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iMSi t\©i i'^i ftei
r
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
■9
f
SOLD B
>?■ PRE£ "■ '-"y"^ % '2C5i
ROYAL CO XEQ-r OP SUR'*
L, : i^
#ral)e-m0intii5 iwih i\m Contents:
A MANUAL OF ARCHEOLOGY,
AS EXEMPLIFIED IN THE
BURIALS OF THE CELTIC, THE ROMANO-BRITISH, AND
THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIODS.
LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A.,
Mii}^ raadg i'lbt futtkctr Illustrations,
LONDON :
GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS,
5, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1870.
TO
MY OLD AND MUCH-ESTEEMED FRIEND,
JOSEPH MAYER, Esq.,
FELLOW OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF LONDON ;
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NORTHERN ANTIQUARIES
OF COPENHAGEN ;
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY;
MEMBER OF THE SOCIETIES OF ANTIQUARIES OF
FRANCE, NORMANDY, THE MORINI,
ETC., ETC., ETC. ;
ONE OF THE MOST ARDENT AND ZEALOUS OF ARCH^OLOGISTS,
AND MOST KINDLY OF MEN;
THE PRINCELY DONOR TO THE PUBLIC
OF THE FINEST AND MOST EXTENSIVE
MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITIES
EVER COLLECTED TOGETHER BY A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL;
I, WITH TRUE PLEASURE,
LLEWELLYNN JEWITT.
62SSi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
Page
Grave-mounds in general— Their Historical Importance — General
Situation — Known as Barrows, Houes, Tumps, and Lows —
List of Names — Division into Periods . . . . i
CHAPTER n.
Ancient British or Celtic Period — General characteristics of the
Barrows — Modes of construction — Interments by inhumation
and by cremation — Positions of the Body — Hitter Hill Bar-
row — Elliptical Barrow at Swinscoe — Burial in contracted
position — In sitting and kneeling positions — Double Inter-
ments ........ 6
CHAPTER in.
Ancient British or Celtic Period — Interment by cremation — Dis-
covery of lead— Burial in Urns — Positions of Urns — Heaps of
burnt Bones^Burnt Bones enclosed in cloth and skins — Stone
Cists — Long-Low — Liff's-Low, etc. — Pit Interments — Tree-
coffins . . . . . . . -31
CHAPTER IV.
Ancient British or Celtic Period — Sepulchral Chambers of Stone —
Cromlechs — Chambered Tumuli — New Grange and Dowth —
The Channel Islands— Wieland Smith's Cave, and others —
Stone Circles — For what purpose formed — Formation of Grave-
mounds — Varieties of Stone Circles — Examples of different
kinds — Arbor-Low, etc. . . . . . -50
viii CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V.
Pa£e
Ancient British or Celtic Period— Pottery— Mode of manufacture-
Arrangement in classes — Cinerary or Sepulchral Urns — Food
Vessels— Drinking-cups— Incense Cups— Probably Sepulchral
Urns for Infants— Other examples of Pottery . . .83
CHAPTER VI.
Ancient British or Celtic Period — Implements of Stone — Celts —
Stone Hammers — Stone Hatchets, Mauls, etc. — Triturating
Stones — Flint Implements — Classification of Flints — Jet arti-
cles — Necklaces, Studs, ttc. — Bone Instruments — Bronze
Celts, Daggers, etc. — Gold articles .... 109
CHAPTER Vn.
Romano-British Period — General Characteristics — Modes of Burial
— Customs attendant on Burial— Interments by cremation and
by inhumation — Barrows — Tombs of Stone — Lead Coffins —
Clay and Tile Coffins — Sepulchral Inscriptions, etc. . . 134
CHAPTER Vni.
Romano-British Period — Pottery — Durobrivian Ware — Upchurch
Ware — Salopian Ware — Pottery found at Uriconium — Potteries
of the New Forest, of Yorkshire, and of other places— Sepul-
chral Urns — Domestic and other vessels . . . 151
CHAPTER IX.
Romano-British Period— Pottery— Samian Ware— Potters' Stamps
—Varieties of Ornamentation — Glass Vessels— Sepulchral
Vases, etc. — Lachrymatories — Bowls — Beads — Coins found
with Interments .
175
CHAPTER X.
Romano-British Period— Arms — Swords — Spears, etc. — Knives-
Fibulae- Armillas- Torques of Gold, etc. — Other Personal
Ornaments .
igo
CONTENTS. IX
CHAPTER XI.
Page
Anglo-Saxon Period— Distribution of Anglo-Saxon Population over
England— General characteristics of Grave-mounds— Modes of
Burial— Poem of Beowulf— Interments by cremation and by
inhumation— Articles deposited with the Dead— Positions of
the Body— Double and other Interments— Burial in Urns—
Cemeteries and Barrows ,..••• 202
CHAPTER XH.
Anglo-Saxon Period— Pottery, general characteristics of— Cinerary
Urns— Saxon Urn with Roman Inscription— Prankish and other
Urns— Cemeteries at Kings Newton, etc.— Mode of manufac-
ture — Impressed Ornaments . . . . • 214
CHAPTER Xni.
Anglo-Saxon Period— Glass Vessels— Drinking-glasses— Tumblers
—Ale-glasses— Beads— Necklaces— Ear-rings— Coins, etc. . 22S
CHAPTER XIV.
Anglo-Saxon Period — Arms — Swords — Knives— Spears — Shields —
Umbones of Shields— Buckles— Helmets— Benty-Grange Tu-
mulus — The Sacred Boar — Grave at Barlaston — Enamelled
Discs and pendant Ornaments, etc. — Horse-shoes . • 236
CHAPTER XV.
Anglo-Saxon Period — Fibulae — Enamelled circular Fibulae — Gold
Fibulffi — Pendant Cross — Cruciform Fibulae — Penannular Fibu-
la — Irish and English examples — -Pendant Ornaments, etc. . 266
CHAPTER XVI.
Anglo-Saxon Period — Buckets — Drinking-cups of wood — Bronze
Bowls — Bronze Boxes — Combs — Tweezers — Chatelaines —
Girdle Ornaments — Keys — Hair-pins — Counters, or Draught-
men, and Dice— Querns— Triturating Stones, etc.— Conclusion 280
I
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
ANCIENT BRITISH OR CELTIC PERIOD.
Fig.
Gib Hill Tumulus. (Frontispiece.)
2 Section of Grave-mound, Lord's Down, Dewlish, Dorset
3 „ ,, Gib Hill, Derbyshire
4 ,, ,, with two modes of interment by
cremation .
5 ,, ,, with inverted urn
6 Interment, Smerril Moor
7 ,, Tissington
8 ,, Roundway Hill
9 „ Hitter Hill
10 Plan of Barrow, showing interments, Hitter Hill
11 Interments, Hitter Hill
12 „ Hitter Hill
J3 Skull, Hitter Hill
14 Plan, with interments, Swinscoe
15 Interment, sitting position, Parcelly Hay
16 ,, ,, Monsal Dale
17 Plan of Barrow, with interments, Monsal Dale
18 ,, ,, Cressbrook
19 Section of Barrow
20 Stone Cist, Baslow Moor
21 Section of Barrow
22 Inverted Urn, with burnt bones, Wardlow
23 Plan of Long-Low
24 Stone Cist, Long-Low
25 ~
26
Skull, Long-Low
Page
8
9
10
10
12
13
14
15
17
23
26
28
29
30
32
33
33
34
36
38
39
Xll
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
27 Mode of construction, Long-Low
28 Stone Cist, Middleton Moor
29 ,, Liff's-Low
30 „ Gib Hill .
31 Portion of woollen garment, Scale House
^^ - Tree-coffin, Gristhorpe
33 J
34 Dagger, etc., Gristhorpe
35 Flint, etc., Gristhorpe
36 Tree-coffin, boat shape
37 Cromlech, Lanyon
38 ,, ,, plan
39 M Chun
40 „ ,, plan
41 ,, Plas Newydd
42 Minning-Low, plan
43 New Grange, general view
44 ,, entrance to passage
45 Dowth, general view
46 ,, entrance to passage
47 Cromlech, Knockeen
48 „ „ plan
49 ,, Gaulstown
50 ,, „ plan
51 ,, Ballynageerah
52
53 „ „ plan
54 ,, L'Ancresse
55 Chambered Tumulus, Gavr Innis, south entrance
56 „ „ opening in north
57 „ ,, plan of chamber
58 ,, ,, carved stones
59
60
61
62 „ Stony Littleton
63 » „ plan
64 „ Five Wells, Taddington
65 ,. „ „ plan
66 Flax Dale Barrow, plan
67 Section, Elk-Low
68 Stone Circle, " Nine Ladies," Stanton Moor
69
plan
chamber
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Xlll
Fig.
Page
70 Stone Circle, construction of .
75
71
, Sancreed
• 76
72
• 76
73
Isle c
f Man
• 76
74
, Trewavas Head .
77
75
, Mule
Hill
77
76
Chan
nel Islands .
• 78
77
, with
" twin barrow "
78
78
) M
„
79
79
, construction
79
80
, Boscawen-un . . .
80
81
Aber
.
80
82
, Berriew ....
81
83
, Penmeanmaur
81
84
, Arbor-Low, Derbyshire
82
85 Potter
y — fragment
Darwen
86
86
Cinerary
Urn, Monsal Dale
• 87
87 „
,,
Ballidon Moor
88
88
,,
,, nj situ
88
89 „
,,
Trentham
. 89
90
,,
Darwen .
90
91
,,
Dorsetshire
91
92
,,
>>
91
93
M
Darley Dale
92
94
,,
Stone
93
95
,,
Cleatham
93
96 „
,,
M
93
97
,,
Calais Wold, Yorkshire
94
98 „
,,
Darley Dale
95
99
,,
Tredinney
96
ICO ,,
,,
Morvah
96
lOI ,,
Food vessel, Trentham
97
102 ,,
,,
Fimber . . , .
98
103
,,
Hitter Hill
98
104 ,,
,,
I) . . .
99
105
,,
Monsal Dale
100
106 „
,,
Fimber . . . .
100
107
Drinking-
cup, Fimber
102
108
>>
Hay Top, Monsal Dale
102
109 ,,
,,
Grind-Low
102
no ,,
,,
Elk-Low
103
III „
)»
„ bottom .
104
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
Page
112 Pottery — Drinking-cup, Roundway Hill
104
113 ,, ,, Gospel Hillock
105
114 „ Incense cup, Yorkshire
106
115
106
116
ij
106
117
> >>
106
118
) 11
106
rT9
I t>
106
120 ,,
, Dorsetshire
io5
121 ,,
, Yorkshire
106
122
, Stanton Moor
107
123
,, Baslow
107
124 ,,
, Dorsetshire
107
125
, Darley Dale
107
126 „ Handled vessel, Yorkshire
108
127^
128
129
■ Stone celts, Royal Irish Academy
no
130
131/
132 Stone celt, Derbyshire example
no
133 Stone hammer-head, Wollaton
.
III
134 Stone celt, Derbyshire example .
112
135 Stone hammer-head, Winster .
.
112
136 „ Cambridgeshire
112
137 ,, Trentham
112
138 ,, Dorsetshire
.
113
139]
140 ■ Stone mauls, Royal Irish Academy
"3
141 J
142 Stone hammer-head, Mickleover
.
"3
143) _ .
■ Trituratmg stones .
^44 J
.
114
145 Spindle whorl
"5
i46\
147
148
149
150
Flint arrow-heads, Greenlow and other places in Derbyshire
116
151
152
153 y
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS,
XV
Fig.
Page
154 Flint,
Green-Low
117
155 "
Arbor-Low
118
156 „
Calais Wold
119
157 '.
„
119
158 „
Gunthorpe
119
159 ..
Ringham-Low
119
160 ,,
Calais Wold
119
i6i „
»>
.
119
l62y
163^
164
165
166
"
Derbyshire examples . . . 120 — 122
I67
168
169/
170 Flint c
elt. Gospel Hillock .... 122
171 Necklace of jet, Middleton Moor
123
172
jet and bone
124
173
jet, Fimber
125
174 Jet sti]
ds. Gospel Hillock
126
175
Calais Wold
126
176 Jet pendant, Derbyshire
126
177 Bone implement, Green-Low
. 126
178)
179
i8o
,, Thors Cave, etc. . • . 127
181
182 Bone
)endant, Arbor-Low .... 127
183 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy
. 128
184
< >>
. 129
185
1
129
186
, ,,
. 129
187
, Moot-Low
129
188
, Royal Irish Academy
• 131
189
> t)
• 131
190 ,
< i<
• 131
191
.
• 131
192
« M
• 131
193
,
• 131
194
> ..
• 131
195
> .>
• 131
XVI
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
fig-
Page
ig6 Bronze celt, Royal Irish Academy
• 131
197 Bronze socketed celt, Kirk Ireton
• 131
198 Bronze dagger, Bottisham
132
199 Coin, Mount Batten .
133
200 ,, ,,
133
201 ,, ,,
133
202 ., „
133
203 ,, „
133
204 ,, Birkhill
133
205 ,, Blandford
133
206
207
208
2og
210
211
212
213
214
2I5>
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
ROMANO-BRITISH PERIOD.
Cist of stone, York
Leaden coffin, Colchester
,, Bishopstoke
Clay coffin, Aldborough
Chest of stone, with pottery, etc., Avisford
Tomb of tiles, York .
Potter's kiln, Castor .
- Pottery, Headington
,, Durobrivian ware, scroll ornaments
hare hunting
stag hunting
indented urn
cup .
indented urn
Upchurch ware, group of vessels
,, urn
Salopian ware, group of vessels
group, Headington
Sepulchral Urn, Toot Hill
144
144
145
145
147
148
152
154
155
157
157
157
157
158
158
158
158
159
161
161
161
161
163
164
166
167
167
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
XVI 1
Fig.
235 Pottery, Sepulchral Urn, Little Chester
Leicester
Little Chester
London
Water Newton
London
Leicester
Winchester
Castor
Water Newton
Castor
Castor
London
236
237
238
239
240 ,, ,,
241 ,, „
242 ,, ,,
243
244
245
246 ,, ,,
247
248
249
250 ,, Amphora
251
252
253
254
255
256
357
258
259 \
360
261
262
263
264
265
266/
267 ,, Samian ware, cup, Leicester
268 to 275 Potters' marks
276 Potters' stamp
277 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, London
278 ,, ,, ,, Arezzo
279
280 ,, ,, ,, London
281 „ „ „ ,,
282 ,, ,, patera „
283 ,, ,, foliage
Mortarium ,
group, Headington
Headington
various localities
Page
168
168
169
169
169
170
170
170
170
170
170
170
17c
171
171
172
172
172
172
171
173
173
173
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
179
179
180
180
181
xvm
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
284 Pottery, Samian ware, bowl, Castor
285 „ „ bacchanalian scene
286 „ „ bowl, Castor
287 „ ,, ,, Cologne
288 to 2gi ,, cups, etc., London
292 Glass, sepulchral vessel, Bartlow Hills .
293 ,, bowl, Leicester
294 to 297 Glass beads
298 Glass beads, etc.
299 Sword, Lough Lea
300 ,, Lincolnshire .
301 Spear or lance-head. Little Chester
302 „ ,, Haushay .
303 ,, ,, Wardlow .
304 Arrow-head, bronze
305 Knife
306 ,, Wetton
307 Fibula, Waleby
308 ,, Elton
309 „ Monsal Dale
310 to 315 Fibula, various localities
316 Fibula, Royal Irish Academy .
317 ,, Little Chester
318 ,, Bottisham
319 ,, Elton
320 ,, Hoylake
321 Armillae, Stony Middleton
322 Torques, Needwood Forest
323 ,, Royal Irish Academy .
324 Horse-shoe, lamp, and fibula. Gloucester
Page
182
182
183
183
184
185
186
186
187
191
191
190
190
192
192
192
193
194
194
194
194
194
194
195
195
195
196
198
199
201
ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD.
325 Flai
1 01 interment, Lapwmg Dale
209
326 Pottery, Cinerary Urns, Kingston
215
327
, „ North Elmham .
217
328
, ,, Chestersovers
217
329
, drinking vessel
217
330
, Cinerary Urns, Selzen.
221
331
, ,, Londinieres
221
332
, ,, Selzen .
221
333
, ,, Londinieres
221
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
XIX
Fig,
334 Pottery, Cinerary Urn, Cologne
Pfahlbau
335
i> )>
336
»1 n
337
M M
338
H 11
339
„
340
„
341
•-, 1>
342
„
343
)1 '>
344
,-, M
345
„ >1
346
„
347
11 11
348
11 )»
349
,, notched stick
350
11
351
,, punctured orn
352
,, cup, Kings N(
Kings Newton
353i 354i 355 Glass tumblers
356, 357 Ale-glasses
358 Glass cups .
359 Cup-bearer, with ale-g!ass
360 Cellarer, with barrels and pitchers
361 Banquet
362, 363 Glasses, decanter shape
364, 365, 366 Ale-glasses .
367, 36S, 369 Glass and clay beads .
370 Glass and amber necklace
371
Bead and ring
372 Sword, Tissington
373 ,, Grimthorpe
374 .. .. guard
375 1. " chape
376 to 390 Swords, from illuminated MSS.
391 Swordsman with shield and sword
392 to 396 Knives or daggers, Kentish graves
397 to 403 Spear-heads, Kentish graves, etc.
404 Spears, from illuminated MSS.
405 Shield plates, etc., Grimthorpe .
406 Umbone of shield, Kentish graves
407 „ ,1
Page
221
223
223
223
223
222
222
224
224
224
225
225
225
226
226
227
227
227
227
229
22g
229
230
230
231
231
232
233
234
235
237
237
237
237
239
240
242
244
244
246
247
247
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
408
409
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
Umbone of shield, Tissington .
to 416 Shields, from iHuminated MSS
to 428 Buckles, from Kentish graves
Drinking-cup, Benty Grange
Enamelled ornaments, etc., Benty Grange
Helmet, Benty Grange
Ornaments, Benty Grange
Plan of interment, Barlaston
Bronze ring, Barlaston
Enamelled disc, Barlaston
,, ,, Middleton Moor
„ ornament, Middleton Moor
„ ,, Royal Irish Academy
Bronze disc and rivets, Grimthorpe
Horse-shoe, Berkshire
Plan of interment, Rhine
Fibula, Kingston Down
,, Winster Moor
Pendant cross, Winster Moor
Fibula, Sittingbourne .
,, Wingham
„ Kent
,, Stowe Heath
,, Ingarsby
,, Northamptonshire
„ Stow Heath
,, Royal Irish Academy
,, Westmoreland
,, Bonsall
,, Westmoreland
Bucket, Northamptonshire
,, Fairford
,, Envermeu
Drinking-cup, Sibertswold
Bronze bowl, Over-Haddon
„ box, etc.. Church Sterndale
,, ornament, ,,
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
Page
468 Bronze box, Newhaven .... 286
469 Comb, Royal Irish Academy
287
470 ,, Kent
287
471 ,, Thames
288
472 ,, Arica
288
473 ..
288
474 ,, Indian scalp
288
475 ,, Tweezers, Leicestershire
289
476 Chatelaines, Kent
290
477 Latch-keys (?) Ozengall
291
478 Girdle suspenders, Wilbraham
291
479 ,, Searby
291
480 Hair-pin, Searby
292
481 ,, Royal Irish Academy
292
482 „
292
483
292
484 Draughtmen, Cold Eaton
294
485 Dice, Gilton
295
486 Quern, Winster
• 295
487 ,, Kings Newton .
296
488 Triturating stones
296
489
296
INTRODUCTION.
The object of the following work is, I apprehend, so
obvious as to render an introduction scarcely needful. It
may be well, however, to remark, that it is the only work
of its kind which has ever been issued, and that therefore,
taking a stand of its own, and following no other either
in plan or treatment of its subject, it is hoped that it will
command the attention of antiquaries and of all who are
interested in the history and the manners and habits of
our early forefathers.
It has long appeared to me that a general resume ot
the almost endless store of knowledge presented by the
very varied relics of the grave-mounds of the three
great divisions of our history — the Celtic, the Romano-
British, and the Anglo-Saxon — kept distinct from the
histories of those peoples, and from extraneous matters,
and treating them more in a general than in an ethnolo-
gical manner, could not fail to be a useful addition to our
archaeological literature, and would prove of great value
and convenience to the general reader, as well as to the
antiquary and the historian. Thus it is that I have been
induced to prepare the present volume.
xxiv INTRODUCTION. *
I have treated my subject in a popular manner, divest-
ing it of technicalities, of theories, and of discursive mat-
ter, and have endeavoured, as far as space would permit,
to give, simply and clearly, as correct an insight as pos-
sible into the modes of burial adopted in early times in
our own country, and into the various remains of different
races v/hich an examination of their grave-mounds dis-
closes.
Having great faith ip the usefulness of engravings, and
believing that, if judiciously introduced, a work of the
kind cannot be too profusely illustrated, I have brought
together in my present volume a larger number of en-
gravings than could well have been expected ; and these,
I trust, will add much to its usefulness and value. To all
my kind friends who have aided me in this matter I give
my hearty thanks.
The work may have some, perhaps many, defects. If
such exist, I shall be thankful to have them pointed out,
and to remedy them in a future edition.
LLEWELLYNN JEW ITT.
WiNSTER Hall,
Derbyshire.
^rabt-moimtrs n;ntr tljtir €mxtmt$.
CHAPTER I.
Grave-mounds in General — Their Historical Importance — General Situ-
ation — Known as Barrows, Houes, Tumps, and Lows — List of Names
— Division into Periods.
npO the grave-mounds of the early inhabitants of our
island, more than to any other source, we are indebted
for our knowledge of their arts, their habits, and their occu-
pations. Indeed, to these mounds and their contents, we
owe almost all the knowledge we possess as to the his-
tory of the races and peoples who have preceded us, and
are enabled to determine, approximately, their chrono-
logical succession as masters of the soil.
From the very earliest ages men of every race have be-
stowed peculiar care over the graves of the dead, and
have marked to later ages, in an unmistakable manner, these
places of sepulture, which have, in many instances, been
preserved with religious care to modern times. Thus the
relics which they contain have come down to us intact, and
even now tell their wondrous tale, in a language of their
own, of ages and of races of beings long since passed
away. A single implement of stone or of flint ; a weapon
or an ornament of bronze, of iron, or of bone ; a bead of jet
or of glass ; an urn, or even a fragment of pottery ; or any one
I
2 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
of the infinity of other reHcs which are exhumed, no matter
to what period they belong, or from what locahty they may
have come ; one and all tell their own tale, and supply new
links to our ever-extending chain of knowledge.
To the graves, then, of our earliest ancestors, must we
mainly turn for a knowledge of their history and of their
modes of life ; and a careful examination and comparison
of their contents will enable us to arrive at certain data on
which, not only to found theories, but to build up undying
and faultless historical structures.
As, wherever the country was populated, interments of
the dead must, as a necessity, have taken place, these all-
important store-houses of after-knowledge exist, or have
existed, to more or less extent in almost every district
throughout the land, and give evidence, whenever opened
by experienced hands, of their historical value and import-
ance. The earliest grave-mounds are mostly found in the
mountainous districts of the land — among the hills and fast-
nesses ; the latter overspreading hill and valley and plain
alike. Thus, in Cornwall and Yorkshire, in Derbyshire and
in Dorsetshire, in Wiltshire and in many other districts,
the earliest interments are, or-have been, abundant; while the
later ones, besides being mixed up with them in the districts
named, are spread over every other county. In the counties
just named Celtic remains abound more than those of any
other period. In Dorsetshire, for instance, that county, as
the venerable Stukeley declares, "for sight of barrows not to
be equalled in the world," the early mounds abound on the
downs and on the lofty Ridgeway, an immense range of hills
of some forty miles in extent, while those of a later period lie
in other parts of the county. In Yorkshire, again, they abound
chiefly in the wolds ; and in Cornwall, on the high lands.
The same, again, of Derbyshire, where they lie for the most
part scattered over the Wxld, mountainous, and beautiful dis-
trict known as the High Peak — a district occupying nearly
SITUATIONS OF GRAVE-MOUNDS. 3
one half of the county, and containing within its limits
many towns, villages, and other places of extreme interest.
In this it resembles Dorsetshire ; for in the district com-
prised in the Ridgeway and the downs are very many
highly interesting and important places, around which the
tumuli are most plentiful.
It is true that here and there in Derbyshire, as in other
counties, an early grave-mound exists in the southern or
lowland portion of the county ; but, as a rule, they may be
almost said to be peculiar, and confined, to the northern, or
hilly district, where in some parts they are very abundant.
Indeed, there are districts where there is scarcely a hill, even
in that land, where
" Hills upon hills,
Mountains on mountains rise,"
where a barrow does not exist or is not known to have
existed. In passing along the old high-road, for instance,
over Middleton Moor by way of Arbor Low,* Parcelly Hay,
High Needham, Earl Sterndale, and Brier Low, to Buxton,
or along the high-roads by way of Winster, Hartington, or
Newhaven, the practised eye has no difficulty in resting on
the forms of grave-mounds on the summits of the different
hills or mountains, whose outlines stand out clear and dis-
tinct against the sky.
The situations chosen by the early inhabitants for the
burial of their dead were, in many instances, grand in the
extreme. Formed on the tops of the highest hills, or on
lower but equally imposing positions, the grave-mounds
commanded a glorious prospect of hill and dale, wood and
water, rock and meadow, of many miles in extent, and on
every side stretching out as far as the eye could reach, while
they themselves could be seen from afar off in every direc-
tion by the tribes who had raised them, while engaged either
* Of this stone circle, one of the next in importance to Stonehenge,
an account will be given in a future chapter.
4 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
in hunting or in their other pursuits. They became, indeed,
land-marks for the tribes, and were, there can be but little
doubt, used by them as places of assembling.
Sepulchral tumuli are known as barrows, lows, houes,
tumps, etc. Barrow is of pretty general use ; low is almost
universal in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, and other districts ;
tump is in use in Gloucestershire, etc.; SLndJioiie in Yorkshire.
In Derbyshire and Staffordshire, the term " Low " is so
very usual that, wherever met with, it may be taken as a
sure indication of a barrow now existing or having once
existed at the spot. As a proof of this, it will only be
necessary to say that at about two hundred places in Derby-
shire alone, and at about half that number on the neigh-
bouring borders of Staffordshire, which bear the affix of
Low, barrows are known to exist or have already been
opened. For my present purpose, it will be sufficient to give
the few following names : — Arbor-Low, Kens-Low, Ring-
ham-Low, Blake-Low, Fox-Low, Gib-Low, Green-Low,
Great-Low, Grind-Low, Cal-Low, Chelmorton-Low, Cask-
ing-Low, Larks-Low, Thirkel-Low, Ribden-Low, Har-Low,
Bas-Low, High-Low, Foo-Low, Lean-Low, Huck-Low,
Borther-Low, Dow-Low, Totman's-Low, Staden-Low,
Stan-Low, Blind-Low, Boar-Low, Bottles-Low, Brown-
Low, Caldon-Low, Calver-Low, Cock- Low, Cop-Low, Cow-
Low, Cronkstone-Low, Dars-Low, Drake-Low, Elk-Low,
End-Low, Far-Low, Pike-Low, Fowse-Low, Galley-Low,
Gris-Low, Grub-Low, Herns-Low, Hawks-Low, Horning-
Low, Hard-Low, Knock-Low, Knot-Low, Laidmans-Low,
Lady-Low, Liffs-Low, Lomber-Low, Lousy-Low, Mick-
Low, Moot-Low, Money-Low, Musden-Low, May-Low,
Needham-Low, Nether-Low, Ox-Low, Off-Low, Pars-Low,
Painstor-Low, Peg-Low, Pigtor-Low, Pike- Low, Pinch-
Low, Queen- Low, Ravens-Low, Rains-Low, Rick-Low,
Rocky-Low, Rolley-Low, Round-Low, Rusden-Low,
Saint-Low, Sitting-Low, Sliper-Low, Thoo-Low Three-
DIVISION INTO PERIODS. 5
Lows, Ward-Low, Warry-Low, White-Low, Whithery-
Low, Wool-Low, and Yarns-Low. To some of these I
shall again have occasion to make reference. In Yorkshire,
the names of William Houe, Three Houes, and Three
Tremblers Houes, will be sufficient indication of the local
use of the term " Houe."
Grave-mounds may, naturally, be divided into the three
great periods; the Celtic, the Romano-British, and the
Anglo-Saxon. This division will be adopted in the present
volume, and it will be its aim, while speaking of the cha-
racteristics of each, to classify and describe their contents,
and to point out, briefly, such circumstances of interment,
and such evidences of customs, as they may present, and
which may appear to be of sufficient interest and impor-
tance to its plan.
Of the forms of barrows, and their characteristics and
modes of construction, occasion will be taken to speak in a
later chapter.
CHAPTER II.
Ancient British, or Celtic, Period— General characteristics of the Barrows
— Modes of construction — Interments by inhumation and by crema-
tion—Positions of the body— Hitter Hill Barrow— Elliptical Barrow
at Swinscoe— Burial in contracted position — In sitting and kneeling
positions — Double interments.
npHE barrows of the Celtic, or ancient British, period
vary in their form and size as much as they do in their
modes of construction, and in their contents. Sometimes
they are simply mounds of earth raised over the inter-
ment; sometimes heaps of stones piled up over the body;
and sometimes again a combination of cist and earth and
stone. Generally speaking the mounds are circular, rising
gradually and gently from the level of the ground towards
the centre, but in some instances the rise is somewhat
acute. Now and then they are oval in form. Where
elliptical barrows occur (generally known as " long bar-
rows "), they are, I have reason to believe, not matters of
original design, but of accident, through additional inter-
ments; and I much doubt the propriety of archaeologists
at the present day continuing the very questionable no-
menclature adopted by Sir R, C. Hoare and others. In some
cases, however, as in the instances of chambered or walled
tumuli, the elliptical form of the barrow can be easily
understood. An examination of a very large number of
barrows leads me to the opinion that the original form of
all was circular, and that no deviation from that form, and
no difference in section, can be taken as indicative of
period or of race.
CONSTRUCTION OF GRAVE-MOUNDS. 7
The other appellation occasionally used, of " twin bar-
rows," is further evidence of this — two interments having
been made within a short distance of each other, and the
mounds raised over them running into and joining each
other. It may, however, for purposes of description, and
for this alone, be well to retain the names, while discarding
much of the theory and of the system which has been at-
tempted to be established regarding them.
The mounds of earth alluded to, present occasionally
highly interesting and curious features, and show that, like
those of a different construction, they have frequently been
used for successive interments. The section of one of
these is shown on the next page. It is one of a group of
six barrows on Lord's Down, in the parish of Dewlish, in
Dorsetshire. It was eighty-two feet in diameter, and
fourteen feet in height in the centre. The primary inter-
ment, an urn, was placed in a cist cut in the chalk sub-soil.
Over the urn was raised a small cairn of flints, and the
cist was then filled in, and raised a little above the surface
with chalk rubble. Over this was a layer of earth, upon
which an interment had taken place, and in its turn
covered with a thick layer of chalk rubble, in the centre
of which, in a cist, another interment had again been
made. Above this rose another layer of earth, another of
chalk, and then a final one of earth, on each of which in-
terments had at different periods been made. Thus the
tumulus, which was formed of alternate layers of chalk and
earth, exhibited no less than six successive sepulchral
deposits.* The interments were both by inhumation and
cremation.
Another example of a barrow of this period is shown in
section on the fig. 3. There had originally been four
* This remarkable barrow was excavated by Mr. Warne, and a fully
detailed account given by him in his valuable work, the " Celtic An-
tiquities of Dorset," from which the illustration is taken.
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
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CONSTRUCTION OF GRAVE-MOUNDS. Q
small mounds, or barrows, formed in a grfup, on the
natural surface of the ground (see the two dotted lines in
the engraving). They were composed of tempered earth,
approaching in tenacity almost to clay, and on these the
general mound was raised to a height of about eighteen
Fig- 3.
feet, and was composed of earth, intermixed with loose
rubbly limestones. Nearly at the top, in the centre, a stone
cist, enclosing an interment, was discovered. It was in
form a perfect, though miniature, example of what are
commonly called cromlechs.
It is not an unfrequent occurrence in barrows to find
that interments have been made at different periods and by
different races, as will be hereafter shown.
The two examples of mounds of earth already given will
show the successive layers which have occurred in their
formation. The simpler, and intact, mounds of earth,
which are very common, require no illustration. They
are simply immense circular heaps of earth raised over
the interment, whether in cist or not.
Barrows, or mounds, of stone are of frequent occurrence.
They are of very simple construction. The interment,
whether by cremation or otherwise, having been made in a
natural or artificial cist, or simply laid upon the natural
surface of the ground, rough stones were placed in a large
circle around it, and an immense quantity of stones were
then piled up to a height of several feet. Some of these
10
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
cairns are §f very great size, and cover a large area of
ground. Sections of two tumuli of this description are
given in figs. 4 and 5. The cairn of stone was, as will be
Fig. 4.
ft 7,
seen, covered to some depth with earth ; perhaps in some
instances this might be a part of the original design, but in
most cases the soil which now covers these stone barrows
may be traced to the ordinary process of decay of vegeta-
tion in successive ages.
Barrows were not unfrequently surrounded by a circle of
stones, set upright in the ground. These circles, in many
instances, remain to the present day in different parts of the
kingdom, and, the barrow itself having disappeared, are
commonly called by the general appellation of " Druidical
circles." But of these, later on. The construction of the
stone circles varied considerably. In some instances the
upright stones were pretty close together; in others, wide
apart; and in others, again, the spaces between the uprights
were filled in with a rude loose rubble masonry, which thus
formed a continuous wall.
Some tumuli contained stone chambers and passages,
formed of massive upright slabs, and covered with im-
POSITIONS OF THE BODY. II
mense blocks of stone. Over these chambers, etc., the
mounds of earth, or of stone, or of both combined, were
raised, as will be hereafter shown.
Interments in the Celtic grave-mounds were both by in-
humation and cremation, and the modes of interment, in
both these divisions, was very varied.
Where inhumation obtained, the body was sometimes
laid on its side, in a contracted position ; at others, ex-
tended full length on its back or side; and in other
instances, again, was placed in an upright sitting or kneel-
ing posture. Occasionally, too, where more than one body
has been buried at the same time, they have been laid face
to face, with their arms encircling each other; at other
times an infant has been placed in its mother's arms.
When cremation has been practised, the remains have
either been gathered together in a small heap on the
surface of the ground — sometimes enclosed in a small
cist, at others left uncovered, and at others covered with
a small slab of stone — or wrapped in a cloth or skin (the
bone or bronze pin which has fastened the napkin being
occasionally found), or enclosed in cinerary urns, inverted
or otherwise. In some instances, even when placed in
urns, they were first enclosed in a cloth.
These are the general characteristics of the interments
of the Celtic period, and they will be best understood by
the following examples.
When the body has been buried in a contracted position,
it is found lying on its side ; the left side being the most
usual. The head generally inclines a little forward ; the
knees are drawn up near to the chest, and the heels to the
thighs ; the elbows are brought near to the knees, — fre-
quently, indeed, one of them will be found beneath, and
the other on, the knees, which have thus been held between
them ; and the hands are frequently brought up to the
front of the face. This position, which is after all, per-
12
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
haps, the most easy and natural one to choose, will be best
understood by the following engraving (fig. 6), which
shows an interment found in a barrow on Smerril Moor,
opened by my much lamented friend the late Mr. Thomas
Bateman. In this case the body had been laid on its left
side in an irregularly formed cavity on the surface of the
natural rock, on a bed of clay, over which, as usual, the
mound was formed of loose stones and mould. Behind
the skeleton, as will be seen in the engraving, was found a
remarkably fine " drinking cup," along with a bone mesh-
ing rule or modelling tool, twelve inches long, made from
the rib of a horse or cow ; a flint dagger ; an arrow-head ;
and some other implements, also of flint, all of which had
POSITIONS OF THE BODY.
13
been burned. The femur of this skeleton measured nine-
teen and a half inches, and the tibia sixteen inches.
The next example (fig. 7), from Tissington, will be
seen to have been laid in very much the same position.
Fig. 7.
It lies on its left side, the knees drawn up, and the
feet, elbows, and hands in the position I have already
described. This barrow possessed considerable interest,
from the fact that a later interment — of the Anglo-Saxon
period — had been made immediately above the figure here
subjoined. To this I shall refer under the head of Anglo-
Saxon. In the same barrow, shown at A on the engraving,
was a deposit of burnt bones. Fig. 8, again, shows an in-
H
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
terment in the contracted position, the head, in this instance,
resting upon the left hand. The skeleton lay in an oblong
oval cist, five feet long by two and a half feet wide, smoothly
hollowed out of the chalk, and over this the mound was raised-
POSITIONS OF THE BODY.
Fig. 9,
15
l5 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Along with it were found a bronze dagger, a barbed
arrow-head of flint, a beautiful drinking cup and other
objects. This example is from Roundway Hill, in North
Wiltshire.* Another excellent example, from Hitter Hill,
Derbyshire, is given in the next engraving (fig. g), which
shows successive interments, each being on the left side,
in the usual contracted position.
Of this barrow, the opening of which presented peculiarly
interesting features, a tolerably detailed account will be
advisable. It was opened by myself and Mr. Lucas in
1862. The mound, which was about twenty-two feet in
diameter, was composed of rough stone and earth inter-
mixed. It was only about three feet in height, its centre
being somewhat sunk. The first opening was made at the
part marked A on the accompanying ground-plan (fig. 10),
where, from the outside, we cut a trench, four feet in width,
in a north-easterly direction, towards the centre of the barrow,
and soon came upon an interment of burnt and unburnt hu-
man bones. Along with these were an immense quantity of
rats' bonesf and snail-shells. After proceeding to a dis-
* See Crania Britannica, one of the most valuable ethnological works
ever issued.
f It will be well to bear in mind that when " rats' bones" are mentioned,
it must be understood that they are the bones, not of the common rat,
but of the water-vole or water-rat. They are very abundant in Derby-
shire barrows, and, indeed, are so frequently found in them, that their
presence in a mound is considered to be a certain indication of the pre-
sence of human remains. "The barrows of Derbyshire, a hilly, almost
mountainous, county, abounding with beautiful brooks and rills, inha-
bited by the water-vole, were made use of for its hybcrnacjtUi, or winter
retreats, into which it stored its provisions, and where it passed its time
during the cold and frosty season. It is a rodent, or gnawer, or vegeta-
ble eater, and, as I have described elsewhere, has a set of grinding-teeth
of the utmost beauty, and fitted most admirably for the food on which it
lives. The part of the matter which is curious to the antiquary is, that
the bones in Derbyshire barrows are frequently perceived to have been
gnawed by the scalpri-form incisors of these animals. I have endeavoured
to explain, in the note referred to, that all the rodents amuse themselves,
or possibly preserve their teeth in a naturallj^ useful state, and them-
selves in health, by gnawing any object that comes in their way.
This is well known to every boy who keeps rabbits. I remember, some
HITTER HILL BARROW. 17
tance of seven feet, we came upon the side, or what may
almost be called the entrance, of a cist formed partly of the
Figr. 10.
natural rock, and partly of stones set up edgewise. The
dimensions of this cist were about forty inches by twenty-
years ago, seeing a very fine black squirrel in the house ofaworkman in this
town, which had been sent him by his son from Canada. It was found
that it was impossible to keep this animal in any wooden house. He
would gnaw a road out of the strongest wooden cage that could be made
for him, in a few hours. In consequence, his owner made him a tin cage,
in which he was kept securely. In confirmation of what I have said re-
specting the water-voles, vegetable feeders, gnawing the bones of the
ancient Britons in barrows, I may refer to Linnsus's most interesting
Tour hi Lapland. When in Lycksele, Lapland, June i, he describes the
i Kodda, or hut of the Laplander, and incidentally remarks, " Everywhere
around the huts I observed horns of the reindeer lying neglected, and it
is remarkable that they were gnawed, and sometimes half devoured, by
i8
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
six inches, and it was two feet in depth, the floor being
three feet six inches below the surface. The cist was
formed between two portions of natural rock, and protected
at its entrance by a large flat stone set up edgwise, and
other stones filled up the interstices at the sides. It was
also covered with a large flat stone. On clearing away the
surrounding earth, after removing the covering stone, we
were rewarded by finding that the cist contained the frag-
mentary remains of a young person, which had lain on its
right side, in the usual position, with the knees drawn up.
Fig. II.
The accompanying engraving (fig. ii) will show the opened
cist, with the stone across its entrance, and the interment
in situ. In front of the skeleton, and close to its hands,
was a remarkably good and perfect food vessel, which was
richly ornamented with the diagonal and herring-bone lines,
formed by twisted thongs impressed into the soft clay.
squirrels." — I. 127. That is, if anything were truly devoured, it was the
antlers, not the bodies. " The bones of the Arvicola, or water-vole, were
found in the exploration of the colossal tumulus of Fontenay de Marmion,
which was one of the galleried tumuli, opened in 1829, near Caen in
Normandy. It belonged to the primeval period of the ancient Gauls. —
Mem. de la Soc. des Antiq. de Normandie, 1S31-3, p. 282." — Dr. Davis.
CISTS, HITTER HILL BARROW. ig
The next morning we dug a trench four feet wide, on the
west side towards the centre, as shown at b on the plan
(fig. lo), and the day's labours had an equally satisfactory
result. At about the same distance as on the previous day
we came to the side of a cist, immediately in front of which,
at F on the plan, lay a heap of burnt bones, and a few
flakes of burnt flint. Having cleared away the surrounding
stones and earth, and removed the large flat covering stones,
which showed above the surface of the mound, we found
the cist to be composed on one side by the natural rock, and
on the other by flat stones set up on edge. Its dimensions
were about one foot ten inches by four feet, and it contained
a large quantity of rats' bones and snails' shells. In this
cist was an interment of an adult, much crushed by one of
the large covering stones having fallen upon it. Thanks to
this circumstance, however, a food vessel, which we dis-
covered, owed its preservation. The body lay in the usual
contracted position, on its right side, as shown on the ground-
plan at B, and in front and close to the hands was the food
vessel, which, like the other, was taken out entire. It is
five and a quarter inches in height, and six and a quarter
inches in diameter at the top, and is richly ornamented.
Continuing the excavations to the south, we found that
another cist c adjoined the one just described, and was, like
it, formed of flat stones set up edgewise ; in fact, it was like
one long cist divided across the middle. In this second
cist, besides the usual accompaniment of rats' bones, was
the remains of an interment, sufficiently in situ to show
that the skeleton had, like the others, been deposited in a
contracted position. A small fragment of pottery was also
found, but owing to the cist being so near the surface the
stones had been partially crushed in, and thus both the de-
posit and the urn had become destroyed. A portion of a
stone hammer was also found.
The two cists are here shown (fig. 12), which also shows
20 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
the central interment at a higher level, to be hereafter
described.
On the following Monday we resumed our operations by
making an opening on the north-west side, as shown at d on
the plan. Here, again, at a few feet from the outer edge, we
came upon an interment h, without a cist, accompanied by
an unusual quantity of rats' bones. Continuing the excava-
tion, we were again rewarded by the discovery of a fine cist,
but at a greater depth than those before described. Above
this cist we found some large bones of the ox, and on the
Fig. 12.
covering stone was a deposit of burnt bones and ashes, with
innumerable quantities of rats' bones.
The cist, which was covered with one extremely large
flat stone, we found to be formed partly of the natural rock,
and partly — like the others' — of flat stones set up edgewise ;
and it was, without exception, the most compact and neatly
formed of any which have come under our observation. Its
form will be seen on the plan at D, and its appearance, when
the interior soil was removed, is shown on fig. g. The di-
mensions of the cist were as follows : — Width at the foot,
twenty-four inches ; extreme length, forty inches; general
HITTER HILL BARROW.
21
depth, twenty inches. The floor was composed of the
natural surface of the rock, with some small flat stones laid
to make it level, and at the narrow end a raised edge of
stone, rudely hollowed in the centre, formed a pillow on
which the head rested. The sides of the cist were square
on the one side to the length of twenty-eight, and on the
other of twenty-one, inches, and it then gradually became
narrower until at the head its width was "only ten inches.
When the cist was cleared of its accumulation of soil and
Fig- 13-
'""^'TTrPSA.
rats' bones — of which scores of jaw-bones were presentj
thus showing the large number of these ravaging animals
which had taken up their abode there — it presented one of
the most beautiful and interesting examples of primeval
architecture ever exhumed. It contained the skeleton of
an adult, laid on his left side, in the usual contracted posi-
tion, but without any pottery or flint. The skull, of which
an outline engraving is given on fig. 13, is a most inter-
esting and characteristic example of the cranium of an
ancient Coritanian Briton. It is brachy-cephalic, and is the
subject of deformity from nursing on the cradle-board in
22 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
infancy.* It is the skull of a middle-aged man, and is
remarkably well formed. The bones, with the exception
of some of the small ones, were all remaining, and
formed a skeleton of considerable ethnological interest.
The small bones were gnawed away by the rats, and it is
curious to see to what distances, in some interments, these
active little animals have dragged even large bones from
their original resting-places. It may not be without interest
to note, that within the skull of this skeleton the bones of a
rat, head and all, were found imbedded in the soil, along with
some small stones, which he doubtless had dragged in with
him on his last excursion. We continued our excavations
in a north-easterly direction, as shown at G on the plan, and
found another interment, but without a cist or any other
notable remains ; and next day we commenced opening that
portion of the centre of the barrow between the cists already
described, and soon came upon an interment of an adult
person, as shown on the plan at e. The bones were very
much disturbed, but sufficient remained to show that the
deceased had been placed on his left side, in the same con-
tracted position as the others in this mound. The body was
not more than twelve inches below the surface, and was
much disturbed, but it is more than probable the top of the
barrow had at some distant time been taken off, most likely
for the sake of the stone. The position of this interment
will be seen on reference to the plan, and it is also shown
on figs. 9, II, and 12.
In addition to these illustrations, it will be sufficient to
give the annexed engraving (fig. 14), which shows the po-
sition of a number of interments uncovered by Mr. Bateman
in the centre of an elliptical barrow t at Swinscoe. The
* See Note on the Distortions which present themselves in the crania
of the Ancient Britons, by J. Barnard Davis, M.D., in the "Natural
History Review " for July, 1862, page 290.
f The elliptical form was evidently, in this case, the result of accident.
INTERMENTS, SWINSCOE BARROW.
23
interments were as follows:— i. A young adult, lying in a
contracted position, on its right side, in a shallow grave cut
about six inches deep in the chert rock, with a stone placed
on edge at the head, and another at the feet. 2. A young adult,
lying on its right side, an upright stone at its head. 3. A
middle-aged person, lying with the face upwards, and guarded
Fig. 14.
by a large stone at its side. 4. The bones of a young hog,
enclosed in a stone ctst. 5. Remains of a cinerary urn and
burnt bones. 6. Skeleton of an aged man, lying in a con-
tracted position, on its left side, upon a thin layer of charred
wood. 7. A deposit of burnt bones. 8. Skeleton, very frag-
mentary, g. A double interment, consisting of two skeletons,
with a flat stone on edge by their side. These were an
adult, and a child of a few months old only. 10. Skeleton of
The original mound had been circular, but the elongated form had been
the consequence of successive interments.
24 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
an aged man, lying in the usual position, on his left side,
enclosed in a circle of stones. Behind him lay a handsome
drinking-cup. 12. Portions of a skeleton in a pentagonal
cist. 13. Skeleton of a young person, placed close up to an
upright flat stone. 14. Skull and portions of a skeleton.
Several flints and other remains were found with these
various interments.
Interments where the body has lain extended are of much
rarer occurrence, in this period, than those just described.
Some few instances have been brought to light in Derby-
shire, and in other counties, but they are indeed *' few and
far between," and are the very rare exceptions to a general
rule. One of the most interesting of these instances is the
one called " Shuttlestone Low," opened a few years ago by
Mr. Bateman, and thus described by him : " It consisted
of a compact mass of tempered earth down to the natural
surface of the land, below which point, in the centre of the
barrow, there appeared a large collection of immense lime-
stones, the two uppermost being placed on edge, and all be-
low being laid flat, though without any other order or design
than was sufficient to prevent the lowest course restingupon
the floor of the grave inside which they were piled up, and
which was cut out to the depth of at least eight feet below the
natural surface ; thus rendering the total depth, from the top
of the mound to the floor of the grave, not less than twelve
feet. Underneath the large stones lay the skeleton of a
man, in the prime of life, and of fine proportions, apparently
the sole occupant of the mound ; who had been interred
while enveloped in a skin of dark-red colour, the hairy sur-
face of which had left many traces both upon the surround-
ing earth and upon the verdigris, or patina, coating; a bronze
axe-shaped celt and dagger deposited with the skeleton. On
the former weapon there are also beautifully distinct im-
pressions of fern leaves, handfuls of which, in a compressed
and half-decayed state, surrounded the bones from head to
EXTENDED POSITION OF THE BODY. 25
foot. From these leaves being discernible on one side of
the celt only, whilst the other side presents traces of leather
alone, it is certain that the leaves were placed first as a
couch for the reception of the corpse, with its accompani-
ments, and after these had been deposited, were then further
added in quantity sufficient to protect the body from the
earth. The position of the weapons with respect to the
body is well ascertained, and is further evidenced by the
bronze having imparted a vivid tinge of green to the bones
where in contact with them. Close to the head were one
small black bead of jet and a circular flint; in contact with
the left upper arm lay a bronze dagger with a very sharp
edge, having two rivets for the attachment of the handle,
which was of horn, the impression of the grain of that sub-
stance being quite distinct around the studs. About the
middle of the left thigh-bone was placed the bronze celt
which is of the plainest axe-shaped type. The cutting edge
was turned towards the upper part of the person, and the
instrument itself has been inserted vertically into a wooden
handle, by being driven in for about two inches at the nar-
row end — at least the grain of the wood runs in the same
direction as the longest dimension of the celt, — a fact not
unworthy of the notice of any inclined to explain the pre-
cise manner of mounting these curious implements. The
skull — which is decayed on the left side, from the body having
lain with that side down — is of the platy-cephalic form, with
prominent parietal tubers — the femur measures 18 1 inches."
Another good instance is from Yorkshire, where two
skeletons were found side by side, extended, with their heads
respectively east and west, lying in a bed of charcoal.
Occasionally, as has been stated on a previous page, in-
terments have been made in an upright sitting position.
Instances of this kind are rare and very curious. Our en-
graving (fig. 15) shows an interment of this kind, which
occurred in a barrow at Parcelly Hay. The body had been
26
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
placed in a sitting posture, leaning back against the side of
the cist, which was only three feet in height, and not more
than that in its greatest width. The cist was roughly covered
in with large slabs of limestone. The skull, which was a
remarkably fine one, has been engraved in " Crania Britan-
nica."* On the covering-stones lay another skeleton, among
,^-^.^igs
Fig. 15.
the loose stones of which the barrow itself was composed.
This secondary interment was accompanied by a fine axe-
head of stone and a bronze dagger. Of course the seated
skeleton must have been of an earlier date still.
• Plate II., Decade i.
t\
KNEELING POSITION OF THE BODY. 27
Another remarkable instance of this kind of interment —
but this time in a kneehng position — was discovered in
the Cromlech De Tus, or De Hus, in Guernsey, by
Mr. F. C. Lukis.* This interesting relic is situated near
Paradis, in the parish of Vale, and is a chambered tu-
mulus of simple but excellent construction. The mound
is surrounded by a circle of stones, about twenty yards in
diameter. In the centre is the principal chamber, covered
with large flat stones, and from it to the extremity of the
mound, on the east, was a passage formed by upright
stones, and covered here and there with cap-stones dividing
it into chambers. On the north side of this passage was
a chamber formed by upright stones, on which rested the
large flat covering stone ; and close to this was another
similar but smaller chamber. In the first were discovered
"vases, bone instruments, celts, and human remains." In
the latter, on removing the soil at the top, " the upper part
of two human skulls were exposed to view. One was
facing the north, and the other the south, but both disposed
in a line from east to west," — in other words, side by side,
and shoulder to shoulder, but facing opposite ways. They
were skeletons of adult males, and, on clearing away the
soil, they were found to have been buried at the same time.
"The perfect regular position of a person kneeling on the
floor, in an upright posture, with the arms following the
direction of the column, pelvis, and thigh-bones, and gra-
dually surrounded by the earth, in like manner as may be
conceived would be done were the persons buried alive,
will give an exact representation of this singular dis-
covery."
Another excellent example of this very unusual mode of
interment — this time in a sitting posture — was discovered
by some tufa-getters, and examined by Mr. Bateman, in
* Journal of the British Archaeological Association, vol. i, p. 25.
28
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Monsal Dale, and is shown on the accompanying en-
graving, fig. i6, w^hich exhibits a section of the rock,
etc.; and shows the position of the skeleton, and the man-
ner in which the cavity containing the body had been filled
up with the river sand. The body in this case, as in the
last, had been placed in the cavity, in a sitting position, and
must have been so placed from an opening in front. The
cavity was ten or twelve feet above the bed of the river
Wye, and above it were some five feet in thickness of solid
Fig. i6.
tufa rock, while, from the face of the rock, the cavity was
about twelve feet. The body may therefore be said to have
been entombed in the middle of the solid rock. The roof
of the cavity when found was beautifully covered with sta-
lactites. The skeleton was that of a young person, and
near it were found a flint and some other matters. The
cavity was filled to part way up the skull with sand.
Another example of interment in a sitting posture was
discovered some years ago, at Kells in Ireland. These
will be sufficient to show the curious character of this mode
of interment.
DOUBLE INTERMENTS.
Several examples of double interments, besides those
described above, have been discovered in different locali-
ties. One of the most curious is the one in the largest cist,
in fig. 17. In this cist, which is composed of four upright
Fig. 17.
slabs of stone,* were the skeletons of a man and woman,
and the remains of two children ; the family having pro-
bably been immolated at the death of its head, and all
buried together. A small urn was found in the same cist;
" Ten Years' Diggings," p. 78.
30
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
and in the same barrow, in other portions which were exca-
vated, as shown in the plan, were other interments, both
by cremation and by inhumation.
In No. g, on fig. 14, an interment of a mother and her
child together is shown. Another instance is shown on
the next engraving, fig. 18. In this instance the woman
Yig. 18.
was laid in the usual contracted position, on her left side,
with her head to the east. Close in front of the breast, ly-
ing in the arms in the same contracted position, lay the
infant. Some flints and a fragment of pottery were found
along with this touching interment.
CHAPTER III.
Ancient British or Celtic Period— Interment by cremation — Discovery
of lead — Burial in urns — Positions of urns — Heaps of burnt bones —
Burnt bones enclosed in cloth and skins — Stone cists — Long-Low —
Liff' s-Low, etc. — Pit interments — Tree-coffins.
"t 1[ THEN the interment has been by cremation, the re-
^ ' mains of the burnt bones, etc., have been collected
together and placed either in a small heap, or enclosed in
a skin or cloth, or placed in a cinerary urn, which is some-
times found in an upright position, its mouth covered with a
flat stone, and at others inverted over a flat stone or on the
natural surface of the earth. This position, with the mouth
downwards, is, perhaps, the most usual of the two. In some
instances the bones were clearly enclosed, or wrapped, in a
cloth before being placed in the urn. The place where the
burning of the body has taken place is generally tolerably
close to the spot on which the urn rests, or on which the heap
of burnt bones has been piled up. Wherever the burning has
taken place there is evidence of an immense amount of heat
being used; the soil, for some distance below the surface,
being in many places burned to a redness almost like brick.
Remains of charcoal, the refuse of the funeral pyre, are
very abundant, and in some instances I have found the
lead ore, which occurs in veins in the limestone formation
of Derbyshire, so completely smelted with the heat that it
has run into the crevices among the soil and loose stones,
and looks, when dug out, precisely like straggling roots of
trees.
Is it too much to suppose that the discovery of lead may
32
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
be traced to the funeral pyre of our early forefathers ? I
think it not improbable that, the fact of seeing the liquid
metal run from the fire as the ore which lay about became
accidentally smelted, would give the people their first insight
into the art of making lead — an art which we know was
practised at a very early period in Derbyshire and other
districts of this kingdom.* Pigs of lead of the Romano-
British period, inscribed with the names of emperors and
of legions, have occasionally been found ; but much earlier
than these are some cakes (if the term can be allowed) of
lead which have evidently been cast in the saucer-shaped
hollows of stones. Of these, which are purely British,
some examples have fortunately been preserved.
But to resume. The positions I have spoken of in which
the cinerary urns and heaps of burnt bones have been
usually found, will be best understood by the accompanying
engravings. The first (fig. ig) represents a section of a bar-
Fig, ig.
row in which, at a, is shown a sepulchral urn in an upright
position, capped with a flat stone ; and at 6 a heap of burnt
bones piled up in the usual fashion, and first covered with
earth and then with the loose stones of which the whole
barrow was composed.
The next engraving (fig 20) again shows, within a cist,
* There are in Derbyshire lead mines worked at the present day which
were worked, at all events, in the Rotr.ano-British period. Roman coins,
fibuljE, and other remains are occasionally found in them.
INTERMENTS BY CREMATION.
33
in a barrow on Baslow Moor called " Hob Hurst's House,"*
two heaps of bones, the one simply collected together in a
small heap, and the other guarded by a row of small sand-
Fig;. 20.
stone " boulders" all of which had been subjected to fire.
The next illustration (fig. 21) gives a section of the Flax
Dale barrow at Middleton by Youlgreave, which shows th ,•
Fig. 21.
inverted position of the sepulchral urn. This barrow was
formed on a plan commonly adopted by the ancient
Britons, and will therefore serve as an example of mode
of construction as well as of the inverted position of the
* " Ten Years' Diggings."
34 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
urn. A circle of large rough stones was laid on the surface
of the ground, marking the extent of the proposed mound.
Within this the interments, whether in an urn or not, were
placed, and the mound was then raised of stones to the re-
quired height, and afterwards covered to some thickness
with earth, and thus the outer circle of the barrow was con-
siderably extended, as will be seen by the engraving.
Another excellent example of the inverted position of the
pjcT. 22.
sepulchral urns is here given (fig. 22) from one of the cists in
Roily- Low, near Wardlow. I have chosen it because, when
found by Mr. Bateman, it had received a considerable frac-
ture on one side, and thus showed the burnt bones which it
contained, through the aperture. The urn was about six-
teen inches in height and twelve inches in diameter, and
was ornamented in the usual manner with indentations
produced by a twisted thong. It was inverted over a de-
posit of calcined human bones, among which was a large
red deer's horn, also calcined. The urn was so fragile as
to be broken to pieces on removal.
INTERMENTS BY CREMATION. 35
In some urns discovered in Cambridgeshire, at Muttilow
Hill, the Hon. R. C. Neville found that the calcined bones
had been collected and w^rapped in cloth before being placed
in the urns. The contents of one of the urns he describes
as " burnt human bones enveloped in a cloth, which, on
looking into the vessel, gave them the appearance of being
viewed through a yellow gauze veil, but which upon being
touched dissolved into fine powder."* The urns were all
inverted.
A somewhat peculiar feature of urn burial was disco-
vered at Broughton, in Lincolnshire, where the urn con-
taining the burnt bones was placed upright on the surface
of the ground, and another urn, made to fit the mouth, in-
verted into it to form a cover.
In instances where the ashes of the dead have been col-
lected from the funeral pyre, and laid in a skin or cloth before
interment, the bone or bronze pins with which the " bundle"
was fastened still remain, although, of course, the cloth it-
self has long since perished.
In other instances small stones have been placed around,
and upon, the heap of burnt bones before raising the mound
over the remains.
It is frequently found in barrows, where the interment
has been by cremation, that there will be one or more
deposits in cinerary urns, while in different parts of the
mound, sometimes close by the urn, there will be small
heaps of burnt bones without any urn. The probable solu-
tion of this is, that the simple heaps of bones were those of
people who had been sacrificed at the death of the head of
the family, and burned around him.
* Although I am describing the position in which the urns have been
placed, it must not for a moment be supposed that they are often found
in a perfect state, or in the position in which they have originally been
placed. On the contrary, the urns are usually very much crushed, and
not unfrequently, from pressure of the superincumbent mass of stones
and earth, are found on their sides, and crushed flat.
36
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
It is a very frequent occurrence in barrows for the inter-
ments to be made in stone cists, and these, of course, vary
both in size and in form, according to the nature of the spot
chosen, and to the requirements of each particular case.
The cists are usually formed of rough slabs of limestone,
grit-stone, granite, or other material which the district offers,
set up edgeways on the surface of the ground, so as to form
a sort of irregular-square, rhomboidal, or other shaped com-
partment. In this the interment, whether of the body it-
self or of the urn containing the calcined bones, or of the
calcined bones without an urn, has been made, and then the
cist has been covered with one or more flat stones, over
which the cairn of stones, or earth, or both, has been raised.
Some barrows contain several such cists, in each of which
a single, or in some instances a double, interment has been
made. Excellent examples of these are afforded by the ac-
companying engravings, and by figs, g, lo, ii, 12, 15, 17,
20, 28, and 29. Occasionally, when the natural surface of
the ground was not sufficiently even or solid for the inter-
ment to be as conveniently made as might be wished, a floor-
ing of rough slabs of stone was laid for the body to rest
upon. This was the case in a barrow called " Long-Low,"
near Wetton, in the moorlands of Staffordshire (shown on
fig. 24), which was opened by Mr. Carrington.
As there are some singular features connected with this
Fi,?. 23.
& '
/
barrow, a detailed account of the mode of its construction
becomes necessary. This very peculiar barrow had been
thought, time out of mind, to be a " mine rake," and at-
tempts have from time to time been made by lead miners to
CONSTRUCTION OF LONG-LOW. 37
find a shaft, by removing certain portions of the mound — a
shaft had, in fact, been sunk very nearly in the centre of
the barrow. This rendered the operations of opening both
difficult and laborious. Long- Low is what is usually de-
nominated a "twin barrow," consisting of two circular
mounds, connected by a bank, which altogether are 220
yards long. A plan of this barrow, drawn to scale, is shown
on the accompanying engraving (fig. 23). The circular
mound at the north-east end is thirty yards across and seven
feet high in the centre, that at the south-west end not so
large; the connecting bank at its base is fifteen yards wide,
and where entire about six feet in height, with regular slop-
ing sides where not mutilated. " The barrow runs in a
straight line along the highest part of the land, a strong
wall, separating the fields, is built over it lengthways, the
stone for which, like other field walls in the vicinity, appears
to have been procured from the bank of the tumulus, which,
with the exception of some parts of the surface, is formed
of large flat stones, which have evidently been procured in
the immediate neighbourhood, where the surface of the land
is lowered to a considerable extent. This is the only in-
stance (as far as my experience goes) of a barrow being
formed of stones got by quarrying, they being generally
composed of such stones as are found on the surface of un-
cultivated land, which, owing to exposure to the atmos-
phere, have their angular points rounded. The strata in
the neighbourhood of this barrow are but slightly consoli-
dated, and are separated from each other by a thin seam of
earthy matter, and abound with vertical cracks, so that
it would not be a difficult task to dig out stones with
sharpened stakes — the principal instruments, I presume, for
such purposes in primitive times."
The internal construction of this cairn is singular. By
making holes in various places along the bank, was found a
low wall in the centre, built with large stones, which ap-
38 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
pears to be carried the whole length of the bank. Against
this, large flat stones, with their tops reclining against the
wall, are placed, thus leaving many vacancies, and showing
an economical way of raising the mound at less expendi-
ture both of labour and materials. The portions of this
which have been laid bare are, with remains of interments,
shown on the plan (fig. 23) at c, d, e, and f.
A large cist, or chamber, was discovered near the centre of
the large mound. It was formed by four immense stones,
inclosing an area six feet long, five feet wide, and about four
feet deep. In all probability the capstone had been removed,
as none was found. On the cist being cleared, was dis-
covered a regular paved floor of limestone, entirely covered
over with human bones, presenting a confused mass of the
relics of humanity. The skeletons lying in the primitive
position, crossed each other in all directions. They proved
to be the remains of thirteen individuals, both males and
females, varying from infancy to old age. The interior of
this cist is shown on the accompanying engraving, and its
position in the mound will be seen at a on the plan.
Fig. 24.
On the floor were found three arrow-heads of flint,
wrought into beautiful thin leaf-shaped instruments, and
many other calcined flakes of the same material; also
INTERMENTS IN LONG-LOW.
39
bones of the ox, hog, deer, and dog. Not far from the cist,
and near the surface, was found a skeleton minus the head,
imbedded in gravel, rats' bones, and charcoal. On the floor
some animal bones were found that had been burned, also
neatly wrought arrow-heads and pieces of flint, and frag-
ments of two human skulls. The point of a bone spear
and a bone pin were found during our labours in this mound.
"Another skeleton was found in the bank, crushed into small
fragments ; and where another grave had been made in the
bank, for a secondary interment, the sides and bottom
were found to have been burned to lime, which now re-
sembled old mortar, to an extent that could not have been
effected by an ordinary fire. It is not unusual to find small
stones burnt to lime on the floors of barrows ; in the present
instance it had acquired a hardness almost equal to the
stones, effected during a very long period by imbibing car-
bonic acid gas from the atmosphere, to which it had free
access ; pieces several inches thick were broken up inter-
mixed with charcoal."
On one side of the cist two skulls lay close together, and
F g- 25.
mixed up with a skeleton, the bones of which, in some
40
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
instances, crossed each other ; in the centre lay the fine skull
shown in figs. 25 and 26.* Two other remarkable skulls,
one of a woman of about fifty years of age, and the other of
a girl not more than seven years old, were also found.
When the mound at the other extremity of the "bank" was
opened, calcined bones and animal remains only were found,
but the singular construction of this portion of the barrow
made ample compensation for the paucity of relics. It ap-
peared that the longitudinal wall, noticed before, terminated
Fig. 27.
in the centre of this mound ; and at its termination another
and well-built wall was carried crossways at right angles with
it (fig. 27), which was laid bare to the length of more than
* This skull has been most skilfully figured in " Crania Britannica,"
where it is carefully described and compared with other examples by Dr.
Davis, who gives an admirable account of the discoveries at Long-Low,
and of the characteristics of the different crania found there. Of the
skull here shown Dr. Davis says it is " remarkably regular, narrow, and
long ; of good shape, medium thickness, and presenting few of the
harsh peculiarities of the ancient British race ; on the contrary, there is
about it an air of slenderness and refinement. In some features it assimi-
lates to the modern English cranium, although decidedly narrow, whilst
its genuine and remote antiquity is determined by unquestioned evi-
dence. It belongs, in an eminent degree, to the class of dolicho-
cephalic skulls, and is the cranium of a man of about forty years of
age."
i
STONE CISTS.
41
half the diameter of the mound — it was three feet in height
— the whole extent was not proved. From the centre of this
wall, and forming a straight line with the longitudinal one,
there was a row of thin moderately large stones, set on
edge, by the ends being set in the soil that formed the floor
of the mound; these were placed with their edges close
together, and occasionally in two or three ranks, as if for
better support in an upright position. They were from i~
to 2 feet in height, and were extended from the wall to the
length of five yards. The burnt bones were found in the
west angle formed by the cross wall and the upright stones,
as shown in the engraving. It appeared as though the
bones had originally been deposited near the surface, as
they were now found in the interstices betwixt the stones,
from near the top to the bottom. This mound was formed
of large stones, like the other parts, reared against each
other all around, with their tops inclining towards the
centre.
A tolerably good cist, formed of rough masses of stone
surrounding the body, is the one engraved on fig. 28, from
Fig. 28.
Middleton. This cist contained the skeleton of a woman,
lying on her left side, in a partially contracted position.
Above her lay the remains of an infant, and about her neck
were the beads of a remarkably fine necklace of jet.
Another good example of a stone cist is the next (fig.
42
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
29), from Liff's-Low. The cist was formed of eight large
slabs of rough limestone, set edgewise ; and formed a cham-
ber of very compact and almost octagonal form. It con-
tained the skeleton of a man, lying in a partly contracted
posture on his left side, the face looking to the west. Be-
hind the knees was placed a hammer-head, formed of the
lower part of the horn of the red deer. One end is rounded
Fig. 29.
and polished, and the other knotched across, somewhat, (to
use a homely comparison) like what is usually called a
*' wafer-seal." Behind the head were a number of miscel-
laneous but highly interesting articles, showing, as they
did after the lapse of so many centuries, that " the savage
Briton, reposing in this cairn, had cultivated the art of
making war amongst the inhabitants of the forest in prefer-
STONE CISTS AND PIT INTERMENTS.
43
ence to molesting his fellow savages ; as almost the first
observed articles were a pair of enormous tusks of the wild
boar, trophies of some, perhaps his last, sylvan triumph.
Next came two arrow-heads of flint, delicately chipped, and
of unusual form ; two spear-heads of the same material ;
two flint knives, polished on the edge, one of them serrated
on the back in order to serve as a saw ; and numerous
pieces of flint of indescribable form and use, which, together
with all the flint instruments enumerated above, seem to
have undergone a partial calcination, being gray, tinted
with various shades of blue and pink. With these articles
were found three pieces of red ochre, the rouge of these un-
sophisticated huntsmen, which, even now, on being wetted,
impart a bright red colour to the skin, which is by no
means easy to discharge." With these articles lay a small
urn of unique form.
On fig. 30 is shown a remarkably pretty cist, formed of
Fig- 30.
I
four upright stones, supporting a capstone. It contained a
vase of good form.
Pit interments are occasionally met with, but are very
rare. One instance will suffice : it is that at Craike Hill,
44 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
near Fimber, Yorkshire, and was opened by Mr. Mortimer.*
In it no less than four interments were made, one above
another, in a pit or grave covered over by a mound. The
two lower and the upper were skeletons in the usual con-
tracted positions ; the other a heap of calcined bones, with
a fine food vessel. Near the upper skeleton was another
heap of burnt bones and another food vessel. With one of
the skeletons, that of a female, was found a splendid neck-
lace of jet, and a drinking cup of elaborate design. These
are all engraved in the present volume.
Burials in tree-coffins, of various periods, have been
occasionally met with in grave-mounds, and a few words
concerning them may here be introduced. One of the most
interesting was found recently by that indefatigable anti-
quary, the Rev. Canon Greenwell, at Scale House, in
Yorkshire. t The barrow was about thirty feet in diameter,
and five feet in height, and was surrounded by a circle of
soil at the base. It was entirely composed of soil, inter-
spersed here and there with fragments of charcoal, firmly
compacted. On the top, for a space of about six or seven
feet in diameter, a covering of flattish stones was laid just
below the surface. On digging down at this spot it was
found that a hollow had been made in the natural surface,
that had been filled up with soil, upon which had been
placed a few stones and then a coffin, constructed of the
trunk of a small oak tree. This primitive coffin was laid
north and south, the thicker end, which no doubt contained
the head of the corpse, towards the south ; which was also
the case in the Gristhorpe barrow. The oaken trunk, or
tree-coffin, was seven feet three inches in length, and one
foot eleven inches in diameter, at the spot in which it was
measured. The Gristhorpe coffin " is seven feet and a
* Described in the " Reliquary," vol. ix.
f For a full account of this discovery see the " Reliquary," vol. vi.
page I.
BURIALS IN TREE-COFFINS. 45
half long, and three feet three inches broad." Above the
coffin the soil was finer, and upon this finer stratum was
situated a layer of dark matter a good deal burned, and
containing pieces of charcoal. Over the whole was a
covering of the ordinary compacted soil of which the bar-
row was composed. The body inhumed in this tree-coffin,
and not burned, had gone totally to decay, leaving only a
whitish unctuous matter behind. This substance was no
doubt adipocire, the production of which is to be accounted
for by the extreme wetness of the barrow. Before inter-
ment the corpse had been clothed, or wrapped, /rom head to
foot in a woollen fabric,* a specimen of which is represented
in the follov/ing figure : —
Fig. 31-
There were no flint chippings discovered in the soil of
which the barrow was composed, or other object, and
nothing else was contained in the tree-coffin, save the body
in its wrappings. Some pieces of a bright black substance
* This woollen cloth must be regarded as a woven texture, but
whether it were woven in so artificial a machine as a loom may be
questioned. A great variety of contrivances have been used for weaving,
i.e., crossing alternately threads passed in opposite directions, the
warp and the woof, by what are called savage races. Still it is not
at all improbable that a people so advanced in pastoral habits, possessed
some machine for weaving, bearing a relation to a primitive loom. Both
warp and woof are composed, as might be expected, of a simply spun
thread of one strand. Perforated stones are found in British and Danish
barrows, and perforated pieces of earthenware in the Swiss Lake vil-
lages, even of the stone period, which are regarded as spindle-whorls.
4-6 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
like pitch, which appeared to have been placed on the in-
side of the coffin, on examination are found to be composed
of carbon and oxide of iron.
It is most unfortunate that this curious and interesting
barrow had been previously opened at the top. By this
proceeding the tree-coffin had been broken through, and its
contents disturbed about the middle. And it is also much
to be regretted that the barrow was saturated with mois-
ture, which had percolated into the coffin, carrying the soil
with it. By this means all the contents of the barrow,
save the adipocire of the body itself, including both the
tree-coffin and the woollen garment, had acquired a rotten-
ness which precluded the recovery of anything more than
mere fragments. Those of the woollen dress were so filled
with particles of soil, and at the same time so tender, as to
admit of being reclaimed only in a very imperfect manner.
The woollen cloth, which went from head to foot, there is
no doubt had been loosely wrapped round the body, in the
manner of a shroud, not swathed like an Egyptian mummy,
so that " the fabric filled the whole of the inside of the
coffin from end to end." Hence, as is confirmed by the
barrows opened in Jutland, there is every reason to infer
that it was the ordinary woollen dress of the individual in-
terred in the tumulus, who must have held such a position
in society as to ensure these great attentions to his re-
mains.
" In many ancient British barrows marks of the garments
of the deceased have been discovered, in which the body
appears to have been wrapped before interment. Indica-
tions of skin dresses are seen early, and after these, in the
bronze and iron periods, where the rust of weapons has re-
tained impressions of such grave-clothes, tissues of linen
and woollen appear. Mr. Bateman met with signs of such
textures, and in the case of the Tosson cists, in Northum-
berland, from one of which the skull of plate 54 of the
BURIALS IN TREE-COFFINS.
47
Crania Britannica was derived, an iron spear-head was
found in one of them, and there were si^^ns of two fabrics
of cloth impressed upon the oxidized surface of this relic.
" Again, British barrows have been opened containing
tree-coffins, in which the remains have been inhearsed. The
celebrated Gristhorpe barrow, the skeleton from which is
preserved in the Scarborough Museum, and of the skull of
which there is a fine engraving, plate 52, and a careful de-
scription by Dr. Thurnam, in the work just named, offers
an instance of a tree-coffin formed of a split oak of small
girth. In this case, the body had been wrapped in the skin
of some animal having soft hair. The interment had be-
longed to the ancient British late stone or the bronze period.
The coffin contained three flakes, or rude implements of
flint, as well as objects made of bronze and bone. In the
course of the description alluded to, there are references to
many other examples of coffins hollowed out of solid trunks,
oaken and tree-coffins. These appear to belong to very
different periods, extending from the ancient British to
early Saxon, and perhaps Christian times. That called
the " King Barrow," at Stowborough, in Dorsetshire,
contained an oaken tree-coffin with the body in an envelope
of deer-skins. It is said, that more recently a barrow
opened in the wolds of Yorkshire offered fragments of an
oaken coffin, together with the remains of a British urn.
Also, at Wath, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, in an
oaken coffin an urn was found of the later British type, the
whole being enclosed in a barrow.
The Gristhorpe coffin, shown on figs. 32 and 33, consisted
of the trunk of a large oak, roughly hewn, and split into
two portions. The markings seemed to indicate that it had
been hollowed with chisels of flint ; but that the tree had
been cut down with a much larger tool, the marks being
such as would be made by a stone hatchet. It is seven and
a half feet long and three feet three inches broad. In the
48
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
bottom is a hole three inches in length. The lid was kept
in place by the uneven fracture of the wood. The back
was in good preservation, with its coatings of lichens dis-
tinct. At the narrow end of the lid, cut in the bark, was a
sort of leaf-shaped knob, perhaps intended for a handle.
The objects found in the coffin alluded to above are shown
on figs. 34 and 35. In these engravings, Nos. i, 2, and 6 are
flakes of flint. The first has been slightly chipped at the
Fig. 32.
Fig- 33-
edge, but the others are simply split off from the native
flint. No. 5 is a bronze dagger, three and a half inches
long, but much corroded — the two rivets showing that the
handle was not of much thickness. No. 4, no doubt the
top of such handle, is a disc of bone, polished, and of oval
shape with perforations on either side for the pins by which
it was fastened. No. 8 is a small implement of wood, with
INTERMENTS IN TREE-COFFINS.
49
a rounded head, and flattened on one side to about half its
length. No. 3 is the fragment of a ring of horn — a fasten-
ing, perhaps, of the dress. On the lower part of the breast
was an ornament of very brittle material, in the form of a
rosette, with two loose ends. By the side was a shallow
Fig- 34-
Fig. 35-
basket, about six inches in diameter, formed of bark, curi-
ously stitched with the sinews of animals ; at the bottom
were decomposed remains, perhaps of food. There was
also a quantity of vegetable substance, mixed with lanceo-
late foilage, supposed to be that of the mistletoe.
Fig. 36.
Another form — which may be called the "boat shape"
— of tree-coffin is here shown for the purpose of com-
parison.
CHAPTER IV.
Ancient British or Celtic Period — Sepulchral Chambers of stone— Crom-
lechs— Chambered Tumuli— New Grange and Dowth — The Channel
Islands — Wieland Smith's Cave, and others — Stone Circles — For what
purpose formed — Formation of Grave-mounds — Varieties of Stone
Circles — Examples of different kinds — Arbor Low, -etc.
/^NE of the most important classes of barrows is that
^-^ which contains sepulchral chambers of stone ; not the
simple cists which have been spoken of in the preceding
chapter, but of a larger, more complicated, or colossal cha-
racter. Mounds of this description exist, to more or less
extent, in different districts. In most instances the mound
itself, i.e., the earth or loose stones of which the superin-
cumbent mound was composed, has been removed, and
the gigantic sepulchral chamber alone left standing. In
many instances the mounds have been removed for the
sake of the soil of which they were formed, or for the
purpose of levelling the ground in the destructive march of
agricultural progress. In many cases, however, they have
doubtless been removed in the hope of finding treasure be-
neath; it being a common belief that immense stores of
gold — in one instance the popular belief was that a " coach
of gold" was buried beneath — were there for digging for.
Where the mounds have been removed, and the colossal
megalithic structures allowed to remain, they have an im-
posing and solemn appearance, and seem almost to excuse
the play of imagination indulged in by our early antiqua-
ries in naming them Cromlechs, and in giving to them a
false interest by making them out to be "Druids' altars"
— altars on which the Druids made their sacrifices. These
STONE CIRCLES. 5I
same authorities have, indeed, gone so far in their inven-
tions as to afifirm, that when the capstone was lower on one
side than another, as must necessarily frequently be the
case, it was so constructed that the blood of the victims
might run off in that direction, and be caught by the priests;
that some of the naturally formed hollows in the stones were
scooped out by hand to receive the heart and hold its blood
for the highest purposes ; and that when the cromlech was
a double one, the larger was used for the sacrifice, and
the smaller for the Arch-Druid himself whilst sacrificing.
Researches which have been made in recent times show
the absurdity of all this, and prove beyond doubt that the
cromlechs are neither more nor less than sepulchral cham-
bers denuded of their mounds. In several instances they
have been found intact, and, these mounds being excavated,
have been brought to light in a perfect state. These
instances have occurred in Cornwall, in Derbyshire, and in
other districts of England, as well as in the Channel
Islands and elsewhere. One instance is that of the Lan-
yon cromlech in Cornwall. It seems that some seventy
years ago "the farmer" to whom the ground belonged cast
a longing eye on what appeared to be an immense heap of
rich mould, and he resolved to cart it away and spread it
over his fields. Accordingly he commenced operations,
his men day after day digging away at the mound, and
carting the soil off to the fields. By the time some hun-
dred cart loads or so had been removed the men came
to a large stone, which defied their efforts at removal,
and, not knowing what it might be, or what it might
lead to, they went on removing the surrounding earth,
and gradually cleared, on all its sides, the majestic crom-
lech which is now one of the prides of Cornwall.
This highly interesting chamber contained a heap of
broken urns and human bones. This ** Lanyon crom-
lech," a view of which is given on fig. 37, consists
52
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
now of three immense upright stones, on which rests
an enormous capstone, measuring about eighteen and
Fig- 37-
a half feet in length and about nine feet in width, and is
computed to weigh above fifteen tons. How such stones
were raised and placed on the rough upright stone supports
Fig. 38.
ClSr
which had been prepared for them is almost beyond com-
prehension, when it is recollected that they were raised by
a people who were devoid of machinery.
"The heart,
Aching with thoughts of human littleness,
Asks, without hope of knowing, whose the strength
That poised thee here."
This cromlech when first uncovered consisted of four
upright stones, on which rested the capstone. In 1815,
during a tremendous storm, the capstone and one of the
CROMLECHS.
53
supports were thrown down. In 1824 the capstone was
replaced, under the superintendence of Lieut. Goldsmith,
R.N., and at this time a piece was broken off at A. The
fourth upright stone was not replaced, having been broken
when thrown down. Fig. 37 shows the cromlech as re-
placed. Fig. 38 is a plan of it, showing the uprights and
the capstone. The large outline is the capstone, the part
marked a being the part broken off; the shaded parts
are the present three uprights ; and b the fourth upright,
broken.
Fig. 39-
Kits Cotty House, in Kent; the Chun cromlech, in Corn-
Fig. 40.
wall (figs. 39 and 40) — the covering stone of which is cal-
54
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
culated to weigh twenty tons ; the Molfra cromlech, in the
same county, which consists of a compact cist closed on
three sides and open on the fourth ; the Zenor cromlech ;
the Plas Newydd cromlech, and many others which it is not
necessary to enumerate, are all of the same class. The
Plas Newydd (fig. 41) is a double cromlech, the two
chambers being close together, end to end. The capstone
of the largest, which is about twelve feet in length by ten
Fig. 41.
feet in breadth, originally rested on seven stones, two of
which have disappeared. The two erections undoubtedly
were originally covered with a single mound.
At Minninglow, in Derbyshire, erections of this kind
occur, but, not being denuded of their mounds, are still
partially buried. The mound is of large size. Under the
centre and in four places in the area of the circle are large
cists, v/hich if cleared from the earth would be fine crom-
lechs of precisely the same form as those just described.
They are formed of large slabs of the limestone of the
district, placed upright on the ground, and are covered
with immense capstones of the same material. All these
CHAMBERED TUMULI.
55
chambers had contained interments. The accompanying
plan (fig. 42) of some of these cists gives the situation of
the stones forming the sides of the large chamber; of the
passage leading to it; of the slabs which closed its en-
trance ; and of the covers or capstones. The chamber is
rather more than five feet in height, and the largest cap-
Fig. 42.
stone about seven feet square, and of great thickness. A
kind of wall similar to those which have been found to
encircle some of the Etruscan tumuli, forms the circle of
this mound, which rises to a height of more than fifteen
feet from the surface of the ground.*
The general arrangement of this example will be seen to
bear an analogy to the Plas Newydd and others spoken of,
and shows by what an easy transition the building of gal-
leries, or a series of chambers for family tombs, in these
large mounds, would be arrived at. Of this kind some very
large examples exist in Ireland, and in the Channel Islands,
as well as in various parts of England.
* It is worthy of remark, that this noble mound, with its very early
interments, has been made a place of sepulture in more recent times,
many Roman coins and remains of that period having been found there.
56
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
One of the most important in size, as well as in general
interest, is the one at New Grange, county Meath. " The
cairn, which even in its present ruinous condition measures
about seventy feet in height, and is nearly three hundred
feet in diameter, from a little distance presents the appear-
ance of a grassy hill, partly wooded ; but upon examination
the coating of earth is found to be altogether superficial,
and in several places the stones, of which the hill is entirely
Fig- 43-
iP— is_ -."^"jfSrf'^'-Jv-* -
composed, are laid bare. A circle of enormous stones, of
which eleven remain above ground,* originally encircled its
base. The opening (of which an engraving is shown on
fig. 44) was accidentally discovered about the year i6gg, by
labouring men employed in the removal of stones for the
repair of a road. The gallery, of which it is the external
entrance, extends in a direction nearly north and south,
and communicates with a chamber, or cave, nearly in the
* These immense monoliths have originally, it is estimated, been
upwards of thirty in number, and to have been placed probably ten yards
apart. The largest remaining stone stands between eight and nine feet
above the ground, and is seventeen feet in circumference. It is estimated
to weigh upwards of seven tons. Several of the stones have entirely
disappeared, of others fragments remain scattered about.
CHAMBERED TUMULI.
57
centre of the mound. This gallery, which measures in
length about fifty feet, is at its entrance from the exterior
about four feet in height, in breadth at the top three feet
two inches, and at the base three feet five inches. These
dimensions it retains, except in one or two places, where the
stones appear to have been forced from their original
Fig. 44.
position, for a distance of twenty-one feet from the external
entrance. Thence towards the interior its sides gradually
increase, and its height where it forms the chamber is
eighteen feet. Enormous blocks of stone, apparently water-
worn, and supposed to have been brought from the mouth
of the Boyne, form the sides of the passage; and it is
roofed with similar stones. The ground plan of the chamber
is cruciform ; the head and arms of the cross being formed
by three recesses, one placed directly fronting the entrance,
58
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
the Others east and west, and each containing a basin of
Fig. 45-
'ir«wrf?=^ -.-***I;::^;
granite. The sides of these recesses are composed of
Fig. 46.
immense blocks of stone, several of which bear a cfreat
CROMLECHS.
59
variety of carvings."* In front of the entrance (fig. 44)
will be seen one of these carved stones.
Fig. 47-
"■ -
--—-'-'.'.'.
'__,.
1 —
2
1
3
4
1
5
6
1
FEET
12
J
At Dowth and Nowth (Dubhath and Cnobh), very similar
• For an excellent notice of this and other remains, the reader is re-
6o GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
chambered tumuli exist, the former of which is also re-
Fig- 49-
*!^^f^'^)(i*^-VM^
•i^ ©-
Fig. 50.
1 2 S 4 5 6
FEET
12
CROMLECHS.
6i
markable for its sculptural stones, which bear a strong
resemblance to those at New Grange. The Cairn of Dowth
here engraved (fig. 45), is of immense size, and contains a
cruciform chamber similar to that at New Grange, with a
passage twenty-seven feet in length, composed — as was the
chamber — of enormous stones. On some of the stones
were carvings and Oghams. The mouth of the passage
leading to the cruciform chamber is shown on fig. 46.
Other excellent examples of Irish cromlechs and cham-
bers are those at Monasterboise ("Calliagh Dirras House");
Drumloghan (full of Oghams) ; Kells ; Knockeen (figs. 47
and 48) J where the right supporting stones are six in number,
Fig- 51-
..•All
and arranged rectangularly, so as to form a distinct chamber
ferred to Mr. W. F. Wakeman's " Handbook of Irish Antiquities," — the
best and most compact little work on the subject which has been issued,
and one which will be found extremely useful to the archaeological stu-
dent — to which I am indebted for some of the accompanying engravings.
62
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
at the S.E. end, the large covering stone being 12 feet
inches by 8 feet, and weighing about four tons, and the
Fig. 52.
i;:^^^r '^;^'i^'''^« ^w^;l•^l^^*^^>i
smaller one about half that size ; Gaulstown (figs. 49 and
50, the inner chamber of which measures 7 feet by 6 feet
Fig- 53-
2 3 4 5 6
-J I \ \ L_
FEET
12
I
4 inches, and is seven feet in height) ; Ballynageerah (figs.
51, 52, and 53), the capstone of which is cleverly and
CHAMBERED TUMULI.
63
curiously poised on two only of the upright stones, as will
be seen by the engravings;* Howth, Shandanagh, Bren-
nanstown, Glencullen, Kilternan, Mount Brown, Rath-
kenny, Mount Venus, and Knock Mary, Phoenix Park, as
well as at many other places.
In the Channel Islands the indefatigable and laudable
researches of Mr. Lukis show that the galleried stone cham-
bers of the tumuli in that district had been used by successive
Fig. 54-
generations for many ages. One of the most important of
these is the gigantic chambered burial place, surrounded by
a stone circle, at L'Ancresse, in Guernsey. In this, " five
large capstones are seen rising above the sandy embank-
ment which surrounds the place ; these rest on the props
beneath, and the whole catacomb is surrounded by a circle
of upright stones of different dimensions. The length of
* For the loan of these seven enojravings I am indebted to the
Council of the "Historical and Archaeological Association of Ireland,"
(formerly the " Kill<enny and South-east of Ireland Archseo'ogical
Society,") in whose journal — one of the most valuable of antiquarian
publications — they have appeared. This Association is one of the most
useful that has ever been established, and deserves the best support, not
only of Irish, but of English antiquaries.
64
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
the cromlech is 41 feet from west to east, and about 17 feet
from north to south, on the exterior of the stones. At the
eastern entrance the remains of a smaller chamber is still
seen ; it consisted of three or four capstones, and was
about seven feet in length, but evidently within the outer
circle of stones.* In a careful examination made by Mr.
Lukis, many highly interesting features were brought to
light, of which he has given an excellent account in the
"Archaeological Journal, "f to which the reader cannot do
better than refer. The engravings there given, show the
interiors of some of the chambers, with their deposits in
situ, and exhibit some of the highly interesting relics found
during the excavations. The pottery was of a totally dis-
tinct character from that of the Celtic period found in Eng-
land, some of the forms being of what are usually con-
sidered the Anglo-Saxon type, and are the result of the use
of these chambers by successive generations, as already
named.
Another of the more remarkable structures of the Channel
Fig- 55-
"%=.
Islands is that of Gavr Innis, in the Morbihan, Brittany.
The tumulus is about thirty feet high, and its circumference
F. C. Lukis.
f Vol. i. p. 142.
CHAMBERED TUMULI. 65
at the base about 300 feet. The cromlech is entered from
Fig. 56.
the south end (fig. 55), fig. 56 being the opening on the north,
Fig- 57-
and consists of 14 upright stones'on the east side, 13 on
Fig. 58.
the west, and 2 on the north, supporting, in all, 10 cap-
66 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Stones. In general features it bears a strong resemblance
to those at New Grange, Dowth, and other places. The
Fig. 59-
re
markable feature of this chambered tumulus is that the
Fig. 60.
stones composing the passage are for the most part sculp-
tured in lines and patterns, which have been described as
CHAMBERED TUMULI. 67
very similar to the patterns tattooed on their faces and bodies
by the New Zealanders. Examples of these will be seen
on the accompanying engravings, which exhibit some of
the more marked and distinct of the patterns noticed and
copied by Mr. Lukis, in his examination of this mound, and
Fig. 61.
described by him in the journal of the British Archaeological
Association, to the Council of which I am indebted for
these illustrations.
In England, besides those already named, and others,
"Wayland," or " Wieland Smith's Cave," at Ashbury, in
Berkshire ; one at Stoney Littleton, near Wellow, in Somer-
setshire ; the " Five Wells," at Taddington, in Derbyshire;
and one or two others in the same county, as well as in
other places, are the most important. The annexed wood-
cut, fig. 62, exhibits a section of the chambered tumulus at
Stoney Littleton, and fig. 63 is a ground plan of the same.
68
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
*'The entrance was on the north-west side, where a stone
upwards of seven feet long and three and a half feet wide,
supported by two others, left a square aperture of about four
Fig. 62.
feet high, which had been closed by another large stone.
This entrance led to a long passage or avenue, extending in
the direction from north-west to south-east forty-seven feet
Fig- 63.
/-'.
six inches, and varying in breadth. There were three
transepts, or recesses, on each side. The side walls were
formed of thin laminae of stone piled closely together without
cement, and a rude kind of arched roof made of stones so
placed as to overlap each other. When the large stones in
the side walls did not join, the interstices were filled up
with layers of small ones."* Interments had evidently
* T. Wright.
CHAMBERED TUMULI.
69
been made in each of these chambers, some by cremation,
and others by inhumation, but the bones were scattered
about, the result of previous rifling of its contents. One
urn was found.
Fig. 64.
fitt^^
The chambered tumulus, called the " Five Wells," near
Fig. 65.
Taddington, of which an engraving is here given (fig. 64),
has been a mound of large size, and the chambers and pas-
70 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
sages, or gallery, have been extensive. A plan of this
tumulus is given in fig. 65. The " Five Wells " tumulus
consists of two vaults or chambers, situated near the centre
of a cairn (which is about thirty yards in diameter), each
approached by a separate gallery or avenue, formed by
large limestones standing edgeways, extending through
the tumulus, respectively in a south-east and north-west
direction. These chambers are marked B and G on the
plan, G being the cist engraved on fig. 64. e E E are
stones supposed to be the capstones thrown down. Another
five- chambered tumulus in the same county is called
Ringham-Low, which has many interesting remains.
Another extremely important mound of this description
is the one at Uley, in Gloucestershire, of which an able
account has been written by Dr. Thurnham.* The mound
is about 120 feet in length, 85 feet in its greatest breadth,
and about 10 feet in height. It is higher and broader at
its east end than elsewhere. The entrance at the east end
is a trilithon, formed by a large flat stone upwards of eight
feet in length, and four and a half in depth, and supported
by two upright stones which face each other, so as to leave
a space of about two and a half feet between the lower
edge of the large stone and the natural ground. Entering
this, a gallery appears, running from east to west, about
twenty-two feet in length, four and a half in average width,
and five in height; the sides formed of large slabs of
stone, set edgeways, the spaces between being filled in
with smaller stones. The roof is formed, as usual, of flat
slabs, laid across and resting on the side-slabs. There are
two smaller chambers on one side, and there is evidence
of two others having existed on the other side. Several
skeletons were found in this fine tumulus when it was
opened, many years ago.
It will have been noticed that circles of stones surround-
* "Archaeological Journal," vol xi., p. 315.
STONE CIRCLES. 7I
ing grave-mounds have frequently been named in this and
the preceding chapter. It will, therefore, be well to devote
a few lines to these interesting remains.
Circles of stone of one kind or other are not unfrequently
to be noticed in various parts of the kingdom, and they vary
as much in their size and in their character as they do in
their other features. The bases of grave-mounds were
frequently defined by these circles, and sometimes by a
shallow fosse, and occasionally by a combination of both.
To this circumstance the origin of many of the circles of
stones remaining to this day are to be traced ; while others
of a far larger construction, and of a totally different cha-
racter, such as those of Stonehenge, Abury, Rollrich, and,
probably, Arbor-Low, have been formed for totally different
purposes. With these larger ones, except in so far as they
are connected with sepulchral tumuli, I have in my present
work but little to do. Of the smaller ones, those which
have surrounded grave-mounds, I will now proceed to give
some particulars.
Excavations into various grave-mounds have proved
beyond doubt the fact that, in many instances, when an
interment was made, the size of the proposed cairn to be
raised over the remains was marked by a circle of stones
laid on the surface of the ground, or inclining inwards, or
set upright in the earth. The stones were then piled up
within this enclosure, till the whole size and altitude of the
mound was reached. In the case of the Flax Dale barrow,
this mode of construction is shown in the next engraving
(fig. 66). A circle of large flat stones was placed upon the
surface of the earth, around the interment (which in this
case consisted of calcined bones, in urns and without), and
upon these a second course of stones was placed. The
mound was then raised in the manner indicated in fig. 4,
and over this a thick layer of earth was laid, which in-
creased both the circumference and the altitude of the
72
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
barrow. To render this crust more compact, fires were
evidently lit on the circumference of the circle, which had
Fig. 66.
the effect, by burning the soil, of hardening it, and making
it in some cases almost of the consistency of brick.
An example of the second mode of construction I have
indicated is at Elk-Low, a section of which is given on fig.
67. The barrow has a depression running around its upper
surface, something like an elevated fosse, as will be seen
in the section. The interments were made on the natural
surface of the ground, where, in the centre, lay a skeleton.
STONE CIRCLES.
73
on its right side, in a contracted position, with its head
resting on a piece of limestone which was placed as a
pillow. Other skeletons were also found, as was likewise
an interment of burnt bones, and some flint and stone
Fig. 67.
instruments. The outer circle was constructed of very
large stones inclining inwards, and covered with small
stones and earth, and thus forming an extremely durable
mound.
Both of these examples, if denuded of their mounds,
would form striking and very perfect stone circles, and
would be among the best remaining examples of small
" Druidical circles," as they are commonly called.
Where the circles have been formed of upright stones,
they have not, certainly, always been covered with the
mound, but have formed a kind of ring fence, a sort of
sacred enclosure, around the barrow. A great number of ex-
amples of this kind exist in different districts, and will easily
be recognised by the zealous archaeologist. The circle
next shown, on figs. 68 and 69, is that on Stanton Moor,
Fig. 68.
known by the name of the "Nine Ladies." This circle,
of which a plan is here given, is formed of a circular
mound of earth, on which the upright stones are placed.
kl
74 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
It is about thirty-six feet in diameter. It has formerly con-
sisted of a larger number of stones ; those that are now
Fig. 69.
<#.J
X'l \
'^y'
remaining being at irregular distances, varying from eight to
nineteen feet apart. In the centre are the remains of a
rifled sepulchral mound.
Another circle, bearing the same name, "The Nine
Ladies," is on Hartle Moor, but of this only four stones
are now remaining. It has undoubtedly been a sepulchral
mound, encircled by upright stones. On other parts of
these moors other circles have existed, or still exist, which
have, by excavations, been proved to have enclosed sepul-
chral deposits.
On Brassington Moor, near a fine chambered tumulus,
now unfortunately destroyed, existed two similar circles,
the one thirty-nine, and the other twenty-two, feet in
diameter. On Leam Moor, too, circles are known to have
existed, surrounding interments. On Eyam Moor circles
of this kind, encircling sepulchral mounds, exist. One of
these is about a hundred feet in diameter, and is, like the
" Nine Ladies " on Stanton Moor, formed of a circular
CONSTRUCTION OF STONE CIRCLES. 75
mound of earth, on which the stones are placed. Only ten
of the stones remain in situ. In the centre a cist was dis-
covered many years ago. Other circles occur in the same
county, on Abney Moor, on Froggat Edge, on the East
Moor, on Hathersage Moor, and in other localities.
On Dartmoor, in Devonshire, many circles yet remain,
as they do also in Cornwall and in other counties. Mr.
Blight, who has paid a vast deal of attention to the an-
tiquities of his native county, Cornwall, has collected
together many data concerning these structures, which
tend to throw much light upon their modes of construction,
as well as uses. To his researches I am indebted for much
of the following information regarding the Cornish circles,
and also for the diagrams which illustrate it. Upright
stones were, as in the case of the ring fences already
named, placed at tolerably regular intervals around the
barrow, either on the natural surface of the ground or on a
circular embankment thrown up for the purpose. The
intervening spaces were then, in many instances, filled in
with small stones, so as to form a compact kind of wall, as
shown in the next engraving. This mode of construction
Fig. 70.
was adopted for encircling grave-mounds, and in the form-
ing of hut dwellings, etc. It will easily be seen that in
course of time the loose walled parts would be thrown
down and disappear, while the uprights, being firmly fixed
in the ground, would remain, and would thus form the
stone circles as now seen, and as commonly called " Druid-
ical circles." In some instances, as in the case of the
circle enclosing a perfect stone cist, covered by a mound,
76
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
at Sancreed, shown on fig. 71, the upright stones touched
each other, and thus formed a remarkably fine enclosure.
This circle is about fifteen feet in diameter. Another
Fig. 71.
Fig. 72.
variety is shown in fig., 72. This is a double circle, or
rather two circles, one within the other, and about two feet
apart, surrounding a stone cist. The stones in this example
nearly touch each other. A somewhat similar one, but
with the circles farther apart from each other, exists in the
Isle of Man, and is shown on the ground plan (fig. 73).
Fig- 73-
The mound in this instance, probably, rose from the inner
circle only, and covered the central cist. In several in-
stances the interment was not in the centre of the circle,
but was made in different situations within its area. For
instance, in the next example (fig. 74), from Trewavae
STONE CIRCLES WITH CISTS.
77
Head, the cist is near to the circle of stones. The outer
diameter of the mound is thirty-five feet, the diameter of
Fig. 74-
the circle of stones being nineteen feet six inches.'' [Other
examples, similar in arrangement, might be adduced.
Fig. 75-
Fig. 75 shows a totally different construction. In this
instance the circle is composed of a number of stone cists,
yS GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
or sepulchral chambers, pretty close together, end to end.
This curious example, of which a somewhat analogous one
exists in the Channel Islands (see fig. 76), is on Mule Hill,
Fig. 76,
in the Isle of Man. Fig. 77 shows the remains of a stone
circle surrounding the larger of a pair of " twin-barrows,"
Fig. 77.
of which some of the stones have now disappeared.
The circle is about seventy feet in diameter, and the
STONE CIRCLES.
79
stones vary from six to eight feet in height. Fig. 78 is
the plan of another "twin-barrow," so called, the circle
Fig. 78.
in the larger being about thirty-five, and the smaller
twenty-four, feet in diameter. In the centre, at a b, are
the remains of a stone cist, or chamber. "The mounds
were both cairns of loose stones. Remains of other
barrows, similarly formed, occur in the vicinity. There
were two within a few hundred yards of the ' twin-barrow'
last described, the greater portions of which have recently
been taken away to build a neighbouring hedge, but of
which I found enough to show how they were built. First,
there was an enclosing circle of stones, some placed up-
right, some longitudinally (fig. 79), the intention being
Fig. 79.
simply to make an enclosing fence; within this the grave
was constructed ; then small stones heaped over the whole,
the cairn extending, by about six feet, outside the built
circle." The more perfect of the "twin-barrows" also
had the cairn extending beyond the circle.
Some larger circles, such, for instance, as the Bosawen-un
80 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
circle, eighty feet in diameter (fig. 80), the Aber circle
(fig. 81), and others, it is supposed, may have been formed
Fig. 80.
around a group of interments, instead of single interments,
as in many of the others. In some instances a single stone
Fig. 81.
CJ «^ o o ^
^
was placed to mark the place of interment. Three such
exist in the barrow at Berriew (fig. 82). A large circle
(fig. 83), twenty-seven yards in diameter, on Penmaen-
STONE CIRCLES.
Si
maur, was constructed of several uprights, connected by
smaller masonry. Here the interments were apparently
Fig. 82.
made beside the pillars. Against the inner side of the
tallest pillar a, on the eastern part, were the remains of a
small stone cist ; while against the pillar B, facing it on the
Fig. 83.
opposite side, was heaped up a small cairn. The whole is
surrounded by a ditch, within which, at c, is another small
cairn.
82
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Arbor-Low, in the High Peak of Derbyshire, to which
allusion has been made, is represented in fig. 84. No
sepulchral remains have been discovered within the circle,
Fig. 84.
but barrows of great extent, which have yielded important
remains on being excavated, are closely connected with it.
It is, however, probable, that interments have existed, and
been removed in past ages.
CHAPTER V.
Ancient British or Celtic Period — Pottery — Mode of manufacture —
Arrangement in classes — Cinerary or Sepulchral Urns — Food Vessels
— Drinking Cups — Incense Cups — Probably Sepulchral Urns for In-
fants — Other examples of Pottery.
T TAVING spoken of the principles of construction of
•^ -^ the grave-mounds of the Celtic period, and described
the various modes of interment which they exhibit, I now
proceed to speak of the objects found in them. Before doing
so, however, it is necessary to say, that in the course of
examination of barrows of this period it not unfrequently
happens that the spot where the funeral pyre has been lit
can very clearly be perceived. In these instances the
ground beneath is generally found to be burned to some
considerable depth; sometimes, indeed, it is burned to a
fine red colour, and approaches somewhat to brick. Where
it was intended that the remains should be collected to-
gether, and placed in an urn for interment, I apprehend,
from careful examination, that the urn, being formed of clay
— most probably, judging from the delicacy of touch, and
from the impress of fingers which occasionally remains, by
the females of the tribes — and ornamented according to the
taste of the manipulator, was placed in the funeral fire, and
there baked, while the body of the deceased was being con-
sumed. The remains of the calcined bones, the flints, etc.,
were then gathered up together, and placed in the urn ;
over which the mound was next raised. When it was not
intended to use an urn, then the remains were collected
together, piled up in a small heap, or occasionally enclosed
84 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
in a skin or cloth, and covered to some little thickness with
earth, and occasionally with small stones. Another fire was
then lit on the top of this small mound, which had the effect
of baking the earth, and enclosing the remains of calcined
bones, etc., in a kind of crust, resembling in colour and
hardness a partly baked brick. Over this, as usual, the
mound was afterwards raised.
The most important leature in the construction of the
grave-mounds of the Celtic period is, perhaps, the pottery,
and to this, therefore, the present chapter will be devoted.
The pottery of this period may be safely arranged in four
classes;* viz., i. Sepulchral t/nzs, which have contained,
or been inverted over, calcined human bones. 2. Food
Vessels (so called), which are supposed to have contained
an offering of food, and which are more usually found
with unburnt bodies than along with interments by cre-
mation. 3. Drinking Cups, which are usually ornamented.
4. Incense Cups (erroneously so called for want of more
knowledge of their use), which are very small vessels,
found only with burnt bones, and usually containing them,
in the large cinerary urns.
The pottery was, without doubt, made on, or near to, the
spot where found. It was, there is every probability, the
handiwork of the females of the tribe, and occasionally ex-
hibits no little elegance of form, and no small degree of
ornamentation. The urns, of whatever kind they may be,
are formed of the coarse common clay of the district where
made, occasionally mixed with small pebbles and gravel;
they are entirely wrought by hand, without the assistance
of the wheel, and are, the larger vessels especially, extremely
thick.
From their imperfect firing, the vessels of this period are
* For articles upon this subject see the " Reliquary, Quarterly Archaeo-
logical Journal and Review," vol. ii., pages 61 to 70; and Mr. Bateman's
" Ten Years' Diggings," page 279.
CELTIC POTTERY — CINERARY URNS. 85
usually called "sun-baked" or "sun-dried," but this is a
grave error, as any one conversant with examples cannot
fail, on careful examination, to see. If the vessels were
"sun-baked" only, their burial in the earth — in the tumuli
wherein, some two thousand years ago, they were deposited,
and where they have all that time remained — would soon
soften them, and they would, ages ago, have returned to their
old clayey consistency. As it is, the urns have remained
of their original form, and although, from imperfect baking,
they are sometimes found partially softened, they still retain
their form, and soon regain their original hardness. They
bear abundant evidence of the action of fire, and are, in-
deed, sometimes sufficiently burned for the clay to have
attained a red colour — a result which no "sun-baking"
could produce. They are mostly of an earthy brown colour
outside, and almost black in fracture, and many of the
cinerary urns bear internal and unmistakable evidence of
having been filled with the burnt bones and ashes of the
deceased, while those ashes were of a glowing and intense
heat. They were, most probably, fashioned by the females
of the tribe, on the death of their relative, from the clay to
be found nearest to the spot, and baked on or by the funeral
pyre. The glowing ashes and bones were then, as I have
already stated, collected together, and placed in the urn, and
the flint implements, and occasionally other relics belonging
to the deceased, deposited along with them.
The Cinerary, or Sepulchral, Urns vary very consider-
ably in size, in form, in ornamentation, and in material — the
latter, naturally, depending on the locality where the urns
were made ; and, as a general rule, they differ also in the
different tribes. Those which are supposed to be the most
ancient, from the fact of their frequently containing flint in-
struments along with the calcined bones, are of large size,
ranging from nine or ten, to sixteen or eighteen inches in
height. Those which are considered to belong to a some-
86
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
what later period, when cremation had again become gene-
ral, are of a smaller size, and of a somewhat finer texture.
With them objects of flint are rarely found, but articles of
bronze are occasionally discovered. The general form of
the cinerary urns will be best understood from the annexed
engravings.
The principal characteristic of the cinerary urns found in
Derbyshire and Staffordshire, and in some other districts,
is a deep overlapping border or rim, and their ornamentation,
always produced by indenting or pressing twisted thongs
into the soft clay, or by simple incisions, or by indentations
produced by simple means, as will be more particularly
named later on, is frequently very elaborate. It usually
consists of diagonal lines (see fig. 85) arranged in a variety
Fig. 85.
of ways, or of herring-bone or zigzag lines, or of reticu-
lations, or of rows of punctures, etc., etc. This ornamen-
tation is usually confined to the upper portion of the urn,
including the over-lapping rim and the neck; and in many
instances the upper edge and the inside of the rim were in
like manner ornamented. Some of the more usual forms
are the following.
Fig 86, from a barrow at Monsal Dale, was found along
with many other interesting relics. It is twelve inches in
CELTIC POTTERY — CINERARY URNS.
87
height, and has a deep overlapping border. When found,
it was inverted over a deposit of calcined bones placed on
some rough stones on the natural surface, and having among
them a calcined bone pin. Near it was a large mass of
limestone, and a celt-shaped instrument five inches long,
Fig. 86.
'"Ti.TTr
f-SA ill. »SC
with a cutting edge, formed from the lower jaw of some
animal. Another excellent example is exhibited in the
urn from Ballidon Moor (fig. 87). It is eleven and a half
inches in height, and measured nine inches in diameter at
the mouth. It is ornamented by patterns impressed in the
soft clay from a twisted thong. It contained burnt bones ;
amongst them were a portion of an animal's jaw, a fine
bone pin, four inches long, rats' bones, a fragment of pot-
tery, and a flint arrow-head. The presence of partially
burnt human bones in the sand, the discolouration of the
latter, and the occurrence of calcined rats' bones in the urns.
88 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
demonstrated the fact of the corpse having been consumed
Fig. 87.
upon the spot. The following engraving (fig. 88), exhi-
Fig. 88.
bitin^^ a section of the barrow, will show the position of the
CELTIC POTTERY — CINERARY URNS.
89
urn when found, and also of the other interments which it
contained.*
Fig. 89.
Fig. 89, from Trentham, Staffordshire, is a remarkably
* This barrow has been admirably described in that magnificent work,
" Crania Britannica," — a work which every ethnologist and antiquary
ought to possess, and which contains far more information than any
other book extant. The following extract from the work explains the
section : —
" Above this cist a cairn of fragments of sandstone had been raised
most likely before interments by cremation were practised on the spot.
The dark horizontal line of our woodcut indicates the situation of a
stratum of burnt earth traversing the barrow at this height. Funereal
go GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
fine urn of the same character as the preceding examples,
Fig. 90.
and fig. go, from Darwen, Lancashire, has a central band
rites, by incineration, had evidently been celebrated on this surface;
which was scattered over with a thin layer of wood-charcoal. In the
centre of the barrow, and resting upon this carbonaceous deposit, stood
a fine urn of dark British pottery, 11 inches high, and 9 at its greatest
diameter at the top ; not in the more commonly inverted, but in an up-
right position. It is ornamented in the usual style of lineal impressions,
most probably made by a twisted thong of untanned leather, with rows
of lines, alternately upright and horizontal, around the upper division;
and in the middle the lines are varied into the zigzag, having distir.ct
crosses and other impressions in the intervals. It contained calcined
bones in a clean state, and mingled with them a portion of the jaw of
some animal; bones of the water-vole (Arvicola amphibius, Desmar.),
so common in the Derbyshire barrows ; a bone pin, 4 inches in length,
CELTIC POTTERY CINERARY URNS.
91
as well as the overlapping rim. Figs, gi and 92 are of
totally different form ; their ornamentation consisting of
Fig. 91.
Fig. 92.
incised lines and impressed thumb marks, etc.* They are
and finely pointed ; and a flint arrow-head ; all calcined. The urn was
closed by a large flat stone, the two ends of which rested upon side
walls, so as to protect the deposit, and secure it from superincumbent
pressure. Did this urn contain the inconsiderable yet sacred remains of
one whose devotion in life the distinguished dead below had oft expe-
rienced — one who held life itself subordinate to his fate ? The fearful
conjecture seems not by any means improbable.
" Interred in the soil above this portion of the barrow, and lying
amongst loose stones, the remains of four other skeletons occurred,
placed in the primitive flexed position. One of these had apparently
been disturbed at no long period subsequent to interment, and the bones
laid in order before they had become decayed — a practice adopted by
some uncivilized people in more modern times.
" This barrow of the British period presents unquestionable evidences
of very primeval times, and contained the relics of a true aboriginal in-
habitant of these islands, piously laid in his last resting-place with great
care, but in all rude simplicity. It is rich in instruction, and marked by
precise phases of information. It shows almost certainly the contem-
poraneous adoption of inhumation and cremation — the latter, perhaps,
yielding to the first a short precedency ; or possibly, in this instance, a
rite of the nature of a " Suttee," and subordinate to the former.
* Warne's " Celtic Tumuli of Dorsetshire."
92 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
from Dorsetshire. The next example, from Darley Dale
Fi?- 93-
(fig- 93)' is of a different type, as are also figs. 94, from
Stone, Staffordshire, and 95 and 96, from Cleatham, in Lin-
colnshire. Other forms, again, are shown on fig. 97, from
the Calais Wold-barrow, Yorkshire, discovered by Mr. Mor-
timer. It is eleven inches in height, and is ornamented with
a number of small semi-punctures. Avery fine urn was dis-
covered by the Rev, Canon Greenwell in a barrow on Sutton
Brow, near Thirsk, in the same county. It is sixteen
inches in height, and eighteen in width, and is ornamented
94
GRAVE-MOUND ^ AND THEIR CONTENTS.
with lines produced by an impressed cord or thong, and by
semi-punctures or indentations. The next example (fig. 98)
is from Darley Dale, and is, as will be seen from the engrav-
ing, of a very different character from the other examples
given. Around the upper portion are encircling lines, be-
tween which is the usual zigzag ornament. Around the
central band, too, are encircling lines, between which are a
CELTIC POTTERY — CINERARY URNS. g-
series of vertical zigzag lines. The whole of the ornamenta-
tion has been produced by pressing twisted thongs into the
pliant clay — some, however, being of much tighter twist
than others. Inside, the rim is ornamented with encircling
Fig. g8.
and diagonal lines. It has on its centre band four project-
ing handles or loops, which are pierced, as shown in the
engraving. Another form, with small loops on its sides, is
shown on fig. gg, which was found in one of the Cornish
barrows, as was also fig. lOO, which appears to have a kind
of ear, or semi-handle, at its sides.
96 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
The Food Vessels, the next division, vary considerably,
Fig. 99.
in form, in size, and in ornamentation, from the very
Fig. 100.
rudest to the most elegant and elaborate. These vesseis are
CELTIC POTTERY FOOD VESSELS.
97
generally wide at the mouth, and taper gradually down-
wards from the central band. They are found both where
the interments have been by inhumation and by cremation,
but much more frequently with the former. In these in-
stances they are more usually placed near the head of the
skeleton than in other positions, although they are occa-
sionally found placed otherwise. Their average size is
from four to six inches in height, and the ornamentation is
produced in the same manner as has already been spoken
of in reference to the cinerary urns, viz., by impressing
twisted thongs or cords into the soft clay, by punctures,
and by indentations produced in a variety of ways.
The "food vessels," like the cinerary urns, have evi-
dently been made from the clay of the district where the
interment has taken place, and they have been " fired " to
about an equal degree of hardness with them.
Their general form will be best understood from the
following examples, chosen from different districts.
Ficr. lOI.
The first example (fig. 99), from Trentham, in Stafford-
7
98
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
shire, is, it will be seen, of very rude form and make, and
its ornamentation of simple character. Fig. 102, from
Fi?. 102.
Fimber, in Yorkshire (5I inches in depth and 6^ inches
wide at the mouth), is of a more usual form, and is more
CELTIC POTTERY FOOD VESSELS. 99
advanced in point of ornamentation. Fig. 103 is from
Hitter Hill, Derbyshire, as is also fig, 104. They were
found in the interments shown on figs, 10, ii, and 12.
The first of these urns is four and three quarter inches in
height, and five and a half inches in diameter at the top-
It is richly ornamented with the usual diagonal and herring-
bone lines, formed by twisted thongs impressed into the
soft clay, in its upper part. Around the body of the urn
itself, however, is a pattern of lozenge form, very unusual
on vessels of this period. The second urn is five and a
quarter inches in height, and six and a quarter inches in
diameter at the top. It is very richly ornamented with the
characteristic patterns found on the Celtic urns of this
district, and is one of the finest and most elaborately or-
namented which has been exhumed.
On Wykeham Moor, Yorkshire, some urns of a different
form, wide at the mouth, were discovered by that hard-
working antiquary, the Rev. Canon Greenwell.
Fig. 105 is from Monsal Dale, Derbyshire, and fig. 106,
lOO GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
from Fimber, Yorkshire, was found along with fig. 107.
Fig. 105.
These, as will be at once seen, are of a different character
Fig. 106.
from the preceding examples, in so far that on four sides
CELTIC POTTERY — DRINKING CUPS. lOI
they have in the central sunk band a kind of handle or
raised stud, which in some instances is pierced in the
same manner as the cinerary urn (figs. gS and gg). They are
among the most elaborate, in point of ornamentation, of
any of these interesting vessels. Other forms, besides those
indicated, are occasionally found.
The Drinking Cups are the most highly and elaborately
ornamented of any of the varieties of Celtic fictile art
found in barrows. They are found with the skeleton, and
are usually placed behind the shoulder. In size they range
from about six to nine inches in height. They are usually
tall in form, contracted in the middle, globular in their
lower half, and expanding at the mouth. Their ornamenta-
tion, always elaborate, usually covers the whole surface,
and is composed of indented lines placed in a variety of
ways, so as to form often intricate, but always beautiful,
patterns, and by other indentations, etc. They are much
more delicate in manipulation than the other varieties of
urns.
Instances have been known in which a kind of incrusta-
tion has been very perceptible on their inner surface, thus
showing that their use as vessels for holding liquor is
certain, the incrustation being produced by the gradual
drying up of the liquid with which they had been filled
when placed with the dead body.
Fig. 107, from a barrow at Fimber, is an elegant and
highly characteristic example of this kind of vessel. It
stood close behind the shoulders of the skeleton of a strong-
boned middle-aged man, which lay on its right side. The
ornamentation is most elaborate and delicate, and it is,
perhaps, one of the finest and best preserved examples in
existence.
The next tv/o engravings (figs. 108 and log) show two
excellent examples, the first from the Hay Top barrow
and the second from a barrow at Grind- Low, of a slightly
i_
vv^^fiOC?^-^' 'c^ii^<^.aS^^Xi^}^^ti^^^^^^^.
CELTIC POTTERY DRINKING CUPS.
103
different form at the mouth. The next example (fig. 1 10),
found in Derbyshire, is of different shape, and has the
unusual feature of being ornamented in quite as elaborate a
manner on its bottom as it is around its sides. The bottom
Fie. no.
<^.jM!\H'^':^A
^- i^^S^X'-'W
=^SS2SSS5SSto,
is shown on fig. in. The ornamentation throughout is
produced by the indentations of twisted thongs into the
soft clay. Figs. 112 and 113 are of a different form and
character; the first of these is from Roundway Hill, Wilt-
shire (see fig. 8 for interment with which this interesting
Fier. III.
CELTIC POTTERY INCENSE CUPS. IO5
vessel was found), and the second from " Gospel Hillock,"
in Derbyshire. Others of a similar form have been found
also in Yorkshire and other counties.
Those which have been engraved are, perhaps, the most
Fig. 113.
usual of the forms of the drinking cups, but other shapes
are occasionally discovered.
The next division, the so-called " Incense Cups," a name
which ought to be discarded, consists of diminutive vessels
which, when found at all (which is seldom) are found
inside the sepulchral urns, placed on, or among, the calcined
bones, and frequently themselves also filled with burnt
bones. They range from an inch and a half to about three
inches in height, and are sometimes highly ornamented,
and at others plain.
The examples I here introduce (figs. 114 to 125) will give
a good general idea of these curious little vessels, which
I believe have not been "incense cups," but small urns to
receive the ashes of an infant, perhaps sacrificed at the
Fig. 114-
Fig. 115.
Fig. 116.
Fig. 117.
Fie;. 118.
Fig. 119.
Fig. 120.
Fig. 121.
CELTIC POTTERY HANDLED VESSELS.
107
Fijj;. 122
Fig- 123.
Fig. 124.
Fig. 125.
death of its mother, so as to admit of being placed within
the larger urn containing the remains of its parent. The
contents of barrows give, as I have before stated, incon-
testible evidence of the practice of sacrificing not only
horses, dogs, and oxen, but of human beings, at the graves
of the Ancient Britons. Slaves were sacrificed at their
masters' graves ; and wives, there can be no doubt, were
sacrificed and buried with their husbands, to accompany
them in the invisible world upon which they were enter-
ing. It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that infants were
occasionall}'- sacrificed on the death of their mothers, in
the belief that they would thus partake of her care in
the strange land to which, by death, she was removed.
Whether from sacrifice, or whether from natural causes,
the mother and her infant may have died together, it is
only reasonable to infer from the situation in which these
io8
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
" incense cups " are found (either placed on the top of a
heap of burnt bones, or inside the sepulchral urn con-
taining them), and from their usually containing small
calcined bones, that they were receptacles for the ashes of
the infant, to be buried along with those of its mother.
The form will be seen to vary from the simplest salt-
cellar-like cup to the more elaborately rimmed and orna-
mented vase. Some are pierced with holes, as if for
suspension, and one or two examples have handles at the
side. The best examples of this kind are those shown on
figs. I20, 124, and 125.
Among the most curious vessels of this period may pos-
Fig. 126.
sibly be reckoned the singular one here engraved (fig. 126), of
which form only two examples have been discovered. They
are much in shape like the drinking cups before engraved,
but have the addition of a handle at the side, which gives
them the character of mugs. One of these is in the Ely
museum, and the other in the Bateman museum.
CHAPTER VI.
Ancient British or Celtic Period — Implements of Stone — Celts — Stone
Hammers — Stone Hatchets, Mauls, etc. — Triturating Stones — Flint
Implements — Classification of Flints — Jet Articles — Necklaces, Studs,
etc. — Bone Instruments — Bronze Celts, Daggers, etc. — Gold Articles.
'T^HE implements of stone found in the Celtic grave-
mounds, or in their immediate neighbourhood, consist
of celts* or adzes, hammer-heads or axe-heads, mauls, etc.,
etc. They are of various materials — chert, shale, green-
stone, syenite, basalt, porphyry, felstone, serpentine, sand-
stone, limestone, etc., etc., and of various degrees of
finish and w^orkmanship.
Stone celts of one form or other are the most common of
all stone implements. In shape they are not inaptly de-
scribed as being like the mussel shell. The lower, or cutting
end is slightly convex, and rubbed down to a fine-shaped
edge. As this cutting edge has become dulled or chipped
by use it has been again and again rubbed down and
sharpened, until, in many instances which have come under
my notice, the celt has been shortened fully one-third or
more of its original length. The forms of these instru-
ments will be seen in the examples here following (fig. 127
and in the succeeding figures). Fig. 132 is, perhaps, the
most usual of these forms. It is of the same type as the
first example on the previous engraving. Another excellent
example is given on the illustration (fig. 134). It is of
chert, and has, as will be seen, straight sides instead of the
* Celt, from Ccltis, a chisel.
no
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
usual curved ones. It is now 5^ inches long, but has pro-
bably originally been much longer, having been rubbed down
in sharpening.
Fig. 127. Fig. 128. Fig. 129. Fig. 130. Fig. 131.
Stone hammers are occasionally found in grave-mounds.'
They vary much both in form and size, as will be best
Fig. 132.
understood from the following engravings. Fig. 133 was
found at Woolaton, and is remarkable for being hollow on
its upper and lower surfaces, and ribbed or fluted along
Fig. 133-
lliJl^ iilll
112 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
its sides. It is eleven inches* long, four inches in w^idth,
Fig- 134-
and three inches in thickness. Fig. 135, found at Winster,
Fig. 135-
is thin, very taper, and of very different form. It is ten
Fig. 136. Fig. 137.
inches long. Other examples are shown in figs. 136 and
* This is one of the largest examples which have been found. It is
STONE IMPLEMENTS. II3
137. Occasionally they partake more of the hatchet shape.
Fig. 138.
A good example is fig, 138, and others of still more elabo-
Fig. 139. Fig. 140. Fig. 141.
rate form have occasionally been discovered. Examples of
Fig. 142.
another variety, generally called mauls, which partake more
of the common mallet form, are here given on figs. 139,
in my own collection, having been most kindly presented to me by the
Hon. and Rev. C. Willoughby.
8
114
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
140, and 141. The first is from Horsley, Derbyshire, and
the other two are from Ireland. A different variety (named
punches or cutters) is shown on fig. 142, which was found
at Mickleover.
Rough stones, which have probably been used for triturat-
ing purposes, for the grinding of corn, etc., are occasionally
found. In the Derbyshire barrows, for instance, portions of
rubbed stones, and also of rubbers, have now and then been
discovered. Two triturating stones, belonging to a differ-
F'g- 143-
Fig. 144.
ent period, are given, for purposes of comparison, on figs.
143 and 144.* Whetstones, spindle-whorls, and other
* For a lengthened description and classification of the various forms
of stone implements, the reader is referred to a new work, " The Ancient
Stone Implements of Great Britain," by that able antiquary, Mr. John
Evans, the author of the admirable volume on " Ancient British Coins,"
by which his name is so well known.
I
FLINT IMPLEMENTS, II5
objects of stone, are also occasionally found. One of these
spindle-whorls is shown on fig. 145,
Flints, i.e., various instruments formed of flint, are un-
doubtedly the most abundant of any relics of the Ancient
Britons found in or about grave-mounds. They are ex-
tremely varied in form, and many of them are of the most
exquisite workmanship — such, indeed, as would completely
baffle the skill, great though that skill undoubtedly is, of
" Flint Jack"* to copy. The arrangement, classification,
and nomenclature of flints is at present so uncertain, and
so mixed up with absurd theories, that it is difficult to know
how to place them in a common-sense manner. All I shall
attempt to do in my present work — which is intended to
describe, generally, the relics to be found in the barrows of
the period, and not to be a disquisition on flints alone — will
be to give examples of some of the more usual forms which
have from time to time been found, so as to facilitate com-
parisons with those of various districts and countries.
Of barbed arrow-heads, the examples here given will be
sufficient to show the variety of forms and sizes which are
usually found. The three first examples are from Green-
Low, and are in the Bateman museum ; the next three (figs.
149, 150, and 151) are also from Derbyshire examples in
my own collection ; fig. 152 is also from my own collection,
but of a totally different form, approaching to the next
example, fig. 153, which is in the museum of the Royal
* For a memoir, with portrait, of this remarkable character, and an
account of his doings, see the Reliquary, vol. viii., p. 65, et seq.
ii6
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Irish Academy. Fig. 149 will be noticed to be peculiarly
elegant in form, and marvellously delicate in manufacture
Fig. 146. Fig. 147. Fig. 148.
Fig. 152.
Fig- 153-
— the barbs being extremely sharp and clearly defined. It
is engraved of its full size, as are most of the other
FLINT IMPLEMENTS,
117
examples. Fig. 150 measures two and five-eighths inches
in length.
The dagger-blade variety is of what is usually called the
"leaf-shaped" type, and is the prototype of the bronze
dagger of a later period. The example here given (fig, 154)
Fig. 154.
is from Green-Low, and is of remarkably fine form. Another,
and of perhaps much finer form, is shown on the accom-
panying plate (fig. 155). It was found at Arbow-Low, in
June, 1865, and is five and seven-eighths inches in length,
and nearly two and a quarter inches in width in the centre.
In its thickest part it is scarcely three-eighths of an inch
in thickness, and is chopped and worked with the utmost
nicety to a fine edge. It will be noticed that its sides, as
they begin to diminish, are deeply serrated for fastening
Fig. 155-
^avjv
FLINT IMPLEMENTS.
119
with thongs to the haft or handle. It is engraved the exact
size of the original.
The next illustrations exhibit a different variety of flints.
They are arrow-heads of the leaf-shaped types, and exhibit
four varieties. Figs. 156 and 157 are from Calais Wold,
in Yorkshire; fig. 158 is from Gunthorpe, in Lincoln-
shire ; and fig. 159, which is of remarkably elegant form,
is from Ringham-Low, Derbyshire. They are engraved of
their full size. This type of flint varies, it will be seen,
from the acutely angled and sharply pointed shapes to those
of a nicely rounded and egg-shaped form. Two other re-
Fig. 156.
Fig- 157-
Fig. 158.
Fig- 159-
markable examples, possibly spear-heads, are here engraved,
from the Calais Wold barrow, in Yorkshire (figs. 160 and
161). They are among the finest examples which have
ever been found.
Another type, one not common in England, is shown on
fig. 162. It is a fine example, and was found in Derbyshire,
It is deeply serrated on the edges, and at its base is cut for
tying with a thong. It is here engraved of its full size.
Fig. i6o.
Fig. i6x.
Fig. 162.
r"ig 163.
I
FLINT IMPLEMENTS.
121
Fig. 163 is a modification of this form, and is a good
example of its kind. Figs. 164 and 165 are Derbyshire
examples in my own collection, and are good specimens of
another class of flint instruments not unfrequently found
in grave-mounds and elsewhere.
Fig. 164.
Fig. 165.
Another variety, again, and one which varies extremely,
both in size and in form, is what, I suppose for want of a
Fig. 166.
better name, is the kind usually called "scrapers," or "flint
knives." One example (fig. 166) will be sufficient.
Another description, again, which appears more intended
for throwing than for any other purpose, and which, with its
sharp cutting edges, and the unerring aim of the Briton,
must have been indeed a deadly weapon, is frequently
122
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
found, and is shown on fig. 167. It is a simple circular
lump of flint, an inch and a half or a couple of inches or
more in diameter; flat on one side and chipped into a
roundness on the other. These are often called " thumb
flints."
Flakes of various sizes and forms constantly occur, and
Fig. I
Fig. 167.
Fig. 169.
are called by many absurd names. Small, delicately
formed, and very beautiful flints, of an oviform or circular
shape, are also found (fig. 168), as are a large number of
Fig. 170.
other forms besides those I have illustrated. These will,
however, be sufficient for my present purpose, and will
enable the reader to form a pretty correct and extended
NECKLACES, ETC., OF JET.
123
estimate of the number and variety of flints which the
grave-mounds produce, Celts of flint are also occasionally
found. An example here shown (fig. 170) was discovered
in a very interesting barrow called " Gospel Hillock," at
Cow Dale, near Buxton, by Captain Lukis. It measured
four and a half inches in length.
Fig. 171.
In Jet, the articles found consist of beads, rings, neck-
laces, studs, etc., and some of these are of the utmost
beauty. A very elaborate example of necklace, found by
124
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Mr. Bateman in the cist (fig. 28) on Middleton Moor, is
here engraved (fig. 171). The beads of which it is composed
lay about the neck of the skeleton. It was formed of vari-
ously shaped beads and other ornaments of jet and bone
curiously ornamented. The various pieces of this elabo-
rate necklace count 420 in number; 348 being thin laminae,
54 of cylindrical form, and the remaining 18, conical studs
and perforated plates, so^ne of which are ornamented with
punctures.
Another example (fig. 172), with elongated beads, and
pierced ornaments of bone, is here given.
Fie
Another good example is engraved on the next page. It
was found at Fimber, by Mr. Mortimer, and consists of
171 laminae, or small jet discs (No. 2), and a triangular
pendant, or centre, of jet (No. 3), an inch in length, and
perforated in the middle.
Studs and pendants of jet are of various forms, and are
perforated for suspension in a variety of waj^s. Fig. 174
shows a jet stud from Gospel Hillock. It is engraved of its
full size, as is also the next example (fig. 175), from the
Calais Wold barrow. These are very similar in form, and
Fig. 173-
126
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
in their perforations. Another form, a ring pierced for
suspension, is shown on fig. 176.
Implements of bone are frequently found, but in many
instances their use is not easily determined. They consist
chiefly of modelling tools (supposed to have been used in
Fig. 174.J
Fig. 175.
Fig. 176.
the manufacture of pottery), pins, mesh-rules, studs, pen-
dants, and other personal ornaments ; lance-heads, spear-
heads, whistles (?), hammers, and beads. Some of these
are shown in figs. 177 to 182.
Fig. 177.
Fig. 178.
Fig. 179.
Fig. 181.
Fig 182.
128
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
In Bronze, the articles found are celts, daggers, awls,
pins, etc. Celts are, however, but seldom met with in
barrows, although frequently ploughed up in the course of
agricultural operations. Palstaves and socketed celts, etc.,
are also occasionally picked up. The ordinary form of celt
Fig. 183.
will be best understood by the engravings here given (figs.
183 and 185) from Irish examples, and by the next figure
(187), from Moot-Low, near Dove Dale. One of these
celts, of precisely similar form to fig. 187, found in a barrow
Ficr. I
Fig. 185.
Fig. 186.
Fig. 187.
130 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
at Shuttlestone, has been the means of throwing con-
siderable Hght on the mode of interment adopted. The
barrow contained " the skeleton of a man in the prime of
life and of fine proportions, apparently the sole occupant
of the mound, who had been interred whilst enveloped in a
skin of dark red colour, the hairy surface of which had left
many traces both upon the surrounding earth and upon the
verdigris or patina coating of a bronze axe-shaped celt and
dagger, deposited with the skeleton. On the former weapon
there are also beautifully distinct impressions of fern leaves,
handfuls of which, in a compressed and half-decayed state,
surrounded' the bones from head to foot. From these
leaves being discernible on one side of the celt only, whilst
the other side presents traces of leather alone, it is certain
that the leaves were placed first as a couch for the recep-
tion of the corpse, with its accompaniments, and after these
had been deposited, were then further added in quantity
sufficient to protect the body from the earth."* With the
skeleton, besides the celt, were a fine bronze dagger, with
two rivets for attachments to the handle, which had been of
horn, the impression of the grain being quite distinctly
perceptible ; a small jet bead ; and a circular flint. The
celt had been, as was evident from the grain of wood still
remaining, driven vertically, for about two inches of its
length, into a wooden handle.
Other forms of celts are shown on the accompanying
series of figures (184, 185, 186, and 188 to 195), and another
excellent example is fig. ig6, which has the loop (as also fig.
197) for attaching to the handle by means of a thong. A
great many other varieties are also met with.
The bronze daggers which barrows have afforded vary in
length from two and a half or three, to five and a half
or six, inches, on the average ; the larger ones being an
* " Ten Years' Diggrin^s."
Fig. 192
Fig. 193. Fig. 194. Fig. 195. Fig. 196.
132 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
inch and a half to three inches in breadth at their broadest
part, where the handle has been attached, from whence
they taper gradually down to the point. They are some-
times ribbed or fluted. In most instances the handle has
been attached by three rivets; in some cases, however, as
in fig. ig8, only two have been used, and occasionally there
Fig. 198.
is evidence of the attachment being effected by thong or
other ligature. The handles were of horn or wood, and
were usually semi-lunar where attached to the blade; in
one instance, however, the blade has a "tang" or "shank,"
which has fitted into the square-ended handle, to which it
has been fastened by a single peg. The blades occasion-
ally present incontestible evidence of long use, having been
worn down by repeated sharpenings. In the instance of
the dagger found at Stanshope, which had been fastened to
the handle by a couple of rivets as well as by ligatures,
evidence existed of its having been enclosed in a sheath of
leather, and this example also presented the somewhat
curious feature of impressions of maggots, which had pro-
bably made their way from the decaying body into the in-
side of the sheath, between it and the blade, and had there
remained, and thus gradually become marked upon the
corrugated surface of the bronze.
Articles of gold, and coins, are extremely rare as found
in grave-mounds, although not unusually turned up in their
neighbourhoods, and in places which have been inhabited
by the pre-historic races. Simply for the purpose of show-
COINS.
ing the character of some of the .Celtic coins, the following
engravings are given.
Fig. 201.
Fig. 202.
Fig. 203.
Fig. 205.
Of torques of gold, and other remains in that metal, I
shall speak in a later chapter.
CHAPTER VII.
Romano-British Period— General characteristics— Modes of Burial —
Customs attendant on Burial — interments by cremation and by inhu-
mation — Barrows — Tombs of Stone — Lead Coffins — Clay and Tile
Coffins — Sepulchral Inscriptions, etc.
'T^HE grave-mounds and burial-places of the Romano-
-■- British period are, naturally, in many districts, far
more abundant than those of the preceding period, while,
in others again, as in Derbyshire and Cornwall, and some
other counties, they are far less common than the Celtic
ones. In these counties the Reman was, it would seem,
more of a " bird of passage" (as well as, to some extent, a
"bird of prey") than a settler, and the consequence is, that
no remains — or next to no remains — of villas or of settle-
ments are found, and that where burial has taken place it
has not unusually been in the same mound with those of an
earlier period. The Ancient Briton raised the mounds over
the remains of his own people ; and his Roman subjugator,
as occasion required, took possession of them, and therein
laid his own dead. Thus the same barrow is sometimes
found to contain, besides its primary Celtic interment, and
others belonging to the same race, later deposits (nearer to
the surface or to the side) of the Romano-British or of the
Anglo-Saxon periods.
In other counties, where the Roman population made
permanent settlements and built their towns and villas,
regular cemeteries were formed for the burial of their dead,
and to these mainly are we indebted for a knowledge of
their customs and of their arts. The burials were, as in
BURIAL CUSTOMS. 135
the previous period, both by inhumation and by cremation.
The first appears to have been the most ancient practice of
the Roman people, and it was not, as is stated, until the
time of the dictator Sylla that burning of the dead was
practised. From his time downward both of these usages
were in vogue, according as the friends of the deceased
preferred. So indiscriminately were these usages adopted
in England that both are found in the same burial-places,
and indeed (as in those of the Celtic period) in close prox-
imity to each other.
The cemeteries attached to Roman towns were outside
the walls, and usually by the road leading to the chief
town — Londinium. In the country the owner of a villa
had his burial-place in his own precincts. •■* Almost always,
except when the interment was made in an earlier barrow,
the dead were laid near to the living. In fact, the Roman
seems, even when dead, to have still courted the proximity
of the living, for he always by preference sought to estab-
lish his last home as near as possible to the most frequented
road ; and the inscriptions on his roadside tomb often con-
tained appeals to the passers-by — in terms such as siste
VIATOR [stay, traveller), or, tv qvisqvis es qvi transis (thou,
whoever thou art, who passest) — to think on the departed.
The epitaph on a Roman named LoUius, published by
Griiter, concludes with the following words, intimating that
he was placed by the roadside in order that the passer-by
might say, " Farewell, LoUius 1 "
HIC . PROPTER , VIAM . POSITVS
UT . DICANT . PRAETEREVNTES
LOLLI . VALE.
These examples will explain the position of the cemeteries
of Uriconium and other Roman towns in Britain.
Mr. Wright, than whom no one is more able to speak
* Reliquary for October, i85i.
I3O GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
authoritatively on the matter, thus speaks of the burial cus-
toms and observances of the Romans in Britain ; and as it
is necessary, before speaking of the objects found with the
sepulchral remains of the people, to give a sketch of the
formalities attending their death and burial, his account
will add considerable interest to their consideration.
" The last duty to the dying man was to close his eyes,
which was usually performed by his children, or by his
nearest relatives, who, after he had breathed his last, caused
his body first to be washed with warm water, and after-
wards to be anointed. Those who performed this last-
mentioned office were called pollinctores. The corpse was
afterwards dressed, and placed on a litter in the hall, with
rts feet to the entrance door, where it was to remain seven
days. This ceremony was termed collocatio, and the object
of it is said to have been to show that the deceased had
died a natural death, and that he had not been murdered.
In accordance with the popular superstition, a small piece
of money was placed in the mouth, which it was supposed
would be required to pay the boatman Charon for the pas-
sage over the river Styx. In the case of persons of sub-
stance, incense was burnt in the hall, which was often
decked with branches of cypress, and a keeper was ap-
pointed, who did not quit the body until the funeral was
completed. The public having been invited by proclama-
tion to attend the funeral, the body was carried out on the
seventh day, and borne in procession, attended by the
relatives, friends, and whoever chose to attend, accom-
panied by musicians, and sometimes with dancers, mounte-
banks, and performers of various descriptions. With rich
people, the images of their ancestors were carried in the
procession, which always passed through the Forum on its
way to the place of burial, and sometimes a friend mounted
the rostrum, and pronounced a funeral oration. In earlier
times the burial always took place by night, and was at-
BURIAL CUSTOMS, I37
tended with persons carrying lamps or torches, but this
practice seems to have been afterwards neglected ; yet
the lamps still continued to be carried in the procession.
Women, who were called prccficcc, were employed not only
to howl their lamentations over the deceased, and chant his
praises, like the Irish keeners, but to cry also ; and their
tears, it appears, were collected into small vessels of glass;
and this circumstance is termed, in some of the inscrip-
tions found on the Continent, being ' buried with tears '
— sepidtics cum lacrymis ; and the tomb is spoken of as
being ' full of tears ' — tvmvl . lacrim . plen.
" The next ceremony was that of burning the body. In the
earlier ages of their history the Romans are said to have
buried the bodies of their dead entire, without burning;
and there seems to be no doubt that, at all events, the two
practices, burning the body and cremation, existed at the
same time ; but the latter appears to have become gradually
more fashionable, until few but paupers were buried other-
wise. In the age of the Antonines the practice cf cremation
was finally abolished in Italy ; but the imperial ordinances
appear to have had but little effect in the distant provinces,
where the two manners of burial continued to exist simul-
taneously. Both are accordingly found in the Roman ceme-
teries in Britain, in interments which were undoubtedly
not those of Christians. Perhaps the practices varied in
different parts of the island, according to the usages of the
country from which the colonists derived their origin. It is
a circumstance worthy of remark that, as far as discoveries
yet go, no trace has been met with of burials in the Roman
cemeteries of Uriconium, otherwise than by burning the
dead.
" The funeral pile, pyra, was built of the most inflammable
woods, to which pitch was added, and other things, which
often rendered this part of the ceremony very expensive.
An inscription, preserved by Griiter, speaks of some persons
138 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
whose property was only sufBcient to pay for the funeral
pile and the pitch to burn their bodies — nee ex eorum bonis
plus inventum est quam quod sujjiceret ad emendam pyratn
et picem quibus corpora cremarentur. It had been ordered
by a law of the Twelve Tables, that the funeral pile must
be formed of timber which was rough and untouched by the
axe, but this ru'.e was perhaps not very closely adhered to
in later times. When the body was laid on the pile, the
latter was sprinkled with wine and other liquors, and in-
cense and various unguents and odoriferous spices were
thrown upon it. It was now, according to some accounts,
that the Jiauliim, or the coin for the payment of the passage
over the Styx, was placed in the mouth of the corpse, and
at the same time the eyes were opened. Fire was applied
to the pile by the nearest relatives of the deceased, who, in
doing this, turned their faces from it while it was burning ;
the relatives and friends often threw into the fire various
objects, such as personal ornaments, and even favourite
animals and birds. When the whole was reduced to ashes,
these were sprinkled with wine (and sometimes with milk),
accompanied with an invitation to the manes, or spirit of
the deceased. The reader will call to mind the lines of
Virgil (iEn. vi. 226): —
' Postquam collapsi cineres, et flamma quievit,
Relliquias vino et bibulam lavere favillam,
Ossaque lecta cado texit Corynaeus aeno.'
"The next proceeding, indeed, was to collect what re-
mained of the bones from the ashes, which was the duty of
the mother of the deceased, or, if the parents were not
living, of the children, and was followed by a new offering
of tears. Some of the old writers speak of the difficulty of
separating the remains of the burnt bones from the wood
ashes, and we accordingly find them usually mixed to-
gether. When collected, the bones were deposited in an
BURIAL CUSTOMS. I39
urn, which was made of various materials. The urn in
Virgil was made of brass, or perhaps bronze. Instances
are mentioned of silver, and even gold, being used for this
purpose, as well as of marble ; and those found in Britain
are often of glass, but the more common material was
earthenware. One of the performers in the ceremony,
whose duty this was, then* purified the attendants by
sprinkling them thrice with water, with an olive branch (if
that could be obtained), and the prcEJicce pronounced the
word Ilicet (said to be a contraction of Ire licet, ' you may
go'). Those who had attended the funeral, thrice addressed
the word Vale (farewell) to the manes of the dead, and
departed. A sumptuous supper was usually given after the
funeral to the relatives and friends.
" In the case of people of better rank, the body was burnt
on the ground which had been purchased for the sepulchre,
but for the poorer people there was a public burning-place,
which was called the ustrina, where the process was pro-
bably much less expensive, and whence the urn, with the
remains {relliquice) of the deceased, was carried to be in-
terred. The tombs of rich families were often large and
even splendid edifices, with rooms inside, in the walls of
which were small recesses, where the urns were placed.
None of the buildings remain in any Roman cemetery in
our island, but we can hardly doubt that such tombs did
exist in the cemetery of Uriconium, and that they were
scattered along the side of the Watling Street. At one
place at Uriconium the foundations of a small building
were met with, which appeared to have consisted of an
oblong square, with a rectangular recess behind, but the
western portion of it has been destroyed by the process of
draining. When opened, ashes and fragments of an urn
were found in the enclosed space, so that it is not im-
probable that this may have been a tomb with a room. An
inscribed stone, which was found not far from this spot.
140 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
bears evidence, in the appearance of its reverse side and in
its form, of having been fixed against a wall, probably over
a door." The urn was perhaps here interred beneath the
floor of the room. In many cases the dead body was
certainly burnt on the spot where it was to be buried. A
square pit had been dug, on the floor of which the funeral
pile had been laid. The fire ^ad then been lit in the pit or
grave, and the body consumed in its own grave. Remains
of the timber of the funeral pile still remained in a pit of
this kind at Uriconium, as it had sunk on the floor, the
ends of which were unconsumed, and the earth underneath
quite red from burning.
In most of the other interments in the cemetery of
Uriconium, a small hole or pit appears to have been sunk
in the ground, and the urn, which had no doubt been
brought from the ustrina, was placed in it and covered up.
These interments were not far distant from each other, and
appear to have been placed in rows, nearly parallel to the
road. Perhaps the ground may have been bought for this
purpose in common, by associations of the townsmen, such
as trade corporations, or it may have been set aside for
burial purposes by the municipal authorities, and sold in
small portions to individuals, as the practice now exists in
modern cemeteries. The average depth at which the urns
have been found is somewhat less than four feet, so that,
allowing two feet for the accumulation of soil, the Romans
seem to have dug pits about two feet deep for their reception.
Coins were, as has just been stated, buried with the
dead, in conformity with a superstitious belief that they
would expedite the passage of the soul across the lake in
Hades. The magic power of money in all connections
with human life originated this custom. In all worldly
matters money then was, as it unfortunately now still is,
the main, if not the only, sure passport to place and honour;
and thus it was believed that the soul of the man who
INTERMENT BY INHUMATION. I4I
had not received the usual rites of burial, and in whose
mouth no fee for the ferryman of the Stygian lake had
been placed,* would wander hopelessly on its banks, while
decent interment and a small brass coin would obviate any
disagreeable inquiries that Charon might else be inclined
to make as to the merits or claims of the applicant. Thus
in the cinerary urns of the period of which I am speaking
coins are very commonly found, and also in interments
by inhumation a small coin has, in more than one instance
in Derbyshire, been found with the skull, in such a manner
as to leave no doubt of its having been placed in the mouth
of the deceased. In some instances a considerable number
of coins have been found deposited together, or scattered
about, in a barrow, along with human remains. In Haddon
Field a large number of coins, principally consisting of
third brass of Constantine, Constans, Constantius II., Va-
lentinian, Valens, and Gratian, were found, along with
bones and fragments of pottery, traces of decayed wood,
•and a portion of a glass vessel. At Minning-Low, the
fine chambered tumulus described on p. 54, ante, where
several interments of the Romano-British period have un-
doubtedly been made in the earlier Celtic mound, many
Roman coins, along with portions of sepulchral urns, etc.,
have from time to time been found. These are principally
of Claudius Gothicus, Constantine the Great, Constantine.
Junior, Valentinian, and Constantius. In a barrow near
Parwich, upwards of eighty coins of the later emperors
were found. At most places, in fact, where Roman inter-
ments have taken place, coins have been found, and these
range from an early to a late period in Roman history.
When interment was by inhumation, in many instances
the body was simply laid in the earth without any further
covering than the usual dress. In other instances there
are abundant appearances of the body having been en-
* " Nee habet quern porrigat ore trientem." — Juvenal.
142 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
closed in a wooden coffin or chest. In others, again, the
body had been enclosed in a stone sarcophagus or chest,
which was occasionally elaborately carved. Sometimes,
again, coffins of lead were used. Mounds or barrows
over sepulchral chambers and other modes of interment
were frequently raised, to which I shall have to draw
further attention. Examples of the first and most simple
of these modes of burial have been discovered in different
parts of the country, those at Bartlow Hills and at Little
Chester being, perhaps, among the most notable. At
the latter place a skeleton of a man found some years
ago lay full length on its back, the arms straight down
by the sides. Iron rivets, which were found much cor-
roded, lay near various parts of the body, and a thin
stratum of ferruginous matter encased the skeleton at a
little distance from the body and limbs. From these
circumstances it is to be inferred that the deceased was
interred in his armour. Other interments by inhumation
have been recently discovered in the same neighbourhood,
but without, in some instances, the ferruginous appearances.
The remains of horses were found along with them. In-
terments by inhumation have also been found at Brough
and at other stations in the same county, and, as later
deposits, in Celtic barrows. Those where the bones have
.been found in situ appear, like the one I have spoken
of at Little Chester, at Bartlow, and at other places, to
have been laid at full length on the back, the arms straight
down by the sides. They appear in most instances to
have been simply laid in a very shallow grave, but little
below the surface of the already formed mound, and to
have been then covered to no great thickness with earth.
Those found at Bartlow lay parallel to, but a short dis-
tance apart from, each other, their heads to the west and
feet to the east. They were laid flat on their backs, their
limbs straight out, their arms by their sides, and hands
STONE CISTS AND LEADEN COFFINS. I43
on the thighs. Some coins of Constantine and Tetricus,
and other little matters, were found with them.* Traces
of wooden chests or coffins were discernible around these
skeletons, and this feature is not uncommon in burials of
this description.
When the body was placed in a stone chest or sarco-
phagus, it was in full dress, on its back, on the bottom
of the chest, and any relics which were intended to be
buried with it were laid about. The chest, as is evident
from the examples found at York, was then partly filled
with liquid lime, the face alone not being covered with
the corroding liquid. When now found, a perfect impres
sion of the figure is preserved in the bed of lime in
which it was encased, and in some instances even the
colour and texture of the dress is plainly distinguishable. t
Frequently the stone chest contained a leaden coffin, in
which the body was placed. A remarkably fine sculptured
chest found in London^ and others found at York,§ will
be sufficient references to these interesting sarcophagi,
which are occasionally inscribed.
A tomb of a different description, which will be seen to
partake largely of the construction of the stone cist of the
earlier period, is here engraved (fig. 206). It is formed of
ten rough slabs of gritstone, two on each side, one at each
end, and four others laid as covering on the top. On re-
moving the covering stones, a regularly shaped mass of
lime presented itself, which had derived its form from a
wooden coffin that had so nearly perished as to leave only
small fragments behind. The wood was evidently cedar.
On turning over this mass of lime an impression of the
* The skull of one of these, an excellent typical example of a Roman
in the very prime of life, is engraved in " Crania Britannica,'" pi. 30.
f See example in the York museum.
X " Collectanea Antiqua," vol. iii., p. 45.
§ " Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society ;" Wellbeloved's
"Eburacum;" "Crania Britannica," etc.
144
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
body of a man, which had been enveloped in, or covered
with, a coarse Hnen cloth, fragments of which still remained,
was distinctly seen. In another instance the impression of
Fiff. 206.
the body of a woman who had been clothed in rich purple,
with a small child laid upon her lap, was distinctly visible
in the lime.
Coffins of lead are of not unfrequent occurrence in the
cemeteries of London, Colchester, York, Kingsholme,
Fig. 207.
Southfleet, Ozengal, and elsewhere. They are, as will be
seen by the example from Colchester (fig. 207),* usually
ornamented with raised escallop shells, beaded mouldings,
annulets, etc., in a variety of ways. The next engraving
(fig. 208) exhibits a leaden coffin discovered in 1864 at
Bishopstoke,t in Hampshire. The lead which formed the
* Now in the Bateman Museum.
t See the Reliquary, vol. iv., p. 185.
LEADEN AND CLAY COFFINS. I45
coffin was about a quarter of an inch in thickness. The
coffin, which was five feet six inches in length, and sixteen
and a half inches in breadth, inside measure, had not been
cast in a mould, but the lead cut so as to form the sides.
Ficr. 208.
The lid appeared to be formed of one sheet, and had been
bent or lapped over the lower part of the coffin. The lead
was much corroded, and lime had evidently been placed
in the coffin. There was none of the ornamentation on the
outside, so common on leaden cists. Nearly the whole of
the skeleton remained, but the skull was broken. The teeth
were perfect and good. The skeleton was that of a female.
Inside the cist were the remains of small glass bottles,
probably lachrymatories. The glass was thin, and of a
very pale green colour. There was no appearance of handles
to the glass vessels, nor were there any marks of ornamenta-
tion on them, except a faint line or ring marked upon one
of the three necks found. Around the coffin were the
remains of the wooden chest in which it had been placed.
Coffins of baked clay, and cists formed of tiles, were also
used. Of these, many examples have been found at York
Fig. 209.
and at Aldborough. One of peculiar form, from the latter
place, is here given (fig. 209).
10
146 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Sepulchral chambers, sometimes of considerable size,
were occasionally built above ground, and these were
sometimes, like the immense chambered burial-places of
earlier times, covered with a gigantic mound or barrow.
A remarkable example of this is Eastlow Hill, in Suffolk,
where the tomb appeared like a miniature house, of strong
masonry, with the roof tiled and peaked. It was built upon
a mass of concrete, the size of the tomb being twelve, by
six and a half, feet. The walls were two feet thick, and the
extreme height of the tomb, or house, was five feet. The
interior was a cylindrical vault, and in the middle stood the
leaden coffin containing the skeleton. The wooden chest
in which it had been encased had decayed away, but some
fragments and a number of nails remained. Over this
remarkable tomb the mound called Eastlow Hill had been
raised.
When the burial was by incremation, the ashes were
carefully placed in the cinerary urn, and interred either by
themselves, or with more or less ostentatious surroundings.
In many instances a hole was dug in the earth, or in a
Celtic barrow, and the urn, on being placed in it, simply
covered with a flat stone. At other times it was placed in
a sarcophagus, or chest, and surrounded with vessels of
various kinds and with other relics. At others, again, it
was enclosed in a leaden, or stone, or other vessel, before
being consigned to the earth. In many cases barrows were
raised over these remains. There was a general belief in
the minds of the Roman people that articles of various
kinds buried or burnt with their dead, would add to the
comfort and happiness of the spirit in another world.
Thus jewels, personal ornaments, food, wine, articles for
the toilet, culinary vessels, pottery, and glass of various
kinds, and numberless other articles were buried or burned
with the bodies. Branches of trees and garlands were also
burned or buried with the dead.
BURIAL BY INCREMATION.
147
Some remarkable examples of tombs and graves con-
taining burials by cremation have been discovered at the
Bartlow Hills, at Colchester, at Uriconium, at Rochester,
at York, at Chester, and in other places. The grave, or
chest, was formed of wood, or tiles, or of stone. In this
the urn containing the ashes of the dead was placed, and
around it were put smaller vessels which probably con-
tained ointments, balsams, and other offerings ; a lamp ;
and other articles. One example, formed by tiles, contained
when discovered a few years ago, besides fragments of the
cinerary urn, four earthenware bottles, six paterae, three
small urn-shaped vessels, a terra-cotta lamp, and a lachry-
matory. A chest of stone (fig. 210) found at Avisford,
Fig. 210.
Sussex, contained a large square vase of fine green glass,
filled with burnt bones, and around it were placed three
elegant vases with handles, several paterae, a pair of san-
dals elegantly and fancifully studded with brass nails, an
oval dish with handle containing a fine agate, a double-
handled glass bottle, and three lamps placed on projections
in the angles of the chest.
An example of a tomb formed of tiles is shown on the
next engraving (fig. 211). It was found at York, and is
composed of ten roof tiles, with a row of ridge tiles at the
top. Within this the interment had taken place. The
148 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
tiles were inscribed with the impress of the Sixth Legion —
Fig. 211.
LEG VI VI {Legio Sexta Victrix — "the Sixth Legion vic-
torious.")
Sepulchral inscriptions to the memory of the deceased
are not uncommon, and one or two examples of their style
of wording will be sufficient. One, at York, reads thus : —
D . M . SIMPLICIAE . FLORENTINE
ANIME . INNOCENTISSIME
QVE . VIXIT . MENSES . DECEM
FELICIVS . SIMPLEX . PATER . FECIT
LEG . VI . V.
"To the gods of the shades. To Simplicia Florentina,
a most innocent thing, who lived ten months. Her father
of the Sixth Legion, the victorious, made this." Another,
from Carvoran in Northumberland, is thus affectionately
worded : —
D . M
AVRE . FAIAE
D . SALONAS
AVR . MARCVS
C . OBESEQ . CON
IVG . SANCTIS
SIMAE . QVAE . VI
XIT ANNIS XXXIII
SINE VLLA MACVLA
SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTIONS. I49
"To the gods of the shades. To Aurelia Faia, a native
of Salona, Aurelius Marcus, a centurion, out of affection for
his most holy wife, who lived thirty-three years without any
stain." Another, from Caerleon, is thus : —
D . M . IVL . IVLIANVS
MIL . LEG . II . AVG . STIP
XVIII . ANNOR . XL
HIC . SITVS . EST
CVRA . AGENTE
AMANDA
CONIVGE
" To the gods of the shades. Julius Julianus, a soldier
of the Second Legion, the Augustan, served eighteen years,
aged forty, is laid here by the care of Amanda his wife."
Another, from Chesters, in Northumberland, is as follows: —
D . M . s
FABIE HONOR
ATE . FABIVS . HON
ORATIVS . TRIBVN
COH . I . VANGION
ET . AVRELIA . EGLIC
lANE . FECER
VNT . FILIE . D
VLCISSIMME
" Sacred to the gods of the shades. To Fabia Honorata,
Fabius Honoratius, Tribune, of the First Cohort of Van-
giones, and Aurelia Egleciane, made this to their daughter
most sweet." And one at Bath is thus : —
D . M.
AEL . MERCV
RIALI . CORNICVL
VACIA . SOROR
FECIT
150 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
"To the gods of the shades. To iElius Mercurialis, a
trumpeter, his sister Vacia made this."
The articles which the grave-mounds and cemeteries of
the Romano-British period most frequently produce are
pottery of various kinds; glass vessels ; coins; arms, both
of bronze and of iron ; fibulae, armill^, and other personal
ornaments; knives, scissors, etc.; and a large variety of
other things. To a brief notice of these contents of the
graves I shall next, in this division of my work, confine
myseif.
I
CHAPTER VIII.
Romano-British Period — Pottery — Durobrivian Ware — Upchurch Ware
— Salopian Ware — Pottery found at Uriconium — Potteries of the
New Forest, of Yorkshire, and of other places — Sepulchral Urns —
Domestic and other vessels.
npHE pottery of the Romano-British period, so far as re-
■*■ lates to what is found in the grave-mounds of that
people, consists, in the main, of cinerary urns, jugs (so
called), paterae, amphorae, bowls, and vases of various kinds.
Of the pottery alone of this period, sufficient interesting
matter to fill a couple of goodly volumes might easily be
written. It will, therefore, be at once understood that in a
work like the present, which is simply intended to be a de-
scriptive sketch of the contents of grave-mounds, elaborate
accounts of the different kinds of ware made by that people,
and of the modes of manufacture which they adopted,
would be unnecessary. The principal divisions are the
Samian ware, the Durobrivian ware, the pottery of the
Upchurch marshes, the Hampshire ware, the Salopian
ware, and the Yorkshire wares, and to these divisions I
shall devote some few pages, and in so doing express
thanks to my friend, Mr. Thomas Wright, for some excel-
lent articles* on the Durobrivian, the Upchurch, and the
Samian wares, which he has written. Before proceeding
to speak of the different vessels found with interments,
it will be well to glance at these different wares and their
characteristics.
* In the Intellectual Observer.
10 *
152
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
The Diirohrivian or Castor ware, as it is variously
called, is the production of the extensive Romano-British
potteries on the river Nen in Northamptonshire and Hun-
tingdonshire, which, with settlements, are computed to
have covered a district of some twenty square miles in
extent. The discovery of this pottery and of the. kilns
in which its productions were fired, etc. — one of which
is engraved on fig. 212 — is due to the late Mr. Artis,
FifT. 212.
who prosecuted his examination of the locality with great
perseverance and skill. There are several varieties of
this Durobrivian ware, and two especially have been
remarked ; the first, blue or slate-coloured, the other red-
dish-brown or of a dark copper colour. The former was
coloured by a simple though curious process, which Mr.
Artis was enabled to investigate in a very satisfactory man-
ner. It will, perhaps, be best told in his own words.
" During an examination of the pigments used by the
DUROBRIVIAN OR CASTOR WARE. I53
Roman potters of this place," he says, " I was led to the
conclusion that the blue and slate-coloured vessels met
with here in such abundance, were coloured by suffocating
the fire of the kiln at the time when its contents had
acquired a degree of heat sufficient to ensure uniformity of
colour, I had so firmly made up my mind upon the pro-
cess of manufacturing and firing this peculiar kind of
earthenware, that for some time previous to the recent dis-
covery [in 1844] I had denominated the kilns in which it
had been fired smother kilns. The mode of manufacturing
the bricks of which these kilns are made is worthy of
notice. The clay was previously mixed with about one-
third of rye in the chaff, which, being consumed by the fire,
left cavities in the room of the grains. This might have
been intended to modify expansion and contraction, as well
as to assist the gradual distribution of the colouring vapour.
The mouth of the furnace and top of the kiln were, no
doubt, stopped ; thus we find every part of the kiln, from
the inside wall to the earth on the outside, and every part
of the clay wrappers of the dome, penetrated with the
colouring exhalation. As further proof that the colouring
of the ware was imparted by firing, I collected the clays of
the neighbourhood, including specimens from the imme-
diate vicinity of the smother kilns. In colour some of these
clays resembled the ware after firing, and some were
darker. I submitted them to a process similar to that I
have described. The clays dug near the kilns whitened in
firing, probably from being bituminous. I also put some
fragments of the blue pottery into the kiln ; they came out
precisely of the same colour as the clay fired with them,
which had been taken from the side of the kilns. The
experiment proved to me that the colour could not be attri-
buted to any metallic oxide, either existing in the clay or
applied externally; and this conclusion is confirmed by the
appearance of the clay wrappers of the dome of the kiln.
f54
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
It should be remarked, that this colour is so volatile that it
is expelled by a second firing in an open kiln." Fortunately,
some of the kilns remained almost entire, and many had
been left with the pottery partly packed in them for firing,
so that there was no difficulty in understanding the nature
of the process here employed by the Roman potters.
This Durobrivian pottery is especially interesting, from
its being covered with ornaments and figures, in relief,
Fig. 213.
Fig. 214.
Fig. 215.
like those on the Samian ware, but not like it cast from
moulds. " The vessel," Mr. Artis remarks, " after being
thrown upon the wheel, would be allowed to become some-
what firm, but only sufficiently so for the purpose of the
lathe. In the indented ware, the indenting would have to
be performed with the vessel in as pliable a state as it
could be taken from the lathe." The ornamenter then took
a slip of rather liquid material, and with an implement
made for the purpose, formed all the ornaments and figures
with the hand. The slip used for this purpose was often
white, which was laid on a dark ground. " The vessels, on
which are displayed a variety of hunting subjects, repre-
sentations of fishes, scrolls, and human figures, were all
DUROBRIVIAN OR CASTOR WARE.
^55
glazed after the figures were laid on ; where, however, the
decorations are white, the vessels were glazed before the
ornaments were added. Ornamenting with figures of ani-
mals was effected by means of sharp and blunt skewery
instruments, and a slip of suitable consistency. These in-
struments seem to have been of two kinds : one thick
enough to carry sufficient slip for the nose, neck, body, and
front thigh ; the other of a more delicate kind, for a thinner
slip for the tongue, lower jaws, eye, fore and hind legs, and
tail. There seems to have been no retouching after the
slip trailed from the instrument."
Of the forms of mere ornamentation of this ware, the
scroll ornaments appear to have been the most popular.
The arrangement and combination of the scrolls, which are
sufficiently varied, are often both tasteful and very effective.
Fig. 216.
In the cut (fig. 216) I have selected two examples of the
most common forms of this kind of ornamentation, and
others I show on the following engravings, figs. 217, 2i8,
and 2ig, and again on figs. 213, 214, and 215.
" It is, however, the figured pottery of Durobrivae, which
156
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
presents some of the characteristics of the Samian ware,
that possesses the greatest interest for the antiquary and
the historian. The variety of subjects in the Samian w^are
is far greater, and they are treated in a more elaborate and
more highly finished style of art, yet similar classes of sub-
jects appear to have enjoyed greater popularity than others
in the Durobrivian and Samian pottery, and we can hardly
Fig. 217.
Fig. 2ii
Fig. 219.
help suspecting that there was some design of imitating,
or perhaps a sentiment of rivalry. Considering that they
were only executed with the hand, and it would appear
rapidly, the style of drawing is remarkably good and
spirited. But they have another and a peculiar value;
!
DUROBRIVIAN OR CASTOR WARE.
157
when we consider that they were certainly executed in
this country, and by artists who could hardly have done
otherwise than copy what was constantly before their
eyes, we can have no doubt that these are all true pictures,
pictures which we could hardly in any other way have ob-
tained, of life in Britain under the Romans, and they
show us, as well as could be shown in subjects capable of
being represented by such artists, those occupations in
which the enjoyment of life was then believed to consist.
The more common of these subjects are hunting scenes and
scenes taken from the amphitheatre or racecourse." For
instance, the dog hunting the hare, given in our cut (fig.
220) taken from an example of Durobrivian ware engraved
Ficr. 220.
in Artis's plates, must be recognized at once as a grey-
hound, the same variety of dog which is stilFused for the
same purpose. It has been suggested that this may be the
dog to which the Romans gave the name of vertagus, and
which is said to have been a British dog. Martial describes
it in one of his epigrams as —
" Divisa Britannia mittit
Veloces, nostrique orbis venatibus aptos."
Nemesiani Cynegetica, 1. 123.
Other examples of hunting subjects are here given (figs.
158
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
221 to 225), and others again will be found on a subse-
quent page.
Fig. 221.
Fig. 222.
The engravings fig. 223 and 224, taken from a sample of
Fi?. 223.
Fig. 224.
this pottery given in one of Mr. Artis's plates, represents the
British staghound of the Roman period chasing a stag. We
DUROBRIVIAN OR CASTOR WARE.
159
have a different dog in other examples, as in fig. 225, which
is taken from a very remarkable vessel of this ware, now
known as the Colchester vase, where it appears driving be-
fore it both stags and hares. The hunting of the boar is
Fie
■'-5-
also introduced in some examples of this pottery. Gladia-
torial combats are also favourite subjects on the pottery
made at Durobrivee, as on the Samian ware, and they leave
no doubt that these cruel and degrading exhibitions were
cherished by the Romans in Britain as well as in Italy.
That very remarkable monument of the ceramic art in
Roman Britain, known as the " Colchester vase," was found
in 1853, in the Roman cemetery which occupied the site of
West Lodge, near Colchester. It had been used as a
sepulchral urn, and when found contained calcined bones,
and was covered with an inverted shallow vessel or dish.
" The ornamentations consist of three groups, one of which
is the flight of stags and hares pursued by a dog, given in
our cut (fig. 225). The second and, perhaps we may say,
the principal group represents, in perfectly correct draw-
l60 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
ings, the combat of the two classes of gladiators, a Seciitor
and a Retiarins, the latter of whom, vanquished, has dropped
his trident, and raises his hand to implore the mercy of the
spectators. The Secutor, with a close helmet over his
head, and a short sword in his hand, advances to strike the
fatal blow, unless arrested by the success of his adver-
sary's appeal. Over the head of the Retiarins is the in-
scription, VALENTiNV LEGiONis XXX., meaning clearly, " Val-
entinus, of the thirtieth legion," which was doubtless the
name of the individual here represented. A similar inscrip-
tion over the head of the Secutor is read without difficulty
— MEMN.N.SAC.viiii., which is explained by Mr. Roach
Smith, who considers the A in sac as an error for e, as
standing for Memnius (or Memnon) numeri seciitoriim victor
ter; i.e., " Memnius, or Memnon, of the number (or band)
of secutors, conqueror thrice." There is no reason for sup-
posing that this inscription has any reference to the indi-
vidual whose remains were buried in the vase, but it has
probably reference to some remarkable gladiatorial combat
which had created a sensation in Roman Britain, like some
one of the celebrated boxing matches of modern times ;
sufficiently so to have become a popular subject of picto-
rial representation.*
" The third group on the Colchester vase also represents
a performance which was very popular among the Romans
and among Saxons, and, indeed, throughout the Middle
Ages, that of a bear-tamer and disciplined bear. The bear, in
this case, appears inclined to be rebellious, and his keeper,
whose left arm bears what appears to be a shield, and his
legs and right arm protected by bands or thongs, is mena-
cing the animal with a whip. An assistant is approaching,
with what appear to be two staves in his hands, for the pur-
pose also of intimidating the ferocious animal. Over the
* See Mr. Roach Smith's interesting account of this vase in the " Col-
lectanea Antiqua," voh iv., pp. 82-89.
INDENTED VESSELS.
l6l
head of the man holding the whip are the letters secvndvs
MARIO, the intended application of which is not very clear."
On another vase in the British Museum, the figures
represent a chariot-race in the Roman racecourse or sta-
dium.
Another class of subjects of extreme interest, as coming
from a Romano-British pottery, are mythological subjects,
which appear to have been rather a favourite ornament of
the Durobrivian pottery. Fragments of several vessels,
with the figures of the seven gods and goddesses, have
been met with. Another characteristic of the Durobrivian
Fis;. 226.
Fig. 227.
Fig. 228.
Fig. 229.
ware, consists of indentations made in the side of the
* Wright.
II
l62 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
vessel, while still soft, but after it had left the lathe, and
continued with regularity round it. Sometimes, where
little ornament was employed on the rest of the vase, these
indentations were left quite plain; sometimes an ornament
was introduced in the centre ; and not unfrequently the
indentation was formed into a niche for the reception of
a figure. For indented vases see figs. 226, 228, and 229.
The UpcJuirch ware, so called because made on the tract
of land now known as the Upchurch Marshes, on the river
Medway below Chatham, is next in importance, as far as
extent of works go, to the Castor ware. The district
where these pot- works are proved to have existed extends to
a distance of five or six miles in length, and from one to
two miles in breadth, and throughout this tract a bed of
refuse pottery exists. This is seen to the best advantage
about Otterham Creek, not far from Upchurch church, and
from its being first noticed here the name of Upchurch
ware has arisen.
"The Roman ware made in the Upchurch potteries pre-
sents distinctive peculiarities which cannot be mistaken,
and it must have been in great repute, certainly the next
after the foreign Samian and the native Durobrivian wares,
in this province of the empire. Like the Durobrivian, too,
it has been found on Roman sites in France and Germany,
so that it was probably exported. As Battely has described it,
the greater proportion of this ware is of a 'blackish colour,'
or rather of a bluish or greyish black, which was produced,
no doubt, by the process of the smother-kiln, already de-
scribed in connection with the Durobrivian pottery. Some
of the Upchurch pottery presents a colour approaching to
dark drab. Examples of both are given. The forms, as
well as the sizes, vary greatly, but they all present those
delicate forms of the curve which we recognise at once as
coming from the hands of the Roman artist. The texture
of the pottery itself is fine, and it is very thin. The orna-
UPCHURCH WARE.
163
mentation also is varied, but not very elaborate or very
refined. One of the patterns consists of a band of half-
circles, made with compasses, from each of which a band
of parallel lines descends vertically. Examples of various
kinds of ornament are given in the accompanying woodcut
Fig. 230.
(fig. 230). The little vessel in the front of the cut has had
two handles, but one is lost ; it is supposed to be an incense
pot.
"The instruments used in the ornamentation of this pot-
tery appear to have been of a very rude description, and
were, as it seems, chiefly mere sticks, some sharpened to a
point, and others with a transverse section cut into notches.
The former were used in tracing the lines already described;
the latter had the section formed into a square, or rhom-
boid, the surface of which was cut into parallel lines cross-
ing each other, so as to form a dotted figure, and this was
stamped on the surface of the pottery in various combina-
tions and arrangements. Sometimes these dots are ar-
164 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
ranged so as to form bands, as in the example in the back
of the group. The large urn in the middle of the group
furnishes an example of another kind of ornamentation
found on the Upchurch pottery, formed by parallel inter-
Fig. 231.
secting lines. In its shape this vessel has much the appear-
ance of a sepulchral urn. A considerable quantity of this
pottery is without ornament at all. Among this unorna-
mented pottery are found, especially, jug-shaped vessels,
commonly with a handle. Two of these vessels are repre-
sented in the group, in which is also shown a curiously
shaped plain urn and an unornamented vessel of another
form. At different spots over the locality which was covered
by these potteries, Mr. Roach Smith has found remains
which indicate the former existence of kilns, and further
researches will most probably bring to light some of the
kilns themselves. Traces have also been found of the
residences and of the graves of the potters."*
The Romano-Salopian potteries — the works which pro-
duced such a large quantity of vessels from the clay of the
Severn valley, probably in the neighbourhood of Broseley,
which bed is still worked for fictile purposes — were, there
* Thomas Wright.
II
ROMANO-SALOPIAN AND OTHER WARES. 165
is reason to believe, much less extensive than either of those
spoken of, but yet they must, from the large quantity of
examples which have been dug up at Wroxeter, have been
of some considerable extent. Of these wares, " two sorts
especially are found in considerable abundance ; the one
white, the other of a rather light red colour. The white,
which is made of what is commonly called Broseley clay,
and is rather coarse in texture, consists chiefly of rather
handsomely shaped jugs of different sizes, of mortaria, and
of bowls of different shapes and sizes, which are often
painted with stripes of red and yellow. The other variety,
the red Romano-Salopian ware, is also made from one of
the clays of the Severn valley, but it is of a finer texture,
and consists principally of jugs not dissimilar to those in
the white ware, except in a very different form of mouth,
and of bowl-shaped colanders."* A group of vessels of
the Salopian ware is here given (fig. 232). These examples
are all from Uriconium (Wroxeter), and have been found in
the cemetery there. They are cinerary urns which have, of
course, contained the ashes of the dead, and domestic ves-
sels which have been buried along with them.
The pottery of the New Forest bears in some respects
a striking resemblance to that from Castor. The clays
there found were white and fawn-coloured. f The Yorkshire
productions present some peculiarities in pattern which
will be noticed later on, and those of Oxfordshire are some-
what similar to the Castor ware. Of other pot manufac-
tories it will not be necessary to speak in this work.ij:
The sepulchral urns — those which were intended to re-
ceive the burnt bones of the dead — vary much in size as
well as in form, material, and ornamentation. Many are of
* Wright.
f For an interesting account of these potteries, see Wise's " New
Forest."
+ For a detailed account of all the different pot-works and their pro-
ductions, see my " Ceramic Art in England."
SEPULCHRAL URNS.
167
globular form, and of a dark bluish-grey colour in fracture
They are somewhat coarse in texture, and are thrown on
the wheel. The engraving (fig. 234) exhibits one of these
vessels. When found, it was, like the others I am about
Fig. 234.
to notice, filled with burnt bones. The engravings (figs.
235 and 236) show two urns containing human remains.
l68 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
the smaller one of which, found at Little Chester, is formed
Fig. 235.
of a black clay, mixed with small pieces of broken shells —
a kind of pottery much used for sepulchral purposes. The
Fig. 236.
larger urn is of a hard and compact clay, and is beautifully
"thrown" on the wheel. These examples are entirely de-
void of ornament. A good example of this form will be
seen in the centre of the group (fig. 230), but in this instance
SEPULCHRAL URNS.
169
the urn is covered with a reticulated ornament. Examples
whose forms partake a little more of the jar shape will
be noticed on fig. 232, and others are given on Fig. 233,
Nos. I, 2, 3, and 6. Fig. 237 is from Little Chester, and is
Fig- 237-
formed of a fine reddish-brown clay, and is ornamented
with " slip " in an unusual manner. It measures 3^ inches
only in height, and the same in diameter at the mouth.
Fig. 238.
Fig- 239.
When found, it was filled with burnt bones, among which
were some small fragments of bronze ornaments, which
had evidently been burned along with the body. The next
Fig. 245.
Fig. 246.
Fig. 247.
SEPULCHRAL URNS. I7I
examples (figs. 238, 242, 248, and 249), are of a different
character, both in ornamentation and in colour of clay.
The domestic vessels, and other varieties of Roman pot-
tery found with interments, vary very considerably one
from another, so much so, indeed, as almost to require
Fig. 248. Fig. 249.
a detailed dissertation on the entire fictile arts of that
people. Examples of some of the different vessels which are
found are shown on figs. 243 to 266, and on figs. 230, 232,
and 233, which exhibit some of the more usual and better
Fiff. 254.
known forms. Figs. 250, 252, and 253 are amphorse, found
in London, as was also the small amphora-shaped vessel,
fig. 251. Fig. 254 is a good typical example of a morta-
Fig. 250.
Fig. 251.
Fig. 252.
Fig- 253-
DOMESTIC AND OTHER VESSELS.
173
rium, of which considerable numbers, usually in fragments,
are found wherever there has been a Roman settlement.
The next group (fig. 255) represents five examples of black-
ware vessels, the ornaments on which are produced by-
Fig. 255.
tracing lines on the surface. The remainder of the en-
gravings (figs. 258 to 268) exhibit cups, bowls, unguentaria
Fig. 256.
Fig. 257.
Fig. 258.
74 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Fig. 259.
Fig. 260. Fig. 261. Fig. 262. Fig. 263.
Fig. 264.
Fig. 265.
Fisr. 266.
Fig. 267.
Fig. 268.
of different forms, and various shapes of vases. They are
all characteristic examples of Romano-British ware, and
will be useful to the student in correctly appropriating any
specimens which may fall into his hands.
CHAPTER IX.
Romano-British Period — Pottery — Samian Ware — Potters' Stamps —
Varieties of Ornamentation — Glass Vessels — Sepulchral Vases, etc. —
Lachrymatories — Bowls — Beads — Coins found with Interments.
TN the preceding chapters I have purposely avoided in-
eluding vessels of Samian ware. As these are fre-
quently found with sepulchral deposits, I now proceed to
speak of this peculiar and beautiful ware.
Samian ware is that peculiarly fine, close-textured, and
richly-coloured red-ware, which is so frequently found, and
is so well known to antiquaries. The body of this ware is
of a fine red colour, but its surface is of a deeper and richer
tone, much like the best red sealing-wax. It is extremely
Fig. 269.
hard and brittle, and is sonorous in sound when struck.
The vessels of this ware consist for the most part of bowls,
cups, and paters or dishes, in each of which divisions are
found an almost endless variety of forms, and while some are
176
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
perfectly plain, others are more or less covered with orna-
ments — figures of men, animals, foliage, borders, etc., — in
relief. These relief ornaments were produced from moulds,
and the names of the makers of the vessels were also fre-
quently stamped upon them. Of these ornaments and
potters' marks, Mr. Wright says, " The potter's name was
placed in a small rectangular label, as in the examples given
Figs. 270 and 271.
on figs. 270, 271, 272, 273, and274. The name was most com-
Fig. 272. Fig. 273.
Fig. 275.
monly put in the genitive case, combined with O or OF,
abbreviations of the word qfficina, as in the example given
SAMIAN WARE.
177
in our cut, where OF MODESTI stands for officina Mo-
desti, i.e. ' from the workshop of Modestus ; ' or with M for
?«awM, as COBNERTI M, for Cobnerti manu, 'hy' or '{vova
the hand of Cobnertus." Sometimes the name is given in
the nominative case, followed by F or FE, for fecit, as
COCVRO F, for Cocuro fecit, ' Cocuro made it.' Doubled
or ligulated letters are frequently introduced into these
inscriptions, an example of which is given in the lower
figure to the right, where the first letter is the ligulated T
and E, and the name is TETTVR. Sometimes we meet
with an error in the spelling of the word ; and in one or
two instances the person who made the stamp inscribed
the name carelessly, so that it read direct on the stamp,
and consequently it is reversed in the impression on the
pottery. An example is given in the cut, where the in-
scription reversed reads PRASSO • 0. The name is not
always placed in a square label, though examples to the
contrary are rare. In a few instances it has been found
inscribed round a small circle. It is
a peculiarity of the Arrentine ware,
described by Fabroni, that the label
not unfrequently assumes the form of
the sole of a man's foot. The stamp
of this form given in our cut occurs
on a piece of the red Samian ware
found at Lillebonne, in Normandy.
The inscription appears to be HIL •
O • L • TITI, which may perhaps
stand for Hilarii officina liberti Titi,
' from the workshop of Hilarius, the
freedman of Titus.' The next cut (fig.
276) represents one of the stamps
used for impressing the label with
the potter's name. It was found at
Lezoux, in Auvergne and presents the name AVSTRI-OF.
12
Fig. 276.
178
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS,
'from the workshop of Auster.' A similar die of a potter
named Cobnertus is preserved in the museum at Sevres.
Both these names occur on specimens of Samian ware
found in England. Other potters' names are shown on
figs. 272 to 275. The first of these bears the name CEL-
SINVS . F.; the second, MICCIO; the third, AISTIVI .
M ; and the fourth is the one referring to Arctium."
Similar dies for stamping the ornaments and figures
have also been found in France. In the latter, each die
contained a single figure, or, at all events, a single group,
and this explains why the same figures are so frequently
found on the pottery in different combinations. One of
these dies contains a single festoon and tassel of the well-
known festoon ornament, so common on this pottery.
The ornamental borders which are most commonly met
with on Samian ware are elegant festoon-and-tassel bor-
ders, and the egg-and-tongue ornament, both of which, as
well as a border consisting of a range of figures repre-
senting the Medicean Venus, are shown on the accom-
^ 277.
panying engraving (fig. 277) of a fine bowl found in
London. Wavy lines and lines of circles are also common,
and we frequently meet with scroll-work of very elegant
design, commonly formed of leaves, flowers, and fruit.
SAMIAN WARE — BOWLS. 179
Examples, selected from a numerous variety, are given on
Fig. 278.
Fig. 279.
engravings (figs. 278 to 282.) These scrolls are generally
Fig. 280.
i8o
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
used to form a border round the upper part of the bowl, as
shown on figs. 280 and 281. The foliage most in favour
Fig. 281.
for these scrolls was that of the vine, and the ivy (fig. 282),
Fig. 282.
and also that of the strawberry ; the former of which espe-
cially shows that this pottery was, as Pliny says of the
Samian ware, particularly intended for the service of the
table. The ivy-leaf, indeed, is almost the only ornament
of the plainer description of this red ware. Sometimes the
SAMIAN WARE — FIGURE DECORATIONS.
I8l
leaves of the vine are gracefully intermingled with the
clusters of the fruit, and with little birds which are feed-
ing upon the latter, as in the fragment represented in our
cut (fig. 283).
Fig. 283.
Animals of all kinds are found in abundance among the
ornaments of the Samian ware. Among these the boar
was a great favourite. For instance, a cup will be divided
into compartments, in which figure alternately two boars,
and a man confronting them with a spear. In a similar
compartment under arches, in another, we have two heads
of lions above, and below, a rabbit and a dog. Another,
again, is ornamented with fishes, separated by squares
filled with a singular ornament, which is perhaps intended
to represent water. Sometimes the whole outside of a
bowl is covered with birds, beasts, and fishes mixed to-
gether in the utmost confusion.
The subjects in which human figures are introduced present
still greater variety, and it need hardly be added that they are
much more interesting. Subjects from the classical mytho-
logy are very common, and among the figures of the deities
1^2
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
we recognize some, such as the Venus de Medici (fig. 277),
which were copied from well-known models of art. Combats
of pygmies and cranes appear as favourite subjects, as in the
Fig. 284.
paintings, etc., in Pompeii. Sacrifices and religious cere-
monies are not uncommon ; and especially bacchanalian
processions, and dances of bacchantes and satyrs — another
proof that this ware was used for the festive board. The
spirited manner in which figure subjects are often treated,
will be seen by the engravings we have given, and by
examples to be found in most collections. One vessel
represents a bacchanalian scene, in which Silenus figures
among satyrs and fauns. A faun is drinking from a
horn supplied from a wine skin which he holds in his left
hand, while Silenus attempts to snatch it from his hands.
Genii, one of whom appears with wings on another frag-
ment of the same vessel, appear to be directing or presiding
over the scene. Among other very favourite subjects are
J
SAMIAN WARE — FIGURE DECORATIONS, ETC.
183
hunting scenes, gladiatorial combats, and the sports of the
amphitheatre. Others represent sacrifices and religious
offerings. Musicians performing on various instruments
Ficr. 286.
are also common ; and domestic scenes are depicted in
great variety. Many of these are of a character not to
Fig. 287.
~x
i"'^ 'k
be described, but sufficiently characteristic of the degraded
state of morality under the Roman empire. The bowls
here engraved (figs. 285 and 286) are good examples of these
i84
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
kinds of decoration. Another is ornamented with a series
of figures, which appear to have no connection one with
another. In the middle is a bacchanal with his thirsus ;
to the right of him a figure playing on a double pipe ; on
both sides a group of bears ; and to the extreme right a
charioteer, followed by a bear " rampant."
The great quantity of this Samian ware which is found
on Roman sites admits of easy explanation, from the cir-
cumstance that it was held in great favour, and that the
manufactories on the Continent continued to work with
activity in producing it during the whole Roman period.
The number of names of potters, collected from fragments
found in England alone, amounts to more than two thou-
sand, and we must suppose them to have been spread over
a long period.
Fi<T. 2S8.
Fig. 289.
Fig. 2go.
Fig. 291.
Other examples of the common forms of Samian-ware
vessels are given on figs. 288 to 291, and a clay mould for
GLASS SEPULCHRAL VESSELS, ETC.
185
forming heads on pottery, discovered by myself at Head-
ington, is shown on fig. 287.
Glass was very successfully and beautifully worked by the
Romans, not only abroad, but in Britain, and vessels of this
material are frequently found with sepulchral deposits.
They are of great variety, and evidently made for many
different uses. Those found in the graves are usually those
made for holding the burnt bones of the dead ; small
vessels, commonly called lachrymatories, although their use
was most probably that of holding the unguents and aroma-
tics usually buried with the dead ; small bowls, cups, or
drinking vessels ; and beads.
Of the sepulchral vessels of glass the one here engraved
(fig 292), from Bartlow Hills, will show the general form.
Fig. 292.
They are of somewhat thick green glass, with neck and han-
dle, and are literally bottles. The one from Bartlow Hills is
of square form, and is six inches in height and four inches
square on the bottom. Others are round in form. They
contained the calcined bones of the dead. Of the forms of
the small vessels known as lachrymatories, to which I have
alluded, the examples in pottery on figs. 259 to 263 will
convey a tolerably correct idea. They are usually from
three to five inches in height. One found at Mount Bures,
1 86
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Colchester, is a remarkable example, being made of beau-
tifully variegated glass. Cups or bowls, or, as they may
not inaptly be called, basins, are of the common basin form,
or jar shaped. They are usually of green glass, and of
Fig. 293.
elegant workmanship. Beads are, perhaps, the most fre-
quently found of any remains of Roman glass ; this being of
course owing to their more solid and, consequently, less
Fig. 294.
Fig. 295.
perishable nature. They are of various kinds and sizes,
and are more or less ornamented. The accompanying
Fig. 296.
Fig. 297.
examples (figs. 294, 295, 296, and 297), will be sufficient to
direct attention to these interesting relics. A number of
ROMAN COINS.
187
beads, said to have been found with undoubted Roman
remains, are shown on fig. 298.
Fig. 2c
The Coins found along with Romano-British interments
are, of course, of various emperors and of various periods.
They are only occasionally found, and, when discovered,
cannot, it must be remembered, be taken as any criterion
as to date of deposit, or, indeed, cannot be considered alone
as evidence of the barrow or interment belonging to the
Romano-British period. The Romans seem to have sowed
their coins broadcast over the whole length and breadth of
1 88
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
the land, to have thrown them about as they would useless
chafif, to have buried them in urns in every conceivable
place, and to have deposited them, either singly or other-
wise, in the barrows of their predecessors. It is unneces-
sary to speak, then, of the varieties of coins which are
from time to time turned up by the antiquary in his re-
searches into the early grave-mounds. They form but
a thousandth part of the coins which are found away
from interments.
It may, however, be well, as showing the relative pro-
portions of the coins of different emperors found in this
country, to give the following analysis, by Mr. Roach
Smith, of more than eleven hundred coins picked up at
different times in one locality — Richborough in Kent.
Augustus
7
Valerianus, junior
I
Agrippa
I
Galliense
19
Tiberius
2
Salonina
4
Antonia, wife of D
rusu
3, sen
I
Postumus
10
Caligula
2
Victorinus .
14
Claudius
15
Marius
I
Nero .
II
Tetricus
13
Vespasian .
13
Claudius Gothicus
15
Titus .
J
Luntillus
2
Domitian
10
Aurelianus .
4
Nerva .
I
Tacitus
5
Trajan .
7
Florianus
I
Hadrian
5
Probus ....
7
Sabina .
5
Garinus
I
^llius Caesar
I
Numerainus
2
Antoninus Pius
5
Diocletianus
8
Faustina
3
Maximianus
16
Marc Aurelius
4
Carausius
94
Faustina
5
Allectus
45
Lucius Varus
2
Constantius .
4
Lucilia .
I
Helena
8
Commodus .
2
Theodora . . . .
13
Severus
5
Galerius Maximianus .
I
Julia Domna
3
Maxentius . . . .
2
Caracalla
3
Romulus . . . .
I
Julia Maesa .
I
Licinius . . . .
12
Severus Alexande
r
7
Licinius, junior .
I
Gordianus .
6
Constantine the Great .
149
Philippus
4
Fausta
2
Valerianus .
3
Crispus . . . .
18
ROMAN COINS.
189
Delmatius .
I *
Valens ....
39
Constantine II.
98
Gratianus
49
Constans
77
Theodosius .
14
Constantius II.
42
Magnus Maximus
6
Urbs Roma .
52
Victor ....
3
Constantinoplis
60
Eugenius
I
Magnentius .
21
Arcadius
27
Decentius
4
Honorius
8
Julianus II. .
7
Constantine III. .
I
Helena
I
Jovianus
I
Total
1144
Valentinianus
22
Of these coins, fifty-six only were of silver, six of gold,
fifteen of billon, or base silver, and the remainder were of
brass, the greater portion being, naturally, what are de-
nominated "third brass."
CHAPTER X.
Romano-British Period — Arms — Swords — Spears, etc. — Knives — Fi-
bulae — Armillse — Torques of Gold, etc. — Other Personal Ornaments
— Horse-shoes.
/^F Arms but few examples are found in grave-mounds,
^-^ although more abundant in the neighbourhood of
Roman stations and towns. They consist of swords,
daggers, spear-heads, and other weapons. They are, how-
ever, perhaps the most scarce of any remains of the period.
The swords of bronze (figs. 299 and 300) which have fre-
Fig. 302.
quently been ascribed to the British period, are now pretty
generally admitted to belong possibly to Roman times. The
examples engraved are of the most general type, as are also
SWORDS.
igi
the next engravings of spear and lance heads. The first
(fig. 301). which is of iron, is from Little Chester, where it
Fig. 299. Fig. 300.
was found along with human remains. Fig. 302 is of
192
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
bronze, and is, as will be seen, of somewhat unusual form,
and has a loop on either side. The next (fig. 303) is of
Fig. 303-
bronze, and is three and a half inches long. It is of re-
markably good form, deeply socketed, like the preceding
example, and of a kind of leaf shape. Arrow-heads are also
occasionally found. Of these the example here engraved is
a good type. It is of bronze, and measures about an inch
and a quarter in length.
Fig. 304.
Iron knives are occasionally found with interments.
Some remarkable instances of this have been recently
brought to light near Plymouth, and others again at Wetton
and other places. The knives are of the form engraved on
fi&- 305- They appear to have had wooden handles, which,
Fig. 305-
of course, except small traces of texture, have entirely de-
KNIVES, FIBULA, E-TC. 193
cayed away. Another knife, although not actually found
with an interment, shows the form so well that it is here
engraved. It was nine and a half inches long, of peculiar
Fig. 306.
shape, still retaining its handle of stag's horn, rubbed or
worn smooth; the good preservation of which we may
attribute to having been imbedded in the fire-hardened earth,
and sufficiently deep to secure it from injury by the fire.
With the knives in the Plymouth cemetery were found por-
tions of scissors, of the form of the sheep-shears of the
present day, and these have also been found in other
localities. They were of iron, aiid several fragments of
other implements of the same material were at the same
time discovered.
Of Fibulae an almost endless variety in form, in size,
and in material has at one time or other been exhumed.
They are, however, but very occasionally found with inter-
ments. The most usual form, perhaps, is that which is
commonly called harp-shaped, or bowed, and this is of
such extreme variety that scarcely two examples out of
the hundreds that are known are precisely alike. Several
have a cross bar at the top, and are hence called " cruci-
form " (figs. 307, 310 to 312, and 315). Others have coiled
springs of wire at the top, variously fashioned. Some of these
are extremely complicated and ingenious, as will be seen by
the engraved examples. The more simple of the twisted
springs, a coiled spring only, formed by the end of the
bow being attenuated into the pin, is known as the " rat-
trap spring," from its coiled resemblance to the spring used
13
Fig. 307.
Fig. 308.
Fig. 309.
Fig. 310. Fig. 311. Fig. 312. Fig. 313. Fig. 314. Fig. 315
Fig. 316.
I^ig- 317-
FIBULA.
195
in those " vermin killers." Examples to show this form
are here given (figs. 313, 314, 316, and 317),' This form of
fibula is generally known as the " dolphin " shape. Occa-
sionally wire only, twisted in like manner as recently repro-
duced for skeleton shawl pins, are found. Sometimes the
fibula really assumed the form of an animal, a bird or a
serpent, with an inflated body. One of this character is
Fig. 318.
engraved on fig. 318. It is of one continuous piece of
bronze, and the pin, having a coiled spring, answers to the
tail of the serpent, and hooks into a projection on the neck.
The ornamentation is as varied as the form. Sometimes
they are chased or engraved in minute patterns of rows
of dots, scales, etc.; at others, enamelled or inlaid; and
at others, again, raised ornaments are riveted upon their
surface. Instances of S-shaped fibulas also occur, as do
many other grotesque forms.
Circular fibulae are occasionally met with, and these,
Fig. 319. Fig. 320.
like the bowed forms, vary very considerably in design.
igS
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Sometimes they are flat on the face, and enamelled or
inlaid in different colours. One of the most curious, but
elegant, modifications of the circular form is fig. 320, where
the ends, which are serpents' heads, are turned back to the
sides of the body.
ARMiLLiE, or bracelets, are found both in bronze, in silver,
and in gold. They vary very considerably in form. Of
these, one example (fig. 321) will be sufficient. The pair
Fig. 321.
here represented are of base silver, and bear evidence of
having been much worn. Examples of analogous type
have been found at Castleford and other places. Other
armlets partake more of the character of torques, torquis,
or collar; and others, again, are simply bars of metal,
twisted in one or more coils, like a spiral spring, around
the wrist.
While speaking of armlets and torques, it may not be
out of place, as I purposely omitted them in the Celtic
division of this work, to say a few words about the latter.
There can be no doubt that the torque was worn both by
TORQUES. 197
the ancient Briton and by his Roman conqueror, and there-
fore it is perhaps best, as it is at present not easy to say
which of the known examples are to be attributed to the
earHer and which to the later of these periods, to speak
of them generally under this head.
The torque, or torquis, is said, by ancient writers, to have
been first used by the Persians and by the nations of
Northern and Western Europe. Virgil describes it as worn
by the Trojans when they came to colonize Italy : —
" Omnibus in morem tonsa coma pressa corona,
Cornea bina ferunt praefixo hastilia ferro ;
Pars leves humero pharetras ; it pectore summo
Flexilis obtorti per collum circulus auri,"
It is first mentioned in Roman history in the year 360 B.C.,
when Manlius, having torn a torque of gold from the neck
of a vanquished Gaul — here is evidence of its being a
decoration worn by a similar race to our ancient British
population before being spoken of in Roman history — placed
it on his own, and received, from this circumstance, the
name of Torquatus. From this time the practice was
adopted in the wars with the Gauls — the example set by
Torquatus Manlius being frequently followed by the Roman
leaders, — and the torque being adopted as a reward for
military merit. " The Roman writers speak of them as
worn by the Britons; and the Queen of the Iceni, Boadicea,
is described by Dion Cassius as having a torquis of gold
round her neck. This was the metal of which they were
usually made. They consisted of a long piece of gold,
twisted or spiral, doubled back in the form of a short hook
at each end, and then turned into the form of a circle."
The torque was known to, and worn by, the Egyptians, the
Persians, Persepolitans, the Gauls, and the Britons, as
well as, later on, to the Romans, and it was very usual, as
is evident by the many examples which have been found.
igS GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
with the Irish celts. The most usual forms will be found
engraved in the catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy, the
largest known example measuring five feet seven inches in
length. A remarkably fine example of this type, found on
the borders of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, measures three
feet nine and a quarter inches. Many other varieties are
found, sometimes formed of square bars of gold twisted
spirally, sometimes of flat bars of the same metal twisted
in a lighter manner, and sometimes, again, of more than one
bar twisted together. The ends, too, are of various forms :
sometimes being simply hooks, and at others swelling out
into cup-shaped terminations, and at others partaking of
the form of a serpent's head, etc. A very remarkable torque,
now belonging to Her Majesty, was found in 1848 in Need-
Fig. 322.
wood Forest, and is here engraved (fig. 322). It is formed
of eight cords of gold plaited together, and weighs i lb. i oz.
TORQUES AND MIRRORS.
199
7 dwts. and 10 grains. Another example of a different
character, from Ireland, is here given (fig. 323).
Fig- 323.
It is safer, perhaps, although there is no doubt that
torques were worn by the Romans, to assign them to the
British period than to that of their conquerors. Much, how-
ever, necessarily depends on the remains found with them,
and the locality where discovered.
Other personal ornaments, and bone and bronze pins, hair-
pins, etc., are occasionally found, but need no special no-
tice here. Instruments of the toilette, too, are occasionally
discovered. Prominent among these is the mirror, or
200 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
speculum, which is sometimes found in the graves of Roman
ladies. Among the most interesting of these are some
found in a Roman cemetery at Plymouth. They consist
of a circular plate of polished metal, generally of bronze
set in a frame of the same metal or otherwise, and have a
handle to hold them by. They are of much the same form
as the small handled toilet glasses of the present day. The
back was generally, as in the case of the Plymouth ex-
amples, "ornamented wi^-h a considerable quantity of scroll
engraving. The pattern of one of these consists of three
circular figures, the two bottom ones being larger than that
which I take to be the central top one. Although each
circular scroll differs from the others, they are evidently
figured upon one general plan ; the lines within, being seg-
ments of circles of various sizes, form crescents with various
modifications. Some portions of the engraving, in order to
give solidity to its character, were filled in with numerous
striated spots, consisting of three lines one way and three
lines at right angles to them. The entire surface of the
mirror was surrounded by a narrow border or rim, which
was formed of a separate piece, and folded over the margin.
This specimen was damaged in many parts, particularly
upon the under surface, and some of the edge was entirely
eaten away, but where the rim was preserved the plate was
not only in good preservation, but not even oxidized, retain-
ing the bright colour of the bronze as perfectly as when,
probably, in use by its ancient possessor. A second had
the handle attached to it. The handle is cast in one piece
in the form of a loop, having been made by folding one half
back against the other, and securing them in that position
by a band, the two free ends being spread out to hold the
mirror, which is received in a groove, and supported on each
side by a scroll work of bronze, of much of which, although
lost, the impression still remains upon the plate. The
greater diameter of the mirror is eight inches, that of the
HORSE-SHOES, ETC.
20I
handle of the duplicate specimen, which is supposed to be
of the same size as the missing handle, is four inches."
Several of these mirrors have been found in the cemeteries
at Colchester and in other places.
Combs, both of wood and bone, are also found in the in-
terments, as are strigils, tweezers, locks and keys of num-
berless forms and sizes, remains of small caskets, and a
great many other articles. Of combs I shall say a few
words when speaking of those of the Anglo-Saxon period.
Horse-shoes of this period are occasionally met with in
interments when the horse has been buried with his rider,
or otherwise. One example, so as to show the form, will
Fig. 324-
be sufficient. It was found at Gloucester some years ago,
along with the lamp and circular fibulae here engraved, and
with other relics of the same period. Of the other articles
it will not be necessary to make further mention.
CHAPTER XL
Anglo-Saxon Period— Distribution of Anglo-Saxon Population over Eng-
land — General characteristics of Grave-mounds— Modes of Burial —
Poem of Beowulf— Interments by Cremation and by Inhumation —
Articles deposited with the Dead — Positions of the Body — Double
and other Interments— Burial in Urns — Cemeteries and Barrows.
'T^HE grave-mounds and cemeteries of the Anglo-Saxon
•^ period present marked and decided features of differ-
ence to those of either of the preceding periods ; and again,
the characters of these mounds and cemeteries vary in
different parts of the kingdom, according as such districts
were inhabited by different tribes or peoples.
The date usually assigned to the first coming of the
Saxons into England, after the final departure of the
Romans, is the middle of the fifth century. They landed
on the Isle of Thanet, and shortly afterwards established
themselves in Kent, and became a kingdom. "Within
thirty years another body of Saxons settled upon the
south coast of Britain, taking possession of the tract now
called Sussex, or the South Saxons. At the beginning
of the sixth century a third detachment from the same
Germanic family landed further westward, and founded
the kingdom of the West Saxons, in which was included
the Isle of Wight. From the same source which sup-
plies the brief notices of these events, we learn that
towards the middle of the sixth century were formed the
states of the East and Middle Saxons, in the districts
which, in consequence, took the names of Essex and
Middlesex. We also gather that the Angles who settled
ANGLO-SAXON TRIBES, ETC. 203
in the east and north-east of Britain, and in the interior
parts, probably made their first ^descents towards the
middle of the sixth century ; so that the kingdoms known
as those of the East Angles (Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cam-
bridgeshire), the Middle Angles, the Northumbrians (from
the Humber northwards), and Mercia (on the borders of
Wales), appear not to have been definitely settled until at
least a century after the landing of the Saxons in Kent,
in A.D. 449. Vague and unsatisfactory as are most of the
details of Saxon history, the gradual subjugation of Britain
by successive immigrations of Teutonic tribes may at least
be accepted as the most reconcilable with reason ; and there
seems nothing very repugnant to the more rigid rules of
criticism to regard these tribes under their historic designa-
tion of Jutes, Saxons, and Angles ; and, further, to believe
that at least a century was required to transform Britain,
after the Romans, into a heptarchy of Teutonic kingdoms.
"Testing our Saxon antiquities with reference to the
usually received chronology of the advent and settlement
in Britain of the Teutonic tribes, it would be no unim-
portant result should they be in accordance with accepted
historical facts. They will be invested with novel and
higher interest if they should be found to carry in their
form and character certain peculiarities which suggest
earlier and later dates, and a diversity of parentage. For
instance, if in the remains of the Kentish Saxons and in
those of the Isle of Wight we may recognise, from close
resemblance to each other, the weapons, the ornaments,
and the domestic implements of the Jutes; if, in the
cemeteries of Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk, we
may, in like manner, identify the funeral usages of the
Angles ; and in remains found in the midland and western
districts see still different peculiarities, but which point to
a kindred origin ; it is not improbable that discoveries
may enable us to resuscitate, as it were, our remote pre-
204 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
decessors ; to restore to those of the various Saxon king-
doms the very objects which accompanied them when
living : to the men, their weapons ; to the women, their
pecuhar jewellery, and those more humble and homely
objects which we may look upon as emblems of their
domestic virtues. It is not a slight analogy in some
instances only that will establish this theory; it must
spring from the remains themselves, and be palpable and
convincing, or it must be rejected."*
Bearing this in mind, and also bearing in mind the
modifications which only a few years make in fashions
and customs ; and also bearing in mind that although
for convenience sake, as well as for want of more definite
knowledge, we call the whole population by the one term
of Anglo-Saxons, yet they were divided into as distinct
classes, or families, or tribes, as at the present day; we
shall quite readily understand why the modes of burial,
and the objects found in the graves, of one district are
different from those, although coeval, found in others.
At the present day we use the general term Englishmen
for the whole of our population, and no better or clearer
term could be adopted ; but we must bear in mind that the
differences both of appearance, of habits, of customs, of
dialect, nay, of almost everything, are as marked among
us as if the inhabitants of the various counties were each
settlers from different nations. The men of Derbyshire,
for instance, are as far removed as well can be in general
character and in language from those of Somersetshire ;
and these, again, are both totally dissimilar from the " Men
of Kent," from the Lancashire operative, from the York-
shiremen, or the men of Devonshire, Hampshire, and
many other counties. Each of these districts has, and
always has had, and long, long may it continue to have !
its own peculiar customs, its own peculiar habits, its own
* C. R. Smith.
CONTENTS OF GRAVE-MOUNDS.
205
peculiar observances ; and each has what might almost be
termed a nationality of its own, which it holds despite the
levelling influence of railways and othermodern contrivances.
If it is so at the present day, with a settled population of so
many centuries' standing, how much more must it have
been so when each district was peopled by a different tribe
of settlers, speaking to some extent different languages,
holding different views, following different occupations,
and observing different customs !
The grave-mounds and cemeteries of these different
districts exhibit a marked difference in modes of burial,
in style and decoration of pottery, and in characteristics
of other remains, which will be made apparent in the
following resume of their varied contents. Thus, as Mr.
Smith says, "in Kent one of the most conspicuous features
in the Saxon sepulchral remains is the richly ornamented
circular fibulas. These are sparingly found beyond the
district occupied by the earliest Saxon settlers. When
they do occur, here and there, they are exceptions ; but
throughout the county of Kent it would be a rare occur-
rence to discover a Saxon funeral deposit without an ex-
ample of this elegant and peculiar ornament. In Suffolk,
in Norfolk, in Cambridgeshire, in Northamptonshire, in
Leicestershire, and further north, these circular fibula do
but casually appear, but others of a totally distinct charac-
ter abound. In Berkshire, Oxfordshire, and Gloucestershire
are found saucer-shaped fibula unlike either of these two
classes, and forming a third variety. In Suffolk, in Canj-
bridgeshire, in Leicestershire, and in other parts, have
been repeatedly found metal implements or ornaments,
which I have designated by the modern name oi cliatellaine,
to give some notion of their form and use. These remark-
able objects in no instance have been found in Kent, but
other objects have been found in Kentish barrows which
have nowhere else been discovered."
206 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
The sepulchral remains of the Anglo-Saxons are of two
general classes — barrows and cemeteries — and in these the
modes of burial have been both by inhumation and by cre-
mation.
The grave-mounds, or barrows, are, as a rule, of much less
altitude, and of smaller dimensions, generally, than these
of either of the preceding periods. In some districts they
are found in extensive groups, frequently occupying elevated
sites ; at other times they are solitary, and frequently the
elevation above the surrounding surface is so slight as to
be scarcely perceptible except to the most practised eye.
Fortunately the mounds and cemeteries are particularly
rich in remains, and thus enable us to form a clearer idea
of the habits, and manners, and lives of our Saxon fore-
fathers than we can of their predecessors. In Kent, Sus-
sex, and the Isle of Wight, Saxon graves abound on the
Downs ; and in Derbyshire, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire,
Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk,
Norfolk, and Yorkshire, cemeteries of more or less extent
and importance exist, with here and there a solitary bar-
row, or a group of barrows. Like their Roman predeces-
sors the Anglo-Saxons, to some extent, took possession of,
and buried in, the grave-mounds of the Ancient Britons,
and it is not a very unusual occurrence to find overlying
the primary deposit an interment of the Saxon period.
Fortunately an early Anglo-Saxon poem, recounting the
adventures of the chieftain Beowulf, is preserved to us, and
gives us a valuable and highly graphic and interesting
description of the ceremonies attendant on his burial ; the
lighting of the funeral pyre, the burning of the body of the
hero, the raising of the mound over his remains, and the
articles placed beside him in his last home. Dying he
bseb pfec je je-]'0|ihcoa
sepcv'ii innef bsebu
m b;el-]-rebe
beo|ih I'one hean
micehie anb maepne. —
FUNERAL CEREMONIES. 207
Which is translated : —
" he bad that ye should make,
according to the deeds of your friend,
on the place of the funeral pyle,
the lofty barrow
large and famous."
His request was carried out, the funeral pile raised, and
every preparation befitting his deeds was made. The pile
was —
" hung round with helmets,
with boards of war,*
and with bright byrnies, f
as he had requested.
Then the heroes, weeping,
laid down in the midst
the famous chieftain,
their dear lord.
Then began on the hill,
the warriors, to awake
the mightiest of funeral fires ;
the wood-smoke rose aloft
dark from the fire ;
noisily it went
mingled with weeping."
The body of the hero having been consumed by the
wood-fire, in the midst of weeping friends, the people
began to raise the barrow over his ashes. This mound —
" was high and broad,
by the sailors over the waves
to be seen afar.
And they built up
during ten days
the beacon of the war-renowned.
They surrounded it with a wall •
in the most honourable manner
that wise men
could desire.
They put into the mound
rings and bright gems,
all such ornaments
* Shields. f Armou".
208 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
as before from the hoard
the fierce-minded men
had taken ;
they suffered the earth to hold
the treasure of warriors,
gold on the earth,
where it yet remains
as useless to men
as it was of old."
When the burial was simply by inhumation, the body
appears usually to have been placed in a shallow grave,
over which the mound was raised. The graves were of
rectangular form, and of various depths. On the floor of
the grave or pit the body was laid flat on its back, the
arms straight down by its sides, the hands resting on the
pelvis, and the feet close together. It was buried in full
dress, and surrounded by a number of articles pertaining to
the deceased — both personal ornaments, domestic instru-
ments and vessels, and other things — and that had been
used or valued by him or her. Sometimes the body was
enclosed in a wooden chest or coffin before being placed in
the grave. The grave, in either of these cases, was then
filled in — usually with a tempered or " puddled " earth,
which formed a close and extremely compact mass — and
the mound raised over it. This mound or hillock was called
a hlcBW, or a beorJi, heorgh, or bearw, from the first of
which the name now commonly used, low, is derived, and
from the last the equally common name barrow originates.
With the females, necklaces, rings, ear-rings, brooches,
chatelaines, keys, buckets, caskets, beads, combs, pins,
needles, bracelets, thread-boxes, tumblers, and a variety of
other articles were found. With the males, swords, spears,
knives, shields, buckles, brooches, querns, draught-men,
etc., etc., are found. The warrior was usually laid, in his
full dress, flat on his back (as already spoken of) ; his
spears lying on his right side, his sword and knife on his
left, and his shield laid on the centre of his body. The
MODES OF INTERMENT.
209
accompanying engraving (fig. 325) of a grave opened by
the late Mr. Bateman, on Lapwing Hill, will pretty tole-
rably illustrate this mode of Anglo-Saxon burial. Beneath
the bones of the skeleton were "traces of light-coloured
hair, as if from a hide, resting upon a considerable quantity
of decayed wood, indicating a plank of some thickness, or
the bottom of a coffin. At the left of the body was a long
Fig- 325-
and broad iron sword, enclosed in a sheath made of thin
wood covered with ornamental leather. Under or by the
hilt of the sword was a short iron knife, and a little way
above the right shoulder were two small javelin heads, four
and a half inches long, of the same metal, which had lain so
near each other as to become united by corrosion. Among
14
2IO-^ GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
the stones which filled the grave, and about a foot from the
bottom, were many objects of corroded iron, including nine
loops of hoop iron (as shown in the engraving) about an inch
broad, which had been fixed to thick wood by long nails ;
eight staples, or eyes, which had been driven through a plank,
and clenched ; and one or two other objects of more uncertain
application, all which were dispersed at intervals round the
corpse throughout the length of the grave, and which may
therefore have been attached to a bier or coffin in which the
deceased was conveyed to the grave from some distant
place. Indications existed of the shield having been placed
in its usual position over the centre of the body, but no
umbone was in this instance found. The mounds are
usually, as in this instance, very low, frequently not being
raised more than a foot above the natural surface of the
ground. The earth was, as I have stated, usually
" puddled " or tempered with water, and thus the body
in the grave became closely imbedded in a compact and
tenacious mass.
That the tempering, or puddling, was accompanied with
some corrosive preparation, there can be little doubt ; for it
is a fact, though a very remarkable one, that whilst the
skeletons of the Celtic period are found in good condition,
and in some instances perfect and sound, those of the
Anglo-Saxons have, almost invariably, entirely disappeared.
Thus, in a Celtic barrow, the primary interment of that
period may be found in perfect condition, while the secon-
dary interment, that of the Anglo-Saxon, although some
centuries later in date, and some three or four feet nearer
the surface, will have decayed away and completely disap-
peared. Thus, in a barrow at Wyaston, which had been
raised over the body of a Saxon lady, every indication of
the body had disappeared, with the exception of the enamel
coating of the teeth, while a splendid necklace of beads, a
silver ring, silver ear-rings, and a silver brooch or fibula,
MODES OF INTERMENT. 211 ^
remained in situ where the flesh and bones had once been.
Another instance (to which I shall have occasion again to
allude) which may be named, was the barrow at Benty
Grange — a mound not more than two feet in elevation, but
of considerable dimensions, and surrounded by a small
fosse or trench, raised over the remains of a Saxon of high
rank. In this mound, although a curious and unique hel-
met, the silver mountings of a leather drinking-cup, some
highly interesting and beautiful enamelled ornaments, and
other objects, as well as indications of the garments, remained,
not a vestige of the body, with the exception of some of the
hair, was to be seen. The lovely and delicate form of the
female and the form of the stalwart warrior or noble had
alike returned to their parent earth, leaving no trace behind,
save the enamel of her teeth and traces of his hair alone,
while the ornaments they wore and took pride in, and the
surroundings of their stations, remained to tell their tale at
this distant date. In a barrow at Tissington, in which the
primary (Celtic) interment was perfect, the later Saxon one
had entirely disappeared, while the sword and umbone of
the shield remained as they had been placed.
The mode of interment with the funeral fire, as well as
the raising of the barrow, is curiously illustrated by the
opening of two Saxon graves at Winster. A large wood
fire had, apparently, been made upon the natural surface of
the ground. In this a part of the stones to be used for
covering the body, and some of the weapons of the de-
ceased, were burned. After the fire was exhausted the body
was laid on the spot where it had been kindled, the spear,
sword, or what not, placed about it, and the stones which
had been burnt piled over it. The soil was then heaped up
to the required height to form the mound.
Usually, of course, the graves contain only one body, but
instances occasionally occur in which two or more bodies
have been buried at the same time. For instance, at Ozengal
212 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
a grave has been opened which was found to contain two
skeletons. They were those of a man and a woman who
were laid close together, side by side, with their faces to
each other. In another were three skeletons, those of a
man, a woman, and a little girl. The lady lay in the middle,
her husband on her right hand, and their little daughter on
her left ; they lay arm in arm. In other cases two or more
interments have been found, usually lying side by side, on
their backs.
In many Anglo-Saxon barrows, bones, thrown in indiscri-
minate heaps or otherwise, are found at the top, over the
original interments. These are, very plausibly, conjectured
to be the remains of slaves or captives slain at the funeral,
and thrown on the graves of their master or mistress.
When the burial has been by cremation, the ashes, after
the burning of the body which is so graphically described
in the extract I have given from Beowulf, were collected to-
gether and placed in urns. These were usually buried in
small graves, and their mouths not unfrequently covered
with flat stones. Some very extensive cemeteries where
the burials have been by this mode, have been discovered
in Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Northamptonshire, and
other counties. With these it is very unusual to find any
remains of personal ornaments or weapons. Two exten-
sive and remarkable cemeteries of this kind have been dis-
covered at Kingston and at King's Newton, both near Derby.
At the first of these places an extensive cemetery was un-
covered in 1844, and resulted in the exhumation of a large
number of urns — indeed, so large a number that, unfor-
tunately, at least two hundred were totally destroyed by the
workmen before the fact of the discovery became known. On
the surface no indication of burials existed; but as the ground
had, some sixty years before, for a long period been under
plough cultivation, and as the mounds would originally have
been very low, this is not remarkable. The urns had been
MODES OF INTERMENT. 213
placed on the ground in shallow pits or trenches. They
were filled with burnt bones, and the mouth of each had
been covered with a flat stone. They were, when found,
close to the surface, so that the mounds could only have
been slightly elevated when first formed. Of the form of the
urns I shall have to speak later on. The cemetery at
King's Newton was discovered during the autumn of 1867,
and a large number of fragmentary urns were exhumed.
The mode of interment was precisely similar to that at
Kingston, and the urns were of the same character as those
there discovered. There were no traces, in either instance,
of mounds having been raised, although most probably they
had originally existed. To the pottery found in these ceme-
teries I shall refer later on. Cremation was the predomi-
nating practice among the Angles, including Mercia, and
the modes of burning the body, and of interment of the cal-
cined bones in ornamental urns, which I have described in
the two cemeteries just spoken of, are characteristic of that
kingdom. King's Newton is within three miles of Repton
(Repandune), the capital of the kingdom of Mercia, and the
burial place of Mercian kings, and Kingston is also but a
few miles distant.
In some cases the burial has been without urns — the
ashes being simply gathered together in a small heap in
the grave, or on the surface, and the mound raised over it.
I will now, as in the previous divisions, proceed to speak
of the more usual descriptions of relics which are found in
the grave-mounds of the Anglo-Saxons, and I will, as in
those divisions, commence with the fictile remains.
CHAPTER XII.
Anglo-Saxon Period — Pottsry, general characteristics of — Cinerary
Urns — Saxon Urn with Roman Inscription — Prankish and other Urns
— Cemeteries at King's Newton, etc. — Mode of Manufacture — Im-
pressed Ornaments.
npHE pottery of the Anglo-Saxon period, so far as ex-
amples have come down to us, are almost, if not
entirely, confined to sepulchral urns. We know, from the
illuminated MSS. of the period, to which we are accus-
tomed to turn for information upon almost any point, that
other vessels — pitchers, dishes, etc. — were made and used,
but for those which have come down to us we are indebted
to the grave-mounds ; and, in these, sepulchral vessels,
almost exclusively, are found to occur. Cinerary urns are,
therefore, almost the only known productions of the Saxon
potteries, and these, like those of the Celtic period, were
doubtless, in most cases, made near the spot where the
burial took place, and were formed of the clays of the
neighbourhood. This is proved, incontestably, in the case
of the urns found at King's Newton, where the bed of clay
still exists, and has very recently been used for common
pottery purposes.
The shapes of the cinerary urns are somewhat peculiar,
and partake largely of the Prankish form. Instead of being
wide at the mouth, like the Celtic urns, they are contracted,
and have a kind of neck instead of the overhanging lip or
rim which characterizes so much of the sepulchral pottery
of that period. The urns are formed by hand, not on the
CINERARY URNS.
215
wheel, like so many of the Romano- British period, and
they are, as a rule, perhaps, more firmly fired than the
Celtic ones. They are usually of a dark-coloured clay,
sometimes nearly black, at other times they are dark
brown, and occasionally of a slate or greenish tint, pro-
duced by surface colouring. The general form of these
interesting fictile vessels will be best understood by refer-
ence to the engravings which follow. One of these (on
fig. 326) will be seen to have projecting knobs or bosses,
Fig. 326.
which have been formed by simply pressing out the pliant
clay from the inside with the hand. In other examples
these raised bosses take the form of ribs gradually swelling
out from the bottom, till, at the top they expand into semi-
egg-shaped protuberances. The ornamentation on the
urns from these cemeteries usually consists of encircling
incised lines in bands or otherwise, and vertical or zigzag
lines arranged in a variety of ways, and not unfrequently
the knobs or protuberances of which I have just spoken.
Sometimes, also, they present evident attempts at imita-
2l6 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS,
tion of the Roman egg-and-tongue ornament. The marked
features of the pottery of this period are the frequency of
small punctured or impressed ornaments, which are intro-
duced along with the lines or bands with very good effect.
These ornaments were evidently produced by the end of a
stick cut and notched across in different directions so as to
produce crosses and other patterns. In some districts —
especially in the East Angles — these vessels are ornamented
with simple patterns pointed upon their surface in white ;
but so far as my knowledge goes, no example of this kind
of decoration has been found in the Mercian cemeteries.
Of these urns — the East Anglian, etc. — Mr. Wright (to
whom, and to Mr. Roach Smith, is mainly due the credit of
having correctly appropriated them to the Anglo-Saxon
period), thus speaks : —
" The pottery is usually made of a rather dark clay,
coloured outside brown or dark slate colour, which has
sometimes a tint of green, and is sometimes black. These
urns appear often to have been made with the hand,
without the employment of the lathe ; the texture of the
clay is rather coarse, and they are rarely well baked. The
favourite ornaments are bands of parallel lines encircling
the vessel, or vertical and zigzags, sometimes arranged
in small bands, and sometimes on a larger scale cover-
ing half the elevation of the urn ; and in this latter case
the spaces are filled up with small circles and crosses,
and other marks, stamped or painted in white. Other
ornaments are met with, some of which are evidently
unskilful attempts at imitating the well-known egg-and-
tongue and other ornaments of the Roman Samian ware,
which, from the specimens, and even fragments, found in
their graves, appear to have been much admired and
valued by the Anglo-Saxons. But a still more character-
istic peculiarity of the pottery of the Anglo-Saxon burial
urns consists in raised knobs or bosses, arranged symme-
CINERARY URNS, ETC.
217
trically round them, and sometimes forming a sort of ribs,
while in the ruder examples they become mere round
lumps, or even present only a slight swelling of the surface
of the vessel.
" That these vessels belong to the early Anglo-Saxon
period is proved beyond any doubt by the various objects,
such as arms, personal ornaments, etc., which are found
with them, and they present evident imitations both of
Roman forms and of Roman ornamentation. But one of
F'g- 327-
Fi?. 328.
329-
these urns has been found accompanied with remarkable
circumstances, which not only show its relative date, but
illustrate a fact in the ethnological history of this early
period. Among the Faussett collection of Anglo-Saxon
2l8 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
antiquities is an urn which Bryan Faussett appears to have
obtained from North Elmham, in Norfolk, and which con-
tained the bones of a child. It is represented in the
accompanying engraving (fig. 327), and will be seen at
once to be perfectly identical in character with the East
Anglian sepulchral urns. But Mr. Roach Smith, in ex-
amining the various objects in the Faussett collection,
preparatory to his edition of Bryan Faussett's ' Inventorum
Sepulchrale,' discovered on one side of this urn a Roman
sepulchral inscription, which is easily read as follows : —
D. M. ' To the gods of the shades.
LAELIAE To Lcelia
RVFINAE Rufina.
VIXIT-A-XIII She lived thirteen years,
M-III-D-VI. three months, and six days.'
To this Roman girl, with a purely Roman name, belonged,
no doubt, the few bones which were found in the Anglo-
Saxon burial urn when Bryan Faussett received it, and
this circumstance illustrates several important as well as
interesting questions relating to our early history. It
proves, in the first place, what no judicious historian now
doubts, that the Roman population remained in the island
after the withdrawal of the Roman power, and mixed with
the Anglo-Saxon conquerors ; that they continued to retain
for some time at least their old manners and language, and
even their Paganism and their burial ceremonies, for this
is the purely Roman form of sepulchral inscriptions ; and
that, with their own ceremonies, they buried in the common
cemetery of the new Anglo-Saxon possessors of the land,
for this urn was found in an Anglo-Saxon burial ground.
This last circumstance had already been suspected by an-
tiquaries, for traces of Roman interment in the well-known
Roman leaden coffins had been found in the Anglo-Saxon
CINERARY URNS, ETC. 219
cemetery at Gzingell, in the Isle of Thanet; and other
similar discoveries have, I believe, been made elsewhere.
The fact of this Roman inscription on an Anglo-Saxon
burial urn, found immediately in the district of the Anglo-
Saxon cemeteries, which have produced so many of these
East Anglian urns, proves further that these urns belong to
a period following immediately upon the close of what we
call the Roman period."
The sepulchral vases found in the district of the middle
Angles vary but slightly in form from the East Anglian
burial urns. An example is given in fig. 328, from Chesters-
overs, in Warwickshire, where it was found with an iron
sword, a spear-head, and other articles of Anglo-Saxon
character.
" If we had not abundant proofs of the Anglo-Saxon
character of this pottery at home," continues Mr. Wright,
" we should find sufficient evidences of it among the remains
of the kindred tribes on the Continent, the old Germans, or
Alemanni, and the Franks. Some years ago an early
cemetery, belonging to the Germans, or Alemanni, who
then occupied the banks of the Upper Rhine, was discovered
near a hamlet called Selzen, on the northern bank of that
river, not far above Mayence, and the rather numerous ob-
jects found in it are, I believe, preserved in the Mayence
Museum. They were communicated to the public by the
brothers Lindenschmit, in awell-illustrated volume published
in 1848, under the title ^Das Germanische Todtenlager bei
Selzen in der Provinz Reinhessen.'' When this book appetired
in England, our antiquaries were astonished to find in
the objects discovered in the Alemannic cemeteries of the
country bordering on the Rhine a character entirely identical
with that of their own Anglo-Saxon antiquities, by which
the close affinity of the two races was strikingly illustrated.
More recently, the subject has been further illustrated in
the description by Ludwig Lindenschmit of the collec-
220 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
tion of the national antiquities in the Ducal Museum of
Hohenzollern, and in other publications. About the same
time with the first labours of the Lindenschmits, a French
antiquary, Dr. Rigollot, was calling attention in France to
similar discoveries in the cemeteries which the Teutonic
invaders of Picardy had left behind them, and in which he
recognized the same character as that displayed by the simi-
lar remains of the Anglo-Saxons in oiir island. Similar dis-
coveries have been made in Burgundy and in Switzerland,
the ancient country of the Helvetii; and it is hardly necessary
here to do more than mention the great and valuable re-
searches carried on by the Abbe Cochet among the Frankish
graves in Normandy. It has thus become an established
fact that the varied remains of the tribes, all of Teutonic
descent, who settled on the borders of the Roman empire
along the whole extent of the country from Great Britain
to Switzerland, present the same character and bear a close
resemblance.
A few figures will be sufficient to illustrate this resem-
blance as far as regards the pottery, and these are here
given, in which figs. 330 and 332 are Alemannic vases from
the cemetery of Selzen. It will be seen that they resemble
exactly in form those East Anglian urns we have given in
our plate, and the same ornamentation is also found among
our Anglo-Saxon pottery. These urns are described as
being usually made of the clay of the neighbourhood, in ,
most cases turned on a lathe, but many of them imperfectly
baked. They are found in graves where the body had not
undergone cremation, and were used for containing articles
of a miscellaneous description. In one grave, at the feet
of the skeleton of a gigantic warrior, was found one of these
urns, containing two bronze fibulae, a comb, a number of
beads, a pair of shears, flints and steel, and a bronze ring.
Fig. 334 is an urn procured at Cologne, and is slate-coloured,
with an ornament of circular stamps.
CINERARY URNS, ETC.
221
Figs. 331 and 333 are Prankish urns obtained by the
Abbe Cochet from Londinieres in Normandy, and show at
a glance the identity of the Prankish pottery with the Ger-
manic as well as with the Anglo-Saxon. The first of these
is surrounded with a row of the well-known bosses, which are
equally characteristic of the three divisions of this Teutonic
Fig. 330.
Fig. 331-
Fig. 332-
Fig. 333-
Fig. 334-
pottery, Anglo-Saxon, Prankish, and Alemannic. Above
these bosses is an ornament identical with that of the East
Anglian urn with the sepulchral inscription, given on fig.
327. The urn represented in fig. 331 has an ornament
which is evidently an imitation of the egg-and-tongue orna-
ment so common on the Roman pottery. The Abbe Cochet
collected in the course of his excavations in Normandy
222
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
several hundreds of these Prankish urns, which all present
the same general character.
The next four examples are earthen vessels found in the
lacustrine habitations of Switzerland, of which so much
has been written during the last few years. Figs. 335, 336,
and 337, are taken from the plates illustrative of the com-
munications of Dr. Ferdinand Keller to the Transactions
of the Antiquarian Society of Zurich, and fig. 338, also from
the Zurich Transactions, and found in a Pfahlbau, near
Allensbach on the Untersee, on the borders of Switzerland
and Germany. A single glance will show a great similarity
of form with those of the Anglo-Saxons from our own
country.
The following engravings will exhibit a striking variety
Fig- 339-
Fig. 340.
of cinerary urns of the Anglo-Saxon period, from the
Mercian cemetery at King's Newton. Fig. 339 is six and
a quarter inches in height. It is ornamented with encir-
chng bands or lines and impressed ornaments. In the
224 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
upper band is a series of small circular indentations, with
a dot in the centre of each, and in the lower band are three
rows of dots. Between these bands is a series of indented
Fig. 341-
Fig. 342.
Fig- 343-
crosses, which may be described as in some degree ap-
proaching to crosses patee in form. At the bottom are
also small square indentations, with diagonal lines. Fig. 342
is seven inches in height. It is ornamented with encircling
CINERARY URNS. 225
lines, the central band bearing a double row of dots ; the
band at the bottom of the neck a series of small indented
Fig- 344- Fig- 345-
quatre-foil flowers ; and the lower one a series of square in-
dentations with diagonal lines. Fig. 341 is one of the
most elaborately ornamented urns which has ever been dis-
covered.''' The remainder of the examples vary from these
* A detailed account of this discovery will be found, from the pens of
Mr. Briggs, the Editor, and others, in the " Reliquary," vol. ix.
15
226
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
and from each other, in point both of form and decoration.
Some of these have herring-bone lines, others simple punc-
tures, and others, again, encircling lines only. The marked
347-
Fig. 34^.
features of the pottery of this period is the frequency of
small punctured or impressed ornaments, which are intro-
duced along with the lines or bands, with very good effect.
ORNAMENTATION OF POTTERY.
227
These ornaments were evidently produced by the end of a
stick, cut and notched across in different directions, so as to
produce crosses and other patterns, and by twisted slips of
metal, etc. In the annexed woodcut I have endeavoured to
show two of the notched stick' " punches," such as I have
reason to believe were used for pressing into the soft clay,
Fig. 349-
Fig. 350.
and also two of the impressed patterns produced by it.
Fig. 351- Fig. 352.
Other varieties of pottery found in the Anglo-Saxon
graves are a species of cup, and upright vessels, one of
which is shown on fig. 327. Fragments of pitchers have
also occasionally been found, as also have portions of
coarse dishes. In the Kentish graves, most of the pottery
is of the Roman period, and consists of Samian paterae
and other vessels of that manufacture; and cups, etc., of
the Upchurch and Castor wares, etc.
CHAPTER XIII.
Anglo-Saxon Period— Glass Vessels— Drinking-glasses — Tumblers —
Ale-glasses — Beads — Necklaces — Ear-rings — Coins, etc.
npHE glass vessels found in the grave-mounds of the
-*- Anglo-Saxon period are principally drinking-cups of
different forms, and decanter-shaped vessels, which are
closely analogous in shape to our common glass toilet
water-bottles. The Anglo-Saxons are supposed by most
writers to have derived their knowledge of the art of glass-
making from their Roman predecessors, but of this more
proof is wanting. So very different in most of its cha-
racteristics is the Saxon glass from the Roman, that it
is difficult to believe that the one is but an imitation of
the other. The forms are in many instances similar to
those found in Prankish graves, and it is certain that the
art was practised simultaneously in the .Saxon period in
Germany, France, and our own country. The drinking-
cups of glass were formed either rounded or pointed at
the bottom, so that they could not stand, and thus when
filled the liquor was obliged to be drunk off before the
cup could be set down inverted on the table. From this
circumstance our modern name for drinking-glasses — turn-
biers — takes its origin, although not now in the original
sense, our present "tumblers" being particularly safe and
firm when set on the table, and not necessitating the whole
of the contents being quaffed at once. Figs. 353 and 354
exhibit two drinking-glasses of this kind, the first of which
is ribbed. They are from the Kentish graves. Fig. 355 is
a glass cup from Cow- Low, Derbyshire, found by the late
DRINKING-GLASSES.
229
Mr. Bateman, and which, from the care which had been
taken in enclosing it in a wooden box, must have been no
little prized by the deceased lady. The cup, of thick green
Fig- 353-
Fig- 354-
Fig. 355-
glass, a bone comb, some small instruments of iron, a piece
of perforated bone, and a necklace with pendant ornaments,
with other articles, were found enclosed in a box, or casket,
made of ash wood, half an inch in thickness, with two
hinges and a small lock, which had, when placed in the
grave, been carefully wrapped in woollen cloth. The inter-
ment was in many respects a highly interesting one.
Fig. 356.
Fig- 357-
Fig. 358.
A cup of similar form is shown on fig. 358, and other ex-
amples of glasses are shown on the same group.
230
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
These examples, it will be seen, must have been held in
the open palms of the hand, as is seen so frequently repre-
sented in illuminations, and must have been emptied of
their contents before being returned, inverted, to the board.
Another form, figs. 356 and 357, is the long ale-glass,
the shape of which is probably derived from the drinking-
horns which were in use. They, and other of the Saxon
glasses, were often ornamented with a raised thread or
band on their outer surface, arranged either spirally or
otherwise. In Beowulf these glasses are spoken of —
pejn nycce belieolb
re feon hanha beep
iipoben ealo-paeje.
" The Thane observed his office,
he that in his hand bare '
the twisted ale-cup."
This form of glass is well illustrated in the next engraving,
fig. 359, from a MS. of the twelfth century. In it the cup-
bearer holds the glass in one hand and the jug in the other,
from which he has just filled it. As an accompaniment to
Fig- 359. Fig. 360.
this I give another engraving, which shows the cellarer
with the barrels and two large earthenware pitchers, which,
DRINKING-GLASSES, ETC.
231
it will be observed, are ornamented in precisely the same
manner as some of the urns I have engraved. Another
excellent example of the use of these glasses at a banquet
Fig. 361.
M
is shown on fig. 361, where a mixed company of males and
females are seated at a banquet, and pledging each other in
them. It is from the Cottonian MSS. in the British
Museum.
Fig. 362. Fig. 363.
The next two figures (362 and 363) show two of the de-
canter-shaped vessels to which I have alluded, and figs.
232 GRAVE- MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
364, 365, and 366 again exhibit a different variety — one in
which the ornament is formed of a number of what may
almost be called handles — hollow protuberances, or claws,
Fig. 365. Fig. 364. Fig. 366.
attached at the upper and lower ends. Many specimens
of these curious glasses have been found in graves in
different districts.
Among the most profuse of Anglo-Saxon remains are the
beads and necklaces of glass, of amber, and of other ma-
terials, many of which are of extreme beauty. The greater
part of the beads which are found are composed of glass,
transparent and opaque ; variegated clays of different
colours ; and of amber. Less frequently beads of ame-
thystine quartz, of crystal, and of other rare natural sub-
stances are found. Sometimes the beads are formed singly,
and at other times they are in couplets or triplets. Beads
of metal — gold and silver — and of stones set in the same
precious metals, have also been exhumed. Beads mounted
on rings, or, more properly speaking, threaded on rings.
BEADS AND NECKLACES.
233
are of not unfrequent occurrence, and appear, in many
instances, to have been intended for the ears. The three
engravings (figs. 367, 368, and 369) will serve as examples
Fig. 367.
of beads. The first, engraved full size, is of glass, and is
ornamented with red, white, and yellow waves. The other
two are of clay, with yellow stripes. They are from Siberts-
wold. The beads from the Kentish barrows are perhaps
the most extensive in number, as well as the most varied
in form, material, and ornamentation, of any. The next
illustration (fig. 370) shows a series of twenty-seven beads,
which formed the necklace of an Anglo-Saxon lady, whose
grave was opened by Mr. Bateman at Wyaston. In this
barrow, which was thirty-three feet in diameter, and four
feet high in the centre, were discovered the remains of a
human skeleton, consisting merely of the enamel crowns of
the teeth, which, though themselves but scanty mementoes
of female loveliness, were accompanied by several articles
indicating that the deceased was not unaccustomed to add
234
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
the ornaments of dress to the charms of nature. These
comprise a handsome necklace of twenty-seven beads, a
silver finger-ring, silver ear-rings, and a circular brooch or
Fig. 370.
fibula. Five of the beads are of amber, carefully rounded
into a globular shape, the largest an inch diameter; the
remaining twenty-two (two of which are broken) are mostly
small, and made of porcelain or opaque glass, very prettily
variegated with blue, yellow, or red, on a white or red
ground. The finger-ring is made of thick silver wire,
twisted into an ornamental knot at the junction of the ends.
The ear-rings are too slight and fragmentary for description.
The fibula is a circular ring, ribbed on the front, an inch
and a half diameter, composed of a doubtful substance.
The remains of the teeth show the person to have been
rather youthful, and afford another instance of the extreme
decay of the skeleton usual in Saxon deposits in this part of
the country, whilst those which we have reason to reckon
centuries more ancient are mostly well preserved. Rings
BEADS, RINGS, AND COINS. 235
of silver, with cylindrical, or globular, or flattened beads
attached, are of common occurrence in the Kentish and
other graves. Of pendants I shall speak a little later on.
Fig. 371-
Coins have only occasionally been discovered with Anglo-
Saxon interments, and these have, in most instances, been
of the preceding Roman period. Byzantine, Prankish,
and Merovingian coins have likewise been found in the
graves. Coins, to which loops are attached, so as to be
worn as personal ornaments, are also found.
CHAPTER XIV.
Anglo-Saxon Period — Arms — Swords — Knives — Spears — Shields — Urn-
bones of Shields — Buckles — Helmets — Benty-Grange Tumulus — The
Sacred Boar — Grave at Barlaston — Enamelled Discs and pendant
Ornaments, etc. — Horse Shoes.
'T^HE arms of the Anglo-Saxons, so far as is known from
the contents of their graves, consisted of swords,
spears, knives, shields, daggers, etc., and occasionally
with the men, besides these things, are found remains of
helmets, ornaments from horse-trappings, buckles, axes,
and many other articles.
The swords are straight-bladed, usually double-edged, with
hilts of metal or wood. The scabbards were sometimes of
wood, sometimes of leather, and sometimes again of bronze,
and are often elaborately ornamented at the chape. The
sword here engraved (fig. 372) was found in a barrow at
Tissington, in Derbyshire. It had originally been enclosed
in a wooden scabbard or sheath, which had apparently been
covered with leather, and mounted with ornamented silver.
Most of this ornamentation was decayed and lost, but
sufficient remained to show that the sword had been of no
ordinary beauty and value, and must have belonged to
some person of note. The traces of silver ornamentation
at the head are indicated on the engraving. The chape,
which is simply rounded, is of silver, and the rivets still
remain, as do also those by which the leather was attached
to the wood. The sword is thirty-four inches in length,
Fig. 373-
Fig. 374-
^^f
S
Fig. 375-
238 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
and two inches and a half in breadth. Across its upper
part lay a small fragment of the shield, and near it, spread
about, were a few pieces of iron, some of which, when
joined together, proved to be a spear-head of the usual form
of the period. It had doubtless been broken and disturbed
at the time when the bones were dispersed by the planting
of the trees.
A remarkably fine sword (fig. 373) was found in 1868 at
Grimsthorpe. It is of iron, and remains encased in its
bronze scabbard in a more perfect state than usual. The
extreme length of the sword and scabbard, from pommel
to chape, is thirty-one inches; the length of the scabbard
from guard to point of chape, twenty-four inches. The
breadth at the mouth is one inch and seven-eighths. The
guard is of bronze, and is engraved on fig. 374. The scab-
bard is formed of thin plate bronze, and has an encircling
band of the same material to hold the upper points of the
chape to its sides. The length of the chape from the band
is six inches and a half. The chape, which is exquisitely
formed, is engraved on fig. 375, and will be seen to be of
unusual beauty. It is in a remarkably perfect condition,
and, being formed of bronze (the scabbards of the period to
which it belongs being usually of wood with metal chape
and fittings), is of great rarity and interest. The chape
had been set with six small, and one large, stones, as will
be seen by the engraving. Some of these, which were
probably garnets, were remaining. They had been affixed
to their places by small rivets passing through their centres.
A series of fifteen examples of Anglo-Saxon swords (figs.
376 to 390) from illuminated MSS., etc., are here given for
purposes of comparison. Some of these will be found to be
of precisely similar form to those already given, and others,
again, have trefoiled pommels.
r\
n
A
P=F7=3
rt 1 1
Fig. 376. Fig. 377. Fig. 378. Fig. 379. Fig. 380.
Figs. 381 to 390.
240 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
A good figure of a swordsman, with sword and shield,
is also given on the next figure (fig. 391).
Fig. 391.
Swords with ornamental pommels and hilts are of rare
occurrence, but examples occur in the Faussett and other
collections. Probably those with ornamented hilts would
also have their chapes correspondingly ornamented. In
Beowulf occur these lines : —
*' When he did off from himself
his iron coat of mail,
the helmet from his head,
gave his ornamented sword,
the costliest of irons,
to his servant."
SWORD HILTS, ETC. 24I
And again : —
ATvb J>a hilc I'omoh
fince faje.
(" And with it the hilt
variegated with treasure.")
A remarkable hilt, bearing an inscription in Runic cha-
racters, was found at Ash, in Kent. It is of silver. On one
side is the Runic inscription engraved in the metal, on the
other a zigzag and other ornaments. A hilt of this kind
must undoubtedly have been the one so graphically de-
scribed in Beowulf, where a sword, inscribed with the
name of its first owner and with other matters of extreme
interest, is "looked upon" and pondered over. The pas-
sage is thus : —
" He looked upon the hilt,
the old legacy,
on which was written the origin
of the ancient contest ;
after the flood slew,
the pouring ocean,
the race of giants;
daringly they behaved ;
that was a strange race
to the eternal Lord,
therefore to them their last reward
through floods of water
the ruler gave.
So was on the surface
of the bright gold
with Runic letters
rightly marked,
set and said,
for whom that sword,
the costliest of irons,
was first made,
with twisted hilt and variegated like a snake."
The runes on the hilt first spoken of and engraved
I
242
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
would doubtless, if properly translated, tell as pleasant aind
as interesting a story as the one narrated by Beowulf.
The knife or dagger (the seax), which is of iron, is of
Figs. 392 to 396.
' \
different forms. The most usual shapes are given on
figs. 392 to 396. The larger were used for war purposes, the
smaller for domestic purposes — the Saxon carrying his own
SPEAR AND JAVELIN HEADS. 243
kn^fe with him for his food, attached to his belt, both at
home and to the banquets of his friends. The seax, as a
weapon, is frequently alluded to in Beowulf: thus, when
Beowulf and the Mother of Grendal, the fiend, were strug-
gling together : —
" She beset then the hall-guest,
and drew her seax,
broad, brown-edged."
And in another part, when Beowulf was fighting with the
dragon, after having broken his sword in the contest, he
" Drew his deadly seax,
bitter and battle-sharp,
that he on his birnie* bore."
Spear and javelin heads are of frequent occurrence; they
are of iron, and, although varying considerably, both in size
and shape, they all bear a strong and marked resemblance
to each other, and have sockets. Their ''peculiarity is a
longitudinal slit in the socket which received the wooden
handle or staff, and which, after being fixed, was closed
with iron rings, string-braided, and rivets. "f Examples are
given in figs. 333 to 403, and again on fig. 404. In inter-
ments the spear usually lies by the right side of the
skeleton, where the position of the shaft may be traced by a
line of decayed wood ; at the bottom a metal ferule or ring
is sometimes found. The axe is usually of the form here
shown, and is of iron. It will be seen how closely some
of these resemble the forms found depicted by Anglo-Saxon
artists in the MSS. of the period, a selection from which
is here given.
The shield appears to have been made of wood, and to
have been circular in form. It was frequently covered with
leather, and sometimes with thin sheets of bronze. The
* Coat of mail. f C. R. Smith.
■ly
Figs. 397 to 403.
Fig. 404-
SHIELDS, ETC. 245
boss or umbone was of various forms and sizes, as will be
shortly shown. The wood of which the shield was com-
posed appears from Beowulf to have been that of the linden
tree : —
" He seized his shield,
the yellow linden-wood."
The shield was often called a "war-board;" and we learn
that Beowulf, when he was preparing to encounter the fire-
dragon, knowing that a wooden shield would be no proof
against fire, ordered one " all of iron" to be made for him : —
" Then commanded he to be made for him
the refuge of warriors,
all of iron,
the lord of eorls,
a wondrous war-board ;
he knew right well
that him forest wood
might not help,
linden-wood against fire."
One of the most remarkable remains of shields which has
been brought to light is the one at Grimsthorpe,* where, on
the breast of the skeleton, lay a mass of decayed wood, a
quantity of ferruginous dust — probably the remains of the
handle and inside fittings of the shield — and remains of
decomposed leather. On these lay two thin plates of bronze,
and the umbone or boss of the same metal, which had formed
the outer covering of the "war-board." These two plates
and the umbone are engraved on fig. 405. The discs or plates
of bronze are little thicker than ordinary writing-paper.
They each measure twelve and 'a half inches from point
to point, and are three and three quarter inches in width
in the middle. They have a raised border of curious
design around their outer edge, and they have been,
* See the " Reliquary Quarterly Archaeological Journal and Review,"
vol. ix. p. 180.
246 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
like the boss, attached to the shield by pins or rivets.
The boss is of very unusual form, and has been at-
tached to the shield by rivets or pins; it is ornamented
with engraved lines. From this curious discovery it would
appear that this warrior of the Yorkshire Wolds bore a
Fig. 405.
shield formed of wood and covered with leather; that it
was faced with plates of bronze, and had a bronze umbone;
and that the handle, and probably the strengthening bars,
on the inner side were of iron.
Many handles of iron, belonging to shields, have been
found in the Kentish and other barrows. The shield, in
interments, was usually placed flat on the centre of the
body, as shown on fig. 325.
The umbone or boss of the shield was, as I have said,
I
UMBONES OF SHIELDS.
247
of various forms. The most usual shapes are, perhaps,
those here given from Kentish graves (figs. 406 and 407),
and fig. 408, from Tissington, where it was found along
Fig. 406.
Fig. 407.
with the sword before described (fig. 372). This extremely
interesting relic, which is among the largest ever found,
measures nine inches in height. It is, of course, of iron,
Fig. 408,
and is of the same type as one found at Sibertswold, which
is engraved in the " Inventorum SepulchraUy The texture
of cloth in which it had been enfolded when placed by the
body of the hero by whom it was borne, is distinctly trace-
248
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
able on several parts of its surface. The umbone, as it
lay, was surrounded with the wood, in a complete state of
decay, which had once formed the shield; and small frag-
ments of corroded iron, which were doubtless a part of the
mountings of the shield, were scattered about.
Of the form of the Anglo-Saxon shield and its umbone,
a tolerably good idea may be formed by the series of
Figs. 409 to 416.
examples here given (figs. 409 to 416), from the illuminated
MSS. of the period.
Of Saxon armour the remains yielded to us by the
graves are few and far between. Buckles, such as pro-
bably fastened the belt or girdle to which the knife, the
sword, etc., were suspended, and others which have doubt-
less belonged to some portions of the dress, are the most
abundant. They are of varied form, some being of par-
ticularly elegant design, partaking of the character of the
fibulce of the period. Twelve examples from the Kentish
graves are given on figs. 417 to 428.
Helmets, or head coverings, in a fragmentary state, have
on some few occasions been found. The most remarkable
discovery of this kind which has been made is the one
Fig. 420.
Fig. 421.
Fig. 422. F;g. 423.
Fig- 425-
250
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
which was found by my friend, the late Mr. Bateman, at
Benty Grange,* in Derbyshire, in the year 1848. The
Fig. 427. Fig. 428.
account of this discovery is so full of interest, and so
curious, that I give it in Mr. Bateman's own words. He
says : —
" It was our good fortune to open a barrow which afforded
a more instructive collection of relics than has ever been
discovered in the county, and which are not surpassed in
interest by any remains hitherto recovered from any Anglo-
Saxon burying-place in the kingdom.
" The barrow, which is on a farm called Benty Grange, a
high and bleak situation to the right of the road from Ash-
bourn to Buxton, near the eighth milestone from the latter
place, is of inconsiderable elevation, perhaps not more than
two feet at the highest point, but is spread over a pretty
large area, and is surrounded by a small fosse or trench.
About the centre, and upon the natural soil, had been laid
the only body the barrow ever contained, of which not a
vestige besides the hair could be distinguished. Near the
place which, from the presence of hair, was judged to have
been the situation of the head, was a curious assemblage
of ornaments, which, from the peculiarly indurated nature
of the earth, it was impossible to remove with any degree
* "Ten Years' Diggings," p. 28.
DRINKING-CUPS, ETC.
251
of success. The most remarkable are the silver edging and
ornaments of a leathern cup, about three inches in diameter
Fig. 429.
at the mouth, which was decorated by four wheel-shaped
ornaments and two crosses of thin silver, affixed by pins of
the same metal, clenched inside (fig. 429). The other
Fig- 430.
articles found in the same situation consist of personal
ornaments, the chief of which are two circular enamels upon
252 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
copper If diameter, in narrow silver frames, and a third,
which was so far decomposed as to be irrecoverable (see
group, fig. 430); they are enamelled with a yellow interlaced
dracontine pattern, intermingled with that peculiar scroll
design, visible on the same class of ornaments figured in
'Vestiges,' p. 25, and used in several MSS. of the seventh
century, for the purpose of decorating the initial letters.
The principle of this design consists of three spiral lines
springing from a comnion centre, and each involution
forming an additional centre, for an extension of the pattern,
which may be adapted to fill spaces of almost any form.
Mr. Westwood has shown in a most able paper in the 40th
No. of the Journal of the Archaeological Institute, that this
style of ornamentation is peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon and
Irish artists of the period before stated. The pattern was first
cut in the metal, threads of it being left to show the design,
by which means cells were formed, in which the enamel
was placed before fusion, the whole being then polished
became what is known as champ-leve enamel. There were
also with these enamels a knot of very fine wire, and a
quantity of thin bone, variously ornamented with lozenges,
etc., which were mostly too much decayed to bear removal;
they appeared to have been attached to some garment of silk,
as the glossy fibre of such a fabric was very perceptible
when they were first uncovered, though it shortly vanished
when exposed to the air. Proceeding westward from the
head for about six feet, we arrived at a large mass of oxy-
dized iron, which being removed with the utmost care, and
Jiaving been since repaired where unavoidably broken, now
presents a mass of chainwork, and the frame of a helmet.
The latter consists of a skeleton formed of iron bands (fig.
431) radiating from the crown of the head, and riveted to a
circle of the same metal which encompassed the brow: from
the impression on the metal it is evident that the outside was
covered with plates of horn disposed diagonally so as to
HELMETS.
253
produce a herring-bone pattern ; the ends of these plates
were secured beneath with strips of horn corresponding
Fig. 431-
with the iron framework, and attached to it by ornamental
rivets of silver at intervals of about an inch and a half
Fig. 432.
from each other. On the bottom of the front rib, which
projects so as to form a nasal, is a small silver cross,
254 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
slightly ornamented round the edges by a beaded mould-
ing ; and on the crown of the helmet is an elliptical bronze
plate supporting the figure of an animal carved in iron,
with bronze eyes, now much corroded, but perfectly distinct
as the representation of a hog. There are, too, many frag-
ments, some more or less ornamented with silver, which
have been riveted to some part of the helmet in a manner
not to be explained or even understood; there are also
some small buckles of iron, which probably served to fasten
it upon the head. Amongst the chainwork is a very curious
six-pronged instrument of iron, in shape much like an or-
dinary hay-fork, with the difference of the tang, which in
the latter is driven into the shaft, being in this instrument
flattened and doubled over so as to form a small loop,
apparently convenient for suspension ; whether it belonged
to the helmet or the corselet, next to be described, is un-
certain. The iron chainwork already named consists of a
large number of links of two kinds, attached to each other
by small rings, half an inch in diameter; one kind are flat
and lozenge-shaped, about an inch and a half long ; the
others are all of one kind, but of different lengths, varying
from four to ten inches. They are simply lengths of square
rod iron with perforated ends, through which pass the
rings connecting them with the diamond-shaped links ;
they all show the impression of cloth over a considerable
part of the surface, and it is, therefore, no improbable con-
jecture that they would originally constitute a kind of
quilted cuirass, by being sewn up within, or upon, a doublet
of strong cloth. The peculiarly indurated and corrosive
nature of the soil in this barrow is a point of some interest,
and it will not be out of place to state that such has gene-
rally been the case in tumuli in Derbyshire, where the more
important Saxon burials have taken place, whilst the more
ancient Celtic interments are generally found in good con-
dition, owing to there having been no special preparation
HELMETS — SACRED BOAR.
255
of the earth, which in these cases has undergone a mixing
or tempering with some corrosive Hquid, the result of
which is the presence of thin ochrey veins in the earth,
and the decomposition of nearly the whole of the human
remains. The following extract from Professor Worsaae's
'Antiquities of Denmark' illustrates the helmet, which is
the only example of the kind hitherto discovered, either in
this country or on the Continent : —
" * The helmets of the ancient Scandinavians, which were
furnished with crests, usually in the form of animals, were
probably in most cases only the skins of the heads of
animals, drawn over a framework of wood or leather, as
the coat of mail was usually of strong quilted linen, or thick
woven cloth.' "
To this the translator of the English edition appends
the important information, that " the animal generally repre-
sented was the boar; and it is to this custom that reference
is made in Beowulf, where the poet speaks of the boar of
gold, the boar hard as iron."
"Spyn eal jylben.
Gopep Ipen hepb "
Nor are allusions to this custom of wearing the figure of
a boar — not in honour of the animal, but of Freya, to whom
it was sacred — confined to Beowulf; they are to be found
in the Edda and in the Sagas; while Tacitus, in his work,
" De Moribus Germanorum," distinctly refers to the same
usage and its religious intention, as propitiating the pro-
tection of their goddess in battle. As a further illustration,
not only of the helmet, but also of the chainwork, the fol-
lowing extracts from Beowulf are transcribed from Mr.
C. R. Smith's '^-^ Collectanea Antiqua," vol. ii., p. 240 : —
256
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
eopep-b'c j-cion
op-opep hleop bsepon ;
je-hpoben jolbe,
pah anb pyp-heanb,
peph peajibe heolb.
be-pon;ien ppea-ppapium,
ppa hine pvpn-bajurn
pophce paepna pmi6,
puribpurn ceobe,
Dc-pecce ppfn-ljcum,
hine pyfian no
porib lie beabo-mecap
bican ne meahcon :
aec f sem abe pzep
e^se-ryne
ppac-pan pypce,
ppyn ea]-;iylb«n,
eopep ipen heapb :
p6t fia in-bepan
eopop-heapob-pe/rn,
hea)>o-fceapne helm,
hepe-bypTiari,
;5ij<5-ppeofib jceaco-h'c :
' They seemed a boar's form
to bear over their cheeks ;
twisted with gold,
variegated and hardened in the fire,
this kept the guard of life :
I. 604.
Surrounded with lordly chains,
even as in days of yore
the weapon smith had wrought it,
had wondrously furnished it, [swine,
had set it round with the shapes of
that never afterwards
brand or war-knife
might have power to bite it :
I. 2901
At the pile was
easy to be seen
the mail shirt covered with gore,
the hog of gold,
the boar hard as iron :
I. 2213.
Then commanded he to bring in
the boar, an ornament to the head,
the helmet lofty in war,
the grey mail coat,
the ready battle sword." I. 4299.
It will be noticed in these extracts that "mail coat" or
"mail shirt" is twice mentioned, as well as the "helmet
lofty in war." Thus the passages in a remarkable degree
illustrate this extraordinary discovery, which embraced a
coat of mail along with the helmet and other objects. The
coat appears to have consisted of a mass of chainwork, the
links of which were attached to each other by small rings.
Fragments of another helmet were the following year
found in another barrow in the same neighbourhood, at
Ncwh.iven, along with other objects of interest. The
barrow had, however, at some previous time been griev-
ously mutilated. Of this bair(;w Mr. Bateman says :
" We opened a mutilated luoimd of earth in a field near
Newhavcn Il(juse, cjflicd the Low, two-thirds of which had
been removed, and the remainder more or less disturbed,
so that nothing was found in its (jriginal state, which is
HELMETS. ETC. 257
much to be regretted, as the contents appear to be late in
date, and different in character irom anything we have
before found in tumuli. The mound itself, being con-
structed of tempered earth, bore some analogy to the grave-
hill of the Saxon Thegn, opened at Benty Grange about a
year before, and, like it, was wiftiout human remains, if we
except a few fragments of calcined bone, which are too
minute to be certainly assigned either to a human or animal
subject. The articles found comprise man}^ small pieces of
thin iron straps or bands, more or less overlaid with bronxe,
which are by no means unlike the framework of the helmet
found at Benty Grange. There is also a boss of thin
bronze, three inches diameter, pierced with three holes for
attachment to the dress, (?) and divided by raised concentric
circles, between which the metal is ornamented with a
dotted chevron pattern, in the angles of which are small
roses punched by a die. Another object in bronze is a small
round vessel or box of thick cast metal, surrounded by six
vertical ribs, and having two perforated ears, ser\ung pro-
bably better tp secure the lid and suspend the box. Although
it measures less than an inch in height, and less than two in
diameter, it weighs full 3^ ounces. A similar box, with the
i lid, on which is a cross formed of annulets, found with
Roman remains at Lincoln, is engr.ived at page 30 of the
Lincoln Book of the Arch;v;ological Institute, where it is
called a pyx. Two others, discovered at Lewes, arc en-
graved in the * Arch;tologia," vol. xxxi.. page 437, one of
which has the lid bearing a cross precisely similar to the
Lincoln ex.miple, whence it is coii.un that they must be
assigned to a Christian period, probably not long previous
to the extinction of the Saxon monarchy. The last object
there is occasion to describe is an iron ferrule or hoop,
an inch and a half in diameter, one edge of which is turned
inwards, so as to prevent its slipping up the shaft on which
it has been fixed. We also found simuo sh.ipcless pieces ol
17
258 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
melted glass, which, from their variegated appearance,
might be the product of fused beads ; and observed many
pieces of charred wood throughout the mound, which may
possibly not have been of a sepulchral character."
Another helmet, or defensive cap, was found some years
ago at Leckhampton Hill,*in Gloucestershire, the ribs of
which bear a striking analogy to the one here described.
A remarkable discovery, which included portions of what
is very plausibly considered to be a helmet, was also, a few
years ago, made on the estate of Mr. Francis Wedgwood, at
Barlaston, in Staffordshire, The particulars of this I now
for the first time make public. The grave, which was
seven feet in length by two feet in width, was cut in the
solid red-sandstone rock. It was about fifteen inches in
depth at the deepest part, which was at the south-east
corner, and died out with the slope of the hill towards the
north-west, and the earth which covered it (which had
probably been tempered in the usual manner) was only
a few inches in thickness. It was on the slope of the hill.
At the upper or northerly end of the grave a basin-like
cavity, two or three inches in depth, was cut in the floor of
rock (see A in the plan, fig. 433). In this hollow, which
had evidently been intended for the helmeted head of the
deceased to rest in, was found the remains of what I have
alluded to as justly considered to be remains of a bronze
helmet. The skeleton had, as is so frequently the case in
Anglo-Saxon interments, entirely disappeared, but on its
right side lay the sword (b), and on the left a knife (c).
The fragments in the cavity consisted of several pieces
of curved bronze, highly ornamented, which had probably,
with other plain curved pieces, formed the framework of the
helmet ; some thin plates of bronze ; a flat ring of bronze,
beautifully ornamented (fig. 434), which is conjectured to
have been the top of the framework of the helmet; and three
enamelled discs, of a similar character to what have been
Fig- 433-
Fig- 434-
26o
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
elsewhere found, with hooks for suspension, or attachment
to leather or other substance. One of these is engraved,
of its real size, on the next illustration (fig. 435). The
centre is of enamel mosaic work, ground down level with
the metal, as in the old Chinese enamels.
Fig. 435-
The inference to be drawn from this curious discovery is,
that the grave was that of a Saxon of high rank, who had
been buried in his full dress, and that the cavity had been
specially cut out in the floor of the rock grave to admit of
the helmet being worn as when he was living. No remains
of a shield were noticed, nor were any other remains found
in the locality, which was carefully dug over for the pur
pose.
Enamelled discs, or pendants, such as I have just spoken
ENAMELLED PENDANT ORNAMENTS.
'261
of (see fig. 435), have been occasionally found in other
localities, as will have been noticed in the course of the
last few pages. The use of these curious objects is very
obscure, and I am not aware that' any very particular
attention has been paid to them. Portions of these were
found in the Benty Grange barrow (fig. 430), along with the
Saxon helmet. A very perfect example was found in a bar-
row on Middleton Moor, Derbyshire, in 1788,* where it wa"
Fig. 436.
found lying near the shoulder. In the same barrow was a
portion of another enamelled ornament, the iron umbone
of a shield, and a thin vessel of bronze — described as like
a shallow basin — which probably formed a portion of a hel-
• " Vestiges," p. 24.
262 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
met These two interesting relics are here engraved (figs.
436 and 437). The first of these will be seen to bear a
striking resemblance to the Barlaston example (fig. 435)>
and the second, in form, to be very similar to the next
example (fig. 438), ^om the museum of the Royal Irish
Academy. Some precisely similar objects— similar in de-
sign and in size to figs. 435 and 436— were found at Ches-
Fig. 437-
Fig. 438.
terton. Of the four of these objects there found, two are
precisely alike, and had hooks for suspension in the same
manner as is shown on fig. 435 ; the other two have no
hooks, and are of a different pattern of enamelling. Other
examples have been brought to light in different localities,
but these will be sufficient for my present purpose.
It is, of course, very difficult to come to any conclusion,
in the present state of our knowledge of Anglo-Saxon
history, as to the original uses of these and other objects.
That these enamelled and handled discs were intended for
suspension by their hooks there can be but little doubt, and
PENDANT ORNAMENTS, ETC.
263
it seems not improbable that they might serve as pendants
to the helmet ; the two with hooks possibly hanging as ear-
guards or coverings, and the others being attached by pins
or rivets to, perhaps, the front and back of the circle. It
is hoped that ultimately the use of these curious relics may
be correctly ascertained. In the barrow at Grimthorpe,
already referred to, a disc of somewhat similar character,
Fig. 439-
of thin metal, was found. It had been attached by three
pins or rivets, the holes for which remained. It was not
enamelled, but decorated with raised ornaments. It is en-
graved of its full size on fig. 439.
A singular plate of cast and chased bronze, strongly gilt,
and set with garnets, found in Northamptonshire, and now
in the Bateman museum, is engraved in the " Reliquary,"
vol. i. It has at the back, besides a central projection,
four pierced projections for attachment to leather or other
substance, and four " swivel " projections, if they may be
264
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
SO termed, on its edges, to which other matters have been
attached by rivets, which are still remaining.
Enamelling and goldsmiths' work were evidently arts in
which the Anglo-Saxon artificers excelled; some of the
rings and fibulae, and other relics, beingof extreme elegance
and richness, and of great beauty in design.
Having spoken of the arms, helmets, etc., found in
Anglo-Saxon graves, it will be well before proceeding to
describe the personal ornaments, to note that horse-shoes
are occasionally met with in interments, showing that the
horse was, in some instances, buried with its rider.
Having given, on fig. 324, the form of a horse-shoe of the
Romano-British period, I now engrave examples of those
of the Anglo-Saxon times. Figs. 440 and 441 are two
shoes from a Saxon grave in Berkshire.
Fig. 440.
Fig. 441.
They will be seen to be of a very different form to those
of the preceding era. One has calkins, but the other is
without, and both are even on the outer edge, not "bulged,"
as those of Roman times are. In illustration of this mat-
ter, I am enabled, through the courtesy of my friend Mr.
Fleming, to give the accompanying engraving from his admi-
HORSE-SHOES, ETC.
rable work on " Horse-shoes and Horse-sh
I would direct the attention
of all who are interested in
this branch of archaeological
inquiry. The engraving re-
presents the contents of a
grave-mound excavated at
Selzen, on the Rhine, by
Lindenschmidt, in which,
along with the skeleton oi
the warrior, were the skull
and other remains of his
horse, with portions of horse-
shoes, as well as some urns of
good character, and of close
resemblance to those of our
Anglo-Saxon period. Tu-
muli containing the remains
of horses are of unfrequent
occurrence in England, and
therefore this example be-
comes interesting as an
illustration for comparison.
265
oeinsf," to which
CHAPTER XV.
Anglo-Saxon Period — Fibul^^ —Enamelled circular Fibulae — Gold Fibu-
lae — Pendant Cross — Cruciform Fibulae — Penannular Fibulae — Irish
and English examples — Pendant Ornaments, etc.
npHE fibulas of the Anglo-Saxon period are the most
remarkable, perhaps, of any of the products of the
grave-mounds of that people. They are of extreme inter-
est, not merely from their design and the excellence of their
workmanship, or from their various forms and styles of
ornamentation, but because by their varieties the different
races to which they belonged can, in great measure, be
determined.
The more beautiful and elaborate, and at the same time
the richest in effect, of these various forms of fibulae are
those of circular form, which, although found in various
parts of the kingdom, are more abundant in the barrows of
Kent than elsewhere. The finest of these ever discovered
was found in 1771, " near the neck, or rather more towards
the right shoulder," of the female skeleton in a grave six
feet deep, ten feet long, and eight feet wide, on Kingston
Down, along with some small silver fibulae, a golden amu-
let, some small hinges, a chain, some bronze vessels,
pottery, and a variety of other articles. This fibula, here
engraved (fig. 443), which is quite unique, " stands at the
head of a class by no means extensive, characterized by
being formed of separate plates of metal, enclosed by a
band round the edges. The shell of this extraordinary
brooch is entirely of gold. The upper surface is divided
FIBULA.
267
into no less than seven compartments, subdivided into
cells of various forms. Those of the first and fifth are
semi-circles, with a peculiar graduated figure, somewhat
resembling the steps or base of a cross, which also occurs
in all the compartments, and in four circles, placed cross-
wise with triangles. The cells within this step-like figure
Fig- 443-
and the triangular are filled with turquoises ; the remain-
ing cells of the various compartments with garnets, laid
upon gold-foil, except the sixth, which forms an umbo, and
bosses in the circle, which are composed apparently of
mother-of-pearl. The second and fourth compartments
contain vermicular gold chain-work, neatly milled and at-
268 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
tached to the ground of the plate. The reverse of the
fibula is also richly decorated."
The vertical hinge of the acus is ornamented with a
cross set with stones, and with filigree work round its
base. The clasp which receives the point of the acus is
formed to represent a serpent's head, the eyes and nostrils
of which, and the bending of the neck, are marked in
filigree. This precious jewel was secured by a loop which
admitted of its being sewn upon the dress.
Another remarkably fine example, found on the breast of
a female skeleton in Berkshire, is now in the Ashmolean
museum. It measures two inches and seven-eighths in
diameter. The base is formed of a thin plate of silver,
above which, resting apparently on a bed of paste, is a
plate of copper, to which is affixed a frame-work of the same
metal, giving the outline of the pattern. The four divi-
sions of the exterior circle were originally filled with paste,
on which were laid thin laminae of gold, ornamented with
an interlaced pattern in gold wire of two sizes, delicately
milled or notched, resembling rope-work. Of these compart-
ments one is now vacant. This wire ornament was pressed
into the gold plate beneath, and there are no traces of any
other means than pressure having been used to fix it. The
four smaller circles and that in the centre are ornamented
with bosses of a white substance, either ivory or bone, but
the material is so much decomposed it is difficult to say
which ; these bosses are attached to the copper plate beneath
by iron pins. The entire face of the fibula was originally
set with small pieces of garnet-coloured glass laid upon
hatched gold-foil. The upper and lower plates of this orna-
ment are bound together by a band of copper gilt, slightly
grooved. The acus is lost.
The magnificent circular fibula of gold here engraved (fig.
444) was discovered some years ago in a barrow on Winster
Moor, in Derbyshire. It was formed of gold filigree
FIBULA.
269
work, which was mounted on a silver plate. It was set with
stones or paste on chequered gold-foil, and measured two
Ficj. 444.
inches in diameter. Along with this fibula were found the
following interesting articles : a cross of pure gold, orna-
Fig. 445-
mented, like the fibula, with filigree work, and having a
garnet cut in facets set in its centre (fig. 445) > ^ silver aim-
270
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
let; two glass vessels, and a number of beads. These and
some other articles were all found by the sides of two
cinerary urns.
Many of the circular fibulas are, of course, of a much
smaller and less elaborate character than those here given.
Fiof. 446.
Fig. 447.
They all, however, bear, exclusive of the fact of their being
found along with other evidences of the period to which
Fig. 448.
they belong, characteristics which cannot well be mis-
taken.
These circular fibula appear to have been worn by the
FIBULA. 271
Anglo-Saxon ladies on the breast or, occasionall}^ shoulder.
They were probably, therefore, used for fastening the dress
on the bosom, as is so often seen in illuminated MSS. and
on tombs of a later period.
Another extensive class of Anglo-Saxon fibula are what
are usually called, though not very satisfactorily, cruciform,
or cross-shaped. Fibulas of this class are, perhaps, most
abundant in the midland and south-eastern counties, but
they are of very rare occurrence in Kent. They would ap-
pear, therefore, to have appertained mostly to the Angles,
who were the inhabitants of Mercia, East Anglia, and
Northumbria. They are sometimes of silver, but usually
of bronze, and are variously ornamented with interlaced
Fie
449.
Fig. 450.
work, heads, and borders of various designs. Their form
will be best understood from the accompanying engravings,
which exhibit some of the most usual varieties. They are
from Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Suffolk, and Cam-
272
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
bridgeshire, and will serve as typical examples of this class
of brooch.
Another totally distinct kind of fibula, or brooch, which is
considered to be peculiarly of Irish type, but which, never-
Fig. 453-
theless, is occasionally met with in England, remains to be
noticed. I allude, of course, to brooches of the penannular
FIBUL.E. 273
form,* the general type of which will be understood by the
engravings given on figs. 453, 454, and 455, which are all
Irish examples of more or less decorative character. The
originals are in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy,
Fig- 454- Fig. 455-
as are also many other exquisite specimens of these interest-
ing examples of early art.
The one next figured (fig. 456) was discovered in West-
moreland, and described and engraved in the ArchcBologica^
Journal, vol. ix. page go. This beautiful fibula I here en-
grave of a reduced size. The ring, it will be seen, moves
freely round the upper half of the brooch, the lower
or flat part of which is divided so as to allow of the
passage of the acus through it. " It is set with flat
bosses, five on either side. Each of these flat dilated
parts of this curious ornament appears to proceed from
the jaws of a monstrous head, imperfectly similating that
* For a more extended and fully illustrated account of penannular
brooches, the reader is referred to the " Reliquary," vol. iii.
i8
274
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
of a serpent or dragon; and between the jaw is intro-
duced the intertwined triplet, or triquetra, the same orna-
ment which is found on the sculptured cross at Kirk Michael,
Fig. 456.
Isle of Man, and on some Saxon coins." This example is
of silver. With it was found a silver armlet — a simple
twisted bar of decreasing thickness towards the extremities,
Fig.
457-
276
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
which are hooked. The dimensions of the fibula are,
length of acus, eleven inches; greatest diameter of circular
part, five inches; width of the dilated part, two inches;
weight, 8 oz. 8 dwt.
By far the finest example found in England is the one
next figured (fig. 457). It was found in 1862, near the pic-
turesque village of Bonsall, in the High Peak of Derbyshire.
It is of bronze, and is here engraved of its full size. The
ring measures three inches and seven-eighths in its greatest
diameter, and the acus, which is not engraved of its full
length, is six inches and three-quarters long.
It has originally been set with amber or paste, and has
been richly gilt and enamelled. The interlaced ornaments
are most exquisitely and elaborately formed, and are of
great variety, and the heads of animals are of excellent and
characteristic form. The head of the acus, or pin, is large
and beautifully ornamented, and, like the
ring, has been set with studs. The pin
itself, as will be seen by the accompanying
engraving (fig. 458), is flattened and made
thin at its upper end, and bent so as to
allow of the free passage of the ring through
it, and is riveted on to the ornamented
plate in front.
It is remarkable that, in this fibula, the
ring, which, like other examples of this form
of brooch, has been made to play freely
for half its circumference through the acus,
has been riveted to the head of the pin in
the position shown in the engraving. That
it has been much worn in this position —
across the breast or shoulder — is evident
from the ring being much worn where the
pin has pressed against it when clasped. I believe this isl
the only example on record in which the pin has beerl
Fig. 458.
FIBULiE.
277
fixed to the side of the ring, and this was certainly not the
original intention of the maker of the brooch, but was done
subsequently. This will be seen by the engraving of the
profile of the head of the acus, on fig. 458. On one or two
examples of penannular brooches, inscriptions in Ogham
characters have been found, and it is highly interesting to
be able to add that, on the back of the Derbyshire example,
faint traces of Oghams still remain.
Another brooch, of silver, found in England, though
different in form from the expanded examples just given, and
although of later date, is nevertheless of the same construc-
tion. It is engraved of a reduced size on fig. 459. " The acus
has been broken off. There appears to have been a third
278 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
knob, now lost, which should correspond with the knob b,
the acus passing between the two. The upper knob a is
very loose, and moves freely around the ring. The knob b
turns, but much less freely, and does not pass over c,
having merely a lateral motion of one-fourth of an inch."
The diameter of the widest part is nearly five and a half
inches ; the globular ornaments measure one and a quarter
inches in diameter. The under side of each of the balls is
flat, and is engraved with ornaments, as shown on the en-
graving. This brooch belongs to Mr. C. Carus Wilson,
and closely resembles some of the Irish examples.
Of the mode of wearing penannular brooches, the late
Mr. Fairholt says: "By the sumptuary laws of the ancient
Irish, the size of these brooches, or fibulae, were regulated
according to the rank of the wearer. The highest price of
a silver bodkin for a king or an ollarnh, which, according to
Valiancy, was thirty heifers, when made of refined silver ;
the lowest value attached to them being the worth of three
heifers. From this it may be inferred, that the rank of the
wearer might always be guessed at from the fibulae he wore."
The rank of the wearers of the "Tara Brooch " — the most
famous of all the Irish brooches at present known — and of
the Derbyshire example, must, judging from their large
size and truly e^tquisite workmanship, have been high.
The extreme rarity of brooches of this form in England,
leads one, naturally, to the conclusion that they were not
much worn by the inhabitants of this country, and that,
therefore, they can hardly be considered to belong to the
nationality, if I may so speak, of the Anglo-Saxons. Never-
theless, examples having been here found in close prox-
imity to undoubted Anglo-Saxon remains, and the style of
ornamentation being strictly in keeping with much belonging
to that period, there can be no doubt that they must be
included amongst our Anglo-Saxon antiquities.
Some of the most beautiful objects, along with the fibulae,
J'
PENDANT ORNAMENTS. 279
which the graves of the Anglo-Saxons yield, are the pen-
dant ornaments of various kinds which were worn by that
race of people. The objects of this class are extremely
varied ; but their beauty, like those of the richly studded
and gilt fibulae, and the enamelled studs and bosses, cannot
well be understood without the aid of coloured illustrations.
Of these a set of exquisite pendants were found along
with several other interesting objects, in a barrow on Bras-
sington Moor, by Mr. Bateman. Eleven of these pendants
are large and brilliantly coloured garnets beautifully set in
pure gold, two are entirely of gold, and the third, also of
gold, is of spiral wire. Two beads, one of green glass, the
other of white and blue glass, were also found.
Gold drops of a similar character to those just described
have been frequently found in the Kentish graves, as have
also one or two crosses very similar to the one engraved
on a previous page (fig. 445). Circular pendants of gold
and other materials, decorated with enamelled or raised
interlaced and other ornaments, or set with garnets and
other stones, are also found. Among the most interesting
of this class of pendant ornaments are coins to which loops
have been attached. Examples have been found in Kent
and elsewhere, and show that the fashion to some extent
indulged in at the present day of wearing coins attached to
watch chains, etc., is at least of Anglo-Saxon origin.
CHAPTER XVI.
Anglo-Saxon Period — Buckets — Drinking-cups of wood — Bronze Bowls
— Bronze Boxes — Combs — Tweezers — Chatelaines — Girdle Orna-
ments — Keys — Hair-pins — Counters, or Draughtmen, and Dice —
Querns — Triturating Stones, etc. — Conclusion.
TD UCKETS, so called, and very appropriately, from their
"^ close resemblance in form to our modern vessels
bearing that name, are occasionally found in Anglo-Saxon
graves. They are small wooden vessels bound round with
hoops or rims of bronze, more or less ornamented, and have
a handle of the same metal arched over their tops. Of course
in every case the wooden staves of which they were com-
posed, and which were of ash, are decomposed, the hoops,
handle, and mountings alone remaining. They vary very
much in size ; one from Bourne Park had the lower hoop
twelve inches in diameter, and the upper one ten inches,
and the whole height appears to have been about a foot ;
the handle was hooked at its ends exactly the same as in
our present buckets, and fitted into loops on the sides ; it
had three looped bronze feet to stand upon. Other examples
only measure four or five inches in diameter. The example
here engraved (fig. 460) was found in Northamptonshire,
along with other remains. It is composed of three encir-
cling hoops of bronze, and has its handle and attachments
also of the same metal.
The next example (fig. 461) is from Fairford, in Glouces-
tershire, and is three inches in height, and four inches
in diameter. The hoops and mountings are of bronze.
1
I
Fi^. 460.
Fig. 461-
282
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Another example, which I give for the purpose of com-
parison, is from Envermeu, in Normandy (fig. 462). Of
Fig. 462.
the use of these utensils nothing certain, of course, is
known, but it is conjectured they were used for bringing in
mead, ale, or wine, to fill the drinking-cups — the objection
to this as a general rule being their very small size. " The
Anglo-Saxon translation of the Book of Judges (vii. 20)
rendered hydrias confregissent, by *to-bpoecon pa bucaj-,'
i.e. 'they broke the buckets.' A common name for this
vessel, which was properly called hue, was cescen, signify-
ing literally a vessel made of ash, the favourite wood of the
Anglo-Saxons."
Drinking-cups were sometimes of wood. Of these, two
examples are here given. The first of these has a rim of
brass, the second a like rim attached by overlapping bands.
DRINKING-CUPS AND BOWLS. 283
It has also a number of small bands of the same metal
riveted on to mend cracks in the wood. They were found
in a barrow on Sibertswold Down, in Kent.
Fig. 463.
Bowls of bronze are occasionally also found. Some of
these are plain, others enamelled or otherwise ornamented,
Fig. 464.
and others, again, gilt. Many of them appear from their
form to have been of Roman origin. Some remarkably fine
examples have been yielded by the graves of Kent and
284 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
Other districts. The one here engraved (fig. 465) v^^as
found at Over-Haddon, in Derbyshire, along with the re-
mains of a circular enamelled disc of the kind described
. Fig;. 465.
on a previous page, and other relics. The bowl was seven
inches in diameter, and had originally two handles. They
are supposed to have been used for placing hot meats in,
on the table. They range in size from four or five to twelve
or fourteen inches in diameter.
Small boxes of bronze are occasionally found, and are of
different forms. Some are plain upright boxes with lids,
just intended to hold sewing materials — in fact, the work-
boxes of the Saxon ladies — and others are rather large, and
have been intended to contain the comb, etc. : they are,
therefore, a kind of dressing-cases. The box engraved on
fig. 466 was found along with other Saxon remains near
Church Sterndale. The grave, which was cut in the rock,
contained a skeleton of a woman ; the lower bones were
fairly preserved, but of the upper parts there were but few
remains, the enamel crowns of the teeth being in the best
condition. " At the left hip was a small iron knife four
inches long, and where the right shoulder had been was an
assemblage of curious articles, the most important of which
was a small bronze box or canister, with a lid to slide on,
measuring altogether two inches high, and the same in
diameter. When found, it was much crushed, but still
BRONZE BOXES, ETC.
285
retained, inside, remains of thread, and bore on the outside
impressions of iinen cloth. Close to it were two bronze
pins or broken needles, and a mass of corroded iron, some
Fig. 466.
of which has been wire chainwork connected with a small
bronze ornament with five perforations, plated with silver,
and engraved with a cable pattern, near which were two
Fig. 467.
iron implements of larger size, the whole comprising the
girdle and chatelaine, with appendages, of a Saxon lady.
Many pieces of hazel stick were found in contact with these
286
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
relics, which were probably the remains of a basket in which
they were placed at the funeral. All the iron shows impres-
sions of woven fabrics, three varieties being distinguishable ;
namely, coarse and fine linen, and coarse flannel or woollen
cloth. The box is very faintly ornamented by lozenges,
produced by the intersection of oblique lines scratched in
the metal."
The next engraving shows a bronze box of quite a dif-
ferent character, found with Anglo-Saxon remains at New-
Fig. 468.
haven. It is two inches in diameter, but very thick. It has
six vertical ribs and two bars for attachment of the lid.
Needles and pins are frequently met with. The two
shown on fig. 466 will, however, be sufficient to call atten-
tion to these minute objects.
Combs of the Anglo-Saxon period differ but little from
those of the Romans, or indeed from those of the present
day. They were, both Roman and . Saxon, sometimes
toothed on one side and sometimes on both sides, and were
made alike of wood, of metal, of bone, and of ivory. Box-
wood appears to have been so much used for the manufac-
ture of combs as to have occasionally given its own name
to them. Thus Martial says : —
" Quid faciei nullos hie inventura capillos,
Multifido buxus quae tibi dente datur ? "
COMBS.
287
Wooden combs have naturally for the most part perished,
but fragments have occasionally been found. Combs, both
of bronze and iron, of the Roman period, have also been
discovered. The greater part, however, both of that and of
the Saxon period, which have been exhumed, are of bone
and ivory. A good example of the single-edged or " backed"
comb is given on fig. 469; they varied much in ornamentation.
Fig. 469.
The next (fig. 470) is toothed on both its edges, and has
guards or covers to fit on the teeth, in the same manner as
Fig. 470.
common pocket-combs of the present day. The next is a
comb with a handle, which was dredged up out of the river
Thames. The period is somewhat uncertain, but I give it
for the purpose of comparison, as I do also the three next
figures, the first of which is from the mummy graves at
Arica, the second a modern wooden comb from the same
district, and the third an Indian scalp-comb. Combs from
Rangoon, in the Burmese empire, and from China, are also
very curiously illustrative of those of early races found in
our own country.
Fig. 471
p*iiii;:|:^j4i?r'v^ ''■-* ':H4-k::h
Fig. 472.
Fig- 473-
Fig. 474.
J
[ i
/l'
iX
t,m^^
►
r^ ^
flfldfi
1 1
MIRRORS AND CHATELAINES. 289
Mirrors such as are found in Roman graves are occa-
sionally, but very rarely, met with ; they were, of course,
articles for the toilet. Shears or scissors of iron, some of
which are of precisely the same form as our modern sheep-
shears, and others of the shape of scissors of the present
day, are of not unfrequent occurrence. Tweezers, too, are
occasionally met with. The usual form is shown on fig. 475.
F'g- 475-
They are of bronze, and were, it is said, used for pulling
out superfluous hairs from the body. They with the scis-
sors were frequently worn attached to the girdle, along with
other instruments, of which I shall now say a few words.
Chatelaines, or girdle-hangers, are among the most inte-
resting of discoveries in the graves of Saxon females. They
consist of a bunch of small implements of various kinds —
keys, tweezers, scissors, tooth-picks, ear-picks, nail-cleaners,
etc., and ornaments of one kind or other — hung on a chain,
which being attached to the girdle hung down by the side
to the thigh, or, in some instances, evidently as low as the
knee. The various instruments are of silver, bronze, or
iron, and are generally, the iron especially, corroded into
an almost shapeless mass. The silver and bronze being
more endurable, the instruments of these metals are better
preserved. The example here given (fig. 476) is from one
of the Kentish graves. Of some of the articles found the
use is unknown, but most can be easily identified. A bunch
of what is supposed to be three latch-keys is given on
fig. 477, and on the next figure, 478, two curious objects,
the use of which has probably been to hang small instru-
ments on, to attach them to the girdle. For the same use,
19
290 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
probably, are the curious and somewhat puzzling, objects
which are occasionally met with, and are here shown
on fig. 479. They are found in pairs, attached at the top,
and vary much in the pattern of the lower extremities.
Probably the girdle passed through the upper part, and
Fig. 476.
keys and other objects would be hung on the lower ends.
Each side of the one here engraved is six and a half inches
in length. A large variety of girdle ornaments have been
found in different districts.
Hair-pins are of various forms and lengths. They are
generally of bronze, but sometimes of bone. They are
Fig. 477.
Fig. 478.
Fig. 479.
2Q2
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
sometimes plain, but at others highly ornamented, occa-
sionally being richly enamelled. Fig. 480 is of unique
form, and has three flat pendants of bronze attached to its
head by a ring. Besides hair-pins, numbers of metal pins
for domestic purposes are met with.
Fig. 480.
Fig. 481.
Fig. 482. Fig. 483.
Of locks and keys, scales and weights, and many other
articles, it will not be necessary to speak at further length
than simply to note that they are sometimes found in Saxon
graves. Bells — small hand-bells — too, are found in the
graves of women. They are of bronze or iron, and of the
rectangular form so characteristic of Saxon bells of larger
size.
One of the most curious set of objects which the Saxon
graves of Derbyshire have produced is a set of twenty-
eight bone counters, or draughtmen, some of which are
BONE DRAUGHTMEN. 293
shown on the following engraving (fig. 484) where they are
represented of their full size. They were found by Mr.
Bateman in a barrow near Cold Eaton, along with an
interment of burnt bones, some fragments of iron, and
portions of two bone combs. The draughtmen, as they
are supposed to be, and the combs, had been burnt with
the body. The following is Mr. Bateman's account of
this curious discovery: —
"The barrow was about twenty yards across, with a
central elevation of eighteen inches, and was entirely
composed of earth. The original deposit was placed in
a circular hole, eighteen inches in diameter, sunk about six
inches in the stony surface of the land on which the bar-
row was raised, so that the entire depth from the top of the
latter was two feet. The interment consisted of a quantity
of calcined human bones, which lay upon a thin layer of
earth at the bottom of the hole, as compactly as if they
had at first been deposited within a shallow basket or
similar perishable vessel. Upon them lay some fragments
of iron, part of two bone combs, and twenty-eight convex
objects of bone, like button-moulds.
" The pieces of iron have been attached to some article
of perishable material ; the largest fragment has a good-
sized loop, as if for suspension. One of the combs has been
much like the small-tooth comb used in our nurseries, and
is ornamented by small annulets cut in the bone ; the other
lis of more elaborate make, having teeth on each side as the
former, but being strengthened by a rib up the middle of
both sides, covered with a finely cut herring-bone pattern,
jand attached by iron rivets.
" The twenty-eight bone objects (of which nine are en-
Igraved on fig. 484) consist of flattened hemispherical pieces,
jmostly with dots on the convex side ; in some, dots within
jmnulets. They vary from half an inch to an inch in dia-
jneter, and have generally eight, nine, or ten dots each;
294
GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
but these are disposed so irregularly that it would be diffi-
cult to count them off-hand, which leads to the conclusion
that these counters would not be employed for playing any
game dependent upon numbers, like dominoes or dice, but
that they were more probably used for a game analogous
to draughts. This is most likely to be the fact, as draught-
men have occasionally been found in Scandinavian grave-
Fig. 484.
mounds ; and we must assign this interment to the Saxons,
whose customs were in many respects identical. All the
articles found in this barrow have undergone the process of
combustion, along with the human remains."
In Yorkshire, some years ago, a stone, marked in small
squares like a draught-board, was found at Scambridge.*
* " Ten Years' Diggings," p. 231.
QUERNS, OR HAND-MILLS.
295
In a grave at Gilton, in Kent, two small dice, here en-
graved of their full size (fig. 485), were found. They were
formed of ivory or bone.
Fig. 485.
Querns, or hand-mills, for grinding corn, have on many
occasions been found in or about Anglo-Saxon interments.
The one engraved on the next figure (fig. 486) was found
Fig. 486.
in a Saxon grave in the grounds of Miss Worsley, at
Winster, along with many other interesting relics. One
half of the quern had been burnt along with the body, as
had also many of the stones which formed the mound.
The next (fig. 487) is from Kings Newton, the same
locahty referred to under the head of Anglo-Saxon pottery.
Portions of stones which have evidently formed triturating
stones, or grinders, are occasionally found in the grave-
mounds of different periods. These have doubtless been of
296 GRAVE-MOUNDS AND THEIR CONTENTS.
the same general character with the two here engraved for
Fig. 487-
comparison (figs. 488 and 489). Similar stones are found
in Ireland.
Fig. 488.
Fig. 489.
Besides the objects here spoken of, a large variety of
interesting remains of a miscellaneous character are found
CONCLUSION. 297
in the Saxon graves, but which, however interesting they
may be, do not require in my present work to be specially
noted.
I HAVE endeavoured in the foregoing pages to give, in as
brief a form as was consistent with a clear description of
the objects, a faithful picture of the endless stores of trea-
sures which the grave-mounds of our earliest forefathers
open out to us, and to point out, with the aid of illustra-
tions, the characteristics of each of the three great divi-
sions, so as to enable my readers correctly to appropriate
any remains which may come under their notice. I have
purposely, and studiously, avoided theory and conjecture as
far as was at all possible ; contenting myself rather with
bringing forward facts, which observations, personal or
otherwise, into the grave-mounds and their contents have
established, than speculating upon matters which can have
no real bearing upon the subject.
It is said that "there is nothing new under the sun."
The researches which have been made into the grave-
mounds of the three great periods — the Celtic, the Romano-
British, and the Anglo-Saxon — tend immeasurably to show
the approximate truth of this adage, and my readers, from
the foregoing pages, will be able to judge pretty correctly
how many of our so-called tnodern inventions and appli-
ances were common to, and in use by, our predecessors of
" centuries and tens of centuries" of years gone by.
INDEX.
Abney Moor, 75
Abury, 71
Adzes, 109, et seq.
Aldborough, 145
Ale Glasses, 229, et seq.
Allemanic Pottery, 221
Amber Beads, 134
Anglo-Saxon Armour, 252, et seq.
„ Arms, 236 to 264
,, Banquet, 231
,, Buckets, 280 to 282
,, Cellarer, 230
,, Coins, 235
,, Cup-bearer, 230
,, Fibulae, 267 to 279
,, Glass, 228 to 235
,, Horse shoes, 264
,, Interments, 202 to2i3
,, Interments in Celtic
Barrows, 13
,, MSS. 230, 239, 240,
282
,, Period, 202 to 298
,, Personal Ornaments,
233 to 235
,, Poemof Beowulf, 206,
et seq., 241, 255,
256
„ Population, 202, et
seq.
,, Pottery, 214 to 227
Animal Bones, 23, 39
Arbor-Low, 3, 71, 82, 4, 50, 71, 82,
117.
Arica, 287.
Armlets, 196, 274
Armour, 248, et seq., 253, 254
Arrow-heads, Bronze, 193
Arrow-heads, Flint, 115, et seq.
Artis, 152, etseq.
Ash, 241
Ashborne, 250
Ashbury, 67
Avisiord, 147
Axe-heads, log, et seq.
Balidon Moor, 87
Ballynageerah, 62
Banquet, 230
Barlaston, 258 to 263
Barrows, di-tribution of, i
,, El iptical, 6
Long, 5
,, meaning of, 4
,, (see Grave-mounds)
,, Twin, 5
Bartlow, 142, 147, 185
Bisin, Stone, 60
Baslow, 4, 33
Bateman, T., 12, 2), 115, 123, 209,
233, 250, 256, 263, 279, 293
Bath, 149
Battley, 162
Beads, Amber, 234
„ Clay, 233
„ Glass, 186, 187
,, Jet, 123, et seq., 233 to 235
Bells, 292
Benty Grange, 211, 250, et seq.,
257, 261
Beowulf, 2:6, et seq., 230, 240, 241,
255. 255
Berkshire, 67
Berriew, 80
Bishopstoke, 144
Blake-Low, 4
300
INDEX.
Blind-Low, 4
Boar-Low, 4
Boar, Sacred, 253 to 257
Bone Implements, 42, 48, 124 to
128
Bonsall, 275
Borther-Low, 4
Bottles-Low, 4
Boulders, 33
Bourne Park, 280
Bowls, 283, 284
Boxes, Bronze, 257, 284, 285, 2S6
Boyne, 57
Brassington Moor, 74
Brennanstown, 63
Brier Low, 3
Briggs, J. J., 225
Bronze Bow s, 283, 284
„ Box, 257, 284, 285, 286
,, Celts, 2s, 128 to 131
„ Daggers, 48, 130, 131, 132
„ Pins, 35
Brooch (see Fibulje)
Broseley, 165, 168
Broughton, 35
Brown-Low, 4
Buckets, 280, 281, 282
Buckles, 248, 249, 250
Burnt Bones, 31 to 43
Buxton, 3, 122, 123, 250
Caerleon, 149
Gala's Wold, 116, 120, 124
Caldon-Low, 4
Cal-Low, 4
Calver-Low, 4
Cambridgeshire, 35, 289
Carvoran, 148
Casking-Low, 4
Castleford, 196
Castor 164
„ Potter's Kiln, 152
,, Pottery, 152 to 162
Cellarer, 230
Celtic or Ancient British Period,
6 to 133
,, Bone Articles, 123 to 126
,, Bronze Celts, 128 to 132
Daggers, 132, 133
„ Chambered Tumuli, 50 to
71
,, Coins, 132, 133
Celtic Cromlechs, 27, 50 to 71
,, Flint Implements, 114 to
121
,, Gold Articles, 132
,, Interments, 6 to 49
,, Jet Articles, 122 to 125
,, Pottery, 83 to 107
,, Stone Circles, 10, 71 to 82
,, Stone Implements, 108 to
114
Celts, Bronze, 128 to 131
,, Flint, 122
,, Stone, 109, no, in
Cemeteries, Roman, 134, et seq.
,, Kingston, 212
,, Kings Newton, 212,
222, et seq.
,, Saxon, 212, et seq.
Chain-work, 254
Chambers, Sepulchral, 1-^6
Chambered Tumuli, 55 to 71
Chambers of Stone, 27, 50, 55 to
7r, 146, et seq.
Channel Islands, 63
Chatelaines, 289
Chatham, 160, 162
Chelmorton-Low, 4
Chester, 147
Chesters, 149
Chestersovers, 2rg
Chesterton, 262
Chest, Stone, 143, et seq.
Chisels, 109
Chun Cromlech, 53
Church Sterndale, 284
Cinerary Urns, Anglo-Saxon, 214,
et seq.
„ ,, Celtic, 31, 34, 8410
95
,, ,, Frankish, 221
,, ,, Romano-British,
161, et seq.
Circles of Stone, 10, 71 to 82
,, ,, (see Stone Circles)
Cist, Stone, 11, et seq., 36
Clay Coffins. 145
Cloth, Burial in, 35
,, Interment m, 35, 45
,, Woollen Garment, 45, 46
Cochet, 221
Cock-Low, 4
Coffins, Clay, 145
INDEX.
301
Coffins, Lead, 144
,, Stone, 143
„ Tile, 147
,, Wood, 143
Coins, Ancient British, 133
„ Roman, 32, 55, 136, 141,
187, 188
,, Saxon, 235
Colchester, 143, 144, 146, 147, 157,
159, 185, 201
,, Vase, 159
Cold Eaton, 293
Combs, 201, 286, 287, 288, 293
Contracted Positions, 11, et seq.
Cop-Low, 4
Cornwall, 2, 51, 75
Counters, 292 to 295
Cow Dale, 123
Cow-Low, 4, 228
Craike Hill, 43
Cremation, Interments by, 11, 31,
134, et seq., 202, et seq.
Cromlech, Ballynageerah, 62
Br. nnanstown, 63
Chun, 53, 54
De Tus, 27
Drumloghan, 61
Gaulstown, 62
Gib Hill, 43
Glencullen, 63
Howth, 63
Kells, 6r
Kilternan, 63
Kits Coty House, 53
Knockeen, 61
Knock Mary, 63
L'Ancresse, 63
Lanyon, 51, 52
Minning-Low, 54, 55
Molfra, 54
Monasterboise, 61
Mount Brown, 63
,, Venus, 63
Plas Newydd, 54, 55
R .thkenny, 63
Shandanagh, 63
Zennor, 54
Cronkstone-Low, 4
Cros-, 2,3, 269
Cup-bearer, 239
Daggers, Bronze, 130, 131, 132
Daggers, Flint, 117, et seq.
„ Iron, 242, 243
Danish interments, 44 to 50
Darley Dale, 92, 94
Dars-Low, 4
Dartmoor, 75
Darwen, 90
Davis, Dr., 16, 22
Derbyshire Barrows, 2, 3, 4, 16,
et seq.,
Devonshire, 75
Dewlish, 7
Dice, 294, 295
Discs, enamelled, etc., 260 to 264
Dominoes, 294
Dorsetshire Barrows, 2, 3,7, 47,91
Double interments, 25, 29, 30
Dove Dale, 128
Dow- Low, 4
Dowth, 59, 6r, 66
Drake-Low, 4
Draughtboard, 294
Draughtmen, 292, 293, 294
Draughts, Game, 292, 29^, 294
Drinking Cup, 43, 44, 100 to 104,
251, 282, 283
Druidical Circles, 10, 71 to 82
Durobrivian Pottery, 152 to 162
Earl Stemdale, 3
Ear-picks, 289
East-Low Hill, 146
East-Moor, 75
Elk-Low, 4, 72
Ely, 107
Enamelled Discs, etc., 260 to 264
Enamels, 251, 266, 267, et seq.
,, Chinese, 260
,, Roman, 196
,, Saxon, 260 to 264
End-Low, 4
Envtrmeu, 282
Extended positions, 11, et seq.
Fairford, 280
Fairholt, F.W., 278
Farlow, 4
Faussett Ccllection, 217
Fibula, Anglo-Saxon, 266 to 279
,, Roman, 193 to 196
Fimber, 43, 44, 97, 124
Flax Dale, 33, 71
302
INDEX.
Flemincf, G., 264
"Flint-Jack," 115
Flint Acut-ly Angled, 119
„ Barbed Arrow-heads, 115,116
,, Celts, 122, 123
„ Dagger-blades, 117, 118
,, Flakes, 121,
,, Implements, 115 to 123
,, Leaf-shaped, 119
,, Notched, 118, 120
„ Thumb, 122
,, Various, 121, 122
Food Vessels, 44, 95 to ico
Foo Low, 4
Fowse-Low, 4
Fox-Low, 4
Frankish Pottery, 221
Froggatt Edge, 75
Galley- Low. 4
Garment, Woollen, 45
Gaulstown, 62
Germany, i6o
Gib-Low, 4
Gilton, 295
Girdle-hangers, 289,290, 291
,, Ornaments, 290, 291
Glass, Ale, 229, 230, 232
,, Beads, 185, 231 to 235
„ Bowls, 186, 228, 229
„ Dicanters (?) 231
,, Lachrymatories, i85
,, Roman, 145, 185 to 188
„ Saxon, 228 to 235
,, Sepulchral Vessels, 185
,, Tumblers, 229
Glencullen, 63 ^
Gloucester, 201
Gloucestershire, 70
Gold Articles, 132, 133, 266 to 279
,, Drops, 279
,, Torques, 137, ig6 to 199
Gospel Hillock, 104, 121, 123, 124
Grave-mounds, Anglo-Saxon, 202
to 298
,, „ Celtic, 6 to 132
„ „ Construction of, 6,
et seq., 33, 38,
134 to 143, 202
to 213
„ „ Danish (?) 44 to 50
„ „ Distribution of, 2
Grave-mounds, Romano-British,
134 to 201
Great-Low, 4
Green-Low, 4, 114, 115
Grimthorpe, 238, 245, 246, 263
Grinders (see Querns)
Grind-Low, 4, 100
Gris-Low, 4
Gristhorpe, 44
Grub-Low, 4
Gruter, 135
Guernsey, 27
Gunthorpe, 116, 120
Haddon, 141
Hair-pins, 290, 292
Hammer-head, 42, 109, et seq.
Hampshire, 143, 149
Hand-mills, 295, 296
Hard-Low, 4
Har-Low, 4
Hartington, 3
Hartle Moor, 74
Hatchet, 109, 113
Hathersage iMoor, 75
Hawks-Low, 4
Hav Top, 100
Helmets, 248, et seq.
Herns-Low, 4
High -Low, 4
,, Needham, 3
Hitter Hill, 6, et seq., 16, 98
Hob Hurst's House, 33
Ho:^'s Bone?, 23
Horning-Low, 4
Horse-shoes, 201, 264, 265
Horsley, 114
Houe, meaning of, 4
Hovvth, 63
Huck-Low, 4
Immolation of Infants, 106
„ ,, Slaves, 106
,, ,, Wives, gi, 106
Incense Cups, 84, 104 to 107
Inscriptions, Sepulchral, 135, 148,
149, 150
Interment by Cremation, 11, 31,
134, et seq., 202,
et seq.
„ „ Inhumation, 11 to
49. 134. et seq.
INDEX.
303
Interment in CIoth,''35, 45, 46
„ „ Skin, 35
„ „ Tree-Coffins, 44 to
50
„ Pit, 43
Inverted Urns, 33, 34
Ireland, 28, 63, 113
Javelins, 243, 244
Jet, 25, 44, 123 to 126
„ Necklaces, 44, 123, 124, 125
„ Pendants, 124, 126
,, Rino-j 126
„ Studs, 123, 124, 126
Jutland, 46
Kells, 28
Kens- Low, 4
Kent, 53
Keys, 201, 289, 292
Kilkenny, 63
Kilternan, 63
Kingsholme, 144
Kingston, 212, 215, 266, 267
Kings Newton, 212, 214 to 227,
295
Kirk Michael, 274
Kit's Coty House, 53
Kneeling position, 11, et seq.
Knives, 193, 242, 243
Knock- Low, 4
Knok Maiy, 63
Knot-Low, 4
Lady-Low, 4
Laidman's-Low, 4
Lake Dwellings, 45
Lamp, 201
Lancashire, go
Lapwing Hill, 209
Lark's-Low, 4
Lead Coffins, 144, 145
„ Ore, 31
„ Pigs of, 32
„ Smelting, 32
Lean-Low, 4
Leckhampton, 258
Lewes, 257
Liffs-Low, 4, 42
Lillebonne, 177
Lincoln, 257
Lincolnshire, 35
Lindenschmidt, 219, 265
Little Chester, 142, 168, 169, igo
Locks, 201, 292
Lollius, 135
Lomber-Low, 4
Londinieres, 221
London, 135, 142, 143, 144, 148,
171, 175, et seq.
Long Low, 36
Lord's Down, 7
Low, meaning of, 4
,, (see Grave-mounds)
Lowsey-Low, 4
Lukis, Capt. 123
,, F. C, 27
Mail, Coat of, 255, 256
Mauls, log, et seq.
Mayence, 219
May-Low, 4
Med way, 160
Mick-Low, 4
Mickleover, 114
Middleton, 3, 33, 41, 123, 261
Minning-Low, 54, 141
Mirrors, igg, 290
Modelling Tools, 124
Money-Low, 4
Monsal Dale, 28, 86, 98
Mortimer, 43, 44, 97, 124
Moot-Low, 4, 127, 128
Mount Brown, 63
,, Venus, 63
Musden-Low, 4
Mutti-Low Hill, 35
Nail-cleaners, 289
Necklace, Glass, 187, 232, et seq.
» Jet, 44. 123 to 126
,, ,, and Bone, 124
Needham-Low, 4
Needwood, ig8
Nen, 152
Nether-Low, 4
New Forest, i4g, 165
,, Grange, 61, 65
Newhaven, 3, 256
Normandy, 174
North Elmham, 217
Northumberland, 46, 148
Nowth, 59
304
INDEX.
Ochre, 43
Off- Low, 4
Oghams, 61, 277
Otterham Creek, 162
Over Haiddon, 284
Oxfordshire, 164
Ox-Low, 4
Ozengall, 144, 211
Painstor-Low, 4
Palstaves, 128
Paradise, 27
Parcelly Ha}', 3, 25, 26
Pars- Low, 4
Parwich, 141
Peg-Low, 4
Pendants, Bone, 125, 126
„ Enamelled, etc., 260 to
264
„ Gold, 279
„ Jet, 124 to 126
Penannular Brooch (see Fibulae)
Phoenix Park, 63
Pigtor-Low, 4
Pike-Low, 4
Pinch-Low, 4
Pins, Hair, 290, 292
Pit Interments, 43, 44
Plymouth, 192, 193, 199
Pottery, Amphorae, 171, 172
„ Anglo-Saxon, 214 to 227
„ Celtic, 83 to 108
,, Domestic Vessels, etc.,
170 to 174
,, Blinking Cups, Celtic,
100 to 104
„ Durobrivian or Castor,
151, 152 to 162
,, Food Vessels, Celtic, 95
to 100
,, Frankish, 214 to 227
,, Hampshire, 151, 165, 166
,, Handled Cups, Celtic, 107
,, " Incense Cups," Celtic,
104 to 107
Potters' Kilns, 152, 154, 183
„ Marks, 176, 177, 178
,, Mortaria, 172, 173
,, Punches, 227
,, Sepulchral Urns, Celtic,
31, 34, 84 to 95
Potters' Sepulchral Urns, Roman,
156 et seq.
,, Sepulchral Urns, Saxon,
215 to 227
,, Stamps, 177, 227
,, Unguentaria, 171 to 174
Potters, Manufacture of, 84, 152
to 184, 227
,, Romano-British, 151 toi84
,, Salopian, 151, 164, 165
,, Samian, 151, 157 to 184
,, Upchurch, 151, 162, 163,
164
,, Yorkshire, 151, 166
Queen-Low, 4
Querns, 295, 296 (see also Grinders
and Triturating Stones)
Rains-Low, 4
Rangoon, 287
Rats' Bones, 16, 87, 90
Ravens-Low, 4
Red Ochre, 43
Repton, 213
Ribden-Low, 4
Rick-Low, 4
Rigollot, 220
Ringham-Low, 4, 116, 119, 120
Rings, 235
„ Jet, 124, 126
Rochester, 147
Rocky-Low, 4
Rollrich, 71
Roily-Low, 4, 34
Roman Arms, etc., 190, et seq.
,, Cemeteries, 134, et seq.
,, Coins, 55, 141, 187, 188
,, „ as payment for pas-
sage over Styx,
136, 141
Glass 184 to 188
,, Personal Ornaments, 193,
et seq.
,, Population, 134, et seq.
,, Pottery, 151 to 184
Romano-British Period, 134 to 201
Rouge, 43
Round-Low, 4, 32 1
Roundway Hill, 16, loo .'
Rusden-Low, 4
Runes, 241 i
Sacrifice of Infants, 106
INDEX.
305
Sacrifice of Slaves, 106
,, Wives, gi, 106
Saint-Low, 4
Salona, 147
Salopian Pottery, 164, 165
Samian Ware, 175 to 184
Sancreed, 76
Sarcophagus, 143, et seq.
Scales and Weights, 292
Scambridge, 294, 295
Scarborough, 47
Scissors, 289
Scrapers of Flint, 121
Seax, 240, et seq.
Selzen, 219
„ 265
Sepulchral remains, Anglo-Saxon,
202 to 298
„ ,, Celtic, I to 133
,, ,, Prankish, 221
,, ,, Danish, 44 to 50
,, ,, Romano-British,
134 to 201
,, Chambers, 146
,, Glass, 185
,, Inscriptions, 135, 148, et
seq., 217
,, Urns (see Cinerary Urns)
Shandanagh, 63
Shears, 289
Shields, 243 to 248
,, Umbones of, 246, 247, 261
from MSS., 248
Shuttlestone-Low, 24, 130
Sibertsvvold, 247, 282
Sitting-Low, 4
Sitting position, 11, et seq.
Skeleton, positions of, 11, et seq.
Skins, interment in, 24, 35
Skull, Hitter Hill, 21
,, distributions of, 22
,, Long-Low, 39
,, Gristhorpe, 47
Sliper-Low, 5
Smerrill Moor, 12
Smith, C.R., 160, 164,204,216, 255
Southfleet, 144
Spear-heads, 190, 192, 243, 244
Spindle-whorls, 114
Staden-Low, 4
Staffordshire Barrows, 4, 86, 89,
92, 96
Stan-Low, 4
Stanshope, 132
Stanton Moor, 73
Sterndale, 33, 284
Stone Chambers, 27, 50, 55 to 71,
146, et seq.
Stone Circles, 10, 27, 34,71 to 82
,, ,, Abney Moor, 75
,, ,, Abury, 71
>, „ Arbor-Low, 3, 71, 82
,, ,, Berriew, 80
,, ,, Boscawen-Un, 80
,, ,, Brassington Moor,
74
,, ,, Channel Islands, 78
,, ,, Cornish, 75
,, ,, Dartmoor, 75
,, ,, East Moor, 75
„ ,, Elk-Low, 72
,, ,, Eyam Moor, 74
,, ,, Flax Dale, 71
,, ,, formation of, 71
M )> Froggatt Edge, 75
,, ,, Hartle Moor, 74
,, ,, Hathersage Moor,
75
,, ,, Isle of Man, 76, 78
Mule Hill, 78
,, ,, " Nine Ladies," 73,
74
,, „ Penmeanmaur, 80,
81
„ ,, Rollrich, 71
,, ,, Sancreed, 76
,, ,, Stanton Moor, 73,
74
,, ,, Stonehenge, 71
„ ,, Trewavas, Head, 76
Stone Cists, 11, 17, et seq., 33, 36,
et seq., 143, et seq.
,, Coffins, 143, 144, et seq.
,, Implements of, 109, et seq.
Stone, 92
Stoney Littleton, 67
Stonehenge, 371
Stowborough, 47
Strigils. 201
Studs, Bone, 122, 126
,, Jet, 124, 126
Sussex, 146
Suttee, 91
Sutton Brow, 92
3o6
INDEX.
Swinscoe, 22
Swiss Lake Villages, 45
Swords, Roman, 190, igi
„ Saxon, 236 to 242
,, from MSS., 239, 240
Swordsman, 240
Taddington, 67, 69
Tara Brooch, 278
Thirkel-Low, 4
Thirsk, 92
Thoo-Low, 4, 5
Three-Lows, 5
Thumb Flints, 121
Tile Tombs, 147, 148
Tissington, 13, 211, 236, 247
Toothpieks, 289
Torques, 133, 196 to 199
Totmans-Low, 4
Tree-Coffins, 44, 45, 50
Trentham, 89, 96
Triturating Stones, 114, 295, 296
(see also "Querns")
Tump, meaning of, 4
Tumuli, Chambered, 55 to 71
(see Grave-mounds)
Tumulus, Etruscan, 55
Twin-Barrows, 37, 78, 79
Tweezers, 201, 289
Uley, 70
Umbones of Shields, 246, 247, 261
Upchurch, 162, et seq.
,, Pottery, 162 to 164
Upright position, 11, et seq.
Uriconium, 137, (seealsoWroxeter)
Vale, 27
Vole, Water, 16, 89, 90
Ward- Low, 5, 34
Warry-Low, 5
Water Rat, 16, 8g, 90
,, Vole, 16, 8g, 90
Wath, 47
Wedgwood, F., 258
Weights, 292
Wellbeloved, 163
Wellow, 67
West Lodge, 157
Westwood, 253
Wetton, 193
Whetstones, 114
White-Low, 5
WiUoughby, 113
Wilson, C. C, 278
Wiltshire Barrows, 2, 16, 100
Winster, 3, in, 211, 268, 269, 295,
296
Withery-Low, 5
Woolaton, log
Woollen Cloth, 45
Wool-Low, 5
Worsaae, 255
Worsley, Miss, 295
Wright, T., 135, 151, et seq., 176,
et seq., 216
Wroxeler, 137, 141,147, 162 to 165
Wyaston, 210, 233
Wye, 28
Wykeham, gS
Yarns-Low, 5
York, 142, 143, 144, et seq.
Yorkshire Barrows, 2, 5, 7, 25, 35,
44. 47. 97. 164
„ Pottery, 151
Yoalgreave, 33
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arranged, and presented the multifarious materials of a fascinating nar-
rative, that would be told effectively by the embellishments of the book,
even if the illustrations were not accompanied with words of explanatory
text." — A tlicnauni.
" This is much more than a pretty illustrated book. It is a repertory
of antiquarian literature on the costume, social habits, domestic pursuits,
and position of the sex, and the illustrations are from all sorts of
recondite sources — MS. illuminations of the Romances, Psalters, and
Chronicles. It reflects great credit on the writer, whose vast stores of
information and research have been, in this instance, well employed.
The volume is quite an encyclopasdia on a special subject." — Saturday
Review.
" As a work of art, no less than of literary elucidation, this book is
perfect in all its parts, and most honourable to its publishers. . . . The
letterpress enhances the value of the work itself a hundredfold, as
might have been expected from so well known and learned an antiquarian
as Mr. Wright, whose participation in so choice a work makes it in
every respect worthy of a place in every public and well-selected library,
where art and literature are alike patronized and admired." — BeWs
Weekly Messenger.
"We cannot justly class Mr. Wright's ' Womankind ' amongst the
ephemeral books of the season ; yet it is admirably suited to answer the
purpose of a gift-book — and much more ; and it would be unfair to
leave it until its less solid neighbours had been cleared out of hand.
Th« hijrh antiquarian renown of the author would alone guarantee that
\>rxf should have no frivolous, superficial dissertation on the mere out-
\r-jinl phenomena of * feminity ' in past times — no mere sentimental
dtrcl^mation in fa\-our of woman's advancement to a social place which
&bf ne\-er before claimed. On the contrary, we have a faithful, un-
shrinking, photographically minute account of the relations between
wuruen and men, and of female manners, dress, social duties, and posi-
tk»n. literar\- achievements, and participation in public hfe, from the
dati? at which authentic history takes cognizance of the condition of the
E -uions. . . . Mr. Wright's ' Womankind ' — like the ideal of
t -x — is fitted, not for the festive season alone, but for every
tjo^-. — ^ .-tr TeUgifaph.
'* Th« author's name, on whatever subject he writes, is a guarantee
fiat thorough scholarship, solid information, lucid exposition, and careful
ddSneation ; and in this work all these qualities are conspicuous. Mr.
Wrigfat belie\-es, and with good reason, ' that a history of the female
set, in that particular division of mankind to which we ourselves
beloDg; would not be urt&cceptable to the general reader.' Such a history
be bas here produced, and in doing so, has left nothing t(^be desired-
... In e^-e^Jr sense this is a splendid book, fcr whach we heartily
rfcarrt Mr. Wright." — Illustrated Times.
'* Ne-wer has historj' been made more charming4han in.this excellent
vofome. Whatever page is opened, some pleasant little narrative, his-
toeic or romantic ; some sketch of the womankina of Chaucer's days, or
of the heroines of the Romaunt of the Rose; some striking pictures of
Anglo-Saxon life, or some quaint costumes, or ever-changing fashions,
coBBStantly attract, and interest, and inform." — Birmingham Daily Post.
•*,To the general public, the appearance of such a work is a surprise,
the more agreeable because, while it is the vrork of an accomplished
scholar, who has nowhere deviated from the scholar's path tb win
ephftneral applause, it nevertheless appeals to universal sympathies,
and so aboonds in attractions as to demand to be regarded as emphatic-
ally fA« book of the season.*' — Gardeners' Magazine.
' "Externally and internally it is absolutely splendid, the binding and
Olastrations being a perfect marvel of beauty and richness. But in the
iateiest of its subject, as well as in its mode of treatment, Mr. Wright's
piesent work will command the respect and praise of the man of letters
and the philosopher, quite as much as it is sure to enlist the sympathies
and extort the admiration of a less exacting class of readers. The
bo(A is beaii^iiily written, the style being at once chaste and ornate."
— Eddawes's Shreussbury yournal.
" It is one of the most interesting, instructive, and valuable books of
the nineteenth centur>'. At this particular period of the agitation of
woman's rights, we may say in truth that this book is a treasury of
knowledge to the historian, the politician, the moral philosopher, and
the reformer; while, at the same time, in its romantic incidents illus-
trative of social life in different ages of Western Europe, it surpasses in
interest the most skilful and attractive fictions of the day." — New York
Morning Herald.
GROOMBRIDGE & SON.S, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW,
LONDON.
L\
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15
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY
Los Angeles
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
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