A MANUAL FOR TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 AND a 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 J.LUK:. 
 
REESE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 

TURNING LATHES. 
 
TURNING LATHES 
 
 A MANUAL 
 
 FOR TECHNICAL SCHOOLS AND 
 APPRENTICES. 
 
 A GUIDE TO TURNING, SCREW-CUTTING, 
 METAL-SPINNING &c., &c. 
 
 WITH 194 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 EDITED BY JAMES LUKIN, B.A. 
 
 THIRD EDITION. 
 
 t>u?>\ 
 
 OF THE r \ 
 
 UNIVERSITY) 
 
 OF 
 
 *~S 
 
 LONDON : 
 L. UPCOTT GILL, 170, STRAND, W.C. 
 
 1890. 
 
LONDON : 
 PRINTED BY A. BRADLEY, 170, STRAND, W.C. 
 

 OF THE 
 IVERSITY 
 
 PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. 
 
 '"PWO Editions of "Turning Lathes" having quickly been 
 * sold, we have no apology to make for introducing this, 
 the Third Edition, which will be of four thousand volumes. 
 The Press, both English and American, with one exception, are 
 unanimous in praise of the book, and we give short Extracts 
 from some of the reviews of the mechanical journals. 
 
 The book has been appreciated by numerous learners and users 
 of Lathes, and many letters of approval have been received. 
 It will be found in the principal libraries in England, Canada, 
 and Australia. 
 
 Having been successful in our book on Elementary Turning, 
 we are encouraged to bring out others to suit the practical 
 engineer, the first of which on -Screws and Screw-Cutting 
 will shortly appear. 
 
 Our opinion as to the best books on various technical subjects 
 having so frequently been requested, we have (to save much 
 time and correspondence) compiled a Catalogue of Technical 
 Books, giving their price, size, contents, &c., which we trust 
 may be useful to the English- speaking world. 
 
 It is also our intention to publish a more elaborate book on 
 Lathe-Work, treating upon the higher branches of the art 
 of Turning ; but probably this will not appear until 1890 or 
 1891. Our intention is to supply the best information at 
 moderate prices. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. DESCRIPTION OF THE LATHE 
 
 II. TOOLS, AND How TO USE THEM - 
 III. HARD-WOOD TURNING - .*- 
 IV. METAL TURNING WITH HAND TOOLS - 
 Y. SLIDE-REST WORK IN METAL 
 VI. THE SELF-ACTING LATHE ... 
 VII. CHUCK-MAKING - - - - v 
 VIII. TURNING ARTICLES OF SQUARE SECTION 
 IX. SCREW-CUTTING BY SELF-ACTING LATHE 
 X. THE OVERHEAD DRIVING APPARATUS - 
 XL CHOOSING A LATHE - > * " -': 
 XII. GRINDING AND SETTING TOOLS - ' V 
 XIII. METAL-SPINNING ..... 
 XIV. ORNAMENTAL WORK .... 
 XV. THE MILLING APPLIANCE - 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 
 
 . 14 
 
 - 34 
 
 - 53 
 
 - 63 
 
 - 80 
 
 - 96 
 
 - 101 
 
 - 104 
 
 - 115 
 
 - 121 
 
 - 125 
 
 - 129 
 
 - 138 
 
 - 150 
 
OPINIONS OF THE AMERICAN PRESS 
 
 ON BRITANNIA COMPANY'S BOOK ON 
 ' ' TURNING LATHE S . " 
 
 " Amateurs and technical students will find this book of great 
 advantage to them, as the aim of the author, whoever he may be, has 
 been to explain very thoroughly the processes of the art of turning." 
 American Machinist. 
 
 " This is a work of 158 pages, very fully illustrated, and with clear, 
 descriptive matter on branches of lathe-work which are usually followed 
 by amateurs. For these last it is valuable, as it contains succinct 
 directions how to do certain work, how to avoid the many difficulties and 
 the causes of failure in using certain kinds of tools ; both wood and 
 metal working are covered." American Engineer. 
 
 " This book is an illustrated treatise on lathe-work, designed for use in 
 technical schools. The minuteness and practical nature of the directions 
 given, however, make it of value to amateur turners. To those wishing 
 to learn the art from the beginning, it would be hard to recommend 
 a more useful book. Wood and metal turning are both considered, 
 and the description of hand turning is especially full." Scientific 
 American. 
 
 " We heartily commend the book to those interested in the subject. 
 It will be found of special value to apprentices and others whose know- 
 ledge of lathe- work is limited." The National Car Builder (American). 
 
 " This work assumes that the reader has had no previous knowledge 
 of the lathe whatever, and starting with an elementary description, the 
 author advances in a very clear and intelligible manner, explaining the 
 various operations of hand and slide rest work in a thoroughly 
 satisfactory manner. ' ' Mechanics. 
 
 " The author does not presuppose any technical knowledge whatever 
 in the reader, but begins by describing and naming the various parta and 
 attachments of a lathe, so that a schoolboy can pick up the book and 
 work his way through it without any difficulty. The illustrations are 
 very numerous and well-executed." Practical Engineer. 
 
 " The several types of lathes, both for wood and metal turning, and 
 their parts in detail, are fully described and illustrated, as also are the 
 various operations of the latheman's art. Amateur turners will find in 
 it many useful hints." Popular Science News. 
 
 " The small price and general excellence of this book will commend 
 it to the large class of ambitious apprentices for whose benefit it has 
 been written." Boston Journal of Commerce. 
 
 NOTICE. The Reviews of the English Press were equally favourable. 
 
TURNING LATHES. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE LATHE. 
 
 HE novice who has never examined a Lathe, but, having 
 seen others using it, thinks he should also like to try 
 his hand at the work, naturally wants to know its con- 
 struction. He hears of chucks, and mandrels, and poppets, 
 but the terms convey to his mind nothing but mystery. We 
 shall, therefore, at once enlighten him. Beginning at the 
 stand, he will see two cast-iron uprights, supporting between 
 them parallel bars, nicely planed. These are called the 
 standards, and are sometimes, but not very generally, made 
 of wood. The parallel bars are called the bed, sometimes 
 gantry, which appears to be an American coinage, not very 
 expressive, and decidedly ugly. Half-way between the bed 
 and the floor, the crank axle is suspended, generally upon 
 centres or pointed steel screws; but sometimes this axle runs 
 in brasses, called bearings or bushes, and sometimes it rests 
 upon small turned wheels, called friction wheels, which are 
 supposed to give it an easier motion. At the lowest part is 
 hung a treadle for the foot, and this is connected to the 
 crank by an iron hook, or by crank chain passing over a 
 roller in the treadle bar. This gives a smooth rolling motion. 
 Sometimes the crank hook is called the pitman. 
 
2 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 The bed of a Lathe is usually made of two bars in a 
 single casting, .planed quite flat on the top and edges. It 
 may be of beech, mahogany, or hard wood, but it is now 
 so easy to obtain complete Lathes of iron, and they are so 
 cheap and convenient, that it is not worth while to build 
 them up at home. In some of the small Lathes, there is 
 no crank axle, but the flywheel is hung upon a short bolt 
 or stud, which screws into the left standard. The crank is 
 then merely a pin fixed into one of the spokes of the wheel. 
 Standing on the bed are two poppets, or, as they are also 
 called, headstocks. The one on the left hand is permanently 
 fixed in place by a strong bolt and nut. This headstock 
 carries a small wheel or pulley, the axle of which is the 
 mandrel. The pulley is turned with grooves for the Lathe 
 cord; that of smallest size giving the greatest speed. This is 
 used for wood, and the slower motion is for metal. Soft 
 wood, like deal, needs the quickest speed of all to make it 
 cut clean. The harder woods, and also bone and ivory, are 
 usually turned at a slower rate. 
 
 The mandrel is the most important part of the Lathe. It is 
 made generally with the conical neck passing through a hard 
 steel or gun-metal collar in the headstock, while its other 
 end rests on a hard, pointed screw of steel, which is called 
 the tail pin. By means of the latter, any wear of the neck or 
 collar can be taken up by screwing the tail pin so as to push 
 the mandrel neck forward into its collar. This must always 
 be attended to, as the mandrel must turn very easily, but 
 without the least shake. There are oil-holes drilled in the 
 top of the headstock, and lubrication must never be omitted. 
 The best sewing-machine oil should be used, and a few drops 
 of paraffin will make it still more suitable. Never use vege- 
 table oil, like linseed or olive, Lucca or colza, if it can be 
 avoided. Sperm oil is good, either alone or with paraffin, and 
 if only olive or salad oil is obtainable, always add paraffin to 
 it, as it materially improves it. A good lubricant makes a 
 surprising difference in the running of a Lathe. The crank 
 axle screws, and also the crank hook or chain, must also 
 receive due attention in this respect ; likewise, now and then, 
 the bearings of the treadle. 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 2 B 
 
PLATE I.-PLAIN FOOT LATHE. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE LATHE. 5 
 
 The second Lathe head, or back poppet as it is usually called, 
 is movable along the bed, and can be fixed at any point by 
 the bolt and nut attached to it. The upper part is bored 
 out accurately to carry the cylinder, or smooth, round bar 
 into which the pointed steel centres fit, which are used to 
 support work while it is being turned. This cylinder is 
 advanced and withdrawn by a hand wheel at the back, 
 which carries a screw working into a nut in the cylinder. 
 All this is out of sight in the upper part of the poppet. 
 Between the poppets stands the hand rest, on which the 
 tool is supported. This can be placed where needed, and the 
 upper part, or tee, can be raised or lowered at pleasure, 
 according to the size of the work that it is proposed to tnrn. 
 This hand rest is often replaced by the slide rest, if metal 
 is to be turned; but a good deal can be done without this 
 addition to the Lathe, which can be added at any time, after 
 wood turning has been thoroughly mastered. 
 
 In the illustration (Plate I.), all the parts above describee* 
 are lettered as follows: 
 
 A, A, Standards. 
 
 B, Bed or gantry. 
 
 C, Treadle. 
 
 D, Crank hook, pitman, or chain gearing. 
 
 E, Crank axle. 
 
 F, Flywheel. 
 
 G, Lathe cord. 
 
 H, Fast headstock. 
 
 I, Movable headstock or back poppet. 
 
 J, Hand rest; and K, its T or tee. 
 
 L, Hand wheel to move M, the cylinder. 
 
 N, Mandrel, with its pulley, O. 
 
 P, Screw for chucks. 
 
 Q, Tail pin. 
 
 K-, R, Treadle centres or bearings. 
 
 S, Movable back centre. 
 
 T, Bearings or centres of crank axle. 
 
 We now come to what are known as chucks. These are 
 contrivances by which the work to be turned is secured to 
 the Lathe mandrel, and they vary according to the size and 
 
6 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 nature of the work, such as whether it is long or short, 
 whether to be bored or hollowed out, or solid; and also 
 whether it is of wood, ivory, or metal. Chucks are, there- 
 fore, rather numerous, but for general use we may readily 
 make an inexpensive selection. Plate II. gives illustrations 
 of several chucks. Nos. 5 and 6 are main or adapter chucks, 
 into which fit many of the smaller ones, such as No. 1, the 
 fork or prong chuck, for soft wood, used with the back 
 centre to support the work at its other end. No. 2, the 
 cross or blade chuck a capital one for hard or soft wood. 
 A saw cut is made at the end of the piece, crossed by 
 another at right angles. Into these the blades fall, and the 
 work cannot shift or slip. The back centre is needed as in 
 the last case. No. 3 is the square hole chuck, made to take 
 carpenters' boring bits, or rods of metal squared to fit, and 
 for many similar purposes. This is a very useful chuck. 
 No. 4 is a solid chuck of gun-metal, that can be drilled out 
 to any desired size. No. 7, taper screw, an indispensable 
 chuck, for holding short bits of stuff for boxes and other 
 hollow work. These are also sometimes held by means of 
 No. 8, a plain face plate with holes countersunk at the 
 back. The work is attached by ordinary wood screws. No. 9 
 is a mandrel for circular saws, emery wheels, buffs, &c. When 
 required for saws, a saw table is needed, which is fitted into 
 the socket of the hand rest, or fastened upon the bed. No. 10, 
 a bell chuck, with clamping screws, for holding short bars 
 of metal. It is less used since the scroll chuck was invented ; 
 but is a good contrivance, its only fault being that it is a 
 knuckle-duster. Made with very thick metal, however, the 
 screw heads can be countersunk. Nos. 11 and 12, the 
 amateur's self-centreing scroll chuck, often called American, 
 as it has been chiefly developed and perfected there. It has 
 one or two sets of jaws, which draw together concentrically, 
 by means of the key, and hold drills or work truly and 
 securely. Of late years these chucks have come into very 
 general use. They are of all sizes and prices : the 2in., 24s. ; 
 4in., 34s. They are fitted to a face plate screwing on the 
 mandrel; the smaller ones on a cone. 
 
 No. 13 is a four-jawed chuck, of which each jaw is inde- 
 
r HE 
 
 (UNIVERSITY 
 
 PLATE II.-LATHE CHUCKS. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE LATHE. 9 
 
 pendent of the others, so that work can be held eccentrically 
 when desired. It is an excellent chuck, holding very firmly; 
 it is, in fact, an engineer's chuck, and is seldom of less 
 diameter than Gin. Fig. 1, cup chuck, made in iron or gun- 
 metal, from lin. inside diameter upwards. Before self -centreing 
 chucks were invented, every amateur's Lathe was fitted with 
 a dozen or two of these. They are useful as ever, and a few 
 
 FIG. 1. CUP CHUCK. 
 
 may well be added; the wood is simply driven into the chuck, 
 and so secured. 
 
 The amateur will soon learn to make boxwood cup chucks, 
 which will prevent any necessity' for a large supply of metal 
 ones. These are always very largely used, and are hollowed 
 out to suit any work in hand; they soon accumulate, and 
 when used up are easily replaced. A day at chuck-making 
 
 FIG. 2. PLAIN DRILL CHUCK. 
 
 affords capital practice; the method is given on a later page. 
 The advantage of a metal chuck is that it always screws up 
 to run truly ; it is usually plugged with wood, and this is 
 turned out to the size necessary. Fig. 2, a plain drill chuck, 
 with | hole ; a smaller one fits inside for drills of less diameter 
 in the shank. Fig. 3, face ] late, used for large work, secured 
 to it by variously shaped clamps and bolts; it is of extensive 
 
10 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 use for metal- turning. Fig. 4 is a neat little jeweller's cliuck 
 for very small saws, circular brushes, and buffs; it also holds 
 drills of small size. Another drill chuck is here shown, called 
 the Essex (Fig. 5). The parts are numbered separately. 1 is 
 the complete chuck with drill. The shank is turned to a 
 
 FIG 3. FACE PLATE. 
 
 gentle taper, or long cone, and fits into a taper hole in a re- 
 ceptacle chuck, truly bored out to a similar angle. 2 is the 
 outer case ; 3, the cap, which is conical within, and when 
 screwed on it compresses the jaws (4), of which two sets are 
 supplied, one for very small, and the other for larger drills. 
 5 is the wrench fitting the hexagonal top of the cap. This is 
 
 FIG. 4. THE JEWELLER'S CHUCK. 
 
 the cheapest of all the adjustable drill chucks, the price being 
 10s. 6d. It will hold drills up to iin. A larger size is made 
 with four jaws, to take drills of ^in. diameter in the shank. 
 These are the chucks chiefly used for general work, but 
 there are one or two more needing description. That used 
 for turning bars of metal is called a driver ch-uck, and is 
 
DESCRIPTION OP THE LATHE. 
 
 11 
 
 composed of two essential parts viz., the carrier plate, or 
 driver chuck, and the carrier, which is of various forms, 
 
 but usually like that of Fig. 6. The chuck is like the main 
 or receptacle chuck, a centre point fitting into it; but, made 
 
12 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 crosswise through it, is a squared hole, receiving a cranked 
 arm, which is secured by a side screw, and is, consequently, 
 adjustable. The bar to be turned is mounted " between 
 centres " i.e., supported at one end by the point of 
 this chuck, and at the other by the point of the back 
 poppet, shallow holes called hollow centres being drilled at 
 each end, exactly at the respective centres of the ends of 
 the article to be turned. One of the carriers is now selected, 
 
 FIG. 6. DRIVER CHUCK. 
 
 which is of suitable size, and this is clamped on the end 
 nearest the mandrel. The tail of this catches the cranked 
 arm of the driver, or pin of the carrier plate, if that form 
 is used, and causes the whole to revolve together. The bar 
 is then turned as far as the tool can reach, and afterwards 
 it is reversed, and the carrier is attached at the finished end, 
 after which that part previously covered by the carrier is 
 turned. When the chuck is made like a face plate with a 
 
 FIG. 7. SELF-CENTREING CHUCK (WOOD). 
 
 projecting pin, it is often termed a " catch plate." This is 
 the chuck almost always used for iron bars, and it has this 
 advantage, that, if the hollow centres are left in the ends of 
 the work, it can at any time be re-mounted, and will run as 
 true as before. With other chucks it is always difficult to 
 readjust work centrally. 
 
 One other deserves mention in this place, on account of its 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE LATHE. 13 
 
 convenience, but it must be always used with the back centre. 
 It is of metal, but easily made of boxwood. It is a cup 
 chuck with thicker walls, and is hollowed out conically, and 
 the inside is then grooved to form ridges. A piece of wood 
 placed in it centres itself and is held by the ridges catching 
 any rough parts sufficiently to resist the action of the turn- 
 ing tool. It is shown by Fig. 7. A block of boxwood thus 
 hollowed, with grooves cut by a gouge, will answer just as 
 well. This is a capital chuck for holding bars of wood for 
 tool handles; a finished piece of work can also be centred 
 in it for polishing or altering. Two or three wooden ones, 
 with conical holes of from lin. to Sin. at their largest diameter, 
 will be serviceable. Sometimes, a chuck is made with a 
 square taper hole an inch or more across the face, and then 
 the bars of wood are squared; but the other will take them 
 without preparation. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 THE TURNING TOOLS. 
 
 FOR wood-turning, which is probably what a novice will, 
 and certainly ought to, commence with, the gouge and 
 chisel are the special tools, and are almost the only 
 ones to be met with in the workshop of an ordinary turner. 
 With these alone may be turned solid work of all kinds, 
 besides a good deal of hollow ware, as it is called. It is 
 true that, for turning hard wood, many others are used, but, 
 for the present, at any rate, we may with advantage pass 
 them by. The gouge is the roughing- down tool, and the 
 chisel is used to level all ridges and give a finish to the 
 surface. After this, a bundle of shavings held against it 
 while it rapidly revolves, is all that should be necessary to 
 polish it ; but, for a time, at any rate, fine glass-paper 
 will very likely be found necessary. The finish produced, 
 however, by a sharp chisel, efficiently used, beats all that 
 can be obtained by any amount of papering. The tool, in 
 fact, leaves a high polish. 
 
 We will begin by turning a tool handle, which will suffice 
 very well to teach the way of setting to work. Put the 
 prong or fork chuck on the mandrel or, if preferred, the 
 cross chuck or that last described may be substituted; after 
 a little practice, one or the other will have preference. The 
 fork or prong is not a very sure one to hold, and sometimes 
 the work will slip round, which it cannot do upon the cross 
 or blade chuck. 
 
 Now cut a piece of beech or ash, or other suitable wood 
 
THE TURNING TOOLS. 15 
 
 elm will do, but the first-named are better or a bit of 
 acacia will serve, which is of a yellowish-brown tint, and is a 
 capital turning wood. Saw off a bar about Gin. or 7in. long, 
 and l^in. in diameter or thereabouts, cutting it off as squarely 
 at the ends as you can; chop off the corners if it is square, 
 so as, in a rough way, to round it slightly. Make a little hole 
 in each end as centrally as possible, just to give a slight 
 entrance to the Lathe centre and the central point of the 
 prong chuck, or make saw cuts if the cross chuck is used. 
 Then loosen the back poppet, and slide it forward until there 
 is just room enough for the wood to be mounted. Screw up 
 the nut so as to hold the poppet securely, and then, turning 
 the hand wheel, secure the work in its place, taking care 
 that the cutting edges of the fork chuck, if it is used, get 
 a good hold by sinking into the wood. If this is very hard, 
 it may be better to make a cut with a saw across the end, 
 to receive the chuck edges; but it will not be necessary to 
 do so with beech, ash, or elm, nor, of course, with deal, 
 lime, sycamore, willow, and other such soft woods. These, 
 however, are not very useful for tool handles. Indeed, of 
 all woods for general turning, beech is most desirable. 
 
 Now start the Lathe, causing the work to revolve towards 
 you, and see if the wood runs fairly true, which it is sure 
 to do if the holes in the ends were central. Put just one 
 drop of oil on the point of the back centre. The next thing 
 to do is to place the rest as near as it will go without 
 touching the wood, securing it by the hand nut below the 
 bed, and also setting the tee so high as to stand a little 
 lower than the centre of the work. This is also to be secured 
 by its side screw. The gouge is now to be used thus: grasp 
 the handle firmly with the right hand, palm upwards, and 
 lay it on the rest with its hollow side up, and the whole 
 tool not horizontal but inclined somewhat by lowering its 
 handle. The blade is to be grasped by the left hand with 
 knuckles upwards, and very near the rest, upon which it 
 can thus be held down tightly, while at the same time it 
 is shifted along the rest as the work proceeds. And here 
 will the tyro's first difficulty be met with. 
 
 The wood as it revolves will strike the gouge, and cause 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
16 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 it to jump about on the rest, and, when trying to prevent 
 this, he will forget the treadle, and the Lathe will stop or 
 run backwards. But it is a case of "Never say die!" Keep 
 cool. Do not push the gouge too forward, and presently 
 you will get the knack requisite, and the cutting will proceed, 
 not very well at first, but fairly. The best way is not by 
 any means to run the gouge along the rest, as will be done 
 after a little practice, but to hold it so as to cut a little 
 bit at a time, beginning at the end next to the back centre, 
 and so cutting by successive steps till the whole piece is 
 fairly rounded. Then, using the side more than the point 
 of the tool, it will not be difficult still further to level the 
 surface, and, indeed, so nearly to finish it that the chisel, 
 which is far more difficult to use, may be dispensed with, 
 and the work finished by glass-paper. 
 
 This is, however, not to be dreamed of after mastering 
 the use of the chisel, but only permitted for one or two 
 introductory essays. And for the first lesson, though I have 
 suggested a tool handle, I would not recommend one re- 
 quiring a curved shape. It would be better at first to make 
 it like A on Plate IY. i.e., only a long, straight taper down 
 to the ferrule. This, indeed, is a good form to adopt for files 
 and many hand tools, though seldom used for such as belong 
 specially to the wood-turner. There is, however, great dif- 
 ference of opinion as to the best form, and also as to the length 
 of the handle. Chisels and gouges usually have much longer 
 ones than those used for metal and hard wood or ivory. 
 The ferrule is generally sawn off a piece of brass tube of the 
 requisite size, or from an old gun-barrel, or any 1 it of thin 
 tube. At some shops they can be bought cut ready for use, 
 but in most towns and villages suitable stuff may be found; 
 and here let me observe that the young turner should be con- 
 stantly on the look-out for odds and ends of wood, metal, 
 ivory, or bone, of which a well-selected assortment will often 
 supply an unexpected demand. A hack saw, consisting of a 
 steel frame with a thin saw stretched across it by a tighten- 
 ing screw, is used to saw metal. Often an old scythe-blade, 
 roughly notched into teeth, is used, and even preferred; but 
 the real metal saw is the neatest and best. The ferrule being 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
THE TURNING TOOLS. 19 
 
 ready, the end of the tool-handle is reduced to fit it. If the 
 back centre is withdrawn a little, the ferrule can be tried on 
 as the work proceeds, for the wood will run true again when 
 the centre is screwed up as it was before. Ferrules should go 
 on tightly, or they drop off when the wood becomes more 
 thoroughly dry. A little glue or cement of any kind assists 
 to hold them, but it is not absolutely needed. In rounding 
 off the opposite end, the gouge is to be laid on its left side, 
 with the hollow part away from the surface which is being 
 cut. This is the rule : Work down hill when making a mould- 
 ing or rounding off a surface, and keep the hollow of the tool 
 away from the surface that is being cut (see the Numbers on 
 Plate III.). In turning a ball, for instance, the gouge will lie 
 on its back, when in the diametrical line, and as the cut is 
 carried towards the right hand, it will lie more and more on 
 its right side, the hollow part towards the right hand. Then, 
 starting again down hill the other way, the tool will lie 
 gradually over on its left side; used thus, the tool will leave 
 a clean cut, but otherwise the edge will soon catch in and 
 bite out a chip, or break itself. It is easy enough to cut the 
 piece off with a gouge or chisel (see No. 2, Plate III.) by work- 
 ing a notch, cutting down hill each way till the piece is so 
 far severed as to break off with a touch ; after which a pen- 
 knife and glass-paper will finish it off. 
 
 THE CHISEL is the plane of the wood-turner, and, rightly 
 managed, will leave a surface so smooth that a touch of glass- 
 paper would spoil it; but it needs to be gripped with a firm 
 hand, and used with decision. Suppose a cylindrical piece of 
 wood to have been turned by a gouge, and that it is desired 
 to finish it to a truer surface than it is possible to produce 
 with a gouge, the chisel is the tool to use. It is not ground 
 straight across, and with the bevel on one side only, as is 
 the case with a carpenter's chisel, but there is a bevel on 
 both sides, and the edge is ground slanting, so that there is 
 formed one sharp point and one blunt one (No. 4, Plate III.). 
 As a rule, the blunt point leads, whether the tool is being 
 worked to right or left (No. 5, Plate III.), and, also, in cutting 
 down hill on a curve or incline. But this tool is not laid flat on 
 the rest, but slightly on edge, for this reason: if laid flat, as 
 
20 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 a tyro would probably place it, it could only scrape, and 
 would tear up the fibres of any soft wood. It is, therefore, 
 slightly raised upon edge, care being taken that the upper 
 sharp corner never comes in contact with the wood, or it will 
 hitch in and spoil the work. Only the middle part of the 
 edge, therefore, actually cuts, and this, engaging the fibres at 
 an angle, no longer tears them apart. When there is a 
 rounded surface to be worked, this tool is made to travel, 
 like the gouge, both ways down hill; and so, also, in a 
 hollow, it never sweeps the curve from end to end, but the 
 cuts are carried down each way, meeting at the bottom. It 
 may be conjectured that, just at the point of juncture, the 
 two cuts will not exactly meet, but practice will make them 
 do so. The cut is made so as to reduce the shaving at this 
 point to almost nothing; a slight rub of glass-paper will 
 obliterate any little defect that still remains. After a while, 
 even this will be unnecessary. Of course, a beginner must 
 not expect to succeed all at once with this tool, but I strongly 
 advise him for a long time to work entirely with gouge and 
 chisel, and not to attempt hollow work till he has become 
 an adept at what is solid. Let him turn a set of handles, 
 ninepins, towel-rollers, rolling-pins, ring-stands, chair-rails, 
 and anything else he can think of : drawer-knobs, door- 
 handles, and other articles of curved surface will give him 
 excellent practice, and pave the way for those which require 
 greater skill a skill only to be gained by steady, consistent, 
 and painstaking practice. I have given drawings here (Plate 
 IY.) of some such articles, including variously shaped tool- 
 handles. The little pilasters will do for rails of book-trays, 
 overmantels, brackets, shelves, and a score of similar articles. 
 A round ruler, well and truly finished by the gouge and 
 chisel alone, may be considered a proof that the young 
 turner has passed his novitiate. Indeed, he may attemp 4 - 
 simple hollow work long before his hand and eye are equal 
 to so severe a test of skill. 
 
 HOLLOW WARE is chuck work i.e., the work is held by 
 the chuck alone, the back poppit being pushed entirely out 
 of the way. Yery deep or long articles, however, need extra 
 support, by means of a boring collar, of which we need not 
 
^X 
 UNIVERSITY) 
 
 (POHM**^/ 
 
 
THE TURNING TOO 
 
 speak further at present. An egg-cup will be a capital thing 
 to begin with. Saw off a bit of beech, birch, or other wood, 
 long enough to serve the purpose, the length and size being 
 easily determined by reference to a pattern. Allow a little 
 more than absolutely necessary, and screw it upon the taper 
 screw chuck, after securing the latter in its place on the 
 mandrel. If care is taken to bore a hole centrally, and not 
 too large, the piece will abut fairly against the face of the 
 chuck, and will run evenly ; but to insure this it must be cut 
 off squarely at the end. The back poppet may be brought up 
 to help sustain it while the rougher excrescences are being 
 cut away, and the whole brought into approximate form, after 
 which it must be removed. The outside will present no 
 special difficulty if sufficient practice has been obtained 
 upon solid work, but the hollowing out needs some care, 
 and especially needs a knowledge of how to do it in the 
 best way. The end must be first of all faced nicely, using 
 the gouge, as explained, with its bevelled back against the 
 work, and its hollow outwards towards the right hand (No. 3, 
 Plate III.). The rest is still to remain parallel to the Lathe 
 bed, as in turning the outer surface. Now, keeping the 
 back or bevel as before, bring the point or middle of the 
 edge to the centre of the work, and cause it to penetrate 
 slightly, by moving the right hand, which holds its handle, a 
 little outwards. This will cut a little conical recess. Repeat 
 this, pushing the gouge onwards each time beyond the centre, 
 and also gradually raising the point and rolling the tool over, 
 till, at what may be called the top of the cut, it lies almost 
 face downwards. It is difficult to describe the action, but the 
 shaving should curl out rapidly in little coils, leaving a 
 smooth surface. For deep cuts, it may be necessary to 
 turn the rest round somewhat, so as to bring its tee more 
 across the face of the work (as shown in No. 1, Plate III.), 
 but not entirely so. This is a curious way of using a gouge, 
 causing it to cut beyond the centre instead of on the near side; 
 but nothing can exceed the ease with which it will cut when 
 so used, and the hollow can be extended and deepened, within 
 certain limits, with great rapidity : a few minutes will suffice 
 for an egg-cup. It is worth while to risk spoiling one such 
 
24 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 article, by turning round the rest to stand across the work 
 (it is so placed for hard-wood turning) and then to lay the 
 gouge on its back, and try to hollow out the egg-cup by 
 turning the near side instead of the further one. Probably, 
 any novice would try thus if left to himself. The tool held 
 still will bore a hole of its own size, just as a quill bit would 
 do, if used in a carpenter's brace. But as soon as the 
 attempt is made to enlarge it, the gouge will catch in. Even 
 here, however, something may be done by remembering the 
 rule to keep the back, or bevel, against the surface to be cut. 
 By this, however, it is evident that the tool must be on its 
 side, and not on its back ; the hollow being towards the 
 centre, and the cut proceeding from without inwards. There 
 will be no "catch in" in this case, and the hollowing may 
 often be carried forward thus. But as long as the tool can 
 be got to work in the other manner, cutting from the bottom 
 of the recess outwards, this will be found to produce the 
 better work. The egg-cup is so comparatively shallow, and of 
 such small size, that it may be begun and finished thus ; but 
 for larger work both methods may be combined now working 
 from the centre outwards, and now the other way. In fact, 
 a turner can use his tools in all sorts of ways with equal 
 facility, but a learner should not take such liberties. 
 
 It may readily be seen that it will be impossible to get a 
 flat bottom with a sharply-defined angle in this way with 
 the gouge; and, therefore, when such is necessary, the last 
 touch must be given by a chisel, held quite flat on the rest. 
 A common carpenter's chisel will answer very well for this. 
 A dozen egg-cups will enable a learner to manage the gouge 
 only, as they do not require to be finished inside to a flat 
 surface ; nor, indeed, is it necessary with a match-vase or spill- 
 pot. But it will soon be discovered that a gouge cannot be 
 used as described for deeper work, as the limit of its cutting 
 power is soon reached. For deep work in soft wood, tools 
 called hook tools are used in the trade, but are so difficult to 
 manage as .to be seldom found in amateurs' workshops. 
 Round-end tools, chisels, and gouges are therefore used, 
 and the surface finished with inside tools similar to those for 
 hard wood, the finish being given by glass-paper. These 
 
THE TURNING TOOLS. 25 
 
 tools will be fully described in treating of hard-wood 
 turning. . 
 
 BOXES. These will come next in order as needing a little 
 more skill than egg-cup turning, as the cover has to be fitted 
 nicely. The first thing is to cut off a bit of wood long enough 
 for box and cover, with something extra to allow for the 
 length of the taper screw and for waste say, 4in. for a Sin. 
 box or 2^in. one. The wood can be held in a cup chuck 
 instead of the taper screw, if preferred; and in that case it 
 is merely trimmed roughly to a cylindrical form, and driven 
 into the chuck about in. To save the mandrel from violence, 
 it may be thus driven in while the chuck stands on the bench, 
 or on a block of wood, although it will most frequently be 
 done after screwing the chuck on the mandrel. In this case, 
 there is no need for heavy blows, which tend to damage the 
 tail pin or mandrel; but a few steady taps from a light 
 mallet will suffice if the wood fits fairly well. The learner 
 will, however, find it necessary to drive the wood in more 
 deeply than an adept, as he is more likely to have a hitch in 
 of the tool, and in that way to throw the wood out of the 
 chuck altogether. Supposing it to be secure, the first thing 
 is to reduce it to a cylinder by gouge and chisel, and for this 
 the back centre may be brought up to steady it. When, 
 however, it is once shaped, the loose poppet is to be slid back, 
 as before, out of the way. The usual way is to hollow out 
 the extreme end for the cover, then to cut this off, and, from 
 what remains in the chuck, to hollow out the box; and this 
 is the best plan, as it enables the turner to try on the cover 
 again and again, until a satisfactory fit results. Following 
 this plan, the cover is to be faced off true with the chisel 
 held quite flat on the rest; or, if it is very rough, the gouge 
 is first used, laid on its back and held horizontally, the rest 
 being, of course, turned round so as to bring the tee across 
 the face of the work. Then, as soon as the surface is made 
 flat, begin as for the egg-cup, only keep the hollow very 
 shallow ; and then, with the chisel held flat, square the recess 
 thus made, and especially take care to make the side quite 
 perpendicular to the bottom, and not in the least conical, for 
 on this will the exact fit of the cover chiefly depend and a 
 
26 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 well-fitted cover is a credit to the learner. Light cuts will 
 have to be taken at last, using the more pointed corner of 
 the turning chisel to get into the angle and to finish smoothly 
 the inside. When the cover is done, a tool called a parting 
 tool is generally used to cut it off. It is like a very narrow 
 chisel, with (when meant for soft wood) a groove or notch 
 in it. But this tool is not absolutely necessary. A tenon 
 saw, held against the wood as it revolves, will soon cut it off; 
 or the chisel set on edge and made gradually to cut a 
 deeper and deeper notch till the piece is severed, or used 
 to cut a deep notch, to be followed by the saw. After this, 
 the end of the work is again faced off truly, and the rebate 
 is cut, with the chisel, upon which the cover of a box always 
 rests; but, in this case, it is left a little too large at the 
 present stage, as it will be cut down again, and accurately 
 finished after the box itself has been hollowed out. This is 
 the work to be now taken in hand. 
 
 In either case the top of the box will be neither smooth 
 nor level, but that will be rectified presently. The box itself 
 must now be hollowed out as described, using the gouge as 
 far as possible, but finishing with the chisel. Care must 
 be taken not to go too deep, or in cutting it off when done 
 there will not be found enough stuff left for the bottom, 
 and it will come off in the form of a ring. After it is suffi- 
 ciently hollowed out, and the inside is levelled and smoothed, 
 the rebate or flange is finished till the cover will just go on 
 tightly. This part must be left exactly cylindrical. It will be 
 generally conical in the hands of a beginner, either small at 
 top or at bottom of the rebate. The cover must slide on 
 and fit all the way, and not go on easy at first and then fit 
 tightly when pressed quite down. This accuracy will be 
 found difficult, but patience must be exercised, and a very 
 light cut taken each time after trying on the cover. The 
 latter should fit so well that its junction with the box 
 is only visible as a thin line. When the fit is perfect, the 
 cover is left on, the rest put across the bed, and with the 
 chisel laid flat upon it, the outside of the cover is turned to 
 a dead level. With the sharp angle of the tool a few circles 
 are often cut, by way of ornamentation, both on the top of 
 
THE TURNING TOOLS. 27 
 
 the cover and also on the side of the box itself. The work 
 now has to be cut off, just as the cover was severed. If a 
 parting tool is used, it is placed exactly upright on its edge 
 and steadily advanced, keeping it horizontal, or with the point 
 only very slightly raised. This point must not be allowed 
 to get, at any time, below the level of the centres, or the 
 tool will be drawn in. Also, although its edge is so broad 
 as to clear itself as it enters, it is safer to make it cut now 
 a little on this side and now on that, so as slightly to widen 
 its own groove as the cut is made. All danger of a catch 
 in is thus avoided, and the tool can be advanced quite to the 
 centre, when the box will fall off. With care and a little 
 practice the bottom of the box should be quite level, but it 
 will probably be found necessary to re- mount it on a wooden 
 chuck, turned to fit inside it, so as to get at the bottom of 
 the box for a final cut, to finish it. A very common fault 
 to be guarded against is getting the bottom of the box 
 rounded, so as not to stand well when placed on the table. 
 It may be made very slightly hollow, which will not matter, 
 but every care must be taken that the centre shall not pro- 
 ject in the least. Of course, the outside of a box need not 
 be of pill-box uniformity, but can be moulded to any shape, 
 and, if so intended to be formed, the sides should be left 
 rather thick when it is hollowed out. 
 
 In order to insure the perpendicularity of the rebate of 
 the box, an instrument is used called a turner's square, but 
 it is easy to cut a rectangular notch in a bit of card or tin, 
 and to test with this as shown in No. 6, Plate III. The 
 long edge of the card is to be placed in contact with the 
 top, and the short edge of the notch will test the accuracy 
 of the inside, which it should exactly coincide with. The 
 inside of the cover may be tested with a similar card. These 
 little home-made contrivances are very useful, cost nothing, 
 and can be made in a few minutes. A similar gauge is 
 useful where a number of articles are to be of exactly 
 the same size, either in length or thickness. Cut gauges can- 
 not shift like calipers, which, again, are not practically very 
 easy to use for accurate testing ; but such a gauge as that 
 shown, even of card, is of great use, and well worth making. 
 
28 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 Suppose, for instance, you wish to make several tool-handles, 
 all of one length and size, with mouldings like No. 1, 
 Plate Y. We may make a gauge of its length by two nail- 
 points in a bit of wood (C), and two others a little shorter, 
 which are to mark the highest points of the moulding when 
 the gauge is held against the wood as it revolves after it has 
 been turned to a cylindrical form. Then it can be roughly 
 shaped, and from time to time tested for size by gauge B. This 
 is a far speedier plan than to measure the length by rule or com- 
 pass and then to use calipers for size, which would have to be set 
 separately to test the hollows and the convex curves. 
 
 Carrying on a little further our description of hollow work, 
 we will take that simple article a needle-case or bodkin-case, 
 in which the length very much exceeds the diameter. In this 
 the gouge cannot be used as in larger work, and may ad- 
 vantageously be replaced by an ordinary shell bit or nose bit* 
 such as carpenters use with a brace ; or by the twisted or spiral 
 drill used for metal. The latter, held in a tool-handle, 
 answers splendidly, doing its work in a few seconds without 
 undue strain. Drive the bit of wood, as before, into a cup 
 chuck, not of metal but of wood, or wood driven in to plug 
 the metal one and then hollowed out to the necessary size. 
 Turn it with gouge and chisel as before ; run the drill in 
 deeply enough to bore the cover, following it up with a narrow 
 chisel or slightly larger drill, and keeping the bore nicely 
 parallel; then cut it off and set it aside for subsequent 
 finish, and go on with the case itself, using the drill, and, 
 if necessary, following it with chisel or with a narrow round- 
 end tool, if in stock, or with a larger bit or drill; only it 
 must be bored out smaller than the cover, to allow of the 
 rabbet on which the latter fits, and which is made long to 
 prevent the cover from dropping off so readily when the 
 case is carried in the pocket. For work of this kind, sycamore 
 will be found very useful if obtainable. Birch, poplar, beech, 
 alder, and many other soft but not splintery woods can also 
 be used ; and of those ordinarily found in the country 
 hornbeam is exceedingly useful. Acacia, again, is a nice 
 and also handsome wood, but almost any stuff will do for 
 simple work of this kind. 
 
No. 
 
 CUACE FOR LENGTH & POSITION OF CURVES. 
 
 No. 5 y 
 
 PLATE V -BORING-COLLARS : USE OF GAUGES. 
 
w\ 
 
 UNIVERSITY) 
 " i*^ 7 
 
THE TURNING TOOLS. 31 
 
 If the article to be bored is over three or four inches long 
 it will be found difficult to turn and bore it without further 
 support. In such cases, what is known as a cone plate or 
 boring-collar is used, or very frequently a temporary sub- 
 stitute made of wood. The cone plate properly so called 
 consists of a short poppet from which projects a stout pin 
 secured by a nut at the back. Upon this is fitted a circular 
 metal plate, having near its circumference a ring of conical 
 holes of gradually increasing size, the centre of any one of 
 which is exactly level with the Lathe centres when such 
 hole is at its highest point. The largest part of the cone 
 stands towards the mandrel, and that hole is selected which 
 will allow the end of the work to rest in the cone without 
 passing through it. Thus supported, the extreme end of 
 such work as a needle-case or deep spill-pot can be got at 
 by a boring tool, and, being thus supported, there is no 
 danger that the work will be thrown out of centre or forced 
 out of its chuck. In such a cone plate the largest hole 
 cannot be over 2in. diameter or thereabout, and is, in fact, 
 seldom even so large. It is, therefore, hardly suitable for the 
 general work of a wood-turner, and may be advantageously 
 replaced by one of the home-made contrivances on Plate Y. 
 The first is merely a piece of plankwood cut with a tenon 
 to fit between the bearers or bed of the Lathe, and fastened 
 with a wedge or bolt generally the former. The hole is 
 preferably cut in the Lathe, which alone enables a nice 
 cone to be formed, but it is often sawn out and bevelled 
 by the chisel, followed by a cabinet rasp and file. Of 
 course, it is only suited for one size of work; bat a wood- 
 turner will arrange his work accordingly, as he generally 
 makes a large number of articles alike, turning them in sets 
 a dozen or two of one size, and then a dozen of another; 
 so that with two or three such boring-collars he can get 
 along very well. No. 2 D will sufficiently explain this simple 
 arrangement. No. 3 represents another plan in which a 
 mortice in an upright part of a specially made base carries 
 horizontal plates of wood, with one, two, or more conical 
 holes in it. A wooden thumbscrew or plain wedge secures 
 the plate in position. The bottom part stands on the bed, 
 
32 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 and a plain bolt and nut will secure it. It is better made 
 with a tenon piece screwed on underneath to fit between the 
 bearers as before. A still more complete and stiifer arrange- 
 ment is made by having a frame put together firmly with 
 dovetails, in a groove in which the boards containing the 
 conical holes slide. These are also for convenience sawn 
 across, which renders it easier to adjust them to the work. 
 This, shown at No. 4, is far better worth making, because 
 it can often be fitted over a neck or smaller part of the work 
 if not large enough in the bore to fit the larger diameter. 
 It might, for instance, grasp the vase (No. 5, as shown at 
 the narrow part, a, 6), and it will hold it quite steadily for 
 hollowing out. 
 
 It would probably not be supposed that a simple cylinder 
 without any mouldings is far more difficult to turn than such 
 a piece as a baluster or pillaret, but so it is. Nevertheless, 
 a wood-turner, skilled in the use of gouge and chisel, will 
 accomplish it readily enough by hand, where an amateur 
 would fall back on the slide rest to give the rectilinear motion 
 to the tool. In short, a slide rest, or other mechanical 
 appliance, is not to be found in a wood-turner's shop, and is, 
 indeed, quite unnecessary, except for ornamental work in 
 hard wood and ivory, and for turning metal. 
 
 To turn a cylinder, the top of the rest should be level, and 
 if notched it should be corrected with a file, so that a gouge 
 or chisel may slide along it with regularity. After the wood has 
 been roughened down almost to size, the gouge should be carried 
 along quietly and steadily, using its side more than its point, 
 and the chisel must follow; great care being taken to keep it 
 at the same angle throughout, that it may not cut more 
 deeply in one place than in another. A series of light cuts 
 with a good quick speed will best insure success. Quick 
 speed is absolutely essential in turning soft wood it can 
 hardly be too high but for hard wood it may be more 
 moderate. But in all these mechanical arts we can only say 
 how the tool is to be held and used: we cannot give skill, 
 which nothing but long and careful practice can afford. 
 It is no use for a learner to think he will turn out good work ; 
 he will turn one handle or egg-cup while a good workman 
 
THE TURNING TOOLS. 33 
 
 will turn a couple of dozen, and his work will also be inferior. 
 But that workman also was once a learner, and his acquired 
 skill is likewise attainable by perseverance. In nothing is 
 this so true as in turning soft wood, because in this you 
 are not able to use those mechanical contrivances which 
 insure correct results. With ivory and hard wood, you may 
 turn and hollow out and decorate a true sphere almost with 
 hands in pockets, leaving the Lathe and tool to do their own 
 work. Hence it is that an amateur spends so much and finds 
 turning so costly. He does very little, and that little is 
 expensive. He then goes, perhaps, into such a shop as 
 Oetzmann's or Maple's, and sees overmantels, and cabinets, and 
 tables, and all kinds of serviceable articles of great beauty, 
 to which the Lathe has contributed very largely; and he may 
 rest assured that neither slide rest nor any costly apparatus 
 has been used in the manufacture : only plain Lathes, two 
 or three tools, and a good deal of labour and skill. Turning 
 should cost very little such turning as the generality of 
 amateurs ought to take up and Lathes are getting cheaper 
 than ever, so that even a labourer, with spare time upon his 
 hands, might profitably employ himself in turning, and add 
 a few pounds to the family purse. Where most amateurs fail 
 is in the matter of patience. In some of the articles, for 
 instance, just alluded to, there are, perhaps, fifty to a 
 hundred little turned pillarets, all exactly alike, and about 
 2in. in length. To an amateur, this would be a tedious 
 job ; but a professional will go on, day after day, and all day 
 long, till the Lathe bed is piled with pillarets; and although 
 the gouge and chisel alone are used, and, probably no measure- 
 ments are taken, yet all are alike in size and pattern. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 TURNING BOXWOOD AND FOREIGN HARD WOOD. 
 
 HB tools used for the above work differ considerably from 
 those used for soft wood, which they will not, in fact, 
 cut so as to produce a good surface. The gouge and 
 chisel are, however, still used, and, generally speaking, the 
 former is the roughing-down tool. But hard wood admits of 
 much finer beads and mouldings, and will take a higher 
 polish, and it can be covered with a network of fine tracery 
 and delicate carving, which is quite impossible in the case of 
 soft wood. Screws, moreover, can be cut upon this material, 
 either coarse or fine, which can only be managed with difficulty 
 on soft wood, on which also, if cut, the pitch must be coarse. 
 All hard-wood tools lie flat on the rest, and are, in conse- 
 quence, easy to use, and whatever the profile of the edge may 
 be, it is, of necessity repeated on the work, if the tool is held 
 still, such profile being, of course, reversed. The tools are of 
 various shapes for cutting to right and left, turning hollows, 
 and beads and mouldings. The more general ones are illus- 
 trated here, so far as their cutting edges are concerned. 
 
 A, Plate VI., the flat tool, is sharpened on both sides as well 
 as on the edge ; B, C, bevel tools, are sharpened in the same way 
 (the bevels of all the tools shown being supposed to be under- 
 neath); D, similarly sharpened, is the round tool, used for 
 turning hollows, and sometimes for roughing-down hard wood 
 and ivory, instead of the gouge; E, the bead tool, is made 
 of all widths for turning beads and small spheres, like those 
 on the head of a chess pawn; F is sharpened only on the 
 

 
 5 
 
 (7 
 
 <\i. 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 TYYYl 
 
 c 2 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 F 
 
TURNING HARD WOODS. 37 
 
 end of the bent part it is an inside parting tool, and is made 
 in sets with longer or shorter bent part; G is a side view 
 of an ordinary parting tool it cuts at the extreme end, and 
 is ground thinner downwards to about A on each side, so as 
 to cut itself clear; H, I, J, are inside, or right and left, 
 tools, cutting on the ends and sides for hollowing out work 
 they vary in shape as shown; K, is ground all round the 
 outside of the curve, and is used to hollow out bulging or 
 spherical work, like a humming-top so also is L ; M is a 
 bead and astragal, turning a bead with fiats on each side; 
 Q is a ring tool for instance, in turning a curtain ring on 
 wood, E would round it on the outside, and Q on the inner 
 face : all such tools are made of various sizes, and can be had 
 in complete sets ; R is a point tool, for turning angular 
 grooves, and, like D, it is often used for roughing- down work ; 
 P is a reeding tool, and is practically a row of small beading 
 tools ; N, O, are a pair of chasing tools, for cutting outside 
 and inside screws they are made of various pitches, coarse 
 and fine. The average price of these tools is Is. 6d. 
 Screw tools vary in price, according to pitch. It is not easy 
 to determine how many to buy, but perhaps three different 
 sizes of D, E, F, and Q, will do for a start, as these can be 
 added to as may prove necessary, and the parcel post now 
 brings all such tools within easy reach of country customers. 
 A slight sketch of the tool required, with size needed, will 
 enable a tool-dealer to supply it. Handles are from one 
 penny each and upwards, and for these beech is preferable 
 to hard wood. 
 
 The hard-wood cylinder can be turned wholly with the 
 gouge and chisel, if the latter lies flat on the rest, with 
 the leading angle kept clear, so as not to mark it. But a 
 chisel thus held is so quickly blunted, that the flat tool, 
 which is thicker, and ground with a shorter bevel, is for this 
 purpose superior to it. The leading angle in this case, also, 
 is kept clear. The cylinder must, of course, be first reduced 
 to nearly the required size by the gouge or round tool, or 
 both, leaving the flat tool as little work as possible. With 
 some woo'ds, a very thin tool for the final touches proves the 
 best, and this is held as a mere scraping tool slightly under- 
 
38 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 hand that is, the edge depressed below the level of centres, 
 instead of being applied horizontally. The ends may be 
 trimmed by the parting tool if anything has to be cut off, 
 and finished by a side tool or point tool held at the required 
 angle. All is easier than the manipulation of the soft-wood 
 tools. Hollow work is commenced by drilling a hole with 
 either a twist drill or nose bit, held in a tool handle, or with 
 a round tool, and enlarging it with the latter, or with one 
 of the bevel or inside tools; and if the recess is to be flat 
 at bottom, like that of a box, the flat tool will level it accu- 
 rately, and with ease. 
 
 Bowls and tazzas, egg-cups, vases, &c., are worked also 
 with any of the round end or other suitable tools, held flat 
 on the rest and swept round the curve. The last cuts have 
 to be made slowly and lightly, taking the whole surface, if 
 possible, without stopping, so as to prevent any lines or tool- 
 marks remaining visible. 
 
 In turning beads and mouldings, it is almost necessary 
 economy to spare the beautifully made tools by which this 
 kind of work is done. The tools are easily damaged, as the 
 points are fine, and in the smaller sizes the tools are necessarily 
 slender. Hence, it is usual to reduce the parts just as much 
 as possible with point tool, chisel, or bevel tools, and with 
 these to bring the bead or moulding to its approximate size 
 and shape. Then the beading tool has but to clear away 
 the irregularities and finish the bead to a perfect curve. 
 In the use of the above-named tools, the rest is placed 
 just below the level of centres, so as to allow for the 
 thickness of the tool itself. Although, however, the latter 
 is, as a rule, held level and horizontal, it is sometimes tilted 
 up a little in finishing off a surface. All such varia- 
 tions of position must be decided at the time, and their 
 expediency or otherwise will only appear after some amount 
 of practice. Much depends upon the wood, of which some 
 specimens are far more troublesome than others to bring to 
 a good surface. The maximum of such trouble I have found 
 to accrue in the case of a bit of canary wood turned plank- 
 way and cut into a bowl. 
 
 With the harder and more costly woods, the highest 
 
TURNING HARD WOODS. 39 
 
 perfection of workmanship should always be aimed at, and 
 this mainly consists of sharply defined curves and cleanly 
 cut surfaces, bold and neatly cut mouldings, of which the 
 contour or profile can be plainly seen. Glass-paper tends to 
 obliterate angles, and, if necessary, it must be very carefully 
 kept from attacking acute edges; but if these are damaged 
 by its use, they must be renovated by a fresh touch of the 
 tool. In this sharp, clear definition of outline lies all the 
 difference between good and bad work. It may also be 
 remarked here that although glass-paper is sometimes 
 absolutely necessary to cut down fibres which cannot be 
 cleanly cut by the tool, it will not hide bad cutting. If, 
 for instance, the inside of a bowl, instead of presenting to 
 the eye one uniform, curved surface, shows a series of flat 
 rings when closely examined, the paper will not obliterate 
 these, and they should be honestly looked for in a good 
 light, and not shirked under the impression that polish or 
 varnish will ultimately conceal them. Instead of doing so, 
 it will render them painfully conspicuous; and with those 
 who know what good work is, these common defects will at 
 once condemn the workman. Moreover, he himself, being 
 cognisant of such defects, will feel no pleasure in his own 
 work. Therefore, although we are of course addressing 
 learners who cannot be expected to become suddenly pro- 
 ficient in an art requiring the skill obtained by long practice, 
 it has seemed better to point out such defects and errors as 
 they are most likely to fall into in their early essays, that they 
 may know what to strive after, and what to avoid, and, so 
 far as possible, how to avoid. In this very matter of bowls 
 and cup-shaped hollows, it will be found easier to work with 
 a curved tool of a size proportioned to that which it is 
 proposed to form; as a broad tool such as K or L, is 
 more likely to produce a hollow free from flat bands and 
 irregularities than a smaller tool with round end like that 
 illustrated at D. 
 
 TURNING THE PLANKWAY OF THE GRAIN. This has to be 
 frequently done both with soft and hard wood, as it often 
 happens that it is not possible in any other way to get stuff 
 wide enough for the intended purpose. There is no great 
 
40 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 difficulty in working this : even with soft wood the gouge 
 and chisel are used flat upon the rest, light cuts being taken 
 generally from the centre outwards; but for final cuts the 
 tool must be keen. The part which it is most difficult to 
 cut smoothly, is just where the fibres begin to crop out 
 endwise. There will be two spots in a circular disc, where 
 this will be the case, and sometimes they give a great deal 
 of trouble, and need alternate cutting and papering to lay 
 them down smoothly. The harder woods seldom present this 
 difficulty. It would, of course, be a wasteful mode of work 
 to turn such an article as a large bowl or tazza, with stem 
 and stand, out of a piece large enough for the bowl itself, 
 and the latter would be turned separately, perhaps out of a 
 piece sawn plankway, and the stem out of a smaller piece; 
 the stand also probably out of a third. This building-up of 
 work is of constant occurrence, the several pieces being 
 tenoned together, or cut with screws, which is the better 
 plan where the workman is skilful enough to manage it. 
 
 The pins or tenons are turned at the ends of pedestals or 
 stems, and the other pieces are drilled in the Lathe, to insure 
 centrality and squareness to the surfaces. Glue- or other 
 cement is then used to unite them. 
 
 CUTTING SCREWS IN WOOD BY THE HAND CHASER. This 
 somewhat difficult art is well worth all the trouble that it 
 needs to acquire it. As soon as it is gained, it renders the 
 work more independent of all costly apparatus used to render 
 the process easy to such as cannot succeed with hand tools 
 alone, and the screw can be made in a shorter time than it 
 takes to set up even the simplest of such apparatus; but it 
 would be a mistake to suppose the art in question easy of 
 acquirement, and it needs constant practice to keep up the 
 knack of using the chaser. 
 
 The directions given by most of our leading authorities are 
 as follows: "Having turned smooth and true the cylinder 
 upon which the screw is to be traced, round off the edge or 
 arris so that it shall not catch into the teeth at starting, 
 and check the traverse of the tool. The rest is placed very 
 near the work, and must have its edge filed smooth and 
 level if it is at all notched from other work. The tool is to 
 
TURNING HA.SD WOODS. 41 
 
 be held by its handle in the right hand, and its blade between 
 the first finger and thumb, so as to cushion it somewhat, 
 and allow it barely to lie on the rest. Then the Lathe is to 
 be set in easy motion, and after a trial or two, without 
 actually touching the work, just to get the swing of it, a 
 steady, decisive cut is to be attempted, traversing the tool 
 without nervousness or hesitation." Exactly so; but, unless 
 the workman is already an adept, the chances are sadly 
 against his hitting off the thread ; and, knowing this, he will 
 be as nervous as a skater making his first essay on the ice. 
 Yet there is no royal road to screw- cut ting, and the above 
 directions are as good as any. The best way is to cut threads 
 outside chucks, and any odd bits of boxwood, on all occasions : 
 go at it and keep at it, and the skill will not long be wanting. 
 
 The inside thread has also to be struck haphazard, only 
 the movement of the tool is now straight forward into the 
 hole. Many use for this purpose an arm rest, which is a 
 long-handled, flat bar of iron, about ^in. wide, tapering down 
 to about iin. at the extremity. The end is turned up ^in., 
 and the chaser rests on the end just behind this hook. The 
 T of the rest is now retained in its usual position parallel to 
 the Lathe bed, and the arm rest is held under the left 
 armpit, with the blade of it across the rest. This places the 
 shank and hook at right angles, or nearly so, across the face of 
 the hollowed work, and the tool is laid on it, instead of having 
 to turn round the T of the rest itself. The hands grasp the 
 end of the arm rest as well as the tool, so that the two move 
 as one. A great deal of inside work, besides screw-cutting, is 
 done with this contrivance, as it prevents having to shift 
 round the T of the rest. Inside screws are easier to cut with 
 its aid, as it moves on the T as on a fulcrum, and gives to 
 the tool an easy swing, as if it moved on a ball-and-socket 
 joint. Each cut of the chaser, especially at the commence- 
 ment, must be very light, and it must carry itself along by 
 the thread first traced, and not be driven in the least until 
 the thread is well and deeply cut. 
 
 The great difficulty will be found with the coarse pitches: 
 .the finer, from 16 to 24, are easier than from 8 to 16 
 the traverse of the latter is necessarily so much faster 
 
42 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 and more difficult to hit off, as regards speed. Except 
 for chucks and large boxwood cases, it is not often that 
 the coarse pitches will be needed, and 12 to 24* will 
 amply suffice for general purposes. Holtzapffel, in his 
 valuable work, directs that the first stroke of the chaser 
 is to be across the centre of the curve where the sharp angle 
 has been turned off, like Nos. 1 and 2, Plate YIL, a b showing 
 the first stroke, and c d the second. Thus the screw is gradually 
 worked round to the cylindrical part. The traverse is, of 
 course, from right to left, and from the edge to the interior 
 of hollow work. Personally, I have found it quite as easy 
 to begin at once upon the end of the cylindrical part ; but 
 it is, I suppose, a question of habit. I have also generally 
 found it better at the commencement to keep the points 
 clear, and to let the tool touch just below them. This will 
 carry it along sufficiently to let the required speed of traverse 
 be seen, after which the tool may be lowered, so as to bring 
 into action its full cutting powers. But there is no sort of 
 doubt about the difficulty of screw-chasing by hand a 
 difficulty that is only to be overcome by such constant work 
 as falls to the lot of brass-turners and others who are at 
 work with the chaser every day, and, for the most part, 
 confine the chasing to one or two pitches only, of which they 
 thus soon get the exact pace. By way of encouragement, 
 I may add that a fortnight's apprenticeship often makes a 
 lad at an optician's workshop a fair proficient, provided he is 
 kept to one pitch of thread only, as he soon gets used to 
 traverse the tool at one rate of speed. 
 
 Considering, however, that screw-chasing is an acknowledged 
 difficulty, we are not surprised to meet with various suggested 
 contrivances for effecting the work in an automatic manner, 
 especially as this can be done without difficulty in more than 
 one way. Naturally, the first idea is to continue the use of 
 the hand chaser, but to arrange some additional apparatus to 
 insure its accurate traverse. No. 3, Plate "VII., will serve to illus- 
 trate the principle which, variously modified, has been used for 
 the purpose. There is cut outside the chuck B a screw of 
 the required pitch, or a ferrule with such guide-screw cut 
 on it is slipped on the chuck, and prevented by a feather 
 
No. 1 
 
 No. 2 
 
 No. 3 
 PLATE VII. SCREW-CHASING APPARATUS. 
 
OF THE 
 
 TJNIVERSITT 
 
TURNING HARD WOODS. 45 
 
 from revolving upon it. In the latter case, the same chuck 
 will admit of various ferrules, each of different pitch. A is 
 the work upon which a similar screw is required. By means 
 of a bar, 0, and a pair of clamps, shown again at D, the 
 chaser, E, is connected with F, a similar chaser, which, 
 however, is not intended to cut, and may be of brass, or even of 
 wood. The tools thus connected at a suitable distance apart, 
 now act as one, and as F is carried along by contact with 
 the screw guide, E, the actual cutting tool will follow at 
 exactly the same rate, tracing a screw on A. Both tools lie 
 upon the rest, H. Theoretically, this is an excellent arrange- 
 ment, and valuable from its extreme simplicity. In practice, 
 however, it is less satisfactory. The resistance of the cut is 
 apt to throw the guide-chaser out of gear with its ferrule; 
 and, indeed, this chaser needs to embrace a segment of the 
 ferrule, like G, instead of ending merely in one or more 
 points. 
 
 Then, again, it is not easy to keep the eye upon both work 
 and guide, especially if they are at all far apart. Hence, 
 without materially altering the original plan, the bar, C, has 
 been made to slide in two suitable sockets,* in arms attached 
 to the Lathe thus steadying the whole arrangement. The 
 sockets, D, are then attached to the bar, C, by screws, but 
 the cutting tool may pass freely through its slot to allow of 
 independent advance. This arrangement has proved to be 
 a perfectly practical one, and is, probably, the best for the 
 purpose, with the sole exception of the traversing mandrel, 
 to be presently described. The supporting arms and sockets 
 need not be in the way, and the bar can be readily unshipped 
 and removed entirely. For inside threads a slightly different 
 arrangement is needed. Suppose E, on the right, to be a 
 plain bar to act as a rest, and the tool to be laid across it, 
 just as it is with the arm rest. If the tool is firmly held, 
 and the bar also gripped, the thread will be cut as before. 
 In practice, this rest arm has a clamp to secure the chaser. 
 
 There are several other ways of guiding a tool, but these do 
 not belong here, as they all need a slide rest and gearing by 
 wheels or by cords, and are not to be classed with hand 
 tools and their manipulation. Of all contrivances which admit 
 
46 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 the use of hand chasing tools, none equals in simplicity, 
 combined with efficiency, the traversing mandrel of which 
 the old pattern, but without the headstock, is shown in plan in 
 Plate YIII., No. 1. B, B represent in section the collars, which 
 used to be of brass, or even of a softer metal pewter or type- 
 metal which were made in two parts, so as to be tightened 
 up when worn. The two ends of the mandrel are cylindrical, 
 that they may be able to slide lengthwise, as well as to 
 revolve in their collars. When used for ordinary turning, 
 a pin seen on the left-hand collar or a falling stop entered 
 a groove in the mandrel, preventing longitudinal motion. 
 Upon the mandrel were cut short lengths of screw of 
 various pitches. Only three are shown here, but six or 
 eight were often cut, of which one was usually of the pitch 
 of the mandrel nose, to assist in cutting screws in the wooden 
 chucks. 
 
 To cause the traverse a very simple expedient was used. A 
 block of soft but close-grained wood, seen at F, was pressed 
 by a wedge against the selected thread, and the pin or catch 
 in the back collar was removed. As soon as the mandrel was 
 made to revolve, a thread was impressed in the wood block, 
 which thus at once became a stationary nut, or section of 
 a nut; and, as this remained immovable, the mandrel itself 
 was compelled to run forward at the exact rate of the par- 
 ticular screw thread that had been selected. A single point 
 tool, or a chaser of similar pitch, needed only to be held quite 
 still upon the rest, and a screw was cut perfectly identical 
 with that on the mandrel. With this apparatus even a tyro 
 can cut a screw in boxwood or ivory, or other material, and 
 even in soft wood. But, in the latter case, a Y tool, as it is 
 called, is used, which is in shape like a narrow strip of writing- 
 paper, folded lengthwise, and sharpened at the end. That 
 for inside work is similar, but cuts at right angles to its 
 length: with these only a single cut is taken, which finishes 
 the screw to its full depth; but with hard wood the chaser 
 is generally allowed to retrace its course two or three times. 
 The old pattern of screw mandrel illustrated is mounted on 
 wooden headstocks, the front and back collars being attached 
 with bolts. They are greatly used at Tunbridge, and abroad, 
 
O 
 
 No. 1 
 V 
 
 No. 2 
 
 A 
 
 V 
 
 A 
 
 No. 3 
 PLATE VIII. THE TRAVERSING MANDREL. 
 
UNIVERSITY, 
 
 OF 
 
TURNING HARD WOODS. 4-9 
 
 both in Germany and France, but are not now made to any 
 extent in England, having been, in a great measure, displaced 
 by the neater and more expensive form, in which the screws, 
 instead of being cut directly upon the mandrel, are cut upon 
 rings or ferrules of brass or steel, and attached to the back 
 part of the mandrel which projects beyond the collar, and is 
 outside the headstock. 
 
 Before explaining in detail this modern arrangement, it 
 may be as well to go a little into the mode of using the 
 traversing mandrel, as this will apply equally well to both 
 forms of it. The work, it will at once be understood, will 
 travel forward towards the right hand; and, therefore, the 
 back poppet cannot be used : it is only for work chucked on 
 the mandrel, that cannot be done without such other support, 
 that this contrivance is available. A screw cannot be cut 
 with it on the end of a long rod. Thus, also, as this traverse 
 will carry the work forward, the rest must be far enough away, 
 when cutting the inside thread, to allow of this forward move- 
 ment taking place to the full extent required. This must be 
 tested, both for inside and outside work, before the cutting 
 is commenced. Again, when there is, as always is the case 
 with a box, a short tenon with a shoulder, care must be taken 
 to see that the tool will not, at the end of the traverse, come 
 up against this shoulder, which, by causing a sudden shock, 
 would damage the thread; and the same would happen if, 
 in cutting a screw inside the cover of a box, the end of the 
 tool should strike the inside of the top. It is easy to test 
 this before finally setting the tool to its work. The Lathe 
 is also not allowed to get into full motion, the flywheel only 
 taking a half -turn to and fro, which will give, however, several 
 full rotations to the mandrel. The crank must, therefore, 
 not be allowed to go over, or, in all probability, serious damage 
 will occur, as the threads on the guide ferrules will get jambed. 
 The treadle motion is, therefore, kept carefully under control 
 of the foot, and only a gentle to-and-fro swing is given to 
 the crank axle and flywheel. 
 
 A beginner generally finds a little difficulty in holding the 
 chasing tool quite still, and is apt to let it be carried 
 along the rest by the advance of the work. An easy way to 
 
50 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 prevent this is to drill a hole in the flat-topped rest, and 
 insert a pin on the right of the tool, which will then be kept 
 steadily in its place ; or a block of boxwood may be made, 
 with a stem to fit into the socket of the rest, having a groove 
 or channel cut in it for the reception of the chaser, which 
 will be free to move forward into cut, but not to traverse 
 sideways. After a little practice, the difficulty will disappear ; 
 but these little aids need never be despised, and may save work, 
 otherwise well turned, from being spoiled. The chief thing 
 is to allow the tool only to take light cuts, so as to present 
 as little resistance as possible to the forward motion of the 
 mandrel. 
 
 It is not necessary to finish the thread with the guide-screw 
 in gear, as there is no difficulty after the first cut has been 
 made sufficiently deep to catch fairly the points of the chasing 
 tool. As soon as this is done, it is better to remove the 
 guide, or, at any rate, to throw it out of action, and to finish 
 the thread to its full depth by hand alone. Then, if it is 
 not a good fit, but too tight for its nut or box-cover or 
 other part that is to be attached to it (let it always err 
 on the side of tightness), the chisel can be used, or the 
 flat tool, to take off the tops of the thread, and the chaser 
 can be applied again by hand alone to re-touch and finish 
 the threads again; and this process can be repeated again 
 and again, if necessary, until an accurate fit has been ob- 
 tained. 
 
 In metal- work done with stocks and dies, there is a standard 
 of size for the bore of a nut, to enable it, when tapped, to exactly 
 fit the screw. But in ordinary turned work, in which the tra- 
 versing mandrel is to be used, a little trying-on of a box-cover 
 is both lawful and very expedient indeed. Suppose the cover 
 to have been just made, and its inside screw cut and finished, 
 the outside of the box tenon must be turned to a diameter equal 
 to that of the inside of the cover, measured to the bottom 
 of the thread cut in it. To measure this is not very easy, 
 because, if done with inside calipers, with points sufficiently 
 fine, you cannot pull them straight out : you may do it with 
 in-and-out calipers if very accurate ; but, without pulling 
 them out of the thread, you must, with a second pair of 
 
(UNIVERSITT) 
 
 ^^UFORNjA>^ 
 
 TURNING HARD WOODS. 51 
 
 outside calipers, take the width of the points of the first 
 pair i.e., of course, the points outside, which are just as 
 wide apart as those buried in the threads ; you can then 
 close and remove the latter, and the second pair will gauge 
 the tenon. But it is far more usual to work by guess, trying 
 the screwed cover upon the tenon till it appears to be the 
 required size, but leaving it, if anything, too large. It is 
 then cut with a screw thread, and tried as already explained, 
 and, if necessary, cut down, and the thread renewed as often 
 as may prove necessary until it goes on well. But for boxes 
 and scent-bottle cases, and all work that will be constantly 
 taken apart, do not make too tight a fit. It ends in splitting 
 the cover, or being compelled to use the vice to hold the 
 work while it is being unscrewed; and, although a rub of 
 soap will help the matter as an effective lubricant, it is seldom 
 that the work escapes damage, if not entire destruction. A 
 tight fit is not to be called a good fit. 
 
 The modern screw mandrel (No. 2) is a neater arrange- 
 ment than the last, but in principle it is exactly the same. 
 A is the poppet, not of wood, but of cast iron; and this is 
 usually japanned black, except in the front face, where it 
 is made bright. Hard steel collars are let into it to receive 
 the cylindrical hardened mandrel (B), which is free to revolve 
 and to slide lengthwise, but is so well fitted as not to have the 
 least atom of side play. Such a mandrel of best quality will 
 wear very many years without running loose in its bearings. 
 The front end has a short conical neck, and the mandrel 
 is put in in that direction. To draw back the conical part 
 into its bearing in the front collar, a sleeve (shown in section 
 at S) is slipped over the projecting part of the mandrel, and 
 secured by a nut and washer at the back. This, which is 
 also hardened at the end, bears against the back collar, and 
 retains the mandrel in its place. This sleeve fits over a short 
 feather or pin, that prevents it from itself rotating upon the 
 mandrel. For ordinary turning, all parts remain in the 
 position indicated. There being no tail pin to take up the 
 end thrust in such operations as drilling and boring, this 
 comes entirely upon the front cone. These Lathes are not, 
 therefore, well suited for such work, and are mostly purchased 
 
52 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 by those who practise ornamental turning, in which there 
 is no heavy or detrimental work to be done. The conical neck 
 is, of course, so proportioned that it shall not jamb by the 
 ordinary thrust of the back poppet, when this is in use for 
 turning cylindrical work of such length as to need its support. 
 When it is desired to cut a screw, the box or other article 
 is carefully turned to a form truly cylindrical, the rebate 
 being also accurately rectangular. 
 
 The rest is then placed about in. from the work, and (as 
 explained) well towards the right, in which direction the 
 traverse will take place. If the stem of the rest is placed 
 about where the traverse will begin, the hand grasping it 
 and the tool together will be better able to prevent the latter 
 from being carried sideways when the cutting action begins. 
 The sleeve (S) is now removed by unscrewing the nut which 
 holds it, and a ferrule, having been selected, is slipped on in 
 its place. The nut is again attached to secure it (see No. 3). 
 The disc (D C) is turned round by the fingers, to bring 
 uppermost the half-nut matching the ferrule, and then it is 
 raised until it just gears with one or two threads; a drop or 
 two of oil is added, and the mandrel run forward without 
 applying the tool to the work, in order to see that every- 
 thing works easily and smoothly, as it should. 
 
 If all appears satisfactory, the treadle is now used to 
 give half-revolutions to the crank, and the tool is gently 
 but firmly advanced to the work, upon which it will trace 
 an accurate thread, which can be deepened with or without 
 the traversing apparatus, as already stated. In the draw- 
 ing, the stud, upon which the segment-plate or scalloped 
 disc is mounted, is represented as attached to the headstock 
 by two screws. The plate (seen at H, Plate VIII.), with two 
 slots in it, permits of being slid up and down upon these screws, 
 by which it may also be held when in position. It may be 
 raised by hand, but it is more convenient to do this by an 
 eccentric, like K. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 METAL-TURNING WITH HAND TOOLS. 
 
 TT7HE principle of the cutting action of all tools is the 
 X same. They are thin wedges, which force apart the 
 substance of the material upon which they are en- 
 gaged ; they must, consequently, be harder than such sub- 
 stance, and their edges must be as thin as is consistent with 
 the necessary strength. They must also be held in the 
 position most favourable for the operation. 
 
 The resistance which has to be overcome by a cutting 
 tool is twofold : first, the hardness of the material which 
 it has to penetrate; and secondly, the rigidity of the shaving 
 which has to be separated, and which must be capable of 
 curling away as it is cut, and escaping from the upper 
 surface of the tool. If too deep a cut is attempted, so that 
 the shaving is too thick to curl away and escape, it holds 
 the tool fast by compression, and breaks its edge; or, if 
 strong enough to resist breakage, the machine driving such 
 tool is brought to a standstill. Metal, offering considerably 
 greater resistance than wood, needs tools with stronger edges; 
 and as their strength is, on the other hand, limited by the 
 necessity of keenness, they require careful adjustment in 
 order to enable comparatively keen edges to do their work 
 without breaking. The shaving must be thin enough not 
 to endanger such fracture, and its thinness or the contrary 
 depends upon the angle at which the tool meets the work. 
 
 Again, it is essential that metal-turning tools be well 
 supported, owing to the strain which comes upon them in 
 
54 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 the act of cutting. They cannot be held like the chisel at 
 A B (Plate IX.), because the direction of the strain is as 
 nearly as possible in a line with the tool, which, in the case of 
 metal-turning, would slip down towards the hand. Hence, a 
 rest with flat top, like C, No. 2, has to be substituted, which 
 supports entirely the heel of the bent tool, such as is used 
 for iron, and of which the edge, thin and sharp, is also 
 supported by the metal below it, the strain tending to frac- 
 ture it being reduced to a minimum. An exception in the 
 need of a flat-top rest, occurs, however, in the case of the 
 graver, which is seen at E, No. 3. This tool would be placed 
 as shown, ready to cut a shaving from the bar of metal, 
 commencing at the end. It is evident that as the strain is 
 downwards, this tool is perfectly' supported by the T of 
 the ordinary rest. The tools for iron always have sharp edges, 
 which are not suitable for those intended for brass and gun- 
 metal. The tool H, No. 5, called a triangular tool, and which, 
 having cutting angles of 60deg., can be made of old saw files 
 ground till the teeth are removed, is the usual tool for inside 
 work ; and for turning the ends of cylinders and sides of collars 
 and flanges it is a splendid tool, cutting with great freedom. 
 There is not much light work that cannot be done with this 
 tool and the graver alone, but for heavier cuts the one shown 
 at D of No. 1 is more serviceable. This is made in two 
 forms, O, P, one for smoothing, the other for roughing. 
 The heel is often drawn out a little, to grip the rest more 
 firmly. G is, as a brass-turning tool, what H is for iron and 
 steel. The edges are rectangular, as a sharp edge proves too 
 eager for yellow metal and is apt to catch in and spoil the 
 work. L, No. 6, is a side view, for instance, of such tools as 
 J and K, having an angle of SOdeg. or thereabout, which 
 is sharp enough for most purposes. The tools J, K, are 
 almost counterparts of those for hard wood, which, indeed, 
 are not unfrequently pressed into service in default of others. 
 The round-end is the best of all for roughing-down brass. 
 At P is shown a rest which has been greatly used by turners 
 of brass, but is not so often seen now that slide rests have 
 become so general: a few years ago, owing to the cost, they 
 were the exception. The pins are inserted in a flat-top rest, 
 
No. 1 
 
 No. 2 
 
 No. 3 
 
 No. 5 
 
 No. 6 No. 4 
 
 PLATE IX. METAL-TURNING BY HAND TOOLS. 
 

 OF THE 
 
 [VERSlTY 
 
 
METAL-TURNING WITH HAND TOOLS. 57 
 
 as fulcrums to assist in steadying the tools and prevent them 
 from slipping sideways out of cut. They are easily fitted, 
 and will prove of great convenience, saving the muscles of 
 the hand and wrist a good deal of hard work. It will be 
 seen at a glance that metal-turning tools, used by hand, 
 cannot be run along the surface of work as wood-cutting 
 tools are, but must, for the most part, be swept round in 
 short curves, then shifted, and a similar cut made. The 
 ridges between these curves are then attacked and the sur- 
 face levelled by degrees in stages. But very good work can, 
 nevertheless, be so done, and metal-turning by hand will be 
 found far more interesting and easy than might be supposed; 
 even with a slide rest at hand, it is impossible wholly to lay 
 aside hand tools. 
 
 It may, indeed, seem strange to the ambitious tyro, whose 
 heart is bent on a slide rest, to be told that hand tools are 
 easier to use, and that he must not think for a moment that 
 all he has to do is to put a tool in the rest, turn a handle, 
 and produce excellent work. If it were so, a Lathe man 
 would hardly need the apprenticeship which he is called on 
 to serve. But it is equally true that the use of hand tools 
 may be very quickly acquired, and that good work may be done 
 with them. The principle guiding their use is, nevertheless, 
 exactly the same as that which governs the others; and it is, 
 perhaps, accuracy of position which is of more real importance 
 than accuracy of the cutting angle of edge. For instance, 
 if a cutting edge of GOdeg. is the best for wrought iron, one 
 of 62deg. or of 59deg. would cut it almost as well; but one 
 of 60deg., though perfectly ground, not placed exactly right, 
 will do far worse work than one of 70deg. placed correctly. 
 The rule, which is so generally applicable that it may be 
 taken as absolute, is to keep the lower face of the tool, or the 
 face which is nearest to the surface of the work, as accurately 
 tangential as is possible while allowing it to cut in a word, 
 keep it almost in contact, but not quite. The graver will 
 illustrate this better than any other. The back of the tool is 
 seen at E, No. 5, and the front of it is like M, the side 
 view or profile N". Now, in order to set this tool into cut, 
 let it first lie quite flat against the end of the bar i.e., lay 
 
58 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 the bevel, or sloping face, of it in that position. This is 
 technically called "without any clearance." Draw back the 
 tool upon the rest, so as only to let in. of its point overlap, 
 but still keep the face as before. Now tilt up the tool very 
 slightly indeed, giving it a very small clearance angle. It will 
 at once cut the metal beautifully. Increase the clearance 
 more and more, noting the result. It will be found to cut 
 worse and worse. Take up the triangular tool, and try the 
 same. It will shave off quite a broad, thin shaving if the 
 clearance is very small, a thicker one by tilting it a little 
 more; but presently it will be found too much tilted over for 
 good work. Either tool may be held in one hand, easily, with 
 a small clearance, so slight is the resistance. Nothing can 
 teach better than this the fundamental principle of a small 
 amount of clearance. This lesson is preparatory to the right 
 understanding of slide-rest tools, the difficulty with these being 
 the impossibility of thus gently altering the angle of clear- 
 ance, or of slightly varying the position of their edge, or 
 edges engaged with the work: yet it is this very slight 
 variation that makes all the difference between good cutting 
 and bad. It is the same with the heel tool (D of Plate IX.) 
 The lower face, next the work, must make a very small angle 
 with the bar upon which it is engaged, in order to cut the 
 material easily and smoothly. It is just the same, but is not, 
 perhaps, so plainly perceptible in turning hollow work with 
 the triangular tool. Experiment may here, however, be made 
 with great advantage, because, if the tool fails to cut as it 
 should, it must necessarily be because it is not correctly 
 placed, as its angles are GOdeg., and are quite the best for use 
 on wrought iron. We may now go a step further. Suppose 
 D (the heel tool) to be placed correctly in the drawing which 
 it is it will be seen that, if the handle is lowered, cutting will 
 cease, and the tool will rub against the work. This, there- 
 fore, is our limit in that direction. But what will result if 
 we raise the handle? Not only shall we increase the 
 clearance angle, but we shall also alter the position of the 
 top face of the tool, and shall bring it more nearly into a 
 horizontal position. From this another evil will result. The 
 shaving will be bent up sharply, pressing upon the top face 
 
METAL-TTJRNING WITH HAND TOOLS. 59 
 
 of the tool, and greatly adding to the resistance ; and, at the 
 same time, the edge of the tool will become more of a scraper 
 than a cutting tool. It is just the same as with a knife. If 
 you want to cut a pencil, you lay the blade pretty flat. If 
 you wish to scrape the lead to a point, you set the blade 
 up on edge. In the first case, the clearance angle is very 
 small; in the second case, it is actually 90deg., or a right 
 angle. This will show how we are limited in the position 
 we can give a turning tool. 
 
 As regards speed for metal- turning, it may be briefly 
 stated here that cast iron needs a very slow speed, and this 
 is best obtained by back gear, which is very useful also for 
 boring metal. But wrought iron of small size may be turned 
 by means of the slowest speed on the flywheel, and brass 
 can be cut upon the next speed, or the first on the rim of 
 the wheel. Small brasswork, indeed, may be turned at the 
 same speed as hard wood. The finishing touch is given to 
 brass by a planisher, as it is called, which is, in fact, a flat 
 tool, thin at the edge, and ground off square ; and if this tool 
 is rubbed with a burnisher after being ground and set, it will 
 in turn, not only cut the metal, but leave upon it a burnished 
 surface, which looks exceedingly well on any fillets or beads 
 which form rings above the general surface. These may also 
 be finished with the milling tool, which acts by pressure, 
 and impresses its own pattern on the work while revolving 
 in close contact with it. Heads of screws to be turned by 
 the finger and thumb are nearly always thus finished, as the 
 minute teeth so formed produce a rough surface, not liable 
 to slip when laid hold of. There is one vexatious tendency 
 in brass which often causes trouble namely, its tendency to 
 chatter or vibrate under the action of the tool. This causes 
 a series of striae, or minute undulations, to be cut on its 
 surface, which, once begun, are difficult to check. The only 
 way to prevent the mischief appears to be to move the tool 
 ceaselessly, so as to alter the direction of the vibrations 
 constantly, thereby counteracting them. A similar result may 
 be attained by a pad of sole leather on the rest, or by 
 allowing the tool to bed itself partially against the thumb 
 and finger. But short cuts, with the tool slightly tilted, 
 
60 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 and frequently altered in position, are the most general 
 antidotes. It is, however, often necessary to go over the 
 whole surface with a router, or round-end tool, to get rid of 
 strise formed in a few seconds. Some kinds of brass are 
 more subject to this tendency than others. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 

 
CHAPTEE V. 
 SLIDE-REST WORK IN METAL. 
 
 rwill be as well to commence this chapter with a descrip- 
 tion of one or two Lathes more specially suited for metal- 
 work than those already illustrated, which are chiefly for 
 beginners, and for work of small size. The Lathe of which 
 an engraving is given here, is a very strong one, and is made 
 from 4in. to Gin. centre. It has back gear for slow motion, 
 and can be had with extra hard mandrel and steel collars, 
 but is generally made with gun-metal collars. Price, 13 to 
 18; weight, 4|cwt. The crank shaft runs on friction rollers, 
 and everything is done to prevent the Lathe from working 
 heavily. Such a Lathe as this is powerful enough for 
 metal-work of a tolerably heavy character, and should be 
 fitted with a good strong slide rest. This latter Lathe 
 appliance has gone through many changes of form, but con- 
 sists mainly of two slides, working at right angles to each 
 other the lower one moving to and fro across the Lathe bed, 
 the upper moving parallel to it. There is, however, in 
 addition, a quadrant plate, allowing the upper part to swivel 
 round horizontally, so as to adjust the tool for turning cones. 
 Sometimes the upper slide is made to advance or withdraw the 
 tool, and the lower is the one parallel to the Lathe bed; in 
 which case, the whole rest is fitted with a sole plate, or foot, 
 similar to that of a hand rest, and this which generally 
 slides on a separate cradle, fitted on the Lathe bed, to keep 
 it accurately square to such bed constitutes a third slide (see 
 Fig. 8). The rest is good for special purposes, but not so 
 
TURNING LATHES. 
 
 FIG. 8. W. S. BROWN'S SLIDE REST 
 (Made by Britannia Co.) 
 
 FIG. 9. SMALL SLIDE BEST. 
 
SLIDE-REST WORK IN METAL. 
 
 65 
 
 well suited for general metal-work, where the greatest 
 rigidity is needed. A small slide-rest of the ordinary make is 
 
 illustrated at Fig. 9, and is a very useful one for the lighter 
 
66 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 Lathes to 4in. centre already described. Below, and parallel 
 to the top frame, is a tenon, to fit accurately in the bed of 
 the Lathe, to which it is attached by a bolt and hand nut. 
 The tool-holder swivels round to any horizontal position. 
 The quadrant plate and its clamping nut are seen on the 
 right hand, just above the square plate of the lower slide. 
 The next Figure (10) shows a much stronger rest, suitable for 
 turning any work admissible in a Lathe of 5in. or Gin. centres. 
 The tool-holder is also better for heavy work. 
 
 With a slide rest it is no longer necessary to cut the 
 metal by short strokes, which produce inequalities demanding 
 to be levelled down by subsequent cuts. The tools traverse 
 steadily along the surface of the work, removing a continuous 
 shaving which is often of a yard or more in length in the 
 case of a self-acting Lathe driven by steam. There is, more- 
 over, not the least strain upon the muscles of the hand, as 
 the tool is rigidly clamped on the upper plate of the slide 
 rest, and all that has to be done by the workman is to turn 
 the handle which causes the traverse. The horizontal angle of 
 the tool is under perfect control by means of the swivelled 
 tool-holder, but all others are evidently fixed and unalterable; 
 front, top, and side rake being determined once for all in 
 grinding the tool. If the chapter on hand turning tools has 
 been carefully studied, it will not be difficult to understand 
 what is required to make a slide-rest tool act perfectly. "We 
 have to consider, first, the cutting edges, which must be of 
 such an angle, and such sharpness, as to suit the metal on 
 which they are to be used; secondly, the low clearance angle, 
 as before, which brings the front face or faces at nearly a 
 tangent to the work ; and, thirdly, the height of cutting edge, 
 which is always, as a normal rule, to be at the height of the 
 Lathe centres a rule which it is rarely necessary to alter. 
 The solid tools forged from steel bar are represented here, 
 Fig. 11, from A to G. Some are straight, some bent to right or 
 left, some cranked, and others for inside work. They stand 
 flat on the sole plate of the rest, always lying horizontally. 
 They can be packed up to exact height of centre by parallel 
 slips of iron placed underneath them. 
 
 One of the most common tools for roughing-down work is 
 
SLIDE-BEST WORK IN METAL. 
 
 67 
 
 the round end or router, Fig. 11, A ; bent to the right or left 
 if the work requires it, B. If well ground and correctly 
 placed, it takes a good bite, and gets over its work rapidly, 
 but does not leave a finished surface. It is, in fact, the gouge 
 of the metal-turner. Another tool for the same purpose is 
 the point or diamond point tool, C. This is a more delicate 
 affair, and it leaves on the work a fine spiral line, which is, 
 in fact, a screw of very fine pitch. These tools are, for iron, 
 bent up somewhat, so as to give an inclined upper face, 
 because the tool cannot be held at a tangent like a wood 
 chisel, and the top face must therefore be ground permanently 
 to a suitable top angle. Then, again, if we look down upon the 
 top of the tool and work, as in the plan view, Fig. 12, S, we shall 
 
 FIG. 11. SOLID FORGED TOOLS. 
 
 see that the cut is made by the left side of the curved end as 
 far as the dotted line, supposing, for the sake of distinctness, 
 that a deep cut is taken. The tool is travelling to the left 
 in the direction of the arrow. The part a, therefore, which 
 leads, must have its clearance, or it will rub against the 
 side of the cut; and the point or front must have clearance, 
 or it will rub against the cylinder. To get a good cut out 
 of this tool, the top face or top clearance should be ground 
 in the direction of a b, and not straight down towards the 
 shank. This will give what is called " side rake," rendering 
 the tool sharpest where the line a b touches the work. This 
 is easier to manage if the end is not only bent up, but bent 
 over towards the left, like B of the set just described. 
 
68 
 
 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 To make still more clear the principles wliicli guide the 
 action of slide-rest tools, we must recollect that a shaving 
 has to be detached in two directions viz., from the shoulder 
 a of K, Fig. 12, and from the surface of the cylinder at b. 
 A shaving has to be thus separated at two points, and, 
 to effect this in the best way, it must be cut, and not 
 torn, in either direction. Hence, a perfect tool must evi- 
 dently have two edges a front and a side edge ; and, as 
 it is the ultimate object of turning to leave a smooth 
 surface upon the work, it is evident that the tool edge 
 which cuts this cylindrical surface must be formed and 
 
 FIG 12. SUDE-REST WORK. 
 
 sharpened as carefully at least as the other, although the 
 latter, as the leading edge, has most of the work to do, 
 and, if there is any difference, needs to be sharpest. This is 
 the double-edge principle, which is often regarded as a sort 
 of scientific theory suited only for amateurs, and of no real 
 use to a workman; but it is not so: it is the fundamental 
 principle of slide-rest tools easy to understand, and equally 
 easy to apply practically; and no chapter on tools would be 
 complete without an explanation of it. In a round-end tool 
 we may take half the edge as the leader and the other 
 half as the follower; as we may suppose it to be, what it 
 practically is, a double-edged tool of very wide angle, with 
 
SLIDE-BEST WORK IN METAL. 
 
 69 
 
 its extreme point rounded oft'. It is a very common practice 
 to apply a tool end on, whether pointed or rounded (A and B, 
 Fig. 13) ; but evidently the tools, after having started, cut no 
 further than to the dotted line dividing them centrally, and 
 the part x, x might be cut away altogether. Where, then, is 
 the second edge of the point tool ? Nowhere ; and hence the 
 shaving is torn, and not cut, in that direction, and a rough 
 line remains on the surface of the work. Power is also 
 
 FIG. 13. PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EDGES. 
 
 wasted, because it takes more power to tear apart the par- 
 ticles of iron than to cut them cleanly. An "end-on" tool 
 is not, therefore, a scientific one, its proper position being 
 that of M, so as to bring both edges into cut. The same is 
 true of a round-end tool. It is evident that here the 
 extremity is the sharpest part of it, and that the edge gets 
 gradually blunter, as it is situated further and further round 
 the curve; then it is plain, from what has been said, that 
 it should not stand "end on," like x of Fig. 13, because the 
 
70 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 blunter part at the side is leading. Placed as at C, or bent 
 to the left, it will cut much better. It is never quite satis- 
 factory, owing to the sharpness of edge varying all round the 
 
 FIG. 14. SET OF TOOLS FOR SLIDE-REST. 
 
 curve, but it is a useful tool which is sure to find a place 
 in every workshop. 
 
 The variously formed slide-rest tools ordinarily supplied in 
 
 FIG. 15. VARIOUS SLicji-RESx TOOLS. 
 
 complete sets are illustrated together in Fig. 14, set up in a 
 block, and in Fig. 15 they are shown separately; and it would 
 
SLIDE-BEST WORK IN METAL. 
 
 71 
 
 be difficult to devise other shapes, as there can hardly be any 
 work, hollow or otherwise, which one or more such tools will 
 fail to cut. The three on the right hand of the second row 
 are, however, not solid tools, but bars with loose cutters the 
 first for outside, and the two others for inside work. Of the 
 first, in all its details, we shall speak very fully under the 
 head of the Haydon Bar. The others have square shanks to 
 lie upon the rest, and are then turned for the remainder of 
 their length. At the end is a small mortice, which is cut 
 slightly conical, and is intended to receive small bits of steel, 
 filed to fit the mortice, and then sharpened and hardened. 
 The mortice is cut either square to the bar or at an acute 
 angle, by which plan the cutting end of the tool is made to 
 project a rifle beyond the end of the bar, for the purpose of 
 
 FIG. 16. STAND FOR TOOLS. 
 
 getting into corners. These replace the holing or boring 
 tools, of which E, Fig. 11, is a larger drawing. Third from the 
 right, in the first row, is a drawing of the knife tool. 
 Of these, there are always a pair. The edge is on one side, 
 and the tool is meant to true up the ends of cylinders and 
 sides of collars. It is ground to a very slight clearance angle 
 in the face next the work, and will take off a broad, thin 
 shaving. The left-hand tool of the second row is a spring 
 tool for finishing off a shaft; it acts as a chisel, and cannot 
 possibly hitch in. The edge is placed almost parallel to the 
 work, but so as to keep the angle clear. 
 
 Illustrated here (Fig. 16) is a very simple stand for tools 
 which is most useful, as each tool can be seen at a glance. 
 This one is for handled tools for wood. 
 
72 
 
 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 The further consideration of this important subject will be 
 better carried on in connection with cutter bars, especially as 
 these are fast displacing the solid forged tools of which we 
 have been speaking. Those that are cranked are made on 
 the same principle, but are more convenient to grind, and 
 naturally lead up to the cutter bar, as they may be considered 
 
 FIG. 17. PRINCIPLE OF LOO.SE CUTTERS. 
 
 as a sbank acting as a handle to support a straight bar, 
 ground off at an angle at its upper end (see dotted lines in 
 Fig. 17, representing a cranked tool). 
 
 Passing by, for the present, other bars which are made to 
 hold round, square, or oblong section steel, we may go at 
 once to one called, from the name of its inventor, the Haydon 
 
 FIG. 18. HAYDON BAR. 
 
 Bar. It was designed to carry out to the utmost the prin- 
 ciples of double-edged tools. Intended chiefly for square sec- 
 tion bars, it will also hold round ones and gouges the latter 
 being, of course, broken off into short bits about lin. long. 
 Fig. 18 represents this bar, and its construction is evident 
 
SLIDE-REST WORK IN METAL. 73 
 
 at a glance. It is sold, accompanied by a full printed de- 
 scription, and with directions for grinding the little cutters. 
 The price varies from 9s. 6d. to 17s. 6d., according to size. 
 The top part, or sling, is a separate piece, and the clamping 
 screw, by drawing it up towards the front end of the bent 
 part of the bar, grips the steel cutter firmly. The latter 
 requires to be ground on three faces two in front, and one 
 on top. This gives full scope to the workman, in shaping 
 the tool, to meet all requirements. The bar can also, for 
 special purposes, be bent to either side, but it is seldom 
 necessary, as the cutters can be shaped to cut in front or 
 sideways. It is not, however, possible to use such bar for 
 boring and inside work. For this a straight one is used, or 
 an ordinary solid boring tool. In the engraving of the bar 
 we see the top face of the cutter, and one of the two lower 
 ones, the other being precisely similar. In these we have to 
 get, not exactly front clearance (nor does the front line sig- 
 nify), but the clearance of the one face of the tool, which 
 will lie against the shoulder, and of the other, which will be 
 opposite to the cylinder. The meeting of these two with the 
 top face produces, evidently, the two edges which are to 
 remove the shaving. Naturally, we should first grind the front 
 faces, and for this the tool is pushed up, after slacken- 
 ing the screw of the sling, so that the latter may not come 
 into contact with the grindstone. If the shank of the bar 
 is laid on a wooden block resting on the bearers of the grind- 
 stone, and the bar is slewed round so as to bring parallel 
 to the stone the face which is to be first ground, a few turns 
 will grind it. The slope, or clearance angle, will be greater 
 or less, according to the height of the block, and the distance 
 the tool has been pushed up in its sling. The thicker the 
 block, or the higher the tool, the greater will be the clearance 
 produced, because the stone will grind more the heel or lower 
 part of the face on which it is engaged. Take Fig. 19, A, 
 to represent the cutter, held up with its two lower faces 
 towards you, and B, the side view which will, of course, show 
 but one face; this will be ground with not much clearance. 
 Then C and D will be similar views, in which the grinding, 
 carried lower down the tool, has produced longer faces i.e., 
 
74 
 
 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 more clearance. But observe, it is the face, and not the 
 middle line, of which we are speaking : this front clearance we 
 have nothing to do with so far. The slope of it depends on 
 the grinding of the faces, and may be called accidental. 
 
 But now it will come into use in quite another way. As 
 yet .we have no edges, the shape being like E, if it is a square 
 tool not ground before. Its side view will, in this case, be 
 represented by F. It has, therefore, to be ground off on 
 about the line se, y, until the square end is obliterated. It 
 is now that the front line comes into service, for, in grinding 
 the top face, it will make a given angle with this line, and 
 according to that angle will the sharpness of the two cutting 
 
 r * 
 
 x 
 
 FIG. 19. GRLNDING CUTTERS. 
 
 edges be. All this, when it has to be put into words, appears 
 very complicated ; but now it has been once explained, it 
 can be summarised in a few words. To grind a cutter: Set 
 the bit of steel up in the sling, to prevent the latter from 
 receiving damage; lay the shank on a block, resting on the 
 bearers of the stone ; grind the two lower faces in succession 
 at a tolerably wide angle 90deg. to 120deg., as a rule, will do. 
 Take out the cutter and turn it round in the sling, so as to 
 bring the face which is left to be ground outwards; lay it 
 on the stone, and grind it to the desired angle with the front 
 line. This is not at all complicated, after all; and when the 
 
SLIDE-REST WORK IN METAL. 75 
 
 thing is being actually done, all will be seen clearly enough. 
 Grinding this third or top face will obliterate the square, 
 as it will bring the face to the line x y of this Figure. 
 
 Now here is at once seen the handiness of the cutter bar. 
 There is no forging to be done. The little steel rods, in. to 
 fin., or in large bars fin., square, are readily procured, and 
 can be cut in lengths of an inch or two; and as they are 
 gradually shortened by grinding, they are merely pushed up 
 higher in the sling, so as always to bring the point of the 
 tool to the height of the Lathe centres. After grinding, the 
 steel cutter is not left standing up high, but is pushed 
 down again, so that the point shall never stand above the 
 level of the shank of the tool : if too high, it will have a 
 tendency to chatter ; and if it should catch in, it will pro- 
 bably also break. 
 
 We may now consider another point connected with 
 the formation of the cutters. It is necessary to know how 
 to obtain the two cutting edges of exactly the angle pre- 
 ferred say, for instance, GOdeg. for wrought iron. Now, this 
 angle depends upon two things conjointly first, the angle 
 at which the two lower faces meet, called the plan angle of 
 the tool ; and then, secondly, upon the angle at which the top 
 face is ground to the front line, formed by the meeting of 
 the aforesaid faces. A graver is a square bar : it has, there- 
 fore, a plan angle of 90deg. Grinding off the face at 45deg., 
 with the line formed by the meeting of any two given faces, 
 the edges produced will be GOdeg. each, and these are the 
 angles usual with that tool. If we grind the faces of the 
 little cutter, therefore, similarly to make an angle of 90deg., 
 and then grind off the top face at 45deg., we get 60deg. of 
 cutting edge. But an angle of 90deg. gives rather a weak 
 point to the graver or to our cutter, and the latter is pre- 
 ferably ground to a larger angle, the faces meeting at 120deg. 
 The top must be then ground to make 55deg. with the front 
 line, and the result will be two cutting edges of GOdeg., as 
 before, but the point of the tool will be strong. The extreme 
 point, even then, is preferably rounded on the oilstone. 
 
 One precaution has always to be taken, in order to produce 
 two edges equally sharp, and that is, to keep the front line 
 
 ^ 
 
 OF THE A 
 
 UNIVERSITY) 
 r _...*. S 
 
76 
 
 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 formed by tlie two faces, and which will be upwards when 
 grinding the last face, in the " run " of the grindstone. It 
 does not follow that the line in question will be in the 
 centre of the tool, because it is to be clearly understood 
 that there is no restriction as to the direction of the edges. 
 Fig. 20, A, B, C, may represent the grindstone forming the 
 third, or top, face the back of the tool, being, of course* 
 seen. Then it may chance that, to get the middle line be- 
 tween the front faces right in the run of the stone, the bar 
 may have to lie like B or C ; for it may seem convenient to 
 grind the first edge like the left hand of D, all on one side, 
 so that the second edge, making 120deg. with the first, may 
 lie square across the end of the bar. When the tool is 
 
 FIG. 20. GRINDING THE TOP FACE. 
 
 reversed, it will have to lie as seen at C, or the edges will 
 not be equally sharp. Such a tool, having its leading edge 
 very much to one side, may be useful on the side of a flange 
 or shoulder. The position of this leading edge is the first 
 consideration. It will depend on the work: is the tool to 
 cut more towards the right or left, or straight ahead? Grind 
 that face to suit the case, and then grind number two at 
 120deg., 90deg., or, for a small corner, 60deg., or 55deg. for 
 screw- cutting, and then the top face at such a slope or rake 
 as to give the cutting edges desired. Consider, also, if you 
 are likely to find in the way any part of the tool edge that 
 will not be actually engaged. Generally speaking, only a 
 small part of the edge is in cut. Then, if you like, file 
 
SLIDE-REST WORK IN METAL. 77 
 
 uway all that is of no use. Never mind the shape thus 
 produced: all you want are the edges. 
 
 It is very advisable that every turner who wishes to take 
 up this Haydon bar, and to work it thoroughly, should begin 
 by what may be called the normal tool for outside work on 
 cylinders. This is the simplest of the many possible forms ; 
 the angles are of a size easily remembered, and the work 
 which it will do is of the very best. The front angle, formed 
 by the meeting of the lower faces, is to be 120deg., and the 
 angle made by the front line with the top face is to be 
 55deg., giving GOdeg. as the angles of the edges. A notch in 
 a sheet of tin, made by two three-square saw files held together, 
 will make a gauge for 120deg. ; a second notch made by one 
 such file will be 60deg. ; and a third notch, marked for 60deg. 
 by a bit of tin filed to fit the GOdeg. notch, and then cut a 
 little within the marks, will serve nearly enough to measure 
 the profile of 55deg. Of course, it may be done with mathe- 
 matical accuracy, by means of a proper protractor, but the 
 plan suggested serves fairly well as a workshop expedient. 
 In grinding the two faces, the clearance may be stated at 
 3deg., as it has been shown that the smaller this angle is 
 the better. After grinding to gauge, give a rub, face down, 
 on an oilstone, and also take off with it the extreme point, 
 rounding it just visibly and no more. This tool will, if 
 rightly placed, do the finest and most beautiful outside work, 
 needing no further finish of any kind. To place it, gauge 
 height by the Lathe centre, after the bar is fixed in the rest, 
 pushing up the cutter in the sling until it is exact to height; 
 then clamp it by the screw. To adjust it now to the work, 
 remember the principle is to be carried out of two edges a 
 leader to cut down the shoulder, and a follower to cut the 
 shaving from the cylinder in such a manner as to leave it 
 perfectly smooth, and, if desired, as bright as a looking-glass. 
 
 For this the follower is to lie almost parallel to the work, but 
 not quite so. About two-thirds of that edge may, in fact, be 
 allowed to cut. If the result is not a continuous shaving 
 clean cut, examine for the cause, specially for the following 
 viz., too great clearance angle, and the tool point too high 
 or too low; the latter, having, perhaps, resulted from screwing 
 
78 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 down the bar in the tool-holder, after adjusting height of 
 centres, with the bar merely lying upon the rest. Also, 
 see to possible softness of the tool, a defect often over- 
 looked. Nothing has, indeed, been said about hardening 
 and tempering the cutters; but this is a matter of necessity, 
 and a very easy one to accomplish. Just heat each, after 
 forming it, to a full red, and drop it in a basin of water. 
 This gives perfect hardness; and, though brittle, the tools 
 will, with ordinary work, seldom break. But they are easily 
 let down a little by heating a bar of iron, or shovel, red hot, 
 and placing them on it until they take a light straw colour, 
 or deeper straw, beginning to verge into blue. Then drop 
 again into cold water, and they will stand well upon most 
 bars of rolled iron. The latter may itself cause broken and 
 short shavings, owing to cracks and defects ; but, after a little 
 practice, it will soon be seen whether this or the tool is at 
 fault. 
 
 Never rest satisfied with bad work or hitching, chopping, 
 scraping, or anything but an evidently clean cut. If not 
 obtained, the grinding is faulty, or the tool badly placed. 
 When both these conditions are correctly carried out, the tool 
 cannot possibly fail to work well. 
 
 After thoroughly getting hold of both the principle and 
 practice, by the use of the normal tool, another simple form 
 should be tried e.g., one ground to 90deg. front angle and 45deg. 
 top rake, which is exactly the graver used as a double-edged 
 tool, instead of as a single-edged one, as it is when used by 
 hand in the way already described. Then, taking the normal 
 tool as a foundation, file away one edge almost to nothing, 
 taking a great sweep out with a round file, and you have a 
 tool for the side of a shoulder or an odd corner. File out 
 both sides till you get a parting tool and, in fact, see how 
 many useful shapes you can obtain out of that one plain tool. 
 You thus learn, step by step, the real value of the cutter- 
 bar system. Even workmen who have never heard of double 
 edges, or who scorn to depart from their ancestral inheritance 
 of rule of thumb, do unconsciously adopt the principle when 
 they give more top rake to that side of a round-end tool that 
 is leading. They set the tool "end on," at right angles to 
 
SLIDE-REST WORK IN METAL. 79 
 
 the Lathe bed, and then find it cuts badly, unless the leading 
 edge is higher than the other. 
 
 It is a rule in double-edged tools that, if any difference 
 of acuteness exist, this extra sharpness of the leading edge 
 shall be secured by leaning the tool slightly over in grinding 
 the top face. But not only is this the case, but, whether 
 recognised by the workman or ignored, it is a fact that nearly 
 all his tools are double edged, and, in fact, must be so, unless 
 he is content to tear off the shaving instead of cutting it. If 
 a shaving has breadth and thickness (and some are of con- 
 siderable thickness), it must be cut in two directions, and, 
 therefore, two edges are a necessity, although they may be, 
 and are, often disguised by being rounded off into each other. 
 It is much better to admit this fact, and then to think out 
 the result of it. 
 
 A workman thus using his intelligence will soon prove a 
 better practical workman than he was before. There has been 
 a vast amount of prejudice in this matter, which still exists 
 to some extent, because a latheman who has learnt practically 
 how to' grind a tool, and how to use it, will not listen to any 
 theory of why the tool in question was to be so ground or 
 placed. But the result is that a great deal of Lathe work is 
 very badly done, and that if any unusual job of turning is 
 called for, demanding a special tool, the workman is at his 
 wits' end to produce it; and if any tool works inefficiently, 
 it very often happens that the latheman has no knowledge 
 of where the fault is. 
 
 Technical schools are doing something to rectify matters; 
 and probably before long the rule of thumb will find itself 
 deposed, and that workman will get the highest wages who 
 understands the theory of cutting tools, and can reduce it 
 to practice. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 THE SELF-ACTING LATHE. 
 
 TT will always be found difficult to turn the handle of the 
 1 slide-rest so evenly that the work shall be left uniformly 
 smooth and true. If the tool rests too long on one spot 
 a deeper cut is the result, which, although very shallow, 
 shows as a line upon the work; and this always occurs, 
 again and again, when the slide-rest handle receives an 
 intermittent motion, which, more or less, it nearly always 
 does. Hence, for one reason, a self-acting motion is superior 
 to that produced by hand, and this is easily managed by 
 the aid of gearing or cog-wheels, and, with slightly less 
 certainty, by means of cords and pulleys, generally connected 
 to the mandrel through the medium of an overhead shaft. 
 
 But another reason for the adoption of self-acting Lathes 
 is that in a factory one man can attend to two or three 
 instead of one a matter of economy that cannot be dis- 
 regarded. And, thirdly, this mechanism enables a workman 
 to cut screws of any desired pitch, say from one to sixty 
 threads in an inch, with certainty; and also coarser screws 
 called spirals, having perhaps but- one complete turn in 
 six inches. Apart, therefore, from such other uses as the 
 self-acting Lathe may be occasionally put to, the above 
 are ample reasons for its general use where much and varied 
 work is carried on. The general form of these Lathes may 
 be gathered from the accompanying engravings of Lathes, 
 numbered 15 and 16 in the catalogue of the Britannia 
 Company, of Colchester (Plates XI. and XII.). A screw 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 Sw r>.. OF v 
 
THE SELF-ACTING LATHE. bd 
 
 runs the whole length of the bed in front, of a quarter 
 pitch i.e., of four threads to the inch. This passes through 
 a nut in the apron of the slide-rest, just behind the straight 
 handle. The rest is free to move along the bed from end 
 to end, the edges of the bed being planed to a V shape, and 
 being embraced by guide-bars similarly planed, and adjustable 
 to take up wear. Turning the main or "leading" screw, 
 as it is called, in one direction, causes the rest to travel 
 from right to left, and reversing the motion causes it to 
 return. This is the main principle of all self-acting Lathes. 
 
 But it is also evident that means will be needed to stop 
 the traverse at any given point, without having at the same 
 time to stop the Lathe. This is accomplished by sawing 
 in half the nut through which the screw passes, and attaching 
 each half to a short, vertical slide working in guides. The 
 handle seen in front carries a plate with two spiral grooves 
 in it, in which pins standing out from the halves of the nut 
 engage, so that by turning the handle on one side the two 
 halves are separated in an instant, leaving the screw free* 
 while turning it back closes the nut upon the screw, and 
 causes the slide-rest to resume its motion. The slide-rest is 
 placed upon a saddle which fits to and slides upon the bed; 
 and it is very often so made that the whole upper part 
 can be removed, leaving the saddle free, so that work can 
 be clamped upon it for boring or planing (if the Lathe has 
 a planing head fitted to it). To the left is seen a large cog- 
 wheel, attached to the screw, and by which, through other 
 changeable wheels and pinions, the rate of motion of the 
 screw can be varied, so as to give to the slide-rest either 
 a quick or slow motion at pleasure. Two small wheels (seen 
 on the left of the headstock below the mandrel) are fitted 
 on the same plate, which is centred on a pin; so that either 
 can be made to gear with the small pinion on the mandrel. 
 This serves to reverse the motion of the screw, while the 
 flywheel still continues to revolve in the same direction as 
 before. Bolted to the back of the saddle, but removable at 
 pleasure, is a die stay, or support for long work liable to 
 bend under the tool. Being carried along the bar as the 
 turning proceeds, and being all the time close to the tool, 
 
84 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 it supports the work perfectly, and quite removes all ten- 
 dency in it to deviate from its proper position. A drip- 
 can, with soap and water, is also similarly mounted, to lubricate 
 the work. 
 
 The action of the screw causes a very slow movement of the 
 saddle and its rest, and, therefore, when the cut is finished, 
 and it becomes necessary to run back the rest, to commence 
 a new cut, means are required for doing this with rapidity. 
 For this purpose there is a rack attached to the front of 
 the Lathe bed, into which a pinion gears, which has its bear- 
 ings near the half-nut slides, in the apron of the saddle. 
 The handle to this is the long one seen in front. The half- 
 nuts being opened, to free the rest and its screw, a few turns 
 of the handle carry the tool back again to its starting- 
 point, ready to commence a fresh cut. The Lathes illustrated 
 have friction wheels to the crank axle, which is straight, a 
 slotted crank being attached outside the left standard, and 
 this is worked by an anti-friction chain motion passing to the 
 treadle. The pile of cog-wheels seen in front, twenty-two in 
 all, are for attaching to a stud, on a radial arm, which is 
 mounted concentrically with the screw, and can be clamped 
 in position after the gear wheels are arranged on screw, man- 
 drel, and stud. These are necessary for automatic screw- 
 cutting. It is evident that, with a given set of wheels and 
 pinions geared, on the one hand, with the mandrel, and, on 
 the other hand, with the screw any desired rate of speed can 
 be obtained between the two; thus, while the screw makes 
 one turn, and draws the slide-rest and tool iin., the mandrel 
 may be made to revolve either once or twice, or a dozen times, 
 according to the sizes of the wheels and pinions used, as will 
 be fully explained in the chapter on screw-cutting. The 
 slide rest can, therefore, be arranged for merely turning a 
 smooth surface which is, in reality, an infinitely fine screw 
 or it can be made to travel so fast in proportion to the speed 
 of the mandrel as to cut a coarse spiral. 
 
 The tools required are the same as those already described, 
 and either the solid ones can be used, or the cutter bar; but 
 when once set into cut, nothing is needed but to work the 
 treadle, when the tool will be carried along with a perfectly 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
THE SELF-ACTING LATHE. 
 
 87 
 
 even motion, such as no hand feed can rival. Among Lathe 
 novelties introduced by the Britannia Company, of Colchester, 
 two are well worthy of notice, and they may be taken as 
 extremes of power viz., their Nos. 13 and 18 : the first a 
 small screw-cutting Lathe of 3in. centre only, with 2ft. 6in. 
 or 3ft. bed; and the other a treble-geared Lathe, specially 
 made for the Admiralty for use on shipboard a Lathe with 
 gap bed, to swing 24in., and with power enough, under treadle 
 
 FIG. 21. TREBLE-GEARED LATHE. 
 
 action alone, to take a iin. cut off a 2in. or Sin. bar. It 
 would be hard to find a tool of such power more compact, 
 better designed, or better made; and the price 36 for one 
 of Sin. centre is marvellously low. That it is possible to 
 tiirn a pump-cover, or similar article, 24in. diameter, by foot 
 power is, at first sight, incredible; but the treble gear mul- 
 tiplies enormously the power applied. This Lathe is illus- 
 trated here in Fig. 21, which gives a good idea of its general 
 
TURNING LATHES. 
 
 appearance. In a country fitting-shop or agricultural im- 
 plement maker's where steam is not available, this Lathe 
 would be invaluable. 
 
 The No. 13 (see Plate XIII.) is the amateur's Lathe 
 par excellence for all light work in engineering, such as model- 
 making and the construction of electrical and scientific in- 
 struments. Fitted also, however, with overhead, as shown 
 here, it becomes suitable for ornamental and plain turning in 
 wood or ivory. As a screw- cutting Lathe, it is an exact 
 miniature of those already described, except that there is no 
 crank axle, the flywheel being mounted on a fixed stud on 
 the standard. With a handle fitted to the slide-rest screw, 
 and a revolving cutter or drill, driven by the overhead, the 
 most beautiful spiral work can be done. When the gap 
 piece is out of the bed, it will admit a disc of lOiin. diameter, 
 instead of 6in. The drawer in the table on which it is 
 mounted is intended for spanners, tommies, mandrel taps, 
 and such like. Price 15 15s. ; or 21 with overhead, 
 including the ornamental drill spindle. This Lathe is such 
 as an ingenious amateur can hardly fail to turn to good 
 account, removing, as it does, both the difficulty of screw- 
 cutting, and also of highly-finished plain turning in metal. 
 It can be made with a crank shaft at a small extra 
 charge. With castings, now so easily obtained, engine-making 
 should become, by the help of this unique Lathe, compara- 
 tively easy work. The overhead is, moreover, an advantage 
 that need only be tried to be appreciated, especially in 
 cutting screws in wood. These can be beautifully cut with 
 small, revolving cutters, which make a clean thread far better 
 than is attainable with a fixed tool, owing to the very slow 
 motion of the mandrel, which is not well suited for wood. 
 In fact, wood cannot revolve too quickly against the tool, 
 especially if it- is of the kind known as soft wood. A V tool, 
 however, will cut the latter quite cleanly, and make a nice 
 thread, and this can be held in a cutter bar, and fixed on 
 the slide-rest of this Lathe. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that the amateur, or anyone not 
 a thorough adept, will succeed in either plain turning or 
 screw-cutting most decidedly not the latter merely by 
 
PLATE XIII. MINIATURE SCREW-CUTTING LATHE 
 
OF THE 
 
 XJNIVERSITT, 
 
THE SELF-ACTING LATHE. 91 
 
 obtaining one of these handy little machines. A screw- 
 cutting Lathe is a very ingenious bit of mechanism, and its 
 capabilities are not to be learnt in a day. When, therefore, 
 it first comes to hand, it should be thoroughly examined, and 
 its various parts studied until well understood. Let the 
 various wheels be mounted first, a mere idle wheel, or the 
 stud brought into gear with that or the screw, and with the 
 small one below the two that are on a pivoted plate at the 
 back of the headstock, which two, I have explained, are 
 meant to reverse the motion of the screw for cutting left- 
 handed threads. Then, when the single row of wheels has 
 been thoroughly understood, let the wheel and pinion on the 
 sleeve be mounted on the stud, and the effect of this arrange- 
 ment tested as regards change of speed. Put a cylinder of 
 wood in the Lathe, to experiment upon; and, with a sharp 
 point tool, try the result of different wheels geared singly 
 and also doubly. This will teach, better than any written 
 description, the nature of screw-cutting, to be hereafter 
 carried out, in metal. It will be found that wheels geared 
 singly i.e., in one plane only produce the effect of the first 
 and last; the result, as regards speed, being the same as if 
 these were geared together. But the intermediate one alters 
 the direction of motion, and is necessary to fill up the space 
 between the mandrel wheel and that on the leading screw. 
 Any intermediate wheel that is of suitable size may, there- 
 fore, be used indifferently, without altering the ratio of speed 
 between the screw and mandrel. In illustration of this, 
 suppose a wheel of sixty teeth on the screw, and one of ten 
 on the mandrel, which is the driver or originator of the 
 motion : it is evident that the rate will be six to one that is 
 to say, the small wheel will turn six times while the large 
 wheel turns once and they will turn in opposite directions. 
 Insert between them one of twenty teeth, which will, at the 
 same time, reverse the direction of the driven wheel. The 
 ten wheel (driver) makes one turn, while the twenty on the 
 stud makes half a turn i.e., uses ten of its teeth and, as six 
 times ten are sixty the number of teeth on the screw wheel 
 the latter still makes, as before, six turns, to one of the driver. 
 Instead of an intermediate wheel of twenty cogs, any other 
 
92 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 will answer equally well that may be of convenient size. The 
 small wheel under the pair on the plate is of the same size 
 as that on the mandrel, and consequently may be considered 
 the mandrel wheel. Consequently, the wheel placed on its 
 projecting axle may be reckoned as being placed upon the 
 mandrel itself, and is to be considered the first driver of the 
 train. Screw-cutting depends upon the rate at which the 
 slide-rest carrying the tool travels compared with that at 
 which the work revolves. The leading screw is of half or 
 quarter pitch two or four threads to the inch the latter 
 in all small Lathes; so that one turn of the screw moves the 
 rest iin. along the bed. If the wheels are so arranged, there- 
 fore, as to carry the mandrel once round in the same time 
 as the tool takes to travel iin., or four times while the tool 
 travels lin., the screw cut will be quarter pitch, also the same 
 as the original leading screw. Here the mandrel and screw 
 make turn for turn, and, therefore, each will need a wheel 
 of equal number of teeth, and to fill up ,the space, any idle 
 wheel may be placed on the stud. 
 
 Plainly, it is not difficult, so long as we can get the proper 
 proportion out of wheels in the same plane, to get any even 
 number of threads to the inch from a leading screw of a quarter 
 pitch. Starting with a pair of the same number of cogs, we 
 have seen that the pitch of the leading screw will be exactly 
 copied. Halve that on the mandrel, and the pitch will be 
 twice as fine, because now the work will turn twice while 
 the screw turns once; and so on the smaller the mandrel 
 wheel, the greater the number of threads that will be cut in 
 lin. of length. The wheels generally rise by five cogs, from 
 20, the smallest, to 120, with two of 60 for use to get the 
 equal pitch with that of the screw. It is convenient to keep 
 the one on the screw unchanged, and this is commonly of 
 60 teeth in small Lathes, which is a convenient size; or, if 
 preferred, that on the mandrel may remain the same, and 
 the screw wheel be the one to change it is merely a 
 matter of convenience : but, for a time at least, while getting 
 into the way of reckoning, one or the other should be 
 constant. A short Table is annexed, suitable for a 60 wheel 
 on mandrel, unchanged : 
 
THE SELF-ACTING LATHE. 
 
 93 
 
 Threads 
 to inch 
 required. 
 
 Mandrel 
 Wheel. 
 
 Stud 
 Wheel. 
 
 Screw 
 Wheel. 
 
 
 1 
 
 60 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 <D 
 
 30 
 
 And so on for all even 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 numbers, as long as the 
 (requisite wheel is in the 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 i 
 
 60 
 
 set, e.(j,, 24 threads would 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 '3 
 
 75 
 
 require four times 90 in 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 "S 
 
 90 
 
 360, which will not be 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 
 105 
 
 supplied. 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 But, again, suppose with a 60 wheel we try to find a screw 
 wheel to produce 3^ threads to the inch, we find it would be 
 one with 52^ cogs. We must, therefore, change our 60 
 mandrel wheel for another say, of 80 cogs and with 70 on 
 the screw, the required pitch will be obtained; for 70 bears 
 the same proportion to 80 as 52| does to 60. 
 
 Perhaps the simplest way to get at it is this. Set down 
 the number of threads required, and under it the number of 
 threads to the inch on the leading screw, making it a fraction 
 thus: Required 6 threads to the inch, with a leading screw 
 of 4 to the inch, . As we have no wheels of so few cogs, 
 multiply both by the same number- say, 10 we get jg. The 
 bottom figure will be the mandrel wheel, the top one the 
 screw. Both these wheels are in the set. But if we want, 
 instead, to use our 60 wheel on the mandrel, we can manage 
 it, for we have but to multiply the by 15 instead of 10 
 thus, ||g. We now get the 60 on the mandrel, and 90 on the 
 screw, as already set down in the Table. We will now take 
 the fractional pitch, 3^ to the inch. Set it down as before, 
 and multiply by 10, thus ^ x 10 = f; or, if more con- 
 venient to use larger wheels, multiply again by 2, and we 
 obtain 4|| x 2 = ^g> wn i ca i g a ^ so the same as shown in 
 the table, 80 on the mandrel and 70 on the screw. 
 
 When the wheels set in one plane are incompetent to pro- 
 duce the speed required, we have to break up the single 
 fraction into two, and thus get the sizes of the stud wheel 
 
94 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 and pinions. I may observe here, that it is of no consequence 
 whether we place the pitch required above or below in the 
 so-called fraction, and for one reason we may perhaps con- 
 veniently reverse it in treating of stud wheels. Thus, to cut 
 6 with a screw of 4 to the inch, |- x fio = fg, or J = Jg ; 
 only we have to remember that the mandrel wheel will be 
 that which we get from the pitch of guide-screw i.e., in 
 this case, the 40 wheel a fact easy to remember. To work 
 with the extra wheels, suppose we have to cut 9 to the inch 
 with a screw, as before, .of 4, ^ x 10 = ^g = f * lg- 
 We can multiply ^ x 5 = J, which wheels we have at 
 hand, and, as we have a pair of 60, we can multiply 
 10 x 6 = eg. We thus get f f, f g. The top are the 
 drivers, the bottom the driven. So we put 20 on mandrel, 
 driving 45 on stud, on which we also place 60 as driver, and 
 gear it to 60 on the screw. "We have worked as before, only 
 we have cut up the one fraction into two. Now, it might 
 have happened that we had but one 60 wheel, in which case, 
 for the sake of practice, we will work differently. 
 
 We begin with f x 10 = fg = -% $ f. We may leave 
 the 45 and 5, and multiply the 8 and 2 by 5. We now get 
 :i>, J*Q, and can again multiply the latter pair by 10, and get 
 _5j^ or by 6, and get g. Let us suppose the latter to 
 be found preferable. The whole will stand J^, ||g, and we 
 put 40 on mandrel, to gear with 45 on stud, which also 
 carries 30, to gear with 60 on the screw. To prove it, multi- 
 ply the drivers together, and also the driven, and the original 
 fraction will recur fg x f g = Ifgg = If = |. Screw- 
 cutting Lathes have attached, generally speaking, a plate, 
 with the numbers engraved, for ordinary Whitworth pitches, 
 to suit the particular guide-screw and set of wheels, render- 
 ing calculation unnecessary. But the above has been given 
 to explain the principle, and to enable the workman to calcu- 
 late for himself in respect of any unusual pitch of screw he 
 may have to cut. It may happen that, with the usual set 
 of twenty-two wheels, it may not be possible to get certain 
 
THE SELF-ACTING LATHE. 95 
 
 pitches exactly, and then the nearest that is practicable 
 within a very small fraction must take its place, and will 
 often answer very well for a short length ; for the difference 
 in that case will not be perceptible. A nut, e.g., cut with 
 nine threads, may apparently fit a screw of eight or ten, 
 if it has only to go on a few turns. Of course, it is only 
 for such a common, rough job that such fit would pass 
 muster. 
 
 The principles here laid down are carried out, in a later 
 chapter, by a practical workman, accustomed to all operations 
 of the kind. A Table is there added, to save, to a certain 
 extent, the trouble of calculation. At the same time, it is of 
 great importance to a latheman to become independent of such 
 Tables, which are rather conducive to laziness. They are, 
 however, useful as a means of checking and verifying calcu- 
 lations previously made by the workman. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 CHUCK-MAKING, 
 
 rwill now be as well to fulfil a promise made in one of 
 the earlier pages of this work, by describing the proper 
 method of making a chuck in wood and in metal, because 
 this is a task almost necessary for the amateur, and involves 
 a little screw-cutting, in which he is now supposed to be 
 fairly proficient. To commence with a plain cup chuck of 
 boxwood. Let a piece be sawn from the log, of adequate 
 size, say 2|in. or Sin. in diameter by Sin. in length ; care 
 must be taken to saw it off squarely, or there will be un- 
 necessary waste, and boxwood is precious. If a self-centreing 
 scroll chuck is at hand that will grasp it, nothing can be 
 more suitable. If not, let a hole be bored centrally, and 
 mount the block on the taper screw chuck. It must bed 
 down fair and true against the plate of the chuck, and be 
 very firmly secured, because it has to stand both turning 
 and boring. Bring up the back centre to help hold it, while 
 the outside is being reduced to a cylindrical surface, and the 
 end cut exactly square to the axis. Of course you can, in 
 this last operation, only carry the cut as far as to the back 
 centre. The poppet head must, therefore, now be removed, 
 and the face of the work finished by means of a chisel, held 
 flat on the rest as before explained ; try it with a straight- 
 edge, and see that it is neither hollow nor convex, but truly 
 flat. Now, with a nose bit or gouge, or round-end tool, bore 
 a hole to a depth rather greater than the length of the 
 screw on the .mandrel nose ; and if , the latter is lin. diameter, 
 
CHUCK-MAKING. 97 
 
 let this hole be fin., as the thread will be, probably, iin. 
 deep; anyhow, don't let it be too large, as it is easy to en- 
 large it if too small. Here, again, care is needed to prevent 
 the bore from being conical in either direction it must be 
 quite parallel. An inside tool, or right-hand tool, as it is 
 often called, is the proper one to finish it with. Now bevel 
 slightly, or round off the sharp edge, or "arris," as directed 
 in the chapter on screw-cutting by hand, which is the next 
 process to carry out; but, unless the turner is an adept at 
 screw-cutting, he had better avail himself of some kind of 
 guide a traversing mandrel, if he has one ; but if not, the best 
 way is to use a special tap, made to cut sharply, so as to 
 make a screw line deep enough to give a lead to the 
 chasing tool. The sort of tap to have is one similar to what 
 is sold with a screw-box. The taps for metal are of no use for 
 this work. The ordinary taper tap will not get a hold, unless 
 you can make the hole a deep one; the plug will not enter, 
 and the intermediate will not have sharp cutting threads near 
 its end. What is needed, and should be sold always with a 
 lathe, is a very short tap, with four sharp edges, and a long 
 stem with a hollow centre made in the end; the cutting part 
 must, of course, taper a little. It is certainly possible to use 
 an ordinary intermediate tap for a cup chuck, because you 
 may bore it as deep as you please; but it is not really suit- 
 able. The way to enter it is to bring up the poppet head so 
 that its point may fall into the hollow centre in the end of 
 the stem or shank, a small spanner or hand vice being se- 
 cured to the square head of the tap, or a proper tap wrench, 
 which is better. The tap is then slowly revolved, a little at a 
 time, while the back centre is screwed up so as to follow it ; 
 and this is carried on until the requisite depth is reached. 
 There will now be, on gently withdrawing the tap, by turning 
 it backwards, a clear, sharply-cut screw line, quite sufficient to 
 give a lead to the chaser and it will be parallel, and true to 
 the lathe centres. The hand rest is now to be set across the 
 end of the chuck, and the inside screw tool is to be gently 
 applied, when its points will be caught at once in the spiral 
 groove, which will carry it forward at the required rate. In 
 this way the thread is to be deepened gradually, until it ia 
 
 E 
 
98 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 found to be of full depth, and equally cut from end to end of 
 the hole. 
 
 To allow of this, it is usual to bore a little deeper than the 
 length of the mandrel nose, and then to take a side parting 
 tool, and with it to cut a groove at the bottom the full 
 depth of the thread. The chaser will then fall partly 
 into this, giving time to withdraw its teeth out of cut, and 
 thus enabling it to cut to the end of the thread without 
 striking the bottom of the hole. Now unscrew the chuck (not 
 the one you are engaged upon), and, turning the latter roiuid, 
 try how it will go on. If it is too tight, do not force it, 
 but put all back, and ease it. The sharp edge of the thread 
 will be better removed, and a chuck should run on quite 
 easily, and bed up well and truly against the face of the 
 mandrel. Try and try again, therefore, until such is the case. 
 All that remains is to screw the wooden chuck in its place 
 on the mandrel, turn up the outside, and bore it out to the 
 size needed ; which latter job should be left, of course, until 
 the chuck is actually required for use. It is usual to round 
 off and shape to a nice curve the back end of the chuck, next 
 to the mandrel; but this is a matter of taste. If all has 
 been well done in boring and screwing, the chuck ought, 
 theoretically, to run true at once, when in its place ; but 
 this is seldom the case, although the error is often very 
 slight. In any case, a few strokes of gouge and chisel are all 
 that will be needed, and, once true, it will generally so re- 
 main for a long time. 
 
 To make a similar chuck in metal, the process, roughly 
 speaking, is the same ; but here we have to deal with a 
 casting of iron, brass, or gunmetal. This must, of course, 
 be chucked differently, though if of brass, a strong Ameri- 
 can scroll chuck may possibly suffice; yet it is hardly a safe 
 plan. Preferably I would chuck it upon i.e., outside a wood 
 chuck, or outside a block of wood driven into a metal cup 
 chuck, and turned to fit it tightly. If it is a good casting, 
 and is mounted to run fairly true, there will be no shocks 
 caused by the tool, even at the first cut only a steady 
 strain, that should not loosen it, or throw it out of centre. 
 The skin should be ground or worked off with a coarse old 
 
CHUCK-MAKING. 99 
 
 file before mounting it on the lathe, as it will make it 
 much easier for the tool to face it up. Such skin is often 
 exceedingly hard, and will instantly take off the edge of a 
 tool ; the latter, however, should always have* a clean place to 
 start upon, by filing off the edge of the work to form a 
 slight bevel it then gets at once underneath the skin. 
 There are face-plate clamps which will also serve our pur- 
 pose, but on the whole the plan suggested will be the 
 simplest, and therefore the best. The chuck to be turned 
 need not occupy more than an inch of the block on which 
 it is mounted, if it is well fitted. Being rough inside, it 
 will take a secure hold of the wood. The great thing is to 
 drive it on carefully and truly at once, so as not to have 
 to keep on tapping it this way and that, to set it correctly, 
 or it will be loose on the block, and yield to the tool. 
 Supposing the work fairly mounted, a cut should be taken, 
 all over it, either by hand, or, better, by a tool in the slide- 
 rest; a round-end will be the usual one. Then, the end that 
 has to be bored is to be very truly faced; and, if the hole is 
 not cored out in the casting, it will have to be drilled and 
 in a cup chuck it is generally drilled quite through into the 
 hollow of the chuck. It is not easy to make a Sin. chuck 
 solely by hand, but as regards boring out the hole for the 
 screw no turning is necessary. If not cored out, a little 
 centre hole is first made, by the point of a graver, and then 
 a drill is run in, and the bore enlarged by another; or a 
 little recess is turned, and then a half-round engineer's bit 
 of the exact size needed, bores and completes the hole at 
 one operation. This tool has a centre drilled at its opposite 
 end, and is always advanced into cut by the screw of the 
 back centre. It is a splendid tool if well made, and will cut 
 a clean hole in solid iron ; but it will save it to run a drill 
 in first. You must turn a slight recess, however, just to in- 
 sure a true start. The tap now comes into operation as 
 before, and here again it needs one made sharp to cut a 
 clean line, but a tap a good deal less in size than the 
 mandrel nose, as it will be followed by the chaser, as 
 in the case of the wood chuck. The chief thing is to 
 keep the tap in line with the mandrel, and this is se- 
 
 E 2 
 
100 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 cured always by advancing it by means of the back poppet 
 centre. 
 
 All taps of the size of a lathe mandrel have centres left, 
 and are so used' in lathe-work. Generally speaking, the 
 screw on the mandrel is not cut clean up to the shoulder 
 against which the chucks abut, and. therefore, after finishing 
 the screw to a nice fit as far as it will go, two or three 
 threads must be turned off. It will then bed correctly home, 
 and also run fairly true. As soon as it does this, finish the 
 outside while it is in its place, and, if you like, turn the 
 inside out quite smooth, and very slightly taper so slightly 
 as to leave it almost cylindrical. Such is the proper, ortho- 
 dox, and best way; but a great many chucks are mounted 
 in the lathe and bored, and then, if a through or thorough- 
 fare hole is allowable, as in the present case, the entire 
 thread is done with ordinary taps, and the chaser wholly 
 dispensed with. It is then screwed on the mandrel; and, as 
 it is rarely that it can run true, the outside is freely cut 
 away to make it run correctly. If the end does not touch 
 the shoulder of the mandrel all round, it is filed till it does, 
 and the result is a badly-fitted chuck, that will again and 
 again work out of truth. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 TURNING ARTICLES OF SQUARE SECTION. 
 
 r would at first sight be deemed impossible to turn articles 
 in an ordinary lathe of any other form than cylindrical, 
 although, by means of rocking headstocks, actuated by 
 rosettes, or cams, or special appliances, such work is done 
 every day, and wheel spokes, axe handles, and other irregu- 
 lar forms, are shaped by thousands. Nearly a century ago, 
 nevertheless, Bergeron published a method of effecting 
 such work by the aid of a sort of chuck, round the peri- 
 phery of which several bars of material were mounted, so 
 that they might come in succession under the operation of 
 the gouge and chisel. The method was precisely similar to 
 that now to be explained, the chuck and its fittings being, 
 however, improved and simplified. The apparatus is very 
 cheap, and the work produced sufficiently satisfactory to be 
 worth doing. There is also the advantage of being able to 
 make from four to six articles at once, and precisely simi- 
 lar. The apparatus consists: first, of a square bar of iron, 
 with centres drilled at the ends, to be mounted as if for 
 turning. Upon it are fitted a pair of round discs of wood, 
 which can be adjusted at any desired width apart, according 
 to the length of the work. These are backed by smaller 
 flanges of metal, which secure them to the bar by a wedge 
 or screw. In the edges of the wooden discs are cut rectangu- 
 lar notches, to fit the bars of wood which are to be turned. 
 The latter are secured, either by such iron clamps as are 
 shown, or by any other efficient means, such as an iron hoop 
 
102 
 
 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 slightly larger than the discs, and thin wedges of hard 
 wood. 
 
 "Whatever may be the mode adopted, it must be capable of 
 easy removal and readjustment. The drawings given, of the 
 
 FIG. 22. TURNING ARTICLES OF SQUARE SECTION. 
 
 complete apparatus and its essential details (Figs. 22 and 23), 
 will suffice to explain clearly the arrangement. The square 
 bars thus mounted can now be moulded by turning tools held 
 upon the rest as usual ; but as they do not themselves revolve, 
 
 FIG. 23. CHUCK FOR ARTICLES OF SQUARE SECTION. 
 
 except upon an axis common to all, the tools will only reach 
 a small part of their respective surfaces, three-fourths remain- 
 ing untouched. The bars are now loosened and remounted, 
 with another side outwards, which will enable another fourth 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 TURNING ARTICLES OF SQUARE SECTION. 103 
 
 of the surface to be cut, the mouldings running into those 
 previously made. Again the bars are loosened, and the pro- 
 cess repeated, and after three readjustments the several bars 
 will be found to have obtained a form of which the cross - 
 section is apparently a square. The faces are, in point of 
 fact, not quite flat, but curved, approaching nearest to a flat 
 if the discs of the chuck are of large size. 
 
 This method is also capable of producing work of triangu- 
 lar section, the only alteration requisite being triangular 
 instead of square notches in the discs of the chuck. The 
 work also, or, at any rate, its extreme ends, must be carefully 
 planed with three flat faces, to fit these notches. Other sec- 
 tions, such as octagon, hexagon, or quasi- elliptic, are possible, 
 by different forms of notches to receive the ends of the rods; 
 and, instead of four only, several pieces may be secured and 
 turned at the same time. This kind of work looks very well 
 associated with that of circular form. The top of a candle- 
 stick, for instance, may be made cylindrical, and the stem 
 and base, or stem alone, square or triangular. The whole 
 will also stand conspicuous as a turner's puzzle. A half- 
 crown will purchase the whole apparatus, so that it is within 
 the reach of all. This work requires care and sharp tools, 
 taking very light cuts; and in making the discs, it is essential 
 that the notches stand opposite each other. The two should, 
 in fact, be clamped together, so as to enable the pair to be 
 notched as one. Even the square bar may be of wood so 
 that the whole apparatus might be home made ; or it may 
 be purchased, either in the rough parts or finished, of the 
 Britannia Company. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 SCREW-CUTTING BY SELF-ACTING LATHE. 
 
 WITH many amateurs it is a source of much perplexity 
 how to manipulate the change wheels and leading 
 screw of a screw- cutting lathe, in order to produce a 
 screw of any desired thread, or "pitch." 
 
 It is therefore proposed in this short chapter to present 
 the matter in a very plain and simple manner, which will 
 elucidate the whole mystery. 
 
 What we have to do is to traverse the tool along the work 
 revolving between the lathe centres, at such a ratio to the 
 speed of the revolution as shall produce a screw of the desired 
 fineness or coarseness, which is called the " pitch," and usually 
 expressed as of so many threads to the inch in length of 
 screw. 
 
 Now it will be obvious that if equal-sized wheels be used 
 to connect the spindle of headstock and the leading screw 
 which traverses the saddle, and with it the cutting tool, along 
 the lathe bed, the speed of the revolution of the spindle (and 
 with it the work driven by it) will be the same as that of 
 the leading screw, and the screw produced will be precisely a 
 counterpart in pitch to the leading screw; and as this may 
 be often required, every set of change wheels is supplied with 
 one pair of equal wheels, usually forty or sixty teeth, and 
 to vary this ratio of speed the other twenty wheels are 
 required. 
 
 Our object now is to see how to adjust these various wheels, 
 BO as to traverse the tool in such a relative speed to the speed 
 
SCREW-CUTTING BY SELF-ACTING LATHE. 105 
 
 of the revolution of the headstock spindle as shall cut our 
 desired pitch. 
 
 A modern screw-cutting lathe is usually provided with a 
 fixed pinion on the tail end of the spindle, and a second 
 precisely similar pinion on a fixed stud screwed into the head- 
 stock below it; and these are geared together by a third and 
 intermediate wheel of the same or any convenient size; while 
 a fourth wheel, precisely a counterpart of the third, is fixed 
 to gear into it, and is running idly so long as the third is 
 being used, but may be brought into gear with the head 
 pinion by disengaging the third, and will thus reverse the 
 motion of the second pinion. These three wheels, which we 
 have called the second, third, and fourth, are fixed on a plate, 
 swivelling on the stud of the second for a centre, and are 
 called the reversing gear, and are used for the purpose of 
 causing the leading screw to revolve in one direction or the 
 other, to traverse the saddle from right to left, or vice versa, 
 and thus to cut screws either right or left handed. 
 
 Now, as the pinion on the end of the spindle, and that (the 
 second) on the fixed stud below it, are precisely the same, it 
 follows that they will revolve at the same speed, and we may 
 treat them as the same, and the sleeve connected to pinion 
 on stud of reversing gear is now a correct substitute for the 
 spindle of headstock, and in all our subsequent arrangements 
 we shall treat it as the latter, and speak of it as the " spindle." 
 
 This sleeve, fixed to and revolving with the second pinion, 
 is prepared with a key to receive the change wheels ; and when 
 we say we put such a change wheel on the spindle, we intend 
 putting it on this sleeve. 
 
 Now, we have at our disposal for change wheels the " spindle," 
 and the end of the leading screw, similarly prepared with a 
 key for the wheels, and which we will more briefly speak of as 
 the "screw." 
 
 But as these two revolve on fixed centres, we must have 
 some adjustable means of connecting them by gearing, and 
 this gearing, we have seen, must vary greatly to produce the 
 results we desire; hence the use of the swing frame, or 
 quadrant plate, which swivels at the end of the screw, and is 
 provided with one or two slots, having a stud and sleeve long 
 
106 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 enough to admit of two wheels side by side, and adjustable 
 along this slot. By this means, and the swivelling motion of 
 the swing frame, it will be found that any gearing may be 
 arranged to connect the spindle and the screw. 
 
 The sleeve revolving on the sliding stud of swing frame is 
 called the "stud," and the driven wheel on it is called the 
 stud wheel; and should there be occasion to use a second 
 wheel on this sleeve, it would be called the " pinion." So we 
 now have 
 
 Spindle Stud Pinion Screw 
 or, as they are frequently called 
 
 Driver Driven Driver Driven 
 
 "We have now to consider the changing of the wheels on 
 these three centres, to give the requisite ratio of speed between 
 spindle and screw. 
 
 For simple pitches below twelve threads per inch, a single 
 train of wheels that is, three only is needed, viz., one driver, 
 on the spindle ; one driven, on the screw ; and one inter- 
 mediate wheel, on the stud. Let it always be borne in mind 
 that a mere idle or intermediate wheel, simply conveying 
 motion, does not affect the ratio. Now the size of the change 
 wheels, that is, the number of teeth, must always bear the 
 same ratio as does the screw to be cut to the leading screw 
 of the lathe; hence we will adopt the following: 
 
 Rule 1. Place the pitch of the leading screw as numerator, 
 and the pitch of the screw to be cut as denominator, in the 
 form of a simple vulgar fraction ; multiply both by 5 or 10, and 
 the products will be the wheels required, the numerator being 
 the spindle wheel, or driver, and the denominator the screw 
 wheel, or driven. 
 
 Example. To cut a screw of seven threads per inch with 
 a leading screw of four threads per inch. 
 
 i wheels required. 
 
SCREW-CUTTING BY SELF-ACTING LATHE. 107 
 
 To cut a screw of twelve threads per inch, with a leading 
 screw of two threads per inch: 
 
 T 2 2 - x 10 = Y 2 ^ wheels required. 
 
 Or, if the pitch required be fractional, all we have to do is to 
 reduce the fraction or mixed number to a whole number for 
 a simple denominator, and proceed as before. 
 
 Example. To cut a screw of four and three-quarter threads 
 per inch, with a leading screw of four threads per inch : 
 
 -t x ^ (denominator of fraction) = |-g- * 5 = ff wheels 
 required. 
 
 Pitches above twelve per inch may require, for convenience 
 of gearing or bringing the sizes within the compass of the 
 wheels usually supplied, that a double train (four wheels) be 
 used usually termed compounding; to effect which we will 
 adopt 
 
 Rule 2. Proceed according to Rule 1, setting forth the ratio 
 of screw to be cut to leading screw in simple fractional 
 form ; then assume any two other equal wheels, for second 
 driver and driven, also set forth in fractional form, and 
 divide one driver and one driven by any convenient divisor 
 to bring the figures within the compass of your wheels. 
 
 Example. To cut a screw of twenty-five threads per inch, 
 with a leading screw having four threads per inch: 
 
 4s x 10 = 2 4 5o; assume i; 
 
 divide one driver and one driven by five, and we have 
 to T 2 oo the ^ our wheels required. 
 
 Again. To cut twenty-two threads per inch, with a leading 
 screw of two threads per inch : 
 
 JL x 10 = *fe; assume ig -f- 4 = fa -^ wheels required. 
 
 Again. To cut nineteen threads per inch, with a leading 
 screw of four threads per inch: 
 
 T V x 10 = T %o ; assume ig-g- - 2 = g -\fe wheels required. 
 
108 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 It need only be added, that if any mechanical difficulty 
 arise in gearing any wheels, when once the correct ratio is 
 established, any drivers or driven may be subjected to ad- 
 dition, subtraction, multiplication, or division, without affect- 
 ing the result, so long as the ratio is maintained. 
 
 Thus: % + a quarter = ff, will be the same, 
 or f a third = fg 
 or ! x 2 = T %% 
 or H x 3 = n 
 or iSfe 3 = f, &c., &c. 
 
 In order to insure the tool dropping into the same track 
 at each cut, the simplest way is to mark a stop on the bed, 
 or, better, put a stop of wood, or anything convenient, 
 abutting against the front of the poppet, to bring the saddle 
 back to at each cut. 
 
 When commencing, have the saddle up to this stop, the nut 
 closed on screw, and all ready to start the first cut. Carefully 
 mark the position of both spindle and screw by chalking the 
 wheels; then proceed. 
 
 When the cut is taken, withdraw the tool and disengage 
 the nut; run the saddle back to the stop; turn the lathe till 
 both spindle and screw come to their marked position; close 
 the nut; advance the tool, and it will drop into its correct 
 track for the next cut. 
 
 This precaution is not necessary in simple pitches either 
 the same as or multiples of the pitch of leading screw, in 
 which cases our tool will drop into its place correctly without 
 trouble. 
 
 In setting up the tool to start each fresh cut, be careful 
 not to be too eager to get the work done, and spoil all; but 
 take just so deep a cut as will best and quickest do the 
 work. 
 
 In this adjustment of the tool, the rough-and-ready method 
 prevailing among workmen is to chalk the collar of the slide 
 screw and its bearing, and after withdrawing the tool at the 
 end of each cut by means of the slide screw, to set it up for 
 the next to the chalk mark of the last cut, and so much more 
 
SCREW-CUTTING BY SELF-ACTING LATHE. 109 
 
 of a revolution of the slide screw as practice shows will give 
 the requisite depth of cut; then wipe out the last chalk 
 mark, and mark afresh. But this method lacks science and 
 system, and is, after all, but a rough method, constantly 
 liable to variation of depth of cut. 
 
 To better insure accuracy in this matter, the Britannia 
 Company have patented a little appliance which they call a 
 micrometer. It is made to apply to any ordinary lathe, and 
 consists of a small frame, or bed, attached in a minute to 
 the saddle, and carrying a carefully-cut screw of ten threads 
 per inch, with a collar again divided into ten parts, and a 
 milled head for turning it by thumb and finger. On this is 
 a nut, which can thus be advanced or withdrawn to any 
 desired fixed distance, correctly indicated by the index point 
 of the frame, and read off the graduated collar of the screw. 
 A stop pin is fixed into the transverse slide of the saddle, 
 
 FIG. 21. BRITANNIA COMPANY'S PATLVT MICROMETER GUIDE. 
 
 and the nut brought up to this pin; and thus the exact 
 position of the slide, and the tool it carries, is correctly indi- 
 cated, and any required advance of the tool for a new cut 
 is measured by turning the screw such portion of its revolu- 
 tion as may give the required depth to the one-hundredth 
 part of an inch. It is adapted for inside or outside screw- 
 cutting; and, while one cut is in progress, the tool can be 
 accurately adjusted for the following cut. It can also be 
 applied to any lathe with a slide-rest for accurately measuring 
 the cut, and so insuring uniformity ; and for ornamental 
 drilling and fluting. 
 
110 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 For the guidance of the novice, a few useful hints in pre- 
 paring his work for screw-cutting are added. 
 
 He will, by this time, have carefully read and put into 
 practice the operations set forth in Chapter VI., and will be 
 able to turn or, in workshop parlance, " slide " a parallel 
 shaft. "We will assume this has been done, and it is now 
 desired to cut a thread on the same. "When it is practicable, 
 turn the' shaft down to the depth of the thread, at the part 
 where the screw will end (as the shank of a tap is), that 
 the tool may run off. But this cannot always be done ; the 
 thread may have to end abruptly at a given point, in the 
 full diameter; in this case it is usual to drill a small hole 
 for the tool to run into, and it is safer to stop the lathe 
 about a turn or half a turn before reaching the end, and 
 pull round the rest by hand. In starting a thread to end 
 thus, the work will be set between the centres, with carrier 
 on, and driver of lathe touching, hole for end of thread to 
 front; bring the saddle up, and set the tool point into the 
 hole, close the nut into the leading screw, and mark the 
 position of both spindle and screw, by chalking the wheels, 
 as before described. Release the nut, and run the saddle 
 back to position to commence the cut, and proceed as already 
 explained. Let it be remembered that the handle of the 
 screw of slide-rest, parallel with the lathe bed, must not be 
 touched when the tool is set, or the relative position of the 
 tool and nut, which has just been obtained, will be varied 
 "Where a screw has to be cut close up a collar or shoulder 
 a hole may be drilled, or a groove to depth of thread may 
 be permissible for the tool to run into; but the latter is 
 generally objectionable, as it weakens the screw. When both 
 ways are objected to, the lathe must be stopped about a 
 thread from the end, and pulled round the remainder by the 
 left hand, the right hand meantime gradually withdrawing 
 the tool. Practice will soon give the necessary skill for these 
 operations. 
 
 The greatest care is necessary to set the tool exactly at 
 right angles to the axis of the work, in order that the 
 thread shall be upright, not sloping like saw teeth, or when 
 the screw and nut are cut, though both of one diameter and 
 
SCREW-CUTTING BY SELF-ACTIXG LATHE. Ill 
 
 pitch, they will not fit each other. And in grinding the tool, 
 in the case of Whitworth V-shaped threads, see that the 
 correct angle of 55 is maintained. In V threads it is 
 not usual to give the tool any rake or slope ; but clearance 
 is necessary, or the under part of the cutting point of the 
 tool may scrape and spoil the thread. But in cutting square 
 threads, especially if coarse or double threads, it is necessary 
 to form the tool with a rake or slope, to follow in the space 
 cut by the edge, either inclining to right or left, as the case 
 may be. To get the correct angle of this rake, draw a right- 
 angled triangle, having the pitch for a base, the circumfer- 
 ence of screw for perpendicular, and the hypothenuse will 
 then be the required angle. For all the above purposes, a 
 very useful little gauge is sold, invaluable to screw-cutters, 
 costing only about 3s. It may be observed, that in square 
 threads the depth is usually half the pitch of thread. 
 
 Appended are some calculated tables of change wheels 
 which may save time and trouble. To these we have already 
 referred on page 95, pointing out the use or abuse of them. 
 They are certainly an assistance to a young workman, enabling 
 him to set the proper wheels for the job in hand, and to go 
 confidently to work. But if, on trial, some error is found to 
 exist, he will probably be unable to rectify it, and his work 
 may prove to be spoilt, just as it was almost finished. It is 
 a better plan, even where such tables are hung up in a work- 
 shop for reference, to make an apprentice work the sum first 
 of all, and then compare the result with the figures given he 
 will soon find himself independent of such aid, and will leave 
 the tables for those too lazy or too indifferent to make the 
 calculations for themselves. 
 
112 
 
 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 TABLES OF CHANGE WHEELS. 
 I. Leading Screw having Two Threads per Inch. 
 
 No. of 
 Threads 
 
 Drivers. 
 
 Driven. 
 
 No. of 
 Threads 
 
 Drivers. 
 
 Driven. 
 
 per in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 per in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 
 60 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 .".'. 60 
 
 70 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 25 
 
 
 20 
 
 _ _ 
 
 __ 
 
 80 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 40 '.'.! 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 ... 40 
 
 100 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 40 
 
 60 .'.'. 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 40 
 
 50 ... 
 
 k5 
 
 60 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 ... 75 
 
 120 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 40 !'.. 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 2* 
 
 40 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 45 11 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 ... 100 
 
 55 
 
 
 20 
 
 80 ... 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 55 
 
 80 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 90 .'.'. 
 
 30 
 
 75 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 '.!.' 50 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 ... 100 
 
 60 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 60 
 
 40 '.'.. 
 
 30 
 
 110 
 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 ... 65 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 ... 65 
 
 60 
 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 ... 65 
 
 100 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 40 ... 
 
 20 
 
 75 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 ... 60 
 
 70 
 
 
 50 
 
 40 ... 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 ... 100 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 ... 120 
 
 70 
 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3i 
 
 40 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 ... 50 
 
 120 
 
 
 20 
 
 80 ... 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 ... 50 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 ... 80 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 60 ... 
 
 30 
 
 80 16 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 ... 60 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 ... 85 
 
 100 
 
 
 40 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 85 
 
 
 25 
 
 60 ... 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 ... 85 
 
 120 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 ... 80 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 50 '.'.'. 
 
 40 
 
 75 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 ... 120 
 
 75 
 
 
 50 
 
 40 ... 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 ... 120 
 
 90 
 
SCREW-CUTTING BY SELF-ACTING LATHE. 
 
 113 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Xo. of 
 
 Threads 
 
 I)r 
 
 ivers. 
 
 Dr 
 
 ven. 
 
 Thren 
 
 Is Dr 
 
 vers. 
 
 Dr 
 
 ven 
 
 per in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 per ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 80 
 
 95 
 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 105 
 
 80 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 50 ... 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 45 .. 
 
 105 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 70 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 60 ... 
 
 120 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 90 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 80 
 
 110 32 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 80 
 
 120 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 120 
 
 55 
 
 
 25 
 
 30 ... 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 
 20 
 
 50 ... 
 
 115 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 85 
 
 120 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 60 ... 
 
 115 
 
 120 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 85 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 45 ... 
 
 90 
 
 115 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 90 
 
 103 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 80 
 
 120 
 
 36 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 45 ... 
 
 120 
 
 90 
 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 95 
 
 120 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 120 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 120 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 75 
 
 90 60 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 II. Leading 
 
 Screw having Four 
 
 Threads per 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 80 
 
 __ 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 I 
 
 60 
 
 100 !'.! i 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 50 '.'.'. 
 
 25 
 
 55 
 
 
 50 
 
 120 ... 
 
 20 
 
 75 
 
 
 50 
 
 80 ... 
 
 110 
 
 25 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 40 
 
 80 .'.'.' 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 40 
 
 __ 
 
 
 
 45 
 30 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 50 
 
 40 .'.'.' 
 
 20 
 
 75 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 120 ... 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 90 ... 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 
 40 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 60 
 
 50 ... 
 
 35 
 
 75 
 
 if 
 
 40 
 
 so !!! 
 
 20 
 
 70 
 
 
 80 
 
 50 ... 
 
 35 
 
 100 
 
 
 60 
 
 80 ... 
 
 20 
 
 105 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 ~~ ... 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 40 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 2i 
 
 40 
 
 80 '.'.'. 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 30 ..'. 
 
 25 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 90 '.'.. 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 
 60 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 60 
 
 90 ... 
 
 45 
 
 75 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 45 
 
114 
 
 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 No. of 
 Threads 
 per in. 
 
 Drivers. 
 
 Dri 
 
 ! No. of 
 en. Thretds 
 per in. 
 
 Driv 
 
 ers. 
 
 Drive-'. 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 35 22 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 55 
 
 80 
 
 
 45 
 
 80 ... 
 
 90 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 50 ... 
 
 55 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 40 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 115 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 75 !" 
 
 45 
 
 100 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 60 ... 
 
 115 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 80 ... 
 
 115 
 
 120 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 80 .'.'.' 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 30 
 
 40 ... 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 40 ... 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 60 ... 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 
 30 
 
 40 ... 
 
 GO 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 65 
 
 80 
 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 35 ... 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 11 
 
 30 
 
 40 ... 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 27 
 
 20 
 
 80 ... 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 50 ... 
 
 45 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 70 ... 
 
 90 
 
 105 
 
 
 20 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 20 
 
 60 ... 
 
 70 
 
 120 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 40 ... 
 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 40 ... 
 
 80 
 
 105 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 50 ... 
 
 35 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 60 ... 
 
 35 
 
 120 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 40 ... 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 50 ... 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 40 ... 
 
 90 
 
 50 
 
 
 20 
 
 30 ... 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 20 
 
 60 ... 
 
 80 
 
 120 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 25 
 
 40 ... 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 50 ... 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 50 ... 
 
 85 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 34 
 
 25 
 
 40 ... 
 
 85 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 35 
 
 40 ... 
 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 
 30 
 
 40 ... 
 
 85 
 
 120 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 25 
 
 40 ... 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 40 !'.'. 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 40 ... 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 
 25 
 
 40 ... 
 
 45 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 40 ... 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 
 40 ... 
 
 95 
 
 120 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 80 ... 
 
 100 
 
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 25 
 
 40 ... 
 
 50 
 
 95 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 ... 
 
 80 
 
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 20 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
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 75 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 40 ... 
 60 ... 
 
 50 
 75 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 48 
 
 20 
 25 
 
 25 ... 
 
 30 ... 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 80 
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 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
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 70 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 25 ... 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 USES OF THE OVERHEAD. 
 
 7T BOOK on the Lathe would hardly be complete without 
 rj[ an explanation of that attachment briefly called "The 
 Overhead." There are many forms of this, but that 
 shown on the miniature screw-cutting lathe (Fig. 13, page 8f) 
 is as good as any other, and is the plan most commonly 
 adopted. The main object of it is to enable a turner 
 to connect the movement of the fly-wheel with the slide- 
 rest, or with various pieces of apparatus held therein, such 
 as drills and revolving cutters. The screw of the slide-rest 
 may also be itself so connected, which will render it self- 
 acting, thus imitating, in a small way, the large screw-cutting 
 lathes. For this purpose the winch handle is removed, and 
 replaced by a pulley of any desired size. The overhead con- 
 sists of a revolving shaft, supported on a pair of light but 
 firm standards, attached to the backboard of the lathe. Upon 
 this shaft is a pulley like that on the mandrel, and a roller, 
 or second adjustable pulley. A cord from the fly-wheel, or 
 sometimes from the mandrel, passes over the first of these, 
 and a second cord descends from the roller to the pulley of the 
 slide-rest screw, or to that of the drill, or of any revolving 
 cutter which may be in use. It will evidently be necessary 
 to keep this cord tightly strained under all circumstances, 
 whether the driving pulley of the apparatus be large or 
 small, and whether it is advanced nearer to the work or with- 
 drawn by the action of the cross slide of the rest. To attain 
 this end, there is a bar just under the shaft of the overhead, 
 
116 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 acting partly as a tie-bar between the standards, but, secondly ^ 
 as a support to a sliding block, capable of being placed at 
 any part of the bar, about which, also, it can turn as a 
 hinge. Through this block passes a round rod, of stout iron, 
 which carries at one end a pair of pulleys, whose peripheries 
 bear against the cord, the pressure depending upon a weight 
 slung to the opposite end of the bar, as well as upon the 
 leverage. For this reason, the entire affair is called the " ten- 
 sion apparatus." Sometimes a spring arrangement takes the 
 place of the weight; but the latter, being constant in its 
 action, is decidedly preferable, and if it is suspended near the 
 floor there is nothing objectionable about it. 
 
 The principle of the overhead having been explained, it will 
 be as well to enter briefly upon some of its uses, although 
 we do not intend to set forth in extenso the details of orna- 
 mental turning, which, indeed, require an extra volume. 
 
 Let us suppose a drilling spindle securely held in the rest, 
 having a round-ended drill in its socket, such drill pointing 
 to a smooth cylinder of boxwood held between centres or 
 in a chuck. Let the height of drill be level with the 
 lathe centres. Now suppose the ordinary lathe cord removed, 
 and that from the fly-wheel to the overhead to be arranged, 
 and a second cord to lead down from the overhead to the 
 driving pulley of the drill. If, by means of the cross slide, 
 the drill is advanced, it will simply bore a hole through 
 the cylinder. But now let us suppose that the cross slide 
 advances the drill only about t^in., while the other handle 
 of the rest is steadily turned, so as to carry the entire 
 drilling apparatus horizontally along the work, lengthwise. 
 In this case, the result will be a rounded groove, or recess, 
 or flute. The mandrel, it will be observed, is not revolving 
 at all, because its cord was removed. In practice it is held 
 fast by an index point, resting in one of the holes of a 
 division plate fixed to the face of the mandrel pulley; 
 the circles of holes for this purpose are, however, very 
 frequently drilled in the face of the pulley itself. By these 
 means we can advance the pulley as many divisions as wo 
 please between each traverse of the drill, and make the flutea 
 as near to each other or as far apart as we please. 
 
USES OF THE OVERHEAD. 117 
 
 Now let us substitute for the round-ended drill one with 
 a semicircular hollow at the end, such as would be made 
 with a rat-tail file. This, if gently advanced by the rest, 
 while kept in rapid rotation by the overhead, will not drill 
 a hole, but will form a bead. It must not, however, be 
 traversed along the work, because it would not form a flute. 
 But if now we use the division-plate and index as before, 
 it will be easy to drill a ring of beads round the work } 
 close together, or at any desired distance apart. This is the 
 principle of fluting and beading work, and also of cutting 
 watch and clock wheels, a revolving saw or cutter taking 
 the place of the drill. If this were the sole use of the over- 
 head, it is evident that it would be a very valuable adjunct 
 to the lathe; but there are other uses, to which our atten- 
 tion must be directed. It has been remarked that one great 
 advantage of a self-acting lathe is that it enables a perfectly 
 regular feed to be obtained in making a cut. The tool is 
 adranced evenly and steadily, making a very beautiful finish to 
 the work, if the tool cuts well, and is correctly placed. All 
 that is here needed is a pulley, instead of a winch handle, 
 on the feed-screw of the rest, and that this shall be driven 
 at a suitable rate, by means of a cord from the overhead. 
 The balance -weight of the tension apparatus must be so 
 adjusted as to keep the cord tightly strained, and then there 
 will be no slip, but the action will be as sure as if it was 
 attained by cog wheels or gearing. Now let us go a 
 step further : it was explained in the Chapter on Screw-cutting 
 in the self-acting lathe, that we can obtain any desired 
 pitch of screw by gearing the slide-rest with the mandrel, by 
 means of cog wheels of varying sizes. We can do exactly the 
 same by means of cords and pulleys of proportional size. 
 If we have a pulley on the overhead of exactly the size of 
 any one of those on the mandrel, and connect them by a 
 cord, they will revolve at exactly the same speed ; and if 
 we have on the slide-rest screw a pulley equal to the roller 
 in size, the mandrel, and overhead shaft, and slide-rest screw, 
 will revolve exactly together, each turn of the mandrel giving 
 one revolution to the other two, which are thus geared with 
 it. Suppose the screw to have ten threads to one inch of its 
 
118 TTJENING LATHES. 
 
 length; then, at each turn of the mandrel (and any work 
 attached to it), the tool held in the rest, and actuated by 
 the screw, will advance one-tenth of an inch. If, then, a 
 pointed screw-tool is in the rest, and a cylinder in the chuck, 
 a screw-thread of ^ pitch will be traced upon it, ten turns 
 completing one inch. This will be a screw of ten pitch. 
 Double the size of pulley on the slide-rest, leaving the others 
 as before; and the tool will traverse at half the speed, cutting 
 a twenty-pitch screw. The practical difficulty of this arrange- 
 ment arises from the nicety required to size the pulleys with 
 accuracy; but it is more theoretical than practical after all, 
 as a little care will overcome it. A greater difficulty arises 
 from the speed with which the mandrel is driven by the 
 fly-wheel. The traverse is proportionally affected, and is 
 correct; but it is too quick for most purposes. The remedy 
 is to have one speed-pulley of the fly-wheel so small that 
 the mandrel shall make but one turn to one of the crank 
 axle, and then to have a large pulley on the overhead, to 
 gear with the smallest on the mandrel. The same thing is 
 done better by having a worm wheel and tangent screw 
 fitted to the rest-screw or mandrel; but this will be more 
 costly, and, unless for exceptional purposes, is not necessary. 
 
 We do not, indeed, advocate this plan for screw-cutting in 
 a general way, unless a second shaft can be added, to facilitate 
 the variations of speed. To take down the main shaft, in 
 order to affix a pulley which again needs to be tested several 
 times, and then, after each trial, to replace it, entails a deal 
 of awkward and unsatisfactory work. Hence, in one form 
 of overhead, a short, intermediate shaft has been added, 
 which can be replaced between the lathe centres, in order 
 to turn its pulleys, and again placed in its bearings without 
 having to remove the main shaft at all. The latter is, in 
 fact, too long to be thus mounted between the centres of its 
 own lathe. Sometimes a shaft is added upon two short 
 standards at the back of the lathe, instead of, or in addition 
 to, the high ones which carry the long shaft and its pulleys. 
 In that case, the lower shaft may be quite short, to receive 
 the change wheels, or sized pulleys, which take their place. 
 
 From what was said about change wheels in the screw- 
 
USES OF THE OVERHEAD. 119 
 
 cutting lathe, it will be seen that a large variety of threads 
 can be cut with two pulleys only ; and here we can do 
 without the intermediate idle wheel, as we can at once 
 change the direction of traverse by merely crossing the 
 driving cord. We can even reckon the sizes of pulleys by 
 the same tables which give us the sizes or number of teeth 
 in the wheels. A wheel of sixty teeth we may match with 
 a pulley of 60in. circumference, or sixty half or quarter inches, 
 and then one of twenty or ten teeth will match a pulley of 
 20in. or lOin., or half or quarter inches. Thus there will 
 be no guesswork, and the pulley may even be turned 
 accurately to size at once, without repeated testing. 
 
 Another use of the overhead is to drive emery wheels or 
 grinders, held in a proper shank, similar to that used for 
 drilling. By this a bar of iron or steel, between centres, 
 can be ground to absolute truth after it has been turned, 
 and even hardened. The lathe centres too, can at any time 
 be ground true, and the points renewed when worn. 
 
 From the remarks we have now made, it will be seen that an 
 overhead is such a useful addition to a lathe as to be well 
 worth its original cost. It can, if desired, be also easily rigged 
 up by the amateur with standards of wood, and an axle made 
 of gas pipe, plugged at each end, and with centres drilled 
 and hardened. At the same time, a properly -fitted one, entirely 
 of metal, not only looks neater, but is unquestionably better. 
 The roller should preferably be made hollow, so as to lighten 
 it, and the standards should be substantial enough to check 
 vibration as much as possible. 
 
 Before quitting this subject, it may be as well to point 
 out that the drilling spindle, which is supplied with the 
 overhead in the lathes of the Britannia Co., may be fitted 
 to do eccentric work of interlacing circles, by the simple 
 expedient of cranking the drills, so that they shall trace 
 circles as they revolve. According to the length of the 
 cranked part, so will be, of course, the size of circle, each 
 requiring a different drill; but these are so easily made, 
 that the defect in question is unimportant. The proper 
 tool for such work is the eccentric cutter, in which the 
 little tool can be placed at any distance from the centre of 
 
120 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 rotation; so that it may be called a cranked drill, with 
 self-contained power of adjustment. With this, or the simpler 
 substitute, the index plate must, of course, be used to determine 
 the distance between the several circles. Their position on 
 the work is regulated by the slide-rest. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 ON CHOOSING A LATHE. 
 
 HE selection of a lathe is not a difficult task, if certain 
 things are granted. Let the necessary outlay be of no 
 importance, and let the purchaser know what he wants, 
 and he may obtain his desire without much trouble. But 
 these two requirements are not always, nor generally, forth- 
 coming; and if the first is there, it by no means follows 
 that the second is. A wealthy amateur may, it is true, 
 enter the shop of a first-class lathe maker, and give a 
 general order for an outfit, and on the receipt of the same, 
 together with a bill, in which the sum total is as likely to 
 contain four figures as three, he will not know the use of 
 one-half the things that meet his view. Admire them he 
 certainly will, if his tastes are mechanical; but we do not 
 usually buy lathes as we buy pictures merely to look at so 
 that little satisfaction is produced by the purchase. Letting 
 our millionaire alone to order what he pleases, let us address 
 the amateur who can only muster a few pounds, and who, 
 therefore, wishes to get the best he can for his money. If 
 he has never turned at all, but is really a beginner, a very 
 plain and simple lathe will be all that he will need no slide- 
 rest and no overhead; a Sin. plain lathe, for instance, sold 
 by the Britannia Co. at about 5. This is really a beautiful 
 little tool, running easily, and is capable of a great deal 
 of light work. Draughts, chessmen, egg-cups, ring stands, 
 salt-cellars, bottle cases, boxes of various designs, needle 
 and bodkin cases, tool handles, drawer knobs, rulers all 
 
122 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 kinds of things up to 4in. diameter, and a foot or so in 
 length, can be as well done as upon a larger lathe, costing 
 a score of pounds ; or if he is inclined to take up model 
 engineering, he may turn up all parts of small engines in 
 this lathe, as well as any job of light work in brass, iron, 
 or gunmetal. But even in this case we would recommend 
 a lot of practice in turning wood with hand tools before 
 embarking in metal. All metal-workers should be able, 
 for instance, to make their own chucks and wooden patterns, 
 and to turn the handles of their own tools. It is sometimes 
 recommended to learners to buy at once a larger and more 
 expensive kind of lathe, because it will always be capable 
 of additions, and worthy of them. A lathe, e.g., of 5in. 
 centre, with first-class mandrel, and all parts of best make 
 and quality, may, by additions, be gradually converted into 
 an ornamental lathe capable of first-class work in ivory 
 and hard wood. The advice, good as it is under certain 
 circumstances, may be modified somewhat with advantage. 
 Suppose such a lathe to have been purchased at, perhaps, 
 30 or 35, it has to stand the rough treatment which almost 
 of necessity a beginner will bring to bear upon it. By the 
 time the learner has so far advanced as to begin to aim at 
 higher class work, the bed and other parts will exhibit 
 marks of injury ; or it may be and it is a frequent contingency 
 the tyro becomes tired of turning, finding it less satisfactory 
 or less pleasurable than he expected, and the occupation 
 gives place to some other hobby. The lathe is then 
 delegated to the lumber-room, or returned to the maker, 
 or sold, at a ridiculous sacrifice, to some knowing pur- 
 chaser. Hence, it is certainly a more sensible plan to 
 begin with one of the small, cheap lathes, and eventually to 
 replace it entirely by a larger and better, if the art of turning 
 has been found satisfactory. The little lathe will then come 
 in for grinding, sawing, or drilling, if no customer takes a 
 fancy to it; but a 5 lathe is more easily resold at 3, than 
 a 50 one at 30; in point of fact, it will probably not 
 fetch 20. 
 
 Let us now suppose that the art has been fairly learnt 
 upon a cheap lathe, and a tolerable amount of skill gained 
 
ON CHOOSING A LATHE. 123 
 
 in the use of hand tools alone. It is now desired to purchase 
 a better lathe, as a permanent machine for the workshop. 
 By this time the turner will have discovered for himself in 
 what direction his tastes lie whether he is inclined to stick 
 to plain hand turning in wood, or to advance to eccentric and 
 ornamental work in ivory; or whether, on the other hand, he 
 prefers working in metal. He may, of course, intend to 
 work at each of these as occasion offers; but one or the 
 other is pretty sure to have the preference. Ornamental 
 turning, especially in its higher grades, is by far the most 
 costly of all. A little may be done with an inexpensive lathe 
 and tools but very little ; and few who get thus far are 
 contented to remain there, but are ambitious to rival the 
 greater works of the masters in this captivating branch of 
 the turner's art. The exact opposite in the matter of expense, 
 is plain hand turning, by which chair and table legs, 
 pillarets for various purposes, Elizabethan twisted work et 
 id genus omne may be made, and indefinitely multiplied. 
 For this a Sin. centre lathe is very suitable. It should have 
 a bed 5ft. or 6ft. long, either of wood or metal, and should 
 run very easily, and be arranged for high speeds i.e., the 
 fly-wheel should be large, and the mandrel pulley proportionately 
 small. Mandrel and collars should be of hard steel, kept 
 well oiled. 
 
 A wood- turner should be able to stand at his lathe many 
 successive hours without undue fatigue, and he cannot possibly 
 do this if his lathe runs sluggishly. In that case, a few 
 hours at the treadmill would be preferable. Now, this 
 kind of lathe may be purchased complete, and ready for 
 immediate use, and, if properly constructed, will wear for 
 years without deterioration. No slide-rest is necessary, the 
 chucks will be few and inexpensive, and mostly of wood, 
 to be made by the workman himself. Suppose, however, 
 that our friend prefers to take up metal turning, and to 
 make, for sale or for his own amusement, models of engines 
 and machinery which will involve drilling, boring, and occa- 
 sional screw -cutting. With a plain lathe, without back gear, 
 he can do all this ; but he should add a slide-rest. Accurate 
 boring of an engine cylinder can hardly be accomplished 
 
124 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 by a hand tool, and, where metal-work is to be freely practised, 
 a slide-rest must be considered indispensable. If nothing 
 else but such small model making is to be done, or the 
 making of scientific instruments, no lathe will beat the little 
 Miniature Screw-cutter, a Sin. centre lathe, fitted complete 
 with self-acting slide-rest and twenty-two change wheels the 
 cheapest and best lathe ever made of its kind. The price 
 asked (15 15s.) can hardly pay the makers a fair profit. 
 
 If work of a somewhat heavier class is to be attempted, 
 such as a small 1 horse power engine for real use, it will 
 be better to get the next size, viz., a 4in. or 5in. screw-cutting 
 lathe, costing 20 to 25. This is no mere amateur's lathe, 
 but a strong and serviceable workshop tool. The Britannia Co., 
 of Colchester, may be fairly said to have popularised the 
 screw-cutting lathe. Only a few years ago, 50 to 80 was 
 about the lowest price at which it could be obtained; whereas 
 now, the treble-geared lathe, which has been described 
 and illustrated on a previous page, can be purchased at that 
 price, inclusive of various chucks and fittings not hitherto 
 included in the estimate. These are, moreover, not shoddy, 
 but sound, substantial tools, which stand the severe tests 
 required by the British Government, for whom they were 
 originally designed. 
 
 For short screws, and for all kinds of work in hard wood 
 and ivory, no lathe can equal that with a traversing man- 
 drel and screw guides generally six in number. Such lathes 
 are not intended for careless use, nor are they fit for 
 metal work of any size, although any light work may be 
 done on them. They are chiefly intended for high-class 
 ornamental work, and have hitherto been sold at prohibitive 
 prices. A newly-designed lathe has now been introduced, 
 which is strong, durable, and cheap, and as a lathe for general 
 amateur work it is exactly what was needed. Fitted with 
 an overhead and a drilling spindle, and eccentric cutter, it 
 will enable a turner to do a great deal of really handsome 
 work; and if an eccentric chuck is added, the outfit will bo 
 complete for anyone who cannot afford to give fabulous 
 prices for complicated apparatus. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 GRINDING AND SETTING TOOLS. 
 
 IN" no mechanical trade can good work be done by badly 
 sharpened tools. Keenness of edge is necessary, and also 
 something more, namely, a correct form of edge. To the 
 turner this is essential; yet it is the very detail of practical 
 work which an amateur often neglects. Tool-grinding, being 
 anything but a pleasant job, is put off as long as possible, and 
 then it is done hurriedly and inefficiently. A grindstone 
 worked by a treadle should find a place in every workshop. 
 Such a machine is now readily obtainable, with an iron water- 
 trough below, hinged so that it can be lowered when done 
 with, thus preventing the stone from resting in the water, and 
 becoming soft in one place a defect that will rapidly throw 
 it out- of truth. Even when grinding, the water need not 
 flood the stone. Let it be wet enough to prevent particles of 
 steel from becoming bedded in it, as well as to prevent heating 
 in the tool; but a stone running over with water is a nuisance, 
 and makes such a mess as ought not to be tolerated, even if 
 the water does not run down the arm, and sodden the shirt 
 sleeves, which is a very good lesson of "How not to do it." 
 
 The faces applied to the stone in the case of a turner's 
 chisel, which is ground on both sides to equal bevels, are to 
 be made as flat as it is possible to make them ; and the bevels 
 must be also long, so as to produce a very small angle at the 
 cutting edge. A short bevel is of no use for soft-wood 
 turning. The general fault is a rounded or convex face, 
 made still more so by the final touches on the oilstone, by 
 
128 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 which, a finish is given. If the bevel is not flat or slightly 
 hollow, no satisfactory work can be done. A turner's chisel 
 is not ground off square to its length, but slanting, so as to 
 form one obtuse and one acute point; therefore, during the 
 process of grinding, the tool must not lie quite in the run of 
 the stone, but a little on one side, causing the blade to lie 
 at a small angle across it. In grinding and setting a plane 
 iron, the face is ground to an acute angle, and then this angle 
 is reduced some two or three degrees by the oilstone, which 
 makes a second narrow facet. But with a turning chisel, the 
 oilstone should merely remove the slight burr or wire edge 
 caused by the stone, without reducing the angle perceptibly. 
 This will give the utmost possible keenness to the tool. There 
 are one or two appliances for assisting an amateur in this 
 operation, by supplying a guide to insure the flatness of face ; 
 but it is better to do it by hand alone, and not to become 
 dependent on artificial aids. 
 
 The gouge requires similar treatment to a chisel, but is 
 more difficult to sharpen nicely. Of course, the part to be 
 ground is semi-cylindrical, and, to prevent cutting a groove 
 in the stone, the tool should lie across it, and be rolled to 
 and fro upon it ; but in the other direction there must be 
 no rounding. The bevel, as such, must be flat, so that a 
 straight-edge, applied to it lengthwise, will touch it equally 
 from the end to the point. In this case the inside, or hollow 
 part, is not bevelled, but is kept quite flat, and, to take off 
 any wire edge, an oilstone slip is used, called a gouge slip. 
 It is wedge-shaped, with one thick and one thin edge, and 
 both are rounded, so as to be suited to gouges of different 
 sizes. Two such slips will suffice. We may sum up the 
 previous remarks by saying that the rule for grinding chisels 
 and gouges for soft-wood turning is to form flat, long bevels, 
 merely iising the oilstone to remove wire edge, and bring the 
 process to a perfect finish, without reducing the angle to 
 which the tool has been ground to any perceptible degree. 
 This, like other mechanical operations, always presents a 
 certain amount of difficulty, which practice will overcome. 
 The secret of success is patience; to hurry the job is to 
 spoil it. 
 
GRINDING AND SETTING TOOLS. . 127 
 
 This perfect flatness of the face of a tool holds good on 
 such as are to be used upon hard wood and inetal; but in 
 these the actual edge is not so keen, but contains a larger 
 angle. Most of these tools are ground on one side only, 
 those which are hollow, like beading tools, being laid quite 
 flat on the stone, and the hollow part only receiving a rub 
 from a gouge slip. When they absolutely require grinding, 
 owing to breakage, they are ground upon cones of brass fed 
 with emery. This, however, is only likely to be required in 
 the case of tools for ornamental turning. Hand beading 
 tools are merely rubbed quite flat upon the oilstone. It will 
 be almost self-evident that accurate grinding needs an accu- 
 rately level stone, the face of which must be neither hollow 
 nor rounding, nor convex. A convex face will, of course, pro- 
 duce a concave edge, and vice versa. Hence, a careful workman 
 takes as much care of his grindstone as of any other tool, 
 and, as soon as ever he finds it the least out of truth, he sets 
 to work to true it up again. This is best done by turning 
 its face with a tool formed of a bit of nail rod, which is rolled 
 over as one part gets blunt. It is rested on the frame, or on 
 a block of wood laid across the bearers. The stone is kept 
 damp, and the turning continued, until a perfectly true face is 
 obtained. It is then finished with a bit of hoop iron. The 
 job is a tiresome one, and dirty, but more so the longer it is 
 delayed. 
 
 Among other tools which will need occasional grinding are 
 screw or chasing tools. Now these are formed upon hobs, or 
 revolving screw-taps, which cut the teeth. They are, conse- 
 quently, never ground except upon the upper side, or flat face, 
 which will perfectly renew their cutting edges. Sometimes 
 this face is slightly bevelled off at the end where the teeth are ; 
 but this is a lazy plan, not to be recommended. They seldom 
 need either grindstone or oilstone, but when necessary let the 
 upper face be kept quite flat. The tools- will, of course, get 
 thinner, but are equally serviceable; and if they become too 
 weak for metal, they will do perfectly well for hard wood, and 
 even better for bone and ivory. 
 
 The graver, the tool par excellence for iron and steel, is a 
 square bar of steel ground off at an angle of 45 from 
 
128 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 corner to corner. In this case, again, a perfectly flat face is 
 alone capable of producing accurate cutting edges of 60. 
 If the face is rounded, all is uncertainty, for the cutting edges 
 are then of no determinate angle, nor are they capable of being 
 placed accurately in the best position for cutting. There are 
 small grindstones and emery wheels, fitting on a spindle, to run 
 between the lathe centres. These are of necessarily small 
 diameter, so that, if a tool is held still as they revolve, a flat 
 cannot be ground, but a concave surface. Now, of the two evils 
 a rounded or a hollowed face the latter is unquestionably 
 the least, as it does not prohibit the production of a sharp 
 edge. But it is an evil nevertheless. By drawing the tool 
 to and fro lengthwise upon the stone, the error may be partially 
 annulled; but, on the whole, these small grinders are more suited 
 for drills and punches, and small tools, than for chisels and 
 .such like. Moreover, no one who values a good lathe will 
 use such apparatus, especially emery wheels. The grit gets 
 into the collar, and grinds the bearings, especially if the collars, 
 or bushes, are of brass or gunmetal. The particles become 
 embedded in the softer metal, and will cut a nick in the 
 mandrel in a very short time. It is far better, and but little 
 more expensive, to have all grinding apparatus on a separate 
 stand. Of oilstones there are several kinds. The Arkansas 
 is good, and for rough work, the Tarn o'Shanter. But a real 
 good Turkey beats all the rest. A bit of even grit, without 
 hard spots, is a treasure worthy of all care. Perhaps, next to 
 this, carpenters appreciate a "Charley Forrester," the real 
 name being, not Charley, but Chorley, in Cheshire, whence the 
 supply is obtained. This stone will produce a very fine edge. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 ON METAL-SPINNING 
 
 TT7HE art of metal- spinning is the most interesting sub- 
 1 ject that an amateur or novice can practise, and on 
 which very little has, up to the present, been written 
 to guide, or, at least, to be of any practical value; there- 
 fore I will describe the process, &c., in as few words as 
 possible, and without going into technical details. 
 
 Assuming that the amateur possesses a lathe on which a 
 high speed can be obtained (as the success of the operation 
 depends a great deal upon this); also taking it for granted 
 that he understands the working of his lathe, and is able 
 to use his tools, at least for wood turning all the addition 
 he will require is a tool-rest with at least six in. round 
 holes drilled in about fin. apart, in which small iron or 
 steel pegs are placed to serve as a side rest for obtaining 
 a powerful side leverage to his tool (see Figs. 2 and 3, Plate XV.). 
 These have to be shifted as the work advances or is spun over 
 the wooden pattern. 
 
 The tools required are a roughening and a finishing tool, 
 sometimes called burnishers ; also a beading tool (see aa, bb, 
 and c, Plate XIV.). Having all these, I will now proceed to 
 describe the process : 
 
 After having chucked, or screwed a piece of hard wood 
 on your lathe mandrel, turn it to the shape or pattern 
 desired, care being taken at first not to attempt an elabo- 
 rate pattern, but a plain one, that is not too deep; after 
 this, cut out a circular disc of sheet copper, or brass, which, 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
130 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 of course, requires to be previously well annealed by placing 
 it into a bright fire, and making it just red, and then cool- 
 ing which latter is best done by plunging it into cold 
 water, and wiping dry with a bit of waste, which gets rid 
 of a large portion of the oxide and it is ready for use. 
 Place this next your pattern, backed by a piece of turned 
 wood to keep the metal in place and from shifting ; then bring 
 up your tail-stock (see Figs. 2 and 3, Plate XY. : B, turned 
 wooden pattern; C, circular metal disc; D, piece of turned 
 wood or backing ; and E, tail-stock). Next lubricate the front 
 face of the metal disc on which you are going to operate 
 with a little machine oil, applied with a brush or piece of 
 oily waste, to prevent the tool scratching, and save unneces- 
 sary friction, adjust your rest (A, Figs. 2 and 3, Plate XY.) at a 
 suitable distance, place in your pins or pegs, and you are 
 now ready to commence operations. 
 
 Place your tool (act, Plate XIY.) in the position as 
 shown in Fig. 3, Plate XY., and bring a side pressure to bear 
 on your metal disc, and, with a sweeping motion from the 
 centre to the outer edge of disc, try to force the metal over 
 your pattern, taking care that the outer edge and sides of 
 disc always run perfectly true, as the success of forcing the 
 metal over greatly depends on this. Should you by accident 
 slip over the outer edge with your tool, which would cause 
 your metal to buckle, remove it, and straighten; and do not 
 have your disc larger than is actually required if too large, 
 turn down with a graver. Having got the metal satisfactorily 
 forced or spun over the wooden pattern, finish with tool 
 bb, Plate XIY., by using the flat edge against yonr metal, 
 which, if properly done, ought to give it the appearance 
 of a highly burnished surface, without showing any of the 
 ridges previously made by tool aa (Plate XIY.). 
 
 Figs. 5 and 6 (Plate XYI.) are examples of two different pat- 
 terns which will best show the gradual shapes the metal ought 
 to assume, commencing at 1, and finishing at 5. The novice, 
 in his first attempts, will have to give the metal as it pro- 
 gresses several annealings before he will get it spun over, 
 but after practice will do so without any difficulty. 
 
 The gauge or thickness of metal to be used at first should 
 
F/G. / 
 
 ce. 
 
 PLATE XIV. -TOOLS FOR METAL-SPINNING 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
OF THE 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
* 
 
 N 
 
OF THE ^ ^V 
 
 IVERSITT) 
 Of J 
 
ON METAL-SPINNING. 137 
 
 be 26 B.W.G. ; but after the novice has become proficient, 
 thicker metal may be used, and other metals may be sub- 
 stituted, such as zinc, tinplate, nickel silver, &c. 
 
 The variety of work that may be done is very great; 
 elaborate patterns may be spun and joined together by 
 beading or soldering, &c., to suit the taste and requirements 
 of the amateur. The examples given here are only to illus- 
 trate the process. 
 
 After practice, the worker will see numerous objects which 
 he can spin; and as he can make his own patterns, the cost 
 of experiments are trifling the metals being thin, cost but 
 little, and if spoiled can be sold for old metal. 
 
CHAPTER XIY. 
 THE ORNAMENTAL DRILL AND ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 
 
 LTHOUGH we have already disclaimed all intention of 
 J[3l treating fully on ornamental turning, which would 
 need many costly illustrations, and a vast extension of 
 the size of this book, the two instruments heading the present 
 chapter seem to call for attention. The first is, indeed, sup- 
 plied very frequently with the overhead, and the latter 
 enables certain work to be done which is not strictly of the 
 ornamental class. 
 
 THE DRILLING INSTRUMENT, 
 
 Of which an illustration is appended (Fig. 25), consists of a 
 square stem of steel, usually finished to the size of ^in., which 
 enables it to enter and fit accurately the receptacle of an 
 ornamental turning slide-rest. It lies in the channel of this 
 
 FIG. 25. THE DRILLING INSTRUMENT. 
 
 receptacle, and can be faced about in either direction, so as 
 to stand parallel with the mandrel, at right angles to it, or 
 at any other intermediate angle. The top or side of a box, 
 or other article, may therefore be operated on with equal 
 facility. At each end of the square bar or stem a steel collar 
 
THE ORNAMENTAL DRILL AND ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 139 
 
 is inserted, which is hardened to reduce friction and prevent 
 wear. The front collar, next the drill, is coned out accurately. 
 The spindle, with a socket at one end for the drills, and a 
 steel pulley at the other, is also of steel, and is hardened 
 where it passes through the collars. The utmost care is 
 needed in fitting it; and when it begins to run loose, it is 
 tightened in its bearings by giving a turn to the nut behind 
 the pulley. 
 
 So great is the accuracy required in this instrument, that 
 the drills have to be turned in the spindle itself after fitting 
 
 FIG. 26. ORNAMENTAL DRILLS. 
 
 their shanks into it. In no other way can the cutting ends 
 of the drills be made sufficiently true. Take, for instance, the 
 drill used for beading, on which a few words have been 
 written in a previous chapter. It is seen, by the annexed 
 drawing (No. 1, Fig. 26), to consist of two cutting points, 
 united by a semicircular hollow. If it runs accurately 
 true, the result will be a hemispherical knob, or bead, perfect 
 in form, and free from any fash or roughness on either 
 side at its base. If, however, the points are not equally 
 distant from the axial line, one will cut into the work 
 of the other; and if the curved part, which is also keenly 
 sharpened, is irregular in shape, the same result will occur, 
 and no good work can be done. Or if, again, a pointed 
 drill is used, and the point is a hair's breadth out of centre, 
 it will describe a minute circle, and mar the work. Hence, 
 also, the curved edges of these little tools cannot be 
 finished with a file alone, but are ground upon little conical 
 grinders of brass, fed with fine emery, which gives them 
 
140 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 the necessary accuracy, as well as a keen and polished edge. 
 The drills with flat or stepped edges are finished -with little 
 square slips of oilstone. 
 
 Evidently, tools needing all this care in construction cannot 
 be very cheaply made, and, being costly, many amateurs 
 learn to make their own. It is not a very difficult task, but 
 it is decidedly a tedious one, and the better way is to be 
 contented with a small set, and to take care of them. A 
 good deal of very pretty work may be done with a dozen, 
 carefully selected, and kept in good working order. 
 
 The way to make them is to take a small bar of steel, as 
 near the size of the socket as possible, and to fit it very carefully 
 with a file, so that it shall enter truly, and fit without shake. 
 Even this requires care, and turning is better than filing; 
 but, at any rate, the bar should be centred in the lathe, and 
 filed while in rotation. The socket is usually made with a 
 taper hole, or with a cylindrical one having a cross-mortice, 
 in which case the drill shank has a flat on one side. This 
 secures its position, and affords a ready means of pushing it 
 out by the insertion of a small lever. That illustrated (Fig. 25) 
 has a side screw, to secure the drills, and the screw will mark the 
 tool, so that it can always be put into its socket in the same 
 position. In fitting such a socket, the bit of steel must be 
 secured by the screw before turning it of the required form, 
 otherwise, the next time it is inserted the screw will force it 
 out of truth. Supposing the bit of steel fitted and cut off, 
 o as to stand out about half an inch, the shank is secured 
 in the slide-rest, and a cord arranged to drive it from the 
 overhead. A hand-rest is now brought up, and the drill is 
 turned up by means of a graver and small files. If it is for 
 beading, the end is turned cylindrical for a distance of about 
 in., or rather less, which, when the sides are subsequently 
 flattened, and the end forked by a rat-tail file, will insure 
 the points being equidistant from the axial line of the spindle. 
 The curve filed out, will, as stated, have to be finished to 
 accuracy on a conical grinder. If, instead of a beading, a 
 fluting drill is needed, the end will be turned to a hemi- 
 spherical form, and the sides will be afterwards filed flat. 
 There is an apparatus often sold to assist in grinding the 
 
THE ORNAMENTAL DRILL AND ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 141 
 
 curve of a fluting drill; bub it is sometimes done by the 
 eye. It will, nevertheless, make a great difference in the 
 appearance of the work to have a perfectly-formed cun*e at 
 the cutting end of the drill. 
 
 These precautions may be considered, by some of our 
 readers, unnecessary ; but if they could compare good orna- 
 mental work with that which is, at least, of indifferent quality, 
 they would at once recognise the great difference between thf 
 two. In the one, the tool leaves not only a clean, decided 
 cut, of well- denned outline, but a polished surface, which is 
 due to the sharp, accurate, and burnished edge of the tool; 
 in the other will be irregularity and indecision of outline, 
 and a rough surface, which cannot afterwards be smoothed 
 and polished. This polish produced by the tool is an essen- 
 tial of ornamental turning. No sand-papering er varnishing 
 is permissible, as it rounds off edges, and gives a poor look 
 to the work; all that is ever done is to give a rub with a 
 hard, dry brush ; and even this is often impossible with 
 delicate tracery, for drilling can be so finely executed as to 
 produce something comparable to lacework. 
 
 The actual work of drilling is carried out as follows : We 
 will suppose it desired to arrange a row of beads round a box 
 cover, and on the face of the same : the manipulation will, 
 however, be the same if the beads are to be on its convex 
 surface. Having selected a drill of suitable diameter, and 
 inserted it firmly in the socket of the drilling spindle, the 
 rest is turned, so as to place the instrument parallel with 
 the lathe bed, and with the centre line of the drill spindle 
 exactly true with the lathe centres. This position is essential. 
 "We will suppose that the division-plate has 180 holes, and 
 that the index point is in Zero. As the work is, presumably, 
 smaller considerably than the face of the mandrel pulley, 
 there will not be room for 180 beads, but the index will have 
 to be shifted a certain number of holes after each advance 
 of the drill. A large pulley has 360 holes in the outer 
 circle ; but, very possibly, there may only be 180 for the 
 outside circle, with, perhaps, other smaller circles of 100, 112, 
 96, or other generally useful numbers, those divisible into 
 as many equal parts as possible being selected. Now, ISO 
 
142 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 will divide by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and is a very good number to Lave 
 on the pulley ; we can therefore drill 90, 60, 45, 36, or 30 
 beads, and have only to decide whether they shall touch each 
 other, or nearly so, or whether there shall remain a decided 
 space between. Suppose we start on a trial of 60 : there 
 will be three holes to move the index each time. Bringing 
 up the drill very gently, a slight circle is traced just barely 
 Visible. The index is then shifted three divisions, after 
 withdrawing the tool, and a second very light cut is made. 
 If these actually touch, they are too close for a beading 
 drill of that size ; but a smaller one can be used, or the 
 index must be shifted one hole i.e., there will now be four 
 holes to move it each time, and instead of 60 beads we shall 
 get but 45. These trials must always be made with care, 
 or, when the cut is deepened, one bead will be found to be 
 cut into and spoilt in cutting the adjacent one. If it is found 
 correct, all that remains is to advance the tool each time to 
 precisely the same distance, and to shift the index correctly 
 after each cut. This entails careful counting, and, in practice, 
 becomes very tedious ; but there is no help for it, except by means 
 of a very expensive automatic counter. We may now suppose 
 the circle of beads correctly drilled, and that, as an additional 
 ornamentation, radial flutes are required. Fluting the outside of 
 a cylinder has already been described, and, of course, for the 
 present operation on the face of the work, similar round-ended 
 drills are needed, which must, therefore, be substituted for the 
 beading drill. In all work intended for face ornamentation, a 
 minute centre point should be left when it is turned, to form 
 a guide for exact centrality of the drill, or for the tools used 
 in the eccentric cutter. If such is not the case, let the index 
 be removed, so as to free the pulley, and let such a mark be 
 now made. Then bring up the fluting drill, and set it spin- 
 ning, and note if it is exact to height of centre; if not, let 
 it be accurately adjusted. It is assumed that, for such work 
 as this, an ornamental slide-rest is at hand; but it is a 
 costly affair, and it is just possible to use that intended for 
 metal, only the screws are less accurate, and there are no 
 adjusting stops to check the advance of the tool, so as to 
 insure all cuts being of equal depth, and all flutes of equal 
 
THE ORNAMENTAL DRILL AND ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 143 
 
 length. Some mark must therefore be made, or some stop 
 apparatus contrived instead. In any case, such work can only 
 be done tolerably with a rest of this kind; but care and patience 
 will accomplish wonders, and, with even worse appliances, mar- 
 vellously good results have been attained. 
 
 But to resume. The drill being carefully set to height of 
 centres, and its pulley, of course, banded to the overhead, the 
 tool is traversed bodily by the slide-rest to form the flutes, 
 while the index point determines, as before, the distances 
 between them. Trial is also made of such distances as was 
 done in the case of the beads so as to determine how close 
 together they shall be, and whether or not each shall touch 
 its neighbour. The length of each must be determined; and, 
 unless a proper rest is used, which has divisions marked, and 
 also a pair of proper fluting stops, a little mark is to be made, 
 with a fine centre punch, at which, at each traverse, the slide 
 of the rest is to stop. Now, with radial flutes on a flat 
 surface, such as the top of a box-cover, it will not look well 
 to have them equally broad and deep at both ends; yet the 
 same drill must cut them. How is it to be managed ? Simply 
 by placing the rest at a slight angle, by means of the quadrant- 
 plate, instead of having it truly parallel to the face of the 
 work. Thus, the drill must be quite out of cut when it 
 arrives at the centre, and at its fullest depth at the other 
 end of its course. There is an advantage, moreover, in this 
 plan, because it is not necessary to have any mark or stop 
 at the shallow end of the flute. The tool will cut itself clear 
 with accuracy, each time, just before it reaches the centre, 
 or, if preferred, at a point more or less distant from the centre, 
 according to the setting of the rest. Radial fluting always 
 has a nice effect, and is a simple and easy process. A very 
 effective kind of fluting is the stepped fluting, cut with 
 different-sized drills. A broad flute is first cut, as already 
 described, of equal depth from end to end. A narrower drill 
 is then substituted, and carried along so as to cut away the 
 bottom of that first made, and this is carried to a given depth. 
 With a still smaller drill, the second flute has its centre cut 
 away and deepened. Beads of this kind are also done at one 
 cut by a stepped drill, which leaves its counterpart upon the 
 
144 TURNING LATHES 
 
 work. It is also cut with drills having a square end, like a 
 chisel, which gives a different effect to that produced by a 
 round-end tool; but the mode of work is the same in all 
 
 cases. 
 
 THE ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 
 
 This instrument of which an illustration is annexed (Fig. 27) 
 enables a turner to do much of the preceding work ; but, in 
 addition, he has the means of carving out many forms otherwise 
 incapable of being made in the lathe such, for instance, as 
 cubes and polygons. The eccentric cutter will also produce 
 most beautiful and intricate patterns on face work, when such 
 
 FIG. 27. THE ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 
 
 can be composed of interlacing circles, as is the case with 
 the majority of such patterns. For stepped fluting it is 
 also a superior instrument to the drilling spindle, because 
 its range is greater. By its means, broad recesses can be cut 
 out ; and, the more it is used, the more will its many uses be 
 discovered. The simpler operations carried out by its aid 
 we shall proceed to describe ; the rest will soon be discovered 
 by the turner. 
 
 The eccentric cutter is made, up to a certain point, exactly 
 like a drilling instrument, but, instead of a socket, a small 
 steel frame is attached, of which, when the apparatus is lying 
 in the tool receptacle of the rest, the upper face is exactly 
 level with the lathe centres. It will be seen by the drawing 
 
THE ORNAMENTAL DRILL AND ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 145 
 
 that it is filed down for that purpose. The frame constitutes 
 a little slide-rest, to hold the small cutters, which are carried 
 along by a leading screw of ten threads to the inch, and are 
 secured, by a screw clamp, at any distance from the centre. 
 The screw head is graduated to ten divisions, so that each 
 shall represent upon the slide yV n> Generally there are also 
 engraved half-divisions. To set the instrument for face 
 work, a point tool is inserted, and made to tally with the 
 minute mark left in the centre of the work, as described in 
 reference to the drill. If all is "at centre," and the instru- 
 ment made properly, the tool will drill a hole, and not cut a 
 circle. Unless it will do this, it will be useless for ornamental 
 turning; and when the tool is thus set, the index at the 
 milled head of the slide ought to read Zero. If it does not, 
 however, it is not fatal to the tool, but is inconvenient, 
 especially in copying any published patterns. It must b'e 
 always remembered that, as the face of the slide is diametrical, 
 the face of the tool, and not the bevelled side, must lie upon 
 it; and in testing it, that side must be really dead flat, and 
 not in the least bevelled off at the point, otherwise the instru- 
 ment may be condemned unjustly. Evidently, to a certain 
 extent i.e., if the frame is not in the way the eccentric 
 cutter can be used, with suitable tools, for the work more 
 generally effected by the drilling instrument, only the 
 shanks of the tools must be flat. 
 
 But the range of work that this instrument is capable of 
 is far wider than that of the drill. With a quarter-hollow 
 flat tool, very large beads can be cut, and with a pointed tool 
 an immense variety of patterns can be traced and deeply cut. 
 All such patterns are produced by interlacing circles of 
 various sizes. These can be placed diametrically, like A, 
 Fig. 28, or carried round the circle like B. In the former 
 case, the work would be held still by the index peg ; in 
 the latter, the mandrel would be moved round so many 
 divisions after each cut. "With a metal tiirning rest it 
 would be very difficult to space the radial circles, especially 
 if they are to be cut at very small distances apart. The 
 spacing must necessarily be done by the cross slide, moved a 
 certain distance after each cut by the screw; and unless it ia 
 
145 
 
 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 an unusually accurate one, and its head divided, the result 
 would show great unevenness and inequality. Here, again, as 
 in all such work, the very slightest irregularity in a pat- 
 tern is fatal. Hence, with such a rest, it will be easier to 
 make circular work, because the circles will be spaced by the 
 division plate and index. Even then, however, each advance 
 of the tool must be to an equal degree, or some circles will 
 be cut more deeply than o.thers, which will in effect alter the 
 distances between them. Fig. 28, of course, merely shows 
 the nature of this work. In practice, there would be five 
 
 FIG. 28. INTERLACING CIRCLES. 
 
 or six circles where one is drawn here. Coarse work, how- 
 ever, deeply cut, looks well in ivory. 
 
 Passing from traced, or mechanically engraved patterns a 
 variety of which will suggest themselves in practice we must 
 go on to show how this instrument is used as a carving 
 tool, and especially to cut out rectangular work. Figure 29 
 represents a cylinder which has been turned, and is held 
 in the chuck (A), and by the back centre, if necessary. 
 The part B is flat, and to cut it so the eccentric cutter is 
 used, with a small, flat, or round-ended cutter in it. The 
 slide-rest is adjusted so as to place the stem of the instru- 
 ment exactly at right angles to the lathe bed and mandrel. 
 The ornamental rest has a cradle, to ensure this position, but 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 THE ORNAMENTAL DRILL AND ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 147 
 
 it is quite possible to do without it. If the cylinder is itself 
 true, it can be secured, as usual, by the index peg, and then, 
 when the rest is set true as nearly as can be done by hand^- 
 the tool may be set just to touch one end, and can be carried 
 along the work horizontally, at height of centres. If it just 
 touches throughout its traverse, the setting is true; if not, 
 the rest must be re-adjusted. If now the tool is set just 
 to cut the cylinder, and rapidly rotated by the overhead 
 while carried along by the slide-rest, a series of circular cuts 
 
 FIG. 29. SQUARING CYLINDER BY ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 
 
 (a, b, c, d) will result, running into each other, and a 
 fiat will be produced upon the cylinder. It is represented 
 as bounded at E F by straight lines ; but these will, in reality, 
 be curved if the flat is not cut clean out at each end of 
 the cylinder. If it is so cut, the curve will be obliterated. 
 If the index peg is, to begin with, in hole 180, it is plain 
 that, by moving it to hole 45 (i|- = 45), we shall turn the 
 cylinder exactly one quarter round. If, therefore, we cut one 
 face by guess, until nearly the right size, and then, shifting 
 to 45, we do the same, the cuts will at last meet, and produce an 
 angle of 90, or a square. It will be exactly right if the tool at 
 45 A has been advanced exactly as far as it was at 180. When 
 the two cuts thus meet, therefore, the distance the tool has 
 advanced is noted, and marked upon the rest-slide. In cut- 
 ting the other two flats, it will only be necessary to work 
 exactly to the mark thus made. Here, again, an ornamental 
 rest has a stop-screw, as well as marked divisions. At present, 
 
148 
 
 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 an ornamental rest cannot be got under 10, and may reach 75 
 with all recent additions. But the Britannia Company, Colches- 
 ter, are scarcely likely to allow this state of things to continue. 
 Undoubtedly, a very useful rest may be produced for less 
 money, although the finish may not equal that of the 
 
 FIG. 30. SHAPING WORK WITH ECCENTRIC CUTTER 
 
 more costly article. Ornamental turning would, probably, 
 in that case be more extensively practised; and it has a 
 fascination which few can resist who have once given it a 
 trial, or seen it done by a skilled hand. From the very 
 slight sketch given here, it will be readily conjectured that 
 the eccentric cutter is of very extensive service as a carv- 
 ing, beading, fluting, and engraving tool. It can be used to 
 cut out rings and washers from flat pieces of ivory, and 
 small or large discs, such as are used for counters. Such 
 a plate as represented in Fig. 30, which might be the base 
 of a vase, or anything or nothing, can be cut out by this in- 
 strument with great facility, even if m. thick. The tool has to 
 be set in very rapid revolution, and advanced very gently; 
 
THE ORNAMENTAL DRILL AND ECCENTRIC CUTTER. 149 
 
 but the work proceeds with fair celerity, and the cut is clean, 
 without leaving tool marks, if the cutter is itself well made 
 and strong, and its spindle works, without the slightest shake, 
 in its bearings. With proper adjustments, cubes, and geometri- 
 cal solids of various kinds can be accurately carved, and the 
 several surfaces left from the tool highly finished, and even 
 polished. 
 
CHAPTER XY. 
 
 'HE GREATOREX PATENT MILLING MACHINE. 
 
 BIX the apparatus on the lathe bed at a convenient distance 
 from the headstock of the lathe, the cutter being already 
 in its place; there must, of course, be a suitable chuck 
 to hold the work. It is convenient to screw out the reducing 
 socket the same size as the bore chuck of the lathe, and so 
 utilise the lathe chucks when desirable. For larger work, it is 
 best to make the chuck to fit the revolving socket (A, Plate 
 XVIIL). Now for simplicity we will suppose we have a hexagon 
 nut to shape up: A tool (Fig. 1, Plate XYII.) is fixed in the drill 
 chuck of the lathe, and the object to be milled screwed to a peg 
 chuck fitting the reducing socket, or the revolving socket (A, 
 Plate XVIIL), as the case may be, the reducing socket or chuck 
 being fastened by the screw-bolt (B); it is then adjusted, by the 
 wheel (C) of the vertical slide, to its requisite height ; i.e., the 
 centre of the thickness of the object to be milled should be about 
 the height of the centre of the tool. Bring up the running 
 nut (D) to support the table (E), and fasten the set-screw (F). 
 Next see that the spindle of the spring catch (G) engages 
 with the requisite series of division holes. In this case it 
 will be the series of twenty-four holes, and taking every fourth 
 hole gives the six sides required. The cut should be now 
 set by the wheel (H) of the horizontal slide, and the socket (A) 
 secured by the set-screw (I). Now traverse the work by the 
 handle (K), but be sure not to let the work come on to the 
 cutter until the lathe is working at a fair rate. Set the 
 
fir 0: 
 
 PLATE XVII. TOOLS FOR MILLING MACHINES. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 
 CALIFORNIA- 
 
PLATE XVIII. BRITANNIA COMPANY'S MILLING MACHINE 
 (GREATOREX PATENT). 
 
UNIVERSITT 
 
PLATE XIX. BRITANNIA COMPANY'S MILLING MACHINE 
 
 (GREATOREX PATENT). 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 CALIFORNIA- 
 
GREATOREX PATENT MILLING MACHINE. 157 
 
 cut to the gauge by taking equal quantities off two opposite 
 sides of the object to be shaped, and the cut thus set com- 
 pletes the hexagon. 
 
 It will be seen at a glance that drilling is performed by 
 merely substituting a drill for the cutter, and the adjust- 
 ment obtained by the vertical wheel (0) and the handle (K), 
 the feed being giver by the horizontal wheel (H.) 
 
 These two processes represent the principle upon which 
 an endless variety of ornamental work in hard wood or 
 metal can be executed, the cutting edge of the tool being 
 turned to the required pattern ; always remembering, if the 
 work is concave, to turn the tool convex; and so on, with 
 reference to mouldings and raised or sunk forms, and with 
 perforations for drilled designs and coronas for lids, and the 
 many methods of ornamenting turned work, bounded only 
 by the taste of the operator. 
 
 Before fixing the combination chuck in" the socket (A) of the 
 apparatus (Plate XIX.), see that the set-bolt (B) faces the head- 
 stock of the lathe, also that the spring catch is in one of 
 the division holes, and the set-bolt (I) securely tightened; 
 the chuck can now be secured to the socket (A, Plate XVIII.) by 
 the set-bolt (B). 
 
 We will now suppose a tap is to be fluted. Place the 
 tap between the centres (C), securing it by the clamps (B), 
 tightening up by the screw (D). A round-nose tool (Fig. 4, 
 Plate XVII.) is used, and the centre line of the tap adjusted 
 to the centre of the tool; or if the tap is a little below the 
 centre of the tool, it gives a more decided cutting edge, 
 thus, J (one size tool will do several sizes of taps). Engage 
 the spring catch (E) with the requisite series of division holes 
 in disc (K), and traverse the tap to the tool by the handle (K, 
 Plate XYI1I.) until the flute is the required depth, then set it 
 by the division holes for the next groove, and so on, until 
 the job is completed. 
 
 We will now suppose a slot is to be cut in a rod. Place 
 the rod in the V gap, fasten down by the screws G. H; 
 use a tool (Fig. 2, Plate XYIL). It is best to drill a hole at 
 the two extremes of the length of the slot required. Let 
 the centre line of the rod be exactly opposite the centre of 
 
158 TURNING LATHES. 
 
 the tool; then traverse as in fluting. For key- way cutting, 
 see that the tool is shaped like Fig. 3 (Plate XYIL). 
 
 To use the chuck as a vice, remove the clamps (B) by with- 
 drawing the screws, and then objects can be gripped for 
 shaping, drilling, boring, or any other operation within the 
 range of the apparatus. 
 
 Fig. 5, Plate XVII., is a convenient tool for boring ; a small 
 cylinder can be gripped in the vice and bored with accuracy 
 by following the lines already given, but it is not well to 
 stop until the cut is through. 
 
 The remarks already offered concerning Ornamental Work 
 apply even more forcibly to the use of the combination chuck. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Apparatus for screw chasing, 42 
 Articles of square section, turning, 
 101 
 
 B. 
 
 Back-geared lathe, with gap for 
 
 metal, 63 
 Bar, Haydon, 72 
 Beads and mouldings in hard wood, 
 
 turning, 38 
 Bed of lathe, 2 
 Boring-collar, 31 
 Boxes, turning, 25 
 Boxwood, turning, 34 
 
 C. 
 
 Change wheels, tables of, 112 
 Chisel, using the, 19 
 Choosing a lathe, 121 
 Chuck, Essex, 10 
 
 for turning articles of square 
 section, 102 
 
 jeweller's, 4 
 
 self-centreing scroll, 6 
 
 self -centreing wood, 13 
 Chuck-making, 96 
 
 in metal, 98 
 
 in wood, 96 
 Chucks, 5 
 
 Circles, interlacing, 146 
 Cutter, eccentric, 144 
 
 grinding top face of, 76 
 
 how to grind, 74 
 
 Cutters, how to obtain correct 
 angles for, 75 
 
 Cutting screws in wood by hand 
 
 chaser, 40 
 
 Cylinder in hard- wood, turning, 37 
 turning a, 32 
 
 D. 
 
 Description of lathe, 2 
 Double edges, principle of, 69 
 Drilling, 141 
 
 instrument for ornamental 
 
 work, 138 
 Drills for ornamental work, 139 
 
 E. 
 
 Eccentric cutter, the, 144 
 Essex chuck, 10 
 
 Face plate, 9 
 
 F. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gauges, use of, 27, 28 
 Gouge, using the, 15 
 Greatorex milling machine, 150 
 Grinding cutters, 73 
 
 tools, 12 4 
 
 top face of cutter, 76 
 
 H. 
 
 Hand chaser, cutting screws in 
 wood by, 40 
 
 tools, metal-turning with, 53 
 Hard-wood turning, 34 
 
 turning, tools for, 34 
 
160 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Haydon bar, 72 
 
 Hollow ware, turning, 20 
 
 I. 
 
 Interlacing circles, 146 
 
 J. 
 Jeweller's chuck, 4 
 
 Lathe, description of the, 1 
 Loose cutters, principle of, 72 
 
 M. 
 
 Mandrel, 2 
 
 modern screw, 51 
 
 traversing, 49 
 Metal, chuck-making in, 98 
 
 slide-rest work in, 63 
 Metal-spinning, 129 
 
 lathes for, 133 
 
 shapes for, 130 
 
 tools for, 129 
 Metal-turning, tools for, 54 
 
 with hand tools, 53 
 Micrometer guide, Britannia Com- 
 pany's patent, 109 
 Milling machine, Greatorex, 150 
 Miniature screw-cutting lathe, 88 
 Modern screw mandrel, 51 
 
 0. 
 
 Oil for lathe, 2 
 Ornamental work, 138 
 
 work, drilling instrument for, 
 138 
 
 work, drills for, 139 
 
 work, eccentric cutter for, 144 
 Overhead lathe, 89 
 
 lathe, uses of the, 115 
 
 P. 
 
 Plankway of the grain, turning, 39 
 Poppet, back, 5 
 Prices of lathes, 122 
 Principle of double edges, 69 
 of loose cutters, 72 
 
 S. 
 
 Screw-chasing apparatus, 42 
 Screw-cutting by self-acting lathe, 
 
 91, 104 
 lathe, 88 
 
 preparing work for, 110 
 Self-acting lathe, 80 
 
 lathe, screw-cutting by, 104 
 Self-centreing scroll chuck, ama- 
 teur's, 6 
 wood chuck, 13 
 Set of tools for slide-rest, 70 
 Setting tools, 124 
 Shaping work with eccentric cut- 
 ter, 148 
 Slide-rest, small, 65 
 
 strong compound, 65 
 work, how to use tools for, 67 
 work in metal, 63 
 W. S. Brown's, 63 
 Solid forged tools for slide-rest 
 
 work in metal, 67 
 Square section, turning articles of, 
 
 101 
 Squaring cylinder by eccentric 
 
 cutter, 147 
 Stand for tools, 71 
 
 T. 
 
 Tool-handles, turning, 14 
 Tools for metal-spinning, 129 
 
 for metal-turning, 54 
 
 for slide-rest, set of, 70 
 
 for slide-rest work in metal, 66 
 
 for turning hard-wood, 34 
 
 for turning ivory, 34 
 
 grinding, 124 
 
 how to use, 14 
 
 setting, 124 
 
 solid forged, 66 
 
 stand for, 71 
 
 turning, 14 
 
 Traversing mandrel, use of, 49 
 Treble-geared lathe, 87 
 Triangular section, turning articles 
 of, 103 
 
 W. 
 Wood, chuck-making in, 96 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
Catalogue of Practical Handbooks 
 Published by L. Upcott Gill, 170, 
 Strand, London, IV. C. 
 
 ANGLER, BOOK OF THE ALL-ROUND. A Comprehensive 
 Treatise on Angling in both Fresh and Salt Water. In Four Divisions, 
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 Angling for Coarse Fish. Bottom Fishing, according to the 
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 AUTOGRAPH COLLECTING: A Practical Manual for Amateurs 
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 173 C 6/96 
 
2 Published by L. UPCOTT GILL, 
 
 BEES AND BEE-KEEPING: Scientific and Practical. By F. R. 
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 BEE-KEEPING, BOOK OP. A very practical and Complete Manual 
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 BOAT SAILING FOR AMATEURS. Containing Particulars of 
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 BOOKBINDING FOR AMATEURS : Being Descriptions of the 
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 BUNKUM ENTERTAINMENTS: A Collection of Original Laugh- 
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 BUTTERFLIES, THE BOOK OF BRITISH: A Practical 
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 out with very accurate Engravings of the Caterpillars, Chrysalids, and 
 
170, Strand, London, W.C. 
 
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 BUTTERFLY AND MOTH COLLECTING: Where to Search, 
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 CACTUS CULTURE FOR AMATEURS: Being Descriptions of 
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 CAGE BIRDS, DISEASES OF : Their Causes, Symptoms, and Treat- 
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 CANARY BOOK. The Breeding, Bearing, and Management of 
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 CANARY, THE PET. With some Instructions as to its Purchase, 
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 CARD TRICKS, BOOK OF, for Drawing-room and Stage Entertain- 
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 In illustrated wrapper, price 2s. 6(2., by post 2s. 9(2. 
 
 CARNATION CULTURE, for Amateurs. The Culture of Carnations 
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 By B. C. EAVENSCROFT. In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2cZ. 
 
 CATS, DOMESTIC OR FANCY: A Practical Treatise on their 
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 and Remedies, Exhibition and Judging. By JOHN JENNINGS. Illus- 
 trated. In cloth, price 2s. 6(2., by post 2s. 9(2. 
 
 CHRYSANTHEMUM CULTURE, for Amateurs and Professionals. 
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 B. C. EAVENSCROFT. In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d. 
 
 COINS, A GUIDE TO ENGLISH PATTERN, in Gold, Silver, 
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 the EEV. G. F. CROWTHER, M.A. Illustrated. In silver cloth, with gilt 
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 COINS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, A GUIDE 
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 COLLIE, THE. Its History, Points, and Breeding. By HUGH DALZIEL. 
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4 Published by L. UPCOTT GILL, 
 
 COLLIE STUD BOOK. Edited by HUGH DALZIEL. Price 3s. 6d. each, 
 by post 3s. 9d. each. 
 
 Vol. I., containing Pedigrees of 1308 of the beat-known Dogs, traced 
 to their most remote known ancestors ; Show Record to Feb., 1890, &c. 
 Vol. II. Pedigrees of 795 Dogs, Show Record, &c. 
 Vol. III. Pedigrees of 786 Doga, Show Record, &c. 
 
 COLUMBARIUM, MOORE'S. Reprinted Verbatim from the original 
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 CONJURING, BOOK OP MODERN. A Practical Guide to Drawing- 
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 COOKERY FOR AMATEURS ; or, French Dishes for English Homes 
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 By MADAME VALERIE. Second Edition. In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d. 
 
 CRICKET. The History of a Hundred Centuries, as Written by Dr. 
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 CUCUMBER CULTURE FOR AMATEURS. Including also 
 Melons, Vegetable Marrows, and Gourds. Illustrated. By W. J. MAT. 
 In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d. 
 
 CYCLIST'S ROUTE MAP of England and Wales. Shows clearly 
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 addition to this, Routes of Thirty of the most Interesting Tours are 
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 DESIGNING-, HARMONIC. Explaining a System whereby an 
 Endless Variety of Most Beautiful Designs suited to numberless 
 Manufactures may be obtained by Unskilled Persons from any Printed 
 Music. Illustrated by Numerous Explanatory Diagrams and Illustrative 
 Examples. By C. H. WILKINSON. Demy 4to, price 2 2s. [In the Press. 
 
 DOGS, BREAKING AND TRAINING : Being Concise Directions 
 for the proper education of Dogs, both for the Field and for Companions. 
 Second Edition. By " PATHFINDER." With Chapters by HUGH 
 DALZIEL. Illustrated. In cloth gilt, price 6s. 6d., by post 6s. lOd. 
 
 DOGS, BRITISH, ANCIENT AND MODERN : Their Varieties, 
 History, and Characteristics. By HUGH DALZIEL, assisted by Eminent 
 Fanciers. SECOND EDITION, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated with 
 First-class COLOURED PLATES and full-page Engravings of Dogs of 
 the Day. This is the fullest work on the various breeds of dogs kept in 
 England. In three volumes, demy 8vo, cloth gilt, price 10s. 6d. each, by 
 post lls. Id. each. 
 
 Dog's Used in Field Sports. Containing Particulars of the 
 following among other Breeds : Greyhound, Irish Wolfhound, Blood- 
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 Dogs Useful to Man in other Work than Field Sports ; 
 Honse and Toy Dog's. Containing Particulars of the following, 
 among other Breeds : Collie, Bulldog, Mastiff, St. Bernards, Newfoundland, 
 Great Dane, Fox and all other Terriers, King Charles and Blenheim 
 
170, Strand, London, W.C. 
 
 Spaniels, Pug, Pomeranian, Poodle, Italian Greyhound, Toy Dogs, &o., 
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 Practical Kennel Management: A Complete Treatise on all 
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 the Show Bench, for the Field, or for Companions. Illustrated with 
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 DOGS, DISEASES OF : Their Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment ; 
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 For the use of Amateurs. By HUGH DALZIEL. Third Edition. In 
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 FANCY WORK SERIES, ARTISTIC. A Series of Illustrated 
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 post Id. Now ready (1) MACRAME LACE (Second Edition) ; (2) PATCH- 
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 FEATHERED FRIENDS, OLD AND NEW. Being the Expe- 
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 Cage Birds. By DR. W. T. GREENE. [In the Press. 
 
 FERNS, THE BOOK OF CHOICE : for the Garden, Conservatory, 
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 FERTILITY OF EGGS CERTIFICATE. These are Forms of 
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 FIREWORK-MAKING FOR AMATEURS. A complete, accurate, 
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 FISHERMAN, THE PRACTICAL. Dealing with the Natural 
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 FISH, FLESH, AND FOWL : When in Season, How to Select, Cook, 
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 FOREIGN BIRDS, FAVOURITE, for Cages and Aviaries. How to 
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 M.D., F.Z.S., &c. In cloth, price 2s. Gd., by post 2s. 9d. 
 
Published by L. UPCOTT GILL, 
 
 FOX TERRIER, THE. Its History, Points, Breeding, Bearing, Pre- 
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 FOX TERRIER STUD BOOK. Edited by HUGH DALZIEL. Price 
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 Vol. I., containing Pedigrees of over 1400 of the best-known Dogs, 
 traced to their most remote known ancestors. 
 
 Vol. II. Pedigrees of 1544 Dogs, Show Record, &c. 
 Vol. III. Pedigrees of 1214 Dogs, Show Eecord, &c. 
 Vol. IV. Pedigrees of 1168 Dogs, Show Record, &c. 
 Vol. V. Pedigrees of 1662 Dogs, Show Record, &c. 
 
 FRETWORK AND MARQUETRY. A Practical Manual of 
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 FRIESLAND MERES, A CRUISE ON THE. By ERNEST R. 
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 GAMES, THE BOOK OF A HUNDRED. By MART WHITE. 
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 GARDENING, DICTIONARY OF. A Practical Encyclopaedia of 
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 GOAT, BOOK OF THE. Containing Full Particulars of the various 
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 GOAT-KEEPING FOR AMATEURS : Being the Practical Manage, 
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 GRAPE GROWING FOR AMATEURS. A Thoroughly Practical 
 Book on Successful Vine Culture. By E. MOLTNEUX. Illustrated. In 
 paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d. 
 
 GREENHOUSE MANAGEMENT FOR AMATEURS. The 
 Best Greenhouses and Frames, and How to Build and Heat them, Illus- 
 trated Descriptions of the most suitable Plants, with general and 
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 Guidance of the Amateur. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
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 GREYHOUND, THE : Its History, Points, Breeding, Rearing, Training, 
 and Running. By HUGH DALZIEL. With Coloured Frontispiece. In 
 cloth gilt, demy 8vo, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d. 
 
170, Strand, London, W.C. 
 
 GUINEA PIG, THE, for Food, Fur, and Fancy. Illustrated with 
 Coloured Frontispiece and Engravings. An exhaustive book on the 
 Varieties of the Guinea Pig, and its Management. By C. CUMBERLAND, 
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 HAND CAMERA MANUAL, THE. A Practical Handbook on all 
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 HANDWRITING, CHARACTER INDICATED BY. With Illus- 
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 HARDY PERENNIALS and Old-fashioned Garden Flowers. Descrip- 
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 Plants. Profusely Illustrated. By J. Woor. In cloth, price 5s., by 
 post 5s. 4(2. 
 
 HAWK MOTHS, BOOK OP BRITISH. A Popular and Practical 
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 HOME MEDICINE AND SURGERY: A Dictionary of Diseases 
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 HORSE-KEEPER, THE PRACTICAL. By GEORGE FLEMING, C.B., 
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 Lighting; Furniture and Decoration; Thieves and Fire; The Larder; Curing Foods for 
 lengthened Preservation; The Dairy; The Cellar: The Pantry; The Kitchen; Receipts for 
 
 ing, Marketing ; The Dining-room ; The Drawing- 
 
 Dishes; The Housewife's Room; Housekeeping, 
 room ; The Bed-room ; The Nursery; The Sick-room 
 School-room 
 Small Motor 
 
 Bed-room ; The Nursery ; The Sick-room ; The Bath-room ; The Laundry ; The 
 ; The Playground ; The "Work-room ; The Library; The Garden; The Farmyard ; 
 a; Household Law. 
 
 London : E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand. 
 New York: SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 12, Cortlandt Street. 
 

 ROWLANDS' ARTICLES 
 
 For the HAIR, COMPLEXION, & TEETH, are the 
 PUREST AND BEST. 
 
 VS\S\S\X\/\S\^^/%X\^XKSK'N/\S\/\XV 
 
 ROWLANDS' ODONTO, 
 
 An antiseptic, preservative, and aromatic den- 
 tifrice, which whitens the teeth, prevents and 
 arrests decay, and sweetens the breath. It 
 contains no mineral acids, no gritty matter or 
 injurious astringents, keeps the mouth, gums, 
 and teeth free from the unhealthy action of 
 germs in organic matter between the teeth, 
 and is the most wholesome tooth-powder for 
 smokers. It is most beautifully perfumed, 
 and is a perfect luxury for the toilet-table of 
 everybody. 2s. 9d. per box. 
 
 ROWLANDS' MACASSAR OIL 
 
 Is the best preserver and beautifier of the hair of children and adults ; prevents 
 it falling off or turning grey, eradicates scurf and dandruff, and is also the best 
 brilliantine for ladies' and everybody's use, and as a little goes a very long way 
 it really is most economical for general use ; is also sold in a golden colour for 
 fair-haired ladies and children ; it contains no lead or mineral ingredients, has 
 a most delightfully fragrant bouquet of roses, and is considered the most perfect 
 toilet luxury ever produced. Bottles, 3s. 6d., 7s., IDs. 6d. 
 
 ROWLANDS' KALYDOR, 
 
 A most cooling, soothing, healing, and refreshing preparation for the Skin and 
 Complexion of Ladies, and all exposed to the summer sun and dust, or the cold 
 at)d damp of winter ; it is warranted free from all mineral or metallic ingre- 
 dients, or oxide of zinc, of which most Cosmetics are composed, and which ruin 
 the skin. It effectually disperses Chaps, Chilblains, Freckles, Tan, Sunburn, 
 Stings of Insects, Redness, Eoughness of the Skin ; relieves Irritation of the 
 Skin, Prickly Heat, &c., renders the 
 
 SKIN SOFT AND SMOOTH, 
 
 and produces a beautiful, pure, and delicate complexion. Size 4s. 6d. and 
 8s. 6d. ; half-sized bottles, 2s. 3d. 
 
 ROWLANDS' ESSENCE OF TYRE 
 
 effectually dyes red or grey hair a permanent brown or black. 4s. 
 
 ROWLANDS' EUKONIA. 
 
 A pure Toilet Powder in three tints, White Rose, and Cream, for ladies of a 
 Brunette complexion and those who do not like white powder. Boxes, Is. ; 
 large boxes, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Ask Chemists for ROWLANDS' ARTICLES, of 2O, HATTON 
 
 GARDEN, 'LONDON, and avoid spurious imitations. 
 
SPRATTSPATENT 
 
 DOG CAKES. 
 
 Pamphlet on CANINE DISEASES GRATIS. 
 
 SPRATTS PATENT II 
 
 BERMONDSEY, S.E. 
 

t 
 
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 BERKELEY, CA 94720 
 
52053 
 
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