable work, the Fossil 
 Flora : 
 
 " In another point of view, we think," say they, " a work of this 
 kind is likely to be of general utility. It is a remarkable fact, that 
 in former ages the range of the species of plants was far more ex- 
 
 * We beg to be clearly understood : we mean by this all plants not included 
 in the description given, " The herb yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding 
 fruit, whose seed is in itself upon the Earth," each after their respective kinds. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 303 
 
 tensive than at the present day. The plants of the North American 
 coal mines are, for the most part, perfectly identical with those of Eu- 
 rope ; they all belong to the same genera. The same is the case with 
 fossils from Greenland and from Baffin's Bay. Ours are very much 
 the same as those of the rest of Europe, and, therefore, a Fossil 
 Flora of Great Britain applies not only to Europe generally, but 
 also to very distant countries." 
 
 And, altogether, confirm us in the belief, that one set of 
 effects are produced by the phanogamous plants having been 
 created after the Earth had, at the hand of God, assumed its 
 actual diversity of form, and present vicissitudes of climate, 
 while another and an altogether different set of effects arose 
 from the no less certain cause of the earth having, when the 
 ancient flora existed, been a sphere of non-rotation, surroun- 
 ded by a dark and atmosphere less ocean, where no difference 
 of climate or change of season were ever known ; but being 
 one vast range of level surface, under the same omnipotent 
 and fostering care, the plants now found fossil were equally 
 produced wherever necessary over its whole extent; nurtured 
 until they assumed their indicated magnitude, and caused to 
 perform important offices in the formation of the strata, and 
 in the purification of the waters. 
 
 With these observations we shall bring this section of our 
 work to a close ; believing that what is contained in it has 
 advanced us another step towards the unfolding of our pre- 
 fatory assumption, "That during the period referred to, there 
 ivere being formed, under the primitive ocean, by the combined 
 instrumentality of chemical and electrical agency, and of 
 animal and vegetable secretion, those materials ivhich were 
 afterwards, when raised from their recumbent position by cen- 
 trifugal impetus, to constitute an important part of the earths 
 geological formations and meteorological phenomena, while, 
 simultaneously, the ocean was undergoing due preparation 
 for becoming the seas of the present time" 
 
SECTION IV. 
 
 DEPOSITION OF THE STRATA DURING THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The subject of argument of the present Section succinctly stated. Deposition of 
 the stratified masses. Proof that the materials which compose the strata 
 existed in the primeval ocean. The Earth accurately weighed before 
 the deposition commenced, and after it ceased, and found, in either 
 case, to be the same. In continuation, several sources of doubt respect- 
 ing the origin of the strata removed, and clearly shown that underneath 
 the stratified masses of the Earth's crust there is an impervious base of 
 amorphous crystalline rock. Order of superposition laid down, in 
 accordance with the classification of M. de la Beche. Table given, and 
 corroborated by general extracts. Wherever the surface of the Earth 
 has been geologically examined it is found to have been, at one tune, 
 submerged in the waters of the ocean. And, in conclusion of this 
 Chapter, that all stratified rocks afford evidence of having been de- 
 posited from water. 
 
 HAVING thus shown, in the preceding Sections, that there 
 existed in the primitive ocean, hefore " the separation of the 
 waters and the dry land," successive tribes of creatures and of 
 plants which were made use of to secrete the peculiar ingredi- 
 ents necessary alike for the meteorological elements and for the 
 perfection of the stratified masses, it now becomes necessary to 
 endeavour to elucidate the manner in which we consider that 
 these strata were deposited from the ocean in which the in- 
 ferior animals and plants were thus engaged, while fulfilling 
 their appropriate destinies. To relieve the argument from all 
 unnecessary complication no direct allusion shall be made for 
 the present, either to the Conglomerates and Breccias, nor to 
 the Unstratified Formations under pledge of resuming those 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY. 305 
 
 points hereafter. Our attention will be principally directed 
 to the deposition of the strata, with only such occasional allu- 
 sions to the others as are indispensable. 
 
 The first step to be taken in this inquiry is to become 
 assured that the materials which contributed to the formation 
 of the strata actually did exist in the water then surrounding 
 the nucleus of the Earth; for, unless we succeed in doing this, 
 all the reasoning which may be founded hereafter on its 
 assumption will be uncertain and inconclusive ; while, on the 
 other hand, if established, as we trust it shall be, our future 
 arguments will be greatly confirmed and strengthened. 
 
 Let it, then, be supposed, that, before any deposition what- 
 ever had taken place, the whole Earth had been accurately 
 weighed, and the weight noted down; that, after a lapse of 
 ages, when we come to examine its surface, we should find 
 certain concentric layers of strata surrounding it in every 
 direction, bearing evident symptoms of having been deposited 
 from a fluid which had held them in solution and suspension ; 
 that we should be assured the greatest part of these did not 
 derive their origin either from the comminution or the disin- 
 tegration of other rocks ; that we should be made aware of 
 the existence underneath the secondary strata of a continuous 
 hard shell or crust, from within which the strata could not 
 possibly have come ; and that we should now witness an im- 
 mense body of water, clear arid pellucid, containing little or 
 no earthy matter, washing those stratified masses in their 
 upheaved position ; and then let it be further supposed that 
 the terraqueous globe, after all these changes had taken place 
 in both of its portions, was again placed in the same balance 
 and found to have neither lost nor gained a single apice in 
 weight ; that it remained precisely the same as it was at first ; 
 it would seem natural and just to infer therefrom, that the 
 materials of the stratified masses DID exist in the turbid 
 primeval waters, from whence they were deposited, leaving 
 them pellucid and sparkling as they now are ; and it shall be 
 our care to show, that all these presumed circumstances are 
 correct, and capable of bearing whatever superstructure may 
 be raised upon them. 
 
 It will be observed by the seventieth Theorem, that the 
 
306 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 law of gravitation is in direct proportion to the mass, and 
 inversely as the square of the distance. It is stated by an 
 accomplished writer on this subject to be 
 
 " A singular result of the simplicity of the laws of nature, which 
 admit only of the observation and comparison of ratios, that the 
 gravitation and theory of the motions of the celestial bodies are 
 independent of their absolute magnitudes and distances. Conse- 
 quently, if all the bodies of the solar system, their mutual distances, 
 and their velocities, were to diminish proportionally, they would 
 describe curves in all respects similar to those in which they now 
 move ; and the system might be successively reduced to the smallest 
 sensible dimensions, and still exhibit the same appearances."* 
 
 The same writer further states that 
 
 " In the midst of all the vicissitudes which affect the solar system, 
 the length of the major axes and the mean motions of the planets 
 remain permanently independent of secular changes. They are so 
 connected by Kepler's law, of the squares of the periodic times 
 being proportional to the cubes of the mean distances of the planets 
 from the sun, that one cannot vary without affecting the other. 
 And it is proved that any variations which do take place are tran- 
 sient, and depend only on the relative positions of the bodies, "f 
 
 This truth was previously borne ample testimony to by 
 Professor Play fair, who with his usual elegance of language 
 says 
 
 " La Grange found, by a method peculiar to himself, and inde- 
 pendent of any approximation, that the inequality produced by the 
 mutual action of the planets must, in effect, be all periodical : that 
 amidst all the changes which arise from their mutual action, two 
 things remain perpetually the same, viz., the length of the greater 
 axis of the ellipse which the planet describes, and its periodical 
 time round the sun, or, which is the same thing, the mean distance 
 of each planet from the sun and its mean motion remain constant. 
 The plane of the orbit varies, the species of the ellipse and its 
 eccentricity change ; but never, by any means whatever, the greater 
 axis of the ellipse, or the time of the entire revolution of the planet. 
 
 * Connexion of the Sciences, p. 408. t Ibid, p. 25. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 307 
 
 " The discovery of this great principle, which we may consider 
 as the bulwark that secures the stability of our system, and excludes 
 all access to confusion and disorder, must render the name of La 
 Grange for ever memorable in science, and ever revered by those 
 who delight in the contemplation of whatever is excellent and 
 sublime."* 
 
 A recent writer on Astronomy, in a work of some celebrity, 
 
 says 
 
 " I have already shown how the permanence of the orbit of each 
 planet depends upon the perfect balance of two forces or tendencies, 
 viz., the attractive power of the sun, and that tendency to fly from 
 the centre which follows from the motion of bodies being naturally 
 in straight lines, and whose energy depends in each case upon the 
 rapidity of the body's motion. If the power of either of these 
 balanced forces be diminished, it is clear that the authority of the 
 other will prevail. Relax gravity, therefore, and the planet will re- 
 cede from the sun, and its orbit will widen until a balance is restored. 
 In the same manner, diminish the rapidity of the body's motion, and 
 as the centrifugal force will be diminished by the same act, gravity 
 will prevail, so that the body's orbit will be contracted or drawn in."-f- 
 
 When we have to deal with the exact sciences, and to bring 
 forward evidences from their resources, the matter is very 
 soon concluded ; and, therefore, these three quotations equally 
 confirm, and completely so, the first and last assumptions with 
 which we commenced ; because, before the laws which are 
 mentioned in them could have been established, the relative 
 mass of the earth, with respect to the sun and other bodies of 
 our system, must have been determined with unerring pre- 
 cision ; and, consequently, whatever that was, at the most 
 remote period to which astronomical calculations have any 
 reference, it must be the same at this moment ; for, as the 
 earth's mean distance from the sun is invariable, and the law 
 of gravitation exacts a proportional increase or diminution of 
 the mass, should the distance be enlarged or reduced, it 
 follows as an axiom, that as the distance has remained the 
 
 * Review of Laplace, Mecanique Celeste, Playfair's Works, vol. iv. p. 289. 
 f* Nichol's Architecture of the Heavens, p. 152. 
 
 x 2 
 
308 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 same, the mass or weight must also have remained without 
 change. 
 
 The next point to be disposed of, is, to prevent any subter- 
 fuge being sought in the belief that the secondary strata owe 
 their origin to the comminution or disintegration of pre- 
 existing rocks. The fundamental assumption in our argu- 
 ment, namely, the non-rotation of the earth during the period 
 of the deposition of the stratified masses, is so inseparably 
 connected with that of its being then a sphere of level surface, 
 bounded by a circumfluent ocean, that the possibility of dis- 
 integration from previously existing rocky mountains is so 
 incompatible with these that they must either stand or fall 
 together. The change in the position of the primary and stra- 
 tified masses will be explained in its proper place ; but in the 
 meantime, we beg that the horizontality of the whole earth 
 during that epoch, may be allowed ; and that it be considered 
 sufficient explanation for the absence of disintegration ; other- 
 wise, this argument, as far as regards those who withhold 
 this concession, must be brought to a sudden conclusion. 
 Although this may, perhaps, be considered an extreme request 
 by those who are accustomed to witness the primary rocks 
 forming the highest points in almost all mountain ranges, and 
 the secondary ones tilted up, and hanging on their shoulders, 
 yet, when it is considered that it has been adopted as a geolo- 
 gical axiom, that these rocks have been moved through a 
 certain space into their present positions, we may as fairly 
 consider the intervening space to have been from horizontality 
 as from any intermediate inclination ; and the more so, as we 
 think we can prove their elevation from a perfect level; 
 although we should shrink from the task, if a less static position 
 were imperatively demanded as that of their original starting 
 point. 
 
 This brings us to examine into the truth of the only remain- 
 ing unproved postulate, namely, the existence underneath the 
 secondary strata of a boundary line of impenetrable rocks, 
 forming a continuous shell or crust, from within which the 
 stratified masses could not possibly have come; and here, 
 before proceeding with any proof, we would, to use the words 
 of Dr. M'Culloch, say " 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 309 
 
 u It is our object to trace the disposition of the rocky surface of 
 the globe, from the most distant or early point at which the marks 
 of change are perceptible, and to pursue its changes down to the 
 present day. Beyond that distant point it is possible that there 
 may have been other changes ; but of these we can find no evidence. 
 A curtain is here drawn to separate the visible world from that 
 which is, to us, as if it had never existed. That this system had a 
 beginning, we are certain ; where that may lie, we know not ; but 
 for us it is placed beyond that era at which we can no longer trace 
 the marks of a change of order, of the destruction and renovation of 
 its form. It is from this point that a theory of the earth must 
 commence ; it is from this also that the present enquiry begins."* 
 
 We have even a higher authority for laying this restriction 
 upon our enquiries. The inspired historian himself in his 
 narrative takes up the Creation as the light found it ; and 
 from that eventful period only enters into particulars. We 
 assume the Earth to have been without inequalities of form, 
 and bearing upon its rocky level surface a shoreless circum- 
 fluent ocean. He narrates that " the Earth was without form 
 and void, and the spirit of God moved on the face of the 
 waters ;" while, availing ourselves of what he was made the 
 choseninstrument to reveal, carrying it back, as it were, by 
 the differential method, we apply it and endeavour to fathom 
 the dark and atmosphereless abyss of waters ; and thence to 
 spread out before our readers " the wonders of Jehovah's work- 
 ings of old, which were from the beginning." 
 
 Admitting the deposition of the stratified masses from a 
 fluid holding them in suspension and combination, which is not 
 attempted to be denied, then it follows as a matter of course, 
 that there must have been an under surface of rocks, of some 
 DESCRIPTION OR OTHER, which formed the ground-work or 
 base on which the universal menstruum was sustained, while 
 those strata were being deposited from it. 
 
 This general view of the case will be strengthened when we 
 consider that, it is contrary to the laws of matter to suppose, 
 that the original water could have been the matrix of all the 
 
 Geology, vol. i. p. 462. 
 
310 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 rocky materials constituting the solid nucleus of the earth. 
 This would involve the double absurdity of supposing that 
 the containing water increased as the solid nucleus increased, 
 and experienced a corresponding augmentation of earthy sedi- 
 ment in proportion to the increasing demand for deposition. 
 But, as we entertain little fear of such tenets as these being 
 brought forward and sustained, while, on the other hand, the 
 fact of " the strata having been deposited tranquilly in a 
 horizontal position from water holding them in combination"* 
 is never for a moment doubted, we are shut up to the con- 
 clusion that, at whatever geological period it may have occurred, 
 there assuredly was, at one time, a solid surface around and 
 all over our earth impervious to water, on which the primeval 
 ocean rested, while from it were being deposited those succes- 
 sive layers of different kinds which constitute the whole of the 
 secondary and part of the tertiary strata ; while the animal 
 and vegetable remains found interwoven in thesef prove 
 beyond the possibility of a doubt, that the water, however 
 different from the seas of the present day, was capable of 
 sustaining the creatures and plants to which those exuviae 
 belonged. 
 
 The existence of such a universal base is fully admitted by 
 geologists, if we may judge from the tenor of their writings 
 on the subject. J Indeed, so much so, that in another part of 
 this work, we have come to the general conclusion, " That 
 the granitic, trappean, and serpentinous classes of rocks, with 
 their immediate associates, form the nucleii of all mountain 
 ranges ; that there is a strong analogy between granite, trap, 
 and porphyry ; and that their common origin must be sought 
 for in nearly the same source, and from the same cause." A 
 few illustrations bearing on these conclusions may be satisfac- 
 tory before we close this part of our subject. 
 
 " Assuming," says Professor Buckland, " that fire and water have 
 been the two great agents employed in reducing the surface of the 
 globe to its actual condition, we see in the repeated operations of 
 
 * 13th and 14th Theorems. f Theorems 16 and 19. J Theorem 21. 
 Theorems 25, 26, and 27. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 311 
 
 these agents, causes adequate to the production of those irregular 
 elevations and depressions of the fundamental rocks of the granitic 
 series, which are delineated in the lower region of our system, as 
 forming the base of the entire superstructure of stratified rocks."* 
 
 Mr. Lyell states that 
 
 " If we investigate a large portion of a continent which contains 
 within it a lofty mountain range, we rarely fail to discover another 
 class, very distinct from either of these alluded to, and which we can 
 neither assimilate to deposits such as are now accumulated in lakes 
 or seas, nor to those generated by ordinary volcanic action. The 
 class alluded to consists of granite, granitic schist, roofing slate, 
 and many other rocks, of a much more compact and crystalline tex- 
 ture than the sedimentary and volcanic divisions before-mentioned. 
 In the unstratified portion of these crystalline rocks, as in the 
 granite, for example, no organic fossil remains have ever been 
 discovered 
 
 " These remarkable formations have been called primitive, from 
 being supposed to constitute the most ancient mineral productions 
 known to us, and from a notion that they originated before the 
 earth was inhabited by living beings, and while yet the planet was 
 in a nascent state. Their high relative antiquity is indisputable ; 
 for, in the oldest sedimentary strata, containing organic remains, we 
 often meet with rounded pebbles of the older crystalline rocks, 
 which must, therefore, have been consolidated before the derivative 
 strata were formed out of their ruins. They rise up from beneath 
 the rocks of mechanical origin, entering into the structure of lofty 
 mountains, so as to constitute, at the same time, the lowest and 
 most elevated portions of the crust of the globe. f 
 
 " It would be easy," continues the same writer, " to multiply 
 examples to prove that the granitic and trap rocks pass into each 
 other, and are merely different forms which the same elements have 
 assumed, according to the different circumstances under which they 
 have consolidated from a state of fusion. What we have said res- 
 pecting the mode of explaining the different textures of the central 
 and external parts of the Vesuvian dykes may enable the reader, in 
 some measure, to comprehend how such differences may originate. "J 
 
 * Bridgewater Treatise, vol. ii. p. 3. 
 
 t Principles of Geology, vol. iii. pp. 10 13. J Ibid, vol. iii. p. 36, 
 
312 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " It is," says Dr. M'Culloch, " in the deeper regions of the globe, 
 therefore, in those where we have found the origin of granite, that 
 we must seek that of trap. These substances are essentially of the 
 same nature, but they have been produced at distant periods of 
 
 time It must thus be apparent that whatever differences 
 
 may exist between trap and granite, whether in their relations to 
 the strata, or their mineral characters, they are strikingly analogous 
 in almost every essential general circumstance, and that the former 
 may, in a certain sense, be considered as a recent granite ; as the 
 granite of a newer strata 
 
 " I am unable to perceive that anything is wanting to prove the 
 identity of origin in trap and granite. It is little likely, at least, 
 that geology will often furnish us with evidence of a more decided 
 nature. Nor is it an indispensable requisite to this argument to 
 produce numerous examples ; since there are innumerable cases in 
 science, among which this seems one, where one or two facts are as 
 decisive as a hundred."* 
 
 " Notwithstanding its inferiority in position," continues the same 
 author, " we must not grant, as asserted, that granite constitutes 
 the mass of the globe, or is the lowest rock in existence. Of its 
 interior we know nothing ; but its weight is sufficient to prove that 
 
 it is not formed of granite Some unstratified matter, 
 
 solid or fluid, does, doubtless, lie beneath the stratified surface of 
 the earth ; but while conjectures are fruitless, it might, if solid, be 
 basalt, as well as granite. 
 
 " Though treating of it first in order, it is plain that it is not so 
 viewed here ; while I need not re-discuss the relations of the stra- 
 tified to the unstratified rocks. It is sufficient that granite disturbs 
 the former, transmits veins through them, and affects their mineral 
 characters ; while the strata do not follow it in that regular order in 
 which they succeed each other ; but are variously and confusedly 
 placed with regard to it, so that a single mass may touch all the mem- 
 bers of one series a property not possessed by any stratum. This 
 is posteriority, but it is a posteriority only where the fact of intrusion 
 is thus proved. Rocks have been deposited on it, as I shall imme- 
 diately show ; and in examining the revolutions of the earth, I have 
 rendered it probable that there has been granite, or an analogous sub- 
 stance, prior to all strata, and the original source of the whole. "f 
 
 * Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 148, et seq. 
 f Ibid, vol. ii. pp. 87, 88. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 313 
 
 Professor Phillips asserts 
 
 " Inferiorly the primary strata rest on unstratified, generally 
 granitic rocks, so situated as to cut off all possibility of observation 
 at greater depths. This granite floor this universal crystalline 
 basis to all the stratified rocks appears, in many instances, to 
 have undergone fusion since the deposition of the strata upon it. 
 
 It is enough for our present purpose to recognize the 
 
 general truth of the stratified rocks, which are the products of water, 
 resting universally on unstratified crystalline rocks, which, through 
 whatever previous conditions their particles may have passed, have 
 assumed their present characters from the agency of heat. Igneous 
 rocks then rest below all the aqueous deposits."* 
 
 As we have already proved the last postulate, namely, that 
 the earth was re-weighed after deposition, and found to be 
 precisely the same as before, we shall consider that, with the 
 copious extracts just given, we have closed the case in favour 
 of the point so important to be established, namely, that the 
 materials which compose the strata of the secondary and part 
 of the tertiary formations) were at one time contained in the 
 water which surrounded the globe during its period of non- 
 rotation; and having thus prepared the mind, by freeing it 
 from all bias to the contrary opinion, we shall be the better 
 able to fix upon some admitted order of superposition, from 
 the oldest stratified formation up to the magnesian limestone ; 
 as it is indispensably necessary to adopt and to follow out some 
 one geological classification. 
 
 "To propose," observes Sir Henry de la Beche, " in the present 
 state of geological science, any classification of rocks which should 
 pretend to more than temporary utility, would be to assume a more 
 intimate acquaintance with the earth's crust than we possess. Our 
 knowledge of this structure is far from extensive, and principally 
 confined to portions of Europe. Still, however, a mass of infor- 
 mation has gradually been collected, particularly as respects this 
 quarter of the world, tending to contain general and important 
 conclusions, among which the principal are that rocks may be 
 
 * Treatise on Geology, pp. 69, 70. 
 
314 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 divided into two great classes, the stratified and the unstratified ; 
 that of the former some contain organic remains, and others do not ; 
 and that the non-fossiliferous stratified rocks, as a mass, occupy an 
 inferior place to the fossiliferous strata, also taken as a mass. The 
 next important conclusion is, that among the stratified fossiliferous 
 rocks, there is a certain order of superposition, apparently marked 
 by peculiar general accumulations of organic remains, though the 
 
 mineral ogical character varies materially 
 
 " Classifications of rock should be convenient, suited to the state 
 of science, and as free as possible from a leading theory. The 
 usual divisions of primary, transition, secondary, and tertiary, may, 
 perhaps, be convenient, but they certainly cannot lay claim to either 
 equality with the state of science, or freedom from theory."* 
 
 As it is intended, amidst the prevailing diversity of nomen- 
 clatures and classifications, to adopt that of Sir. H. de la 
 Beche, we opportunately annex his table of comparative 
 classification, to assist in leading us through the difficulties 
 which will assuredly present themselves.f 
 
 * Geology, by Sir H. T. de la Beche, pp. 32, 33. 
 
 f Manual of Geology, pp. 38, 39. See also the very comprehensive Table, 
 No. 2, given by Mr. Lyell, in his work, vol iii. pp. 38y 393. 
 
UTJIAOf 
 
 pouad UBiuan^s 
 
 1! 
 
 3 1 
 
 i '-all 
 
 3 C 
 
 I \ 
 
 
 
 pjipioui 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 , N- 
 
 1 
 - t * 
 
 1 
 
 
 Transition. 
 
 i 
 
 sjfsj 
 
 SHE'S , 
 
 -*-! 2 sg 
 iTJS . N?w 
 
 Jill* 
 
 > .. * .2 
 
 rS 
 
 'St 
 
 | |H| !: 
 
 n^ljllf,^ 
 
 i-:^-' a - a 
 
 rd "^ 1C 
 
 ill 
 
 ill i^i iJ 
 
 Q.O e _ 2 M 25^3 
 
 il : 
 
 111 
 
 &> 
 
 1st l^ja g-s ssp^ 
 rt &,. 111 1|. ( *i|Il 
 
 niii s .g 
 
 SJiiHniillu 
 
 5 o . -, 
 
 gas | 6|1 1 1 ;-s |^-| o |^^|^a |i a -g*:? 1 
 
 ^tli^^lil 1 !!! 1 !! 1 !! 1 !!! 
 
316 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " The greater part of our continents," says Mr. Lyell, " are evi- 
 dently composed of subaqueous deposits ; and in the manner of their 
 arrangement we discover many characters precisely similar to what 
 has been described ; but the different groups of strata are, for the 
 most part, on a greater scale, both in regard to depth and area, than 
 in any observable in the new formations of lakes, deltas, or estuaries. 
 We find, for example, beds of limestone several hundred feet in 
 thickness, containing embedded corals and shells, stretching from one 
 country to another, yet always giving place, at length, to a distinct 
 set of strata, which either rise up from under it like the rocks before 
 alluded to as forming the borders of a lake, or cover and conceal it. 
 In other places, we find beds of pebbles and sand, or of clay of great 
 thickness. The different formations composed of these materials 
 usually contain some peculiar organic remains ; as for example, 
 certain species of shells and corals, or certain plants 
 
 " All the subaqueous strata which we before alluded to as over- 
 lying the primary, were at first called secondary ; and when they 
 had been found divisable into different groups, characterized by 
 certain organic remains and mineral peculiarities, the relative position 
 of these groups became a matter of high interest. It was soon found 
 that the order of succession was never inverted, although the different 
 formations were not co-extensively distributed ; so that if there be 
 four different formations, as a, b, c, d, which in certain localities, 
 may be seen in vertical superposition, the uppermost or nearest of 
 them, a, will in other places be in contact with c, or with the lowest 
 of the whole series, d, all the intermediate formations being absent."* 
 
 " The great bulk of the accessible surface of the solid earth," says 
 Dr. M'Culloch, "is composed of stratified rocks, which, under 
 different modes of distribution, form not only the low plains, but 
 the elevated mountains ; being brought into view by their irregu- 
 larities of position, and by that denudation which so often laid them 
 bare, and has generated the lower materials which, in other parts, 
 conceal them from immediate examination 
 
 " The term stratum, or bed, carries its own definition with it ; its 
 extent, according to the prolongation of its great opposing planes, 
 being generally far greater than its thickness. A repetition of such 
 beds forms a series of strata ; and the term stratification implies the 
 mode of their deposition, to whatever cause that may be attributed. 
 .... The term stratification, therefore, implies a cause, as well as 
 
 * Principles of Geology, vol. iii. pp. 9 15. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 317 
 
 a mode of form and disposition ; and that cause is assumed, or 
 proved, to consist in a deposition from water, of materials that have 
 been suspended and dissolved in it."* 
 
 This brings us to the point where we shall require to adduce 
 some of the innumerable proofs which exist in favour of the 
 thirteenth Theorem, "That wherever any considerable portion 
 of the earth's surface has been examined by geologists, it has 
 invariably afforded proofs of having been at one time sub- 
 merged in the water of the ocean." 
 
 " A very little attention," says Professor Play fair, in his Illustra- 
 tions of the Huttonian Theory, " to the phenomena of the mineral 
 kingdom, is sufficient to convince us, that the condition of the earth's 
 surface has not been the same at all times as at present. When we 
 observe the impressions of plants in the heart of the hardest rocks ; 
 when we discover trees converted into flint, and entire beds of lime- 
 stone or of marble composed of shells and corals ; we see the same 
 individual in two states the most widely different from one another ; 
 and in the latter instance, have a clear proof, that the present land 
 was once deeply immersed under the waters of the ocean. "( 
 
 " The lowest and most level parts of the earth," M. Cuvier asserts 
 in his Theory, "when penetrated to a very great depth, exhibit 
 nothing but horizontal strata composed of various substances, and 
 containing almost all of them innumerable marine productions. 
 Similar strata, with the same kind of productions, compose the hills 
 even to a great height. Sometimes the shells are so numerous as 
 to constitute the entire body of the stratum. They are almost every- 
 where in such a perfect state of preservation that even the smallest 
 of them retain their most delicate parts, their sharpest ridges, and 
 their finest and most tender processes. 
 
 " They are found in elevations far above the level of every part of 
 the ocean, and in places to which the sea could not be conveyed by 
 any existing cause. They are not only enclosed in loose sand, but 
 are often encrusted and penetrated on all sides by the hardest stones. 
 Every part of the earth, every hemisphere, every continent, every 
 island of any size, exhibits the same phenomenon. We are there- 
 fore forcibly led to believe, not only that the sea has at one period 
 
 * Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. pp. 61, 67. 
 t Playfair's Works, vol. i. p. 19. 
 
318 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 or another covered all our plains, but that it must have remained 
 there for a long time, and in a state of tranquillity ; which circum- 
 stance was necessary for the formation of deposits so extensive, so 
 thick, in part so solid, and containing exuviae so perfectly pre- 
 served."* 
 
 " Geologists," Sir John Herschel states, "now no longer bewilder 
 their imaginations with wild theories of the formation of the globe 
 from chaos, or its passage through a series of hypothetical transfor- 
 mations, but rather aim at a careful and accurate examination of the 
 records of its former state, which they find indelibly impressed on 
 the great features of its actual surface, and to the evidence of former 
 life and habitation which organized remains imbedded and preserved 
 in its strata indisputably afford. 
 
 " Records of this kind are neither few nor vague, and though the 
 obsoleteness of their language, when we endeavour to interpret it too 
 minutely, may, and no doubt often does, lead to misapprehension, 
 still its general meaning is, on the whole, unequivocal and satis- 
 factory. Such records teach us, in terms too plain to be misunder- 
 stood, that the whole, or nearly the whole, of our present lands and 
 continents were formerly at the bottom of the sea, where they re- 
 mained deposits of materials from the wearing and degradation of 
 other lands not now existing, and furnished receptacles for the re- 
 mains of marine animals and plants inhabiting the ocean above 
 them, as well as for similar spoils of the land washed down into its 
 bosom."*)" 
 
 " Calcareous rocks," says Mr. Lyell, " containing the same class 
 of organic remains as our transition and mountain limestones, extend 
 over a great part of the central and northern parts of Europe, are 
 found in the lake districts of North America, and even appear to 
 occur in great abundance as far as the border of the Arctic sea. The 
 organic remains of these rocks consist principally of marine shells, 
 corals, and the teeth and bones of fish ; and their nature, as well as 
 the continuity of the calcareous beds of homogenous mineral com- 
 position, concur to prove, that the whole series was formed in a deep 
 and expansive ocean, in the midst of which, however, there were 
 many isles." 
 
 Again 
 
 " A glance at the best geological maps now constructed of various 
 
 * Cuvier's Theory of the Earth, by Professor Jamieson, pp. 7, 8. 
 f Natural Philosophy, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 282, 283. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 319 
 
 countries in the northern hemisphere, whether in North America or 
 Europe, will satisfy the enquirer, that the greater part of the present 
 land has been raised from the deep, either between the period of the 
 deposition of the chalk and that of the strata termed tertiary, or at 
 subsequent periods, during which various tertiary groups were formed 
 in succession. For, as the secondary rocks, from the lias to the chalk 
 inclusive, are, with a few unimportant exceptions, marine, it follows 
 that every district now occupied by them has been converted into 
 land since they originated."* 
 
 Evidences so unanimous and so conclusive leave not a doubt, 
 that " wherever the earth's surface has been examined to any 
 extent, it affords undeniable proofs of having been formed at 
 the bottom of the ocean." The importance of this demonstra- 
 tion, however, cannot be fully appreciated until it has been 
 shown, that there was only one general elevation of the strata; 
 and, consequently, that the stratified masses which afford such 
 perfect evidence of their submarine origin, must have been so 
 situated at one and the same time ; while their having been 
 simultaneously covered by the ocean, proves alike that the 
 earth must, of necessity, have been a sphere without rotatory 
 motion ; for no other form could fulfil all the conditions 
 required, when the comparative shallowness of the ocean is 
 taken into account ;f and the impossibility of this ever cover- 
 ing the earth's surface after the first revolution around its 
 axis had taken place, and occasioned those great inequalities, 
 which, at present, distinguish its geographical outlines. With- 
 out dwelling longer, however, on this great truth for the 
 
 * Principles of Geology, vol. i. pp. 146, 155. 
 
 f Sir H. T. de la Beche considers the ocean to be only two miles in mean 
 depth, and his evidence on this point is so apposite that we cannot avoid giving 
 it : " The depth of the ocean has heen variously estimated at between two and 
 three miles. The mean height of the dry land ahove the ocean level does not 
 exceed two miles. Therefore, assuming two miles for the depth of the ocean, the 
 waters occupying three-fourths of the Earth's surface, the present dry land 
 might be distributed over the bottom of the ocean in such a manner that the 
 surface of the Earth would present a mass of waters an important possibility, 
 for with it at command, every variety of the superficial distribution of land 
 and water may be imagined ; and consequently every variety of organic life, 
 each suited to the various situations and climates under which it would be 
 placed." Manual of Geology, pp. 2, 3. 
 
320 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 present, but resting satisfied with having shown that wher- 
 ever any considerable area of the earth's surface has been 
 accessible to geological examination, it affords the clearest 
 possible evidence of having been formed beneath the water 
 of the ocean, we shall next proceed to give some equally con- 
 clusive quotations in support of the first part of the fourteenth 
 Theorem, in which it is asserted that the stratified rocks afford 
 sufficient evidence of having been formed in succession, horizon- 
 tally and tranquilly, by deposition from water. 
 
 " It is well known," says Dr. Mutton's accomplished illustrator, 
 " that on removing the loose material which forms the immediate 
 surface of the earth, we come to the solid rock, of which a great 
 proportion is found to be regularly disposed in strata, or beds of 
 determinate thickness, inclined at different angles to the horizon ; 
 but separated from one another by equidistant superfices, that often 
 maintain their parallelism to a great extent. These strata bear 
 such evident marks of being deposited by water, that they are uni- 
 versally acknowledged to have their origin at the bottom of the 
 sea ; and it is also admitted that the materials of which they consist 
 were then either soft, or in such a state of comminution and separa- 
 tion as rendered them capable of arrangement by the action of the 
 water in which they were immersed. Thus far most of the theories 
 of the earth agree : but from this point they begin to diverge, and 
 each to assume a character and direction peculiar to itself. 
 
 " The materials of the strata are disposed, as we have 
 
 already seen, loose and unconnected, at the bottom of the sea ; 
 that is, even on the most moderate estimation, at the depth of 
 several miles under its surface 
 
 " Now, it is certain that many of the strata have been moved 
 angularly ; because that, in their original position, they must have 
 been all nearly horizontal. Loose materials, such as sand and 
 gravel, subsiding at the bottom of the sea and having their interstices 
 filled with water, possess a kind of fluidity ; they are disposed to 
 yield on the side opposite to that where the pressure is greatest, 
 and are, therefore, in some degree, subject to the laws of hydro- 
 statics. On this account they will arrange themselves in horizontal 
 layers ; and the vibrations of the incumbent fluid, by impressing a 
 slight motion, backward and forward, on the materials of these 
 layers, will very much assist the accuracy of their level 
 
 " Now, rocks having their layers exactly parallel, are very com- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 321 
 
 mon, and prove their original horizontality to have been more 
 precise than we could venture to conclude from analogy alone. In 
 beds of sandstone, for instance, nothing is more frequent than to 
 see the thin layers of sand separated from one another by layers 
 still finer of coaly or micaceous matter, that are almost exactly 
 parallel, and continue so to a great extent without any sensible 
 deviation. 
 
 " These planes can have acquired their parallelism only in con- 
 sequence of the property of water just stated, by which it renders 
 the surfaces of the layers which it deposits parallel to its own sur- 
 face, and therefore parallel to one another. Though such strata, 
 therefore, may not now be horizontal, they must have been so 
 originally, otherwise it is impossible to discover any cause for their 
 parallelism, or any rule by which it can have been produced."* 
 
 In the following exposition, we find the stratified formation 
 of the Earth's crust and its universal submersion deduced from 
 the presence of organic remains, by Mr. Whitehurst : 
 
 " The remains of marine animals embedded in the solid substance 
 of stone in all parts of the known world are so extremely numerous 
 that it is needless to add any more instances relative to their origin ; 
 let us, therefore, proceed to a recapitulation of the facts, in order to 
 draw some general conclusions concerning them. 
 
 "1. Fossil bodies, resembling both in substance and shape the 
 shells of living fish, are found imbedded upon the highest mountains, 
 in valleys, and deep recesses of the earth, remote from the sea. 
 
 "2. They are found retaining the native testaceous matter, colour, 
 and figure of marine shells ; insomuch as not to have been distin- 
 guished from the shells of living fish. 
 
 " 3. Fossil shells are also found variously impregnated with stony 
 or metallic matter, and even changed into the substance of the 
 stone in which they are imbedded. 
 
 "4. They are found in the solid substance of the limestone strata, 
 dispersed throughout their whole extent and thickness ; some of 
 these being 150 or 180 feet thick. They are also involved in 
 strata of chalk and clay. 
 
 " 5. The bivalve species are found with both their shells entire, 
 as those of living fish ; each bed consisting of one particular 
 
 Playfair's Huttonian Theory, pp. 4, 44 4G. 
 Y 
 
322 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 species, namely oysters, cockles, muscles, &c., collected together 
 as the same species are actually assembled together in the sea. 
 
 " 6. But, on the contrary, when beds of fossil shells are composed 
 of fragments, or separate bivalves, they consist of a variety of species 
 confusedly blended together, in like manner as the fragments of 
 sea-shells are thrown together by the fluctuation of the ocean. 
 
 " 7. Fossil bones and teeth, resembling those offish, are also found 
 retaining the perfect colour, figure, and polish of recent teeth ; but 
 though the number of such fossil bodies are very considerable, yet 
 the shells of fish are infinitely more numerous ; and I have not 
 discovered a single instance of the former being imbedded with the 
 latter in the limestone strata in Derbyshire, or elsewhere ; but 
 constantly with a variety of adventitious matter near the surface of 
 the earth. 
 
 " 8. And we may add to the above, that the remains of terrestrial 
 animals are seldom or never found intermixed with marine relicts 
 in the limestone strata ; neither are those of the sea ever found, or 
 but rarely, in the argillaceous strata containing the impressions of 
 vegetables. 
 
 " Such are the general phenomena attending the above fossil 
 bodies ; whence the following inferences seem to arise : 
 
 '* First. Their great analogy, in figure, colour, and consistence, to 
 the shells, bones, and teeth of living fish, together with a gradual 
 change in their component parts, from a testaceous, to a stony, or 
 metallic substance, evidently shows that all such fossil bodies were 
 originally productions of the sea. 
 
 " Secondly. Their being found in all parts of the world, even im- 
 bedded in the highest mountains, vallies, and deep recesses of the 
 earth, remote from the sea, evidently shows that the sea prevailed 
 universally over the earth, and consequently, that these marine 
 animals were created prior to the terrestrial animals, agreeable to 
 the Scriptural account of the Creation. 
 
 " Thirdly. And, since they are found at various depths in the 
 earth, even to that of several thousand feet, and in different states 
 of decay, and variously impregnated with stony or metallic matter, 
 and even changed to the substance of the stone in which they are 
 imbedded, it evidently appears that the strata were originally in a 
 state of fluidity, and that they were thus entombed and deprived of 
 life in successive periods of time. 
 
 " Fourthly. The beds of fossil shells, which consist of one species 
 only, and although not natives of the climate where now found, but 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 323 
 
 of very distant regions of the earth, evidently show that they were 
 generated, and have lived and died in the very beds where found, and 
 could not have been removed from a distance by a flood or floods 
 of water with so much order as to form beds consisting of only one 
 species ; and, therefore, ALL SUCH BEDS MUST HAVE BEEN ORIGIN- 
 ALLY THE BOTTOM OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 " Such are the inferences deduced from the preceding facts ; 
 which tend to corroborate the several results arising from the former 
 parts of this enquiry into the original state and formation of the 
 earth, namely, that the earth was originally a fluid, chaotic mass, 
 totally unfit for animal or vegetable life. That it was progressively 
 formed into an habitable world. That marine animals were created 
 prior to the terrestrial animals. That they were entombed in the 
 bowels of the earth in successive periods of time, and before dry 
 land appeared."* 
 
 " For more than two centuries," says Mr. Lyell, when reasoning 
 on the unphilosophical assumption of the discordance of the ancient 
 and existing causes of change, " the shelly strata of the sub-appenine 
 hills afforded matter of speculation to the early geologists of Italy, 
 and few of them had any suspicion that similar deposits were then 
 
 forming in the neighbouring sea Some imagined that 
 
 the strata, so rich in organic remains, instead of being due to second- 
 ary agents, had been so created in the beginning of things by the 
 fiat of the Almighty ; and others ascribed the imbedded fossil 
 bodies to some plastic power which resided in the earth in the early 
 ages of the world. At length Donati explored the bed of the 
 Adriatic, and found the closest resemblance between the new depo- 
 sits there forming, and those which constituted hills above a thousand 
 feet high in various parts of the peninsula. He ascertained that 
 certain genera of living testacea were grouped together at the bottom 
 of the sea in precisely the same manner as were their fossil analogies 
 in the strata of the hills, and that some species were common in the 
 recent and fossil world. Beds of shells, moreover, in the Adriatic, 
 were becoming incrusted with calcareous rock, and others were 
 recently inclosed in deposits of sand and clay, precisely as fossil 
 shells were found in the hills 
 
 " It must always have been evident to unbiassed 
 
 * Enquiry into the Formation of the Earth, by John Whitehurst, F.R.S., 
 London, 1786, pp. 5559. 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 minds, that successive strata, containing in regular order of super- 
 position, distinct beds of shells and corals, arranged in families as 
 they grow at the bottom of the sea, could only have been formed 
 by slow and insensible degrees in the lapse of ages ; yet, until 
 organic remains were minutely examined and specifically determined, 
 it was rarely possible to prove that the series of deposits met with 
 in one country was not formed simultaneously with that found in 
 another. But we are now able to determine, in numerous instances, 
 the relative dates of sedimentary rocks in distant regions, and to 
 show by their organic remains that they were not of contemporary 
 origin, but formed in succession. We often find that where an 
 interruption in the consecutive formations in one district is indicated 
 by a sudden transition from one assemblage of fossil species to 
 another, the chasm is filled up, in some other district, by other 
 important groups of strata."* 
 
 While we refer to the table given of the classification of 
 rocks, by Sir H. T. de la Beche, by which the great portion 
 of the stratified, and, consequently, the deposited ones will at 
 once be recognized, we consider it opportune to subjoin the 
 following detached quotation from his Manual, in which, it 
 will be observed, he assumes the stratified masses to be esta- 
 blished as deposits, and treats of them as such by inference : 
 
 "Having premised this much," he says, "respecting the geographi- 
 cal distribution of the cretaceous group, we will take a slight sketch 
 of the variations in its mineralogical character. Throughout the 
 British Islands, a large part of France, many parts of Germany, in 
 Poland, Sweden, and in various parts of Russia, there would appear 
 to have been certain causes in operation, at a given period, which 
 produced nearly, or very nearly, the same effects. 
 
 " The variation in the lower portion of the deposit seems merely 
 to consist in the absence or presence of a greater or less abundance 
 of clays or sands, substances which we may consider as produced 
 by the destruction of previously existing land, and as deposited 
 from waters which held such detritus in mechanical suspension. 
 The unequal deposit of the two kinds of matter in different situations 
 would be in accordance with such a supposition. But when we 
 
 Principles of Geology, vol. i. pp. 96 99. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 32& 
 
 turn to the higher part of the group into which the lower portion 
 graduates, the theory of mere transport appears opposed to the 
 phenomena observed, which seem rather to have been produced by 
 deposit from a chemical solution of carbonate of lime and silex 
 covering a considerable area 
 
 " When we view the oolitic group as a whole, such as it occurs 
 over a considerable portion of Western Europe, we cannot but be 
 struck with the general uniformity of its structure. The three 
 great argillo-calcareous deposits alternate with as many that are 
 calcareous or arenaceous, but principally the former. When we 
 attempt to apply the operation of such causes as those we daily 
 witness in explanation of this uniformity, we seem to involve our- 
 selves in innumerable difficulties, though to explain certain minor 
 
 appearances they may be useful In a general view of 
 
 this deposit it would seem better to consider it in connexion with 
 the succeeding group. As joined with it, it appears the upper part 
 of one great mass which has been deposited in various inequalities 
 of surface, the superior portion frequently overlapping the inferior 
 part, so that it rests directly on the older rocks," and so forth. 
 
 " The red sandstone group succeeds in the descending order. . . . 
 The rocks composing this group occur in the following descending 
 order: 1. Variegated marls ; 2. Muschel chalk ; 3. Red or Varie- 
 gated Sandstones ; 4. Zechstein ; and 5. Red Conglomerate, or 
 Todtliegendes 
 
 " If we now abstract our attention from the divisions, and regard 
 the group as a mass, it would seem to constitute the base of a great 
 system of rocks, which when not deranged by local accidents has 
 filled numerous hollows and inequalities of land over considerable 
 parts of Europe During their deposit, great and remark- 
 able changes were effected in animal, and, perhaps, vegetable life ; 
 and it seems somewhat necessary to admit that considerable differ- 
 ences in the relative levels of sea and land were produced at various 
 times, causing changes in the character of the inhabitants of the 
 sea, from variations of pressure and other circumstances, while no 
 small difference might be effected from the filling up and rise of 
 the bottom 
 
 " The coal measures are composed of various beds of sandstone, 
 shale, and coal, irregularly interstratified, and, in some countries, 
 intermixed. They abound in vegetable remains, and the coal itself 
 is now, by very general consent, referred to a vegetable origin, 
 being considered the accumulation of an immense mass of plants. 
 
326 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 .... By general consent the coal is considered as resulting 
 from the distribution of a body of vegetable remains over areas of 
 greater or less extent, upon a previously disposed surface of sand, 
 argillaceous silt or mud, but principally the latter, now compressed 
 into shale. 
 
 "After the distribution of the vegetables, other sands, silt, or 
 
 mud, were accumulated upon them Great length of 
 
 time would be requisite for this accumulation, because the pheno- 
 mena observed would lead us to consider the transporting power, 
 though variable, to have been generally moderate ; moreover, a 
 very considerable growth of vegetables requiring time would be 
 necessary at distinct intervals ; for coal beds now only six or ten 
 feet thick, must, before pressure was exerted upon them, have 
 occupied a much greater depth 
 
 " It has been observed that the old red sandstone of some coun- 
 tries graduates into grauwacke, whence it may be inferred that the 
 causes, whatever they may have been, which produced the latter 
 deposit, were not violently interrupted in such situations, but that 
 they were gradually modified 
 
 " If the size of transported substances be considered as the 
 necessary evidence of rapid currents of water, the grauwacke rocks 
 taken as a mass have been slowly deposited ; for, though evidences 
 of cross currents are sufficiently abundant in the various directions 
 of the laminae, and in the mode in which arenaceous and slaty beds 
 are associated with each other, the substances are generally fine 
 
 grained, rarely passing into conglomerates , There is, 
 
 however, a general appearance in the mass of the grauwacke which 
 would lead us rather to consider a great portion of it of slow depo- 
 sition 
 
 " The grauwacke group occurs in Norway, Sweden, and Russia. 
 It forms a portion of Southern Scotland, whence it ranges, with 
 breaks formed by newer deposits or the sea, down Western England 
 into Normandy and Brittany. It appears abundantly in Ireland. 
 A large mass of it is exposed in the district constituting the Ar- 
 dennes, the Eifel, the Westerwauld, and the Taurus. Another mass 
 constitutes a large portion of the Hartz mountains, while smaller 
 patches emerge in other parts of Germany, on the north of Magde- 
 burg, and other places. In all these situations there is, notwith- 
 standing small variations, a general and prevailing mineralogical 
 character, which points to a common mode of formation over a con- 
 siderable area. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 327 
 
 " From all the accounts, also, that have been presented to us by 
 Dr. Bigsby and other American geologists, we have every reason 
 to consider that a deposit closely agreeing in relative antiquity, and 
 in its general mineralogical and zoological characters, exists exten- 
 sively in North America : so that there is evidence, also, to show 
 that some general causes were in operation over a large portion of 
 the northern hemisphere, and that the result was the production of 
 a thick and extensive deposit, enveloping animals of similar organic 
 structure over a considerable surface 
 
 " We have now arrived," says the same intelligent geologist, " at 
 that early condition of our planet when, as far as our knowledge 
 extends, neither animal nor vegetable life existed on its surface. . . . 
 
 " The inferior stratified rocks are of various compositions, some- 
 times so passing into each other that it is almost impossible to 
 affix definite names to the different mixtures. 
 
 " It would be tedious to enumerate the various situations where 
 these inferior stratified rocks may be found ; it will suffice to state, 
 that there is scarcely any large extent of country where, from some 
 accident or other, they are not exposed on the surface. They abound 
 in Norway, Sweden, and Northern Russia ; they are common in 
 the north of Scotland, whence they stretch over into Ireland. In 
 the Alps and some other mountains, they occupy the central lines 
 of elevation, as if brought to light by the movements which have 
 thrown up the different chains. They abound in the Brazils, and 
 occur extensively in the United States. Our navigators have shown 
 that they are sufficiently common in the various remote parts of 
 North America visited by them. They are found extensively in 
 the great range of Himalaya. Ceylon is in a great measure com- 
 posed of them ; and they do not appear to be scarce in various 
 other parts of Asia. 
 
 " In Africa, also, we know that they are not wanting, though but 
 so small a part of that continent has been yet explored with scien- 
 tific views. Hence we may consider that whatever may be the 
 nature of the deposits on which we stand, such strata exist beneath 
 us, unless in cases where masses of igneous rocks have, by protru- 
 sion, forced them asunder, and left no stratified substances inter- 
 mediate between the surface and the interior of the globe."* 
 
 A geologist, who has written more recently, expresses his 
 * Manual of Geology, by Sir H. T. dc la Beche. 
 
328 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 opinion, as far as the Old Red Sandstone group is concerned, 
 in the following graphic manner, with which we shall close 
 this part of the evidence : 
 
 " The geologists of the school of Werner," says he, " used to 
 illustrate what we may term the anatomy of the Earth, as seen 
 through the spectacles of their system, by an onion and its coats. 
 They represented the globe as a central nucleus, encircled by con- 
 centric coverings, each covering constituting a geological formation. 
 The onion, through the introduction of a better school, has become 
 obsolete as an illustration, but to restore it again, though for another 
 purpose, we have merely to cut it through the middle, and turn 
 downwards the plane formed by the knife. It then represents, 
 with its coats, two such hills as we describe hills such as Ben 
 Nevis, ere the granite had perforated the gneiss, or the porphyry 
 broken through the granite." 
 
 After pointing out in another passage how unsafe it is to 
 calculate the depth of deposits by the altitude of hills, or to 
 estimate the correctness of the calculations made in one dis- 
 trict by those which may have been made in some other widely 
 separated locality, he states 
 
 " So enormous is the depth of the deposit (the red sandstone) in 
 Caithness, that it has been deemed by very superior geologists to 
 represent three entire formations : the Old Red System, by its 
 unfossiliferous, arenaceous, and conglomerate beds ; the Carbonife- 
 rous system, by its dark-coloured middle schists, abounding in bitu- 
 men and ichthyolites ; and the New Red Sandstone, by its mottled 
 marls and mouldering sandstones that overlie the whole ;" and which 
 unitedly, " in some localities attain a depth fully equal to the eleva- 
 tion of Mount Etna over the level of the sea."* 
 
 Old Red Sandstone, by Miller, Edinburgh, pp. 60, 61, and 52. 
 
SECTION IV. 
 
 DEPOSITION OF THE STRATA DURING THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Further inferences respecting the existence of the elements of the strata in the 
 primitive ocean ; and of the crystalline base on which they universally 
 repose. Attendant circumstances of the Earth in perfect accordance with 
 the work of deposition then going on. Character and component elements 
 of the lower stratified, or non-fossiliferous rocks, given with the design of 
 showing that their elements existed in the primitive menstruum. Endea- 
 vours to describe the process by which these elements were abstracted 
 from the water with which they were thus combined. The immediate 
 influence of the luni-solar current exemplified by the theory of the tides. 
 Geological construction of the non-fossiliferous rocks confusedly crystal- 
 line. Their specific gravity given, and the influence of attraction in their 
 formation. Aqueous crystallization, and the predominating influence 
 which it exercised at this early stage of the creation. Capacity of water 
 for becoming chemically impregnated with mineral elements shown and 
 corroborated by the waters of Carlsbad and other mineral springs. 
 Chemical affinity; its universality and influence. Brief summary in 
 conclusion of this, as a preparation for succeeding Chapters. 
 
 THE copious and concurring extracts which we have given 
 in the preceding chapter sufficiently prove the deposition from 
 water of the stratified rocks which now constitute a great 
 portion of the solid crust of the earth. They also bear testi- 
 mony to the fact, that those successive layers rest upon a base 
 of unstratified material, from within which they could not 
 possibly have come. 
 
 The sphericity of the earth's surface, which has been pre- 
 mised, precludes it from being supposed that the strata owe 
 their origin to the disintegration of pre-existing rocks ; while 
 
330 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 it has been shown by a combination of fundamental astro- 
 nomical laws, that no increase of the weight or gravity of the 
 globe took place since its creation ; and that the only addition 
 made to it was the principle of organic life in the inferior 
 animal and vegetable existences which were then brought into 
 being ; but as this living principle added not one iota to the 
 gravity of our sphere, we have, as the result of our well -sustained 
 premises, a right to conclude that the elements of the strata 
 which formed part of the weight of the Earth at the beginning, 
 were contained in the circumfluent ocean ; and were deposited 
 from it. But we must here be allowed to observe, that it was 
 not alone by the separation of the mineral material parts, by 
 deposition, that the primeval water became the pellucid seas 
 of the present day ; the gaseous elements of the atmosphere 
 were, by combination with the principle of light, when formed, 
 made to ascend from the water, and, by their abstraction, also 
 to purify and leave the ocean what we now find it. If it be 
 admitted, therefore, that the ponderous earthy masses were, 
 on the one hand, taken by precipitation from the primitive 
 water, and that the volatilized gaseous elements were made 
 to rise out of them, on the other all having originally been 
 contained in the water when " the Earth was without form and 
 void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep" surely, 
 without departing in the slightest degree from philosophical 
 reasoning, or going too far, it may be demanded, for argument's 
 sake, that they may be considered for a short while to be 
 restored to them ; while the non-existence of the atmosphere 
 will render this concession, as far as regards the gaseous 
 elements, all the more easily granted. And it having been 
 shown, by the writings of geologists, that the strata now rest 
 upon a base of unstratified rocks, we may safely consider, that 
 the water which held the elements of the strata in its grasp 
 rested, before these were deposited, on that on which the depo- 
 sited matter now reposes ; while to complete the proper con- 
 ception of the condition of our planet at the remote period to 
 which we allude, we have only to imagine it, thus geologically 
 constituted, to be without rotatory motion, but circulating 
 with the same velocity and in the identical orbit through dark- 
 ened space, wherein it now travels around the illumined sun. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 331 
 
 If there be anything which, more than another, we desire 
 to avoid in conducting this work, it is that of assuming any 
 unnecessary or unfounded supposition as the base line of our 
 subsequent conclusions. We assume nothing but what we feel 
 assured we can prove ly well-sustained evidence in the sequel. 
 Our senses prove to us undoubtedly that the Earth at present 
 rotates, is illumined by the sun, and is beautifully diversified 
 by hill and dale, and by the greater inequalities of continental 
 ridges and oceanic hollows. Yet, in asking our readers to 
 imagine, that the world which they now inhabit, with all these 
 advantages, would have presented to the vision if eyes there 
 had been to behold it a shoreless abyss of dark and atmos- 
 phereless water, devoid of rotatory motion, and deprived of 
 the soul-cheering rays of the sun, we do no more than truth 
 dictates to us: for this was its actual condition for many ages. 
 It is thus first of all presented to our notice in the Sacred 
 Volume, wherein it is announced that " the Earth was without 
 form and void ; darkness was upon the face of the deep, and 
 the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters." 
 
 If this revealed description be believed in, and its non- 
 rotation conceded for a short time, we feel confident we can 
 prove that it did not rotate for a long but indefinite period, 
 and that it was then in the dark and atmosphereless condition 
 to which allusion has so frequently been made. 
 
 Before entering upon any investigation as to the manner in 
 which the deposition of the strata took place, it will contribute 
 to the certainty of our convictions were we made aware, that 
 the attendant conditions of the Earth were in accordance with 
 that perfect wisdom which characterizes the operations of 
 Omnipotence. To be assured of this we purpose to enquire, 
 whether the spherical form of the globe, surrounded by an 
 illimitable ocean of equal depth, was not better adapted for 
 promoting the deposition of earthy matter from a fluid, than 
 the relative distribution of land and water, with unequal 
 depths, and reduced aqueous surface, which at present con- 
 stitute its geographical features ; and whether, under any pos- 
 sible circumstances, and at any period, the sea could have 
 covered the whole sphere. 
 
 To do this we shall refer to the first Theorem, in which it 
 
332 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 is stated, " That a sphere is that form which contains the 
 greatest volume of all bodies of equal surface." This, applied 
 to the case under consideration, assures us, that a sphere is 
 that form capable of containing the greatest possible mass of 
 matter within a given quantity of water, and to permit this 
 last to maintain the greatest possible depth while it circum- 
 bounds the contained solid mass. In this state the globe and 
 its aqueous envelope are conceived to have remained during 
 the entire period of non-rotation. By referring to the eighth 
 Theorem it will be observed, that the aqueous portion of the 
 earth's present surface is to the terrestrial part as three to one, 
 or nearly so ; i. e. only three-fourths of superfice is now 
 covered by the same water which formerly circumbounded its 
 whole extent ; and if, from the first Theorem, we take the 
 diameter of the Earth, we shall soon discover what a vast area 
 that is, and how admirably adapted the surface then was for 
 favouring deposition from a fluid holding matter in suspen- 
 sion ; while, if we take into account that the most moderate 
 estimate makes the mean depth of the ocean two miles, others 
 considering it between four and five, and that even the highest 
 mountain rises only two miles above the level of the sea the 
 greater portion of the earth's surface having but a very limited 
 elevation above that level no doubt will remain as to the 
 possibility, under the premised conditions of the globe, of the 
 water of the ocean having covered the whole surface of a non- 
 rotating sphere ; thereby more fitly adapting it for the gradual 
 deposition of the earthy matter contained in the circumfluent 
 water.* Thus we acquire, by every additional step in the 
 investigation, increasing evidences of the infinite wisdom which 
 directed the whole plan of creation, and become more and 
 more strengthened in our confidence in the revelations which 
 God has been pleased to make of His operations, when no eye 
 was present to behold His wonderful doings. 
 
 We have next, in the prosecution of this laborious research, 
 to ascertain the nature and component parts of the stratified 
 rocks throughout the series which are supposed to have been 
 
 * See note at page 319. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 333 
 
 thus deposited, and enquire into some of the causes then in 
 operation which contributed to their formation. 
 
 The inferior stratified or non-fossiliferous rocks, according 
 to Sir Henry de la Beche, consist of 
 
 " 1. Clay ; 2. Aluminous Slate; 3. Whetstone Slate ; 4. Flinty 
 Slate ; 5. Chloride Slate ; 6. Talcose Slate ; 7. Steachiste, Horn- 
 blende Slate ; 8. Hornblende Rock ; 9. Quartz Rock ; 10. Ser- 
 pentine; 11. Diallage Rock ; 12. White stone ; 13. Mica Slate ; 
 14. Gneiss ; and 15. Protogine : with respect to which he remarks 
 
 " Although the above are the most remarkable of the inferior 
 stratified rocks, they are far from being the whole of them. The 
 varieties and transitions of one to the other appear endless, and, 
 occurring in no determinate order, set classifications utterly at 
 defiance 
 
 " If we consider what minerals have entered most largely into the 
 composition of the whole mass, we find that quartz, felspar, mica, 
 and hornblende are those with which it most abounds, and which 
 impress their characters upon its various portions. Chlorite, talk, 
 and carbonate of lime are certainly not wanting ; but if we, as it 
 were, withdraw ourselves from the earth and look down upon such 
 parts of its surface as are geologically known, we find that these 
 latter mineral substances constitute a very small portion of the 
 whole. The inferior stratified rocks, which form the largest part of 
 the exposed surface of our planet, are gneiss and mica slate, and 
 when viewed on the great scale the others are more or less subordi- 
 nate to them. 
 
 " Supposing this view an approximation to the truth, we arrive at 
 another and important conclusion, namely, that the minerals which 
 compose the mass of these stratified rocks are precisely those which 
 constitute the mass of the unstratified rocks rocks which from the 
 
 phenomena attending them, are referred to an igneous origin 
 
 We find, still viewing the subject in the mass, that the same elemen- 
 tary substances have produced the same minerals in both, the only 
 difference between them being their general difference of arrange- 
 ment relatively to each other, so that they should constitute a strati- 
 fied compound in the one case, and not in the other. 
 
 "Viewed on the large scale, the grauwacke series consists of a 
 large stratified mass of arenaceous and slaty rocks intermingled with 
 patches of limestone, which are often continuous for considerable 
 distances. The arenaceous and slate beds, considered generally, 
 
334 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 bear evident marks of mechanical origin, but that of the included 
 limestones may be more questionable. The arenaceous rocks occur 
 both in thick and schistose beds ; the latter state being frequently 
 owing to the presence of mica disposed in the lines of the laminae. 
 Their mineralogical character varies materially ; and while they 
 sometimes, though rarely, pass into a conglomerate, they very 
 frequently graduate into slates, which become of so fine a texture 
 as to lose the arenaceous character altogether. Roofing slate is not 
 rare among the grauwacke rocks ; and if we consider it of mechanical 
 origin, like the mass of the strata among which it is included, we 
 must suppose it to have originated from the deposition of a highly 
 comminuted detritus. 
 
 " The coal measures," according to the same geologist, " are com- 
 posed of various beds of sandstone, shale, and coal, irregularly inter- 
 stratified, and in some countries intermixed with conglomerates ; the 
 whole showing a mechanical origin. 
 
 " The old red sandstone is of very variable thickness, sometimes 
 consisting of a few conglomerate beds, while at others it swells out 
 
 to the depth of several thousand feet The sandstone 
 
 possesses different degrees of induration, and is not unfrequently 
 schistose and micaceous. The conglomerates of course vary in their 
 contents, but pieces of quartz are very common."* 
 
 Should further and corroborative evidence be required on 
 this essential point, we can, with all confidence, refer our 
 readers to the detailed and elaborate tables which are given by 
 Mr. Lyell in his " Elements of Geology," which although, in 
 some cases, compiled more immediately from the analyses of 
 rocks composing the older formations, may on the whole be 
 taken as exhibiting pretty nearly the constituent principles of 
 the others also : 
 
 " Chemical science," says Dr Ure, " demonstrates that the crust 
 of the earth consists mainly of six substances, Silica, or the matter 
 of rock crystal, Alumina, or pure clay, Iron, Lime, Magnesia, and 
 Potash. Silica, in the crystalline form, is called quartz, and is a 
 large constituent of the primitive mountains, granite, gneiss, and 
 mica slate. . . . The third of the primitive stratified rocks is clay 
 slate or roofing slate. If to these four bodies, namely, quartz, fel- 
 
 * Manual of Geology, by Sir H. T. de la Bcchc. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 335 
 
 spar, mica, and clay slate [called simple minerals, because they are 
 of homogenous aspect], we add hornblende and augite, we shall 
 have before us the principal mineral constituents of the primitive 
 
 shell of the globe 
 
 " Thus we see that silica, clay, lime, magnesia, iron oxide, and 
 potash, constitute by far the greater portion of the hard materials of 
 the earth, as far as it has been explored."* 
 
 The following table of the Older Stratified Rocks, taken 
 from the same work, will show the components of the same 
 series, viz. : 
 
 CLASS I. PRIMITIVE, OR INFERIOR 
 
 ROCKS. CONCOMITANTS. 
 
 ORDER I. GNEISS Granites. 
 
 Hornblende rocks. 
 Limestones. 
 Quartz rocks. 
 
 ,, II. MICA As above. 
 
 Gypsum. 
 
 ,, III. CLAY SLATE . . . Mica slate. 
 
 Talk slate. 
 Chlorite slate. 
 Gneiss. 
 Whet slate. 
 Alum slate. 
 Dolomite. 
 Gypsum. 
 
 CLASS II. TRANSITION, OR SUB- 
 MEDIAL ROCKS. 
 
 ORDER I. GRAUWACKE . . . Conglomerate. 
 
 Clay slate. 
 Flinty slate. 
 Alum slate. 
 Limestone. 
 
 Dolomite, with Encrimites. 
 CLASS III. MEDIAL, OR CARBONIFE- 
 ROUS ROCKS. 
 
 ORDER I. OLD RED SAND- 
 STONE. 
 
 * Geology, pp. 89, 90. 
 
336 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 ORDER IT. CARBONIFEROUS OR CONCOMITANTS. 
 
 MOUNTAIN LIME- 
 STONE. 
 ,, III. MILLSTONE GRIT, 
 
 OR SHALE, 
 
 ,, IV. COAL MEASURES . Coal Sandstone. 
 
 Slaty clay. 
 Bituminous shale. 
 Carbonate of iron coal. 
 Calcareous marl. 
 Alpine limestone.* 
 
 During this part of the inquiry we shall only enumerate 
 four of the groups which pertain to the Secondary rocks, the 
 others not being immediately connected with this part of our 
 subject. These are 
 
 FIRST. GRAUWACKE, which consists of fragments of granite, or 
 chlorite schiste, embedded in a cement principally 
 composed of felspar. 
 
 SECOND. SILICEOUS SANDSTONE, formed of fine quartz or sand, 
 united by a siliceous cement 
 
 THIRD. ALUMINOUS SCHISTE, OR SHALE, consisting of the decom- 
 posed materials of different rocks, cemented by a 
 small quantity of ferruginous or siliceous matter, and 
 often containing the impression of crystals. 
 
 FOURTH. IRONSTONE, formed of nearly the same material as the 
 foregoing, but containing a much larger quantity of 
 oxide of iron.f 
 
 By which it appears that the component minerals of those 
 four groups of strata, from the non-fossiliferous series up to 
 the shale and old red sandstone of the coal measures (exclusive 
 of calcareous matter), are 1. Quartz; 2. Felspar; 3. Mica; 
 4. Hornblende ; 5. Clay Slate ; 6. Chlorite ; and 7. Talk the 
 two last only occasionally. When these are analysed into their 
 component elements, they are respectively found to consist as 
 follows : 
 
 * New System of Geology, pp. 131, 132. 
 
 t Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 154, deduced from Sir Humphrey Davy's 
 Agricultural Chemistry. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 337 
 
 1. QUARTZ Almost entirely of silica, a little alumina, or oxide of 
 
 iron, and combined with water. 
 
 2. FELSPAR 63 parts silica, 17 alumina, 13 potash, 3 lime, and 1 
 
 oxide of iron. J 
 
 3. MICA which consists of 46 parts silica, 10 alumina, 50 potash, 
 
 14 oxide of iron, and 1.50 oxide of manganese. J 
 
 4. HORNBLENDE Silica 42 parts, alumina 12 parts, 30 oxide of 
 
 iron, 11 of lime, magnesia 2.25, 1 feruginous man- 
 ganese, and water. J 
 
 5. CLAY SLATE Affords by analysis 49 parts silica, 23 alumina, 
 
 1 1 oxide of iron, and 5 potash. 
 
 6. EARTHY CHLORITE Consists of 43 parts oxide of iron, 26 silica, 
 
 18 alumina, 8 magnesia, and 2 muriate of soda. J 
 
 7. TALK has 62-100ths silica, 27-100ths magnesia, alumina 1.50, 
 
 oxide of iron 3.50, and water 6. J * 
 
 Thus, by continuing our researches, we have reached a 
 point from whence we can clearly discern, that the whole of 
 those vast rocky formations which contribute so essentially to 
 form the surface of the Earth, when traced to their ultimate 
 constituent principles, are found to be composed of a few 
 simple elements, scarcely exceeding twelve in number; and 
 that they might, perhaps, be found to owe their origin to a 
 still smaller number of undecomposable substances, had we 
 the power, or chemistry had the skill, to analyse still more 
 minutely the objects of its own discovery. 
 
 This point, then, at which we have arrived, may under 
 present circumstances be considered, for all practical purposes, 
 an ultimate one. And we shall next endeavour to acquire 
 some conception imperfect we fear it will be of the means 
 whereby those elements were separated from the primeval 
 ocean which held them in suspension and combination, and by 
 which they were transformed into those successive layers or 
 strata, which, when the continents arose from their recumbent 
 position by centrifugal impetus, assumed their destined places 
 
 * Theorem 103. Chemistry, by Hugo Reid. And Chemical Dictionary, 
 by Dr. Ure. 
 
 Those thus distinguished (J) are confirmed, or nearly so, by Mr. Ly ell's 
 Tables. 
 
338 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 as the chief supporters of the primary nuclei! of the moun- 
 tain masses. 
 
 We must not, however, attempt to conceal the fact, that we 
 have reached an extremely difficult part of our labours ; the 
 more so as we are quite incapable of attempting, in anything 
 like a detailed form, an exposition of the manner in which those 
 stupendous works were conducted in the great laboratory of 
 nature. Indeed, as the task in this way would prove altogether 
 hopeless and unavailing, we must restrict ourselves to the 
 proofs which show, that those works were actually performed ; 
 while we allude merely to the manner in which we consider 
 them to have been effected. While we take this occasion to 
 refer to the ninety -seventh Theorem, especially the latter 
 clause, expressing at the same time our entire concurrence 
 in its announcement, " that there are no operations now taking 
 place in the sea which bear the slightest analogy to those pro- 
 ductions of mineral substances in strata which took place 
 formerly on our globe" 
 
 Should further confirmation be required of this assumption, 
 we beg to refer to those authorities on which the Theorem 
 has been founded, explaining, however, that the analogy 
 spoken of has reference more to the vastness and extent of 
 the ancient deposits than to the mere deposition of strata, as 
 this is perceived to be taking place, on a reduced scale, under 
 the present economy. 
 
 Thus, without wasting time and attention in the unsatisfying 
 and fruitless attempt to penetrate into periods too remote in the 
 history of the world's creation ; or endeavouring to conceive its 
 rudimentary elements, before they were in that condition in 
 which it has pleased the Creator to introduce them to our know- 
 ledge in the sublime and comprehensive announcements of Ge- 
 nesis, wherein He represents himself as beholding His own Cre- 
 ation, as it advanced, step by step, until it reached that state in 
 which He could say that "He saw every thing that he had made, 
 and behold it was very good " and remembering also that He 
 has asked us through another inspired writer, " Where wast 
 thou when I laid the foundations of the earth ? Declare, if 
 thou hast understanding. Who hath laid the measures thereof, 
 if thou knowest ? or who hath stretched the line upon it ? 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 339 
 
 Whereupon are the foundations thereof fastened ? or who laid 
 the corner stone thereof, when the morning stars sang together 
 and all the sons of God shouted for joy ?" We repeat that, 
 without attempting to trench on those hidden grounds which 
 are beyond the limits of human comprehension, but submis- 
 sively and joyfully taking up the song of praise at the point 
 where those higher intelligencies may be said to have passed 
 it on to us; and making an energetic and unbiassed use of the 
 faculties of investigation with which it has pleased Providence 
 to endow us, let us turn our attention to enquire into these 
 works, which, even in His estimation, appeared " very good," 
 whose creation caused those exalted beings " to shout for joy," 
 and which, in the plenitude of goodness, are spread out as 
 a field on which to exercise the powers of mind conferred 
 upon us, and which are, we trust, to occasion within us also 
 similar sentiments of delight and adoration, when the under- 
 standing shall have become convinced, and we are enabled to 
 behold them in the same light in which they looked upon 
 them in the clear light of heaven ! 
 
 Now, it is by such considerations as these, that the mind 
 debarred from wasting its powers in endeavouring to compre- 
 hend incomprehensible things can best apply its unimpaired 
 energies to the work which lies before it. We therefore trust 
 that in such a frame of spirit, we may be enabled to imagine a 
 shoreless mass of dark, tremulous water [whose purified remains 
 are the seas of the present day], flowing in a slow, secular, 
 unvarying, and uninterrupted course round a non-rotating 
 sphere, and charged with the elements of countless stratified 
 rocks, while it also held the gaseous constituents of the present 
 outstretched firmament in combination with the mineral ingre- 
 dients ; and doing so, let us endeavour to determine the pro- 
 bable consequences. 
 
 Having so frequently alluded to a slow, secular flow of the 
 primitive water round the circumbounded sphere ere it had 
 rotatory motion, we are bound to exemplify how such a state 
 of matters could then have existed ; and, happily, we are 
 provided by the amiable writer on the Connexion of the 
 Sciences, with an illustration of the present tides, which by 
 analogy will render this quite evident to all. 
 
 z 2 
 
340 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 "It is proved," says that accomplished writer, " by daily expe- 
 rience, as well as by strict mathematical reasoning, that if a number 
 of waves or oscillations be excited in a fluid by different forces, 
 each pursues its course, and has its effect independently of the rest. 
 Now, in the tides there are three kinds of oscillations, depending on 
 different causes, and producing their effects independently of each 
 other, which may therefore be estimated separately. 
 
 " The oscillations of the first kind, which are very small, are 
 independent of the rotation of the earth ; and as they depend upon 
 the motion of the disturbing body in its orbit, they are of long 
 periods. The second kind of oscillations depends upon the rotation 
 of the earth, therefore their period is nearly a day. The oscillations 
 of the third kind vary with an angle equal to twice the angular 
 rotation of the earth, and consequently happen twice in twenty-four 
 hours. These are the semi-diurnal tides so remarkable on our 
 coasts. They are occasioned by the combined action of the sun and 
 moon ; but as the effect of each is independent of each other, they 
 may be considered separately." 
 
 As the first only of these bears upon our present subject, we 
 shall enter more particularly into it. 
 
 " The particles of water," says the same writer, " under the moon 
 are more attracted than the centre of gravity of the earth, in the 
 inverse ratio of the square of the distances.* Hence they have a ten- 
 dency to leave the earth, but are retained by their gravitation, which 
 is diminished by this tendency. On the contrary, the moon attracts 
 the centre of the earth more powerfully than she attracts the particles 
 of water in the hemisphere opposite to her ; so that the earth has a 
 tendency to leave the waters, but is retained by gravitation, which is 
 again diminished by this tendency. Thus the waters immediately 
 under the moon are drawn from the earth at the same time that the 
 earth is drawn from those which are diametrically opposite to her ; 
 in both instances producing an elevation of the ocean of nearly the 
 same height above the surface of equilibrium ; for the diminution 
 of the gravitation of the particles in each position is much the same, 
 on account of the distance of the moon being great in comparison of 
 
 * It will of course be understood, that although the sun and moon were not 
 illumined at the period we treat of, yet the consequences resulting from the 
 gravity of the unillumined bodies were the same as at present. AUTHOR. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 341 
 
 the radius of the earth. Were the earth entirely covered by the 
 sea, the water thus attracted by the moon would assume the form 
 of an oblong spheroid, whose greater axis would point towards the 
 moon, since the columns of water under the moon and in the direction 
 immediately opposite to her, are rendered lighter in consequence of 
 the diminution of their gravitation ; and in order to preserve the 
 equilibrium, the axis 90 distant would be shortened. The eleva- 
 tion, on account of the smaller space in which it is confined, is twice 
 as great as the depression, because the contents of the spheroid 
 always remain the same. 
 
 " If the waters were capable of assuming the form of equilibrium 
 instantaneously, the form of the spheroid, its summit, would always 
 point to the moon, notwithstanding the earth's rotation. But, on 
 account of their resistance, the rapid motion produced in them by 
 rotation, prevents them from assuming, at every instant, the form 
 which the equilibrium of the forces acting upon them requires. 
 Hence, on account of the inertia of the waters, if the tides be con- 
 sidered relatively to the whole earth and open sea, there is a meridian 
 about 30 eastward of the moon where it is always high water both 
 in the hemisphere where the moon is, and that which is opposite. 
 On the west side of this circle the tide is flowing, on the east it is 
 ebbing, and on every part of the meridian at 90 distant it is low 
 water. This great wave, which follows all the motions of the moon 
 as far as the rotation of the earth will permit, is modified by the 
 action of the sun, the effects of whose attraction are in every respect 
 like those produced by the moon, though greatly less in degree ; 
 consequently a similar wave, but much smaller, raised by the sun, 
 tends to follow his motions, which at times combines with the lunar 
 wave, and at others opposes it, according to the relative positions of 
 the two luminaries ; but as the lunar wave is only modified a little 
 by the solar, the tides must necessarily happen twice a day, since 
 the rotation of the earth brings the same point twice under the meri- 
 dian of the moon in that time, once under the superior, and once 
 under the inferior meridian 
 
 " Besides these remarkable variations, there are others arising 
 from the declination or angular distance of the sun and moon from the 
 plane of the equator, which have great influence on the ebb and 
 flow of the waters. The sun and moon are continually making the 
 circuit of the heavens at different distances from the plane of the 
 equator, on account of the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the inclina- 
 tion of the lunar orbit. The moon takes about twenty-nine days 
 
342 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 and a half to vary through all her declinations, which sometimes 
 extend 28f degrees on each side of the equator, while the sun 
 requires nearly three hundred and sixty-five days and a quarter to 
 accomplish his motion from tropic to tropic through about 23 
 degrees ; so that their combined motion causes great irregularities, 
 and, at times, their attractive forces counteract each other's effects 
 to a certain extent ; but, on an average, the mean monthly range 
 of the moon's declination is nearly the same as the annual range 
 of the declination of the sun ; consequently, the highest tides take 
 place within the tropics, and the lowest towards the poles."* 
 
 To comprehend the nature of the luni-solar current which 
 must have periodically traversed the whole extent of the 
 primitive ocean, there requires only to be added to this beau- 
 tiful and perspicuous illustration of the theory of the present 
 tides, the conditions peculiar to our planet previously to the 
 formation of the light, namely, its non-diurnal rotation round 
 its axis ; the universality of the ocean ; and the circulation of 
 our planet in space round the unillumined sun, accompanied 
 by its opaque satellite, the moon ; in which state, the force 
 and effects of gravity being the same then as now, it is evident 
 that a current flowing from east to west would be constantly 
 circulating round the globe, whose oscillations would vary 
 in degree, and keep pace with the circulation of the moon in 
 its orbit, and, consequently, would take place twice within 
 the lunar month, and produce the greatest disturbance of 
 the aqueous balance, and its velocity upon those parts, now 
 the equator, where it had to perform the greatest circuit, while 
 it diminished to nothing where the poles of revolution now 
 are. 
 
 The only other peculiarity is, that the non-rotating earth 
 presented the same side towards the sun as it revolved in 
 annual circle round its unillumined centre, and, as a conse- 
 quence thereof, according to the foregoing theory of the tides, 
 there would be two points on the earth's surface having luni- 
 solar tidal ridges; the one immediately under the sun and moon, 
 the other 180 from it, or diametrically opposite ; while it must 
 
 * On the Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 105 110. If more information be 
 required on this point, please refer to Herschel's Astronomy, chap. xi. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 343 
 
 not be lost sight of, that in consequence of there being no 
 rotation on the earth, the attractive influence of the moon and 
 sun would exercise full power, unrestricted by the counter- 
 action of rotation in the water, as shown to be the case at 
 present by the extracts just given ; and, consequently, the 
 primeval water was capable of assuming the form of equili- 
 brium, and spontaneously to occasion all the results flowing 
 therefrom. 
 
 In order not to distract the attention, we shall abstain, for 
 the present, entering into any disquisition to show that there 
 was likewise a continual current from upwards downwards 
 throughout the whole extent of the primitive water, as we 
 shall have occasion presently to make this manifest in its 
 proper place. We merely announce it here as another fact 
 capable of being proved. 
 
 Perhaps the most convincing method of procedure will now 
 be to show, by extracts from the writings of geologists, even 
 though we should repeat some recently given, the particulars, 
 structure, and mineralogical character of the lower stratified 
 or non-fossiliferous formations; and, having effected this, 
 afterwards to determine whether, according to this the.ory, 
 the requisite elements and means existed in the primitive 
 water for their formation. 
 
 Sir Henry de la Beche, when treating of the non-fossilife- 
 rous rocks, says 
 
 "The inferior stratified rocks are of various compositions, some- 
 times so passing into each other that it is almost impossible to affix 
 definite names to the different mixtures. The strata rarely present 
 a simple mineral substance constituting a large tract of country, 
 without the admixture of other substances, unless we consider clay 
 slate as such." 
 
 After enumerating the several descriptions of rocks forming 
 this comprehensive group, he goes on to say 
 
 "Although the above are the most remarkable of the inferior 
 stratified rocks, they are far from being the whole of them. The 
 varieties and transitions of one to the other appear endless, and, 
 occurring in no determinate order, set classification utterly at 
 defiance. 
 
344 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " All this apparent confusion, though it embarrasses arrange- 
 ments, may be precisely the circumstances which may lead to some 
 knowledge of the causes which have produced the lowest stratified 
 
 rocks. The causes, whatever they may have been which 
 
 produced this variety in the substances, were secondary, and there 
 was some general cause upon which the formation of the whole de- 
 pended. 
 
 " If we consider what minerals have entered most largely into the 
 composition of the whole mass, we find that quartz, felspar, mica, 
 and hornblende are those with which it most abounds ; . . . . , . 
 chloride, talk, and carbonate of lime are certainly not wanting ; . . . . 
 but of those parts which are geologically known, these latter mineral 
 substances constitute a very small portion of the whole. The 
 inferior stratified rocks which form the largest part of the exposed 
 surface of our planet are gneiss and mica slate, and, when viewed 
 on the great scale, the others are more or less subordinate to them."* 
 
 "We have now," says Mr. Lyell, "to examine those strata to 
 
 which the name of metamorphic has been assigned These 
 
 rocks, when in their most characteristic or normal state, are wholly 
 devoid of organic remains, and contain no distinct fragments of other 
 rocks They sometimes extend over areas of vast dimen- 
 sions, occupying, for example, nearly the whole of Norway and 
 Sweden, where, as in Brazil, they appear alike in the lower and 
 
 higher grounds Many attempts have been made to trace 
 
 ,a general order of superposition in the members of this family 
 
 But although such an order may prevail throughout limited districts, 
 it is by no means universal, nor even general throughout the globe. 
 '. . . . . The following may be enumerated as the principal mem- 
 bers of the metamorphic class : gneiss, mica-schist, hornblende, 
 schist, clay-slate, chlorite-schist, hypogene or metamorphic lime- 
 stone, and certain kinds of quartz-rock, or quartzite."f 
 
 According to Professor Phillips, 
 
 " Inferiorly the primary strata rest on unstratified, generally 
 granitic rocks, so situated as to cut off all possibility of observation 
 
 at greater depths The rocks included in the division of 
 
 primary strata may be referred to three principal types : siliceous, 
 argillaceous, and calcareous. The most important siliceous rocks 
 
 * Manual of Geology. f Lyell's Elements, vol. ii. pp. 379, 380. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 345 
 
 are gneiss, mica slate, quartz rock, chlorite slate, hornblende slate, 
 and sandstones, which latter occur in the upper part. 
 
 " The argillaceous rocks are less varied : clay slate, grauwacke 
 slate, grauwacke, and various shales. 
 
 " The calcareous portions are somewhat remarkable amongst 
 limestones for their generally crystalline character ; even the fossili- 
 ferous rocks have much of this feature, and all the older beds are 
 
 really crystallized Induration or consolidation to a high 
 
 degree is a general property of these strata. There is, in fact, no 
 clay, no sand, no marl, in the whole series."* 
 
 These concurring extracts afford sufficient testimony to lead 
 to the conclusion, that the mineralogical structure of the lower 
 stratified or non-fossiliferous rocks is " confusedly crystalline," 
 and that they owe their origin to some common cause of ex- 
 tensive prevalence, during the protracted period of their de- 
 position and formation. 
 
 Considering that the rocks of the era alluded to are so 
 irregular as to set classification and arrangement almost at de- 
 fiance, although their subjection to order has been attempted 
 and persevered in by the most accomplished geologists of the 
 day, the assertion on our part might almost be dispensed with, 
 that neither do we consider ourselves called upon, nor are we 
 warranted to attempt more than a mere surmise as to the 
 causes which may have brought about those results, and occa- 
 sioned the "confused crystalline" conformation so evidently 
 pourtrayed by the objects of our present investigation. At 
 the same time it should not be overlooked, that in the de- 
 positions themselves we are furnished with the best and most 
 irrefragable proofs of the existence, at some period or other, 
 of those mineral ingredients in the primeval water. 
 
 There seems to be no doubt left upon the mind as to the 
 fact, that the primitive circumfluent ivater was CHEMICALLY 
 saturated with mineral elements, which in succession were ab- 
 stracted from them, by deposition, through the agency of com- 
 mensurate means, to which we shall have occasion shortly to 
 
 * Phillips's Geology, pp. 6971. 
 
346 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 make frequent and particular allusion. This truth seems to 
 be admitted by all who have paid any attention to the subject, 
 and, therefore, we shall now dwell only on the fact itself of 
 the chemical saturation of the original ocean. 
 
 To saturate effectually any mass of water with ingredients 
 soluble in it, the best means which can be adopted is to charge 
 the menstruum throughout with finely comminuted material, 
 in order that the powers of absorption and chemical affinity 
 inherent in the fluid may be equally, generally, and effectually 
 brought into exercise; while those powers are considerably 
 augmented by the simultaneous presence of certain gasses, 
 especially oxygen, which it is known everywhere abounded in 
 the primitive water. 
 
 Without presuming determinately to assert that such did 
 occur during the development of the great plan of creation at 
 a period so remote, and while the stony concretions of the 
 earth's surface were so devoid of denotation by organic re- 
 mains, yet we seem warranted, from a combination of the 
 known effects of the general laws which then prevailed, toge- 
 ther with the actual findings of geologists, to suppose, that 
 there might have been a stage, in the earth's geological history, 
 when the means employed to form concentric layers of rock 
 may have been so simple, as to be little less rudimentary than 
 the method alluded to ; and that the circumfluent water, in 
 order that it might become thoroughly and generally satu- 
 rated, chemically, with the elements afterwards deposited in a 
 crystalline arrangement of structure, was mechanically sur- 
 charged with finely comminuted earthy material. 
 
 When we contemplate the peculiar circumstances of our 
 planet at the period during which those deposits are con- 
 sidered to have been made unknown to rotatory motion, un- 
 affected by external light, and surrounded everywhere by the 
 primeval ocean, ff the earth without form and void, darkness 
 on the face of the deep" we can have no difficulty in per- 
 ceiving, that the law of attraction acting on those particles of 
 inert matter, free to percolate through water, would be wholly 
 unabated by any of those counteracting causes which, under 
 a different condition of the earth, might have impeded their 
 
FORMATION OF THE, EARTH. 347 
 
 progress to the bottom of the ocean. Now, the several descrip- 
 tions of mineral matter which constitute the inferior stratified 
 or non-fossiliferous rocks, are represented by numbers so com- 
 paratively high in the scale of specific gravities for instance, 
 fibrous quartz 3,25, felspar 2.57, hornblende 3.25, mica 2.65, 
 clay slate 2.65, oxide of iron 3.45, chlorite 2.60, and talk 2.77, 
 that we must confess they would be specially amenable to the 
 influence of the force in question, and be more readily pre- 
 cipitated from a fluid holding their surplus quantity in mecha- 
 nical suspension ; while we have only to imagine, what cannot 
 very well be doubted, that aqueous crystallization, for which 
 all the attendant circumstances were admirably adapted, was 
 in full operation at the same time, to be able readily to recog- 
 nise how, between these two causes, the precipitated rocks of 
 that period would assume " a confusedly crystalline" structure, 
 and be composed of the comparatively ponderous materials to 
 which we have just alluded. 
 
 The result of those combined operations on the general 
 plan, besides so far purifying the water, would be to lay a 
 solid base, on which fixed animals and other apulmonic ones 
 of restricted motion were to dwell, and acotyledonous plants 
 were afterwards to grow, both contributing to the perfection 
 of the rocky zone which, for the very purpose, they were 
 made to tenant ; while the pre-deposition of so much earthy 
 matter, by means next to mechanical, would save those orga- 
 nized beings incapable by their conformation of evading it 
 from being suddenly entombed in a descending mass of earthy 
 matter. 
 
 We find a confirmation, to a certain extent, of this opinion, 
 in the idea which Mr. Whitehurst formed, as early as 1786, 
 when " the enquiry" which he was then instituting into the 
 " formation of the Earth," required that he should direct his 
 attention to this incipient part of its history. While we need 
 hardly, after what we have written, point out how widely 
 we dissent from the concluding words of the extract, or from 
 any other which would occasion the erroneous conception 
 that there ever was a stage of the creation when that which 
 existed was less consistent with the laws of materialism than 
 what now prevails, during a stage which we are pleased to 
 
348 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 consider more perfect. The elements, then, no doubt were 
 incipient, but they were being created in perfect order, and 
 according to a plan which was devised from all eternity, and 
 executed with unerring wisdom. The following are Mr. White- 
 hurst's conclusions on the subject in question : 
 
 " It will be readily granted, that if the earth was created, it must 
 have been brought into existence either in a solid, or in a fluid 
 state : if we suppose the former, it must have been dissolved, and 
 this by an universal dissolvent principle : therefore, since no such 
 principle is yet known to exist in nature, it seems much more 
 reasonable to conclude, that the fluidity of the earth was owing to 
 the first assemblage of its component parts, than to any subsequent 
 solution 
 
 " The fluidity of the earth manifestly implies that the particles of 
 matter which now compose the strata and all other solid bodies, 
 were not oiginally united, combined, or fixed by cohesion, but were 
 actually in a state of separation, as particles of sugar or salt dissolved 
 and suspended in water. 
 
 " It is a truth universally known, that the component parts of the 
 most dense bodies become suspended in whatever menstrua they are 
 dissolved ; as for instance, the particles of gold in aqua regia, silver 
 in aqua fortis, salts in water, and water in air. Nay, we may like- 
 wise add, that the component parts of mercury, in the act of distilla- 
 tion, become suspended in air, notwithstanding the specific gravity 
 of the former is to that of the latter, as 11,000 to 1, nearly. Such, 
 therefore, are the consequences necessarily arising from the infinite 
 divisibility of matter, none being heavier or lighter than another, 
 when thus reduced to their original elementary principles. 
 
 " Whence it appears, that when the component parts of the earth 
 were first assembled together, they were in a state of uniform sus- 
 pension, and seem to have composed one general undivided mass 
 or pulp, of equal consistence and sameness in every part, from its 
 surface to its centre ; and, therefore, constituted that particular state 
 and condition of the earth which the ancients have named chaos, and 
 have described as a confused mass or pulp, composed of all the 
 various elementary principles blended together, and without form and 
 void. That is to say, the chaos had not yet acquired an oblate 
 spheroidical form, and the component parts thereof were void of 
 that arrangement which constitutes bodies of different denomina- 
 tions ; as air, water, stone, minerals, &c., but the whole mass com- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 349 
 
 posed of the various elementary principles blended together in one 
 confused heap."* 
 
 As already observed, sedimentary accumulation seems to 
 have been only one of the means employed, at that early stage 
 of the Creation, to form the bases of the stratified rocks; 
 their mineralogical character clearly indicating that almost 
 from the beginning, at least as far back as geologists have yet 
 penetrated, aqueous crystallization was an influential and a 
 general agent in the hands of the Omnipotent to produce, in 
 perfect order, the framework of those rocky layers, those con- 
 fusedly crystalline masses described by M. de la Beche and the 
 other geologists from whose works we have quoted. 
 
 When we look upon crystallization from aqueous elements, 
 which it seems to have pleased the Creator to have employed 
 before there should be a dawn, even, of animal or vegetable 
 existence ; and when we contrast the beautiful and symmetri- 
 cal arrangement of the particles, in the many-formed mineral 
 crystals, with the mere juxtaposition of particles in the struc- 
 ture of other inert masses, we cannot avoid being impressed 
 with the belief that crystallization fills up a gap, or forms an 
 intermediate link, as it were, in the agency of creation, between 
 mere inert matter, and the organic forms which denote animal 
 and vegetable life. Although neither the reproducing creature 
 nor the propagating plant be there, yet polarization is so far 
 endued with those energies of perpetuation, that when the 
 same material elements are placed within its reach and under 
 its control, the same forms and similar symmetrical arrange- 
 ments of particles invariably follow, so that cube succeeds 
 cube, and rhomboid succeeds rhomboid, as certainly and as 
 persistently as patella does patella, or equisetum equisetum. 
 It is true they are not reproduced the one by the other; never- 
 theless, from causes much more applicable to the then condition 
 of our planet, owing to its universality, and possibility of 
 being employed, simultaneously, at almost every pin's point 
 throughout the whole extent of the earth's surface, and at the 
 
 * Enquiry into the Formation of the Earth, by John Whitehurst, F.R.S. 
 London, 1786. 
 
350 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 bottom of its dark and circumfluent ocean, equivalent effects 
 were produced, and the work of the Creator accomplished. 
 
 This interesting but comparatively modern branch of science 
 has been made the theme of so many works of late, and been 
 so much brought before the learned, that scarcely anything 
 beyond allusion need be made to the Theorems which have 
 been embodied here. They are numbered one hundred and 
 eleven, and one hundred and twelve. Neither need we bring 
 forward protracted evidence to establish their contents ; yet 
 the following brief notices may prepare the mind for the 
 application which we intend to make of them hereafter : 
 
 " It remains," says Mr. Donovan, " to consider the restoration 
 
 of cohesion to bodies in which that force had been suspended 
 
 This may have been effected through the intervention of a liquid. 
 If a large quantity of sugar be dissolved in a small quantity of 
 boiling water, and the syrup allowed to grow cold, the attraction of 
 cohesion will begin to take effect between its particles, and, at 
 length, the sugar will once more become a solid. 
 
 "But in this case, as in many others, whatever may have been 
 the original state of the sugar, it always, in resuming its solidity, 
 assumes a particular one of great regularity and beauty. 
 
 " It was originally opaque ; it is now transparent. It was origin- 
 ally a shapeless mass ; it is now a prism of six sides, in regularity 
 and lustre scarcely to he surpassed hy the products of the lapidary's 
 wheel. A solid of this symmetrical form, and of spontaneous pro- 
 duction, is called a crystal, and the process by which it is produced 
 
 is called crystallization Many bodies are found naturally 
 
 in the crystalline state, as various precious stones and minerals."* 
 
 "Crystallization is an effect," says Mrs. Somerville, "of mole- 
 cular attraction, regulated by certain laws, according to which atoms 
 of the same kind of matter unite in regular forms a fact easily 
 proved by dissolving a piece of alum in pure water. 
 
 " The mutual attraction of the particles is destroyed by the water, 
 but, if it be evaporated, they unite, and form in uniting, eight-sided 
 figures, called octahedrons. ..... It is quite clear, that the 
 
 same circumstances which caused the aggregation of a few particles 
 would, if continued, cause the addition of more ; and the process 
 
 * Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 17, 18. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 351 
 
 would go on so long as any particles remain free round the primitive 
 nucleus, which would increase in size, but would remain unchanged 
 in form, the figure of the particles being such as to maintain the 
 regularity and smoothness of the surfaces of the solid, and their 
 mutual inclinations 
 
 "A variety of substances in crystallizing combine chemically 
 with a certain portion of water which, in a dry state, form an 
 essential part of their crystals ; and, according to the experiments 
 of M.M. Haidinger and Mitscherlich, seem in some cases to give 
 the peculiar determination to their constituent molecules. 
 
 " These gentlemen have observed that the same substance, crys- 
 tallizing at different temperatures, unites with different quantities 
 of water, and assumes a corresponding variety of forms 
 
 " It must be observed that these experiments give entirely new 
 views with regard to the constitution of solid bodies. We are led 
 from the mobility of fluids to expect great changes in the relative 
 positions of their molecules which must be in perpetual motion, but 
 we were not prepared to find motion to such an extent in the inte- 
 rior of solids 
 
 " All these circumstances tend to prove that substances having 
 the same crystalline form must consist of ultimate atoms having the 
 same figure and arranged in the very same order ; so that the form 
 of crystals is dependent on their atomic constitution."* 
 
 It fortunately happens that those views have been fully cor- 
 roborated by the discoveries of others, who have closely 
 applied themselves to the experimental part of this branch of 
 science; and not resting satisfied by merely propounding the 
 rationale of a crystal's formation, have set about, and actually 
 produced them from the ingredients of which they were known 
 to be composed. We allude more especially to Mr. Cross, 
 M. Bequerel, and Dr. Farraday. The first, who has made 
 electrical phenomena his study for many years, states the 
 circumstance of a voltaic apparatus remaining in constant 
 action for twelve months, and from the influence of this con- 
 tinued electric action, he had produced, not only crystals of 
 lime, but that he had likewise submitted powdered flint to its 
 influences, and found that around the positive pole, crystals 
 
 * Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 124 127. 
 
352 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 of quartz were formed, but not touching the wire. He sub- 
 sequently produced crystals of iron pyrites at the negative pole 
 from elements of these crystals ; and has now various crystals 
 of copper, tin, silica, and lime in daily formation. The crystals 
 of aragonite were formed from the water of a cave in Somer- 
 setshire, highly charged with the carbonate and sulphate of 
 lime, by submitting this water to the action of a common 
 water-battery (for he used no acid), in nine days' time. He 
 also mentions a very material and curious fact, that light is 
 detrimental to the progress of crystallization, and that the 
 action of the battery was greater between the hours of seven 
 and ten in the morning, being at that period, from repeated 
 observations, at its maximum; and at the same hour in the 
 evening at its minimum. Barometrical, thermometrical, and 
 other assumed causes he found to have no effect on this latter 
 circumstance.* 
 
 It will be seen by the following extract from Professor 
 Buckland's late work, that he adopts views somewhat similar 
 to those brought to light by Mr. Cross's experiments: 
 
 " The experiments of M. Bequerel," he observes, " on the artifi- 
 cial production of crystallized insoluble compounds of copper, lead, 
 lime, &c., by the slow and long-continued reaction and transportation 
 of the elements of soluble compounds, appear to explain many 
 chemical changes that may have taken place under the influence of 
 feehle electrical currents in the interior of the earth, and more 
 especially in veins. I have been favoured by Professor Wheatstone 
 with the following brief explanation of the experiments here quoted : 
 
 " * When two bodies, one of which is liquid, react very feebly on 
 each other, the presence of a third body which is either a conductor 
 of electricity, or in which capillary action supplies the place of con- 
 ductibility, opens a path to the electricity resulting from the chemical 
 action, and a voltaic current is formed which serves to augment the 
 energy of the chemical action of the two bodies. In ordinary che- 
 mical actions, combinations are effected by the direct reaction of 
 bodies on each other, by which all their constituents simultaneously 
 concur to the general effect, but in the mode considered by Bequerel 
 
 * Literary Gazette, 27th August, 1836. Further information will likewise 
 be found in Gazette of 15th October, 1836, pp. 667, 668. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 353 
 
 the bodies in the nascent state, and excessively feeble forces are 
 employed, by which the molecules are produced, as it were, one by 
 one, and are disposed to assume regular forms, even when they are 
 insoluble, because the character of the molecules cannot occasion any 
 disturbance in their arrangement. By the application of these 
 principles, that is, by the long-continued action of very feeble elec- 
 trical currents, this author has shown that many crystallized bodies, 
 hitherto found only in nature, may be artificially obtained."* 
 
 What has now been gone through will, we think, have 
 sufficiently prepared the mind for reasoning with those truths 
 which have been brought out. To do this effectually, how- 
 ever, we shall have to carry the attention back to a period 
 somewhat earlier in the earth's formation. We must endea- 
 vour to realize a time when the water was charged with mine- 
 ral matter in mere mechanical suspension. 
 
 In attempting to do this we have particular need of the 
 caution with which we set out, to avoid trenching, in the 
 slightest manner, on the boundary line which prohibits enquiry, 
 and be content with coming to conclusions on matters within 
 the grasp of the comprehension ; in short, to avoid the quag- 
 mires of geology, and adhere as closely as possible to its firm 
 ground, although it may have been little trodden, and may 
 pertain more to clear deductions than to actual research. 
 
 The way we feel inclined to look upon this part of our sub- 
 ject, and the view, perhaps, which is the least exposed to 
 error, is this : We find, at the present moment, an immense 
 mass of water contained within, and resting upon, a frame- 
 work of solid rocks. When those rocks are examined into, 
 they reveal to us, as well by their mineralogical as their geo- 
 logical structure, that they have been very differently formed. 
 Those which are nearest to us, or the more recent, bear 
 evident marks of having been carried about by water, and 
 having been, as it were, thrown down suddenly and violently 
 from them ; like sedimentary deposits from water in agitation 
 and motion.f Below these, again, are more extended forma- 
 
 * Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. pp. 552, 553, 
 t Theorem 32nd, and its proofs. 
 
 2 A 
 
354 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 tions exhibiting as undeniable symptoms of having been depo- 
 sited slowly, tranquilly, and persistently from water holding 
 their ingredients so firmly in suspension as to part with them 
 particle by particle, deliberately, and, as it were, by com- 
 pulsion, by means of its animal and vegetable inhabitants.* 
 Going downward still, we find more compact rocks, whose 
 stratified texture shows that they also have been the product 
 of water, but water acted upon and seemingly drained of its 
 material by one universal agent, which, by the infinitude of 
 sparkling, symmetrical crystals which it has formed, evinces 
 how general has been its operations, and how effectual its 
 work.f 
 
 All these have evidently been held in suspension by water ; 
 but held in such a manner, that had it not been for those 
 successive agencies which were employed to disturb its che- 
 mical equilibrium, for wise and beneficent purposes, it might 
 have continued holding them until now in suspension, or as 
 long as it pleased the Creator. When we penetrate still 
 lower, we next encounter rocks whose structure is hetero- 
 genous and confused, manifesting both the influence of crys- 
 tallization, and simple aggregation of particles, apparently by 
 mere juxta-position ; and last of all we come to a species of 
 rock, or rather a diversified series of rocks, of vast and general 
 extent, in which all traces of depositon from water are wholly 
 lost. They are clearly unstratified, or without symptoms of 
 having been formed in layers or beds ; while the crystallization 
 they exhibit seems to have owed its origin more to heat than 
 to the slow molecular aggregation of an aqueous origin. J 
 
 When we make an effort, and take all these great and suc- 
 cessive formations of mineral matter into our mind at once, and 
 estimate them with relation to the quantity of the water in our 
 present seas, whose average depth is considered to be only 
 two or three miles, we must, of necessity, draw the infer- 
 ence, that while the water positively did contain a great 
 part of these rocks, it could not contain the whole of them. 
 It is physically impossible. There is not capacity in the ocean 
 
 14th Theorem, and proofs. f 23rd and 18th Theorems, and evidences. 
 23rd, 24th, and 25th Theorems, and proofs; likewise Table at page 315. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 355 
 
 to have contained all the rocks of the world. Now, when we 
 reflect on all this, we must come to the conclusion that there 
 was an epoch in the geological history of the world, when, in 
 obedience to the laws impressed upon them, some parts of its 
 earthy crust were condensed into a solid form, and left the 
 turbid aqueous portion, charged with similar material, resting 
 on the base thus formed beneath it. 
 
 Supposing such to have been the case, and, indeed, all the 
 facts connected with this period seem to imply that it was so, 
 the water which, by its lighter specific gravity, assumed the 
 exterior position would, we apprehend, have become charged 
 with mineral ingredients beyond what it could keep in sus- 
 pension; what it has parted with confirms this conclusion. 
 We have only, therefore, to infer that, conformably to the 
 laws which govern matter, it would first part with its sur- 
 plus, according to the specific gravity of the ingredients, 
 which, likewise, seems to have been the case, as we have 
 shown, when endeavouring to explain the mineralogical struc- 
 ture of the lower rocks. What is chiefly required, at pre- 
 sent, is to direct the attention to the undeniable fact, fully 
 evidenced by the discoveries of geologists, that the prime- 
 val water was at one period actually charged abundantly with 
 mineral ingredients ; that from it has been deposited, at some 
 time or other, and during the succession of ages, the greater 
 part of what are termed the stratified rocks. We are not 
 solicitous about determining the precise period when those 
 deposits took place, nor, at present, how they took place, 
 but merely to be allowed the admission which, we apprehend, 
 cannot consistently be withheld, that such actually did take 
 place. 
 
 Supposing therefore such to have been the case, and presum- 
 ing that water then possessed the same absorbing powers which 
 it does now, and from having been surcharged with gaseous 
 elements its powers of absorption would even be much greater ; 
 it follows, obviously, that the primitive water must have be- 
 come chemically saturated with the mineral ingredients which 
 were thus percolating through it. It cannot be expected 
 that we are to bring forward evidence so undeniable as that 
 which is afforded by analysis, or by examination, to prove 
 
 2 A 2 
 
356 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 that the original ocean was so impregnated, but we can offer 
 facts evidenced by what have been extracted from it, layer 
 after layer, thin scaly sheets of stone having been deposited 
 from it, and, in addition, we can adduce the corroborative 
 analogical evidence that water now, even when exposed to 
 the evaporating influences of the atmosphere and of sunlight, 
 is occasionally met with holding in chemical combination in- 
 gredients almost similar- to those which we suppose the dark 
 and atmosphereless primitive ocean to have contained. With- 
 out fatiguing the reader with diversified analyses, we shall, on 
 account of their being so well known, give that of the water 
 of Carlsbad, in Bohemia. 
 
 According to the analysis made by M. Berzellius, and 
 referred to by Dr. Ure, the mineral matter found in these 
 springs consists of 
 
 Sulphate of soda 2.58714. 
 
 Carbonate of soda 1.25200. 
 
 Muriate of soda 1.04895. 
 
 Carbonate of lime 0.31219. 
 
 Fluateoflime 0.00331. 
 
 Phosphate of lime 0.00019. 
 
 Carbonate of strontia 0.00097. 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 0.18221. 
 
 Phosphate of alumina 0.00034. 
 
 Carbonate of iron 0.00424. 
 
 Carbonate of manganese .... a trace. 
 
 Silica 0.07504. 
 
 5.46656."* 
 
 We find a corroboration, to a certain extent, of this last 
 evidence, in a note by M. de la Beche, when treating of the 
 " variations in the mineralogical character of the cretaceous 
 group." The passage and note run thus : 
 
 " When we turn to the higher part of the group, into which the 
 lower portion graduates, the theory of mere transport appears 
 
 * Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. XXI. p. 248. See also Tables in Murray's 
 Chemistry, vol. ii. pp. 741 743. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 357 
 
 opposed to the phenomena observed, which seem rather to have 
 been produced by deposition from a chemical solution of carbonate 
 of lime and silex, covering a considerable area." 
 
 Then follows the note : 
 
 " If we regard present appearances, we find that silex is held in 
 solution by thermal waters, which also, as in the case of those of 
 St. Michael in the Azores, may contain carbonate of lime. No 
 springs or set of springs that we can imagine, are likely to have 
 produced this great deposit of chalk so uniform over a large surface. 
 But although springs, in our acceptation of the term, could scarcely 
 have caused the effects required, we may, perhaps, look to a greater 
 exertion of the power which now produces thermal water for a 
 possible explanation of the observed phenomena."* 
 
 This quotation and the foregoing analysis (besides many 
 similar ones which may be seen by referring to the synoptical 
 table of mineral waters in the same work), will sufficiently show 
 what diversified ingredients water can, at the same time, hold 
 in chemical combination. 
 
 When it is considered that the condition of the primitive 
 ocean, charged with gaseous elements, without an atmosphere 
 to act as an absorbent, and without the influence of the sun's 
 rays to aid in withdrawing, or in volatilizing those aeriform 
 elements, was much better adapted for holding extraneous 
 earthy matter in solution, we shall not be surprised to find, 
 by inference drawn from the nature of the deposits, that the 
 following ingredients were, at the same time, suspended in the 
 primitive ocean, viz : silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, baryte, 
 strontia, glucina, zirconia, potash, soda, ammonia, oxides of 
 iron, manganese, tin, copper, and other metals, iodine, car- 
 bonic, fluoric, sulphuric, and nitric acid, with free oxygen, 
 and other gaseous elements, which will be enumerated in the 
 sequel.f 
 
 .In continuation, we shall enquire into the chemical laws 
 which, under the appellation of general affinities, influence 
 
 * Manual of Geology, 2nd edition, pp. 264, 265. 
 t Theorems 96, 97, 99, and 100. 
 
358 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 their procedure, when brought into contact by a solvent or 
 carrier, such as the circumfluent water of the primitive ocean. 
 
 " There must be some power or influence," states Mr. Hugo 
 Reid, "operating to draw bodies into such intimate union with each 
 other, and to express their power, we use the term chemical attrac- 
 tion. We know not how this power operates, and know not its 
 nature ; we can only judge of it from its effects, and we see that it 
 is the nature of these substances to be united in this way when they 
 are brought together ; also we see that a great number of other sub- 
 stances have a disposition to unite in a similar manner ; hence we 
 infer that there is some peculiar influence acting between substances 
 which disposes them to unite with each other, and as they appear 
 to be attracted or drawn towards each other, it is called attraction, 
 and receives the epithet " chemical" to distinguish it from other 
 kinds of attraction. 
 
 " By combination (chemical union), two different bodies unite and 
 form a third, differing very much from either. It is chemical 
 attraction which causes them to combine when brought together, 
 and thus this agent is the cause of the differences which we find in 
 bodies. Were there no such agent as chemical attraction, there 
 would be only about 54 different kinds of substances: the simple 
 bodies, and of these several are very rare ; but chemical attraction 
 makes these unite with each other, and these compounds unite with 
 the simple substances, and with each other, so that we may say 
 there is almost no end to the number of different bodies brought 
 into existence. It draws towards each other the particles of diffe- 
 rent kinds of matter and binds them together, causes them when 
 they are brought into contact to enter into new arrangements and 
 combinations, and thus gives rise to the variety in the objects 
 around us, and to the varied phenomena of chemistry."* 
 
 Mr. Donovan, writing on the subject of chemical affinity, 
 thus expresses himself 
 
 " The natural forces, gravitation and cohesion, belong, in their 
 
 full development, more to mechanics than to chemistry 
 
 But there are other forces in nature to be considered which fall more 
 exclusively within our province ; and which, so far as this planet 
 
 * Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 8. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 359 
 
 is concerned, act a part equal in importance and interest to any 
 other." 
 
 After exemplifying the different effects which result from 
 the immersion, in mercury, of a rod oi iron, and of a rod of 
 gold, and showing that part of the mercury has become inti- 
 mately combined with the gold on the surface of the latter, 
 he proceeds to say 
 
 " This, then, is to be acknowledged as a different exhibition of 
 the attractive force that pervades all matter ; it is distinguished by 
 the name of chemical attraction, or simply by the term affinity a 
 more convenient but less expressive term ; and it differs from all 
 known forces in its agency 
 
 " This kind of attraction acts upon matter in all states, whether 
 solid, liquid, or gaseous. 
 
 " When a piece of sugar is thrown into water, it sinks to the bot- 
 tom ; yet, after a time, by the taste of the water it will be proved, 
 contrarily to the laws of gravity, to have ascended towards the top 
 and spread to all other parts ; it must, therefore, have been gradu- 
 ally attracted. The same would happen with salt, alum, and various 
 other articles between which and the water, affinity is known to 
 
 exist And so, likewise, with two fluids, between which 
 
 affinity subsists. Thus : spirit of wine is lighter than water, and if 
 poured cautiously over water, it will float ; but, after a length of 
 time, it will be found to have descended to the bottom, and to be 
 equally diffused through all parts, in consequence of affinity. But 
 if oil be poured on water, it will remain there during any period, 
 for it is lighter than water, and is not attracted by any strong affinity 
 to that liquid 
 
 " This attraction does not act at any distance which can be per- 
 ceived ; its existence is only discoverable by its effects, but its con- 
 sequences are very striking, and the changes it produces are of such 
 
 a nature as cannot be overlooked By melting two 
 
 metals into combination extraordinary changes are produced. .... 
 What the nature of the change may be that is thus produced on the 
 two metals cannot be explained, but it is certain that, in the mixed 
 mass, the contiguity of a particle of one kind of metal produces a 
 very decided change on the properties of the adjoining particle of 
 the other, and a property is produced by their union which neither 
 particle apparently possesses 
 
360 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " The change of properties which takes place when chemical 
 attraction acts is not confined to metals, but is a general result 
 in every case where different bodies are brought into this state of 
 combination, or chemical union. 
 
 " Frequently we find that the properties of each body are totally 
 changed ; and that substances, from being energetic and violent in 
 
 their nature, become inert and harmless, and vice versa 
 
 One of the chief differences," he goes on to say, "between chemical 
 and cohesive attraction is, that the former takes place only between 
 the particles of different kinds of matter, whereas the latter occurs 
 between the particles of the same kind 
 
 " Another great difference between cohesion and affinity is, that 
 mechanical force is of no avail, as in the case of mere cohesion, 
 where affinity has taken place ; for, let the compound be ever so 
 completely divided, each particle of it will consist of all the ingre- 
 dients which entered into the composition of the original compound, 
 and in the same proportions ; and no mechanical contrivance can 
 separate them 
 
 "We have now to enquire," says he, "whether or not affinity is 
 a force of very extensive operation in nature ; whether it acts in the 
 case of certain kinds of bodies only, or is a general property of 
 matter. The facts known seem to warrant the inference that there 
 are no two bodies between which an affinity does not subsist, .... 
 although there may be antagonistic forces which prevent their com- 
 bination 
 
 "Most of the great changes which are constantly taking place in 
 nature, are instances of decomposition and chemical affinity. It is 
 by decomposition that the solid rock becomes covered with a fertile 
 soil ; it is by the same agencies that the soil throws up its verdant 
 clothing ; that growing plants are converted into animals by assimila- 
 tion ; that animals at length fall into decay, and return into their 
 original state. In fine, it is by decomposition that the great natural 
 processes of renovation and decay are kept in a state of perpetual 
 circulation."* 
 
 In these data we have, seemingly, all that is required to 
 enable us to enter into the investigation of the proceedings of 
 nature in the formation of rocky masses, by the united agency 
 
 * Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 20 25. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 361 
 
 of simple deposition, of crystallization, of animal and vegetable 
 secretion, and of chemical combination ; for we have a uni- 
 versal solvent holding an almost indefinite quantity of the 
 various elementary materials in solution, and itself consti- 
 tuting a carrier to assist in their union ; we have the radical 
 principles of electrical phenomena ; we know the names and 
 natures of most of the ingredients employed ; we are aware 
 there was a constant current in the primeval water flowing 
 round the globe from luni-solar influences ; and that there 
 were other currents within the water itself, caused by the un- 
 equal degrees of gravity of the aqueous strata ; and possessing 
 all these particulars, together with the knowledge we have 
 just acquired of the nature of chemical influence and attraction 
 over the elements of matter held in suspension, which cause 
 them to unite together and form an almost endless variety of 
 other substances, we may, we apprehend, consider ourselves 
 fully prepared to enter on the investigation of what took 
 place during the formation of those stratified masses whose 
 constitution appears evidently to have been the chief end of 
 the co-existence and operation of all those means, and to have 
 been wrought out during a protracted but indefinite period of 
 non-rotation, when all the concomitant circumstances were 
 peculiarly favourable for the accomplishment of what was 
 then designed. 
 
SECTION IV. 
 
 DEPOSITION OF THE STRATA DURING THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Position assumed, that the primeval water was chemically saturated with the 
 mineral elements of the strata ; and could, therefore, according to the 
 laws of affinity, arrive at a static condition of chemical equilibrium. To 
 produce any change of this state there must have been the intervention 
 of a power beyond materialism, and the employment of an agency ex- 
 empted from the law of gravitation. Aqueous crystallization apparently 
 the first means made use of to produce that change by the Creator : 
 evidences of this discoverable in the earlier strata. Animal and vegetable 
 vitality next introduced to continue the same effect. Wisdom shown by 
 the sequence of these agencies, and their influence on the progressive work 
 of the creation. The vast extent and depth of the calcareous formations. 
 Beneficence in the design of the relative position which these hold in the 
 order of superposition. The mineral elements how dissolved and held in 
 combination by the primitive menstruum and their affinities ; how they 
 operated in causing deposition when the general equilibrium was disturbed 
 by aqueous crystallization, and by animal and vegetable life. The wise 
 adaptation of these constraining agencies to overcome chemical affinities, 
 and to form substances which otherwise would have been injurious to 
 future life. In conclusion, animal death, and the effects produced by the 
 gaseous exhalations arising from their decomposition. 
 
 BEFORE we prosecute our investigations more closely, by 
 endeavouring to discover what was likely to follow from the 
 conditions laid down in the preceding chapter, we would take 
 leave to sum up the evidence, with the design of coming to a 
 perfect understanding upon a point of such essential import. 
 Having made good the position that the primeval water, which 
 circumbounded the rocky nucleus of the earth, was, at one 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY. 363 
 
 time, charged with mineral material, which, by some means 
 or other, became separated from its sustaining menstruum, and 
 was slowly and tranquilly deposited at the bottom of the 
 ocean, it follows as a corollary, that those mineral masses 
 were associated with that vast, shoreless, and atmosphereless 
 body of water, in part by chemical affinity, and thereby held, 
 to a certain extent, in suspension by it. 
 
 This must be admitted, if it even should be alleged, that 
 a much greater proportion of the stratified rocks is the pro- 
 duct of mechanical deposition, than what even the most liberal 
 construction of geological research will permit ; because, while 
 the rocky elements were percolating mechanically through the 
 water, to assume that position at the bottom which their 
 specific gravities occasioned them to do, the ocean, for the 
 reasons which have been assigned, must have become chemi- 
 cally saturated with those very percolating ingredients, as they 
 passed onwards and downwards. This brings us, at last, to 
 the point we so long wished to reach, that the primitive oceanic 
 water must have been, at one time, chemically charged with 
 mineral elements. 
 
 Now, it is a fact well known and admitted, that water 
 especially large masses of water when chemically impreg- 
 nated with such extraneous substances as it is capable of taking 
 into combination in that state, continues to purge itself, as it 
 were, of every superabundant particle of any one of these in- 
 gredients until a static condition of perfect equilibrium is 
 assumed ; after which, if in vacuo, and no new element be 
 added or none of the original ones withdraivn, it will, for 
 aught we know, continue to maintain the same state of 
 chemical equlibrium ad infinitum.* This principle is so well 
 known and admitted, that we need scarcely embarrass the 
 general argument by bringing forward evidence to prove it ; 
 although it should be borne in mind that we are treating of 
 a period when there were neither sun-light nor atmospheric 
 air to operate in producing those slow but gradual changes 
 which now, apparently almost without the interference of any 
 
 * See the 67th and 69th Theorems, and their evidences. 
 
364 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 agency, are certain to be the consequences in any solution 
 which is exposed to their influence. At the time to which we 
 allude, neither the heating nor the chemical rays of the sun 
 were shed upon the ocean, nor was it operated upon by the 
 searching and all-pervading agency of the atmosphere. 
 
 Its causes of change, whatever they were, resided entirely 
 within its dark and atmosphereless mass, and there, under the 
 directive power of the Almighty, were made to produce those 
 ends for which they were brought into being. 
 
 We shall, therefore, as the natural result of the law of equi- 
 librium to which we have just referred, conclude, that water, 
 chemically charged with extraneous ingredients, would, by 
 parting with the surplus atoms of any one of them, assume 
 that static condition by the mutual arrangement of the mole- 
 cules inter se, according to their respective affinities ; and that 
 so long as none of these ingredients which remained were 
 withdrawn, nor any other substance was added to them, the 
 mass would continue in the condition of equilibrium which it 
 had assumed. 
 
 It is stated, and with perfect truth, in the sixty -seventh 
 Theorem : " That one of the most important qualities of mat- 
 ter in mechanical investigation is INERTIA, or that property 
 which results from its inability to produce in itself spontaneous 
 change or action, either from a state of rest to that of motion, 
 or vice versa, to diminish any motion which it may have re- 
 ceived from an external cause, or to change its direction" 
 
 Now, when those two fundamental truths are brought into 
 juxta-position in the mind, and we take into account the con- 
 dition of our planet at that period, namely, " the Earth being 
 without form and void, and darkness upon the face of the 
 deep :" when we consider that we are treating of a non-rotating 
 sphere enveloped in a dark, atmosphereless ocean of water, re- 
 duced, by the deposition of all superabundant earthy ingre- 
 dients to a state of chemical equilibrium, and flowing in 
 obedience to the luni-solar attraction in one unvarying cur- 
 rent round the rocky crust which sustained it ; but without 
 this being able to produce the slightest change in its mole- 
 cular composition for every atom of water being equally 
 brought to a state of chemical equilibrium, none could exercise 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 365 
 
 any influence over another we must conclude, that the iner- 
 tia of matter would be the governing principle of the whole. 
 As long as there was no abstraction from the mass and no- 
 thing could, under the circumstances described, be taken 
 from it ; or no new principle impressed upon it, or addition 
 made to its constituent particles ; or no external force brought 
 to bear upon it a change could not by possibility have taken 
 place. The primeval water, once brought to a state of chemi- 
 cal equilibrium and to that condition, as we have already 
 shown, it must of necessity have come no change could, or 
 ever would, have taken place in the mass thereafter, unless by 
 the interposition of something beyond and external to itself. 
 
 At this conclusion we have arrived by applying the an- 
 nouncements of science to the condition of the earth during 
 the early age to which we allude ; while it is worthy of being 
 remarked, that in the Scriptures alone is any adequate ac- 
 count to be found of those conditions which the wonderful 
 discoveries of after science when carried back, as it were, and 
 applied to the case in question require, in order satisfactorily 
 to solve the great and important problem of the geological 
 phenomena. These discoveries demand, that there should 
 have been a stage in the world's geological history, when its 
 surface should have been devoid of form ; when it should have 
 been surrounded by water, and cloaked by universal darkness; 
 and these are declared in the simple but emphatic and com- 
 prehensive language of Scripture, to have been the actual 
 circumstances of the earth, on the very first mention which is 
 made of it, when introduced to our notice as " without form 
 and void; darkness upon the face of the deep." When we 
 take a deliberate and comprehensive review of the position 
 which we have now reached in our argument, we shall have 
 little hesitation in admitting, that it would be one of insur- 
 mountable difficulty were we to attempt to walk by the light 
 of Science alone. A world without rotation enveloped in an 
 atmosphereless ocean reigned over by universal darkness, and 
 whose circumfluent water had, by the laws which regulate 
 molecular attraction of affinity, reached a state of equili- 
 brium; and, consequently, without some influence beyond itself 
 incapable of alteration, are conditions which, contemporane- 
 
366 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 ously operating, would, without the continuing influence of the 
 Creator, have brought the work to a conclusion in that incipient 
 and imperfect state. For, if we turn to the astronomer, he will, 
 after consulting his well authenticated general laws, inform us, 
 that consistently with those which govern the earth's orbital 
 motion, there could have been no addition of ponderable mat- 
 ter made to it after it was translated in space ; neither could 
 any abstraction have taken place, without endangering the 
 permanency of its periodical course. If, to the natural philo- 
 sopher rendered conversant, by deep and protracted study, 
 with the laws of inertia we next seek for aid, he will in- 
 form us, with that reliance which he has acquired by repeated 
 experience, that "matter is incapable of producing in itself 
 spontaneous change, either from a state of rest to that of mo- 
 tion; or of diminishing any motion which it may have ac- 
 quired, or to change its direction :" that in fine, it is, as 
 designated, wholly inert and entirely passive at the will of 
 external causes. And, lastly, if we direct our enquiries to the 
 chemist, in hopes that his minuter investigations, into the 
 constituent elements of material substances and their affinities, 
 may have furnished him with the knowledge necessary to re- 
 lieve us from our embarrassments, we shall be met by still 
 closer and more impassable barriers. We shall find that his 
 laborious and intelligent investigations have clearly revealed to 
 him, that the ultimate molecules of matter are governed by 
 and obedient to the same law of inertia ; their chemical affini- 
 ties being once satisfied they never can, of themselves, there- 
 after change ; they can neither increase, diminish, nor alter 
 their own powers spontaneously. 
 
 Hopeless of success, the individual enquirer who relies on 
 nature alone being able to answer all the questions requisite 
 to be put, in order to unravel the mystery either turns aside 
 from the arduous task, as one incapable of being satisfactorily 
 accomplished, or rushes blindly into some wild and general 
 speculations, wholly disregardful, not only of revelation, but 
 of all well investigated laws of nature, revealed to us by mo- 
 dern science, in hopes that by some desperate effort he may 
 be enabled to clear the dangerous gap which presents itself to 
 impede his further progress. But those who are enabled to 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 367 
 
 recognise the utter helplessness of human knowledge to relieve 
 them from such an embarrassment to extricate them from 
 this dilemma, and who, therefore, turn to the announcements 
 of Scripture, will find, that in immediate sequence to that 
 passage describing the static condition of the creation to which 
 we allude, there is another which supplies all that is wanting ; 
 for it is written, " And the spirit of God moved upon the face 
 of the waters." 
 
 It would be presumptuous to attempt to determine the period 
 or its duration when, in the development of the great plan of 
 creation, it was essential that this immediate FIRST CAUSE 
 should be exercised. The only key we have to it is what is 
 contained in the 1st and 2nd verses of Genesis. It is, however, 
 our belief, as it will be our care to make manifest in the sequel, 
 that the period of non-rotation was coeval and coexistent with 
 it, and that the other attendant circumstances of the material 
 universe were in perfect accordance with this announcement 
 of the immediate act of Omnipotent power : while it must be 
 conceded, that no being, except the Spirit of God, could have 
 conducted a progressive operation to its destined end, whose 
 ultimate condition of perfection was known only to God : for 
 it is written, " No one knoweth the mind of God save the 
 Spirit of God." 
 
 Although it may turn out, hereafter, that more laborious 
 geological researches may carry back the era to a remoter 
 period than what is at present conjectured, when fossil remains 
 may demonstrate the existence either of inferior animals or of 
 plants, still, we presume, we may, with safety, for all practical 
 purposes, adopt the impressive language of Sir R. J. Murchi- 
 son, and assert, 
 
 " That the very genesis of animal life, upon the globe, has been 
 reached by the indefatigable exertions of geologists ; and that no 
 further vestigia retrorsum will be found beneath the protozoic or 
 lower silurian group, in the great inferior mass of which no verte- 
 brated animal has yet been detected amid the countless profusion of 
 the lower orders of the marine animals entombed in it." 
 
 And that it cannot be doubted, from the result of the 
 rigorous examinations to which the primitive rocks have been 
 
368 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 subjected, that there are entire formations in which no traces 
 of the remains of organized existence (animals or plants), of 
 even the lowest or simplest grades, have ever been discovered, 
 their mineralogical structure revealing to us that crystalliza- 
 tion was then the almost exclusive agent employed by the 
 Creator to perform the work of preparation. And when we 
 consider the minuteness and universality with which the en- 
 crusting process of crystallization would go on at the bottom 
 of a tremulous, dark, atmosphereless ocean of shoreless extent, 
 charged with all the elements most conducive to its advance- 
 ment, we must admire the wonderful adaptation of the means 
 to the end : while we recognize the wisdom which devised an 
 agency of such universal efficacy, and a promoter of such a 
 variety of pleasing and symmetrical forms ; and be grateful for 
 the goodness which induced the employment of an interme- 
 diate instrumentality between inert matter and organized ex- 
 istencies, that there might be abstracted from the water im- 
 mense masses of mineral substances, which, had they been 
 released from their chemical affinity with water by the instru- 
 mentality of animals and plants themselves, would inevit- 
 ably have buried both beneath their vast accumulations : while 
 at the same time, the minutest particles of matter, by being 
 subjected to the peculiar elaboration required to polarize 
 them and so to induce crystallization, became wrought into 
 combinations which no other means could have effected ; and, 
 substances which otherwise would have been hurtful to after 
 states of the creation, were thereby neutralized and locked up, 
 in perfect innoxious security, for the future uses of the world's 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The crystallization which is here mentioned, induced by 
 aqueous solubility, although akin to that which was afterwards 
 produced by fusion, from heat, arising from the friction occa- 
 sioned by the movement entre se of the mineral masses of the 
 earth's crust, when the sphere was first made to rotate around 
 its axis, should be clearly distinguished, in its objects and 
 effects, from this latter : aqueous crystallization having affected 
 the stratified formations more exclusively, and having evidently 
 been brought into operation at a different stage of the crea- 
 tion ; indeed, long before crystallization from caloric induction 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 369 
 
 could have been made an agent, as it certainly was at its 
 appropriate period, in the great work of the world's forma- 
 tion then going on. 
 
 Having so recently given the more particular evidences re- 
 garding aqueous crystallization and made these general re- 
 marks, we shall not now require to do more, with respect to this 
 very interesting and modern branch of study, than to recapitu- 
 late what is stated in the hundred and eleventh Theorem, viz., 
 " That when substances are rendered fluid with perfect mo- 
 bility amongst their particles, either by igneous fusion or by 
 solution, and are suffered to pass with adequate slowness into 
 the solid state, the attractive forces called homogenous attrac- 
 tion frequently re-arrange these particles into regular poly- 
 hedral figures or geometrical solids; to which the name of 
 CRYSTALS has been given. That mere approximation of the 
 particles is not, however, alone sufficient to produce crystalliza- 
 tion, they must also change the direction of their poles from 
 the fluid collocation to their position in the solid state, which 
 may be effected by the following means, namely : 1. By vibra- 
 tory motion, communicated either from the atmosphere or any 
 other moving body. 2. By contact of any part of the fluid 
 with a point of a solid of similar composition previously formed, 
 or other substance. 3. By the slow and continued agency of 
 voltaic electricity operating in water. That darkness in most 
 instances favours crystallization. That heat, likewise, ex- 
 ercises considerable influence on these phenomena ; and, lastly, 
 that the same substance, in crystallizing, not unfrequently 
 assumes a diversity of forms ; though, in general, the same sub- 
 stance, under similar circumstances, assumes the same form." 
 
 The evidence afforded by this Theorem, founded upon the 
 testimony of men who have made this branch of mineralogy 
 their attentive study, leaves not a doubt on the mind as to the 
 existence of a progressive power having been exercised over 
 the particles of mineral matter, by which they became sym- 
 metrically arranged into crystals of adamantine hardness and 
 brilliancy, in a manner precisely analogous to the arrangement 
 we more frequently witness amongst the less adherent particles 
 of neutral salts ; and that all the conditions of the earth, at the 
 period we allude to, as supposed in this theory, were precisely 
 
370 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 those most conducive to foster and to promote the aqueous 
 crystallization of mineral matter, on a scale commensurate to 
 the magnitude of the design. Having arrived at this con- 
 clusion, it only now requires to be seen, whether the minera- 
 logical structure of the rocks, which constitute the basis of the 
 Earth's crust, affords corresponding evidences of the silent, 
 slow, and ubiguous work of this influential agency. 
 
 To attain this end we shall recapitulate the words of the 
 hundred and twelfth Theorem, in which it is stated, on the 
 authority of those writers who sustain that proposition, 
 
 " That most of the rocks which compose the mineral crust of 
 the earth are in a crystallized state. GRANITE, for example, 
 consisting of crystals of quartz, felspar, and mica ; MARBLE 
 of crystals of carbonate of lime, fyc. And that the whole 
 phenomena attendant on crystallization go to prove, that sub- 
 stances having the same crystalline form must consist of ulti- 
 mate atoms, having the same figure and arranged in the same 
 order, so that the form of crystals is dependant on their atomic 
 constitution. 
 
 In support of this abstract form of stating the subject, we 
 shall take occasion to add a few descriptive extracts from the 
 works of those who have favoured the world with the result of 
 their interesting enquiries into this branch of mineralogical 
 geology. M. de la Beche says 
 
 " Granite is a confusedly crystalline compound of quartz, felspar, 
 
 mica, and hornblende It is occasionally porphyritic, large 
 
 crystals of felspar being disseminated through the mass, showing 
 that, however confused the crystallization may have been, circum- 
 stances were such as to permit the production of distinct crystals of 
 felspar. Greenstone and the other rocks usually termed Trappean, 
 vary in texture from an apparently simple rock to a confusedly crystal- 
 line compound, in which crystals of felspar are disseminated 
 
 " Such are the rocks commonly considered unstratined. It will 
 have been seen that they so pass into one another that distinctions 
 are not easily established between them. Mineralogically, granite 
 passes through various stages, and graduates into the compounds 
 named greenstone and others of the trappean class."* 
 
 * De la Beche, pp. 486489. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 3? I 
 
 Mr. Lyell observes 
 
 " We have now to examine those crystalline (or hypogene) strata 
 to which the name of metamorphic has been assigned. The last 
 term expresses a theoretical opinion that such strata, after having 
 been deposited from water, acquired by the influence of heat and 
 
 other causes a highly crystalline texture * There are,' says 
 
 Professor Sedgwick, ' three distinct forms of structure exhibited in 
 certain rocks throughout large districts, viz., stratification, joints, 
 and slaty cleavage, the two last having no connexion with true 
 bedding, and having been superinduced by causes absolutely in- 
 dependent of gravitation.' It has been observed by Mr. 
 
 Murchison, 'that in referring both joints and slaty cleavage to 
 crystalline action we are borne out by a well-known analogy, in 
 which crystallization has in like manner given rise to two distinct 
 kinds of structure in the same body.' 
 
 " Sir John Herschel, in allusion to slaty cleavage, has suggested, 
 ' that if rocks have been so treated as to allow a commencement of 
 crystallization, or heated to a point at which the particles can begin 
 to move amongst themselves, some general law must determine the 
 position in which these particles will rest on cooling ; and when this 
 is the case it must of course determine a cleavage plane ; this takes 
 place in many of our chemical manipulations and in the arts, and 
 what occurs in our experiments on a minute scale may occur in 
 nature on a great one.' "* 
 
 " What, then," asks Professor Phillips, " is the fruit of all this 
 discussion ? It is the conviction that the gneiss, mica slate, primary 
 
 limestone, quartz rock, &c., are stratified rocks, but that 
 
 the causes which tend among all rocks to complicate the stratifica- 
 tion with new structures, have gone to the maximum in these the 
 oldest of all ; the principal of these causes being heat, either locally 
 exhibited in the neighbourhood of igneous crystallized rocks, or 
 generally pervading the whole mass of deposits, "f 
 
 The following corroborative testimony is from Mr. Ramsay's 
 admirable little Treatise on the Geology of Arran ; an island, 
 our readers are aware, which presents great facilities for such 
 investigations : 
 
 * LyelTs Elements of Geology, vol. ii. pp. 379, 400. Silurian System of 
 Rocks, p. 246. 
 t Treatise on Geology, p. 75. 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " The mass of the granite of Goatfell is the large grained variety ; 
 but there are found in it many veins of a fine, compact texture, 
 which indeed are common throughout all the coarse grained granite 
 
 of Arran The constituent parts of the latter are felspar, 
 
 quartz, and mica ; and the differences in texture are owing to the 
 variable proportions and sizes of these constituent minerals. Gene- 
 rally the felspar predominates, next quartz, and lastly mica, in com- 
 parative small quantities. 
 
 " There are three varieties of felspar, the first of a light brown 
 colour, the second almost pure white, and the third, commonly called 
 
 glassy felspar, exhibiting a brilliant polish when fractured 
 
 Of the quartz there are also several varieties, viz., common white 
 quartz, pale yellow, light grey, colourless quartz, or pure rock 
 crystal ; light brown, dark brown or smoked quartz, and some- 
 times, though rarely, it is almost black The transparent 
 
 and dark varieties are by no means rare, and frequently attain to a 
 considerable size. They are usually found in the form of hexagonal 
 prisms, and occur along with crystals of felspar, in those rounded 
 cavities which are so common in this granite. Specimens are also 
 found, in which the transparent and light grey varieties alternate in 
 layers, like the various colourings of an agate. 
 
 " The mica is much more sparingly diffused than the other 
 minerals, and is usually found in small scales of a dark brown or 
 black colour. The fine grained granite does not occur in mass in 
 the neighbourhood of Goatfell, being only found in the form of 
 
 penetrating veins Wherever it penetrates the coarse granite 
 
 in veins, there it exhibits the finest and most compact texture, and 
 frequently the quartz and mica totally disappear, leaving the remain- 
 ing constituent in the form of a compact felspar. 
 
 " The phenomenon of its superior fineness in the veins is easily 
 accounted for, when it is considered that when the melted matter 
 forced itself into the fissures in the coarse grained or older granite, 
 and thus came in contact with a cooling substance (the coarse granite 
 being previously consolidated), it would crystallize more rapidly, 
 and consequently in smaller crystals, than if the cooling process 
 were more gradual. In this granite mica is only to be found in very 
 small black scales, sparingly intermingled with the quartz and fel- 
 spar. The two latter constituents are sometimes mingled in nearly 
 equal proportions, but very frequently the felspar predominates."* 
 
 * Geology of Arran, by Andrew C. Ramsay, pp. 5, 6. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 373 
 
 The universal and sustained agency which we have thus 
 been made aware was going on throughout the primeval ocean, 
 forming into solid masses many of its elements, and consti- 
 tuting them into the rocky barriers which afterwards were to 
 confine the waters themselves within their destined limits 
 when the great plan of Creation should be more fully deve- 
 loped would, by disturbing the chemical equilibrium, to 
 which such frequent allusion has been made, release other 
 earthy ingredients by the extraction of those particles which 
 formed the crystals ; whilst the mechanical deposition of 
 of those elements, thus liberated, would confer on the conjoint 
 formation a confusedly crystalline texture. 
 
 Were it essential, it might be easy to show that the con- 
 tinued action of a single agency, such as the one here alluded 
 to however searching and universal it may have been in its 
 effects upon impregnated water, so well calculated to promote 
 them would have again brought the entire aqueous body 
 into a static condition of equilibrium; and have occasioned 
 the necessity of introducing some new power, in order to per- 
 petuate the work of deposition, which, in that epoch, it seems 
 to have been the design of a beneficent Creator to accomplish. 
 Fortunately, however, we are spared the necessity of this 
 investigation. The fossil exuviae of inferior classes of animals 
 and plants which are found imbedded, nay, partly constituting 
 the very rocks themselves, sufficiently attest this great truth, 
 and show us that besides crystallization which may be looked 
 upon as an earlier means of transforming those aqueous com- 
 pounds into solid matter there were other scarcely less ubi- 
 quous, silent, and indefatigable agents employed in this great 
 work of solidification ; and which, while they were progres- 
 sively increasing, and some were encrusting themselves with 
 shelly coverings of carbonate and phosphate of lime, and others 
 with ligneous fibres, were all alike fulfilling the decrees of Pro- 
 vidence, and preparing the earth and the water for their relative 
 fitness and position when they should, by the diurnal rotation of 
 the sphere, be finally transformed into <( the habitable globe," 
 the solid portion rising to restrain the purified aqueous part 
 within the bounds which appear to have been from the begin- 
 
374 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 ning designed for it. Nor should it be overlooked that it was 
 only from such a source as the life-giving Creator that this 
 new principle of animal and vegetable vitality could have been 
 derived ; and that He alone could thus interpose an effectual 
 and successive agency to interrupt the state of equilibrium 
 which the water would otherwise have inevitably assumed. 
 
 Were it not that we are engaged in the rigid task of endea- 
 vouring to explain these wonders, and bent on convincing the 
 understanding, not in working merely upon the imagination, 
 we should feel an irresistible desire to ponder over and admire 
 the amazing stretch of wisdom and of power, which, by means 
 apparently so simple could effectuate ends so vast, and designs 
 so beneficent ; could cause those comparatively insignificant 
 instruments to drain the primitive ocean of elements which, 
 in other states, would have proved injurious ; and could, with 
 the matter thus solidified, form that which in due time was 
 to set bounds to the water, which, with shoreless expansion, had 
 circumbounded the whole earthy nucleus ! But we have not yet 
 gained so firm a resting-place in our argument as to admit of 
 our pausing to expatiate on the never-ending themes of admi- 
 ration which lie before us, and therefore, while we keep that 
 in reserve for hereafter, we must proceed with the chain of 
 our present argument. 
 
 It is so entirely in accordance with the manner of the 
 growth of plants, and with that in which the lower apulmonic 
 tribes of animals and zoophytes propagate, to extend them- 
 selves from centres or foci, that it need scarcely be particularly 
 proved. Those centres would, of course, be originated where 
 it was foreseen by an Omniscient Creator to be most conducive, 
 for the ulterior development of His plans, to place them. It 
 would be alike superfluous and inconclusive were we to occupy 
 our time or attention surmising where they did commence ; 
 or whether animal life preceded vegetable existences ; whether 
 the reverse was the case, or whether they commenced simul- 
 taneously. The conflicting opinions of geologists, although 
 deduced alike from the organic remains of the respective divi- 
 sions, would seem to leave the field open to those who surmise 
 that both may have had the dawn of their existence on our 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 375 
 
 planet at the same period,* although at first, in number and 
 variety, the objects of the animal economy which seem to 
 have been willed into existence together far exceeded those of 
 the vegetable kingdom ; but, in the course of ages, those of the 
 latter great division (the plants), gained upon the former, until 
 at length, about the period when the light was to be formed, 
 and the earth made to rotate around its axis, or when the 
 great coal fields were being stored with ligneous deposits, 
 vegetable greatly surpassed the proportion of animal life. The 
 stereotyped remains of each of those classes of existences per- 
 taining to the inferior branches of their respective kingdoms, 
 enable us still to read, with almost unfaltering precision, the 
 history of their bygone but essential labours at the bottom of 
 a dark and boundless ocean of considerable depth, and charged 
 throughout with the materials we have so often alluded to, 
 held in firm chemical combination by the aid of associated 
 gaseous elements 
 
 When treating of this particular point, we must not over- 
 look the important testimony afforded by a late writer regard- 
 ing the early dawn of animal life upon the globe. 
 
 " It is important to remember," says he, " that almost all the 
 great natural divisions of the invertebrata began at once and to- 
 gether to perform their work on earth There are no 
 
 appearances of any regular order of succession They seem 
 
 to have been truly contemporaneous, and doubtless introduced as 
 the group best fitted to perform the functions of their existence. "-f 
 
 It is when we look upon the subject in this point of view, 
 that we behold with greater vividness the combination of 
 wisdom, and benignant goodness which characterized all the 
 proceedings of the Creator: for, while those animals, zoo- 
 phytes, and plants were abstracting from the water that which 
 was necessary to be taken from the primitive ocean, before it 
 could be made the seas of the present day, they were drawing 
 
 * It appears to be Dr. Buckland's opinion, that the creation of marine 
 animals and plants were contemporaneous, and that both commenced in the 
 lowest transition stratified masses. Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 18. 
 
 t Ansted's Ancient World, pp. 47 51. 
 
376 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 down the material to the bottom, and encrusting with it, 
 through their own bodies, film after film, as it were, the vast 
 submarine surface of the earth, and causing it gradually to ex- 
 pand to its destined size, preparatory to its future change of 
 posture ; while, during the whole process, those successive crea- 
 tions were each fulfilling to the uttermost the functions of their 
 limited career of existence, and deriving therefrom whatever 
 satisfaction they were capable of enjoying. Why it should 
 have seemed good to an all-wise and Omnipotent Creator thus 
 gradually to have introduced the living principle into the 
 material universe, and to have adopted this protracted method 
 of "creating the materials of the heaven and earth at the 
 beginning," is not for us to enquire ; nor are such enquiries 
 within the scope of this work, even were it within our power 
 to accomplish such an undertaking. The organic remains, 
 which everywhere exist, afford undeniable evidences that it 
 pleased him to do so, to restrain for a time, as it were, his 
 creative influences, and to lavish the riches of his goodness 
 and providential care on classes of animals and plants appa- 
 rently so insignificant, and comparatively incapable of either en- 
 joying or appreciating those bounties which he conferred upon 
 them ; while, on the other hand, the knowledge of his revealed 
 attributes affords sufficient assurance, that whatever did then 
 exist was that which was most consistent with those attributes ; 
 and that when the Creator beheld them labouring to accomplish 
 his will in their dark and profound abodes he could have de- 
 clared although it has not pleased him to reveal it to us 
 that their work also " was good." 
 
 When treating, in the Second Section, of the animal exist- 
 ences of that period, we were made aware that by means of 
 the corium and other secreting membranes, they fabricated 
 to themselves coverings of carbonate of lime, cemented toge- 
 ther by a small portion of animal gluten.* We were also 
 shown, that their testaceous and zoophytic remains are of 
 immensely greater dimensions than any belonging to recent 
 equivalents. We likewise know that the existence of the or- 
 ganized exuviae proves, to a certainty, the existence at one 
 
 * 136th Theorem. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 377 
 
 time of the animal inhabitants, while the known relation of 
 the animal to its covering, demonstrates their excess in size 
 beyond any of their living congeners. " That, besides the 
 three elements, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, which plants 
 and animals alike contain, the latter generally have more azote 
 or nitrogen in their composition,"* and that these apulmonic 
 animals and zoophytes, from either being fixed, or of restricted 
 motion, were wholly dependant on the surrounding fluid for 
 their sustenance.")" 
 
 Combining all these essential circumstances together, we 
 have, as a clear deduction, that the effect upon the primeval 
 ocean of animal drainage alone, through numberless ages, was 
 to abstract from its water a quantity of matter equal to the 
 aggregate mass of their shelly coverings, and of those parts of 
 the animal bodies which, after their death, did not re-enter 
 into the circulation then going on. And, lastly, that the ele- 
 mentary materials thus withdrawn from the primitive ocean, 
 by animal chemistry and agency, consisted of carbonic acid 
 (oxygen and carbon), and lime (calcium and oxygen), to form 
 their testaceous and zoophytic coverings ; and of carbon, 
 oxygen, hydrogen, and azote to constitute their animal bodies. 
 
 With respect to the no less active and extended agency of 
 vegetation in effecting the object we now allude to, sufficient 
 has already been explained to show, that enormous crypto- 
 gamic and allied plants of different families abounded and 
 were influential in producing the changes which took place 
 throughout the whole period of non-rotation, and more espe- 
 cially during the formation of the coal series; and as we are 
 authorized, both by analogy and by the nature of their re- 
 mains, to consider their constituent elements to have been 
 oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon; so we conclude that for all of 
 these, as well as for whatever they, through their roots, de- 
 posited in the soil, they must, from the very nature of the 
 attendant circumstances, have been wholly dependant on the 
 surrounding medium. 
 
 * Animal Kingdom, by Baron Cuvier. Edinburgh. Preface to Nat. Hist, 
 pp. 17, 18. 
 t Dr. Fleming's Work on British Zoology. 
 
378 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 In fine we may assume, that there were abstracted from the 
 primitive water, by vegetable agency and secretion, all the ma- 
 terials which constitute the carboniferous portion of the terraine 
 formations ; or, in more general terms, all that which went to 
 form the sub-marine vegetation of the earth during the pro- 
 tracted period we allude to less the elements which, after the 
 plants were deprived of the principle of vegetable life, re-en- 
 tered into circulation, and became parts of new combinations ; 
 while, to complete this conception, it should be kept in mind 
 that, at the bottom of a deep and atmosphereless ocean, the 
 gaseous exhalations which escaped from decaying plants would 
 be infinitely less than under the circumstances which attend 
 their decomposition in the present state of the earth. 
 
 The ultimate result of the combined secretions by animal 
 and vegetable agency, must have been to have abstracted from 
 the PRIMITIVE WATER elementary materials equal to all the 
 organic matter which owes its origin to these two sources : a 
 conclusion which is quite undeniable, and of which we shall 
 avail ourselves hereafter by combining it with others, equally 
 well-substantiated . 
 
 The efficacy of the instrumentality thus brought to bear 
 upon the universal menstruum, can only be sufficiently esti- 
 mated when the vast extent and great depth of the aggregate 
 deposits, which mainly owe their existence to animal and 
 vegetable remains, are taken into account ; and when the im- 
 pression is properly borne in upon the mind of the efficiency 
 of numbers, we might say of myriads, in combination, when 
 they are substituted for individual power however great. 
 
 To convey an adequate conception in a few words of the 
 actual results of the means then employed is impossible ; we 
 shall, therefore, as usual, have recourse to concise extracts 
 from the writings of those indefatigable men, who, by their 
 researches, have done so much for this branch of science, and 
 have contributed so essentially to the elucidation of this part 
 of the earth's history. 
 
 " The carboniferous limestone," says Sir Henry de la Beche, " in 
 the South of England, Wales, the North of France, and Belgium, 
 seems to possess a somewhat similar general character, being a com- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 379 
 
 pact limestone, frequently traversed by veins of calcareous spar, at 
 times appearing to be in a great measure composed of organic re- 
 mains, while at others not a trace of these remains can be observed. 
 
 4 ' It is occasionally of an oolitic structure, and sometimes contains 
 parts of encrinal columns, in such abundance that the rock is, in a 
 great measure, made up of them, whence the name Encrinal Lime- 
 stone."* 
 
 " Some of the beds of the carboniferous limestone," writes Dr. 
 Ure, " are so pure as to contain 96 per cent, carbonate of lime ; but 
 by foreign admixture it passes into magnesian, or ferruginous, or 
 bituminous, or fetid limestone. Its beds are commonly very thick, 
 extending in a continuous series many hundred feet in depth. 
 Many species of testacea or shell fish begin to appear in the car- 
 boniferous limestone ; but they, all along, belong to a very few 
 genera ; while the zoophytal families (polyparies), particularly en- 
 
 crinites and corallites, exist in the greatest abundance From 
 
 the profusion of encrinites, this species of limestone has often been 
 called encrinal. The coralloid remains are caryophylea, turbinolia, 
 astrea, favocites, tubipora, and retipora."*)* 
 
 " The lowest, or * mountain limestone,' " observes Dr. M'Culloch, 
 " under various names, immediately follows the ' old' red sandstone, 
 having been formerly considered a transition rock by foreign geolo- 
 gists. The beds are often of great thickness, and the series of con- 
 siderable depth ; yet, at times, the reverse ; while they occasionally 
 include thinner strata of clay, shale, and arinaceous rocks, which, in 
 some places, becoming more prevalent, materially affect the calca- 
 reous character of this deposit. The limestone itself is sometimes 
 pure, approaching to the crystalline texture ; while, at others, it 
 becomes argillaceous, magnesian, ferruginous, or bituminous. "J 
 
 " It is a difficult problem," states Professor Buckland, " to account 
 for the source of the enormous masses of carbonate of lime that 
 compose nearly one-eighth part of the superficial crust of the globe. 
 Some have referred it entirely to the secretions of marine animals ; 
 an origin to which we must obviously assign those portions of calca- 
 reous strata which are composed of comminuted shells and coral- 
 lines ; but until it can be shown that these animals have the power 
 of forming lime from other elements, we must suppose that they 
 derived it from the sea, either directly, or through the medium of its 
 
 * Geological Manual. f Dr. Ure's Geology, pp. 175 178. 
 
 : Gelogy, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. ii. p. 238. 
 
380 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 plants. In either case it remains to find the source whence the sea 
 obtained, not only these supplies of carbonate of lime for its animal 
 inhabitants, but also the still larger quantities of the same substance 
 that have been precipitated in the form of calcareous strata."* 
 
 "The most prolific source," says the same author, "of organic 
 remains, has been the accumulation of the shelly coverings of animals 
 which occupied the bottom of the sea during a long series of con- 
 secutive generations. A large proportion of the entire substance of 
 many strata is composed of myriads of these shells reduced to a 
 comminuted state, by the long continued movements of water. In 
 other strata, the presence of countless multitudes of unbroken coral- 
 lines, and of fragile shells, having their more delicate spines still 
 attached and undisturbed, shows, that the animals which formed 
 them lived and died upon, or near, the spot where these remains are 
 found. 
 
 " Strata thus loaded with the exuviae of innumerable generations 
 of organic beings, afford strong proof of the lapse of long periods of 
 time, wherein the animals from which they have been derived lived 
 and multiplied, and died, at the bottom of the seas, which once 
 occupied the site of our present continents and islands. Repeated 
 changes in species, both of animals and vegetables, in succeeding 
 members of different formations, give further evidence, not only of 
 the lapse of time, but also of further important changes in the phy- 
 sical condition and climate of the ancient earth."-)- 
 
 " Successions of strata, each many feet in thickness, and many 
 miles in extent, are often half made up of the calcareous skeletons 
 of encrinites. The entrochial marble of Derbyshire, and the black 
 rock in the cliffs of carboniferous limestone near Bristol, are well- 
 known examples of strata thus composed, and show how largely the 
 bodies of animals have, occasionally, contributed by their remains 
 to swell the volume of materials that now compose the mineral 
 world. "J 
 
 " The remains of organic existences," according to a late conti- 
 nental writer, " reveal to us that entire formations occur wholly 
 composed of the fossil relics of animalculites. To Ehrenberg we 
 are indebted for the development of the fact, that ages ago our world 
 was rife with these minute organisms, belonging to a great number 
 of species, whose mineralized skeletons actually constitute nearly 
 
 * Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 89. f Ibid, p. 116. I Ibid, pp. 416, 417. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 381 
 
 the whole mass of some tertiary soils and rocks several feet in thick- 
 ness, and extending over areas of many acres. The size of a single 
 one, forming the polishing slate, amounts, upon an average, and in 
 the greatest part, to one two-hundred-and-eighty -eighth of a line. 
 As the Polerschiefer of Bilin is slaty, but without cavities, these 
 animalcules lie closely compressed. In round numbers, about 23 
 millions would take up a cubic line, and would, in fact, be contained 
 in it. There are 1,728 cubic lines in a cubic inch, and, therefore, 
 a cubic inch would contain, on an average, about 41,000 millions of 
 these animals. On weighing a cubic inch of this mass, I found it 
 to be about two hundred and twenty grains. Of the 41,000 millions 
 of animals, 187 millions go to a grain ; or the siliceous shield of 
 each animalcule weighs about a hundred and eighty-seven millionth 
 part of a grain." 
 
 A modern author, who has given a great deal of attention 
 to fossil remains, when treating of those of the silurian or 
 first epoch, assures us, that 
 
 " Polyps as animals of this low organization are called appear 
 to have been among the first of created beings, and are also those 
 
 which have changed least up to this present time They 
 
 seem to have been comprised within a very limited number of 
 natural families, and some particular species probably extended 
 
 through the whole number of beds of the first great epoch 
 
 During every successive period, from this their first appearance in 
 the infancy of the world, to the present, these polyps have been 
 adding to the solid matter of our globe by their singular buildings 
 
 of stone These little creatures are enabled to separate 
 
 from the seawater a proportion of carbonate of lime, used in con- 
 structing their stony encrustations ; and they do this, although the 
 quantity present is so minute as to be almost inappreciable by the 
 most careful chemical analysis They secrete the cal- 
 careous or stony coverings on the outside of their soft bodies, and 
 some of them form themselves into compounds resembling trees, 
 with root, stem, and branches, composed of separate and detached 
 particles. The Encrinites> Sphceronites, and Pentacrinites are re- 
 markable examples of this, one individual of the former being made 
 up of no less than 30,000 separate particles of stone, while one of 
 the latter contains 150,000 minute pieces of the same material."* 
 
 * Ancient World, by Ansted, pp. 2731, 118, 119, 137. 
 
382 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 These extracts a tithe merely of what might have been 
 given together with our explanations of the subject, will, we 
 trust, have sufficiently shown the attributed origin and con- 
 struction of the calcareous formations, some of which underlie 
 and admirably protect the coal measures. 
 
 When we contemplate these calcareous rocks in a more 
 general, and at the same time, relative point of view, they will 
 be found to exhibit, in a very remarkable manner, that won- 
 derful wisdom so manifest in all the works of the Creator. 
 
 Besides the intrinsic and almost unlimited value of these 
 mineral treasures to man, as a material subministering to his 
 use and comfort, and as the chief repository of many of the 
 metalliferous ores, the testacea and zoophyta, which, by their 
 indurated remains contributed so essentially to the construc- 
 tion of the calcareous deposits, imparted, at the same time 
 from their molluscous parts, a peculiar ingredient which enters 
 very materially into the composition of coal. In the calca- 
 reous formations were bound up, in a perfectly harmless con- 
 dition within the reach and at the will of man noxious and 
 superfluous gases, in union with earthy and insoluble bases, 
 whereby the primitive water not only became cleansed of those 
 life-destroying elements; but they, hurtful as they are in 
 themselves, were also transformed into deposits of useful mate- 
 rial for the wants of races destined afterwards to inhabit the 
 Earth, and into solid barriers to restrain the ocean within the 
 bounds assigned to it: a provision of gracious forethought, 
 whereby these elements were rendered always useful and in- 
 noxious to the very different races of living beings which seem 
 to have been destined to people the Earth at successive periods 
 of its creation. 
 
 No less admirable was the adaptation of the calcareous 
 deposits in a relative point of view. In this respect, aided by 
 aluminous admixture (the best non-conductor of heat among 
 minerals), they performed the important office of a great lining 
 formation to defend the coal measures from the action of those 
 intense heats which were engendered by the first rotation of 
 the Earth ; and which, without this almost impervious defence 
 underneath the great body of the coal, would have driven off, 
 by fusion, the essential bitumious portion, and left the exten- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 383 
 
 sive coal measures of the world as indurated, and perhaps, 
 more unserviceable than the hardest anthracite ; which, occur- 
 ring in small portions at the points of contact and fusion, have 
 left us specimens of what would, otherwise most probably, 
 have been the inevitable result throughout the whole extent 
 of the coal series. 
 
 And finally, the great underlying calcareous formation 
 marked by the bold callygraphy of fossilized remains reveal 
 to us by those enduring characters, which can neither be set 
 aside nor misunderstood, that ages before the principal accu- 
 mulation of the vegetable remains which constitute the coal 
 measures, the solid portion of this sphere teemed with animal 
 life, with beings of apulmonic description, and of the kinds so 
 elaborately classified by geologists, who have given their at- 
 tention to the subject, from whose writings we have hitherto 
 derived some of our most efficient evidences, and to which we 
 intend to recur for more as we proceed with our discourse. 
 
 Now, wherever are found calcareous shelly coverings of an 
 organic structure, there the animal fabricators and inhabitants 
 must, also, at some time have been ; but, existing no longer, 
 they must, after death, have become subject to the all-per- 
 vading laws of decomposition and chemical affinity ; conse- 
 quently, in the progress of their decomposition, have given 
 rise to those results which have been so well explained by the 
 writers from whom we have so frequently and fully quoted. 
 For, wherever the efficient causes were, there the results 
 would inevitably follow. 
 
 In a former part of this work it was shown that there was 
 a succession of inferior animal life in the primitive ocean ; and 
 if a succession, then an adaptation of being to the various 
 changes which the water underwent.* 
 
 It may be well to have these facts present to the mind, while, 
 amidst the difficulties which arise from the uncertainty that 
 still prevails as to the sequence of, and influence exercised by, 
 electric chemical attraction when several ingredients are held 
 in simultaneous solution ; from the variations of temperature, 
 
 * In accordance with the 135th Theorem. 
 
384 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 and the unknown amount of these ; and from the effects of 
 the immensity of the body of the water employed, we endea- 
 vour, notwithstanding these formidable objections, briefly to 
 explain how we consider that the several ingredients (many of 
 which are of themselves insoluble in water), may be supposed 
 to have been held in chemical suspension by the primitive 
 ocean. 
 
 SILEX, the most abundant of those earthy ingredients, is 
 wholly insoluble in water in the state in which it is generally 
 found deposited. Alumina, however, unites with it in the 
 humid way, and renders silex soluble in acids, an effect which 
 barytes also exercises over it.* Muriatic acid dissolves a small 
 portion of it when finely comminuted ; and fluoric acid dis- 
 solves it either when the acid is gaseous, or when combined 
 with water.f And, it is asserted, on the authority of Berze- 
 lius, " that when newly oxygenated it is extremely soluble."}; 
 Without attempting to investigate when and how its base 
 was, at first, brought into contact with oxygen, and thereby 
 became oxygenated, we are authorized to infer, that being 
 now in actual union, there was a time when it was " newly 
 oxygenated," and that then it was soluble and impregnated 
 with the gases mentioned above. At that time water must 
 also have existed. A combination of these facts will enable 
 us to conclude, that it may have been dissolved and remained 
 soluble in the primitive water from the period of its having 
 been newly oxygenated. 
 
 ALUMINA the next abundant earth in nature although of 
 itself not soluble in any sensible degree in water, yet its com- 
 pounds are soluble in every possible proportion. The salts of 
 alumina, formed by its union with muriatic, carbonic, sulphu- 
 ric, and nitric acids, especially the first, are all abundantly 
 soluble in water. It is likewise rendered soluble by the fixed 
 alkalies, and by barytes and strontites, and therefore its solu- 
 bility in the water of the primitive ocean, where all those ex- 
 isted in profusion, is very easily accounted for. 
 
 MAGNESIA may be considered pretty much in the same 
 
 * Murray, vol. ii. pp. 71, 98. f Ibid, p. 111. J Ibid, p. 108, and Dr. 
 Ure, p. 743. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 385 
 
 relative circumstances as the last-mentioned earth; for although 
 its carbonate requires two thousand times its own weight of 
 water to dissolve it, yet, as the salts of magnesia arising from 
 combination with either muriatic, nitric, or sulphuric acids 
 are extremely soluble, there can be little difficulty in con- 
 ceiving it to have been held in solution in its states of a mu- 
 riate, or of a sulphate, and the less so when it is considered 
 that in those combinations it still exists, to a certain degree, 
 in sea water. 
 
 LIME, which, in regard to prevalence in the earth's crust, 
 occupies the third place, is of itself rather insoluble in water, 
 for this, at 60 of temperature, only takes up ^-^th part of its 
 own weight. Its carbonate is also nearly insoluble, and its sul- 
 phates require nearly 500 times their own weight to dissolve 
 them. But as a muriate and nitrate it is extremely soluble, 
 and abounds in these states, especially the former, both in the 
 waters of many springs and in the ocean ; consequently its solu- 
 bility in the primitive ocean must be readily admitted. Lime 
 presents the remarkable anomaly of being less soluble in warm 
 than in cold water ; water at 60, when the temperature is 
 increased, deposits part of the lime which it could have sus- 
 tained at the former degree.* 
 
 ZIRCONIA and GLUCINA earths but sparingly found in 
 nature though not soluble when united with carbonic acid, 
 yet are soluble when combined with either muriatic or nitric 
 acids, consequently their solubility may be considered likewise 
 established. 
 
 SODA and POTASH, fixed alkalies, possess great affinity for 
 water, and are not only soluble in it themselves, but so, like- 
 wise, are the salts which they produce by combination with 
 the acids abovementioned. They materially aid the solubility 
 of other substances, and in aqueous potash even the oxides of 
 many metals, such as lead, tin, manganese, zinc, &c., become 
 soluble a fact of great value in enabling us to follow out this 
 enquiry.-}- 
 
 The ACIDS are not only extremely soluble in water, but 
 
 Murray, vol. ii. p. 83. t Ure, p. 691, 
 
 2 c 
 
386 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 some of them are absorbed by it to the extent of many times 
 its own bulk.* 
 
 Muriatic and sulphuric acids act on the metallic oxides, and 
 also form soluble salts of iron, copper, tin, and zinc ; sulphuric 
 acid forms one of manganese ; and carbonic acid does the same 
 with iron ; and by this we are enabled to account for the solu- 
 bility of those otherwise refractory substances. 
 
 Having thus summarily accounted for the solubility of those 
 various ingredients in the primitive ocean, it next becomes 
 necessary to attempt some explanation of the manner in which 
 it is supposed they could have assumed such a state of equi- 
 librium as would have required either some abstraction from, 
 or addition to, the general menstruum, before any precipitate 
 could have taken place. 
 
 Had the earthy substances which were employed in this 
 vast laboratory all severally exercised the same degree of 
 affinity for the acids there present, or reciprocally for each 
 other, the state of equilibrium, to which we have so often 
 alluded, would have been utterly unattainable. The simple 
 ratios of affinity of several of them, however, have been accu- 
 rately ascertained, and are well-known to differ very mate- 
 rially.f It is, therefore, natural to suppose that, being all 
 present simultaneously in the general menstruum, they would 
 arrange themselves according to those affinities, until they had 
 found their level, and attained those partial states of equilibrium 
 
 * Hugo Reid, p. 108. 
 
 t For example : sulphuric acid has a greater affinity for baryta than for 
 potash, for potash than for soda ; while this latter alkali is succeeded in order 
 by lime, magnesia, ammonia, and alumina. (Ure, p. 184.) Lime has a greater 
 affinity for muriatic and sulphuric acids than for carbonic acid, while it exceeds 
 either potash or soda in affinity for the latter. Potash has a greater affinity for 
 water, for carbonic acid, and indeed for all examined substances, than soda has. 
 Soda exercises a greater preference for carbonic than for muriatic and sulphu- 
 ric acids. (Idem, p. 756.) The fixed alkalies neutralize all the salts of ammo- 
 nia, while this, in turn, neutralizes nearly all those of alumina. (Ibid, p. 141.) 
 Ammonia has also greater affinity for carbonic than for muriatic acid. Muri- 
 atic, nitric, and sulphuric acids, together with aqueous potash, act on the 
 metallic oxides ; and the alkaline earths, when combined with carbonic acid, 
 are insoluble, although the alkalies themselves, when so combined, are solu- 
 ble. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 387 
 
 from which no change could have taken place without some 
 abstraction from or addition to the general mass. 
 
 We think our reasoning on this point will receive much con- 
 firmation when we reflect that the seas have come to a static 
 condition of equilibrium ; that they maintain this now in their 
 normal or finished state, incapable of ever being again dis- 
 turbed; while it is just as conceivable, that during the progress 
 of their arriving at this ultimate stage of equilibrium, they 
 may nay, indeed, we know they must have passed through 
 several intermediate stages of partial equilibrium, from which 
 they could only have been aroused to renewed progress of 
 purification that they might assume their ultimate state, by 
 some such agency as we have so often alluded to. While the 
 general though feeble affinity of water itself (the vastly pre- 
 dominant element in the whole mass) to one and all of those 
 substances, which we have shown could, under certain forms, 
 be held in solution in it, would greatly tend to allow of per- 
 fect freedom of motion amongst the variously relationed ele- 
 ments, and admit of their uniting with facility according to 
 their several affinities. 
 
 At the same time it should be remembered, that the gaseous 
 elements now composing the atmosphere were, as yet, incor- 
 porated with their parent water, and would confer upon this 
 latter vastly increased facility to solve and to retain other in- 
 gredients. 
 
 We have only now to repeat the example we formerly gave 
 of water even in the present day, with infinitely reduced 
 powers of solution and absorption holding in simultaneous 
 combination ingredients somewhat similar to those which we 
 are constrained to consider did exist in the primitive ocean. 
 We allude to the mineral water of Carlsbad, which is found 
 to consist of sulphate, carbonate, and muriate of soda ; car- 
 bonate, fluate, and phosphate of lime ; carbonate of strontia ; 
 carbonate of magnesia ; phosphate of alumina ; carbonate of 
 iron ; carbonate of manganese ; and silica.* 
 
 Let it be supposed, therefore, that the primitive ocean, 
 
 * Annals de Chim. xxi. p. 248. 
 2 c 2 
 
388 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 charged, as we have considered it to have been, with earthy, 
 alkaline, and gaseous elements, had assumed one of those 
 stages of partial equilibrium ; and that no further deposition 
 could have taken place until either some abstraction from or 
 some addition to the general mass had been made. A spon- 
 taneous alteration, it has been shown by reference to the law 
 of inertia, could not possibly have occurred, and it was, there- 
 fore, indispensable that an agency, possessing powers inde- 
 pendent of inertia, should be employed ; or, in other words, 
 that the universal menstruum should be acted upon either by 
 crystallization, or by the principles of animal or vegetable life; 
 consequently, in either case, requiring a specific act of creative 
 power. Presuming the intention to have been to tenant the 
 bottom of this immense laboratory with innumerable animated 
 agents endowed with faculties adapted for absorbing, decom- 
 posing, assimilating, and recombining the elements which were 
 suspended in the universal menstruum, whereby many of these 
 elements became locked up ; the results alluded to, all alike 
 dependent on animal energy, would naturally ensue during 
 their lifetime ; and after their death, the elements so absorbed 
 and elaborated would be restored to the water in modified 
 combinations, and with certain peculiar additions which animal 
 secretion alone could bestow upon it. Thus there would 
 be a continual and an intricate circulation maintained in the 
 primitive ocean from as many points, along the whole extent 
 of its base, as there were mouths and stomatae in the aggregate 
 of its testaceous and polypiferous inhabitants, and its vegetable 
 existences. It appears, also, from undoubted evidence, that 
 those operations were carried on by a succession of races each 
 adapted to the surrounding media of its day, and that they 
 were continued in a similar manner through many ages, whose 
 duration, together with the multiplicity of points and cur- 
 rents, would amply compensate for the small amount of work 
 accomplished by each individual agent, and the minuteness of 
 many of those employed. 
 
 In order to simplify our subject as much as possible, we 
 have, in the foregoing, alluded chiefly to the effects of inferior 
 animal life ; but our readers should remember that a succession 
 of events and effects precisely analogous were almost simulta- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 389 
 
 neously taking place by means of the vegetative functions of 
 imperfect orders of plants, of which we shall have occasion to 
 treat more especially in the sequel. 
 
 Meantime, we have to observe, that in very many instances 
 the fossil testacea and conchifera greatly exceeded in size 
 many of their recent equivalents, and that entire calcareous 
 formations are composed almost wholly of encrustations of the 
 exuviae of testacea and conchifera, whose coverings consisted 
 of carbonate of lime amassed together by animal gluten. 
 
 It has also been explained, that carbonate of lime is com- 
 posed of carbonic acid and lime, which in their combined state 
 are wholly insoluble in water ; consequently, by means of this 
 universal carrier, and the constraining animal agency referred 
 to, those two ingredients one of which in large volumes is 
 very injurious to animal life became reciprocally bound up ; 
 were rendered innoxious to the more perfect races which were 
 afterwards to follow ; and were stored up for the future uses 
 of man, whose intelligence alone could disunite and apply them 
 to his own purposes. 
 
 Significant as this is of the unbounded goodness of Provi- 
 dence in thus providing for his creatures, it was not this view 
 alone of the case to which we intended to direct the attention 
 by reminding our readers, " that the shelly coverings of those 
 testacce and conchifera were composed of carbonic acid and 
 lime, forced into union by their animal chemistry and elabo- 
 ration" but to bring out another very striking manifestation of 
 the wisdom which pervaded the whole work of Creation- 
 According to the well-ascertained affinity which lime exercises 
 towards the various acids several of which were known to 
 exist in the primitive ocean there is none with which it 
 would not sooner have spontaneously united, than with car- 
 bonic acid; and, consequently, had the constituent elements 
 been allowed to combine as their affinities would have induced 
 them, it is evident that so long as there remained within a 
 combining distance, an unappropriated volume of muriatic, 
 nitric, sulphuric, or, indeed, any other acid, no spontaneous 
 combination between lime and carbonic acid would have taken 
 place. No carbonate of lime would have been formed. In 
 order to separate lime from its combination with muriatic, 
 
390 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THfi 
 
 nitric, or sulphuric acid, to which it has so strong an affinity, 
 and cause it to combine with carbonic acid, the application 
 of a force beyond chemical affinity was essential, and that 
 power was provided, by the faculty having been conferred on 
 the testacea, conchifera, and zoophyta, to abstract those ele- 
 ments from the surrounding medium, and to elaborate them 
 into carbonate of lime, to constitute their calcareous cover- 
 ings. The fact, itself, of their union has been established 
 beyond a doubt.* The motive which induced the Creator so 
 to order the chemical affinites that this animal agency should 
 be indispensable, may not, at first sight, be quite so apparent ; 
 but when we submit, in our researches, to a constraining con- 
 viction of the fitness of the means adopted, on all occasions, 
 by the Omnipotent, to the end which He has in view ; and 
 bring to mind the perfection of the attributes which, in union, 
 guide His determinations, we shall be ready to confess that 
 beneficence towards His creatures must have prevailed through- 
 out the whole. 
 
 When we are made aware of the importance in the develop- 
 ment of the great plan of Creation, of certain elements which 
 appear to have been capable of being produced only by animal 
 secretion ; and remember the necessity of the elaborators being 
 provided with coverings of some hard material insoluble in 
 water, to protect their molluscous bodies from the pressure of 
 the ocean ; and add to these that, while assiduously working 
 out the Creator's will, they were enjoying as much pleasure as 
 their restricted powers and inferior animal life were suscep- 
 tible of, we may obtain a glimpse, faint though it be, of some 
 of the motives which seem to have induced their being called 
 into existence, and employed for ages to do the Creator's 
 work at the bottom of the primitive ocean ; while their com- 
 parative fixity, and limited degree of animal sensation, adapted 
 
 * We have just been informed by a competent and impartial authority, that 
 the polypiferous and molluscous inhabitants of the ocean possess the faculty of 
 abstracting lime from the surrounding briny element, even though it should 
 exist only in proportions so minute as to escape the most searching chemical 
 test ; and we have also seen that they can elaborate it into particles of such 
 tiny proportions that hundreds of thousands of them are required for the con- 
 struction of an animal not larger than a usual sized lily. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 391 
 
 them more peculiarly to the situation they held, and fitted 
 them for the labour they had to perform.* 
 
 If it were admitted, that in some relative positions of the 
 associated elements which were held in solution by the primi- 
 tive waters, lime would be more difficult of abstraction, that 
 is, that it was held in firmer affinity by some of the acidulous 
 states of the ocean, than at other times, and by other states of 
 it, then we might thereby easily account for the succession, in 
 many instances apparently gradual changes of animal life; 
 it being necessary under these circumstances, in order to carry 
 on the work in progress, that there should have been formed 
 new races of creatures, possessing greater powers of abstrac- 
 tion than their predecessors, and better adapted for overcoming 
 the greater resistance which lime evinced to separate itself from 
 its acidulous associates. 
 
 It should not be altogether overlooked, either, that even 
 although they had been supplied with the nutriment which 
 they required, death would frequently be taking place amongst 
 those mollusca and zoophyta ;)- and that the gaseous exha- 
 lations which, as will be seen more particularly in the sequel, 
 would arise therefrom, would, by separating certain earthy 
 elements from others with which they were associated, cause 
 the deposition of as much earthy and metallic bases as those 
 gaseous exhalations were capable of releasing and precipitating. 
 
 * We have motives for conjecturing that during the period of non-rotation 
 the Creator was causing to be elaborated, besides those parts more discernible 
 by our senses, the materials which, in due time, and by His sovereign mandate, 
 should constitute the etherial fluid or primitive light, to be " stretched forth as 
 a curtain" when the other parts of the wonderful work were in a suitable con- 
 dition to be combined with, and acted upon, by this second all-pervading law 
 of materialism. 
 
 f It will be observed, that we assume death, or extinction of animal life, to 
 have been a prevailing law during the period of non-rotation, ages prior to 
 the Mosaic week. Occular demonstration, arising from the every where 
 abounding exuviae of living forms convinces us of this. We have, besides, the 
 authority of sound inference to lead us to the same conclusion ; for, had our 
 first parents not understood the full signification of the denouncement con- 
 tained in the words, " in the day thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die," this 
 gracious warning of their contingent doom would not have been made use of 
 to exercise that salutary influence for which it was evidently designed. 
 
392 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 The small continued doses of ammonia, which would arise 
 from the decomposition of their bodies, and ascend by lighter 
 specific gravity, would also contribute more effectually to this 
 than if those exhalations had been more abundant; for more 
 powerful doses of ammonia are found to re-dissolve the pre- 
 cipitate.* 
 
 Without tarrying at present to enquire into the cause of the 
 progressive increase of the temperature of the primitive ocean, 
 but assuming this to be a fact established beyond a doubt,f we 
 shall apply it to a point equally well ascertained in chemistry, 
 namely, that water, when heated beyond 60 of Fahrenheit, 
 deposits part of the lime which it can hold in solution at that 
 degree of the thermometer. Or, in other words, " that lime 
 possesses the remarkable anomaly of being less soluble in 
 warm than in cold water." This may, perhaps, in part ac- 
 count for what has hitherto appeared so inexplicable, namely, 
 the increase of calcareous formations, up to a certain point, 
 according as they approach the present era, lime abounding 
 more in the upper than in the lower formations. Agreeable 
 to the laws which regulate animal functions and life, its gradual 
 and progressive increase will, most probably, account for the 
 remainder of this excess of lime in the newer, when compared 
 with the older series of rocks ; while, what has been said on 
 the subject, altogether, may serve as an imperfect indication, 
 and point the way to a more successful explanation of the 
 manner in which the whole of the GREAT CARBONIFEROUS 
 LIMESTONE SUIT may have been formed. 
 
 A^ a suitable illustration of this we may quote what Pro- 
 fessor Phillips says regarding the " deposition of the oolitic 
 system :" 
 
 " The concretionary structure of these limestones is imitated in 
 modern times only in situations where carbonate of lime is separated 
 from chemical solution in water (Carlsbad). If we ascribe this origin 
 to the oolitic sediment, the concretionary aggregation of the particles 
 may be understood as arising from molecular attraction in the mass, 
 
 * Attraction, Dr. Ure's Chemical Dictionary, 
 t See 36th Theorem and proofs. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 393 
 
 and, in fact, many of the spherules of oolite contain an internal 
 nucleus of previously solidified matter, a small shell, a grain of 
 sand, or somewhat else, capable of determining the condensation of 
 the particles to particular centres ; just as the matter of iron stone 
 has collected into nodules round a fish scale, a piece of fern branch, 
 or a shell."* 
 
 As there were no attendant circumstances in the then con- 
 dition of our sphere to render what was applicable to one 
 place inapplicable to another, the same causes would, of neces- 
 sity, everywhere produce the same effects simultaneously, to 
 encrust the bottom of the ocean in those localities which it 
 pleased an omniscient Creator should be so prepared in per- 
 fect harmony with the development of His plans, and for the 
 future benefit of His creatures. 
 
 We formerly explained at considerable length, that the re- 
 searches which have been made into the state of the ancient 
 fossil remains, reveal, in the most unequivocal manner, that 
 there has been a succession of inferior animal life during those 
 early geological epochs ; and it was attempted to be proved, 
 that as these successive generations were wholly dependant on 
 the surrounding medium for their food, and matter for their 
 coverings, each race must have become extinct when those 
 peculiar substances, which it required, had been exhausted, 
 by drainage, from the surrounding element. In the subject 
 which has more immediately occupied our attention, we 
 obtained a glimpse of some of the more prominent uses to 
 which these testacea, conchifera, and zoophyta were made sub- 
 servient by their agency during the course of their fixed and 
 tranquil life. And we have now to endeavour to show, that 
 by their death which, for the cogent reasons already given, 
 we assume as a matter of fact they also contributed in a 
 singular manner to the development of the great plan of 
 Creation. With this view we shall first unfold the phenomena 
 which attend the decomposition of animal matter. 
 
 " When," in the expressive language of Dr. Fleming, " the vital 
 principle has deserted the body which it had constructed, and sur- 
 
 * Treatise on Geology, pp. 147, 148. 
 
394 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 rendered it to the influence of the laws of inorganic matter, then, in 
 obedience to the power of gravitation, the pliant twig hangs down, 
 and the slender stem bends. In animals, the body falls to the 
 ground ; the pressure of the upper parts flattens those on which the 
 others rest ; the skin stretches ; and the graceful rotundity of life is 
 exchanged for the oblateness of death. The laws of chemistry then 
 appear to operate in the production of the cadaverous smell, the 
 prelude to putrefaction, when dust returns to dust."* 
 
 Messrs. Todd and Bowman confirm this, when they say 
 
 " While these substances (those of animal bodies) retain a perfect 
 organization, and are supplied with their proper stimuli, vital actions 
 go on without interruption, and no change takes place in the matter 
 of the organism excepting such as result from its proper affinities. 
 But no sooner is the integrity of its structure destroyed, or the influ- 
 ence of the vital stimuli withdrawn, than action ceases, the organism 
 dies, and the organic matter yields up its elements to form new 
 compounds, a large proportion of which are inorganic. "( 
 
 By the hundred and thirty-ninth Theorem it will be seen, 
 "That on the decomposition of animal substances taking 
 place, when moisture and a certain degree of heat are present, 
 putrefaction commences, the elements of the animal matter 
 enter into new combinations, and generally pass off in the 
 gaseous form ; ammonia being always disengaged in consider- 
 able quantity : phosphuretted, sulphuretted, and carburetted 
 hydrogen, and carbonic acid are likewise separated, and only 
 an inconsiderable portion of earthy matter remains when the 
 process is finished.'" 
 
 " When the putrefaction of animal substances commences," Dr. 
 Murray states, " their elements enter into new combinations which 
 generally pass off in a gaseous form ; and only an inconsiderable 
 quantity of earthy matter remains when the process is finished. A 
 certain temperature is necessary to this process ; below 32 it appears 
 to be arrested, as is evinced by the bodies of the mammoth and rhi- 
 noceros found in ice blocks on the northern shores of Siberia, 
 perfectly unaltered, though they must have lain there from a time 
 
 * Philos. of Zoology, vol. i. p. 39. t Phisiol. and Anat. of Man, p. 15. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 395 
 
 anterior to all history. The air does not seem essential to putre- 
 factive changes by any chemical action, but a communication with 
 the atmosphere is favourable, by allowing the elastic products to 
 escape. The precise nature of these combinations has not, from the 
 offensiveness of the process, been accurately observed, and they 
 probably vary according to the nature of the animal matter, and the 
 circumstances under which it is decomposed. Ammonia, formed by 
 the union of the nitrogen and hydrogen of the animal matter, is 
 always disengaged in considerable quantity. Phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen appears to be produced ; and to this gas the odour termed 
 putrid is chiefly owing. Sulphuretted hydrogen occasionally forms 
 another part of the vapours disengaged from putrefying substances, 
 as they have often in some degree its smell, and blacken the metals, 
 a peculiar property of this gas. Carburetted hydrogen and carbonic 
 acid are likewise separated, and it is probable that not only these 
 binary combinations, but also compound gases, consisting of three 
 or more of these elements, with oxygen, are formed and discharged. 
 
 " Putrefaction is the great process employed by nature to restore 
 the elements of matter to simpler forms of existence, and to prepare 
 them again to pass through new series of combinations. Being 
 necessarily carried on at the surface of the earth, its products are 
 diffused through the atmosphere, dissolved by water, and absorbed 
 by the soil : they furnish the principal nutritious matter for the 
 support of vegetables, and are thus again adapted to the nourish- 
 ment of animals."* 
 
 " Like vegetables," says Mr. Reid, " animals, as soon as the vital 
 principle has departed from them, are solely obedient to the laws of 
 chemistry; they lose their form and entirely disappear, the elements 
 of which they are composed enter into new states of combination, 
 and they decay or rot, partly mixing with the air as transparent 
 invisible gases, and partly crumbling down to powder, which, mixed 
 with, cannot be distinguished from, the surrounding earth. 
 
 " From the presence of nitrogen, ammonia is formed during their 
 putrefaction. Ammonia consists of hydrogen and nitrogen, as formed 
 during the decomposition of animal substances ; it is in union with 
 carbonic acid in the state of carbonate of ammonia. Carburetted 
 hydrogen, and small quantities of two other compounds of hydrogen, 
 (sulpuretted hydrogen, and phosphuretted hydrogen gases) are 
 formed during the decomposition of animal matters. The chief 
 
 * Murray's Elements of Chemistry, vol. ii. pp. 676, 677. 
 
396 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 products of the decomposition are water, carbonic acid, and car- 
 bonate of ammonia The bones and shells of animal 
 
 bodies, on account of the earthy matter which they contain, endure 
 for a very long period ; but, gradually, as the animal matter or 
 cement is decomposed, and separated from the earthy matter, also 
 moulder away, and mix with the surrounding earth."* 
 
 "Ammonia," says Dr. Murray, "is always produced by indirect 
 processes. Its ultimate source is usually from the decomposition 
 of animal matter, of which its constituent principles are elements, 
 and which, in the new combinations taking place in that decompo- 
 sition, unite so as to form it."-j~ 
 
 " In consequence," Dr. Fleming observes, " of this difference of 
 composition, all vegetable matters may be easily distinguished when 
 burning ; the odour of each is so peculiar that the test may be 
 safely employed by the most inexperienced. Besides, as vegetables 
 abound in oxygen, they have a tendency, after death, to become 
 acid by its new combinations with carbon and hydrogen ; whereas 
 the soft parts of animals, after death, are disposed to become alka- 
 line, the azote entering into new combinations with the hydrogen, 
 and forming ammonia. "J 
 
 " Organized bodies," say Messrs. Todd and Bowman, " are found 
 
 in two states or conditions, life and death That of death 
 
 is one in which all vital action has ceased, and to which the disinte- 
 gration of the organized body succeeds as a natural consequence. . . . 
 
 " Such bodies are also capable of being resolved by chemical 
 analyses into the inorganic simple elements, but comprising only 
 about seventeen. 
 
 " Of the widely-spread elements oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and 
 carbon, two, at least, will be found in every organic compound ; and 
 these four, as Dr. Prout has suggested, may therefore be called the 
 essential elements of organic matter. The other simple substances 
 are found in smaller quantities, and are less extensively diffused ; 
 these may be termed its incidental elements. They are sulphur, 
 phosphorus, chlorine, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sili- 
 con aluminum, iron, manganese, iodine, and bromine ; the last two 
 are obtained almost exclusively from marine plants and animals. " 
 
 * Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 181. 
 
 t Murray's Elements of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 11. 
 
 J Philosophy of Zoology, vol. i. p. 41. 
 
 Physiology aud Anatomy of Man, pp. 4 6. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 397 
 
 In order to preserve that continuity of thought, which is so 
 essential in close reasoning, we have confined ourselves to a 
 succinct account of the usual results of animal decomposition. 
 One of the principal exhalations arising therefrom is ammonia, 
 which originates in the combination of hydrogen with the 
 nitrogen of animal secretion. But ammonia, introduced into 
 a compound, in which the salts of alumina are held in solution, 
 throws down their earthy base, even although acidulated with 
 muriatic acid.* Consequently, as the decomposition of animal 
 substances would assuredly cause ammonia, which is of low 
 specific gravity, to ascend and enter in amongst the other 
 ingredients in the compound solution held by the primitive 
 ocean, so surely would its introduction precipitate alumina. 
 Again, it is asserted by M. Berthollet, whose authority is of 
 great weight in all matters relating to experimental chemistry, 
 that " whenever an earth is precipitated from a saline combi- 
 nation by an alkali, it will carry down along with it a portion 
 of its acid associate, "f These truths we beg may be kept 
 present to the mind, for we shall have occasion for them pre- 
 sently in the further illustration of this subject. It is also 
 deserving of notice, as we have had occasion lately to remark, 
 that the moderate doses of ammonia which would, from the 
 nature of the circumstances, be introduced into the menstruum, 
 would greatly aid the operations then going on. 
 
 Ammonia would exercise the same influence over whatever 
 zirconia and glucina was held, at the time, in solution, for it 
 also precipitates their earthy bases, and may account for the 
 occasional presence of these scanty earths in the rocky masses 
 of the globe ; while 
 
 Barytes and strontites, in their several soluble states, aided 
 the solubility of alumina ; and they would, by the deposition 
 of the latter, be left disengaged to act wherever their natural 
 affinities thereafter induced them. 
 
 Barytes, strontites, and lime, by the attraction they exercise 
 towards silex, would cause the latter to separate from its solu- 
 tion in potash ; J and, according to the phenomena above-men- 
 tioned, to carry down a part of its associate ; while a simulta- 
 
 * Ure, p. 141, and Murray, p, 82. f Ure, p. 186. J Murray, p. 111. 
 
398 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 neous precipitating influence would be brought to bear on 
 silex by ammonia depositing alumina. Alumina being no 
 longer present to aid the acids in dissolving silex, that flinty 
 earth would be discharged in a ratio proportioned to the de- 
 position of the other ; and these two concurring causes, the 
 one positive, the other negative, will, to a certain extent, 
 account for the simultaneous deposition of silex and alumina, 
 two earthy substances which enter chiefly into the composition 
 of all clays. But yet, it is evident, that these causes are by 
 no means sufficient to account for the great preponderance 
 which silica has in almost every formation, especially in the 
 aluminous strata, whose principal ingredient it is. Silica 
 being a substance so difficult of solution, and so recondite with 
 respect to the agents capable of acting upon it, we are prone 
 to suppose that some other causes beyond those stated were 
 present in effecting its deposition ; while, at the same time, 
 we know that electrical currents would effect what we are 
 otherwise at a loss to account for ; and, as we do not doubt 
 the existence of electrical currents, we naturally look to them 
 as the efficient cause for the preponderance of the siliceous 
 elements alluded to. 
 
 It has been shown that lime exercises a stronger affinity for 
 carbonic acid than magnesia ;* while both barytes and stron- 
 tia possess stronger affinity than lime does, certainly to sul- 
 phuric, and perhaps to muriatic acid.f Carbonic acid enables 
 water to hold carbonate of magnesia in solution. Alumina, 
 by the affinity it exerts towards magnesia, aids its precipita- 
 tion from saline compounds ; and ammonia assists to precipi- 
 tate magnesia from its solution. J Combining these truths we 
 have the following: 1. That the abstraction of carbonic acid 
 from the water would cause the precipitation of the carbonate 
 of magnesia. 2. That the more powerful affinities of the 
 other earths for the acids mentioned, by preventing this alka- 
 line earth recombining with them, would tend to the same 
 result. Lastly, that the free alumina in subsiding itself, by 
 the affinity which it exerts to magnesia, would carry a part 
 down along with it ; the introduction of ammonia would effect 
 
 * Ure, p. 585. f Ibid, p. 184. I Murray, p. 98. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 399 
 
 the same results. In these combined causes we have a suffi- 
 cient explanation for the presence of magnesia ; while a vary- 
 ing intensity in the activity and quantity of the efficient causes, 
 may, perhaps, be sufficient to explain the difference in the 
 proportions observable in the several minerals of which this 
 porous earth forms a part.* 
 
 It has been already shown how the metallic oxides are 
 capable of being solved, and held in suspension by the pri- 
 mitive fluid ; and it only remains now to explain the pro- 
 cess by which they were precipitated from it. To do this 
 we must have recourse to another of the principal binary 
 compounds, which, according to the scientific writers for- 
 merly quoted, results from the decomposition of animal mat- 
 ter. We allude to phosphuretted hydrogen, which, in gene- 
 ral parlance , precipitates metals from metallic solutions. )- 
 While confining these general assertions to particular cases, 
 it can be said, that it throws down iron from the salts of that 
 metal,J and also from that of manganese. Ammonia, like- 
 wise, precipitates iron, manganese, and other metals from their 
 watery solutions. But all of these precipitates must yield 
 the palm to the electrical influences acting in aqueous currents, 
 which have been found to be peculiarly adapted, not only for 
 crystallizing those and other metals, but also for disposing 
 them in nodules, or small detached masses, for Mr. Fox justly 
 observes, that "copper, tin, iron, and zinc, in combination 
 with the sulphuric and muriatic acids, being very soluble in 
 water, are in this state capable of conducting voltaic elec- 
 tricity." || Iron, it would appear, is generally found as an 
 oxide intermixed with argillaceous, calcareous, and siliceous 
 earths.^ 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen, another of the binary compounds 
 arising from animal decomposition, possesses the property, 
 when in union with sulphur and the alkalies, of forming very 
 variable triple combinations.** Carburetted hydrogen, which 
 is the remaining exhalation, seems, under certain circum- 
 
 * Murray, pp. 82, 380. f Ure, p. 681. J Murray, vol. ii. p. 210. 
 
 Literary Gazette for 7th May, 1836, p. 296. || Murray, pp. 380, 381. 
 
 H Murray, p. 197. ** Dr. Ure's Dictionary, p. 777. 
 
400 - DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 stances, to deposit carbon, leaving the hydrogen free. It 
 also possesses the peculiarity of impeding the union of oxy- 
 gen and hydrogen, and other gases having an affinity for oxy- 
 gen. When brought into contact with muriatic acid, it com- 
 bines and produces an oily looking compound of considerable 
 specific gravity. The respective bases of these two gases can 
 be made to produce an interesting fluid compound, called car- 
 buret of sulphur,* which, when introduced together with pot- 
 ash and water, into metallic solutions, causes precipitates of a 
 peculiar kind, called carbo-sulphurets.-)* 
 
 The remaining binary exhalation from the decomposition of 
 animal substances after death, is carbonic acid. When we re- 
 flect how essential this is towards the growth and nourishment 
 of the plants which were about to be brought into existence, 
 we cannot but admire the wonderful wisdom and providential 
 care of the Deity, who thus provided, beforehand, for every 
 successive step in the work of creation. 
 
 * Ure, p. 778. f Ibid, p. 307. 
 
SECTION IV. 
 
 DEPOSITION OF THE STRATA DURING THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD, 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 The consequence of the introduction of any new element into chemical com- 
 pounds of numerous ingredients. Evidences to show that clays, sand- 
 stones, and shales are composed of the same materials, which are assumed 
 to have been held in solution by the primitive ocean. Chemical agency 
 in the formation of the Old Red Sandstone. Geological evidence for the 
 existence of extensive stratified masses of clays, sandstones, and shales 
 underneath the Coal Measures. The succession of animal life during the 
 period alluded to clearly deduced from the progressive change of the 
 primitive ocean, and confirmed by the results of geological research. 
 Wisdom of the arrangement which placed calcareous strata underneath 
 the coal deposits, and between the latter and the igneous rocks which 
 were ejected, amidst such intense heat, arising from the friction occasioned 
 by the protorotation of the earth around its axis. 
 
 BEFORE commencing the principal subject of this chapter, 
 we beg to direct the attention, for a moment, to an important 
 feature in all chemical compounds in which a variety of sub- 
 stances are held in combination. We allude to the change 
 produced on the whole by the introduction of any new element. 
 The greater affinity manifested by the introduced substance 
 for some of the original elements causing these to abandon 
 their former associates, in order to unite with it ; and which, 
 in turn, paves the way for other similar re-arrangements 
 amongst the remaining ingredients, although no direct influence 
 may, or indeed could, have been exercised over these latter 
 by that which has been added to the compound. Changes 
 such as we now refer to in the nature of the binary or ternary 
 compounds, of which the mass consists, may have the effect of 
 
 2 D 
 
402 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 altering the equilibrium of compatibility, and of producing such 
 a state of incompatibility as may occasion the precipitation of 
 whatever is requisite to restore the mass to a condition of 
 equilibrium. For full information respecting substances which 
 cause incompatibility, we beg to refer to the table given by 
 Dr. A. Ure in his Chemical Dictionary, page 815, a perusal 
 of which will convey a more perfect conception of what we 
 desire, by this advertency, to impress on the mind. 
 
 It may, perhaps, tend to simplify the general question, were 
 we to make it quite apparent, that the elements of the clays, 
 sands, and shales which were formed during the period to 
 which we now allude, correspond with the character of the pre- 
 cipitates supposed to have been discharged from the primitive 
 fluid by the causes to which we have referred. This we shall 
 best accomplish, perhaps, by giving the analysis of these seve- 
 ral earths by writers who have treated the subject chemically. 
 
 "Kaolin, or porcelain earth," according to Dr. Ure, " consists of 
 52 per cent, of silica, 47 of alumina, and 0.33 of oxide of iron. 
 Potter's clay contains 63 of silica, 16 of alumina, 1 of lime, 8 of 
 iron, and 10 of water. Another analysis of the same gives 63.5 of 
 silica, 33 of alumina, and 3.5 of lime. Adhesive slate consists of 
 62.5 silica, 9.5 alumina, 8.0 magnesia, 0.25 lime, 4.0 oxide of iron, 
 and 14 water. Common clay 1.0 of silica, 31 of alumina, 0.5 lime, 
 21.5 sulphuric acid, and 45.0 water. Clay slate 48.6 of silica, 23.5 
 of alumina, 1.6 magnesia, 11.3 oxide of iron, 0.5 of manganese, 4.7 
 potash, 0.3 of carbon, 0.1 sulphur, and 7.6 of water."* 
 
 "Aluminite," says the same author, "consists of sulphuric acid 
 19.25, alumina 32.5, water 47.0, silica, lime, and oxide of iron 
 1.25."f 
 
 " The term clay," says Dr. Murray, "is ambiguous, but is applied 
 to those earthy mixtures, more or less indurated, which imbibe 
 water, and may be kneaded into a paste somewhat ductile. Alumina 
 is the base of all of them, and gives this predominating character ; it 
 is mixed with various proportions of silex, magnesia, lime, and 
 oxide of iron. Clay slate, as found by Kirwan, is composed of 
 silex 38, alumina 26, magnesia 8, lime 14, and oxide of iron 14. "J 
 
 * Ure, pp. 331, 332. t Ibid, p. 146. 
 
 I Murray's Elements, vol. ii. pp. 311, 312. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 403 
 
 These results, it will be seen, very closely agree with what 
 it was anticipated would take place, from the introduction of 
 the peculiar exhalents of decomposing animal substances into 
 a general menstruum holding alumina, silex, lime, magnesia, 
 potash, soda, oxides of iron and manganese, and several acids 
 in solution ; we therefore consider it next to impossible for 
 any unprejudiced mind to contemplate this perfect coincidence 
 without feeling convinced, that strata corresponding to these 
 characters would of necessity be the result. Indeed, we must 
 either come at once to this conclusion, or for ever abandon all 
 faith in the true meaning of words, or in the results of scien- 
 tific experiments. After we have endeavoured to explain how 
 some of the remaining earths were thrown down, we shall con- 
 clude the evidence, on these particular points, by proving, from 
 the experience of geologists, that rocky masses of corresponding 
 character do really exist precisely where, as the direct effects 
 of these causes, they might most naturally have been sought 
 for. 
 
 Although hitherto we have not alluded to the ocean having 
 contained nitric acid; yet, as it held in solution the ele- 
 ments of which this is formed, viz., oxygen and nitrogen, it 
 is perfectly legitimate to suppose that they did combine in 
 such proportions as to form that powerful acid. It has been 
 assumed that baryta and strontia were held in solution in the 
 ocean, and assisted to cause the solubility of other substances ; 
 and, if they were so held in solution, they must have been in 
 union with muriatic and nitric acids, in which states they 
 alone present soluble compounds. 
 
 It will be remembered that we presented a list of the com- 
 parative affinities, given by Dr. Ure, of several substances 
 with sulphuric acid, in which baryta predominated over all 
 the others ; strontia possessing properties and affinities very 
 similar to the latter earth, we may conjecture that each of 
 these would rob the other enumerated substances of their 
 sulphuric acid. Again, baryta and strontia exercise very 
 strong affinities for carbonic acid, and would, when both were 
 free, combine with it. But baryta and strontia in union with 
 the carbonic and sulphuric acids, form some of the most 
 ponderous and less soluble of the earthy minerals; and, 
 
 2 D 2 
 
404 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 consequently, they would, on assuming these combinations, be 
 precipitated from the general menstruum. That such was ac- 
 tually the case, we consider will be sufficiently proved by the 
 following quotations : 
 
 " Baryta" says Dr. Ure, " is divided by Dr. Jameson into the 
 four following species, viz. : 
 
 " 1. Rhomboidal Baryta, or WitTierite. A carbonate of baryta, 
 with occasionally 1 per cent, of carbonate of strontia, and sulphate 
 of baryta. It occurs in Cumberland and Durham, in lead veins 
 which traverse a secondary limestone, and rest on the red sandstone ; 
 its specific gravity is 4.3. 
 
 "2. Prismatic Baryta, or Heavy Spar. Of this there are nine sub- 
 species. . . . They are all sulphates of baryta in composition. . . . 
 Specific gravity 4.1 to 4.6. In Great Britain they occur in veins of 
 different primitive and transition rocks, and in secondary limestones, 
 &c., in the lead mines of Cumberland, Durham, and Westmoreland. 
 
 " 3. Diprismatic Baryta, or Strontianite. Its constituents are 
 
 "Strontia 61.20 69.5 62.0 74.0 
 
 Carbonic acid .... 30.30 30.0 30.0 25.5 
 Water 8.50 0.5 8.0 0.5 
 
 100.00 100.0 100.0 100.0 
 
 " Its specific gravity is 3.7, and it occurs at Strontian, in Argyll- 
 shire, in veins that traverse gneiss, along with galena, heavy spar, 
 and calcareous spar. 
 
 " 4. Axifrangible Baryta, or Celestine is a sulphate of strontia, 
 with about 2 per cent, of sulphate of baryta. It occurs in trap tuff, 
 in the Calton Hill at Edinburgh, and in the red sandstone at Inver- 
 ness. It is abundant in the neighbourhood of Bristol. Specific 
 gravity, 3.9."* 
 
 Besides these four species of baryta, in which there are 
 occasional admixtures of strontia, these two earths unite toge- 
 ther and form a mineral called Barystrontianite or Stromnite, 
 of which Dr. Ure gives the following account : 
 
 " It is composed of carbonate of strontia 68.6, sulphate of baryta 
 27.5, carbonate of lime 3.6, and oxide of iron 0.1, and is found in 
 
 lire's Chemical Dictionary, pp. 518, 519. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 405 
 
 veins, or rather nests, accompanied by galena, at Stromness. Spe- 
 cific gravity 3.7."* 
 
 In continuation, the following passage from the " Old Red 
 Sandstone," although somewhat long, yet is so interesting; 
 indicates so clearly the difficulties of the case, and alludes to 
 so many of the causes in operation during the deposition of 
 the non-rotatory period, that we appeal to it with satisfaction, 
 and are persuaded our readers will peruse it with pleasure : 
 
 " The chemistry of the old red sandstone formation," says Mr. 
 Miller, " seems scarcely inferior in interest to its zoology ; hut the 
 chemist has still much to do for geology, and the processes are hut 
 imperfectly known. There is no field in which more laurels await 
 the philosophical chemist than the geological one. I have said that 
 all the calcareous nodules of the ichthyolite beds seem to have had 
 originally their nucleus of organic matter. In nine cases out of ten 
 the organism can be distinctly traced ; and in the tenth there is 
 almost always something to indicate where it lay an elliptical 
 patch of black, or an oblong spot, from which the prevailing colour 
 of the stone has been discharged, and a lighter hue substituted. Is 
 the reader acquainted with Mr. Pepy's accidental experiment, as 
 related by Mr. Lyell, and recorded in the first volume of the Geo- 
 logical Transactions ? It affords an interesting proof that animal 
 matter in a state of putrefaction proves a powerful agent in the 
 decomposition of mineral substances held in solution, and of their 
 consequent precipitation. An earthern pitcher containing several 
 quarts of sulphate of iron, had been suffered to remain undisturbed 
 and unexamined in a corner of Mr. Pepy's laboratory for about a 
 twelvemonth. Some luckless mice had, meanwhile, fallen into it, 
 and been drowned ; and when it at length came to be examined, an 
 oily scum, and a yellow sulphureous powder, mixed with hairs were 
 seen floating on the top, and the bones of the mice discovered lying 
 at the bottom ; and it was found that over the decaying bodies the 
 mineral components of the fluid had been separated and precipitated 
 in a dark-coloured sediment, consisting of grains of pyrites and of 
 sulphur, of copperas in its green and crystalline form, and of black 
 oxide of iron. The animal and mineral matters had mutually acted 
 upon one another ; and the metallic sulphate, deprived of its oxygen 
 
 * Dr. lire's Chemical Dictionary, p. 200. 
 
406 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 in the process, had thus cast down its ingredients. It would seem 
 that over the putrefying bodies of the fish of the lower old red sand- 
 stone, the water had deposited, in like manner, the lime with which 
 it was charged ; and hence the calcareous nodules in which we find 
 their remains enclosed. 
 
 " The form of the nodule almost invariably agrees with that of 
 the ichthyolite within : it is a coffin in the ancient Egyptian style. 
 Was the ichthyolite twisted half round in the contorted attitude of 
 violent death ? the nodule has also its twist. Did it retain its 
 natural posture? the nodule presents the corresponding spindle form. 
 Was it broken up and the outline destroyed ? the nodule is flattened 
 and shapeless. In almost every instance the form of the organism 
 seems to have regulated that of the stone. We may trace in many 
 of these concretionary masses the operations of three distinct princi- 
 ples, all of which must have been in activity at one and the same 
 time. They are wrapped concentrically each round its organism ; 
 they split readily in the line of the enclosing stratum, and are 
 marked by its alternating rectilinear bars of lighter and darker 
 colour ; and they are radiated from the centre to the circumference. 
 Their concentric condition shows the chemical influences of the 
 decaying animal matter ; their fissile character and parallel layers 
 of colour, indicate the general deposition which was taking place 
 at the time ; and their radiated structure testifies to that law of 
 crystalline attraction, through which, by a wonderful masonry, the 
 invisible, but well-cut atoms build up their cubes, their rhombs, 
 their hexagons, and their pyramids, and are at once the architects 
 and the materials of the structure which they rear. 
 
 "Another and very different chemical effect of organic matter 
 may be remarked in the darker-coloured arenaceous deposits of the 
 formation, and occasionally in the stratified clays and nodules of the 
 ichthyolite bed. In a print-work the whole web is frequently thrown 
 into the vat and dyed of one colour ; but there afterwards comes a 
 discharging process : some chemical mixture is dropped on the 
 fabric ; the dye disappears wherever the mixture touches ; and in 
 leaves, and sprigs, and patches, according to the printer's pattern, 
 the cloth assumes its original white. Now, the coloured deposits of 
 the old red sandstone have, in like manner, been subjected to a dis- 
 charging process. The dye has disappeared in oblong or circular 
 patches of various sizes, from the eighth of an inch to a foot in 
 diameter ; the original white has taken its place ; and so thickly 
 are these speckles grouped in some of the darker tinted beds that 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 407 
 
 the surfaces, where washed by the sea, present the appearance of 
 sheets of calico. 
 
 " The discharging agent was organic matter ; the uncoloured 
 patches are not mere surface films, for, when cut at right angles, 
 their depth is found to correspond with their breadth, the circle is a 
 sphere, the ellipsis forms the section of an egg-shaped body, and in 
 the centre of each we generally find traces of the organism in whose 
 decay it originated. I have repeatedly found single scales in the 
 ichthyolite beds surrounded by uncoloured spheres about the size 
 of musket bullets. 
 
 " It is well for the young geologist carefully to mark such appear- 
 ances to trace them through the various instances in which the 
 organism may be recognised and identified with those in which its 
 last vestiges have disappeared. They are the hatchments of the 
 geological world, and indicate that life once existed where all other 
 record of it has perished."* 
 
 To complete the evidence on this particular branch of our 
 argument, it is now only necessary to bring forward the 
 promised proofs, that aluminous and arinaceous beds and shales 
 intervene between the carboniferous part of the coal measures 
 and the limestone beneath. For this purpose, besides begging 
 reference to the incidental evidence in what has been already 
 quoted from the works of Sir Henry de la Beche, Dr. M'Cul- 
 loch, and others, when establishing the position and character 
 of tbe carboniferous limestone, we have to add the following 
 extracts bearing more immediately on the present question : 
 
 " With respect to the carboniferous group," says M. de la Beche, 
 " the masses of the old red sandstone, carboniferous limestone, and 
 coal measures are well separated from each other, though there may 
 be small alternations at their contact, "f 
 
 And again, quoting from Professor Sedgwick, he says 
 
 " On the re-appearance of the carboniferous limestone at the base 
 of the Yorkshire chain, we still find the same general analogies of 
 structure enormous masses of limestone form the lowest part, and 
 the rich coal fields the highest part of the series ; and we also find 
 
 * Old Red Sandstone, pp. 288292. f Manual of Geology, p. 431. 
 
408 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 the millstone grit occupying an intermediate position. The mill- 
 stone grit, however, becomes a very complex deposit, with several 
 subordinate beds of coal ; and is separated from the great inferior 
 calcareous groups, not merely by the great shale and shale lime- 
 stone, as in Derbyshire, but by a still more complex deposit, in some 
 places not less than 1,000 feet thick, in which five groups of lime- 
 stone strata, extraordinary for their perfect continuity and unvarying 
 thickness, alternate with great masses of sandstone and shale, con- 
 taining innumerable impressions of coal plants, and three or four 
 
 thin seams of good coal, extensively worked for domestic use 
 
 The alternating beds of sandstone and shale expand more and more 
 as we advance towards the north, at the expence of all the car- 
 boniferous groups, which gradually thin off, and cease to produce 
 any impress on the features of the country.* 
 
 " According to M. de Villeneuve, the coal measures and limestone 
 strata alternate at their contact with each other between Liege and 
 Chaude Fontaine. The limestones are metalliferous, bluish, and 
 compact, and contain subordinate conglomerates of blue limestone. 
 
 The upper part of the limestone and sandstone contain 
 
 aluminous shale, worked for profitable purposes. 
 
 "According to the same author, the coal measures, which are 
 composed of the usual mixtures of sandstones, shales, and coal beds, 
 present at the Montagne de St. Gilles, no less than 61 beds of the 
 latter The coal beds of Liege contain 83 beds of coal.-f 
 
 " M. Pusch describes the coal measures in Poland as extending 
 
 from Hultschin to Krzeszowice A black marble employed 
 
 in the arts supports the coal measures. M. Pusch considers this 
 marble as equivalent to the carboniferous limestone of the English 
 geologists, and observes that the calcareous conglomerates which 
 accompany the coal sandstones and shales in the gorges of Miekina 
 and Filipowice are referable to the same marble beds."J 
 
 And in conclusion from this author 
 
 "After a thickness of seven or eight hundred feet of calcareous 
 rock had been formed, another great change in the matter deposited 
 was effected ; not, however, so suddenly but that the arenaceous 
 sediment which afterwards became so abundant, and the calcareous 
 
 * Manual of Geology, pp. 431, 432, taken from Professor Sedgwick's Address 
 to the Geological Society, 1831. 
 
 t Manual, p. 436. J Ibid, p. 437. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 409 
 
 matter, were alternately produced for a comparatively limited period. 
 An immense mass of sandstones, shales, and coal was then accumu- 
 lated in beds, one above another, which, though very irregular with 
 regard to the relative periods of deposit, are frequently persisted 
 over considerable areas. 
 
 " By general consent the coal is considered as resulting from the 
 distribution of a body of vegetable remains over areas of greater or 
 less extent, upon a previously deposited surface of sand, argillaceous 
 silt, or mud, but principally the latter, now compressed into shale."* 
 
 "The term shale," says Dr. M'Culloch, "includes all the secondary 
 and tertiary argillaceous schists Its varieties are enume- 
 rated in the classification of rocks ; and I need only remark here, 
 that it is more or less indurated, and that its prevailing colours 
 range from grey to black, but comprise also red and yellow hues of 
 considerable variety. When highly ferruginous, it passes into argil- 
 laceous ironstone ; and on becoming calcareous, into schistose marl, 
 and into limestone. 
 
 " In this case in particular, or when interstratified with limestone, 
 it is the frequent seat of fossil shells ; while the argillaceous beds of 
 such a series often contain a greater proportion of these than the 
 calcareous rock. In the coal series it often contains bitumen, car- 
 bonaceous matter, or both ; and, in the same circumstances, is the 
 frequent repository of vegetable remains 
 
 " Some varieties of shale, like others of primary argillaceous 
 schist, contain a decomposable pyrite ; being therefore wrought for 
 alum, under the name of aluminous slate. f 
 
 " It must have been already understood," continues the same 
 author, " from former observations, that the coal series is not any- 
 where found among the secondary strata, however steady its place 
 may be where it exists ; but that it occurs in distinct tracts often 
 widely separated from each other. These are known, technically, 
 by the term coal fields, and they vary in their characters in different 
 places ; not only in their extent and in their depth, but in the order 
 of succession of the integrant rocky strata, in the numbers and 
 relative proportions of these ; and in the numbers, thickness, suc- 
 cession, and qualities of the beds of coal The strata which 
 
 * Manual, p. 441. Shale, according to Mr. Lyell, is "a provincial term 
 adopted in geological science to impress an indurated slaty clay." Vol. iii. 
 
 t Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. ii. pp. 248, 249. 
 
410 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 accompany the beds of coal, contributing to form what is here called 
 
 the series, consist of sandstones, shales, limestones, and clays 
 
 The characters of the sandstone vary, being in some places a con- 
 glomerate, but more frequently fine, when it is sometimes compact, 
 pure, white, at others micaceous, or argillaceous, or ferruginous and 
 tender, occasionally also containing pyrites, and often blackened by 
 carbonaceous matter, or else including distinct fragments of char- 
 coal 
 
 " The shales vary much in aspect and hardness, passing at length 
 into clays equally various, and sometimes containing bitumen, car- 
 bonaceous matter, and vegetable fragments. In this class imbedded 
 nodules, or distinct strata of argillaceous ironstone often occur, and 
 in conspicuous quantities, forming the principal supply of ore for 
 the iron foundries."* 
 
 " The most remarkable accumulations of coal," says Professor 
 Buckland, "in England are in the Wolverhampton and Dudley 
 coalfield, where there is a bed of coal ten yards in thickness. The 
 Scotch coalfield, near Paisley, presents ten beds whose united thick- 
 ness is one hundred feet. And the South Welsh coal basin contains, 
 near Pontypool, twenty-three beds of coal, amounting together to 
 ninety-three feet. 
 
 " In many coalfields the occurrence of rich beds of iron ore in the 
 strata of slaty clay that alternate with the beds of coal, has rendered 
 the adjacent districts remarkable as the site of most important iron 
 foundries ; and these localities, as we have before stated, usually 
 present a further practical advantage, in having beneath the coal and 
 iron ore a substratum of limestone that supplies the third material 
 required as a flux to reduce this ore to a metallic state. "-f- 
 
 Concurring testimony to the same effect is borne by Messrs. 
 Lindley and Hutton, although they had occasion to advert to 
 the circumstances only incidentally, when describing the fossil 
 flora of the coal formations : 
 
 " The beds usually denominated the coal measures" (say they 
 in part 1st of vol. ii. pp. vi. and vii.), " being the higher part of the 
 carboniferous formation, repose upon, and are conformable to, the 
 inferior members of the series. 
 
 * Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. ii. pp. 301 303. 
 t Bridgcwater Treatise, vol. ii. p. 529. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 411 
 
 " They consist of irregularly alternating beds of sandstone, shale, 
 or argillaceous schist and coal, whose aggregate thickness (in Nor- 
 thumberland and Durham), may be estimated at about three hundred 
 fathoms. This may not probably be correct, but is near enough to 
 the truth for our purpose." 
 
 The following evidence, given by MM. Prestwich and Mur- 
 chison before the Geological Society, is interestingly corrobo- 
 rative of these alterations in the coalfields: 
 
 "Mr. Prestwich," say the editors of the Literary Gazette, " com- 
 mences his account of the formations by describing the lower silu- 
 rian rocks. These deposits constitute a narrow belt of highly in- 
 clined strata around the Wrekin and Arcol hills, and are composed 
 in the lower part of a friable, coarsely-grained, quartoze grit, and in 
 the upper of micaceous flags. The Caradoc sandstones are next de- 
 scribed ; and afterwards the Wenlock shale and limestone, the Ludlow 
 rocks, the old red sandstone, and the carboniferous limestone ; and 
 finally, the coal measures. These are formed of the usual alternations 
 of shale, sandstone, and coal ; and in those portions of the district 
 where they are most fully developed, have been ascertained to consist 
 of 135 beds, making a total thickness of about 250 yards. The colour 
 of the first 70 or 80 beds, commencing at the top, is light grey, yel- 
 low, or red ; that of the next twenty is very dark, or nearly black ; 
 and that of the underlying strata is light. These distinctions prevail 
 generally, but not universally. In the upper part of the series clays 
 and soft calcareous sandstone predominate ; in the middle argilla- 
 ceous sandstones and clays ; and in the lower hard fine-grained 
 sandstones, occasionally micaceous. The beds of coal in the upper 
 division of the series are widely separated, and extremely irregular ; 
 but in the lower they are thick, nearer together, and are persistent 
 throughout the whole field. At some of the pits the beds vary 
 greatly in number and thickness, in consequence of the thinning out 
 of some, and the interpolation of others ; and the memoir contains 
 a valuable series of sectional lists obtained from the ground bailifs. 
 " Next in importance to the beds of coal are the layers of argilla- 
 ceous carbonate of iron. This valuable ore generally occurs in 
 flattened nodules constituting regular seams, which are distinguished 
 by the names of penny-stone, the chance-stone, the ball-stone, the 
 ragged-robins, &c. &c. Some of these layers extend throughout the 
 field, but others are of local occurrence ; and the aggregate number 
 
412 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 in a pit varies from two to seven. They are generally imbedded in 
 shale, but occasionally in sandstone. In some parts of the district, 
 and situate near to the top of the series, is a bed of freshwater lime- 
 stone. The petroleum, or tar spring, for which Colebrook Dale has 
 been so long celebrated, issues from a thick bed of sandstone in the 
 upper part of the coal measures Titanium has been pro- 
 duced in considerable abundance in the iron furnaces."* 
 
 No further evidences, we presume, need be given to prove 
 the existence of extensive stratified formations, consisting of 
 clay, sandstone, and shale, associated with the carboniferous 
 limestone, and generally underlying the coal measures. 
 
 The calcareous deposits, it has been shown, owe their origin, 
 in a great degree, to the exuviae of innumerable testaceous and 
 conchiferous mollusca and zoophyta, and to the chemical de- 
 composition occasioned by their death, whereby they pro- 
 moted the deposition, from the surrounding water, of those 
 aluminous, arenaceous, and shaly strata which are intermixed 
 with, and found covering, their fossilized remains ; electrical 
 influences having been also employed as a slow but certain and 
 universal agent to co-operate with these other causes, and to 
 complete tbe deposits in question. 
 
 At this juncture we bave, again, to allude to the irresistible 
 inclination wbich water, impregnated with various elements, 
 has to assume a state of chemical equilibrium whenever the 
 disturbing causes have ceased to exercise their influence over 
 the mass ; or, in other words, whenever the chemical affinities 
 of the several ingredients become stronger than the disturbing 
 influence.f Now, there is scarcely any fact in geology better 
 authenticated than that during the entire course of the older 
 formations, there was a succession of inferior animal life differ- 
 ing from the present generations in proportion as their remains 
 are distant from the surface.J 
 
 This, therefore, having been the case, it is natural to con- 
 clude, that each race, as it approached extinction, would ex- 
 
 * Literary Gazette, 16th April, 1836, pp. 248, 249. 
 t 69th Theorem, and proofs. 
 
 * 16th and 133rd Theorems, and their proofs. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 413 
 
 ercise a diminished influence on the surrounding medium, until 
 at length it reached a point when it would be altogether nihil. 
 
 We feel persuaded that the subject which has more especially 
 occupied our attention in the preceding observations is one 
 which has not been sufficiently dwelt upon by others, nor has 
 it attracted that attention which it ought. We are disposed 
 to think, that if properly considered, it may assist in part to 
 clear up the mystery which hitherto has enveloped the opera- 
 tions of those long by-gone times. The fact of there having 
 been a succession of races of inferior animal life throughout 
 the stratiferous period of the ancient ocean, combined with the 
 assurance, acquired by the registered accumulations of their 
 fossilized remains, " that there is not one solitary example on 
 record of a race or species which had become extinct ever 
 having been thereafter recreated,"* when contrasted with the 
 permanency of the recent allied tribes of inferior animal life in 
 our present seas, seem to afford us a clear glimpse of the opera- 
 tions which were then going on, and the changes which were 
 taking place underneath the dark, and otherwise incompre- 
 hensible primitive water. 
 
 For, although the more rigorous proof of analysis at any of 
 these periods of important change be now out of the question, 
 yet, in these stereotyped vestiges, we possess a method of de- 
 termining the mutations of the scene in a way scarcely less 
 certain. The ever-changing, mingling fluid has come down to 
 us in its purified state, bringing no evidences in itself of what 
 it once was, but it has clearly recorded the progressive stages 
 through which it has passed by the indelible legends written 
 and left behind it in stony concretions, the former habitations 
 of its living associates, as it passed onward and onwards to its 
 present limpid condition. While those endurable records, if 
 properly studied and applied, may be found of essential benefit 
 in guiding us through the maze which lies before us. We 
 sometimes find that striking contrasts, by arousing the atten- 
 tion, become useful in such mental exercises ; and none can be 
 more so, perhaps, than that which is afforded by the static 
 condition of the water of the actual ocean and the permanency 
 
 * Ancient World, Ansted, p. 56. 
 
414 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 and persistency of its inhabitants, when put into juxta-position 
 with the mutation, so well authenticated, which took place in 
 the living forms of ancient times and a progressively purifying 
 medium. A continuous change in the character of marine ani- 
 mal life, with the static condition of our ft seas," is not more 
 imaginable than is a static condition of the primitive fluid 
 with the mutability of its living inhabitants ! Judging by the 
 laws which govern materialism, we can neither consistently 
 imagine the one combination nor the other ! 
 
 But in addition to the legends which the ancient ocean has 
 bequeathed to us by means of the fossilized remains of its in- 
 habitants, we are happily furnished with a series of threads of 
 the slenderest and most even description, which, throughout 
 the whole of this shoreless and atmosphereless water, have 
 passed up with unbroken continuity from the earliest dawn of 
 animal life to the latest geological formation ; we allude to the 
 calcareous formations. Lime, wherever it has been taken for 
 analysis, has been found to be identically the same.* And 
 this holds good whether that which is examined be derived 
 from the nethermost series of rocks, or from the coral islands 
 of our present seas. Now, without stopping at present to en- 
 quire whether calcium itself be peculiarly an animal secretion, 
 but proceeding on the general admission that lime is an animal 
 product, and presuming its production to have been one of the 
 designs of the Creator during the stratiferous period of the pri- 
 mitive ocean, and even to the present day, and taking into con- 
 sideration that a substance which, from its first appearance on 
 earth to the last particle yet formed in the sunny seas of the 
 enter-tropical regions, was destined to be invariable, although 
 produced by successive and distinct races of marine animals, we 
 have no other alternative but to conclude, that to continue the 
 unvarying nature of the animal product, lime, it became requi- 
 site to adapt the form and construction, and consequently the 
 physiological powers of the elaborators, to the menstruum 
 from which they extracted it as it changed from stage to stage. 
 We can testify, by analysis, that the product has ever been 
 the same. "We are as equally well assured that the fabricators 
 
 16th Theorem, section F. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 415 
 
 have been on successive occasions changed ; a combination of 
 these two terms can leave no doubt upon the mind, that the 
 menstruum, from which the latter derived the elements of the 
 former, was likewise undergoing a corresponding change. 
 
 That the deposition here referred to, and which was so 
 essential should, however, be continued, new races of animals 
 adapted to the altered medium, and capable of deriving sus- 
 tenance from it, would no doubt be willed successively into 
 existence ; while the fate which awaited their predecessors 
 would, in time, also overtake them. Consequently, what has 
 been said of any one generation of inferior animal life may, 
 with equal justice, be applied to all the others, while it like- 
 wise points out that the primitive water would, in all proba- 
 bility, eventually assume such a condition as that animal 
 secretion, alone, could not drain it of those peculiar elements, 
 which the ulterior plans of the Creator required that it should 
 part with ; and, therefore, it might have been conducive to 
 employ the influence of vegetable life to assist in carrying on 
 the process of purifying the ocean, and to cause to be deposited, 
 at its base, masses of carboniferous material which vegetable 
 secretion, alone, could supply. 
 
 Geology seems to corroborate, very fully, this view of the 
 case ; for we are shown, as the result of its researches, that 
 not only were there new races of shelly animals brought into 
 existence about that period, but plants likewise. For this very 
 important modification in the plans of the Creator, due pre- 
 paration seems to have been made. One of the tendencies of 
 the chemical composition and decomposition which had been 
 going on in the primeval water was to impregnate the men- 
 struum with the element of carbon, the main ingredient in 
 the construction of woody fibre. We deem ourselves, there- 
 fore, authorised to consider this to have been the epoch when 
 it pleased the Creator to bring to perfection the submarine 
 vegetation whose accumulated remains were providentally des- 
 tined to furnish, in after ages, to an entirely distinct race of 
 beings that which, in time, would be as essential for their use 
 and comfort as what was held in chemical suspension had 
 been for the growth of those plants which elaborated the car- 
 boniferous portion of the coal measures. 
 
416 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Considering that we can , with so much certainty, trace back 
 the formation of the great coal deposits to the earlier ages of the 
 creation, and are thereby constrained to acknowledge the good- 
 ness and manifest design of Providence in heaping up those 
 vast subterraneous stores which contribute alike to the power 
 and to the comfort of man, we feel assured that we ought not 
 to doubt, for one moment, of its having been the same benefi- 
 cent hand which, with equal priority, provided for the require- 
 ments of those inferior beings which he saw fit in his good- 
 ness, and found necessary by his wisdom, to will into exis- 
 tence, when their peculiar agency was required to work out 
 his sovereign pleasure, during their day and generation. We 
 are thoroughly persuaded ourselves, and would, most willingly 
 persuade others, that the confidence arising from experience 
 in our day ought to be applied by analogy, with unfaltering 
 alacrity, to the case of all those inferior races of plants and 
 animals, whose existence is known to us now only by their 
 fossilized remains. 
 
 The manner in which they were collocated on the earth's 
 submarine surface teaches us, also, that everything was done 
 with consummate wisdom ; for it is in perfect accordance with 
 the known habits of plants and fixed animals (without at pre- 
 sent taking into account other apulmonic inhabitants of the 
 water), to increase by radiating from centres or foci.* Placed, 
 as they no doubt were, at appointed and proportional dis- 
 tances, they would at length, by gradually extending their 
 respective areas, intermingle along their borders of demarca- 
 tion, and fulfil the object of their original collocation towards 
 the ultimate end in view, namely, that of producing a varie- 
 gated whole, fitly jointed together and well adapted for pre- 
 paring strata, capable of being applied to what was designed, 
 with a view to the great revolution which was to take place 
 when the earth should be caused to rotate around its axis. 
 Thus every successive stage in the work of creation affords 
 convincing evidence of the most consummate wisdom and be- 
 nificent foresight having been exercised in preparation for it. 
 
 By what has preceded, we perceive distinctly the adaptation 
 
 * Principles of Geology, by Mr. Lyell, vol. ii. p. 131, et sequitur. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 417 
 
 of the means to the end, whose accomplishment has been re- 
 vealed to us by the researches of geologists into the external 
 crust of the earth ; in some localities there having been dis- 
 covered, the remains of wide and extended colonies of shell 
 fish alternating with those of broad patches of vegetation; 
 and in other parts, symptoms of both having partially inter- 
 mingled. 
 
 The idea of successive creations of animated beings previous 
 to the general one, narrated in Genesis by the inspired his- 
 torian, may appear to some to be heterodox. It is not our de- 
 sire, as we have said before, to insist on any one agreeing with 
 us in those points of belief; yet it is due to all to explain, 
 that as we are most firmly convinced that everything which is, 
 was created by God, we can have no just grounds, considering 
 we believe in the later or ultimate acts of his creative energy, 
 to withhold our belief as regards those instances of greater 
 antiquity. Besides, if the successive tribes of plants and tes- 
 taceous animals so often alluded to were not created in suc- 
 cession during the period of non-rotation, they were not created 
 at all, for no direct mention is made of them in the narrative 
 given in Genesis ; their previous creation being deducible only 
 by inferences arising out of the differential mode of reason- 
 ing which has been applied to that part of Scripture. But 
 as, in confirmation thereof, geology reveals their existence, 
 and sound reasoning leads us to imply their uses, no motive 
 remains for our withholding assent to the only deduction which 
 can, legitimately, be drawn from the facts of the question, and 
 from the unlimited powers of God, the Creator, namely, that 
 there were several successive creations of both animals and 
 plants, during a long but indefinite period in the earlier geo- 
 logical history of the earth. 
 
 In addition to the direct proofs in favour of the inference 
 which we have just come to on this point, the consideration, 
 that layer after layer of inert matter was accumulated upon 
 each other until they attained an immense aggregate thick- 
 ness, precludes us from conceiving, with propriety, that any 
 one creation of animals* or plants could have surmounted 
 
 * Even the polypiferous creatures which have been most persistent through - 
 
 2 E 
 
418 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE- 
 
 these accumulations, and have survived throughout their whole 
 duration ; it being quite at variance with sound analogy to 
 suppose that the spawn of testacea and zoophyta, or the spo- 
 rules of acotyledonous plants could have done this, even could 
 these animals and plants have derived sustenance from the sur- 
 rounding medium which was itself continually changing by the 
 effects of their own drainage, and by those of chemical affinity. 
 On the contrary, they must each eventually have been, as they 
 really were, buried under the effects of these joint causes ; and, 
 finally, in consequence of the change produced on the elements 
 of the primeval ocean, a corresponding change was essentially 
 necessary in the adaptation of its animal and vegetable inhabi- 
 tants, in order that the process of purification should be con- 
 tinued. 
 
 When we take a general view of the works of the Creator ; 
 and when, with more speciality, we restrict our attention to the 
 construction of the complex and finished piece of mechanism 
 of the human frame, and behold its numerous muscles, each 
 wrapped in its own ponobrotic envelope, meeting, and even 
 overlapping, in order that they should, in their several depart- 
 ments, perform the work assigned them, and conjointly con- 
 stituting an harmonious whole, well adapted for the end in- 
 tended, we should have no hesitation in supposing that similar 
 forethought and design were applied to the collocation of the 
 strata, and to the formation of the great body of the earth. 
 It is true, the objects are imcomparably dissimilar in size ; 
 yet the gigantic parts of the earth will be found to be in as 
 perfect proportion as those of the human frame ; and were we 
 more narrowly to trace the special design of each, we would, 
 no doubt, discover equal wisdom and intention pervading them 
 both. We would find that as the ponobrotic coverings are 
 useful to the muscles in protecting them from the effects of 
 friction, inter se, so the limestone and shaly formations ren- 
 dered a similar service to the coal measures, when the first 
 rotation of the earth caused the development of so much heat 
 
 out the whole geological era, seem, from their productions of earlier times, to 
 have been distinct in some respects from those which now inhabit the ocean. 
 Ancient World, p. 32. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 419 
 
 as would, without these impervious barriers, have fused and 
 rendered those immense store depots of fuel utterly unservice- 
 able. And we shall, at last, be convinced that the same 
 Almighty hand which fashioned the earthy mould of our first 
 progenitor into bones, muscles, ligaments, and manifold wind- 
 ing conduits, and filled them with fluids ere yet these last had 
 circulated or beat a single pulsation did, with the same con- 
 summate wisdom and forethought, lay down every distinct bed 
 of calcareous, carboniferous, or aluminous strata, in ready pre- 
 paration for that eventful moment, seen by himself from all 
 eternity, when, by the formation of light, the dark, motionless 
 orb was caused to start into its description of life, and to rotate 
 in the gladdening rays of a sun, which was to be illumined 
 almost immediately thereafter, as the inexhaustible reservoir 
 of its light and heat, and the teller of its signs, its seasons, 
 days, and years. 
 
 2 E 2 
 
SECTION IV. 
 
 DEPOSITION OF THE STRATA DURING THE NON-ROTATORY PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Prefatory observations respecting the universal warmth which prevailed in the 
 water of the non-rotating sphere. Chemical action the principal secondary 
 agency employed in producing that result. Effects of animal and vegetable 
 vitality again alluded to. The consequences arising also from the death 
 and decomposition of animals and plants particularly investigated with 
 reference to the purification of the ancient ocean ; more especially the 
 effects of ammoniacal exhalations arising from the putrefaction of animal 
 remains. Geological data, and actual results adduced in corroboration. 
 The "blending" and the "thinning out" of the strata attempted to be 
 accounted for by the Dynamical Theory. And, in conclusion, an endea- 
 vour to explain, according to the same principles, by what means the pri- 
 mitive ocean changed its character from turbid, fresh water, to the saline 
 and pellucid seas of the present period. 
 
 WE have already alluded to the ample provision which was 
 made for the nourishment of the vegetable kingdom of this 
 early period, by the suffusion into the water of carbonic 
 acid arising from the decomposition of animal matter; and 
 reverting now to the warmth, so often already alluded to, 
 which prevailed throughout the water during the formation 
 of the great coal measures, although these were accumulated 
 before the light was willed into existence, we shall, with 
 becoming deference, endeavour to trace the source of this 
 increased temperature. It would, assuredly, be an unwarrant- 
 able use of the reasoning faculties conferred on finite beings, 
 to attempt to raise any veil which has been purposely cast 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY. 421 
 
 over his works by the common Creator, or to dogmatise on 
 points of such entity as whether economy in time be an object 
 of importance to a Being who inhabits eternity. Yet, a 
 minute investigation into his other works reveals a principle 
 of the most rigid economy running through the whole in the 
 weighing of every atom, and in the measuring of every drop 
 of fluid ; and we may, therefore, consider ourselves author- 
 ized, without being accused of temerity, to conclude that the 
 same principle has been exercised in duration also. This we 
 are more particularly warranted to do, as it unfolds another 
 adorable feature in the attributes of the Omnipotent. It 
 would appear that, while economy in time was studied in the 
 plan of the Creation, while his infinite wisdom induced God 
 to create the particular tribes of animals and plants alone 
 capable of fulfilling his designs at that period ; his justice 
 induced him to respect the nature which he conferred on 
 each, and his goodness to care for their well-being the well- 
 being even of the most subordinate of his creatures. They 
 were carefully nurtured, and every thing, consistent with 
 their several natures, was done to enable them to assume the 
 fullest expansion of which they were respectively susceptible. 
 Warmth very essentially contributed to effect this, and warmth 
 was conferred upon them. Its existence, by inferences drawn 
 from the gigantic relative size of the organic remains, has 
 already been demonstrated in a previous chapter. We shall, 
 therefore, in this, while we allude with reverence to the ulti- 
 mate source, proceed to trace the secondary agency employed 
 in its development. To do this let us, first of all, have refer- 
 ence to the forty -ninth Theorem, viz : " That it may be 
 assumed, as a general principle, .that chemical combination is 
 one of the numerous causes by which heat may be developed or 
 absorbed; ivhile caloric, or heat, is itself the most general 
 agent employed in all chemical operations ;" and, in continu- 
 ation, peruse briefly some of the authorities which support 
 this conclusion. 
 
 " One of the chief agents in chemistry," says Sir John Herschell, 
 " on whose proper application and management the success of a 
 great number of its enquiries depends, and many of whose most 
 
422 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 important laws are disclosed to us by phenomena of a chemical 
 nature, is heat. 
 
 " The most obvious sources of heat are the sun, fire, animal life, 
 fermentations and violent chemical actions of all kinds, friction, 
 percussion, lightning, or the electric discharge, in whatever manner 
 produced, the sudden condensation of air, and others so numerous 
 and so varied as to show the extensive and important part it has to 
 perform in the economy of nature. The discoveries of chemists, 
 however, have referred most of these to the general head of chemical 
 combination. Thus, fire, or the combustion of inflammable bodies, 
 is nothing more than a violent chemical action attending the combi- 
 nation of their ingredients with the oxygen of the air. Animal heat 
 is, in like manner, referable to a process bearing no remote analogy 
 to a slow combustion, by which a portion of carbon, an inflammable 
 principle existing in the blood, is united with the oxygen of the air 
 in respiration, and thus carried off from the system ; fermentation 
 is nothing more than a decomposition of chemical elements loosely 
 united, and their re-union in a more permanent state of combination, 
 &c."* 
 
 " It may be taken," says a writer in the Cabinet Cyclopaedia, 
 " as a general principle, that chemical combination is one of the 
 numerous causes by which heat may be developed or absorbed. 
 Every part of chemical science abounds in facts illustrative of this 
 principle, "f 
 
 " Combustion," writes Dr. Ure, " is the disengagement of heat 
 
 and light which accompanies chemical combination 
 
 Whenever the chemical forces which determine either composition 
 or decomposition are energetically exercised, the phenomena of 
 combustion or incandescence, with a change of properties, is dis- 
 played. The distinction between supporters of combustion and 
 combustibles, on which some late systems are arranged, is frivolous 
 and partial. For, in both cases the heat and light depend on the 
 same cause, and merely indicate the energy and rapidity with which 
 reciprocal attractions are exerted. Thus, sulphuretted hydrogen 
 is a combustible with oxygen and chlorine ; a supporter with 
 potassium, &c. &c. 
 
 " From the preceding facts it is evident that no peculiar substance 
 or form of matter is necessary for producing the effect (evolution of 
 
 * Natural Philosophy, Cab. Cyc. pp. 310313. 
 t Dr. Larduer on Heat, Cab. Cyc. p. 354. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 423 
 
 heat) ; but it is a general result of the actions of any substances 
 possessed of strong chemical attractions, or different electrical rela- 
 tions, and that it takes place in all cases in which an intense and 
 violent motion can be conceived to be communicated to the cor- 
 puscles of bodies. 
 
 " Finally, we may establish it as an axiom, that combustion is not 
 the great phenomenon of chemical nature, but an adventitious accidental 
 accessory to chemical combination or decomposition ; that is, to the 
 internal motions of the particular bodies, tending to arrange them in a 
 new chemical constitution."* 
 
 Before concluding this branch of evidence, it may not, 
 perhaps, be superfluous to notice that there are certain sub- 
 stances which evolve great degrees of heat on combining with 
 others. The acids, in general, on combining with water 
 evolve heat.f Azote and phosphorus combine at common tem- 
 peratures, and produce heat without light.J Iodine also pro- 
 duces combustion in uniting with azote and other substances 
 by the intensity of their mutual action. And as this peculiarly 
 energetic substance has been discovered in most of the fuci, 
 and several of the other alga9, there can be no doubt of its 
 presence and, consequently, of its effects. That the circu- 
 lation of voltaic electricity is accompanied by a continued 
 development of heat, lasting as long as the circuit is complete. || 
 And, lastly, " That water has a greater capacity for caloric 
 than an equal bulk of any solid substance known. "^f 
 
 After what has been so recently said, it may scarcely be 
 requisite to reiterate, that the warmth which existed during 
 the incipient stage of creation, and with which we have just 
 been occupied, could not have been occasioned by the sun's 
 rays ; for that orb was not yet illumined ; neither was it the 
 effect of radiation from masses of heated mineral matter, for 
 the hills and continental ranges had not been moved from their 
 original horizontal position, had undergone no friction, conse- 
 quently were not imbued with any superabundant heat, which, 
 
 * Chemical Dictionary, pp. 353, 354, 368. f Ure, p. 5. J Ibid, p. 540. 
 Ure, p. 537. II Connexion of the Sciences, p. 306 312. 
 
 ^ Hutchison's Essay on Unexplained Phenomena, pp. 25, 26. 
 
424 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 by requiring to part with, they would have communicated to 
 the surrounding media; and, therefore, we are shut up to the 
 necessity of considering, that the secondary agency of the heat 
 or warmth in question was electrical currents and chemical 
 combination and decomposition. But " heat occasioned by 
 chemical action is derived," as has just been shown, "from 
 motion amongst the corpuscles of elementary bodies, while its 
 rate is determined by the rate of that intermotion." And as, 
 on the other hand, we are equally well assured " that matter 
 can neither produce in itself spontaneous action, either from 
 a state of rest to that of motion, or diminish any motion it 
 may have received from an external cause, or change its 
 direction ;" we are, ultimately, obliged to confess, that what- 
 ever may have been the nature of the intermediate agency, 
 or the instruments employed to occasion the interrnolecular 
 motion engendering that warmth, which all geologists agree 
 in considering did exist throughout the primitive ocean, its 
 ultimate cause was not, could not, have been material. We 
 must look to what is beyond matter, to a higher source, and 
 to a distinct set of evidences evidences which, for our as- 
 surance and satisfaction, are plainly and unequivocally set 
 before us. 
 
 As our present argument, however, admits of being con- 
 ducted with reference more directly to the material and 
 secondary agency employed, we shall, therefore, proceed by 
 that line of approach. 
 
 The warmth in question having proximately been engen- 
 dered by chemical and electrical action, it follows that its 
 maximum would be wherever these were in greatest activity. 
 This was at the bottom of the ocean, throughout its whole 
 extent ; where myriads on myriads of animals and plants were 
 incessantly at work imbibing the materials chemically suffused 
 in the water, and elaborating them into the substances of 
 which their bodies and their coverings were composed. There 
 also the lower stratum of water, by being despoiled of its 
 earthy associates, and impregnated with ammoniacal gases, by 
 exhalations from decomposing animal matter, would, in addi- 
 tion to the extent of volume, acquire a reduced specific gravity, 
 and be made to ascend, to give place to colder and less pure 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 425 
 
 portions, to be in their turn freed from their earthy load, and 
 to be expanded by warmth ; and thus a constant and equal- 
 izing current would be kept up between the lower and the 
 upper surfaces of the great mass of water constituting the 
 primeval ocean. The peculiar adaptation of this alternation, 
 which caused the earth-charged portion to descend and deposit 
 its load within reach of those apulmonic beings which required 
 the supply, and would, otherwise, have been deprived of it ; 
 and, on the other hand, which raised whatever of the ammo- 
 niacally impregnated portion escaped recombination with 
 suffused bases to the surface, for purposes of future usefulness, 
 denotes the same provident forethought so strongly illustrative 
 of the whole proceedings of the Creator ; and fills the mind 
 with admiration and thanksgiving. While it should not be 
 forgotten that the material crust of the Earth, whose con- 
 struction was partly accomplished by these, though it could 
 not thereby have acquired a heat approaching in any degree 
 to fusion, would become a regulating reservoir of a consider- 
 able residue of that warmth which was thus constantly evolving 
 itself along the whole extent of its submarine surface ; and 
 whose accumulation in the water was much assisted by the 
 great capacity of this for caloric and by its atmosphereless con- 
 dition; the whole having been, as it were, conducted in vacuum. 
 The mind being sufficiently prepared, by the review laid 
 before it of the adaptation of the material part of the Creation 
 during the period to which we allude, to the species of animal 
 and vegetable life then willed by the Omnipotent into exist- 
 ence, it becomes requisite to enquire next what would be the 
 probable results, according to natural causes, of their growth 
 and propagation, and, afterwards, of their decay and death. 
 We have little to add, to what has already been brought for- 
 ward, respecting the agency of the animal kingdom in the 
 composition of the solid strata. "During their lifetime they 
 secreted calcareous coverings, whose remains have contributed 
 very considerably to the formation of the limestone series. 
 After death the elementary components of their fleshy parts 
 appear to have entered into a new series of binary and ternary 
 compounds, which in seeking the level that their reduced 
 specific gravity induced them to do disturbed the chemical 
 
426 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 equilibrium of the water through which they ascended, and 
 assisted to cause the precipitation of aluminous, calcareous, 
 arenaceous, and other deposits, which partly intermingled 
 with, and partly covered, their endurable remains. 
 
 The services which were performed by living plants in 
 secreting and accumulating carbonaceous matter in their own 
 gigantic forms, and by instilling certain deposits into the 
 strata by exudation from their roots, have been fully explained 
 in the chapters which were dedicated to the primeval vege- 
 table kingdom. Consequently, at present, we have merely 
 to enquire into the probable effects likely to have occurred 
 by the decomposition of vegetable substances in as far as 
 they differ from those produced by animal decomposition 
 when introduced, by exhalation, into the surrounding fluid ; 
 also the disturbance they were capable of occasioning in its 
 chemical equilibrium ; and the effect which animal and vege- 
 table exhalations would have on each other when intermingled 
 by the luni-solar current ; and the new compounds they would 
 form, and precipitates which they would throw down. 
 
 To accomplish the former of these objects we shall, first, 
 recapitulate the hundred and twenty-eighth Theorem, which 
 states, " that when the principle of life has departed from 
 vegetable substances exposed to the atmosphere, they begin 
 spontaneously to decompose) and their remains, entering into 
 new combinations, form carbonic acid, water, carbonic oxide, 
 and carburetted hydrogen; these modifications continuing 
 until nothing remains but the saline, earthy, and metallic sub- 
 stances originally contained in the vegetable matter. But 
 when the exclusion of the atmosphere, and considerable pres- 
 sure take place, the former circumstance removing the agency 
 of oxygen, and the latter preventing the formation of elastic 
 products, the decomposition does not proceed beyond the accu- 
 mulation of a carbonaceous residium ; from which it is pro- 
 bable have been derived the several varieties of bitumen and 
 coal;' and as these results may exercise considerable influence 
 over our future reasoning, we shall strengthen their impression 
 by a few concise and apposite quotations : 
 
 "All vegetables," says Mr. Reid, " when the principle of life has 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 427 
 
 departed from them, begin spontaneously to be decomposed. Their 
 elements have a tendency to separate from each other, and form new 
 compounds very different from those which compose the living 
 plant. These are carbonic acid, water, carbonic oxide, and carbu- 
 retted hydrogen. The two former are the chief results of the 
 decomposition, the two latter are formed more sparingly, and prin- 
 cipally when there is not a free supply of oxygen In 
 
 vegetables which decay under water, carburetted hydrogen is abun- 
 dantly formed ; hence arises the gas which is found so plentifully 
 in summer in stagnate waters, which contain quantities of putrefying 
 vegetables."* 
 
 "To this," (vegetable decomposition), says Dr. Murray, "the 
 name of putrefactive fermentation has been given. ..... The 
 
 elastic products disengaged are compounds of carbon, and hydrogen , 
 
 and carbonic acid There is no sensible production of 
 
 ammonia, or of gases containing sulphur and phosphorus, the evolu- 
 tion of which more particularly characterises animal putrefaction, a 
 difference arising from the absence of these elements and of nitrogen 
 in the composition of vegetables 
 
 " Carbon being, in general, the base of vegetable matter, it fre- 
 quently remains, forming an inert residium after the decomposition 
 has proceeded to a certain extent, constituting what is termed vege- 
 table mould. This, when the air is excluded, is scarcely liable to 
 further change, there being no other principles to act on it with 
 sufficient force. 
 
 " It appears that often from the operation of circumstances, pro- 
 bably the exclusion of the atmosphere, and the presence of pressure, 
 the decomposition does not proceed beyond the accumulation of this 
 carbonaceous residium ; the former circumstances removing the 
 agency of oxygen, the latter preventing the formation of elastic 
 products ; and from the process conducted under these circum- 
 stances, and from vegetable matter being originally composed 
 chiefly of carbon, as wood, have probably principally originated the 
 different varieties of bitumen and coal, the origin of which, from 
 the vegetable kingdom, can be so often traced. "f 
 
 " When vegetables putrefy," says Mr. Donovan, " the changes 
 are not so complex as in the case of animals, because the elements 
 concerned are fewer. 
 
 * Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, pp. 1/8, 179. 
 t Chemistry, vol. ii. pp. 570, 571. 
 
428 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " The oxygen combines with hydrogen ; another portion of hy- 
 drogen combines with carbon. The chief part of the carbon remains 
 as such, unless free access of air be admitted, which then slowly 
 combines with it. 
 
 " During the putrefaction of animal and vegetable matter, much 
 heat is produced ; and if the mass be considerable, the heat con- 
 tinues a long time."* 
 
 It appears from these authorities that, with the exception 
 of carbonic oxide, the products arising from the decomposition 
 of vegetable substances under water, are very similar to some 
 of those which proceed from the decomposition of animal 
 matter ; that carburetted hydrogen is the compound gas most 
 abundantly given out ; and amrnoniacal gases never originate 
 from the decomposition of vegetable substances under any 
 circumstances. 
 
 Taking into account that the luni-solar current, which flowed 
 in the primitive ocean, and has been so fully described in a 
 previous part of this work, would have the effect of gradually 
 bringing strata of water, charged with gaseous exhalations 
 arising from animal decomposition, over parts of the earth's 
 submarine surface producing plants, and vice versa, of carrying 
 the exhalations from decaying vegetable substances over regions 
 inhabited by fixed animals, it remains to be ascertained, what 
 would, in such circumstances, be the probable result when the 
 decomposition of animal substances, by their exhalations ascen- 
 ding into the fluid mass which held the various materials in 
 solution, threw down deposits on the plants. 
 
 The products of these decompositions were, as we have re- 
 peatedly observed, all gaseous ; some of them of considerable 
 specific gravity. Water possesses the capability of absorbing 
 several times its own bulk of many of those which were then 
 present. This would render the portions of water, which were 
 impregnated with those of greater specific gravity, heavier than 
 others and cause them to descend. But on the other hand, 
 those strata of water which were combined with ammoniacal 
 gas being of lighter specific gravity, together with the increased 
 
 * Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. p. 343. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 429 
 
 temperature of the lower aqueous strata in contact with the 
 bottom where chemical changes were in more active opera- 
 tion would be caused thereby to ascend, and, by giving place 
 to heavier strata, would produce a continued alternation of 
 currents.* Had the fluid mass, in which those relative move- 
 ments were taking place, been itself stationary with respect to 
 the solid part of the earth, the currents, whether ascending or 
 descending, would have been in directions perpendicular to the 
 surface ; the gaseous elements of reduced specific gravity would 
 have risen directly from the spot of their exhalation. The de- 
 posits would have descended from the precise points of their 
 liberation ; but when we take into account that the luni-solar 
 attraction, by operating upon the water of the ocean, kept it 
 in a continued flow from east to west, these perpendicular 
 currents would not take place. But by the rule for the com- 
 position of forcesf we can determine the direction of the 
 ascending and descending particles ; it would be a diagonal 
 compounded of the two motions. In this direction, then, the 
 effects of the ascending exhalations would be in operation ; 
 while the continued westerly flow of the whole moving mass, 
 by diverting the deposits also from a perpendicular, would co- 
 operate with the other to place them much to the westward of 
 their efficient cause. This divergence, when all the exhalations 
 were supposed to have been of animal origin, was of so little 
 consequence that no notice was then taken of it ; but this is 
 now no longer the case, for it becomes very interesting in the 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 
 
 * Of ammonia water can absorb 670 times its own bulk 0.59027 
 
 Muriatic acid .... 500 ibid 1.28472 
 
 Sulphurous acid ... 33 ibid 2.2222 
 
 Chlorine 2 ibid 2.5000 
 
 Carbonic acid ibid 1.04166 
 
 Nitrous oxide ibid 1.18050 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen . . . ibid 1.5277 
 Olefiant gas, or carburetted hydrogen, l-8th its own bulk 0.5555 
 
 Oxygen, and nitric oxide, 1-2 7th its own bulk 1.5277 
 
 Nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbonic oxide, l-64thits own bulk \ Q gioo 
 
 (Chemistry, by Hugo Reid, p. 108, and Dr. Thomson, p. 734). 
 t Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 49, 50. 
 
430 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 present stage of our argument, inasmuch as it can be applied 
 to prove that, although the extensive patches of animal and 
 vegetable existences might have been perfectly separate from 
 one another, yet the effects produced by their extinction would, 
 in consequence of the flow of water carrying the compounds 
 formed by their decomposition to great distances, be attended 
 by one universal result over the whole space ; and a general 
 deposition, it is presumed, would take place of silex, alumina, 
 lime, magnesia, potash, soda, and oxides of iron and manga- 
 nese, which, uniting with those already formed in the several 
 localities, would according to what had already been depo- 
 sited there assume the respective forms of clay, shale, or 
 sandstone. 
 
 When, by the exhaustion of the exhalations, the disturbing 
 power began to diminish, the aluminous and arenaceous strata 
 which entombed the calcareous exuviae of the animals, and the 
 carbonaceous remains of the vegetables would have attained 
 their maximum thickness ; and we have only to carry forward 
 our conceptions a little further, to arrive at a point when, like 
 that to which we formerly alluded, the power which those 
 gaseous exhalations possessed to disturb the general equili- 
 brium, would be proportional to the races which survived the 
 deposition. At this point new creations of vegetable and 
 animal existences, each with an organisation suited to the 
 purified state of the surrounding element, would be essential 
 for effecting a further disturbance of the equilibrium, and an 
 acceleration of the deposits which would result from its de- 
 rangement. Thus we have a probable explanation of the 
 cause which motived another change in part of the organic 
 life, both vegetable and animal, which encrusted the bottom of 
 the original ocean, the reality of which has been made known 
 to us by the nature of the fossil remains brought to light by 
 the researches of geologists. 
 
 These new creations would, in the course of time, be pro- 
 ductive of effects quite analogous to those which we have so 
 minutely described, therefore a detailed repetition will be en- 
 tirely unnecessary. By draining the ocean during their life- 
 time of part of the remaining elementary materials held by it 
 in solution, which were as essential for their peculiar secretions 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 431 
 
 as those which were drained before had been for their prede- 
 cessors, they would thereby gradually unfit it for continuing to 
 administer to the wants of their own race ; while they rendered 
 it more capable of nourishing others of dissimilar habits des- 
 tined to succeed them, and also brought the whole mass one 
 step further in progression towards its present limpidness and 
 purity. By the exhalations arising from their decay and de- 
 composition, they would gradually though slowly entomb their 
 own remains in a mass of stony matter, whose deposition would 
 also contribute to accelerate the desired change or prepared- 
 ness of the water; while the combined effect of those several 
 causes would be to add layer after layer of solid, stratified 
 material to the envelope which it pleased the Creator to form 
 around the earth, in order that it might afterwards fulfil the 
 ulterior design he had in view when the whole sphere, thus 
 curiously and elaborately encircled, coat after coat, with rocky 
 strata fitly jointed together, should be caused to revolve around 
 its axis by the introduction of the primary light and its division 
 from the darkness. 
 
 Thus far we have gone on endeavouring to explain, in a 
 cursory manner, how we consider the deposition and formation 
 of the secondary strata to have been effected. Difficult as the 
 subject is, from the absence of all direct evidence, and the 
 necessity, therefore, of leaning so implicitly on results, and of 
 tracing them backwards through their progress of accomplish- 
 ment to their ultimate visible or material causes, we have made 
 an attempt to thread our way through it, yet we do not pretend 
 to go beyond a mere indication of what the process may have 
 been, in the hope that others better qualified may resume and 
 continue the undertaking until they carry it to perfection. 
 Meanwhile we reiterate our belief, that in some such pro- 
 gressive manner, and under the few but comprehensive laws 
 which then governed materialism, the depositions and encrus- 
 tations constituting the secondary strata took place. And, 
 likewise, that science possesses stores of accumulated know- 
 ledge sufficient to unravel, with perfect and convincing pre- 
 cision, as much of those operations, during that incipient age 
 of the earth as shall be requisite, in conjunction with the 
 sacred narrative, thoroughly to establish our faith in the 
 
432 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 announcements given with respect to what no mortal eye was 
 privileged to behold. 
 
 We feel greatly confirmed in this conclusion by the follow- 
 ing sublime passage of Scripture : 
 
 " Doth not wisdom cry ? and understanding put forth her voice ? 
 
 She crieth at the gates, at the entry of the city, at the 
 
 coming in at the doors ; Unto you, O men, I call ; and my voice 
 is to the sons of man Counsel is mine, and sound wis- 
 dom : I am understanding ; I have strength The Lord 
 
 possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. 
 I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth 
 was. When there were no depths, I was brought forth ; when there 
 were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains 
 were settled, before the hills was I brought forth : While as yet he 
 had not made the earth, nor the fields, nor the highest part of the 
 dust of the world. When he prepared the heavens, I was there ; 
 when he set a compass upon the face of the depth ; When he esta- 
 blished the clouds above ; when he strengthened the fountains of 
 the deep ; When he gave to the sea his decree, that the waters 
 should not pass his commandment ; when he appointed the foun- 
 dations of the earth : Then I was by him, as one brought up with 
 him ; and I was daily his delight, rejoicing always before him ; Re- 
 joicing in the habitable part of his earth ; and my delights were 
 with the sons of men."* 
 
 Under these assurances we proceed, next, to enquire how 
 far the findings of geologists, in their researches into the 
 viscera terrtz bear out the explanations which we have endea- 
 voured to give ; and the deductions come to in our attempt to 
 solve the problem by the synthetic method we have pursued. 
 Before doing so, however, it may not be out of place to re- 
 mind our readers that all they have yet perused has had 
 reference exclusively to the period of non-rotation, or to those 
 ages which we presume to have been briefly alluded to in the 
 first two verses of Genesis. Possessing no other direct evi- 
 dence respecting that prolonged period of the Earth's incho- 
 ative condition, we have been constrained to approach the 
 
 * Prov. viii. 1, 3, 4, 14, 2231. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 433 
 
 subject indirectly, by endeavouring to apply that which has 
 been revealed as a means of fathoming that which has not 
 been made known, but was wrought out in the depths of the 
 primitive, dark, and atmosphereless water, which circum- 
 bounded the Earth while those creative operations were in 
 progress. 
 
 This division of our evidence, which we have now nearly 
 brought to a close, may be looked upon as assumptive until 
 confirmed by the facts which geologists, with unremitting 
 assiduity, have made known to us. In the hope that, when 
 compared, these two bodies of evidence may be found to 
 agree, we proceed to give the latter ; but should any slight 
 discrepancies occur and it is possible that they may we 
 trust the candour and consideration of our friends will induce 
 them to set them down rather to our inability to grasp, with 
 sufficient comprehension, the multitudinous conditions which 
 the solution of such a problem necessarily involves, than to 
 attribute any want of agremeent either to oversight, or to 
 defects in the Revealed Record. 
 
 " The coal measures," says Sir Henry de la Beche, in a passage 
 which has been already quoted, " are composed of various beds of 
 sandstone, shale, and coal, irregularly inter-stratified, and in some 
 
 countries intermixed with conglomerates According to 
 
 M. de Villeneuve, the coal measures, which are composed of the 
 usual mixture of sandstones, shales, and coal beds, present at the 
 Montagne de S. Gilles, no less than sixty-one beds of the latter, 
 varying from six feet to a few inches in thickness Pro- 
 fessor Silliman states, that the beds atManch Chunk, Pennsylvania, 
 
 consist of conglomerates, sandstones, and argillaceous slate 
 
 Mr. Hitchcock informs us, that coal is associated with trappean 
 rocks, fetid, siliceous, and bituminous limestones, red and grey 
 sandstones, and conglomerates, in Connecticut By gene- 
 ral consent the coal is considered as resulting from the distribution 
 of a body of vegetable remains over areas of greater or less extent, 
 upon a previously deposited surface of sand, argillaceous silt, or 
 mud, but principally the latter, now compressed into shale. After 
 the distribution of the vegetables, other sands, silt, or mud, were 
 accumulated upon them, and this kind of operation was continued 
 irregularly for a considerable time, during which there was an abun- 
 
 2 F 
 
434 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 dant growth of similar vegetables at no very distant place, to be 
 suddenly, or at least in part destroyed, and distributed over consi- 
 derable areas on the more common detritus. 
 
 " Great length of time would be required for this accumulation, 
 because the phenomena observed would lead us to consider the 
 transporting power, though variable, to have been generally mode- 
 rate ; moreover, a very considerable growth of vegetables requiring 
 time, would be necessary at distinct intervals ; for coal beds, now 
 only six or ten feet thick, must, before pressure was exerted upon 
 them, have occupied a much greater depth 
 
 " From the similarity of general circumstances attendant on the 
 coal strata we have reason to conclude, although the series may con- 
 tain more limestone at one place than at another, that in Poland, 
 Western Germany, Northern France, Belgium, and the British Isles, 
 there were some common causes in operation producing the enve- 
 lopment of a great abundance of terrestrial vegetables, of a nature 
 that could not, from the want of necessary heat, now nourish in the 
 same latitudes.* 
 
 " The next group which we meet with" quoting from Mr. Lyell's 
 Elements " in the descending order is the carboniferous, commonly 
 called ' The Coal,' because many beds of that mineral, in a more or 
 less pure state, are inter-stratified with sandstone, shale, and lime- 
 stone, of which the bulk of the formation is made up. The combus- 
 tible itself constitutes but a small proportion of the whole mass. In 
 the North of England, for example, the thickness of the coal bearing 
 strata has been estimated at 3,000 feet, while the various coal seams, 
 20 or 30 in number, do not exceed 60 feet 
 
 " It is now generally admitted that all coal is of vegetable origin, 
 the vegetable structure being still recognizable in many kinds of 
 coal 'when slices thin enough to transmit light are obtained and 
 
 examined by the microscope, c.' M. Ad. Brongniart, 
 
 after comparing the phenomena of the ancient coal and its fossil 
 plants with the great peat mosses of the present day, states, in a 
 memoir published in 1838, that he continues to adhere to the opi- 
 nions advanced originally by Werner and De Luc, that the vegetation 
 entombed in the carboniferous strata chiefly grew in the localities 
 where the coal is now found. 
 
 * Manual of Geology, pp. 413 442. 
 
 t Elements, vol. ii. pp 104, 106, 127, 135. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 435 
 
 Professor Phillips, in his Treatise on Geology, states : 
 
 " That the coal measures, three thousand feet thick in the North 
 of England, consist of abundance of sandstone and shales, layers of 
 iron stone, and beds of coal. Of these there are many alternations 
 constituting a series of many nearly similar terms usually containing 
 at least the three substances coal, sandstone, and shale ; scarcely 
 any limestone occurs in the upper coal measures 
 
 " This valuable series of strata, to which Great Britain owes so 
 much of her commercial prosperity, is extended irregularly over the 
 basin of Europe, in North America, Australia, &c. It occupies 
 large breadths in Scotland, Ireland, England and Wales, and lies in 
 patches in various quarters of France, Germany, Poland, and Russia. 
 Commonly it is found at the foot or on the flanks of primary moun- 
 tains which had been previously uplifted, so that its stratification is 
 not in accordance with theirs.* 
 
 In continuation he says : 
 
 " The organic remains of the carboniferous system are extremely 
 numerous ; upwards of 400 species of animal exuviae have been 
 figured from the mountain limestone alone : probably 200 species 
 of plants belong to the coal measures ; and it is certain that in both 
 these formations considerable additions will yet be made. A few re- 
 main to be added from the old red sandstone. 
 
 
 Coal 
 Measures 
 
 Mountain 
 Limestone 
 
 Old Red 
 Sandstone 
 
 PiiANTS~]Vtarin6 
 
 1 
 
 150 
 
 10 
 4 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 10? 
 
 41 
 40 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 24 
 110 
 95 
 10 
 
 78 
 10 
 a few 
 
 a few 
 
 a few 
 a fewf 
 
 Terrestrial 
 ZoopHYTA"~~~Polyparia 
 
 
 Echinida . . . 
 
 IMoLLUSCA Conchifera . . . . f 
 
 Plagimyona ) 
 
 Brachiopoda 
 
 Cephalopoda Monoth . . . 
 Poly thai . . 
 CRUSTACEA Trilobites, &c. .... 
 Fishes 
 
 
 * Pp. 100, 101. 
 
 2 F 2 
 
 t Pp. 106, 107. 
 
436 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 We shall close the evidence, on this point, with the fol- 
 lowing vivid delineation from the pen of a talented contem- 
 porary : 
 
 " We have now," says Mr. Miller, " entered the coal measures. 
 For seven formations together from the lower silurian to the upper 
 red sandstone, our course has heen over oceans without a visible 
 shore, though, like Columhus in his voyage of discovery, we have 
 now and then found a little floating weed, to indicate the approach- 
 ing coast. The water is fast shallowing, yonder passes a broken 
 branch with the leaves still unwithered ; and there floats a tuft of 
 fern. Land, from the masthead ! land ! land ! a low shore thickly 
 covered with vegetation. Huge trees of wonderful form stand out 
 far into the water. There seems no intervening beach. A thick 
 hedge of reeds, tall as the masts of pinnaces, runs along the deeper 
 bays, like water flags at the edge of a lake. A river of vast volume 
 comes running from the interior, darkening the water for leagues 
 with its slime and mud, and bearing with it to the open sea, reeds 
 and ferns and cones of the pine, and immense floats of leaves, and 
 now and then some bulky tree undermined and uprooted by the 
 current. We near the coast, and now enter the opening of the 
 stream. A scarcely penetrable phalanx of reeds, that attain to the 
 height, and well-nigh to the bulk of forest trees, is ranged on either 
 hand. Their bright and glossy stems seem rodded like Gothic 
 columns, the pointed leaves stand out green at every joint, tier 
 above tier, each tier resembling a coronal wreath, or an ancient 
 crown, with the rays turned outwards ; and we see at top what may 
 be either large spikes or catkins. What strange forms of vegetable 
 life appear in the forest behind ! Can that be a club-moss that 
 raises its slender height for more than 50 feet from the soil ? or, can 
 these tall, palm -like trees be actually fenis, and these spreading 
 branches mere fronds ? And then these gigantic reeds ! Are they 
 not mere varieties of the common horsetail of our bogs and morasses 
 magnified some sixty or a hundred times ? The lesser vegetation 
 of our own country, reeds, mosses, and ferns, seem here as if viewed 
 through a microscope ; the dwarfs have sprung up into giants, and 
 yet there appears to be no proportional increase in size among what 
 are unequivocally its trees. Yonder is a group of \vhat seem to be 
 pines tall and bulky, 'tis true, but neither taller nor bulkier than 
 the pines of Norway and America ; and the club-moss behind shoots 
 up its green hairy arms, loaded with what seem catkins, above their 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 437 
 
 topmost cones. But what monster of the vegetable world comes 
 floating down the stream ? It resembles a gigantic star-fish, or an 
 immense coach-wheel divested of the rim. There is a green dome- 
 like mass in the centre, that corresponds to the knave of the wheel 
 or the body of the star-fish ; and the boughs shoot out horizontally 
 on every side, like spokes from the knave, or rays from the central 
 body. The diameter considerably exceeds forty feet ; the branches 
 originally of a deep green, are assuming the golden tinge of decay ; 
 the cylindrical and hollow leaves stand out thick on every side, like 
 prickles of the wild rose on the red, fleshy, lance-like shoots of a 
 year's growth, that will be covered two seasons hence with flowers 
 and fruit. That strangely-formed organism presents no existing 
 type among all the numerous families of the vegetable kingdom. 
 There is an amazing luxuriance of growth all around us. Scarce 
 can the current make way through the thickets of aquatic plants 
 that rise thick from the muddy bottom ; and though the sunshine 
 falls bright on the upper boughs of the tangled forest beyond, not a 
 ray penetrates the more than twilight gloom that broods over the 
 marshy platform below. The rank steam of decaying vegetation 
 forms a thick blue haze that partially obscures the underwood ; 
 deadly lakes of carbonic acid gas have accumulated in the hollows ; 
 there is silence all around ; uninterrupted save by the sudden 
 splash of some reptile fish that has risen to the surface in pursuit of 
 its prey, or when a sudden breeze stirs the hot air, and shakes the 
 fronds of the giant ferns or the catkins of the reeds. The wide 
 continent before us is a continent devoid of animal life, save that its 
 pools and rivers abound in fish and mollusca, and that millions and 
 tens of millions of the infusory tribes swarm in the bogs and 
 marshes. Here and there, too, an insect of strange form flutters 
 among the leaves. It is more than probable that no creature fur- 
 nished with lungs of the more perfect construction, could have 
 breathed the atmosphere of this early period, and have lived. 
 
 " Doubts have been entertained whether the limestone of Burdie- 
 house belongs to the upper old red sandstone or to the inferior 
 coal measures. The limestone of Burdiehouse is unequivocally and 
 most characteristically a coal-measure limestone. It abounds in 
 vegetable remains of terrestrial or lacustrine growth, and these, too, 
 the vegetables common to the coal measures, ferns, reeds, and club- 
 mosses. One can scarce detach a fragment from the mass that has 
 not its leaflet or its seed-cone enclosed, and in a state of such perfect 
 preservation, that there can be no possibility of mistaking its charac- 
 
438 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 ter. If in reality a marine deposit, it must have been formed in the 
 immediate neighbourhood of aland covered with vegetation. Now, in 
 the upper old red sandstone, none of these plants occur. The deposit 
 is exclusively animal remains. Its upper member, * the yellow sand- 
 stone,' says Dr. Anderson, of Newburgh, * does not exhibit a single 
 particle of carbonaceous matter, no trace or film of a branch having 
 been detected in it ; though if such in reality existed, there are not 
 wanting opportunities of obtaining specimens in some one of the 
 twenty or thirty quarries which have been opened in the county of 
 Fife, in this deposit alone.' No two bordering formations in the 
 geological scale have their boundaries better defined by the charac- 
 ter of their fossils than the old red sandstone and the coal measures."* 
 
 Should what we have endeavoured to accomplish, amidst 
 the discouragement arising from the conviction of our incom- 
 petency, be the means of pointing the way to a more satis- 
 factory explanation of the manner in which the older strata 
 were deposited from the ocean, which held their elements in 
 mechanical suspension and in chemical solution, it may also 
 explain, to a certain extent, what is mentioned in the fifteenth 
 Theorem, of the indication shown by many of the stratiform 
 masses, of blending into one another in mineralogical charac- 
 ter, when examined in the order of superposition ; as we 
 consider that during our investigation we have had occasion 
 to adduce causes sufficient to account for the blending of one 
 rock into another, here alluded to. But there is still another 
 peculiarity mentioned in the same Theorem, which it is neces- 
 sary to notice, namely the " thinning out," or mineralogical 
 transition of the strata, when traced continuously to any 
 distance in a horizontal direction. 
 
 We shall first show, from undoubted authority, that such is 
 really the case ; and, afterwards, endeavour to account for it by 
 an application of the principles we have sought to establish: 
 
 " If you enquire," says Mr. Lyell, " into the true composition of 
 
 * Old Red Sandstone, pp. 315 318. We need hardly remind our readers 
 that we consider the earth, at the period alluded to, to have been a sphere of 
 non-rotation, circumbounded by an atmosphereless ocean, tenanted by sub- 
 merged plants and apulmonic animals. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 439 
 
 any stratum, or set of strata, and endeavour to pursue these con- 
 tinuously through a country, it is often found that the character 
 of the mass changes gradually, and becomes at length so different, 
 that we should never have suspected its identity if we had not been 
 enabled to trace its passage from one form to another 
 
 " But, notwithstanding the variations before alluded to in the 
 composition of one continuous set of strata, many rocks retain the 
 same homogenous structure and composition throughout considerable 
 areas, and, frequently, after a change of mineral character, preserve 
 their new peculiarities throughout another tract of great extent. 
 Thus, for example, we may trace a limestone for one hundred 
 miles, and then observe that it becomes arenaceous, until it finally 
 passes into sand or sandstone. We may then follow the last-men- 
 tioned formation throughout another district as extensive as that 
 occupied by the limestone first examined."* 
 
 " The most perfect form of a stratum," Dr. M'Culloch states, "is 
 that in which the two planes are accurately parallel, but it is the 
 most rare. They are more commonly inclined in different ways ; 
 so that a bed terminates at length, in one or more directions or in 
 all by a thin edge ; while it may also present surfaces so frequently 
 and unequally inclined or undulated, as to be of various degrees of 
 thickness throughout, "f 
 
 " Professor Sedgwick has shown," says M. de la Beche, " that 
 still further north in England the great line of distinction between 
 the carboniferous limestone and the coal measures are broken up, 
 
 and that the one rock is lost in the other The alternating 
 
 beds of sandstone and shale expand more and more as we advance 
 towards the north, at the expense of all the calcareous groups 
 which gradually thin off, and cease to produce any impress on the 
 features of the country 
 
 " It may be questioned, at least in parts of Scotland, how far the 
 lines of distinction can be drawn between the upper part of the coal 
 measures and the lower portion of the red sandstone group. Organic 
 remains will be of little assistance ; neither is the mineralogical 
 character of much avail, for it will have been seen that this also 
 changes."J 
 
 * Principles of Geology, vol. iii. pp. 38, 39. 
 t Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 6. 
 t Manual of Geology, pp. 431 433. 
 
440 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 And again he says : 
 
 " A general unconform ability does not always prove a movement 
 in the inferior rocks prior to the deposition of the superior ; for, 
 supposing a given series so to be produced that the newer rocks 
 may be formed within successively diminishing areas ; and another 
 
 deposit to cover the whole this latter would overlap the 
 
 various members of the former, as they successively fine off."* 
 
 Mr. Lyell gives the following opinions on this subject: 
 
 "If we drain a lake which has been fed by a stream, we fre- 
 quently find at the bottom a series of deposits disposed with consi- 
 derable regularity one above the other If a second pit 
 
 be sunk through the same continuous lacustrine formation at some 
 distance from the first, nearly the same series of beds is commonly 
 met with, yet with slight variations ; some, for example, of the layers 
 of sand, clay, or marl may be wanting, one or more having thinned 
 out and given place to others, or sometimes one of the masses first 
 examined is observed to have increased in thickness to the exclusion 
 of other beds." 
 
 And again mineralogically. 
 
 " These three classes of rocks, the arenaceous, argillaceous, and 
 calcareous, pass continually into each other, and rarely occur in a 
 perfectly separate and pure form." 
 
 " We may sometimes," continues the same writer, "follow a bed 
 of limestone, shale, or sandstone for a distance of many hundred 
 yards continuously ; but we generally find at length that each indi- 
 vidual stratum thins out, and allows the beds which were previously 
 above and below it to meet." 
 
 And, finally from this author 
 
 " The first observers were so astonished at the vast space over 
 which they were able to follow the same homogenous rocks in a 
 horizontal direction, that they came hastily to the opinion that the 
 whole globe had been environed by a succession of distinct aqueous 
 formations disposed round the nucleus of the planet like the con- 
 
 * Note to page 512, Manual of Geology. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 441 
 
 centric coats of an onion. But although, in fact, some formations 
 may be continuous over districts as large as half of Europe, or even 
 more, yet most of them either terminate wholly within narrower 
 limits, or soon change their lithological character. Sometimes they 
 thin out gradually, as if the supply of sediment had failed in that 
 direction, or they come abruptly to an end, as if we had arrived at 
 the borders of a sea or ancient lake, which seemed as their recep- 
 tacle. It no less frequently happens that they vary in universal 
 aspect and composition as we pursue them horizontally. For 
 example, we trace a limestone for a hundred miles until it becomes 
 more arenaceous, and, finally, passes into sand or sandstone. We 
 may then follow this sandstone, already proved by its continuity to 
 be of the same age, throughout another district a hundred miles or 
 more in length."* 
 
 Professor Phillips states 
 
 " The local variations in the series of the strata are consider- 
 able ; several of the stratified rocks are only of limited extent ; 
 even whole formations, as the oolitic, change their characters, or, 
 as the millstone grit, are entirely extinct in particular regions where 
 the groups above and below them are complete. 
 
 " Another case of stratified deposits deviating considerably from 
 the horizontal, may happen when carbonate of lime is precipitated 
 from solution, and suffered to fall in very tranquil water, on a 
 sloping or undulated bed. The thickness of the strata produced 
 would be greatest in the deepest parts, and the whole deposit would 
 grow thinner towards the edges. "f 
 
 At a more advanced stage of this work, when we come to 
 explain, how we consider these rocky masses to have been 
 elevated from the horizontal position in which they were 
 formed, we shall have occasion to allude to several phenomena 
 connected with this insensible junction of the strata which 
 have evidently arisen from violent movement and fusion. But 
 at present we shall restrict our observations to only such 
 appearances of this kind as can be traced to the manner of their 
 deposition. 
 
 * Elements of Geology, pp. 6, 27, 64, 198. 
 t Treatise on Geology, pp. 40, 59, 60. 
 
442 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 We have been endeavouring to establish the fact, that the 
 calcareous and carboniferous strata owe their origin, princi- 
 pally, to the propagation of inferior marine animals, and to the 
 spread of imperfect flowerless plants from centres or foci of 
 creation ; and we have, therefore, merely to direct the atten- 
 tion to the form which extensive tracts of strata, proceeding 
 from such sources, would naturally assume, whose greatest 
 density would be in their respective centres, to be fully per- 
 suaded that they would appear to " thin out" as they approach 
 their common limits, where they would blend entirely together. 
 As far, therefore, as regards their mineralogical differences, 
 and the blending together of the strata, no further explanation 
 is requisite ; for they, themselves, demonstrate, in the cause of 
 their accumulation, that also of their sectional form. This 
 enables us to restrict our attention to those enquiries which 
 are connected with the arenaceous and aluminous beds associ- 
 ated with them. These, as we have before explained, we con- 
 sider to have been deposited from a fluid mass floating above 
 the others ; and as this impregnated mass extended alike over 
 all, that which fell from it would, conformably to the laws 
 regulating such depositions, be spread out in horizontal layers 
 of considerable extent, whose upper surfaces would assume a 
 perfect level by first filling up all inequalities of the base which 
 received them. The simultaneous propagation of the testacea, 
 conchifera, and zoophyta, and the spread of the cryptogamous 
 and other imperfect plants would present the appearance of 
 slight elevations and depressions, having their higher parts at 
 the centres, whence the animals and plants radiated ; and it is 
 therefore in strict accordance with the laws governing a fluid 
 tranquilly depositing earthy sediment, to infer, that those de- 
 pressions on the common original base would be gradually 
 filled up by the deposition of layer after layer of earthy 
 material. These afterwards amalgamating with the bounding 
 strata around, would, when finally indurated, present the 
 seeming anomaly "of a limestone bed gradually becoming 
 more arenaceous until it eventually ended in a pure sandstone ; 
 or of a coal seam assuming an aluminous structure, and even- 
 tually ending in shale." 
 
 For a corroboration of this opinion, with regard to the man- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 443 
 
 ner in which a fluid mass, holding earthy sediment in solution, 
 deposits this on the bottom, it may be opportune again to refer 
 to and extend the evidence already given, by the following 
 extract from Professor Playfair's Illustrations of the Huttonian 
 Theory* : 
 
 "Loose materials," says that sagacious investigator, "such as 
 sand and gravel, subsiding at the bottom of the sea, and having their 
 interstices filled up with water, possess a kind of fluidity : they are 
 disposed to yield on the side opposite to that where the pressure is 
 greatest, and are, therefore, in some degree, subject to the laws of 
 hydrostatics. On this account they will arrange themselves in hori- 
 zontal layers ; and the vibrations of the incumbent fluid, by impress- 
 ing a slight motion backwards and forwards, on the materials of these 
 layers, will very much assist the accuracy of their level. 
 
 "It is not, however, meant to deny, that the form of the bottom 
 might influence, in a certain degree, the stratification of the sand- 
 stones deposited on it. The figure of the lower beds deposited on 
 an uneven surface, would necessarily be affected by two causes ; the 
 inclination of that surface, on the one hand, and the tendency to 
 horizontality, on the other ; but, as the former cause would grow 
 less powerful as the distance from the bottom increased, the latter 
 cause would finally prevail, so that the upper beds would approach 
 to horizontality, and the lower would neither be exactly parallel to 
 them, nor to one another. "f 
 
 We have now reached the limit of our present enquiries into 
 the formation of the original stratiform masses of the earth ; 
 for we consider the coal measures, with their associated lime- 
 stone beds, to have constituted the surface, or boundaries of 
 the earth's outer crust, during the period of non-rotation ; and 
 that the superincumbent masses of more recent epochs owe 
 their collocation to the effects of its first diurnal motion ; con- 
 sequently, in whatever elucidation we may be enabled to pre- 
 sent of that stupendous event, these newer formations must 
 assume their proper places. 
 
 Before rotation took place, however, it seems apparent that 
 
 * Chapter viii. p. 320, 321. 
 
 t Professor Playfair's Works, pp. 58, 59. 
 
444 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 successive formations of calcareous, carboniferous, aluminous, 
 and arenaceous deposits succeeded each other, until the ocean 
 was so far drained of its earthy material as to fit it for its ulti- 
 mate state of equilibrium, and for becoming the pellucid " seas" 
 of our day ; and this the researches of geologists assure us 
 actually was the case, as stated on the authority of those 
 writers who have expressed concurring opinions.* 
 
 While we have, in our preceding investigations, made it 
 evident that the vast and continued operations then carried on 
 were chiefly effected by the combined instrumentality of zoo- 
 phyta, of animals, and of plants, whose labours having been 
 performed under water, each of the creations of these organized 
 beings, respectively, must have been of the description to which 
 we have, all along, so repeatedly and so persistently alluded : 
 it has thus been made manifest that they did perform the work 
 they were called upon to execute ; and, therefore, agreeably 
 to our belief in the attributes of an all-wise and beneficent 
 Creator, no other classes of organic creatures, animal or vege- 
 table, could by possibility have been employed for that pur- 
 pose, consistently with the incipient state of the earth's crea- 
 tion during its non-rotatory existence. 
 
 We trust it may be considered that we have now redeemed 
 the pledge which we gave at the commencement, to prove 
 " that during the period of the Earttis non-rotation, there 
 were formed, and forming, under its waters, by the united 
 instrumentality of mechanical deposition, of chemical and 
 electrical action, and of animal and vegetable secretion and 
 decomposition, those materials which were afterwards to consti- 
 tute part of its geological and meterological phenomena ; but 
 which had not as yet assumed their present relative position, 
 or their form. That the ocean was also undergoing the neces- 
 sary preparation for its actual condition. And that the whole 
 of these mighty operations were going forward under the 
 Divine influence, as recorded in the first chapter of Genesis" 
 
 In immediate connexion with this part of our subject we 
 shall proceed to enquire, whether what has been said with 
 
 * See the ninety-seventh Theorem, already recapitulated in a previous 
 chapter. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 445 
 
 respect to the deposition of the earthy material in the form of 
 strata, from the menstruum holding it in suspension, may not 
 afford some clue to unravel what has hitherto been wrapt in 
 mystery, and has occasioned much discussion. "We mean the 
 fact, of the primitive ocean having entirely changed its charac- 
 ter, from an aggregated mass of earth-impregnated fresh water 
 into the present salt sea. 
 
 This attempt is beset with many difficulties, some of which 
 are peculiar to itself, such as the meagre and sometimes equi- 
 vocal character of the evidence which we are enabled to bring 
 forward to prove its original freshness. Nevertheless, con- 
 fiding in the truth of what has been adduced, we shall com- 
 mence by endeavouring to show that the ocean has not always 
 been salt, although from the first it contained within itself the 
 elements of its saline constitution. 
 
 By the concluding words of the nineteenth Theorem, it will 
 be observed, " that none of the plants discovered in the coal 
 formations have been recognized as being of marine origin ;" 
 while by one of the paragraphs of the hundred and twenty- 
 fifth Theorem it is stated " that in the green sandstone and the 
 chalk t the few species of plantce which have been found are 
 principally marine" We shall now proceed more closely to 
 examine the authorities for these propositions ; and in doing 
 so, we shall commence with an opinion given more than half 
 a century ago, although, perhaps, geologically considered, it 
 may not on that account be entitled to greater credit, yet it 
 will serve to point out, how soon these facts forced themselves 
 into notice: 
 
 "Now, since it appears," observes Mr. Whitehurst, "that all 
 strata accompanying coal universally abound with vegetable forms, 
 it seems to indicate that all coals were originally derived from the 
 vegetables thus enveloped in the stone or clay ; and we may say as 
 much of the origin of iron ; for the same strata also produce iron- 
 stone : for wherever vegetables are observed to decay in stagnant 
 ditches, the waters thereof appear ochory. 
 
 " It is a matter worth notice that the superior strata contain iron- 
 stone, coals, and vegetable impressions, but NO MARINE PRODUC- 
 TIONS WHATEVER. And that the inferior strata, which are limestone, 
 
446 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 stone, contain the exuviae of marine animals, but NO VEGETABLE 
 FORMS."* 
 
 " It was soon remarked," says Professor Henslow, at a much 
 later date, " when the study of fossil vegetables began to attract 
 the attention of botanists, that those from the coal measures were 
 distinct from the plants now existing on the surface of the earth, and 
 that they more nearly resembled the species of tropical climates 
 than such as grew in the temperate zones. Subsequent researches 
 have shown that the species embedded in different strata likewise 
 differ from each other, and that, on the whole, there are about four- 
 teen distinct geological formations in which traces of vegetables 
 occur. According to M. Brongniart, they first appear in the schists 
 and limestones below the coal. These contain a few cryptogamic 
 species (about thirteen), of which four are marine algae, and the 
 rest ferns or their allied orders. In the coal itself, above 300 
 distinct species have been recognized, among which those of the 
 higher tribes of cryptogamic plants are the most abundant, amount- 
 ing to about two-thirds of the whole. Many of them are arbores- 
 cent, and parts of their trunks are found standing vertically in the 
 spots where they grew. There are no marine plants in this formation. 
 A few palms and some graminese are the chief monocotyledons ; and 
 there are several dicotyledons which have been considered analogous 
 to apocyneaae, euphorbiaceae, cactae, coniferae, &c. No great stress 
 need be laid at present upon the several proportions which species 
 of these classes bear to each other ; as it is probable that subse- 
 quent researches will considerably modify them. The great pre- 
 dominance and size of arborescent ferns and other tribes of ductalosae 
 
 constitute the main feature of the formation In the 
 
 green sandstone and chalk few species have been hitherto found, 
 and these are almost all marine. "-f* 
 
 "It is a remarkable circumstance," says Sir Henry de la Beche, 
 " connected with the coal measures of the South of England, that 
 marine remains have not been detected in them, which, though it does 
 not prove the deposit of coal to have been effected in fresh water, 
 does appear to show that there was something which prevented the 
 presence of marine animals, a circumstance the more remarkable as 
 we have seen that such animals swarmed during the formation of the 
 carboniferous limestone." 
 
 * Enquiry into the Formation of the Earth, London, 1786, p. 204. 
 t Botany, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 311, 312. 
 

 FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 447 
 
 A little further on he adds 
 
 " Let us now consider the mode in which the remains of terrestrial 
 vegetables, so abundantly preserved in the coal strata, occur,"* 
 
 " Mons. Ad. Brongniart," says Dr. Ure, "in his Treatise on the 
 Classification and Distribution of Fossil Plants, comes to the follow- 
 ing geological conclusions: 1. That in the formations of the coal 
 and anthracite, the vegetables are almost all cryptogamia of the 
 monocotyledonous tribe, such as filices (ferns), equisetum, lycopodi- 
 ums, marsilecese, &c. ; but the former three families included arbo- 
 rescent species, which no longer exist, except in the first. He there- 
 fore doubts the presence of palms in these strata. 2. That few 
 vegetable remains are to be found in the great interval which sepa- 
 rates these beds from the upper deposits, and that those which do 
 occur belong almost wholly to marine plants, or to dicotyledonous 
 trees, which appear to have been transported thither by inundations. 
 And 3. That in the higher strata a great variety of fossil vegetables 
 exist, which, for the most part, appear to belong to similar kinds of 
 plants, if not in species, at least in genera, to vegetables which still 
 inhabit the hottest regions of the earth ; nor is it probable that they 
 have been transported to our colder ones, since there are sometimes 
 found, as in the lignite of Cologne, trunks of palm trees in a vertical 
 position. M< f 
 
 " Mr Murchison infers," say the editors of the Literary Gazette, 
 " that the coal measures of the great Dudley Coalfields were accu- 
 mulated exclusively in fresh water. "J 
 
 " In the coal formation," say MM. Lindley and Hutton, "which 
 may be considered the earliest in which the remains of land plants 
 have been discovered, the flora of England consists of ferns in 
 amazing abundance ; of large coniferous trees, of species resembling 
 lycopodiacete, but of more gigantic dimensions ; of vast quantities of 
 a tribe analogous to cactce or euphorbaciacte, but perhaps not iden- 
 tical with them ; of palms and other monocotyledons ; and, finally, 
 of numerous plants the exact nature of which is extremely doubt- 
 ful. Between two and three hundred species have been detected in 
 this, the coal formation, of which two-thirds at least are ferns." 
 
 * Manual of Geology, pp. 424, 427. 
 t New System of Geology, pp. 440, 441. 
 J Literary Gazette, 21st May, 1836, p. 329.] 
 Vol. i. pp. x. xi. 
 
448 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " In England," says Mr. Miller, " the formation known as the 
 quartzoze conglomerate is comparatively barren of fossils, the only 
 organic remains yet detected in it being a single scale of the holop- 
 tychius found by Mr. Murchison ; and though it contains vegetable 
 organisms in more abundance, so imperfectly are they preserved that 
 little else can be ascertained regarding them than that they were 
 land plants, but not identical with the plants of the coal measures."* 
 
 It is certainly perplexing that at the very outset of our ar- 
 gument we should have to contend against a difficulty which 
 occurs in the only direct evidence we possess upon the point 
 we are endeavouring to establish. Professor Henslow's asser- 
 tion, however, that " of thirteen species of cryptogames dis- 
 covered in the schists and carboniferous limestone, four of 
 them are marine plants," stands too directly in the way to per- 
 mit of its being passed unnoticed. 
 
 In tracing the source from whence the several geological 
 writers seem to derive the evidence for their statements relative 
 to the flora of the primitive world, we are invariably led back 
 upon Mons. Ad. Brongniart, on whose researches and com- 
 pilations they appear to have reposed great confidence ; and 
 hence it results that these various quotations merely tend to 
 prove their united confidence in his judgment and researches ; 
 while, it is presumed, that he exercised the like confidence in 
 MM. Sternberg, Schlotheim, Artis, &c., from whom, in truth, 
 he derived much of his information. This, of course, must be 
 considered sufficient ; but still, on a point of so much import- 
 ance in its bearing on our argument, it would have been more 
 conclusive to have had concurring testimony from as many in- 
 dependent sources as possible. On tbe other hand it should 
 be observed, that the whole number of species discovered in 
 the schists and carboniferous limestone are rather limited, 
 being only thirteen, of which a third part merely are declared 
 to be marine. Professor Henslow unfortunately does not say 
 what these four marine exceptions consist of; and on referring 
 to the copious lists of M. de la Beche, we find he has classed 
 the carboniferous limestone in the carboniferous group, with- 
 
 Old Red Sandstone, p. 196'. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 449 
 
 out noticing any marine plant in that series, and consequently 
 the subject, as far as we are interested in it, is involved in 
 additional obscurity. On tracing back, however, we discover 
 that among the organic remains of the grauwacke group he 
 has included three species of algae, two of which have been 
 found in Sweden, and one in Ireland, all apparently fucus- 
 formed plants, and these may, perhaps, constitute the marine 
 exceptions to which Professor Henslow alludes. Should this 
 be the case, they must remain as they are until the enigma be 
 explained by some of the numerous casualties which may have 
 occurred to have placed three or four specimens of fossil plants 
 in situations so ambiguous as to occasion their being attributed 
 to the lower part of the carboniferous limestone, or even to 
 the grauwacke group. On this particular point we find a 
 remarkable coincidence in the evidence just given from the 
 standard work of Messrs. Lindley and Hutton, it being there 
 stated, that of the whole fossil flora which have been examined 
 and classed by them, ; only four species of fucus-formed plants 
 (fucoides) are specifically attributed to any formation associated 
 with or below the coal measures, and they are in the transition 
 series, most probably including the three species of fucoides 
 referred by M. de la Beche to the grauwacke group of that 
 series. 
 
 Our readers are, no doubt, aware that the termination 
 " oid," borrowed from the Greek, is applied only when the 
 object to be classed resembles but is not identical with the 
 order or genus with which it is found convenient to group it 
 provisionally. Consequently, when it is sought to determine, 
 as accurately as possible, whether these four fucoid plants were 
 the inhabitants of fresh or of salt water, the fact of their being 
 thus merely allied to the fuci, leaves the question of their real 
 habitat entirely open. 
 
 And, certainly, where mistakes and misapplications in ar- 
 ranging organic remains according to geological epochs might, 
 in spite of the utmost care and attention, so readily occur, and 
 where a candid desire of the truth is brought to the discussion 
 of subjects involving such general principles as the one does 
 which is now under discussion, an exception which, by assi- 
 duity, we have been enabled to narrow down to four species, 
 
 2 G 
 
450 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 and these merely analogous, ought not to stand in the way of 
 our being allowed to employ the main body of the evidence in 
 our future argument. 
 
 Considering, therefore, the coal measures themselves to have 
 been wholly formed by the remains of fresh water plants, and 
 to have constituted the grand centre of vegetable existence in 
 the primitive world in which assumption we are confirmed 
 when we reflect, that in them the absence of fresh water plants 
 is as much an exception as the presence of marine ones is in 
 the grauwacke group, or any formation anterior thereto they 
 ought to form, as we intend they should, the principal basis 
 of our argument. Besides, it is more consistent to suppose, 
 that the development of the vast but progressive plan of 
 Creation proceeded upon fixed principles, capable of adapting 
 themselves to that progression, than to imagine them subject 
 to capricious changes from salt to fresh water, and from that 
 again to salt. Even supposing it should be eventually esta- 
 blished that during the early part of the coal formation, a few 
 species of fucoid plants were intermingled with those more 
 purely of fresh water origin, it might be possible, on the well- 
 ascertained capability of plants undergoing remarkable modi- 
 fications of character without impeding any of their vegetable 
 functions, to explain the anomaly by the supposition that 
 plants so constituted, and, subsequently, found inhabiting the 
 briny ocean, might have grown and flourished in a medium 
 holding soda, lime, magnesia, sulphuric and muriatic acids in 
 solution, but in different combination from what these ingre- 
 dients are at present ; although it may be utterly impossible 
 to conceive that plants decidedly of fresh water origin could 
 exist in the present water of the ocean, as these materials are 
 now combined in association with them.* 
 
 * Theorem 122nd. Mr. Miller, with reference to this elasticity of cha- 
 racter in plants, says, " the adaptation which takes place in the forms and con- 
 stitution of plants and animals, when placed in circumstances different from 
 their ordinary ones is equally striking. The woody plant of a warmer climate, 
 when transplanted into a colder, frequently changes its ligneous stem for a 
 herbaceous one, as if in the anticipation of the killing frosts of winter ; and 
 dying to the ground at the close of autumn, shoots up again in spring." (Old 
 Red Sandstone, pp. 71, 72. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 451 
 
 We shall proceed, therefore, with the present argument upon 
 the supposition that the ocean, during the earlier geological 
 epochs, possessed all the properties of fresh water, as far as 
 the nourishment of its vegetation was concerned, notwith- 
 standing the presence of the ingredients we have just been 
 treating of. Before proceeding, however, with this chain of 
 argument, there is a general prefatory conception to which 
 we are desirous of alluding, from its being essential to the 
 thorough understanding of our subsequent reasoning. It is 
 this : that like most of the other great aggregate bodies (the 
 atmosphere, for example), which, taken together, make up 
 the Earth we inhabit, the ocean, one of these bodies, has 
 peculiar laws impressed upon it, which may, with perfect 
 propriety, be called constitutional. That from these normal 
 laws it never very greatly deviates, and to their subjection it 
 has a constant tendency to return, even when deflected there- 
 from in any degree. That during the non-rotatory period 
 the water of the primitive ocean was gradually approximating 
 towards this static condition ; and that, about the time of its 
 close, it had closely approached that state which was to be for 
 ever afterwards its natural condition ; from which the ocean 
 would only partially, but never materially, deviate in future ; 
 and whose constituted power of stability would be such as to 
 enable the sea-water to subdue any minor disturbing cause into 
 obedience with the pervading laws of its constitution. The 
 fixing of this principle in the mind will not only make what 
 we have to say more easily understood, but it will also serve 
 to explain the equability with which the ocean throughout 
 maintains its saltness; being neither rendered more so in 
 mass by local evaporation, nor less saline by the emptying of 
 rivers into it.* To this constitutional state, therefore, we 
 consider the primitive ocean was gradually approaching, by 
 the deposition of those earthy ingredients, which it had held 
 in solution, to facilitate their chemical combinations ; while 
 it also conveyed them from one place to another in obedience 
 
 * According to Mr. Reid, "the water of the Atlantic ocean within the 
 tropics, contains l-24th of its weight of saline matters ; while that of the Firth 
 of Forth is only reduced to ahout l-30th." (Chemistry, p. 118). 
 
 2 G 2 
 
452 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 to the will, and in conformity with the plans, of the Omni- 
 potent. The carrier-ocean itself being likewise thereby pre- 
 pared to assume that clear and sparkling state which renders 
 it at once the most beautifully grand, the most wholesome, 
 and the most useful element in nature. Nor can we recog- 
 nize any objection to this view of the case, or any reason why 
 it should not be admitted that the ocean required to go 
 through a course of preparation for being rendered capable 
 of executing its part, any more than that the solid strata, 
 born of it, should require to have been perfected in order to 
 fulfil their part in the great unfolding plan of the Creation, 
 On the contrary, we consider it peculiarly characteristic of 
 the attributes of the Creator when we perceive two effects 
 springing simultaneously from one cause, the one co-operating 
 towards the perfection of the other. The ocean approaching 
 nearer and nearer to its own maturity in proportion as it 
 parted with the stony concretions which were forming within 
 its bosom by the several combinations we have endeavoured 
 to explain, while they, crust after crust of mineral strata, as 
 they were depositing, were destined, in turn, when they should 
 be elevated, to become solid defences to the terraine portions 
 of the world, to protect them against the future encroach- 
 ments of the very element from whence they emanated. 
 
 It may be remembered, that when we commenced our 
 investigations into the nature of the deposits which, in all 
 likelihood, were taking place from the primitive ocean, it was 
 considered that silex, alumina, lime, magnesia, barytes, stron- 
 tites, zirconia, glucina, potash, soda, and ammonia ; oxides of 
 various metals, especially iron and manganese, carbonic and 
 fluoric acids, hydrogen and oxygen, with muriatic, sulphuric, 
 and, most probably, nitric acid, were the ingredients held by 
 the ancient water in chemical combination. 
 
 In continuation, we went on to explain, first, that by the 
 abstraction of those elements which are known to have been 
 taken from it by animal and vegetable agency ; and, after- 
 wards, by the infusion into it of several gaseous exhalations, 
 arising from the decomposition of the animal and vegetable 
 bodies, successive alterations of its equilibrium must have 
 taken place, so as to have brought about new combinations, 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 453 
 
 and to have caused insoluble precipitates which, in time, 
 became mineral stratiform masses, encrusting the bottom of 
 the ocean. And in this way we accounted for the locking up, 
 in these stony concretions, of the silex, alumina, barytes, 
 strontites, zirconia, glucina, oxides of iron and manganese, 
 fluoric, carbonic, and nitric acids, and part of the lime and 
 magnesia ; consequently, we have now to account only for 
 the residue of the magnesia and of the lime, as well as for the 
 soda, potash, and ammonia, and the sulphuric and muriatic 
 acids which remained after the others had become solidified 
 and insoluble. 
 
 When the earthy and metallic substances preserved the 
 relationship which has been described, to the muriatic, sul- 
 phuric, and nitric acids, and, by their superior affinity towards 
 these acids, excluded the alkalies which, in turn, would com- 
 bine by their affinities with the carbonic acid, the oceanic 
 water would not, we presume, possess the saline taste and 
 properties which it does at present ; because it has those pro- 
 perties in our day, by the presence of the muriates of soda, 
 magnesia, and lime, and the sulphate of soda, which it holds 
 in saturation in certain determinate proportions, the muriate 
 of soda, or culinary salt, prevailing greatly over all the others. 
 But as soda could not then have been in combination with 
 muriatic acid it being an axiom in chemistry that an acid 
 will affect the saturating principle in proportion to the strength 
 of its affinity ; so, therefore, neither could the taste and 
 qualities which that combination alone confers have been pre- 
 sent hence we may look upon it, without much fear of being 
 wrong, that up to the time of the carboniferous era, the primi- 
 tive ocean was not salt. Moreover, as the substances dissolved 
 in it were held in chemical combination, they would, even 
 though in great abundance, detract very little from the lim- 
 pidity of the water.* Those two essential conditions will 
 account for the possibility of its abounding with fresh water 
 plants, in accordance with what is stated in the concluding 
 part of the nineteenth Theorem. Neither is this state of 
 
 * Lyell's Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 227. Vide also any analysis of 
 mineral waters. 
 
454 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 matters greatly at variance with what occurs at the present 
 day, for it will be observed by the hundred and tenth Theorem, 
 that, besides pure water, the most common ingredients in mine- 
 ral springs are carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon- 
 ates, sulphates, and muriates of soda, of lime, and of magnesia, 
 and carbonate and sulphate of iron. And those of more rare 
 occurrence are sulphurous acid, nitrogen gas, sulphate of 
 alumina, muriate of manganese, siliceous earth, fluoric acid, 
 lithnia, strontia, potash, and hydriodic acid. That as mineral 
 contents are in chemical solution, they rarely, even when in 
 great abundance, affect the clearness of the water. That to 
 hold a large quantity of silex in solution, it seems requisite 
 that the ivater should be raised to a high temperature. And 
 that, notwithstanding their mineral character, and the high 
 temperature of some of the springs, confervce and other plants 
 thrive in and close around them. 
 
 Thus we consider we have fulfilled the promise we made 
 when treating of the ancient flora, to prove that, although the 
 water of the ocean contained, from the beginning, the elements 
 which confer on it its saline taste, yet it was not salt, but fresh, 
 up to the period when geology can prove, " that the whole of 
 the carboniferous plants were of fresh water origin." 
 
 In continuation we must endeavour to show, how the ocean 
 assumed its present saline condition. 
 
 What has already been stated will have prepared the mind 
 for entering upon this explanation ; for we have accounted for 
 the locking up of nearly the whole of the carbonic acid in 
 forming the shelly coverings of the inferior animals of the 
 primitive era, and in the nourishment afforded to its flora. 
 During the same period, as we also showed, immense deposits 
 of lime took place, not only in completing these coverings, 
 but also in forming the calcareous cement discoverable every- 
 where in the limestone strata ; and the same must, likewise, 
 have occurred with respect to silex, magnesia, and alumina. 
 We were, also, made aware that the introduction of ammonia 
 precipitated the alumina which constitutes the slaty and shaly 
 formations, which, in turn, gave occasion to other changes, 
 causing the simultaneous deposit of more silex, and of mag- 
 nesia; while phosphuretted hydrogen performed the same 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 455 
 
 office towards the metallic oxides. That barytes and stron- 
 tites, from being light and soluble compounds, in union with 
 muriatic and nitric acids, on becoming associated with car- 
 bonic and sulphuric acids, were precipitated as the most pon- 
 derous of the rocky masses. That fluoric acid holding silex 
 in solution, seems to have entered into the composition of the 
 micaceous deposits which frequently accompany the porcelain 
 earths.* And, lastly, it was shown, on sufficient authority, 
 that earthy precipitates, on being thrown down by the agency 
 of an alkali, generally carry a small proportion of their acid 
 associate along with themselves. 
 
 Having in this way accounted for the purification of the 
 primitive water by being deprived of these earthy, metallic, 
 and acidulous ingredients, it will be seen by instituting a 
 comparison between these precipitates and the ingredients 
 which the water was considered to have contained at the com- 
 mencement, that there remain only to be accounted for, the 
 residue of the lime, magnesia, soda, potash, muriatic and sul- 
 phuric acids ; and the ammoniacal gas which must have arisen 
 from the putrefactive decomposition of innumerable races of 
 marine animals, during a long but indefinite period ; even 
 although a considerable portion of this buoyant gas would be 
 intercepted, in performing other services on its way to the 
 surface. 
 
 In conducting the remaining enquiry we shall endeavour, 
 first, to dispose of the volatile alkali, which, from its low spe- 
 cific gravity, possesses the peculiar property of conferring on 
 the water a lesser specific weight than it had previous to im- 
 bibing it. On a point so essential to our future argument we 
 should wish to base this fact on the securest evidence. Attend, 
 therefore, to what Drs. Murray and Ure state on this point : 
 
 " Ammoniacal gas," says the former, " is largely and rapidly 
 absorbed by water ; the water, under a mean atmospheric pressure 
 and temperature, taking up, according to Sir H. Davy, 670 times 
 its bulk of this gas, and acquiring a specific gravity of 0.875. 
 According to Dr. Thomson, water takes up even 780 times its hulk 
 
 Ure's Chemical Dictionary, p. 331. 
 
456 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 of ammoniacal gas. Its solution, in water, is of inferior specific 
 gravity to pure water, being usually from 0.900 to 0.936. This 
 gas is expelled from it by elevating the temperature to 136."* 
 
 " The specific gravity of ammonia," says Dr. Ure, " is an impor- 
 tant datum in chemical researches, and has been rather differently 
 stated. Yet, as no aeriform body is more easily obtained in a pure 
 state than ammonia, this diversity among accurate experimentalists 
 shows the nicety of this statistical operation. MM. Biot and Arago 
 make it 0.59438. Kirwan says that 100 cubic inches weigh 18.16 
 gr. at 30 ins. of bar., and 61 of Far., which, compared to air 
 reckoned 30.519, gives 0.59540. Sir H. Davy determines its den- 
 sity to be 0.590, with which estimate the theoretical calculations of 
 
 Dr. Prout in the 6th vol. of the Annals of Philosophy agree 
 
 Water is capable of dissolving easily about one-third of its weight of 
 ammoniacal gas, or 640 times its bulk." 
 
 Dr. Ure, after referring to a table " of the quantity of am- 
 monia in 100 parts, by weight, of its aqueous combinations at 
 successive densities, as given in the Philosophical Magazine for 
 March, 1821," and which in general shows a lower specific 
 gravity than pure water, ranging from 0.9000 to 0.99447, goes 
 on to say : 
 
 " The remarkable expansiveness which ammonia carries into its 
 first combination with water, continues in the subsequent dilutions 
 of its aqueous combinations. This curious property is not peculiar 
 to pure ammonia, but belongs, as I have found, to some of its salts. 
 Thus, sal. ammoniac, by its union with water, causes an enlarge- 
 ment of the total volume of the compound, beyond the volume of 
 the constituents of the solution, or the specific gravity of the satu- 
 rated solution is less than the mean specific gravity of the salt and 
 water. I know of no salts with which this phenomenon occurs, 
 except the ammoniacal. "f 
 
 In the fact of the specific gravity of water being reduced, 
 when combined with ammonia, or with its salts, we have a re- 
 markable evidence of the all-pervading wisdom of the Creator ; 
 for it will be remembered that its introduction into the primi- 
 
 * Elements of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 13. 
 t Chemical Dictionary, pp. 148, 149. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 457 
 
 tive water, when in equilibrium, became the prime mover of 
 many of the chemical changes which followed ; while, as its 
 chief action was directed to the aluminous and magnesian 
 earths dispersed throughout the water, in this diminution of 
 specific gravity we recognise an adequate provision having been 
 made for its ascending through, and searching the whole of 
 that enormous mass of liquid ; so that none of the parts should 
 escape its penetrating and precipitating influence. And, lest 
 it should be detained in its upward progress where it was 
 destined long afterwards to act an important part in the future 
 plans of the Creator, a weaker affinity was conferred upon it, 
 for the acids which remained, than was bestowed upon the 
 potash, the soda, the lime, or the magnesia, all of which, as has 
 been already shown, rob ammonia of its acid associates wherever 
 they find them united ; and thereby it was left free to pursue its 
 upward tendency.* Hence we may consider it as a legitimate 
 conclusion, that the ammonia, whose low specific gravity, either 
 when pure or when combined with water, caused it to arise in 
 exhalation from putrefying animal substances at the bottom 
 of the ocean, enabled it to continue its course uninterruptedly, 
 while it performed the chemical duties imposed upon it, nor 
 stopped until it reached its destined position amongst the 
 uppermost liquid strata of the primitive ocean, there to await 
 the future designs of the Omnipotent. 
 
 With a desire equally as sincere as that which induces us to 
 carry forward our investigations to the very verge of the limits 
 pointed out by scientific research, would we carefully avoid 
 going a single step beyond them. Nevertheless, depending 
 on the sure foundation of the Word of God, when we can dis- 
 cern that it has reference to any field of enquiry not yet fully 
 occupied by philosophy, and such being the case in this instance, 
 we cannot refrain from repeating what we have already 
 alluded to that during the non-rotatory period, in a manner 
 somewhat analogous to that in which the nitrogen was created, 
 wherewith to form the atmosphere which was to be willed 
 
 * Ure's Chemical Dictionary, p. 184, and Dr. Murray's Elements, vol. ii. p. 
 15. Nisbet's Chemistry, and Table of Affinities frfim Dr. Pearson's Chemical 
 Nomenclature. 
 
458 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 thereafter into existence, the material elements, however 
 buoyant, which now constitute the etherial fluid, were wrought 
 out in the dark and shoreless water of the incipient earth, 
 when " the Spirit of God moved upon it ;" and created the 
 bases of those works which now demonstrate alike the wisdom, 
 the goodness, and the power of the Creator of the universe. 
 
 But to return to our argument. 
 
 The disposal of the ammonia, leaves us to deal with the fol- 
 lowing materials only, all of which, according to the best 
 received opinions, would be combined in the water in their 
 most soluble states, viz., soda, potash, lime, magnesia, and 
 muriatic and sulphuric acids ; ingredients which confer on sea 
 water its peculiar saline constitution, as will be seen by re- 
 ferring to part of the ninety-first Theorem, which states: 
 " That) by repeated analysis, sea water has been found to con- 
 sist of the following ingredients in every 500 grains, namely, 
 478.420 of pure water ; 13.300 muriate of soda, or culinary 
 salt; 2.333 sulphate of soda; 0.995 muriate of lime; 4.955 
 muriate of magnesia. Wherefore, the ocean, besides the ele- 
 ments of pure water, contains muriatic and sulphuric acids, 
 soda, magnesia, and lime, together with traces of iodine, bro- 
 mine, and, occasionally, potash" 
 
 A more detailed examination of the evidences for this con- 
 clusion, will give us the following particulars : 
 
 Sir Henry de la Beche states, that " according to Dr. Mar- 
 cet, 500 grains of sea-water, taken from the middle of the 
 North Atlantic, contained, 
 
 Muriate of soda 13.3 
 
 Sulphate of soda 2.33 
 
 Muriate of lime 0.995 
 
 Muriate of magnesia . . . . 4.995 
 
 21.580."* 
 
 Dr. Ure, in his comprehensive table of mineral waters, gives 
 for sea-water the following results, viz. : 
 
 GRAINS. GRAINS. 
 
 Water 7291 Muriate of lime . . . 5.7 
 
 Muriate of soda . . 159.3 Sulphate of soda . . . 25.6 
 Muriate of magnesia . 35.3 Sulphate of potash . a tracef 
 
 * Geology, p. 3. t Chemical Dictionary, p. 280. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 459 
 
 Dr. Murray says, that sea-water, on the principle that the 
 most soluble salts will be those existing in solution, will con- 
 tain in a pint, 
 
 Muriate of soda . . . . 159.3 grains 
 Muriate of magnesia . . . 35.5 ,, 
 
 Muriate of lime 5.7 ,, 
 
 Sulphate of soda .... 25.6 * 
 
 Finally, as regards the evidence on this point, although it 
 may, in some degree, be an anticipation of our subsequent 
 reasoning, we can hardly pass onwards without alluding to 
 another concurring cause, which consisted in the introduction 
 of the primary light into the material universe on the first day 
 of the Mosaic week, whose electrical effects would thereafter 
 tend, perhaps, more than any other influence, to complete the 
 perception of saltness by means of the pre-existing saline ele- 
 ments. 
 
 Having thus reached a point where our argument a priori 
 coincides with the conclusions of experience, deduced from 
 actual analysis of sea-water, we trust it may be considered that 
 the steps which have led us to it have also been correct. 
 When we reflect on the progressive character of the process 
 which transformed the ocean, from a boundless reservoir of 
 earthy mineral water, with its saline ingredients and properties 
 neutralized by the presence of substances possessing greater 
 affinity for the acids than the fixed alkalies, whose union with 
 them is now the cause of its saltness ; and, at the same time, 
 consider, that the deposition which took place from the water, 
 of these earthy materials which now form the rocky beds of 
 the earth's outer crust, extended in duration from the earliest 
 geological epoch wherein regular strata can be detected, up to 
 the latest of the coal measures, and that these stupendous 
 depositions were many ages in being effected, we have every 
 reason, also, for concluding, that the sea acquired its saltness by 
 degrees, and, therefore, that the successive families of plants 
 would correspond, in every respect, to the predominant con- 
 stitution of the element during that particular period in which 
 
 - 
 
 * Elements of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 3%. 
 
460 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 each was destined to grow ; while, as an evident and final de- 
 duction from these truths, we may come to the conclusion that 
 marine plants, or those most resembling them, such as the 
 fucoides, would be discovered only amongst the latest series of 
 the coal measures, or embedded in some ones above them, such 
 as the tertiary strata, which are of still later formation. 
 
 Before quitting this portion of our labours, and whilst the 
 circumstances are fresh upon the mind which bring out, so 
 clearly and delightfully, the wisdom which devised, and the 
 power and skill which wrought out these beneficent ends by 
 such numerous instruments, through protracted ages and on a 
 scale so vast, we cannot more appropriately offer up the tribute 
 alike of our adoration and our thanksgiving, than by adopting 
 the language of the xcv. Psalm, and proclaim with one voice, 
 " The sea is his, and he made it ; and his hands formed the 
 dry land. O come let us worship and bow down, let us kneel 
 before the Lord our maker. For he is our God, and we are 
 his people !" 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF THE LIGHT; THE CONSEQUENT PROTOROTATION OF 
 THE EARTH ; AND ITS DYNAMICAL RESULTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Prefatory observations. Condition of the Earth during the period alluded to. 
 Introduction of Light into the material universe. Contrast between the 
 prolonged operations of the non-rotatory period, and the sudden comple- 
 tion of the work of creation during the Mosaic week. The relative quali- 
 ties of Light its cuasi-ubiquity, expansion through visible space, velocity 
 of propagation, and vividity. Heat the cause of expansion in material 
 bodies. The source of external Light and Heat received by the Earth. 
 Identity of these two subtile influences. Sun-light the direct cause of 
 Heat. Attraction and Expansion the antagonistic forces which maintain 
 all matter in its constitutional state of equilibrium. Deduction from these 
 facts, that Darkness, in the language of Genesis, means Attraction. Philo- 
 logical and scientific analogies in favour of the same conclusion. 
 
 AT the period to which we alluded when we closed the last 
 section, the earth was considered to have been a spherical pla- 
 net, whose horizontal rocky crust beneath a dark and atmos- 
 phereless ocean was covered in some places by dense vegeta- 
 tion, and in others teemed with inferior animal life ; while the 
 primeval water, though drained of its metallic ingredients, and 
 most of its suspended earths and acids, still retained some of 
 the two latter, and a proportion of the original alkaline and 
 acidulous elements : and that, thus constituted, the earth was 
 looked upon as circulating round an unillumined sun, in obedi- 
 ence to the same laws which still govern its periodical motion ; 
 and in precisely the same orbit wherein it continues to per- 
 form its annual revolution. 
 
462 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 The great movements of the orbs in space had, long ere the 
 period we allude to, reached a state of equilibrium, from which 
 nothing but a fiat from the Omnipotent can ever cause them 
 to depart ; but, as regards the earth itself, it is to be borne in 
 mind, that according to the same immutability of the laws which 
 govern every particle of matter, the primeval water might, by 
 a continuance of the purifying process, if it had so pleased 
 Heaven, have gone on parting with elements until it became 
 inconceivably more aeriform than it ever was destined to be. 
 Still, being material even under these imaginary circumstances, 
 it would have reached a point, and have assumed a state of 
 equilibrium, from which, until the laws were changed, it could 
 not possibly have departed. For without the direct and oppor- 
 tune interference of a power beyond itself, and of adequate 
 influence, the non-rotating earth, with all its concentric stony 
 encrustations, its myriads of living beings, with its dense, 
 sub-marine fields of gigantic plants, and its limpid, but dark 
 atmosphereless water, must have continued for ever to have 
 circulated, in annual orbit, around the unillumined sun, without 
 any further progress having been made in the work of Creation. 
 A little more attention and assiduity will, however, bring us 
 to a point where we shall perceive that the world was not 
 destined to be left in this unfinished condition ; but that God, 
 from everlasting, had foreseen this exigency ; and did, in due 
 time, by the creation of the light, and its division from the 
 darkness, introduce into the material universe a power suffi- 
 cient to impel the work onwards until it was completed. 
 
 With these prefatory observations which are intended to 
 prepare the mind we shall proceed with the further develop- 
 ment of our views ; while we shall adhere, as closely as 
 possible, to the same method of effecting it. 
 
 The condition described at the beginning of this chapter, is 
 that in which we consider the earth to have been, while, in the 
 impressive language of Scripture, " darkness was upon the 
 face of the deep ;" and that it continued so until every atom 
 of superfluous earth was precipitated from the water, and until 
 the last plant or creature had fully executed the object for 
 which it was brought into existence. For so manifest is the 
 design which prevails throughout the whole, and so minute 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 463 
 
 the superintending care of the Omnipotent Creator, that the 
 strongest conviction is impressed upon the mind, that so long 
 as a single grain of silex, intended to aid in the formation of 
 any of the numerous stony concretions at the bottom of the 
 ocean, had not as yet been separated from the water, and 
 placed in its destined position, no change would be commanded 
 to take place in the great governing laws of the universe; 
 while, on the other hand, we are constrained also to believe, 
 that whenever the last particle had subsided, not one instant 
 of time would elapse until the fiat went forth which should 
 change the whole face of Creation ; and the material universe, 
 from an unillumined congeries of spheres, revolving in the 
 dark womb of nature, should be transformed into a radiant 
 universal galaxy of worlds, shining in the beams of the new- 
 formed light, " when the morning stars sang together, and 
 the sons of God shouted for joy." 
 
 In prosecution, therefore, of our subject, we are now to con- 
 sider that the moment had arrived, which was foreseen from all 
 eternity, when plants and animals had for the time being 
 alike fulfilled their destined functions, and the last material 
 particle designed to be separated from the primitive water, and 
 aggregated to the solid earth beneath, had reached its destina- 
 tion, and the august command, " Let there be light," was re- 
 sounding throughout the universe; sufficiently vouched for by 
 the obedient response recorded by the inspired historian, who 
 immediately adds " And there was light." After dwelling for 
 a moment with feelings of adoration and astonishment on what- 
 ever we can comprehend of the attributes and infinite power 
 of that Being who could thus command and be obeyed by all 
 nature ; and being filled with love for the unbounded good- 
 ness which caused such a gracious act of volition, let us, in 
 humble dependance on his aid, endeavour to determine the 
 results of this important and transforming announcement on 
 the state, the motions, and the materials of the hitherto non- 
 rotating, watery-bound sphere, " without form and void ;" 
 but which, with pleasing variety of hill and dale, of land and 
 water, and in the enjoyment of the vicissitudes of day and 
 night, and summer and winter, now forms the mighty pedestal 
 whereon myriads of beings, adapted to its altered condition, 
 
464 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 are wheeled with rapid but unconscious speed through the 
 prescribed regions of space. 
 
 In attempting this arduous undertaking, the conceptions 
 which crowd upon the attention are so numerous, and have 
 reference to so many and to such stupendous operations, that 
 they almost overwhelm, and leave the mind in a condition to 
 be scarcely able to deal effectually with any of them. 
 
 Hitherto our investigations have had reference to works 
 carried on throughout periods of long duration, but of so pro- 
 gressive a character that leisure was afforded for careful exami- 
 nation, as they went on, step by step, towards perfection ; and 
 composure was enjoyed to note down the successive events 
 which were taking place beneath a shoreless ocean, and upon 
 a motionless sphere, where all was still and slowly progressive. 
 But from the period to which we have now to refer, when the 
 prime mover, LIGHT, was introduced by the Omnipotent 
 amongst the materials which he had prepared, the whole 
 aspect of creation suddenly changed, and events of transcen- 
 dental importance succeeded each other with astounding rapi- 
 dity. Those elements which had been the work of ages to 
 create were now, within the limited space of six days, to be 
 all remodelled, fashioned arid framed, the works of his hands, 
 and made to occupy the relative positions on the land, in the 
 sea, and throughout the air, for which they had been designed 
 from all eternity ! Where darkness reigned almost paramount 
 before, material light was introduced to be its powerful and 
 active competitor. The dark, slumbering, shoreless ocean 
 was made to rush, wave over wave, with impetuous haste, from 
 the poles towards the equator, so soon as the finger of God, 
 by causing the earth to rotate, had marked off those points, 
 hitherto non-existent, upon the surface of the non-rotating 
 sphere ; while the great continental ridges of the world, raised 
 their huge backs from beneath part of that agitated ocean to 
 restrain it in future within the hollow cavities which simulta- 
 neously sank down in humble obedience to the Creator's will. 
 And the elements of the atmosphere, ejected far into space by 
 the same proto-motion, were there transfixed by their decreed 
 union with light, and never allowed to return ; but there 
 retained, as the life-sustaining atmosphere. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 465 
 
 But it is LIGHT, the chief secondary agent in producing 
 all these wondrous effects, to which we would, at present, 
 more particularly direct the attention. 
 
 In doing so, it is not our design to enter into any discussion 
 as to the intimate nature of the light, which, on the first day 
 of the Mosiac week, was willed into existence ; for such an 
 undertaking as this would be, we are well aware, no human 
 being could successfully accomplish. But we may briefly pre- 
 mise, that we consider it to have been of a kin to the invisible 
 light and heat which are united in and can be engendered by 
 electrical excitement,' that powerful but imperceptible fluid, 
 for example, which results by completing the voltaic circuit, 
 and that not until the fourth day of the Mosaic week was 
 visible light willed into existence. We firmly believe, that 
 whatever may be the nature of light, it was complete in itself, 
 on the first day. before it was divided from the darkness ; that 
 there were, therefore, two separate and sequent acts of creation 
 with respect to this important element. One whereby light, 
 whatever it is, was willed into existence, and (as we shall pre- 
 sently more fully explain), caused to pervade all materialism ; 
 and another whereby a certain state or condition, distinct from 
 its intimate nature, was conferred upon it, by its being " divided 
 from the darkness." And, finally, we believe that the light, 
 in its condition of division from the darkness, constituted and 
 still constitutes an indispensable element in the existence of 
 all organised beings, throughout the material universe, which 
 are in part composed of a nervous system, and dependant on 
 this and atmospheric air for their powers of locomotion. That, 
 in fact, it formed the great base or groundwork preparatory 
 to the introduction of all such animated beings, who could no 
 more have performed their nervous functions without this all- 
 pervading element, than they could continue their respiration 
 independently of the atmosphere. This fundamental fluid being 
 all throughout and everywhere the same, the diversity of the 
 creature consequently consists in the modification of its form. 
 
 But, leaving generalities, we shall now proceed with the 
 more direct line of our argument. 
 
 In scanning the portion of Scripture to which our present 
 investigations refer : " And God said, Let there be light : and 
 
 2 H 
 
466 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 there was light," it is not unusual to attribute, by the prompti- 
 tude of the response, as it were, " And there was light," a 
 signification almost exclusive of power. We feel disposed to 
 imagine, however, that besides the incontestible evidence of 
 Omnipotency which these two passages so clearly display, they, 
 at the same time, convey a meaning equally as wonderful by 
 the UBIQUITY of the light which they make so manifest. As 
 this remarkable characteristic of light will form an important 
 datum in our future reasoning, we shall, on that account, have 
 to go into the evidence connected with it somewhat in detail. 
 Meantime, we may observe, that we look upon the element, 
 which is recorded to have been formed on the first day of the 
 Mosaic week, to be the most immaterial of all material sub- 
 stances created by God. We are well aware of the difference 
 between materialism and immaterialism, and have no intention 
 of confounding them ; we merely wish to convey, by these 
 assertions, a conception of the tenuity, subtility, and buoyancy 
 of light. It was the Creator's chief agent, of a material kind, 
 in accomplishing the six days' work recorded by the inspired 
 historian ; it emanated directly from God ; had no special 
 locality assigned to it ; and, before it was created, the spirit 
 of God, by his " movement on the face of the waters," pro- 
 duced effects which, although material light could not have 
 accomplished them, yet they were entrusted to this latter agent, 
 for ever afterwards, to be continued and preserved in the con- 
 dition to which they were brought by his immediate influence. 
 And, in continuation, we may express our belief, that the 
 LIGHT to which we allude pervades all materialism; that 
 there are not any two points, however remote from each other, 
 in the universe, which have not the space between them filled 
 up with light ; while its penetrating minuteness is the admira- 
 tion of all who have paid any attention to its wonderful deve- 
 lopments. 
 
 But let us verify these general assertions by evidences 
 derived from science. In doing this, we shall recapitulate the 
 thirty-eighth Theorem, and afterwards give some of its autho- 
 rities in detail. 
 
 " That light, according to the Newtonian hypothesis, is 
 supposed to consist of inconceivably minute, material particles, 
 

 FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 467 
 
 emitted by luminiferous bodies, and moving through space with 
 the velocity of 192,000 miles in a second of time. That, 
 according to the Undulatory Theory, an exceedingly thin and 
 elastic medium called ETHER is supposed to Jill all space, and 
 to occupy the intervals between the particles of material 
 bodies ; and that the vibrations or undulations of this etherial 
 medium cause the sensation of LIGHT. 
 
 " But whatever may be the mode by ivhich it is considered 
 that light becomes perceptible. Us universality, and the almost 
 immeasurable distance at which it is perceived throughout 
 space, as well as the amazing rapidity of its vibrations requi- 
 site to convey sensations of colour are alike remarkable." 
 
 In selecting the evidences, we shall, for the present, restrict 
 them to those bearing upon the ubiquity of light, whether as 
 regards its universality throughout space, or its searching 
 penetrability and minuteness. Upon its velocity a few pas- 
 sages will suffice, and these we shall first submit. 
 
 Sir David Brewster states 
 
 " That light moves with a velocity of 192,500 miles in a second 
 of time. It travels from the sun to the earth in seven minutes and 
 a half. It moves through a space equal to the circumference of our 
 globe in the eighth part of a second ; a flight which the swiftest 
 bird could not perform in less than three weeks."* 
 
 Mrs. Somerville observes 
 
 " This circumstance (namely, a difference in the time of the 
 eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter, according as this planet is in 
 conjunction or in opposition), is attributed to the time employed by 
 the rays of light in crossing the earth's orbit, a distance of about 
 190,000,000 miles ; whence it is estimated that light travels at the 
 rate of 190,000 miles in a second. "f 
 
 Sir John Herschel says 
 
 "Roemer (a Danish astronomer, in 1675), speculating on the 
 probable physical cause of the difference in the times of the eclipses 
 of Jupiter's satellites, was naturally led to think of the gradual, 
 
 * Optics, Cab. Cyc. p. 2. f Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 37, 38. 
 
 2 H 2 
 
468 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 instead of an instantaneous propagation of light. This explained 
 every particular of the observed phenomenon, but the velocity 
 required (192,000 miles per second), was so great as to startle 
 many, and, at all events, to require confirmation. This has been 
 afforded since in the most unequivocal manner."* 
 
 It is stated in the " Connexion of the Sciences," with refer- 
 ence to the intensity of this subtile element, that 
 
 " The intensity of light depends upon the amplitude or extent of 
 the vibrations of the particles of ether ; while its colour depends 
 upon their frequency. The time of the vibration of a particle of ether 
 is, by theory, as the length of a wave directly, and inversely as its 
 velocity." 
 
 And after describing the delicate and ingenuous method 
 employed by Sir Isaac Newton, and others, to compute the 
 frequency of these vibrations, it is further said 
 
 " Now, as Sir Isaac Newton knew the radius of the curvature of 
 the lens, and the actual breadth of the rings in the parts of an inch, 
 it was easy to compute that the thickness of the air at the darkest 
 part of the first ring is the --g^oT) tn P art f an mc h, whence all the 
 others have been deduced. As these intervals determine the length 
 of the waves on the undulatory hypothesis, and as the time of a 
 vibration of a particle of ether producing any particular colour is 
 directly as a wave of that colour, and inversely as the velocity of 
 light, it follows that the molecules of ether producing the extreme 
 red of the solar spectrum perform 458 millions of millions of vibra- 
 tions in a second of time ; and that those producing the extreme 
 violet accomplish 727 millions of millions of vibrations in the same 
 
 time The determination of these minute portions of time 
 
 and of space, both of which have a real existence, being the actual 
 results of measurement, do as much honour to the genius of Newton 
 as that of the law of gravitation, "f 
 
 " According to the undulatory theory," says Sir David Brewster, 
 in the Treatise on Optics, " an exceedingly thin and elastic medium, 
 called ether, is supposed to fill all space, and to occupy the intervals 
 between the particles of all material bodies. The ether must be so 
 
 Astronomy, Cab. Cyc. p. 466. f Pp. 190 193. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 469 
 
 
 extremely rare as to present no appreciable resistance to the plane- 
 tary bodies which move freely through it. 
 
 " The particles of this ether are, like those of air, capable of being 
 put into vibrations by the agitation of the particles of matter, so that 
 waves or vibrations can be propagated through it in all directions. 
 Within refracting media it is less elastic than in vacuo, and its elas- 
 ticity is less in proportion to the refractive power of the body. When 
 any vibrations or undulations are propagated through this ether, and 
 reach the nerves of the retina, they excite the sensation of light, in 
 the same manner as the sensation of sound is excited in the nerves of 
 the ear by the vibrations of the air. Differences of colour are sup- 
 posed to arise from differences in the frequency of the ethereal 
 undulations ; red being produced by a much smaller number of 
 undulations in a given time than blue, and intermediate numbers of 
 undulations. 
 
 " In a work like this it would be in vain to attempt to give a 
 particular account of the principles of this theory. It may be suffi- 
 cient at present to state that the doctrine of interference is in com- 
 plete accordance with the theory of undulation. 
 
 ' The following table given by Mr. Herschel, contains the prin- 
 cipal data of the undulatory theory : 
 
 
 Colours of the spectrum. 
 
 Length of an un- 
 dulation in parts 
 of an inch. 
 
 Number of 
 undulations 
 in an inch. 
 
 Number of undulations in a 
 second of time. 
 
 Extreme red .... 
 Red 
 
 0.0000266 
 0.0000256 
 
 37,640 
 39,180 
 
 458,000000,000000 
 477,000000,000000 
 
 Intermediate .... 
 Orange 
 
 0.0000246 
 0.0000240 
 
 40,720 
 41,610 
 
 495,000000,000000 
 506,000000,000000 
 
 Intermediate .... 
 Yellow 
 
 0.0000235 
 0.0000227 
 
 42,510 
 44,000 
 
 517,000000,000000 
 535,000000,000000 
 
 Intermediate .... 
 Green 
 
 0.0000219 
 0.0000211 
 
 45,600 
 47,460 
 
 555,000000,000000 
 577 000000,000000 
 
 Intermediate .... 
 Blue 
 
 0.0000203 
 0.0000196 
 
 49,320 
 51,110 
 
 600,000000,000000 
 622,000000,000000 
 
 Intermediate .... 
 Indigo 
 
 0.0000189 
 0.0000185 
 
 52,910 
 54 070 
 
 644,000000,000000 
 658 000000 000000 
 
 Intermediate .... 
 Violet 
 
 0.0000181 
 0.0000174 
 
 55,240 
 57,490 
 
 672,000000,000000 
 699,000000 000000 
 
 Extreme violet . . . 
 
 0.0000167 
 
 59,750 
 
 727,000000,000000 
 
 " * From this table,' says Mr. Herschel, ' we see that the sensi- 
 bility of the eye is confined within much narrower limits than that 
 of the ear ; the ratio of the extreme vibrations being nearly 1. 58 : 1 
 
470 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 and, therefore less than an octave, and about equal to a minor 
 sixth. 
 
 " ' That man should be able to measure with certainty such 
 minute portions of space and time is not a little wonderful ; for it 
 may be observed, whatever theory of light we adopt, these periods 
 and these spaces have a real existence, being, in fact, deduced by 
 Newton from direct measurements, and involving nothing hypothe- 
 tical, but the names here given them.' "* 
 
 We shall follow up these evidences, as to the velocity and 
 the minuteness of the vibrations of light, by some extracts re- 
 garding its wide-spread expansion throughout space. 
 
 The author of the Architecture of the Heavens, in his im- 
 pressive language, says 
 
 " The nebulae whose general aspect I am about to describe, pre- 
 sent very various appearances to the telescope. In many of them 
 individual stars are distinctly defined. As they become more remote 
 the distance or intervals between the stars diminish, the light also 
 growing fainter ; in their faintest stellar aspect they may be com- 
 pared to a handful of fine sparkling sand, or as it is not inaptly 
 termed, " star dust ;" and beyond this we see no stars, but only a 
 streak or patch of milky light, like the unresolved portions of our 
 own surrounding zone 
 
 "It was a bold conception, after having recognised the great 
 meaning of these nebulae, to undertake to compute their relative 
 distances and to lay down their plan. But, undaunted even by the 
 idea of the firmamental universe, Herschel undertook to fix what it 
 was within reach of his telescopes, and of course, what it might be 
 
 beyond them By using comparatively small telescopes he 
 
 determined the remoteness of 47 resolvable clusters, ten of which 
 were upwards of 900 times more distant than Sirius. Suppose a 
 cluster as ascertained to be of the 900th order of distances were first 
 seen by a telescope whose space-penetrating power is 10, it is easy 
 to compute how far off it must be to be descried as a faint spec 
 by an instrument whose power is 200 it would evidently be at 
 the enormous remoteness of 18,000 times that of Sirius ! Very 
 many unresolved clusters are undoubtedly as profound, and many 
 still profounder in space Herschel reaches the depth of 
 
 * Optics, Cab. Cyc. pp. 134136. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 471 
 
 the 35,175th order of distances, in which some of these nebulae 
 
 must be A forty feet reflector could descry a cluster 
 
 of stars, consisting of 5,000 individuals, were it at the remoteness 
 of 11,765,475,948,678,678,679 miles, and in fact the limits to the 
 power of such an instrument being only an object fainter than the 
 general light of the skies constituted by the intermingling of the rays of 
 all the stars. 
 
 " We, of this time, may do little more than roughly chart the 
 boundary line," of the vast firmament; " the filling up and mapping 
 of the details constitute a harvest for the future. But how soon 
 may that future come ! The wheels of time are revolving rapidly 
 truth mingling with truth, as light gathered into a focus alike 
 within and around us, cause events to succeed without the usual 
 interval ; nor is astronomy unaffected by the general acceleration. 
 
 What triumphs, what delights are awaiting us ! yet once 
 
 more shall new views dawn upon mankind ; yet once more will 
 some favoured eye first track a vast unknown."* 
 
 More conclusive evidences than these, of the almost immea- 
 surable expansion of light throughout the universe, or of the 
 extreme rapidity of its vibrations, need scarcely be desired. 
 Indeed, the tongue can hardly repeat the numbers which the 
 foregoing array of figures denotes, nor the mind imagine the 
 almost illimitable immensity of space to which they have re- 
 ference ; while it should be remembered, that, as far as the 
 human eye armed with the most powerful lenses is con- 
 cerned, these vast distances at which luminous objects are 
 visible these vanishing points of light extend in every direc- 
 tion, as from a centre, around our mundane spec, that they are 
 as remote in every quarter of the heavens as in any one 
 region ! 
 
 Nothing appears wanting, therefore, to show the universal 
 diffusion of light ; or the almost inconceivable velocity of its 
 undulations, whereby it seems to shrink, as it were, as far from 
 our perception by minuteness, as it spreads itself throughout 
 space in extension. 
 
 The all-pervading nature of light having been thus satisfac- 
 torily established, we have next to combine it with the no less 
 
 * Architecture of the Heavens, Nichol, 1837, pp. 48, 54, 39, 102, 103. 
 
472 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 certain fact of its having been complete in itself before that 
 state or quality which divides it from the darkness was im- 
 pressed upon it. And here we may observe, that the bound- 
 less stores of SCIENCE, varied and delightful as they are, may 
 be ransacked in vain without imparting to us the slightest 
 information on this particular point. Yet we know, upon the 
 irrefragable authority of him who formed it, that such was 
 the case. That there was a time however evanescent when 
 the LIGHT, before it was divided from the darkness, was com- 
 plete and whole in itself, and lacked nothing. It was light, 
 but quiescent light, as yet undivided from the darkness ; for 
 it is recorded, where no mistake can occur, that in that condi- 
 tion " God saw that it was good." When we come to treat of 
 the atmosphere we shall show, that the expressions to " divide" 
 one thing from another used in this part of Scripture, signifies 
 to give the two opposite motions in space. But we shall not 
 delay at present to enquire into that point, it being sufficient 
 for our purpose to lay down the two bases, that there was an 
 instant of time when the light, though complete, was without 
 motion, and that, as near as matter can be said to be, it is 
 ubiquous. 
 
 Holding these two dominant qualities of light steadily in 
 the mind, and pondering over their united effect upon the act 
 of conferring motion upon that subtile element, it is impossible 
 to come to any other conclusion than that the motion impressed 
 upon it would be one of VIBRATION or UNDULATION. 
 
 It can be easily imagined that throughout any space, how- 
 ever vast, which is completely filled by an elastic medium, 
 however ethereal (and the more ethereal the greater tension 
 and effect), a vibratory motion may, when engendered, be 
 propagated and transmitted with the utmost rapidity. But, 
 it seems wholly inconceivable, on anything like philosophical 
 principles, to imagine, that particles of matter, however mi- 
 nute, subtile, or penetrating, which, before motion was com- 
 municated to them, filled all space, could be made to travel 
 through the identical space which was filled with them pre- 
 viously. 
 
 If the sea surrounded our globe in any continuous zone 
 whatever, a motion of undulation communicated to it at any 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 473 
 
 part might be imagined capable of being transmitted through- 
 out its endless extent, round and round. But it could not, for 
 a moment, be conceived, that the particles of water themselves 
 could travel onwards unless in a continuous mass or body. 
 And the same holds good with regard to the ethereal ocean 
 which permeates the immensity of space. 
 
 This brings us a stage nearer to the point at which we 
 wished to arrive ; and leads to a further and more important 
 consideration of the same combination, namely, the ubiquity 
 of the ethereal element, and the fact that there was a time, 
 however brief, when light existed, complete in itself, but with- 
 out having been divided from the darkness. What this latter 
 point means we shall, in the sequel, endeavour to make appa- 
 rent ; meantime it is sufficient if we concur with the announce- 
 ment, that after God had seen and had declared the light to 
 be " good," he " divided it from the darkness." 
 
 The results arising from these operations will, on investi- 
 gation, be found to have been most momentous. The intro- 
 duction of this new force into the material universe, as the first 
 act of creative power during the Mosaic week, amongst ma- 
 terials which had occupied ages to prepare for its reception, 
 will show us, as we proceed with our enquiries, that light, and 
 especially its ubiquity and its division from the darkness, 
 caused it to become the prime material mover in almost all 
 the stupendous operations of that eventful week, which were 
 designed, from everlasting, to follow in the sequence in which 
 they stand recorded. 
 
 What light was before it was divided from the darkness no 
 mortal, perhaps, ever shall know. Fortunately for our present 
 argument it is sufficient that we do know, on authority which 
 dares not be doubted, that it did once so exist, and that a reliance 
 on this assurance can serve as a competent fulcrum to raise the 
 weight which we propose to do by its means. Although, from 
 the very nature of the subject, we shall have to make rather 
 an indirect approach towards the main point, and affected, in 
 common with all others, by the undiscoverable nature of 
 original light that is light before it was divided from the 
 darkness, we shall have to reason from what it now is to what 
 it probably was, in the expectation, that when we reach that 
 
474 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 position, we may be able to estimate, somewhat approximately, 
 the effects which would necessarily proceed from the second 
 recorded act of the Creator's omnipotent power his " dividing 
 the light from the darkness." 
 
 The first point in this new chain of argument to which we 
 have to direct the attention, is to prove, that the presence of 
 heat and light invariably causes expansion. 
 
 In effecting this we shall commence by recapitulating what 
 is contained in the fiftieth Theorem, " That the first and most 
 usual effect of heat is to increase the size of the bodies to which 
 it is imparted) by causing them to dilate or expand. That, 
 although these effects are produced in different degrees and by 
 different methods, according as the body to which heat is 
 applied be solid, liquid or aeriform, yet it may be considered 
 as a physical law to which there is no real exception, that an 
 increase in the temperature will be accompanied by an increase 
 of volume, and a diminution of temperature by diminution of 
 volume. And that the force with which solids and liquids ex- 
 pand or contract by heat or cold is prodigious" 
 
 In another part of the work from which this is taken, it is 
 added 
 
 " We have seen that when heat is imparted to a body its dimen- 
 sions are immediately increased ; and it is found that this increase 
 takes place equally throughout every part of the dimensions, so that 
 the figure or shape of the body is preserved, every part being en- 
 larged in the same degree. Now, this effect must be produced by 
 the constituent particles of the body moving to a greater distance 
 asunder ; and since the increase of diminution takes place equally 
 throughout every part of the volume of the body, the component 
 particles must be everywhere separated equally. In fact, they have 
 driven each other to a greater distance asunder, and a repulsive force 
 has consequently been called into action."* 
 
 Sir John Herschel, in his Treatise on Natural Philosophy, 
 expresses himself thus, on the same subject : 
 
 " The dilatation of bodies by heat forms the subject of that branch 
 
 * Heat, in the Cab. Cyclopaedia. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 475 
 
 of science called pyrometry. There is no body but is capable of 
 being penetrated by heat, though some with greater, others with less 
 rapidity ; and being so penetrated, all bodies (with a very few ex- 
 ceptions, and those depending on very peculiar circumstances), are 
 dilated by it in bulk, though with a greater diversity in the amount 
 of dilation produced by the same degree of heat." 
 
 And, in continuation, he adds 
 
 "But solids themselves, by the abstraction of heat, shrink in 
 dimension, and at the same time become harder and more brittle, 
 yielding less to pressure, and permitting less separation between 
 their parts by tension. These facts, coupled with the greater com- 
 pressibility of liquids, and the still greater of gases, strongly induce 
 us to believe that it is heat, and heat alone, which holds the particles 
 of all bodies at that distance from each other which is necessary to 
 allow of compression ; which in fact gives them their elasticity, and 
 acts as the antagonistic force to their mutual attraction, which would 
 otherwise draw them into actual contact, and retain them in a state 
 of absolute immobility and impenetrability. Thus we learn to re- 
 gard heat as one of the great maintaining powers of the universe, 
 and to attach to all its laws and relations a degree of importance 
 which may justly entitle them to the most assiduous enquiry." 
 
 In the " Connexion of the Sciences" it is stated to be 
 
 " A general law, that all bodies expand by heat and contract by 
 cold. The expansive force of caloric has a constant tendency to 
 overcome the attraction of cohesion, and to separate the constituent 
 particles of solids and fluids ; by this separation the attraction of 
 aggregation is more and more weakened, till at last it is entirely 
 overcome, or even changed into repulsion."* 
 
 "Whatever," says Mr. Donovan, "the nature of repulsion may 
 be, it is found to be in some manner connected with what we call 
 heat. Corpuscular repulsion is found to be increased by the pre- 
 sence of heat, and diminished by its absence. When heat increases 
 the repulsion between the particles of a body, these particles must 
 recede further from each other in all directions ; and if they all take 
 more remote stations, it is obvious that the bulk of the body must 
 
 Mrs. Somerville, p. 243. 
 
476 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 be increased : it is now, in fact, larger, although the quantity of 
 matter remains the same, and it is said to be expanded."* 
 
 We shall next direct the attention to a part of the second 
 Theorem, namely, " that the Earth is a non-luminous body, 
 receiving its external light and heat from the sun ;" and, in 
 continuation, proceed with some of the evidences on which 
 that assertion is founded. 
 
 Sir John Herschel, in his Treatise on Astronomy, says 
 
 " Henceforward, then, in conformity with the above statements, 
 and with the Copernican view of our system, we must learn to look 
 upon the sun as the comparatively motionless centre about which 
 the Earth performs an annual elliptic orbit of the dimensions and 
 eccentricity, and with a velocity regulated according to the law 
 above assigned ; the sun occupying one of the foci of the ellipse, 
 and from that station quietly disseminating on all sides its light and 
 heat." 
 
 And again 
 
 " The sun's rays are the ultimate source of almost every motion 
 which takes place on the surface of the earth. By its heat are pro- 
 duced all winds, and those disturbances in the electric equilibrium 
 of the atmosphere which give rise to the phenomena of terrestrial 
 
 magnetism, &c. &c The great mystery, however, is to 
 
 conceive how so enormous a conflagration (if such it be), can be 
 kept up. Every discovery in chemical science here leaves us com- 
 pletely at a loss, or, rather, seems to remove farther the prospect 
 of probable explanation. If conjecture might be hazarded, we 
 should look rather to the known possibility of an indefinite gene- 
 ration of heat by friction, or to its excitement by the electric dis- 
 charge, than to any actual combustion of ponderable fuel, whether 
 solid or gaseous, for the solar radiation." 
 
 In the article on heat in the Cabinet Cyclopaedia, it is 
 stated 
 
 " From this it appears that the only external source of appreciable 
 heat to the earth is the sun." 
 
 * Chemistry, in Cab. Cyc. p. 40. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 477 
 
 Sir Henry de la Beche, in his Manual of Geology has the 
 following sentence : 
 
 " The superficial temperature of our planet is certainly very 
 materially influenced by, if it may not be entirely due to, solar light 
 and heat. That the difference of seasons and of the climates of 
 various latitudes originates in the greater or less exposure to the 
 sun is obvious. That local circumstances cause great variations of 
 superficial temperature, is also well known ; yet the principle seems 
 to prevail that, under equal circumstances, the temperature decreases 
 from the tropics to the poles." 
 
 In the " Connexion of the Sciences" it is said 
 
 " The ocean of light and heat perpetually flowing from the sun 
 must affect the bodies of the system very differently, on account of 
 
 the varieties in their atmosphere, &c The direct light 
 
 of the sun has been estimated to be equal to that of 5,563 wax 
 candles of moderate size, supposed to be placed at the distance of 
 one foot from the object." 
 
 And in another place the same author adds 
 
 " But to whatever cause the increasing heat of the earth, and the 
 subterranean fires may ultimately be referred, it is certain that, 
 except in some local instances, they have no sensible effect on the 
 temperature of its surface. It may, therefore, be concluded that the 
 heat of the earth, above the zone of uniform temperature, is entirely 
 owing to the sun."* 
 
 " One of the causes," says Professor Whewell, " which determines 
 the temperature of each climate is the effect of the sun's rays on 
 the solid mass of the earth. The laws of this operation have been 
 recently made out with considerable exactness, experimentally, by 
 Leslie, and theoretically by Fourier, and other enquirers 
 
 " The earth like all solid bodies transmits into its interior the 
 impressions of heat which it receives at the surface ; and throws 
 off the superfluous heat from its surface into the surrounding space. 
 
 The parts of the earth near the equator are more heated 
 
 by the sun than any other parts, &c. &c."f 
 
 By Mrs. Somerville. f Bridgewater Treatise, pp. 76, 77. 
 
478 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 And again, a little further on, he says 
 
 " The next circumstance which we shall notice as indicative of 
 design in the arrangement of the material portions of the solar 
 system is the position of the sun, the source of light and heat in 
 the centre of the system."* 
 
 We must, in continuation, direct the attention to the first 
 part of the forty-seventh Theorem : " That a comparison 
 of the natural phenomena, in which the effects of light and 
 heat are manifested, affords reason to infer the existence of a 
 connexion so intimate between them as to warrant the belief of 
 their identity" 
 
 Before proceeding to bring forward the direct evidences on 
 which this Theorem is founded, reference is requested to the 
 definitions given by Sir William Herschel, in a paper read 
 before the Royal Society, May 15, 1800, of light and heat, 
 whose manner of comportment in all essential circumstances 
 are stated by him to be identical ; and then let the only 
 natural inference be drawn which can possibly be done by an 
 unprejudiced mind, namely, that no two substances or states of 
 matter could comport themselves with such perfect similarity 
 in such a variety of cases, and yet be essentially different* 
 
 Sir John Herschel says 
 
 " The laws of the radiation of heat have been studied with great 
 attention, and have been found to present strong analogies with 
 that of light in some points, and singular differences in others. 
 Thus, the heat which accompanies the sun's rays, comports itself 
 in all respects like light ; being subject to similar laws of reflection, 
 refraction, and even of polarization, as has been shown by Berard. 
 Yet they are not identical with each other : Sir William Herschel 
 having shown by decisive experiments, verified by those of Sir H. 
 Englefield, that there exist in the solar beam both rays of heat 
 which are not luminous, and rays of light which have no heating 
 power."-}- 
 
 " Between light and heat," says Dr. Ure, " so intimate a rela- 
 tionship subsists, that they must be conceived as two modifications 
 of the same fundamental agency." 
 
 t Bridgewater Treatise, p. 169. f Nat. Philos. in Cab. Cyc. p. 314. 
 

 FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 479 
 
 In another part of the same work he adds 
 
 " Associated with light in the sun-heam, heat must also follow 
 its theoretic fortunes." 
 
 In the Cabinet Cyclopaedia it is said 
 
 " That the principal properties of heat are so nearly identical 
 with those of light, that the supposition that heat is obscure light 
 is countenanced by strong probabilities." 
 
 Again 
 
 " The calorific property which constantly accompanies the solar 
 rays, as well as the rays proceeding from flame, would indicate that 
 
 heat is a necessary concomitant or property of light The 
 
 whole body of natural phenomena in which the effect of heat and 
 light are concerned, demonstrate an intimate physical connexion 
 between these agents." And, " if the identity of light and heat be 
 admitted, then the question of the nature of heat is removed to that 
 of light." 
 
 " In what has just been said," says Professor Whewell, "we have 
 spoken of light only with respect to its power of illuminating ohjects, 
 and conveying the impressions of them to the eyes. It possesses, 
 however, beyond all doubt, many other qualities. Light is inti- 
 mately connected with heat, as we see in the case of the sun and of 
 flame ; yet it is clear that light and heat are not precisely identical. 
 Light is evidently connected, too, with galvanism and electricity ; 
 and, perhaps, through these, with magnetism It mani- 
 fests, also, chemical action in various ways."* 
 
 Mr. Turner bears the fullest testimony in favour of the 
 point we are now endeavouring to establish. 
 
 " From light," says he, " we cannot separate the recollection and 
 companionship of heat. They are now found to be so generally 
 existing in the latent or the active state wherever either is present, 
 that they are thought to be modifications, or different conditions of 
 the same element ; when both these occur, we have fire. Fire is 
 luminous heat, or heat in the state of light. The sun's light has the 
 
 effect of both heat and light The Hebrew word used by 
 
 Moses, "aor," expresses both light and fire."f 
 
 * Bridgewater Treatise, p. 138. f Turner's Sacred History. 
 
480 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 In the " Connexion of the Sciences" the following corrobo- 
 rative testimony is given in favour of this point : 
 
 " The progress of modern science, especially within the last five 
 years, has been remarkable for a tendency to simplify the laws of 
 nature, and to unite detached branches by general principles. In 
 some cases identity has been proved where there appeared to be 
 nothing in common, as in the electric and magnetic influences ; in 
 others, as that of light and heat, such analogies have been pointed 
 out as to justify the expectation that they will ultimately be referred 
 to the same agent ; and in all there exists such a bond of union, 
 that proficiency cannot be attained in any one without a knowledge 
 
 of others." Again, " Since the power of penetrating 
 
 glass increases in proportion as the radiating caloric approaches the 
 state of light, it seemed to indicate that the same principle takes 
 the form of light or heat, according to the modification it receives, 
 and that the hot rays are only invisible light ; and light, luminous 
 caloric." Further, " The probability of light and heat being modi- 
 fications of the same principle, is not diminished by the calorific 
 rays being unseen, for the condition of visibility or invisibility may 
 only depend on the construction of our eyes, and not upon the 
 nature of the agent which produces these sensations in us 
 
 " As the action of matter, in so many cases, is the same on the 
 whole assemblage of rays, visible and invisible, which constitute a 
 solar beam, it is more than probable that the obscure, as well as 
 the luminous part, is propagated by the undulations of an imponde- 
 rable ether, and, consequently, comes under the same laws of 
 
 And, in conclusion from this writer 
 
 " That light is visible heat seems highly probable ; and although 
 the evolution of light and heat during the passage of the electric 
 fluid may be from the compression of the air, yet the development 
 of electricity by heat, the influence of heat on magnetic bodies, and 
 that of light on the vibrations of the compass, show an occult con- 
 nexion between all these agents, which, probably, will one day be 
 revealed. In the meantime it opens a noble field of experimental 
 research to philosophers of the present, perhaps of future ages."* 
 
 * Connexion of the Sciences. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 481 
 
 We now require to examine the forty-eighth Theorem, and 
 some of its accompanying evidences, namely, " That by a con- 
 curring chain of deductive reasoning, drawn from the effects 
 of the different heating powers of the component colours of 
 the solar spectrum , when applied to substances reflecting 
 various colours and degrees of heat ; together with the corro- 
 borating testimony of the augmented heat of concentrated light, 
 it is considered to be established beyond the possibility of doubt , 
 that in these cases sunlight is the direct cause of heat." 
 
 " The calorific powers of the sun's rays," says the writer on heat 
 in the Cabinet Cyclopaedia, " may he exhibited in a very conspi- 
 cuous manner by concentrating a large number of them into a small 
 
 space, by means of a burning glass From experiments 
 
 performed in this way by Count Rumford, it appears, however, that 
 no change in the heating power of individual rays is produced by 
 this means ; but that the increased energy of their calorific action 
 arises altogether from a great number of them being concentrated 
 
 into a small space The heating power of the sun's 
 
 rays, when collected by a burning glass, far exceeds the heat of a 
 powerful furnace. A piece of gold placed in the focus of such a 
 glass has not only been melted, but has been actually converted 
 into vapour by Lavoisier,"* 
 
 Sir David Brewster, in his Treatise on OPTICS, corrobo- 
 rates this opinion : 
 
 " A combination of plane burning mirrors forms a powerful burn- 
 ing instrument ; and it is highly probable that it was with such a 
 combination that Archimedes destroyed the ships of Marsellas. . . . 
 M. Peyrard conceives that with 590 glasses, about 20 inches in 
 diameter, he could reduce a fleet to ashes at the distance of a quarter 
 of a league ; and with glasses of double that size at the distance of 
 
 half a league The most celebrated concave mirrors 
 
 used for burning were made by Mons. Villele, of Lyons, who exe- 
 cuted five large ones. One of the best of them, which consisted of 
 copper and tin, was very nearly four feet in diameter, and its focal 
 length thirty-eight inches. It melted a piece of Pompey's pillar in 
 fifty seconds, a silver sixpence in seven seconds and a half, a half- 
 
 Pages 349, 350. 
 2 I 
 
482 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 penny in sixteen seconds, cast iron in the same time, slate in three 
 seconds, and thin tile in four seconds."* 
 
 We have thus proved, by the concurring testimony of the 
 most scientific writers of the age on the respective subjects 
 under discussion, 1. That the sun is the source of the external 
 light and heat received by the earth ; 2. That light and heat 
 are either identical or most intimately connected ; 3. That the 
 rays of sunlight cause heat ; and 4. That heat causes expan- 
 sion. We beg those several results may be carefully borne in 
 mind, as they may be the means, hereafter, of enabling us to 
 arrive at some important conclusions. 
 
 Let us now see what evidences we have for the support of 
 the fifty-first Theorem, That the phenomena arising from at- 
 traction and those from repulsion indicate the presence of two 
 antagonistic forces acting at the same time on the particles of 
 all bodies, and maintaining them in a state of equilibrium, 
 tvhich becomes more or less disturbed according as either of 
 these forces preponderates. 
 
 The Cabinet Cyclopaedia remarks 
 
 " We have seen that when heat is imparted to a body its dimen- 
 sions have immediately increased ; and it is found that this increase 
 takes place equally through every part of the dimensions, so that 
 the figure or shape of the body is preserved, every part being en- 
 larged in the same degree In fact, they have driven 
 
 each other to a greater distance asunder, and a repulsive force has, 
 consequently, been called into action. On the other hand, if heat 
 be abstracted from a body, its dimensions uniformly contract, its 
 figure being preserved as before, and the diminution of size being 
 equally produced throughout its whole volume. The component 
 particles, in this case, therefore, approach each other equally 
 throughout the whole volume of the body ; in other words they are 
 
 drawn together, and an attractive force is brought into action 
 
 These phenomena indicate the presence of two antagonistic forces, 
 acting at the same time on the constitutional particles, and suspend- 
 ing them in equilibrium ; namely, the repulsive agent, determined 
 by the presence of heat, and increased in its energy by the increased 
 application of the physical principle ; and the attractive force, with 
 
 * Optics, Cab. Cyc. p. 314. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 483 
 
 which the particles are naturally condensed, and by which they 
 always have a tendency to cohere in solid masses. So long as the 
 energy of the cohesive principle exceeds the power of the repulsive 
 force produced by heat, the body will remain in a solid state ; but, 
 by the continued application of heat, the energy of the repulsive 
 principle being increased, and the particles continually separated, 
 these two powers will at length be brought nearly to the state of 
 equilibrium." 
 
 And again 
 
 " If there were no external source of heat, the consequences 
 would be that the earth, by constantly dismissing heat by radiation 
 into the surrounding space, would be gradually cooled, and the 
 temperature of all objects would fall indefinitely. Liquids would 
 be converted into solids, and gases into liquids, and subsequently 
 into solids."* 
 
 " All bodies," says another writer, " consist of an assemblage of 
 material particles, held in equilibrio by a cohesive force which tends 
 to unite them ; and also by a repulsive force, probably caloric, the 
 principle of heat which tends to separate them. The intensity of 
 these forces decreases rapidly as the distance between the particles 
 augments, and becomes altogether insensible as soon as that distance 
 has occupied a sensible magnitude. It is evident that the density 
 of substances will depend upon the ratio which the opposing forces 
 of cohesion and repulsion bear to one another."f 
 
 " We learn," according to Dr. Ure, " by scientific research, that 
 each particular form depends on the relation between two opposite 
 and contending powers the attractive and repulsive. When the 
 former power predominates, solidity prevails ; when the latter, 
 gasity, or the aerial state : and when the two, or nearly balanced, 
 the liquid condition results. 
 
 " The attractive force is that which, under various modifications, 
 gives origin to cohesion, tenacity, hardness, crystallization, and gra- 
 vitation. Had it reigned alone in the terrestrial system everything 
 would have been condensed into a motionless mass, in which water 
 and air would have been fixed as the solid rock. This, therefore, 
 is the natural condition into which the attractive particles of matter 
 
 * Heat, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 8, 169, 177, et seq. 
 
 t Connexion of the Sciences, by Mrs. Somerville, pp. 117, 243, et seq. 
 
 2 I 2 
 
484 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 spontaneously tend to come, and at which they do arrive, unless 
 counteracted by the divellent force called caloric or heat."* 
 
 And, lastly, on this subject we ascertain from Mr. Donovan, 
 
 " That it may be received as a general law, which, however, is 
 not without exception, that the effect of cold on all bodies is to 
 lessen their bulk, and to increase their specific gravity. Conversely, 
 it might easily be anticipated that, by adding heat, the repulsion of 
 the material parts would be increased, the bulk would be augmented, 
 and the specific gravity diminished ; this, accordingly, is found by 
 experiment to be the case ; and the law applies to matter, whether 
 in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. "f 
 
 This, therefore, is another, and an important step in the 
 direct progress of our argument. We formerly came to the 
 conclusion that light and heat cause expansion. By this, we 
 perceive that the expansive influence occasioned by light and 
 heat is the direct antagonist to attraction ; for it is asserted, 
 " that were this principle of expansion not present, mutual 
 approximation, crystallization, solidification, in short attraction, 
 would be the natural and infallible consequences." We also 
 have been made aware that heat and light may be considered 
 concomitants. Being so, and, at the same time, the cause of 
 expansion, it follows that their absence would be equivalent 
 to the absence of the expansive principle. But the absence 
 of light is darkness, and, as we have just made out, the ab- 
 sence, also, of the expansive principle ; while this, in turn, is 
 equal to the presence of the attractive principle. Conse- 
 quently, when this reasoning is applied to Scripture, it war- 
 rants us to conclude, that the words which state that "darkness 
 was upon the face of the deep,"J imply, as determinately, that 
 attraction was " on the face of the deep." 
 
 * Dr. Ure's Chemical Dictionary. f Chemistry, Cab. Cyc. p. 44. 
 
 J Gen. i. 2. 
 
 Of this we have lately had a remarkable corroboration. On mentioning 
 to a Hebrew philologist, during the course of conversation, the mean- 
 ing we attach to the word " darkness," which occurs in this part of Scrip- 
 ture, and explaining how we arrived at that conclusion, he said that it had a 
 peculiar signification which he could not very closely interpret, but the nearest 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 485 
 
 In continuation, we have, if possible, to determine the true 
 import of the expression in the original, which the translators 
 have rendered " deep," and, afterwards, to enquire whether 
 scientific writers concur in considering that attraction extends 
 throughout space, and pervades all matter. 
 
 With reference to the first of these points we have, fortu- 
 nately, the following very apposite remarks in one of the 
 Northern Reviews : 
 
 " Of the earth (referring to the 2nd verse of Genesis), it is said 
 that it was " thohu," and " bohu ;" of the " thehom," that there was 
 darkness on its aspect ; and of the waters, that they were subjected 
 to the vital energy of the Spirit of God. Now the thehom here 
 mentioned seems to be used in a wider sense than as an appellation 
 of the deep sea, or the bottomless place ; for it is separately dis- 
 tinguished from the waters. It probably has here a more primitive 
 meaning than that which is implied in its etymological relation to 
 thohu, namely, a boundless place, and is used to denote space, that 
 which is boundless, not in one, but in all its dimensions, not the 
 deep, but the vast."* 
 
 This philological explanation appears closely to agree with 
 the opinion of astronomers. Sir John F. Herschel, in referring 
 to Newton's law of gravitation, says 
 
 " Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other 
 particle with a force directly proportioned to the mass of the attract- 
 ing particle, and inversely to the square of the distance between 
 them." 
 
 And again 
 
 " It is in consequence of the mutual gravitation of all the several 
 parts of matter, which the Newtonian law supposes, that the earth 
 and moon, while in the act of revolving, monthly, in their mutual 
 
 is that where it was paramount nothing could progress, from a restraining or nega- 
 tive influence which it was employed to signify ; and cited, as an illustration, 
 the word rendered " withheld," in the 2nd verse of the xxxth chapter of the 
 same book, the word used in the original heing the same as that in the 2nd 
 verse of the 1st chapter, and with the intention of conveying precisely the same 
 meaning. 
 
 * Presbyterian Review on Mr. Fairholme's Geology. 
 
486 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 orbits about their common centre of gravity, yet continue to circu- 
 late without parting company in a greater annual orbit round the 
 sun."* 
 
 In the Connexion of the Sciences it is stated 
 
 " The distance of the fixed stars is too great to admit of their 
 exhibiting a sensible disc ; but in all probability they are spheri- 
 cal, and must certainly be so if gravitation pervades all space, which 
 it may be presumed to do, since Sir John Herschel has shown that 
 it extends to the binary stars. "f 
 
 And, in conclusion on this point, we have the forcible evi- 
 dence of a recent writer, who, when describing the binary 
 stars, says 
 
 " One star moves round another (or, more properly, each round 
 their common centre of gravity), in an elliptic curve ; precisely the 
 curve which is described by the earth and other planets in their revo- 
 lutions around the sun. Uniformity of this sort is exceedingly 
 remarkable ; it points to some common cause ; in other words, to the 
 LAW OF GRAVITATION, which the nature of this curve enabled Newton 
 to detect as the first principle of planetary order. Gravity has often 
 been surmised to be universal ; at all events we have now stretched 
 it beyond the limits of the most eccentric comet into the distant 
 intervals of space ; whilst every extension of its known efficacy 
 manifestly increases, in accelerating ratio, the probability that it is 
 a fundamental law of matter." J 
 
 "We have thus carefully and enquiringly brought our present 
 investigation, by two distinct routes, to a converging point, 
 where we find, that the darkness mentioned in Scripture, 
 besides its more popular meaning as the opposite of light, has 
 a scientific and more recondite signification, and one which 
 leaves no doubt upon our minds that it was meant to imply 
 attraction, or an influence which, were it permitted to operate 
 exclusively, would so grasp all materialism as to reduce it into 
 one solid motionless mass of inertia. And having thus satisfac- 
 torily identified the darkness of Scripture with the attraction 
 
 Astronomy, Cab. Cyc. f By Mrs. Somerville. 
 
 Architecture of the Heavens, pp. 92, 93. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 487 
 
 of science, we have continued our enquiries from sources con- 
 nected with the latter, until we have proved that attraction is 
 an all-pervading principle, or, as Newton's followers express 
 themselves, "the first principle of planetary order;" and 
 equalled in ubiquity only by light; which may, therefore, 
 with equal propriety, be styled the second " principle of pla- 
 netary order" a result which the tenor of our recent enquiries, 
 respecting this subtile fluid, authorised us fully to anticipate. 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF THE LIGHT; THE CONSEQUENT PROTOROTATION OF 
 THE EARTH ; AND ITS DYNAMICAL RESULTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Explanation as to the possibility of the Earth and other planets, with their re- 
 spective satellites having, in accordance with astronomical laws, revolved 
 in space around the common centre of the system, long previous to the 
 illumination of the sun. Further proofs that Darkness, in the language of 
 Genesis, implies Attraction. Consequence of this fact upon the develop- 
 ment of our Theory. Existence of the primeval Light before it was divided 
 from the Darkness, and the important bearing of this truth on the subject 
 under discussion. A few concluding observations on the subjects treated 
 of in this chapter. 
 
 HAVING reached this convenient resting place, we shall, on 
 commencing another chapter, avail ourselves of the juncture 
 thus afforded, and of which we have long been desirous, to say 
 a few words in explanation of the position assumed from the 
 first, on the faith of its being unquestioned, although at vari- 
 ance with most of our pre-conceived opinions. We allude to 
 the fundamental doctrine of this Theory, that the earth, and 
 other planets in virtue of the same laws which now govern 
 their orbital motions revolved around the sun ; the satellites 
 around their primaries, and the whole around the common 
 centre of gravity of the system, for ages before the sun was 
 illumined ; for it may be supposed, by those who have not en- 
 quired into these subjects, that the solar system could not 
 have existed under such circumstances. 
 
 In a subsequent part of this work we shall have occasion to 
 prove, in a more formal manner, that the planetary orbital mo- 
 
DYNAMICAL THEORY. 489 
 
 tions in space, are perfectly independent of, and can exist with 
 or without rotatory motion. Meanwhile, to convince our 
 readers, that the solar system might exist, and perform all its 
 orbital functions, although the sun should be again reduced to 
 what it assuredly once was, for a long but indefinite period, 
 AN OPAQUE MASS ; arid darkness should be again restored to 
 its ancient dominion over the face of the deep if the assertion 
 made, to that effect, in Scripture be not deemed sufficient 
 we offer the the following opinions of men whose word should 
 dispel all remaining doubts : 
 
 " Let it be granted," says Professor Whewell, when deducing 
 evidences of design from the sun being in the centre, " that the law of 
 gravitation is established, and that we have a large mass, with others 
 much smaller, in its comparative vicinity. The small bodies may 
 then move round the larger, but this will do nothing towards making 
 it a sun to them. Their motions might take place, the whole sys- 
 tem remaining still utterly dark and cold, without either day or 
 summer. In order that we may have something more than this 
 blank and dead assemblage of moving clods, the machine must be 
 lighted up and warmed. 
 
 " Now this lighting and warming by a central sun are something 
 added to the mere mechanical arrangements of the universe. There 
 is no apparent reason why the largest mass of gravitating matter 
 should diffuse inexhaustible supplies of light and heat in all direc- 
 tions, while the other masses are merely passive, with respect to 
 such influences. There is no obvious connexion between mass and 
 luminousness, or temperature. No one, probably, will contend that 
 the materials of our system are necessarily luminous or hot 
 
 " The sun might become, we will suppose, the centre of the mo- 
 tions of the planets by mere mechanical causes ; but what caused 
 the centre of their motions to be also the source of those vivifying 
 influences ? Allowing that no interposition was requisite to regulate 
 the revolutions of the system, yet, observe what a peculiar arrange- 
 ment in other respects was necessary, in order that these revolutions 
 might produce days and seasons ! The machine will move of itself, 
 we may grant ; but who constructed the machine so that its move- 
 ments might answer the purposes of life ? 
 
 " This argument is urged with greater force by Newton himself. 
 In his first letter to Bentley, he allows that matter might form itself 
 
490 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 into masses by the force of attraction. * And thus,' he says, ' might 
 the sun and fixed stars be formed, supposing the matter were of a 
 lucid nature. But how the matter should divide itself into two sorts, 
 one luminous, the other opaque, he confesses he knows not.' "* 
 
 There appears, therefore, to be nothing wanting to convince 
 an unprejudiced mind ; that darkness, in Scriptural language, 
 signifies attraction; and that according to the Mosaic account 
 it " was upon the face of the deep," implying space in all its 
 vastness and extent ; and consequently that it pervaded our 
 system as a part of space. 
 
 For our own part, we at once adopt these terms in the 
 acceptation here given ; and until they can be proved to have 
 a different meaning we shall so apply them in all our future 
 reasoning. 
 
 Yet, we desire not to be misunderstood ; for we are per- 
 fectly aware there are minds capable of resisting this mode of 
 reasoning; and, indeed, every mode of reasoning short of 
 tangible evidences. For the conviction of such, we regret to 
 say, that neither the nature of the subject, nor the present 
 state of science, will admit of these direct appeals being made to 
 their senses, although presently we shall have occasion to show, 
 that during a long but indefinite period, there existed, a state 
 of matters on the face of our planet, to which light, as it now 
 exists, so far from being serviceable, would actually have been 
 inimical; and consequently could not, in accordance with the 
 wisdom of the Supreme Being, have possibly existed. Besides, 
 by denying or refusing to accede to the supposition that dark- 
 ness is the scriptural expression for attraction, it would im- 
 ply, that the inspired historian has omitted to mention a prin- 
 ciple which is known, and confessed to have pervaded the 
 whole universe ! A conclusion alike inconsistent with our belief 
 of the wisdom and prescience of that Omnipotent Being who 
 dictated the divine record, as well as with all our experience 
 regarding it ; for no other circumstance, no, not even the most 
 
 * Bridgewater Treatise, pp. 169171. The remainder of this letter is not 
 given, from being irrelevant to our present purpose, which is merely to prove, 
 as we have seen they hoth admit, that the system could have existed though the 
 nun had not been illumined. AUTHOR. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 491 
 
 minute, is overlooked when such is necessary to render the 
 announcement complete. But it is not alone in this part of 
 Scripture, as we have already been made aware, that darkness 
 is mentioned as equivalent to attraction. We have the autho- 
 rity of the Almighty himself it is so applied in several pas- 
 sages and when speaking from the whirlwind to his patient 
 and afflicted servant, he asks him in the sublime words which 
 suited such an occasion, " Or who shut up the sea with doors 
 when it brake forth as if it had issued out of the womb ? 
 When I made the cloud the garment thereof, and thick dark- 
 ness a swaddling-band for it,"* or in other words, before I 
 thereby restrained it. 
 
 Taking, therefore, all these things into consideration, whether 
 is it not more consistent with candour, or even with reason, to 
 consider that the darkness mentioned by the Divine historian 
 is the expression for attraction, when such well-grounded evi- 
 dence can be adduced in favour of this reading ? or, in the 
 face of these proofs, and the concurring testimony of analogy, 
 to persist in considering the words of inspiration to be 
 defective ? 
 
 The following considerations may, perhaps, serve to confirm 
 our convictions with regard to the Scriptural meaning of the 
 word " darkness" Admitting, for a moment, that it does 
 signify attraction and we do not see how it can well be de- 
 nied then we have the following. The ultimate end of 
 attraction is rest or inertia ; for we cannot conceive of matter 
 tending, as it would do under the unrestrained influence of 
 attraction, to a centre, without associating in our minds the 
 idea of its tending ultimately to rest. But if attraction be 
 rest, inertia, or immovability, then it follows that all motion 
 must be the antagonist of attraction ; the very motion that 
 matter has in tending to a centre being nothing save the visi- 
 ble effects of attraction when it is overcoming repulsion. 
 
 This view of the subject enables us to perceive more clearly 
 the wisdom of the announcement which immediately follows 
 the words already quoted : " The Spirit of God moved upon 
 the face of the waters." 
 
 * Job xxxviii. 8, 9. 
 
492 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 It certainly does not become us, as finite, imperfect beings, 
 to enquire into the nature of the movement here indicated ; 
 or the manner in which it was communicated to " the waters** 
 by the life-giving influence of the Spirit of God ; all we have to 
 do is to believe, because it is so written. We confess our thank- 
 fulness that our minds are so constituted as to be enabled 
 clearly to recognise that such is in strict accordance with the 
 wisdom and the other attributes of the Deity ; and to believe 
 most firmly, in unison therewith, that the counteracting influ- 
 ence to attraction, whose effects are still appreciable in the 
 works of the Creator during the period when " darkness was 
 upon the face of the deep," was communicated to matter by 
 immediate and Divine influence ; and that it was motion 
 which was then communicated. Not only because it is thus 
 recorded in Scripture, but because it is confirmed by reflection, 
 and the use of the reasoning faculties. For, as by the law of 
 inertia, " matter can neither spontaneously create nor destroy 
 motion in itself,"* so, consequently, whatever vibratory motion 
 existed in the circumfluent, atmosphereless water of the 
 earth before the formation of the light, must have been 
 derived from a supernatural and immaterial source. 
 
 Those only who have felt the intense anxiety of mind arising 
 from the contemplation of such subjects which require to be 
 traced out in the illimitable field in which they exist, and the 
 fear which is entertained in doing so, of blending or weaken- 
 ing truth by conjecture are capable of appreciating the com- 
 fort of finding spots of such secure foundation as those we 
 have just elicited, and which, springing from opposite sources, 
 science and religion, afford a firm footing amid all that is ob- 
 scure and dubious around. 
 
 Science has rendered incalculable service by tracing so 
 clearly the boundary line of the capability of matter, and 
 frankly declaring " that it is unable to engender spontaneous 
 motion in itself, or to destroy it when once it is originated 
 by any external cause." Whilst, with an assurance such as 
 this, exhibiting the inherent limits of matter, it is satisfactory 
 
 * Vide the sixty- seventh Theorem. 
 
I 
 
 FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 493 
 
 to be informed by the Creator himself that he supplied that 
 which was wanting ; and that what matter could not do was 
 done for it by Divine power ; for " the Spirit of God moved 
 upon the face of the waters." 
 
 Our own investigations, likewise, seem to strengthen the reli- 
 ance which we feel disposed to place in the truthfulness of this 
 recondite portion of Scripture. For, it may be remembered, 
 that we took considerable pains to draw a broad line of dis- 
 tinction between the two consecutive creative acts ; that of 
 forming the light complete in itself, and that of impressing 
 a peculiar state or condition upon it. The former of these 
 we considered as having permeated all materialism with an 
 ethereal quiescent fluid. The latter communicated to that 
 elastic, tenuous expansion, a vibratory movement of almost 
 inconceivable rapidity, and in a direction which should cause 
 it to act as the antagonist of attraction. And it is when we 
 distinguish most clearly between the perfection of the consti- 
 tutional nature of this all- pervading fluid and its impressed 
 condition, and also keep before our minds that, at the period 
 alluded to in the second verse of Genesis, it was not in exist- 
 ence, that we shall be most fully impressed with a conviction 
 of the correctness and truth of the announcement therein 
 made, "that the Spirit of God moved on the face of the 
 waters." All matter is now pervaded with the ethereal fluid 
 to which we have so frequently alluded, and through its 
 movements or vibrations light and heat are communicated, by 
 certain determinate laws, to the former. " In the beginning," 
 however, the whole material universe was surrounded by 
 aqueous envelopes ; this, as regards the earth, we have made 
 clearly manifest in the three preceding sections, wherein we 
 have shown, that the existences alike of the animal and vege- 
 table kingdoms tenanted the bottom of the primitive water ; 
 and that the stratified rocky masses were deposited from an 
 ubiquous ocean which held their elements in suspension ; and, 
 consequently, that the whole sphere was circumbounded by 
 water. We have every reason for supposing that then there 
 was no existent state of matter of greater tenuity than water. 
 To this, therefore, the requisite vibratory motion was commu- 
 
494 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 nicated by the only Being who could impart it, or who could 
 determine the degree of warmth which was necessary to 
 maintain it, and the material portion beneath, in the state 
 best adapted for sustaining and fostering the myriads of living 
 creatures and of plants which were destined to dwell beneath, 
 and there to work out his sovereign will and pleasure. 
 
 The great difference between the medium which received 
 and communicated the sensation of heat in that era of the 
 earth's history, and the ethereal medium which now performs 
 the same office, may, possibly, account for the additional den- 
 sity which, in general, is found, by the exuviae, to have prevailed 
 in the external coverings of zoophyta, plants, and animals of 
 the ancient world ; and to which reference has been made in 
 the hundred and thirty -seventh Theorem. To this we shall 
 merely allude, leaving it to others, and to a more advanced 
 condition of science, to elucidate the subject more thoroughly ; 
 but we would take occasion, even now, to caution whoever 
 engages in this new and ample field of investigation, to beware 
 of confounding in any degree the power and the free will of 
 God with the designs which it pleased him then to have in 
 view. It was not the want of power which withheld the light 
 from existing as now constituted for so many ages, but because 
 another, and a more direct, agency was essential. Neither was 
 the arm of the Omnipotent less capable of having " stretched 
 out the firmament like a curtain" from everlasting ; but be- 
 cause he chose to place the whole material universe in vacuo, 
 and in that state to cause his multifarious organic instruments 
 to produce that which would endure. Not air dissolving tex- 
 tures, but hard, stony, perdurable substances, which should 
 remain, and, by layer after layer, encrust the mundane sphere, 
 in preparation for the time, foreseen from all eternity, when 
 by the rotation of the earth, they should start into life, as it 
 were, and form themselves into continental chains and oceanic 
 hollows, with all the variety of hill and dale, mountain and 
 valley, which render the present earth so fitting an abode for 
 those creatures which were in due time to be ushered in for 
 the purpose of rendering him intellectual service, and for his 
 own glory; and whose redemption from the Destroyer has 
 

 FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 495 
 
 eventually distinguished this sphere, thus curiously and elabo- 
 rately wrought, and has spread a halo over it by the light 
 which is shed upon it from the Redeemer's crown ! 
 
 We shall, as we have before said, leave the conception, 
 namely, that the peculiarity in the external media, which the 
 animals and plants of the non-rotating period interposed be- 
 tween themselves and the communicating medium of heat 
 during that era, has an intimate connexion originating from a 
 law common to both to be matured by others ; but, in the 
 meantime, we take occasion to observe, that what we have 
 been enabled clearly to make out respecting the working of the 
 Creator " in the beginning," has opened up a fine vista into 
 those remote periods of time, and has shown us, that although 
 " darkness was upon the face of the deep," yet the Lord's 
 ways,, have ever been persistent. That there has been an 
 undeviating unity of plan from the first ; that during the 
 whole period shadowed forth by " the beginning," the law of 
 progression, by repeated consecutive acts of creative energy, 
 was the principal feature impressed upon matter. That it 
 was, in fact, the development of the great plan of creation, 
 traced from everlasting, and continued to be unfolded until the 
 riches of a wisdom which is unsearchable was fully displayed, 
 and God himself, with Divine complacency, could declare the 
 whole to be " very good." 
 
 The following passages from some of the scientific writers of 
 the day, seem to corroborate the views we have adopted of 
 LIGHT and DARKNESS ; while they more especially tend to con- 
 firm the idea of the identity of DARKNESS and ATTRACTION : 
 
 " The luminous ether, then," says Professor Whewell, "if we so 
 call the medium in which light is propagated, must possess many 
 other properties besides these mechanical ones on which the illumi- 
 nating power depends. It must not he merely like a fluid poured 
 into the vacant spaces and interstices of the material world, and 
 exercising no action on objects ; it must affect the physical, chemi- 
 cal, and vital powers of what it touches. It must be a great and 
 active agent in the work of the universe, as well as an active reporter 
 of what is done by other agents. It must possess a number of com- 
 plex and refined contrivances and adjustments which we cannot 
 
496 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 analyse, bearing upon plants and chemical compounds, and the 
 imponderable agents ; as well as those laws which we conceive that 
 we have analysed, by which it is the vehicle of illumination and 
 vision ...... All analogy leads us to suppose, that if we knew 
 
 as much of the constitution of the luminiferous ether as we know 
 of the constitution of the atmosphere, we should find it a machine 
 as complex and artificial, as skilfully and admirably constructed. 
 
 " The mere fact, however, that there is such an ether, and that it 
 has properties related to other agents in the way we have suggested, 
 is well calculated to extend our views of the structure of the uni- 
 verse, and of the resources, if we may so speak, of the power by 
 which it was arranged. The solid and fluid of the earth are the most 
 obvious to our senses ; over this, and in its cavities, is poured an 
 invariable fluid, the air, by which warmth and life are diffused and 
 fostered, and by which men communicate with men ; over and 
 through this again, and reaching, so far as we know, to the utmost 
 bounds of the universe, is spread another most subtile and attenuated 
 fluid, which, by the play of another set of agents, aids the energies 
 of nature, and which, filling all parts of space, is a means of com- 
 munication with other planets, and other systems.* 
 
 " It appears highly probable," says Professor Buckland, " from 
 recent discoveries, that light is not a material substance, but only 
 an effect of undulations of ether ; that this infinitely subtile and 
 elastic ether, pervades all space, and even the interior of all bodies ; 
 so long as it remains at rest there is total darkness ; when it is put 
 into a peculiar state of vibration, the sensation of light is produced : 
 this vibration may be excited by various causes ; e. g. by the sun, 
 by the stars, by electricity, combustion, &c. If, then, light be not a 
 substance, but only a series of vibrations of ether, i. e. an effect 
 produced on a subtile fluid by the excitement of one, or many 
 extraneous causes, it can be hardly said, nor is it said in Gen. i. 3, 
 to have been created, though it may be literally said to be called 
 into action. "- 
 
 * Bridgewater Treatise, pp. 138 140. 
 
 f Idem, vol. i. p. 32. We must here remind our readers that whatever in- 
 terpretation may be given to the words of the original, the light, when willed 
 into existence, was pronounced to be good, before it was divided from the dark- 
 ness, and consequently was " complete and whole lacking nothing," and, as 
 such, was a perfect formation independently altogether of the division which 
 afterwards, by the command of God, took place between it and the darkness. 
 AUTHOR. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 497 
 
 In a previous part of this section we endeavoured, and we 
 think succeeded in proving that, in Scriptural language, dark- 
 ness signifies attraction) and that attraction propends by its 
 inherent nature to immobility, inertia, or rest. Now, in the 
 passage just quoted, Dr. Buckland, supported by numerous 
 respectable authorities, considers darkness to be " the ethereal 
 medium at rest" 
 
 The conclusion that such might have been the case, nay even 
 that for a brief period it actually was the case, we had arrived 
 at, but by a different route, and without being aware of the 
 concurrence of this learned writer in its favour. But it must 
 be remembered, that this " state of rest of the ethereal me- 
 dium," which is called light in Scripture, was comparatively 
 of mere momentary duration. Its formation and its being 
 put into motion having been two consecutive acts of creative 
 energy performed on the same day. Therefore, the evidence, 
 in this instance, of Dr. Buckland and others, goes merely to 
 prove, that the existence of the ethereal medium, and its 
 movement are separate and distinct, and that the one may 
 exist altogether irrespective of the other, which is tantamount 
 to the admission that the motion which it did receive was com- 
 municated to it by some power or influence exterior to and 
 above itself. 
 
 The other attendant opinion which we entertain, that during 
 the period of non-rotation, or that which is signified by " the 
 beginning," the " ethereal medium" did not exist in its per- 
 fected condition, is entirely a distinct conception, and rests 
 alone upon the authority of Scripture; for, with every reliance 
 on this, we believe that at the time when it is said " darkness 
 was on the face of the deep," it is not meant to imply, that 
 this all-pervading element was then stretched out, although it 
 had not been put into motion, in the perfect sense of that term, 
 but that as yet there was no ethereal medium at all, although 
 we believe, as firmly on the other hand, that the materials of 
 the ethereal fluid were created during the period called the 
 beginning, in common with the materials of every thing else 
 pertaining to our system. But its existence then, in its per- 
 fect state, was not in accordance with the degree of development 
 which the decrees of God had at that period undergone. 
 
 2 K 
 
498 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Whenever these were sufficiently matured, " God spake the 
 word," and there was light ; after which it was immediately 
 put into vivid motion and requisition ; and became the active 
 instrument, in the hands of the Creator, to complete many of 
 the subsequent works of that eventful week. 
 
 We believe, also, that it would have been alike consistent 
 with truth, whether the words of the original had been ren- 
 dered into our language, " attraction was on the face of the 
 deep," or " darkness was on the face of the deep :" while we 
 consider that the movement mentioned in the clause imme- 
 diately following, " and the Spirit of God moved on the face 
 of the waters" did impart, in due proportion, the counteract- 
 ing principle (that is, to attraction) according as the progressive 
 state of the creation then required, or could receive it. The 
 light, as it is now constituted, and the effects which its forma- 
 tion produced, would have been positively injurious to the 
 operations then progressively taking place towards a state of 
 perfection and fixity, which renders the light, as we now enjoy 
 it, necessary for its permanency and well being. 
 
 It is scarcely possible to conceive, that while the creation 
 was passing through innumerable stages of progression, never 
 stationary at any one point in the scale, nor indeed could be 
 until it was finished, and pronounced to be c< good," light upon 
 fixed and permanent principles, whereby a certain quantity 
 only is imparted daily,* should have been, at all, adapted to 
 it. A progressive state, with a constant determinate fostering 
 medium, is not, cannot be considered consistent with the wisdom 
 of the Creator. This self obvious truth being conceded, it 
 follows that the spirit of him who was forming and preparing 
 the whole for a subsequent state of permanency, which it was 
 to attain at a future period, could alone have supplied the 
 proper and requisite portions of warmth, or heat, or motion, 
 or counteracting principle to gravitation, during all the suc- 
 cessive stages of its progression. For who could have known 
 or divined the particular point to which the whole was tend- 
 ing to which all the conjoint means were to concentrate in 
 perfection, except the Spirit of the Creator? "For the Spirit 
 
 * See the 2nd Theorem. 
 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 499 
 
 searcheth all things, yea, the deep things of God. For what 
 man knoweth the things of a man save the spirit of man which 
 is in him ? Even so the things of God knoweth no man but 
 the Spirit of God."* 
 
 This is a conclusion which we have been constrained to adopt, 
 as the legitimate result of the attendant conditions, whenever 
 we admit of a progressive state of the Creation. We must 
 either believe that, in a state of progression, the supply of 
 heat would be varied, or doubt that the sun now yields a fixed 
 and determinate quantity of that enlivening and all-pervading 
 medium. But this latter point being established, it enables 
 us to come to the final conclusion, that, whatever may be 
 thought respecting the ethereal medium of modern philosophy, 
 this we know and, fortunately, it is sufficient for our future 
 purpose that the " darkness" of Scripture does mean " at- 
 traction" and that the movement of " the Spirit of God on 
 the face of the waters," communicated that proportion of the 
 countervailing principle which was most conducive to the 
 well-being of creation, as it passed through the successive 
 stages of progression, until it reached its present perfection. 
 These truths we consider to have been sufficiently established 
 to admit of their being applied throughout the remainder of 
 this treatise, in the course of which we shall be able to adduce 
 evidences of a more tangible, and purely geological description, 
 to contribute in establishing the fact of the NON-ROTATION of 
 the EARTH, and in corroboration of what we have all along so 
 earnestly been contending for. 
 
 The part which we have gone through of this branch of our 
 general evidences may be considered as purely intellectual, 
 having had exclusively to do with abstract principles and men- 
 tal symbols ; and may, with propriety, be compared to that 
 period of Columbus's undertaking when he found himself 
 under the necessity of explaining those correct, but abstract, 
 conclusions which so clearly revealed to his mind but to his 
 alone the existence of the great Western World. The sec- 
 tion we are about to enter upon may, not inaptly, be com- 
 pared with the labours of that discoverer when engaged in 
 
 1 Corinthians, ii. 10, 11. 
 2 K 2 
 
500 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 proving the soundness of his conclusions by the choicest of all 
 tests, their application to practice. It may be that our expe- 
 dition through this hitherto unexplored region, has, like his, 
 been beset with difficulties of so disheartening a character to 
 those who, in every respect, are not like minded, or so high in 
 hope as ourselves, that they may wish to turn back, longing 
 for the safe and care-free haven from whence they set out. 
 
 But should there be any such, we have to reanimate and 
 encourage them by our determination on the one hand, that 
 whether they part company with our bold little bark in mid- 
 passage or not, we design, with God's assistance and the hope 
 he has given us, to prosecute our adventurous voyage ; and, 
 by the assurance, on the other, that if they will be of good 
 cheer for a little longer, while passing through these shoreless 
 regions of thought, we shall have the satisfaction of landing 
 them in safety on the terra firma of geological proof, as evi- 
 dent, tangible, and solid, as are the objects with which that 
 science usually is conversant. 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF THE LIGHT; THE CONSEQUENT PROTOROTATION OF 
 
 THE EARTH; AND ITS DYNAMICAL RESULTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Some of the immediate effects of the Light with reference to its dynamical 
 power. During the first three days it was not concentrated around the 
 Sun, consequently different from the light at present received. The ex- 
 pansive influence of Light and Heat act in opposition to Attraction. The 
 repulsive power of Light investigated and established. The introduction 
 of Light into the material universe equal to the introduction of a new/orce. 
 Laws of force and motion investigated with reference to this event. Ex- 
 pansion being & force, and the bodies of the solar system being incapable of 
 expanding beyond their prescribed orbits, they must have expended or met 
 this new force by rotation around their respective axis show that the Earth 
 has a double movement in space, and that the diurnal rotation is perfectly 
 independent of the periodical revolution around the Sun. Scriptural cor- 
 roborations of these important conclusions. Sunlight the residue of the 
 primary light. Evidences to prove the enormous amount of Heat and 
 Light which come from the Sun, and the application of this to our general 
 argument. 
 
 IN prosecution of what we resolved upon at the close of 
 the last chapter, and relying on the hopes we have ventured 
 to express, we shall endeavour in continuation, to estimate 
 the consequences which resulted to the earth by the introduc- 
 tion of the Light into the material universe, when the plan of 
 creation was so far matured as to admit of this new agent in- 
 deed to require it in order to put the earth in motion ; 
 for without the sudden impetus of the primary light our pla- 
 net would have continued to have slumbered on, unknown to 
 rotatory motion, around the unillumined sun, enveloped in its 
 stony crust of horizontal concentric strata, surmounted by an 
 atmosphereless ocean, but entirely " without form and void." 
 
502 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Before we proceed, however, to trace the momentous con- 
 sequences which sprang from the introduction of the light, and 
 its division from the darkness, it may be as well to take a con- 
 nected view of the portion of Scripture which has reference to 
 it. The following are the words of inspiration : " And God 
 said, Let there be light : and there was light. And God saw 
 the light, that it was good : and God divided the light from 
 the darkness. And God called the light day, and the dark- 
 ness he called night. And the evening and the morning were 
 the first day."* 
 
 In contemplating these simple and sublime words, several 
 important truths present themselves to our mind, some of 
 which we have already noticed and insisted upon : First, That 
 in the sacred record no locality is assigned to the light when 
 it was formed ; nor indeed during the first three days of the 
 Mosaic week. Next, That from the words of approbation, 
 " it was good," having been applied by God to the light im- 
 mediately after its formation, and before it " was divided" by 
 him " from the darkness," we are authorised to conclude, as 
 we have so repeatedly done, that there was a time, however 
 evanescent, when, though perfect in its innate nature, it was 
 not divided from the darkness. That in this state it produced 
 no effects, all those emanating from it having taken place after 
 it was " divided from the darkness." And lastly, That by 
 being thus divided, the light received directly, from the hand 
 of God, the impetus of motion, which, being material, it could 
 not have impressed upon itself. 
 
 As the first of those truths will more especially occupy our 
 attention in a subsequent section, we shall, at present, merely 
 add to what we have said regarding it, that in whatever state 
 or condition the light may have been during the first three 
 days of the Mosaic week, it could not possibly have been situ- 
 ated either in or around the sun, because, from that, or indeed 
 any other concentrated position, it could not have produced 
 the effects which emanated from it during those three impor- 
 tant days ; nor had such been the case would it afterwards 
 
 * Genesis i. 3 5. Also p. 8 of this work, with the confirmatory quotations 
 from Scripture. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 503 
 
 have been stated that it was concentrated around the sun, as it 
 has been recorded in Scripture. In the confidence of making 
 these assertions sufficiently obvious in the sequel, we shall, 
 meanwhile, go on to consider the stupendous results which 
 proceeded from the formation of the light, and its division 
 from the darkness. 
 
 To appreciate fully the importance of the announcement, 
 that " the light was divided from the darkness" we must recur 
 to what we endeavoured to substantiate at the commencement 
 of this section, namely, that darkness is the Scriptural expres- 
 sion for attraction; and then learn from Sir John Herschel, 
 the direction of that centripetal force. 
 
 " The direction of attraction," that gentleman says, " at every 
 point of the orbit of each planet always passes through the sun. No 
 matter from what ultimate cause the power which is called gravita- 
 tion originates, be it a virtue lodged in the sun as its receptacle, or 
 be it a pressure from without, or the resultant of many pressures or 
 solicitations of unknown fluids, magnetic or electric ethers, or im- 
 pulses : still when finally brought under our contemplation, and 
 summed up into a single resultant energy, its direction is, from every 
 point on all sides towards the sun's centre."* 
 
 By combining these truths with the one under consideration, 
 there results, that to " divide the light from the darkness," 
 signifies, to impress upon it an opposite nature or tendency to 
 that of darkness. But darkness is attraction ; and, therefore, 
 if attraction be a force propending towards or propelling mat- 
 ter towards the centre, light or heat must be a force propel- 
 ling matter from the centre a conclusion which perfectly 
 accords with what has already been said, viz., that light and 
 heat are so intimately connected, as to warrant the assumption 
 of their identity ;-j" that heat causes expansion ; J that ex- 
 pansion is the antagonist of attraction ; and, therefore, as 
 before stated, if attraction acts in a direction from the cir- 
 cumference towards, and through, the centre, then expansion, 
 
 * Astronomy, in Cab. Cyc. p. 221, et seq. f 47th Theorem. 
 
 J 50th Theorem. 51st Theorem. 
 
504 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 as its antagonist, must act in a contrary direction, or towards 
 the circumference. 
 
 In corroboration of the justness of the view here adopted of 
 these Scriptural expressions, we have to offer, that which 
 equally applies to a similar, though subsequent, announce- 
 ment, wherein it is said that " the water under the firmament 
 was divided from the water above the firmament." 
 
 This, as we are prepared to show in its proper place, sig- 
 nifies, that the water above the firmament was caused to as- 
 cend in the atmosphere by being combined with the expansive 
 principle, while that which was under the firmament, being 
 less saturated with that principle, descends, to unite itself with 
 the mass of water preserving its original state of liquidity; 
 and thus, a perfect division is effected between these two states 
 or conditions of water, in consequence of the one being im- 
 pressed with a tendency to ascend, while the other takes a 
 contrary direction, from a point which, for wise purposes, is 
 itself variable. In like manner, it is conceived, that the divi- 
 sion effected of the Light from the Darkness, implies a diver- 
 gency of motion : for as motion is one of the most important 
 conditions of matter, or means of producing change or modi- 
 fication in the material universe, too much care cannot be 
 bestowed in investigating narrowly the primitive laws which 
 impressed a permanency of character upon it; while, perhaps, 
 no agent wielded by the wonder-working arm of the Omnipo- 
 tent, was ever more available or more universally employed 
 than light, the second general law of materialism ; and which 
 then, for the first time, was introduced, in its appreciable ma- 
 terial state, into the works of the Creator ; from whose own 
 will it received the impulse of motion to which we have been 
 alluding, and which it could not, from being material, have 
 generated in itself thus affording another testimony of the 
 intimate knowledge of the laws of matter, which was com- 
 municated to the inspired writer, by him who alike dictated 
 those remarkable announcements, and called the light into ex- 
 istence. 
 
 Assured, therefore, that during the first three days of the 
 Mosaic week, the light, although it existed, was not concen- 
 trated around the sun ; that consequently it was not, could not, 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 505 
 
 be the description of light which we now receive from that 
 luminary. Convinced, that wherever it was during that in- 
 tervening period, it was precisely where the plans of the 
 Creator required that it should be ; and satisfied that the im- 
 portant positions which we have taken up and proven, namely, 
 its ubiquity ; its perfection before it was put into motion ; and 
 that when put into motion it was impressed with a nature 
 which made it the opponent of gravity are sufficient to enable 
 us to go on with our argument; we shall proceed to determine, 
 the probable consequences of the introduction of the expansive 
 principle of light into the material universe as it was then 
 constituted ; confining our investigations to those which would 
 take place on our planet, revolving, without rotatory motion, 
 round an emillumined sun, and constituted geologically, as at 
 the conclusion of the last and commencement of the present 
 chapters, we have supposed it to have been. 
 
 We shall begin this investigation by recapitulating the 
 sixty-eighth Theorem : "That the molecules of bodies are not 
 placed together merely in unrelated juxtaposition, but either 
 cohere and resist separation, or mutually repel each other; 
 while the mutual approach, by attraction of particles placed 
 at a distance from each other, or their further separation by 
 repulsion, are effects of the same class, both of which are termed 
 FORCE. That, therefore, f whatever produces or opposes the 
 production of motion or pressure in matter is force / in which 
 sense it is the name or symbol for the unknown cause of a known 
 effect. That FORCE, when manifested by the mutual approach 
 or cohesion of bodies, is called ATTRACTION; separable into as 
 many branches as it has distinct modes of displaying itself. 
 But when FORCE is indicated by the re-motion of bodies from 
 each other it is called repulsion or expansion." 
 
 Being convinced by this that repulsion is one of the two 
 principal forces recognised, by mechanical writers, as governing 
 materialism, we shall next proceed to examine some of the 
 evidences regarding its intensity: 
 
 " It is a general law," observes Mrs. Somerville, " that all 
 bodies expand by heat and contract by cold. The expansive force 
 of caloric has a constant tendency to overcome the attraction of 
 
506 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 cohesion, and to separate the constituent particles of solids and 
 fluids ; by this separation the attraction of aggregation is more and 
 more weakened, till, at last, it is entirely overcome, or even changed 
 
 into repulsion By the continual addition of caloric, 
 
 solids may be made to pass into liquids, and from liquids to the 
 aeriform state, the dilatation increasing with the temperature ; and 
 every substance expands according to a law of its own."* 
 
 " The first and most common effect of heat," according to the 
 Cabinet Cyclopaedia, " is to increase the size of the body to which 
 it is imparted. This effect is called dilatation or expansion : and 
 the body so affected is said to expand, or be dilated. If heat be 
 abstracted from a body, the contrary effect is produced, and the 
 body contracts. These effects are produced in different degrees, 
 and estimated by different methods, according as the bodies which 
 suffer them are solids, liquids, or airs."-)" 
 
 " Caloric," says Dr. Ure, " is the agent to which the phenomena 
 of heat and combustion are ascribed. This is hypothetically regarded 
 as a fluid of inappreciable tenuity, whose particles are endowed with 
 indefinite idio -repulsive powers, and which, by their distribution in 
 various proportions among the particles of ponderable matter, modify 
 cohesive attraction, giving birth to the three general forms of gase- 
 ous, liquid, and solid The force with which solids and 
 
 liquids expand or contract by heat and cold is so prodigiously great 
 as to overcome the strongest obstacles. "J 
 
 These evidences will have sufficed to convince any one of 
 the enormous, the almost irresistible, power of expansion. 
 This being in direct proportion to the quantum of light and 
 heat, we have next to investigate the consequences of the in- 
 troduction of so inconceivable an amount of the expansive 
 influence into our system, the remainder of which, in its visible 
 condition, is now concentrated around the sun ; and in at- 
 tempting this we fortunately need not, for the present, take 
 into account either its primitive locality or direction, but merely 
 its expanding influence. 
 
 In doing this we shall enter upon what may be considered 
 the test of those principles which, from the commencement, 
 
 * Connection of the Sciences, p. 234. f Heat, in Cab. Cyc. p. 8. 
 
 * Chemical Dictionary, pp. 253, 257. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 507 
 
 we have laid down for our guidance ; and it is now, therefore, 
 that we must rely upon them. If they have the validity 
 which we consider they possess, they will carry us through. 
 Our progress may be slow and beset by many difficulties, but 
 our confidence, amidst them all, in the announcements of Scrip- 
 ture should be constant and unfaltering, for, in many instances, 
 we shall have them alone to lean upon for safety, and to assist 
 us in our onward progress through spaces where science has 
 never been. As the compass directs the mariner with uner- 
 ring certainty through the boundlessness of an unknown and 
 shoreless sea, so, we trust, will these principles and a thorough 
 reliance upon the words of the Divine Record, guide us through 
 these untrodden paths of the mental voyage which we are now 
 about to undertake. 
 
 It is a source of great encouragement to consider that what 
 they offer for our guidance is no fiction, no flight of the imagi- 
 nation, but clear and consistent realities ; many of them, it is 
 true, intellectually perceived, and relied on by faith alone, but 
 not the less real on that account. In being led by them, we 
 shall be, in fact, attempting to do what ought to have been 
 done long ago ; to call upon those engaged in scientific dis- 
 cussions to embody in their researches the announcements of 
 Scripture with as much confidence and as willingly as they 
 would the deductions resulting from an oft-repeated scientific 
 experiment. It is our earnest desire that the Creator should 
 be looked upon as a veritable Creator, as a Being mighty in 
 power, and infinite in all his attributes of holiness, justice, 
 goodness, wisdom, and truth ; but still the Being thus perfect 
 who actually made and fashioned all those objects about which 
 science is so conversant ; and who, of his own good pleasure, 
 selected, trained, and prepared a man for the express purpose 
 of revealing by and through him an exact account of what 
 took place during the creation not in figurative language, 
 which may be taken in any sense best suited to the mind of 
 each interpreter, but in the very words which stamped a form 
 upon matter ; which are, in fact, nature's constitutional code, 
 and like its Divine author in every respect faithful, true, and 
 endurable. 
 
 In asserting these clear and decisive opinions, we entertain 
 
508 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 no desire to draw aside a single fold of the veil which has 
 been thrown over what does not pertain to us ; although we 
 would wish to cultivate in ourselves and impart to others that 
 regulated strength of mind which may enable us to look with 
 admiration on that display of wisdom and power by the Creator 
 which is made so manifest by the words of revelation, and re- 
 flected with so much truthfulness by the light of nature from 
 his works. We are aware that there are minds, as there are 
 eyes, which cannot sustain the brilliancy of unsubdued light ; 
 and few so eagle-eyed as to be able to gaze with impunity 
 upon the splendour of the meridian sun in all its fulness. 
 Nevertheless, none have a right to doubt its existence, or to 
 underrate its importance, far less to deny the reality of those 
 material objects which its rays make visible to them. And so 
 with us. Although we dare not, with impunity, look into 
 " the hidden things which belong to God," we are taught, on 
 the other hand, not to undervalue those subdued manifes- 
 tations which, through his inspired historian, he has been 
 pleased to send forth of the full glory of his power and wis- 
 dom within ; or to deny the existence of those intellectual 
 truths which we are made to perceive by the light which has 
 been shed upon them from on high ; while we are shut up to 
 believe them by faith alone in his word.* Therefore, when 
 it is announced that before the light was formed, " the Spirit 
 of God moved upon the face of the waters," however incom- 
 prehensible this may appear to the unpractised mind, we 
 have only to believe that such was the case ; and that, when 
 there was yet no ethereal fluid to receive and propagate the 
 light, it pleased God, immediately of himself, to communicate 
 such a motion to the water as should be the fitting equivalent, 
 and that which alone the then condition of the material uni- 
 verse rendered most conducive. 
 
 Why it was so, and wherefore it pleased the Omnipotent to 
 place the whole material universe under water, to work out 
 the plan of Creation in vacuo, we shall never, in all likelihood, 
 
 * "By faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God ; 
 so that things which are seen were not made of things which do appear." He- 
 brews ix. 3. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 509 
 
 be able fully to comprehend. We can only obtain here and 
 there a faint glimpse of some of the leading occurrences in the 
 progressive process itself, while we recognise in what we can 
 perceive the most perfect harmony of design ; assuming, as 
 we faithfully do, that the announcements made to us are per- 
 fectly correct, both as regards the events and the order of 
 sequence in which they took place. 
 
 For instance : with respect to the atmosphere, we can make 
 out that before it was " stretched forth as a curtain," one of 
 the essential elements in it, which is destined for the safety of 
 pulmonic, air-breathing animals, was slowly and gradually 
 produced at the bottom of the ocean by apulmonic creatures, 
 whose gaseous exhalations after their death assisted to purify 
 the water, as they ascended by their specific levity through it. 
 
 And again : we think we can recognise the WISDOM of 
 there being no ethereal fluid to occupy the space between orb 
 and orb, and system and system, while as yet there was not 
 an eye in the whole creation of greater sensibility than that of 
 a crystallized cone of innumerable brilliant fascets, admirably 
 adapted, no doubt, to the medium which then communicated 
 sensation ; but resembling more the sparkling product of the 
 lapidary's skill than the sensitive light-perceiving cornea of 
 the present races of creatures : and when it is considered that 
 all organic existences were then immersed in water, and re- 
 ceived from this comparatively dense medium those sensations 
 of warmth which were found requisite to be imparted to them, 
 while they could not have been benefitted, in the slightest 
 degree, by the present space-pervading ethereal fluid even 
 had it been created we shall no longer withhold our cordial 
 conviction of the WISDOM which ordained, that the motion 
 then required should be communicated to the external water 
 of the universe ; or of the FAITHFULNESS of the Record which 
 asserts that such was the case, and that it was the work of the 
 Holy Spirit to impart the requisite motion. We have re- 
 peatedly declared, that we cannot, we may not, take upon our- 
 selves to enquire why the laws which then governed mate- 
 rialism were so ordained; but so they were. While it is 
 fortunate that, although thus shut up to believe without being 
 able to explain, it does not in any way interfere with the prose- 
 
510 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 cution of our general argument, which can be conducted on 
 as valid principles, and in as effectual a manner, as it would 
 were we capable of penetrating farther into the arcanae of 
 Creation. 
 
 With this assurance, let us, therefore, resume our discourse. 
 
 In doing so, the first idea which occurs to the mind, is, 
 that by the formation of the light, and its division from the 
 darkness, a new agent, a new cause, a new FORCE, was intro- 
 duced into the system ; and this, in reality, was the case. 
 Every cause being accompanied by a corresponding effect, and 
 the definition of " force" being " whatever produces, or opposes 
 the production of motion in matter ;"* we must endeavour to 
 discover the legitimate effects, or the motion engendered, by 
 this new force thus introduced to such an amazing extent ; 
 while we are assured, beforehand, that as it did not oppose 
 the production of motion, it must necessarily have caused it. 
 Instead, however, of making our enquiries general to the 
 whole of the solar system, we shall restrict them to the phe- 
 nomena experienced by our own planet ; as we may be per- 
 suaded, that results similar to those which took place on this, 
 would be common to all the other spheres of the solar eco- 
 nomy. Before proceeding farther, it may be well to reiterate 
 the following fundamental positions, namely, that although 
 the earth, during its period of non-rotation, circulated in free 
 space around the sun, under the dominion of the same laws 
 which at present govern its orbital course in the heavens ; yet, 
 according to that of gravitation, so long as the earth consisted 
 of the same quantity of matter, it could not deviate, in the 
 smallest degree, in its mean distance from the sun.~\- Conse- 
 quently, as there has been neither any augmentation nor dimi- 
 nution of the mass of matter of which it is composed, ever 
 since it was translated in space, at the beginning, although its 
 materials are now differently combined in the relative position 
 of their molecules, we must conclude, that it neither did, nor 
 could at any time, for any cause, nor under any circumstances, 
 deviate in the slightest possible degree, from its original orbit ; 
 
 * Mechanics, Cab. Cyc. p. 7. 
 
 t Connexion of the Sciences, p. 408. Likewise the 70th Theorem. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 511 
 
 or, in the language of astronomers "whatever may have been 
 the form of the ellipse, or successive ellipses, which it has de- 
 scribed around the sun, the length of the longer axis of the 
 orbit has continued to be invariable," a truth which it will 
 be found particularly useful to bear in mind, while we go into 
 the following investigations respecting the laws of force and 
 motion. 
 
 The first to which we shall have reference is a part of the 
 fifty-second Theorem, which states, " That an irresistible 
 body of analogies leads to the conviction, that the same physi- 
 cal properties, which observation and experience disclose in the 
 smaller masses immediately surrounding us, are possessed by 
 the infinite systems of bodies which Jill the immensity of space. 
 That the distribution of heat is regulated by the same laws 
 amongst the bodies of the universe as among those which exist 
 on our globe" 
 
 At the risk of being considered tiresomely prolix, we must, 
 for the sake of perspicuity the chief desideratum in close 
 reasoning call to mind what has already been brought so 
 prominently forward, namely, the creation of the ethereal fluid,, 
 or the light, of the first three days ; its ubiquity, both as to 
 extension and minuteness ; the circumstance of its having 
 been made and completed before it was put into motion ; its 
 having been subsequently put in motion ; and that the mo- 
 tion then given, conferred a state or condition upon it which 
 caused it to become the opponent of attraction. Arid having 
 these particulars present in the mind, we are next to consider, 
 that as the " distribution of heat" is regulated by the same 
 laws among the bodies of the universe, as among the bodies 
 which surround us, "and the greater masses of the universe, in- 
 cluding the earth itself, are playing, though on a greater scale, 
 the self-same part as do the most minute particles of dust 
 which dance in the sun beam, or the still more impalpable 
 atoms of air which float around us ;" while the introduction of 
 heat amongst these indivisible molecules of matter, of whose 
 movements we have a more intimate knowledge, from being 
 immediately under our observation, invariably causes them to 
 expand, or separate from each other. We are warranted, 
 according to what has been announced in the fifty-second 
 
512 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 Theorem, to conclude, that similar consequences would result, 
 should a proportionate quantity of heat be introduced amongst 
 the larger indivisible molecules of the universe. Now, the 
 spheres of the various systems constitute those larger molecules 
 of the universe; and if, in place of contemplating them in 
 general, we restrict our attention to those only of the solar 
 system, and suppose that what we called molecules, should 
 assume the more appropriate name of planets, we assuredly 
 may extend to them the same conditions, especially when we 
 consider that the light was infused almost ubiquously into 
 materialism, and afterwards put into motion with a vividity 
 beyond conception, and from these combined reasons finally 
 conclude that, could they possible have increased their distance 
 from each other, the introduction of the LIGHT would, in like 
 manner, have produced a corresponding expansion in the regions 
 of space among the spheres of our system. 
 
 We have just been reminded, however, that owing to cer- 
 tain peculiarities in the law of gravitation, unless a proportional 
 augmentation had simultaneously been made to the respective 
 masses of the planets, they could not deviate in the smallest 
 degree from the orbits in which they commenced to circulate 
 when first translated in space, which is equivalent to saying, 
 that they could not possibly expand. While all our previous 
 reasoning and the evidences brought forward have, alike, con- 
 spired to prove, that no ponderable element was added to the 
 earth during the protracted period of non-rotation. On the 
 contrary, that this seems to have been sedulously avoided, and 
 the work of deposition and solidification carried on by the 
 combined agency of chemical and electrical influences, and of 
 animal and vegetable vitality. Consequently, unless it can 
 be satisfactorily proved, that on the formation of the light, 
 they did receive some increment to their respective masses, 
 we must search for other consequences than those of expansion 
 amongst the spheres of the system, as the result of the intro- 
 duction of this new force ; which being known not to have 
 opposed motion, must, as the remaining condition of the pro- 
 blem, have produced it in some direction or other. 
 
 Under this view of the case, and in order to ensure the 
 most thorough conviction, we have only to prove that no aug- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 513 
 
 mentation of ponderable matter was made to the earth by the 
 formation of the light. There being minds so reluctant to 
 admit any new doctrine, that rather than believe what has just 
 been stated, they would endeavour to persuade themselves, 
 that the earth and other planets received such an increase to 
 their respective masses by the impartation of light, as would 
 enable these orbs, in virtue of the proportional law of gravi- 
 tation, to expand in space, or separate from each other and 
 from the sun ; and thereby continue to describe orbits round 
 that central luminary, although of greater circuit than for- 
 merly. Fortunately, however, for the cause of truth, the 
 imponderable nature of light has occupied the attention of 
 philosophers of all countries, and has been made the theme of 
 learned and protracted discussion ; and is now, we believe, 
 universally admitted to be as stated in the forty-sixth Theorem, 
 namely, " That light and heat either do not possess the pro- 
 perty of gravitation, or possess it in so small a degree as to be 
 wholly inappreciable by any known means of measuring it;'' 
 while the several authorities which support that opinion, and 
 are subjoined to the Theorem, can be consulted, should any 
 doubts still lurk in the mind as to the soundness of the as- 
 sertion, and raise a hope of having discovered an outlet for 
 the expenditure of the new force of which we are treating. 
 But, on the contrary, the unprejudiced adoption of what has 
 been said, and a deliberate perusal of the accompanying evi- 
 dences, will show the fallacy of such an expectation. There 
 is no method of procedure left, but that of setting about in 
 earnest to look for some more probable manner of accounting 
 for the expenditure of the new force and force of such 
 amazing power which was thus introduced into the material 
 universe, by the formation of the light, and its division from 
 the darkness. 
 
 The following passage is so apposite with respect to the 
 levity of light and heat, that we give it with much pleasure: 
 
 " The question, whether the increase of magnitude caused by 
 raising the temperature of a body arises from its having received 
 any addition of a material substance to its mass can only be decided 
 by previously fixing on some one quality which will be regarded as 
 inseparable from matter, and, therefore, the presence or absence of 
 
 2 L 
 
514 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 which being ascertained will decide the presence or absence of the 
 additional portion of matter under enquiry. The quality which 
 seems best adapted for such a test is weight ; and the question, 
 whether the increased dimension of a heated body proceeds from its 
 having received any excess of ponderable matter becomes one which 
 is to be decided by direct experiment. Experiments to ascertain 
 this fact have been instituted, attended by every circumstance which 
 could contribute to ensure accurate results, but no change of weight 
 has been observed. We are, therefore, entitled to conclude, that 
 whatever be the nature of the principle which gives increased dimen- 
 sions to a body, when its temperature is raised ; whatever it be 
 which fills the increased interstitial spaces from which its constituent 
 particles are expelled, it is not a ponderous substance it is not one 
 on which the earth exerts any attraction it is not one which if 
 unsupported would fall, or if supported would produce any pressure 
 on that which sustains it."* 
 
 Let us, therefore, commence this straightforward endeavour, 
 by recapitulating the nature of the forces which maintain the 
 earth, and other bodies of our system, in the respective orbits 
 which they describe around each other. For this purpose we 
 shall introduce the first part of the fourth Theorem " That 
 the orbital revolutions of the EARTH and other planets around 
 the sun, almost in the plane of its equator, and of the satellites 
 around their primaries, are caused by the combination of the 
 sun and the planets' mutual attraction, and an original pro- 
 jectile impulse" This will enable us to perceive, that the 
 earth is maintained in its orbit by two nicely equipoised 
 forces, whose conjoint result is to cause its orbital revolution : 
 while we must be made aware of the fact, that those two 
 forces produce one uniform and constant motion, merely from 
 their being so justly proportioned to each other as not to ad- 
 mit of increase or of diminution in either ;j- or, in other 
 words, they are incapable of resisting any additional pressure 
 which might be brought to bear upon tlwin; for any such would 
 
 * Hydrostatics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 142, 143. 
 
 t The constancy here alluded to is altogether irrespective of the secular mu- 
 tations in the form of the elliptic orbits occasioned by tbe disturbing influence 
 of the other bodies of the system. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 515 
 
 infallibly be destructive of the resultant motion. It is re- 
 quested that this fact may be kept present to the mind, as 
 allusion will frequently be made to it during the reasoning 
 which follows. 
 
 Having established these preliminary points, let us now see 
 what is stated in the seventy-fifth Theorem " That forces, in 
 general, are classed according to the duration of their action 
 into INSTANTANEOUS and CONTINUED ; the effect of the former 
 being produced in an infinitely short time. If the body which 
 sustains it be previously quiescent and free, it will move with 
 a uniform velocity in the direction of the impressed force ; but 
 if the body be so restrained that the impulse cannot put it into 
 motion, then the fixed points or lines ivhich resist the motion 
 will receive a corresponding shock, called percussion, at the 
 moment of the impulse ; and which, like the force that caused 
 it, is instantaneous. A continued force will produce a con- 
 tinued effect, with corresponding results."' 1 
 
 Now, the formation of the light, and its division from the 
 darkness, was, to the spheres of the solar system, revolving 
 round each other in darkness, equivalent to the application of 
 an expansive force amongst them, whose eifects they must 
 either have resisted, expended, or receded from. But these 
 celestial bodies, we have just learnt, were from the beginning, 
 and still continue to be, maintained in their respective orbits, 
 by two divellent forces, in just and delicate equipoise ; conse- 
 quently, they were incapable of either deviating from their 
 assigned orbits, and, by expanding in space, thus to retreat 
 from it ; or of continuing to revolve in their orbital paths had 
 they been made to resist the newly applied force : and this 
 too, whether its direction was from the centre of the system 
 towards the circumference ; from the circumference towards 
 the sun ; or from any point intermediate between these direc- 
 tions ; for, in either of these cases, a pressure equal to the 
 applied force would require to have been either borne or re- 
 treated from ; while, as has just been demonstrated, they could 
 neither resist any additional pressure on their orbital motion, 
 nor recede before it. Consequently, we may safely conclude, 
 that in neither of these ways was the neivly formed expansive 
 force either resisted, receded from, or expended. 
 
 2 L 2 
 
516 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 We shall now recur to the first part of the seventy-sixth 
 Theorem, namely, "That if a point on which a force be applied 
 is free to move in a certain direction not coinciding with the 
 applied force, it will be resolved into tivo elements, one of 
 tvhich will be in the direction in which the point is free to 
 move, and the other at right angles to that direction. The 
 point will move in obedience to the former element, and the 
 latter will produce percussion or pressure on the point or line 
 which restrains the body" 
 
 An attentive perusal of those parts of the " Treatise on Me- 
 chanics" which contributed to the formation of this Theorem 
 will show, that when a force is applied to any body free to 
 move in a direction not coinciding with that of the applied 
 force, the force itself will be resolved into two elements, one 
 of which will produce percussion or pressure on the points or 
 lines which restrain the body. 
 
 But having been made aware that neither the earth nor any 
 of the planets, in consequence of the nice adjustment of the 
 powers which maintain them in their respective orbits, could 
 resist any degree of pressure ivhatever, we must also aban- 
 don any hope we may have allowed ourselves to entertain, that 
 in this way the application of the force which was introduced 
 into the solar system, by the formation of the Light and its 
 division from the Darkness, can be satisfactorily accounted for. 
 
 This brings us to the consideration of what is stated in the 
 seventy-seventh Theorem "That if a solid body, moveable on 
 a fixed axis and susceptible of no motion, except one of rota- 
 tion on that axis, be submitted to the action of instantaneous 
 force, one or other of the following effects must ensue : 
 
 1st. The axis may resist the force and prevent any motion. 
 
 2nd. The axis may modify the effect of the force, sustaining 
 itself a corresponding percussion ; and the body ivill receive a 
 motion of rotation ; or 
 
 3rd. The force applied may be such as would cause the body 
 to revolve round the axis, even were it not fixed ; in which 
 case the body will receive a motion of rotation, but the axis 
 will suffer no percussion. 
 
 And that the same results proceed from the application of 
 continued forces." 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 517 
 
 Applying the truths contained in this Theorem to the case 
 in question, it becomes obvious, from what has been already 
 stated, that the first of these conditions could not possibly 
 have taken place. The earth's axis could not have resisted 
 the force and prevented the motion. For the same reasons 
 neither could the second consequence have followed the appli- 
 cation of the force in question, for the earth's axis could not 
 " have modified the effect of the force and have sustained a 
 corresponding percussion" 
 
 And, therefore, as neither of these two conditions of the 
 Theorem could have taken place, we are constrained to admit 
 the remaining one, and to conclude 
 
 That the consequences of the expansive force introduced 
 into the material universe by the formation of the light and its 
 division from the darkness, when applied to the non-rotating 
 spherical earth, ivas, to cause it to revolve around its axis in 
 such a manner that the axis suffered neither pressure nor 
 percussion. 
 
 This could only have been accomplished by the new force 
 having acted in such a manner, that its power was exerted in 
 a tangential direction, thereby causing no pressure on the axis 
 of the body which was impressed with rotatory motion. 
 
 The soundness of this final conclusion is corroborated in a 
 remarkable manner, by the speciality with which the portion 
 of Scripture having reference to it is worded ; for be it ob- 
 served, the rotation of the earth is there treated of, not as a 
 primary law, but as an effect ; and an effect produced by the 
 operation of a law directly mentioned, with others which, from 
 only being implied, must have been known to have previously 
 existed. 
 
 Let us refer more immediately to the words of inspiration, 
 that we may make this assertion more evident : " And God 
 saw the light that it was good, and God divided the light from 
 the darkness." Now, behold the infinite wisdom of this to 
 have introduced the light into the universe without having 
 conferred upon it the principle of expansion ; that is, a nature 
 opposed to that of attraction (if such an idea can, for a mo- 
 ment, be entertained), would have been either to have made 
 it wholly inert, to have constituted it an addition to the force 
 
518 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 which previously existed, or a deduction therefrom. But 
 neither of these three cases would have suited the designs of 
 the Creator upon that occasion, or have produced the effect 
 which he intended ; it was therefore necessary, that a principle, 
 acting in a direction different from any of the previous powers, 
 should be called into existence before the planets and other 
 spheres could, as its spontaneous consequence, have rotated 
 around their axes. This was effectually done by dividing the 
 light from the darkness after it had been completed in its un- 
 related and intimate nature, and recognised as being " good." 
 
 And, indeed, we cannot, if we would, conceive any means 
 more thoroughly effectual for accomplishing this end than that 
 which was adopted by the Almighty. Space, by his creative 
 command, was filled almost ubiquously with this proto-creation 
 of the Mosaic week the ethereal fluid. Not an interstice, 
 however minute, escaped from the all-pervading command 
 " Let there be light." Half-formed materialism did not require 
 to ask " where?" The fiat, like its author, had an Omnipresent 
 application, and light, as nearly as matter could be, was to be 
 everywhere. And when, in compliance therewith, the very 
 pores of materialism had been thus filled up with the penetrat- 
 ing, elastic, but motionless fluid so perfect in itself as even in 
 the sight of God to appear to be " good" it was then made 
 expansive with a vividness and power which can scarcely be 
 imagined, and had not the same unerring wisdom conferred a 
 tangential direction upon it, and had not the spheres thereby 
 been made to revolve beneath its constraining influence, it is 
 difficult to say what might have been the result of the distend- 
 ing impetus of this newly-formed power. 
 
 It should, likewise, be considered that the light could only 
 have been divided from the darkness by a special act of the 
 Creator ; because it is a general law of materialism made 
 known to us by the science of mechanics that where any two 
 forces, moving in opposite directions impinge upon, or come 
 into contact with one another, they are either neutralized, if 
 of equal power, or the greater overcomes and destroys the 
 inferior; light and darkness being as nearly as possible every- 
 where present, and moving in opposite directions, nothing but 
 a special decree of Omnipotence could, by excepting them 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 519 
 
 from this general law, have enabled them, while they so tra- 
 velled, not to neutralize or to destroy each other's influence. 
 
 After making the announcement which we quoted above, 
 the inspired historian goes on to state, " And God called the 
 light Day, and the darkness called he Night. And the evening 
 and the morning were the first day;" an indirect method of in- 
 forming us, without expressly stating it, that the earth at this 
 time performed its first rotation; for without diurnal motion, 
 there could have been neither morning nor evening, day nor 
 night. Here it is again to be remembered, that the words of 
 this chapter of Genesis, were the laws which constituted Nature 
 itself. All that is present to our perceptions, and we, our- 
 selves, existing merely in virtue of these laws, and others of 
 similar potency, which, although not specifically mentioned, 
 are as clearly implied ; therefore it is essential to distinguish 
 when a law is directly announced, and when it is only implied 
 by the mention of its effects ; for in this latter case, a law 
 causing any effect either wholly or in part not directly recorded 
 in this chapter must have previously existed, as it co-operated 
 to produce that which is expressly narrated. The truth of 
 this observation is forcibly exemplified in the case we are now 
 contemplating ; while the observation itself is akin to, and 
 perfectly accordant with the fundamental principles laid down 
 by us at the commencement of our work. 
 
 It has been aptly observed by a recent writer, " that Sir 
 William Herschel soon came to the conclusion that gravita- 
 tion, although it accounts for the proximity of bodies, does 
 not alone account for the stability of systems ; there must 
 also be orbital motion ;"* so we, on our part, assert that al- 
 though rotatory motion is to be attributed to the effects of 
 the expansive principle introduced into the universe on the 
 first day of the Mosaic week ; nevertheless, the formation of 
 the light, and even its division from the darkness, although 
 this conferred upon the former properties diametrically opposed 
 to attraction, could not of itself have caused the rotation of the 
 earth around its axis, unless it had been previously counter- 
 poised in space by two nicely -balanced powers, which left it 
 
 * Michel's Architecture of the Heavens, p. 75. 
 
520 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 free to revolve, while they enabled it to do so as around a fixed 
 axis. At the same time, by a dexterous application of these 
 principles to the verses just quoted, in which no mention is 
 made of such pre-existing laws ; while the formation of the 
 light and its division from the darkness, although not suffi- 
 cient of themselves to have caused the change contemplated, 
 are announced to be the completion of what was required to 
 cause the revolution of the earth around its axis, another great 
 truth is clearly brought out, namely, that both centripetal and 
 centrifugal force must have existed from " the beginning." 
 By this we are enabled to explain how the earth and other 
 planets could have revolved around the sun, and the whole 
 round the common centre of gravity, although the central orb 
 was not, as now, illumined. Otherwise, it is impossible to 
 conceive a system composed of various spheres, some revolving 
 round others, partly by the influence of attraction, unless they 
 had been impressed with centrifugal impetus ; or, on the other 
 hand, to imagine one sphere revolving round another, or rather 
 around their common centre of gravity, without the existence 
 of attraction, as an antagonist to the centrifugal force thereby 
 generated. Hence, if it can be proved, that the whole of the 
 stratified masses constituting the greater part of the earth's 
 rocky crust, were formed during the period when as yet the 
 earth was not impressed with diurnal rotatory motion, it 
 must follow as a necessary consequence, that the duration of 
 its non-rotatory revolution around the unillumined sun was 
 that required for the deposition and formation of those masses. 
 In order to show that the earth actually performs a double 
 revolution in space, and thereby relieve the mind from any 
 doubt that may arise from the suspicion, that the motion of 
 diurnal rotation is either necessarily or in any manner de- 
 pendant on orbital motion, we refer to the following truths 
 contained in the third Theorem" That the EARTH has a 
 double movement in space ; one by which it revolves around its 
 own axis in 24 hours solar time, or in 23 hours 56' 4.09" side- 
 real time, and another movement whereby it performs its perio- 
 dical revolution in an invariable plane around the sun in what 
 is termed the tropical year of 365 days 5 hours 48' 49"-7. 
 That these two motions are entirely independent of each other. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 521 
 
 And that if the Earth did receive its double movement from a 
 single impulse, it is considered by computation that the impulse 
 must have passed through a point about twenty-Jive m.iles from 
 its centre." 
 
 Asa corroboration we shall subjoin what is said in the Con- 
 nexion of the Sciences, regarding the independency of these 
 two movements : 
 
 " If a sphere at rest in space receive an impulse passing through 
 its centre of gravity, all its parts will move with an equal velocity 
 in a straight line ; hut if the impulse does not pass through the 
 centre of gravity, its particles having unequal velocities will have a 
 rotatory or revolving motion at the same time that it is translated 
 in space. These motions are independent of one another ; so that 
 a contrary impulse passing through its centre of gravity will impede 
 its progress without interfering with its rotation. As the sun rotates 
 ahout an axis, it seems probable if an impulse in a contrary direction 
 has not been given to its centre of gravity, that it moves in space 
 accompanied by all those bodies which compose the solar system ; 
 a circumstance which would in no way interfere with their relative 
 motions ; for, in consequence of the principle that force is propor- 
 tional to velocity, the reciprocal attractions of a system remain the 
 same, whether its centre of gravity be at rest or moving uniformly 
 in space. It is computed that, had the earth received its motion 
 from a single impulse, that impulse must have passed through a 
 point about twenty-five miles from its centre. 
 
 " Since the motions of rotation and translation of the planets are 
 independent of each other, though probably communicated by the 
 same impulse, they form separate subjects of investigation."* 
 
 " The planets," says the author of the Architecture of the Heavens, 
 " move around the sun in orbits almost in the plane of the sun's 
 
 * Mrs. Somerville's Connexion of the Sciences, 3rd edition, pp. 9, 10. Should 
 the views we have adopted of the non-rotation of the earth for ages, and its 
 diurnal motion having been communicated by the formation of the light, and 
 its division from the darkness, be eventually confirmed, astronomers may per- 
 haps be induced to change their conceptions of the supposed direction of the im- 
 pulse which translated it in space. In lieu of being considered, as it now is, to 
 have passed through a point about 25 miles from the earth's centre, it will be 
 found to have passed through the centre of gravity of the spherical non-rotating 
 earth, or tangential to the direction of the sun's attractive influence, which 
 would infer its having arisen from a force identical in kind with that of expan- 
 sion. AUTHOR. 
 
522 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 equator, and in the direction of the sun's rotation on his axis ; they 
 rotate on their axes in the same direction, and with some exception 
 as to Uranus the whole satellites revolve around their primaries 
 also in that direction, nor are the rotations of these secondary bodies 
 in as far as they are known, subject to a different law. Now, these 
 phenomena receive no explanation from what we usually term the 
 law of gravitation, inasmuch as gravitation could sustain systems dis- 
 tinguished by no such conditions. Nay, it actually does so, for the 
 comets are free from all these laws ; they move in very eccentric 
 orbits inclined to the plane of the sun's equator at all degrees, and 
 their motions are as often retrograde as direct."* 
 
 As we depend chiefly on geological phenomena, which may 
 be termed the practical or tangible evidences, for establishing 
 the truth of our cosmographical opinions, we shall not bring 
 forward any further theoretical proof in support of the present 
 position, considering what has already been said to be sufficient 
 to convince any unprejudiced mind, as far as mere theory can 
 effect that purpose. But should any one still doubt that the 
 formation of the light audits division from the darkness caused 
 the earth and other spheres to revolve around their axes, we 
 would merely ask them What then did it do ? It must have 
 done something. The light must have had an effect; for there 
 is no cause, however trivial, without an effect ; indeed it cannot 
 be a cause without having an effect ; and, consequently, we 
 must suppose that this, one of the most stupendous of known 
 causes, the formation of the all-pervading ethereal fluid 
 termed in Scripture the light, whose uncombined portion alone 
 now illuminates the systems of the universe must have been 
 attended by an effect of corresponding magnitude. It was not 
 " to give light upon the earth," for this it did not do, we are 
 expressly informed, until the fourth day ; therefore we repeat 
 our enquiry, If the first effect of the introduction of the light 
 and its division from the darkness was not that of causing the 
 spheres to revolve, what was it ? And again, if the earth and 
 other orbs revolved around their respective axes from the 
 "beginning," how was the new force the introduction of 
 Light into the material universe expended or disposed of? 
 
 * Nichol, 1837, pp. 176, 177. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 523 
 
 These may appear remarkable questions ; but it should be 
 remembered that we are strangely circumstanced, our true 
 position towards the earth's inhabitants being this, that while 
 there is, perhaps, not a single person capable of reflection who 
 for an instant doubts that the earth now revolves around its axis, 
 there is, perhaps, not another being on its surface, at the pre- 
 sent moment, who believes, THAT THERE WERE AGES WHEN, 
 
 ALTHOUGH IT REVOLVED AROUND THE SUN AS IT NOW DOES, 
 
 IT HAD NO DIURNAL MOTION. It therefore becomes us to 
 strengthen our arguments by all possible means, considering 
 that we stand in the peculiar, nay, the unique position, of not 
 only differing in opinion from all mankind, but are under the 
 necessity, for the same reason, of convincing them that we are 
 right. With this view, before closing the present chapter, we 
 shall make some allusions to a subject which hitherto has been 
 deferred. 
 
 In consequence of not considering the Light, as now received 
 from the sun, to have been, in any manner instrumental in 
 having caused the sun itself, the earth, and the other spheres 
 of the system to rotate around their respective axes, we have 
 not, hitherto, thought it necessary to bring forward any evi- 
 dence to show the intense heat which the sun is considered to 
 engender. Nevertheless, as the primary light and the light of 
 the sun are mere modifications of each other, in a manner 
 analogous to the blaze of light which bursts forth, when the 
 charcoal-tipped wires of the voltaic pile are brought into con- 
 tact by a skilful electrician, after having, by their invisible 
 streams, caused rotation, decomposition, and many other sur- 
 prising experiments, and the spectators are thereby made to 
 appreciate in a more convincing manner the potency of the 
 unseen element which he had put into activity, and employed 
 in performing those experiments; so we consider, that the 
 light and heat, which now issue from the central orb of our 
 system, may be assumed as an appreciable measure of compa- 
 rison in any endeavour which we make to form an estimate of 
 the intensity and power of that stream of primary unseen light, 
 which caused the rotation of the spheres of our system, and of 
 every system where rotatory motion is known to exist, which 
 decomposed the water, and formed the atmosphere, which 
 
524 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 evaporated the surplus vapour ; gathered the water together 
 and left the dry land in possession of stores of their saline asso- 
 ciates for the future use of man, animals, and plants ; and 
 whose unwearied potency was made to combine in a few hours 
 all the woody textures and fibres of the phanogamous vege- 
 table kingdom ; and was afterwards, by the all-powerful hand of 
 God, made to collapse until the stream of invisible light came 
 into contact with that of darkness whose centre had always 
 been in the sun or, in other words, until the streams of ex- 
 pansion and attraction met around the central orb of our 
 system,* and, at the command of the Omnipotent, have ever 
 since sent forth those regulated supplies of warmth and light 
 which sustain all nature ; the conjunctive force or intensity of 
 which has drawn the attention of some of the ablest of our 
 modern philosophers, and whose deductions we shall give in a 
 few brief extracts ; expressing, previously, our conviction that 
 as the rays of light emitted from the charcoal point are merely 
 the visible manifestion of two streams, whose well-springs are 
 in the voltaic generator behind ; so the luminary which enlivens 
 all nature is solely the junction-point of those streams of at- 
 traction and expansion whose fountain is perennial, and whose 
 inexhaustible fulness is from everlasting to everlasting. 
 
 The following are the philosophical opinions to which we 
 above alluded, and which, of course, are restricted to what is 
 alone visible : 
 
 "The ocean of light and heat," observes Mrs. Somerville, "per- 
 petually flowing from the sun, must affect the bodies of the sys- 
 tem very differently, on account of the varieties in their atmos- 
 pheres, some of which appear to be very extensive and dense. Ac- 
 cording to the observations of Schroetz, the atmosphere of Ceres is 
 more than 688 miles high, and that of Pallas has an elevation of 
 465 miles. These must refract the light, and prevent the radiation 
 of heat like our own 
 
 The direct light of the sun has been estimated to be equal to that 
 of 5,563 wax candles of moderate size, supposed to be placed at 
 the distance of one foot from the object. That of the moon is pro- 
 bably only equal to the light of one candle at the distance of twelve 
 
 * Sun, the centre of attraction. Connexion of the Sciences, p. 7. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 525 
 
 feet. Consequently, the light of the sun is more than three hundred 
 thousand times greater than that of the moon."* 
 
 " That the temperature at the visible surface of the sun" says Sir 
 John Herschel, " cannot be otherwise than very elevated much 
 more so than any artificial heat produced in our furnaces or by che- 
 mical or galvanic processes we have indications of several distinct 
 kinds. First ; from the law of decrease of radiant heat and light, 
 which, being inversely as the squares of the distances, it follows 
 that the heat received on a given area exposed at the distance of the 
 earth, and on an equal area at the visible surface of the sun, must 
 be in the proportion of the area of the sky occupied by the sun's 
 apparent disc to the whole hemisphere, or as 1 to about 300,000. 
 A far less intensity of solar radiation collected in the focus of a 
 burning-glass suffices to dissipate gold and platina in vapour. 
 Secondly ; from the facility with which the caloric rays of the sun 
 traverse glass, a property which is found to belong to the heat of 
 artificial fires, in the direct proportion of their intensity. Thirdly ; 
 from the fact that the most vivid flames disappear, and the most 
 intensely ignited solids appear only as black spots on the disc of the 
 
 sun, when held between it and the eye The sun's rays 
 
 are the ultimate source of almost every motion which takes place on 
 the surface of the earth. By its heat are produced all winds, and 
 those disturbances in the electric equilibrium of the atmosphere 
 which give rise to the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism. By 
 their vivifying action vegetables are elaborated from inorganic mat- 
 ter, and become, in their turn, the support of animals and of man, 
 and the sources of those great deposits of dynamical efficiency which 
 are laid up for human use in our coal strata. By them the water 
 of the sea is made to circulate in vapour through the air, and irrigate 
 the land, producing springs and rivers. By them are produced all 
 disturbances of the chemical equilibrium of the elements of nature 
 which, by a series of compositions and decompositions, give rise to 
 new products, and originate a transfer of materials. Even the slow 
 degradation of the solid constituents of the surface, in which its 
 chief geological changes consist, and their diffusion among the 
 waters of the ocean, are entirely due to the abrasion of the wind and 
 rain, and the alternate action of the seasons ; and when we consider 
 the immense transfer of matter so produced, the increase of pressure 
 over large spaces in the bed of the ocean, and diminution over cor- 
 
 * Connexion of the Sciences, pp. 253, 254. 
 
526 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 responding portions of the land, we are not at a loss to perceive how 
 the elastic power of subterranean fires thus repressed on the one 
 hand, and relieved on the other, may break forth in points when the 
 resistance is barely adequate to their retention, and thus bring the 
 phenomena of even volcanic activity under the general law of solar 
 influence. 
 
 " The great mystery, however, is to conceive how so enormous a 
 conflagration (if such it be) can be kept up. Every discovery in 
 chemical science here leaves us completely at a loss, or, rather, 
 seems to remove farther the prospect of probable explanation. If 
 conjecture might be hazarded, we should look rather to the known 
 possibility of an indefinite generation of heat by friction, or to its 
 excitement by the electric discharge, than to any actual combustion 
 of ponderable fuel, whether solid or gaseous, for the origin of the 
 solar radiation."* 
 
 * Astronomy, in Cab. Cyc. American edition, pp. 200 202. 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF THE LIGHT; THE CONSEQUENT PROTOROTATION OF 
 THE EARTH ; AND ITS DYNAMICAL RESULTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Geological Phenomena in proof of the Earth's period of Non-rotation, divided 
 into external and internal evidences, the former consisting of abstract me- 
 chanical laws applied to geological manifestations. Centrifugal impetus, 
 engendered by rotation, the admitted cause of the equatorial protuberance 
 of the Earth, and of the oblate form of other planets of our system. Geo- 
 graphical data in corroboration of the former assumption. Internal or 
 geological evidences to the same effect. Origin of Continental Ridges 
 and of Oceanic Hollows. Mechanical-dynamic Laws brought forward to 
 account for the elevation of the horizontal concentric strata of the non- 
 rotating sphere. Their change of position, and the vast extension of sur- 
 face occasioned by the spherical earth having been suddenly transformed 
 into a spheroid of rotation. 
 
 HAVING, in the preceding chapter, presented a vivid idea of 
 the potency of the primary light, by inference, from that of the 
 sun, in order that, if possible, we should leave no essential 
 point undetermined behind us ; we shall now proceed to 
 another chain of reasoning entirely distinct from the former, 
 and having for its general object, to explain the manner in 
 which it is considered that the geological phenomena can be 
 be made to prove the non-rotatory period of the earth's exist- 
 ence. And while, as a whole, it is offered as a body of evidence 
 having tangible materials for its basis; yet, for greater per- 
 spicuity, it must be divided into two branches: one, whose 
 superstructure is founded on well-known and established, but 
 abstract principles of mechanics ; and another the most im- 
 portant arising from material geological phenomena, which 
 
528 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 can be seen, weighed, and handled ; and which, consequently, 
 carry conviction to the mind that conviction generally atten- 
 dant on the evidence of the senses. 
 
 We shall commence, as a part of the former division of our 
 proof, with what is contained in the seventy -second Theorem. 
 " That when a body has a motion of rotation, the line round 
 which it revolves is called an axis ; in which case every point 
 in the body must move in a circle whose centre lies in the axis, 
 and whose radius is the distance of the point from it. That, 
 sometimes, when the body revolves, the axis, itself, is moveable, 
 and, not unfrequently, in a state of actual motion ; the motions 
 of the earth and planets being examples of this kind" 
 
 Having thus seen that writers on mechanical laws recognise 
 the earth as one of these " bodies" revolving round an axis, in 
 which every point moves in a circle, whose centre lies in the 
 axis, and " whose radius is the distance of the point from the 
 axis," we shall next endeavour to trace, theoretically, the 
 consequences which proceed from it. In doing this, let us refer 
 to the first portion of the seventy-third Theorem, in which it is 
 clearly stated, " That the same causes which produce pressure 
 on a body when restrained, will produce motion if the body be 
 free. Accordingly, if a body be moved by any efficient cause, 
 it will, by reason of the CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, FLY OFF ; and 
 the moving force with which it will thus retreat from the cen- 
 tre round which it revolves will be the measure of the centri- 
 fugal force." 
 
 If, with a knowledge of this upon the mind, we proceed, 
 without losing any time, to the perusal of the seventy -fourth 
 Theorem, we shall perceive, at once, what writers on mecha- 
 nics and astronomy consider to have been the more general 
 results of the revolution of the earth around its axis. Ob- 
 serving, however, that they conceive the rotatory motion to 
 have been impressed upon it by the same impulse which caused 
 its orbital revolution, which, although at variance with the 
 fundamental principles of this theory, does not affect the 
 validity of the evidence as far as it goes. In the Theorem 
 alluded to, it is stated, " That to the centrifugal force arising 
 from the rotation of the earth around its axis, and to its 
 greater opposition to gravity in the equatorial regions, is attri- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 529 
 
 buted the protuberance of its form in those regions ; or the ex- 
 cess of the equatorial beyond the polar diameter. And that 
 this opinion is corroborated by the excessive oblate form, and 
 corresponding rotatory velocity of Jupiter " 
 
 As this is rather an interesting point, we shall take the 
 precaution to examine some of its evidences in detail, before 
 we go on to consider the actual results with more detention. 
 
 " The most remarkable, and important manifestation of centrifugal 
 force" says the writer on Mechanics, in the Cabinet Cyclopaedia 
 " is observed in the effects produced by the rotation of the earth 
 upon its axis. This rotation causes the matter which composes the 
 mass of the earth to revolve in circles round the different points of 
 the axis as centres, at the various distances at which the component 
 parts of this mass are placed. As they all revolve with the same 
 angular velocity, they will be affected by centrifugal forces, which 
 will be greater or less in proportion as their distances from the cen- 
 tre are greater or less : consequently, the parts of the earth which 
 are situated about the equator will be more strongly affected by 
 centrifugal force than those about the poles. The effect of this 
 difference has been, that the component matter about the equator has 
 actually been driven farther from the centre than that about the 
 poles, so that the figure of the earth has swelled out at the sides, 
 and appears proportionately depressed at the top and bottom, re- 
 sembling the shape of an orange. The exact proportion of the 
 polar to the equatorial radius has never yet been certainly ascertained. 
 Some observations make the equatorial radius exceed the polar 
 radius by -g^r, and others by -3-^. The latter, however, seems the 
 more probable. It may be considered to be included between these 
 limits. 
 
 " The same cause operates more powerfully in other planets which 
 revolve more rapidly on their axis. Jupiter and Saturn have forms 
 
 which are considerably more elliptical But there is 
 
 another reason why the centrifugal force is more efficient in the 
 opposition which it gives to gravity near the equator than near the 
 poles. This force does not act from the centre of the earth, but is 
 directed from the earth's axis. It is, therefore, not directly opposed 
 to gravity, except on the equator itself. On leaving the equator, and 
 proceeding towards the poles, it is less and less opposed to gravity."* 
 
 * Mechanics, in Cab. Cyc. pp. 105, 106. 
 2 M 
 
530 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 " The forms of the planets" it is stated in the " Connexion of 
 the Sciences" " result from the reciprocal attraction of their com- 
 ponent particles. A detached fluid mass, if at rest, would assume 
 the form of a sphere, from the reciprocal attraction of its particles. 
 But if the mass revolve around an axis, it becomes flattened about 
 the poles and bulges at the equator, in consequence of the centrifugal 
 force arising from the velocity of rotation, for the centrifugal force 
 diminishes the gravity of the particles at the equator, and equilibrium 
 can only exist where these two forces are balanced by an increase of 
 gravity. Therefore, as the attractive force is the same on all parti- 
 cles at equal distances from the centre of a sphere, the equatorial 
 particles would recede from the centre, till their increase in number 
 balance the centrifugal force by their attraction. Consequently, the 
 sphere would become an oblate, or flattened spheroid ; and a fluid 
 partially or entirely covering a solid, as the ocean and atmosphere 
 cover the earth, must assume that form in order to remain in equili- 
 brio. The surface of the sea is therefore spheroidal, and the surface 
 of the earth only deviates from that figure where it rises above, or 
 sinks below the sea. But the deviation is so small, that it is un- 
 important when compared with the magnitude of the earth ; for the 
 mighty chain of the Andes, and the yet more lofty Himalaya, bear 
 about the same proportion to the earth that a grain of sand does to 
 a globe three feet in diameter. Such is the form of the earth and 
 planets. The compression or flattening at their poles, is, however, 
 so small, that even Jupiter, whose rotation is the most rapid, and, 
 therefore, the most elliptical of the planets, may, for ordinary pur- 
 poses, from his great distance, be regarded as spherical."* 
 
 These quotations are very satisfactory and conclusive so far 
 as they go, but as we have occasion for considerable exactitude 
 in the present enquiry, we must proceed in quest of such 
 investigations as shall determine the precise amount of the cen- 
 trifugal force, in order to be convinced, that the rotundity of 
 the earth's equatorial diameter accords with deductions made 
 by a priori calculations. With this design we shall resort to 
 the first Theorem, in which it is stated "That the EARTH is a 
 spheroid of rotation, whose equatorial exceeds its polar diameter 
 about twenty-six miles, the former being 7,925, the latter 7,899 
 
 * Connexion of the Sciences, 3rd edition, pp. 8, 9. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 531 
 
 miles. That the oblateness of this ellipsoid, deduced from ac- 
 tual measurement, although somewhat less than mathematicians 
 affirm it should be, from calculations based on its dimensions, 
 time of rotation, component materials, law of gravity, and cen- 
 trifugal force, nevertheless corresponds as nearly as the data 
 for calculation will admit." And any, or all, of the numerous 
 authors on whose accredited writings that elementary theorem 
 is founded, may be consulted, should more particular informa- 
 tion be required, or any doubt remain on the mind. 
 
 Meanwhile, explaining that the dimensions above given are 
 taken from Sir Henry de la Beche's " Manual of Geology," 
 we shall consider it sufficient to adduce one quotation from 
 Sir John Herschel's " Treatise on Astronomy," in which he 
 refers to an " Essay on the Figure of the Earth," by Professor 
 Airy. It is as follows : 
 
 " Without troubling the reader with the investigation, which may 
 be found in any part of the conic sections, it will be sufficient to 
 state, that the lengths which agree, on the whole, best with the entire 
 series of meridianal arcs which have been satisfactorily measured on 
 the earth's surface, are as follow : 
 
 FEET. MILES. 
 
 Greater equatorial diameter . 41,847,426 7,925.648 
 Lesser, or polar diameter . . 41,707,620 7,899.170 
 Difference of diameters, or polar 
 
 compression .... 139,806 26.478 
 
 The proportion of the diameters is very nearly that of 298,299, 
 and their difference ^--g- of the greater, or a very little greater than 
 
 After perusing these evidences, it is presumed that no doubt 
 can be entertained as to the CAUSE of the protuberance in the 
 equatorial regions of the earth. This, we believe, is admitted 
 by all who reflect upon the subject, but perhaps few or none 
 consider its oblateness to have taken place after it had cir- 
 culated, as a sphere, for ages round an unillumined sun ; and 
 subsequent to the stratified rocks having been deposited from 
 its primitive ocean, in successive concentric hollow spheres, 
 above the unstratified masses, then also in a similarly horizontal 
 
 * Treatise on Astronomy, p. 114. 
 2 M 2 
 
532 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 position. Or, in other words, the actual rotation of the earth 
 and the equatorial protuberance occasioned by it, are readily 
 admitted by all ; but the epoch of the commencement of the one, 
 and the origin of the other, have hitherto been considered to co- 
 incide with that in which it was translated in space.* 
 
 It is our intention to employ the established geological 
 phenomena to prove, that the commencement of its diurnal 
 motion, the " first day" of Scripture, took place when it had 
 geologically attained the state described in the last and pre- 
 ceding sections of this work. While it shall, likewise, be our 
 care to show, that this conclusion is in strict accordance with 
 what is implied in the inspired narrative given in the first 
 chapter of Genesis. 
 
 Whatever has hitherto been done by us, to ascertain the pre- 
 cise figure of the earth, and to adduce consequences from it, may 
 be considered as a part merely of the external evidences ; having 
 been derived from abstract truths, founded on abstruse calcu- 
 lations, and profound mathematical manipulations ; but those 
 which we are now about to bring forward which are based ex- 
 clusively on geological phenomena may, with perfect propriety, 
 be termed its internal evidences, undeniable proofs written in 
 legible characters, within the reach of all who choose to dedicate 
 a few hours of exhilarating exercise to their perusal ; and by 
 examination, to assure themselves of the truth of their exist- 
 ence by the strongest of all convictions ocular demonstration. 
 
 At this, as the most opportune juncture, we would observe, 
 that while it was indispensable for the disciples of Copernicus 
 to have recourse to objects beyond the earth, to prove that it has 
 
 * It is not our intention to delay the general argument, by fully opening up 
 the interesting field for expatiation which presents itself, when we endeavour to 
 grasp the consequences resulting from the establishment of the fact, that the 
 diurnal rotation of the Earth took place at a distinct and distant period from that of 
 its orbital motion in space. 
 
 The mind, freed from the trammel under which it has so long laboured in 
 this respect, is at liberty to attribute boldly the orbital movements to a force 
 similar in kind, because proceeding from the same source, though infinitely 
 vaster and more comprehensive, which, by its tangential influence, caused the 
 whole orbs of the universe to revolve around their respective centres of gravity, 
 the axis of their orbital path. To this we can only allude at present ; perhaps 
 we may enter upon it more fully hereafter. AUTHOR. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 533 
 
 orbital and diurnal motion ; and by means of these distant 
 and distinct objects to overcome the inveterate prejudices of 
 apparent ocular conviction to the contrary, confirmed by the 
 imperceptible uniformity of motion in all the parts of the 
 moving mass on which those who doubted were, at the very 
 moment, unconsciously whirled through space with us it is 
 almost the reverse. 
 
 The actual rotation of the earth is now so well-established, 
 and is an element so intimately bound up with the conceptions 
 of every living being, that to assert it ever was otherwise will 
 be found as incredible as was the announcement of orbital 
 motion by Copernicus ; while we are in consequence con- 
 strained to adopt an entirely distinct line of proof. External 
 bodies, except in one or two respects, will be of little avail 
 to us. The earth's rotation finds little sympathy at such re- 
 mote distances, or, to express ourselves more correctly, the 
 respective rotations of the spheres exercise but little mutual 
 influence on each other ; we need not go to them in quest of 
 proof; ours must be almost exclusively drawn from the symp- 
 toms of change ivithin the compass of the earth itself, and more 
 especially upon its surface its geological manifestations, and 
 the formation of its continental ridges and oceanic depressions. 
 
 But to return to the subject more immediately under notice : 
 let the attention be directed for a moment to the following 
 considerations : In consequence of the diurnal rotation of the 
 earth being considered to have been impressed upon it by the 
 same impulse which caused its translation in space, it has, 
 hitherto, been looked upon, as a natural result, that the earthy 
 parts should have assumed their present form of equilibrium, 
 while yet capable of doing so, by being in a fluid state either 
 from aqueous, or from igneous liquifaction. Even those who, 
 being most bold, have departed farthest from these conceptions 
 of fluidity, and of coeval movements in space, have only ven- 
 tured to conjecture, that although it was formed at first, as a 
 sphere, it might gradually have acquired its present relative 
 dimensions, and have become a spheroid of rotation, from the 
 united agency of comminution, disintegration, and the equili- 
 brizing effects of its aqueous portion ; but without having 
 explained how the water, which must previously have assumed 
 
534 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 the form of rotation, or of rest, came afterwards to exercise 
 those equilibrizing effects on materials of greater density than 
 itself. 
 
 Setting this important omission entirely aside for the present, 
 we shall go on to observe in general, that none seem yet to 
 have dealt in earnest with the difficulty ; or have endeavoured 
 to account, in an intelligible manner, for the position of the 
 strata with relation to each other ; or with respect to the pri- 
 mary masses ; or for the formation of the great continental 
 ridges and oceanic hollows ; nor indeed for innumerable other 
 natural appearances. These, when touched upon at all, are 
 treated at respectful distances, or hurried over in general terms, 
 as points not requiring, or which, perhaps, can ill bear dis- 
 cussion, although their importance demands that they should 
 not by any means be overlooked in a theory of the world. In 
 short, they have hitherto been difficult points in all geological 
 disquisitions, which even the most profound thinkers have been 
 glad to dispose of in a transient manner ; and, consequently, 
 when introduced have left no impression of correctness on the 
 minds of the readers ; or, rather, have left them entirely in 
 doubt. 
 
 We trust, therefore, it may be considered as an additional 
 pledge for the truth of the present Theory, when it is known, 
 that however careful we may be to avoid misleading any one, 
 we intend to dwell particularly on those very points, and to 
 bring them forth as our firmest and surest conclusions ; trust- 
 ing to prove, that to this very change in the form of the earth, 
 from a sphere to a spheroid, effected in the short space of 
 twenty-four natural hours, as recorded in Scripture, are to be 
 traced all those geological and geographical phenomena which 
 have hitherto baffled explanation. We beg, however, it may 
 not be overlooked, that while thus appealing triumphantly to 
 Scripture for the true and only explanation of the cause of 
 that motion, and the effects proceeding from it, we could have 
 made no progress in our attempt, without the surprising and 
 well attested facts brought to light, and established by the 
 intelligence and industry of geologists, naturalists, and other 
 scientific men ; and, therefore, standing as a days-man between 
 those who place implicit faith in the Word of God, while they 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 535 
 
 turn aside from the lights of philosophy ; and those in a more 
 dangerous position who, while they gaze with delight on the 
 dazzling lustre of philosophic lore, wilfully shut their eyes to 
 the softer and more glorious light of Scripture ; we would be 
 understood as saying to the one : " while you gladly and joy- 
 fully listen to the inspired Word of God, be not insensible to 
 the majesty of his works, which are wrought in truth, and are 
 fearfully and wonderfully made." To the other we would say : 
 " amidst the excitement and the exhilarating influences, caused 
 by the investigations of the works of the Great Creator, oh ! 
 turn not, we beseech you, a deaf ear to his word. Remember 
 that nature cannot answer all your enlightened and intelligent 
 questions ; but in order that you should be fully informed of 
 the origin of her stores, you must turn, at last to Nature's 
 God ; and to what he has been pleased to reveal in his sacred 
 volume regarding them." 
 
 Let not, therefore, believers in the Bible any longer dread 
 the announcements of, nature's wonders, for they were all 
 framed and fashioned by their Lord's own hand ; nor let the 
 votaries of nature's phenomena any longer deride the worship- 
 pers of his word ; for without it they can neither satisfactorily 
 account for that of which they are in quest, nor return without 
 it to the right path from whence they have so long diverged ; 
 but rather, let harmony reign between them, and emulation to 
 advance his glorious cause ; for only by their cordial recon- 
 ciliation and perfect union, can the truth be effectually esta- 
 blished. 
 
 But to proceed with our argument. Let that be conceived 
 to have been, which in reality was the case, namely : That the 
 spherical non-rotating earth, geologically constituted as it is 
 described in the preceding section, and performing its periodical 
 revolution around the unillumined sun, by the conjoint influence 
 of two divellant forces, so nicely equipoised as to be incapable 
 of resisting the slightest addition to either, was, by the appli- 
 cation of an instantaneous tangential force, made to revolve 
 around its axis, with an angular velocity of \ 5 per hour, and 
 then let us endeavour to determine the results. 
 
 To enable us to do this we shall, first, inform ourselves of 
 what is contained in part of the seventy -eighth Theorem: 
 
536 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 {l That when a solid body revolves on its axis all its parts are 
 whirled round together, and each performs a complete revolu- 
 tion in the same time ; consequently, the angular velocity is the 
 same for all. The tendency of each particle to fly from the 
 axis, arising from the centrifugal force, is resisted by the cohe- 
 sion of the parts of the mass, and, in general, the tendency is 
 expended in exciting a pressure or strain upon the axis, whose 
 amount depends upon the figure and density of the body and 
 the velocity of its motion." 
 
 Now, according to the tenor of this Theorem, it is evident, 
 that, when the earth was caused to revolve, the consequences 
 mentioned in it would take place, either by the cohesion of 
 the parts resisting the inclination to fly off, occasioned by the 
 centrifugal force being brought to bear upon them, and the 
 general tendency be expended by exciting a pressure or strain 
 upon the axis ; or, the cohesion amongst the particles would 
 be too weak to resist the force engendered by the centrifugal 
 impetus, and they would, therefore, hasten to assume such an 
 arrangement among themselves, as should confer on the whole 
 mass the form of equilibrium under rotation, and so relieve the 
 axis from the strain or pressure indicated above. In effecting 
 which change of arrangement, they would be subjected to all 
 those results proceeding from movement among the various 
 parts of which the whole mass is constituted. By our previous 
 investigations we have been made aware, not only that the 
 earth's axis, could not have resisted the consequent strain or 
 pressure to which it would according to the former alterna- 
 tive have been subjected, but likewise, that both by calculation 
 and actual measurement it has been ascertained, that the cen- 
 trifugal force overcame the cohesion among the parts of the 
 earth's outer crust, and both caused and enabled it to assume 
 the oblate form best adapted to meet the rotatory motion with 
 which it was impressed, and so to relieve the axis from all 
 strain upon it. 
 
 As we trust to prove satisfactorily in the immediate sequel, 
 that this change was effected after all the stratified masses 
 preceding the upper portion of the coal measures had been 
 deposited, it follows as a natural consequence of these combined 
 truths, that in accommodating themselves to the alteration in the 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 537 
 
 earth's form) which has just been indicated, from a sphere to a 
 spheroid of rotation, the strata, and other mineral masses, must 
 have undergone very considerable changes in their relative 
 
 To be thoroughly convinced of this, in a general way, as 
 also of the fact, that there must have been an instantaneous 
 intrusion of unstratified rock amongst the strata ; let the fol- 
 lowing consideration be duly appreciated, namely, a spheroid, 
 the mean of whose diameters is 7,912 miles, has upwards of 
 eight hundred and sixty-one thousand square miles of more 
 superfice than a sphere whose diameter is 7,899 miles ;* and 
 those being the dimensions corresponding to the earth as it 
 now is, and as it was before rotation, it follows that in order 
 to complete the outer crust of a world, on which such an 
 immense increase of surface had been instantaneously produced, 
 there required to have been provided as instantaneous an 
 amount of solid rock to fill up the expansion which had thus 
 taken place. Nor need it be supposed, that this difference of 
 surface is the estimate at its full extent ; for, were the inequali- 
 ties occasioned by the continents and ocean beds, the mountains 
 and valleys, and other flexuosities of surface, taken into ac- 
 count the above being merely deduced from plane surfaces 
 the actual increase would be found to be infinitely beyond that 
 which has been stated. 
 
 It must, at once, be confessed, that the superficial extent of 
 rock, instantaneously required to fill up this void, could not 
 have been supplied from any resources residing in the strati- 
 fied masses themselves. For there is no possible way, according 
 to natural cause and effect, whereby a movement of the earth 
 could have occasioned a spreading out of the strata over this 
 enormous increase of surface ; and, likewise, over that which 
 has not been taken into account. 
 
 We say " according to natural cause and effect," because, 
 for wise purposes, the rotation of the earth around its axis, 
 was ordained to be the natural effect of causes instituted 
 directly by the Deity, with power to produce, in sequence, 
 
 * It is to be remembered, that we do not admit that the solids of the earth 
 became flattened in polar diameter after rotation. 
 
538 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 that stupenduous result as their first and chief effect ; there- 
 fore, we consider ourselves perfectly justified in adopting this 
 language, without in the least attempting to limit the infinite 
 powers of the Creator ; but, on the contrary, reverencing those 
 attributes of Omnipotence, we consider ourselves fully autho- 
 rised, in the present instance, according to the natural con- 
 nexion between cause and effect, to conclude, that not only 
 was there no possible way whereby the strata could have been 
 made to cover this extra surface, but the vertical positions, 
 which most of them have assumed, would increase our embar- 
 rassment, were we to attempt to bring them forward as sufficient 
 for the exigency contemplated; it being well known, and 
 readily admitted, that a plane of any given dimensions, covers 
 a greater concentric surface when horizontal, than when tilted 
 up into any angle whatever out of perfect horizontality ; we 
 must, therefore, look to some other phenomena for a satisfac- 
 tory explanation of this difficulty ; although this will lead us 
 into rather a lengthened chain of reasoning, requiring the aid 
 of various Theorems and their accompanying evidences ; and 
 the combination of truths, which, perhaps, have never before 
 been brought into juxtaposition ; nevertheless, we must continue 
 our labours with patient perseverance, in hopes that they may 
 ultimately lead to satisfactory results. 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF THE LIGHT; THE CONSEQUENT PROTOROTATION OF 
 THE EARTH ; AND ITS DYNAMICAL RESULTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Geological evidences required for the application of the dynamical influences 
 of protorotation. Relative thinness of the earth's crust when compared 
 with its semi-diameter. The existence of this " outer shell" of the earth 
 established. Relative densities of the materials composing the amorphous, 
 and the stratified formations of which it consists. Concluding deduction 
 from these investigations that the relative distances from the centre of 
 gyration being considered equal, the greater density of the older amor- 
 phous masses would occasion their being impelled further from the centre ; 
 and consequently cause them to perforate, or to raise up the superincum- 
 bent or lighter strata, when the whole concentric mineral envelope of the 
 non-rotating sphere burst asunder and became transformed into conti- 
 nental ridges, oceanic hollows, hill and dale, by the centrifugal impetus of 
 the Earth's protorotation, occasioned by the introduction of the Light and 
 its division from the Darkness. 
 
 WITH reference to what was stated at the conclusion of the 
 last chapter, the first point to which we shall, in this, direct 
 the attention, while endeavouring to establish it, is the relative 
 insignificancy of the estimated thickness of the earth's outer 
 crust, in comparison with its entire radius. "With this view 
 let us, in the first instance, have recourse to the twenty-first 
 Theorem, to be assured that there is such a thing understood 
 among geologists as an " outer crust of the earth." All geo- 
 logists make use of terms indicating, that their discourses have 
 reference to an " external crust" " outer coating " or, as it is 
 sometimes called, " shell" of the earth, but generally without 
 explaining to what depth these are considered to penetrate into 
 the viscera terras ; yet sufficient has been said to show that 
 
540 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 these expressions are considered to refer to that which has limits 
 not far from the surface ; and even, in a few instances, an 
 attempt has been made to draw a clear line of separation, at no 
 great depth below the surface, between the solid crust and the 
 supposed internal masses. 
 
 In selecting evidences from among the numerous authorities 
 for that opinion, we shall give what may be considered the 
 expression of a pretty general one on this point, since Dr. 
 McCulloch takes it up with the intention of refuting it, when 
 treating on " the depth of the strata beneath the surface" 
 
 " It has," he says, " been ignorantly made a matter of reproach 
 to geologists, that they reason respecting the structure of an earth 
 to which they had no further access than by operations that ought 
 to be considered but as scratches on its surface. It has been said 
 that the highest mountains are but as dust, and the deepest mines 
 but as invisible punctures on a common geographical globe."* 
 
 Although he endeavours to set aside the main bearing of 
 this upon the geological points then under his discussion, he 
 concludes by giving it as his opinion, 
 
 " That we have no reasons a priori for supposing that strata 
 deposited from an ocean, however ancient, can exist beyond a cer- 
 tain, however undefined depth. "f 
 
 "When we examine," observes Mr. Lyell, " into the structure of 
 the earth's crust (by which we mean the small portion of the exte- 
 rior of our planet accessible to human observation), whether we 
 pursue our investigations by aid of mining operations, or by observing 
 the sections laid open in the sea cliffs, or in the deep ravines of 
 mountainous countries, we discover everywhere a series of mineral 
 masses which are not thrown together in a confused heap, but 
 arranged with considerable order ; and even where their original 
 position has undergone great subsequent disturbance, there still 
 remain proofs of the order that once reigned. "J 
 
 "Beneath the whole series of stratified rocks," says Professor 
 Buckland," that appear on the surface of the globe, there probably 
 exists a foundation of unstratified crystalline rocks, an irregular sur- 
 
 * Geology, vol i. p. 94. t Ibid, p. 96. 
 
 + Principles of Geology, vol. iii. p. 8. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 541 
 
 face, from the detritus of which the materials of stratified rocks have 
 in a great measure been derived amounting, as we have stated, to 
 a thickness of ten miles. This is indeed but a small depth in com- 
 parison with the diameter of the globe ; but, small as it is, it affords 
 certain evidence of a long series of changes and revolutions ; affect- 
 ing not only the mineral condition of the nascent surface of the 
 earth, but attended also by important alterations in animal and 
 vegetable life."* 
 
 But let us turn from these generalities to actual perforations 
 of the strata, which will serve our present purpose fully as 
 well. The first collective thickness of these which we find 
 recorded anywhere is by Sir Henry de la Beche, when treating 
 of the carboniferous group ; for, says he 
 
 " From the careful examination of the Forest of Dean by M. 
 Muschet, we have a detailed list of the various beds of the coal 
 measures, carboniferous limestone, and old red sandstone, the whole 
 constituting a collective thickness of about 8,700 feet ; the coal 
 measures being 3,060 feet in depth, and the limestone 705. The 
 mass reposes on the grauwacke (transition) limestone of Long 
 Hope and Huntly."f 
 
 We find the following estimates of the collective thickness 
 of the various formations, from the coal measures downwards 
 to the grauwacke system, given by Professor" Phillips, viz : 
 
 YARDS. 
 
 " COAL. Upper, middle, and lower 1,000 
 
 MILLSTONE GRIT. Upper, middle, and lower .... 300 
 CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. Three distinct formations . 600 
 
 r\ -n c> {Minium 1001 
 
 OLD RED SANDSTONE.- j Maximum3j300 }mean . . 1,700 
 
 LUDLOW ROCKS. Sandstone, limestone, and shale . . 660 
 
 WENLOCK ROCKS. Lime and shale 600 
 
 CARADOC ROCKS. Shelly limestone and sandstone . . 830 
 
 LLANDEILO ROCKS. Calcareous luminated beds . . . 400 
 GRAUWACKE SYSTEM. Unknown.''^ 
 
 These numbers unitedly make up six thousand and ninety 
 yards, or 18,370 feet, supposing each formation to be invari- 
 
 * Bridge-water Treatise, vol. i. p. 42. f Manual of Geology, p. 439. 
 
 + Treatise on Geology, pp. 36, 37. 
 
542 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 ably superimposed the one on the other; but which, we 
 believe, is seldom the case. 
 
 In a recent popular work, which indeed has been issued 
 while we were preparing for the press, we find the following 
 evidence respecting not only the assumption of the earth 
 having an outer crust, but also its presumed thickness. It is 
 given in reference to Part II. of Mr. Henessy's Researches in 
 Physical Geology, communicated to the Royal Society by 
 Major Beamish: the part we have to do with, at present, being 
 Clause 2nd, which states that 
 
 " By employing the values of the constants obtained in Section 
 IX., it appears, that the thickness of the earth's crust cannot be 
 less than 18 miles, and cannot exceed 600 miles."* 
 
 "While it is to be regretted that the present state of science, 
 in its attempts to penetrate into the viscera terra, should be 
 accompanied by results so vague and indefinite as to be almost 
 of no value, nevertheless, such is the strength of our position, 
 that, in pursuing our argument to a successful termination, 
 we can afford to assume the mean of all these divergent esti- 
 mates, even including the extreme one revealed by Mr. Hen- 
 nessy's mathematical researches, as the thickness beyond which 
 it cannot be. As a corroborative process we think we can 
 reach a deduction, equally conclusive for our present purpose, 
 by comparing the height above the sea level of the most ele- 
 vated mountain ranges on the face of the globe with its radius, 
 or semi-diameter. On this subject we have the following very 
 pointed and convincing testimony, already quoted, but with 
 which we shall close this part of our evidence : 
 
 " The surface of the sea," observes the accomplished author of 
 the Connexion of the Sciences, " is therefore spheroidal, and the 
 surface of the earth only deviates from that figure when it rises 
 above or sinks below the level of the sea. But the deviation is so 
 small that it is unimportant when compared with the magnitude of 
 the earth ; for the mighty chain of the Andes, and the yet more 
 lofty Himalaya, bear about the same proportion to the earth, that 
 a grain of sand does to a globe three feet in diameter. "f 
 
 * Year Book of Facts, 1850. f Connexion of the Sciences, p. 8. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 543 
 
 From which it results, that if the estimated elevation of 
 nearly 27,000 feet be thought unworthy of being taken into 
 account, when estimating the diameter of the earth, neither is 
 the mean thickness of the earth's crust comparatively worthy 
 of notice. Thus we have come to one certain conclusion, 
 which we trust will be made available in determining the 
 question we are at present discussing. It is this : that during 
 the non-rotatory period of the earth's existence, the perpen- 
 dicular distance, from the superior surface of the coal mea- 
 sures to the inferior strata which repose on the unstratified 
 rocks, is so insignificant, in comparison with the radius of the 
 earth, that for any purpose wherein those two limits require 
 to be adduced, they may be assumed for all practical pur- 
 poses as equi-distant from the centre of gyration. 
 
 We must next endeavour to determine, if we possibly can, 
 the relative densities of the several classes of rock, especially 
 of the primary and older stratified masses ; and of the more 
 modern of the secondary formations, in order to institute a 
 comparison between them. This point, however, appears 
 somewhat difficult to determine with any degree of precision, 
 for it seems hitherto to have attracted but little attention as a 
 specific question ; although there is abundance of evidence to 
 prove, in a general way, the commonly received opinion, that 
 our globe is formed of materials whose density increases from 
 the surface to the centre. In support of the point, generally, 
 which we wish to establish, namely, the greater specific gravity 
 of the older rocks, we offer, first of all, the following clause 
 from the twenty-third Theorem: "That they (geologists) 
 also concur in considering the primary rocks, besides being 
 deficient in organic remains, to be more compact and crystalline 
 in texture than the others" The following are some of the 
 authorities for that opinion : 
 
 " When we trace," says Dr. Fleming, " the characters of the dif- 
 ferent depositions which have taken place, from the newest alluvial 
 beds to the oldest transition rocks, we witness very remarkable gra- 
 dations of character. The newest formed strata are loose in their 
 texture, and usually horizontal in their position. In proportion as 
 we retire from these towards the older formations, the texture be- 
 comes more compact and crystalline, and the strata become more 
 
544 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 inclined. These characters may be traced by comparing the common 
 loose marl of a peat-bog with the former chalk ; the compact floetz 
 limestone with the transition marble ; or the peat itself with the 
 older beds of wood coal, or the still older beds of coal of the inde- 
 pendent coal formations. The organic remains in the newer strata 
 are yet unaltered in their texture, and easily separable from the 
 matter in which they are embedded. In the older rocks the remains 
 are changed into stone, and intimately incorporated with the sur- 
 rounding rocks. These facts make us acquainted with the original 
 condition of the matter with which the organic remains were enve- 
 loped, and lead us to believe that the bed now in the form of lime- 
 stone or marble was once loose as chalk, or even marl ; that coal 
 once resembled peat ; and that the strata of sandstone and quartz 
 rock were once layers of sand."* 
 
 Sir Henry de la Beche, when treating of the Non-fossili- 
 ferous Stratified Hocks, says 
 
 " From various circumstances, many of the lowest fossiliferous 
 rocks assume the mineralogical character of those in this class as to 
 be indistinguishable from them, except by geological situation ; but 
 it may be assumed that, as a mass, the strata in this division are 
 far more crystalline than in those of the superior stratified rocks, 
 the origin of which seems chiefly mechanical." 
 
 And of the Unstratified Rocks, he states 
 
 " Their great characteristic is a tendency to a crystalline structure, 
 though in many this cannot be traced. Every gradation from the 
 crystalline to the non-crystalline structure can frequently be ob- 
 served in the same mass. The minerals, felspar, quartz, hornblende, 
 mica, dialloge, and serpentine enter largely into the composition of 
 these rocks, more particularly the former."-)- 
 
 Mr. Lyell in one short passage, when treating of the Meta~ 
 morphic Rocks, says 
 
 " Nor should it be forgotten that, as a general rule, the less crys- 
 talline rocks do really occur in the upper, and the more crystalline 
 in the lower part of each metamorphic series. "J 
 
 Letter in Edin. Jour. No. 15, January, 1823, pp. 120, 121. 
 Manual of Geology, p. 37. % Elements, vol. ii. p. 416. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 545 
 
 Professor Phillips, in his Treatise, says 
 
 " Induration, or consolidation to a high degree, is a general property 
 of the primary strata, composed of siliceous, argillaceous, and calca- 
 reous rocks. There is, in fact, no sand, no clay, no marl in the 
 whole series."* 
 
 Besides these general evidences, we are, fortunately, sup- 
 plied with proof of a more specific character by the accurate 
 experiments made by Lord Webb Seymour and Professor 
 Play fair, on the mountain of Schehallien, and whose results 
 have been given to the world by the latter accomplished 
 writer. The whole is so interwoven together, and dependant 
 on mathematical calculations, that a satisfactory abstract can 
 hardly be formed of it, but the following short extract seems 
 to convey all the evidence we require for the present : 
 
 " One thing only seemed wanting," says Professor Playfair, when 
 alluding to Dr. Maskelyne's astronomical observations made on 
 that mountain in 1774, " to give to the determination of the earth's 
 density all the accuracy that could be obtained from a single expe- 
 riment, namely, a more accurate knowledge of the specific gravity 
 of the rock which composes the mountain, as being the object with 
 which the mean density of the earth was immediately compared. 
 The specific gravity of that rock was assumed to be to that of water 
 as 5 to 2, which, though it be nearly a medium when stones of every 
 kind from the lightest to the heaviest are included, is certainly too 
 small for Schehallien, the rocks of which belong to a class of a 
 specific gravity considerably above the mean."-f 
 
 After giving the particulars of the various specimens em- 
 ployed, and tables of their individual densities, he goes on to 
 state 
 
 " From the inspection of the preceding table it is evident, that the 
 specimens relatively to their specific gravity may be divided into 
 two classes sufficiently distinct from one another. The specimens 
 of granular quartz are in spec. gr. comprehended between 2.61 and 
 2.66, nearly ; and the mean is 2.639876. The micaceous rocks, 
 including the calcareous, are contained between the limit 2.7, and 
 
 * Page 71. t Playfair's Works, vol. iii. p. 404. 
 
 2 N 
 
546 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 3.06 ; the mean of all the 15 specimens being 2.82039. Now it 
 happens fortunately that these two classes of rocks distinguished by 
 their spec. gr. are also distinguished by their position, so that the 
 line which separates them can be accurately traced out on the face 
 of the mountain."* 
 
 From what has now been said we have acquired another 
 important datum to enable us to continue our present enquiry ; 
 for we have been made aware by these evidences, that the 
 stony masses which constitute the unstratified rocks, their 
 associated schists, and the older stratified formations, generally 
 speaking, exceed in specific gravity the latter ones, which are 
 not so perfectly consolidated from age or pressure. Or, in 
 other words, that the specific gravity of the earth's rocky crust, 
 of the ancient globe, increased in proportion to the distance 
 from the submarine surface of that period. 
 
 With these data which we have thus acquired, namely, the 
 greater specific gravity of the older or then inferior rocks ; and 
 the equality of distance at which the upper and under surfaces 
 of the stratified envelope of the globe, for all parallels of lati- 
 tude, may be considered to have been in relation to the centre 
 of gvration, let us recur to the laws of mechanics, and endea- 
 vour to discover what would be the effect of the rotation of 
 the earth on materials so circumstanced. We find it stated 
 in a part of the seventy-third Theorem, "That weights which 
 are as one to two at equal distances, with the same velocity, 
 will have their centrifugal force increased as the mass of the 
 moving body increases." 
 
 This rule embraces all the circumstances of the case which 
 
 * Ibid p. 421. The result of these delicate lithological experiments, although 
 in their general tenor affording the favourable testimony expressed in the ex- 
 tract above given, yet reveal an anomaly which candour induces us not to 
 conceal ; we allude to the circumstance of the micaceous and calcareous speci- 
 mens being of greater specific gravity than the granitic, which form the apex 
 of the mountain, and which, according to our views, ought to have been the 
 heaviest. At first this appears an irreconcileable difficulty, but on applying the 
 53d Theorem to it, it serves to confirm another very interesting truth, namely, 
 that although the granitic mass, previous to being fused by friction, was of 
 greater specific gravity than those which overlaid it, on crystallizing it ex- 
 panded, while the aluminous contents of the others, on heating, became con- 
 tracted, and thereby a change of relative densities took place. AUTHOR. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 547 
 
 we are now investigating ; for, by the rotation of the earth 
 around its axis, the angular velocity, and consequently the 
 centrifugal impetus, was the same for all places on the same 
 parallels of latitude ; the perpendicular distances, between the 
 upper and under surfaces of all formations overlying each other, 
 might for each mass be considered equally distant from the 
 centre of gyration ; while their relative densities, although not 
 as one to two, were sufficiently diverse to cause a difference in 
 their centrifugal impetus, and, according to the above law, 
 would be made to fly further from the axis of the earth, 
 which, in this case, was also that of gyration. 
 
 This, then, is another step towards the termination of our 
 present enquiry; for we have been made aware, that when the 
 globe was made to revolve, there would be unequal centrifugal 
 forces engendered among the several masses constituting the 
 envelope of the spherical earth ; and in order to come to a 
 final conclusion, we have only now to combine it with what 
 was established when we formerly applied the seventy -eighth 
 Theorem, namely, "That the centrifugal force overcame the 
 cohesion among the parts of the earth's outer crust, and caused 
 them to burst asunder, in order to assume the oblate form 
 corresponding to the rotatory motion with which it was im- 
 pressed" For their combination must persuade us, "That in 
 the general movement which took place among the stony masses 
 constituting the earths outer crust, when thus broken up, and 
 unequally impelled from the centre, the undermost or heaviest 
 would be caused to perforate or heave up, if they did not 
 entirely pierce through, the stratified masses which reposed 
 upon them."" 
 
 To this conclusion it is considered we must, of necessity, 
 come, as the legitimate deduction of what has been stated in 
 our preceding argument. 
 
 No doubt, the diverse increments in the centrifugal impetus 
 as zones were nearer to the equator, and the oblique action, in 
 the polar regions, of gravitation upon this newly-engendered 
 force, will together eventually aid in removing the difficulties 
 which, at present, interpose to prevent our accounting satis- 
 factorily as well for the peculiar sweep which the three great 
 continental ridges have assumed, as for the particular lines of 
 
 2 N 2 
 
548 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 direction which mountain chains have taken when they alike 
 rose up at his command, and " stood fast."* The chief diffi- 
 culty in this branch of enquiry consists in our ignorance, as to 
 the way in which the crust of a world should break up when 
 caused to fly asunder by the sudden impetus of protorotation. 
 This, however, would in some degree be obviated, were we to 
 admit, in strict analogy with what other works of the same 
 Omniscient Creator teach us, that deposition, by means of the 
 great luni-solar current, and of animal and vegetable agency, 
 may have been so arranged and carried on, that there were 
 sutural lines prepared parallel to the axis, whose divergence 
 from perfect parallelism, when they became apparent by dehis- 
 cence, was occasioned by the action upon them of the forces 
 engendered by protorotation.f 
 
 It is not our intention, however, to push this particular 
 point any farther ; we merely alluded to it as one with regard 
 to which the Dynamical Theory will be found to lend much 
 assistance ; especially to those who are dedicating profound 
 mathematical reasoning to the solution of the great problem 
 of the inequalities of the earth's outer crust. Fortunately, 
 our general argument can be prosecuted altogether irrespec- 
 tively of this investigation, and we shall, accordingly, proceed 
 with our reasoning. 
 
 * Psalm xxxiii. 9. f Eleventh Theorem. 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF THE LIGHT; THE CONSEQUENT PROTOROTATION OF 
 THE EARTH ; AND ITS DYNAMICAL RESULTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Introductory advertencies. Modification, according to latitudinal zones, of the 
 dynamical influence of the Earth's first diurnal motion. Several distinct 
 effects which proceeded coevally from the centrifugal impetus engendered 
 by protorotation. Evidences of this having taken place after the strati- 
 form masses had been deposited and become indurated, deducible from the 
 diversified surfaces assumed by the terraine and by the aqueous portions of 
 the Earth, as co-results of the same cause. Evidences to the same effect 
 derived from the great continental ridges and oceanic depressions of the 
 globe. And finally, the strong testimony which these geological and geo- 
 graphical manifestations, together with the filling up of the equatorial 
 inequalities with deep and widely-spread masses of travelled, mineral de- 
 bris and earthy matter, bear to the correctness of the Dynamical Theory. 
 
 BEFORE proceeding to trace more circumstantially, the im- 
 portant results emanating from the general convulsion of the 
 earth's rocky frame, in accommodating its masses to the modi- 
 fied form which its protorotation caused it to assume, we con- 
 sider it proper to make the following opportune advertencies. 
 
 The effects, proceeding from the dynamical law which we 
 have been contemplating, are to be considered applicable more 
 especially to points of equal latitudes ; and to hold good with 
 regard to all masses immediately superimposed on each other ; 
 whilst a different and more complex rule requires to be applied, 
 when it is wished to ascertain the comparative results for 
 points of divergent latitudes. In consequence, for example, 
 of parts within 25 of the equator being at much greater rela- 
 tive distances, from the common axis of gyration, than those of 
 
550 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 higher latitudes, and, consequently, falling within the dominion 
 of the second rule of the seventy-third Theorem, a somewhat 
 different effect would take place with regard to them. For, 
 although the circumstances, mentioned in the previous argu- 
 ment, would undoubtedly cause all more weighty rocks to rise 
 up from beneath the incumbent ones of less dense material, 
 at every point along the whole line of axis, except when very 
 near the poles ; it follows, from the observation just made with 
 respect to unequal distances from the centre of gyration, that 
 the violence of protrusion would not only be in proportion to 
 proximity to the equator, but under a parity of circumstances, 
 the whole moveable mass, upper, and under, and all between, 
 would, within the tropical zone, be forced farther from the axis, 
 and thereby caused to form more elevated continents and deeper 
 oceanic hollows. 
 
 The revolution of the earth around its axis having been the 
 cause of innumerable important phenomena, radiating from it as 
 a common centre, they were consequently all undergoing their 
 phases, assuming their forms and states, and speeding to their 
 respective destinations at one and the same period of time ; 
 and, therefore, in order to assimilate the description to the 
 events which took place, they should, were it possible, be all 
 described simultaneously. But as many details require to be 
 gone into, several difficulties to be overcome, evidences to be 
 brought forward, positions laid down, and conclusions drawn 
 from the whole, this rapidity of description, however desirable, 
 cannot be accomplished, for some order of sequence must be 
 observed ; hence the necessity for this advertence, that the 
 mind may be prepared for the unavoidable discrepancy which 
 must, of necessity, take place between the simultaneous rapi- 
 dity of the events themselves, and the unavoidable dilated ex- 
 planation which we are about to attempt of them. For with 
 our circumscribed faculties, we are constrained to submit to 
 sequence in all subjects which engross our attention, even al- 
 though it should be a description of the earth rising, at the 
 command of the Great Creator, from beneath the water which 
 so long had encompassed it ; and, by one vast effort, sending 
 forth enormous mountain chains ; scattering massive boulders 
 and blocks ; forming breccias and conglomerates ; engendering 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 551 
 
 fusion by inconceivable heat of friction ; causing the deposition 
 of extended areas of strata mechanically formed ; and giving 
 birth to an irresistible rush of water from the poles towards 
 the equator ; almost all synchronous, or during the first two 
 days of the Mosaic week. 
 
 If the positions which we have assumed be correct, the deduc- 
 tions hitherto drawn be exact, and the mechanical laws have 
 been properly applied, we should be able to deduce therefrom, 
 that very important transformations necessarily took place in 
 the form and surface of the spherical non-rotating earth, 
 covered, as it was by a circumfluent ocean, when it was first 
 caused to revolve around its axis. 
 
 Hitherto it has been customary to consider that the earth 
 assumed its oblate form, or that which corresponds to rotation, 
 while it was yet in such a state of fluidity as admitted of per- 
 fect mobility amongst its particles ; and thereby became, as is 
 usually expressed, " flattened at the poles, and protuberant in 
 the equatorial regions."* These assertions, however, can be 
 admitted as perfectly correct, provided only that a clear line 
 of distinction be drawn between the Aqueous and the Mine- 
 ral portions of the earth. In the former there was a flattening 
 at the poles ; in the latter there was none. Indeed, one of the 
 most essential dogmas by which the present theory is distin- 
 guished from all others, and by which its truth is hereafter to 
 be tested, consists in the fact, that with respect to the solid 
 materials of the earth) there was no flattening at the poles. 
 This diameter of the globe (for there were then no poles), is 
 considered to have remained as far as the solid materials are 
 concerned the same as when the earth existed in a spherical 
 form before it was impressed with rotation ; the change in 
 diameters, from those of a sphere to its actual spheroidal dimen- 
 sions, having been effected by a decrease in the aqueous por- 
 tion at the poles, and an enlargement of the surface and 
 general diameter in both the solid and aqueous portions around 
 the equatorial regions. 
 
 In order more thoroughly and perfectly to comprehend, 
 
 * Astronomy, by Sir John Herschel ; Connexion of the Sciences, by Mrs. 
 Somerville ; and others. 
 
552 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 what we purpose to state respecting the results which pro- 
 ceeded more immediately from the earth's protorotation, there 
 must beforehand be taken into account, those which would 
 arise from two very distinctly constituted spheres being put 
 into rotatory motion by the same force, namely, one sphere 
 composed of solid matter, and another, a hollow one, of water ; 
 both containing a determinate quantity of matter, the latter 
 being borne on the surface of the former. 
 
 When reasoning with respect to these we may, at once, 
 dispose of the liquid hollow sphere, by conceding what actually 
 took place, namely, that a sudden conflux of its water, from 
 the poles towards the equator, caused this moveable hollow 
 sphere to become flattened at the poles, and protuberant at 
 the equator, by a transfer of its particles from one part to 
 another, in order to complete that perfect form of equilibrium 
 which the ocean alone presents ; while it is to be remembered, 
 that it was enabled to do this merely because the molecules of 
 its mass were so constituted, with regard to each other, as to 
 admit of perfect mobility in all directions, and thereby of their 
 arranging themselves, when the entire mass was accommoda- 
 ting itself to the new form of rotation, so as to adopt a level 
 surface throughout its whole extent.* 
 
 The concession of this point produces spontaneously the 
 following two interesting conclusions: 1st. That the water 
 was then under the same laws as at present, of which more 
 hereafter ; and 2ndly. That had the portions of the earth, now 
 solid, been then in such a state of fluidity, either from aqueous 
 solution or from igneous fusion, as would have admitted of 
 their assuming an oblate form by a transfer of particles, or 
 of becoming in the same manner flattened at the poles, with 
 a corresponding protuberance at the equator, they, likewise, 
 would, in obedience to the laws affecting fluid bodies in revolu- 
 tion, have assumed, at the same time, a perfectly level surface, 
 similar to that adopted by the hollow sphere of water which 
 we have just been contemplating; for they were both subjected 
 to the same centrifugal force in quality and degree. Under 
 these circumstances we can recognise no reason why the 
 
 * In accordance with what is stated in the 89th Theorem. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 553 
 
 mineral portion of the earth should be supposed to have been 
 possessed of sufficient fluidity to admit of its having assumed 
 the spheroidal dimensions by a flattening at the poles, and 
 corresponding protuberance at the equator, while we deny it 
 the adoption of the other consequences which would inevitably 
 have followed from the same degree of fluidity. It is of the 
 utmost importance to be consistent in our opinions, and we 
 shall therefore quote what has been said by scientific writers 
 on the subject we are treating of. In the Cabinet Cyclopae- 
 dia it is stated 
 
 " Indeed, this theorem" (proving the tendency of water to assume 
 and maintain its level) " is nothing more than a manifestation of the 
 tendency of the component parts of every body to fall into the lowest 
 position which the nature of their mutual connexion, and the circum- 
 stances in which they are placed, admit. Mountains do not sink 
 and press up the adjacent valleys, because the strong cohesive prin- 
 ciple which binds together the constituent particles of their masses, 
 and those of the earth beneath them, is opposed to the force of their 
 gravity, and is much more powerful ; but if this cohesion were dis- 
 solved, these great elevations would sink from their lofty eminences, 
 and the intervening valleys would in their turn rise an interchange 
 of form taking place ; and this undulation would continue until the 
 whole mass would attain a state of rest, when no inequality of height 
 would remain. All the inequalities, therefore, observable in the 
 surface of land, are owing to the predominance of the cohesive over 
 the gravitative principle ; the former depriving the earth of the 
 power of transmitting, equally in every direction, the pressure pro- 
 duced by the latter."* 
 
 Whoever, therefore, maintains that the important transfor- 
 mation alluded to occurred while the globe was fluid, will have 
 still to explain, according to his own hypothesis, why the 
 mineral portion did not adopt a perfectly level surface, and 
 undergo a change from a level sphere to a level spheroid. That 
 this did not take place was fortunately and providentially or- 
 dained otherwise ; and we must therefore look to some other 
 source, for a more correct and comprehensive elucidation of 
 
 * Treatise on Hydrostatics, Cab. Cyc. pp. 57, 58. 
 
554 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 the cause whereby it is so differently constituted in its two 
 important elements land and water. 
 
 In doing this we shall commence by assuming the following 
 limiting positions: 1st. That there was not a transfer of solid 
 material from the polar to the equatorial regions, when the 
 change of the earth's form took place, sufficient to effect its 
 transformation into that of equilibrium ;* and Sndly. That 
 assuredly there was an enlargement of the equatorial surface, 
 and its general diameter ;f which two limiting assumptions 
 force us into the conclusion, That only such a transformation 
 of the surface occured as served to fulfil the conditions of the 
 new state to which it was subjected when caused to rotate. As 
 the only change in the form of a spherical body, to which no 
 addition from the polar extremities is made during the process, 
 while an actual enlargement of surface ensues, is that which 
 transforms it into ridges and corresponding hollows, it therefore 
 results, that one of the most prominent effects of the centrifugal 
 impetus upon the earth, constituted as we have supposed it 
 would necessarily be, would transform its surface (enlarging it 
 at the equatorial regions) by the addition of material from 
 within, into immense continental ridges and oceanic hollows, 
 whose direction would, in general, be in lines parallel to the 
 axis of rotation, modified by a variation in the intensity of the 
 elevating force, occasioned by the form of the revolving body ; 
 and whose elevations and depressions would increase in pro- 
 portion as they approached the equatorial regions. 
 
 That this is the form which its surface has assumed, we shall 
 
 * When we say " there was not a transfer of solid material took place," we 
 do not mean these terms to he an unqualified negative ; for we shall have to 
 show, in the sequel of this discourse, that there was a vast quantity of loose 
 material home by the conflux of the water from the poles to the equator, which 
 filled up the rude and deep acclivities of these regions. But this did not in any 
 manner contribute to produce the outline form of equilibrium, although it served 
 to round it off, and render it more productive and habitable. It is in this latter 
 sense merely, that of the general outline, that the expressions above used are 
 designed to be negative. AUTHOR. 
 
 t We are obliged to use these qualified expressions from the belief, that there 
 are parts of the earth's equatorial regions now covered by the ocean, which, if 
 estimated from the solid surface of the antipodes, would, perhaps, be found to 
 measure less than the polar diameter. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 555 
 
 call in the aid of the eleventh Theorem satisfactorily to prove. 
 It is therein stated, "That on taking a general view of the great 
 geographical outlines of the world, it is seen to be divided, in 
 directions nearly parallel to its axis of rotation, into three 
 great continental ridges, namely, that of North and South 
 America, with the intervening archiepelago ; 2nd, Europe and 
 Africa ; and 3rd, Asia and New Holland, with the Polynesia, 
 which intervene. That there is a remarkable similitude in the 
 general contour of these three great divisions, especially 
 between the first and the last, seeming to indicate that their 
 form is due to a common cause. And that within the equa- 
 torial zone are situated the most extensive table lands, and the 
 greatest number of islands." While we refer to any geogra- 
 phical map for the correctness of what is stated in that Theorem. 
 
 Besides the evidences arising from the outline form of the 
 great continental ridges, there are likewise satisfactory proofs 
 discoverable in favour of this part of the dynamical theory, in 
 the relative position of the component rocky masses themselves, 
 as will be seen by perusing the twenty-eighth Theorem, which 
 states, " That it is not only the greater geographical height of 
 the inter-tropical mountains which denotes the presence of a 
 comparatively increased force in the regions where they are 
 elevated, but their geological structure corroborates the same 
 assumption. For, { rocks similar to those which constitute the 
 ridge of Jura in the Alps, are found to occupy the plains of 
 England; and basalts which repose on the granites of the 
 Andes are discoverable beneath the limestone of Skye.' "* 
 
 On a retrospective view of what has been said with regard 
 to the change which took place " in the twinkling of an eye," 
 as it were, in the form of the earth, from a non-rotating sphere 
 to a spheroid of rotation, perhaps no evidence could be adduced 
 which militates more against the conceptions, hitherto enter- 
 tained, of its having assumed the oblate form while in a fluid 
 state, than the circumstance of there actually having been two 
 spheres, the one fluid, the other rigid, superimposed on each 
 other, and subjected simultaneously to the same impetus. For 
 this remarkable coincidence leaves the theories, which are 
 
 * Geology, by Dr. M'Culloch, vol. i. p. 8. 
 
556 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 formed on the supposition of fluidity, without the shadow of a 
 foundation ; it brings them to the touchstone at once, and re- 
 veals their unsoundness, by furnishing us with an example in 
 which one of the spheres being fluid, in accommodating itself 
 to the change, has not adopted a surface of undulating eleva- 
 tions and depressions, but moving on the face of the more rigid 
 mineral sphere, has arranged itself in perfect horizontality : 
 and unless it can be proved (but what no one will ever attempt 
 to do), that the impelling force applied to the aqueous portion 
 was different from what was exerted on the mineral mass, we 
 must look to some other source for the cause of the differences 
 of form and surface which, under similar circumstances, they 
 have assumed ; a difference only to be accounted for by admit- 
 ting what was in reality the case, that the one was liquid, and 
 obeyed the laws which govern matter in that state, while the 
 other was so far rigid, that although the cohesion among its 
 parts was overcome to a certain extent by the centrifugal im- 
 petus, yet it impeded the transmission of sufficient mineral 
 matter from the poles to the equator to Jill up the perfect form 
 of rotation, and to round it off into a revolving spheroid of 
 level surface. 
 
 A few moments of reflection will convince any one that the 
 diversity observed by these two spheres the outer pliant and 
 moving like an elastic ring upon the other, while the mineral 
 one remained invariable in polar diameter was wisely ordained 
 by the Creator, in order to form those open cavities, or hollows, 
 destined to confine the water when " it rushed forth as from 
 the womb," and to separate it from " the dry land ;" likewise 
 to adorn the earth with that charming diversity of land and 
 ocean, hill and dale, river and lake, which render it so fit an 
 abode for those creatures for whom it was prepared. The 
 theatre, alas ! of all their ingratitude for the wisdom, good- 
 ness, and power which were lavished in preparing it for them ! 
 
 During the whole course of our reading we have never met 
 with any attempt, to explain the origin of the continental 
 ridges and oceanic hollows into which the earth's surface is so 
 prominently undulated. These appear either to have been 
 looked upon as necessary parts in the form of a world, or to 
 be entirely beyond the limits of geology. Whether they 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 557 
 
 should form a part of that pleasing and instructive study we 
 shall not at present stop to enquire ; but we certainly think 
 they should not have been overlooked in any treatise having 
 for its object to account for the formation of the earth. They 
 are very prominent features on its surface, and should there- 
 fore occupy a corresponding place in all cosmographical trea- 
 tises ; while we may very safely venture to affirm, that they 
 could not be in existence without having had an adequate cause. 
 We offer this explanation, therefore, to our readers, as an 
 additional feature in favour of the dynamical theory, which 
 not only does not shrink from nor overlook them, but would 
 not be true if these immense elevations and cavities did not 
 exist. They are the necessary consequences, of the earth having 
 been caused to rotate, AFTER the greater part of its stratified 
 material had been deposited in concentric layers upon its sub- 
 marine surface, and of the existence of the watery envelope 
 which everywhere surrounded the non-rotating sphere. 
 
 It is likewise presumed that the prevalences of islands within 
 the equatorial zone, as noticed in the eleventh Theorem, is 
 another proof of the correctness of the dynamical theory. 
 Islands are the apici of submerged mountains, and evince at 
 one and the same time the increase of the centrifugal impetus 
 in those regions, and conflux of the water thither from the 
 poles. Behold the wisdom and the goodness of this binary 
 arrangement I Had the former not taken place with sufficient 
 force to have thrown up these mountains, the equatorial por- 
 tion of the globe would have been an unbroken, wearisome 
 waste of water a liquid, unproductive zone ! On the other 
 hand, had the latter been wanting, it would have been a rugged 
 and impassable girdle of arid mountains. But by the mani- 
 fold wisdom of the Creator, and the fitness of his arrangements, 
 it is not lost to usefulness, either by the one extreme or the 
 other, their harmonious combination rendering it easy of ac- 
 cess, fruitful in soil, and salubrious in climate, from the miti- 
 gated rays of the tropical sun by the abounding water, which 
 likewise facilitates the communication from zone to zone, and 
 from hemisphere to hemisphere. 
 
 It must have appeared obvious to the reader, by what has 
 hitherto been said, with respect to the great continental ridges, 
 
558 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 that they have been treated of in general terms, and pre- 
 sented to the view as mere outlines a rude mineral skeleton 
 of towering peaks and sharp acclivities, such as might be con- 
 ceived to arise, when one mass of bare rock was caused to per- 
 forate another by the violence of the centrifugal impetus, but 
 not yet filled up, or rounded off, by the deposition of the im- 
 mense mass of debris spoken of in the thirty -second Theorem. 
 The process by which this transformation was effected, and 
 this part of the earth became a fitter habitation for man and 
 the terrestrial animals, will be fully explained when we close 
 in upon the subject, and treat it in a more definite manner, 
 with reference to stratified masses superimposed on the unstra- 
 tified ones in a determinate order, subjected alike to a force 
 of known rate and direction, capable of dislodging both from 
 their recumbent posture. Then it will be recognised, that 
 there was a mass of debris spread abroad, which can only be 
 accounted for by supposing that it went to fill up rocky hollows 
 such as we have been contemplating; while it will be our 
 care to explain how great a proportion of it was swept by the 
 rush of the polar water to the equatorial regions, and being 
 there spread abroad upon its rugged and rocky surface, how 
 it conduced to round it off, and to render it more habitable. 
 
 In further confirmation of this view of the case we would, 
 without going into particulars, which we shall have to do pre- 
 sently, generally observe, that denudation is a geological fea- 
 ture, which writers in that science have occasion to insist 
 much upon, when they are describing formations in high and 
 even moderate latitudes, such as those of our own country, 
 MM. de la Beche's, Phillips's, and Lyell's respective works 
 abounding with passages descriptive of the effects of denuda- 
 tion by water ; when the same writers, however, have to direct 
 the attention of those whom they are instructing to the regions 
 within the tropics, and near to the equator, they require to 
 bring forward evidences of vast accumulations of water-borne 
 stratified material which have filled up hollows and rounded off 
 sharp acclivities amongst widely extended table lands. For 
 example, the description given by the former,* from the writings 
 
 * Manual of Geology, pp. 409 412. 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 559 
 
 of Humboldt, of those of Mexico and New Grenada, and the 
 more recent and admirable description, by Mr. Lyell, of the 
 valley of the Mississippi, all of which, and especially the con- 
 trast which they present, between the leading developments of 
 these two divergent regions of geological research, are precisely 
 in keeping with what we had reason to expect as the effects of 
 the centrifugal impetus and the rush of water from the poles 
 towards the equator, which took place on the protorotation of 
 the earth ; while the denudation in the higher latitudes, and 
 the corresponding deposits in the tropical regions, afford the 
 most conclusive evidence that the waters did not return; but 
 having carried their earthy load and deposited it where they 
 came to rest, by assuming their static form of rotation, they 
 were there constrained for ever afterwards to remain, and to 
 produce those desirable and needful effects to which we alluded 
 above. It should be noticed, at the same time, that this re- 
 sult would be accomplished by a transference of waters from 
 the polar extremities in quantity corresponding to a depth of 
 about 6J miles, or half the excess of equatorial radii over those 
 corresponding to the earth's other two semi-diameters. 
 
 We confess ourselves incapable of determining, by reasoning 
 a priori) whether the number of three great outline ridges 
 into which the earth is divided be that into which a world 
 such as ours in dimensions, geological structure, and impelled 
 by an angular velocity of 15 per hour, ought, from secondary 
 causes, to have been broken up. This interesting problem may 
 probably form the subject of future investigations, and we 
 doubt not, as we have already surmised, but that it will then 
 be found to have been the result of secondary causes. We are 
 convinced, that all things were previously disposed so as to 
 enable the terraqueous globe to assume its present tripartite 
 continental divisions, with their respective accompaniments, as 
 the necessary results of secondary causes, themselves the effects 
 of immediate causes emanating from the Omnipotent Creator 
 of all, " without whom was not anything made that is created 
 and made." 
 
 Proceeding with our argument we must remind the reader, 
 that in a former part of this section it was laid down as an as- 
 certained data, that the consecutive layers of rock which formed 
 
560 DYNAMICAL THEORY OF THE 
 
 the outer crust of the non-rotating sub-marine earth, increased 
 in density as they receded from the surface. Also, that the 
 distance of the upper and under surfaces of the stratified 
 envelope might, for all practical purposes, be considered equi- 
 distant from the centre of gyration. To the geological pheno- 
 mena, circumstanced as we have thus stated, we shall now en- 
 deavour to apply the last clause of the seventy -third Theorem, 
 wherein it is asserted " That all other circumstances being 
 equal, ' the centrifugal force increases as the mass of the moving 
 body increases.' " 
 
 If we conceive the deposited strata, at the bottom of the ori- 
 ginal ocean, to have been lying horizontally, in a determinate 
 order of superposition, at the time when the above law was 
 brought into exercise by the rotation of the earth around its 
 axis, whereby centrifugal impetus was impressed alike upon 
 all the rocky masses of its terraine crust ; it will appear obvious 
 that, when they started from their recumbent postures to 
 assume their respective places in the new order of things which 
 was to follow, when the transformation from a sphere to a 
 speroid took place ; the heaviest all other circumstances 
 being equal would be caused to fly farthest from the centre 
 of gyration, " the centrifugal force increasing as the mass of the 
 moving body increases." 
 
 From what has already been explained, we have seen that 
 the undermost were the heaviest; consequently, in obeying the 
 new law thus impressed upon them, they might either have 
 perforated the stratified rocks above, and thrust their rugged 
 and pointed summits, in towering grandeur, above all around 
 them : the superincumbent stratifications, from being also im- 
 pressed with centrifugal impetus, and possessing considerable 
 molecular cohesion, might have resisted the perforating action 
 of the inferior masses, and the whole group have swelled out 
 into a mountain form, with summits capped by stratified mate- 
 rial, in disjointed massive blocks suitable to the enlargement 
 of superfice which together they had undergone ; or, lastly, a 
 modification of these extreme cases might have taken place, 
 and the unstratified rocks, while they partially perforated the 
 strata, might have forced other parts of them into elevations 
 along with themselves, assisted by the centrifugal impetus im- 
 
FORMATION OF THE EARTH. 561 
 
 parted to the accompanying ' strata ; in which case, the apici 
 of the mountain would consist of amorphous rock, presenting 
 high pointed peaks, with shoulders and flanks, composed of 
 those stratified materials which accompanied the nucleii to a 
 certain extent in their rise from horizontality. And, finally, 
 as the strata were elevated by the impetus of underlying masses, 
 which, in moving from below upwards, assumed a pyramidal 
 form, they would be raised to the greatest elevations, and into 
 positions approaching nearer to verticality in proportion to the 
 priority of their deposition, or their inferiority in the order of 
 stratification. 
 
 According to these views it is obvious, that diversified effects 
 would ensue from the application of the centrifugal force to a 
 sphere of such complex structure. The continental elevations 
 and oceanic hollows, together with the general form of equili- 
 brium, may be considered as the principal results the greatest 
 change of relative position to which its rocky masses were 
 subjected. Mountains and valleys, more dependant on the 
 nature of the masses immediately overlying each other, and on 
 their latitudinal situation, would be brought forth indiscrimi- 
 nately on the surface of continents, or on that of the ocean 
 beds ; while these, in turn, would become studded over with 
 lesser inequalities, from the unequal densities of their compo- 
 nent elements, and other influences of a more local character. 
 Thus we have one general cause, the first rotation of the earth 
 around its axis, modified by the nature and situation of the 
 materials on which it was made to act, employed by the hand 
 of the Creator, in a moment of time, to change that which was 
 "without form and void" into a world of infinite variety of 
 surface, admirably adapted to fulfil the chief design of its 
 creation : a richly adorned pedestal on which myriads of crea- 
 tures, of widely diversified habits, are nurtured and reproduced 
 in almost endless succession, " each after his kind," and de- 
 signed to glorify him, who, in wondrous wisdom, made them all ; 
 while they are wheeled so smoothly through space as to have 
 required the intellectual labours of generations of astronomers, 
 to convince the human race, that the planet they inhabit is not 
 absolutely immovable in the clear blue vault of heaven. And 
 now, most probably, it may prove as arduous an undertaking 
 
 2 o 
 
562 DYNAMICAL THEORY. 
 
 to convince their descendants, that what their forefathers 
 wrongfully maintained as an immutable law of the system, even 
 to the persecution of those who asserted to the contrary, was 
 once actually the case, and that the revolving globe, on which 
 they stand, has passed through a period of non-rotation so pro- 
 tracted as to warrant the surmise, that it may have exceeded 
 even that of its known diurnal motion. 
 
 END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. 
 
 PRINTED BY W. H. CROCKFORD, GREENWICH. 
 


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