:§§ Laboratory Exercises — IN— Physiography BY JAMES H. SMITH IRA W. STAHL MARION SYKES D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO /' UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES GB23 S65 -1 smith - exercises in PftysTograpnyT Cc"fc Kb UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PHYSIOGRAPHY BY JAMES H. SMITH Austin High School IRA W. STAHL Lane Technical High School MARION SYKES Bowen High School Chicago, Illinois D. C. HEATH & COMPANY BOSTON NEW VORK CHICAGO Copyright, 1912. 3y D. C. Heath & Co. 2p6 Printed in U. S. 1 (xBS PREFACE This book of Laboratory Exercises has been written to meet the needs of high school pupils. It is adapted to either a full year or a half year course. The work has been simplified with the hope that it may be readily understood by first year pupils. We recommend that each teacher take one or more of the field trips with his class. We believe that such work is of as great value as any that can be given. A list of references is given after each exercise with the view of making the book valuable in classes using any of the texts referred to. The references may be help- ful also to those who wish to do library work with their classes. We desire to acknowledge our indebtedness to our fellow teachers of physiography in the Chicago high schools. Among these we wish especially to thank Mr. Ralph E. Blount for material assistance in the preparation of Exercise 8, Planetary Winds, and for other suggestions. We express also our appreciation of the courtesies shown us by Henry J. Cox, Professor of Meteorology and District Forecaster in charge of the United States Weather Bureau Office at Chicago, who has placed at our command the records of his office. THE AUTHORS 3 I 88452 KEY TO REFERENCES Abbreviation A. B. C. M. Davis Dryer G. and B. Hopkins Salisbury, Br. Salisbury, El. Tarr Title Physiography for High Schools Elementary Physical Ge- ography Lessons in Physical Geog- raphy Introduction to Physical Geography Elements of Physical Geography Physiography for High Schools Elementary Physiography New Physical Geography Author Arey, Bryant, Clendenin, and Morrey W. M. Davis Charles R. Dryer Gilbert and Brigham Thomas C. Hopkins Rollin D. Salisbury Rollin D. Salisbury Ralph S. Tarr Publisher D. C. Heath & Co. Ginn & Company American Book Company D. Appleton and Com- pany Benj. H. Sanborn & Co. Henry Holt and Co. Henry Holt and Co. The Macmillan Company CONTENTS PAGE 1. Expansion due to Heat l.j 2. Insolation. The Heat received from the Sun 15 3. Temperature Distribution over the Earth 19 4. Influence of Latitude on Seasonal Range of Temperature 21 5. Influence of Land and Sea on Seasonal Range of Temperature 23 6. Moisture in the Air. Humidity 25 7. The Mercury Barometer and its Action 29 8. Planetary or Terrestrial Winds 33 9. Map of Planetary Wind Belts . 39 10. Winds and Currents ... 43 11. Study of the Weather Map 45 12. The Temperate Latitude Cyclone and Anticyclone . 47 13. Visit to a United States Weather Bureau Forecasting Station 49 14. Distribution of Rainfall in the United States . 53 15. Monthly and Seasonal Rainfall in the Climatic Regions of the United States 55 16. Influence of Rainfall on Vegetation 59 17. Parallels and Meridians .... 61 18. Standard Time 65 19. The Most Common Minerals 69 20. The Most Common Rocks 73 21. Delta Table Study 75 22. The Mississippi and St. Lawrence River Basins 79 23. Iron and Coal 83 24. Comparative Study of Contour Map?, 85 25. Study of Stream Erosion from a Contour Map. Highwood, III 87 26. Stream Valleys in a Level Plain. La Salle, III 89 27. Topographic Effects of Stream Erosion. Savanna, Ia.-Ill 91 28. River Flood Plains. Donaldsonville, La 93 29. The North American Ice Sheet 97 30. Glacial Topography. Weedsport, N. Y., Whitewater, Wis 99 31. Shore Lines. Atlantic City, N. J., Boothbay, Me 101 32. The Chicago Region 103 33. Commercial and Industrial Chicago 105 5 34. New York and Vicinity 107 35. Effect of Erosion upon Rocks of Unequal Hardness. Habrisbtjhg, Pa. . . 109 36. Rugged Mountains. Platte Canton, Col Ill 37. Plateaus. Charleston, W. Va., Kaibab, Ariz 113 38. Physiographic Regions of the United States 117 39. Cotton Production 123 40. Wheat Production 127 41. Corn Production 131 42. Field Trip to a Quarry 133 43. Field Trip to study Stream Action 135 44. Field Trip to a Beach 137 45. Field Trip to a Brick Yard 139 MATERIAL REQUIRED In demonstration exercises, the articles listed under material are needed for the teacher only; in other exercises sufficient material is needed to supply each pupil. Barometer. Barometer tube. Brass ring, with ball to fit. Bunsen burner. Droppers. Flask, flat-bottomed, with one-hole rubber stopper to fit. Glass dish, small, for barometer. Glass funnel, with small stem. Glass tubing to fit stopper. Globes, six inch, one for each pupil. Hand magnifiers. Hydrochloric acid. Hygrometer, or wet and dry bulb thermometers. Iron stand, with ring and clamp. Maps. See separate list. Matches. Mercury, two or three pounds. Minerals Calcite. Feldspar. Hornblende. Minerals, Continued. Mica. Quartz. Paste. Rocks Granite. Limestone. Marble. Sandstone. Shale. Slate. Rubber stopper, one-hole, to fit flask. Rubber tubing. Rulers. Salt. Sand (molding). Sprayer, whitewash sprayer, if possible. Steel rods or knitting needles. Stirring rods. Wax or chewing gum. Window glass, 3" X 3", for each pupil. Wire gauze, one piece. North Atlantic. South Atlantic. Maps and Charts. Meteorological (Pilot) Charts of the North Pacific. South Pacific. Topographic Maps. Atlantic City, New Jersey. Boothbay, Maine. Bright Angel, Arizona. Charleston, West Virginia. Donaldsonville, Louisiana. Fargo, North Dakota-Minnesota Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Highwood, Illinois. Kaibab, Arizona. La Salle, Illinois. Platte Canyon, Colorado. Savanna, Iowa-Illinois. Shasta Special, California. Sun Prairie, Wisconsin. Weedsport, New York. Whitewater, Wisconsin. Geological Folios. Chicago Folio. New York City Folio. Weather Maps. Daily weather map. A series of weather maps for consecutive days, for each pupil. The meteorological charts may be obtained from the Weather Bureau Office at Washington. Can- celed charts for class use may be obtained upon request. Topographic maps may be purchased of the United States Geological Survey for five cents each, or three dollars per hundred. The price of Bright Angel, Arizona, sheet is ten cents. Geological folios may be purchased of the Geological Survey for fifty cents each. The daily weather maps may be obtained upon application to the nearest United States Weather Bureau Forecasting Station. In some eities the daily weather map is published in the newspapers. CONTENTS OF NOTEBOOK Number of Exercise Title of Exercise 10 EXERCISE I EXPANSION DUE TO HEAT. DEMONSTRATION Material for A. Brass ring with ball to fit, bunsen burner. Material for B. Flat-bottomed flask, colored water, one-hole rubber stopper with glass tubing to fit, iron stand and wire gauze, mercury thermometer. Material for C. Flask with rubber stopper, through which passes a glass tube, colored water, iron stand with ring. A. Expansion in Solids Notice how snugly the ball fits the ring when cold. Heat the ball with the bunsen burner, then try to pass it through the ring. 1. Does the ball pass through the ring after being heated? Tell how heat has changed the size of the ball. 2. Cool the ball. Does it now pass through the ring? Explain. 3. Other solids act as the brass ball when heated. Why does glass break when suddenly heated? 4. When the sun heats a rock, why do the outside layers become loosened and come off? This result is especially noticeable in mountains. B. Expansion in Liquids Fill the flask with the colored water and fit it with the stopper and glass tubing. Place it on the wire gauze on the iron stand and heat with bunsen burner. The first effect when heat is applied is the sinking of the water in the tube, due to the expansion of the flask. 5. As the water becomes warmed, how does the height of the water in the tube change? Why so? 6. Is the density of the water greater or less when heated? 7. Is its weight per cubic inch greater or less when heated? 8. As the water cools, how does the height of the water in the tube change? 9. How does this affect its density? 10. How does the cooling affect its weight per cubic inch? 11. Hold the bulb of the thermometer in the hand or in warm water. Explain the action of the thermometer. C. Expansion in Gases Invert the flask and place it in the ring of the stand so that the lower end of the tube dips into the colored water about an inch. Heat the flask of air with the hands or bunsen flame playing over it. 12. What is happening in the water? In the flask? 13. How is the density of the air in the flask changed when heated? 14. How is its weight per cubic inch changed when heated? 15. Allow the air in the flask to cool. What does the water do? 13 16. What does the air in the flask do as it cools? 17. Which is lighter, warm or cold air, when the pressure is the same? REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 224-227 (q. 4) Salisbury, Br., 40 (q. 4) Dryer, 5S (q. 4) Salisbury, El., 2&-28 (q. 4) G. & B., 81 (q. 4) Tarr, 40 (q. 4) Hopkins, 262 (q. 4) W EXERCISE II INSOLATION. THE HEAT RECEIVED FROM THE SUN The places chosen are the equator, the tropics, and the polar circles, at the time of the equinoxes. Place a sheet of cross-section paper with the punched edge toward you. About the middle of the paper draw a heavy line from end to end parallel with the punched edge. Let this line represent the surface of the earth. At the left end of this line place a ruler across this line at right angles and draw a line at each side of the ruler from the margin above to the surface line. The space between these lines will represent a sun- beam at the equator at the time of the equinoxes. Near this beam place the same ruler so as to make an angle of 66|° with the surface line. Draw lines at each side of the ruler to represent a sunbeam at the tropics at the time of the equinoxes. Again place the same ruler so as to make an angle of 23^° with the surface line and draw lines at each side of the ruler to represent a sunbeam at the polar circles at the time of the equinoxes. These sunbeams are of equal width. Beginning one centimeter below the surface line, draw a square below the surface line where the equatorial sunbeam touches it, to represent the area covered by this sun- beam. In a similar way draw rectangles to represent the spaces covered by the other two sunbeams. These will have one side equal to the side of the square and the other side equal to the length covered by the beam on the surface line. Label each beam. Color the beams and the surface areas. 1. These sunbeams are the same size. Is the amount of heat brought from the sun by each sunbeam the same? 2. State the number of small squares each beam covers on the surface. 3. Which beam must heat the surface the most? Which the least? 4. From the above tell why the temperatures on the earth decrease from the equator toward the poles. Advanced Work This may be done as home work. Heat received from the sun at latitude 42° N. on June 21, March 21, September 23, and December 22. On a sheet of cross-section paper draw the surface line as above. Draw three sunbeams, as above, but at angles of 71|°, 48°, and 24^°. Draw rectangles below to represent the surface areas. Label with the proper dates and color as above. 5. State the number of small squares covered by the sunbeam at each date. 6. Why, then, is it warmer in Chicago (latitude 42°) in June than in December? 7. Compare the length of day in June and December and give a second reason for June being warmer. 8. Give reason why the heat received from the sun on a clear day increases in the forenoon and decreases in the afternoon. Note. Heat received from the sun at any latitude may be illustrated in the same manner as in advanced work, by using the angle for that latitude. REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 74, 81, 82 Salisbury, Br., 334-336 Dryer, 293, 294 Salisbury, El., 227-230 Hopkins, 6, 388 Tarr, 239, 240 15 Ti-iopiTJlun * s a d EXERCISE XVIII STANDARD TIME 1. On an outline map of the United States draw lines with red ink or crayon along the meridians of 75°, 90°, 105°, and 120° west longitude. Let each line stop at the edge of the continent. The lines drawn are the standard meridians. They are 15° apart. The earth rotates through 360° in 24 hours, or through 15° in one hour. Therefore the time of a standard meridian differs by one hour from the time of the next standard meridian on either side. Each standard meridian gives the time to the entire belt of which it is the center. 2. The dividing lines between standard time belts are irregular. They pass through certain places where railroad divisions end. (a) Between the Intercolonial and Eastern time belts the dividing line passes along the eastern boundary of Maine. Draw this line in ink, making the line heavy. (b) Draw the line between the Eastern and Central time belts from Buffalo, N. Y., to Pittsburgh, Pa., Atlanta, Ga., Augusta, Ga., Savannah, Ga. (c) Draw the line between the Central and Mountain time belts from Williston, N. Dak., to Bismarck, N. Dak., North Platte, Neb., Dodge, Kan., El Paso, Tex. (d) Draw the line between the Mountain and Pacific time belts from longitude 116° W., at top of map, to Boise, Id., Carson City, Nev., El Paso, Tex. 3. On the map print the names of the time belts, Intercolonial Time (east of Maine); Eastern Time; Central Time; Mountain Time; Pacific Time. 4. Write 12 o'clock, noon, on the 75th meridian. On each of the other standard meridians write the time that meridian has when it is noon at the 75th meridian. 5. Color or shade the time belts within the United States. REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 24, 27 Salisbury, Br., 313 Dryer, Supplement, IX Salisbury, El., 210, 211 G. & B., 26 Tarr, 404 Hopkins, 31, 32 65 S o > a o SJ z o r B Z D B b B D cc t !> S B a I Z > K B o s z B B :► r O o s to H R ► Z CD "0 > B z o «; w >• s D Z B CD CD > s z o > o 5 - p B < > B B B IS o GO a x * B Z B > r CO Z > B O B a z s CO > z o o z CO i CO H i Marble H z B z > s B "J a o g ! a o S s r- o - v. o B S E a ?| 3 B o s c o 2 E ° - > a r B o » Z S I B H X M O 53 H X X 73 O o 2 > K c EXERCISE XX STUDY OF THE MOST COMMON ROCKS Material. Steel rods, window glass, dilute hydrochloric acid, droppers or stirring rods, specimens of limestone, marble, shale, slate, sandstone, granite. Hand magni- fiers are desirable. Note 1. A rock consists of a mixture of minerals, but in some cases it is a very large mass of a single mineral. Note 2. The minerals of which a rock is composed are the grains in the rock. What these minerals are may be found by testing their grains, as in Exercise XIX. Note 3. Shale and slate are made of grains of clay. The other rocks given are composed of minerals already studied. Study the rocks named in the table on page 71, and fill the blanks opposite the name of each rock. REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 253-259 Salisbury, Br., 520 Dryer, 31-36 Salisbury, El., 350 G. & B., 74-78 Tarr, 409-413 Hopkins, 255-262 73 EXERCISE XXI DELTA TABLE STUDY. DEMONSTRATION Material. Delta table, sand, clay, stones, sprayer (a whitewash sprayer is the best). On the delta table put clay with sand at several places, and use the stones to represent hard layers. Arrange the sand so as to represent a nearly level land surface, sloping toward the basin of the delta table. Have springs, issuing from tubes, come to the surface at several points. Allow the streams from the springs to cut valleys. Later use the fine spray and notice the change of slope of the valley sides. A. The Work of Running Water 1. What determines the course of the streams? 2. Do the streams join into one main stream? Why? 3. Are the streams straight or crooked? Do they become more crooked, or less so as the action continues? 4. When the springs supply all the water, are the slopes of the valley sides steep or gentle? 5. How does the spray (rain) change the slope of the valley sides? 6. Do swift streams or slow streams deepen their valleys the more rapidly? 7. Is the stream more active in cutting at the inside or at the outside of the bends? 8. What effect has this side cutting on the width of the valley? 9. Is the water from the springs or the run-off from the rain the more muddy? Why? 10. At what points do the streams drop sediment? Why there? 11. Do you see any flood plains? How were they made? 12. Do you see any terraces? How were they made? 13. What land forms have been made by the wearing away of the surrounding land? 14. The surface land of the earth is more fertile than the deeper parts. Does erosion increase or decrease the fertility of the hills? Does the deposit made in the valleys increase or decrease the fertility of the valleys? B. Contour Map of Delta Table To be sketched at school and made at home on a separate sheet of unruled paper. 1. Outline the delta table, mark the streams, and draw the shore line as the zero contour. 2. Raise the water level one inch and draw this shore line as the one-inch contour. 3. Continue raising the water level inch by inch and drawing contours until all of the land is submerged except the highest parts. 4. Finish the drawing in ink. 5. Number the contours. 6. Color the water blue. 7. Number and label the map. 75 C. Delta Table Study. The Delta 1. As seen from the above, what is the general shape of the delta? 2. Is the surface of the delta nearly level, or is it sloping? 3. Is the delta made chiefly of fine or of coarse material? 4. Is all of the delta above water, or is it partly under water and partly above? 5. Make waves in the water. Does strong wave action help or hinder the building oi the delta? D. Delta Table Study. The Coast Line of a Changing Sea Level 1. Lower the water level about two inches. Is the new coast line smoothly curving or very irregular? 2. Where was the land which now forms this shore line before the water level changed? 3. Raise the water level two or three inches, so that the water goes into the lower part of the valleys. Is the coast line now gently curving or deeply indented? 4. What has happened to the lower part of the stream valleys? Such valleys are called drowned valleys. 5. Find on the map and name three drowned river valleys on the Atlantic coast of North America. 6. Which coast of North America shows that the sea level has been iowered? 7. Which coast of North America shows that the sea level has been raised? REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 284, et seq. Hopkins, 63, et seq. Davis, 245, et seq. Salisbury, Br., 73, et seq. Dryer, 60-67 Salisbury, EL, 49, et seq. G. & B., 28, et seq. Tarr, 50, et seq. 76 > s B o *d a EXERCISE XXII THE MISSISSIPPI AND ST. LAWRENCE RIVER BASINS Note. Make the map as home work before answering the questions. Use the drainage map of the United States, on p. 77. Draw a line around the Missis- sippi river basin as follows: start east of the mouth of the river, pass northeast, keep- ing between the tributaries of the Mississippi and the rivers which do not belong to that system; in New York turn west, passing south of the Great Lakes; continue westward and northwestward; cross no streams, but wind in and out along the divides which separate the tributaries of the Mississippi system from other streams; in southwestern Canada turn south and east, following the Rocky mountain divide. End near the mouth of the Mississippi. Shade or color the area. In the same way draw a line around the St. Lawrence river basin, which includes the Great Lakes. Where this basin joins the Mississippi basin, use a single line, not a double one. Shade or color the area. A. The Mississippi Basin 1. The Ohio river brings in much more water than the Missouri brings. Which has the larger basin? Refer to the rainfall map of the United States, on page 51, and explain why the Ohio brings in more water. 2. Is the Mississippi basin chiefly a region of agriculture, manufacture, mining, forests, or commerce? Name the three which are most important. 3. Name six or more important cities on the Mississippi river or its tributaries. In as many cases as possible state what advantage the city has because it is on the river. 4. What special advantage comes from being located at the mouth of a tribu- tary? Name two or more cities so located. 5. Almost every year the lower Mississippi river has disastrous floods. Give the reasons why these floods occur. B. The St. Lawrence Basin 6. Are the tributary rivers long or short, compared with those of the Mississippi? 7. Is the St. Lawrence basin chiefly a region of agriculture, manufacture, mining, forests, or commerce? Name the three which are most important. 8. Name the most important lake and river cities in this basin. In as many cases as possible state the advantage to the city which comes from its location upon the water. 9. The St. Lawrence river is never flooded. Give two or more reasons for the absence of floods. C. Comparison of the lower part of the Mississippi river with the lower part of the St. Lawrence At the mouth of the Mississippi, the shore line has migrated seaward; at the moutb of the St. Lawrence the shore line has migrated landward. 79 10. Which of the two rivers ends in a broad estuary or arm of the sea? 11. Which has a delta? Why do not both rivers have deltas? 12. Which needs to be dredged to keep its channel open? Why not both? 13. When the shore line migrates landward the lower part of the valleys is covered by the sea. These are called drowned valleys. The St. Lawrence has a drowned val- ley. Name other rivers with drowned valleys. See map on page 11. REFERENCES Dryer, 68-80 (Miss.), 92-101 (St. L.) Tarr, 325-329 (Miss.), 329-334 (St. L.) G. & B., 49 (q. 9), 66-70 80 a o > o z *ti 53 o o c o 5 o E £ 5 z e! z DO ►a > H a a EXERCISE XXIII ERON AND COAL Material. Map of the iron producing regions and of the coal fields of the United States, on page 81. 1. Name from your map the states producing iron ore. 2. Name five shipping ports for iron ore. 3. The receiving ports for iron ore are along the south shore of which two of the Great Lakes. Name seven of these ports. 4. What fuel is used in smelting the iron ore? In general does this fuel .seem to be shipped toward the iron producing regions, or is the iron ore shipped toward the fuel producing regions? 5. At what cities are blast furnaces located? Which of these are in states havinp; coal fields? Explain why the blast furnaces are there. 6. Why are there so many blast furnaces in Chicago and vicinity? 7. Why is Pittsburgh so important in the making of iron? 8. Why is Cleveland an important center in the making of iron? REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 260, 261 Hopkins, 246-249 G. & B., 163, 183, 188, 189, 353 Tarr, 108, 109, 309 83 EXERCISE XXIV COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CONTOUR MAPS. A CLASS EXERCISE Material. Topographic Sheets of Fargo, N. Dak. -Minn., Harrisburg, Pa., Savanna, la. -111., Shasta Special, Cal., and either Sun Prairie, Wis., or Weedsport, N. Y., rulers. Purpose. To acquaint the pupil with the conventional signs used and with the appearance of typical topographic maps. A. Mountain Ridges and Valleys. Harrisburg Sheet I. Verbal instruction. No notes required. 1. Give the location of the region. See upper right corner of map. 2. Give the scale of miles in inches per mile. See bottom of map. 3. Give the contour interval. Define contour interval. 4. In what color is the relief? 5. In what color is the drainage? 6. In what color is the culture? 7. What is included under " culture "? 8. Notice the following ridges: Peters Mountain, Third Mountain, Second Moun- tain, Blue Mountain. A township line follows the crest of Peters Mountain. 9. Give the elevation of the crest of Peters Mountain, (a) above sea level; (6) above its base. 10. Are the sides of the ridges steep or is their slope gentle? How is this shown? 11. The Susquehanna river cuts across the ridges. It was there before the ridges were made. Do the principal creeks run parallel with the ridges or across them? 12. Are the railroads in the valleys, or upon the ridges? 13. Are the wagon roads for the most part in the valleys or upon the ridges? 14. Are the houses for the most part in the valleys or upon the ridges? B. A Level Country. Fargo Sheet 15. Give the location of this region. 16. Give the scale of miles. 17. Give the contour interval. Are the scale of miles and the contour interval the same as on the Harrisburg sheet? 18. Why are the contours so few? 19. Do the railroads follow the streams? 20. Are the wagon roads straight or crooked? Why? 21. In what direction do the wagon roads extend? 22. Where are the houses found? C. A Dissected Region. Savanna Sheet 23. Give the location, scale of miles and contour interval. 24. Notice the Mississippi river with its broad valley. 25. Are there steep bluffs along the sides of the valley? 85 26. Are the contours upon this map regular or irregular? 27. Are the small streams regular or irregular? 28. Are the wagon roads regular or irregular? D. A Country of Swamps and of Oval Hills. Weedsport Sheet or Sun Prairie Sheet 29. Give the location, scale of miles, and contour interval. 30. Are the streams regular or irregular? 31. Find places where the swamps seem to hinder the passage of the wagon roads. 32. Find places where the wagon roads bend around the hills instead of going over the hill tops. 33. Give the height of the hill above its base at the letter Y in the township named in the north central part of the map. E. A Mountain Peak. Shasta Special Sheet The mountain covers all of the map except the northeastern and southwestern corners. 34. Give the location, scale of miles, and contour interval. 35. As shown by the contours, what is the general shape of the mountain? 36. Is the mountain steeper near its base or near its top? 37. Why are there so few roads and houses? II. To be answered by each pupil in his note-book. Note. The regions just studied may be classified in three types:* a. Regions of marked relief; Harrisburg and Shasta sheets. 6. Regions of moderate relief; Savanna, Sun Prairie, and Weedsport Sheets. c. Region of slight relief; Fargo sheet. 1. In which type do you find the roads regular and at right angles to each other and the population well distributed over most of the region? 2. In which type do you find the roads irregular and few, and the population, if any, chiefly in the valleys? 3. In which maps are the streams arranged in systematic order? What is that arrangement? 4. In which type are the wagon roads irregular and rather numerous, forming a net-work upon the land? * After Salisbury and Atwood in U.S.G.S. Professional Paper 60. The Interpretation of Topographic Maps, Titles of Maps, V, VI, VII. 86 EXERCISE XXV STUDY OF LAND SURFACE AND STREAM EROSION FROM A CONTOUR MAP Material. Highwood, 111., Sheet. A. The Ridges This region contains three low ridges parallel with the lake shore, with valleys between the ridges. 1. The Chicago & Northwestern railroad follows the crest of the first ridge, nearest the lake. What is the greatest elevation of this ridge north of Fort Sheridan? 2. Give the greatest elevation of the second ridge from the lake. 3. Give the elevation of the swamps and wet weather streams between the first and second ridges. The signs used for swamps and other features are on the margin or on the back of the map. 4. How many miles is it from Ravinia to the center of Highland Park? From Highland Park to Lake Forest? B. Erosion along the Lake Shore 5. The crowded contours show that there is a steep bluff along the lake. From the contours tell how high this bluff is above the surface of Lake Michigan. The top of the bluff is where the contours cease to be crowded. A good place to get the altitude of the bluff is at latitude 42° 10' N. The number in brown figures on Lake Michigan shows the elevation of the lake. 6. Notice the small valley or ravine on the shore, just south of Ravinia. The upper end is its head; the lower end is its mouth. Is the ravine wider at its head or its mouth? Is this true of most of the ravines? 7. Has the ravine steep or gently sloping sides? How is this shown? 8. Notice the branches or tributaries of the ravine just north of Ravinia. How many tributaries has it on the south side? How many on the north? 9. How many ravines, large and small, are there having their mouths at the lake shore on this map? Give the length of the longest one. 10. As time goes on, how will these ravines change in length? In width? Note. River valleys, made by erosion, begin like ravines. As the running water wears the valleys they become longer, wider, and deeper, and they in turn have branches. In this manner a river system is developed. The ravines in this map are so young and so shallow that they have no permanent streams. REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 284-291 Salisbury, Br., 89-101 Davis, 256-258 Salisbury, El., 65-70 G. & B., 43, 44 Tarr, 55, 56 Hopkins, 64-66 87 EXERCISE XXVI STREAM VALLEYS IN A LEVEL PLAIN Material. La Salle, 111., sheet. The double black lines are wagon roads; the single black lines north of the Illinois river are the streets of La Salle. These features are prominent: (a) The nearly level plain, best seen in the northwestern and southeastern parts of the map, where contours are few. (b) The broad Illinois river valley with its wide flood plains. (c) Many small, narrow valleys such as the Vermilion river valley. 1. Give the elevation of the plain in the northwestern part of the map. Find a aumbered contour and count ten feet up for each contour. Away from the river is up. Give the elevation of the plain in the southeastern part of the map. 2. Give the elevation of the flood plain of the Illinois river as shown by the con- tours that border or cross the flood plain. Contours on opposite edges of a stream have the same elevation. 3. All the valleys in this region have been made by erosion (stream wear). How many feet below the upland plain south of the Illinois river is the flood plain of that river? Obtain this either by subtracting the elevation of the flood plain from the elevation of the plain, or by counting the contours from the plain to the flood plain. 4. How high is the steep bluff on the south side of the Illinois river valley? Count the contours from the bottom of the bluff to the top. 5. Give the width of the flood plain of the Illinois river valley at La Salle. Using the scale of miles, measure from the river to the bottom of the north bluff of the valley. 6. Give the width of the Illinois river valley at three places. Measure at the bottom of the bluff. Add the three widths and find their average. Show your number work in the note-book. 7. The upper end of a valley is its head; the lower end is its mouth. How much higher is the head of the small valley just west of Vermilion river than its mouth? This small valley is cut in the south bluff of the Illinois river valley. 89 EXERCISE XXVII TOPOGRAPHIC EFFECTS OF STREAM EROSION Material. Savanna, Ia.-Ill., sheet. This region was once a nearly level plain. The hills and valleys have been made by the streams. On the map notice the following special features: (a) The broad valley of the Mississippi river, with its wide flood plains. (b) The smaller valleys made by the streams which flow in them. (c) Remnants of the original plain, which, in many cases, are divides between valleys. 1. Give the width of the Mississippi river valley, from bluff to bluff, at the southern edge of the map. 2. Give the width of the river at the southern edge of the map. 3. Give the width of the flood plain east of the river, at the southern edge of the map. 4. Give the elevation of the flood plain of the Mississippi river on this map. 5. The remnants of the original plain have an elevation of about 800 ft. in the south- eastern part of the map, and of about 900 ft. in the northern part. Counting from the surface of the original plain, how deep is this part of the Mississippi river valley? 6. As the stream valleys develop, will these remnants of the original plain remain or will they be worn away? 7. Are the wagon roads straight or crooked? 8. Do most of the wagon roads follow the divides or the valleys? Follow several of the longer roads and, if possible, give a reason for their location. REFERENCES G. & B., 59, 60 riaiisDury, Br., 101-103 Hopkins, 87-91 Salisbury, El. 59-73 91 EXERCISE XXVIII RIVER FLOOD PLAINS Material. Donaldsonville, La., sheet. This region is on the Mississippi river, about fifty miles above New Orleans, and, by river, more than one hundred fifty miles from the Gulf. On the map notice the following special features: (a) The extensive swamp, but a few feet above sea level. (6) The nearly level land. The smallest contour interval ever employed is used in this map, namely, five feet. (c) The levee or low ridge on each side of the Mississippi river. 1. In going from the swamp toward the river, does the land become higher or lower? In your locality does the land bordering a stream slope toward the stream or away from it? 2. Give the elevation of the swamp. 3. The low ridges forming the banks of the river are called levees — natural levees when made by stream deposit, artificial levees when made by man. The natural levees are made of earth and stones dropped by the river in times of flood. Where did this material come from? 4. Do rivers wear down, or build up the land, or both? 5. The small black squares are buildings. Give two reasons why settlements and houses are near the river. 6. Numerous ditches and canals drain this low land; do they carry water toward the river or toward the swamp? 7. The land along New River has been made like that along the Mississippi. In the future will the land along New River become broader or narrower? Why? REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 304-308 Salisbury, Br., 130-134 Davis, 264 Salisbury, El., 86, 87, 89, 90 Hopkins, 82-84 Tarr, 62, 328 93 Exercise XXIX Name of Pupil. Map of the North American Ice Sheet, showing the Ice Centers CP "«t from &w»«'* / £>r A ^ N ^ <=3<2>Q ft \ V ■LABRADOR. 'J V 5 l\\l, I (ICE ) >) life 3 & fe §£& I J? \ " j i --?*?/>« -SC Cance '«£> £ ; y D = Driftless Area EXERCISE XXIX THE NORTH AMERICAN ICE SHEET Material. Map of North America showing extent of the ice sheet, on page 95. 1. Where did the ice gather? Name from the map the centers from which it moved. 2. What part of Alaska was not covered by ice? 3. How far south did the ice extend? Tell through what states the southern border line passes. 4. In what three states is the small area which the ice failed to cover? This is called the driftless area. 5. Where is there a continental glacier at present? Advanced Work. Reference Work 6. In the region once covered by the ice, is the soil made wholly from the under- lying rock, or is it made partly of materials which could not have come from the bed rock? Material deposited by the ice sheet is called drift. 7. In places which were not covered by the glacier, is the soil made mostly from the underlying rocks or from other materials? 8. What evidence of the movement of the glacier does the surface of the bed rock show? 9. What effect did the ice sheet have on drainage? 10. Most of the wheat and hay grown in the United States east of the Rocky Moun- tains is in the glaciated area. This is partly because of the soil, partly because of the climate. Give reasons for expecting glaciated soil to be fertile. 11. New England was covered by the ice. In many places in New England farming is poor. Why is this so? 12. Give four proofs that much of North America was covered by an ice sheet. REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 340-350 Hopkins, 165-167 Davis, 295-302 Salisbury, Br., 199-200, 203-211 ^ryer, 120, 122-134, 138-142, 144, 145, 160, 161 (q. 5) Salisbury, El., 129, 130, 134-141 G. & B., 145, map, 132-150 Tarr, 146-153 97 EXERCISE XXX GLACIAL TOPOGRAPHY Material. Whitewater, Wis., and Weedsport, N. Y., sheets. Each map shows an area whose topography is determined by the deposit of drift left by the great ice sheet. I. Is the land shown on these maps well drained or poorly drained? How do you know? Such drainage is an evidence that these regions were once covered by the ice sheet. 2 A closed contour line from which small lines radiate inward is a depression contour. The area it encloses slopes downward and is lower than the surrounding land. Some- times it is so much lower that a second depression contour is within the first. Do you find many depression contours or few on the Whitewater sheet? How deep is the deep- est depression you can find? 3. Do streams lead out from these depressions, or must water which drains into them remain there? How many can you find which contain water? These undrained hollows are called kettle holes. They are evidences that these regions were once covered by the ice sheet. 4. On the Weedsport sheet the land near the Erie canal and the Seneca river is the lowest on the map. What is its elevation? What is the elevation of the swamps crossed by the parallel of 43° 10'? What is the elevation of the swamps in the southeast corner of the map? Are these upland or lowland swamps? Upland swamps are an evidence of the presence of a former glacier. 5. What three evidences do these maps show that these areas were once covered by the great ice sheet? Advanced Work. Whitewater Sheet 6. The Whitewater sheet shows a terminal moraine extending diagonally across the southeastern part of the map, where the contour lines are more irregular and are crowded together. Find the terminal moraine on the map. Northwest of the terminal moraine is ground moraine. Find the ground moraine. Are there more undrained hollows in the terminal moraine or in the ground moraine? Are those in the terminal moraine deeper or shallower than those in the ground moraine? Because of the presence of these kettle holes this terminal moraine is called a kettle moraine. 7. Notice the way in which the hills are huddled together in the terminal moraine. Are there many or few hills? Are there more hills in a square mile of the terminal moraine or in a square mile of the ground moraine? 8. Which is more rough, the terminal moraine or the ground moraine? 9. Some of the highest hills are found north of Bass Lake and south of Spring Lake. Give the height of four of the highest. 10. The highest hills in the ground moraine are found in the north central part of the map. Give the height of four of these. II. Which are higher, the hills in the terminal moraine or those in the ground moraine? 12. Give three differences between the terminal moraine and the ground moraine shown on the map. REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 338-349 Hopkins, 148-156 Davis, 296-302 Salisbury, Br., 191-196 Dryer, 127-129, 132 Salisbury, El., 121-125, 127 G. & B., 135-143 Tarr, 148. 152 100 EXERCISE XXXI SHORE LINES Material. Atlantic City, N. J., and Boothbay, Me., sheets, tracing paper, paste. 1. The rising sea level has made deep bays along our Atlantic coast. Delaware and Chesapeake bays are examples. One of these maps shows at least two evidences of a rising sea level. Which map? What are the evidences? 2. Why are the islands on the Boothbay sheet in line with the ridges of the land? 3. What would be the result if the sea level were lowered 100 ft.? 4. What would be the result if the sea level were raised 100 ft.? 5. Place a piece of tracing paper so as to have its upper border at the top of the map. On the paper trace what would be the shore line if the sea level should rise 100 ft. With a little paste on the corners of the paper, paste the tracing on a clean sheet of note-book paper. Ink your lines. Label this page, Shore Line, if the Sea Level should rise 100 feet. Boothbay Sheet. 6. How do the islands on the Atlantic City sheet differ from those on the Boothbay sheet, (a) in shape? (b) in height? (c) in manner of formation? 7. On the Atlantic City sheet what is between the main land and the islands? How will this change as time goes on? 8. Which parts of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts resemble the land showm on the Atlantic City sheet? Which parts resemble the land shown on the Boothbay sheet? REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 424-426 Hopkins, 213-217 Davis, 307-314 Salisbury, Br., 232-234, 278 Dryer, 228, 229, 231 Salisbury, El., 80-82, 155-157, 182-186 G. & B., 302-306, 313, 314 Tarr, 24, 204-210, 220-223 101 EXERCISE XXXII THE CHICAGO REGION Material. The Chicago Folio. For advanced work, tracing paper. Note. In the folio the full page maps should be numbered consecutively. 1. Is the Chicago plain level or somewhat hilly? Maps 2 and 4. 2. What material forms the side of the plain bordering the lake? Maps 6 and 8. 3. What bed rock outcrops in places over the plain? Maps 6 and 8. 4. This rock was formed at the bottom of the sea. What does tins indicate as to the past history of the region? 5. This rock outcrops only in some places; well-borings find it at varying depths on the plain. Is the surface of the rock level or uneven? 6. What rivers drain the plain? Is it well drained or poorly drained? Why do you think so? 7. Find the drainage canal (Sanitary and Ship canal). Maps 1, 2, and 3. Describe its course and tell why it was made. Page 1, column 3. 8. Find the Blue Island ridge. Map 8. Of what material is it composed? 9. Where else do you find such material? Maps 5, 6, 7, and 8. How was this material placed there? 10. How was Lake Chicago formed? Page 7, column 2. 11. Name as many evidences of this lake as you can. Page 7, column 2. 12. Where was the outlet of Lake Chicago? Figure 7 and map 3. 13. What streams now occupy the old outlet? Map 3. Advanced Work 14. Using tracing paper, trace the map in figure 7. Shade the portions covered by the moraine. Ink the lines. Label the map. 15. In the same way trace figure 11. Ink the lines. Label the map. 16. In the same way trace figure 12. Ink the lines. Label the map. Paste the maps on pages of note-book paper. Write the number of the exercise and the title at the top of each page. REFERENCES A.B.C.M., Fig. 161, facing p. 320, 358 Salisbury, Br., 208, 209 Davis, 319, 320 Salisbury, El., 137-139 Dryer, 146 Tarr, 150, 151, Fig. 280 G. & B., 146, 156, 157 103 EXERCISE XXXIII COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHICAGO Material. The Chicago Folio. 1. What seems to be the chief advantage in the location of Chicago? Index map. on outside of cover. 2. How many railroad lines does the index map show coming into Chicago? Each of these roads has its terminus in Chicago. 3. Name at least one other city situated where land and water transportation meet. In such places reshipment of goods is necessary, and commercial cities arise. It is said that Chicago will probably remain the most important grain center because of the neces- sary transfer from steamer to railroad. 4. What two rivers communicate with Lake Michigan at Chicago? Maps 2 and 4. 5. How long is the longest breakwater near the mouth of the Chicago river? Break- waters are shown by heavy black lines in the lake, near the mouth of the river. Map 2. 6. How many lights are there shown near the mouth of the Chicago river? Map 2. 7. Just north of the Calumet river note the area covered by buildings and short lines of railroad. Here are the rolling mills of the Illinois Steel Company. Map 4. How niany lights are near the mouth of the Calumet river? 8. Note the waterworks cribs. Map 2. How many do you find? How far from the shore is the one farthest out? The nearest one? Water is conveyed from these cribs in tunnels, partly under the lake and partly under the city, to thirteen pumping stations. 9. Observe the course of the south Branch of the Chicago river. The Ogden ditch connects it with what other river? From the Chicago river to the Desplaines river was an important portage to which the Indians directed Joliet and Marquette. 10. Observe the location of the Union Stockyards. Map 2. Is use made of the river or of railroads in receiving stock and sending out products? 11. Observe the south Branch of the Chicago river. How many slips for the accom- modation of ships do you find? Much coal, salt, lumber, fruit, and package freight is received on the Chicago river. 12. How many slips do you find on the Calumet river? Map 4. Iron ore, lumber, and coal are received on the Calumet river. Grain elevators are situated on both rivers. The number on the Calumet river is increasing. Grain, flour, package freight is sent out from both rivers. 13. Do the rivers or the lake form the harbor for the loading and unloading of vessels? 14. What rock outcrops in places within the city? Maps 5, 6, 7, and 8. 15. Name three or more places where quarries exist in the region. Page 12. 16. What uses are made of the stone? Page 12. 17. In what places on the Chicago plain are sand and gravel deposits found? Maps 9, 10, 11, and 12. See legend. 18. What uses are made of these deposits? Page 12, column 1. 19. The completion of the deep waterway from the Great Lakes to the Gulf would mean the improvement of what streams shown on maps 1 and 2? 20. The canal connecting the Calumet river with the Sanitary and Ship canal will enter the drainage canal near what place? Map 3. 105 21. Chicago is the center of an area of production. Lumber comes from Michigan and Wisconsin. South, west, and east of the city are prairie plains, where farm products are raised, and farm implements and machinery needed. In Illinois there are large coal beds. Copper and iron come from Michigan and Wisconsin. Pennsylvania coal is received by the Great Lakes as well as by rail. Would a place situated as Chicago is, be a retail or a wholesale center? 22. Important business transactions require good banking facilities. Referring to questions 11, 12, and 21, name some reasons why Chicago is the banking and financial center of the Middle West. REFERENCE Tarr, Fig. 469, p. 312, 313, 314 EXERCISE XXXIV NEW YORK AND VICINITY Material. The New York Folio. The full page maps in the folio should be numbered consecutively from 1 to 13. Reference to the maps is made by number and to the descriptive text by page and column. New York is the largest city and the chief seaport of the United States. It is the home of nearly five million people. Not only does New York have a fine large harbor of deep water for the largest ocean going vessels, but through the Hudson river, Erie canal, and the Great Lakes the products of the interior reach this port for shipment to foreign countries. Railroads have easy access through a series of valleys and passes. Two-thirds of the foreign commerce of the United States passes through the port of New York. 1. Make a sketch map of New York bay and harbor with connecting waters, from figure 1. Print names on the bodies of water shown and on the adjacent land. 2. Figure 1 gives the depth of the water in fathoms. Give, in feet, the greatest depth which can be used by a vessel entering the harbor. 3. Is the Hudson a normal river, bringing fresh water to its mouth, or like an arm of the sea with the tide moving up a long distance? Page 17, column 1. 4. What has brought about the condition found in question 3? 5. Notice the cliffs on the west bank of the Hudson. Map 2. How high are they? By what name are they known? 6. Refer to page 8, column 1, and to figures 14 and 15, and describe the appearance of these cliffs. Is the rock durable or easily weathered? 7. Look on maps 2, 3, and 4, and tell where the water is bordered by a rocky coast of considerable relief. Page 17, column 2. 8. From the same maps tell where the shore is low and sandy or swampy, the New Jersey type. 9. Tell how Coney Island and Rockaway Beach (map 4) have been made. (Page 17, column 3. 10. Find Sandy Hook in figure 1, and tell of what material it is composed. How has it been made? Page 17, column 3. 11. Study figure 12 and maps 11 and 12, and give the location of the terminal moraine. Give the direction of ice movement. Page 13, column 1, and figure 22. 12. From maps 9 and 10 give locations of kames. Tell of what material they are made. Page 16, column 2. 13. What kind of drift is found in Central Park? Map 10. 14. Where can glaciated bed rock be found? Page 14, column 4, and figures 23 and 24. 15. Name several kinds of bed rock found just under the drift. Maps 5-8. 16. Explain what has caused the falls in the Passaic river at Paterson. Map 5, and figures 19, 20, 21, and page 18, column 2. 17. Examine the strycture section sheet, map 13, and tell whether the rocks east or west of the Hudson are the more crumpled and folded. Which side of the river con- tains the older rocks? 18. Would you judge from these sections that there has been much or little erosion of these rocks? 107 19. What reasons can you assign for the growth of New York City to its present size? 20. What inland waterway connects New York with the Great Lakes? REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 431, 432 Salisbury, Br., 278, Fig. 313 Davis, 368 Salisbury, El., 185, Fig. 180 G. & B., 304, 305 Tarr, 224, 301-305, 376 Hopkins, 233 108 EXERCISE XXXV EFFECT OF EROSION UPON ROCKS OF UNEQUAL HARDNESS Material. The Harrisburg, Pa., sheet. 1. East of the Susquehanna river are four mountain ridges. In what direction do they extend? 2. Have the ridges been worn into hills or are they fairly level on top? 3. Does the Susquehanna river flow in the same direction as the ridges extend, or does the river flow nearly at right angles to the direction of the ridges? The cut made by a river through a mountain ridge is a water gap. 4. Compare the width of the Susquehanna river at the gap where it cuts through Second Mountain, with its width above the gap. Is the width less at the gap or above and below the gap? What difference in the hardness of the rock might cause this? 5. Do the tributaries of the Susquehanna river flow in the same direction as the ridges extend, or do they flow nearly at right angles to the direction of the ridges? 6. Has the rock between the ridges been more or less worn than the ridges them- selves? Is the rock in the valleys more durable or weaker than the rock of the ridges? 7. Between the ridges flow tributaries of the Susquehanna river. Into these tribu- taries flow small streams from the sides of the ridges. Are the valleys of these little streams shallow or are they deep gorges? 8. Do these little streams begin at the top of the ridges or part way down? 9. Do you think the ridges are much worn or little worn by stream action? 10. Do your answers to questions 2, 6, 7, and 9 indicate that the ridges are made of durable or weak rock? 11. This region was once a nearly level plain. Explain how the mountain ridges and the valleys have been made. 12. Why are the wagon roads so crooked? REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 381, 382, Plate II, facing p. 382 Salisbury, Br., 115-118, 122 Davis, 210, Plate 9, facing p. 211 Salisbury, El., 78, 79-82 Dryer, 184-187 Tarr, 102, 103, Fig. 172, Fig. 173, Fig. 192, facing p. 108, G. & B., 63, 64, Fig. 45, Fig. 46, 179, 180 Fig. 467, p. 311 Hopkins, 338 109 EXERCISE XXXVI RUGGED MOUNTAINS Material. Platte Canyon, Col., sheet. The Platte Canyon map shows the entire width of the front range of the Rock} Mountains, including a small part of the Great Plains in the northeast corner of the map. A good idea of the rugged surface of a lofty mountain range, with its numerous gorges is obtained from this map. If Gilbert and Brigham's Introduction to Physical Geogra- phy is available, refer in it to page 171, which shows the Rocky Mountain region in Colorado, including the Front Range. 1. Measure the width of the Front Range on the map (entire width of the map). Give the width in miles. 2. Name three of the highest peaks and give the elevation of each. 3. Give in round numbers the height of these peaks above the Great Plains which are in the northeast corner of the map. 4. Is the crest of the range, which extends north and south across the map, even and smooth or much cut up by erosion? 5. Does the condition of the crest indicate much or little erosion? 6. Copy the accompanying cross-section and supply the eroded layers by dotted lines extending over the crest. 7. "What streams have cut entirely across or through this range? These streams must have had this course before the mountains rose. They have been able to cut down their beds as fast as the land rose. Which are the older, the streams or the mountains? 8. Have these streams deep, narrow valleys, or broad, shallow valleys? How deep are the valleys below the mountain tops? 9. Find the hog-back ridges south of the town of Platte Canyon. See illustration of hog-backs in almost any text-book. Tell how the hog-backs were made. 10. Judging from the uneven surface of the land, do you think this region is adapted to farming, grazing, or mining? Are settlements few or numerous? Cross Section of Front Range op Rocky Mountains REFERENCES A.B.C.M., 382-384 Hopkins, 464, 465 (q. h) Davis, 185-188 Salisbury, Br., 119 (q. 9) Dryer, 206, Fig. 186, Fig. 187 Salisbury, El., 80, Fig. 81 (q. 9) G. & B., 89 (q. 9), 168-174 Tarr, Figs. 157, 169 111 EXERCISE XXXVII PLATEAUS Material. Bright Angel, Ariz., sheet, or Kaibab, Ariz., sheet, and Charleston, W. Va., sheet. The region shown on the Arizona sheets belongs to a series of plateaus west of the Rocky Mountains. The Charleston sheet shows a portion of the Appalachian Plateau. In comparing these two regions notice that the contour interval and scale of miles are not the same on the two maps. 1. What is the contour interval on the Kaibab sheet? 2. Are there many or few contours bordering the river? What does this indicate as to the depth of the valley below the upland? 3. Name four plateaus on the Kaibab sheet. Give the highest heavy contour on each plateau. 4. Are these plateaus smooth or rugged? 5. Give the elevation of four hilltops on the Charleston sheet. 6. Is the upland here a series of broad plateaus, or does it consist of many hilltops? 7 The annual rainfall in the region shown on the Kaibab sheet is 10 in. or less. Why are there so many gorges with no streams? 8. The annual rainfall in the region shown on the Charleston sheet is about 50 in. How does the number of streams here compare with the number on the Kaibab sheet? 9. Have the plateaus in West Virginia or in Arizona been the more dissected by streams? Advanced Work About opposite Bright Angel Creek a trail leads down into the canyon. Tourists usually go down by this trail. A table is given below from which you are to make a cross-section of the canyon at a place near this trail. Place cross section paper with the punched edge toward you. Make heavy the horizontal line nine centimeters from the top of the paper. Label this line, Sea Level. Beginning with 0, two centimeters from the left, number the heavy vertical lines which cross the sea level line 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., to 19. Use very small figures placed under the sea level line. Leaving one centimeter at the left for a margin, number the four heavy horizontal lines above the sea level line, 2000, 4000, 6000, 8000. Let one centimeter equal 2000 ft. Place a dot 7250 ft. above the zero point as given in the table. One centimeter to the right place another dot, also at 7250 ft. above the sea level line. Place other dots at the elevations given in the table. Draw a line connecting these dots. The line so drawn is a cross-section of the canyon. Ink your line. Shade the space between the profile and the sea level line. Draw a line around your diagram one centimeter from it on each side. Label the diagram, Cross Section of the Colorado Canyon at a Place near Bright Angel Trail. Horizontal scale, 1 cm. = f mi., or nearly 4000 ft. Vertical scale, 1 cm. = 2000 ft 113 TABLE Distance in cm. from zero point Elevation in feet Distance in cm. from zero point Elevation in feet 7250 6.4 4000 1 7250 9 4000 1.5 7000 11 5000 3 5000 16 8000 5 4000 18 8000 5.8 2500 19 S250 6 2500 REFERENCES A..B.C.M., Fig. 107, p. 249, Fig. 119, p. 267, 369-374 Salisbury, Br., 15, 16, Fig. 79, Fig. 83, Fig. 112 Davis, 162-175 Salisbury, EL, Plate XIV, facing p. 53, Fig. 70 Dryer, S6, S7 p. 74 G. & B., Frontispiece, 59, Fig. 41, 71, 174, 175, Tarr, 81-85, Fig. 59, facing p. 45, Fig. 477, facing 182-185 p. 321, 322, 323 Hopkins, 455. 468 114 EXERCISE XXXVIII PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES Map study and reference work Note. This exercise is largely a review of the preceding work. A. Atlantic Coastal Plain 1. Name the states lying wholly or partly in the Atlantic coastal plain. 2. Name four important rivers which cross this plain and empty into the Atlantic. Why are they called drowned rivers? 3. Name three large cities on the Atlantic coastal plain. Of what advantage is the position of each? 4. Is this region of value to commerce, manufacture, mining, agriculture, or grazing? Tell its most important products. B. Piedmont-New England Plateau 5. What is the fall line? 6. Name five important cities situated on the fall line. C. Appalachian Mountain Area 7. This area includes South Mountain and the Blue Ridge at the west border of the Piedmont plateau, the Appalachian ridges, and the Appalachian plateau. Describe the position of the rock layers in the Appalachian ridges. 8. Do the ridges exist because they are of rock harder than the rock of the valleys or because they were uplifted? 9. The Appalachian plateau is a mass of steep, high hills. Why call it a plateau? How were its hills made? 10. The Appalachian ridges and Appalachian plateau are of little value to agricul- ture. Why? 11. This region is of importance to mining and manufacturing. Why? Name three products. 12. What large rivers rise in the Appalachian Mountain area? In what direction does each flow? D. Great Lakes Region 13. W r hat states are wholly or partly in the Great Lakes region? 14. Is this area of value to commerce, agriculture, lumbering, mining, grazing, or manufacturing? 15. Name four or more important products. 16. Name and locate six important cities in this area. E. Prairie Plains 17. Tn what states are the prairie plains? 18. Is this area of value to commerce, agriculture, lumbering, mining, grazing, or manufacturing? 117 19. Name three important products. 20. What large rivers lie wholly or partly in this area? F. Great Plains 21. In what states are the Great Plains? 22. How does the rainfall of the Great Plains compare with the rainfall farther east? 23. How does the rainfall of the Great Plains influence agriculture, grazing, and rattle raising? 24. How is it possible to do more farming here than formerly? 25. Name four or more large rivers which flow through this area. G. Gulf Plains 26. This region is partly river plains, partly marine plains. What rivers have made plains here? 27. Is this area of value to commerce, agriculture, lumbering, mining, grazing, or manufacturing? 28. Name three or more important products. 29. Name five important cities in the gulf plains. H. Western Interior Region 30. Name the states which are wholly or partly in the Rocky Mountain region. 31. Is this region of value to commerce, agriculture, lumbering, mining, grazing, or manufacturing? 32. Name four or more important products. 33. Name six or more important rivers which rise in the Rocky Mountain area. In what direction does each flow? , 34. Are the river valleys deep, narrow gorges with swift streams, or shallow, wide valleys with sluggish streams? How do the valleys of the eastward flowing streams change as they go over the Great Plains? 35. In what states do the Colorado plateaus lie? 36. In what state is the Grand Canyon of the Colorado? For what is it noted? 37. Of what material is the Columbia plateau made? 38. How were the Basin Ranges formed? 39. In what states do you find rivers which do not flow to any ocean? 40. In what part of the western interior region are salt and borax obtained? 41. Salt and borax beds are an indication of what change in climate? I. Pacific Area 42. In what states is the Pacific area? 43. Name three large cities in this area. 44. Locate three places where there are drowned rivers. 45. Locate the Cascade Mountains. The Sierra Nevada Mountains. The Coast Range. 46. Between what mountains is the central valley of California? 118 47. Do more streams come down the east facing slope of the Coast Range or down the west facing slope of the Sierras? Why is this so? 48. Is this region of value to commerce, agriculture, lumbering, mining, grazing, or manufacturing? 49. Name six or more important products. 50. What three conditions make this an important fruit-raising region? 51. Name three important railroads which lead into the Pacific Area. 52. In what physiographic region do you live? REFERENCES General A.B.C.M., 365 Salisbury, Br., 19 Salisbury, El., Fig. 8, p. 12 Tarr, Fig. 461, facing p. 305 A. Atlantic Coastal Plain A.B.C.M., 165, 168, 354-356 Davis, 148-150, 155-158 Dryer, 235-238, Supplement, p. xxvi G. & B., 151-154 Hopkins, 311-313, 449-453 Tarr, 72-75, 305-307 B. Piedmont-New England Plateau Davis, 149, 206, 207 Dryer, 188, 189 G.&B., 65, 70, 161, 181 Hopkins, 453 Salisbury, Br., 15 Salisbury, EL, 11 Tarr, 307, 308 C. Appalachian Mountains Davis, 167-170, 210 Dryer, 184-187, 189 G. & B., 179-181, 182-185 Hopkins, 453, 454 Salisbury, Br., Fig. 16 Tarr, 308-310 D. Great Lakes Region Davis, 248 Dryer, 143, 144 G. & B., 156, 157 Hopkins, 458 Tarr, 312-314 E. Prairie Plains A.B.C.M., 163, 164 Dryer, 357 G. & B., 162, 163 Hopkins, 320, 411 Tarr, 76, 77, 310-314 F. Great Plains A.B.C.M., 162, 163, 364-366 Davis, 71, 158-160 G. & B., 163-165 Hopkins, 459 Salisbury, EL, Plate III, fig. 1, facing p. 6 Tarr, 76, 77, 310, 311 G. Gulf Plains Dryer, 236 G. & B., 162 Hopkins, 461-463 H. Western Interior Region A.B.C.M., 161, 162, 382, 384 Davis, 181-183 Dryer, 135, 136, 181-183 G.&B., 168-176 Hopkins, 464-469 Tarr, 314-317 I. Colorado Plateaus A.B.C.M., 368, 369 Davis, 163-165 Dryer, 86 G. & B., 174, 175 Hopkins, 467, 468 Tarr, Fig. 477, facing p. 321, 322, 323 J. Columbian Plateau Tarr, 320, 321 K. Pacific Area G. & B., 161, 178 Hopkins, 469, 470 119 EXERCISE XXXIX COTTON PRODUCTION Material. Map of the United States showing the area of cotton production, on page 113. 1. Name the states from west to east where the most cotton is raised. 2. Observe the location of the cotton producing area with reference to the twenty- inch rainfall line, with reference to the January isotherm of 35° and to the line showing the date of the last killing frost. What three elements of climate limit the extent of the area of cotton production? 3. The summers are long in southeastern United States. Does the location of the cotton belt indicate that the plant needs a long or a short growing season? 4. Observe the location of the area of cotton production with reference to fhe Gulf coast, where rainfall is excessive. What does this indicate as to the rainfall required? 5. Does the map indicate that much or little is raised along the Mississippi river? What does this show as to the amount of yield on river flood plains? The principal ports of shipment are Galveston, Tex., New Orleans, La., Savannah, Ga., Charleston, S. C, Wilmington, N. C, New York City. On the map mark each city with a small circle. Make a short arrow leading away from the coast at each place. Much cotton is shipped to New Orleans from Memphis, Tenn. Mark Memphis with a circle and make an arrow pointing down the river. Refer to United States map on page 11, for location of cities. Much cotton is manufactured in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, where settle- ments are oldest, where water power was made use of early, where manufacturing towns are accessible to immigrant workmen from Europe. The number of cotton mills in the South is increasing. North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia have many mills. Advanced Work 6. Consult a commercial geography and make a list of the products obtained from the cotton plant, and tell from which part of the plant each is made. 7. Place a sheet of cross section paper with punched edge away from you. Make heavy the vertical line three centimeters from the left edge. At the left of this line, beginning five centimeters from the top, write the names of the states given in table. Write these names upon the centimeter lines. Turn the paper so that the punched edge is at your left. Four centimeters from the left edge number the heavy horizontal lines, beginning with zero on the line previ- ously drawn and continuing to within five centimeters of the top. Above the word "Texas" make a rectangle 20.9 cm. long and .4 cm. wide. In the same way make other rectangles above the names of the other states given in the table. Shade or color the rectangles. These show the number of bales of cotton produced for five years ending with 1911. At the top label your diagram, States Producing the most Cotton, Average for Five Years, 1912-1916. Scale, 1 cm. = 200,000 bales. 123 TABLE States Length of Rectangle in cm. States Length of Rectangle in cm 20.9 10.6 6 2 6.1 Oklahoma 5.6 Mississippi Arkansas 5.4 S. Carolina 4.8 Alabama. REFERENCES Davis, 148, 149, 348 G. & B., 351 I'/A EXERCISE XL WHEAT PRODUCTION Material. Map of the United States showing areas of wheat production, on page 125. 1. Why are there many flour mills in Minnesota? Minneapolis and Duluth are noted for the amount of flour they make. On the map mark each of these cities with a small circle. 2. Winter wheat is planted in the fall and harvested in the early summer. Spring wheat is planted in the spring and harvested in the autumn. Winter wheat comes largely from Kansas, California, Texas, Ohio, Michigan, Maryland, Tennessee. Spring wheat comes largely from Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Washington, Wisconsin, Iowa. Which variety requires the milder climate? 3. Great quantities of wheat go through the Sault Ste. Marie (The Soo) canal and the upper lakes, to Buffalo. From there it is shipped by rail or canal to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore. Make a circle at each of these cities. Make an arrow, leading through the Sault Ste. Marie canal, showing the direction in which the wheat is shipped. What canal leads east from Buffalo? 4. Where are the areas of wheat production situated with reference to the 20-inch rainfall line? Advanced Work 5. As in Exercise 39 make rectangles showing the production of wheat by states. Use the following table. At the top label your diagram, States Producing the most Wheat, Average for Five Years, 1912-1916. Scale, 1 cm. = 6,000,000 bushels. TABLE States Length of Rectangle in cm. States Length of Rectangle in cm. 18-7 16.5 10.8 9.2 7.9 S. Dakota 6 9 N. Dakota Illinois Indiana Missouri 5.6 Nebraska 5.3 5.2 Washington Ohio 4.7 Davis, 77, 348 G. & B., 347 REFERENCES Hopkins, 317 Tarr, Fig. 468, 311 127 EXERCISE XLI CORN PRODUCTION Material. Map of the United States showing the area of corn production, on page 129. 1. How does the map show that corn needs a moist climate but not one of excessive rainfall? Compare with the rainfall map of the United States, Exercise 14. 2. The farms where hogs are raised in large numbers are situated in or near the corn belt. What is the chief food of the millions of hogs which are raised annually in the United States? Cattle also are fed upon this grain for fattening. 3. Why are many of the great packing houses of the country located in or near the corn belt? Mark with small circles Kansas City, Mo., Omaha, Neb., St. Louis, Mo., Sioux City, la., Chicago, 111. 4. Compare the map showing the area producing corn with the map showing the area producing wheat. Which cereal is the more hardy? Which requires the longer summers and warmer nights? Advanced Work 5. Consult a commercial geography and make a list of the uses of the corn plant, and the products obtained from it. 6. As in Exercise 39 make rectangles showing the production of corn by states. Use the following table. Shade or color the rectangles. At the top and toward the right label your diagram, States Producing the most Corn, Average for Five Years, 1912-1916. Scale, 1 cm. = 20,000,000 bushels. TABLE States Length of Rectangle in cm. States Length of Rectangle in cm. IS 3 15.9 9.1 8.8 8.6 7.4 Ohio 7.3 Indiana Kansas Kentucky 5 5 4.8 3 7 Davis, 76, 348 REFEB ENCES G. &B. 348 131 EXERCISE XLII FIELD TRIP TO A QUARRY Note. In nearly every locality are places to which profitable field excursions may be made with the class. The following outlines of trips are made sufficiently general, it is thought, to be of use in many places. No one school may be able to take all the trips, but it is hoped that one or more may be made by every class. On the quarry trip the teacher may carry a bottle of hydrochloric acid to use to test for limestone. A hammer should be taken to use in breaking off a piece to get a fresh surface of the rock. Pupils will write up the trips and hand in the reports the next day. 1. Does the rock at the quarry outcrop or is it covered with a layer of mantle rock and soil. If covered, how deep is the covering? 2. Is the bed rock in well marked layers or does it form a solid unbroken wall? Sketch the appearance of the side of the quarry. 3. What is the name of the rock which is being quarried? How do you recognize it? 4. Look for nearly vertical breaks in the rock wall. These are called joints. If present, in what directions do they extend? Are they a help or a hindrance to the quarrymen? 5. Do you find water entering the quarry along the sides? Where does it come from? How does it reach the quarry? 6. Give an estimate of the depth of the quarry. Does the rock extend beyond this depth? 7. What difference in color, if any, do you find between the rock at the top and that at the bottom? Is the rock more solid and unbroken at the top or at the bottom? Account for these differences. 8. Describe the method of removing and handling the rock. 9. Give all the purposes for which the rock is being used and tell how it is pre- pared for each purpose. , 10. Name any foreign minerals or substances occurring in the rock, as pyrite, flint, iron oxide, calcite, bitumen. Describe the way in which they occur. 11. Are fossils found in the rock? If present, describe the kinds found. 133 UNIVERSITY of CA1 IFORNIA ■ n :.i-.s LIBRARY EXERCISE XLIII FIELD TRIP TO STUDY STREAM ACTION Nearly any creek or small stream will furnish profitable study for a class. A tape line may be taken to make measurements. 1. In what direction does the stream flow? Give an estimate of its length. 2. Give the width of the valley where studied. Does the valley become wider or narrower up stream? Down stream? 3. How deep is the valley floor below the upland on either side? Look where the stream cuts against the valley wall. Of what material are the walls made? 4. How wide is the valley floor? Is it nearly level? 5. Examine the bank of the stream and tell of what material the valley floor is made. What has put the material here? Do you find it stratified? 6. How wide is the channel of the stream? How deep below the valley floor? 7. What material forms the bottom of the channel in different places? Is bed rock present? 8. Is the course of the stream in its valley nearly straight, or does it wind about from one side to the other? Make a sketch of its course. 9. Find a place where the stream strikes the sides of the valley and tell how it is changing the width of the valley at this point. This is called side cutting. How many such places do you see? 10. At a bend in the stream is the bank steeper on the outside or inside of the curve? Is this true of all bends? 11. Study the movement of water at a bend. On which side of the curve is the swifter current? The deeper water? 12. What work does the stream seem to be doing at the outside of the curve? Do you find sand and gravel deposited on the inside of the curve? Tell how it was put there. 13. Find a tributary to the stream. Is its slope more or less steep than that of the main stream? Is its valley wider or narrower? 14. Tell of any special features you find, as ox-bow lakes, abandoned channels, landslides, waterfalls, rapids, terraces. Advanced Work 15. Write an account of the ways in which this stream is making its valley deeper, wider, and longer. Tell how this will affect the area of the higher land outside of the valley. Tell how the water of this stream reaches the ocean, naming all the streams and rivers through which it flows in its course. 1G. Make a contour map of the valley you have studied. Mark the channel of the stream with a double line, putting in the tributaries carefully. Use a 5- or a 10-ft. interval and draw contour lines to represent the sides of the valley. Mark fences, roads, and other works of man. Sketch carefully in the field, and make in ink at home on a sheet of your note-book paper. Use red ink for your contour lines. 135 UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA LOS G "£S LIBRARY EXERCISE XLIV FIELD TRIP TO A BEACH On the shore of a lake or the sea, beaches are made by the work of the waves and shore currents. 1. Name all the kinds of material you find on the beach. 2. What kinds of material do you see the waves bringing up on the shore? Watch each kind to see whether it floats, slides, or rolls, and write what you find. 3. Do the waves take material away from the shore? Do they remove more or less than they bring in? Are they tearing down or building up the beach? 4. If the wave action is vigorous you may hear a grinding or crushing sound. Tell what causes it. 5. Tell how you think the sand of the beach has been made. Of what mineral is the sand made? 6. Of what shape are the pebbles? What has made them this shape? Sketch several on your paper. 7. Dig into the beach material. Is the sand and gravel stratified? Explain what made it so. Look to see this process in action. 8. If a pier projects into the water look for a deposit of beach material on one side of it more than on the other. Explain what has caused it. Look up prevailing wind and notice whether there is any movement of the water along the shore. 9. Write of other features you find, as sand bars, deltas, cliffs, caves, spits, hooks, barrier beaches. 10. Write about the work done by the waves along a shore. Also about the work of the shore currents. 137 UNIVEB ORNIA Los ang :les LIBRARY EXERCISE XLV FIELD TRIP TO A BRICK YARD The clay used in brick making varies greatly in different localities. In the glaci- ated area of the United States it is commonly a glacial deposit and grooved and striated stones may be found in it. It is often highly colored by the presence of oxides of iron. 1. Does soil or other material cover the clay? To what depth? 2. To what depth does the clay extend in the clay pit? Give the greatest thick- ness of the clay at this place. 3. Examine the bank of clay and tell if it varies in color or character in passing from the top to the bottom. Account for any difference you find. 4. Rub some damp clay between the thumb and finger. Is it uniformly fine- grained or are there sand grains and small stones in it? Do you find clearly defined layers in the clay? 5. Do you find stones in the clay? How large are most of them? 6. Are the stones rounded or angular? Do you find scratches or other markings on them? Account for any markings you find. 7. If you find stones with glacial scratches make sketches to show these markings. How could they have become marked on more than one side? 8. For what purposes is the clay being used? Tell something of the process to which it is submitted. Advanced Work 9. Tell why many bricks turn red when they are burned. 10. Determine whether the clay of the pit is a deposit from water or has been left by the overriding ice sheet. Tell in either case how it happened to be left in this particular place, how it was deposited, and from what materials the clay particles came. 130 UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES LIBRARY o O o •4- o |L o o CD O 31 . O 4- O 4> O O 8 g a &~is! ■oms g g^ a UNIVF 'ORNIA j_ j. BRAK x i O CO ► 5S o > s o UNIVERSP"" ,1 IFORNIA L GEI LIBRARY II A,A 000 536 313 13 a UNIVEKSr" FOT7\"^ I KY