THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT 
 
 Reider Sognnaes, Dean 
 School of Centistry
 
 V
 
 /
 
 ^ LIBRARY ^'// 
 ^-^ 209 E. 23rd ST = 
 l4^, Y. CITY 
 
 ^Lcn. :, ... K,-\^ 
 
 ^t: OF \.)\$- 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 DENTAL AND ORAL SCIENCE 
 
 IN AMERICA. 
 
 PREPARED UNDER DIRECTION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF DENTAL SCIENCE. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA": 
 
 SAMUEL S. WHITE. 
 1876.
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by 
 
 THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF DENTAL SCIENCE, 
 
 In the OflBce of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
 
 
 N. V. 
 
 CITY 
 
 // 
 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 At the monthly meeting, December, 1875, of the "American 
 Academy of Dental Science," Dr. D. M. Parker, member of the 
 Centennial Board of State Managers, and President of the Academy, 
 in the Chair, it was voted unanimously that the Academy endeavor 
 to present in some suitable manner the claims of Dentistry — or, 
 more j)roperly, of Oral Science — at the then coming Centennial 
 Exhibition at Philadelphia. 
 
 A Committee was appointed to make the necessary arrangements, 
 and weekly meetings were held from that time. In the month of 
 February an arrangement Avas entered into with Mr. James E. 
 Dexter, of New York, to collect and put into readable form such 
 materials of historical value as could be obtained, in order to present 
 an historical volume on American dentistry. In April an address 
 was published in the dental periodicals calling upon the general 
 profession for such assistance as they could render. It was as 
 follows : 
 
 " To the Dental Profession. 
 
 "The American Academy of Dental Science, Boston, Mass., design 
 I)resenting to the profession and the public, at the approaching Cen- 
 tennial, a view of American dentistiy, past and present. 
 
 " One of the characteristics of this presentation will be, a history 
 of the profession in this country for the past one hundred years. 
 This work, being designed to become a standard of reference, will 
 be comprehensive and complete in detail. 
 
 " To the end that tliis desirable result may be attained, the com-
 
 ii PREFACE. 
 
 mittce in charge respectfully request the aid of all dentists (and 
 others) in furnishing information of every kind necessary to the 
 work. Below will be found a list designed to afford a general idea 
 of the kinds of information needed. On these and kindred subjects, 
 and, indeed, on any subject connected with the profession, nothing 
 will be regarded as too small or insignificant to be of value. 
 
 " If desired, any material received will be carefully preserved and 
 retiu-ned to the sender after use. To facilitate this, as well as to 
 insure credit being properly given, everything should be marked 
 with the name and address of the sender. 
 
 " The Committee are persuaded that the importance of such a work 
 to the profession can hardly be overrated. Several small works, 
 able as far as they extend, have been put forth ; but as yet nothing 
 on the scale laid out for this work has appeared. The Committee 
 feel assured, therefore, that they can rely on the hearty co-operation 
 of the profession in furnishing the information above mentioned. 
 
 "List of Subjects. 
 
 "Biography, literature, societies, colleges, individuals, meclianical 
 and operative dentistry, discoveries in any branch of the profession, 
 materia medica, prominent events (with dates), prominent questions, 
 inventions, patents, anecdotes, sayings, historical facts, obituaries, 
 addresses, papers, published and unpublished works, etc., etc. 
 
 "Address communications and material to George T. MofFatt, 
 M.D., No. 1, Hotel Boylston, Boston, Mass.; or to James E. 
 Dexter,* Care W. A. Bronson, M.D., Xo. 8 East 34th Street, New 
 York city. 
 
 " Adrlsori/ ( 'ommittce. 
 
 " Dr. A. L. Northroj), New York ; Dr. W. W. Allport, Ciiicago ; 
 Dr. P. H. Austen, Baltimore ; Dr. R. Arthur, Baltimore; Dr. J. H. 
 McQuillcn, Philadelphia ; Dr. Edward Maynard, Washington ; Dr. 
 X. W. Kingsley, Xew York ; Dr. J. Taft, Cincinnati ; Dr. E. B. 
 Gardctte, Philadelphia; Dr. J. S. Knapp, New Orleans; Dr. J. W. 
 White, Philadelphia; Dr. H. S. Chase, St. Louis; Dr. S. A. Bemis, 
 Boston.
 
 I»Rf:FACE. 
 
 "Local Committee. 
 
 "Dr. J. L. Williams (Chairman), No. 1 Mt. Vernon Street, 
 Boston ; Di-. D. M. Parker, No. 132 Boylston Street, Boston ; Dr. 
 Joshua Tucker, Hotel Boylston, Boston ; Dr. E. G. Tucker, Ashbur- 
 ton Place, Boston ; Dr. T. H. Chandler, No. 222 Tremont Street, 
 Boston ; Dr. E. N. Harris, No. 597 Tremont Street, Boston ; Dr. 
 W. W. Codman, No. 33 Boylston Street, Boston ; Dr. L. D. Shep- 
 ard. Hotel Boylston, Boston; Dr. F. N. Seabury, Providence, R. I.; 
 Dr. H. F. Bishop, Worcester, INIass. ; Dr. Geo. T. Moffiitt (Secre- 
 tary of Committee), No. 1, Hotel Boylston, Boston, Mass." 
 
 In response to the above, historical material was, to some extent, 
 voluntarily forAvarded. The greatest portion of matter, however, 
 ultimately came in response to personal requests by Mr. Dexter and 
 the members of the committee ; but the material thus collected has 
 been, on the whole, small in amount. This has made much more 
 difficult, and has greatly retarded, the preparation of the work ; the 
 comparatively early appearance of which is due chiefly to the untiring 
 exertions of Mr. Dexter. Immediately upon his engagement he 
 beo-an with viy;or to carry out his task. The short time he consumed 
 in arranging and completing the work gives evidence of unremitting 
 and well-directed labor. 
 
 The bool^ has, perforce, been hastily written; but, as far as possi- 
 ble, no exertion has been spared to insure its accuracy. The com- 
 mittee has labored diligently and earnestly in the revision of Mr. 
 Dexter's manuscript; and it is thought few errors of statement will 
 be found. Expression of opinion by the writer or committee has 
 been sought to be scrupulously avoided, and no unnecessary criticism 
 of persons, books, or methods has been admitted ; the effort being to 
 make the work strictly historical, and in no sense didactic. That it 
 contains all the facts cannot be hoped ; but that most of its contents 
 will be thought worthy of a place in history, that it will prove of 
 interest to the present generation in enlightening them as to the 
 work of their predecessors, and that it will be of value to the future-
 
 IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 historian and essayist in directing him to sources of information, and 
 as a preservative of the fast-vanishing facts of the earlier days of 
 American dentistry, is fully believed. 
 
 Indulgence is asked for the extreme condensation it exhibits, — 
 extending even to the exclusion of many things which might prop- 
 erly have their places in its pages, and to the according of but a 
 passing notice to others of importance. This has been caused by 
 the necessities of the time used, — little more than four months 
 having been occupied on the work, from the inception of the enter- 
 prise to its completion in its present form. 
 
 To those gentlemen who have so cordially and promptly aided 
 them with materials for the work, the committee and the writer 
 desire to present their grateful acknowledgments. Particularly are 
 they indebted to Drs. A. L. Northrop and W. A. Bronson, of New 
 York city, for their generous permission to Mr. Dexter to use their 
 libraries, and for other facilities afforded by them; and to Drs. W. 
 C. Barrett, of Buffalo, and J. W. White, C. N. Peirce, and T. I.. 
 Buckingham, of Philadelphia, for much valuable matter. 
 
 It is sincerely hoped that the work, the result of our combined 
 efforts, will meet the approbation of the profession ; to whom, indi- 
 vidually and collectively, it is cordially dedicated by 
 
 The American Academy of Dental Science. 
 Boston, June, 1876.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 INTKOBUCTION. 
 
 Ancient Dentistry — Dentistry about 177G — First Dentist in America pp. 1-6 
 
 THE FOUNDERS OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Earliest Dentists — Joseph Lemaire— Whitelock — Isaac Greenwood — Clark 
 Greenwood — Josiah Flagg — James Gardette — John Greenwood — Horace 
 H. Hayden — Edward Hudson — John Randall— Leonard Koecker pp. 7-lG 
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY, 
 
 ARTIFICIAL TEETH. 
 
 Human Teeth — Animal Teeth — Hippopotamus Teeth — Elephant Ivory — 
 Bone — Porcelain Teeth — First Manufacturers — Old Recipes — S. W. 
 Stockton— James Alcock — Elias Wildman — S. S. White . . pp. 17-26 
 
 BASE PLATES. 
 
 Ivory and Bone — Gold — Silver — Platinum — Aluminum — Other Metals — 
 Poured Tin — Cheoplasty — Gutta-Percha — Vulcanite — The Vulcanite 
 Litigation — Collodion — Rose-Pearl — Celluloid — Porcelain . . pp. 26-35 
 
 ATTACHING ARTIFICIAL TEETH TO BASES. 
 
 Riveting — "With Sulphur — Backing and Soldering — The Pin — Continuous 
 Gum — Early Attempts — Gum Teeth — Thomas Harrison — John Allen — 
 William M. Hunter — The Allen-Hunter Suit — Vulcanite — Poured 
 Tin — Amalgam .......... pp. 35-40 
 
 SECURING ARTIFICIAL DENTURES IN THE MOUTH. 
 
 Old Methods — Pivoting — Hollow and Channeled J*ivots — Pivot Counter- 
 drill — Pivot Files — Vulcanite — Oxychloride — Gold Filling — Clasps — 
 Leaded Plates — Springs — Co-adaptation — Atmospheric Pressure — Har- 
 ris's Air-Chamber — Riggs's Chambered Plate — Johnson's, Cleaveland's, 
 Gilbert's Cavity Plates — Flagg's Lateral Cavity Plate — Dwinelle's 
 Valve — Harnett's Engraved Suction Plate pp. 40-46 
 
 V
 
 vi CONTENTS. 
 
 THE LABORATORY. 
 
 Impressions— Wiix — Planter— Giitta-Perclia — Compositions — Casts and 
 Dies— Hawes's Flask — Antagonizing Casts — Articulators- Furnaces and 
 Muffles- Blow-pipe — Vulcanizers — Celluloid Apparatus— The Lathe — 
 Grinding Wheels pp. 46-50 
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 
 
 SIMPLE METALLIC FILLINGS. 
 
 Ancient — Lead — Gold — Its Introduction — First Forms — First Dental 
 Gold Foil Manufactory — Pellets — Ropes — Ribbons— Cylinders — Cush- 
 man's Condensing Instrument — Blocks — Crimped Foil — Amount of 
 Gold Foil used about 1850 — Sponge Gold — Cohesive Foil — Retaining 
 Pits,-Serrated Plugger-Points — Range of Weight of Gold Foil — Plat- 
 inum— Silver— Tin . ■ pp. 51-59 
 
 PLASTIC FILLINGS. 
 
 The Gums — Terro-Metallic Cement — Anodyne Cement — Fusible Metals — 
 Asbestos — Amalgam — Its Introduction — M. Taveau's — Evans's — Town- 
 send's — Other Forms — The Amalgam War — Its Initiation — The Craw- 
 cours — Their Practice — Opposition to — American Society of Dental 
 Surgeons on — Mississippi Valley Association of Dental Surgeons on — 
 Investigation by American Society of Dental Surgeons — The Amalgam 
 Pledge — The Virginia Society of Dental Surgeons on — " Pledge" Reso- 
 lutions rescinded — Close of the Contest — Gutta-Percha — Hill's Stojiping 
 — Others— Oxychloride of Zinc ....... pp 59-73 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE DENTAL PULP. 
 
 Early Practice — Arsenious Acid — Extirpation — Capping — Hullihen's Op- 
 eration — Allporl's 0]ieralion ....... pp. 73-78 
 
 ANAESTHETICS. 
 Nitrous Oxide — Discovery — Ether — Morton and Jackson — Chloroform — 
 Bichloride of Methylene — Tetrachloride of Carbon — Local Anaesthesia — 
 Electrical Anaesthesia f pp. 78-90 
 
 MATERIA MEDICA. 
 Early Remedies — Modern Remedies pp. 90-100 
 
 EXTRACTION AND TRANSPLANTATION. 
 
 Extraction — Early Practice — Parmly — Koeckor — Fitch — Harris — Trans- 
 plantation — Hunter — Lemafre — Gardette — Replantation . pp. 100-105 
 
 FILI.NG AND REGULATING. 
 Filing — Early Practice — Woofendale — Flagg— Spooner — Modern Prac- 
 tice pp. 105-108
 
 COjSTEXTS. Vll 
 
 IRREGULARITIES. 
 Woofendale — James — Parmly — Koecker — Spooner — Harris — Tucker — 
 Dwinelle pp. 108-111 
 
 MECHANICAL DEVICES. 
 
 Drying Mouth and Cavities. 
 
 Early Practice — Fitch — The Napkin — Paper — "Wax Coffer-Dam — Saliva- 
 Purnp — Arthur's — Dibble's — Fisk Ejector — Duct-Compressors — Tongue- 
 Holders — Air-Syringe — Arthur's Kubber Tubes — Lord's String-Dam — 
 Allen's Dam — Barnum's Rubber Dam ..... pp. 111-114 
 
 Cutting and Drilling Instruments. 
 
 Differences in Ancient and Modern Forms — The Drill — The Drill-Stock — 
 Flagg's — Maynard's — Spencer's — Chevalier's — Alfred's — Dubs's — 
 Lewis's — Thackston's — Merry's — Green's Pneumatic Engine — The Mor- 
 rison Engine — Beers's Engine — Bonwill's Engine — Elliot's Suspension 
 Engine — S. S. White's Engine — Green's Electric Drill — Water Motors 
 —Electrical Motors pp. 114-120 
 
 Files, Wheels, DisJcs. 
 
 Townsend's — Harris's — File-Carriers — Westcott's — Chevalier's — Starr's 
 Ensrine — Wheels and Disks — Early Forms — Northrop'.s — Arthur's — 
 Bon\viir.< — Hickman's Disk-Carrier — White's Disk-Carrier . pp. 120-122 
 
 Filling Instruments. 
 
 Early Forms— Sponge Gold — Plugging Forceps — White's Dynamometer — 
 Serrated Points — The Mallet — Its Introduction — Automatic Mallets — 
 Foote's — Taylor's — Hodge's — Salmon's — Snow & Lewis's — Baxter's — 
 Pomeroy's — Bannister's — Green's — Gaylord's — Buckingham's — Greon^-^ 
 Electric— Bonwill's— Jack's— Webb's pp. 122-I"25 
 
 Instruments /or Extraction. 
 
 Ancient Forms — The Pelican — The Key — The Forceps — Flagg's — 
 Physick's — Maynard's — Elliot's — HuUihen's Screw Forceps — Cheva- 
 lier's — Dubs's — Colburn's — The Screw — Dickinson's . . pp. 125-127 
 
 The Operating Chair. 
 
 Old Forms — Hanchett's — Searle's — Eccleston's — Chevalier's — Modern 
 
 Forms pp. 128-129 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE MORE IMPORTANT DISEASES, INJU- 
 RIES, AND NATURAL DEFECTS OF THE ORAL CAVITY. 
 
 « 
 
 Early Dental Surgery — Diseases of the Antrum — Woofendale — James — 
 Parmly — Flagg — Koecker — Tumors — Bond — Harris — HuUihcn — An 
 Operation — Palatine Defects — Earlj' Authors — Harris — Obturators — 
 Artificial Palates and Velums — Delabarre's — HuUihen's — Stcnrns's — 
 Kingsley's ........... ])p. 130-141
 
 viii CONTENTS. 
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 ORIGINAL AND REPRESENTATIVE BODIES. 
 
 Early Plans — New York Society of Dental Surgeons — Dental Association 
 of Western New York — American Society of Dental Surgeons ; its 
 Constitution — First Officers — Virginia Society of Surgeon Dentists — 
 Mississippi Valley Association of Dental Surgeons — Society of Dental 
 Surgeons of the State of New York — American Dental Convention — 
 American Dental Association pp. 142-158 
 
 GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 Various Societies pp. 158-178 
 
 DENTAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 
 
 Early Methods of Education — Baltimore College of Dental Surgery — Ohio 
 Dental College— Transylvania School of Dental Surgery — New York 
 College of Dental Surgery — Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery — 
 Pennsylvania Collegeof Dental Surgery — Philadelphia Dental College — 
 New York College of Dentistry — Missouri Dental College — New Orleans 
 Dental College — Dental School of Harvard University — Boston Dental 
 College — Maryland Dental College — Dental College of Michigan Uni- 
 versity — University of California — St. Louis Dental College . pp. 179-196 
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 
 
 Alabama — New York — Ohio — Georgia — New Jersey — Pennsylvania. 
 
 pp. 197-214 
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 
 
 STANDARD WORKS. 
 Dental Works to Date pp. 215-229 
 
 PERIODICALS. 
 Account of, to Date pp. 229-236 
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Early Methods — Early Scarcity of Competent Dentists — Prices of Pupil- 
 age — Character of Earlier Practitioners — American Journal of Dental 
 Science — Establishment of Colleges — Their Work — Objections to 
 them— Other Schemes— E. B. Gardette's— B. Wood's — Westcott's — J. 
 Smith Dodge, Jr. 's— Modern Opinions and Theories . . pp. 236-270 
 
 Table of Dental Census p. 271
 
 /^ LIBRARY '^'^ 
 ^ 209 e. 23rd ST. 
 
 vO. 
 
 N. Y. Gi TY 
 
 ^^% OF DtHi^^'" 
 
 THE HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The first appearance of Dentistry as a specialty of medicine occnrs 
 at a very remote period. Herodotus (500 B.C.), in narrating his 
 ti'avels through Egypt, then one of the greatest and most highly 
 civilized nations of the world, the " mother of the arts and sciences," 
 notices the division of medicine in that kingdom into special branches, 
 and the existence of physicians, each of whom "applies himself to 
 one disease only and not more. Some (physicians) are for the eyes, 
 others for the head, others for the teeth, and others for internal dis- 
 orders." * How far these physicians had advanced in the science of 
 their profession is not known. It is probable, however, that their 
 knowledge was limited, as well as their practice ; the latter, indeed, 
 being circumscribed by enforced adherence to certain remedies and 
 formulas fixed by law, on pain of death for any transgression of the 
 limits. 
 
 In the art of Dentistry, if we are to believe the various antiquaries 
 and discoverers of modern times, the Egyptians were far advanced ; 
 for, as related by many, teeth filled with gold have been discovered in 
 the mouths of mummies ; and sudi teeth have even been deposited 
 in home museums, where they now remain. A collection in Liver- 
 pool is said to contain, besides artificial teeth, "two teeth of syca- 
 more wood set in gold." Accounts have also been received of the 
 finding of gold-filled teeth in mummies from Thebes. These gold 
 fillings, perhaps, will eventually ])rove to be merely gilded icood ; 
 for it is well known that tlie higher orders of Egyptians often 
 
 * Herodotus, II. 84. 
 2
 
 2 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 caused the imiinmies of their deceased friends and relatives to bo 
 lavishly decorated with paint and gilding. Indeed, several instances 
 of supposed Egy|)tiaii gold lillings have already, through the agency 
 of a knife-blade, been proved to be mere gilding on the natural teeth. 
 
 The insertion of artificial teeth, however, has been long practiced. 
 The Hindoos and Egyj)tians are the first recorded in this branch of 
 dentistry. Bclzoni and others have found artificial teeth of sycamore 
 wood in ancient sarcophagi. The mode of fastening was by ligatures 
 or bands of cord, or gold or silver wire, tying the substitute to its 
 natural neighbors. The tenth of the celebrated (Greek) Laws of the 
 Twelve Tables (relating to funeral ceremonies) has, among others, 
 this direction : " Let no gold be used, but if any one has had his teeth 
 fiistcncd with gold, let it be lawful to bury or burn that gold with the 
 body." 
 
 Ancient Greece is celebrated as having been the nursery of modern 
 medicine. The medical schools of Cnidos, Cos, Rhodes, Cyrene, and 
 Croton date from or about 500 or 400 B.C. These insured the pro- 
 gress of medical science, under tolerably liberal codes of laws, and 
 aided by the then rapid growth of civilization. 
 
 Hippocrates) 500 B.C.), the " father of medicine," was also the first 
 to enter deeply into the study of the teeth. His doctrines in this 
 regard are now sufficiently familiar to the student. Aristotle wrote 
 largely about 350 B.C. Heraclidus of Tareutum, Herophilus, and 
 Erasistratus are recorded as dental oj)erators (300 B.C.). The latter 
 deposited in the temple of the Delphian Apollo a " leaden ondonto- 
 gogue, which we should call a tooth-drawer" (forceps), ... "to 
 prove that (only) those teeth ought to be removed which are loose or 
 relaxed, and for which a leadeii instrument will suffice." * 
 
 The two latter are, we believe, the first recorded as having dissected 
 the human cadaver. The Emperor Alexander, to Avhose court they 
 were attached, delivered over to their tender mercies such criminals 
 as were condemned to death. On the first of these occasions, the 
 emperor and his whole court were present. The operation performed 
 was the amputation of an :u-m ; and because the man survived, many 
 of the court fled in terror, believing him to be an immortal. Such 
 being the extent of the knowledge then possessed by cultivated per- 
 sons as to the effects of hurts on the body, we may in it find an 
 indication of the j)rol)iible amount of physiological knowledge of the 
 physicians themselves. 
 
 * C. Aurolinus.
 
 INTRODUCTIOX. 6 
 
 Celsus lived about 100 B.C. He was the first to recommend the 
 use of the file in the mouth ; saying, that the points of a decayed 
 tooth, which hurt the tongue, should be removed with an iron file. 
 
 Galen (a.d. 150) has treated the subject of the teeth more exten- 
 sively than any other of the ancient authors. He taught that they 
 were true bones, that they were formed in the foetus, but did not be- 
 come apparent until after birth, and even declared tliat the canine 
 should be called eye teeth, because they received branches from that 
 nerve which also supplies the eye. 
 
 ^tius (Arabian, A.d. 300) discovered the foramina in the roots 
 through which the nerves and vessels enter. Albacasis, another 
 Arabian physician (about 1100 a.d,), gave rules for the reidacement 
 of lost teeth by substitutes, both natural and of animal bone or ivory. 
 
 Some extracts from a curious and rare old work, by "Helkiah 
 Crooke, Doctor in Physicke," published in London in 1618, will be 
 of interest as slightly indicating the character and extent of the 
 physiological knowledge of that time. 
 
 " That they (the teeth) are bones some men do deny, first, because 
 bones are insensible, the teeth sensible. Secondly, because the bones 
 have ccrtaine limits of action or increase, neyther do they ever grow 
 againe if they perish, but in teeth it is quite contrary. Thirdly, be- 
 cause they are harder than other bones. Fourthly, because bones 
 exposed to the ayre do grow blacke, whereas the teeth do keepe their 
 whitenesse. . . . Finally, say they, there is a stone that will consume 
 fleshe, called therefore Sarcophagus, which within forty days will de- 
 vour the whole body except the teeth. If therefore the teeth were 
 of the nature of bones, they also would be consumed. 
 
 " They were made very hard that they might not weare so soone 
 or be br(^ken in the chawing or breaking of hard things, for they are 
 not lined eyther with fatte or gristles as other ioynts are to hinder 
 attrition. The teeth therefore do breake bones, resist the edge of 
 Steele, neyther can they easily as other parts of the body be burnt 
 with fire. Hippocrates in his booke ' De Carnibus' ascribcth the 
 cause of their hardnesse to the quality of the matter out of whicli 
 they are ingendered, for hec writeth that out of the bones of the head 
 and the iaws there is an increase of a glutinous matter. In that 
 glutinous matter the fatty part falleth downe into the sockers of the 
 gums where it is dryed and burnt with the heate, and so the teeth 
 arc mide harder than other bones because there is no cold remaining 
 in them." 
 
 With the later autliors on this subject all may be supposed to be
 
 4 HISTOPwY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 more or le?;.s acqiKiinted. Indwd, the al)ove liave been mentioned 
 less for information than to ])()int out the inconsiderable germ and 
 slow first growth of that wliirh has since expanded into modern 
 dentistiy. 
 
 At the last part of the eighteenth century the anatomy and 
 physiology of the teeth had become almost as accurately and com- 
 pletely demonstrated ;is it is at this day. A survey of the labors of 
 scientists since Pare, Hunter, Fox, Bell, and Nasmyth will, it is be- 
 lieved, yield comparatively little of important discovery. It is true 
 that the general scientific understanding of these subjects has become 
 more correct and comprehensive. But the advance of theory has not 
 been equally rapid with that of practical knowledge and attainments. 
 
 In the latter particulars there was then, certainly, a wide field for 
 improvement; and no one need now be told that the field has been 
 well utilized. A glance at the then condition of mechanical and 
 operative dentistry will quickly reveal the measure of progress. 
 
 At the introduction of mineral teeth in France, about 1774—76, 
 general dentistry used for its artificial substitutes elephant and hippo- 
 potamus ivory, and animal and extracted human teeth. The latter 
 variety, although by very far tlie most durable and comely, and 
 adapted with the greatest facilit}', was expensive and difficult to ob- 
 tain in sufficient quantity, and also met with a general and natural 
 prejudice against it on the part of the public ; for it was said that 
 disea'^es were liable to be introduced into the wearer's system by 
 them. 
 
 Animal teeth (those of sheep and cattle, principally), although of a 
 l)rilliant color, were not easy of adaptation to the human mouth; and, 
 as one side was devoid of enamel, — the tooth becoming there rapidly 
 corroded, — and as tlie ])ul])-cavities were so large that the crowns 
 were soon worn through, this variety was also generally discarded, 
 leaving the field clear to the elephant and hippopotamus ivory; 
 which were sufficiently cheap and plentiful (especially the former), 
 and easily carved and adaj)te(l. 
 
 The base, as avcII as tlie teeth, was then of ivory (there are accounts 
 of voodrii bases!), the teeth and base being generally carved from one 
 block. Such operators as were unusually nice in their processes en- 
 deavored to obtain some exactness in adaptation, and submitted their 
 work, from time to time, to the correction and guide of colored im- 
 pressions of the surface it was intended to cover. But the great 
 majority of operations were roughly performed, with little attention 
 to correct fitting, or the exact position of the surrounding parts.
 
 INTRODUCTION. & 
 
 Such teeth and such plates could, of course, possess only slight 
 permanence, both because of their great permeability to the fluids of 
 the mouth and loss of substance from abrasion. Of the former ob- 
 jection Harris says, "They give to the air returned from the lungs 
 an insufferably offensive odor, which cannot be corrected or prevented. 
 They may be washed half a dozen times a day, and taken out and 
 cleansed at night, but it Mill still be grossly perceptible; and, although 
 it may be much worse in some mouths than in others, none who wear 
 teeth formed from this substance are entirely free from it."* 
 
 Such of the operations of dentistry as it was imperatively necessary 
 to perform were conducted by the medical and surgical practitioners, 
 themselves few and residing niainl}" in the cities and larger towns, 
 and wanting in almost all the knowledge now considered an absolute 
 necessity to the dentist. Indeed, tooth-fZra?^m^ was almost the only 
 part of dentistry then practiced by physicians, and appears to have 
 been the very general remedy for ailments of the teeth, no matter of 
 what character. The key was, until quite a recent period, the prin- 
 cipal instrument used, the punch and elevator being its adjuncts; and 
 multitudinous were the operations performed by these, — operations 
 which, at the present day, would be correctly styled "heroic surgery." 
 Fractures of the alveolus, and even of the jaw, were not uncommon ; 
 and in such cases (when performed by dentists) the patient was re- 
 manded to nature or the family physician for treatment. 
 
 In October of the year 1766 there arrived in the United States 
 from England Mr. John Woofendale. This gentleman was a (for 
 that time) regularly educated dentist, having been instructed by Mr. 
 Thomas Berdmore, dentist to George III. He is the first dentist, 
 so called and practicing as such, of M'hom any record can be found 
 as having visited this country. 
 
 ]\Ir. Woofendale commenced practice in New York soon after he 
 arrived. He also practiced in Philadelphia. But, either because he 
 did not receive sufficient practical encouragement in his profession, or 
 from some other and unexplained cause, he returned to England, — 
 March, 1768. While here he had coiistructed an entire double set 
 of artificial teeth for Mr. William Walton, of New York; which is 
 believed to be the first recorded full set of teeth inserted in America. 
 From the time when Mr. Woofendale returned to England until 
 some years after the Declaration of Independence there was not, as 
 far as can be discovered, a regularly practicing dentist in this country. 
 
 * Dictionary of Dental Science, p. 07.
 
 6 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Sucli, in brief", was the general state of dentistry at the birth-time 
 of our republic. When we look back to that condition of the 
 science, we may and do experience a just feeling of pride, and per- 
 ceive matter for gratulation in the giant strides of improvement 
 made manifest by the slightest comparison of tlien and now. Such a 
 retrospect is the best and surest means of encouragement to continue 
 in the ])ath by Avhich we have so rapidly and agreeably advanced ; 
 and will ensure, it is certain, a further and equally great elevation of 
 our profession among the liberal sciences in the future.
 
 THE FOUNDERS OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Although this work is not intended to be in any sense biographi- 
 cal, yet it seems proper to make some particular allusion to those 
 dentists who were the pioneers of the profession in this country, and 
 who laid, solidly and durably, the foundations of the j)resent super- 
 structure of dentistry. In treating of this subject, however, numerous 
 difficulties have presented themselves, not the least of which is the 
 (almost) impossibility of obtaining any reliable information about the 
 earliest of American dentists. As to these, the details to be had are, 
 at best, very meagre, and the accounts of them extremely conflicting. 
 Another objection to be overcome is the possible charge of in^'idious 
 selection of individuals for notice. In this regard we may say, that 
 certain names have always stood so high on the dental roll of honor 
 and priority that little risk can be incurred by accepting them at 
 once as proper subjects for such a chapter as this; and Ave cannot, 
 .we think, be justly censured for limiting our biographical depart- 
 ment strictly to those names ; which will, accordingly, be done. 
 
 Prior to the war of 1775-83 there was, iis far as can now be ascer- 
 tained, only one dentist, practicing specially as such, in this country, 
 and he remained here only a short time. This gentleman was Mr. 
 Robert Woofendale, whose temjjorary sojourn here has been already 
 noticed in the Introduction as fully as is now possible. 
 
 In the year 1776, and for five years thereafter, we have no authentic 
 account of any dentist in this country; so that the date 1876, although 
 representing the one hundredth year of existence of the nation, cannot 
 be said to be, strictly, the centennial of American dentistry. 
 
 Most accounts have given, as the first dentists in America after 
 1776, Mr. Joseph Lemaire and one Whitclock, or Whitlock; but it 
 appears from Watson's "Annals of Phihide]])hia" (vol. i. p. 179) 
 that, on Mr. Lemaire's first appearance in that city, in 1784, he found 
 there a dentist (whether native or foreign is not stated) by the name 
 of Baker, "the first person ever known as a dentist in Philadelphia." 
 This is also all that is known to-day of this person. When he first 
 practiced in Philadelphia cannot be Jiscertained. 
 
 7
 
 8 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Joseph Lcmaire was a French dentist, who came to this countr)^ Avith 
 the French army. Dr. Hayden* mentions him as follows: "The 
 Iniy^t hints that were afforded or o]ip<)rtnnities offered to any })er.s()n 
 to obtain a knowledge of the profession were, we believe, tjirough a 
 French dentist, by the name of Le Mai re, who offered his services to 
 the pnblic durinjj^ the Revolutionary war. , . . He Avas not without 
 some ])retensions to skill in practical operations, especially in trans- 
 j)lanting; teeth. . . . He likewise undertook to instruct some two or 
 three persons in the jirofession, which may be considered as the origin 
 or commencement of dentistry in this countr}'." Dr. James Gardette 
 also mentions Lemaire (called by him Lemayeur) as one who had the 
 " reputation of an eminent dentist" in Philadelphia when he arrived 
 in that city, in June, 1784.t 
 
 Dr. Hayden speaks (former citation) of Whitelock as a dentist, 
 "a gentleman of polite address and accomplished manners," who, 
 about the same time as Lemaire, or shortly after, entered this country 
 as one of a company of theatrical performers who were induced to 
 come here through " a rage for theatrical performances," Avhich, it 
 seems from this, was then ])revalent with our ancestiy. 
 
 From a notice in Harris's "■ Dental Dictionary,"^; it appears that 
 Isaac Greenwood, the father of that John Greenwood celebrated as 
 having constructed artificial dentures for George Washington, was 
 the fii'st deutLst in Boston. From this notice, no dates being given in 
 it, vvc are forced to conclude that the dental practice of the father was 
 anterior to that of the son, who began, as nearly as can be ascertained, 
 about 1784—5. Another vague notice in the same work (p. 334) gives 
 us to understand that Clark Greemcood , a younger brother of John, 
 was in practice in New York at and before that date. 
 
 AVe have now named all the dental practitioners of the earliest 
 dates, information of which is so scanty and unreliable as to warrant 
 only the conclusion that they were, if not the first, at least among the 
 fii'st of the profession in this countiy. The primary ap])earance of 
 any of them it is impossible now to ascertain. It is i)rol)able tliat 
 some, if not all, of them may antedate those of whom we have reli- 
 able facts and data to offer; therefore they have been placed first in 
 our n(»tation. The next to be mentioned are those of whom exactness 
 in <late and correctness of knowledge can be asserted. 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. ii. p. 20. 
 
 + Ibid., vol. X. p. 65 
 
 X Edition of 1849, p. 333.
 
 THE FOUXDERS OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. k) 
 
 The first of these, in the order of time, M'as Josiah Fku/g, -who^ as 
 far as can now be accurately determined, was also the first dentist 
 native to this country. He held a major's commission in the Ameri- 
 can army, and commenced practice as an itinerant immediately after 
 the close of the war, in 1782. He had obtained his knowledge of 
 dentistry from that Lemaire already mentioned, who was then in the 
 army of Count Rochambeau, and who taught young Flagg (he was 
 only eighteen years of age) while the French and Americans were in 
 winter quarters, side by side, near Providence, Rhode Island, 1781- 
 82. Later he settled in Boston. During the war of 1812 he was 
 taken as a prisoner to England, where, while on parole, he made the 
 acquaintance of Sir Astley Cooper, and assisted him in operations at 
 Guy's Hospital. 
 
 The following extract from a circular which Flagg was wont to 
 distribute in the various towns in which he stopped during his itin- 
 erant practice will be interesting. It is without date, but was probably 
 printed somewhere from 1785 to 1790. 
 
 " Dr. Flagg transplants teeth ; cures ulcers and eases them from 
 pain without drawing ; fastens those that are loose ; mends teeth with 
 foil or gold to be as lasting and useful as the sound teeth, and icitliout 
 pain in the operation; makes artificial teeth, and secures them in an 
 independent, lading, and serviceable manner. Sews up harelips, and 
 fixes gold roofs and palates, greatly assisting the pronunciation and 
 the swallow. . . . Cuts the defect from teeth and restores them to 
 whiteness and soundness, without saws, files, acids, and such abusives 
 as have shamefully crept into the profession, and which have de- 
 stroyed the confidence of the publick. Sells, by wholesale and retail, 
 dentifrices, tinctures, chewsticks, masticks, teeth- and gum-brushes, 
 suitable for every age, complaint, and climate, with directions for their 
 use." 
 
 If the date we have given as probably correct for this circular be 
 really so, then the recorded use of gold for filling in this country is 
 earlier than has been heretofore known.. There is another (and dated 
 1796) circular of Dr. Josiah Flagg's in existence, fuller and more 
 complete than that just quoted. It will be noticed further on in 
 connection with other divisions of this work. Dr. Flagg died in 
 Boston in 1816. 
 
 James Gardette was born in France, 1756. He studied medicine 
 for two years in Paris (1773-1775), and was also, immediately after- 
 ward, nearly the same length of time in hospital practice at Toulon, 
 when he was commissioned a surgeon in the French navy. He
 
 10 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 arrived at IMyiiicmth, Mass., in Januarv, 1778. He subsequently rc- 
 sijjned liis commission, and adopted this country as his home. When 
 the French fleet and army, under Count Roeliambeau, arrived at 
 Newport (1781) he visited that town and found occasion for some 
 dental practice among the officers. In the autumn of 1783 he 
 went to Xew York, wlicre his professional success appears to have 
 been slight. In 1784 he removed to Philadelphia, where he con- 
 tinued in a vcr\' successful dental practice until 1829, a period of 
 forty-five years. 
 
 Mr. Gardette's name w411 always be prominent among those of the 
 best American dentists. "As an operator Mr. Gardette displayed 
 great judgment, care, and dexterity."* He was the first to substitute 
 flat clasps for ligatures or wires in artificial work. He invented the 
 "mortise plate" "to which the teeth are secured by means of gold 
 pins, and which permits the tooth to rest upon the gum instead of 
 the gold j)late."t The first application of the principle of suction 
 or atmospheric pressure has been attributed to him. It is probable 
 that the idea was first advanced by him ; but the principle was sub- 
 sequently improved upon by the employment of the cavity plate 
 many years after. " He wtLS the early advocate, if not the first who 
 recognized the wisdom of affording space for the healthy and good 
 arrangement of the teeth by judicious extractions in youth."| He 
 was also one of the first dentists who substituted gold foil for lead in 
 filling teeth, and "related that he had at one period i)repared gold 
 foil for his own use from Dutch ducats,§ when no sufficiently skilled 
 gold-beater could be had. He published, so fiir as is known, only 
 one article. This, "On the Transplantation of the Human Teeth," 
 may be found republished from the Philadelphia Medical Recoi'dei' 
 in the American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. x. p. 64. 
 In 1829 he returned to France, and died at Bordeaux, August, 1831. 
 
 John Greenwood enlisted at the early age of fifteen in the American 
 army, and was in the battles of Bunker's Hill and Trenton, and also 
 in an exjiedition to Canada under Arnold. He afterward entered 
 the naval privateer service, in which he remained until the close of 
 the war; when, finding himself without employment, he applied to 
 his " youngest brother, Clark Greenwood, who was in New York 
 practicing dentistry,"|| but received no encouragement from hiin. 
 He then embarked in the business of nautical and mathematical 
 
 * Harris's Dental Dictionary, p. 316. f I^ifl- J Ibid. 
 
 § Ibid. II Ibid., p. 334.
 
 THE FOUNDERS OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 11 
 
 instrument making. "Soon after having engaged in this new busi- 
 ness, Dr. Garaage requested Mr. Greenwood to extract a tooth for 
 one of his patients, wliich he accomplished very successfully.. This 
 was the commencement of his practice as a dentist. He was, how- 
 ever, for some time after this employed in the manufacture of nautical 
 and mathematical instruments and ivory turning, and practiced dent- 
 istry as opportunity oiFered. The demand for his services, however, 
 in the last-mentioned capacity, soon increased to such an extent that 
 he was compelled to abandon his other occupations and to procure 
 the assistance, first, of William Pitt, and afterwards of Clark Green- 
 wood, his brothers, to enable him to meet his numerous professional 
 
 engagements Mr. Gi'cenwood was .... well informed in 
 
 the surgical department of his profession During his practice 
 
 in the treatment of a diseased maxillary sinus, he perforated this 
 cavity from the socket of an upper molar tooth, and eifected a cure. 
 .... It has been said that he was the first to strike up a gold plate 
 to serve as a base for artificial teeth in the United States, .... 
 without a knowledge of its ever having been done before that time, 
 1799."* He also constructed sets of artificial teeth with stained 
 gums in hippopotamus. 
 
 But Mr. Greenwood is best known to the profession of to-day 
 through the fact of his having been the dentist of the first President, 
 George Washington. He constructed several sets of teeth for that 
 eminent man, one, at least, of which is now in existence, in the pos- 
 session of Dr. John Allen, of New York ; and wore as a watch- 
 charm the general's last natural tooth. Below is a letter written him 
 by General Washington: 
 
 "Mount Vernon, January Gth, 1795. 
 
 "Sir — Your letter of the 2Sth ult., loith the parcel that accompanied 
 it, came safe to hand. I feci obliged to you for your attention to my 
 request and for the directions you have given me. 
 
 "Enclosed you will find bank notes for fifteen dollars, which I shall be 
 glad to hear have got safe to your hands. If you should return to 
 Connecticut, I should be glad to be advised of it, and to what place, as 
 I shall always prefer your services to those of any other in the line of 
 your present profession. 
 
 "I am, sir, 
 
 " Your very humble servant, 
 
 "G. Washington." 
 
 * Harris's Dental Dictionary, p. 334.
 
 12 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Horace JI. JIar/den was born the ]3tli October, 17G8, and at tlie 
 age of fourteen Avent to sea lus a eabin-boy, vovao-iiii:; to the AVest 
 Indies, Two years hiter, being thrown upon liis own resources by 
 tlie ])overty of liis parents, he became apprentice to an architect, 
 which business he followed until his twenty-fourth year; when, be- 
 ing in Xew York, and having occasion for the professional aid of a 
 dentist, he visited ]\Ir. Greenwood. While under treatment, he deter- 
 mined to become a dentist; and, "procuring the few dental boolcs 
 M'hich were then accessible, and not apprehending any deficiency in 
 mechanical skill, he directed his course southward in quest of a loca- 
 tion,"* and arrived in Baltimore in 1804, where he determined to 
 remain. 
 
 Dr. Hayden's previous education was hardly calculated to further 
 his professional projects; but, being a man of considerable energy 
 and native ability, he, by dint of hard study, soon mastered his text- 
 books, and thereupon began to gain some local reputation. He after- 
 ward conceived the idea that the dental profession was capable of a 
 much higher ])ublic and scientific status than it then held; which 
 elevation, he rightly considered, could be reached only through a 
 higher standard of scientific attainments. Accordingly, he began the 
 study of general medicine, while continuing to operate as a dentist; 
 and with such effect that, later in his life, he received honorary 
 degrees from both the University of Maryland and the Jefferson 
 College of Philadelphia. In 1825 he was invited by the former 
 institution to read a course of lectures on denti:?trv before its medical 
 class. He also devoted much attention to the study of geology, and 
 Avrote a work on that science. 
 
 For the furtherance of his ideas on dental education and standing, 
 he joined (1839) with those gentlemen who petitioned the Legislature 
 of Maryland to establish a dental college; "the fiiculty to consist 
 partly of dental and partly of medical practitioners;" and, that 
 institution having been finally established in Baltimore, he, at the 
 advanced age of seventy, assumed the duties of its chair of dental 
 physiology and pathology. 
 
 Dr. Hayden was also one of the founders of the American Society 
 of Dental Surgeons, and was elected (1840) its first jn-esident; which 
 office he continued uninterruptedly to hold until the time of his 
 decease, January 2Gth, 1844. 
 
 Besides his ^vork on geology, already noticed. Dr. Hayden wrote 
 
 * Harris's Dental Dictionary, p. 359.
 
 THE FOUNDERS OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 13 
 
 many papers on dcntistr)'- and medicine, wliicli were published in the 
 medical periodicals of the time. He was a man of unusual energy 
 and strcn2:th of character. The eminence to which he attained, in 
 the medical as well as the dental profession, proves this ; for such 
 eminence was entirely the result of his own untiring and almost un- 
 aided eiforts, without any regular education in these directions. 
 
 Edward Hudson was born in Ireland in the year 1772. Harris 
 remarks that " His parents, it is believed, were members of the re- 
 ligious Society of Friends, and although left an orphan at an early 
 age, the principles implanted in his mind by his connection with this 
 proverbially honest and upright sect appeared to germinate, and in 
 maturer years to produce appropriate fruit."* 
 
 Upon the death of Hudson's parents, a cousin, who was established 
 in Dublin as one of the most prominent dentists of that city, adopted 
 young Edward as his son, and soon after entered him as a student at 
 Trinity College, M'here he prosecuted his studies with such ardor and 
 success as delighted his benefactor, who was a man of great attain- 
 ments. Hudson pursued the practice of dental surgery in the office 
 of his relative, and "rose rapidly in qualification for his chosen 
 profession, in which his future eminence was then confidently pre- 
 dicted." 
 
 While at college Hudson was a member of several of the debating 
 and other societies established about that time (1795), and soon be- 
 came prominent in these connections. Here he knew and was inti- 
 mate with many of the most distinguished men of the day and 
 country, — among them the Emmets, the Sheares, the Corbetts, and 
 Moore, the poet. AVith the latter he Avas especially familiar, and the 
 friendship then formed between them ceased only with life. 
 
 The societies of which he was a member at length became so open 
 and liberal in their treatment of those political and social questions 
 which were then agitating all Ireland and threatened disastrous con- 
 sequences, that the lord chancellor, Clare, dissolved them, and ordered 
 the banishment of such of their members as were most obnoxious, 
 from their pronounced views, to the government. Hudson at this 
 time escaped the hand of authority ; but immediately compromised 
 himself still further by joining the Society of United Irishmen, — an 
 association so distasteful and dangerous to the home government that 
 the greatest vigor and relentless severity were manifested by it in 
 the pursuit and punishment of the members. With many others, 
 
 * Harris's Dental Dictionary, p. 309.
 
 14 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Hudson was seized, and imprisoned in Fort George, Scotland; where 
 he remained until the peace of Amiens, in 1802. After being re- 
 leased he came to America. 
 
 He hc<2:an the practice of dentistry in Philadelphia in 1805. At 
 that date ^Ij-. James Gardette was the only dentist of repute in that 
 citv, and had attained a very high reputation. Hudson's professional 
 progress was, at first, slow; part of his thoughts and time being en- 
 grossed with some business enterprises in which he had engaged. 
 But these ended disastrously, leaving a burden of debt; from which, 
 on a percentage being i)aid them, the creditors gave a full release of 
 the remaining amount. It is characteristic of Hudson that he, in 
 spite of this release, eventually i)aid, from the income of his profes- 
 sional practice, all that part of the original indebtedness, with in- 
 terest, for which he had received the release. 
 
 Once freed from the shackles of commercial pursuits, Hudson 
 soon attained great eminence in his profession. The peculiar kind- 
 ness, honesty, and uprightness of his nature gained him hosts of 
 social friends; and liLs skill as a practitioner drew to him so many 
 and such patients that he acquired a competence. Harris (former 
 citation) says that " by his patients he was idolized as few of his 
 professional brethren can ever expect to be." 
 
 Hudson's standard of excellence in dentistry was not only high, 
 but lor the time somewhat novel. Family (E.) says of him, *' We 
 are probably more indebted to his success than to that of any other 
 man for the importance which was attached at that period to opera- 
 tions which were intended to preserve the natural teeth in their natural 
 state." For, " by the complete success attending the practice of this 
 great man, the public were soon convinced that teeth could be saved" 
 — instciid of being extracted. "The surgical department, embracing 
 all required operations on the living teeth, .... was as well under- 
 stood, and as perfectly and thoroughly practiced by Hudson .... as 
 by any operators who ever lived, either before or since that period."* 
 
 John Ilmuhdl was born in 1773, and graduated at Harvard in 
 the class of 1802, a class celebrated for the since-displayed eminent 
 talent of nvuiy of its members. He studied medicine with Dr. John 
 Jeffries, of JJnston, and commenced medical and dental practice in 
 that city in ISOo. 
 
 The circuinst uic's under which he was led to turn his attention to 
 dentistry are interesting as showing the character of the general dental 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Sciciico, 1st Series, vol. iii. p. 8.
 
 THE FOUNDERS OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 15 
 
 practice of the time. Finding, while at college, his teeth decaying, 
 Randall applied to the most prominent dentist of whom he knew; 
 and was frankly told by that practitioner that " his business was to 
 put in neic teeth," and that he declined operating to preserve the 
 natural ones. This, in the light of his general education, appeared 
 to Randall to be a very limited view of dental surgery ; and he at 
 once procured such dental works as he could, and studied them under 
 the impression that disease might and should be remedied without 
 the removal of the diseased member. His first efforts in dentistry 
 were while he was in college, and performed on himself. His fellow- 
 students also were benefited by his operations. 
 
 Dr. Randall gave, for many years, only a portion of his attention 
 to dentistry, for he considered medicine his calling. He never adver- 
 tised either branch of his profession, — although such a method of 
 obtaining publicity was resorted to by the most eminent of his con- 
 temporaries, without any thought of its being unprofessional. "Pie 
 was decidedly conservative in his theory and practice of dental sur- 
 gery. . . . He was eminently popular and successful in extracting 
 teeth. He used the key ^vith great skill, and the forceps long before 
 they were known as an article of merchandise. . . . His success in 
 engrafting (pivoting) teeth was very great."* He died in 1843, 
 having long been a useful and honorable member of society. 
 
 Leonard Koecker was born in Bremen, Hanover, in 1785, and 
 early in life engaged in mercantile pursuits. At this time he became 
 acquainted with a traveling Jew dentist, who took much notice of 
 him, allowing the lad to handle his instruments, and even present- 
 ing him with a small set, which Koecker preserved. He came to 
 this country as a commercial agent, but failed; and, about 1807, be- 
 gan the practice of dentistry in Philadelphia, without any knowledge 
 of the profession. But his native ability and energy remedied any 
 defecis in that direction. He practiced in Philadcl])hia until 1822, 
 his reputation rapidly increasing. Indeed, at that date, his profes- 
 sional income was eight thousand dollars per annum, then a much 
 more important sum than now.f His health, however, compelled a 
 voyage to Europe ; and he eventually settled in London, as a dentist, 
 and remained there until his death in 1850, in very extensive and 
 widely-known professional practice. 
 
 As has been seen, Koecker had, in the beginning, absolutely no 
 
 * Harris's Dental Dictionary, p. 638. 
 
 f American Journal of Dental Science, 2J Series, vol. i. p. 473.
 
 16 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 dental knowlodiro. His first case in Pliiladclphia, one of simple ex- 
 traction, occasioned him much mental embarrassment. But, to use 
 the words of Parmly, *' He (grasped the tooth with an instrument, 
 shut his eves, and turning his head from the patient, made a strong 
 effort which dislodged the tooth," — he. being, meanwhile, "under 
 such excitement that he knew not whether the tooth was out or the 
 jaw broken."* The patient, however, ajjpears to have been quite 
 satisfied ; for Parmly adds that he assured the trembling operator he 
 " had never before had a tooth extracted so easily," and that " from 
 that gentleman's influence his (Koecker's) success commenced." 
 
 From being at first in great need of a teacher for himself, Koecker 
 finally came to be a teacher of others. His Avork on Dental Surgery, 
 published in London in 1826, is one of very considerable merit, and 
 even now a standard of reference. Some of his methods of operating, 
 particularly in the treatment of the dental pulp, have been almost uni- 
 versally adopted by the highest authorities. His subsequent profes- 
 sional attainments, when considered side by side with his " first case" 
 in the house in Sansom Street, Philadelphia, will certainly warrant 
 us in applauding the care, energy, and conscientiousness displayed in 
 his whole career, and the bestowing on him much honor and respect. 
 
 AVe have now noticed, briefly, such dental practitioners as seem 
 indisputably entitled to treatment under the present head. Many 
 more gentlemen, of later date but not less strong claims to notice, 
 might be here included ; but we prefer to allow their acts to speak 
 for them, as embodied in the pages to come, rather than to mention 
 them specially. In thus deciding, no negligence of their claims, or 
 depreciation of their abilities, is intended or can be charged. 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. i. p. 470.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL TEETH. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL TEETH OTHER THAN PORCELAIN. 
 
 Before the use of porcelain teeth became general in dentistry, 
 various materials and methods were in vogue as substitutes for lost 
 or decayed teeth. The following are the principal materials used, 
 named in the order of estimation in which they were held : 
 
 Human teeth. 
 
 Animal teeth (those of cattle and sheep). 
 
 Hippopotamus tusks and teeth. 
 
 Elephant, and other ivories. 
 
 Bone. 
 
 The methods of use of these will be described in the order given. 
 
 Human Teeth. — In earlier years, a very common method of using 
 these teeth was by transplantation ; but, belonging, as it does, more to 
 operative than to mechanical dentistry, this mode will receive notice 
 under the former head. 
 
 The part of the human tooth used by dentists, except in trans- 
 plantation, was that portion which is covered with enamel. A lost 
 tooth was replaced by one of its own class, as incisors by incisors, and 
 molars by molars. In the better class of operations, attention was 
 paid to matching the natural and introduced teeth in such particulars 
 as shape, size, color, and (piality.* 
 
 The methods of introduction were four, viz., pivoting, by ligatures, 
 with springs, and on bases. The first, where a healthy and proper 
 root rendered it practicable, was deemed by far the best method. 
 Robert Woofendale, in 1783, says, in regard to this operation, "An- 
 other method of supplying the loss of teeth by art is, by fixing the 
 crown or enameled part of a sound human tooth to the root of a tooth 
 
 * Fitch's Dentiil Surgery, 1829. 
 
 3 17
 
 •18 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 of which the enameled part is wliolly, or in part, decayecl or broken. 
 This in dt)ne 1)V filing each properly, and uniting them by the assistance 
 of a screw of gold or silver ; and ANhich may be done so completely, 
 that it is sometimes not without difficulty they can be separated, in 
 some instances for several years, provided the orifice in the root of 
 the t<J0th, through Mhich the nerve passes, is not much decayed. 
 This operation can only be performed where the teeth have but one 
 root ; neither can it be practiced when the root of a tooth is out." * 
 
 Benjamin James (1814) says, "Dentists pui-sue very different 
 methods of fastening the new crown upon the roots ; some drive the 
 wire, which is attached to the crown, into the cilnal of the root, with 
 cotton wrapped around it to make it tight ; M'hile others previously 
 place a piece of wood in the root, and attach the crown to this sub- 
 stance. As the cotton, of the former method, absorbs and retains 
 the saliva, which, from stagnation, becomes offensive ; and as teeth, 
 set in this way, are sooner loosened, we are induced to prefer the 
 latter manner of setting them." f The mode preferred by Mr. James 
 was simply, screwing part of a gold or wood pivot into the crown, and 
 driving the other part (previously squared on its sides) into the wood 
 socket already perforated for its reception and placed in the root. 
 
 Hnman teeth were also fastened in the mouth by tying them by 
 ligatures of gold or silver wire, silk, unbleached thread, sea grass 
 (Indian weed), or silkworm gut. This is the oldest known method 
 of fixing artificial teeth in their places. This mode, however, was 
 open to so many objections that it was rarely used by the more skill- 
 ful operators, and then only where no other mode was possible; and 
 it gradually fell into almost entire disuse on the appearance of gold 
 or other ])lates fitted with clasps. 
 
 Human teeth were scarce, and very costly. In an advertisement 
 inserted in a Philadelphia paper in 1784, M. Le Mayeur, a dentist, 
 offers (wo r/uincas each for sound teeth to be obtained from " persons 
 disjwsed to sell their front teeth, or any of them.";}; This may, at 
 present, appear almost barbarous; but it is nevertheless certain that 
 poor persons often disposed of their teeth* to dentists in the same 
 manner in which destitute females have since sold their hair, in 
 moments of necessity, to the hair merchant. 
 
 * Practical Observations on the Human Teeth, by R. Woofendale, London, 
 1783. 
 
 t A Trpiitise on the Management of the Teeth, by Benjamin James, M.M.S.S., 
 Boston, 1814. 
 
 X Watson's Annals of Pliiladclphia, vol. i. p. 179.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 19 
 
 There was, also, some prejudice against human tocth on tlie ground 
 that they were often the vcliicles for introducing diseases into the 
 system of the M'earer. 
 
 These objections rendered necessary, in many cases, the employment 
 of some material which should be cheaper, and not open to the other 
 objections against human teeth. 
 
 Animal Tccfh. — These were largely used, the teeth of cattle the 
 most so. They were fastened in the mouth by the same means as 
 human teeth. Their color, however, was generally much lighter than 
 that of the natural teeth ; and, although they possessed, on one sur- 
 face only, a firm and durable enamel, the other surfaces were there- 
 fore exposed to the attacks of corrosive agents in the saliva, and were 
 easily destroyed. Also, their pulp-chambers were very large, in pro- 
 portion to the tooth, and were often cut into in fitting, or broken into 
 during mastication. Their peculiar forms were also a great obstacle 
 to correct fitting or adaptation in the mouth. On these accounts they 
 often gave place to — 
 
 Hippopotamus Ivory. — This material was, perhaps, more exten- 
 sively used than any other of the dental substitutes. In cases where 
 two or more consecutive teeth were inserted, it was (except where 
 ligatures were introduced) almost the only material in use, either as 
 carved in a block into the semblance of the removed teeth, or as a 
 base on which to secure human or animal teeth, either in the absence 
 or presence of roots. In the former case, a correct fitting of the base 
 to the remaining natural teeth was often the only mode of attachment ; 
 while in other cases, the blot^k of teeth or the base was secured by 
 ligatures to the adjacent sound teeth. But the mode used wherever 
 practicable, and considered as most reliable, was pivoting. This, as 
 mentioned above, was done in the introduction of a single tooth ; but 
 it was also done in cases of partial or even whole dentures, two or 
 more dowels, according to the number and position of available roots, 
 being fastened in the block. 
 
 The block, or single carved tooth, often comprised a portion of 
 gum carved in the material as a base, the teeth and gum being in 
 one piece. ISIuch nicety of adaptation was sometimes evinced in this 
 process, and the shapes of the various teeth \verc accurately copied. 
 Partial dentures, with gums, were carved from one piece of hippo- 
 potamus ivory, with vacancies or holes for the admission of the 
 remaining natural teeth, the whole so artistically worked as, but for 
 the material, to almost preclude the possibility of detection when in 
 use.
 
 20 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 The carved gums were often colored to represent the statural gum; 
 but it was not po&sible to make this color durable. "Woofcndale says, 
 " This deception looks very well at first, but I never stained any my- 
 self, or saw any stained by others, but that the color was discharged 
 in a short time."* 
 
 Elephant Ivory, and Bone, were used for the cheaper grades of 
 operations, but the higiier classes of operator, generally repudiated 
 them. "Teeth made of ivory (the tusk of the elephant), or oi bone, 
 are very imperfect : they have no enamel, are soft, soon become dis- 
 colored and begin to decay, and unavoidably render the breath offen- 
 sive."t '* When artificial teeth are made of common hone, or ivory, 
 they generally soon turn yellow. "J " This material (ivory) possesses 
 more objection than any other animal matter used for the purpose ; 
 it is porous, readily absorbs the saliva, and becomes decomposed in a 
 very short time, by which it is discolored, and rendered highly offen- 
 sive to the patient."§ At the date of this extract, however, ivorj' 
 and bone were not in use in this country, although they are still so, 
 to a limited extent, in some parts of Europe. 
 
 Serious and various ils were the objections to teeth of animal sub- 
 stances, they held their j)lace in the profession long after the introduc- 
 tion of mineral teeth. In fact, human teeth were used as substitutes, 
 especially in the regions remote from the more populous centres, until 
 a comparatively recent period. This was owing, perhaps, as much to 
 the conservatism of the profession (a conservatism very marked up 
 to 1845) as to the inferior quality of the primary productions in 
 mineral teeth. The lack of professional communion, and the strict 
 secrecy very generally maintained in regard to processes and materials, 
 were almost insurmountable barriers to innovation. But these bar- 
 riers, once broken, vanished in the light of a newer and more liberal 
 dispensation ; and with them vanished human substitutes, with *' sea- 
 horse," ivory, and bone. 
 
 PORCELAIN TEETH. 
 
 Porcelain, or mineral teeth, though used in France as early as 
 1774, were not introduced into this country until 1817, when Dr. 
 A. \. Plantou arrived in Philadelphia from Paris, and engaged in 
 the practice of dentistry. The teeth then made in France, and 
 
 * Woofondiilc on the Teeth, 1783. 
 
 t The Family Dentist, by Jcsiah F. Flagg, Boston, 1822. 
 
 X Woofendiile on the Teeth, 1783. 
 
 I Surgical and Mechanical Dentistry, by S. C. Harbert, Philadelphia, 1847.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 21 
 
 brought here by Dr. Plantou, were of such form, color, and materials 
 as would now be regarded with contempt. The front teeth Avere, in 
 shape, almost exactly like a ftplit bean, the labial surface being 
 rounded and enameled, the palatal perfectly flat. Lengthwise across 
 this flat back Mas formed, before baking, a half-round groove, in 
 each side of Avhich were inserted small pieces of platinum. This 
 groove was for the introduction of a gold wire, around which the 
 platina points were hammered, and solder flowed on the metals, thus 
 securing the wire to the tooth. 
 
 These teeth were coarselv made, and without s;ums ; beino; designed 
 for adaptation to ivory or bone bases. They were white, opaque, and 
 brittle. "The mineral or china teeth are very imperfect; they have 
 .an opaque, earthy appearance, are brittle, and the sensation they 
 produce when brought in contact with the natural teeth, in masticii- 
 tion, is very disagreeable."* 
 
 The question of priority in the manufacture of mineral teeth in 
 this countiy is one quite easily settled. Claims are made for Dr. A. 
 A. Plantou and Charles W. Peale, of Philadelphia, and Dr. Henry 
 Villers, of Boston. Mr. Peale, however, in his own autobiography, 
 states that he was induced to experiment in porcelain teeth through 
 the failure of a set made for him by Dr. Plantou. Hence we may 
 say that the honor of first manufacturing mineral teeth lies between 
 Drs. Plantou and Villers. 
 
 The date of Dr. Plantou's first attempts cannot be determined 
 more closely than by giving the time as about 1819 or 1820. How- 
 ever, it is certain that in 1822 he exhibited his mineral teeth before 
 the jMedical Society of Philadelphia, and received for them a certifi- 
 cMe of approbation. The latter date being certainly correct, it is 
 very probable that the first of the former ones is also to be relied on, 
 not only as a consequent inference, but from information. 
 
 Dr. Villers's claims to the introduction of the manufacture of por- 
 celain teeth in this country are based principally on a communication 
 of his to the New York Dental Recorder, published in vol. viii. p. 
 203; in which he states that he first experimented in England 
 (before 1819), where he succeeded well, and returned to Boston in 
 1819, where he gave instructions and sold recipes to many promi- 
 nent dentists, among others Drs, J. F. Flagg, Keep, Harwood, and 
 Tucker. An extract from the letter cited will serve to show the 
 nature of his claims: 
 
 * The Family Dentist, by Josiah F. Flagg, Boston, 1822.
 
 22 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 "Dr. E. Parnily vim boar witness, I believe, as to my being the 
 first to make teeth with a trans! ueeut body, with parti-colors, to 
 imitate the natural shades. Coloring matters were the most difficult 
 to obtain; at that time titanium was scarcely known, and as a sub- 
 stitute I used antimony and iron, and occusionally silver, but at a 
 white heat this would turn light-broAvn; to make the dark shades I 
 worked in clinker from the forge. Dr. A. A. Plantou, of Philadel- 
 phia, was a personal acquaintance, and presented me with a certificate 
 to the effect that I was the first to make translucent mineral teeth. 
 M, Chemant* was the first to make full sets of terra-metallic teeth, 
 which he told me were made of vcuwres (fire-brick) glazed with 
 window-glass, and when liglit shades were wanted he added pipe-clay 
 and white sand. Drs. Maury, Fonzi, Fauchard, and Delefons, all 
 living in London, expressed a favorable opinion of my teeth, and 
 said I might expect to make a fortune by furnishing teeth for the 
 dental profession. Dr. H. H. Hayden, of Baltimore, received in- 
 structions from me." 
 
 A careful examination of the aljove Avill show that no dates are 
 given of the teachings and occurrences mentioned by the writer, 
 although it is evidently intended to be inferred that some, at least, of 
 those occurrences antedate Dr. Plantou. Further than this, however, 
 we have the direct statement of Dr. Joshua Tuckerf that Dr. Villers 
 never so instructed him or Drs, Keep and Harwood, as claimed. 
 And it is impossible, in any event, that Dr. Villers could have done 
 so before 1830, for Dr. N. C. Keep commenced his dental practice 
 between 1825 and 1830, Dr. D. Harwood began in 1832, and Dr. J. 
 Tucker commenced dentistry in Boston in 1833. 
 
 From these facts, as stated, we can do no less than refuse to accept 
 Villers's claims to priority in the manufacture of porcelain teeth in 
 this country, for no relia])le data are furnished to substantiate them. 
 To Dr. A. A. Plantou, therefore, must be accorded the credit of 
 initiating here an art which has since attained to almost gigantic 
 prr (portions. 
 
 It is almost equally exactly determined that Mr. Charles W. Peale 
 was the next after Plantou to manufacture mineral teeth. Indeed, he 
 was near enough to priority to have had that place claimed for liim.| 
 
 * M. Dubois d(! Chcmant, who claimed and was granted patents for the first 
 invention of mineral teeth. 
 
 t Communication to the author. 
 
 I By Kembrandt Peale, his son, at the First Annual Commencement of the 
 Philadelphia Dental College, Feb. 28th, ISoS.—Detiial News Letter, vol. vi. p. 189.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 23 
 
 ISIr. Peale was a iini\-ersal genius. He was successively a saddler, 
 silversmith, watchmaker, dentist, and portrait painter, in which latter 
 vocation he acquired his most enduring reputation. He was public 
 spirited, and given to scientific research. The celebrated museum 
 which bore his name was founded in 1785. He was one of the 
 founders of the Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia. 
 
 His first teeth (about 1822) were made with holes through them 
 for riveting to the plates, as he had been accustomed to do with teeth 
 of animal substances. But these proving inefficient, he placed plat- 
 inum wire in the composition before firing it.* 
 
 The next principal experimenter was Samuel W. Stockton, who 
 commenced his experiments in 1825. 
 
 About this time porcelain teeth began to command attention among 
 dentists, and many of the profession made them for employment in 
 their own practice. It would be useless, and indeed impossible, to 
 enumerate all who were thus engaged. Some arrived at, perhaps, 
 greater celebrity than others, and among these we jnay name Joseph 
 E. Mclllhenny, of Philadelphia (1826); D. C. Ambler, of New York, 
 and J. R. Spooner, of Montreal, Canada (1828); J. F. Flagg, of Boston 
 (1830); Shearjashub Spooner, of New York (1831); Daniel Plarwood 
 and Joshua Tucker, of Boston (1833-4); James Alcock, of New York, 
 and John Allen, of Chicinnati (1835); and last (though not least), 
 Elias Wildman, of Philadelphia, who began his experiments in 1837. 
 
 In 1838, Dr. Shearjashub Spooner published in New York his 
 work on porcelain teeth,f in which he gives the recipes of many of 
 the then best known manufacturers, and several of his pwn. 
 
 It will be of value to here introduce some recipes showing the 
 gradual advance in the composition of porcelain teeth from the time 
 of M. Aiulibran, in France (1820), to that of Dr. Spooner (1838). 
 
 Recipe of M. Audibrax. 
 
 Body. 
 
 Kaolin ....... 6 oz. 
 
 JClay ....... 1 oz. 4 dr. 
 
 Titanium ...... 1 scr. 4 gr. 
 
 Oxide Gold J gr. 
 
 Filings of Platinum . . . . 2 gr. 
 
 * MSS. of Dr. J. W. White. 
 
 f An Essay on the Art of the Manufacture of Min'^ral, Porcelain, or Incor- 
 ruptible Teeth, by Shearjashub Spooner, ]M.D., New York, 1838. 
 
 X The clay used in this recipe is the earth of Va)ivres, so called from the place 
 where it is obtained near Paris.
 
 24 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Enamel. 
 
 Feldspar ■ . . 7 oz. 
 
 Kaolin . . . . . . . 3 dr. 
 
 Titanium ...... 1 scr. 14 gr. 
 
 Oxide gold ...... | gr. 
 
 The next recipe is described bv Dr. Spooner,* as " tlie old body" of 
 Mr. Stockton, of Philadelphia: 
 
 Body. 
 
 Spar 20 parts. 
 
 Silex 20 «' 
 
 Sugar-house clay . . . . . 10 " 
 
 Enatyiel. 
 
 Spar ....... 20 parts. 
 
 Silex 2 " 
 
 Kaolin 1 " 
 
 Dr. Spooner remarks that " Mr. Stockton's present recipes are very 
 different from his old ones." 
 
 Next is one of Dr. Henry Villers's recipes, which he spoke of as 
 producing "magnificent" teeth: 
 
 Glass-house sand 24 parts. 
 
 Pearlash 3 " 
 
 Nitre 2 " 
 
 Korax ..... I . 1 " 
 
 Dr. Spooner mentions Dr. Villersf as " one of the first to introduce 
 the art of manufacturing mineral teeth into this country." 
 
 The next, and last, is one of Dr. Spooner's, wliich, he says, "fuses 
 into a dense body that stands the fire well, of considerable translucency. 
 Very good teeth may be made from this body."| 
 
 Spar 20 parts. 
 
 Silex 5 " 
 
 Kaolin 1 " 
 
 Glass of borax ..... 1 " 
 
 Samuel W. Stockton, who, as previously stated, began his experi- 
 ments in 1825, was the first in this country whose manufacture of 
 porcelain teeth attained to any commercial importance. Most of those 
 
 * Loc. cit., p. 84. f Loc. cit., p. 72. % I'OC. cit., p. 63.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 25 
 
 who manufactured previous to 1835, did so to supply their own needs, 
 but Stockton endeavored to supply the profession. About 1830 his 
 teeth became pretty well and widely knoAvn, and soon thereafter were 
 accepted and used as the best then procurable. The greatest obstacle 
 to his absolute success lay in the uneven quality of his fabrication, 
 for he did not work by unvarying formuloe, and often produced the 
 most perfect of his teeth by sheer accident. One "batch," in par- 
 ticular, is still remembered by many as far above his average pro- 
 duction. 
 
 Stockton's manufacture was, as late as 1845, the most extensive in 
 the country. His greatest production per annum probably amounted 
 to five hundred thousand teeth; which were, however (although the 
 best then to be obtained), what would now be called cpiite crude. 
 His bodies were opaque, and uniform in color throughout their whole 
 extent; the gum enamel was a smooth paint, applied on the surface 
 before final vitrifaction of the tooth; the grinding surfaces of the 
 bicuspids and molars were formed by a three-sided file, in single or 
 crossed grooves; each tooth was of uniform thickness from side to 
 side, no attempt being made to preserve an unbroken lingual surface 
 in entire dentures by shading the thin incisors into the broad molars 
 through a gradual thickenins; of the intermediate teeth. His stock 
 was kept in bulk, in bottles; the modern method of sorting and 
 •fastening on cards not having been then introduced. In all these 
 particulars, however, he was not a whit behind his contemporaries, 
 but, on the contrary, gained several premiums in competition with 
 them. 
 
 James Alcock, of New York, beginning in 1835, persevered in his 
 endeavors to secure the strength and life-like appearance desired, 
 until he produced very excellent teeth. His business in them became 
 quite extensive; and remained so for many years. D. C. Ambler, 
 also, having commenced his experiments before Alcock (1828), was 
 quite successful in establishing his manufactures on a firm basis 
 before the public. 
 
 Dr. Elias Wildman, of Philadelphia, began his experiments in 
 1837. He produced such results in life-like aj^pcarance as had not 
 been obtained before, and remain unexcelled to the present time. 
 His principal success was in the production of uniformity in gum 
 enamel; in this particular he far outstripped all his rivals. To him 
 must be accorded the honor of first reducing the manufacture of 
 porcelain teeth to a scientific basis. 
 
 In 1844, Samuel S. White, a nephew of Stockton (with whom he
 
 26 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 had servod a seven-vears' apprenticeship in "tlie art and mv.stery of 
 dentistry and the manufacture of inexjrruptible teeth"), began the 
 ])ro(hu'tion of these teeth, in a small way, in the garret of a dwelling- 
 house at Seventh and Race Streets, in Philadeli)hia. This was the 
 initiatory step in an enterprise which has since become the largest of 
 its kind in tlie world. 
 
 The improvements in mineral teeth with which Mr, White stands 
 credited are numerous and important. Among them may be num- 
 bered various changes in the forms of ]>latinum pins; such as the 
 bell-shaped termination, introduced in 1850; the double-headed pia, 
 in 1863; and the foot-shaped pin, in 1872. Other not less impor- 
 tant advances are: superior resistance to high temperatures in solder- 
 ing; the maximum of strength as tested by riveting, as well as by 
 practical use, with the minimum of bulk and weight; and improve- 
 ments in texture, color, translucency, and vital appearance generally; 
 together with closer imitation of the physiological and anatomical 
 ditfercnces in the natural teeth than had before been attained. 
 
 So well known are his productions, however, that it will be super- 
 fluous to further trace the advance, either of his business or his manu- 
 factures; suffice it to say that he now makes, annually, over four 
 millions of teeth, about two-thirds of the whole number used in the 
 world. 
 
 BASE PLATES. 
 
 Irory and Bone. — Previous to the introduction of metallic bases, 
 the use of bone or ivory for this purpose was universal. The objec- 
 tions to these materials were numerous and important, bemg mainly 
 identical with those advanced against teeth of the same substances; 
 with the addition of great difficulty in securing correct adaptation to 
 the mouth, and the impossibility of making a reasonably correct fit- 
 ting ])ermanent, on account of the loss of substance occasioned by the 
 rapid decay of the material. In spite of these disadvantages, how- 
 ever, bone and ivory combined the greatest number of desirable 
 points then attainable in any one substance; and their use was con- 
 tinued (though gradually decreasing) until several years after the first 
 employment of metal for the purpose. 
 
 Ivory and bone, when used in the insertion of single teeth, or par- 
 tial dentures on one side, were formed into what were called sockets; 
 which covered only the gum from which the natural teeth were 
 absent. Wiien used in the case of a whole denture, the name base or 
 block was given to the W(jrk. The manner of fitting was the same
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 27 
 
 in both cases, and cannot be better described, in its best form, than by 
 an extract from Robinson.* 
 
 "The surface of the model, having been previously prepared ^'ith 
 wax and resin, f is now painted over with rose-pink and oil, and the 
 block (of ivory) being applied horizontally, a jwrtion of the coloring- 
 matter adheres to the bone at the points of ajiposition, and thus 
 indicates the parts to be removed by sculpers. . . . The process of 
 removal or excavation must be continued .... until .... the 
 bone comes in close contact with every .... inequality of the sur- 
 face. A similar adaptation must also be made on a second model 
 reserved for the purpose, the first having lost its sharpness from re- 
 peated applications of the bone. ... At this stage .... it is neces- 
 sary that the piece should be fitted to the mouth. For this purpose, 
 first paint with rose-pink and oil the surface of the gum over which 
 the piece is to extend ; . . . . adapting the opposing teeth in the other 
 jaw to the bite, by a])})lying the coloring-matter also to their cutting- 
 edgas or grinding surfaces; and removing those marks on the bone 
 which result . . . ." 
 
 These bases, thus formed, were fitted with teeth, either human, 
 animal, or porcelain. It will be evident that only the greatest care, 
 skill, and exj)erience could produce results in this manner which 
 woidd possess much accuracy of adaptation, or secure ease and com" 
 fort to the wearer; and when we add to these the objections already 
 enumerated as applying to ivory teeth in the mouth, we cannot won- 
 der that the profession and the public hailed with delight the advent 
 of metallic bases. 
 
 Gold. — The date of introduction of metal bases into general den- 
 tistry cannot be exactly determined. It is generally supposed, how- 
 ever, that gold was the metal first used as a base for artificial teeth. 
 It probably soon obtained, and has certainly ever since held, the most 
 eminent position among the many materials for that purpose. It is 
 probable that Dr. James Gardette, of Philadeli)hia, Avas the first who 
 used the gold base in this country. Dr. Gardette arrived in Phila- 
 delphia from New York in 1784, and was for many years thereafter 
 one of the most prominent dental operators in America. He used 
 gold as a plate, certainly in the year 1787,| and very probably for 
 some time before. 
 
 * The Surgical, Mechanical, and Medical Treatment of the Teeth, by James 
 Robinson, London, 1846. 
 f To harden the plaster and prevent penetration of the coloring matter. 
 % American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. x. p. 63.
 
 28 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Gold, being costly, Avas within reach of the rich only ; and 
 
 Silver was adopted for use in cases where expense was considered. 
 Like gold, the date or })lace of its first use cannot be ascertained with 
 precision ; but it is probable that it was first employed in England, 
 and soon after gold. 
 
 Pldiimim, as a l)ase, accompanied the introduction of porcelain teeth 
 in France. In its pure state this metal is too soft and ductile to retain 
 a given form with exactitude inider pressure ; and it has hence been 
 generally alloyal with some other metal (silver and iridium have been 
 used), in order to obtain the requisite stiffness. 
 
 Aluminum made its appearance as a base about the year 1866 ; and 
 to Dr. J. B. Bean belongs the credit of first casting a base in this 
 metal.* In the state of plate it was hammered or " struck up" into 
 form as easily as silver ; but a great, and, at first, an insurmountable 
 obstacle to its use in this manner lay in the impo&sibility of obtaining 
 a solder or cement with which to fiisten teeth to plate of this material. 
 Dr. Bean was the first to ccust it, in 1866, and he subsequently patented 
 his process. He was speedily followed, in 1867, by Dr. S. Lawrence, 
 of Lowell, with a simplified jirocess, not patented. Afterwards vari- 
 ous improvements in its manipulation were introduced, and there Avere 
 soon invented for it practicable solders. But the difficulties encoun- 
 tered in working it were so great as to prevent its general introduc- 
 tion ; and time disclosed a still greater defect. " While it readily 
 withstands the acid secretions of the mouth, it is as readily destroyed 
 in a mouth with alkaline reaction." f Hence it has fallen into disuse. 
 " Aluminum .... has not proved as useful as its advocates, and 
 the profession at large, once hoped. It is used by but few." X 
 
 A'^arious other metals have been used, principally those latterly dis- 
 covered, as iridium, palladium, and rhodium. Tiiese are em])loyed 
 generally as alloys of j)latinum, and each seems to serve a good pur- 
 pose ; but they are not of sufficiently general applicability, or easily 
 enough manipulated, to have come into any extended use. 
 
 Moulded or "poured" tin bases were first used by Dr. Edward 
 Hudson, of rhiladelphia, about the year 1820,§ but appear not to 
 have attained much importance at his hands. In 1836, Dr. Wm. A. 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. viii. p. 376. 
 
 t Report on Mechanical Dentistr}-, American Dental Association, meeting of 
 August, 1874. 
 
 J Report on Mechanical Dentistry, American Dental Association, meeting of 
 August, 1875. 
 
 2 American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. iv. p. 545.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 29 
 
 Royce, of Newburgh, New York, cast bases in tin ; but became dis- 
 satisfied with tbeni, and substituted a gold or silver plate with |)oiu-ed 
 tin gums. To prevent corrosion of the tin, he attempted its galvani- 
 zation with gold, but failed ; the gold coating rapidly wearing away." * 
 It will be noticed that Dr. Royce's last process constituted a metallic 
 continuous gum. 
 
 In 1850 Dr. George E. Hawes revived the process ;t aw^^> being 
 very materially aided by the progress of liberal ideas in dentistry 
 since the times of Drs. Hudson and Royce, gave the poured tin base 
 a much wider celebrity than it had yet obtained. At first it was re- 
 ceived with great favor ; but it was not until finally presented by Dr. 
 Alfred A. Blandy, in 1856, that this method took a strong hold on 
 the profession. Dr. Blandy devised an alloy of tin, which proved 
 superior in ease of manipulation, and in durability, to the pure metal ; 
 and, having patented his alloy and processes, introduced them under 
 the title of cheoplasUj. It received, from time to time, very flattering 
 notices from men eminent in the profession. Dr. Harris said of it, 
 in 1859, "Thus far, we believe it has realized the expectations of its 
 most zealous advocates. ... From results which have come under 
 our own observation, the use of it seems likely, in a very short time, 
 to become general." J In sj)ite of Dr. Harris's prophecy, however, 
 chcoplasty has not come into greatly extended use. " This, like all 
 other alloys, fusing at a low temperature, and of which tin forms the 
 principal part, has never obtained a universal popularity, and although 
 it has from time to time been much improved by different exjieri- 
 menters, ... it does not seem likely that it will become the substitute 
 for rubber." § 
 
 Gutta-percha, for bases, was first introduced in England, by Edwin 
 Trueman, about 1851. He called his process auropladij, from the 
 fact that his finished bases were electro-gilded. The dentists of this 
 country immediately began experimenting, and in 1855 N. B. Slayton, 
 of Madison, Indiana, brought out his " colored gutta-percha base." || 
 Although it had first been designed for permanent sets, a short i)eriod 
 of exjjerimenting proved it not entirely successful as sucli ; and Mr. 
 
 * New York Dental Kecorder, vol. v. p. 61. 
 
 t Ibid., vol. iv. p. 286. 
 
 \ Hiirris'.s Princij)les and Practice of Dental Surgery. 
 
 § lieport on Mechanical Dentistry, American Dental Association, meeting of 
 1875. 
 
 II This was simply Trueman's base under another name. They were both 
 formed of wire frame-work (gold generally) covered with gutta-percha. True- 
 man's was afterwards electro-gilded, while Slayton'-s was not.
 
 30 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Slavton claimed value fur it only in temporary dentures; for which 
 purpose it attained to a considerable popularity; which, however, 
 was not endurinij, and the compound has long been abandoned as a 
 base. 
 
 Vidcnnitc. — In I80I, the publiciition of Nelson Goodyear's process 
 for making the hard rubber compound, afterward called "vulcanite," 
 turned the attention of those interested in many manufactures to the 
 adaptation of this material, \vhi('h was announced to be a substitute 
 for horn, bone, and ivory, as susceptible of being colored, and as 
 having all the plasticity of gutta-percha or caoutchouc, while exempt 
 from the action of heat, cold, and acids. 
 
 With such a combination of properties in one material, it seems 
 unaccountable that the dental world did not at once adopt the new 
 discover}'. It was not until 1855 that Charles Goodyear, Jr., obtained 
 in England a patent for making a dental i)late of hard rubber, in 
 which the teeth were secured before the compound was vulcanized. 
 This was the first recorded or published suggestion of this use of the 
 new material, which contains not only the adaptation of vulcanite, but 
 also the use of the mould as now' employed. It is true that the Cum- 
 mings patent, so widely known, has been sustained by the courts as 
 possessing the merit of invention in both these respects ; but neither 
 the Cummings caveat of 1852, his application of 1855, nor his appli- 
 cation of 1804 mention the use of a mould; and it is not until his 
 rcis.^-ne of 1865 that we find he had included this part of the process; 
 which he did by then embodying the description contained in Good- 
 year's English patent of 1855. 
 
 The mould (the very heart of the vulcanite process) was first derived 
 from Dr. Royce's experiments Avith poured tin plates in 1837-38; 
 and was perfected by Dr. George E. Hawes in 1850, also in connec- 
 tion with poured tin, as before noticed.* It is probable that from 
 these inventors Mr. (loodyear derived his method. 
 
 In 1856, Dr. Putnam, of New York, experimented extensively 
 with the vulcanite. The principal difficulty he encountered was in 
 imj)roving the objectionable color of the material. 
 
 The general practice in this construction has always been accord- 
 ing to the process of Nelson Goodyear, by packing the moulds before 
 closing them ; and so perfect was this process, in its original form, 
 that almost no essential improvements upon it have been made. The 
 process of Dewar (English, 18G0), operated by first closing the mould 
 
 * American Juiirnal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. i. p. 3, and former refer- 
 ences.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 31 
 
 aiitl then forcing the composition into it with a cylinder containing a 
 piston (as a syringe), has never obtained any very wide employment 
 in this country. 
 
 The Vulcanite Litigation. — To attempt a critical and detailed re- 
 view of this subject woidd occupy a volume larger than this one. 
 We shall note only the most prominent facts in connection with it. 
 
 Subsequent to the patent of Cliarles Goodyear, Jr., for dental 
 plates, before mentioned, John A. Cummings obtained (June 7th, 
 1864) another in this country for a similar purj^ose. Cummings had 
 filed a caveat in the matter as far back as 1852, and had applied for 
 a patent in April, 1855; which application was rejected. Another 
 was more successful; and a patent was finally issued to him in 1864, 
 as described; and reissued January 10th and March 21st, 1865. 
 
 The almost universal applicability and consequent value of the 
 ne\y material led many to endeavor to secure a share in the profits 
 sure to arise from it; and several new processes for its manufacture 
 Avere devised and patented. Chief among such of these as especially 
 related to dentistry were the following: that of Edwin L. Simpson, 
 of Newbrough and Fagan, and of AVilliam Muller. 
 
 In 1855-6, Dr. C. S. Putnam was prominent in introducmg the 
 material and process before the dentists of New York and the vicin- 
 ity, under the patronage of Charles Goodyear, Jr. Others also en- 
 gaged in its introduction, under one or other of the various patentees 
 and companies; and the profession began to use vulcanite largely. 
 
 The several original ])atcnts of the Goodyears and Cummings re- 
 lating to dental bases passed through a variety of transfers and assign- 
 ments, and finally to the ownership of the Goodyear Dental Vul- 
 canite Company. In the course of their transmigrations, suits against 
 alleged infi'ingcrs were instituted, which resulted uniformly in favor 
 of the jilaintiffs. 
 
 In the midst of this litigation the dentists occupied an anomalous 
 position. Their necessities called for the use of the material in dis- 
 pute, which they could obtain only at the expense of license fees 
 and the high prices charged for the gum; and it was even • impossible 
 to clearly determine, amid the various questions of title and right to 
 sell then pending in the courts, as to the value of any license held or 
 proposed to be bought; for each new claimant offered, and sold, such 
 licenses, insisting that they would protect the buyer against all attacks 
 of adverse parties. 
 
 That all these representations of the conflicting licensors were not 
 equally valuable, the dentists who had attended to them soon found
 
 32 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 to their cost ; for tlie owners of the Goodyear and Cumniings patents 
 attacked as well the dentists Avho used, as the licensor who sold, any 
 vulcanite other than their own. Many dentists, either intimidated 
 by threats, or not desirous of litigation, acceded to the demands of 
 the rubber companies; but some held stoutly out, and were accord- 
 ingly sued. 
 
 The feeling in the profession against the vulcanite patentees, and 
 their action, became ver}-^ decided; and, early in the history of rub- 
 ber litigations, dental protective societies and unions were formed in 
 all parts of the country, for the purpose of assisting any who might 
 sustain suits brought against them for the use of vulcanite. Contri- 
 butions were made, and considerable sums raised to this end; and 
 many of the profession assumed a posture of defense. The United 
 States Dental Protective Union, in Boston, the New York Dental 
 Protective Union, and the American Dental Protective Society, Avere, 
 perhaps, the most prominent of these associations. 
 
 In October, 1864, suit wa.s commenced, on the part of the Dental 
 Vulcanite Company, against Isaac J. AVcthcrbee, a dentist of Boston. 
 But a decision was rendered against the defendant in May, 1866, and 
 the case was not appealed. 
 
 In ^larch, 1868, a suit was brought by the Goodyear Dental Vul- 
 canite Company against George Evans, of New York, who held a 
 license under the Simpson patent; which was declared an infringe- 
 ment of the Goodyear patents, and the cause was given to the plain- 
 tiffs and an injunction issued. 
 
 In Sej)tcmber, 1868, suit was begun by the same plaintiffs against 
 Benoni E. Gardner, of Rhode Island, who held under NcAvbrough & 
 Pagan's patents. At first, this case was defended by Xewbrough; 
 but, before the cause came to a final hearing, he entered into an 
 arrangement with the plaintiffs by which they became the owners of 
 his patents, and thus his licensees Avere left to shift for themselves. 
 The Gardner case was decided in favor of the plaintiffs in the Circuit 
 Court in Rhode Island; but an appeal was taken to the United 
 States Supreme Court, where the decision of the lower tribunal was 
 sustained. 
 
 Between the taking of this appeal, hoMcver, and its hearing, facts 
 came out, and revelations were made, which seemed to point to the 
 conclusion that the case, as presented, was a collusive one. Acting on 
 this information, Dr. Samuel S. White, on behalf of himself and 
 many others, dentists, moved the Supreme Court to dismiss the ap- 
 peal ; which, after argument, Avas done, and an order made to recall
 
 lIECHANfCAL DENTISTRY. 30 
 
 the mandate that had been issued to the Circuit Court. This con- 
 clusion made it necessary for the rubber company, if they would 
 establish their claims, to bring new suits. This they did ; and such 
 suits now multij)lied ; it was therefore necessary to come to some final 
 action which should determine a definite status of the parties toward 
 each other. In this crisis Dr. "White was requested by many of the 
 most prominent dentists to assist in the preparation of a case which 
 should contain all that belonged to the dental profession by discovery, 
 use, and publication ; the expenses of the litigation to be paid by 
 voluntary contributions from the profession. An agreement Mas now 
 made between counsel whereby the proofs to be taken in a certain case 
 against Daniel H. Smith, a dentist of Holyoke, Massachusetts, should 
 also be taken as the proofs in several other causes then pending; thus 
 making this a test case. On the 14th, 15th, and 16th of January, 
 1874, this case Avas argued in Portland, Me., before tlie Hon. George 
 F. Shepley. . The opinion of the court, sustaining the patent, was 
 given May 8th, 3 874; and the final decree was entered August 18th, 
 1874. Immediately thereafter all the necessary formalities were com- 
 plied with (the suj)ersedeas bond filed, etc.) and an a])pcal to the 
 Supreme Court of the United States perfected; thus arresting the 
 execution of the judgment against Dr. Smith. In this conclition the 
 case still rests, not having been yet reached on the calendar of that court. 
 
 The cases noted are the princij)al among many A\hich have been 
 instituted, and which we are compelled, through want of space, to 
 pass in silence. Dr. White received the approval of the profession 
 for his action in their behalf, as witness the resolutions of thanks to 
 him by the American Dental Association,* the Harris Dental Asso- 
 ciation,t the New York State Dental Society,^ the Merrimack Valley 
 Dental Association, § and many others. 
 
 CoUodion. — This form of base material was devised and patented in 
 England, in 1859, by John Macintosh. It was at first received with 
 indifierence, the attention of the ])rofession being largely absorlx'd by 
 vulcanite at the time; Init when harrasscd by the rubber companies, 
 and when all were in search of a substitute for vulcanite, collodion 
 received greater attention, and was experimented with sufficiently to 
 prove that by its then process of manufacture no reliable results could 
 be obtained. An improvement was then made by Dr. J. A. McClel- 
 land, who introduced his material under tiie somewhat flowerv title of 
 
 * Transactions of Amcr. Dental Assoc, for 1872, p. 28, and for 1874, p. 21. 
 f Dental Cosmo?, vol. xv. p. 3-34. % Ibid., p. 41-3. ^ Ibid., p. 41o 
 
 4
 
 34 HISTORY OF AMEniCAX DKXTISTRV. 
 
 Base- Pen )•/. — At the first appearauoe of tliis eonipduiid tliere were 
 fcniiid in it many (leferts; wliicli were laroely corrected, and the 
 proecss as^iunu'd sonic importance, particnlarly in the AVest. It is 
 ref^arded at present Avith nuich less favor than formerly, as appears 
 by the following extract from tlie Transactions of the American 
 Dental Association for 1874: "Rose-pearl, owing to the comi)licatcd 
 method of its manipulation, has not grown into that general I'avor 
 which was anticipated for it. The material itself, in its improved 
 form, appears to possess many of the properties necessary for a good 
 and durable base." 
 
 C(/h(/oi(L— In 1870, Isaiah Smith Hyatt and John W. Hyatt, Jr., 
 obtained a patent for a method which has apparently solved the 
 problem of converting collodion into a homogeneous and durable 
 solid, in masses. To their conn)ound they gave the above name. 
 
 This is, essentially, a mixture of camphor gum, finely comminuted, 
 with cellulose fibre. Being naturally ef)Iorlcss, it requires only a small 
 proportion of coloring matter to i)r(jducc any desired tint. It has 
 been found to be strong, light, plastic under heat, and elastic when 
 cold. It can be remoulded frequently without injury, and may be 
 repaired easily and promptly throuj^h its perfect welding properties. 
 An objection occurring in its first forms of manufacture — that of 
 warping — has been nearly obviated, and the new composition has 
 become rapidly, widely, and well known, and is in very extensive 
 use as a substitute for rubber. 
 
 Porcelain. — This material, used as a ba.se, w-as introduced to the 
 profession in this country by Mahlon Loomis, of Cambridgeport, 
 Massachus(.'tts, in 1854, although the making of teeth and j)late of 
 porcelain, in one piece, was the method practiced in the first fabrica- 
 tion of j)orcelain dent^u'cs in France, in 1774. Mr. Loomis had 
 great confidence in the ultimate succ-ess of his process, and regarded 
 it as easy of manipulation and adajjtation. But the profession en- 
 countered very great difiiculties with it in these directions, principal 
 among them being tjic almost impossibility of properly governing 
 the shrinkage of the material in firing ; and Mr, Loomis's j^rocess, 
 although experimented with to some extent, never attained to much 
 importance. 
 
 Dr. Dunn made many improvements in this form of base. In 
 18G7 the Committee on Mechanical Dentistry in the American Dental 
 Association noticed his processes in the following commendatoiy lan- 
 guage: "We would further call your attention to a style of work 
 known as the porcelain base, presented by Dr. Dunn, of Delaware,
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. " 35 
 
 wliic'li, with its present improvements, promises to a great extent, 
 at least, to supersede riil)ber for full sets." 
 
 But the manufacture of this base is difficult and uncertain, and not 
 within the capabilities of time or training of most of the profession ; 
 hence it has not come into general use, although, when projjerly made, 
 it constitutes perhaps as excellent a base as has ever been employed. 
 " As the highest 'production of skill and art, a well and faultlessly 
 
 made plate of porcelain stands pre-eminent But the more 
 
 than ordinary skill and experience requisite in the carving of the 
 denture, t0i>ether with the difficultv in calculating: or niakino; allow- 
 ance for the uncertain shrinkage of these plates (which shrinkage, 
 unless accurately provided for, must destroy the close adaptation to 
 the parts to be fitted), will necessarily limit its use to a few experts. 
 Specialists can alone hope to become universally successful."* 
 
 Several other materials, in addition to those named, have been from 
 time to time brought to public notice, in almost every case accompanied 
 by the assurance that the long-desired perfection in bases had been at 
 length reached. AVe may mention as instances, the electrotype process, 
 in which a properly prepared cast received a galvanic deposit of the 
 metal desired, thus producing a perfect fac-simile of the parts at the 
 minimum of expense and trouble, the durability and freedom from 
 hurtful extraneous influences being limited only by the extent of those 
 qualities in the metal employed; and the adcuaantinc, a base of cast 
 fasible metal. 
 
 These attemj)ts, however, have generally been unattended by the 
 success and benefits hoped for from them; and gold, vulcanite, cellu-. 
 loid, and platinum are to-day, as they have been for many years, the 
 principal materials on which mechanical dentistry relies. 
 
 ATTACHING ARTIFICIAL TEETH TO BASES. 
 
 Riveting. — The first practiced method of securing teeth to the base 
 was by rivets. This applies more particularly to ivory and natural 
 teeth, although mineral teeth (other than the French) were for a con- 
 siderable time often fiistened in this manner. The ordinary practice 
 with human, animal, or hippopotamus ivory (called dentine by llobin- 
 sonf) teeth will best be described l)y extracts from his work. 
 
 " The exact point [on the plate] where the rivet is to be inserted 
 .... must now be ascertained. This is done by temporarily fixing 
 
 * Report on Moclianical Dentistry, American Dental Association, 1875. 
 t The Surgical, Jlechanical, and Medical Treatment of the Teeth, by James 
 Robinson, London, 18-t6.
 
 06 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 the tootli in their intended placas on tlie plate bv means of a piece of 
 warm bwswax, on the removal of which a raised point will be ob- 
 served, corresponding to the o})eninirs in the teeth ; and at this point 
 the rivet is to be inserted by first drilling a hole of the same size as 
 the gold wire intended to be used for the rivet, and soldering it [the 
 rivet] to the plate. 
 
 " The teeth (if natural) are to be listened on the pivots by means 
 of a little floss silk wound round the latter, which must be previoasly 
 indented or jagged with a file. Moisten the silk with mastic varnish, 
 and press the teoth firmly on. A\'hen mineral teeth are used, and the 
 length of the pivot will allow, the above method of fixing may still 
 be employed." 
 
 Before the publication of Mr. Robinson's work, it was often cus- 
 tomary to allow the rivets to pass entirely through the teeth, and to 
 rivet them, after placing the teeth in position, by light taps of a small 
 hammer. This method was found inefficient, as the head formed on 
 the rivet was worn or broken away in mastication, and often required 
 re-riveting. In mineral teeth this fimlt was finally corrected by fixing 
 the rivet or wire in the substance of the tooth before baking or " firing" 
 the latter, though this transformation in tooth fiibrication took place 
 slowly, and was preceded by baking into the tooth a i)latina tube, 
 which passed entirely through. In these cases, the tooth was fiu^tened 
 generally as follows, — to again quote Mr. Robinson : *' Place the 
 teeth on their rivets and insert a small quantity of sulphur between 
 the rivets and the tubing ; hold the plate over a spirit-lamp until the 
 sulphur melts; then allow it to cool gradually, and it will be found 
 that tlie teeth are securely fixed to the rivets." Mr. Robinson adds, 
 that " some dentists use pewter solder in the same manner ; it is objec- 
 tionable, inasmuch as it yields a constant metallic taste in the mouth." 
 
 The French mineral teeth, having a groove flanked by platinum 
 studs lengthwise of their backs, were fastened either in the manner 
 first described, by pivots, or by soldering a hacking or gold plate to 
 the platinum studs. 
 
 ^^'ith those mineral teeth possessing a protruding perpendicular 
 l)iv()t in their l)ases, the method of procedure will be sufficiently 
 obvious without descri})tion. But as correct principles of manufac- 
 ture became gradually aj^parent, Xha pivot was changed to the piv, and 
 transferred to the back of the tooth; upon which necessarily followed 
 the operation of harhinr/ and sokleriny, one sufficiently familiar to the 
 profession at this time. 
 
 The processes mentioned possessed inherent defects which. grew to
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 37 
 
 be more obvious as dentistiy progressed. A wider range of materials, 
 and the inereased demand for better artifieial dentures, produced a 
 necessarily consequent improvement in processes; and, as each one 
 engaged in mechanical dentistry strove to outstrip his fellow-workers 
 in the race for perfection, the modes of securing teeth to the base 
 soon became vastly more varied and perfect than had been before 
 supposed possible. 
 
 Probably the greatest advances have been made in the direction of 
 Continuous Gum. — This term is used to designate the fastening of 
 porcelain teeth to plates by means of a fusible compound, applied on 
 the base and around the teeth, moulded and colored to represent the 
 natural gum, and finally fused ; thus making an almost liomogeneous 
 mass of the teeth, gums, and plate. 
 
 The first api)earance of this branch of the art was between the 
 years 1815 and 1820 in France. M. de Chemant, who, as has been 
 stated, claimed and was allowed patents for the invention of mineral, 
 porcelain, or incorruptible teeth, first constructed his dentures in one 
 piece, the gum part being painted after vitrifaction. This })aint was 
 easily destroyed by Avear; and MM. Fonzi and Delabarre (1815 to 
 1818), substituted jeweler's enamel for De Chemant's paint. This 
 cracked and wore away, and M. Delabarre (1819-20) conceived the 
 idea of imbedding the separate teeth in the base and joining them 
 thereto by a composition which should fuse at a lower heat than the 
 teeth or base, and, being proj)erly moulded, Avith the coloring matter 
 in the substance of the material, should thas form a continuous gum 
 of indestructible color, and Avhich should also fasten the teeth in their 
 places. This M. Delabarre did, and thus constructed the first "con- 
 tinuous gum." 
 
 In this country, single teeth and blocks with gums, called "gum 
 teeth," were first made about the year 1835. 
 
 In this year. Dr. Henry Villers, then of Albany, New York, 
 introduced what he ciills* "the method of uniting single teeth into 
 full sets, in masses with gums, and fixing them to gold plates." Dr. 
 Villers pivoted his teeth to the 2)latc, not relying on the gum compo- 
 sition to fasten them. In the same year. Dr. Josephus Broekway, of 
 the same place, made "many sets of upper teeth, 'continuous gum,'"f 
 presumably in the same manner as Dr. Villers. 
 
 * Letter of Dr. Villers, in New York Dental Recorder, vol. vii. p. 52. 
 ■j- Introductory Lecture before the New York State Third District Dental 
 Association, January 12th, 1869.
 
 38 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 In 1840, Samuel W. Stockton made sinirle and block teeth with 
 colored gums. Dr. George E, Hayes, of Buffalo, also made such 
 teeth in this year, having, at the time, never seen or heard of any 
 such. 
 
 On September 18th, 1847, a patent was issued to M. I^evett and H. 
 Davis for "an invention for concealing the metal work used in the 
 insertion of artificial teeth."* This Avas what was then, and has 
 since been known as"Levett's Patent Enamel." It was found, on 
 experiment, to crack and scale off, and so proved to be of little value.f 
 ^I. Levett, liowever, sold "rights" to numerous dentists. He also 
 j)roposed to the New York State Society of Dental Surgeons to grant 
 rights under his patent to its members for one hundred dollars each, 
 for seven years' use, ten per cent, of the amount of such sales to be 
 ])laced in the funds of the Society ; which proposition was accepted. 
 
 In 1834, Dr. Thomas Harrison, of Buffalo, commenced experi- 
 menting in continuous gum Mork, and in 1843 made a set of such 
 teetli, which were in use for eight years thereafter.;}; Dr. Jonathaii 
 Dodge also experimented in 184o with this work.§ 
 
 About the years 1846-7, Dr. John Allen, of Cincinnati, began the 
 investigation of this subject, and Dr. AVilliam Hunter also exj)eri- 
 mented at this time. On the 29th of April, 1851, Dr. Allen filed 
 a caveat in the patent office for "a fusible cement, of which an 
 artificial gum is formed, applicable to artificial teeth, and by means 
 of which they are set."|| At the twelfth annual meeting of the 
 American Societ)^ of Dental Surgeons, in Philadelphia, August, 1851, 
 Dr. Allen exhil)ited specimens of his manufacture. At the annual 
 meeting of the Mississippi Valley Association of Dental Surgeons, 
 held at Louisville, Ky., in September, 1851, Dr. Allen again ex- 
 iiil)ited his invention, and a resolution was offered awarding him a 
 gold medal; Avhich resolution, however, after a spirited discussion, 
 wa.s not acted on. 
 
 In December, 1851, Dr. Allen obtained a patent for his invention, 
 and, a year later, began a suit against Dr. AVilliam Hunter for an 
 alleged infringement, which cause was decided in favor of Hunter. 
 
 * Vide specification of patent. 
 
 f C. T. Cushmnn, in .Vmerican Journal of Dental Science, 2d Scries, vol. i. 
 p. 63. 
 
 J Testimonj' of Dr. H., in the Allen-Hunter case, Dental Register of the "West, 
 vol. viii. p. 286. 
 
 § Ibid., p. 292. 
 
 II Dental Register of the West, vol. viii. p. 284.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 89 
 
 Finally, in June, 1855, appeared a card from Dr. Hunter in the 
 dental periodicals, announcing that "the unpleasant controversy 
 l)etween Dr. Allen and myself, Avhich led to the suit, has been 
 amicably reconciled since its termination," and that Dr. Allen would 
 henceforth be entitled to "any advantages he or the public may find 
 in any ideas that have been regarded as peculiarly my own." 
 
 Such is an exceedingly condensed account of a trial which excited 
 considerable interest in the profession at the time. Dr. Allen con- 
 tinued the sale of "instructions" in the use of his compound. 
 
 But there weve great inconveniences in its use. Some of these are 
 mentioned in a Report on Mechanical Dentistry to the Associated 
 Alumni of Americiin Dental Colleges, March, 1854,* by M. D. 
 French ; who states that " the plate is liable to spring, and the gum 
 to crack off, and many dentists who adopted it practiced it only to 
 find their high hopes of its ultimate succ&ss disappointed, and have 
 hence abandoned it altogether." Dr. French hints, however, that 
 this ill success may be attributable to "an iniproj)er manner of com- 
 pounding and working the material, or an imperfect adaptation of 
 the plate to the mouth." In these conjectures, he was })robably right ; 
 for the invention is now in use to a considerable extent, and takes 
 rank as nearly the most perfect of artificial dentures. The difficul- 
 ties experienced in its preparation and manipulation still exist, and 
 form an effectual barrier to its general employment; as only great 
 skill and experience may make it a success; and therefore it is con- 
 fined almost to specialists. But, certainly, in their hands, the process 
 produces very elegant dentures. 
 
 In order to overcome the obstacles met with in the working of 
 porcelain continuous gum, many devices have been presented. The 
 most prominent of these, and the one which has attained the strongest 
 hold in mechanical dentistry, is the use of 
 
 Vulcanite. — This material possesses the advantages of facility of 
 working, cheapness, and perfection of adaptation, in a high degree; 
 and its ase has, therefore, become greatly extended. It is often 
 applied on gold plates, and thus produces very excellent dentures. 
 
 The more fusible of the metals have also been much employed 
 in this kind of work. Tin was first used in this way, in 1838, by 
 Dr. Royce, of Newburgh, N. Y., the originator of the " poured tin" 
 process. Amalgam was also employed by packing it around the teeth 
 placed on the plate, and the mercury afterward evaporated by heat. 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. iv. p. 531.
 
 40 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 At first, tilt' adliesion of the anialgaiii to tlio metal base was relied on 
 to support the teeth; but sufficient strength was not found to be thus 
 attained, and the teeth were then soldered on as usual, amaliram being 
 finally used to finish the work and close all crevices. The evapora- 
 tion of the mercury, however, left the added amalgam ])orous, and 
 tluis allowed the deposition of the liquids of the mouth in the very 
 substance of the material used to prevent such action; and, although 
 various means were" devised to remove this objection, such as flowing 
 the otherwise finished work with solder, the process never received 
 any extended favor, and soon fell into entire disuse. Gold was 
 mostly used for this amalgam, being employed in the form of foil, 
 and laid on and mixed with mercury and sulphuric acid in a wedg- 
 wood mortar. 
 
 SECURING ARTIFICIAL DENTURES IN THE MOUTH, 
 
 The old methods of securing natural and ivory teeth in the mouth 
 by ligatures and pivoting have been already treated of; and this sec- 
 tion will consequently be devoted to the manipulation of porcelain 
 substitutes. 
 
 With these, at first, the modes were similar to, because taken from, 
 the treatment of natural and ivory teeth ; being varied only by the 
 different necessities of porcelain. 
 
 Pivo'.ing was the most popular manner of introduction, and was 
 practiced wherever the circumstances would allow, with general as- 
 surance of success. The operation was certainly meritorious ; for it 
 h:\.s survived all the mutations of practice, and is almost as much in 
 favor to-day, as it was fifty years ago. 
 
 The modes of procedure were varions, and only the most promi- 
 nmt, through excellence or ingenuity, will be noted. 
 
 Perhaps the most used of all methods was that in which a })late 
 tooth had soldered on it a strong metal (gold or platinum) pivot. In 
 some ciuses the hole in the root was plugged with vood, which was 
 j)erforated lengthwise and received the pivot, previously squared on 
 its sides. Wood for this purpose is now almost abandoned ; but has 
 substitutes, as gutta-percha, or oxychloride. 
 
 Another method was by wood pivots ; the teeth having holes in 
 their b:tse for the insertion of the j)ivots or pegs. This method is in 
 full use at tins time, although it has been strenuously opposed by 
 many who have insisted that the wof»d absorbs moisture and thus 
 iinluces decay in the root, and that the swelling of the moistened wood 
 endangers the safetv of both crown and root. Bv later devices in
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 41 
 
 connection witli wood pivots, these objections liave ])een almost en- 
 tirely removed. The root, having been properly filed, sometimes re- 
 ceives a coating of gntta-percha, warmed or in solution, on which the 
 crown is tightly thrust, thus making a comparatively tight joint. 
 _ Other materials, as the various i)lastic fillings, are, or have been, in 
 use in this manner. ' 
 
 But, previous to these improved modes, it was not considered proper 
 to tightly close the joint between root and crown. On the contrary, 
 canals were cut, either along the pivot or the side of the hole in the 
 crown, or hollow })ivots were used, in order to allow the escape of 
 any pus which might form subsequent to the operation. INIore cor- 
 rect practice has since decided, however, that disease should be cured 
 or removed before the insertion of pivot teeth. 
 
 The method of splitting the pivots to insure their retention, was 
 practiced at an early period. The pivot was often scored, before 
 splitting, into barbed points on its sides, to aid the grasp of the halves 
 on the sidas of the cavity into which it was thrust. 
 
 Various devices to insure correct adaptation of the crown to the 
 root have been invented. The pivot counter-drill has been long in 
 use for this purpose. Dr. E. ToAvnsend, of Philadelphia, introduced 
 the oval and hollow file, one fitting exactly into the other ; the first 
 being used on the crown, and the last on the root ; thus securing a 
 very perfect adaptation. 
 
 Vulcanite' has been used in pivoting, but is now generally aban- 
 doned. A gold wire wa.s wrapped with gum, which was vulcanized 
 around it, and the pivots cut off as desired ; or the vulcanite wa.s 
 formed into a tube, which was inserted in the canal of the root and 
 received the pivot ; which Avas formed from the Avire on which the 
 tube had been vulcanized and thus fitted accurately. 
 
 In cases where decay has enlarged the root canal and weakened 
 the walls, oxychloride is used to advantage. The decay being re- 
 moved, the cavity is nearly filled Avith moist oxychloride ; and the 
 crown is returned to its place, the pivot entering the plastic filling, 
 forcing it outward and upward into the joint, and being securely re- 
 tained upon the setting of the oxychloride. Much of the success of 
 this procedure will depend u[)on a proper proportioning of the size of . 
 the pivot and canal and the (piantity of plastic filling.* 
 
 Another and most artistic method of setting a pivot tooth is, to 
 enlarge the root canal so that it may be filled with gold around a 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. v. p. 219
 
 42 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 platinum or fjold plate pivot, the gold filling being extended so as to 
 either include the ba.se of the porcelain crown, or simply to grasp and 
 hold lirndy the plate.* 
 
 Chi^^ps are the outgrowth of" the old-time ligature. When first 
 used, they consisted of gold wires soldered to the plates, and partly 
 or wholly encircling the sound teeth which were sufficiently near the 
 inserted denture. The wires, however, were soon found to be objec- 
 tionable ; as, by attrition of their narrow surfaces, they cut into the 
 substance of the teetli they encirclecl ; and, besides, did not secure a 
 sufficiently firm and unyielding position of the inserted teeth. They 
 consequently gave place to flat and broad bands of gold or silver ; 
 Mhich being accurately fitted, gave the maximum of security "vvith 
 nearly the minimum of defects. Dr. James Gardette, of l^hiladel- 
 phia, initiated the use of this method.f Its utility was, at first, 
 questioned ; but it lived down opposition, and beciime firmlv estab- 
 lished. 
 
 Still, the hard surface of metal in contact with the natural teeth 
 was undesirable ; and clasps have been fitted with gutta-percha on 
 their inner sides, to great advantage.]: 
 
 The princijxil difficulty encountered in the insertion of artificial 
 dentures has been their proper retention in situ. In pivoting, this 
 was, by the very nature of the method, fully and easily secured ; but 
 where pivoting was impossible or inadmissible, clasps were generally 
 resorted to, and succeeded very well with partial dentures5 where alone 
 they could be used. But in cases of whole dentures, especially u})pcr 
 ones, the obstacles encountered were great and numerous. Loading 
 the plates was largely practiced with lower dentures, and consisted 
 simjily in adding weight to the plate by fusing metal on its surface. 
 This method is no longer in use. 
 
 Sp)'inr/s were, for a long time, almost the only manner of securing 
 upper dentures. They were known to Fauchard, in 1728, as appears 
 by the following passage from his work, vol. ii. p. 282 : " We now 
 use, in order to join together the two dentures, hinges and springs in 
 the form of a screw, or simply curved in a spiral manner." 
 
 The method was, to form a spiral s})ring of gold wire, in the ends 
 of which were fastened pieces having, either pins at right angles, or 
 holes in the same direction. Holes being drilled from side to side in 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. xii. p. 399. 
 
 fBioicraphical Notice of (the late) James Gardette, Surgeon-Dentist, of Phila- 
 delphia (pubiishel 18501, p. 17. 
 
 % Dental News Letter, vol. x. p. 141.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 43 
 
 the blocks on each side of both upper and lower dentures, or headed 
 pins fastened in these places and projecting laterally, the springs were 
 slid upon the pins or into the holes ; and, being bent backward in a 
 semicircle, served by their tendency to straighten themselves, to keep 
 the dentures pressed against the jaws. Where only an upper denture 
 was required, the S2)rings were soldered to clasps encircling the lower 
 molars. 
 
 The disadvantages attendant upon this method are even more obvi- 
 ous to-day than they were when the springs were used. Among them 
 may be named, impossibility of preventing the collection of secretions 
 and food in the springs, difficulty of cleansjng, and inconvenience to 
 the wearer. Apparent as these objections now are, they were also 
 appreciated at the time ; and some mode which should fill their place 
 and allow of their discontinuance, was eagerly sought. 
 
 This was considered to have been found in the principle of what 
 Desirabode calls " coadaptation." About the year 1800, Gardette, of 
 Philadelphia, having inserted an upper denture, temporarily without 
 springs,- was surprised, some time after, upon calling on his patient in 
 order to supply the springs, to find that she had, by use, become able 
 to retain the denture perfectly.* Dr. Gardette attributed this to atmos- 
 pheric pressure on the plate, and afterward constructed his upper den- 
 tures entirely in this manner ; and, in the controversy which afterward 
 ensued on this subject, its discovery was claimed for him. But there 
 is abundance of proof to support the assertion that Dr. Gardette's 
 case was simply one of excellent adaptation of the plate, rendering it 
 easy for the patient to support the denture by involuntary and in- 
 stinctive movements or contractions of the muscles of the oral cavity. 
 In support of this view we may cite Dr. Solyman Brown in his 
 " Mechanical Dentistry." "■ Inasmuch as the pieces which I am now 
 describing, are those which by some have been called * suction plates,' 
 and by others are said to be retained in position by atmospheric 
 pressure, I deem it proper in this place to express an opinion .... 
 that few pieces of this kind are fixed firmly upon the gum, and used 
 successfully for purposes of mastication, by mere suction or atmos- 
 pheric pressure, without any aid from the tongue, lips, cheeks, and 
 antagonizing jaw." " The manner in which the surrounding parts 
 operate to secure such a plate in situ, is too well known to need any 
 illustration even to the youngest student of our art." f 
 
 * Biographical Notice of (the late) James Gardette, p. 19. 
 
 f American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. ii. p. 2G7.
 
 44 mSTOKY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 It i?: certain, liowover, tliat to "atmospheric pressure" was almost 
 universally attributed the results obtained bv perfection of adapta- 
 titm. 
 
 In 1835, Dr. Chapin A. Harris designed what he calls an "air- 
 chamber" ; being simply a depression in the surface of the plate, ])ro- 
 jecting downward from the palatine arch. This is the earliest date 
 recorded for the use of "cavity plates," as they afterward came to be 
 called.* 
 
 In 1840 (July 3d), Alfred Riggs, of New York, received a patent 
 for a chambered plate of the following description: "He struck a 
 plate to fit the mouth accurately, and perforated a portion of the sur- 
 face resting on the palatine vault with small holes. Over this a plate 
 was struck forming a chamber about one line in dejith at the centre, 
 vanishing' to the alveolar ridge, and soldered firmly to it."t This 
 form of plate has been abandoned, because of the drawing of the 
 gums into the apertures, producing inflammation, — and because it 
 was very difficult to keep clean. 
 
 In 1842, Amos Johnson, of New York, made a cavity plate of his 
 own device, for which he prepared drawings and specifications, pre- 
 paratory to obtaining a patent, but did not, from some cause, do so.| 
 The cavity was a simple crescent-shaped depression in the palatine 
 portion of the plate. 
 
 About 1845,§ Dr. J. A. Cleaveland, of Ciiarleston, S. C, con- 
 structed a cavity plate, by first fitting an ordinary plain plate, and 
 cutting out of it a central opening about three-quarters of an inch in 
 (liameter, inside a ring formed by a half-round wire which had been 
 previously soldered to the })late. A second, dished, ])late, somewhat 
 wider than the opening, was then soldered over it; thus making an 
 inclosed cavity with overlaj)ping edges. Tiie rounded wire served to 
 stiffen the plate, and to prevent unpleasant cluiting or irritation of the 
 gums. 
 
 In February, 1848, I^evi Gilbert, a confecti(mer, of New Haven, 
 Conn., obtained a j)atent for "atmospheric pressure plates," in which 
 the following is claimed: "My invention is the application of at- 
 mosi)heric pressure to plates used in dentistry : the plate being 
 single, and a chamber being sunk in the central part of the upper 
 
 * Dictionary of Dcntnl Science, p. 501. 
 
 f American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 420. 
 
 X New York Dental Recorder, vol. ii. p. 77. 
 
 § Harris's Dictionary of Dental Science, p. 501.
 
 MECHAXICAT> DENTISTRY. 45 
 
 surface of the plate, in wliicli a vacuum can be formed by tlie 
 tongue."* 
 
 Upon the publication of this patent, ]Mr. Gilbert was met by the 
 assertions of dentists on every hand, that his api)licati(m had been 
 known and practiced for years before. Many claimants for priority 
 of this invention made themselves known ; and he was soon satisfied 
 that their claims, however they might stand in relation to each other, 
 were superior ta his. He eventually abandoned his patent. 
 
 Not so the profession, however; who, having tested the improve- 
 ment fully, and found it worthy, almost unanimously adopted it. 
 A committee appointed by the Pennsylvania Society of Dental Sur- 
 geons to investigate the merits of the "Gilbert plate," Avhile report- 
 ing evasively on the question of priority of invention, said, in regard 
 to its jjractical value, "In a great number of cases it has been most 
 markedly successful, and in cases, too, where springs had been unsuc- 
 cessfully applied by different operators, and they believe also that this 
 happy result has been from the use of the 'Central Cavity Plate'." 
 The report concluded with a recommendation "that a certificate of 
 approval of the Central" Cavity Plate should be awarded to ]Mr. 
 Gilbert by the Society."! Which action and recommendation were 
 ratified. 
 
 The construction of cavity plates was the first ap})lication of the 
 veritable principles of atmospheric pressure in dentistry. That it 
 was a great improvement on the old plan is certain; and it has 
 become an integral part of mechanical dentistry. 
 
 Many inventions, designed to improve the first principle of a plain 
 cavity, have been presented. INIost of them, from complexity or 
 other cause, have not met with the general approval of the profes.- 
 sion. A half-round projection surrounding the cavity on its inner 
 edge and jutting out from the surface, is, perhaps, the most impor- 
 tant of these, serving, as it does, by sinking into the gum and 
 membrane, to make the vacuum in the chamber more perfect. The 
 valve plate, invented by Dr. W. H. Dwindle, of New York, is a 
 very beautiful and scientific adaptation of the principle; but, being 
 somewhat complex, is not generally used. The lateral cavity plate 
 of Dr. J. F. B. Flagg, invented in 1849, is of more practical impor- 
 tance. This improvement removes the chamber from the palatine 
 arch to the surfaces of the alveolar ridge immediately posterior to 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 421. 
 
 f Minutes of the Transactions of the Pennsylvania Society of Dental Surgeons.
 
 46 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 the molar teotli. Tims the projection of the rhaml)er in the roof of 
 the mouth is removed, and partial dentures may be inserted without 
 covering the palatal surface Avith- metal. 
 
 The "engraved suction plate" of Dr. Harnett, of New York, 
 though highly extolled by Robinson,* never obtained any extended 
 use, and may be mentioned as one of the curiosities of dentistry. 
 The process was simply, engraving any ornamental design on the 
 inner surface of the plate; thus forming a number of minute con- 
 voluted air-chambers. 
 
 The cavity plate is now made in all the various plate materials. 
 Years of constant use have proved its value; and it forms one of the 
 greatest advances in prosthetic dentistry. 
 
 THE LABORATORY. 
 
 Under tliis head Avill be treated the manufacture of artificial den- 
 tures, including notices of the materials not heretofore mentioned, 
 processes, mechanical devices and instruments, and the various appa- 
 ratus of the workshop. The limits of this work precluding the 
 possibility of thorough treatment of these subjects, only the most 
 important points will be presented. 
 
 Impressions. — For many years, wax was the only material known 
 for the process of obtaining an impression or matrix of those parts 
 of the moutli intended to be covered by artificial dentures, the first 
 step to be taken in the construction of the latter. The common pro- 
 duct of the bee was the variety used, in its natural state and with- 
 out other refining than sufficed to remove any physical impurities 
 w]ii( li it might contain. The process was simple, and consisted in 
 warming a sufficient quantity, with a spirit lamp or in hot water, and 
 applying it to the parts; making such digital pressure on, and work- 
 ing of, the material as should insure its exact adaptation to the sinu- 
 osities of the surface covered by it, and then cooling and carefully 
 removing it. 
 
 At first the wax was held, during application, directly by the 
 fingers; but various disadvantages experienced by this mode led to 
 the introduction of wax-holders. As these instruments are in use at 
 present, with but little, if any, modification of their form and mate- 
 rial from those first used, a further description will not be necessary. 
 
 The use of plaster of Paris fVn' impressions taken from the mouth 
 was introduced about 1844-5. Who first used it for this j)urpose it 
 
 * Robinson on the Teeth, London, 184G.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 47 
 
 is now impossible to say; but the credit of priority has been about 
 equally divided between Drs. Westoot't, Dwinelle, and Dunning. 
 The question of its introduction at one time occasioned much more 
 discussion than would appear at d\l necessary from the apparent obvi- 
 ousness of the process. 
 
 Gutta-percha. — Almost the first use of this material, upon its in- 
 troduction to the profession in 1848, was for taking impressions. It 
 was " thoroughly soaked in boiling water, then kneaded and moulded 
 in the same way as wax to fit the case, . . . and immediately placed 
 in the mouth and firmly pressed to its place."* Its quick and perfect 
 solidification, and the consequent freedom from danger of disarranging 
 the mould in withdrawal, commended its use ; and, although it never 
 endangered the permanent use of i)laster, it held a prominent place 
 among materials for impressions. It is now, however, little used for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Of late, various compositions have been invented, designed to take 
 the place of wax and plaster. Each of these has its merits and de- 
 merits, and they have very greatly lessened the use of wax. Plaster, 
 however, with its many and almost unsurpassable advantages, will 
 probably, at least for a long time to come, constitute the main reliance 
 of this branch of the art. 
 
 Casts and Dies. — The use of plaster in forming models from im- 
 pressions previously taken extends back out of record, and has never, 
 for this purpose, had any competitor of sufficient importance or value 
 to demand notice. For a long time fitting to plaster casts constituted 
 the only method of adapting artificial dentures, tlie casts being painted 
 with moist color, and thus marking their prominences on the plate 
 material as it was repeatedly applied to them. Even after the intro- 
 duction of metal plates, plaster was still used as the ciust, the plate 
 not being then swaged or "struck up," but adapted by bending with 
 proper forceps or pliers, and the hammer and punches. 
 
 Who introduced metallic models and counters is not known. The 
 material first used for them, however, was brass or copper, xifter- 
 ward, more easily fusible metals were employed, as lead, tin, zinc, 
 type-metal, britannia, Babbitt's, D'Arcet's, and other compositions, or 
 a combination of two or more of these. The ingenuity of prosthetic 
 dentistry has never ceased being exercised with the problem of the 
 production of a material for casts and dies which shall j)osscss all the 
 desired attributes of strength, non-contraction, or expansion, adapta- 
 
 * Amorican Journal of Dental Science, 1st Scries, vol. viii. p. 208.
 
 48 HISTORY OF A^^IERICAX DENTISTRY. 
 
 bilitv in castin<r, and facility of manipulation. Various combina- 
 tions of metals, in innumerable ratios of proportion, have been 
 invented to secure these ends. Electricity has been called to our aid, 
 in producing directly upon the plaster a galvanic deposit which should 
 admit of the pouring of fused metal upon it without destroying the 
 plaster, thus abrogating the employment of moulding sand. TliLs 
 process was the invention of Dr. T. H. Burras, of New York, in 
 I860.* Dr. W. H. Elliot, of Montreal, mixed his moulds with 
 plaster and sand, and poured the metal (zinc) directly upon them. 
 Di[)i)ing the baked plaster cast into melted lead for the mould is also 
 practiced, a mixture of zinc and tin being in turn poured into the 
 lead to obtain the male die. 
 
 Zinc and tin for the cast, and lead or tin for the matrix, are, per- 
 haps, more generally used at present than other formulas, though the 
 materials and proportions are even more varied now than formerly. 
 
 A very considerable advance in luetallic casting has been the intro- 
 duction of Dr. George E. Hawes's (New York) sectional moulding 
 flask. This obviates all danger of " dragging" (breaking do^vn the 
 sand) in removing the casting from the mould.t 
 
 The adjustment of artificial teeth in the mouth, so that a correct 
 apposition with the remaining natural teeth should be obtained, was 
 little thought of in the earlier days of dentistry ; but the growth of 
 the art rendered it at length a desideratum, and finally a necessity. 
 The first attempts at producing this condition were through the 
 medium of aiifaf/oniziug caxt^i of the opposite denture. These long 
 served excellently for the purpose, but were finally aided by mechani- 
 cal contrivances called articulators, Nvhich latter have been so far and 
 perfectly developed as to leave little to be desired in this direction. 
 The kinds and models of articulators arc so various, and their grada- 
 tions of comparative value so imperceptible, that none can be particu- 
 hu'ly noticed. 
 
 llie Application of Heat in various forms has always constituted 
 one of the principal features of prosthetic dentistry. In the various 
 stages of the manufacture of porcelain teeth a suitable furnace or 
 mufile wa.s needed. As, however, such teeth are now seldom made 
 in 2)rivate laboratories, being by most dentists procured from special 
 manufacturers, it is not deemed necessary to treat further of such 
 appliances. 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. ii. p. lO'). 
 
 t New York Dental Recorder, vol. iv. p. 285.
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. 49 
 
 The blow-pipe cannot be thus disregarded. This instrument is, 
 perhaps, the most important of any employed in dental prosthesis, and 
 corresponding diligence has been used in its improvement. From 
 the ordinary hollow metal tube and spirit-lamp to the complicated 
 and scientific " oxyhydrogen" is a long stride ; yet it has been made 
 in dentistry, and principally within the twenty years last past. 
 
 Dr. Hull, of Matteawan, constructed perhaps the most important 
 improvement in the common, straight mouth-pipe. This was the 
 introduction of a cylindrical enlargement of the barrel between the 
 mouth-end and the point, which served to intercept and condense the 
 moisture from the lungs. 
 
 Drs. Hook and Jahial Parmly were among the first in the intro- 
 duction of alcoholic self-acting blow-pipes. The invention of the 
 former consisted in a hollow globe of metal composed of two hemi- 
 spheres firmly fastened together, which being partly filled with al(;ohol, 
 and supported over the flame of a spirit-lamp, vapor was formed from 
 the alcohol within the globe, which, escaping through a small curved 
 pipe pointing at the flame of the lamp beneath, was there ignited and 
 forced upon the work. The instrument of the latter was on the same 
 general principle, but so arranged as to more nearly obviate the danger 
 of explosion to which the former was liable.* Various other forms 
 of the alcoholic blow-pipe have been used to a greater or less extent. 
 
 Those varieties of this instrument, the motive power of which is 
 hydraulic, have been and are somewhat extensively in use; as is 
 also the case with foot-power apparatus of this kind. The latter, 
 combining many excellencies with but few and moderate defects, is, 
 perhaps, more generally employed than any other variety. There 
 are many kinds, each presenting some peculiar advantage. 
 
 AVith the coming of vulcanite, a new variety of apparatus was 
 introduced into the laboratory. This is the vulcanizer, of which 
 there are several kinds. The first in use, comparatively rnde and 
 clumsy in construction, and very liable, from faulty manufacture, to 
 explosion, have been replaced by others very much superior in these 
 particulars. None can be singled out as best, or most used. A kin- 
 dred instrument is that for the management of celluloid. Both these 
 apparatus are still in process of improvement. 
 
 Next to the blow-pipe, if not, indeed, quite its equal in importance 
 in the laboratory, is the lathe. This instrument was, on its intro- 
 duction, occupied almost solely in grinding porcelain work ; but, in 
 
 * Dictionary of Dental ?cicn?e, p. 90. 
 6
 
 50 HISTOIIY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 modern dental laboratorias, the complete turning-lathe now has a 
 place. 
 
 Althoufjh there is no record of the introduction of lathes or grind- 
 ing aj)paratus in mechanical dentistry, it is apparent that they have 
 been long in use ; for the labor of grinding porcelain teeth or cutting 
 ivory, especially the former, is severe, and the attention of the den- 
 tist must have been early directed to liglitening it. In the younger 
 days of American dentistry, hand-wheels or grindstones were much 
 in vogue, especially in the practice of itinerant dentists ; but foot- 
 power \'ery soon came to be used. 
 
 The earliest pedal lathes were of very rude construction, in common 
 with most of the machinery of the time. Improvements, ho^vever, 
 were quickly made, and we lind in general use to-day the '' improved 
 lathe" of Mr. J. D. Chevalier, introduced about 1855. In fact, since 
 that time, almost all the advances have tended to modifications of the 
 ordinary foot-lathe of the mechanic. One innovation, however, is 
 the production of exactly and elegantly-made apparatus for use in the 
 operating room. 
 
 The old grindstone was first rei)laced by the emery wheel, formed 
 by spreading melted glue on a wooden wheel, and dusting powdered 
 emery thereon, which was a common device in ordinary mechanics. 
 This, in turn, made way for the wheel or disk of emery and shellac ; 
 which latter are now thrown aside in favor of the newer and better 
 ^'corundum wheel."
 
 OPERATIVE DEKTISTRY. 
 
 SIMPLE METALLIC FILLINGS. 
 
 It is impossible to discover vvlien, where, or by whom tlie o])era- 
 tion of filling teeth was introduced. It has been claimed for Celsiis 
 (100 B.C.), but the claim cannot, we think, be substantiated. The 
 only reference to the operation in question to be found in the works 
 of that writer is, his recommendation to stuff with lead decayed and 
 frail teeth which are to be extracted, in order that they may not break 
 tinder the for'ceps.* 
 
 Up to the year 1800, the filling of teeth was an operation prac- 
 ticed only by the best dentists. It is probable that it attained a 
 prominent position in oj^erative dentistry sooner in this country than 
 in others; for, in the works of most foreign (and particularly French) 
 dentists, even so late as 1825, we find comparatively little attention 
 paid to this branch, and not much knowledge or method evinced in 
 its treatment, when compared with the best practice of the time in 
 our own country. Koecker, writing in 1826, says, "The slight 
 scientific attention that has been paid to this subject, is particularly 
 proved by the su})crficial manner in which English, as well as foreign 
 writers, have treated of it in their works."t 
 
 The earliest recorded material for filling is 
 
 Lead. — This metal was used in the form of leaf. A piece being 
 torn off, was rolled between the fingers into a ball or pellet suffici- 
 ently large to more than fill the cavity after packing, and was then 
 forced to its place by one or two straight instruments, dressed off and 
 polished with a burnisher.^ 
 
 This metal, soft and ductile, and easily compressible, long formed 
 the principal filling material.§ The French word for "filling" 
 
 * Celsiis, De re Medica, lib. 7, cap. 3, sec. 5. f Koccker, loc. cit., p. 386. 
 
 X Desirabodc, loc. cit., p. 282. ^ Ibid., p. 279. 
 
 51
 
 52 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 {plomhacje, literally leading) is derived from its employment. It 
 was used almost entirely in the manner described. Connoisseurs in 
 the artifle preferred that variety denominated "tea-lead," because in 
 it was packed the tea received from China. It came with j)aper 
 pasted on one side, which was readily removed by washing^ in water, 
 leavinfT the lead in a thin sheet.* 
 
 Gold. — Harris saysf that gold was used as a filling in the early 
 part of the 18th century; but w^e have not been able to discover any 
 mention of it prior to that made by Fauchard, in the third edition of 
 his work, 1780, book ii. page 68. It is possible that it was employed 
 previous to the last-mentioned date, though certainly not to any great 
 extent; for Harris notes the fact| that it was not until the year 1800 
 that its use " became common among dentists." Although Dr. Harris 
 is undoubtedly correct in this statement from one stand-point, yet he 
 is, as undoubtedly, not so from another. Among those of the better 
 class of dentists w^ho, residing in large and seaboard cities, had extra 
 facilities for procuring gold, it w^as early employed; but the greater 
 number of jiractitioners did not use it ordinarily until long after the 
 date mentioned by him. Dr. Eleazar Parmly§ states that the first 
 gold filling he ever saw was in 1815, and this was put in by Waitc 
 of London ; and its introduction into America as a filling is ascribed 
 by Family to Robert Woofendale, who returned to New York from 
 England in 179o.|| 
 
 Gold was first used in leaf, as prepared by the gold-beaters ; but, 
 this being very thin, it w'as soon supplanted by rolled gold. For a 
 long time after its introduction as a material for filling there was no 
 manufacture of the metal expressly for dental purposes. A dentist 
 in need of gold for filling procured gold coins, and had them rolled 
 by the gold-beater into such thickness as suited his purpose.^ From 
 ten to twenty grains was the ordinary thickness usal. This gold, of 
 course, was as non-adhesive as tin. The Brazilian Johannes (Portu- 
 guese) was the coin preferred, it being the purest of any gold money 
 then made. 
 
 About the year 1812-13, Marcus Bull began the gold-beating 
 business in Hartford, Connecticut. Here Charles Abbey became his 
 
 * Aniorican Journiil of Dental Science, 1st Scries, vol. iii. p. 239. 
 f Dictionary of Dental Science, p. 32G. % Ibid. 
 
 § American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol iii. p. 2. 
 II IntrodiKtory Lecture, hy J. Brockway, Sr., before the Third District Dental 
 Society, Albany, N. Y., 1869, pamphlet. 
 
 T[ American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. iii. p. 2.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 53 
 
 apprentice. While lierc, dentists would, to use the language of Mr. 
 Abbey, " borroAV his ' rolls' to roll out their ' old Joes' " (Johannes). 
 Mr. Bull, arriving at somewhat of a knowledge of dental wants, 
 gradually brought these customers to use his partially beaten gold- 
 leaf, taking their Johannes in exchange. In 1816, Mr. Bull moved 
 his establishment to Philadelphia, where, in 1835, Abbey became his 
 partner, and, upon the retirement of Bull, in 1839, took the business 
 himself. The house relinquished the gold-leaf department in 1835, 
 making dental foil its sole specialty. This was the first house in tlie 
 country to be specially engaged in the manufacture of denttd gold foil, 
 and has, therefore, been thus mentioned. 
 
 The first method employed in filling with gold was by pellets, as 
 has been described in treating of lead. Sometimes the pellet, after 
 its introduction, was pierced centrally with a sharp instrument, and 
 a cone-shaped roll of gold forced into the consequent aperture, thus 
 wedging laterally.* Some dentists allowed the filling to finally ex- 
 tend beyond the level of surface of the adjoining tooth substance, 
 that it might be further consolidated by mastication.f 
 
 This method, with the thick gold then used, would not produce 
 even a good filling, except by the application of great force, to which 
 there were many obvious objections. The foil then came to be made 
 thinner, until as low as tioo grains to the leaf was used ; but from four 
 to six grains was the average Aveight of leaf. 
 
 Upon the employment of light gold, the form of application became 
 changed. A sheet was rolled or twisted into a 'rope,' which was 
 packed by forcing it into the cavity in folds. In smaller cavities 
 whi('h would not admit a rope, the half or third of a sheet was folded 
 over a watch-spring or light strip of steel, and introduced in the same 
 way as the rope. 
 
 About the time from 1840 to 1845, isolated members of tlie pro- 
 fession began to co'd ribbons of gold upon a winder, thus forming 
 cylinders. These cylinders, however. Mere still inserted upon the 
 principle of the old-time pellet, being wound so tightly as to be little 
 compressible, and to a size just sufficient to enter the cavity, into which 
 they were forced, first by small and then by larger instruments, the 
 coils being of sufficient depth to extend above the margin.^ In 
 order to secure sufficient force for the final consolidation. Dr. Cush- 
 man, of Georgia, devised a somewhat curious instrument. This was 
 
 * Dcsirabode, loc. cit., p. 282. t W^^- 
 
 X American Journal of Dental Science. 2(1 Series, vol. viii. p. 3, ci seq.
 
 54 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 a simple straight plugger in a huiulle, bent near the point at a right 
 angle, and having melted around the elbow there formed a mass of 
 lead in a flat-globular sliajie, below which the plugger-i)oint projected. 
 The point being j)laced on the surface of a crown-filling, final and 
 extreme condensation was effected by the patient biting forcibly on 
 the leaden ball.* The principles of cylinder-filling, as at present 
 practiced, appear not to have been perfectly understood at that time. 
 However, it was not long before cylinder filling, as such, came to 
 be employed. It is probable that the method was some time in use, 
 by various operators, before it became, to any great extent, publicly 
 known. Blocks, as well as cylinders, were thus used, the variation 
 being more in name than in reality ; for the only difference between 
 them was that the former were wound on flat instruments, the latter 
 on round or angular ones.f 
 
 It must be borne in mind, when comparing the cylinders or blocks 
 of the j)ast with those of the present, that the fbrmer were tightly 
 wound, and left only slightly compressible, before use. 
 
 About 1851, the method of crimping foil was introduced in France,^ 
 and so(m afterward wiis used in this country, but never to any very 
 great extent. 
 
 At this period (1851) the gross annual amount of gold foil used in 
 the United States was about six thousand six hundred ounces, sold at 
 an average price of thirty dollars jier ounce, or a total amount of 
 one hundred and ninety-eight thousand dollars.§ These figures may 
 be considered as tolerably correct, although obtained from raanufac^- 
 turers' statistics ; for the practice of rolling or preparing their own foil 
 was, at that date, almost entirely discontinued by dentists, who had 
 gradually come to depend upon special fabricators for their supply. 
 
 In October, 1840, Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, had a tooth filled 
 with 
 
 Sponge gold, of the manufacture of which he had previously dis- 
 covered the process.ll This was the first use of this form of gold for 
 the purpose named. It attracted, however, very little attention from 
 the i)rofes^ion until 1853, "when Mr. A. J. Watt, of Utica, New York, 
 and Mr. .Tosei)h Barling, Maidstone, Kent, England, a})peared (with 
 it) in the field almost at the same time. Mr. Barling does not appear 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. viii. p. 8. 
 
 t Ibid , p. 7. 
 
 X New York Dental Kccorder, vol. vi. p. 196. 
 
 § Americiin Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. i. p. 228. 
 
 J{\ Silliman's Journal, 2d Series, vol. vi. p. 187.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 55 
 
 to have patented his preparation," * but Mr. Watt did ; not claiming 
 the invention of the article, but its application to dental purposes. 
 
 This preparation of gold was immediately heralded far and wide 
 as the ne plus ultra in filling materials; but its first manufacture 
 seems not to have sustained the claims made in its behalf; for it was 
 so easily reduced to powder as to almost preclude its use in the upper 
 jaw, and even in the lower a sjioon would sometimes have been a proper 
 instrument for its introduction into the cavity. But the patentee 
 quickly improved his processes ; and soon produced an article which 
 was open to few objections. 
 
 And now " sponge," " crystal," or " crystalline" gold (as it was 
 variously termed), began to be quite extensively used ; though its 
 employers, it appears, were still very much in the dark as to its real 
 nature or mode of consolidation. Many and extremely various were 
 the tests applied to it ; which, being largely descanted on, in publica- 
 tions and society meetings, led one humorous gentleman to remark 
 that " he would suggest, the addition to it of cod-liver oil," f as a 
 final test ; for the purpose, it is supposed, of lubricating the crystals 
 and thus facilitating their interlocking ! 
 
 However, the approval of such men as Dwindle and Arthur was 
 a tolerably certain indication that much real value to the dentist ex- 
 isted in the material ; and their approbation and advocation, as well 
 as the merits of the article, secured its very general use at the time, 
 and it is still largely employed, although not to so great an extent as 
 formerly. Other preparations of gold, based on the same principle, 
 have since come into the field in competition with the original article 
 of Taft & Watt. 
 
 One of the greatest advantages claimed for crystal gold in its vari- 
 ous forms was, its capability of being packed in moisture or in the 
 presence of almost any extraneous substance. It was said to have 
 been tested by working it in water, saliva, and even flour, without 
 destroying its cohesive properties in the least, or preventing its forma- 
 tion into a solid plug while in these media.| But experience in other 
 hands seems to have required for it even more than ordinary care, as 
 well in securing absence of moisture as in packing the cavity in such 
 a manner as to prevent leaving the plug porous. It is probable that 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. x. p. 131. 
 
 f Transactions of the American Society of Dental Surgeons, Dental News 
 Letter, vol. ix. p. 11. 
 
 X Dental Cosmos, vol. x. p. 136.
 
 56 IIISTOUY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 success in its use is more dependent on tlie skill and experience of the 
 operator than in the case of ordinary foil. 
 
 In the spring of 1855, Dr. Arthur, of Baltimore, advised the 
 profession of a " new method of using gold foil." * At the time of 
 this discover}', he was experimenting with sponge gold ; with which, 
 although he had ])roduced excellent results, he was not fully satisfied. 
 His "new method" consisted in thoroughly annealing the foil over a 
 spirit lamp before use ; thereby (although the fact, in its full signifi- 
 cance, does not appear to have been fully appreciated by him at the 
 time), developing its ^'udhcaive" or "coheHur" property.f Nor does 
 he appear to have entirely comprehended the great prospective value 
 of his discovery ; for he says, — " I have no idea that gold will be 
 used generally in the manner I now recommend." ;J; But he shows 
 a correct knowledge of the then conservatism of mankind in general, 
 and the profession which he addressed in particular, when he con- 
 tinues, — " It is exceedingly ditlicult to induce men to change a course 
 which they have successfully pursued for years, and the difficulties of 
 which they have learned to encounter and overcome, for any new 
 thing." § Plis confidence in the process was extreme, and, as has 
 since been proved, well founded. " I confidently say to every ope- 
 rator in the profession, that if fairly tried it will afford advantages 
 in the use of gold foil of which few have dreamed." || 
 
 Immediately upon the publication of this process by Dr. Arthur, 
 it was declared by numerous members of the profession that in it 
 nothing new had been told them ; that gold foil had been long used 
 in this way. Indeed, Dr. A. Westcott claimed to have accidentally 
 discovered, in 1840, and made use, since then, of this property of 
 gold.^ It will now be admitted that such was very probably the 
 case. The fact is, that the greatest difficulty encountered by manu- 
 facturers in the preparation of foil was this very stickiness, as they 
 
 * Dental News Letter, vol. viii. p. 129. 
 
 t These words, althous^h not properly fjnonymous, have been used very indis- 
 criminutely by the profession in relation to the peculiar action of annealed gold. 
 " The term adhesion, in physics, has been applied to the force by which bodies of 
 different kinds adhere when united; cohesion, to the force which unites the par- 
 ticles of homogeneous bodies." — Brande. In this exact definition, by the eminent 
 physicist named, particular attention should be paid to the differences expressed 
 1)}' the i>hrases " bodies of different kinds" and "homogeneous bodies," and also 
 "when united" and "which unites." The first evidently refer to acZAe?-e«ce ar^i- 
 ficiallr/ produced ; the second to a natural or self -uniting force. 
 
 X Di'utal News Letter, vol. viii. p. 132. 
 
 'i Ibid. jl Ibid. 
 
 \ Dental Cosmos, vol. xii. p. bl. 
 
 i
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 57 
 
 called it. Their constant endeavor was to prevent issuing such gold 
 to the profession ; but it often got out, despite their care. It is, there- 
 fore, probable that sticky foil was frequently used before Dr. Arthur 
 published his method ; though it is also probable that most of those 
 who had used it were unaware of its value or special character, and, 
 in many cases, supposed they were employing an inferior and unde- 
 sirable article. 
 
 This innovation again changed, in great measure, the methods of 
 using gold. Ropes were rolled by Dr. Arthur veiy loosely,* instead 
 of tight, as before ; and cylinders of non-cohesive, as well as of co- 
 hesive foil, soon came to be thus rolled. An obstacle to the use of 
 the cohesive variety was found in the difficulty experienced in con- 
 fining the first introduced pieces so that they might be sufficiently 
 immovable to build upon ; but this was immediately removed by the 
 use of retaining pits, drilled in the tooth-substance ; a process first 
 recommended, in shallow cavities and with non-cohesive foil, by Dr. 
 A. S. Talbert,t and in relation to cohesive gold by Dr. Louis Jack.| 
 A great change now introduced, also, was the use of deeply-serrated 
 plugging points. § 
 
 The new form of gold soon became immensely popular. The 
 manufacturers no longer found a difficulty in disposing of their 
 sticky foil, for it was eagerly sought; and they immediately made 
 and sold large quantities of this variety. Reasoning on correct prin- 
 ciples as to questions of priority, the Western Dentid Society, at their 
 meeting held in St. Louis, May 22d, 1857, passed the following reso- 
 lution :|| ^^ Resolved, That to Dr. Arthur, and him alone, the dental 
 profession is under obligation, for his liberality in laying before the 
 profession the principle of using and welding together annealed gold, 
 by the use of serrated pointed instruments, and that this Society de- 
 sire to express their thanks to him for this, one of the real improve- 
 ments in the mode of operating." 
 
 With crystal gold a new era had opened to the profession, in the 
 restoring with gold of broken and lost portions of, and occasionally 
 even whole crowns of teeth. This process was carried still farther 
 with cohesive foil ; and restored crowns came to be almos^ common. 
 
 * Dental News Letter, vol. ix. p. 234. 
 t Ibid., vol. X. p. 231. 
 i Ibid., vol. ix. p. 234. 
 
 I Ibid., vol. viii. p. 139, and vol. ix. p. 229. 
 
 II Ibid., vol. X. p. 282.
 
 58 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Tlifii, also, occurred the initiation of " contour fillings," since carried 
 to the perfection which is now apparent. Operations before almost 
 unthoui^ht of were now commonly performed ; and, in short, opera- 
 tive dentistry took a great stride forward. 
 
 But, while this was true, and in spite of it, experience demonstrated 
 the fact that cohesive foil would not answer in all operations. The 
 most serious defect apparent was its liability to " clog," unless used 
 with great care ; and this defect operated seriously against it, in many 
 cases. The ultimatum of filling materials had not been attained,^ as 
 was at first fondly supposed. Therefore, cohesive foil finally settled 
 to its true importance in dentistry ; an importance none the less be- 
 cause the form is not universally applicable. 
 
 The range of weight of leaf of gold foil has been very extensive. 
 From the first form of rolled " old Joes," weighing ten to twenty 
 grains, it dwindled to two or three ; then, rebounding, went higlier 
 and higher, until some claimed a])probation for using four hundred 
 and eighty grains to the leaf! The weight now most used is, an 
 average of about four to six grains ; though the numbers now found 
 in almost every dentist's drawer will cover a far wider range than 
 was even known to the dentist of not more than fifty years ago. 
 
 Platinum. — This metal has long been known as a tooth-filling 
 material ; though it cannot be said to have been used as such, — at 
 least to any very great extent. The many natural advantages pos- 
 sessed by it for filling have always induced experiments with it; 
 which have had the general sole aim of increasing its physical adapta- 
 bility ; since it is considered to equal, if not to surpass gold in most 
 other respects. While the old ppl let-process was in vogue, platinum 
 wa.s used in this way ; but its harshness and want of ductility and 
 plasticity have prevented its use by the newer methods of operating. 
 xV different form, however, has been very lately introduced, which 
 promises success. In it the platinum foil, made thin, is covered by 
 a layer or deposit of gold. This preparation has not been long 
 enough in use to warrant the expression of a final opinion. 
 
 Alloys of platinum and gold have also been latterly introduced. 
 Strictly, this form comes under the head of gold-filling materials, 
 the platinum being used merely to harden the foil for ])articular pur- 
 poses ; but as it is the most prominent manner in which platinum 
 has been em[)loyed of late, it is mentioned in this connection. This 
 form constitutes a very desirable addition to " finishing foils." 
 
 Silver was once used to a very considerable extent, by the pellet 
 method. It was found, however, to oxydize in the mouth, and
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 59 
 
 possessed also the physical disadvantages of stiffness and want of 
 ductility. It is no longer employed as a filling material. 
 
 Tin. — Of the simple metallic fillings, excepting lead and gold, tin 
 has been the most extensively used. It was not generally employed 
 until about 1830; although isolated members of the profession put 
 in tin fillings as early as 1822.* It gi'cw in favor, especially for 
 large cavities in molars and for the cheaper class of operations. The 
 time and labor necessary to properly fill a large cavity with gold 
 were much lessened by the employment of tin ; for it was softer and 
 more pliable than even lead, and did not harden under the instru- 
 ment like gold. It certainly oxydized, giving the tooth an ugly, 
 black color, and was therefore generally iLsed only in the back teeth. 
 
 It also wore rapidly away under mastication ; but could be then 
 cheaply, easily, and comparatively quickly replaced. In brief, it 
 possessed several negative advantages Avhich were opposed by few 
 positive disadvantages ; and, for many years, was very extensively 
 employed by the best dentists, with hardly a dissentient voice. 
 
 Biit the growing influence of gold at length made itself felt in 
 oj^position to the humbler metal. The introduction of various plastic 
 fillings, too, operated against it ; and its employment was finally very 
 much reduced in extent ; although it has never been entirely rejected, 
 but is even now considerably used, in the less expensive class of cases. 
 
 PLASTIC FILLINGS. 
 
 The difficulties encountered in the manipulation of fillings of 
 simple metal have always been obstacles to their successful use ; and, 
 in the earlier days of modern dentistry, operated against even their 
 general employment. The ingenuity of the inventive minds of the 
 profession has always been taxed to obviate these difficulties, either 
 by changes in the metals or processes, or by the introduction of some 
 material which should replace the one and render the other less bur- 
 densome. In the latter direction, effi)rts were very early directed 
 toward plastic fillings. 
 
 The first of these, from their nature, could serve only a temporary 
 purpose ; for they were simple ethereal or alcoholic solutions of some 
 t)f the gums, as mastic, sandarac, etc.f By the best early dentists 
 these materials were decried, and various were the malevolent effects 
 ascribed to them. But it is probable that many of these pernicious 
 
 * New York Dental Recorder, vol. iv. p. 195. 
 f Robinson on the Teeth, p. 111.
 
 (JO HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 consequences either existed more in tlie imaginations of the dispar- 
 agers than in sober reality, or were greatly magnified. The dentists 
 of seventy-live or a liundred years ago were very positive and decided 
 men ; and anything wliicli was not, in their view, good, could not be 
 sufficiently condemned by them. 
 
 Teiro-iiidaUlc Cement. — This was composed of a mixture of sul- 
 phate of lime and oxide of iron. The "celebrated anodyne cemenf 
 was similar to it, with the addition of morphia. These cements 
 served only a temporary purpose, the last also having as part of its 
 object the relief of pain. Robinson says, that, a " few hours" after 
 their introduction, " they dry, crumble, and fall out." * 
 
 The first plastic fillings which possessed, in any great degree, the 
 attribute of permanence were those sometimes called, somewhat para- 
 doxically. 
 
 Fusible 3fetaL — Of this variety of filling materials, two alloys 
 may be mentioned as the principal. D'Arcet's mineral cement was 
 first in the field. This is simply Newton's alloy, of eight parts bis- 
 muth, five lead, and three tin, with occasionally the addition of" one- 
 tenth part of mercury to hasten the fusing. Foxf speaks of this 
 process as one "which promises to be very successful in all cases 
 where the tooth is not tender and the caries is situated in the centre." 
 But all dentists were not thus lenient. Koecker| says of it, "The 
 destructive effects of this process are so evident, and consequently 
 the impossibility of any beneficial result so certain, that I should 
 consider it unnecessary to enumerate its pernicious consequences." 
 This rather polysyllabic denunciation, however, did not prevent the 
 very extensive employment of the much anathematized material. 
 In France this process was, for a time, more used than any other ; 
 and was also considerably practiced in this country, where it was 
 introduced in 1820.§ 
 
 Wood's metal succeeded D'Arcet's, after an interval of disuse of the 
 latter, in 1860.|| Like its predecessor, it enjoyed merely an ephemeral 
 popvdarity, and soon fell into disuse. 
 
 The first of these alloys becomes pla.stic at 212° F., and the last 
 at about 140° F. ; their manipulation was very similar, being v^aried 
 only by the different degrees of heat required, for each. D'Arcet's 
 was generally melted and poured into the cavity, previously cleaned 
 
 * Loc. cit., p. 111. f Natural History and Diseases of the Teeth, 1833. 
 
 X Loc. cit., p. 396 (182G). § Ibid., p. 397. 
 
 II Dental Cosmos, vol. iv. p. 59. 
 
 i
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 61 
 
 and dried. AVood's had pieces placed in the cavity cold; and tliere 
 made plastic with a hot instrument. 
 
 Asbestos. — This curious mineral was experimented with, about 
 1840, as a liniiig under metallic fillings, where the latter were to be 
 inserted over pulps likely to be sensitive to changes of temperature, 
 it being one of the best non-conductors of heat known.* Dr. Rob- 
 inson, of London, also recommended it to be mixed with collodion, 
 and introduced as a temporary filling in cases of sensitive dentine.f 
 The material, however, never attained any very extended use for 
 either [)urpose. 
 
 About the year 1826, M. Taveau, of Paris, advocated the use of 
 what he called " silver paste" for permanent fillings. Under this, as 
 it were, shining title, was ushered into the world what was destined 
 to be for years the Hydra of dentistry, — 
 
 Amalgam. — Its introduction into this country (the exact date is 
 undetermined) is believed to have been by "the Crawcours," as have 
 ever since been contemptuously denominated two French empirics 
 who came to New York in 1833. Dental writers of the period are 
 unanimous in representing our ancestors of that date as extremely and 
 peculiarly gullible; for, they say, "the Crawcours had an enormous 
 run of custom" ; quite sufficiently so, we are assured by a dentist who 
 was then in practice, to seriously interfere with the best business of 
 the profession in their locality. The troubles arising from the im- 
 positions of these men, as well as the dissensions consequent on the 
 use of the material itself, will be hereafter treated. At present we 
 shall be confined to an examination of the material and its uses. 
 
 The amalgam proposed by M. Taveau was simply a union of pure 
 silver and mercury. Convenience, however, dictated the replacement 
 of purified silver by coin of the same metal. This coin, being filed, 
 had afterward added sufficient mercury to make a paste or plastic 
 mass; from whicli the free mercury was expressed by pliers, the 
 residue being introduced into the cavity where it soon liardened. 
 This form of amalgam has been, perhaps, more generally and widely 
 used than any other. 
 
 In 1848, Dr. Evans, of Paris, introduced an amalgam of pure 
 tin with a small quantity of cadmium. | At first, much was expected 
 of this mixture. It was claimed that it did not discolor, shrink, or 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. i. p. 241. 
 t New York Dental Recorder, vol. iii. p. 168. 
 X Ibid., p. 211.
 
 62 
 
 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 change in the moutli. Biit further experiment with it discovered 
 various defects, as contraction and discoloration ; which are partially 
 noted by Dr. Evans himself, in a letter to IMessrs. Jones, White & Co. 
 in 1849-50.* He therefore advised its discontinuance, and the advice 
 appears to have been taken; for his material was little used. In 
 fact, the addition of cadmium to later amal<::ams has generally been 
 unsuccessful. t Still, this statement, though founded on considerable 
 research, is not, perhaps, to be entirely relied on ; for it is recorded 
 (though only as an opinion) that cadmium, without other metal than 
 mercury, was used (18G3) as a iilling.;{: 
 
 In 1855, Dr. Elisha Townsend, of Philadelphia, proposed an 
 amalgam to consist of four parts silver and five parts tin, melted 
 together and afterward reduced to filings. With these, when about 
 to be used, mercury was mixed in such quantity as to produce a 
 perfectly plastic mass, and the whole was well washed in absolute 
 alcohol. The free mercury was then expressed by squeezing, and 
 the material formed into a stiif cake "which can be broken into 
 pieces and (the pieces) be made to adhere to each other so as to form 
 a uniform solid mass."§ This amalgam was the kind in most general 
 use in 1S03.1| 
 
 Among the meta,ls latterly used in amalgams, palladium and pla- 
 tinum may be mentioned, thougli not fully treated of, for they are 
 still in process of trial. 
 
 The earlier amalgams frequently had mixed with them non-metallic 
 bodies, as finely pulverized glass or pumice,T[ in order to render the 
 combination more resistant to abrasion; but, as may be supposed, 
 such additions proved to be worse than useless for the purpose, being 
 non-contractile, and destroying the homogeneity of the amalgam; 
 and they were very soon cast aside. 
 
 From time to time in the history of amalgam, metals other than 
 those named have been used in its composition. As some of these 
 have been entirely discarded, and others are still undergoing experi- 
 ment, and also bewuise the manufacture of the article has latterly 
 become, like gold foil, confined to special fabricators, it is not deemed 
 necessary to pursue this part of the subject. 
 
 * Atncriciin .Joiirniil of Dontal Scionce, 1st S'Tios, vol. x. p. 142. 
 
 f Transiiction^ of the New York Odontologicnl Society, 1874, p. 31. 
 
 X Dontal Cosmos, vol. iv. p. 356, note. 
 
 ^ Dental News Letter, vol. ix. p. 40. 
 
 II Dental Co?!nos, vol. iv. p. 356. 
 
 ^ Ilurris'-s Dictionary of Dental Science, p. 33
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 63 
 
 The Amalgam War. — The introduction of amalgam to this country 
 is noted as follows by Dr. C A. Plarris, in the ojiening addrcvss to 
 the first class of the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, 1840:* 
 
 "More recently an amalgam of mercury and silver has been highly 
 extolled by a few practitioners, both in this and other countries; but 
 by most of those who have had teeth filled with it, bitterly denounced, 
 — so that .... it has nearly gone into disuse. It is certainly one 
 of the most objectionable articles for filling teeth that can be employed, 
 and yet, from the wonderful virtues ascribed to this pernicious com- 
 pound by those who used it, thousands were induced to try its 
 efficacy." 
 
 At the very first appearance of this filling material in this coun- 
 try (in 1833), there arose a most violent and determined o})position 
 to it, on the part of the best men in the profession. In view of the 
 particular circumstances attending its debut, it is not, perhaps, sin- 
 gular that it should have been opposed. Two adventurers, with- 
 out skill or experience, or any claim to the title of dentist, suddenly 
 appeared in New York and began dental practice amid such a 
 shower of advertisements, a profusion of display, and a metaphorical 
 flourish of trumpets as caused our staid and dignified dental ancestry 
 to bound with surprise and indignation. Even had the Crawcours 
 practiced in the ordinary manner, and with the then common ma- 
 terials, there is little doubt that such an unprecedented method of 
 introduction would have quite as surely aroused the opposition of 
 respectable practitioners, on grounds of unprofessional conduct; and 
 when to this charge was added the enormity of having introduced, 
 and of using, solely, a new filling material containing mercury, the 
 exasperation of the better class of dentists was raised to the highest 
 pitch. 
 
 Again, had the practice of the Crawcours been of little value, 
 pecuniarily, there is reason to believe that their opponents would 
 have contented themselves with simply discountenancing the efforts 
 of the empirics, as they had uniformly done in the cases of others of 
 the class; in which case the "amalgam war" would never have been. 
 But, on the contrary, the offices of the quacks were soon thronged 
 with the best patients of the foremost dentists. The gold plugs of 
 Parmly, Baker, and Greenwood, were suddenly no longer in demand, 
 for the "Royal Mineral Succedaneum" had displacedf them. Our 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. i. p. 202. 
 
 t In some cases /i^era//y. Sec Sponner's " Guide to Sound Teeth," p. 122, note.
 
 64 
 
 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 grandfathers and grandmothers naturally preferred a few moments' 
 reclining in a luxurious easy-chair and the gentle insinuation of a 
 plastic material to the tiresome and painful operation necessary to 
 the introduction of a gold filling. Liveried attendants heeded their 
 slightest wants; the principals themselves were polite even to adula- 
 tion; and everything was artfully calculated to make the operations 
 matters of pleasure rather than of pain and endurance. 
 
 To combat such a foe, no ordinary means of offense were to be 
 thought of; only the promptest and most vigorous measures seemed 
 admissible ; and no time was lost in initiating and carrying out such 
 measures. Everj^'here the empirics were denounced, their modes 
 of practice severely criticised, and their material especially roughly 
 handled. INIercurial salivation as a result of the Crawcours' opera- 
 tions was not only hinted at, but openly and firmly insisted on; and 
 was, moreover, as firmly believed in by the most scientific and best 
 educated dentists of the day. In short, a relentless crusade was 
 begun against the " foreign quacks." Such an attack, participated 
 in, as it was, by almost every principal dentist, not only in New 
 York but in the country, was tremendous ; and its disastrous effects 
 were greatly increased by the bad results of the operations performed 
 by those attacked. Their methods seem to have been totally devoid 
 of the elements of success. Cavities were never excavated or even 
 dried, the stopping being quickly thrast into its place and smoothed 
 off. In many instances where there were no cavities, amalgam had 
 been stuffed between the teeth. The material itself seems to have been 
 very carelessly or ignorantly prepared, a large excess of mercury 
 often remaining after introduction; which not only prevented 
 hardening, but was even squeezed out into the mouth during mastica- 
 tion! The impostors might have successfully resisted the advance 
 of all their professional opponents; but the additional onslaught of 
 the victims of their charlatanry quickly produced defeat; and they 
 "were compelled to fly with their ill-gotten gain and blasted reputa- 
 tion (?) for refuge to another land."* 
 
 With the dc])artnrc of the Crawcours it w;i.s supposed that the use 
 of their material would cease; but such was not the fact. Amalgam 
 possessed too many advantages of manipulation to be lightly dis- 
 carded, especially for the cheaper class of operations, and by the lower 
 grades of operators; though its use was not by any means confined 
 to these, for several men of excellent public and professional reputa- 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Scries, vol. i. p. 2C3.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 65 
 
 tion had begun to use it. Hence the opposition to the Crawoours 
 was transferred to the amalgam they, had left behind them. 
 
 It is extremely difficult, at this time, to indicate exactly the ratio 
 of prejudice to actual knowledge of bad effects, in the opposition to 
 this material ; but it may be safely stated that prejudice constituted 
 the largest factor in the problem. In saying this, we do not wish to 
 be understood as disparaging the scientific knowledge of the opponents 
 of amalgam. There were, it is true, many statements made, and 
 conclusions arrived at by them, which appear, at present, inexpli- 
 cable in any light furnished by reason or the true and liberal spirit 
 of scientific research ; but there may have been attendant circum- 
 stances which, if now known, would modify our judgment of these 
 matters. Nevertheless, experience has since proved the falsity of 
 many of the alleged mischievous results attending the use of amal- 
 gam, and has explained in quite a different manner such results. 
 
 A further and powerful argument in support of the view we have 
 taken may be found in the fact that experiment with the material was 
 very slightly (when at all) conducted by its adversaries. The most 
 zealous of .these even claimed (and as a merit, too) that they had 
 " never touched amalgam." However the opposition of such antago- 
 nists may have then bean regarded, it would certainly, at this day, 
 receive very little attention ; being in direct violation of the maxim, 
 " Prove all things, hold fast that which is good." 
 
 As was to be expected, the long-continued opposition to amalgam 
 as a material resulted in the production for it of defenders. At first 
 this defense was passive, consisting in simple non-acceptance of the 
 conclusions arrived at and the opinions held by the opposition ; but 
 such inactivity was soon roused into open resistance ; and that, too, 
 on the part of many who stood high in the profession. Before the 
 existence of dental societies the disputes thus engendered could, neces- 
 sarily, take the character of only personal differences; which were 
 none the less pronounced and l)itter from the absence of any authority 
 to be attached to them, and which, in common with such controversies 
 in general, possessed a very considerable share of the element of 
 permanence. Hence it was, that the first official acts of the earlier 
 societies were in the direction of the " amalgam question." 
 
 Of the minor quarrels and bickerings, both in and out of societies, 
 to which this question gave birth, it will be useless (and, indeed, im- 
 po.?sible) to speak. Their name is legion. We pass on to that action 
 of the American Society of Dental Surgeons which formally inaugu- 
 rated the " amaUjam ifa/'."
 
 66 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 The first official lu-t in the matter was the" appointment (1841) of 
 a committee by the above Society, to report on the use of " Mithodeon,' 
 ' mineral paste/ and all other substances of which mercury is an in- 
 gredient for stopping teeth," This committee "reported in substance 
 that the use of all such articles was hurtful, both to the teeth and 
 everv part of the mouth, and that there was no tooth in which csiries 
 in it could be arrested, and the organ rendered serviceable by being 
 filled, in which gold could not be employed."* This report was 
 adopte<l unanimously. 
 
 It will be well to note the names of the members of this committee. 
 Thcv were, Eleazer Family, Elisha Baker, Solyman Brown, Chapin 
 A. Harris, and Jahial Parmly. 
 
 At a meeting of the same Society, July 20th, 1843, on a motion 
 made by Dr. C. A. Harris, the use of amalgam was declared to be 
 malpractice, and a committee consisting of Drs. S. Brown, E. Parmly, 
 and J. H. Foster was appointed " to receiv^e information and facts on 
 that subject, to be transmitted to Dr. Westcott, of Syracuse, New 
 York, to be by him laid before the IMedical Society of the County of 
 Onondaga, of that State, before which the subject aforesaid is now 
 pending." f 
 
 The report of the medical committee was somewhat non-committal. 
 One quotation, the summing-up, may be made to show this : " That 
 the mineral paste has produced, in many instances, the peculiar effects 
 of mercury, though in different degrees of intensity, in some slight, 
 in others severe and alarming, there can be no doubt. The com- 
 mittee believe that the proportion of such cases is small compared 
 with the whole number operated upon, but that no care in the combi- 
 nation or use of the paste will prevent its occasional bad effects." 
 
 In August, 1845, at the organization of the Mississippi Valley 
 Association of Dental Surgeons, the following resolution was unani- 
 mously passed : " Resolved, That we consider the use of all mineral 
 paste, or other paste, in the plugging of teeth, as unprofessional and 
 highly injurious, and that we will neither use it, nor countenance its 
 use by others." X From this it will be inferred, not only that the use 
 of the " paste" was continued, — des])ite the assertion of Dr. Harris to 
 the contrary in 1840, — but that it was assuming even alarming pro- 
 portifHis. In fact, many of the best dentists began to use amalgam ; 
 and it was asserted, and with some color of probability, that there 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Scries, vol. ii. p. 13G. 
 f Ibid., vol. iv. p. 70. J Ibid., vol. vi. p. 47.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 67 
 
 were " instances where individuals have been active in expressing, 
 publiclv, their disapprobation of the use of the mercurial cement, 
 even voted on resolutions ao-ainst it before a bodv of scientific jrentle- 
 men, and yet are secretly in the habit of using it." * 
 
 The employment of amalgam was fast passing from bad to good 
 hands. Many good operators did not scruple to use it openly, and 
 many others, equally good, while making no parade of it, yet used it 
 to a considerable extent. Its antagonists began to feel that the crisis 
 was upon them, and that, unless decisive action was taken, they were 
 undone. Accordingly, the American Society of Dental Surgeons, 
 at its annual meeting, New York, August 5th, 1845, on motion of Dr. 
 John B. Rich, adopted the following resolution: "Resolved, That a 
 committee of investigation be appointed; such committee to consist 
 of five members of this association, to be nominated by the chair. 
 The duty of the committee, so appointed, shall be to call upon each 
 of the members now in this city, with the view to ascertain from 
 each member wliether he has used any amalgam in the course of his 
 practice as a dental surgeon, or approves of its use; and if he has 
 used it, whether he has done so within the last twelve months. And 
 it is further resolved, That the said committee of five be particularly 
 requested to obtain, if possible, a direct answer on this subject, from 
 each and every member so called upon."t The members of this 
 committee were Drs. J. B. Rich, J. Taylor, J. Allen, E. J. Dunning, 
 and Alex. Nelson. 
 
 This resolution was not adopted without much debate. The right 
 of the Society to call upon its members for an exposition of their 
 practice was severely questioned ; and, also, the Society was no longer 
 a unit on the subject of the use of amalgam. Its use was declared 
 to be "occasionally admissible" by several members;]; chief among 
 whom was Dr. E. Baker, whose name we have before seen as one of 
 the committee who reported that the "use of all such articles was 
 hurtful," etc., but who now "contended that in 'certain cases' it could 
 be judiciously employed. "§ Dr. Solyman Brown, also, "questioned 
 the right of the Society to demand of its members their private prac- 
 tice, and contended that ' no one ought to be required to pledge him- 
 self not to use any article, as his conscience might demand that he 
 should use it.' "|| 
 
 * American Journal of Dt-ntal Science, 1st Series, vol. v. p. 277. 
 
 t Ibi;l., vol. vi. p. 74. | Ibid., p. 75. 
 
 ^ Ibid. II Ibid.
 
 68 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 The iiKiiiisitorial committee declared in their report that, out of 
 twenty-five members of the Society resident in New York and Brook- 
 lyn, two were absent, two not in practice, ten disapproved entirely of 
 amalsjam, five had employed it, but were willing to discontinue that 
 employment if required, — and six used it under certain circumstances 
 and refused to pledge themselves not to do so. Three of these, how- 
 ever, subsequently advised the Society that they should discontinue 
 its employment.* Of twenty-one non-resident membei's then present, 
 all condemned the material. f Whereupon a committee of five was 
 appointed to devise a plan of action for the Society in the matter. 
 This committee consisted of Drs. Hullihen, J. Taylor, E. Noyes, J. 
 B. Rich, and C. A. Harris. Their report, after insisting that any 
 amalgam, whatever its designation, Avas unfit and dangerous for use 
 as a filling, concluded as follows, — " That any member of this Society 
 who shall hereafter refuse to sign a certificate pledging himself not 
 to use any amalgam, and, moreover, protesting against its use, under 
 any circumstances, in dental practice, shall be expelled from this 
 Society.";!; An amendment also provided that the recording secretary 
 should notify all members of these resolutions, and forward to each 
 a printed pledge or certificate as provided for in the committee's 
 report, to be signed and returned within sixty days of the date of its 
 issue, under penalty of the recipients being dropped from the rolls 
 if reciilcitrant.§ 
 
 The Society also, at this meeting, sent a circular letter to the peri- 
 odicals of the country, condemning amalgam in the strongest terms, 
 and advising the public of the foregoing resolutions. || They further 
 resolved to constitute the Society "a vigilance committee, to report all 
 cases of malpractice which may come to the knowledge of any of its 
 members."^ 
 
 This arbitrary action of the Society was received, not only by the 
 expelled members but by many non-society dentists, with great 
 indignation. The right of the Society to take compulsory action was 
 stoutly denied; and the "pledge," when it finally reached the members, 
 served only to increase the storm. The Virginia Society of Surgeon 
 Dentists, at their meeting in October, 1845, while passing a resolution 
 strongly condemnatory of amalgam, yet concluded by saying, — "That 
 while we reprobate the use of all such mercurial preparations, and 
 
 * American Journnl of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. vi. p. 76. 
 t Ibid., p. 247, note. % Ibid., p. 80. 
 
 I Ibid., p. 81. II Ibid., p. 82. ^ Ibid., p. 84.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 69 
 
 will execute our laws with fidelity aud promptness, we claim no 
 authority over the opinions of our members, nor will we ever require 
 of them other pledges than those which exist among honorable men, 
 united for the purpose of improving and elevating a noble science."* 
 The debates on this resolution took the general tone of a declaration 
 that "the Society was not a court of conscience; that they had no 
 right to demand any expression of opinions, or to require any pledge 
 in relation to the use of mercurial cements; that the Society having 
 declared their use malpractice, the only course to pursue was to 
 arraign an accused member, and, upon conviction, execute the law. 
 To expel for refusing to express an opinion or to give a pledge was 
 making the refusal malpractice under the law, which was nonsensical 
 and absurd. It was also contended that to require action under a 
 threat Avas a course of procedure to which no honorable man would 
 submit."t These opinions are typical of the arguments and feelings 
 of the protestants against the American Society's action. 
 
 On the part of the Society's supporters it was contended that the 
 evil of the employment of amalgam had become " a crying one, and 
 was rapidly spreading. ... At three successive meetings the Society 
 had passed resolutions declaring its use for dental purposes malprac- 
 tice ; but, notwithstanding this, many of the members continued to 
 use it. It was therefore imperative on the part of the Society to 
 adopt some strong measures to repel the imputation which was thus 
 crippling its energies and weakening its power to do good. The 
 arraignment and expulsion of one or a dozen of its members would 
 not have corrected the evil, so long as others, against whom positive 
 proof of the fact was wanting, were charged with using the article. 
 To prevent such charges, and at once to free itself from all who per- 
 sisted in this empirical practice, it had adopted the resolutions of 
 examination and expulsion."! 
 
 Of the membership (134) of the Society, seventy-six complied 
 with the resolutions, either in the letter, by signing within the 
 allotted time, or in spirit, by stating their willingness to do so ; and 
 fifty-eight failed to comply with the requirements, either by direct 
 refusal (3), by not having received the notice (2), or by disregard- 
 ing it entirely (53). § The forbearance of the recording secretary 
 saved these latter from expulsion ; and the Society, seeing so large a 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. vi. p. IGO. 
 t Ibid. + Ibid., p. 1G8. 
 
 I Ibid., vol. vii. pp. 91, 92.
 
 70 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 luiiiority in the opposition, decided to mitigate the severity of the 
 rasohitions by abrogating that part of them which related to the 
 limit* of time for accpiiescenee in their demands. This recession, 
 however, served only to increiise the vigor of the opposition, and in 
 the next meeting, at Saratoga, 1847, resolutions were passed declaring 
 that " this Society will not expel any member who is not in tiie prac- 
 tice of using or recommending the use of amalgam for filling teeth."* 
 This resolution disposed of the cases of all those who did not use the 
 article, but had refused to sign the pledge. The remainder of the 
 protestants, who did not scruple to employ amalgam, when necessary, 
 in their practice, were then expelled, according to the previous reso- 
 lutions ; for not to have done so would have been, in effect, acknowl- 
 edging that " the mandate" was wrongfully issued. Eleven members 
 were expelled, the resignation of one aceeptcd, and four cases laid 
 over until the next annual meeting, in 1848,t at which time four 
 more resignations were accepted, and the cases laid over the year 
 before were again extended. J 
 
 The Society had now done all in its power to prevent the use of 
 the reprobated material ; but that use, instead of being stopped, or 
 even lessened, was steadily increasing. Intelligent and earnest men 
 experimented with it, instead of depending on the statements and 
 opinions of othei's, and amalgam at length obtained, in great measure, 
 what it had never yet arrived at, — a fair trial. Under this condition 
 of things there could be but one result. The material withstood the 
 tests applied, in the opinion of the majority, and it at length became a 
 necessity for the American Society of Dental Surgeons to take some 
 retrograde action in the premises. Many of its membei-s were in 
 favor of the Society's openly acknowledging the mistake it had com- 
 mitted, and thus place itself again on a firm footing in the respect 
 and esteem of the profession ; but others were either unwilling to 
 retreat so entirely from the position they had before taken, or thought 
 that no mistake had been made. The schism ended in the ])assage, 
 August 13th, 1850, of the following resolution, which was introduced 
 by a committee previously appointed to report on the propriety of 
 rescinding the " amalgam pledge" resolutions : " Resolved, That the 
 several resolutions ado])ted by the American Society of Dental Sur- 
 geons, at the annual meeting held 1845 and 1846, having the effect 
 of enforcing the subscription to the protest and pledge against the 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. viii. p. 98. 
 t Ibid. X Ibid., vol. ix. p. 143.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 71 
 
 use of amalgam and mineral pnste fillings for teeth, be, and the same 
 are, hereby rescinded and repealed."* 
 
 As this repeal was not accompanied by an avowal of any former 
 error, and as it was professedly " based upon the belief that the reso- 
 lutions had accomplished the object for which they were designed, 
 and there no longer existed any necessity for their enforcement," f 
 Dr. John B. Rich, having become convinced that the former action 
 of the Society in the matter was wrong, tendered his resignation, 
 which was accepted. | 
 
 Thus ended the official character of the " amalgam war." That 
 the opponents of amalgam acted unwisely and precipitately, and 
 without due regard to the proper principles of scientific inquiry and 
 research, few will at present deny. Instead of decreasing the estima- 
 tion in which amalgam had been held, their action increased it, by 
 leading men to experiment with the material in order to ascertain 
 the truth or prove the falsity of the charges made against it. Other 
 consequences of their folly will be noticed in treating of the Ameri- 
 can Society of Dental Surgeons, as such. 
 
 But the opposition to amalgam, although authoritatively nearly at 
 an end, still retained all the acrimony of its former personal status. 
 Eleazer Parmly was the most prominent in these assaults, which he 
 continued wdth unabated vigor for many years. The character of his 
 enmity, and, in fact, that of much of the whole antagonism to amal- 
 gam, may be inferred from a statement which he made when inter- 
 rogated as to his practical knowledge of the material : " I have neither 
 used nor experimented with it in any way. I would not touch the 
 nasty stuff !"§ 
 
 No history of the profession would be complete without the story 
 of the "amalgam Avar." While the acrimonious contest is now of 
 interest only as connected -with the past, the presentation of new 
 formulte and the testing of their value in the present leaves the 
 question of the em})loyment of this material only a subject of ami- 
 csible discussion and scientific study. 
 
 Gutta-percha. — This substance came into use as a material for tem- 
 porary fillings in 1 847-8, || and was very well received. Its use soon 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2il Sc-ries, vol. i. p. 92. 
 t Ibid., p. 100. 
 
 I Transactions of the New York Odontologicnl Society for 1874, p. 61, ei seq. 
 § Dr. John B. Rich, in Transactions of the Now York Odontological Society 
 
 for 1874, p. 64. 
 
 II Dorital Cosmos, vol. viii. p. 6o8.
 
 72 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 became almost universal. Dr. AVood says of it,* "Few substances 
 have in so short a time acquired more importance in our profession 
 than this." As the methods of employment were substantially the 
 same upon its introducticHi as they are at present, and as the nature 
 of the material has not been varied, further treatment of this subject 
 will bo needless. 
 
 lliW.^ Stopinnrj was introduced in the early part of 1848, and pat- 
 ented in 1849. This was an attempt to render gutta-percha as avail- 
 able for permanent, as it had proved itself for temporary, })urpose8. 
 It was simply a compound of gutta-percha with quicklime and pow- 
 dered quartz and feldspar, which might be varied " slightly in hard- 
 iness by adding the filings of any of the metals used in filling teeth,"f 
 and to which coloring substances might be added. A\'hen first intro- 
 duced, and when prepared according to the patent specification, it was 
 not of much value ;| but it was subsequently improved, being pre- 
 pared (as is supposed) after another and secret fornmla ;§ and obtained 
 very considerable employment, which continues to the present. 
 
 Other preparations of gutta-percha with additional substances for 
 filling purposes, such as Bevins's stopping, etc., have been introduced, 
 from time to time, and have each served more or less successfully the 
 needs of the dentist ; but as they are constituted and manipulated on 
 the same general plan its the compound of Dr. Hill, further notice 
 of them will not be attempted. 
 
 Oxychloride of Zinc. — This term was, at first, applied to the chemi- 
 cal compound it indicates; but has become almost the generic name 
 of a certain class of filling compounds which vary considerably in 
 materials and composition. " It had its origin in an invention of 
 M. Sorel for stucco-work .... (185(3) consisting in a coating of 
 oxide of zinc overlaid with a coating of chloride of zinc."|| The in- 
 ventor suggested its employment "to stop hollow teeth, for which its 
 plasticity and subsequent impenetrability to the moisture of the mouth 
 render it particularly applicable."! This " Sorel cement," the first 
 of the oxychlorides, wa.s used to some extent, but was supplanted by 
 other nearly similar combinations. 
 
 The specific com])ounds have received many appellations, as osteo- 
 plasty, crystal cement, diamond dentine, os-artijiciel, jilastic bone, etc., 
 
 * Dental Co«nios, vol. i. p. 631. 
 
 t American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 417. 
 
 X Dental Cosmos, vol. iv. p. 3J7. J Ibid. 
 
 II Ibid., p. 358. «[ Ibid.
 
 OPERATIVE DEXTISTKY. 73 
 
 according to the several variations or the fancy of the manufactui'ers. 
 Their compositions are generally held secret ; bat it is certain that 
 the whole are founded on one general base. 
 
 For a number of years after its introduction, the oxychloride class 
 of fillings was somewhat cautiously handled, and seemed to make its 
 way very slowly; but of late years its employment has become more 
 extended, and it now has a i)lace in almost all operating-rooms. It 
 has never, however, attained very great importance for permanent 
 fillings ; although (as may be said of almost every filling material) it 
 has so served in many instances. Its real value lies in its applica- 
 bility to such cases as call for what may be termed '' semi-permanent" 
 stoppings; here it has proved of very considerable value, and is 
 largely used for such purposes. 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE DENTAL PULP. 
 
 This subject has been a prominent one in dentistry from very early 
 times ; but the first practice in this regard was quite simple, and, like 
 the materia medica of the day, confined within very narrow limits. 
 From the absence of detail in any accounts of early operations which 
 we now possess as regards American dentistry, a resume of the pro- 
 cesses of til at period must be largely inferred from the practice of 
 contemporaneous foreign writers. As the knowledge of the science 
 was gained, however, and when once out of the shadow of secrecy in 
 operations, the profession in this country came to have ways pecu- 
 liarly its own for the management of cases of diseased or exposed 
 pulps; and from that time the data regarding new remedies and pro- 
 cesses are so numerous and conflicting as to cause much more trouble 
 through difficulty of selection than from paucity of material. 
 
 The earliest detailed account of the treatment of exposed dental 
 pulps which is contemporaneous with dentistry in this country, oc- 
 curs in the work of Robert Woofendale (" Practical Observations on 
 the Human Teeth"), published in London, 1783. Mr. Woofendale 
 returned to this country in 1795,* and from thence resided with us, 
 part of the time in the practice of dentistry, until his death in 1828 ; 
 therefore his methods were very probably known and practiced here, 
 at Icilst soon after his second coming among us. Some extracts from 
 his book will be of interest. 
 
 * Til is is the Mr. Woofendale noticed in the introduction as having been in 
 
 Ameiicn from 17GG to 17G8.
 
 74 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 " Of the common toothache. This kind of toothache is simply the 
 exposed nerve of the tooth, which gives pain on the pressure of food 
 in mastication, on its being touched with any hard substance, the ap- 
 plication of anything hot or cold, or the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 . . . When the nerve is exposed, a small bit of lint, dipped in the 
 oil of cinnamon, cloves, turpentine, or any chemical oil, frequently 
 gives relief, and if repeated for some time, often destroys the nerve. 
 I have known good eflfects from the application of half a grain of 
 crude opium, rubbed with a few drops of common water to the con- 
 sistence of a bolus, with the addition of half a grain of camphor 
 brought to the same consistence, introduced into the hollow part of 
 the tooth with a small portion of lint, and repeated daily for eight or 
 ten days. . . . This kind of toothache is sometimes cured by cau- 
 terizing the ear. . . . Destroying the exposed nerve of a tooth by 
 the actual cautery is an ojieration I have sometimes performed with 
 success, and many times without any." 
 
 Benjamin James, in "A Treatise on the Management of the 
 Teeth," published in Boston in 1814, recommends, in addition to the 
 opium and camphor of Woofendale, a drop of either laudanum, oil of 
 mint, or oil of cnjeput, placed in the hollow of the tooth. 
 
 Josiah Foster Flagg, in 1822, published a work entitled " The 
 Family Dentist," in which, speaking of exposed pulps, and after 
 recommending oil of cloves or of cajeput, he says, " they are also 
 sometimes destroyed by the dentist .... by the use of strong min- 
 eral acids, or by instruments designed for this purpose." 
 
 Koccker, 1826, recommends* attention to diet, and the actual 
 cautery, and stimulates externally with myrrh, camphor, and opium, 
 to reduce inflammation of the gums. This author was the first to 
 introduce the operation of " capping," which will be noticed presently. 
 
 Dr. S. S. Fitch, in 1829,t used a.stringeuts, as alum, borax, and 
 galls, the appliciition to be renewed every ten or fifteen days for 
 several weeks, or even months. He mentions caustic potash as a 
 nerve-destroying agent which had then been used. 
 
 In a small work on the "Economy of the Teeth and Gums," pub- 
 lished in London, in 1831, the author (anonymous) mentions some 
 of the practices then in vogue, which belong as well to the American 
 as to the foreign dentistry of the time. He speaks of the application 
 of " tinctures and essential oils, upon cotton, as tincture of benjamin. 
 
 * Principles of Dental Surgery, London, 1826. 
 t Dental Surgery, New York, 1829.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 7o 
 
 oil of marjoram, rosemary, and the like, or pills made of camphor 
 and opium, or chewing the acrid root of the pelHtory of Spain. 
 Some destroy the nerve with sulphuric or nitrous (?) acid, or a hot 
 iron, or touch the antehelix or posterior eminence of the ear with the 
 latter." He recommends pills of extract of belladonna and pow- 
 dered liquorice-root to be placed in the cavity over the nerve, and 
 allowed to dissolve. 
 
 We now come to an important year in pulp-treatment, 1836, In 
 this year Dr. Shearjasluib Spooner gave to the world in his book, 
 "Guide to Sound Teeth," etc., the use of the agent arscnious acid 
 for the destroying of tooth-pulps. This practice originated with his 
 brother, J, R. Spooner, of ^Montreal. Dr. Spooner (Shearjashub) 
 says of it, " The nerves of the teeth may be certainly and effectually 
 destroyed, with little or no pain to the patient, and without the least 
 danger, by means of a little arsenious acid applied to the nerve." 
 Also, " So complete and satisfactory is the operation of the arsenic in 
 destroying the living fibre, that, instead of extracting teeth whenever 
 tlie nerve is badly exposed, we destroy it, plug the teeth, and thus 
 ]>reserve them." Dr. Spooner employed a mixture of three parts 
 arsenious acid and one part acetate of morphia. He says, "the 
 twentieth of a grain (of arsenic) is quite enough to destroy the nerve 
 of any tooth." 
 
 He also mentions nitric acid and nitrate of silver as old remedies, 
 and adds, referring to actual cautery, "A hot wire is the remains of 
 barbarism .... and does not become the present enlightened day." 
 
 Chapin A. Harris, in 1839,* recommended the application of 
 leeches to the gum, and soothing and astringent a[)plications to the 
 cavity. He also gives the following formula for application to the 
 pulp, directing it to be introduced on raw cotton and reapplied every 
 day: "Sul. ether, 51 -, creasote, 5ss; ext. nutgalls, 5i ; g. camph., 
 5SS." He adds to the list of these practiced methods, beside those 
 already noted, the use of the drill, and muriatic acid. With regard to 
 the then new employment of arsenic, he remarks that, "The fact that 
 this article is a most deadly poison .... will preclude its use from 
 ever becoming very general." And he names "for the destruction 
 of the nerve in teeth which have but one fang," the use of the drill 
 " as far superior to anything that has been heretofore proposed." 
 
 James Robinson, writing in 1846,t speaks of terchloride of carbon, 
 
 * The Dentiil Art ; a Practical Treatise on Dental Surgery, Baltimore, 1839. 
 t The Surgical, Jlechanical, and Medical Treatment of the Teeth, London, 
 184G. 
 
 rl^^ LIBRARY ■'
 
 /6 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 a paste of morphia and crcasote with gum-ina.stic, chloride of zinc, and 
 tannin (tannic acid?) as being in use at that date. 
 
 Since the last-mentioned date the list of substances for application 
 to exposed pulps has very considerably increased, so much so that 
 only the most prominent of them can be noticed, and that without 
 any reference to their parentage in dentistry, or exact statement of 
 the order of their appearance. 
 
 Carbolic acid was discovered in 1834, by Runge, and thoroughly 
 investigated in 1841, by Laurent ; but it was not until long after- 
 ward that it Wiis adopted into medicine. The first published notice 
 of it, as connected with dentistry, which we have been able to pro- 
 cure, is that by Dr. Geo. T. Barker, in the fourth volume of the 
 Dental Cosmos, 1862, p. 189. In this year a small quantity was 
 imported by Dr. Edward Parrish, and used in supersedure of creasote 
 by Dr. Barker, who spoke highly of it. Its employment has since 
 become very general, and it has proved itself to be a valuable acqui- 
 sition to dentistry. 
 
 Thymol is a substance of comparatively recent introduction, hav- 
 ing been imported and used about 1874 by Dr. A. L. Xorthrop. 
 Carvacrol was introduced about the same time by Dr. H. L. Sage. 
 Salicylic acid is still newer in dentistry, but has already obtained 
 quite an extended employment. Benzoic acid, the latest substance 
 advocated for pulp-treatmeiit, is still under experimentation. 
 
 The above account is believed to embody the principal substances 
 which have been used in the therapeutic treatment of exposed pulps. 
 The next class of operations to be considered will be mainly me- 
 chanical. 
 
 The first of these, in the order of time, was extirpation by steel, 
 of which process Hudson is believed to be the originator in this 
 country. This method was also largely employed by other distin- 
 guished operators, who used broaches, barbed or not, lus the occasion 
 required, but is now rarely practiced. 
 
 Cappiaj or covering an exposed pulp was practiced by D. C. 
 Ambler and others, as early as 1827, but was published to the pro- 
 fessi(jn by Koecker, who describes it fully in his work (already 
 cited). He used for the i)urpose a j)late of lead, alleging as the 
 reason for the selection of this metal, that it had a cooling and anti- 
 inflammatory effect on tlie pulp-sul)stance. If the pulp Mas wounded, 
 he applied actual cautery, placing the cap over the eschar thus formed, 
 and filling the cavity with gold. 
 
 Upon the publication of Koecker's method, it was generally tested
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 77 
 
 and received with favor. Other substances for caps were tried. 
 Fitch used gold caps. Hullihen performed tlie very delicate opera- 
 tion of inserting a cap formed of gold wire wound into a flat, conical 
 spiral, in connection with another operation soon to be noticed. Dr. 
 Harris used no cap, but arched his filling over the pulp. Asbestos, 
 from its softness and non-conductibility of changes of temperature, 
 was early and considerably used as a capping or floor for the filling, 
 being prepared with gums or collodion, or rolled in gold foil. Gutta- 
 percha (Hill's stopping), silk, charcoal, paper, quill, tortoise-shell, and 
 horn were experimented with. Dr. N. C. Keep introduced oxy- 
 chloride of zinc, which, through the advocacy of Dr. Wm. H. At- 
 kinson and others, has obtained a more extended use than any other 
 material for this purpose. 
 
 Several of these substances and processes have received much at- 
 tention from, and become quite extensively employed by, the general 
 profession. Asbestos was once very considerably used, but is no 
 longer so. Gutta-percha and oxychloride of zinc are, perhaps, in 
 more general use at present than any other materials for this pur- 
 pose. 
 
 In 1851, Dr. S. P. Hullihen introduced an operation at once so 
 delicate and scientific that it was immediately incorporated in dental 
 practice, and has ever since been known by his name. This opera- 
 tion consisted in " making a hole through the gum, the outer edge of 
 the alveolar process, and the root of the tooth into the nerve-cavity, 
 and then in opening the blood-vessels of the nerve." * Dr. Hullihen 
 had first practiced this operation in 1845. 
 
 Drilling into pulp-cavities was not new ; for this had been prac- 
 ticed by Hunter and Fox. But they did it to allow the escai)C of 
 pus ; while llullihen's operation was intended to deplete a congested 
 pulp and allow its preservation. 
 
 Priority in this operation was disputed by Dr. S. P. Miller ; but 
 as Dr. Miller drilled through the root in order to divide the pulp, 
 his operation cannot be called identical with that of Hullihen, which 
 was intended to preserve the pulp, not to destroy it. A method more 
 nearly akin to Miller's is that of Fattori (published in Maury's 
 "Dental Surgery,'^' 1843, p. 166), which was, piercing the gum and 
 alveolus in such a direction as to "divide the dental nerve at the 
 point where it enters the tooth." 
 
 The " Hullihen operation," or rhizodontrypy, though widely known 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. iii. p. 100.
 
 78 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 and esteemed, is rarely practiced, owing to the great skill, care, and 
 exj)erienee required for its successful performance. 
 
 ^^.notlier operation, of very considerable excellence and based on 
 correct surgical principles, is that proposed and performed by Dr. 
 Allport, of Chicago. The object of this o})eration is to reduce the 
 bulk of the liulj), when exposed, previous to capping. It consists in 
 excising a portion of the pulp and bringing the edges of the wound 
 into close apposition, so as to obtain healing by first intention. It 
 is open to the same objections as the operation of Dr. Hullihen, — 
 objections which are, contrary to the rule, honorable in both cases to 
 the devisers of the methods in question. 
 
 In all methods of capping, the ultimate design is now to secure the 
 production of secondary dentine at the exposed point of the pulp. 
 This object is not apparent in the earlier operations, but was distinctly 
 claimed ils the final aim by Dr. W. W. Codman, of Boston, in an 
 article published in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, in 
 1850; since which time this end has been steadily held in view by 
 those who iiave attempted the operation of capping. 
 
 A system of treatment of teeth with endangered but not exposed 
 pulps was practiced as early a.s 1846, and, more recently, has been 
 the subject of much careful investigation and practice. 
 
 ANAESTHETICS. 
 
 Strictly speaking, this term denotes those substances which produce 
 insensibility to pain, and tl)erefore includes all pain-obtimders. But 
 the word has come to imply only such agents as are inhaled in the 
 form of "vapors or gases and pass with the blood to the nervous 
 centres on which their action is exerted."* Therefore, any other 
 than these forms of anaesthetic agents will be treated under the head 
 "Materia Jfedica," with the exception of that process denominated 
 "local antesthesia," which cannot be thus classified; therefore, from 
 its not being of sufficient importance to demand a chapter by itself, 
 it also is iiLserted under the pi'esent heading. 
 
 The principal anajsthetics which are employed are nitrous oxide 
 gas and the vapors of the ethcrsf and chloroform. . To these may be 
 added, as late discoveries, bichloride of methylene and tetrachloride of 
 
 * Dunglison. 
 
 t r. liiis seemed proprr not to spooify in this examination the different designa- 
 tinn? given to varieties of this substance, as sutphuric, muriatic, etc.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 79 
 
 carbon. All of these have received a more oi* less extended employ- 
 ment in dentistry, and the world owes the })ractioal application of 
 the anajsthetic effects of the first two to dental practitioners. 
 
 Considered in the order of their introduction as pain-destroying 
 agents, the first to be treated of is — 
 
 Nitrous Oxide, or Protoxide of Nitrogen. — This gas, as such, was dis- 
 covered by Priestley in 1 776. Its exhilarant and ana?sthetic properties 
 were first noticed in 1800 by Sir Humphrey Davy, who, however, 
 appears not to have been aware of the great value of that property 
 to surgery, for he did no more than suggest that, " as nitrous oxide 
 in its extensive operations appears capable of destroying physical 
 pain, it may probably be used with advantage during surgical opera- 
 tions in which no great effusion of blood takes place."* The savants 
 of the whole time between 1800 and 1844 appear to have been equally 
 regardless of that value ; for, although nitrous oxide continued to be 
 exhibited, experimentally and as a diversion, throughout the civilized 
 world during that time, not one of them made any practical applica- 
 tion of its most important pro})erty. 
 
 On the evening of December 10th, 1844, Dr. Horace Wells, a 
 practicing dentist of Hartford, Conn., attended in that city a chemi- 
 cal lecture by Mr. G. Q. Colton, during or after which the lecturer 
 administered to ISIr. Samuel A. Coolcy, and others, the nitrous oxide 
 gas. Mr. Cooley, on being brought under its influence, became un- 
 usually excited, and, during his consequent activity, sustained severe 
 bruisas ; of which fact he \yas unconscious until after recovery from 
 the effects of the gas. His asseverations of want of knowledge of any 
 pain, while in the unconscious condition, took strong hold on the 
 mind of Dr. Wells, and he immediately expressed his belief that teeth 
 could be painlessly extracted during the inhalation of this agent. So 
 strongly was he thus impressed, that the next day he requested Mr. 
 Colton to provide some of the gas for him, which he took himself, hold- 
 ing the bag in his lap, and, while under its influence, underwent the 
 extraction of a molar tooth at the hands of Dr. John M. Riggs, a fellow- 
 dentist of Hartford. Upon his recovery, Wells exclaimed, in high 
 glee, "J. new era in tooth-pulling!^^ The exclamation was prophetic. 
 
 So elated were Drs. Wells and Riggs at the success of their experi- 
 ment that they immediately turned their attention to the extraction 
 of teeth by the aid of this agent, and continued to devote themselves, 
 in conjunction, to this subject for several weeks almost exclusively. 
 
 * Davy's Chemical and Philosophical Researches, p. 556.
 
 80 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Dr. Wells used the gafe freely during the whole time of his dental 
 practice, and Dr. Kiggs employed it constantly "as people demanded 
 it, which they ordinarily did," until 1847, when he began to employ 
 chloroform in its stead. 
 
 AVells, however, was not content to demonstrate the availability of 
 nitrous oxide as an anaesthetic iii dentistry alone, but carried it into 
 general surgery. The first recorded case of this character occurred 
 on the 17th of August, 1847, being the extirpation of a large scir- 
 rhous growth l)y E. E. Marcy, ]M.D., then of Hartford, The case 
 is reported at length in the Boston Medical and Surgical Joiamal, 
 September 1st, 1847. The gas was administered by Dr. AVells, and 
 its operation was entirely satisfactory. The second case ^\'as amputa- 
 tion of the thigh, occurring 1st January, 1848 ; the operator, Dr. P. 
 W. Ellsworth, and the gas given by Dr. AVells. This case is also 
 reported in the above periodical, vol. xxvii. p. 498. The last we 
 shall mention was the removal of a fatty tumor from the shoulder, 
 at Hartford, Januar}' 4th, 1848 ; S. B. Beresford, M.D., the operator, 
 and the gas given, as befr)re, by Horace Wells. This was only 
 twenty days before Wells's death. 
 
 Almost immediately upon Wells's discovery, the use of the gas be- 
 came quite general with the Hartford dentists. John B. Terry (after- 
 ward Dr.AA'ells's associate in practice), John Braddock,and E. E. Crow- 
 foot, all dentists of that city, used the agent between the time when 
 Wells brought it to notice and the 30th of September, 1846, a date 
 which will be presently noticed in connection with the subject of ether. 
 
 A short time after his discovery. Dr. Wells visited Boston in order 
 to bring it before the medical men of that city. Calling on Pro- 
 fessor AVarren, of the Harvard ^Medical College, he comnumicated 
 the facts to him, and was referred to the students lor examinatioUj be- 
 fore whom he administered the gas to a patient who desired a tooth 
 drawn ; but, probably from the bag containing the agent being M'ith- 
 drawn too soon, the patient made some noise during the oj^eration, 
 although he afterward asserted that he had not felt pain. From 
 this unfortunate circumstance, the majority present thought the ex- 
 periment a failure; though many considered that complete anaesthesia 
 had been produced, and afterward made oath or published state- 
 ments to that effect. Of these may be mentioned Wm. M. Cornell,* 
 Mason M. Miles,t and C. A. Taft.| 
 
 * Medical and Surgical Reporter, May 21st, 1864. 
 
 t Ibid., September 20th, 1864. 
 
 X Deposition, Smith's Anaesthesia, p. 94.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 81 
 
 While in Boston, at this time, and previous to liis experiment at 
 the Harvard school, Dr. Wells called on Dr. Charles T. Jackson and 
 Dr. Wm. T. G. JNIorton, the latter an old pupil and partner of his, 
 and communicated his discovery to them. This, it will be remembered, 
 occurred in December, 1844. These gentlemen " expressed them- 
 selves in the disbelief that surgical operations could be performed 
 without pain, both admitting that the* modus operandi was entirely- 
 new to them." * The fact of this visit, at the date and for the pur- 
 poses alleged, is admitted by INIorton in his subsequent memoir to the 
 French Academy of Arts and Sciences on the subject of the discovery 
 of the anaesthetic effects of sulphuric ether. 
 
 After the discovery was made. Wells had frequent interviews with 
 Morton on the subject, and the latter requested instructions in the 
 preparation of the gas, as he wished to try it in Boston. Probably 
 aware of the danger, to a non-chemist, of preparing ni//-/c oxide in 
 place of mtrous oxide, Wells advised Morton to go to Dr. Jackson, in 
 Boston, who was a chemist and could prepare the gas properly. This 
 fact is susceptible of abundant proof. 
 
 Although nitrous oxide, in Wells's hands, had been successful in 
 its operations, yet the facts of its bulk and difficulty of preparation 
 were objections to its use which he early endeavored to obviate. 
 Any experiments to this end would • naturally first take the direction 
 of eiForts to replace the objectionable material by one less so. Such 
 an one was thought of in the substance sulphuric ether. This article 
 had long been known in chemistry as producing effects generally 
 similar to those of nitrous oxide, and Wells accordingly gave it sev- 
 • eral trials, one in 1845, and one in 1848, but then decided not to use 
 it. The circumstances of the last case are made apparent in the fol- 
 lowing extract of a deposition made by Bishop Brownell, the person 
 mentioned being his daughter. "A few weeks afterwardf she had 
 three more teeth extracted while under the influence of ether, and 
 with little appearance of suffering, though she thought it less genial 
 in its effiicts than the nitrous oxide gas, . . . ."| In 1845 ether was 
 administered by Wells to John G. Wells, who said of it, " The ether 
 was unpleasant in its effects, though the tooth was extracted without 
 pain. I therefore advised my friends not to use it, but rather the 
 
 * Pamphlet published by Dr. Wells in 1847. Also, Modern Anaesthesia, by 
 Trumiin Smith, p. 57. 
 
 f After another extraction while under the effects of nitrous oxide. 
 J Modern Anaesthesia, p. G7. 
 
 7
 
 82 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 exhilarating gas."* This trial of ether by Wells was in consequence 
 of a previous experiment with this agent, in 1844, thus related by 
 E. E. :Marcy, :M.D. : 
 
 '' Knowing that the inhalation of sulphuric ether vapor produced 
 .similar eifects to those of the gas, ... I suggested to Dr. Wells 
 its employment, telling him at the same time that I would pre- 
 pare some ether and furnish him with some of it to administer, and 
 also make a trial of it myself, in a surgical case Avhich I expected to 
 have in a few days. This conversation took place in Dr. Wells's 
 office at the time the tooth was extracted from Mr. Goodrich (De- 
 cember, 1844). Accordingly, within two or three days after that 
 event I administered the vapor of rectified sulphuric ether in my 
 office to the person alluded to in my conversation with Dr. Wells, 
 .... and cut from his head an encysted tumor of about the size of 
 an English walnut. Dr. Wells came in during the operation, and 
 sufficiently early to form an opinion upon the subject. It was en- 
 tirely successful, and conclusively proved to Dr. Wells and myself 
 the anaesthetic properties of ether vapor."t 
 
 Sufficient seems to have been here advanced to prove the following 
 positions: 
 
 That Horace Wells successfully produced anaesthesia with nitrous 
 oxide, and performed operations on subjects placed in that condition, 
 as early as September, 1844. 
 
 That he publicly exhibited the anaesthetic effects of that agent, and 
 that these effects were generally known in Hartford, and among the 
 medical profession in Boston, in the latter part of the same year. 
 
 That, among others at this time, Drs. C. T. Jackson and Wm. 
 T. G. ^lorton were informed, and one at least (Morton) knew per- 
 sonally of such effects. 
 
 That anaesthesia by nitrous oxide continued to be produced, from 
 the time of its discovery until almost the day of his death, hy Dr. 
 Wells. 
 
 That ether was ased by Wells personally, for producing anaesthesia, 
 in 1845. 
 
 These points will be again referred to in the further examination 
 of this subject. 
 
 Ether.— On the 30th of September, 1846, Wm. T. G. Morton (to 
 
 * Modern Anaesthesia, p. 53. f Ibid., p. 54.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 83 
 
 whom we have already referred) called on Dr. C. T. Jackson, " with 
 an india-rubber bag in his hands ;" as to the proposed use of whicih, 
 when questioned by Dr.^ Jackson, he answered evasively. " There 
 was then some conversation about the use of exhilarating gas. . . . 
 Morton asked Jackson if he (Morton) could make it. Jackson told 
 him he could not succeed without apparatus, . . . and that if he 
 undertook to make it he would get mfric oxide instead of nUrous 
 oxide. Morton asked Dr. Jackson if he would not prepare some for 
 him. This Dr. Jackson declined, on account of his business. . . . 
 As he (Morton) was going. Dr. Jackson told him that he coidd tell 
 him something that would make his patients insensible. Morton 
 asked him what it was. Dr. Jackson told him to go to Burnett's 
 and get some pure sulphuric ether and pour it on a handkerchief, 
 and put it to the patient's mouth and let her inhale it. . . . From 
 Morton's questions about the ether, I am satisfied he knew nothing 
 about its properties or nature. . . . The next day after the above 
 conversation Morton came into the office and told Dr. Jackson that 
 the ether had worked nicely, — that the patient suffered no pain." * 
 
 After having had the benefit of Dr. Jackson's knowledge, as 
 above, INIorton procured the ether, and administered it, on the even- 
 ing of the 30th, in the presence of Dr. G. G. Hayden, to Eben Frost, 
 from whose jaw a tooth was extracted, painlessly, while under its 
 influence. Morton subsequently remarks, in his memoir to the 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences at Paris, that he " considers this to 
 be the first demonstration of this new fact in science." AVe have 
 already seen how new it really was at that time. 
 
 Unlike Wells, Morton appears to have had a ready eye to the 
 pecuniary value of anaesthesia; for the next day (September 31st) 
 he went to a patent lawyer for the purpose of patenting his " dis- 
 covery." The inquiries of the lawyer disclosed the fact that Jacsk- 
 son was as intimately concerned in the matter as Morton ; and he 
 accordingly told the latter that both must join in the application for 
 a patent to make it valid. At iirst Jackson objected to this, on the 
 ground that he might thereby expose himself to the censure of the 
 Massachusetts Medical Society; but finally his objections were re- 
 moved by th^; drawing up of an assignment on his part to Morton, 
 which is partly as follows : 
 
 " Whereas I, Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, in the State of Mas- 
 
 * ExtrjK-ts from the deposition of Dr. Jiimes Mclntyre, quoted in Smith's 
 Modern Anaesthosia, p. G'J.
 
 84 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 sachusetts, chemist, have, in conjunction with Wm. T. G. ^lorton, of 
 said city, dentist, invented or discovered a new and useful improve- 
 ment in surgical operations on animals, whereby we are enabled to 
 accomplish many, if not all, operations on anmials, such as are 
 usually attended with more or less pain and suffering, without any 
 or very little pain or muscular action to persons who undergo the 
 same, and whereas the said ^Morton is desirous of procuring a patent 
 for the same, and whereas / am desirous of benefiting him, and not to 
 be interested in any patent, I have therefore, in consideration of one 
 dollar, . . . assigned .... (to Morton) all my right, title, and 
 interest .... in the said invention and discovery," etc.; also further 
 declaring that he (Jackson) had that day signed and executed the 
 specifications, "in conjunction with" ]\lorton, "for the purpose of en- 
 abling him to obtain a patent thereon," etc. This paper is dated the 
 27th October, 1846.* 
 
 The application for letters patent, with the assignment, was ac- 
 cordingly forwarded to AVashington, and the patent obtained, dated 
 November 12th, 1846. In view of after-complications, it will be well 
 to note the fact of the conjunction of Jackson and Morton in obtain- 
 ing it, as shown by extracts from the patent, f — some portions of which 
 were entirely omitted in the presentation of this document before the 
 cono-ressional committee on the " Morton claim," which will be here- 
 after noted. 
 
 As has been seen by the " assignment" of Jackson's interest to 
 Morton, he was "desirous of benefiting him (Morton), and not to be 
 interested in any patent." Nevertheless, Jackson took from ]Morton 
 
 * Modern AnaBStliosia, p. 21. 
 
 f " Be it known tliat we, .diaries T. Jackson and ^Vni. T. G. Morton, of Boston, 
 in the county of Suffolk and State of Massacliusetts, have invented or discov- 
 ered a new and useful iniprovoment in surgical operations on animals, .... and 
 wp do horeb}' declare that the following is a full and exact description of our said 
 invention or discovery : It is well known to chc'nii>ts that when alcohol is sub- 
 mitted to distillation with certain acids, peculiar compounds termed ethers 
 are ftirmed. ... It has also been known that the vapors of some, if not all, 
 of these chemical distillations .... when breathed .... into the lungs of an 
 animal, have yiroduced a peculiar efl'cct upon its nervous system .... anal- 
 ogt>u3 to what is usually termed into.\ication .... What we claim as our in- 
 vention is the hereinbefore described means by which we are enabled to effect 
 the above highly important improvement in surgical operatitms, viz.: by com- 
 bining therewith the application of ether, or the vapor thereof, substantially as 
 above specified. In testimony whereof we have hereunto set our signatures, 
 this 27th day of October, a.d. 1840. (Signed) Charles T. Jackson, Wm. T. 
 G. Morton. Witness, R. M. Eddy, W. U. Leighton. "
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 85 
 
 at the same time liis bond, obligating him to pay over to Jackson ten 
 per cent, of the proceeds of the patent for his interest in it, and 
 subsequently by his counsel demanded twenty-five per cent, of the 
 profits, both at home and abroad, which Morton refused to concede. 
 
 But another fact regarding the declared conjunction of Morton 
 must now be stated; of which nothing but a desire for historical 
 .truth and accuracy will warrant the reproduction. "A few days 
 after the extraction of Mr. Frost's tooth, he (J.) drew up a formal 
 paper, setting forth the nature and particulars of this pretended dis- 
 covery, and claiming it to liave been exclusively his own; and this paper, 
 sealed up, he forthwith forwarded to a friend in Paris, and directed 
 him to lodge it in the archives of the Academy of Arts and Sciences 
 there, to remain unopened until he should give further directions on 
 
 the subject Subsequently (December 1st, 1846), the doctor 
 
 addressed his friend another letter, directing his first communication 
 to be opened and its contents communicated to the Academy." * 
 
 At the first session of the Thirty-second Congress (December, 
 1851), Morton presented a memorial to the House, asserting his 
 claims to the discovery of auoesihesia, and praying for an appropria- 
 tion in his behalf. This was referred to a committee, of which Wm. 
 H. Bissell, afterward Governor of Illinois, Avas chairman. Before 
 this committee Jackson and IMorton ajipeared as rival claimants. 
 Their conjunction had been destroyed upon the receipt, by Morton, 
 of news from Paris. Wells had been some years dead, and his wife 
 and a son of tender years were too poor to employ counsel or enter 
 upon the question of priority in his behalf; and it may be judged 
 that the other claimants would be interested in keeping from the 
 committee any proofs of Wells's use of nitrous oxide. But the 
 committee did obtain a partial and obscure account of his experi- 
 ments ; which account was so treated by the opposing side, that the 
 chairman, in his report, was led to conclude that Wells had entirely 
 failed in his efforts, and that he had abandoned his discovery, on 
 accoiuit of such failure, long before his death ! We have already 
 learned that the last recorded case of administration of the nitrous 
 oxide by A¥ells occurred only twenty days before he died. 
 
 In the course of an examination before the congressional committee, 
 Dr. Jackson made some very extraordinary assertions ; not the leiLst 
 of which was, his statement that nitrous oxide would not produce 
 anaesthesia, — in fact, that it "possessed no ana^thetic properties" ! 
 
 * Modern Aiia;sthcsia, p. 25.
 
 86 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Tliis Jackson claimed to liave reduced to a certainty "by oft-repeated 
 experiments." He also claimed to have discovered the anaesthetic 
 effects of the vapor of sulphuric ether as far bac4v as 1842, through 
 inhaling it as a measure of relief from the dangerous results of an 
 accidental inhalation of chlorine gas. But there is no evidence that 
 he mentioned the discovery to any one before 1846. 
 
 The House committee were divided on the claims of- Morton and 
 Jackson. The chairman drew up a report, but did not present it. 
 Morton obtained this report, had copies printed, and went with it . 
 (unknown to the other claimant) before the Senate Committee on 
 jNIilitary Affairs, and induced them, in some unexplained manner, to 
 propose an amendment of the army appropriation bill, awarding to 
 Morton one hundred thousand dollars ! But this appropriation was 
 rejected by the Senate by a vote of twenty-eight to seventeen, 
 
 Morton, however, was not daunted ; and, somewhat altering the 
 form of his application, renewed it at the short session of the same 
 Congress again before the Senate, where it Svas passed (26 to 23), 
 failed in the House, was again passed in the Senate, and again failed 
 in the House. 
 
 Upon the convening of the Thirty-seventh Congress (1862), Morton 
 again pressed his claims ; and a very voluminous report was issued 
 upon the subject by the Hon. Henry Wilson, chairman of the Senate 
 Committee on Military Affairs. That report took ground in favor 
 of Morton, but recommended no appropriation for him. In 1864, 
 Representative Hooper introduced a resolution of inquiry into the 
 matter, in the House Committee of Ways and ]Means. Here Morton 
 again failed, and finally ; at least as regards tlie interference of 
 Congress in his behalf. 
 
 Upon the first attempt of jMorton to introduce the vapor of ether 
 into surgery, it was met by the older branch of the profession with 
 open arms; but dentistry was more conservative. Dr. J. F. B. 
 Flagg, of Philadelphia, was one of the first dentists of note to iden- 
 tify himself with aiuesthesia, and soon announced that Lethcon (as 
 Morton had empirically termed it) was nothing but sulphuric ether. 
 He refused to recognize the control of this substance by patent, as, 
 in fact, became the case everywhere. But most others were not so 
 conservative as he, and INIorton, having appealed to the generosity 
 of the profession, was munificently rewarded. Various medical and 
 surgical a'^sociations and institutions, and several individuals, made 
 many contributions to swell the total " recognition" of the claims 
 and merit of the so-called " discoverer." It will be needless to enu-
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 87 
 
 merate these ; suffice it to say that the Hon. Truman Smith, in his 
 work " IModern Anaesthesia," estimates the total received by IVIorton 
 up to 1867 as fully one hundred and twenty-Jive thousand dollars, 
 including $50,000 loaned Morton, or invested in his Congressional 
 schemes, by one William S. Tuckerman. Of this $50,000, and the 
 uses it was put to, there is a rather curious undcr-history, which, 
 however, doas not concern the present consideration of the question. 
 
 The Academy of Sciences of the Institute of France awarded to 
 Jackson a prize of 2500 francs " for his observation and experiments 
 upon the ansesthetic effects produced by the inhalation of ether," 
 and to Morton another of like amount " for having introduced this 
 method into surgical practice after the indications of jNIr. Jackson."* 
 ]\Iorton's patent, as has been said, was at once repudiated by sev- 
 eral, — among the rest the New York Eye Infirmary, which was sued 
 by Morton for having used " his" agent without permission of the 
 patentee. The case was quickly decided by the ruling of the court 
 that the patent was null and void, as the discovery was not within 
 the scope of the patent laws.f But, as above shown, Morton reaped 
 a rich reward for the part he had taken in the introduction of anaes- 
 thesia, without much or necessary recourse to any benefits to be de- 
 rived from his patent. While Morton and Jackson thus filled the 
 world's eye. Wells went, unrewarded and almost unknown, to his 
 grave, leaving his wife and child penniless. When the question of 
 Congressional interference was raised, they were unable to take part 
 in its prosecution, and for years AYells's discovery was allowed to lie 
 idle and unimproved, while ether and chloroform ran their course. 
 This was somewhat short-lived, so far as the dental profession was 
 concerned. A few deaths from chloroform caused its excessive use 
 to be suddenly arrested ; and, at this juncture, nitrous oxide again 
 appeared on the scene, in the hands, curiously enough, of the very 
 man who had furnished it for " the first genuine anaesthetic operation 
 on earth." 
 
 Mr. G. Q. Colton, having assisted Wells in 1844, as related, resumed 
 his lectures, and continued them down to 1863. Being neither a 
 dentist nor a surgeon, he had no occasion to practice aufestliesia, as 
 such ; but about the first of June, 1863, being then in New Haven, 
 but a few miles from Hartford, where Wells's first experiment was 
 performed, he was applied to by Dr. Joseph H. Smith, a dentist, to 
 
 * New York Dontnl Rpconler, vol. iv. p. 197. 
 f Jlodcrn Anaesthosia, p. 31.
 
 88 HISTORY or AMERICAX DENTISTRY. 
 
 give the gas in one of" liis operations; and, as in the primary case, 
 Dr. Smith was so elated with the effects of the agent that he at once 
 ceased the use of etlier and began to employ nitrous oxide. In July^ 
 1863, Mr. Colton established the Chiton Dental Association in New 
 York, for the anaesthetic use of this agent; and from that day its 
 employment has steadily increa.sed in dentistry', to the almost utter 
 exclusion of other anaisthetics. 
 
 Simultaneously with this revival, the claims of Horace Wells to 
 the discovery of anaesthesia again came to notice ; and this time to 
 some effect. It is true that the IjCgislaturc of Connecticut, his native 
 State, awarded to Wells in 1847 a vote of thanks for his discovery 
 of the use of "nitrons oxide gas or ether in surgical operations^ 
 But this was almost the only mark of recognition he received until 
 the renewal of his methods and agent by Dr. Smith and Mr. 
 ColtOD. 
 
 The American Dental Association, in 1864, passed resolutions de- 
 claring, among other things, " that to Horace Wells, of Hartford, 
 Conn, (now deceased), belongs the credit and honor of the introduc- 
 tion of anesthesia in the United States of America."* In 1870, the 
 Hartford Society of Dentists inaugurated a movement for the erection 
 of a monument to his memory in the public park of the city. To 
 this end the Connecticut Legislature appropriated ,$5000, and the 
 city of Hartford $10,000.t In 1872, the American Dental Associa- 
 tion endorsed an effort then being made by dental and medical prac- 
 titioners to provide a "AVells Testimonial Fund" for the benefit of 
 his family. In 1874, the dentists of London, England, forwarded 
 to Mrs. Wells, with a sum of money, an elegantly engrossed testimo- 
 nial to the merits of her former liusband, " to Avhom the world is in- 
 debted, not only for the introduction of nitrous oxide as an anaesthetic, 
 but also for giving that impetus to the study of anaesthesia which has 
 resulted in the introduction of ether, chloroform, and various other 
 agents for effecting that object."| 
 
 Chloroform was discovered almost simultaneously by Mr. Samuel 
 Guthrie, of Sackett's Harbor, New York; Soubeiran, in France; and 
 Liebig, in Germany; in the years 1831-2. Guthrie erroneously 
 supposed his discovery to be the well-known Didch liquid, or bichlo- 
 ride of ethylen (which it closely resembles), and consequently called it 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. vi. p. 80. | Ibid., vol. xii. pp. 255, 483. 
 
 X Ibid., vol. xvi. p. 107.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 89 
 
 chloric ether. It was not until 1835 that its composition was accu- 
 rately determined by Dumas, who gave it its name. 
 
 Tiiis substance had been administered by inhalation, for pulmonary 
 afFections, previous to its anaesthetic effects being discovered by J. 
 Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, in November, 1847, during his search for 
 something which should replace the ethers for the same object. Its 
 introduction was more quickly accomplished than that of any other 
 like agent; and, for a time, it was very extensively (and somewhat 
 indiscriminately) used in dental as well as general practice. 
 
 Some, however, were not fully satisfied of the innocuousness of the 
 new agent, and an alarm was sounded. Shortly afterward the first 
 death from its administration occurred. This induced greater cau- 
 tion ; and experience soon proved that chloroform was by far the 
 most dangerous of all the anaesthetics. Upon this the dental profes- 
 sion generally ceased using it anaesthetically, and substituted, first, 
 ether, and later, nitrous oxide. Its employment in dentistry, how- 
 ever, in topical applications, as a solvent, and for other purposes, is 
 very general ; and such methods of employment are noted in this 
 work under other headings. 
 
 Bichloride of Ilctlujlene was introduced by Dr. B. W. Richardson, 
 of London, in 1867. This agent has been experimented with in 
 dentistry to a small extent ; but its cost, and the general superiority 
 and certain safety of nitrous oxide, have prevented its very general 
 employment. 
 
 Tetrachloride of Carbon, discovered by Rcgnault, in 1839, came 
 into notice as an anaesthetic agent through Prof. Simpson, in Decem- 
 ber, 1865. 
 
 These newer anaesthetics will require the test of time and thorough 
 experimentation before they can generally compete with better es- 
 tablished agents for a similar purpose. 
 
 Local Ancesthesia (so called) is simi)ly pain-obtunding topical appli- 
 cations. The principle was first brought to notice in 1850-1 by Dr. 
 H. S. Cliase, then of Woodstock, Vermont, who operated crudely on 
 sensitive dentine by dipping a lock of cotton in ether and placing it 
 in the cavity.* 
 
 The first full application of the principle was by Dr. Branch, of 
 Illinois, in 1855. He used a freezing mixture of ice and salt, placed 
 
 * Dental News Letter, vol. iv. p. 23. The effect was arrived at by the evap- 
 oration of the ether producing cold.
 
 90 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 in a proper receptacle and applied to the part desired. This was 
 used to some extent, but, owing as much, perhaps, to difficulties in 
 its application as to inherent defects, wa.s finally abandoned. 
 
 Various substances which are susceptible of rapid volatilization, 
 thus producing intense cold at the point where they are applied, have 
 been employed to this end. The most prominent among them are 
 rhigolene and ether, and the most general manner of application is 
 that introduced by' Dr. B. W. Richardson, of London. In this 
 the fluid is su])plied to an atomizer, or equivalent apparatus, by which 
 a finely comminuted spray of the liquid is forced upon the part 
 affected, its rapid evaporation producing cold of a benumbing char- 
 acter, an eifect which is hoAvever only temporary, and therefore re- 
 peated applications must be made. 
 
 Rhigolene is a very volatile product of the distillation of petro- 
 leum, and is preferred by some to ether. 
 
 Local annesthesia, by cold i)roduced in this manner, has been used 
 with great advantage in minor surgery, particularly dentistry, but 
 possesses obvious defects in practice, which have prevented its general 
 adoption. 
 
 Electric or galvanic anaesthesia was suggested as far back as 1851, 
 by Dr. A. Hill, of Connecticut.* But its first practical application 
 was by J. B. Francis, of Philadelphia, in 1858.t Its appearance 
 created a "furor" not alone in dentistry, but in all branches of the 
 medical art, and much experiment was immediately made with the 
 fiiscinating "lightning" ansesthetic, — so, however, only in one sense; 
 for, although the Franklin Institute awarded the "Scott's Legacy" 
 medal and premium to the inventor, and men of very considerable 
 scientific status highly recommended the new process, yet its popu- 
 larity soon waned, it being found very uncertain and erratic in action, 
 and generally unreliable, in fact almost useless, from these causes. 
 
 MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 This subject is so intimately interwoven, as regards dentistry, with 
 general medicine, and the introduction of the various remedies used 
 in dental practice has been so gradual, and according to the needs or 
 fancies of many operators widely separated from each other by loca- 
 tion, and having very sparingly communicated on the subject, that 
 
 * New York Dental Recorder, vol. vi. p. 145. 
 
 f Aiiiericun Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. viii. p. 433.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 91 
 
 its treatment in historical form is extremely difficult, indeed, strictly 
 so considered, impossible. To the introduction of every remedy there 
 are several claimants, amid which it is not possible to establish either 
 priority or superior value or excellence of modes of practice. The 
 treatment of this subject will therefore be confined to a consideration 
 of only the principal therapeutic agents in use, or which have been 
 so, only such facts and items being admitted as will show the his- 
 torical range of dental materia medica in American dentistry. 
 
 That the pharmaceutics of one hundred years ago, even in medi- 
 cine, w^as of much less extent than now, is very certain, and this in 
 spite of the fact that many remedies then standard have passed out 
 of practice, and are at this time obsolete. If this wider range is so 
 well marked in medicine, it is very much more so in dentistrs''. 
 Healing was comparatively slightly considered one hundred years 
 ago in the practice of what was then a mechanic art much more than 
 a profession. This will be evidenced to the philologist by the fact 
 that our forefathers' aspirations were almost entirely in the direction 
 of dental surgery, strictly so called, whereas the present generation 
 might more properly be styled one of dental medicine. This change, 
 and the minor facts connected with it, will be more fully noticed in 
 another chapter. 
 
 Among the remedies first used in American dentistry, those for 
 the obtunding of pain (notably in odontalgia) and the reduction of 
 inflammation were prominent. For the first of these objects, opium 
 in some of its forms was early and largely employed. Opiates were 
 sometimes also administered internally for odontalgia. A form of 
 treatment for ''rheumatic or nervous tootliache" is given by Ben- 
 jamin James (1814),* as follows: "It will be advisable to take 
 cooling purges, to keep the mouth moistened with warm decoction 
 of morshmallows, comfrey roots, or chamomile, to take opium with 
 moderation, or to bleed, according to the urgency of the case. . . ." 
 
 In speaking of diseases arising in the region of the gum, root, or 
 alveolus, Flagg (1822) f mentions as remedies "an astringent lotion 
 of tincture of Peruvian bark and rosewater, in equal quantities, or a 
 decoction of marsh rosemary, in the proportion of one ounce of the 
 dried root to a pint of water." These remedies are intended for 
 home application. He also recommends "cold water or vinegar, 
 cold meal poultices, or strong irritating tinctures to the face, and a 
 full dose of Glauber or Rochelle salts" J as eiFectual in removing the 
 
 * Loc. cit., p. 44. f Loc. cit., p. 47. t ^oc. cit., p. 48.
 
 92. HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 pain. For tumors of the gums he says, "Tlie speedy removal of tlie 
 tumor (by the use of caustics, the lit^iiture, or the knife) is the only 
 plan of treatment on which we can reasonably hope for success."* 
 
 Fitch (1829) mentions! as astringents, nutgall, oak bark, myrtle 
 bark, Peruvian bark, gum kino, the suljihates of copper, of alum, 
 the mineral acids, and acetic acid ; as stimulants, nitrous and sul- 
 phuric ether, alcohol, rum, brandy, the oils of cloves, cinnamon, pep- 
 permint, horse-mint, tansy, and cajeput, "the root of the pctevo'ia al- 
 Uacia, called the guinea-hen weed," also the bulbs of most alliaceous 
 plants, including the " common hartwort or IcLserpitium silex, which 
 has long been celebrated as a sialogogue and remedy for the tootli- 
 ache," camphor, and errhines ; as anodynes and narcotics, opium, 
 henbane, the leaves of the thorn-apple plant, and tobacco in extract, 
 tincture, or fumigation. As caustics he notes, caustic potash, nitric 
 and vitriolic acids, and nitrate of silver. He also gives several for- 
 mulas, from which the following are extracted : 
 
 For odontalgia. — 1. "Pulvis gall?e, 5ii ; opium, oss; pulvis cam- 
 phors, ojss; tinct. daturae stramonii, q. s. to reduce the substances to 
 pills." 2. " 01. cassiifi, v gt. ; do. cloves, v gt. ; pulvis gallaj, q. s. 
 to pill." 
 
 Antiscorbutic remedies. — 1. Antiscorbutic tincture — "Pulvis gal- 
 la, 5iii; camphor, 3i; best port wine, ii lbs. Misce. Let stand 
 in a warm situation three days." 2. " Saturated decoction of the 
 cortex qucrci, ii lbs.; tinctura thebaici, 51. Mix." 
 
 In 1830-1 X we have records of several formulas then in use by 
 dentists. Tlie following are some of them : 
 
 Astringent application to spongy or scorbutic gums. — " Into a 
 quart of port wine or claret i)ut a drachm of alum and another of 
 acorns; a drachm and a half of galls, and half a handful of good 
 day-dried red rose leaves : boil them down to half, and then strain, 
 and dissolve in it a drachm and a half of gum-Arabic bruised in 
 small pieces ; and with this liquor, a little hot, wash the teeth and 
 gums daily." 
 
 " To fasten teeth : gargle with honey-water and myrrh ; or, add 
 honey and myrrh to a decoction of sage leaves." 
 
 For the treatment of aphthae in cases of thrush, "borax, one 
 drachm ; honey, one ounce." 
 
 As the single proper remedy for the diseases odontitis, periostitis, 
 
 * Loc. cit., J). 59. f Loc. cit., p. 523, et seq. 
 
 X Economy of the Tteth, etc.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 93 
 
 exostosis and necrosis, Spooner (1836)* recommends extraction, say- 
 ing, " tlie various applications in common use, at best are only pal- 
 liating." He declares that " the most powerful of temporary reme- 
 dies" which he had used " is either the acetate or sulphate of morphia" 
 introduced on a lock of cotton at the end of a probe. This he names 
 as superior to creasote, then lately introduced. He contends that the 
 only effectual cure for alveolar abscess is " the extraction of the dead 
 teeth or fangs." 
 
 Harris (1839),t in treating of inflammation of the periosteum, ad- 
 vised leeches and fomentations of the face, with cataplasms of hyos- 
 cyaraus, mustard, or hot salt with vinegar and laudanum. He used, 
 in cases of spongy and bleeding gums, a solution of nitrate of silver, 
 painted upon the parts. 
 
 Roasted figs and bruised raisins were early used in the treatment of 
 ■periodonteal inflammation, being applied as a poidtice to the gum. 
 Among the astringents were solutions of some of the salts of lead. 
 
 With this meagre mention of remedies previous to about 1835, the 
 strictly historical portion of the subject is passed, it seeming more 
 profitable to make a statement of the principal articles comprising 
 the modern materia medica than to attempt fixing their dates of in- 
 troduction. 
 
 Common Salt, in saturated aqueous solution, is often all that may 
 be needed to check bleeding after lancing the gums or extracting 
 teeth. A weaker aqueous solution is sometimes used in syringing 
 the cavity of an absce&s. Salt is the antidote for poisoning, by ni- 
 trate of silver, and its instant application in cases of the caustic com- 
 ing in contact with parts not intended to be touched, may prevent 
 very embarrassing consequences. 
 
 The salts of morphia, particularly the acetate and sulphate, have 
 long been in use as among the most popular and reliable means of 
 relieving the intense })ain of acute pulpitis. The acetate is used in 
 aqueous solution with carbolic acid, or in solution with deliquesced 
 carbolic acid. These salts are also used, in combination with arse- 
 nious acid and some menstruum, to form a paste for the devitaliza- 
 tion of the pulp. In those cases in which it is desirable to bridge 
 over an interval of pain, these salts are sometimes administered inter- 
 nally, in the usual doses, or by hypodermic injections of their clear 
 solutions. Resort is sometimes had to these solutions, or to laudanum, 
 in local applications for the relief of pain. 
 
 * G;iicle to Soiiml Teoth, etc. t The Dental Art, etc.
 
 94 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Within a few vcars sulphate of quinia has obtained a place in the 
 dental materia medioa, being claimed to be almost a specific in perio- 
 dontitis. This agent is also administered in cases of neuralgia, par- 
 ticularlv those characterised by regular recurrence of pain at certain 
 hours. 
 
 The saline cathartics, of which Epsom salt may be taken as the 
 type, are efficient aids in the treatment of periodontitis and incipient 
 alveolar abscess. 
 
 Perhaps there is not, in the range of dental materia medica, a 
 remedy which has been so empirically and indiscriminately employed 
 as crcasote. In past years its range of indication has been held to be 
 hardly more limited than that of dental disease. Its antiseptic prop- 
 erty renders it valuable for saturating such partially decomposed den- 
 tine as is sometimes allowed to remain over what would otherwise be 
 an exposed pulp. It is also much used for wiping out the canals of 
 pulpless teeth. It has been largely employed for the relief of odon- 
 talgia arising from an exposed pulp, the surface of which is changed 
 to an eschar by its caustic qualities. There are, however, doubts 
 about the deposition of secondary dentine from a pulp so treated ; 
 and many practitioners have discarded this method of using crea- 
 sote, on account of this and other physiological objections to the 
 material.* 
 
 The above agent has been, in a degree, superseded by carbolic acid. 
 This was found in 1834, by Runge, in coal tar, but attracted little 
 attention until nearly a decade later. It meets many of the indica- 
 tions formerly filled by creasote. The saturated aqueous solution is 
 applied to an exposed pulp as a corrective of septic influences, and, 
 in conjunction with acetate of morphia, to relieve pain. It also forms 
 a valuable cleansing and stimulating dressing for abscesses and sup- 
 purating surfaces, as it is claimed that zymotic, sporadic, and parasitic 
 organisms cannot live in its presence, and that fermentative and pu- 
 trefactive changes are prevented by it. The deliquesced acid is of 
 some value as an obtunder of sensitiveness in dentine. Its use as a 
 styptic has been suggested, from the fact that it forms with albumen 
 an insoluble carbolate. 
 
 Camphor is used by some to disguise the odor of creasote. A sat- 
 urated solution of camphor in chloroform has been spoken of as an 
 
 * The employment of genuine creasote obviates some of the above objections, 
 ^lost of lliat now sold in the shops as creasote is, in reality, impure carbolic acid. 
 Creasote is obtained by di.-tillation from wood tar or crude pyroligneous acid. 
 Carbolic acid comes from coal tar. 
 
 I 
 
 4
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 95 
 
 efficient application for the relief of pain following the extraction of 
 a tooth affected with acute abscess. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine, once a prominent remedy for the odontalgia of 
 pulpitis, is now almost out of use for that purpose. It is by some 
 combined with wax to form a salve-like capping for exposed pulps. 
 The application of this covering is nearly painless, and the most 
 gratifying formations of secondary dentine have been shown to have 
 taken place beneath it. 
 
 Aconite ranks among the most efficient remedies for the relief of 
 pain and inflammation, and is also much valued for aborting the 
 last pathological condition, when used in the incipient stages. It 
 is especially adapted for use in inflammations and neuralgias of 
 limited extent and acute character. It is considered to act particu- 
 larly on nerve-tissue, either when applied locally or administered 
 systemically. Facial neuralgias are often relieved by external appli- 
 cation of some of its stronger preparations over the course of the 
 nerve implicated. 
 
 Calendula is applied to incised and lacerated wounds, tending to 
 relieve pain, prevent inflammation, and produce rapid healing. It is 
 not now officinal, but is provided both as tincture and as fluid extract. 
 
 Tincture of Arnica has been extensively used to meet the same indi- 
 cations noted for calendula, but is now considered to be of much less 
 value. It has even been shown that its application to abraded sur- 
 faces is, in some cases, poisonous.* 
 
 Arsenious Acid. During the last forty years this agent has been 
 more extensively employed than any other for the devitalization of 
 pulps. It was first used for this purpose about 1834, by Dr. John 
 R. Spooner, of Montreal, and published to the profession in 1836, by 
 his brother Shearjashub.f In this countiy it has generally been 
 employed in combination with some drug intended to lessen the pain 
 of its action. The followino; formula is believed to be among: the 
 best : 
 
 Acidi arseniosi, gr. j ; 
 
 Morphia acetatis, gr. ii vel iii ; 
 
 Sol. acidi carbolici, q. s. to form a paste. 
 
 Arsenious acid has been used to obtund the sensitiveness of den- 
 tine ; but the danger to the pulp by this method is such that it is 
 now little employed for that purpose. Indeed, many do not now 
 
 * Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, January 21st, 1875, p. 01. 
 f Guide to Sound Teeth, etc., New York, 1836, p. 115.
 
 96 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 use the an;ont at all, and its general employment is much less than 
 formerly. 
 
 Nitrate of Silver has been employed for numerous purposes in oral 
 medicine, as for obtunding sensitive dentine in aqueous solution in 
 aphthous affections, as an escharotic in solution or in crystal, as a 
 haemostatic, and in other directions ; but objections, of greater or less 
 gravity, hold against it for nearly every one of them. The discol- 
 oration of dentine produced by it forbids its use on surfaces exposed 
 to view, and the depth of its action endangers the pulp. The harsh- 
 ness of its action and the solubility of the eschar ojjerate against its 
 styptic employment. 
 
 Lime Wafer is astringent, tonic, and antacid. It often follows the 
 exhibition of acid medicines to protect the teeth from their corrosive 
 effects, and in its use as a tooth-wash is considered one of the best 
 prophylactic remedies against caries. The chemically prepared car- 
 bonate is also a valuable antacid, and of much importance in 
 dentifrices. 
 
 Chloride of Lime is one of the most valuable bleaching agents. 
 
 Calcium Sulphate with water has been used as a capping for exposed 
 pulps. 
 
 During later years it has been discovered that internal administra- 
 tion of some of the salts of lime apparently tends to greatly improve 
 the texture of soft and poorly organized teeth. To this end, food 
 rich in linie salts has been recommended, and has seemed in some 
 cases to produce remarkable results, such being more marked in 
 childhood than in adult life, and the theory claiming the best time 
 of administration to be during uterine life, through the food of the 
 mother. The principal clement sought to be supplied has been the 
 phosphate of lime, which has been exhibited in many forms ; as, the 
 precipitated phosphate in powder or solution, Wiegand's and other 
 syrups, preparations of the lactophosphate and the hypophosphite, 
 and compound solutions of the hypophosphites of lime and soda. 
 
 Good results are claimed to have been obtained from the use of 
 lactophosphate of lime as a capping for exposed pulps. The hypo- 
 phosphite has been suggested for the same purpose, and also for 
 bathing cavities after excavation and before filling with metals, to 
 prevent subsequent sensitiveness to thermal changes. 
 
 Bicarbonate of Soda is among the valuable antacids for both local 
 and systemic exhibition. It is used in aqueous solution as a mouth- 
 wash in acid conditions of the oral secretions. These conditions are 
 also comjjatcd by the internal administration of the alkali. This 
 
 I
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 97 
 
 agent is also of use in the treatment of sensitive dentine, ranking 
 among the milder and perfectly safe remedies. Aqua calcis is also 
 used for the same purpose. 
 
 The solution of cldorinatcd soda is employed in the treatment of 
 aphthous, gangrenous, and putrid affections of the soft tissues, and 
 also from the presence of chlorine in bleaching discolored dentine. 
 
 Phenate of Soda (f*henol sodiquc) is antiseptic and astringent, and 
 efficient as a styptic in the less severe cases of hemorrhage after 
 extraction. 
 
 The sulphite, bisulphite, and hyposulphite of soda, are each recom- 
 mended for the treatment of parasitic vegetative conditions of the 
 soft tissues. Strong solutions of either of these assist in removing 
 iodine stains, and a saturated solution of the hyposulphite added to 
 tincture of iodine gradually decolorizes the latter. 
 
 Borax is another of this cla.ss of salts used in the treatment of 
 ai)]itha?, either alone, or in combination with sugar or honey. 
 
 Water of Ammonia and spirits of ammonia are useful in cases of 
 syncope and nervousness. For internal exhibition the aromatic spirit 
 furnishes the most agreeable form. The strong-er water of ammonia 
 is successfully used in some cases of sensitive dentine. 
 
 A solution of fjum sandarac in alcohol forms a varnish much used 
 on cotton, to retain and protect applications to exposed pulps. It is 
 also used on oxychloride fillings while setting, to protect them from 
 moisture. 
 
 Alum is employed in the treatment of relaxed and irritable con- 
 ditions of the soft tissues. A continuous washing of excessively 
 tender mouths facilitates the taking of an impression and the wear- 
 ing of artificial dentures. It is also employed as an astringent and 
 styptic. 
 
 Glycerin, while not destitute of useful medicinal qualities of its 
 own, is princii)ally employed as a menstruum or vehicle of exhibi- 
 tion of other agents. Valuable combinations are made of glycerin 
 with iodine, creasote, carbolic acid, tannic acid, the salts of morphia., 
 some of the salts of soda, and other agents. 
 
 Canada Balsam is used as a protection for exposed pulps. 
 
 Tincture of Ilyrrh is one of the oldest remedies for relaxed, in- 
 flamed, and congested gums. Myrrh is also an ingredient of many 
 of the more complex mouth-washes. 
 
 Collodion is considered one of the most effectual means to be 
 used for the prevention of external breakage of alveolar abscess. It 
 has also been used as a protection for exposed pulps. It is also ap-
 
 98 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 plied to wouiifls, and as a dressing after surgical operations. It is 
 often variously medicated, and is thouglit to be advantageous as a vehi- 
 cle for the application of counter-irritants, as cantharides and iodine. 
 
 Tannic Acid is among the stronger astringents. It is one of the 
 most powerful haemostatics. In various solutions it serves in the 
 treatment of cancrum oris, diseased antrum, and generally where an 
 astringent is indicated. The solution in glycerin is valuable. A 
 saturated solution of tannic acid and gun-cotton in ether forius the 
 styptic colloid, suggested by Dr. B. W. Richardson. 
 
 Several of the salts of iron are in use as styptics. Of these prefer- ' 
 euce is generally given to the suhsulphate and the perchloride. Mon- 
 sel's solution of the subsulphate Ls a convenient and familiar form. 
 Also cotton is saturated in the solution and allowed to dry, making 
 styptic cotton. These salts are reckoned the most powerful of 
 haemostatics. 
 
 Pungent oils are considerably in use in the treatment of sensitive 
 dentine. Among them may be named the oils of cloves, mustard, pep- 
 permint, spearmint, and horse-radish. The first named is much em- 
 ployed to relieve odontalgia from exposed pulps. Withiu two years 
 a proprietary preparation, said to have the oil of horse-radish root as 
 one of its principal ingredients, has been tried as an obtunder ; its 
 effects, however, have not been uniformly successful. Pastes or 
 poultices of the flour of mustiU'd are of use where external counter- 
 irritation is indicated. 
 
 A solution of gutta-percha in chloroform is, for some purposes, 
 preferred to collodion, being free from contraction during the evap- 
 oration of the menstruum. It supplies a ready means for retaining 
 medicaments in cavities, and is also one of the many materials used 
 for pulp-capping. 
 
 The preparations of iodine are among the most important medi- 
 cines used by the dentist. In the treatment of hyperaesthesia, con- 
 gestion of the pulp, and periodontitis, iodine is one of the most com- 
 monly employed counter-irritants. Iodine hastens the absorption 
 and resolution of collections of pus, and hence its employment in 
 alveolar and other abscesses. When iodine is used upon tooth-sub- 
 tance, the employment of a decolorized tincture prevents the discolor- 
 ation otherwise inevitable. Fistulas and. indolent states of other 
 affections of the soft tissues are stimulated by applications of this 
 agent. Iodine Is combined with various other drugs, as carbolic acid, 
 creasote, and aconite;. These combinations possess the properties of 
 both ingredients, and are used where both seem indicated. 
 
 sa
 
 OPERATIVE DEXTISTUY. 99 
 
 One or two of the salts of zinc form the main reliance of some 
 dentists in the treatment of alveolar abscess. The sulphate and the 
 chloride are usnally employed, the weaker aqueous solutions being 
 most generally eificient. These salts also appear to exert a peculiarly 
 favorable influence upon manifestations of the mercurial impression. 
 
 Chloride of zinc in deliquescent crystals is among the most effec- 
 tual remedies for sensitiveness of dentine. Some dentists prefer the 
 action of the chloride as obtained from fillings of the oxychloride, 
 rej)cated if necessary. 
 
 Chromic Acid has been suggested as an obtunder for sensitiveness 
 of dentine ; but the dangers connected with its use seem to prevent 
 its general employment. 
 
 Oxalic Acid stands at the head of the list of bleaching agents for 
 discolored dentine. 
 
 During the year 1875, the attention of the profession was called to 
 salicylic acid as possessing the more desirable properties of carbolic 
 acid without being an escharotic. In some cases of pulpitis and 
 alveolar abscess its use appears to have been attended with the hap- 
 piest effects. Experiments appear to show, however, that as an anti- 
 septic, antizymotic, disinfectant, and deodorizer it is inferior to other 
 agencies previously employed for the same purposes. 
 
 Nitric Acid has been used for sensitive dentine, and weak dilutions 
 of sulphuric and chlorohydric acids for cleaning teeth; but their 
 dangerous qualities are so great that the majority of practitioners do 
 not indorse them. 
 
 The aromatic sulphuric acid occupies a special field in the treat- 
 ment of necrosed bone. It is also, by a few, employed in alveolar 
 abscess and some other affections. 
 
 The bicarbonate of potash is capable of meeting much the same 
 indications as the bicarbonate of soda. The chlorate and perman- 
 ganate of potasli are of use in aphthous affections. Tlie last is 
 especially valuable in indolent, gangrenous, and fetid conditions. 
 
 Tinctures of ivhife oah bark, kino, krameria, and catechu, as 
 astringents, and pcMtory as a counter-irritant, have had considerable 
 employment ; but the majority of them are probably now less used 
 than formerly. The same is true of the terchloride of gold for sen- 
 sitive dentine, and of matico as a haemostatic. 
 
 Prei)arations of Erigeron Canadensis, of some of the salts of lead, 
 and of lead ivith opium are employed in the systemic treatment for 
 hemorrhage. Solutions of the acetate and sub-acetate of lead are also- 
 used locally as styptics.
 
 lOO HISTORY OF AMERICAN DP:NTI.STRY, 
 
 Carvacrol and thymol meet the indications in acute affections of the 
 pulps consequent upon jjerforatinij^ caries, and are by some preferred 
 to creasote or carbolic acid. Thymol is sometimes combined with 
 glycerin. 
 
 The use of pepsin has been suggested to aid in the thorough 
 cleansing of canals after devitalization of the pulps, and appears to 
 serve a very useful purpose. 
 
 Tincture of Cajjsicuni is used in some cases where active stimulation 
 is required, and may be also employed as a counter-irritant. 
 
 An extract of hamamelis is by some employed after the extraction 
 of roots and in the treatment of other wounds, to allay pain and pro- 
 duce healing. 
 
 Hydrate of Chloral is employed to some extent as an anodyne 
 narcotic. It appears, however, to lack uniformity of action, and 
 has not attained to the position it might otherwise have held. 
 
 To assist sensitive and delicately organized patients to undergo 
 trying operations, sulphate or meconate of morphia, in alternation 
 with lacfucarium or assafo'tida, are sometimes exhibited twelve to 
 eighteen hours before operating. 
 
 Such are some of the drugs to which the oral practitioner of 
 to-day has most frequent recourse. The list is by no means com- 
 plete, nor can it be rendered so, as circumstances may occur and 
 conditions be presented which may indicate the use of almost any 
 article in the range of medicine. 
 
 EXTRACTION AND TRANSPLANTATION. 
 
 The extraction of an aching tooth was, very probably, the fii*st 
 dental operation ever performed, and, for a long time, was the prin- 
 cipal one; and even as late as 1836, Spooncr recommends it as the 
 sole remedy for *' odontitis, periostitis, exostosis, and necrosis." * 
 
 Woofendalc, in 1783, says,t "There are some teeth which it is 
 impossible to draw. This happens when the roots are crooked, or, 
 what the dentist calls locked in the jaw ; or, when the roots of the 
 double teeth diverge much, which most commonly those of the upper 
 jaw do. ... It frequently hapj)ons that when any of these teeth 
 break in the attempt to extract them, the roots may be got out with 
 the greatest ease in a day or two, a week, or a fortnight afterward, 
 though not at the time the tooth breaks." 
 
 * Guide to Sound Teeth, New York, 1836, pp. 93, 94. 
 f Observiitiuiis on the Teeth, London, 1783, p. 81. 
 
 I 
 
 i
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 101 
 
 Of lancing the gums in extraction, Hunter (1771) remarks that it 
 "is attended with very little advantage, because at best it can be only 
 imperfectly done, and that part of the gum which adheres to the 
 tooth decays when it is lost." Woofendale, however, advises that 
 the gum be " always lanced or separated*froni it (the tooth) as effec- 
 tually as possible." * He used only dried sponge or lint, with com- 
 presses, and to keep the body cool, for cases of hemorrhage after 
 extraction, saying, " I never had occasion to use any other means." 
 
 Perhaps the first expression of the opinion that extraction in 
 general is an evil and should be avoided, which occurs in any Amer- 
 ican dental work, is by L. S. Parmly, in his work on " The Man- 
 agement of the Teeth," Philadelphia, 1819, page 127. He says, 
 "My experience warrants me in asserting that extraction is much 
 oftener resorted to than is necessary. AVhenever a tooth is painful, 
 it is advisable to have it examined, and an endeavor should be made 
 to remove the malady by palliative means, and if it prove carious the 
 diseased part i^hould be removed and the tooth repaired. Indeed, 
 there is no necessity for having recourse to this dangerous expedient 
 (extraction) even if the crown be entirely decayed ; for the fangs of 
 the teeth will always admit of engrafting. Extraction, therefore, 
 can only be necessary either to prevent or remedy irregidarity in the 
 arrangement of the permanent teeth of children, or in some diseases 
 of rare occurrence in the adult. ... In all other cases it is to be 
 opposed, and is a wanton outrage on the unhappy individual who, 
 frpm the effect of pain, is brought to submit to this harsh and often 
 unavailing measure. . . . Where extraction, however, is advis- 
 able, I employ an instrument similar to that of (sic) an engraver's 
 tool. In this I differ from all other operators, for they uniformly 
 prefer the key instrument, so long in use. It is true that it has 
 undergone several alterations and has received some improvements ; 
 but the principle of it, even in its most improved state, remains the 
 same, and cannot be too strongly reprobated." 
 
 To this subject Koecker gives no less than 80 pages, in a work of 
 445,t or nearly one-fifth of his book ; from which may be inferred 
 the importance he attaches to extraction. He remarks, " When we 
 consider the frequent necessity for this operation, and its beneficial 
 effects even only so far as it regards its physical influences, the great 
 importance of it seems to be placed beyond any doubt ; and, indeed, 
 
 * Loc. cit., p. 84. 
 
 t Principles of Dental Surgery, London, 1820, pp. 300-380.
 
 102 IIISTOKY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY 
 
 4 
 
 on all accounts it must be allowed that there is not an operation in 
 anv branch of surgery more worthy of the particular consideration of 
 the liberal-minded and scientific surgeon, than extraction." 
 
 Koecker mentions the punch, the pelican, the key, and " some pairs 
 of forceps," as the instrumeilts then in genei'al use in extraction. He 
 deprecates the use of the key, says the pelican is almost obsolete, and 
 the punch extremely ill-adapted to its purpose, and adds, in regard 
 to forceps, that those " in common use at present are generally so ill- 
 contrived as to be usually applied (only) in cases of no difficulty ;" 
 but that " the application of this instrument would be far preferable 
 to that of any other, in many cases, were it better constructed for its 
 intended purpose. At present, however, forceps are usually applied 
 only for removing loose teeth." 
 
 Fitch,* in reference to deciduous teeth, says they should be ex- 
 tracted when carious, but not until they become loose. He advocates 
 the use of the key, though admitting that forceps should be employed 
 " M-hen the dentist can extract the tooth w' ithout the key." 
 
 Harris t says of the forceps, that " until the last seven or eight 
 vears they were not very commonly or extensiv^ely used. But the 
 improvements that, during this period, have been made in their con- 
 struction, are so great, that their use has now, with many practition- 
 ers, altogether superseded that of the key." 
 
 From about the year 1825 there appears to have grown gradually 
 a feeling in the profession against the indiscriminate extraction so 4 
 common before (and, to a large extent, after) that period. This daie ' 
 is also that of the general appearance of the idea that teeth should be 
 saved, not extracted. This idea accumulated strength, until at pres- -^ 
 ent it may be said to be a cardinal point in dentistry ; and the ex- 
 traction of teeth is now resorted to, by the best practitioners, only in 
 cases where preservative agencies would fail, or in the correction of I 
 irregularities. 
 
 The iransplaatation of teeth is an old operation ; but as Hunter 
 was the first and greatest of dental writers to advocate the practice, 
 its origin has been ascribed to him. This is not correct, as will easily 
 be seen by a perusal of his well-known work. He says, in Part II., 
 " The insertion of a dead tooth Juu been recommended, and I have 
 known them continue for many years." In regard to the operation, 
 he remarks, " Although this operation is in itself a matter of no diffi- 
 
 * A System of Dental Surgery, New York, 1829, p. 3-33 et seq. 
 I Deiitiil Surgery, Baltimore, 1839, p. 181 et seq.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 103 
 
 culty, yet, upon the whole, it is one of the nicest of all operations, 
 and requires more chirurgical and physiological knowledge than any 
 that comes under the care of the dentist. . . . The incisorcs, cuspi- 
 dati, and bicuspides can alone be changed, because they have single 
 fangs. .The success is greater in the incisores and cmtpidati than the 
 bicuspides, these last having frequently the ends of their fangs forked. 
 .... It is hardly possible to transplant the grinders, as the chance 
 of fitting the sockets of them is very small. When, indeed, a grinder 
 is extracted, and the socket sound and perfect, the dentist may, per- 
 haps, be able to fit it by a dead tooth." 
 
 In the earliest days of American dentistry, this operation was con- 
 siderably in vogue. It was introduced here by Lemaire ; who, as 
 we have seen, came to this country with the French army in 1781. 
 His advent in Philadeljjhia is noted by an advertisement (1784) in 
 which he proposes to transplant teeth for the citizens of that town, 
 and states that he had, in the six months previous, "transplanted 
 successfully 123 teeth."* The chronicler adds, that this was quite a 
 novelty in Philadelphia, and that "Doctor Le Mayeur" had "great 
 success," and "went oif with much of our patricians' money;" also, 
 that " several respectable ladies had them implanted." Unfortunately 
 for Lemaire's reputation as an operator, however, " they were, in some 
 cases, two months before they could eat with them." f 
 
 Of Lemaire's practice in this regard we have further accounts. 
 James Gardette, in the Philadelphia Medical Recorder, 1827, says 
 that " Mr. Lemayeur, with the reputation of an eminent dentist, had 
 trans^ilanted one hundred and seventy teeth in this city, in the course 
 of the winter of the years 1785 and 1786, as he told me himself, at 
 Baltimore, in the fall of the last-mentioned year ; and that, of all 
 those transplanted teeth not one succeeded ! Some became firm, and 
 lasted, more or less so, for one or two years, in the sockets in which 
 they had been inserted ; but those cases were very rare." After 
 citing many cases of failure in transplantation which had come under 
 his notice, among which were two of John Hunter's and some of his 
 own operating, Mr. Gardette adds, " My opinion, therefore, is that 
 teeth cannot be transplanted from one mouth into another so as to 
 answer the intended effect. ... I therefore believe that there are a 
 thousand chances to one against the success of the operation." 
 
 Dr. Josiah Flagg, also, as appears from an existing circular of his, 
 dated 1796, "Transplants both live and dead teeth with groat con- 
 
 * Watson's Annals of Pliiladdfihia, vol. i. p. 179. t ^f''^-
 
 104 IIISTOUV OF AMi:HICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 I 
 
 veniont-y, and gives less pain than heretofore j)raeticcd in Europe or 
 America." 
 
 In fact, for several years after its introduction, transplantation Avas 
 a part of the })ractice of the most prominent American dentists. In 
 tlieir excuse it may be said that they "were much nearer the great 
 teachers of the science (Hunter, Fox, Bell, etc.) than are the dentists 
 of to-day; and the practice of such leaders appeared, and then was, 
 the best they had to follow. 
 
 But experience proved a better leader in the end than books. The 
 almost invariable want of success in the operation, and the better 
 methods of practice which gradually came into vogue, led to its final 
 discontinuance ; and it is thought that, for many yeai's past, the 
 practice of transplantation has not been attempted, except in a few 
 isolated instances. 
 
 lieplantut'wn, an operation akin to the last noticed, was also par- 
 ticularly advocated by Hunter, and has probably had more of suc- 
 cess to recommend its employment than the other. Dr. James 
 Gardette says of it,* " It has sometimes happened that a dentist 
 has extracted a sound tooth for a bud one. ... If such tooth is 
 replaced in its socket immediately after extraction, it will certainly 
 become as firm and useful as ever." Dr. Gardette held that the 
 principal cause of failure in transplantation was the impossibility of 
 obtaining exact adaptation of the tooth inserted to the socket which 
 received it, saying, f "If another tooth could have been found, the 
 root of which was exactly of the same length, size, and form, it might 
 have been placed in the socket of the tooth (extracted), and it would * 
 
 certainly have become as firm, and have lasted as long, as the tooth '* 
 
 which had grown in that socket." 
 
 One phase of Dr. Gardette's replanting practice deserves notice 
 from its then novelty of })urpose. He says,! "I have frequently par- 
 tially extracted and returned to their sockets, small and large molars 
 wliich liad been very painiul, after having cut the gum on the side 
 opposite to that on which I intended the tooth to fall in partially 
 extracting it. The jjurpose of this operation is to separate or rend 
 the nerve asunder, so as to prevent the tooth from giving pain in 
 future; the tooth is tlien put l)ack into its socket, permitted to become 
 firm, and the cavity is then to be plugged; this I always did with full 
 success." Dr. Gardette is believed to have been the first to perform 
 this operation. 
 
 * AmcT. Jour. Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. x. p. 64. f Ibid. J Ibid.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 105 
 
 As a curiosity in replantation may be mentioned the extraction of 
 diseased teeth, their being filled ichile out of the mouth, and their sub- 
 sequent replacement in the so(;kets from which they came. There are 
 accounts of many such cases. The success of this operation may be 
 considered to be doubtful, although sufficient time has hardly elapsed 
 to fully demonstrate that conclusion. 
 
 Replantation has also been often resorted to as a means of relief in 
 cases of alveolar abscess and of irritation arising from dental exos- 
 tosis, with good results. 
 
 FILING AND REGULATING. 
 
 The reasons for the use of the file are given by Woofendale, 1783, 
 as follows:* "Teeth are filed on various accounts, viz.: to remove 
 broken or jagged points, which happen either from accident or decay, 
 and are liable to injure the cheek or tongue; to stop the progress of 
 a beginning or advancing caries ; to round off the edges of teeth 
 (though not decayed or broken) that grow irregular and prove trou- 
 blesome to the cheek or tongue; and lastly, for ornament." He 
 adds, " Some univei-sally condemn filing the teeth ; on the other 
 hand, some are for having all teeth filed. ... I apprehend some 
 teeth cannot be filed without being injured by it ; others cannot be 
 saved by any other method." 
 
 Crude as were the above ideas respecting the use of this in- 
 strument, they were universally held at the date of "NYoofendale's 
 writing. The removal of "■ broken or jagged points" and the round- 
 ing off "of edges of teeth that grow irregular and prove trouble- 
 some to the cheeks or tongue," are ideas descended direct from 
 Celsus. "To stop the progress of a beginning or advancing caries" 
 shows a considerable accession to artistic dental processes as well as 
 scientific knowledge. 
 
 It was not long before even further progress was made in profes- 
 sional breadth and accuracy of view. Benjamin James (1814) 
 says,t "The sides of the upper teeth lie closely together, while the 
 crowns of the under teeth touch only at that point which is most 
 distant from the gum. For this reason noxious accumulations be- 
 tween the upper teeth cannot be so easily removed as between the 
 lower teeth. It is therefore in the power of the file to destroy the 
 
 * Practical Observations on the Human Teeth, London, 1783, p. 156. 
 
 f A Treatise on the Management of the Human Teeth, Boston, 1814, p. 58.
 
 106 IIISTOUY OF AMERICAN DEXTISTRY. 
 
 greater aptness of the upper teeth to decay." Here it is evident that, 
 from savino; ah'cady-decayed teeth, the idea has advanced to the 
 prevention of such decay. 
 
 In ilhistration of the early objections to filing teeth, we will quote 
 Josiah F. Flagg, from ])ao;e 69 of his work, " The Family Dentist," 
 published in Boston in 1822. "The particular objections to the use 
 of these instruments are : 1. That they do not remove the whole of 
 the decayed parts of the teeth ; and it is a fact sufficiently evident to 
 common observation that the disease of caries is often communicated 
 from one tooth to another by contact ; and it is equally true that, 
 while any of the defecfive part of a tooth is suflfcred to remain, the 
 liability of that tooth to decay is much greater than if this part were 
 entirely removed. 2. That in all cases the effect of sawing or filing 
 is to deprive the teeth unnecessarily of a great portion of their sound 
 enamel, particularly when these operations are performed on the front 
 teeth. 3. That the crowns of the teeth being broader than their 
 fangs, they often crowd together in such a manner that, by the 
 repeated operations of filing to keep them separated, one-quarter, 
 and sometimes one-third of each tooth is sacrificed by the use of 
 these improper instruments. 4. That separating sound tcdli with 
 the file or saw (or, indeed, with any other instrument) is a practice 
 for which there can be no reasonable apology. The idea that they 
 may be too close, and injure each other by lateral pressure, is alto- 
 gether erroneous, and there are no just grounds for the belief that, 
 by this operation, they may be prevented from decaying. . . . As 
 a substitute for files and saws, it is now recommended to use, in the 
 operations for caries, small, crooked knives and other cutting instru- 
 ments, which are liable to none of the above objections, and which 
 enable the operator to effect the first and (which are) also the most 
 important objects in the treatment of this disciise." 
 
 Fitch, too, in 1829, writes at great length against the se])aration 
 of sound teeth by the file, in the course of which he says,* " The 
 direction of Mr. Fox to divide (separate) the teeth when crowded 
 merely, and not carious, has, by its injudicious adoption and indis- 
 criminate performance, been productive, probably, of more injurious 
 consequences than any mode of practice, or any direction ever given 
 by any writer or practitioner of dental surgery. Almost every 
 dentist who has read Mr. Fox, has adopted and followed this prac- 
 ti(!e. The pernicious consequences of it are seen almost every day." 
 
 * A System of Dental Surgery, New York, 1820, p. 387.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 107 
 
 Spooner, on page 129 of his work on the teeth, published in New 
 York, 1836, speaks as follows with regard to filing : " AVe have pre- 
 cisely the same ideas in relation to the use of the file when it is 
 injudiciously employed as those have who do not discriminate 
 betMccn its proper application and its abuse ; yet we are bold to 
 affirm, that its employment in the hands of a skillful dentist is a 
 most efficient and sure means of removing and arresting incipient 
 decay of the teeth, and, as thus employed, is approved by the best 
 dentists of the age. Some dentists are in the habit of separating the 
 front teeth when perfectly sound, to prevent decay. We totally dis- 
 card this practice. ... It is quite in time to tann)erwith the disease 
 and to dabble with the remedies after the former has made its appear- 
 ance. Finally, upon this subject, we would advise adherence to the 
 following maxims : First. Never file a tooth except disease justify 
 the use of the file. Second. Consider filing a less evil than disease, 
 and consequently to be preferred to it. Third. Never file a tooth for 
 the removal of caries, unless by so doing you can extirpate the disease 
 effijctually, and that, too, witliout too great a sacrifice of the substance 
 of the tooth, and at the same time do not injure the chance for the 
 operation of the plugging, should circumstances subsequently require 
 it. Fourth. Do not file a tooth that can be better and more effectu- 
 ally treated by plugging." 
 
 These extracts will show the strong feeling against improper use 
 of the file which has always existed in the profession; and the separ- 
 ation of sound teeth is also indicated as the extreme of such wrong 
 employment, and as especially to be reprobated. 
 
 Since a comparatively recent period, somewhat advanced ideas in 
 the treatment of caries have become generally promulgated. The 
 principal of these comprehends the prevention of decay in contradis- 
 tinction to its treatment after formation. This object, in itself indica- 
 tive of a high scientific and humanitarian stand-point, has been pro- 
 posed to be attained by the early extraction of certain teeth, the removal 
 of Avhich should, by affi)rding sufficient space, allow the natural sepa- 
 ration of the remainder, and thus avoid that lodgment of interstitial 
 deposits which has always been recognized as one of the principal 
 sources of decay. This course of procedure has obtained very largely, 
 although strenuously opposed by many. 
 
 Among those in opposition to the above process of prevention, 
 another method has sprung up, or rather, been revived ; for it is 
 simply a recourse to the old, and so long and strenuously depre- 
 cated use of the file. This method is employed by some dentists of
 
 108 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 very superior professional cminenee, but has not been generally 
 adopted, and is (piite as strongly opposed, and much more widely 
 than the extraction of the now somewhat notorious "sixth-year 
 molar." 
 
 IRREGULARITIES. 
 
 The treatment of dental irregularities has been long a subject of 
 much moment in operative dentistry, and has engaged, especially 
 more lately, the best energies of some of the foremost men in the 
 profession. From the correction, at first, of only the simplest devia- 
 tions from normal position, it has become possible, and even usual, 
 to rectify the most marked and excessive malformations of the dental 
 arch. The methods by which these results are now obtained do not 
 appear to differ greatly in essentials from those formerly employed; 
 and thus, although much improvement over the older forms is mani- 
 fest in modern appliances for regulating, the principles of mechani- 
 cal action involved are much the same as before; from which it will 
 be justly inferred that the advance apparent in the treatment of 
 irregularities is more an extension and amplification of ideas formed 
 long ago than the introduction of new ones or different theories. 
 
 Following the older authors whom we have already quoted on the 
 previous subject, and in pursuance of the plan generally adopted 
 throughout this work, a chain of ideas on the subject will be pre- 
 sented, which shall illustrate the growth and progress of methods of 
 treating irregularity. 
 
 Woofendale says,* " Was proper attention paid to the removal of 
 the first set of teeth, the just symmetry and proportion of the second 
 might be preserved, and consequently every inconvenience and defect 
 arising from irregularity would be avoided. . . . "When the teeth 
 come irregular, and have been neglected for some time, they fre- 
 quently may be reduced into proper order with safety. This opera- 
 tion often takes some months if the teeth are much out of their 
 l)laccs. The younger the patient the better when this operation is 
 to be performed. There is a method of performing it very expe- 
 ditiously, by twisting the teeth into their places by means of a pair 
 of strong plyers. This method is practiced by some ; but it may not 
 be improper to observe, that the patient is liable to have the bony 
 socket split, or the teeth broken or forced out in the operation ; yet 
 
 * Observations on the Teeth, 1783, p. 23. 
 
 « 
 
 I 
 
 I
 
 OPERATIVE DENTrSTRY. 109 
 
 allowing none of these accidents to happen, they often remain loose 
 and troublesome ever after." When the comino; of the canines is 
 much delayed, and there is a prospect of their irregular presentation, 
 he says, " it is sometimes (though not always) advisable to take out 
 either the first double, or the second single teeth, to give room for the 
 progress of the eye-teeth." 
 
 Benjamin James writes,* "With proper attention paid to the re- 
 moval of the first set of teeth, the regularity of the second may be ' 
 anticipated. . . . The jaw of a person very young is so soft and 
 yielding that a tooth taken out at a considerable distance from a 
 deranged tooth makes room for it ; the teeth on each side of the one 
 extracted crowding in to fill up the vacancy. But when the jaw has 
 become more hard and unyielding, we can make room for deranged 
 teeth only by drawing those in immediate contact with them. Then, 
 by gentle compression of the finger, applied daily for several weeks 
 to the deranged tooth, we see it come into its proper place as effec- 
 tually as from ligatures, springs, or violence." 
 
 L. S. Family observcs,t " In all cases of irregularities, during the 
 shedding of the teeth, the treatment to be observed is to remove the 
 obstructing temporary teeth, and then to apply pressure, in the most 
 convenient manner, upon the irregular tooth, in order to direct it into 
 its proper situation. . . . Where the permanent teeth are large, and 
 the jaw-bones have not grown sufficient to admit of their enlargement 
 in a regular manner, they crowd and overlap each other. . . . When 
 the space of the jaw is not sufficient for the regular arrangement of 
 the teeth, some must then be considered as superfluous, and it will be 
 necessary to remove one or more of the bicuspides from each side of 
 the jaw, before the fangs are formed (sic), to give room to the rest ; 
 the incisors must then be gradually forced into their proper situation. 
 The occasional pressure of the finger and thumb, if attended to before 
 age has given too much firmness to the jaw, will invariably bring the 
 teeth into their proper places, without the necessity of having recourse 
 to continued pressure by means of instruments adapted to the arch 
 of the mouth, as recommended by ]\Ir. Fox." 
 
 Koccker recommends,! as preventive of irregularity in secondary 
 dentition, "extracting some of the permanent set at an early period, 
 in order to give sufficient room for the rest. . . . The first molars 
 
 * A Troatise on the Mnnagomont of the Huiniin Teeth, 1814, p. 100. 
 t Lectures on the ^^ilnrtgem(•nt of the Teeth, 1819, p. 145. 
 + D. ntiil Surgery, 1826, p. 101.
 
 110 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY 
 
 I 
 
 arc generally mn^^t ]>ro(lis])osed to tlisease ; they are least important 
 as it regards both appearanee and utility, and so situated as to afford, 
 by timely removal, sufficient room for the anterior teeth, as well as [ 
 for the second and third molarcs. If these teeth are extracted at any • 
 period before the age of twelye years, all the anterior teeth will grow ^ 
 more or less backwards, and the second and third grinders so much | 
 towards the anterior part of the mouth as to fill up almost entirely 
 * the vacant spaces caused by the removal of the first molares." . 
 
 Fitch (1829)* quotes Fox at great length respecting the treatment ' 
 of irregularities, and seemingly rests his own practice on the direc- 
 tions then recorded, for he does not make any essential additions to ' 
 the modes or practice of the older author. The methods named are 
 all on the single principle of ligatures or other apparatus attached to ^ 
 sound and regular teeth in such a manner as to compel the irregular 
 ones to assume their proper position. 
 
 Spooner says,t " To remedy many cases of irregularities it is neces- | 
 sary to have recourse to gold or silver plates, or other mechanical ' 
 contrivances. When the front teeth stand too far asunder, from |^ 
 natural conformation or from too early extraction of the temporar)' | 
 teeth {!), they may readily be brought into their proper position by | 
 means of silken ligatures frequently renewed so as to exert a gentle Jj 
 but continued pressure." 
 
 Dr. Harris gives very particular and detailed directions for the t 
 treatment of various kinds of irregularities, following, generally, the J 
 practice of Fox, whose methods, he says, X " have formed the basis of ^ 
 the established practice of the last twenty-five or thirty years, and 
 this long trial has proved that they were founded upon a knowledge 
 of the laws of the economy, and much practical experience." 
 
 It is believed that the principal improvements in the mechanical 
 apparatus for correcting irregularities, since the days of the earlier ^ 
 writers, have been, the introduction of rubber for ligatures (thereby 
 rendering the latter elastic), and of wedges, and, later, jackscrews for 
 ol)taining space between teeth or different parts of the dental arch. 
 Rul)ber was used in this manner almost upon its first appearance in 
 the a/ts, in the form of stri])S fjistened at each extremity by ligatures. 
 About 1840, Dr. E. G. Tucker employed cross-sections of rubber 
 tubing, which was a material improvement, and is now very much 
 
 * A System of Dontal Surpcry, 1829, p. 417. 
 t Guide to Sound Teelli, 183G, p. 45. 
 X The Denttil Art, p. 103.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. Ill 
 
 used. _ Gutta-percha and rubber were used as wedges also, but have 
 been rej)laccd in this direction bv wood. 
 
 In 1857, Dr. Dwindle, of New York, exhibited before the Ameri- 
 can Dental Convention the jackscrews he had previously devised for 
 regulating. Since that time others have made various modifications 
 of his apparatus, the principle and mode of oj)cration remaining still 
 the same as in the orisrinal. 
 
 MECHANICAL DEVICES. 
 
 DRYIXG MOUTH AND CAVITIES. 
 
 Nothing, perhaps, indicates more accurately the want of thorough- 
 ness and attention to detail in the early practice of the dental art 
 than the total obliviousness to all m inutile of operating shown by 
 even the best dental writers of over fifty years ago. It may be ob- 
 jected to such a statement, that those writers, actuated in their pub- 
 lished works, as they evidently were, by a spirit of general scientific 
 research," did not choose, or considered it unnecessary, to descend to 
 detail, imagining such things to be sufficiently well known not to re- 
 quire remark. But the more probable explanation of this remissness 
 is, that even the foremost dental operators of old did not consider 
 such things sufficiently important to deserve mention. Had they 
 not so thought, they would have given us much more particular 
 accounts of their operations than they have done. 
 
 It may be stated as a fact that, until after the introduction of gold 
 foil, absence of moisture from the filling Mas not, as now, considered 
 of great importance. The first fillings, consisting as they did of lead, 
 and the various gums, were inserted in ^\'hat Avould now be called a 
 very careless and superficial manner ; and as that manner was not 
 calculated to prevent the after-entrance of moisture around the plug, 
 it will be conceded that its first presence was probably not thought 
 highly objectionable. Koecker,* although treating somewhat elab- 
 orately (for the time) of the filling operation, says not a word as to 
 the importance of a dry cavity. Fitch f mentions incidentally the 
 wiping out of cavities with locks of cotton ; and so, also, Desirabode.J 
 As dentistry grew in importance and extent, and its principles became 
 better understood, writers began to treat more particularly of the 
 smaller processes dependent on operations ; until all the minutiaj of 
 
 * Dental Surgery. f A Sj-stom of Dental Surgery, p. 411. 
 
 + The Science smd Art of the Dentist, p. 281.
 
 112 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 the dental art received such ample and exact description as is seen 
 only in the published works of the last decade. 
 
 Hence it is that the scantiness of information as to detail which 
 has come down to us from more remote periods is due, not so much 
 to want of attention to such proce&ses on the part of the writers as 
 to actual non-existence of the processes themselves in the dental 
 practice of the time. 
 
 The napkin was probaljly the first, and for a long time the only, 
 implement used in securing diyness of the cavity to be filled. This 
 being used in the mouth to prevent access of saliva, that already in 
 the cavity was removed, sometimes by pledgets of cotton, at others 
 by dried and prepared flax, or strips or pellets of linen or cotton 
 cloth. Afterward (1850) Dr. J. B. Rich recommended* the employ- 
 ment of tissue and bibulous paper for the same purpose. Even at 
 this date, however, it was held by some that j)erfect fillings might be 
 made in the presence of moisture ;t and some operators used simply 
 the pressure of thumb and finger to exclude the saliva. J 
 
 Dr. Dwindle, of New York, described in 1850 his method of 
 operating with a wax coffer-dam built up around the tooth. § The 
 difference between this then-elaborate method, and those mentioned 
 in the previous paragraph, does not by any means indicate any want 
 of ability or operative attainments in the first-noticed practitioners, 
 but serves to show the unsettled and growing state of the art at the 
 time. 
 
 In the year mentioned, also, appears the first notice of a saliva- 
 collector observed. 1 1 The only description of this instrument is given 
 in the citation noted, as follows : " It resembles a miniature fife, and 
 is attached to the under jaw to collect the saliva." In 1854 Dr. R. 
 Arthur devised a "saliva-pump,"^ which consisted of a bulbed glass 
 tube terminating in a hollow rubber air-chamber, from which the air 
 was driven by pressure, and the saliva drawn into the tube by the 
 return of the expelled air. Several other forms of the saliva-pump 
 have been devised. A noteworthy one is that of Dr. W. H. Dibble, 
 introduced about 1866 ; this combined the offices of pump and 
 tongue-holder, and also had an appliance for discharging the saliva 
 into any receptacle.** The "latest improvement" in this class of 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. i. p. 61. 
 t Ibid., pp. 63, 64. + Ibid., p. 64. 
 
 l Ibid., p. 65. II Ibid., p. 65. 
 
 \ Di-ntal News Letter, vol. vii. p. 102. 
 ** Di-ntnl Cosmos, vol. viii. p. 36. 
 
 {
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 113 
 
 instruments is the " Fisk ejector," designed for use where a tap of 
 swiftly-running Avater is convenient, as in cities and the larger towns. 
 This is a very excellent apparatus, combining great simplicity with 
 almost unvarying certainty and efficiency of action. 
 
 Compressing the orifices of the ducts of Steno and Wharton and 
 those of the various other secretory glands of the mouth Avas early 
 practiced. In 1857 Dr. Dwindle used a small tongs of gold wire for 
 this purpose.* Miniature apparatuses on the principle of the truss 
 were also employed. In 1804 Dr. J. C. Parker, of Grand Rapids, 
 Mich., employed disks of biscuit porcelain, to be j)laced over the 
 duct-openings. t These have now given place to similar disks of 
 pipe-clay. 
 
 Tongue-holders were also early in use. That of Dr. Flagg con- 
 sisted simply in a spoon-shaped metallic plate at the end of a handle 
 held by the patient. One introduced by Dr. E. Townsend (1847) 
 (the invention of Dr. Lawrence, his student) was a watch-spring bent 
 into a semicircle and having pads on the ends,| which pressed on the 
 tong^ue and roof of the mouth. Others of various forms and modes 
 of action have since basn invented ; most of them holding the tongue 
 or napkins by pressure on the outer side of the lower jaw. 
 
 In 1856 Dr. Taft introduced the hot-air blow-pipe in substantially 
 the same form as now uscd.§ 
 
 In 1857 Dr. Arthur recommended the use of cross-sections of rub-» 
 ber tubing, to be stretched around the tooth where the cavity extended 
 to or below the margin of the gum. The principle of this, however, 
 is found in the previous wax coffer-dam of Dwindle, and also in the 
 use of plaster in the same way as Dwinelle's wax. In 1853 Dr. 
 Lord used a "ligature,"|| or "string-dam," consisting of waxed cot- 
 ton or silk cord which he tied about the tooth, and forced up against 
 the gum. A modification of this was "Allen's dam;" being the 
 winding of the cord with gold or tin foil so that the foil, when 
 compressed against the side of the tooth, covered its whole surfacc^f 
 About 18G0 punk came to be used in place of cotton, flax, cloth, or 
 paper pledgets. The practice with these materials, however, still de- 
 pends entirely on the fancy of the operators; some using one thing, 
 and some another. 
 
 * Dental News Letter, vol. ii. p. 34. 
 f Dental Cosmos, vol. vi. p. 104. 
 
 X American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. viii. p. 54. 
 ^ Ibid., 2cl Si.Ties, vol. vi. p. 555. 
 
 II Dental Cosmos, vol. x. p. 242. Jf Ibid., vol. vi. p. 13. 
 
 9
 
 114 HISTORY OF AMEUICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 In 1864, Dr. S. C. Burnum, of Xew York, brought forward the 
 now well-known rubber tlam. The profession were not slow in 
 recognizing its merits, and in 1870 a call for subscriptions to a 
 "testimonial fund" for the benefit of its inventor was published in 
 the Dental Cosmos. The various societies throughout the country 
 added their offerings to this fund, and their thanks to Dr. Banuim 
 for the benefit he had conferred on the profession through his 
 invention. The matter came before the American Dental Asso- 
 ciation at its meeting in Xashville in 1870, and a gold medal, the 
 expense of which was volunteered by three members, was voted him, 
 with a resolution of thanks and the sum of one thousand dollars.* 
 The California State Dental Association f presented him a gold medal, 
 and the New York Odontological Society, with members of the 
 Massachusetts Dental Society and others, gave him a gold watch and 
 chain and a sum of money. These acts prove the estimation in which 
 this appliance is held by the profession. It is almost universally 
 conceded to rank with the greatest advances in the materiel of oper- 
 ative dentistry. 
 
 CUTTING AND DRILLING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 I 
 
 From the straight, chisel-shaped excavator and scaler of old to the 
 modern burring engine is such a wide space for progress that the stu- 
 dent of dental history would expect to find, between these termini, 
 many and curious developments in the mechanism for boring and 
 cutting tooth-substance; yet there are, in that history, only four di- j 
 visions or principles of mechanical action to be considered, — 1, simple 
 haiul-eutters and drills ; 2, automatically rotating drills driven by 
 hand-power ; 3, the same driven by foot-power ; and 4, the same 
 with the power also automatic. Of all forms, except the last, there 
 are or have been several exponents, and all, except the second, are 
 now in use. It is proposed to examine these in the order given | 
 above, ^vhich is also nearly the order of their appearance in dentistry. 
 
 Between those of the first variety now in use, and such as were , 
 originally employed, the chief difference is in the size. It is true \ 
 that there are now many more shapes employed than formerly; but I 
 this fact indicates, not change, but addition; nearly all the old I 
 shapes being still in existence. . The enamel and other chisels are, *> 
 
 * Transactions American Dental Association for 1870, pp. 2G-27. 
 t Ibid, for 1873, p. 19.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. " 115 
 
 in many cases, almost reproductions in miniature of those of tlie car- 
 penter; while the scalers (old, especially) vary in form from the 
 machete of the South-American woodman, through modifications of 
 the hatchet and the pruning-hook, to certain tools of the ship-builder. 
 The drills are all delicate tools for metal, as seen in the ordinary 
 single or double-edged "spear-point," the flat "bottoming drill," 
 the round or pointed " counter-sink" (burr), and the new " twist- 
 drill." 
 
 The second principal difference which exists between the cutters 
 of now and then is in the fact that, wliere now each instrument has 
 its own particular hand-piece, generally one in material and work- 
 manship with itself, it was then the mode to have each tool separate, 
 but all fitting into one handle, which was generally of different mate- 
 rial from the implement, as wood, bone, ivor}', or mother-of-pearl. 
 The last two were in the greatest demand, and were often adorned by 
 elegant carving and even with jewels; and instrument-cases were 
 so made as to exhibit, in all their radiant splendor, the then costly 
 implements of the profession to the Mondering gaze of the dazzled 
 patient. 
 
 The scalers Avere originally of very much more importance than 
 they now are, and bore a much larger numerical proportion to the 
 cutters. It must be remembered that cutting was at first only little 
 attempted — at least, in comparison with modern practice — and, when 
 done, a few chisels and spear-drills sufficed for the necessities of the 
 operator and of the case. Nothing so clearly indicates the radical 
 change in modern from ancient dental practice as this difference in 
 the comparative value and number of these two classes of imple- 
 ments. 
 
 The drill was originally and, for many years (even, in some cases, 
 to the present), rotated simi)ly in the fingers and without guards or 
 any mechanism for the protection of the skin. In illustration of the 
 extent to wliich tliis was carried, and of the effects jn-oduccd by it, we 
 will instance an anecdote of Waite, a very prominent London dentist,, 
 in 1820. It is related by E. Family, who said that, while in England,, 
 and at Brighton, he called on Charles Bew, "a kind of hanger-on, 
 crony and dentist, of the Prince of Wales," who, speaking of Waite, 
 
 remarked, " ]My lady was with me, and while here she told me 
 
 that AVaite had shown her the knots made on his hands in stopi)ing 
 teeth," to which he said he replied, " Lord bless your ladyship, those 
 knots were made on Waite's hands by holding on to the straps of his 
 master's carriage." Dr. Parnily comraendably adds, " I hope that
 
 116 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 we have all learned or shall learn how these callous concretions M-ere 
 made in the hand of the justly celebrated London dentist."* 
 
 They certainly had sufficient time allowed them in which to do so; 
 for it was not until 1846 that even a partial change in the method of 
 drill-handlino; was introduced. This consisted in the finger-ring and 
 drill-socket devised by A. "Wcstcott, Avhich was somewhat generally 
 adopted by the younger operators of the time, but for which those 
 who had i)racticed for years by the old method found, as Mas to be 
 expected, little occasion. 
 
 The above date, however, does not express a time anterior to the 
 introduction of the drill-stock; although, prior to it, this instrument 
 was in use, in a crude form, only in isolated instances. But Dr. 
 "NVestcott's proposed change indicated that the spirit of. innovation 
 had arisen; and accordingly we find the drill-stock gradually coming | 
 into general use at about or shortly after this period. 
 
 The first recorded instrument of this character is that of Dr. J. F. 
 Flagg, of Boston, which, being published (in the Boston Medical 
 and Surgical Journal) as an adjunct to his method of root-drilling, 
 has been regarded as invented for, and at the time of, that operation. f 
 But Dr. Flagg had it in use before that time, for he speaks, in the 
 article in question, of devising for root-drilling "an appendage to 
 my drill-stock," and also says that, "In most of these operations 
 I have used the simple instrument with which I drill the roots for 
 setting artificial teeth," etc. J 
 
 Dr. Flagg's stock was the simple " bow-drill " of the watch-maker. 
 Dr. Maynard devised one in which the drill was rotated by alter- 
 nately j)rcssing and releasing a stud on the side of the hand-piece, 
 somewhat similarly to the modern automatic plugger of Home. 
 This was designed to be used by only one hand, as the principal ob- 
 jection to the bow form was that it required for operation both hands. 
 
 Spencer's drill, introduced in 1849,§ Mas on a similar plan; the 
 piston-button, hoM'cver, being on the end. The tool M^as at right 
 angles M'ith the body of the instrument, and rotated alternately in 
 either direction as the piston rose and fell. 
 
 In 1850, Mr. J. D. ChevalierU devised a drill-stock M^orked by a 
 
 * Amcriciin Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. iii. p. 5. 
 f Sie Harris's Dental Dictionary, p. 294. 
 
 J See reprint of Dr. Flagg's paper in the New York Dental Recorder, vol. 
 i. p. 121. 
 
 § New York Dental Recorder, vol. iii. p. 142. 
 .11 Ibid., vol. V. p, 27,
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 117 
 
 small crank and bevel gears. The tool was held at an angle of forty- 
 five degrees with the body of the instrument, and could be inserted 
 so as to point, at that angle, either toward or from the handle. The 
 rotation was steadily in either direction according to the will of the 
 'operator. This drill required both hands. 
 
 The same year appeared the drill of INIr. B. B. Alfred,* also 
 worked by a crank and gears, the tool at right angles with the shaft. 
 
 The same year was illustratedf the drill (or drills) of C. 11. Dubs. 
 These were piston instruments, the tool at right angles. 
 
 The same year was introduced the drill-stock of John Lewis, | in 
 which the tool could be changed from a line parallel with the shaft 
 to any angular presentation. 
 
 The same year came Vi. W. H. Thackston's drill-stock, § a bow- 
 drill with the tool at right angles with the shaft. 
 
 In 1858 appeared the greatest improvement until that time in 
 drilling instruments, — ^Merry's drill, the invention of Charles Merry, 
 of St. Louis. This implement is still so well known that it may 
 be superfluous to offer even a limited description. There were two 
 hand-pieces, the one to hold the instrument in place and having 
 at its extremity a rotative tool-holder, and the other to drive the, 
 holder, to which it was connected by a flexible coupling or universal 
 joint of spirally wound wire. The tool being presented in any de- 
 • sired ])osition, the driving handle could be held in any direction, and 
 its rotation by the fingers of the other (or, in some cases, the same) 
 hand was communicated to the tool through the flexible joint. 
 
 This implement obtained very great popularity, in si)ite of the 
 many obvious disadvantages inseparable from its use. It may be 
 said to have rendered possible the modern dental engine; for, through 
 its flexible joint, it offered a means for conveying power from a pedal 
 to the hand without interfering with the free motion of the latter. 
 Indeed, the second pedal engine in order of time, and the first to 
 become generally used, included, as its cardinal point, this very 
 feature. 
 
 The third division of dental drilling and rotary cutting mechanism 
 commences with G. F. Green's pneumatic engine. This appeared 
 about 1868, and was quite generally used at one time by dentists, 
 
 * New York Dental Recorder, vol. v. p. 169. 
 
 t American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. x. p 203. 
 
 X Ibid., p. 58, and Harris's Dental Dictionary, p. 221. 
 
 2 American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. i. p. 101.
 
 118 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 especially those of the Western States. The apparatus was worked 
 by a f(K)t-l)cllows, the air from which proceeded, through a rubber 
 tube, to the hand-piece, where it propelled certain mechanism which 
 rotated tlie drill. 
 
 The next to appear on the scene, and the first of the "standard" 
 class of engines, was the " Morrison," now so widely used. 
 
 This was introduced to the public aboiit 1870-71. It needs no 
 description at tliis time. Tlicre are traditional accounts of a pedal 
 engine invented and used by Dr. John B. Beers, of Rochester, as far 
 back as 1842. It is said that this engine also workal by a coiled 
 steel universal joint. Of this, however, there are no published 
 records ; and it can hardly be justly included in the list of dental 
 appliances, especially as it was never used by any except the inventor. 
 The Morrison was the first offered to the general profession, and 
 was very quickly and widely adopted. For some years it had no 
 dangerous competitor, and is now held by many to be the best pedal 
 engine ever devised. 
 
 Almost at the same time. Dr. W. G. A. Bonwill devised and intro- 
 duced his engine. Tliis possesses many points of excellence, and one 
 of its peculiarities is its capability of being converted for the nonce 
 into an office or laboratory lathe. It has, however, never obtained 
 any extended use. 
 
 In 1871 was patented Elliot's "suspeasion" engine. This appa-. 
 ratus presented entire novelty in all things except the fact of the 
 power still being pedal. The hand-piece and tool-holder, suspended 
 by a cord, which was also the driving-cord, by SAvingiug freely in all 
 directions avoided the necessity of a universal joint. The cord was 
 kept tight on the tool-pulley by an equalizing weight and Avheel 
 (which has since been replaced by a spring fusee), and the pedal and 
 driving-wheel could be placed in any position. This apparatus is 
 (juite extensively used, and is much prizetl by those who operate 
 with it. 
 
 The last, "but not the least" on the list, is the S. S. White 
 engine. This also dispenses with universal joints; but is, like the 
 Morrison, a "standard" engine. The free movement of the hand- 
 piece is obtained by making the whole arm flexible through con- 
 structing it of a wire rope of spring temjicr. At first the strands 
 of this rope were all twisted in one direction ; thereby, when hard 
 pressed, ensued what was called "back-lash," — in less technical lan- 
 guage, the rope untwisted. This has been obviated by twisting alter- 
 nate strands in opposite directions, so that the tendency of part of the
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 110 
 
 arm to untwist is counteracted by the opposite movement of the other 
 part, thus making; the arm, as a whole, perfectly ricrid in rotating, 
 while as perfectly flexible in lateral or other directions of bodily 
 movement. 
 
 This engine is thought by many to be the best of those now in 
 use. One of the principal causes of its success is the spring pitman 
 which rotates the driving-wheel. This form of pitman is the most 
 perfect for light pedal power known to mechanics, causing such 
 equality and steadiness of movement and ease of working as is not 
 attainable by any other form. 
 
 The class of dental engines called above the fourth is not so, how- 
 ever, in strict order of time of introduction. It is here placed so 
 becaase it seems naturally the crowning capability to which such ap- 
 paratus can lay claim, and because the final improvement in engines 
 very probably lies in this direction. The tendency of the whole pro- 
 fessional desire as regards this apparatus appears to be toward some 
 method of relieving the operator from personal labor. ]\Iany noAV 
 eifect this by the aid of an assistant, but this manner of overcoming 
 the difficulty is not always desirable, and the real solution appears to 
 be in the automatic principle. 
 
 The first attempt in this direction was made by Mr. G. F. Green, 
 already noticed as the inventor of the pneumatic engine. This gen- 
 tleman called to his aid electricity. In 1856, he commenced experi- 
 menting in this direction, and after some years of effort partially con- 
 quered the difficulties he encountered, and produced the "electrical" 
 burring engine. This peculiar machine is, as stated, not an entire 
 solution of the question of automatic engines. It is heavy, and the 
 peculiar form he gave it renders it unwieldy to use. There is also a 
 lack of power in its operation. When to these serious objections are 
 added the difficulties arising from a want of general knowledge of its 
 principles and motive power, and the attendant trouble in the care of 
 the necessary battery, it is not surprising that this engine never came 
 into any considerable use. 
 
 The fact has already been noticed that the tendency of profes- 
 sional feeling, in the matter of engines, is at present toward ridding 
 the operator of personal labor. This is further exemplified by the 
 growing employment of automatic i>ower apart from the engine 
 itself. The applications of this }n-inci[)le in use are mostly (i^erhaps 
 entirely) either "water motors" or "electrical motors." Of the first 
 there are several kinds, and all seem to give satisfaction. They are, 
 however, only generally available in the cities and larger towns, or
 
 120 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 where the nec&ssary water power can be obtained ; and tliis will 
 always prevent their introduction el.sewhere. The electrical motors 
 are not open to this objection ; but they must nevertheless sustain 
 another almost if not quite as formidable; for "the battery" appears 
 as yet to constitute a very great obstiicle to their use. And, indeed, 
 even were this overcome, their success, at least for the present, would 
 be doubtful. They are not, in themselvesj as yet near to their 
 probable ]ierfection in construction or in principle, and present many 
 olyectionable features in their operation. How far these will be 
 overcome remains yet to be seen; in the mean time, they are used in 
 isolated cases, and as experiments, but it would be hazardous to say 
 that they will remain in this position for any great length of time. 
 
 FILES, WHEELS, DISKS. 
 
 The first instruments used in the removal of decayed dentine, after 
 the cutters, were those which operated through abrasion. Of these 
 the first, and until late years the principal, was the file. In its first 
 forms this was simply the ordinary mechanical instrument sufficiently 
 reduced in size ; but time gave it many changes in shape and method 
 of application, of most of which it will be needless to speak. 
 
 The principal early improvements were those of Dr. E. Town- 
 send, of Philadelphia, one of which was designed for the adaptation 
 of pivot crowns to the roots. This was secured by making two com- 
 panion files, one convex, the other concave, both of the same curve ; 
 the former ased on the crown, and the latter on the root. Dr. 
 Townsend also devised a set of "finishing files" in the form of a 
 straight or curved smooth central portion (for a handle), carrying at 
 each extremity thin curved, oval, and other shaped file-blades. These 
 files still form part of every dental outfit. 
 
 Dr. Harris, of Baltimore, in 1833, originated a form of file for 
 the separation of molars, to avoid the then common use of the file- 
 carrier for this purpose.* These were about one and one-half inches 
 in length, shaped like a clock-pinion file, and having a handle-like 
 continuation, bent twice so as to form an ofiset with the hand-part 
 projecting beyond. These files are also still in use. 
 
 The loss by breakage of these fragile instruments, and the general 
 difficulty experienced in a])plying the ordinary forms to the molars, 
 induced the invention of the filc-earricr. The first recorded form 
 
 * Harris's Dental Dictionary, p. 28L
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 121 
 
 of this instrument is that devised by Dr. A. Westcott, of Syracuse.* 
 It consisted of a handle and double-curved arm (to bring the file 
 again in line with the handle); from the extremity of which pro- 
 jected laterally two short, mortised pieces between which the file was 
 fitted ; the portion of the arm between these pieces being a spring, 
 which, by its elasticity, kept the files in jiosition. With this instru- 
 ment it was necessary to prepare the file by forming tenons on its 
 ends to fit the mortises in the arm-pieces. This file-carrier was the 
 first in which the files were held by their extremities. 
 
 In 1848 iNIr. J. D. Chevalier introduced another form (on the main 
 principle above named), which precluded the necessity of preparing 
 the files especially for it, and allowed the use of broken portions of 
 files, being adjustable for that purpose.f One portion of this instru- 
 ment, the arrangement of the file-holding buttons, Avhich allowed 
 the placing the file at any perpendicular angle, was the invention of 
 Dr. W. H. Elliott, of Montreal, and is worthy of notice. 
 
 Since the last date various modifications of the file-carrier have 
 been introduced. AVe shall notice, however, only the last, — that of 
 Mr. E. T. Starr, — which is designed for use with the S. S. White 
 engine. This is a simple and compact device, the reciprocating 
 motion being obtained through a crank movement operated by the 
 rotating flexible arm of the engine. 
 
 The introduction of wheels or disks into operative dentistry is 
 quite recent, being necessarily dependent on the advent of the burr- 
 inff-encrine: but the date of first use of revolving cutters cannot be 
 determined. Dental wheels or disks probably grew imperceptibly 
 and simultaneously in many hands from the saw burr. The various 
 grinding stones were first used, and were succeeded by the shellac- 
 and-emery composition, which, in turn, has given way to the corim- 
 duni wheels of Drs. A. L. Northrop and R. Arthur, now so univer- 
 sally known and used. A still later addition to the list is the disk 
 of W. G. A. Bonwill, a compound of rubber and corundum worked 
 into shape and afterward vulcanized. 
 
 In certain circumstances the presentation of a disk or wheel on a 
 straight mandrel in the desired position is difficult, and apparatuses 
 have been devised to meet this objection. The principal of these 
 is the disk-carrier of Dr. Hickman, which, at some slight cost of 
 inconvenience, meets most conditions. Another form, very lately 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. vii. p. 293. 
 f New York Dental Kecorder, vol. iii. p. 1.
 
 122 HISTORY OP AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 introduced, for use M'ith S. S. White's engine, appears to be an im- 
 provonicnt. In Hickman's the presentation of tlic disk is rendered 
 variable bv a simple mechanism which admits of lateral movement 
 at several angles, but which must be adjusted while not in use. In 
 White's the disk runs immovably at a certain angle with its shaft, 
 and changes in its position are instantly secured by simply rotating 
 the shaft or hand-piece without ceasing to drive the disk. A valu- 
 able addition to this instrument is a collar, pressure on Avhich in- 
 stantly stops the motion of the" disk, while the engine may continue 
 its speed. 
 
 FILLING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 General regard as to variations of form, size, purpose, or adapta- 
 tion of filling instruments is a thing of comparatively modern growth. 
 It was thought, even fifty years ago, that almost any straight, stiff 
 tool was sufficient to the placing of any filling which it would reach, 
 and for those not accessible by such, a curve in the shank quickly 
 rendered the instrument a proper one. It must be remembered that, 
 at that period, almost the only cavities filled were in the crowns or 
 readily- accessible surfaces of teeth. Approximal decay was almost 
 invariably removed by the file, which, of course, left no cavity 
 behind it. 
 
 It was believed that much force was necessary in order to properly 
 condense a filling, and the instruments were made correspondingly 
 strong and broad-pointed. They were generally entirely without 
 serrations, and with large and strong handles. 
 
 With the advent of " sponge" or " crystal " gold an impetus was 
 given to the invention of new forms of filling instruments. Dr. 
 Dwindle devised a set for the particular manipulation of this form 
 of gold. Previously, however, many additions of shape had crept in 
 quite insensibly, as it became the vogue to form and fill proximal 
 cavities. 
 
 As the culmination of the idea of necessarily great force in intro- 
 ducing fillings, "plugging forceps" made their appearance. These 
 were, at first, simple and of limited variety ; but they soon took on 
 many forms, and were very extensively used for a time. The most 
 marked variation in them wius the swivel fulcrum and changeable 
 points, introduced about 1842. 
 
 An illustration of the extent to which the " force" idea was carried 
 will be found in the experiments of Dr. J. D. White, as late as 1850, 
 
 f 
 
 I
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 123 
 
 with a dynamometer constructed for the purpose.* This gentleman 
 found that the estimates of dentists in general as to the degree of force 
 used by them in condensing a filling were much too high. Some 
 boasted that they often applied from sixty to eighty pounds' pressure 
 on a filling. Dr. White corrected this estimate by sending his dy- 
 namometer to the muscular operator ; who thereupon found that he 
 had been using only about twenty-five pounds' pressure. Dr. AVhite 
 says,t " It is a difficult matter for us to apply more than ten or twelve 
 pounds' pressure on a superior molar of a patient of that many years 
 of age, or a nervous and yielding patient. . . . But when we have an 
 older patient, or a hard head and stiff neck, and a molar Avell set in 
 a well-developed jaw, and the patient firmly seated in the chair, we 
 can apply as much as twenty-five, and even, in some cases, thirty 
 pounds." 
 
 TJie introduction of cohesive foil rendered necessary a radical 
 change in points in general. This change consisted in the serration 
 of the points. At first, for serration read toothing; for Dr. Arthur 
 recommended "two or three" points or teeth as being the proper 
 number. These were large and deep in the original forms, but grew 
 smaller and more numerous as experience revealed their frequent 
 breakage and other disadvantages. The points of pluggers, in fact, 
 have gone through the range of intermediates betAveen smooth and 
 blunt, and sharp and single--pomtGd, and back again. From the first 
 form to two or three deep serrations was an easy step; and some 
 went further and converted the few sharjj teeth into one, — in other 
 words, they pointed their pluggers. These were extreme cases, how- 
 ever, and not general. The main tendency was from a few deep 
 serrations to a multiplicity of shallow ones, and at this point the 
 majority of the profession now stands. The extremists of to-day 
 are represented again by perfectly smooth points ; and one gentle- 
 man has advocated the use of ivory pluggers. 
 
 The most radical change in the filling of teeth has been wrought 
 by the mallet. The introduction of this instrument has been er- 
 roneously ascribed to Dr. Wra. H. Atkinson, of New York ; in fact, 
 Dr. Atkinson revived the use of an old and discarded im])lement. 
 Koecker,! writing in 1826, thus expresses his disapprobation of a 
 certain class of operators : " But what is more surprising and repug- 
 nant, after the tooth is thus prepared for the reception of the stop- 
 
 * Dental News Letter, vol. ix. p. 100. t I^i^. 
 
 I Principles of Dental Surgery, London, 1826, p. 399.
 
 124 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 ping, some operators actually employ a hammer and 'punch to drive 
 the metal into the cavity of the tooth. I have seen the most alarm- 
 ing consequences proceed from this barbarous practice, particularly 
 in the cases of several ladies who consulted me in Philadelphia.* 
 INIanV of their teeth, especially the incisors, or front teeth and cuspi- 
 dati, had been ])lu<r»ed in this manner. Some of them had alrcadv 
 lost their vitality, and were discolored when I saw them, and others 
 were so tender, from the violence that had been used, that the least 
 pressure u])on them caused exquisite pain." It is evident from the 
 above, that if Dr. Atkinson cannot be accorded the primary employ- 
 ment of the mallet, yet he deserves credit for teaching its use in a less 
 " barbarous " manner. 
 
 Fitch also (1829),t following Koecker, mentions a case of splitting 
 an incisor tooth by the use of the mallet ; and concludes by observ- 
 ing that he is " jiersuaded that no judicious surgeon-dentist wall ever 
 adopt this very objectionable mode of performing the operation." 
 
 The first official recorded explication of the use of the mallet by 
 Dr. Atkinson was in 1861, before the Pennsylvania Association of 
 Dental Surgeons. The editor of the Transactions mentions! the "en- 
 tertaining and instructive character" of the proceedings, and names 
 as "the principal objection" to its employment "the necessity of 
 always requiring an assistant to use it properly." This objection was 
 soon found to be one of semblance and not of reality. The American 
 Dental Association, at the meeting of 1866, passed a resolution of 
 thanks to Dr. Atkinson " for the introduction of the mallet in dental 
 practice, and for his kind and efficient teachings in its use."§ In 
 acknowledo-ino; this recoo-nition, Dr. Atkinson referred his first knowl- 
 edge of the instrument to Dr. E. INIerrit, of Pittsburgh, in 1838. 
 
 Upon the introduction of the mallet, the attention of dental invent- 
 ors was immediately turned toward making the principle automatic. 
 Who was the first that presented such an instrument it is exceedingly 
 difficult (and perhaps impossible) now to determine. 
 
 In quick succession (not here exactly given) apj)eared Foote's, 
 Taylor's, Home's, Salmon's, and the Snow & Lewis automatic plug- 
 gers, all on the spring and (except Home's) "touch-blow" principle; 
 Baxter's and Pomeroy's, also spring instruments ; Bannister's, Green's, 
 
 * As Koecker left Philadelphia for England in 1822, the use of the mallet in 
 this country is therefore considerably anterior to that date, 
 t A System of Dental Surgery, New York, 1829, p. 410. 
 X Dental Cosmos, vol. iii. p. 258. 
 I Transactions of the American Dental Association, 186G, p. 242.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 125 
 
 and Gaylord's, on the pneumatic principle ; Buckingham's, operated 
 by the White dental engine; and the "electric mallets" of Green, 
 Bonwill, Jack, and Webb. The possibility of such a list was cer- 
 tainly not contemplated by Dr. Koecker when he deprecated the use 
 of the "hammer and punch." 
 
 Those of the above which are first named as on the spring and 
 touch-blow principle, have been more largely used than any of the 
 others. In particular esteem and widest employment are held the 
 Salmon and Snow & Lewis pluggcrs. Home's is a very excellent in- 
 strument, though but few have ever been made. Baxter's is a quaint 
 device, allowing the use of the ordinary plugging-tool. Pomeroy's 
 is well recommended. Bannister's and Green's pneumatic pluggcrs 
 never were widely used. Gaylord's is a new device, and may be 
 operated either by a foot-bellows or bulb, or by attachment to the 
 Morrison dental engine. Buckingham's is attached to the Wliite 
 dental engine, which is run the same as for burring. 
 
 Green's electric mallet has proved inefficient for general use. 
 Bonwill's wa»s the first to be introduced which attained to some con- 
 siderable employment. That of Dr. Louis Jack, which he has gen- 
 erously given to the profession, presents novelty of action and 
 mechanism. The last introduced is that of Dr. Webb. This is a 
 modification, in essentials, of Bonwill's instrument, but much lighter 
 and somewhat easier of manipulation. 
 
 Of this class of instruments it may be said, as of electrical motive 
 power in general, that it is not yet near perfection. The field for 
 improvement is very wide, and will eventually be thoroughly culti- 
 vated. It is an encouraging indication for the future of electrical 
 plugging instruments, that there is a very general verdict in favor of 
 their character of blow and operation over all other devices for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS FOR EXTRACTION. 
 
 The forceps is probably the oldest tooth-extra'cting instrument 
 known. A leaden forceps was placed in the temple of Apollo at 
 Delphos, by Erasistratus, 300 B.C.; and Celsus mentions it as im 
 implement of extraction 100 B.C. The first form of the tooth- 
 forceps was that of the ordinary mechanical instrument so named; 
 and it continued thus, with very slight (if any) variation, for hun- 
 dreds of years. In fact, the first idea of improvement in tooth- 
 extractors seems to have been toward the production of a new
 
 126 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 instrument ratlier than in the improvement of the forceps. The 
 pelican (whieli ninch resembled the skid used by kimbermen) was the 
 first form taken by progress in this direction. From the pelican 
 grew the kei/ of Garengeot, invented early in the eighteenth century. 
 
 The pelican has been known in this country only as a curiosity. 
 The kc}', ho\\ever, has obtained here, as everywhere, a very extended 
 use. 
 
 The key was first made with a straight shank or handle, but the 
 double elbow was afterward added, both to clear the interfering teeth 
 and to add power. Various other improvements have been made, 
 chief of which arc, the movable attachment of the hook, which allows 
 changes of hooks to suit difi'erent cases, and the form and position 
 of the bolster or fulcrum. The principal advances in the latter 
 direction have been, first, making the fulcrum round ; and, second, 
 making it movable. 
 
 This instrument, however, has long since almost fallen into disuse, 
 the great disadvantages attendant on it oeing almost entirely abro- 
 gated by the employment of the improved styles of forceps. 
 
 Of the punch and elevator it is hardly necessary now to speak, 
 except as noting the fact that they were considerably employed in 
 the early days of American dentistry. They still form part of com- 
 plete sets of extracting instruments, but are little employed. 
 
 The forceps has undergone so many changes that it will be impos- 
 sible to notice more than the most prominent. Like the tortoise in 
 the fable, this instrument began in the race of improvement with a 
 fair start, and was at first outstripped by the temporarily more 
 favored turidcey ; but it has succeeded in at last driving all its com- 
 petitors from the field, and is now almost the only instrument used 
 for the extraction of teeth. 
 
 The first reasonably complete set of forceps recorded was the work 
 of Dr. J. F. Flagg, in 1828. These were very largely used, and some 
 of the forms are still employed. Physick's forceps, a combination of 
 the lever and wedge, form even now a part of every complete set, 
 and are sntticicntly well known to require only slight description. 
 His impn)vemcntwas in constructing the beaks like two curved in- 
 clined planes, opening laterally, and intended for the wisdom-teeth. 
 Maynard's im})rovemcnt consisted in placing a point on the outer jaw 
 of the instrument " for perforating the alveolus between the outer roots 
 of the teeth"* (upper molars). Elliot's key-forceps had the beaks of 
 
 * Harris's Dictionary of Dental Science, p. 302.
 
 OPERATIVE DENTISTRY. 127 
 
 a pair of forceps and the handle of the key, "one beak serving as a 
 hook, wliile the other is represented by a movable fulcrum.'''* Elliot, 
 Pease, and Chevalier each devised excising and dividing forceps. 
 
 In 1844 Dr. S. P. Hullihen described, in the American Journal 
 of Dental Science (vol. iv. p. 254), a combination of screw and for- 
 ceps Avhich he had invented. Tiiis instrument, designed only for the 
 extraction of roots, was much esteemed, but was capable of improve- 
 ment, which was added by Mr. J. D. Chevalier in 1847t and by Dr. 
 C. H. Dubs in 1848, the latter being patented in that year. Upon 
 the introduction of Dr. Dubs's patent, he claimed (or had claimed 
 for him) at least all the credit to which he was entitled for his inven- 
 tion ; and a controversy was initiated as to the addition of the spring 
 and ratchet, — which constituted the improvement claimed by Dr. 
 Dubs, and was claimed by J. D. Chevalier. It soon died out, how- 
 ever, and Hullihen's and Dubs's screw-forceps are now in use, each 
 for its proper cases and under its own merits. 
 
 Colburn's adjusting forceps was introduced in 1851.J This im- 
 provement consisted in a capability of elongating either beak, for 
 adaptation to such teeth as were decayed on one side so far below the 
 gum as to afford a very uneven and precarious hold to equal-beaked 
 iustruments. 
 
 The above are believed to be the principal variations in this instru^ 
 ment devised in this country. The ])resent forms embrace almost 
 every possible variety of style, hold, beaks, presentation, and capa- 
 bility of use. 
 
 The screw has attained to a considerable use in such cases as are 
 suited to it. These are somewhat rare, however, and this cannot be 
 considered a very common instrument. We shall mention only one 
 of its variations, comprised in the screw of Dr. C. S. Dickinson. 
 This remarkable invention is figured on page 119 of the fourth vol- 
 ume of the New Yorh Dental Recorder, but is extremely difficult to 
 describe without illustration. We may say, that it pretty closely re- 
 sembles that variety of cork-screw in which the screw moves in a tube 
 which rests on the neck of the bottle, and into which the cork is drawn 
 by a secondary screw, the latter being replaced, in Dr. Dickinson's in- 
 vention, by a lateral ratchet and handle. We cannot learn that this 
 somewhat complex instrument ever obtained any very extended use. 
 
 * Iliirris's Dictionnry of Dental Sciftnce, p. 425. 
 
 t New York Dental Recorder, vol. iv. p. 62. 
 
 % American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Scries, vol. ii. p. 113.
 
 128 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 THE OPERATING CIIAIK. 
 
 This important accessory in operative dentistry is (at least as now 
 seen) a comparatively modern invention. The dental chairs of one 
 hnndred, and even of fifty years ago, differed very slightly from the 
 ordinary domestic article, and that difference existed only in isolated 
 instances, the main addition being some provision at the back for the 
 reception of the patient's head. No provision was made for any 
 alteration in height or other position. jSIany practitioners of early 
 days, to secure some measure of the latter capability, used an ordinary 
 rocker, which was susceptible, at least, of forward and backward 
 movements. 
 
 A particular description of the improvements in this article will 
 not be attempted, as such would be of slight value, in any case, and 
 also mainly unintelligible without illustration. Only the principal 
 advances toward present perfection will receive attention. 
 
 As has been stated, the first step in the adaptation of the ordinary 
 household article to dental purposes was the addition of a head-rest, 
 which was first fixed, and then movable in a i'orward or backward 
 rotation. The universal movement is the invention of comparatively 
 late years. 
 
 The next necessity discovered and supplied, was the capability of 
 change of height of the seat ; and many and curious have been the 
 devices for the production of this effect. Almost simultaneously 
 variation of position, first of the back and then of the seat, was 
 effected. 
 
 The first chair which seems to have contained all these improve- 
 ments was that of M. "W. Ilanchett. This chair had a central sup- 
 porting screw under the seat, to which the screw was hinged by 
 gudgeons at the ends of horizontally-projecting arms, thus allowing 
 the tii)ping of the seat and back backward and forward on these 
 gudgeons, the whole being held in the desired i)osition by notched 
 iron semicircles })laying in a cogged wheel controlled by a winch and 
 ratchet. The elevation was accomplished by turning the seat on the 
 screw after the manner of a piano-stool.* This chair was introduced 
 in 1848. 
 
 In 1849, F. Searle, of Springfield, Massachusetts, constructed a 
 curious mechanism for the raising and lowering of the seat.f The 
 upper part, consisting of seat, back, and arms, was separated from 
 
 I 
 
 * New York Dental Recorder, vol. iii. p, 47. f Ibid., vol. iv. p. 75.
 
 Operative dentistry. 129 
 
 the legs and lower frame by an intermediate frame, the back part of 
 which was hinged to the lower back edge of the seat, and the front 
 part similarly attached to the upper front edge of the leg-frame. By 
 tipping the seat on the front hinges it was inclined forward, the back 
 hinges not then being able to act, and the reverse movement was 
 secured by the back hinges; and when both hinges were operated 
 the effect was to raise the whole seat vertically, the intermediate 
 frame then taking the same position, with regard to the seat and leg- 
 frame, as that of tiie diagonal stroke to the horizontal ones in the 
 letter Z. The different positions were attained and held by cogged 
 iron quadrants. 
 
 In the chair of C. H. Eccleston, the seat was placed on })owerful 
 steel springs, the tension of which was ,upward, and a vertical rod 
 Avas attached to the centre of the under side of the seat and passed 
 between two guides, in one of which was a strong set-screw. When 
 this screw was loose, the springs at once elevated the seat to its highest 
 point, drawing up with it the rod, Avhich altitude could be reduced 
 by 2)>^essmg the seat dowmcard, and fastening it in the desired place 
 by tightening the set-screw on the retaining rod. The weight of the 
 patient must have been a considerable factor in the operating of this 
 mechanism. The back tip])ed forward or backward on a hinge-pin 
 passed laterally through its lower portion and the tops of the posterior 
 legs. 
 
 In 1850, Mr. J. D. Chevalier, of New York, invented and sold a 
 "portable head-rest," for attachment to any ordinary chair. This 
 was not only extremely convenient for itinerants, but it was also 
 perhaps the most com[)letc head-rest then in use. It was susceptible 
 of backward, forward, and lateral rotating movements, ^nd of being 
 raised or lowered vertically; all of which cannot be said of any 
 other dental head-rest of the time. 
 
 These are examples of the modes of progress toward the present 
 status of the dental operating chair. It is not necessary to speak of 
 the various elegant and ingenious modern articles. The Archer, 
 Perkins, Morrison, Harris, O. C. White, and other forms are uni- 
 versally employed, and their excellencies everywhere acknowledged. 
 
 10
 
 TREATMENT OF THE MORE IMPORTANT DIS- 
 EASES, INJURIES, AND NATURAL DEFECTS OF 
 THE ORAL CAVITY. 
 
 In former sections have been considered the methods of iiractice 
 ^vllich liave been, from time to time, adopted in the more common 
 abnormal conditions wliich occur to the teeth. In this will be cur- 
 sorily reviewed the principal methods of treating the rarer cases of 
 disease and natural defects in, and accidental injuries to, the mouth 
 and associate parts. 
 
 In doing this, it is no part of the design to include the labors of 
 the surgeon per se in these directions, although it is very difficult to 
 exclude them entirely; but to present only such operations as may be 
 said to belong to, and be a part of, the possible operations of the 
 dental practitioner. 
 
 In the earlier years of general, as well as of American dentistry, 
 there seems to have been a feeling that professional aims should be in 
 the direction of surgery, rather than of the parent branch, medicine. 
 This is evidenced in many ways; not the least of which is the ap- 
 pellation of "surgeon-dentist," or later, "dental surgeon," which was 
 the self-given distinction of what was, in reality, a craft and not a 
 profession. Then, as now, truly surgical practice was confined to a 
 few of the name; the large majority of oral-surgical cases being 
 managed by the general practitioner. Hence it is, that in the writings 
 of our older dentists, although they are named, almost universally, 
 treatises on "dental surgery," there is found little of value, — indeed, 
 often nothing, — pertaining to such lesions as are indicated by the 
 above heading; and for the surgical treatment of the more serious 
 oral diseases, reference must be ha<l to the literature of that specialty, 
 or of medicine. 
 
 Into the causes of this it is not here necessary to inquire. The 
 fact itself forms the excuse for ])aiu'ity in accounts of such cases and 
 methods of treatment as would have sanctioned to the dentist of old, 
 130
 
 TREATMENT OF DISEASES, ETC., OF THE ORAL CAVITY. 131 
 
 had he received and practiced them, the use of the title he had 
 adopted as representative of his professional status. 
 
 Confining tlie consideration of tlie general subject strictly to 
 American authors, the first to be noticed will be the few princijKil 
 diseases, such as tumors, fungous growths, and lesions • of the 
 antrum. 
 
 Woofendale, although his book was published in London, has in 
 this work ahvays been included in the list of American dentists, since 
 he spent a considerable portion of his professional existence here. Of 
 disease of the antrum he writes,* — *'I am of opinion that this com- 
 plaint rarely happens from any other cause than the inflammatory 
 tooth-ache, extending or being confined to the periosteum of the 
 socket, which terminates in suppuration, and penetrates and dis- 
 charges into the nntnim maxillare. ... By (a case stated) I am led 
 to suspect, that a caries of the palate bone may sometimes be the 
 result of the inflammatory tooth-ache from the lodgment of matter 
 [pus] (as in the case here related); which, when in an acrid state, 
 from confinement, and in length of time, may frequently injure and 
 destroy this bone." This dentist treated the case of which he speaks 
 (abscess of the antrum of High more) by extraction of the second 
 molar and piercing its socket with a probe, and topical application of 
 some remedies which he does not particularize. This single disease 
 and case is the only one he mentions which appears to take rank 
 out of the ordinary character of daily practice. 
 
 James directs f "decoction of bark, or diluted tincture of myrrh 
 to be frequently injected into the cavity" of the antrum, through an 
 opening in the socket of the second molar. 
 
 L. S. Parmly writes,^ "When the inflammation of the teeth and 
 gums of the upper jaw is long continued and very considerable, 
 ^yhether proceeding from accident, or from the natural eilects of 
 disease, it is often communicated to the lining or investing (membrane 
 of the) maxillary sinus. ... As soon as the symptoms of this dis- 
 ease are discovered (a fact exceedingly difficult to ascertain till matter 
 is actually formed), the great point is to give it a free opening or dis- 
 charge. The readiest way of doing this, is to extract the middle 
 grinder or molares, the situation of which is immediately under the 
 maxillary cavity, and afterwards to pierce through the socket with 
 
 * Woofendale on the Teeth, p. 61 et seq. 
 
 f A Treatise on the Management of the Tfcth, p. 121. 
 
 X A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teetli, p. 170.
 
 lo2 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 a smjill trocliar to the sinus. The opening thus made should be 
 preserved lor some time, and detergent applications occasionally 
 injected with a syringe, till every appearance of discharge sub- 
 sides. This state of the antrum, independent of the diseases of 
 the teeth, has often been produced by the lodgment of ^vorms or 
 insects. They are conceived to have had their ovse, or eggs, de- 
 posited in the nostril, or to have been drawn in with the breath 
 into the nose, and thus conveyed into the antrum. Their removal, 
 when discovered, is to be accomplished by the ojieration above men- 
 tioned, and the use of oily or other inj^ections, till they are entirely 
 exterminated." 
 
 Of morbid groAvths of the gums the same author Avrites as follows: 
 "The irritation produced by decayed teeth, on the circulation of the 
 gum-ve&sels, is often the cause of a preternatural g^o^vth of the gums 
 by Avhich excrescences or tumors form on them of various sizes. 
 Carious stumps are the most frequent source of this morbid growth ; 
 for, if the socket is not close at the bottom, a protrusion takes place, 
 which makes the edges of the gums grow irregularly over it, and 
 thus, by the pressure of the sharp edges of the stumps, a constant 
 soreness and inflammation is kept up ; the soft parts assume a dis- 
 eased action, and the gums rapidly increase in size. An enlargement 
 of this kind will often equal the size of a ^valnut, and no cure can 
 take place till the cause, or irritating edges, be removed; on this being 
 accomplished, and the fang repaired, the fulness of the vessels is 
 taken off by the hemorrhage accompanying this operation, while the 
 morbid growth or enlargement, from its fungous nature, soon xlecays, 
 and the gum is reduced. At other times tumors form on the gums 
 without any evident cause, and unconnected with the state of the 
 teeth. . . . AVhen troublesome, their removal should be attemjited 
 either by excision or ligature. Where a ligature can be applied it 
 is the safest method. . . . Other tumors of a different nature form 
 on the gums, which are distinguished by their particular softness or 
 disposition to bleed. Such tumors are generally the consequence of 
 a diseased jaw-bone ; and .... no cure can be effected without the 
 removal of the cause. If, however, they arise only from the fangs 
 of the tooth being in so very diseased a state as to have occasioned a 
 destruction of })art of the alveolar process, then a cure can be effected 
 only by extracting the diseased tooth, and if, on examining the socket, 
 it be found rough and denuded of its periosteum, a Aveak solution of 
 nitrous acid applied to it with lint and frequently renewed, will cause 
 ;ni exfoliation of the diseased jaw-bone, and the tumor will be re- 
 
 i
 
 TREATMENT OF DISEASES, ETC., OF THE ORAL CAVITY. 133 
 
 moved." To the list of the various diseases to which the term epulis 
 has been applied, Dr. Pannly adds alveolar abscess.* 
 
 Josiah F. Flagg writes,t in relation to tumors, " Preternatural 
 enlargements of the gums are not uncommon. They proceed from 
 various causes, but generally from diseased teeth, and are seldom to 
 be cured till these are extracted. Tumors of the gums are either of 
 a soft, spongy texture, or of a more firm and fleshy nature, sometimes 
 nearly of the consistence of cartilage. . . . The hard, fleshy, or 
 cartilaginous tumors are not so common as those of the opposite 
 nature ; but their consequences are much more to be dreaded if they 
 are not early extirpated. ... In all these cases the speedy removal 
 of the tumor (by the use of caustics, the ligature, or the knife) is 
 the only plan of treatment on which we can reasonably hope for 
 success. In some instances, however, the laceration produced by 
 extracting teeth which were enveloped in such tumors has proved 
 an effectual remedy." 
 
 Dr. Koecker, under the head of " Effects produced by dead teeth 
 and stumps," J etc., sums up an enumeration of cases of tumors and 
 carcinomatous growths as follows : "The onlv method of cure for all 
 the idiopathic and symptomatic maladies, whether general or local, 
 occasioned by dead roots and teeth, is tlieir immediate extraction, they 
 being always the principal and proximate exciting causes of the dis- 
 ease." 
 
 Thomas E. Bond, in his work, "A Practical Treatise on Dental 
 Medicine" (Philadelphia, 1851), treated tliis subject more fully tlian 
 any previous American dental writer. Following are some extracts, 
 which sufficiently explain themselves : 
 
 "Fungus Hcematodes, etc. This disease is almost uniformly, per- 
 haps always, a constitutional one, and therefore beyond tiie reach of 
 any local means." "Sarcomatous or fleshy tumors, .... if per- 
 mitted to pursue their natural course, sometimes suppurate and then 
 subside. This mode of cure, however, involves so much inconve- 
 nience, that it is commonly better to extirpate them." "The term 
 epulis is applied to different excrescences seated upon the gum. . . . 
 They are generally caused by carious teeth, whose fangs keep up a con- 
 tinual irritation in the neighboring parts, and are sometimes traceable 
 to neglected jtarulk or gumboil as their immediate cause. . . . With- 
 out removing these irritants, of course no permanent cure can be 
 expected. ... Of whatever kind .... tumors may be, they should 
 
 * Loc. cit., p. 90. t T'le Family Dentist, p. 58. % Dental Surgery, p. '259.
 
 134 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 be carefully watched. So long as they cause no inconvenience they 
 mav be let alone; but if, by reason of growth or any other cause, 
 they begin to inilanic tiie surrounding parts, or to become painful 
 during the movements of the jaw, or contact with air or food, they 
 should be extirpated. If ])endul()us and accessible, a ligature or the 
 knife may be used ; but if broadly based and fully incorporated with 
 the gum, and but small in size, caustic should be used." Of what 
 has been called "dropsy of the antrum," he says, "The term dropsy 
 is entirely misapplied to this affection, and should be discarded. . . . 
 The atfection we are considering is a distension of the antral cavity 
 by retained mucus. . . . The indication, of course, is to make an 
 artificial o])cning and permit the escape of the contained matter, and 
 then to make such applications to the lining membrane of the antrum 
 as Avill restore the natural secretion of the part." '"' With regard to 
 the treatment of antral polypi, it resolves itself simply into making 
 an o[)ening into the sinus and removing the tumor." " That the 
 larvae of insects find their way into the maxillary sinus is proved by 
 abundant evidence. . . . Should worms be found in the cavity, 
 thcv niust be destroyed by the injection of oil or other liquids likely 
 to effect the purpose." 
 
 Dr. Harris, writing of tumors of the gums,* says they "seldom 
 arise spontaneously, but are, in most instances, the result of local 
 irritation, occasioned by the presence of tartar, decayed or dead 
 teeth, pr roots of. teeth ; but the character which they assume is de- 
 termined by the state of the constitutional health or by the habit of 
 body of the individual, llence their great variety. . . . We do not 
 conceive it necessary to the production of tumors, that any of the 
 causes here enumerated should exist at the time they make their ap- 
 pearance. The gums and alveoli having been once affected, are ever 
 afterward more susceptible to morbid impressions. It is therefore 
 quite j>rol)al)le that an unhealthy action is sometimes continued in 
 them long after the cause that produced it ceases to exist; and that 
 this .... determines their development." " When the base of a 
 tumor is very broad, and the bone beneath carious, .... the actual 
 cautery is, without doubt, the surest remedy, because it is obvious 
 that until tiie diseased bone is exfoliated a cure can never be effected. 
 But under no other circumstances is the use of it advisable. ... In 
 the treatment of tumors originating from the gums, or alveolar 
 
 * rrinciplo.s and Praolicc of Dental Surgerj', rhilaJelphia editioii of 18')3, p. 
 452 et seq. ,
 
 TREATMENT OF DISEASES, ETC., OF THE Oil A I. CAVITY. 135 
 
 processes, or from bath, much depends on their character and the 
 constitutional symptoms aecom[)anying- them. Some nmy be entirely 
 removed .... by simply extracting a decayed tooth or root; others 
 will require extirpation, and, in some instances, even this will not 
 avail." 
 
 With reference to diseases of the antrum, this author writes, "This 
 cavity is subject to some of the most formidable and daugerous dis- 
 eases the medical or surgical practitioner is ever called upon to treat." 
 Others, however, "are very simple and easily cured," but may, tiirough 
 neglect, assume a dangerous character. " While, on the one hand, 
 the most simple affections of this cavity may, by neglect or improper 
 treatment, ultimately become incurable; those on the other, which 
 are considered the most malignant and dangerous from their incep- 
 tion, might, we have no doubt, by timely and judicious treatment, 
 be effectually and radically removed." "The morbid affections of 
 the maxillary sinus are, for tiie most part, similar to those of the 
 nasal fossae. There is, however, a form of disease which seems to be 
 peculiar to this cavity, viz. : mucous engorgement." After enumer- 
 ating various other diseases of the antrum, and the causes generally 
 ascribed for them, he continues : " If all the circumstances connected 
 with the history of the diseases under consideration could be ascer- 
 tained, we think it would be found that these affections are more 
 frequently induced by a morbid condition of the teeth, gums, and 
 alveolar processes, than by any other cause." 
 
 In considering the curative treatment of diseases of this cavity. 
 Dr. Harris examines thoroughly into the origin of the methods of 
 entrance thereto ; and determines as follows : " When the natural 
 opening is closed, .... a ])erforation should be made into the sinus, 
 and the most proper place for effecting this .... is through the al- 
 veolar cavity of the second molar. It may, however, be penetrated 
 from that of either of the other molars or bicuspids." 
 
 The American writers on this subject since the date of Harris's 
 work have been few, and are sufficiently well known to make any 
 exposition of their views unnecessary. 
 
 The treatment of accidentid and other oral injuries will now be 
 shortly reviewed. 
 
 In the earlier time of American dentistry such cuses were always 
 referred to the general surgeon, the dental operator not undertaking 
 them ; but the sphere of dentistry widened somewhat, and at present 
 simple accidents, as luxations, fractures, etc., of the jaw are not un- 
 commonly treated by the dentist. Evidence of the comparatively
 
 136 HISTORY OF AifERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 iiiodorii character of such additions to ordinary dental practice, may 
 be found in the fact that Dr. Bond, who wrote in 1851, is the first 
 American writer of note who incorporated, together witli strictly den- 
 tal lesions, a consideration of cases, as wounds and the more serious 
 diseases, which had before been considered to belong to general sur- 
 gery. It is true that this date does not express the first, or even very 
 early attention paid to the subject by dentists. A few among them, 
 having received proper preliminary education, were competent to, 
 and did, perform many very severe and extensive surgical operations, 
 long before it was even considered needful that the general practi-* 
 tioner should understand them. Among such, the name of S. P. 
 Hullihen Avill always be remembered, as a surgeon of the first grade 
 as well as an excellent dental operator. But, in spite of these in- 
 stances, the writing of Dr. Bond is the first indication of an extended 
 sphere for general dentistry. , 
 
 Although the simpler operations in general surgery pertaining to 
 the oral cavity and adjacent parts are now" performed by many dentists, 
 it cannot be said that more complex or difficult cases are yet much at- 
 tempted in our specialty. As an instance of what has been and may 
 be accomplished by the properly educated dentist, and in conclusion 
 of this part of the subject, a case of Dr. Hullihen's will be cited, 
 which was perhaps the most difficult and extended on which any 
 American dental surgeon has ever operated. In the words of Dr. 
 Harris, " the ingenuity, skill and boldness displayed in the concep- 
 tion and performance of tliis complicatal o[)eration, place Dr. Hulli- 
 hen at once among the ablest surgeons of the day." 
 
 The injury was a very severe burn, "])rincipally confined to the 
 neck and lower part of the fiice, and its cicatrix produced a deformity 
 of the most dreadful character. Her head was drawn downwards 
 and forwards, the chin was confined within an inch of the sternum, 
 the under lip was so pulled down that the mucous membrane of the 
 left side came far below the chin, the under jaw was bowed sliglitly 
 downward, and elongated particularly in its upper portion, which 
 made it pniject about one inch and three-eighths beyond the upper 
 jaw. In front there was scarcely any ai)pearance of either chin or 
 neck. She was unable to turn her head to either side, the cheeks 
 and upper lip were dragged considerably downward ; she could not 
 close her eyelids; she coidd not close her jaws but for an instant, and 
 then only i)y bowing her head forward. She could not retain her 
 saliva for a single instant.; and, as might be exi)ected, her articula- 
 tion was verv indistinct." 
 
 I
 
 TREATMENT OF DISEASES, ETC., OF THE ORAL CAVITY. 137 
 
 This formidable case liad been further complicated by an unsuc- 
 ces.sfnl attempt on the ])art of other surgeons to so dissect up and 
 move upward the cicatrix on the neck as to allow of motion to the 
 head and jaw. The manner in which Dr. Hullihen proceeded is 
 shown as follows, condensed from his own graphic account,* 
 
 " After a careful observation of the case, it became evident that 
 such a complicated deformity could be best remedied by performing 
 three separate operations : one upon the jaw, another upon the neck, 
 and a third upon the under lip. To remove the projection of the 
 under jaw seemed to require the first attention. . . . This length- 
 ening of the jaw had taken place entirely between the cuspidatus 
 and first bicuspid tooth of the right side, and between the first and 
 second bicuspids of the left. By the elongation the teeth just de- 
 scribed were separated on both sides about three-fourths of an inch." 
 The reduction of this protrusion was effected by sawing out the 
 elongated portions in a V shape, the point downward, and then cut- 
 ting horizontally through the front part of the jaw to the point of 
 the V, thus severing the whole upper three-fourths of the jaw, the 
 piece containing six teeth. In doing this the bone was not detached 
 from the soft parts, which thus held it in connection with the re- 
 mainder of the jaw. The corner angles of the severed part being 
 removed by ni])pers, the bone was "set back so that the edges from 
 which the V-shaped sections were removed came together." The 
 piece was retained in position by a silver plate struck up and fitted 
 over tlie teeth and gum. "The gum healed in a few days, and the 
 jaw united strongly." 
 
 The second part of the operation, the division of the cicatrices 
 which held the head in a fixed position, was effected by cutting 
 boldly through them, " making a wound upwards of nine inches in 
 length and nearly five in width." A leather pattern of this wound 
 was laid on the shoulder and arm over the deltoid muscle, and a flap 
 of the same form and dimensions was marked out and dissected up 
 " as thick as the parts below would admit," having an attachment or 
 neck two inches wide. "This flap was now brought around and 
 secured in the wound on the neck," and the wound in the shoulder 
 was partly drawn together and partly covered with lint. The j)atient 
 bore this tedious and painful operation with great fortitude; the flap 
 united by the first intention ; and in about six weeks all was healed, 
 and the head and jaw free. 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. ix. p. 167.
 
 138 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Tlie third step, the removal of the great deformity of the lower 
 lip, was effected by first euttini; out a V-shaped ])ortioii of sufficient 
 extent to cnal)le the lij), when drawn together, to assume its former 
 proportions; but as there still remained a depression of the upper 
 outline, this was remedied by cutting another V out of the lip, — 
 after the first had iiealed, — and raising it to a level with the re- 
 mainder. In conclusion Dr. Hullihen remarks: "The original de- 
 formity being now removed, the young lady, though still bearing 
 evidence of the burn, has the free use of her head, eye-lids, jaws, 
 and lips, and may mingle in society without particular note or 
 remark." 
 
 The treatment of palatine defects will next, and finally, claim 
 attention. This subject has always been a prominent and important 
 one in dentistry, and the appliances and methods connected with it 
 have reached a very high degree of excellence. It may be divided 
 for convenience of illustration into two sections, — surgical and me- 
 chanical. The principal method of exhibiting the first is by the 
 operation of staphyloraphy, — an operation common with many 
 American surgeons, but which is not sufficiently often attempted by 
 the dental practitioner to warrant its discussion in these circumscribed 
 limits. 
 
 The second section consists mainly in the application of apparatuses 
 to restore, in effect, lost parts, or to counteract natural defects, in the 
 oral cavity. These apparatuses are known by various names, and 
 are of still more varied construction. Following the order of authors 
 already noted, a brief resume of them will be given. 
 
 Probably on account of the rarity of the operation, as well as from 
 the more than ordinary skill and anatomical knowledge required to 
 insure success in it, the operation of constructing pieces for the ob- 
 viation of palatine defects has received comparatively slight notice 
 at the hands of any but the best early dental authoi'S. Parndy 
 (L. S.)* mentions these appliances in a cursory manner, and at- 
 tempts no explanation of the method of producing thein. Flaggf 
 is even more reticent, for he does not mention them. Koecker;}; 
 simply mentions the fact, in regard to these appliances, that, as 
 "artificial teeth, obturators, etc. stand in a much nearer relation 
 mechanically to the other parts of the mouth .... than any other 
 artificial part to the defective and corresponding natural one^" they 
 
 * A Practical Guide to the Management of the Teeth, 1819. 
 
 f The Family Dentist, 1822. J Principles of Dental Surgery, 1826. 
 
 I
 
 TREATMENT OF DISEASES, ETC., OF THE ORAL CAVITY. 139 
 
 "exert a far greater morbid influence uj>on the system in general, as 
 well as upon the living teeth, .... than any other artificial parts used 
 in surgery, .... even when inserted under the best surgical princi- 
 ples." Spooner* makes only slight reference to palatine deficiencies. 
 
 Dr. C. A. Harris was the first American author to devote especial 
 and detailed attention to this subject, f Following are some extracts : 
 " It is of the greatest importance that an artificial palate or obturator 
 should be executed in the most perfect manner, and be made to fit 
 accurately all the parts Avith which it is to be in contact, so that it 
 may not produce the slightest irritation, or exert undue pressure upon 
 any of the superjacent or surrounding parts." "When the opening in 
 the palate is small, and has no connection with the velum, it is seldom 
 necessary to raise the upper surface of the plate by attaching a drum 
 or air-chamber to it." This air-chamber or drum was a comi)ara- 
 tively modern method of obturating extensive cavities in the palate. 
 The older method, which is mentioned only cursorily and as histori- 
 cal, by Dr. Plarris, was to attach a sponge, larger than the orifice in 
 the ]>alate, to the upper surface of the ])late, and force it through the 
 opening, where it was swelled by the absorption of moisture and se- 
 cretions, and not only filled the cavity, but held the plate in j)lace 
 also. Not the least of the objections to this method was the offen- 
 sive odor of the sponge when filled with mucus and moisture. But 
 it was subject to a graver defect ; for its action on the edges of the 
 opening on and against which it rested and pressed, was to enlarge 
 and increase the already existent defect. The objection of its offen- 
 sive odor was obviated by the substitution for it of a metal ap))cnd- 
 age to serve in the same manner and for the same purpose; but 
 this, while destroying the lesser evil, only increased the greater. It 
 was not until about 1820, in this country, that the supporting of 
 obturators and palate-plates was generally effected by clasps around 
 the natural teeth, and somewhat later by atmospheric pressure. 
 
 In cases of complication of palatal openings with loss, wholly or 
 partially, of the velum, a much more complicated apparatus is re- 
 quired than the simple obturator. Foreign denrists were quicker in 
 arriving: at desirable results in this direction than American. Dr. 
 Harris describes a contrivance of Delabarre's in a case of this kind. 
 It "consisted of a metallic ])late bent in the form of a horse-shoe, 
 and occupied the place of the posterior part of the naso-palatine 
 floor ; the nasal portion was grooved for the reception of the vomer." 
 
 ^ Guide to Sound Teeth, 1836. f Principles and Practice of Dental Surgery.
 
 140 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 To the posterior portion was affixed "a piece of caoutchouc resem- 
 I)ling in sliape the form of the velum and uvula." The whole was 
 secured in its place by clasps around the first molars. 
 
 The principle thus enunciated by Delabarre is tiiat on which the 
 only sxonorally succeasful subsequent "artificial palates" have been 
 constructed. 
 
 Dr. S. P. Hullihen invented a form of apparatus for use where 
 the velum had been lost by disease, with a view to restoring the air- 
 passages to their normal condition. It consisted of a gold plate 
 struck up to fit the roof of the mouth, as usual, and having on its 
 under or lingual surface two small staples, in line with the axis of 
 the arch, which held, and through which could be slid, backward or 
 forward, a "slider" of gold plate, about one and one-half inches in 
 length, and one-eighth in width, and having on its anterior end a 
 button, which prevented its being drawn or pushed from the staples,, 
 and allowed the placing at will in the necessary position of the ap- 
 paratus which was attached to its posterior end. This consisted of a 
 fine spiral spring in line with, and a continuation of, the " slider," 
 and had fastened to it on each side the double semi-globular metal 
 valve, designed to admit of the ingress and egress of the desired volume 
 of air. By the slider the wearer adjusted the valve to its proper 
 position, where it vibrated in inhalation or exhalation upon the spiral 
 spring. 
 
 By far the greatest improvement in this class of apparatuses which 
 had been produced in this or in any country, was the artificial palate 
 of Dr. Charles AY. Stearns, invented about 1843-4. Dr. Stearns, 
 then a resident of Springfield, Mass., and a graduate of medicine, 
 was himself afflicted with a congenital cleft palate. The failure in 
 his case of two or three surgical operations, induced him to endeavor 
 to remedy the defect himself mechanically. 
 
 At that time and place, Mr. Goodyear was conducting his experi- 
 ments with rubber, and Dr. Stearns, being acquainted with Good- 
 year and his material, used the latter for his palatine substitute. He 
 was almost entirely Avithout knowledge of dentistry. He operated 
 upon himself, took his own impressions {with bits of wax on the end 
 of a stick), and vulcanized the rubber portions of his apj)liance in 
 moulds cut or carved from trood blocks, according to the fragmentary 
 impressions mentioned, with his own hand. Yet, despite the mani- 
 fest and extraordinary difficulties encountered through these crude, 
 laborious, and extremely unreliable methods,. he was so eminently 
 successful that, when using his appliance, in the language of an ac- 
 
 I
 
 TREATMENT OF DISEASES, ETC., OF THE ORAL CAVITY. 141 
 
 quaintance,* " his voice, articulation, and enunciation were so clear 
 and distinct that no one, without an anatomical examination, would 
 have suspected the deformity." 
 
 It is true that, in common with most original inventors. Dr. Stearns 
 arrived at this result through methods and mechanism the most com- 
 plicated and difficult of manufacture. It is this which has stood in 
 the M'ay of general adoption of his appliance ; but it does not de- 
 tract from his merit as an original inventor, or lessen the truth of the 
 statement that, through his labors, he rendered possible the produc- 
 tion of the simpler and even more effectual apparatus next to be 
 noticed, — that of Dr. X. W. Kingsley, of New York. 
 
 Perhaps the most important principle in artificial vela for a con- 
 genital cleft enunciated by Dr. Stearns was that the portion of the 
 appliance designed to fill the fissure must be flexibly valve-like, and 
 completely under the control of the muscles surrounding it, in order 
 to the proper and easy production of certain sounds. He produced 
 these results through the character of the material used (vulcanized 
 soft rubber), and the making it embrace the levator muscles, which 
 rendered its perfect control certain. 
 
 Owing to a certain carelessness in the editorship of the periodicals 
 of his day, there has been created an impression that Dr. Stearns 
 was of England. This is possibly owing to the fact that he 
 published his first account of his appliance in the London Lancet, 
 while on a visit to that country. As has been shown, however, his 
 invention belongs to this country only. 
 
 Dr. X. W. Kingsley began his experiments in palatal ajiparatuses 
 about the year 1860. He worked in conjunction with Dr. Stearns 
 in his first case, that gentleman being at the time in mercantile busi- 
 ness in New York. Afterward Dr. Kingsley made many improve- 
 ments in Stearns's appliance, which were designed principally to 
 obviate complication and difficulties of manufacture. Dr. Kingsley 
 exhibited the improv^ed instrument before the American Dental 
 Convention in 1863. In 1864, he finally devised his present arti- 
 ficial palate and velum, a production at once original with himself, 
 and as eminently simple as others had been complicated. 
 
 In the absence of cuts, it is impossible to give a correct idea of this 
 appliance; but it may be truly said that, up to this time, Dr. Kings- 
 ley's form of instrument, in both practical value and ease of manu- 
 facture, stands at the head of the list of similar appliances. 
 
 * Dr. N. W. Kingsley.
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 ORIGINAL AND REPRESENTATIVE BODIES. 
 
 Less than forty years ago there was not a dental society or as- 
 sociation in this country. To-day they may be enumerated by scores. 
 
 Tiiese facts prove the increase of the profe-sion in numbers beyond 
 di>pute. To what extent they indicate its growth in public import- 
 ance and scientific attainments is a problem which may be solved by 
 a cursory review of the existence and acts of the principal associa- 
 tions, historically considered, which have from time to time appeared 
 in the dental world. Of all those now, or which have been, in ex- 
 istence in this country, it will be impossible in our circumscribed 
 limits to treat fully. This sub-section, therefore, shall be confined 
 to a consideration of two classes of associations: those which came 
 first, and may be said to be the foundation on which our present 
 system rests, and those of that system which are its result. 
 
 In the first class are included the American Society of Dental 
 Surgeons, the Virginia Society of Dental Surgeons, the Mississippi 
 Valley Association of Dental Surgeons, the Pennsylvania Associa- 
 tion (now Society) of Dontal Surgeons, and the (first) New York 
 State Society of Dentiil Surgeons. To the second class belong the 
 American Djutal Convention and the American Dental Association. 
 
 In the primary stages of American dentistry the profession was 
 peculiar, but not singular, in the fact of its strong conservatism. 
 This state is common to all bodies ntmierically small and scientifi- 
 cally deficient (we are speaking of the average ]>rofession). Under 
 such conditions it is almost invariably the case that processes and 
 agencies are jealously guarded in secrecy, and the approach of in- 
 quiry and investigation is viewed with a watchful and forbidding 
 eye. Such knowledge as is possessed is regarded as the property and 
 for the benefit of individuals alone. 
 
 But dentistry w:ls a quick-growing profession, and possessed 
 inherent sources of power of which at first it was unconscious, but 
 142
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 143 
 
 which at length became apparent. For a long time the really scien- 
 tific of the brotlicrhood might almost be numbered on the fingers; 
 but this could not and did not continue. The standard of excellency, 
 from the labors of such men as Hudson, Hayden, Parkhurst, Gar- 
 dette, Randall, and others, became gradually higher, and the })rofes- 
 sion assumed a more important and res])onsible position. 
 
 In this latter fact, however, lay hid the seeds of danger, for in- 
 creasing importance brought to dentistry a consequent accession of 
 money value, and when, during the financial troubles of 1835-6, 
 many in other occupations were thrown out of their customary em- 
 ployments, there seemed no door of refuge so widely opened to them 
 as that into the practice of dentistry, a calling, they argued, which 
 required little or no preparation for its successful pursuit, and in 
 which the emoluments were sufficiently large and certain to insure 
 pecuniary success. Accordingly dentistry became overrun with 
 those who did not possess the smallest share of qualifications for 
 that profession, and who could only very seriously injure it and its 
 abler practitioners. "It is a notorious fact that the number of 
 dentists in the United States was nearly doubled in the two years 
 following 1836." * 
 
 Also, but few years before (1833-1835), it was shown through the 
 Crawcours and Mai Ian on how precarious a position the dentistry of 
 the time was fixed, and how unformed was the public mind in its 
 regard. Without scientific ability, prestige, or reputation, these 
 charlatans had quietly and with certainty usurped such a place in the 
 public view of the profession as they were by no means in justice 
 entitled to, and had, through the simple agency of a flourish of 
 trumpets, so to speak, endangered the very existence of that profes- 
 sion in a scientific view. 
 
 As long before as 1817, Dr. Hayden had b'roached the idea of a 
 national convention of dentists ;t but the " pear was not ripe," for 
 dentistry then appeared secure. From time to time he renewed his 
 attempts only to fail again. 
 
 But when he made a final effort in 1838,t he was more successful. 
 In the crusade against the Crawcours the profession had descried 
 some of the advantages resulting from associated effort, and, again 
 threatened, it seized the opportunity offered by Dr. Hayden's idea. 
 
 About the year 1837 was instituted in New York city an associ- 
 
 * Amcriciin Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. vii. j). 207. 
 t Ili.J., vol. i. p. 240. I lt)icl.
 
 144 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 ation of denti?;ts under the title of " Tlie New York Society of Dental 
 Surgeons." This body liad only a limited existence, and there are 
 no records of its doings, objects, or date of beginning or ending. It, 
 however, attained to sufficient importance to control at least one 
 auxiliary society, the Dental Association of Western Neio York, of 
 which latter body there exists no record except a copy of resolutions 
 by it approbative of the establishment of the American Journal of 
 Dental Science, and published in the first volume of that periodical, 
 page 17, in 1839. 
 
 It is probable that these institutions were not regularly organized, 
 and were simply conventions or meetings Mithout corporate character. 
 ]5ut the extremely limited amount of information about them to be 
 now obtained will not warrant a formal statement to this effect. 
 
 On the 18th of August, 1840, there assembled at the American 
 Hotel in New York, a body composed of the best dentists then in 
 the profession. After preliminary resolutions, they adjourned to 
 the residence of S. and A. W. Brown, in Park Place, and on the 
 same day adopted a constitution and by-laws, and elected officers, 
 thus completing the organization of the 
 
 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF DENTAL SURGEONS.* 
 
 The resolution by Dr. C. A. Harris, directing the drafting of the 
 constitution, was short but significant. " Mesolved, That it is the 
 opinion of this convention that the science of dental surgery would 
 be advanced, and the interests of all well-informed practitioners and 
 the community at large be promoted by the formation of a national 
 society of dentists ; therefore, resolced, furthermore, That .... a 
 committee be appointed," etc. 
 
 The constitution, as adopted, was as follows : 
 
 Article I. Of the Objects of the Society. 
 
 The objects of this Society are to promote union and harmony 
 among all respectable and well-informed Dental Surgeons; to ad- 
 vance tiie science by free communication and interchange of senti- 
 ments, either written or verbal, between members of the Society, both 
 in this and other countries; in fine, to give character and respect- 
 aljility to the profession, by estal)lishing a line of distinction between 
 the truly meritorious and skillful, and such- as riot in the ill-gotten 
 fruit of unblushing impudence and empiricism. 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. i. p. 157. f Ibid.
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIOXS. 145 
 
 Article II. Of the Name of the Society. 
 
 The Society shall be known and designated by the name and title 
 of " The American Society of Dental Surgeons." 
 
 Article III. Of the Officers of the Society. 
 
 See. 1. The officers of the Society shall consist of a President and 
 three Vice-Presidents, a Recording and a Corresponding Secretary, a 
 Treasurer, a Librarian, an Executive, an Examining, and a Publish- 
 insr Committee. 
 
 Sec. 2. The election of the above-named officers shall be by ballot 
 at a regular annual meeting of the Society, a majority of votes deter- 
 mining the election. 
 
 Article IV. Of Members of the Society. 
 
 There shall be two classes of members, known and recognized as 
 Acting Members or Fellows, and Honorary Members, the former 
 consisting of those who subscribe this constitution, either personally 
 or by proxy, and pay into the treasury the annual dues required by 
 this constitution, and the latter embracing such members as are 
 merely elected to membership. 
 
 Article V. Of the Requisitions of Membership. 
 
 Sec. 1. Each and every Acting INIember of this Society shall either 
 have been such by virtue of his attendance in person, by proxy, or 
 by letter at the time of its formation, or as shall be afterwards 
 elected, as prescribed by this constitution, and subscribe to the same. 
 
 Sec. 2. Each and every Acting Member shall pay into the treasury 
 of the Society the annual sum of five dollars, for the benefit of its 
 funds. 
 
 Sec. 3. Each and every Acting ^lember shall be required to attend 
 the Society at least once in three years, unless excused by the Society. 
 
 Article VI. Of the Election of Members. 
 
 All members of the Society, excepting those who were Acting 
 Members at the time of forming the same and establishing this con- 
 stitution, shall be elected as follows, viz. : The candidate for mem- 
 bership shall be proposed at a regular meeting by the Executive 
 Committee, whereui)on two tellers shall be appointed by the presid- 
 ing officer, who shall collect the ballots, consisting of slips of paper 
 having plainly written on them either yea or nay. In case two- 
 
 11
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 146 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 tliirds of the members present shall vote in the affirmative the can- 
 didate shall be declared to have been duly elected a member of this 
 Society. 
 
 Article YII. Of the Expulsion of 3Iembers. 
 
 Any member of this Society may be expelled for immoral conduct, 
 mal[)ractice in business, or other sufficient cause, on motion of one 
 member, seconded by another at any regular meeting of the Society, 
 in which case a majority of three-fourths of the members presenj; 
 shall be required. 
 
 Article YIII. Of the Meetings of the Society. 
 
 The meetings of the Society shall be held annually by adjournment, 
 from time to time, and from place to place, agreeably to the will of 
 the Society. 
 
 Article IX. Of the Resources of the Society. 
 
 Sec. 1. The Society may receive contril)utions of money, books, or 
 other property, which may be either used or sold in aid of its pur- 
 poses. 
 
 Sec. 2. Each and every candidate examined and admitted to mem- 
 bership, shall pay to the treasurer a fee of twenty-five dollars before 
 receiving his diploma. 
 
 Sec. 3. Each and every person who shall become an active mem- 
 ber of the Society by election, shall pay ten dollars for the benefit of 
 its funds, which shall entitle him to a diploma. 
 
 Article X. Of the Disposition of the Funds of the Society. m 
 
 The funds of the Society may be appropriated to the purchase of 
 lands, tenementSj'chemical or philosophical apparatus, the publishing 
 of books, tracts, and other papers and documents, and to such chari- 
 table objects as shall hereinafter be enumerated. 
 
 Article XL Of the Distribution of the Effects of this Society in the 
 event of its final dissolution. 
 
 Sec. 1. In case a dissolution of the Societv shall at anv time be \ 
 proposed, a meeting shall be called specially for that purpose, and 
 the consent of three-fourths of its members shall be required to 
 effect it. 
 
 Sec. 2. Should the Society thus be dissolved by its own act, the 
 property belonging to it shall be sold by order of the President, or
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 147 
 
 by any three Fellows Avho shall ol)taiii authority from a majoritv of 
 the living and subscribing members, and the assets of sale shall be 
 equally divided among the subscribing members. 
 
 Article XII. Of the Indispensable Qualifications of Candidates icho 
 have never yet entered upon p/rofessional practice. 
 
 Sec. 1. The candidate shall be at least twentv-one vears of ajxe ; 
 shall have a good English education ; shall produce evidence of unex- 
 ceptionable moral character ; and shall have studied and practiced 
 for the full term of two years with some practical dentist known as 
 such to this Society. 
 
 Sec. 2. Xo candidate for membership who has the diploma of any 
 dental college, regularly chartered in any of the United States, shall 
 be subjected to re-examination by the Examining Committee of this 
 Society, but shall be entitled to a diploma by complying with the By- 
 Laws. 
 
 Article XIII. Of the Quorum required to transact business, and of 
 the contingency of there being no quorum present at any meeting. 
 
 Sec. 1. Seven acting members, or Fellows, of the Society, besides 
 the President or chairman, shall be necessary for the transaction of 
 business at the opening of any annual meeting. 
 
 Sec. 2. In the event that a quorum cannot be obtained at any 
 regular meeting of the Society, the time of meeting on the following 
 year shall be the second Tuesday of August, at the place the same as 
 on the preceding year. 
 
 Article XIV. Of the Charitable Objects of the Society. 
 
 Sec. 1. Any surplus moneys in the treasury may be appropriated, 
 at any regular meeting of the Society, for the aid and relief of the 
 widows and orphans of deceased members, or for the benefit of living 
 members reduced to want, by sickness or other calamity, it being 
 provided that no such appropriation shall be made without the con- 
 sent of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Sec. 2. Other charitable or patriotic api)ropriations may be made 
 at any regular meeting of the Society, by a majority of three-fourths 
 of the members present. 
 
 Sec. 3. The President may at any time give pecuniary assistance 
 to any member, or to the surviving family of any deceased member, 
 out of any moneys in the treasury, deposited there by benevolent 
 individuals.
 
 148 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Article XV. Of Alterations and Amendments of this Constitution. 
 
 Any alteration, anienflmont, or revision of this constitution may 
 be made at any regular meeting of the Society, by the joint assent of 
 three-fourths of the Fellows present at such meeting. 
 
 The officers elected under the above constitution were, Horace 
 H. Playden, M.D., President; Josiah F. Flagg, M.D., Eleazer 
 Family, M.D., and E. B. Gardette,* Vice-Presidents; Solyman 
 Brown, A.M., Recording Secretary; Chapin A. Harris, M.D., Cor- 
 responding Secretary ; Elisha Baker, Treasurer; J. H.Foster, M.D., 
 Librarian; Jahial Family, Levi S. Family, Enoch Noyes, Ixnvis 
 Roper, and Nathan C. Keep, Executive Committee; J. Smith Dodge, 
 Daniel Harwood, David Harrington, Leonard ^IcCall, and F. Hous- 
 ton, Examining Committee; Samuel W. Family, S. Spooner, John 
 Loveoy, Edward Hudson, and James S. Gunnell, Publishing Corn- 
 inittcc.-\ ■ 
 
 Thus was formed the ({)rob;ibly) first regularly organized dental 
 association in this country. The initiation, progress, and consumma- 
 tion of this enterprise were due, so far as regards individual effort, 
 more to Horace H. Hayden than to all others. Solyman Brown, the 
 first recording secretary, says of hini,| " When he shall have been 
 forgotten as a-dental practitioner and ])iiysiologist, he will be remem- 
 bered by his professional successors as the father of the ^American 
 Society of Dental Surgeons.' " 
 
 At the next meeting, in 1841, the Society having resolved to estab- 
 lish a periodical, the American Journal of Dental Science, by offer 
 of its editors, passed into the possession of the Society, and continued 
 so until 1850, when it was transferred to Dr. C. A. Harris. 
 
 AVhcn the formation of this Society was first broached, the idea was 
 scouted as impracticable by niany.§ The idea of " community of 
 knowledge" was the principal objection. But the Society, once formed, 
 easily lived down opposition, and continued to exist in the face of such 
 antagonism, and in spite of many serious defects in its own nature. 
 One of these, noted and objected to at the time of its formation, || 
 . and which ultimately accelerated its downfall, was the laxity of its 
 rules in regard to its qualifications for and admittance to member- 
 ship. It was held that to insure the permanency and success of a 
 
 * Dr. Gtirdelte was not present when elected, and subsequently declined the 
 position. 
 
 f American .Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. i. p. 1C7. 
 
 X Ibid , p. 179. l Ibid., vol. ii. p. 256. || Ibid., vol. ix. p. 283.
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 149 
 
 society, great care should be taken to admit into it only such members 
 as could be relied upon to carry out its objects to the full ; that " the 
 more fixed and peremptory in its restrictions — the more exacting in its 
 requisitions as to the attainments and qualifications of its members" 
 — the greater would be its influence, and the higher could its aims 
 and requirements bo kept without danger to its existence. Of this 
 freedom of entrance to the brotherhood. Dr. J. H. Foster said,* 
 " This was the first great error, and the most fatal ; it was the cause 
 of all that strife, bickering, and contention which marked its career." 
 Even Dr. Hayden, the prime mover and soul of the enterprise, is 
 reported to have said,f "that the Society was founded upon princi- 
 ples which he did not approve, and that there had not been sufficient 
 circumspection" in its organization. 
 
 The first meeting of the Society was taken up wholly by technical 
 business. But at the next meeting, in 1841, it was free to attend to 
 other matters ; and here appeared the old enemy in the shape of 
 "amalgam," introduced by the following question for discussion, pro- 
 pounded in a letter from Dr. J. H. Foster :| "Are there cases in 
 which it is essentially advisable and important that teeth should be 
 filled, in which gold foil cannot be used and other articles be substi- 
 tuted, so as to preserve the teeth a sufficient time to compensate for 
 the operation ?" 
 
 On this firebrand a committee was appointed to take action, and 
 returned a report " That the use of lithodeon, mineral paste, and all 
 other substances of wkicli mercury is an ingredient, is injurious to the 
 teeth, and that there is no tooth in which caries in it can be arrested 
 and the oi'gan rendered serviceable by being filled in which gold 
 cannot be employed." § This report was unanimously adopted. 
 
 But, as has been seen,|| the enemy was so far from being destroyed 
 by this that it even increased in vigor. Consequently, in 184.j, a 
 resolution was adopted declaring the use of amalgam to be malprac- 
 tice; and again, in 1844, that the recording secretary give notice to 
 each member charged by another with using " mineral ])aste," that 
 such use had been declared by the Society to be malpractice, and that 
 any thereafter persisting in its use would have their cases acted on 
 by the Society.^ Finally, at the meeting of 1845, the Society ])assed 
 those resolutions, and drew up that document, which have since 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Scienco, 1st Series, vol. ix. p. 284. 
 flbid. ' t Ibid., p. 285. 
 
 I See " Plastic Fillings," and " Amalgam "War." || Ibid. 
 
 ^ American Journal of Dental Science, vol. vi. p. 174.
 
 150 HISTORV OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 become part and parcel of history as the "amalgam j)rotest and 
 pledge."* 
 
 The consequence of these measures, since jiroved to have been 
 much more vigorous than politic, was an immediate reduction in the 
 membership of the Society, partly through expulsion, but princii)ally 
 from voluntary withdrawal, and a. great decline in its influence; 
 which, in fact, had never been so marked as it was primarily hoped 
 it would become. The attention of the Society to its own interne- 
 cine warfare had prevented the agitation of subjects of much more 
 real moment to the })rofession. Says Foster,! " It was this vexed 
 and agitated question (amalgam), and this only, that was discussed, 
 so that the true objects of the Society were made null and void." 
 
 In 1850 it became so apparent that the Society had been pursuing 
 a wrong course, that an effort Avas made to reinstate it in the good 
 will of the general ]>rofession by rescinding the obnoxious ""pledge" 
 resolutions; but so much of the old leaven still clung to it, that the 
 manner in which this was done served only to debase instead of ele- 
 vate its position. To the intense disappointment of its friends and 
 well-wishers, it refused the noble ])art of open and candid acknowl- 
 edgment of faultiness, and substituted an evasive and equivocal 
 course ;| for it took the double (and doubly false) ground that the 
 rescinded resolutions had accomplished their object, and that the So- 
 ciety was no longer to be considered responsible, to the community 
 or the profession, in the matter. So ignoble was this course held, 
 even by some of the members, that resignations of fellowship were 
 its immediate consequence. 
 
 From this time forth, the Society was no longer even what it had 
 been. Its authority and influence were lessened by its own act, and 
 other societies and associations, in more popular rej)ute and with 
 equally high and more liberal pretensions, were springing up around 
 it, and secured to themselves the most eligible members. At length, 
 at the meeting of May 9th, 1855, a preliminary resolution was 
 adopted directing the President (Dr. Townsend) to call a meeting to 
 consider the question of the dissolution of the Society. This meeting 
 convened in Philadelphia, August 1st, 1855, when the subject of dis- 
 solution was referred to a committee, which reported adversely, but 
 
 * They are more fully reported in " Plastic Fillings," and " Amalgam War," 
 which soe. 
 
 f American Journal of Uental Scioncft, 1st Series, vol. ix. p. 286. 
 
 :j: Si'e report of the committee on rescinding the amalgam pledge, American 
 Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. i. p. 66.
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 151 
 
 which was continued, with power of further action, and tlie Society 
 adjourned as usual, to meet in New Yorlc on the first Tuesday in 
 August, 185G. On that day, after several vain attempts to secure 
 the attendance of a quorum (which was finally obtained), the con- 
 tinued committee offered a report, — which was adopted"^' — "That 
 we deem it expedient to dissolve this association, and that it be and 
 is hereby adjourned sine dle.'^ 
 
 Thus ingloriously died the " American Society of Dental Sur- 
 geons." Organized sixteen years before, under the most flattering 
 auspices and with a membership never since surpassed in this coun- 
 try in high professional ability and private reputation, it had, by a 
 mistaken course of conduct obstinately persisted in, defeated its own 
 objects and worked its own ruin. It had endeavored to constitute 
 itself a professional arbiter and court of final adjudication. Such as- 
 sumption has ever been exactly opposed to the spirit of our institu- 
 tions and the instincts of a liberal and enlightened community. The 
 consequences of such procedure could not but be evident, and were 
 its legitimate result. 
 
 THE VIRGINIA SOCIETY OF SURGEON DENTISTS 
 
 was the next organization to the American Society of Dental Sur- 
 geons in point of time, being organized the 12th of December, 1842, 
 at Richmond, Va. Its objects, as stated in resolution, f were, to 
 benefit the science and the community, and " to distinguish and re- 
 ward merit, and discountenance and expose quackery and charlatan- 
 ism." Dr. J. D. McCabe, its secretary and the prime mover in the 
 enterprise, continued this by saying,| "Too long has our fiivorite 
 science been considered a mere mechanical trade, into which every 
 unprepared quack, acquainted with the use of small tools, might ob- 
 trude himself at pleasure." This association was duly incorporated 
 under the ordinary statutes of the State of Virginia regarding cor- 
 porations. § It was the first incorporated dental society in the world. 
 The j)rincipal recorded act of this association is in relation to the 
 action of the American Society of Dental Surgeons on amalgam, and 
 is embodied in a resolution having the power of a by-law, passed 
 October, 1845, to the following effect: '^ Resolced, That we believe 
 the use of all pastes and cements, of which mercury is a part, en- 
 
 * Dontal News Letter, vol. x. p. 87. 
 
 f American .Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. iii. p. 146. 
 
 X Ibid., p. 227. g Ibid., vol. v. p. 247.
 
 152 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 tirely unfit for, and highly objectionable, as fillinj^s for carious teeth 
 — that the use of them in dental practice is empirical, and is hereby 
 declared to be malpractice. Resolved, That while we reprobate the 
 use of all such mercurial preparations, and will execute our laws 
 with fidelity and promptness, we claim no authority ovet the opin- 
 ions of our members, nor will we ever require of them other pledges 
 than those which exist among honorable men, united for the purpose 
 of im})roving and elevating a noble science."* 
 
 Extended comment on the above is unnecessary. Suffice it to say 
 that the Virginia society by it avoided one of the reefs on which its 
 sister society went down ; but how far other dangers were evaded by 
 it we cannot determine. It never attained to prominence in the pro- 
 fession, and there are no existing data which we have been able to 
 obtain that determine the period of its dissolution. 
 
 THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY' ASSOCIATION OF DENTAL SURGEONS 
 
 was organized August 13th, 1844, and is the third in time of the den- 
 tal societies of this country, and the oldest now in existence. It was 
 the first association which abandoned the suppression of quackery as a 
 cardinal point in its expressed objects, and the first to establish as its 
 sole end and aim the elevation of the profession without distinction 
 of persons; as appears by the following, the preamble to its consti- 
 tution :f "The undersigned, practical dentists of the Mississippi 
 Valley, deem it expedient to form an association, for purposes of 
 mutual improvement in the science and practice of our profession. 
 Desirous of promoting the exercise of that gentlemanly courtesy 
 which siiould characterize members of liberal professions in both 
 social and professional intercourse ; believing also that by frequent 
 interchange of opinions and observations in ])ractice, by reporting^ 
 from time to time, cases of interest as they occur in individual practice, 
 we may do much to elevate the character and standing of our pro- 
 fession, and make it worthy the confidence of an enlightened public." 
 
 The Society also ])assed a resolution against amalgam. In 1847 it 
 began the publication of the Dental Ber/ister of the West, as a quarterly ; 
 wiiich periodical is still its organ, although no longer in its possession. 
 
 The programme thus sketched has been ably and (barring the 
 amalgam resolution) rigidly adhered to by this Society to the present 
 time. For several years from the date of its organization it con- 
 
 * American .Journal of Dental Science, 1st Scries, vol. vi. p. IGO. 
 t Ibid., vol. V. p. 113. 
 
 i
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 153 
 
 tinned to be the leading dental association of the AVest, and was then 
 and has ever been a power for good and progress in that part of the 
 country. 
 
 The fourth regularly organized dental society in the United States 
 was the 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA ASSOCIATION OF DENTAL SURGEONS, 
 
 organized in Philadelphia, December 15th, 1845. This was the first 
 organization which did not, almost immediately upon its formation, 
 express its reprobation of amalgam ; in fjict, its whole constitution 
 and by-laws breathe a spirit of tolerance and primal regard for the 
 science over any outside issues, which is in some contrast to its pre- 
 decessors in existence,^exccpting, perhaps, the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 This association has never obtruded its merits and position on the 
 j)rofession; but has, nevertheless, always kept in the front rank of 
 scientific progress. It has probably done more real work, quietly 
 and without ostentation, than any other dental society; for, from its 
 organization until 1864 its meetings were quarterly, and since that 
 time have been monthly, a record which no other similar organiza- 
 tion in dentistry can exhibit. 
 
 On the 30th of October, 1847, a convention of some forty of the 
 dentists of New York was held in that city, for the purpose of dis- 
 cussing the formation of a State Dental Society; and a call was issued 
 to the dentists of the State to meet in New York, on the 17th of 
 November following. On that date the convention re-assembled, and 
 the result was the formation of the 
 
 SOCIETY OF DENTAL SURGEONS OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 
 
 This association was, in some measure, the child of the American 
 Society of Dental Surgeons; for most of its members had formerly 
 belonged (or did then) to that Society. The new body was intended 
 as a sort of correction of the old. Its members, aware of the error 
 of the parent body in neglecting those questions which were of 
 practical moment to the profession, went to the other extreme in 
 endeavoring to avoid it. They adopted every measure which aj:- 
 peared to be of any value in carrying out the idea of practicality; 
 the most prominent of Avhich was the establishment of an infirmary, 
 with clinical practice by the members. 
 
 But, while they guarded so zealously some of the doors to success, 
 others were unheeded; and the enemy at these crept silently in. The
 
 154 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 restrictions and qualifications as to membership were even less rigor- 
 ous than with the American Society of Dental Surgeons; and the 
 spirit of professional freedom and liberality was carried so far that 
 an attempt was made to confer diplomas upon each of the members, 
 without regard to their real qualifications or claims for such a dis- 
 tinction; this was defeated, however, but is useful as showing the 
 animus of the association. 
 
 Where the fire burnt so fiercely, it could not but consume its fuel 
 at a rapid rate; and as no more was forthcoming, it soon died away. 
 For several meetings the Society was occupied in arranging and per- 
 fecting its many schemes for professional aggrandizement; but when 
 the time came to put them in practice, they were found to j)erform 
 but poorly, and the interest of the members in their work, at first so 
 keen and vigorous, became gradually less, and finally ceased entirely. 
 We have not been able to obtain any data respecting the decease of 
 this association, but it is certain that ijt occurred not a very long 
 time after its birth. 
 
 At the same time that the proposition for a dissolution of the 
 American Society of Dental Surgeons was presented, a suggestion 
 was advanced by the committee making the report (in consequence 
 of remarks in the address of the President, Dr. E. Townsend), that 
 an effort should be made to form another society, without any re- 
 strictions, so that every one in the country claiming to be a dentist 
 could be received as a member.* 
 
 It is evident that the American Society had at length become 
 awake to a knowledge of the fact that if they would be the leaders 
 of dental progress, they could not also be its drivers ; that force, in 
 conducting jniblic sentiment, was an element not always to be safely 
 handled. But, in looking for the causes of their ill success in former 
 years, they saw, plainest of all, and as very apparent and sufficient 
 obstacles, certain enactments growing, as they imagined, out of a 
 system of laws which they had established, in the shape of a consti- 
 tution. Immediately attributing to this insti'ument the troubles pre- 
 viously undergone, they sought, by establishing an institution "with- 
 out restrictions," to obviate any similar future difficulties. They also 
 judged that an association which should aim to include the majority 
 of dentists in its ranks, must interpose as few obstacles as possible to 
 the entrance of members, and perform no after-acts which might 
 excite feelings at variance with the existence of the body as such. • 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. i. p. 198.
 
 ^ DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 155 
 
 The result of these considerations was the formation of the 
 
 AMERICAN DENTAL CONVENTION, 
 
 at Philadelphia, August 2d, 3d, and 4th, 1855.* The title of the 
 body, as first suggested, was the " American Dental Congress,^' which 
 was, after some discussion, changed to that given above.t The plan 
 of organization (contained in a series of "Articles of Association") 
 comprehended the admission as members of "practitioners of dentistry 
 and auxiliary branches of science," — that a majority should elect 
 such members, the voting for them to take place immediately upon 
 nomination, and to be by ballot ovviva voce as then determined, — and 
 that the meetings be yearly, and the officers serve for a like term 4 
 
 At this meeting upward of eighty dentists became members. The 
 proceedings were interesting, and continued to be so, to a considerable 
 number of practitioners, for several years, and the membership in- 
 creased so that at the third session (Boston, 1857), over one hundred 
 and ninety names were on the rolls. 
 
 Experience, however, had caused great fear of " red tape" in the 
 conduct of societies. At the second session (New York, 1856) the 
 membership articles of the constitution were suspended, and at the 
 subsequent meeting the whole of that instrument was abrogated, and 
 the Convention rendered an open one. So fearful were the members 
 that an a])pearance of authority should be given to the proceedings 
 of the association, that they would not permit the appointment of a 
 committee, to which to refer a minor niatter.§ 
 
 xlt this meeting a resolution was passed || providing for the estab- 
 lishment of "a fund for the promotion of dental science, with es- 
 pecial reference to the employment of some competent person or 
 persons to conduct experiments, — physiological, pathological, chemi- 
 cal, and hygienic, — as connected with dental science." 
 
 This appears to have been the first "overt act" to cause any feel- 
 ins: ajrainst the efficiencv and value of the Convention. It was said 
 of this resolution, — and, it must be confessed, with reason, — " Have 
 we become so low as to be mere mechanics, leaving the scientific part 
 of our work to some man or other who does the thinking for us for 
 dollars and cents? .... There is, then, no further need for study. 
 '. . . . Henceforth, when the day's operating is done, we may sit in 
 our easy-chairs and read novels, knowing that " the man" will send 
 
 * Dental News Letter, vol. ix. p. 2. t Ibid. 
 
 X Ibid. I Ibid., vol. xi! p. 4 et seq. \\ Ibid, p. 58.
 
 I 
 
 156 HISTORY OF AMERICAN' DENTISTRY. 
 
 US results when he gets at them."* This was, no doubt, a very severe 
 rebuke to a body assuming any scientific importance or character; 
 but it was certainly deserved. 
 
 But this was not the only cause for complaint against the new ' 
 institution. The character of its proceedings was very severely criti- 
 cised as being much below the standard demanded by the times. 
 These were eminently progressive in every branch of science, natural 
 and other. Xever in the history of our country had it shown so 
 much vitality, such an exuljcrance of life-force, as then. In the 
 eloquent language of Dr. McQuillen, " Xever at any period was the 
 iconoclastic spirit more rampant than now. The land is strewn with 
 the wrecks of broken idols. Doctrines respectable from the very i 
 grayuess of their antiquity are rudely hauled up to the bar of pop- 1 
 ular judgment, and as summarily dispatched. Social and political "^ 
 dogmas that have stood undisturbed for centuries, recognized of all i 
 men as true and real, vanish into thin air before the sharp scrutiny | 
 of modern inquiry. "f 
 
 In allusion to the report of the proceedings of the third meeting ^ 
 it was said, — "Such an incongruous mixture of sense and nonsense 
 was probably never heard before in any so-called scientific convention. a 
 . . . . Nothing was said to throw a new light upon any subject under 
 discussion, and no papers were rcad. The conclusion which must be 
 arrived at by any one Mho takes this body of men as a representa- 
 tion of the profession is, that Ave are a set of mere manipulators, but 
 by no means scientific men."]; 
 
 In short, and in effect, the experiment of the Convention was voted, 
 by the best class of dentists, to have been a failure. " Its day of 
 usefulness is apparently* passed ; its absurdities censured with just 
 cause; losing the support of its best men, its end seems near at 
 hand."§ 
 
 This prophecy, however, was not true ; for the Convention still 
 exists, and meets the requirements of, and is a great aid to, many in 
 the profession. 
 
 In this state of affliirs it became a necessity that another association 
 should be attem})ted, and this matter was much agitated in all parts 
 of the country. Various plans of organization were advocated ; and, 
 as was proper, the schemes of the two former national societies — th« 
 
 * Aniericiin Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. viii. pp. 242-3. 
 + Dental News Letter, vol. xii. p. 184. 
 
 + American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. viii. p. 241. 
 ^ Dental News Letter, vol. xii. p. 185.
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 157 
 
 American Society of Dental Surgeons and the American Dental Con- 
 vention — were thoronghly reviewed. In the latter the eifects of 
 absolute latitude in the admission of members were, at length, glar- 
 ingly apparent, and it was, after many years, discovered that the true 
 secret of failure of these associations lay, not in the fact that tliey had 
 or had not systems of laws, or in those laws, as such, but in the basis 
 of indiscriminate membership upon which they had been founded. 
 It was finally seen that " the absence of a constitution, laws, or 
 qualifications for membership, partakes of the transient, not tlie es- 
 tablished."* 
 
 Defects are always plain to the sight; but it is not always so easy 
 to remedy them. A happy solution to the difficulties of forming an 
 association which should be at once stable and yielding, — easy of 
 access, yet with exact and firmly held qualifications for membership; 
 having a high scientific aim and character, yet into which the tyro 
 could come and learn of his elders ; possessing an organized and 
 authoritative government, which should "derive its just powers from 
 the consent of the governed ;" and holding inherent from all these 
 the elements of permanence, popularity, and authority, — was at 
 length found in the system of delegation adopted by the 
 
 AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION. 
 
 This plan of organization was founded on that of the American Med- 
 ical Association, and its initiation was effected mainly through the 
 advocacy of Dr. J. H. McQuillen.t 
 
 It met with much opposition. At a meeting of dentists in New 
 York City (June, 1859), among other resolutions on the subject was 
 passed the following : 
 
 "Resolved, That it is the duty of every dentist who desires the 
 advancement of the profession to attend the convention at Niagara 
 Falls, and use his influence against any action tending to dissolve 
 the American Convention, or to create any delegated organization.'' X 
 
 Against such an animus it would appear folly to have i)ro('eeded. 
 Happily, the feelings thus represented did not pertain to that portion 
 of the profession from which it was hoped to form the new associa- 
 tion. A call for a meeting of delegates was promptly and cordially 
 responded to, and twenty-five delegated members (from eight local 
 
 * Dental News Letter, vol. xii. p. 185. 
 
 t See article in Dental News Letter, vol. xii. p. 184, over the signature of 
 y Junius." 
 
 J The italics are ours.
 
 158 HISTORY OF AMEllICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 societies and two dental oollei^es) met at Xiaijara Falls in August, 
 1859, ami while the American Dental Convention was there also in 
 session, they organized the American Dental Association, and drew 
 up a form of constitution and by-laws which was adopted the next 
 year in Washington. 
 
 In 18G1 the Rebellion broke out, and there was no meeting of the 
 Association. In 18G2 it convened at Clevelantl with only fourteen 
 niendu'rs. In 18G3, in Philadelphia, fifty-six members were present. 
 At Niagara, in 1864, there were eighty-eight, and in Chicago, in 
 1805, there were one hundred and twenty-four. At the meeting of 
 1870, beside the permanent membership, delegates from forty-seven 
 societies and three colleges were present. The membershi}) is larger 
 now than ever before, but the attendance since 18G5 will not, as an 
 average, vary nuich from the number of that year. 
 
 The principal official act of this Society is the promulgation of a 
 code of denial ethics, in Boston, 18GG. This code, or its equivalent, 
 was adopted by many of the societies in the country, and is still held 
 by most of them ; but it ai)pears to have sufficiently served its original 
 purpose; for in the formation of new societies at the present time 
 it is being considerably modified. Such change, however, seems to 
 have, thus far, consisted maiidy in condensation; wliich is the best 
 possible eulogy of the spirit of the old code. 
 
 "Thus, this Association, conceived at a period apparently the niost ' 
 inausj)icious, and rocked in the cradle of adversity, has gained fair 
 proportions, and exercised a powerful infiuence in the profession, by 
 stimulating individual and associated effort. It will be folly to re- 
 gard its organization as i)erfect."* It has met, however, and evi- 
 dently still fills, the needs of the profession in this direction. 
 
 GENERAL STATISTICS. 
 
 Under this head will be presented a statistical review of the va- 
 rious dental as.sociations formed in this country uj) to the present. 
 Indidgence, however, is craved for lack of fullness in many cases. 
 In the short space of tinie allowed ibr the preparation of this work, 
 it has been found impossible to secure such complete information in 
 this regard as could be wished. However, it has been deemed better 
 to present even a partial account than to entirely ignore the matter; 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. vii. p. 79. 
 
 I
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 159 
 
 and siK'li representations as are liere made may be considered to be 
 mainly correct. 
 
 The varions associations are placed in the order of their forma- 
 tion, chronologically, without reference to any other consideration. 
 Wherever possible, the original and present officers have been named, 
 and such other matters of principal importance as are at hand. 
 Where such information is not inserted, its absence n)ay be concluded 
 to have arisen from the reasons above stated. 
 
 American Society of Dental Surgeons. 
 
 Organized in New York City, as a national association, August 
 18th, 1840. First officers :— Horace H. Hayden, M.D., President, 
 Josiah F. Flagg, M.D., First Vice-President ; Eleazer Parmly, 
 INI.D., Second Vice-President ; E. B. Gardette,* Third Vice-Presi- 
 dent; Solyman Brown, A.M., Recording Secretary; Chapin A. 
 Harris, M.I)., Corresponding Secretary ; Elisha Baker, Treasurer ; 
 J. H. Foster, M.D., Librarian. 
 
 Dr. Hayden continued in the office of President until his death, 
 in 1844, when Dr. Eleazer Parndy was elected to the position, and 
 filled it until 1853, when he declined serving further, and Dr. Elisha 
 Townsend was elected and I'emained in office until the dissolution of 
 the Society, which occurred August 7th, 185G. 
 
 The Virginia Society of Surgeon Dentists. 
 
 Organized in Richmond, Virginia, December 12th, 1842. First 
 officers: — S. Lethbridge, President; John G. Wayt, Vice-President; 
 James D. INIcCabe, Corresponding and Recording Secretary ; S. INI. 
 Sheppard, Treasurer ; W. W. H. Thackston, R. N. Hudson, John 
 McConnell, T. B. Ilamblin, William M. McKenney, Executive, Ex- 
 amining, and Publishing Committee. 
 
 An incorjioratcd body. It is not believed to have had a long 
 existence; though the })eriod of its dissolution is not known. 
 
 Tlie 3Iississippi Valley Association of Dental Surgeons. 
 Organized in Cincinnati, Ohio, August 13th, 1844. First offi- 
 
 * Dr. Gardette, haviiiij boen elected without his knovvlcdjjo, afterward refused 
 to be so connected with the S.iciely. His place docs not appear to have been filled.
 
 V 
 
 i 
 
 160 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. _ 
 
 eers: — Jesse W. Cook, President; A. D. Bigelow, First Vice-Presi- 
 dent; Josepli Taylor, ^Second Vice-President; D. P. Hunt, I'/iird 
 Vice-President ; AV. B. Ross, Recording Secretary; James Taylor, 
 Corresponding Secretary; Charles Bonsall, Treasurer; INI. Koger.s, 
 John Allen, F. E. Suirc, Executive Committee. 
 The oldest dental association now in existence. 
 
 The Pennsylvania Association of Dental Surgeons. 
 
 Organized in Philadelpliia, December 15th, 1845. First offi- 
 cers: — G. A. Vhntou, President; Ely Parry, First Vice-President; 
 Stephen T. Beale, Second Vice-President ; C. C. AYilliams, Recording 
 Secretary; R. Arthur, Corresponding Secretary; F. Reinstein, Trea^- m 
 urer. 
 
 Present officers: — Spencer Roberts, President; J. H. Githens, 
 Vice-President; Joseph Petti t, Secretary; E. H. Neall, Ireasurer; 
 W. H. Trueman, Librarian. 
 
 The Society of Dental Surgeons of the State of New York. 
 
 Organized in New York City, November 17th, 1847. First offi- 
 cers: — L. Covell, President; J. G. Ambler, Secretary; Geo. E. 
 Hawes, Treasurer. These were elected pro tern., but held their po- 
 sitions until the yearly meeting of the following year. This Society 
 did not exist very long. 
 
 Society of the Alumni of the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery. 
 
 Organized in Baltimore, March 1st, 1849. First officers: — H. 
 Colburn, President; P. H. Austen, Vice-President; C. O. Cone, 
 Treasurer; R. W. Armstrong, Corresponding Secretary; M. J. 
 Cherry, Recording Secretary. 
 
 No longer in existence. 
 
 The Xeiv Hampshire Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Concord, June 1st, 1853. First officers: — M. T. 
 Willard, ^LD., P/-cs/(/c'»^; Abraham Robertson, M.D., D.D.S., T7ce- 
 President; L. F. Locke, M.D., Secretary; J. W. Little, M.D., 
 Treasurer ; A. Severance, Auditor. 
 
 This association is not now in existence.
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. IGl 
 
 JWrnont Society of Dental Surgeons. 
 
 Organized in Montpelier, October 25tli, 1854. First officers: — 
 O. R. Post, President; M. Newton, First Vice-Premdent ; Josephus 
 Brock way. Second Vice-President ; E. V. N. Harwood, Recording 
 Secretary; N. G. Hale, Corresponding Secretary ; E. H. Kilbourne, 
 Treasurer ; G. H. Kilbourne, Librarian. 
 
 This society is not in existence. 
 
 American Dental Convention. 
 
 Organized in Philadelphia, August 2d, 3d, 4th, 1855. First offi- 
 cers : — J. B. Rich, President; J. S. Clarke, Vice-President ; J. H. 
 McQuillen, Corresponding Secretary; Charles Bonsall, Recording 
 Secretary. 
 
 Subsequent Presidents in their order, to date: 1856, Chapin A. 
 Harris, M.D.; 1857, James Taylor; 1858, Isaiah Forbes; 1859, L. 
 AV. Rogers; 1860, T. L. Buckingham, D.D.S.; 1861, John Allen, 
 D.D.S.; 1862, A. Westcott, M.D.; 1863, J. Taft, D.D.S.; 1864, 
 W. W. AUport; 1865, H. E. Peebles; 1866, \V. B. Hurd ; 1867, 
 J. G. Ambler; 1868, J. M. Crowell; 1869, J. G. Ambler; 1870, 
 J. G. Ambler; 1871, Wm. Dutch; 1872, I. J. Wetherbee; 1873, 
 John Allen, D.D.S.; 1874, B. F. Coy; 1875, B. F. Coy. 
 
 The remaining officers elected in 1875 are, C. S. Stockton, Vice- 
 President; Ambler Tees, Recording Secretary; S. Welchens, Corre- 
 sponding Secretary; J. G. Ambler, Treasurer. 
 
 Western Dental Society.. 
 
 Organized in St. Louis, April 3d, 1856. First officers : — Edward 
 Hale, Sr., President; H. E. Peebles, First Vice-President; W. W. 
 AWport, Second Vice-President; Henry Barron, Recording Secretary; 
 C. AV. Spalding, Corresponding Secretary; A. Black, Treasurer. 
 
 North Carolina Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Raleigh, October 17th, 1856. First ofificers : — "NV. 
 F. Bason, President; T. W. Howlett, Vice-President; W. C. Ben- 
 bow, Secretary; R. P. Bessent, Treasurer. 
 
 Believed to be not now in existence. 
 
 12
 
 162 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 St. Louis Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in St. Louis, December 16tli, 1856. First officers : — 
 S. Dunham, President; A. Blake, Vice-President ; A. M. Leslie, 
 Secretary; G. H. Perrine, Treasurei\ 
 
 Pennsylvania Central Society of Dental Surgeons. 
 
 Organized in Tyrone City, Pennsylvania, May 6th, 1857. First 
 officers : — D. D. Hutchinson, President ; J. W. Crawford, Vio(- 
 President; S. Kimraell, Secretary ; W. D. Bitner, Treasurer. 
 
 New York Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in New York City, December 2d, 1857. First offi- 
 cei-s : — J. G. Ambler, Secretary; W. B. Roberts, Treasurer. The 
 Chairman to be appointed at each meeting. 
 
 This association was not of long duration. 
 
 Indiana State Dental Convention. 
 
 Organized in Indianapolis, December 28th, 1858. First offi- 
 cers : — ^J. F. Johnston, President; J. P. Ulrey, P. G. C. Hunt, A. M. 
 ISIoore, Vice-Presidents ; G. C. Korth, Secretary. 
 
 Georgia Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Macon, Ga., July 1st, 1859. First officers: — D. S. 
 Chase, President; F. Y. Clark, First Vice-President; G. W. Emer- 
 son, Second Vice-President; W. F. Lee, Recording Secretary; E. 
 Parsons, Coiresponding Secretary ; J. Fogle, Treasurer. 
 
 American Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Niagara Falls, August 3d, 1859, and in Washington, 
 D. C, July 31st, 1860. First officers (elected in I860):— \Vm. H. 
 Atkinson, jSLD,, D.D.S., President; J. B. Gibbs, First Vice-Presi- 
 dent; F. Y. Clark, M.D., Second Vice-President; J. Taft, D.D.S., 
 Recording Secretary ; W. Muir Rogers, Corresponding Secretary. The 
 Chairman at the preliminary meeting in 1859 was W. W. Allport, 
 M.D., and the Secretary J. Taft, D.D.S. 
 
 i 
 (
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 163 
 
 The successive places of meeting and Presidents since the above are 
 as follows : No meeting in 1861 ; Cleveland, Ohio, 1862, Geo. AVatt; 
 Philadelphia, 1863, W. H. Allen ; Niagara Falls, 1864, J. H. 
 McQuillen, M.D. ; Chicago, 1865, C. W. Spalding; Boston, 1866, 
 C. P. Fitch ; Cincinnati, 1867, A. Lawrence; Niagara Falls, 1868, 
 Jonathan Taft, D.D.S. ; Saratoga, 1869, Homer Judd ; Nashville, 
 
 1870, W. H. Morgan ; Greenbrier, White Sulphur Springs, W. Va., 
 
 1871, George H. Gushing; Niagara Falls, 1872, P. G. C. Hunt; 
 Put-in-Bay, Ohio, 1873, T. L.Buckingham, D.D.S. ; Detroit, Mich., 
 1874, M. S. Dean; Niagara Falls, 1875, A. L. Northrop, D.D.S. 
 
 The remaining officers elected at the last session areas follows : H. 
 J. McKellops, D.D.S., First Vice-President; H. A. Smith, D.D.S., 
 Second Vice-President ; J. H. McQuillen, M.D., Corresponding Sec- 
 retary ; C. Stoddard Smith, D.D.S., Recording Secretary ; W. H. 
 Goddard, D.D.S., Treasurer ; L. D. Shepard (Chairman), M. H. 
 "Webb (Secretary), Geo. L. Field, A. H. Brockway, G. R. Thomas, 
 G. H. Gushing, G. C. Daboll, T. L. Buckingham, S. B. Palmer, 
 Executive Committee. 
 
 New York State Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in New York City, September 6th, 1859. First offi- 
 cers : — A. Westcott, M.D., President; John Allen, First Vice-Presi- 
 dent; C. W. Harvey, Second Vice-President ; G. H. Ferine, Record- 
 ing Secretary; A. Clark, Corresponding Secretary; W. H. Hurd, 
 Treasurer. 
 
 This society is no longer in existence. 
 
 New York Society of Dental Surgeons. 
 
 Organized in and for New York City, March 13th, 1860. First 
 officers : — A. Mcllroy, President; F. H. Clark, First Vice-Presi- 
 dent; T. H. Burras, Second Vice-President ; E. C. Rush more, Re- 
 cording Secretary ; B. AV. Franklin, Corresponding Secretary ; James 
 T. Stratton, Treasurer; John Allen, Librarian, 
 
 This association is not in existence. 
 
 Kentucky State Dental Association. 
 Organized in Lexington, April 24th, 1860. First officers: — W.
 
 164 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 D.Stone, President; Richard Peckover, Vi£e-Premdent ; W. Muir, 
 Rogers, Secretary ; J. A. McClelland, Treasurer. 
 
 Nwthern Ohio Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Cleveland, March 6th, 1860. First officers: — B. 
 Strickland, President; H. P. Hnntington, Vice-President; C. 'R. 
 Butler, Recording Secretary ; B. F. Robinson, Corresponding Secre- 
 tary ; F. S. Slosson, Treasurei\ 
 
 Brooklyn Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Brooklyn, N. Y., June 12th, 1862. First officers: — 
 Wra. C. Parks, President; A. C. Hawes, Vice-President ; Jno. Allen, 
 Treasurer; Wm. B. Hurd, Secretary. 
 
 Western New York Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Rochester, October 1st, 1862. First officers: — C. 
 W. Harvey, President; L. W. Bristol, Secretary. 
 
 This association dissolved May 5th, 1869, its membership being 
 merged into district societies under the law. 
 
 Central New York Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Syracuse, N. Y., March 23d, 1863. First officers: — 
 
 D. S. Ball, President; D. W. Perkins, Vice-President; S. B. Pal- 
 mer, Becording Secretary; A. T. Smith, Corresponding Secretary ; 
 
 E. M, Skinner, Treasurer. 
 
 This association was eventually merged in the district societies of 
 its section instituted under the law of the State. 
 
 Odontographic Society of Pennsylvania, 
 
 Organized in Philadelphia, May 19th, 1863. First officers: — 
 Jacob Gilliams, Prcsidcid; John McCalla, C. A. Kingsbury, Vice- 
 Presidents ; Louis M. Lusson, Becording Secretary; J. H. McQuil- 
 len, M.D., D.D.S., Corresponding Secretary ; Thomas Wardle, M.D., 
 Treasurer ; Wm. P. Henry, Librarian. 
 Present officers :—F. M. Dixon, President; M. II. Webb, E. T. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 f
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. • 165 
 
 Darby, Vice-Presidents; E. L. Hewitt, Recording Secretary ; J. H. 
 ^NIcQuillen, M.D., D.D.S., Corresponding Secretary; S. H. Guilford, 
 Treasurer; J. L. Eisenbrey, Librarian ; S. S. Nones, Curator; T. 
 C. Stelhvagen, C. A. Kingsbury, Robert Huey , Mvecutive Committee. 
 
 Iowa State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Muscatine, Iowa, in July, 1863. Incorporated 1867. 
 First officei's: — H. S. Chuse, President ; J. Hardman, M ce-P resident ; 
 W. O. Kulp, Corresponding Secretary ; A. J. MeGarvey, Recording 
 Secretary and Treasurer. 
 
 Present officers: — T. A. Hallett, President; M. L. Jackson, Vice- 
 President; John Rix, Corresponding Secretary ; E. E. Hughes, Re- 
 cording Secretary and Treasurer. 
 
 Ilerrimac Valley Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Lowell, Massachusetts, October 29th, 1863. First 
 officers : — A. Lawrence, President ; D. K. Boutelle, S. H. Elliott, E. 
 G. Cnmmings, Vice-Presidents; G. A. Gerry, Recording Secretary ; 
 L. F. Locke, Corresponding Secretary ; S. Lawrence, Treasurer. 
 
 Present officers :— A. M. Dudley, D.D.S., President; T. Fille- 
 brown, D.M.D., L. F. Locke, M.D^, Vice-Presidents; W. E. Riggs, 
 D.D.S., Recording Secretary; J. H. Kidder, M.D., Corresponding 
 Secretary; H. Hill, D.D.S., Treasurer; A. Lawrence, M.D., Zd- 
 brarian. 
 
 Annual meeting in November; semi-annual in May. 
 
 Connecticut Valley Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Springfield, Massachusetts, November 10th, 1863. 
 First officers: — F. Searle, President; O. R. Post, C. Stratton, Vice- 
 Presidents; h. J). Shepurd, Secretary ; H.M.Miller, Treasurer; E. 
 V. N. Harwood, C. S. Hurl but, A. A. Howland, Executive Committee. 
 
 Meets semi-annually, in November and June. 
 
 Present officers:— H. F. Bishop, President; H. AY. Clapp, E. M. 
 Goodrich, Vice-Presidents; C. T. Stockwell, Secretary; N. Morgan, 
 Treasurer. 
 
 Delaware Dental Association. 
 Organized in Wilmington, October 1st, 1863. First officers : —
 
 166 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 S. Marshall, President; W. G. A. Bonwill, Vice-President; S. S. 
 Nones, Corresponding Secretary; J. P. O'Daniel, Recording Seo'e- 
 tary ; C. R. Jefferis, Treasurer; W. D. Xolen, Librarian. 
 
 Hudson Valley Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Troy, New York, December 29th, 1863. First offi- 
 cers : — H. H. Young, President; S. D. French, Vice-President; S. 
 J. Andres, Recording Seeretary ; S. P. Welsh, Corresponding Secre- 
 tary; O. R. Young, Treasurer. 
 
 Chicago Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Chicago, February 8th, 1864. First officers : — E. 
 W. Hadley, President; J. H. Young, L. Bush, Vice-Presidents ; E. 
 AV. Sawyer, Secretary ; J. C. Dean, Treasurer; W. W. Allport, Li- 
 brarian. 
 
 Present officers : — C. R. E. Koch, President; A. W. Harlan, J. A. 
 W. Davis, Vice-Presidents ; D. B. Freeman, Recording Secretary ; 
 J. S. Swartley, Corresponding Secretary ; M. S. Dean, Ti^easurer ; C. 
 R. E. Koch, Librarian. 
 
 Massachusetts Dental Soddy. 
 
 Organized in Boston, March 4th, 1864. First officers : — N. C. 
 Keep, President ; I. J. AVetherbee, Vice-President ; T. H. Chandler, 
 Recording Secretary ; E. C. Rolfe, Corresponding Secretary ; S. J. 
 McDougall, Treasurer; E. N. Harris, Librarian; I.A.Salmon, A. 
 A. Cook, B. S. Codman, H. F. Bishop, T. B. Hitchcock, Executive 
 Committee. 
 
 Incorporated April 1st, 1865. Present officers: — J. T. Codman, 
 President; D. G. Harrington, A. M. Dudley, Vice-Presidents ; G. F. 
 Grant, Recording Secretary ; T. H. Chandler, Corresponding Secre- 
 tary ; E. Page, Treasurer ; G. F. Grant, Librarian ; R. R. Andrews, 
 Microscopist ; Thomas Cogswell, J. S. Hurlbut, E. P. Bradbury, 
 A. !M, Dudley, T. O. Loveland, Executive Committee. Meetings semi- 
 annually. 
 
 Wabash Valley Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Lafayette, Indiana, April 20th, 1864. First offi- 
 cers : — A. M. Moore, President; W. H. Pifer, Secretary.
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 167 
 
 Buffalo DeiUal Association. 
 
 Organized in Buffalo, New York, May 27th, 1864. First officers:— 
 Geo. E. Hayes, President; R. G. Snow, Vice-President ; Geo. B. Snow, 
 Secretary ; J. R. AVetherill, Treasurer. 
 
 Connecticut State Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Hartford, October 20th, 1864. First officers : — A. 
 mU, President; W.^Y. Sheffield, Vice-President; James McManus, 
 Recording Secretary ; Leroy D. Pelton, Corresponding Secretary ; E. 
 E. Crofoot, D-easu7'er ; Chas. P. Graham, Librarian. Semi-annual 
 meetings. 
 
 Susquehanna Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Danville, Pennsylvania, early in 1864. First 
 officers : — J. M. Barrett, President ; G. B. Brown, Vice-President ; 
 John D. Wingate, Recording Secretary ; M. D. L. Dodson, Cor- 
 responding Secretary ; H. H. Martin, Treasurer ; John Locke, 
 Librarian. 
 
 Hai'tford Society of Dentists. 
 
 Organized in Hartford, Connecticut, June 12th, 1865. First offi- 
 cers : — John M. Riggs, President ; E. E. Crofoot, Vice-President ; 
 C. M. Hooker, Secretary ; Wm. Blatchley, Treasurer. 
 
 Illinois State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Chicago, July 24th, 1865. First officers : — A. C. 
 Van Sant, President; E. Honsinger, Vice-President ; Edgar Park, 
 Secretary ; S. Babcock, Treasurer; J. A. Truesdell, Librarian. 
 
 Central Ohio Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Mansfield, Ohio, September 5th, 1865, First offi- 
 cers : — James Armstrong, President; M. De Camp, Mce- President ; 
 A. W. Maxwell, Recording Secretary ; H. J. Cressinger, Correspond- 
 ing Secretary ; F. AY. Semple, Treasurer.
 
 16S HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 St. Louis Odontological Society. 
 
 Organized in St. Louis, October 26th, 1865. First officers : — E. 
 Hale, Jr., Preaident; J. Payne, Vice-President; G. G. Samuel, Cor- 
 responding Secretary ; G. H. Silvers, Recording Secretary. 
 
 3Iissouri Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in St. Louis, October 31st, 1865. First officers : — H. 
 J. McKellops, President; G. S. Morse, M. McCoy, Vice-Presidents; 
 H, Judd, Recording Secretary ; J. Payne, Corresponding Secretary ; 
 A. M. Leslie, Treasurer. 
 
 Massachusetts Central Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Worcester, Massachusetts, November 13th, 1865. 
 First officers :— Seth P. Miller, President; A. A. Cook, W. N. Snow, 
 Vice-Presidents ; O. C. White, Corresponding Seci^etary ; J. N. Tour- 
 tellotte, Recording Secretary ; O. F. Harris, Treasurer. 
 
 Present officers: — H. F. Bishop, President; S. P. Martin, A. A. 
 Howland, Vice-Presidents; Geo. F. Harwood, Secretary; J. F. 
 Adams, Treasurer ; C. W. Estabrook, John McGregory, S. W. Cook, 
 Executive Committee. 
 
 Lebanon Valley Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Reading, Pennsylvania, January 1st, 1866. First 
 officers : — W. K. Brenizer, Chairman; S. H. Guilford, Secretary. 
 
 Newark Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Newark, New Jersey, June 27th, 1866. First officers : 
 — Wm. G. Lord, President; J. B. Da Camara, Jr., Vice-President ; 
 G. F. J. Colburn, Secretary; R. J. Reed, Treasurer. 
 
 Ohio State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Columbus, Ohio, in June, 1866. First officers : — 
 Geo. Watt, President; G. W. Keely, B. F. Robinson, Vice-Presi- 
 dents; A. W. Maxwell, Corresponding Secretary; H. A. Smith, 
 Recording Secretary.
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 169 
 
 Present officers :—C. R. Taft, President; J. C. Whinery, A. F. 
 Brown, Mce- Presidents ; A. F. Eniniino:er, Corresponding Secretart/ ; 
 H. L. Ambler, Recording Secrctarij; G. W. Keely, Treasurer; J. 
 Taft (President), H. A. Smith, F. H. Rehwinkel, C. R. Butler, W. 
 P. Horton (Secretary), Board of Examiners. This board issues cer- 
 tificates of qualification, under the State law, to practice dentistry. 
 
 Old Colony Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Middleborough, Massachusetts, August 15th, 1866. 
 First officers : — J). S. Dickerman, President; George R. AVhitney, 
 Recording Secretary; Loring W. Puffer, Corresponding Secretary; 
 Julius Thompson, Treasurer and Librarian. 
 
 Present officers: — AVilliam E. Williams, President; Charles G. 
 Davis, Julius Thompson, Vice-Presidents ; Loring W. Puffer, Secre- 
 tary and Treasurer. 
 
 North Carolina Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Greensborough, North Carolina, September 5th, 
 1866. First officers : — B. F. Arrington, President; R. P. Bessent, 
 J. W. Hunter, Vice-Presidents ; R. D. Fleming, Recording Secre- 
 tary; V. E. Turner, Corresponding Secretary; M. R. Banner, 
 Treasurer. 
 
 Maine Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Brunswick, Maine, September 18th, 1866. First 
 officers: — E. Bacon, President; Wm. Randall, Vice-President; 
 Thomas Fillebrown, Recording Secretary; A. K. Gilmore, Corre- 
 sponding Secretary. 
 
 Present officers: — C. P. Sawyer, President; D. W. Merrill, Vice- 
 President; G. W. Stoddard, Secretary; J. W. Curtis, Treasurer; 
 Thomas Fillebrown, Librarian. 
 
 An incorporated society. Meetings serai-annual. 
 
 Hudson River Association of Dental Surgeons. 
 
 Organized in Poughkeepsie, New York, April 25th, 1867, First 
 officers :— E. D. Fuller, President ; W. A. Palmer, Geo. S. Allan, 
 Vice-Presidents; L. S. Straw, Recording Secretary ; T. W. Du Bois, 
 Corresponding Secretary ; T. C. Royce, Treasurer.
 
 170 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Pou(j]iheepsie Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Poughkeepsie, New York, June 17th, 1867. First 
 officers: — James H. Mann, President; Chas. L. Houghton, Vice- 
 Fresident; H. F. Clark, Secretary; J. A. Jillson, Treasurer. 
 
 Harris Dental Association of Lancaster, Pennsylvania. 
 
 Organized in Lancaster, June 21st, 1867. First officers: — Jno. 
 McCalla, President; J. W. Derr, Vice-President; AV. N. Amer, 
 Secretary ; E. K. Young, Treasurer. 
 
 Tennessee Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Nashville, July 26th, 1867. First officers :— W. H. 
 Morgan, President; J. B. Wasson, J. C. Ross, Vice-Presidents; W. 
 T. Arrington, Recording Secretary; R. 'R\x^'s,q\, Corresponding Sec- 
 retary; Alex. Hartman, Treasurer. 
 
 Northern Iowa Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Dyersville, Iowa, September 17th, 1867. First 
 officers: — A. B. Mason, President; E. L. Clark, Vice-President; 
 E. Noyes, Corresponding Secretary ; D. H. Gill, Recording Secre- 
 tary ; C. Poor, Treasurer. 
 
 New Yorh Odontological Society. 
 
 Incorporated 1867. Fii*st officers: — C. E. Francis, President; 
 W. B. Hurd, Vice-President; Thos. Burgh, Recording Secretary; 
 W. C. Home, Corresponding Secretary ; Geo. H. Perine, Treasurer; 
 Wm. Carr, Librarian; A. L. Northrop, W. B. Hurd, Wm. C. 
 Home, Executive Committee. 
 
 Present officers: — A. L. Northrop, D.D.S., President; Benjamin 
 Lord, W. A. Bronson, M.D., Vice-Presidents; Wm. Carr, M.D., 
 Corresponding Secretary; AVm. JarvMC, Jr., Recording Secretary; 
 Chas. ]\Iiller, Treasurer; W. E. Hoag, Librarian; C. E. Francis, 
 Chas. D. Cook, Executive Committee. Meetings monthly.
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 171 
 
 American Academy of Dental Science. 
 
 Organized in Boston, Massachusetts, October 19th, 18G7. First 
 officers:— E. T. Wilson, M.D., President; D. M. Parker, M.D., 
 Vice-President ; E. N. Harris, D.D.S., Secretary; J. L. Williams, 
 M.D., Treasurer; John Clough, M.D., Librarian; E. G. Tucker, 
 M.D., D. M. Parker, M.D., J. L. Williams, M.D., Censors. 
 
 Present officers:— D. M. Parker, M.D., President; E. G. Tucker, 
 M.D., Vice-President ; W. L. Tucker, D.]M.D., Recording Secretary ; 
 E. N. Harris, D.D.S., Corresponding Secretary ; L. D. Shepard, 
 D.D.S., Treasurer ; John Clough, M.D., Librarian; J. L. Williams, 
 M.D., W. W. Codman, M.D., Geo. T. Moifatt, M.D., Censors. 
 
 Regular meetings first Wednesday of each month. Annual meet- 
 ings in Boston, last Monday in September. 
 
 West Jersey Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Trenton, New Jersey, November 11th, 1867. First 
 officers: — Geo. C. Thrown, Preside7it ; Lewis E. Reading, Vice-Presi- 
 dent; John B. AVood, Secretary ; Thos. S. Stevens, Treasurer. 
 
 Charleston Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Charleston, South Carolina, December, 1867. First 
 officers: — I. B.Patrick, President; W. S. Brown, Vice-President; 
 Theodore F. Chupein, Secretary and Treasurer. 
 
 Lehigh and Delaware Valley Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Allentown, Pennsylvania, in 1867. First officers : — 
 J. P. Barnes, President; E. R. Crane, W. E. Buckman, T7cc- 
 P residents ; J. D. Miller, Recording Secretary ; W. C. Detweiler, 
 Corresponding Secretary ; M. E. Martin, Treasurer. 
 
 Brooklyn Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Brooklyn, New York, December 14th, 1867. First 
 officers: — H. G. Mirick, President; C. D. Cook, Vice-President ; 
 E. L. Childs, Recording Secretary; William Jarvic, Jr., Coiresponding 
 Secretary ; I. C. Monroe, Treasurer.
 
 172 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Present officers: — William H. Atkinson, President; A. H. Brock- 
 way, Mce-Pre.sident ; C.l^.CvandeW, Corresponding Secretary ; Wm. 
 Fishbough, Recording Secretary ; F. W. Dolbeare, Treasurer ; O. 
 E. Hill, Librarian. 
 
 Dental Society of the State of New York. 
 
 Organized in Albany, June 30th, 1868, under the New York 
 State law. First officers : — A. Westcott, M.D., President ; Wm. B. 
 Hurd, Vice-President ; L. W. Rogers, Secretary ; B. T. Whitney, 
 Treasurer; J. G. Ambler (1st Dist.), Wm, B. Hurd (2d Dist.), 
 Alexander Nelson (3d Dist.), Z. Cotton (4th Dist.), A. Westcott (5th 
 Dist.), R. Walker (6th Dist.), F. French (7th Dist.), R. G. Snow 
 (8th Dist.), Board of Censors. 
 
 Present officers : — AV. C. Barrett, Preside^it ; L. S. Straw, Mce- 
 President ; S. A. Freeman, Secretary ; A. C Hawes, Treasurer ; S. 
 B. Palmer, Correspondent ; N. W. Kingsley (1st Dist.), C. A. Mar- 
 vin (2d Dist.), S. D. French (3d Dist.), C. F. Rich (4th Dist.), S. B. 
 Pahiier (5th Dist.), S. H. McCall (6th Dist.), F. French (7th Dist.), 
 L. F. Harvey (8th Dist.), Board of Censors. 
 
 The above is the main society, and has auxiliaries as below. Its 
 regular meetings are held annually at Albany, on the laat Tuesday 
 in June. Its auxiliary societies are as follows : 
 
 First District. 
 
 Present officers : — J. S. Latimer, New York City, President ; J. 
 B. Littig, M,ce- President ; F. M. Odell, Secretary; Charles Miller, 
 Treasurer. 
 
 Second District. 
 
 Present officers: — C. D. Cook, M.D., President; J. H. Holly, 
 Vice-President ; M. E. Elraendorf, Recording Secretary ; W. S. 
 Elliott, D.D.S., Corresponding Secretary ; C. H. Biddle, Treasurer; 
 O. E. Hill, M.D.S., Librarian. 
 
 Third District. 
 
 Present officers: — S. E. Welch, Lansingburgh, President; W. F. 
 Winne, Vice-President; H. A. Hall, Secretary; L. C. Wheeler, 
 Treasurer. 
 
 <
 
 1>ENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 173 
 
 Fourth District. 
 
 Present officers: — E. Doolittle, Schuylerville, President; C. H. 
 Tilton/ Vice-President ; C. E. Stacks, Secretary ; C. F. Rich, Treas- 
 urer. 
 
 Fifth District. 
 
 Present officers : — F. D. Nellis, Syracuse, President ; H. W. 
 Tompkins, Clayville,, Vice-President; John S. Marshall, Syracuse, 
 Secretary; George Elliott, Syracuse, Treasurer. 
 
 Sixth District. 
 
 Present officers: — F. B. Darby, Elraira, President; F, S, Howe, 
 Vice-President ; G. L. Holden, Secretary ; S. H. McCall, Treasurer. 
 
 Seventh District. 
 
 Present officers: — Frank French, Rochester, President; J. Requa, 
 Vice-President ; J. E. Line, Secretary; F. E. Howard, Treasurer. 
 
 Eighth District. 
 
 Present officers: — C. W. Stainton, Buffiilo, President; G. B. Snow, 
 Vice-President; G. C. Daboll, Secretary; W. A. Parrows, Treasurer. 
 
 Cumberland Valley Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, October 16th, 1868. First 
 officers : — J. L. Suesserott, President ; J. AV. Bender, Vice-President ; 
 Geo. W. Neidich, Secretary; J. C. Miller, Treasurer. 
 
 East Tennessee Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Knoxville, Tennessee, October, 1868. First officers: 
 — J. Fouche, President; W. H. Cooke, Recording Secretary and 
 Treasurer; S. H. Smith, Cor rexponding Secretary. 
 
 Present officers: — S. M. Protho, President; J. D. Morgan, T7ee- 
 President ; S. B. Cooke, Recording Secretary and Treasurer ; W. H. 
 Cooke, Corresponding Secretary.
 
 174 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY, 
 
 Pennsylvania State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Pliiladelphia, December 2d, 1868. First officers : — 
 A. B. Robbins, President; J. L. Suesserott, Samuel Welchens, Vice- 
 Presidents; Geo. ^V.'NekWch, Recording Secretary; Thos. C. Stell- 
 wagen, Corresponding Secretary; Jno. McCalla, Treasurer; J. H. 
 McQuillen, James Truman, H. Gerhart, J. G. Templeton, J. W. 
 Moffitt, Censors. 
 
 Present officers: — E. T. Darby, President; J. C. Green, C. S. 
 Beck, Vice-Presidents; R. H. ]\Ioffitt, Recording Secretary; S. H. 
 Guilford, Assistant Secretary; M. H. Webb, Corresponding Secretary; 
 S. Welchens, Treamrer; T. C. Stellwagen, G. W. Klump, C. N. 
 Peirce, M. H. Webb, J. G. Templeton, J. C. Green, Censors. 
 
 Bucks County Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, June 7tli, 1869. First 
 officers: — H. P. Yerkes, President; G. W. Adams, Secretary; J. 
 W. Scarborough, Treasurer; J. S. Rhoads, F. Swartzlander, J. 
 Hayhurst, Executive Committee. 
 
 Texas State Dental Association. ■ 
 
 Organized in Houston, Texas, June 16th, 1869. First officers: — 
 M. M. Michau, President; L. E. Edmonson, Vice-President; P. T. 
 Clark, Corresponding Secretary; T. Robinson, Recording Secretary; 
 II. G. McNeil, Treasurer; J. D. Collier, Librarian. 
 
 Southern States Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Atlanta, Georgia, July 28th, 1869. First officers: — 
 W. T. Arrington, President; W.Reynolds, L. Augspath, J. G. Mc- 
 Auley, Vice-Presidents; F, J. S. Gorgas, Corresponding Secretary; 
 J. G. Angell, Recording Secretary ; W. G. Redman, Treasurer; W. 
 H. Morgan, J. S. Knapp, J. R. Walker, W. S. Chandler, Albert 
 Hape, Executive Committee. 
 
 San Francisco Dental Association. 
 Organized in San Francisco, California, September 1st, 1869. 
 
 I 
 
 j
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 175 
 
 First officers :— C. C. Knowles, President; H. E. Knox, Vice- 
 Premdent; W. J. Younger, Corresponding Secretary; J. Ball, Record- 
 ing Secretary ; F. A. Park, Treasurer. 
 
 Alabama State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Montgomery, October 6th, 1869. First officers: — J. 
 
 G. McAuley, President; S. Rambo, Evans, Vice-Presidents; 
 
 Reese, Secretary. 
 
 Georgia State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized about 1869. Present officers: — Geo. W. McElhany, 
 President; M. S. Jobson, John H. Coyle, Vice-Premdents ; Charles 
 C. Allen, Corresponding Secretary; D. Smith, Recording Secretary. 
 
 South Carolina State Dental Association. 
 
 Organized about 1870. Present officers: — J. W. Norwood, Presi- 
 dent; J. R. Thompson, D. L. Boozer, Vice-Presidents ; H. D. Wilson, 
 Corresponding Secretary ; G. F. S. Wright, Recording Secretary ; 
 T. W. Bouchier, Treasurer. 
 
 California State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in San Francisco, June 29th, 1870. First officers: — C. 
 C Knowles, President; J. J. Menefee, S. W. Dennis, H. H. Pierson, 
 Vice-Presidents ; Wm. J. Younger, Corresponding Secretary ; H. J. 
 Plomteaux, Recording Secretary ; J. N. Myers, Assistant Recording 
 Secreiary; F. A. Park, Treasurer; J. Ball, Libranan. 
 
 Wisconsin State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Milwaukee, September 28th, 1870. Incorporated, 
 March 24th, 1871. First officers :—D. W. Perkins, President; E. 
 N. Clark, Arthur Holbrook, Vice-Presidents; C. C. Chittenden, Re- 
 cording Secretary; Edgar Palmer, Corresponding Secretary; J. C. 
 Lukes, Treasurer. 
 
 Present officers : — C. W. Barnes, President; H. Enos, Vice-Presi- 
 dent; M. T. Moore, Secretary ; J. C. Lukes, Treasurer.
 
 176 HISTORV OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 New Jersey State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Trenton, October 25th, 1870. First officers: — J. 
 Hay hurst, President; C. S. Stockton, Vice-President; E. F. Hanks, 
 Secretary; L. E. Reading, Treasurer. 
 
 Present officers : — C. S. Stockton, President; J. W. Scarborough, 
 Vice-President; Charles A. Meeker, Secretary; William H. Dibble, 
 Treasurer. 
 
 Kansas State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized May 2d, 1871. First officers: — J, B. Wheeler, Presi- 
 dent; W. H. Marvin, Vice-President; J. D. Patterson, Pecording 
 Secretary; E. C. Fuller, Corresponding Secretary ; J. H. Sawyer, 
 Treasurer. 
 
 Dental Alumni Association of Harvard University. . 
 
 Organized in Boston, Massachusetts, January 25th, 1872. First 
 officers:— E. Page, D.M.D., President; J. T. Codman, D.M.D., 
 Vice-President; C. Wilson, D.M.D., Secretary; T. O. Loveland, 
 D.M.D., Treasurer. 
 
 Present officers: — Chas. A. Brackett, D.M.D., President; Charles 
 Wilson, D.M.D., Vice-President ; T. O. Loveland, D.M.D. , Secre- 
 tary; Edward Page, D.M.D., Treasurer. 
 
 Oregon State Dental Society. 
 
 Organized in Portland, March 29th, 1873. First officers :— J. H. 
 Hatch, President; L. S. Skiff, Vice-President ; A^'m. F. Thompson, 
 Corresponding Secretary; J. R. Cardwell, Recording Secretary ; J. 
 Welsh, Treasurer. 
 
 Texas State Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Austin, September 17th, 1873. First officers: — AV. 
 G. Kingsbury, President; Wm. Stiles, L. Quinby, Vice-Presidents ; 
 A. A. Beville, Pecording Secretary ; R. p]. Grant, Treasurer ; C. E. 
 Wise, Corresponding Secretary. 
 
 t 
 
 %
 
 DENTAL ASSOCIATIONS. 177 
 
 Pittsburgh Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Pittsburgh, Pa., November 10th, 1874. First offi- 
 cers : — M. E. Gillespie, P/r^vV/cnf; James S.King, Vice-President; 
 H. \V. Arthur, Secretary ; J. G. Templeton, Treasurer; J. G. Tem- 
 pleton, W. F. Fundenberg, Gale French, Censors; Calvin King, J. 
 G. Templeton, H. W. Arthur, Executive Committee. 
 
 3Iississippi State Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Vicksburg, April 21st, 1875. Officers : — J. D. 
 "MWes, President ; A. H. Hilzheim, O. B. Hilzheira, Vice-Presidents; 
 A. Riser, Secretary ; J. B. Askew, Treasurer ; J. D. Miles, J. B. 
 Askew, A. H. Hilzheim, Executive Committee. 
 
 North Carolina State Dental Association. 
 
 Organized in Beaufort, August 11th, 1875. Officers: — B .F. Ar- 
 rington. President; V. E. Turner, J. W. Hunter, Vice-Presidents ; 
 E. L. Hunter, Secretary ; S. S. Everitt, Treasure)'. 
 
 Alumni Association of the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery. 
 
 Organized in Baltimore, March 6th, 1876. Officers : — S. J. Cock- 
 erille. President; T. A. La Far, S. D. French, Vice-Presidents ; T. 
 H. Davy, Recording Secretary ; Wm. B. Wise, Corresponding Secre- 
 tary ; Wm. H. Hoopes, Treasurer ; F. J. S. Gorgas, Jas. H. Harris, 
 W. H. Hoopes, Executive Committee. 
 
 Minnesota Stcde Deidal Association. 
 
 Present officers: — F. A. Williamson, President; P. S. Calkins, 
 Vice-President ; W. F. Lewis, Secretary ; J. H. Bryant, Treasurer. 
 
 Central Pennsylvania Dental Association. 
 
 Organized about 1874. Present officers : — E. J. Greene, Presi- 
 dent; J. C. M. Hamilton, Vice-President; W. B. Miller, Recording 
 Secretary ; H. W. Buchanan, Coi' responding Secretary ; J, W. Isen- 
 berg, Treasurer. 
 
 1»
 
 178 IIISTORV OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Dental Society of the State of Maryland and District of Columbia. 
 
 Present officers: — R. B. Winder, Presic/en^y Geo. S. Fouke, Vice- 
 President; E. P. Keech, Corresponding Secretary ; R. Finley Hunt, 
 Recording Secretary ; J. Curtiss Smith, Reporting Secretary ; B. F. 
 Coy, Treasurer. 
 
 Alumni Association of the Maryland Dental College. 
 
 In the foregoing list will be seen a marked feature, — the recur- 
 rence of the same society name in several places: witness the various 
 New York State societies. These are not repetitions of the same 
 organizations. Succeeding similar appellations may be inferred to 
 be consequent on the dissolution of previous associations of the sanie 
 name. 
 
 \ 
 
 Present officers: — Fred. A. Levy, President; John J. Williams, 
 Vice-President; Chas. E. Busey, Corresponding Secretary ; Richard 
 M. Johnson, Recording Secretary ; Cyrus M. Gingrich, Treasurer. 3 
 
 I 
 
 I
 
 DENTAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 
 
 The origination of institutions for the teaching of dentistry was 
 due to the persistent and determined efforts of a very few men of 
 markedly liberal views in that profession. The great necessity for 
 some radical change in the method of imparting dental instruction 
 was sufficiently evident to any observing and impartial mind long 
 before 1840. The practice of taking private students was then 
 everywhere in vogue, and little could be said in its disfavor so long 
 ps the studentship was properly conducted, and the teacher imparted 
 to his disciple that which he himself knew, on the subjects proposed 
 to be taught; and danger in this direction could not be apprehended 
 when certain men of established position and integrity were the 
 teachers. But such, unfortunately, was not always the case. The 
 best men charged extremely high prices for a studentship. Dr. 
 Eleazer Family offered, when in England, to receive students, and to 
 render them fit for practice in London for one thousand, in other 
 large cities for seven hundred and fifty, and in the provinces for five 
 hundred dolhirs. The latter sum was "commonly asked for tiie 
 office-fee of a student."* Such a charge was, of itself, amply suf- 
 ficient to debar the great mijority of seekers after dental learning 
 from obtaining it at the hands of such as were capable of teaching 
 them correctly ; and they, consequently, were either forced to enter 
 the profession without knowledge of the science, or to receive what 
 they did learn from much inferior practitioners whose charges were 
 not so great. As an instance of the latter class, there may be men- 
 tioned the case of a dentist (!) who offered fully to instruct students 
 in dental practice in four weeks at a cliarge of thirty dollars.f 
 
 Such a state of affiiirs was naturally viewed with regret by su -11 
 as were above the professional jealousies and secrecy in method- 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 98. 
 f Dental News Letter, vol. iv. p. 21. 
 
 179
 
 180 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 which then almost universally prevailed. These strove to induce a 
 ohaiii:;c in that state ; and the quickest and most surely effectual of 
 any method to i)roduce the desired result appeared, and proved, to be 
 the establishment of a school for dental instruction. From the above 
 (and other) causes came the 
 
 Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, 
 
 the first institution of its kind in the world. It received its charter 
 in 1839, and commenced its first session in the following year. The 
 first officers and Faculty were as follows : 
 
 Horace H. Hayden, M.D., President, Principles of Dental Science. 
 
 Chapin A. Harris, INI.D., Dean, Theory and Practice of Dental 
 Surgery, Theory and Practice of Dental 3Iechanism. 
 
 Thomas E. Bond, ]M.D., Dental Pathology and Therapeutics. 
 
 H. Willis Baxley, M.D., Anatomy and Physiology. 
 
 The graduates of the class of 1841 were only two, Robert Arthur 
 and R. Covington Mackall, of Maryland. These gentlemen were, 
 therefore, the first in the world to receive the degree of "D.D.S." 
 
 During succeeding years the chairs were numerically increased. 
 
 In 1841 was added that of Practical Anatomy, Washington R. 
 Handv, M.D., being the first professor. In 1844 came that of 
 Operative Dentistry, with Joseph B. Savier, D.D.S., as its first in- 
 cumbent. In 1846 was instituted that of Mechaniccd Dentistry, 
 taught by Cyrenius O. Cone, M.D., D.D.S. . In 1849 the chair of 
 Chemistry was first filled by Philip H. Austen, M.D., D.D.S., and 
 in 1856 came the professorship of Microscopical and Comparative 
 Anatomy, filled at first by Christopher Johnston, M.D. 
 
 The present Faculty is as follows : 
 
 Ferdinand J. S. Gorgas, M.D., D.D.S., Dental Siirgeiy and Thera- 
 peutical, and Dean. 
 
 Henry Reginald Noel, M.D., Physiology and Pathology. 
 
 E. Lloyd Howard, M.D., Chemistry. 
 
 James IT. Harris, M.D., D.D.S., Clinical Dentistry. 
 
 James B. Ilodgkin, D.D.S., Dental Mechanism and 3Ietallurgy. 
 
 Thomas S. Latimer, M.D., Anatomy. 
 
 Judson B. Wood, D.D.S., Demonstraior of Operative Dentistry. 
 
 B. M. Wilkerson, M.D., T>.\}. '6., Demonstrator of Mechanical Den- 
 tistry. 
 
 John C. Uhler, D.D.S., Edwin F. Wayman, D.D.S., and Frank 
 S. Lewis, D.D.S., Assistant Demonstrators. 
 
 I
 
 DENTAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 181 
 
 "Each candidate for graduation .... must prepare a written thesis 
 describing operations upon the teeth, .... show specimens of opera- 
 tions upon the natural organs, and present an approved specimen of 
 dental mechanism ; also, he must have attended two full courses of 
 lectures in this college. The following, however, will be accepted as 
 equivalent to one course in this college : — One course in any reputable 
 dental college ; attendance and graduation in a reputable medical col- 
 lege prior to matriculation at this college, and one year's dental 
 pupilage; five years' dental practice, including regular pupilage; an 
 acceptable examination on entering college, before the full Faculty in 
 session, on anatomy, physiology, inorganic chemistry, and practical 
 dentistry, including a regular course of pupilage and several years' 
 practice."* 
 
 The total number of regular graduates to date, is 613, of which were 
 graduated in 1841, 2; 1842, 3; 1843, 6; 1844, 6; 1845, 5; 1846, 
 11 ; 1847, 10 ; 1848, 15 ; 1849, 16 ; 1850, 11 ; 1851, 18 ; 1852, 14 ; 
 1853,22; 1854,18; 1855,27; 1856,18; 1857,20; 1858,19; 
 1859, 20; 1860, 39; 1861, 29; 1862, 10; 1863, 9; 1864, 10; 1865, 
 11 ; 1866, 10 ; 1867, 31 ; 1868, 26 ; 1869, 26 ; 1870, 24 ; 1871, 27 ; 
 1872, 18; 1873, 27; 1874, 19; 1875, 17; 1876, 19. The college 
 has also awarded one hundred and fifty -one honorary degrees (D.D.S.) 
 from 1841 to 1871, since which last date it has granted none such. 
 Total degrees conferred to date, 764. 
 
 It will be readily believed that the establishment of this school 
 was violently opposed in many quarters, and it was confidently pre- 
 dicted that it would be sliort-lived. However, it lived down opposi- 
 tion, and still stands among the foremost of similar institutions. The 
 museum in connection with it is worthy of note as very valuable and 
 important. 
 
 The Ohio Dental College 
 
 was chartered in 1845, and commenced its first session in November 
 of the same year in Cincinnati, where it has since been located. The 
 first Faculty was composed of the following-named gentlemen : 
 
 Jesse W. Cook, M.D., D.D.S., Dental Anatomy and Physiology, and 
 Dean. 
 
 Melancthon Rogers, M.D., D.D.S., Dental Pathology and Thera- 
 peutics. 
 
 James Taylor, D.D.S., Practical Dentistry and Pharmacy. 
 
 * College "Triennial Catulogue."
 
 182 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Jesse P. Judkins, M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy. 
 
 In 1(S46 a chair of C/icml^fri/ was added to the above, and was 
 rtlled by Elijah Slack, M.I). In 1847, Wm. INI. Hnnter was ap- 
 pointed Demonstrator of Mechanical Dentisti-y. In 1848, Charles H, 
 Raymond, ]\r.D., was made Lecturer on Chemistry. In 1850 tiie 
 chair of Mcclianical Dentidry was created, and A. M, Leslie, D.D.S., 
 appointed to it. This chair was changed, in 1851, to that of Opera- 
 tive and Mechanical Dentidry, with John Allen, D.D.S., as its incum- 
 bent. The chair of Practical Dentistry and Pharmacy was also then 
 changed to that of Principles and Practice of Dental Surgery, and 
 occupied by James Taylor, D.D.S. In 1853 the chair of Operative 
 and Mechanical Dentistry was divided into two, — Operative Dentistry, 
 filled by John Allen, D.D.S., and Mechanical Dentistry, to which H. 
 R. Smith, D.D.S., was appointed. In 1855 the chair of Principles 
 and Practice of Dental Surgery was changed to that of Institutes of 
 Dental Science, and its duties assigned to James Taylor, D.D.S. A 
 chair of Chemistry and Metallurgy was now created, and Geo. Watt, 
 M.D., ap])ointed to it. 
 
 In 1850 the Faculty passed a resolution that a committee of five 
 for the examination, in connection with the Faculty, of candidates 
 for graduation, should be selected annually, two from the medical and 
 three from the dental profession. This was in force until 1860, when 
 it was rescinded. During the winter of 1861—62, no session was held. 
 The present Faculty is constituted as follows: 
 
 James Taylor, J\I.D., D.D.S., Emeritus Institutes of Dental Science. 
 
 Wm. Clendenin, M.D., Anatomy. 
 
 J. L. Cilley, M.D., Physiology and Histology, and Practical 
 Anatomy. 
 
 F. lirunning, ]M.D., Pathology and Therapeutics. 
 
 J. Taft, D.D.S., Operative Dentistry, Hygiene, and Microscopy, and 
 Dean. 
 
 J. S. Cassidy, D.D.S., Chemistry. 
 
 J. I. Taylor, D.D.S., H. M. Reid, D.D.S., Clinical Dentistry. 
 
 W. Van Antwerp, D.D.S., Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 "A candidate for graduation must have had two full years of 
 pupilage, part of which, at least, should be with a reputable dental 
 practitioner, inclusive of two complete courses of lectures in a dental 
 college. A graduate of a respectable medical college, who has had 
 one year's pui)ihige under a reputable dentist, or a student having had 
 a regular pupilage, and passed a satisfactory examination ui)on 
 anatomy, elementary chemistry, and mechanical dentistry, may be
 
 DENTAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 183 
 
 admitted to an examination for the degree of D.D.S. after attending 
 one full course of lectures. . . . He will be required to present and 
 defend before the Facuhy a written thesis ujion some subject pertain-' 
 ing to dental science. He must also deposit in the college cabinet 
 an artificial denture of his own workmanship made in the college."* 
 The total number of regular graduates of this college, to date, is 
 262, apportioned as follows: ciass of 1846, 4; 1847, 5; '1848, 7; 
 1849,8; 1850,6; 1851,4; 1852,12; 1853,14; 1854,10; 1855, 
 12; 1856,10; 1857,5; 1858,5; 1859,12; 1860,4; 1861,5; 
 1863,3; 1864, 5; 1865, 6; 1866, 18; 1867, 13; 1868, 9; 1869, 
 9; 1870, 10; 1871, 9; 1872, 12 (one female) ; 1873, 16; 1874, 7; 
 1875, 6; 1876, 16. 
 
 The Transylvania School of Dental Surgery 
 
 was chartered in Kentucky in 1850, and commenced its first session 
 the same year, with the following Faculty : 
 
 J. B. Stout, ]\I.D., Institutes of Dental Seience. 
 
 John B. Lindsay, D.D.S., Principles and Practice of Dental Sur- 
 fjery. 
 
 B. J. Dudley, D.D.S., Operative and 3Iechanical Dentistry. 
 
 James S. Drane, M.D., Special Anatomy, Physiology, and Pa- 
 thology. 
 
 G. W. Evans, Dental Chemistry, Hygiene, and Therapeutics. 
 
 Whether this school ever completed more than one session does not 
 appear. The above notice f is all that has been found with regard 
 to it. 
 
 The New York College of Dental Surgery, 
 
 of Syracuse, was chartered in INIarch, 1852. Its first Faculty con- 
 sisted of — 
 
 A. AVestcottj M.D., Theory and Practice of Dental Swgei-y and 
 Technology. 
 
 A. B. Shipman, M.D., Anatomy and General Principles of Surgery. 
 
 Ehrick Family, INI.D., D.D.S., Institutes of Dentistry, Dental Hy- 
 giene, and Compar<dive Dental Anatomy. 
 
 Corydon L. Ford, M.D., D.D.S., 3Iicroscopic Anato)ny, Physiology, 
 and Pathology. 
 
 * College Announcement, 1874. 
 
 f American Journal of Denial Science, 2d Series, vol. i. p. 107.
 
 184 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. ' 
 
 R. F. Stevens, ^I.D., Chcmistri/, Makria Medica, and Therapeutics. 
 
 William Dalrymple, D.D.S., Donomtrator of Operative and Me- 
 chanical Dentistry. 
 
 L. G. Bartlett, Assistant Demonstrator. 
 
 John B. White, M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy. 
 
 It is quite possible that, had this school continued in existence, it 
 would lu\,ve been among the foremost of dental colleges. But, un- 
 fortunately, the building in which it was located was destroyed by 
 fire in 1855, and its a})paratus, museum, and records were consumed. 
 The college, after this, did not continue. 
 
 The Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery 
 
 (first) was chartered in May, 1850. 
 
 Previous to this date, five of the members of the Pennsylvania 
 Association of Dental Surgeons (shortly after the formation of that 
 Society, in 1845), attempted to procure the passage of a bill through 
 the Legislature of that State, incorporating a dental college, but were 
 unsuccessful. A short time after the Hon. Jesse R. Burden had 
 procured the charter under which the college was eventually organ- 
 ized, the Pennsylvania Association again appointed a committee to 
 repeat the effort formerly made to procure a charter, they having no 
 knowledge of Mr. Burden's previous success. They subsequently 
 allowed their own ])etition to drop, and, having come to an agree- 
 ment with Mr. Burden, nominated the following Faculty, and began 
 the first session in November, 1852: 
 
 J. D. White, M.D., D.D.S., Anatomy and Physiology. 
 
 Ely Parry, M.D., D.D.S., Chemistry, Materia Medica, and Special 
 Therapeutics. 
 
 Robert Arthur, D.D.S., Principles of Dental Surgery. 
 
 Elisha Townsend, M.D., D.D.S., Operative Dentistry, and Dean. 
 
 T. L. Buckingham, M.D., Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 D. B. Whipple, M.D., Demonstrator of Surgical and Mechanical 
 Dentistry. 
 
 This college completed only four sessions, during which time there 
 were 63 regular graduates, as follows: 1853, 7; 1854, 19; 1855, 
 15; 1856, 22. In 1853 there were conferred 22 honorary degrees; 
 in 1854, 7; in 1855, 1; and in 1856, 2; or 32 in all. 
 
 The single honorary degree noted for 1855 was conferred by the 
 trustees upon a student who was considered by the Faculty to be in- 
 competent to obtain a regular degree ; and the two honorary degrees
 
 DENTAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 185 
 
 of 1856 were also given by the trustees, this time in direct opposition 
 to the expressed wishes of tlie Faculty. These latter thereupon with- 
 drew from their chairs, and the first Philadelphia College ceased to 
 exist. 
 
 The Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery 
 
 was chartered in April, 1856. This institution was a consequence of 
 the downfall of the old Philadelphia College, through the efforts of 
 the members of the disbanded Faculty of that school. Its first session 
 commenced in November, 1856, the following being the Faculty : 
 
 Elisha Townsend, M.D., D.D.S., Operative Dental Surgery. 
 
 Ely Parry, M.D., D.D.S., Chanistry, Materia Medica, and Thera- 
 peutics. 
 
 Robert Arthur, D.D.S., Principles of Dental Surgery, and Dean. 
 
 J. F. B. Flagg, Anatomy and Physiology. 
 
 T. L. Buckingham, M.D., 3Iechanical Dentistry. 
 
 Louis Jack, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Operative Dentistry. 
 
 Wm. Calvert, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Ilechanical Dentistry. 
 
 The present Faculty is as follows : 
 
 T. L. Buckingham, M.D., D.D.S., Chemistry. 
 
 E. Wildman, M.D., D.D.S., Meclianical Dentistry and Metcdlurgy. 
 
 G. T. Barker, D.D.S., Dental Pathology and Therapeutics, and 
 Dean. 
 
 James Truman, D.D.S., Dental Histology and Operative Dentistry. 
 
 James Tyson, M.D., Physiology and. 3Iicroscopic Anatomy. 
 
 J. Ewing Mears, M.D., Anatomy and Surgery. 
 
 A. B. Abell, Jr., M.D., D.D.S., Demonstrator of 3Iechanical Den- 
 tistry. 
 
 Charles W. Meloney, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Operative Dentistry. 
 
 The candidate for graduation in this college " must have studied 
 under a private preceptor at least two years, including his course of 
 instruction at the college. Attendance on two full courses of lectures, 
 at the regular or winter sessions in this institution will be required ; 
 but satisfactory evidence of having attended one full course in any 
 respectable dental or medical school will be considered equivalent to 
 the first course of lectures in this college. Also, satisfactory evidence 
 of having been in practice five years, inclusive of the term of pupil- 
 age, will be considered equivalent to the fir-st course of lectures."* 
 The student is also required to prepare a dental thesis, to treat thor- 
 
 * College Announcement for 1875-6.
 
 186 HISTORY OF AMERICAX DENTISTRY. 
 
 oughly some patient requiring all the usual dental operations, to take 
 up and complete at least one artificial case, and prepare and deposit 
 in the college collection a specimen case. All the operations must be 
 performed at the college building. 
 
 The number of regular graduates, and honorary and other degrees 
 conferred, to date, by this college is as follows : 
 
 Regular graduates,— 1857, 13; 1858, 15; 1859,25; 1860,21 
 1861,36; 1862,19; 1863,20; 1864, 17; 1865,29; 1866,33 
 1867,26; 1868,31; 1869,24; 1870,38; 1871,38; 1872,26 
 1873, 28 ; 1874, 34 ; 1875, 27 ; 1876, 31. Total regular graduates, 
 531. 
 
 Honorary degrees,— 1858, 1 ; 1863, 2; 1865, 5; 1872, 2. Total 
 honorary degrees, 10. 
 
 Degrees "on time and examination,"— 1866, 3; 1867, 23; 1868, 
 2; 1869, 4; 1870, 3; 1872, 1. Total degrees "on time and exam- 
 ination," 36. Total degrees conferred, 577. 
 
 The Philadelphia Dental College 
 
 was chartered and began its first session in 1863. Its first Faculty 
 was as follows : 
 
 J. H. McQuillen, M.D., D.D.S., Anatomy, Physiology and Hy- 
 giene, and Dean. 
 
 J. Foster Flagg, D.D.S., Institutes of Dentistry. 
 
 C. A. Kingsbury, M.D., D.D.S., Dental Physiology and Operative 
 Dentistry. 
 
 Thomas Wardwell, M.D., D.D.S., Jleehanical Dentistry and Metal- 
 lurgy. 
 
 Henry Morton, A.M., Chemistry. 
 
 Geo. W. Ellis, M.D., D.D.S., Demonstrator of Operative Dentistry. 
 
 Wm. Gorges, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 The present Faculty is constituted by — 
 
 J. H. McQuillen, M.D., D.D.S., Physiology, and Dean. 
 
 Harrison Allen, M.D., Anatomy and Surgery. 
 
 D. D. Smith, D.D.S., Mechanical Dentistry and Metallurgy. 
 S. B. Howell, M.D., Chemistry and Materia Medica. 
 
 T. C. Stellwagen, M.D., D.D.S., Dental Pathology and Operaiivt 
 Dcnti.stry. 
 
 Edward L. Hewitt, D.D.S., Demonstrcdor of Operative Dentistry. 
 Alonzo Boice, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Mechatiieal Dentistry. 
 Wm. Williamson, D.D.S., Assistant Demonstrator.
 
 DEXTAI. SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 187 
 
 The candidate for graduation in this college "must have had two 
 years' private tuition [for which attendance upon the Spring and Fall 
 courses will be regarded as equivalent], and attended two full Winter 
 courses of lectures in a respectable dental or medical college, one of 
 which shall have been in this institution ; but certified evidence of 
 having had five years' practice in dentistry, inclusive of pupilage, 
 will be regarded as equivalent to one course of lectures. He must 
 present to the Dean a thesis on some subject relating to dental theory 
 or practice ; demonstrate to the Professors of operative and mechani- 
 cal dentistry his 'practical acquirements in these departments ; and 
 deposit a specimen of mechanical dentistry in the museum of the in- 
 stitution, made by himself in the college Laboratory. . . . The 
 Faculty give formal notice to the profession that after the session 
 1876-7 (closing February 28th, 1877) five years' practice will not be 
 regarded as an equivalent for one course of lectures, and that attend- 
 ance upon two full winter courses of lectures will be required of all 
 candidates for graduation."* 
 
 The regular graduates of this college to date, are numerically as 
 follows: In 1864,6; 1865, 15; 1866, 16; 1867, 30; 1868, 20; 
 1869, 25 ; 1870, 41 ; 1871, 36 ; 1872, 32 ; 1873, 49 ; 1874, 30 ; 1875, 
 41; 1876, 44. Total, 385. 
 
 The New York College of Dentistry 
 
 was chartered in 1865, and began its first session in November, 1866. 
 The Faculty at that time was as follows: 
 
 Eleazer Family, M.D., D.D.S., Mneritus Institutes of Dentistry. 
 
 William H. Dwindle, M.D., D.D.S., Dental Science and Operative 
 Dentistry. 
 
 Norman W. Kingsley, Dental Art and 3£echanism, and Dean. 
 
 J. Smith Dodge, Jr., IM.D., D.D.S., Dental Pathology and Thera- 
 peutics. 
 
 Faneuil D. Weisse, i\I.D., Descriptive and Comparative Anatomy. 
 
 Rufus King Browne, M.D., Experimental Physiology and Micro- 
 scopy. 
 
 Charles A. Seely, A.M., Chemistry and Metallurgy. 
 
 D. H. Goodwillic, ]\I.D., D.D.S., Demonstrator of Operative Den- 
 tistry. 
 
 R. M. Streeter, Demonstrator of 3Iechanical Dentistry. 
 
 Alex. W. Stein, M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy. 
 
 * College Announcement, 1874.
 
 188 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 The present Fiioulty is as follows: 
 
 Fiuieuil I). Wei.sse, M.D., Regional Anatomy and General Pathol- 
 ogy- 
 
 Frank Abbott, M.D., Operative Dentistry and Oral Surgery, and 
 
 Dean. 
 
 Alex.^V'. Stein, M.D., Hiiifology, ViHceral Anatomy, and PJiy&iology. 
 
 F. Le Roy S.itterlce, ]M.D., Ph.D., Chemistry, Materia Ilediea, and 
 Therapeutics. 
 
 C. A. ]\Iarvin, D.D.S., Mechanieal Dentistry. 
 William H. Allen, Clinical O/jerative Dentistry. 
 John Allen, D.D.S., Clinical Mechanical Dentistry. 
 William B. Hard, D.D.S., Clinical Operative Dentistry. 
 John T. Metcalf, Clinical Operative Dentistry. 
 
 Wm. T. Laroche, D.D.S., Clinical Operative Dentistry. 
 J. Bond Litti<>:, D.D.S., Clinical 3Iechanical Dentistry. 
 
 D. ^y. Williamson, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Operative Dentistry. 
 A. Rust Cuyler, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 S. Frank Johnson, D.D.S., Geo. M. Eddy, D.D.S., Assistant Dem- 
 onstrators. 
 
 C. P. Kreizer, M.D., Assistant in Chemistry, Materia 3Iedica, and 
 Therapeutics. 
 
 The requisites for graduation, as given in the College Announee- 
 ment for 1875, were as loHows: "Students shall be required to have 
 spent two full years in the study and practice of dentistry, inclusive 
 of attendance on two full sessions of lectures in a recognized dental 
 collejre, one of which shall have been in this institution, before re- 
 ceiving their diploma. [Satisfactory evidence of having had five 
 years' practice in dentistry, .... inclusive of pupilage, will, after 
 one course of lectures in this college, entitle the candidate to an ex- 
 amination for graduation.] The candidate for graduation nuist de- 
 posit a specimen of mechanical dentistry in the museum of the college, 
 made by himself in the institution, and pass satisfactorily a written 
 and oral examination by the Faculty, and a practical examination 
 before the professors of Operative and Mechanical Dentistry. A 
 graduate of medicine shall be accredited one course of lectures." 
 
 That part of the above included in brackets is now abrogated, in 
 consequence of the following action of the Faculty, taken April 22d, 
 1874: " Resolved, That, in the judgment of the Faculty, the time is 
 rapidly a})proaching when all candidates for the degree of D.D.S. 
 shall be required to attend two full courses of lectures before exami- 
 nation. It is therefore determined to continue the above rule (re-
 
 DENTAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 189 
 
 specting practitioners of five years) for two years only from this 
 time," etc. The remainder of the requirements noted above consti- 
 tute those now in force. 
 
 The number of graduates of this college, to date, is as follows: In 
 1867, 9; 1868, 9; 1869, 12; 1870, 8; 1871, 8; 1872, 12 (one fe- 
 male); 1873, 10; 1874, 9; 1875, 16; 1876, 27. Total graduates, 
 120. 
 
 This college is empowered to confer two degrees, — that of D.D.S. 
 and that of F.C.D. (Fellow of the College of Dentistry). The last 
 has been conferred only four times, and constitutes the honorary 
 degree. Thus this school has conferred, in all, 124 degrees. 
 
 There is, also, a " Faculty prize," consisting of a comjrlete set of 
 dental instruments, to be awarded to the graduate who passes the best 
 examination, written and oral, and presents the best piece of artificial 
 work. This prize was founded in 1870, and has been awarded to 
 seven graduates. 
 
 The Missouri Dental College 
 
 was founded in 1866, its location being in St. Louis. The first Faculty 
 consisted of Drs. H. Judd, H. E. Peebles, W. H. Fames, J. T. Hodg- 
 son, A. Litton, C. W. Sfevens, F. W. White, and E. H. Gregory. 
 
 The present Faculty is as follows: 
 
 W. H. Fames, D.D.S., Institutes of Dental Science, and Dean. 
 
 J. J. McDowell, M.D., General Descriptive and Surgical Anatomy. 
 
 A. Litton, M.D., Chemist/y and Pharmacy. 
 
 C. Baumgarten, M.D., Physiology and 3Iedical .Jurisprudence. 
 
 J. S. B. Alleyne, M.D., Materia Medica and Therapeutics. 
 
 E. H. Gregory, ]\LD., Principles and Practice of Surgery, and 
 Clin iced Surgery. 
 
 Isaiah Forbes, D.D.S., Surgical and Operative Dentistry. 
 
 M. A. Bartleson, D.D.S., Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 Homer Judd, INI.D., D.D.S., Lecturer on Histology and Pathology. 
 
 H. PI. Mudd, M.D., Demonstrator of Ancdomy. 
 
 R. H. Mace, D.D.S., Demonstrcdor of Operative Dentistry. 
 
 H. H. Keith, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 The requisites for graduation in this school comprehend, — that the 
 candidate must have been engaged in the study of dentistry for two 
 years, course included; that he shall have attended two full courses 
 in this school, — for one of which, however, *' attendance on a regular 
 course in some other respectable and generally accredited dental 
 school" will be-decmed an equivalent; and that he "undergo a satis-
 
 190 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 factory examination on all the branches taught in this college, and 
 write an acceptable thesis in the English, I^atin, French, or German 
 language, on some subject connected with dentistry."* 
 
 The regular graduates of this college, to date, are numbered as 
 follows: In 1867, 12; 1868, 2; 1869, 12; 1870, 4; 1871, 7; 1872, 
 6; 1873,5; 1874, 7; 1875, 6; 1876, 4. Total, 65. 
 
 ■ The New Orleans Dental College 
 
 was chartered March 1st, 1861, and commenced its first regular session 
 on the 25th of November of the same year. Its first Faculty was 
 as follows: 
 
 John S. Clarke, D.D.S., Denial Theory and Practice, and Dean. 
 
 James S. Knapp, D.D.S., Operative Dental Surgery. 
 
 George J. Friedrichs, D.D.S., Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 N. B. Benedict, ]M.D., Anatomy and Physiology. 
 
 Sanford S. Riddle, INI.D., Chemistry and Metidlurgy. 
 
 N. B, Benedict, M.D., Materia Medica and Special Therapeutics. 
 
 A. F. McLain, M.D., D.D.S., Demonstrator of Operative Den- 
 tistry. 
 
 W. S. Chandler, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 The present Faculty is as follows: 
 
 Wm. S. Chandler, D.D.S., Operative Dental Surgery. 
 
 James S. Knapp, D.D.S., Theory and Practice. 
 
 Andrew F. McLain, ]M,D., D.D.S., Institutes of Jfedicine and 
 Dentistry, and Special Therapeutics, and Dean. 
 
 Chas. E. Kells, D.D.S., Science of Dental Mechanism. 
 
 Alfred W. Perry, M.D., Chemistry. 
 
 John G. Angell, D.D.S., Operative Dental Surgery. 
 
 Frederick Loeber, M.D., Anatomy and Physiology. 
 
 Andrew F. McLain, M.D., D.D.S., Dental Materia 3Iedica. 
 
 ]\[artin Viet, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Clinical Dentistry. 
 
 Candidates for gradu ition in this college are required to attend two 
 full courses of lectures, the last of which must be in this school, 
 "exclusive of the usual two years' office puj)ilagc." Graduates in 
 medicine, or dentists of five years' respectable actual practice, need 
 attend only the last course. The Faculty reserves to itself the right 
 to "cancel diplomas to graduates of this college who are guilty of un- 
 
 * College Announcement, 1876.
 
 DENTAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 191 
 
 professional conduct, charlatanism, or any illicit practices calculated to 
 bring discredit upon the dental profession."* 
 
 A numerical account of the graduates of this college is as follows : 
 In 1868, 4 regular, 5 honorary; 1869, 9 regular; 1870, 5 regular, 
 17 honorary; 1871, 5 regular, 5 honorary; 1872, 11 regular, 4 
 honorary; 1873, 3 regular, 2 honorary; 1874, 4 regular, 2 honor- 
 ary; 1875, 1 regular; 1876, 1 regular. Total, 43 regular, and 35 
 honorary degrees,! or 78 total. 
 
 The Dental School of Harvard University 
 
 (Boston) was founded in 1867. Its first Faculty was as follows : 
 Thomas Hill, M.D., President. 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes, M.D., Anatomy. 
 Henry James Bigelow, M.D., Surgery. 
 John Bacon, M.D., Chemistry. 
 Nathan C. Keej), M.D., Mechanical Dentistry. 
 Thomas B. Hitchcock, M.D., Dental Pathology and Therapeutics. 
 George T. Moffatt, M.D., Operative Dentistry. 
 Luther D. Shepard, D.D.S., Adjunct in Operative Dentistry. 
 Nathaniel W. Hawes, Demonstrator of Operative Dentistry. 
 Charles B. Porter, Demonstrator of Anatomy. ■ 
 Samuel F. Horn, D.M.D., Demonstrator of Jlechanical Dentistry. 
 The present Faculty is as follows : 
 Charles W. Eliot, LL.D., President. 
 
 Thomas H, Chandler, D.M.D., Mechanical Dentistry, and Dean, 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes, M.D., Anatomy. 
 Henry J. Bigelow, M.D., Surgery. 
 
 , Dental Pathology and Therapeidics, 
 
 George T. Moffatt, M.D., D.ISI.D., Opercdive Dentistry. 
 
 Luther D. Shepard, D.D.S., Adjunct in Operative Dentistry. 
 
 Nathaniel AV. Hawes, Assistant in Operative Dentistry. 
 
 Henry F. Bowditch, M.D., Assistant in Physiology. 
 
 Charles B. Porter, JNI.D., Demonstrator of Practical Ancdomy. 
 
 Edward S. Wood, M.D., Assistant in Chemistry. 
 
 Charles A. Brackett, D.M.D., Instructor in Dental Tlierapeutics. 
 
 * College Announcement, 1874. 
 
 f This school has issued three classes of honorary degrees ; " Doctor of Dental 
 Surgery" (31 conferred); *' Ad eundeni" (1 conferred); "Fellow of the College 
 of Dentistry" (3 conferred).
 
 192 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 William Herbert Rollins, D.M.D., Instructor in Dental Pathology. 
 
 Charles Wilson, D.M.D., Demonstrator in Charge. 
 
 George F. Grant, D.M.D., Demonstrator of Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 The scheme of instruction and the necessary qualifications for 
 graduation in this school were originally generally similar to those 
 of other dental schools. The latter were, at first, that the candidate 
 "shall have pursued his professional studies three years under com- 
 petent instructors, and attended two full courses in this institution, 
 except that a certificate of attendance upon one course of lectures in 
 any respectable dental or medical college may be considered a sub- 
 stitute for the first course; provided such candidate maintain a 
 thesis,"* etc. 
 
 The scheme of instruction, however, has been latterly changed, and 
 is now as given below : 
 
 "From and after September 28th, 1876, instruction will be given 
 in the Harvard Dental School by lectures, recitations, clinical teach- 
 ing, and practical exercises, uniformly distributed throughout the 
 academic year, and the distinction of winter and summer sessions 
 will thereafter be abolished. The year will begin on the Thursday fol- 
 lowing the last Wednesday in September, and end on the last Wed- 
 nesday in June. It will be divided into equal terms, with a recess 
 of one week between them. . . . The course of instruction will be 
 progressive, extending over two years. . . . Every candidate for 
 the degree .... must give evidence of having studied medicine or 
 dentistry three full years ; he must have sjieut at least one continuous 
 year at this school, have presented a satisfactory thesis, and have 
 passed all the required examinations. The Faculty recomraeud those 
 who propose to take the degree to spend the whole of the required 
 term of three years of study in the school. But those who wish to 
 spend but two of the three years in the school are earnestly advised 
 to pass their first year of study, before entering, under the direction 
 of a competent private instructor." f 
 
 This school does not give the ordinary degree of " Doctor of 
 Dental Surgery." Its degree is " Dentarice Medicines Doctor'' (D. 
 M.D.), " Doctor of Dental Medicine." 
 
 Its graduates, to date, are numbered as follows : In 1860, 5 ; 1870, 
 12; 1871, 6; 1872, 15; 1873, 5; 1874, 8; 1875, 5; 1876, 7. Total, 
 63. 
 
 * College Announcement, 1875. 
 t Ibid., 1875-6.
 
 DENTAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. VJo 
 
 The Boston Dental College 
 
 was founded in June, 1868, and began its first regular session in Sep- 
 tember of the same year. Its first Faculty was constituted thus : 
 
 Wm. H. Atkinson, M.D., D.D.S., Hygiene and Dental Jurispru- 
 dence. 
 
 Ambrose Lawrence, M.D., D.D.S., Institutes of Dentistry. 
 
 W. S. ]\Iiller, D.D.S., Adjunct, Institutes of Dentistry. 
 
 I. J. Wetherbee, D.D.S., Dental Science and Operative Dentisti'y. 
 
 C. G. Davis, D.D.S., Adjunct, Dental Science and Operative Den- 
 tistry. 
 
 S. J. McDougall, M.D., Dental Art and 3Iechanism. 
 
 H. F. Bishop, D.D.S., Adjunct, Dental Art and Mechanism. 
 
 R. King Browne, M.D., Anatomy and Physiology. 
 
 J. P. Ordway, M.D., Adjunct, Anatomy and Physiology. 
 
 L. R. Sheldon, M.D., Pathology and Therapeutics. 
 
 J. A. Follett, M.D., Principles and Practice of Surgery, and Dean. 
 
 F. W. Clark, S.B., Chemistry and. Metallurgy. 
 
 G. M. Pease, jSI.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy. 
 The present Faculty is as follows : 
 
 Isaac J. Wetherbee, D.D.S., Dental Science and Operative Dentistry. 
 
 Nicholas N. Noyes, D.D.S., MccJianical Deidistry and Metallurgy. 
 
 Charles H. Spring, M.D., Anatomy and Physiology. 
 
 Joshua B. Tread well, M.D., Principles and Practice of Surgery. 
 
 Elisha Chenery, M.D., Pathology and Therapeutics, and Dean. 
 
 , Chemistry and Physics. 
 
 Robert R. Andrews, D.D.S., Demonstrator of Microscopical Anat- 
 omy. 
 
 Josiah W. Ball, D.D.S. ; Fred. A. Locke, D.D.S., Demonstrators 
 of Operative Dentistry. 
 
 Charles PI. Osgood, D.D.S.; Frederick F. Gage, D.D.S., Demon- 
 strators of 3Iechanical Dentistry. 
 
 The candidate for graduation in this. institution "must have pur- 
 sued his professional studies three years under a competent instructor 
 and have attended two full courses of lectures in this college. \ 
 certificate of attendance upon one course of lectures in any other 
 reputable dental or medical college, or five years of reputable prac- 
 tice, may be considered a substitute for the first course."* 
 
 * College Announcement, 1874-5. 
 14
 
 104 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 The number of regular graduates of this college is as follows: In 
 1869, 2; 1870, 23; 1871, 5; 1872, 8; 1873, 6; 1874, 12; 1875, 
 12; 1876, 11. Total, to date, 79. 
 
 The Maryland Dental College 
 
 was established in 1873, in Baltimore. Its first Faculty and the 
 present are identical, as follows: 
 
 Samuel H. Williams, D.D.S., Emeritus Institutes of Dentistry. 
 
 Byron F. Coy, D.D.S., Dental Surgery. 
 
 Henry H. Kcech, jNI.D., D.D.S., Pathology and Therapeidics. 
 
 M. "Whilldin Foster, M.D., D.D.S., Deiital 3Iechanism and Metal- 
 lurgy. 
 
 Edward P. Keech, M.D., D.D.S., Clinical Dentistry and 3Iateria 
 Medica. 
 
 Richard B. "Winder, M.D., D.D.S., Physiology and Hygiene, and 
 Dean. 
 
 Samuel M. Field, D.D.S., Physics and Chemistry. 
 
 L. INIcLane Tiffany, M.D., Anatomy. 
 
 A. P. Gore, D.D.S., Adjunct, Clinical Dentistry. 
 
 C. T. Brockett, M.D., D.D.S., Demonstrator of Practical Dentistry. 
 H. G. Ulrich, D.D.S. ; C. E. Duck, D.D.S., Demonstrators of 
 Practical Dentistry. 
 
 B. W. Barton, INI.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy. 
 
 This college requires of its candidates for graduation that they 
 shall have attended two full courses of its lectures; except that either 
 graduation in a reputable medical college and one year dental pupil- 
 age, — one year in any reputable dental college, — five years' practice, 
 including regular pupilage, — nor an acceptable examination on enter- 
 ing the college upon anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and practical 
 dentistry, — will be contsidered as equivalent to one course in the col- 
 lege. It is also announced that graduates of this school will be ac- 
 cepted as second-course students at the Washington University of 
 Medicine, and at the Baltimore College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
 
 The Dean of this college. Dr. R. B. Winder, was elected, in 1868, 
 to fill a chair of Dentistry in the Baltimore Special Dispensary; its 
 Board of Physicians declaring that " Dentistry should hereafter be 
 considered as a surgical specialty in this institution, and placed upon 
 the same footing as the other specialties."* 
 
 * Letter of the Board to Dr. Winder. 
 
 I
 
 DENTAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 195 
 
 The graduates of this school are numbered as follows: In 1874, 
 10; 1875, 4; 1876, 10. Total, 24. 
 
 Tlie Dental College of the University of Michigan 
 
 was instituted in 1875, its first session commencing in October of 
 that year. Its Faculty is as follows: 
 
 James B. Angell, LL.D., President. 
 
 Jonathan Taft, D.D.S., Principles and Practice of Operative Den- 
 tistry, and Dean. 
 
 John A. Watling, D.D.S., Clinical and Mechanical Dentistry. 
 
 AValter H. Jackson, Demonstrator. 
 
 In addition to the above, students receive instruction in Anatomy, 
 Physiology, Pathology, Chemistry, JIateria 3Iedica, Therapeutics, and 
 Surgery from the Professors of those branches in the " Department 
 of Medicine and Surgery" of the University. 
 
 This school requires of its students certain qualifications for ad- 
 mission thereto ; the most important being, graduation from " some 
 respectable college, academy, or high school," or matriculation in the 
 University, or an examination " as to his previous education and his 
 fitness for entering upon and ajipreciating the technical study of 
 medicine."* The conditions of graduation are, that " He must de- 
 vote three years to the study of his profession, in connection with at- 
 tendance upon a full course of medical lectures. He must attend two 
 full courses of lectures in the dental college, or one course elsewhere 
 and the last one here. . . . He must sustain an examination satis- 
 factory to the Faculty in all the branches taught. A graduate of the 
 medical college may enter the senior class, and if found qualified may 
 graduate after two years have been devoted to the study of dentistry. 
 A dentist who has been in reputable practice for four years may 
 submit to an examination, and if approved enter the senior class."t 
 
 As the term of this college is two years, there have been, thus far, 
 no students y-raduated from it. 
 
 In connection with the University of California there is established 
 a dental school. This was decided upon in 1873, in consequence of 
 action taken in the matter by the California State Dental Society, 
 and the (.lepartment was afterward established ; but as yet no lectures 
 have been given. 
 
 About the same year, also, there appeared before the profession the 
 
 * College Announcement, 1875. f Ibid.
 
 196 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 so-called "St. Louis Dental College." This institution appears to 
 have had no real existence as a college, and held no sessions ; but 
 degrees were conferred by it, — it is said simply upon payment of a 
 sum of money.* An attempt by it to introduce its delegate into the 
 American Dental Association was promptly thwarted, the committee 
 on the subject declaring that " the St. Louis Dental College has no 
 existence except under a technicality of a loose and dangerous statute 
 of the State of Missouri ; that it has never attempted to fulfill the 
 spirit of even this bad law, by instituting lectures, clinics, or any 
 other mode of teaching dental science,"! The " St. Louis Dental 
 College" soon came to an end. 
 
 To sum up: There have been founded in this country since 1840, 
 no less than fifteen public institutions for the teaching of dentistry. 
 Of these, twelve are now in existence. The whole number have 
 granted degrees (as nearly as has been possible to determine) to 
 2300 persons. It is worthy of note that only one of the fifteen 
 schools (the Transylvania School of Dental Surgery, Kentucky) never 
 attained any importance; and that the other two now out of exist- 
 ence (the New York [Syracuse] college, and the first Philadelphia 
 college) became so through causes entirely apart from and uncon- 
 nected with the system of dental instruction pursued by them. 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. x. p. 310. 
 
 f Transactions of the American Dental Association for 1867, p. 13.
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 
 
 Ix the earlier days of American dentistry, although there existed 
 even a greater necessity for some barrier to the promiscuous entrance 
 into the profession of unqualified persons than is now felt, there were 
 insuperable objections, in the minds of even reputable and competent 
 practitioners, to any application for legal protection. Chief among 
 these stood that almost universally predominant feeling of profes- 
 sional jealousy which was so long the barrier to advancement in 
 dentistry in almost every direction. To appeal to public guardian- 
 shij) was to display their modes of practice, not alone to the public 
 and unprofessional eye, but to tlie scrutiny of, and, perchance, adop- 
 tion by, the professional brotherhood. Narrow and illiberal as such 
 a view will now appear, it is no less the exact one taken by the gen- 
 eral practitioner of fifty years ago, on almost any question connected 
 with his practice. Good dentists were few and isolated, and easily 
 commanded upon their merits all the practice they could care for ; 
 and they consequently contented themselves with railing at such den- 
 tal operators as were, or as they conceived to be, below them in scien- 
 tific or j^ractical status, being well aware that they were secure in the 
 position they had gained in the public estimation, and caring little 
 for aught else. It will be remembered that we refer to the general 
 practitioner, and do not include some, who, from the earliest dates, 
 appear to have been entirely free from such ignoble motives. 
 
 There was another fact which also operated strongly against any 
 movement of the better class of dentists toward legislative protection 
 against empiricism. This was, that the majority of persons practicing 
 dentistry in this country, was, in those times, comjiosed of the very 
 class against which any such enactment would, perforce, have been 
 aimed. This class, although certainly not influential in individuality, 
 was yet so as a whole, and could not be ignored — and might, possi- 
 bly, not have been overcome — in any contest such as would surely 
 
 have arisen on the question of dental legislation. 
 
 107
 
 t 
 i 
 
 198 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. ^ 
 
 Upon the establishment of dental periodicals and schools, and in 
 consequence of the growth of liberal ideas in the profession, the state 
 of affairs in dentistry gradually changed. A college degree and an 
 official published organ gave to the educated dentist of 1840 and after- 
 ward a superiority in the public estimation over the irregular prac- 
 titioner which he had never before held, and enabled him to concert 
 and coni])lcte measures such as would have been exceedingly difficult, 
 if not imjK)ssible, to have been carried out, even five years before. 
 
 Curiously enough, the first State to pass a dental enactment in this 
 country was Alabama, almost the ])oorest in skilled dentists at the 
 time of any State in the Union. This legislation (probably the first 
 ever had on the dental specialty) was somewhat anomalous, placing 
 the keeping of dental interests entirely in the hands of the general 
 surgeon and physician. The old and now well-known objections to 
 such a course operated then much more actively than they do at 
 present. Said Dr. Harris,*—" The insuperable objection to commit- 
 ting the interests of dental surgery into the keeping of the general 
 surgeon and the physician is, that gentlemen who are only medically 
 educated, as far as it regards dental surgery are oftentimes as ignorant 
 as the most unlearned. The medical colleges have never taught this 
 branch of surgery in its most important and difficult operations, and 
 hundreds of students are graduated yearly who do not really know 
 how to extract a tooth scientifically." It is worthy of note that Dr. 
 Harris, in conclusion of the above remarks, outlined almost exactly 
 the })resent system of associated dentistry more than thirty years ago. 
 He adds, referring to the Alabama law, — " Much may be done, even 
 in this way, but the true remedy lies in the general union of educated 
 dentists in a central association, aided and sustained by State societies. 
 Such, acting with as much power from the State laws as surgeons and 
 physicians have, will be able to make the profession honorable, re- 
 spectable, and useful." 
 
 The act of Alabama was approved December 31st, 1841. It was 
 as follows : 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 " An Ad Recjulating the Practice of Dental Surgery, and for other 
 
 •purposes. 
 
 " Section 1 . Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives of the State of Alabama, in General Assembly convened. That 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. iii. p. 291.
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 199 
 
 from and after the first Monday in December next, it shall be the 
 duty of each of the medical boards of this State to examine and 
 license applicants to practice dental surgery, under the same rules 
 and regulations, and subject to the same restrictions as those who ap- 
 ply for license to practice medicine ; and, in order more fully to carry 
 this act into effect, it shall be the duty of each of the medical boards, 
 where the same is practicable, to add to their body, by election, a 
 professional dentist having the requisite qualifications, which dentist 
 so added shall constitute a part of the board. 
 
 " Section 2. And be it further enacted. That if any person styling 
 himself as dentist, or other person, shall engage in the practice of 
 dental surgery as a professional business, after the aforesaid first 
 Monday in December next, without having been regularly licensed 
 60 to do by one of the medical boards of this State, as hereinbefore 
 provided for, for every such offense shall forfeit and pay a sum not 
 exceeding fifty dollars, recoverable before any court having jurisdic- 
 tion of the same, one-half to the informer, the other half to the 
 county where suit is brought. 
 
 " Section 3. And be it further enacted, that all bonds, notes, or 
 promissory obligations, or assumpsits, made to any person or per- 
 sons not authorized as provided for in this act, the consideration of 
 which shall be for services rendered as a professional dentist, or in 
 the line of professional dentistry, shall be utterly void and of no 
 effect ; Provided, the provisions of this act shall not be so construed 
 as to prevent persons from practicing dental surgery who have a 
 license to practice surgery and medicine, from either of the medical 
 boards of this State, or diploma from any regularly constituted insti- 
 tution in the United States. 
 
 "Section 4. And be it further enacted. That hereafter it shall be the 
 duty of all practicing physicians, surgeons, and dentists, to have their 
 licenses recorded in the office of the Clerk of the County Court in 
 which they may reside, and the certificate of the clerk shall be con- 
 sidered as good evidence in any court of the right of any individual 
 having a diploma or license to practice his profession, and recover 
 his debts for the same. 
 
 "Section 5. And be it further enacted, That all laws, and parts of 
 laws, contravening the provisions of this act, be and the same are 
 hereby repealed." 
 
 What success the above enactment met with during the long time 
 it was in force (it is believed, to the opening of the late civil war),
 
 200 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 cannot now be ascertained. Its effects were, probably, more in the 
 suppression of irregular practitioners than in the elevation of the 
 standard of professional acquirements in dentistry. The latter, in 
 fact, has proved an exceedingly difficult operation, through legislative 
 action, in later days and with the most approved form of law ; and 
 groat success in this direction cannot be exj)ccted of so crude a statute, 
 and in times such as were those in which it was j)assed. 
 
 The newer order of thought and ethics introduced by and with 
 joiirnalism and educational institutions was itself so powerful an 
 educator, both of the profession and the public, that any necessity 
 for legal status appears to have been small, or at least lightly felt, for 
 many years. 
 
 Dentistry, after 1840, had acquired such importance and generally 
 accorded scientific standing as it had never before known. The 
 graduates of dental colleges multiplied, and the class of good — or, 
 at least, tolerable — dentists became almost as nearly the rule as it had 
 formerly been the exception. Under these circumstances dentistry 
 rested for a jieriod of about twenty-five years. 
 
 About 18(35, there arose a series of circumstances certainly not 
 contemplated by those who have been affectionately denominated the 
 " fathers of American dentistry." This subject is designed to be 
 more fully treated in the chapter on "Dental Education," and will 
 not, therefore, be further alluded to here. Suffice it to say, that sat- 
 isfactory sr(/*-government in dentistry appeared to have, at that time, 
 fulfilled its possibilities; and the profession cast about for some 
 method which should replace it to a better end. This appears to 
 have been partially effected, at least, by resort to the original method 
 put in operation by Alabama, twenty-five years before. 
 
 Several of the States, notably Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and "New 
 York, attempted to procure legislative action on dentistry, about 
 1860-68. Kentucky failed entirely; and her State Society is now 
 organized inulcr a special act of incorporation.* Pennsylvania has 
 finally succeeded, after much labor and several rebuffs. New York 
 Mas the first after Alabama to procure a special legislative enactment 
 relative to dentistry. 
 
 * In 1867, certain prominent dentists of that State undertook the passage of 
 tvn act, which provided, among other things, that it sliould be iinhiwful for any 
 but holders of diplomas of dental colleges, or certificates of an examining board, 
 to practice dentistry ; and instituting fines for the breaking of the proposed law, 
 making the single exception to the above that the act should not " prevent phy- 
 sicians and surgeons from extracting teeth." See Dental Cosmos, vol. viii. p. 6C4.
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 201 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 So far have been developed two classes of such laws. The act 
 first in force in Alabama, and those of Ohio, Xew Jersey, Georgia, 
 and Pennsylvania may be denominated "prohibitory" laws; that is, 
 they seek, by stringent provisions, under heavy penalties, to forcefully 
 prevent the practice of dentistry by any except regularly authorized 
 persons. That of New York forms a class by itself, its object being, 
 in the language of its founders, to " seek thorough organization and 
 the establishment of })roper standards, .... without the enactment 
 of penalties for the infringement of the State Society's regulations, — 
 a law which seeks rather to mould public opinion than to repress the 
 unqualified, — which endeavors to elevate the incompetent, rather than 
 to drive him from practice."* 
 
 The nuiltiplication of dental societies in this State proved to be 
 the first indication of the need for organized professional effort there. 
 An entire want of unanimity of opinion or organized action on any 
 matter of importance, was felt to be a great obstacle to professional 
 advancement ; and the absence of any standard of qualification for 
 admission to the brotherhood was recognized as a serious evil, which 
 demanded prompt remedy. It was said, and justly, — " Law, Medi- 
 cine, and Divinity have each their barriers erected ; having passed 
 which, the student becomes at once the professional brother, but out- 
 side which he is, in no case, recognized or given the hand of fellow- 
 ship. But Dentistry has no line of demarcation by which to separate 
 the competent from the incompetent, — no standard of qualifications, — 
 and no clearly defined limits. . . . Law, Medicine, and Divinity, 
 themselves in possession of the immunities of centuries, are distrust- 
 ful of the profession wliich has no organized existence and no respon- 
 sible head. Any man may, at his option, become a dentist. There 
 is no obstruction to prevent the ingress of the unworthy, and no code 
 of ethics such as will prevent fraternization with them."t 
 
 Such points of moment as these could not fail to engage the serious 
 consideration of the best jnen. The various local societies began to 
 give expression to their ideas of reform by the appointment of com- 
 mittees to agitate the subject of a deliverance from the evils which 
 beset them. The Buffido Dental Society finally took the step of call- 
 ing a general convention of State practitioners; and the result was 
 
 * Mnnuscript of Dr. Barrett in the possession of the author, 
 f Mss. of Dr. Barrett.
 
 202 HISTORY OF A]^IERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 the passage of the following act in the Legislature, which was signed 
 by the Governor, Ai)ril 7th, 18G8 : 
 
 "An Act to incorporate dental societies for the purpose of Improving 
 and Regulating the Practice of Dentistry in this State. 
 
 " The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and 
 Assembly, do enact as follows : 
 
 '^Section 1. It shall be lawful for the dentists in the several judi- 
 cial districts of the sn{)reme court of this State, to meet together at 
 the following named places, to wit: In district number one, at the 
 Cooper Institute in the city of New York; district number two, at 
 the City Hall in the city of Brooklyn; district number three, at the 
 Delavan House in the city of Albany; district number four, at the 
 Clarendon Hotel, Saratoga Springs; district number five, at the Stan- 
 vvix Hall Hotel, in the village of Rome; district number six, at the 
 Lewis House, in the village of Binghamton; district number seven, 
 at the Canandaigua Hotel, in the village of Canandaigua; district 
 number eight, at the Medical Hall, in the city of Buffalo; on the 
 first Tuesday of June, eighteen hundred and sixty-eight, at two 
 o'clock in the afternoon of that day, and such dentists so convened as 
 aforesaid, or any part of them, not less than fifteen in number, shall 
 proceed to the choice of a president, vice-president, secretary, and 
 treasurer, who shall hold their offices for one year, and until others 
 shall be chosen in their places; and whenever said societies shall be 
 organized as aforesaid, they are hereby constituted bodies corporate, 
 in fact and under the names of the ' District Dental Society' of the 
 respective judicial districts where they shall be located; provided 
 always, that if the dentists residing in any district shall not meet and 
 organize themselv^es as aforesaid, it shall be lawful for them, at the 
 call of fifteen dentists residing in such district, to meet at such other 
 time and place as they shall designate; and their proceedings shall be 
 as valid as if such meeting had been at the time before specified. 
 
 "Section 2. Each of said district societies when organized as afore- 
 said, shall elect eight delegates, who shall meet at the Capitol, iu 
 the city of Albany, on the last Tuesday of June, eighteen hundred 
 and sixty-eight, and proceed to organize a State dental society, which 
 shall be named ' The Dental Society of the State of New York,' 
 and, being met, not less than thirty-three in number, shall proceed 
 to elect, and shall thereafter annually elect a president, vice-j)resi- 
 dent, secretary, and treasurer, who shall hold their offices for one 
 year, and until others shall be chosen in their places; and said 
 
 I
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 203 
 
 Society sliall be a body corporate, under the name and style as 
 aforesaid. 
 
 "Section 3. The secretaries of each of the district societies shall 
 lodge, in the county clerk's office of some county within their district, 
 a copy of all the proceedings and records of their organization; and 
 it shall also be the duty of the secretary of the State Dental Society, 
 in like manner, to lodge, in the office of the Secretary of State, a copy 
 of its records and proceedings had at the organization thereof; and 
 the said county clerks, respeetively, and the Secretary of State shall 
 file the same in their respective offices, and shall receive therefor a 
 fee of . 
 
 " Section 4. At the first meeting of said State Dental Society, the 
 same being duly organized as aforesaid, the delegation from each dis- 
 trict society shall be divided into four classes of two delegates each, 
 who shall serve one, two, three, and four years respectively, and until 
 othei-s shall be elected in their places, and the said district societies, 
 at each annual meeting thereafter, shall choose two delegates to the 
 State Society, to serve each four years, and fill all vacancies in their 
 respective delegations that may have occurred by death or otherwise. 
 
 "Section 5. Each of the incorporated dental colleges of this State 
 may annually elect two delegates to the State Dental Society, who 
 shall be entitled to all the privileges, and subject to the same rules 
 and regulations as other delegates, 
 
 " Section 6. The said State Dental Society may elect permanent 
 members of said Society from among eminent dentists residing in this 
 State, but not to exceed twenty in number, at its first meeting, nor 
 more than five in any one year thereafter, which members so elected 
 shall be entitled to all the privileges of delegate members, but shall 
 receive no compensation for their attendance on meetings of the State 
 Society, except when sent as delegates by the district societies or col- 
 leges aforesaid. And the said State Society may elect honorary 
 members from any State or country ; but no person shall be elected 
 an honorary member who is eligible to regular membership, nor 
 shall any honorary member be entitled to vote or hold any olfit'C in 
 said Society. 
 
 "Section 7. The several district societies established as aforesaid, 
 at their annual meetings, shall appoint not less than three nor more 
 than five censors, to continue in office for one year, and until others 
 are chosen, who shall constitute a district board of censors, whose 
 duty it shall be carefully and impartially to inquire into the qual- 
 ifications of all persons who shall present themselves within the dis-
 
 204 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 tricts where they reside, for examination, and report their opinion, 
 in writing, to the president of said district society, who shall there- 
 upon issue, on the recommendation of said board of censors, a cer- 
 tificate of qualification to snch j^erson or persons, countersigned by 
 the secretary, and bearing the seal of the said district society. 
 
 " Section 8. The State Dental Society organized as aforesaid, at its 
 first meeting shall appoint eight censors, one from each of the said 
 district societies, who shall constitute a State board of censors, and at 
 the first meeting of said board the meniliers shall be divided into 
 four classes, to serve one, two, three, and four years respectively, and 
 said State Dental Society shall, at each annual meeting thereafter, 
 appoint two censoi-s, to serve each four years and until their succes- 
 sors shall be chosen, and fill all vacancies that may have occurred in 
 the board by death or otherwise. Each district society shall be 
 entitled to one and only one member of said board of censors. Said 
 board of censors shall meet at least once in each year, at such time 
 and place as they shall designate ; and being thus met, they, or a 
 majority of them, shall carefully and impartially examine all persons 
 who are entitled to examination under the provisions of this act, and 
 who shall present themselves for that i)urpose, and report their 
 opinion in writing to the president of said State Dental Society, and 
 on the recommendation of said board it shall be the duty of the 
 president, aforesaid, to issue a diploma to such person or persons, 
 countersigned by the secretary, and bearing the seal of said Society. 
 
 " Section 9. All dentists in regular practice at the time of the pas- 
 sage of this act, and all persons who shall have received a diploma 
 from any dental college in this State, and all students who shall have 
 studied and practiced dental surgery with some accredited dentist or 
 dentists for the term of four years, shall be entitled to an examina- 
 tion by said board of censors. Deductions from such term of four 
 years shall be made in either of the following cases: 
 
 "1. If the student, after the age of sixteen, shall have pursued any 
 of the studies usual in the colleges of this State, the period, not ex- 
 ceeding one year, during which he shall have pursued such studies 
 shall lie deducted. 
 
 "2. If the student, after the age of sixteen, shall have attended a 
 complete course of lectures of any incorporated dental or medical 
 college in this State, or elsewhere, one year shall be deducted. 
 
 " Section 10. Every person on receiving a diploma from the State 
 Dental Society shall pay into the treasury thereof the sum of twenty 
 dollars, and on receiving a certificate of qualification from the 
 
 !
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 205 
 
 dental society of any district the sum of ten dollars into the treasury 
 thereof. 
 
 "Section 11. The dental societies of the respective districts, and the 
 Dental Society of the State, may purchase and hold such real and 
 personal estate as the purposes of their respective corporations may 
 require. The district societies each not exceeding in value the sum 
 of five thousand dollars, and the State Dental Society not exceeding 
 twenty thousand dollars in value. 
 
 " Section 12. The respective societies herein provided for may make 
 all needful by-laws, rules, and regulations, not inconsistent with any 
 existing law, for the management of the aifairs and property of said 
 societies respectively, and providing for the admission and expulsion 
 of members, provided that such by-laws, rules, and regulations of the 
 respective district societies shall not be repugnant to nor inconsistent 
 with the by-laws, rules, and regulations of the State Dental Society. 
 
 " Section 13. All dentists who shall have been in regular practice in 
 this State at the time of the passage of this act, and all persons who 
 shall have received a certificate of qualification from any district 
 society, shall be eligible to membership in said district societies. 
 
 "Section 14. The Dental Society of the State of New York shall 
 be entitled to all the privileges and immunities granted to the Medi- 
 cal soeieties of this State. 
 
 "Section 15. This act shall take efiect immediately." 
 
 In this enactment the State Society (convened and organized ac- 
 cording to the law) perceived an omission, — authorization to confer a 
 degree with the diploma. This was conceived to be necessary, in 
 order to put non-graduates of colleges on an equal footing with 
 graduates. Accordingly, at the next meeting of the Legislature, in 
 1869, was presented and passed the following amendment to the 
 original law : 
 
 "An act to amend an act entitled 'An Act to incorporate dental 
 societies, for the purpose of Improving and Regulating the Practice 
 of Dentistry in this State.'' 
 
 " The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate 
 
 and Assembly, do enact as follows : 
 
 "Section 1. Section eight of the act entitled Mn Act to incorporate 
 
 dental societies, for the purpose of improving and regulating the 
 
 practice of dentistry in this State,' is hereby amended so as to read 
 
 as follows :
 
 206 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 " * Section 8. The State Dental Society, organized as aforesaid, at its 
 first meeting shall appoint eight censors, one from each of the said dis- 
 trict societies, who shall constitute a State board of censors, and at the 
 first. meeting of the said board, the members shall be divided into four 
 classes, to serve one, two, three, and four years respectively; and said 
 State Dental Society shall, at each annual meeting thereafter, appoint 
 two censors, to serve each four years, and until their successors shall 
 be chosen, and fill all vacancies that may have occurred in the board 
 by death or otherwise. Each district Society shall be entitled to one, 
 and only one, member of said board of censors. Said board of cen- 
 sors shall meet at least once in each year, at such time and place as 
 they shall designate ; and being thus met, they, or a majority of them, 
 shall carefully and impartially examine all persons who are entitled to 
 examination under the provisions of this act, and who shall present 
 themselves for that purpose, and report their opinion in writing to 
 the president of said State Dental Society, and on the recommenda- 
 tion of the said board, it shall be the duty of the president aforesaid 
 to issue a diploma to such person or persons, countersigned by the 
 secretary and bearing the seal of said Society, conferring upon him 
 the degree of "Master of Dental Surgery" (M.D.S.) ; and it shall 
 not be lawful for any other society, college, or corporation to grant 
 to any person the said degree of "Master of 'Dental Surgery."*' 
 
 " Section 2. Any person who shall knowingly or falsely claim or 
 pretend to have or hold a certificate of license, diploma, or degree, 
 granted by any society organized under and pursuant to the provisions 
 of this act, or who shall falsely and with intent to deceive the public, 
 claim or pretend to be a graduate from any incorporated dental college, 
 not being such graduate, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor. 
 
 " Section 3. This act shall take eifect immediately." 
 
 Under this law were formed one main and eight district societies, 
 as required by it, and as noted in the chapter on " Dental Associa- 
 tions." The degree (]M.D.S.) has been generally carefully conferred, 
 and many dentists, in former practice without any degree, have 
 availed themselves of the provisions of the act in this direction. 
 Another valuable feature exists in section fourteen of the act. Under 
 this section the State publishes, annually and gratuitously, at least 
 eight hundred copies of the transactions of the main society. Since 
 1869 these volumes have been issued in their order, at no cost to the 
 jirofossion. The act thus offers facilities for dental publication 
 unequaled by any other yet in force. 
 
 t
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 201 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 Following in the steps of Xew York, this State was the third to 
 pass legislative enactments relative to dentistry. Further than im- 
 mediate succession in point of time, however, the law of Ohio does 
 not resemble that of the former State ; for it is, perhaps, the most 
 rigorously enforced of any of the class of prohibitory acts. The 
 following is the text of the original act : 
 
 " A Lmc to Regulate the Bradice of Dentistry in the State of Ohio. 
 
 "Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State 
 of Ohio, That it shall be unlawful for any person to practice dentis- 
 try in the State of Ohio for compensation, unless such person has 
 received a di})loma from the Faculty of a Dental College duly incor- 
 porated under the laws of this or any other State of the United 
 States or foreign country, or a certificate of qualification issued by the 
 State Dental Society or by any local society auxiliary thereto; pro- 
 vided that nothing in this section shall apply to persons now engaged 
 in the practice of dentistry in this State before the first day of Jan- 
 uary, 1873. 
 
 " Section 2. Any person wlio shall practice dentistry without having 
 complied with the regulations of this Act, shall be deemed guilty of 
 a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not less 
 than fifty or more than two hundred dollars; provided that nothing 
 in this Act shall be construed to prevent physicians and surgeons 
 from €'xtracting teeth. 
 
 "Section 3. All prosecutions under this Act shall be by indict- 
 ment before the Court of Common Pleas in the County where the 
 offence was committed, and all fines imposed and collected under the 
 provisions of this Act shall be paid into the Treasury of the County 
 where such conviction shall take place, for the use of the common 
 schools within such county. 
 
 "Section-^. This Act shall take effect and be in force from and 
 after its passage." 
 
 The above act was passed, May 8th, 1868; but was afterward 
 amended, as follows : 
 
 "An Act to amend Section One of an Ad, entitled ^ An Ad to Regulate 
 the Practice of Dentistry in the State of Ohio/ passed May Sth, 1868. 
 
 "Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State
 
 208 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 of Ohio, That Section One (1), of the above named act, be so 
 amended as to read as follows : That it shall be unlawful for any 
 person to practice dentistry in the State of Ohio for compensation^ 
 unless such person has received a diploma from the Faculty of a 
 Dental College duly incorporated under the laws of this or any other 
 State of the United States, or foreign country, or a certificate of 
 qualification issued by the State Dental Society : provided, that in all 
 cases where any person has been continuously engaged in the practice of 
 dentistry for a period of five years or more, such person shall be con- 
 sidered to have complied with the provisions of this Act, and the Act 
 to which this is amendatory. 
 
 "Section 2. Any person who shall practice dentistry without having 
 complied with the regulations of this Act, shall be deemed guilty of 
 a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined not less 
 than fifty dollars nor more than two hundred dollars ; provided, that 
 nothing in this Act shall be construed to prevent physicians and sur- 
 geons from extracting teeth. 
 
 "Section 3. All prosecutions under this Act shall be by indict- 
 ment before the Court of Common Pleas in the County where the 
 offence was committed, and all fines imposed and collected under the 
 provisions of this Act, shall be paid into the Treasury of the County 
 where such conviction shall take place, for the use of the common 
 schools within such county. 
 
 " Section 4. That said original Section One (1) be and is hereby 
 repealed, 
 
 "Section 5. This Act shall take effect and be in force from and 
 after its passage. 
 
 "Passed March 10th, 1873." 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Legislation in this State is of the prohibitory character. The 
 following is a transcript of the law approved August 24th, 1872 : 
 
 "An Act to Regulate the Practice of Dentistry, and to Protect the 
 People against Empiricism in relation thereto, in the State of 
 Georgia. 
 
 "Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly, that from 
 and after the passage of this act it shall be unlawful for any person 
 to engage in the practice of dentistry in the State of Georgia, unless 
 said person has graduated and received a diploma from the Faculty
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 209 
 
 of a Dental College, chartered under the authority of some one of 
 the United States or foreign governments, or shall have obtained a 
 license from a Board of Dentists, duly authorized and appointed by 
 tliis Act, to issue such license. 
 
 ''Section 2. That the Board of Examiners shall consist of five 
 (5) dental graduates or practitioners of dentistry, who are members 
 in good standing of the Georgia State Dental Society ; provided, 
 that said graduates or practitioners have been practicing in the State 
 of Georgia for a term not less than three (3) years. Said Board 
 shall be elected to serve for two years. The president of said 
 Georgia State Dental Society shall have power to fill all vacancies in 
 said Board for unexpired terms. 
 
 "Section 3. That it shall be the duty of this Board, first, to meet 
 annually at the time of meeting of the Georgia State Dental Society, 
 or oftener, at the call of any three of the" members of said Board. 
 Thirty days' notice must be given of the annual meetings. Sec- 
 ondly, to prescribe a course of reading for those who study dentistry 
 under private instruction. Thirdly, to grant a license to any appli- 
 cant who shall furnish satisfactory evidence of having graduated and 
 received a diploma from any incorporated dental college, without fee, 
 charge, or examination. Fourtidy, to grant license to all other ap- 
 plicants Avho undergo a satisfactory examination. Fifthly, to keep a 
 book, in which shall be registered the names of all persons licensed 
 to practice dentistry in the State of Georgia. 
 
 "Section 4. That the book so kept shall be a book of record; and 
 a transcript from it, certified to by the officer who has it in keeping, 
 Avith the common seal, shall be evidence in any court in the State. 
 
 "Section 5. That three members of said Board shall constitute a 
 quorum for the transaction of business, and should a quorum not be 
 present on the day aj)pointed for their meeting, those present may 
 aljourn from day to day until a quorum is present. 
 
 "Section 6. That one member of said Board may grant a license 
 to an applicant to practice until the next regular meeting of the 
 Board, when he shall report the fact, at which time the temporary 
 license shall expire; but such temporary licenses shall not be granted 
 by a member of the Board after the Board has rejected the ap[)]icant. 
 
 "Section 7. That any person who shall, in violation of tiiis Act, 
 practice dentistry in the State of Georgia for a fee or reward, shall 
 be lial)le to indictment, and, on conviction, shall be fined not less tiian 
 fifty, or more than three hundred dollars; ])r()vidc(l, that nothing in 
 this Act shall be construed to prevent any person from extracting 
 
 15
 
 210 HISTORY OF AMEEICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 teeth ; and provided further, that none of tlie provisions of tliis Act 
 shall apply to regular licensed physicians and surgeons. 
 
 "Section 8. That on trial of such indictment, it shall be incum- 
 bent on the defendant to show t-hat he has authority, under the law, 
 to practice dentistry, to exempt himself from such penalty. 
 
 "Section 9. That one-half of all fines collected shall inure to the 
 informer, and the other half to the educational fund of the county. 
 
 "Section 10. That all dentists who have been in practice prior to 
 the passage of this Act are exempt from all provisions of the same. 
 
 "Section 11. Repeals conflicting laws." 
 
 We have no means of accurately estimating the value of this law 
 in its results. It appears, however, to be very loosely framed. 
 
 NE^y JERSEY. 
 
 The laws of this State and Georgia are almost exactly similar, as 
 will be seen by the following : 
 
 ''An Act to regulate the practice of Dentistry, and to protect the 
 
 ^nople against empiricism in relation thereto, in the State of New 
 
 Jersey. 
 
 "1. Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the 
 State of Xew Jersey, That from and after tiie passage of this act it 
 shall be unlawful for any person to engage in the practice of den- 
 tistry in the State of New Jersey, unless said person has graduated 
 and received a diploma from the faculty of a dental college, char- 
 tered under the authority of some one of the United States or foreign 
 governments, or shall have obtained a certificate from a board of 
 dentists, duly authorized and appointed by this act, to issue such 
 certificates. 
 
 "2. And be it enacted, That the board of examiners shall consist 
 of five practitioners of dentistry, who are members in good standing, 
 of the New Jersey State Dental Society ; provided, that said prac- 
 titioner have been practicing in the State of New Jersey fiir a term 
 of not less than three years; said board shall be elected by the New 
 Jersey State Dental Society, to serve for one year ; the president of 
 said New Jersey State Dental Society shall have power to fill all 
 vacancies in said l)oard for unexpired terms. 
 
 " 3. And be it enacted. That it shall be the duty of this board, 
 first, to meet annually at the time of meeting of the New Jersey 
 State Dental Society, or oftener, at the call of any three of the mem-
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 211 
 
 bers of said board ; thirty days' notice must be given of the annual 
 meetings ; secondly, to prescribe a course of reading for those who 
 study dentistry under private instruction ; thirdly, to grant a cer- 
 tificate to all applicants who undergo a satisfactory examination; 
 fourthly, to keep a book in which shall be registered the names of 
 all persons having certificates to practice dentistry in the State of 
 New Jersey, after the passage of this act. 
 
 "4. And be it enacted. That the book so kept shall be a book of 
 record ; and a transcript from it, certified to by the officer who has 
 it in keeping, with the common seal, shall be evidence in any court 
 in the State. 
 
 "5. And be it enacted. That three members of said board shall 
 constitute a quorum for the transaction of business, and should a 
 quorum not be present on the day appointed for their meeting, those 
 present may adjourn from day to day until a quorum is present. 
 
 "6. And be it enacted. That any person who shall, in violation of 
 this act, practice dentistry in the State of New Jersey for a fee, or 
 reward, shall be liable to indictment, and, on conviction, shall be fined 
 not less than fifty, or more than three hundred dollars ; provided, that 
 nothing in this act shall be construed to prevent any person from 
 extracting teeth ; and provided further, that none of the provisions 
 of this act shall apply to regular licensed physicians and surgeons. 
 
 " 7. And be it enacted, Tliaton trial of such indictment it shall be 
 incumbent on the defendant to show that he has authority, under 
 the law, to practice dentistry to exempt himself from such penalty. 
 
 "8. And be it enacted, That one-half of all fines collected shall 
 inure to the informer and the other half to the educational fund of 
 the county. 
 
 " 9. And be it enacted. That nothing in this act shall apply to 
 persons who shall be engaged in the practice of dentistry in this 
 State at the time of the passage of this act. 
 
 " 10. And be it enacted, That to provide a fund to carry out the 
 provisions of the third section of this act, it shall be the duty of the 
 board of examiners to collect from all who received the certificate 
 to practice dentistry, the sum of thirty dollars each, of which sum, 
 if there be any remaining after liquidating necessary cx^xmiscs, the 
 balance shall be paid into the treasury of the said New Jersey State 
 Dental Society, to be kept as a fund for the more perfect carrying 
 out of the provisions of this act ; and the board of examiners, for 
 their remuneration, shall receive from the above fund ten dollars 
 per day for each day of actual service.
 
 212 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 "11. And be it enacted, Thatthisaet shall take effect immediately. 
 "Approved March 14th, 1873." 
 
 Tliis law is said to have had a very beneficial effect in Xew Jersey. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 About the year 1865, the profession in this State began seriously 
 to agitate tiie. sid)ject of dental legislation. The same causes noted 
 as operating to this end in New York, were here of equal force and 
 effect. Authoritative organization was felt to have become a neces- 
 sitv ; and the formation of a State society upon a legal status and with 
 legislative guardianship was strenuously advocated. In 1867, the 
 Lake Erie Dental Association had a bill presented, but it was not 
 pushed to a passage. In December, 1868, the State Dental Society 
 was formed, and its first act was to draft a bill to be presented to the 
 Legislature. 
 
 But there seem to have been insurmountable difficulties to its 
 success ; for neither at the next nor at subsequent meetings of the 
 Legislature was the measure adopted; and it was not until April 
 17th, 1876, that a dental enactment finally became a part of the law 
 of this State. The following is the act as passed : 
 
 " An Act to regulate the practice of dentistry, and to protect the people 
 against empiricism in relation thereto, in the State of Pennsylvania, 
 and j/roriding penalties for the violation of the same. 
 
 "Section 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, in General Assembly 
 met, and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same. That from 
 and after the passage of this act, it shall be unlawful for any person 
 except regularly authorized physicians and surgeons to engage in the 
 ]>ractice of dentistry in the State of Pennsylvania, unless said person 
 has graduated and received a diploma from the faculty of a reputable 
 institution where this specialty is taught, and clvirtered under the 
 authority of some one of the United States, or of a foreign govern- 
 ment, acknowledged as such, or shall have obtained a certificate from 
 a board of examiners, duly appointed and authorized by the pro- 
 visions of this act to issue such certificate. 
 
 "Section 2. That the board of examiners shall consist of six prac- 
 titioners of dentistry, who are of acknowledged ability in the pro- 
 fcs.-iun. Said board shall be elected by the Pennsylvania State
 
 DENTAL LEGISLATION. 213 
 
 Dental Society at their next annual meeting, as follows : Two shall 
 be elected for one year, two for two years, and two for three years, 
 and each year thereafter two shall be elected to serve for three years, 
 or until their successors are elected. The said board shall have 
 power to fill all vacancies for unexpired terms, and they shall be re- 
 sponsible to said State Dental Society for their acts. 
 
 " Section 3. That it shall be the duty of this board : 
 
 "First. To meet annually at the time and place of meeting of the 
 Pennsylvania State Dental Society, and at such other time and place 
 as the said board shall agree upon, to conduct the examination of 
 applicants. They shall also meet for the same purpose at the call of 
 any four members of said board at such time and place- as may be 
 designated. Thirty days' notice must be given of the meetings by 
 advertising in at least three periodicals, one of them being a dental 
 journal, andall published within this State. 
 
 " Second. To grant a certificate of ability to practice dentistry, 
 •which certificate shall be signed by said board and stamped with a 
 suitable seal, to all applicants who undergo a satisfactory examina- 
 tion, and who receive at least four affirmative votes. 
 
 ''Third. To keep a book in which shall be registered the names 
 and the qualifications of such, as far as practicable, of all persons 
 who have been granted certificates of ability to practice dentistry 
 under the provisions of this act. 
 
 "Section 4. That the book so kept shall be a book of record; and a 
 transcript from it, certified to by the officer who has it in keeping, 
 with the seal of said board of examiners, shall be evidence in any 
 court in this State. 
 
 "Section 5. That four members of this board shall constitute a 
 quorum for the transaction of business, and should a quorum not be 
 present on any day appointed for their meeting, those present may 
 adjourn from day to day until a quorum is present. 
 
 "Section 6. That any person who shall, in violation of this act, 
 practice dentistry in the State of Pennsylvania, shall be liable to 
 indictment in the court of quarter sessions of the proper county ; 
 and, on conviction, shall be fined not less than fifty or more tiian 
 two hundred dollars. Provided, That any person so convicted shall 
 not be entitled to any fee for services rendered, and if a fee shall 
 have been paid, the patient or his or her heirs may recover the 
 same as debts of like amount are now recoverable by law. 
 
 " Section 7. That all fines collected shall inure to the poor fund 
 of the county in which the prosecution occurs.
 
 214 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 " Seciion 8. That nothing in this act shall ap})ly to persons who 
 shall have been engaged in the continuous practice of dentistry in 
 this State for three years or over, at the time of or prior to the pas- 
 sage of this act. 
 
 "Section 9. That to provide a fund to carry out the provisions of 
 the third section of this act, it shall be the duty of the said board of 
 examiners to collect from those who receive the certificate to practice 
 dentistry the sum of thirty dollars each, of which sum, if there be 
 any remaining after liquidating necessary expenses, the balance shall 
 be paid into the treasury of the said Pennsylvania State Dental 
 Society, to be kept as a fund for the more perfect carrying out of the 
 provisions of this act."
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 
 
 Ix this section it is designed to present, in chronological order, the 
 standard and periodical literature of American dentistry. Owing to 
 causes heretofore noted, completeness in this list is not claimed ; but 
 it is believed to be, as far as given, accurate. 
 
 Original reviews of each work have not been attempted. It is 
 thought that a more interesting chapter, historically considered, will 
 be obtained by recording those published judgments on the works 
 which were given in the periodical or other reviews of the time. 
 
 STANDARD WORKS. 
 
 ^'Pradlcai Observations on the Human Teeth. By R. Woofendale, 
 Surgeon-Dentist, London, 1783." This author, as before noted, has 
 been uniformly considered and quoted in this work as an American 
 dentist, and his book is therefore here included. It is the earliest of 
 any of the American dental works. 
 
 "A Treatise on the Human Teeth, concisely explaining their struc- 
 ture, etc."rt^Skinner, New York, 1801. 
 
 "^I Treatise on Dentistry. — Explaining the Diseases of the Teeth 
 and Gums, with the most effectual means of Prevention and Remedy ; 
 to which is added Dentition, with Rules to be observed during that 
 Interesting Period. By B. T. Longbotham, Surgeon-Dentist. Balti- 
 more, 1802." "With a good deal that is fantastic and erroneous, 
 this work contains no little which is worthy of note, and some of his 
 practice is very much in accordance with that of the present day. 
 He proposes the cure of alveolar abscess l)y laying it open to the 
 bottom, and keeping it open by means of lint dipi)ed in tincture of 
 myrrh, or some stimulating balsam. . . . He recommends filling the 
 roots of teeth, when from any cause, it is not thought advisable to 
 extract them. He mentions having seen sets of teeth retained in the 
 mouth by atmospheric pressure."* 
 
 * Dr. Arthur's review, American Journal of Dental Scioncf, 2d Series, vol. ii. 
 p. 44. The teeth retained as described by Longbotham were put in, probably, 
 by the method introduced by Gardette, in 1800. 
 
 215
 
 210 • HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 "yl Treatise on the Management of the Teeth. By Benjamin James, 
 M.M.S.S., 'Solatium Afflietis.' Boston, 1814." The many fore- 
 going extracts from this book sufficiently explain its character. 
 
 ".1 Practical Guide to the 3Ianagement of the Teeth. Comprising 
 a Discovery of the Origin of Caries, or De<!ay of the Teeth, with its 
 ]-*revention and Cure. By L. S. Parmly, Dental Professor. Phila- 
 delphia, 1819." "The author, as the title indicates, advances what 
 at the time of this publication was a new theory of the causes of 
 dental caries, which he claims as his own discovery. He attributes 
 caries ' to the relics of what we eat or drink (without regard to qual- 
 ity) being allowed to accumulate, stagnate, and putrefy either in the 
 interstices of the teeth, as is most commonly the case, or else in the 
 indentures on their surfaces, favorable for the lodgment of food.*'* 
 
 ^'Lectures on the Natural History and Ilanagement of the Teeth; 
 the Cause of their Decay ; the xirt of Preventing its Accession, and 
 the Various Operations, never hitherto suggested, for the preserva- 
 tion of Disea.sed Teeth. By L. S. Parmly, Dentist. Second Edition. 
 New York, 1821." 
 
 ''An Essay on the Disorders and Treatment of the Teeth. , By Eleazer 
 Parmly, Dentist. Third edition. New York, 1822." " The broad 
 ])roposition is here laid down, that decay of the teeth is universally 
 caused by the action of external agents ; and Dr. P. states that the 
 teeth are predisposed to caries in consequence of their sometimes being 
 of less dense structure, and less capable of resisting the action of the 
 decomposing matter."f 
 
 "The Family Dentist. Containing a Brief Description of the 
 Structure, Formation, and Diseases of the Human Teeth. By Josiah 
 F. Flagg, M.D., M.S.S., Surgeon-Dentist. Boston, 1822." The 
 objects and scope of this work are indicated by the " advertisement" 
 with wliieh it opens. " 1. To give in as few words as possible, a clear 
 description of the structure and formation of tiie teeth ; and to bring 
 to view those circumstances connected with their growth, with whicii 
 it is important for every individual to be acquainted. 2. To give a 
 brief sketch of the most common diseases to wliich the teeth are 
 liable ; together with such directions, relative to their treatment and 
 preservation, as shall enable the reader to take the necessary care of 
 his own teeth, and, if a parent, to pay proper attention to the teeth of 
 his children. 3. To guard against the injurious practice of ignorant 
 
 * Dr. Arthur, American .Journal of Dental Science, 2cl Series, vol. ii. p. 45. 
 t Ibid. 
 
 I
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 217 
 
 operators; and to remove some of those popular prejudices whicli 
 prevent many from adopting the only mode of treatment calculated 
 to diminish the liability to disease in these useful and important 
 organs."* 
 
 " Treatise on the Structure, Diseases, and Management of the Human 
 Teeth. By Eleazer Gidney, Dentist. Utica, 1824." Of this work 
 Dr. Arthur says, "The author contends that caries of the teeth is 
 produced by internal, as well as external, causes, but gives preponder- 
 ance to the latter. He says that the nerve may be deprived of vitality 
 bv extremes of heat or cold acting upon the external surface of the 
 sound tooth, and that it will then suppurate and make its way 
 through the substance of the dentine."t 
 
 "Principh's of Dental Surgery ; exhibiting a New Method of Treat- 
 ing the Diseases of the Teeth and Gums, etc. By Leonard Koeckcr, 
 Surgeon-Dentist, Doctor in ^Medicine and Surgery, etc. London, 
 182(3." This work has been largely quoted in this history, and is 
 sufficiently well known in general to make any review unnecessary. 
 
 "-4 Physiological Inquiry into the Structure, Organization, and 
 Nourishment of the Human Teeth. By J. Trenor, M.D., Dentist. New 
 York, 1828." Dr. Arthur writes of this work as follows : " Dr. T. 
 denies that the teeth possess that high degree of organization now 
 generally ascril)ed to them ; and, although he does not regard them 
 as entirely devoid of vitality, ])laces them lowest among the organ- 
 ized tissues. He attributes no other office to the pulp than that of 
 depositing upon its surface layer after layer of bone, by exudation, 
 similar to the process by which the shells of the Crustacea are formed, 
 until it is eventually entirely extirpated. The nourishment of the 
 teeth is entirely due, in his estimation, to the peridental membrane, 
 and he regards the extirpation of the pulp as productive of no injury 
 to the tooth, and strongly advocates the practice."^ 
 
 " Observations on Neuralgia, with Cases. By J. Trenor, M.D., 
 Dentist. New York, (about) 1828." Dr. Arthur says, " Dr. T. takes 
 the ground that neuralgia is caused by inflammation of dense struc- 
 ture, in whic;h, as somewhat in odontalgia, the nerves having no room 
 for exhaustion give rise to those extremely painful symptoms which 
 mark this complaint. . . . His treatment consists in freely laying 
 open the affected part with the lancet. ... He gives three ciises in 
 
 * Work cited, p. 3. 
 
 f American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 46. 
 
 + Ibid., p. 47.
 
 218 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 which the trouble seemed to be caused by the teeth, which, however, 
 were quite healthy ; relief was obtained by discovering the spot from 
 which the affection seemed to take origin, and freely laying it open. 
 In these cases the incisions were made inside the mouth, Mhich he 
 advises to be done when it is feasible, in order to.avoid leaving a scar 
 in a visible part."* 
 
 " Observed iou,s upon the Importance of the leeth. By Samuel Shel- 
 don Fitch, M.D., Surgeon-Dentist. Philadelphia, 1828." 
 
 "A Si/dem of Dental S urge ri/. In three parts. I. Dental Surgery 
 as a Science. II. Operative Dental Surgery. III. Pharmacy con- 
 nected with Dental Surgery. By Samuel Sheldon Fitcli, M.D., Sur- 
 geon-Dentist. Xew York, 1829." This work is the first systematic 
 treatise on dentistry intended for the student which was published in 
 this country. It was not, howev^er, claimed by its author to be more 
 than an extended compilation. The works quoted in it are numer- 
 ous, but Fox and Koecker receive the largest share of attention. 
 From the very various character of the remainder of the works from 
 which selections for it have been made, it is now valuable principally 
 as a mode of obtaining a comparison with more modern methods. 
 
 "An Essay on Artificial Teeth, Obturators, and Palates, with the 
 principles for their construction and application. By Leonard 
 Koecker, Surgeon-Dentist, Doctor in Medicine and Surgery, etc. 
 London, 1832." Dr. Chapin A. Harris, in a critical review on this 
 book,t makes, among others, the following extract and remarks : 
 "The pivoting method of inserting artificial teeth next engages his 
 attention, and, .... while many of his views in regard to their ap- 
 plication and utility are correct, there are others that are evidently 
 erroneous. For example, .... he says (this method) is 'always 
 attended ivith more or less in'itation.' That this is very frequently the 
 case we do not deny, but that it is not always, hundreds of cases 
 might be adduced to prove ; but it is a raetliod of insertion, I am 
 free to admit, which, as Dr. K. correctly observes, 'requires great 
 caution.' AVhen properly done, however, and upon a healthy root, 
 I have no hesitation in saying tiiat it is one of the best and most 
 satisfactory methods that has ever l>een adopted. . . . The whole 
 work is rejjlete with instruction and valuable information on this 
 part of the art of the dentist ; and had the author dwelt a little more 
 minutely on the various manipulations connected with the construc- 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Sciunce, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 48. 
 t Ibid., vol. i. p. 180.
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 219 
 
 tion of the various descriptions of artificial teeth on which he has 
 treated, its vahie would have been greatly enhanced, and, as it is, we 
 regard it as one of the best, if not the very best, treatise extant on 
 the subject in the English language." 
 
 " Bemarks on the Importance of the Teeth. On the Diseases of the 
 Teeth and Gums and on the Diseases produced by Diseased Teeth, 
 with their Modes of Cure, and Directions for forming regular and 
 beautiful Sets of Teeth, and for the Preservation of their Health and 
 Beauty. By Francis B, Chewning, Dentist. Richmond, 1833." 
 
 "An Essay on the Diseases of the Jaics, etc. By Leonard Koecker. 
 London, 1834." 
 
 " The Family Dentist, or a Familiar Treatise on the Art of Se- 
 curing a Beautiful Set of Teeth. By Dr. Homer Bostwick, Dentist. 
 New York, 1835." 
 
 " An Inaugural Dissertation on the Physiology and Diseases of the 
 Teeth. Submitted to the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Xew 
 York, and publicly defended for the Degree of Doctor of Medicine, 
 April 6th, 1835. By Shearjashub Spooner, Member of the Montreal 
 Medical Society. New York, 1835." 
 
 " Dentalogia. A Poem on the Diseases of the Teeth, and their 
 proper remedies. In Five Cantos. By Solyman Brown, A.M., with 
 notes by E. Parmly." This poem is sufficiently familiar to the pre- 
 sent practitioner not to require extended notice. Its appearance as 
 above was about 1835, and it was subsequently republished in the 
 " Library" part of the American Journal of Dental Science, Vol. L, 
 1st Series, and again in the succeeding volume. 
 
 " Observations Generales sur CIniportance des Dents. Par A. L. 
 Plough, Chirurgien-Dentiste a la Nouvelle Orleans. New Orleans, 
 1836." Dr. Arthur says, "The author states, among other things, 
 this deplorable fact, that in visiting the best schools he had taken 
 occasion to examine the mouths of the pupils, and nearly always 
 found them in the most wretched condition, no attention having 
 apparently been paid to their cleanliness. He further states that he 
 found seventy out of every hundred with diseased teeth, gums affected, 
 and breath fetid."* 
 
 "Guide to Sound Teeth, or a Popular Treatise on the Teeflt. Illus- 
 trating the whole judicious management of these organs, from infancy 
 to old age, in which the author will attempt to show that the teeth of 
 all persons, which are constitutionally well formed, and who enjoy 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 50.
 
 y 
 
 220 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 1^ 
 
 good health, may, by proper management and care, be preserved to 
 the end of life. By Shearjashub Spooner, M.D. New York, 183G." 
 In reference to this well-known work. Dr. Arthur says, "This is the 
 most systematic and elaborate popular treatise which had been pub- 
 lished up to the time of its appearance. It goes into the subject at 
 large in full detail. ... In this work Dr. Spooner first made public 
 the fact that arsenious acid would destroy the vitality of the dental 
 pulp."* 
 
 "A Public Treatise upon the Preservation of the Teeth. Comprising 
 the most useful llules for securing their whiteness and beauty, with 
 Observations on the Cause and Prevention and Cure of Caries, and 
 their effect upon the Health. Intended for Families and the Public 
 generally. By ^I. Overfield. Winchester, 1838." 
 
 " Dental Hygeia. A Poem on the Health and Preservation of the 
 Teeth. By Solyman Brown, A.M., author of ' Dentalogia,' etc. ; 
 with notes. New York, 1838." 
 
 " Observations on the Structure, Physiology, Anatomy, and Diseases 
 of the Teeth. In two parts; part first by Harvey Burdell, ^I.D,, etc., 
 part second by John Burdell, Dentist. With drawings and illustra- 
 tions. New York, 1838." 
 
 A review of the above by Solyman Brown, A.M.,f states that, 
 "The views of Berzelius, Moriani, Bell, Hunter, Cuvier, De Bloin- 
 ville, Fox, Meckle, Sabatier, Pliny, Lemaire, Canierarius, Bessot, 
 Good, Mayo, Sir Astley Cooper, Lycurgus, Porphyry, Plutarch, Sir 
 William Temple, Cullen, Lord Bacon, Cheyne, Lambe, and Clark, 
 together with other distinguished authors," are introduced. As the 
 whole work has only ninety-six pages, this will sufficiently illustrate 
 its character. Dr. Brown adds that "One-fifth ])art of the volume 
 is taken up with remarks and authorities on the subject of the natu- 
 ral food of man, as it stands connected with diseases of the dental 
 organs ; and whichever side of this contested question the reader is 
 inclined to espouse, he will be at least amused by this part of the 
 treatise." 
 
 " An Essay on the Art of the Manufacture of Mineral, Porcelain, 
 or Incorruptible Teeth. By Shearjashub Spooner, M.D. New York, 
 1838." 
 
 This work was, for the period, an exhaustive treatise on its subject, 
 and is even yet of value. 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 50. 
 
 f Ibid., 1st Series, vol. i. p. 19. j 
 
 i
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 221 
 
 " The Dental Art, a Practical Treatise on Dental iSurgery. By 
 Chapin A. Harris, M.D., Surgeon Dentist. Baltimore, 1839." Dr. 
 Artiuir says of this book, "This is the first edition of a work which 
 is now so well known that any abstract of its contents would be a 
 work of supererogation. It was the first entirely original work pub- 
 lished in this country for the use of the profession exclusively, and 
 still (1851) stands alone."* In 1845 a second edition, very much 
 enlarged and thoroughly revised, appeared under the title, " The 
 Principles and Practice of Dental Surgery. By Chapin A. Harris, 
 M.D., D.D.S." Dr. Arthur says of it, " The work in this form was 
 generally acknowledged to be the best practical treatise on Dental 
 Surgery M'hich had ever appeared in any language." f Since that 
 time, several other editions, by various editors, have been put forth, 
 and the last, in 1871, by Philip H. Austen, M.D., is numbered the 
 seventh. This work has, since 1840, retained a place as a text-book 
 in most of the dental colleges. 
 
 In the year 1840, the American Society of Dental Surgeons began 
 publishing, in separate form, a series of essays by some of its mem- 
 bers. Those published were as follows : 
 
 " On the Utility of Artificial Teeth." By Chapin A. Harris, M.D. 
 
 " On Toothache and its Cure." By Vernon Cuyler, M.D. 
 
 " On Ulceration of the Fangs of the Teeth, and the Best Methods 
 of Cure." By Elisha Baker, M.D. 
 
 "On the Preservation of the First Set of Teeth." By Enoch 
 Noyes. 
 
 "On the Importance of Regulating the Teeth of Children during 
 the Progress of the Second Dentition." By Solyman Brown, A.M., 
 M.D. 
 
 " On the Importance of Stopping Carious Teeth." By J. H. 
 Foster, ]\I.D. 
 
 " On the Dangerous Effects of Salivary Calculus." By Edward 
 Maynard, M.D: 
 
 " On the Best Method of Preserving the Natural Teeth." By L. 
 S. Parmly, M.D. 
 
 " On the Necessity of Extracting Diseased Teeth." By E. Town- 
 send. 
 
 " On the Diseases of the Gums." By Horace H. Hayden, M.D. 
 
 " On First Dentition." By Chapin A. Harris, M.D. 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 51. 
 t Ibid.
 
 222 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 To what extent these acquired circulation is not known. There 
 are but few of them now in existence. 
 
 '■^Preservation of the Teeth. A Family Guide, being Familiar Ob- 
 servations on their Structure and Diseases, M'ith practical illustrations 
 and engravings, embracing the modern improvements in dentistry. 
 liy David K. Hitchcock, Surgeon Dentist. Boston, 1840." 
 
 "^ Physiological and Pathological Inquiry, concerning the Physical 
 Characteristics of the Human Teeth and Gums, the Salivary Calculus, 
 the Lips and Tongue, and the Fluids of the Mouth, together with 
 their respective local and constitutional indications. By Chapin 
 A. Harris, M.D., D.D.S. Baltimore, 1841." 
 
 " The Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the Human Teeth, 
 with the most approved modes of treatment, including operations, 
 and the method of making and setting artificial teeth ; with thirty 
 plates. By Paul Beck Goddard, M.D., M.A.N.S., M.A.P.S., etc., 
 etc. Aided in the practical part by Joseph E. Parker, Dentist. 
 Philadelphia, 1844." 
 
 "The Natural History and Diseases of the Human Teeth. By 
 Joseph Fox, M.R., C.S.L., etc. Remodeled with an introduction 
 and numerous additions. By Chapin A. Plarris, M.D., D.D.S. 
 Illustrated with thirty plates. Philadelphia, 1846." 
 
 " A Popular Treatise on the Teeth, embracing a description of 
 their structure, diseases, etc., together with an account of the usual 
 methods of inserting artificial teeth. By Robert Arthur, Doctor of 
 Dental Surgery, and Fellow of the American Society of Dental Sur- 
 geons. New York, 1845." 
 
 " A Popular 'Treatise on the Teeth, etc., by E. G. Kelley, M.D., 
 etc. Boston (2d Edition), 1846." This author "not only i^hows 
 how directly ill health and imperfect physical training in childhood, 
 operate in the ])roduction of subsequent bad teeth, but traces the 
 connection of the latter as the chief cause of much disease and suf- 
 fering, which none but physicians, and only a few of them, fully 
 realize." * 
 
 "A Practical Treatise on the Operations of Surgical and Mechan- 
 iccd Dentistry. By Samuel C. Harbert, Surgeon Dentist. Phila- 
 delphia, 1847." 
 
 " Teeth — their Structure, Diseases and Treatment. By John Bur- 
 dell, Dentist. New York, 1847." 
 
 " BemarJcs on the Proper Mode of Administering Sulphuric Ether 
 
 * Boston Medical and Surj^ical Journal.
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 223 
 
 • 
 
 by Inhalation. By William T. G. Morton! Boston, 1847." " The 
 directions Avhioh it contains upon the subject are clearly expressed, 
 and we doubt not, if they were always followed, its liabiliti/ to pro- 
 duce dangerous effects would be very greatly lessened. It is dedi- 
 cated to the Surgeons of the Massachusetts General Hospital." * 
 
 "^ Popular Treatise- on the Teeth; containing a history of the 
 Dental Art, with anatomical descriptions of the Mouth and its ap- 
 pendages, and accounts of Chemical and Physiological E.xperiments 
 on the Teeth. Also a full and accurate history of Ether or Letheon, 
 for the Prevention of Pain, with directions for use. Designed for 
 the use of families, and as a Manual for the student and practical 
 dentist. Illustrated with numerous engravings; pp.423. By Mayo 
 G. Smith, Dental Surgeon. Boston, 1848." " It embodies consid- 
 erable information .... but we fear it is too large for the non- 
 professional reader, and is too deficient in detail for the dental student 
 or practitioner." f 
 
 " A Dictionary of Dental Science, Biography, Bibliography and 
 Medical Terminology. By Chapin A. Harris, M.D., D.D.S. Phila- 
 delphia, 1849." " Not only are all medical and surgical terms 
 exi)lained Avith concise clearness, but we have also a collection of 
 valuable knowledge in all that relates to dental science, which we 
 can find in no single Avork elsewhere. This dictionary will, among 
 j)hysicians and surgeons, successfully rival our best standard medical 
 dictionaries; Avhilst among dentists it cannot fail to command a 
 most unquestionable And decided preference, embodying, as it does, 
 all that the others can teach, and much more on Avhich they are 
 silent.":}; Later criticisms, and the popular verdict, do not appear 
 to have indorsed the above eulogy. However, other editions of the 
 Avork, amended and altered, have made it more valuable than in its 
 first form. 
 
 " The Medical Student's Guide in Extracting Teeth; with numer- 
 ous Cases in the Surgical branches of Dentistry. By S. S. Hornor, 
 Practical Dentist. Philadelphia, 1851." " The author of the above 
 Avork commences Avith a defence of the key instrument, Avhich after 
 'all others ftiil,' seems to constitute the 'ancAor' of his 'hopes.' . . . . 
 The directions for the removal of the other teeth, though perhaps 
 
 * C. A. Ilarris, in Anu-rican Journ.'il of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. viii. 
 p. 9G. 
 
 f American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. viii. p. 307. 
 X Ibid., vol. ix. p. JtOl.
 
 224 HISTORY OF AMERICAX DENTISTRY. 
 
 • 
 
 not quite as objectionable, are, in our estimation, more or less faulty 
 and imperfect." * 
 
 " Eflicr and Chloroform: Their employment in Surgery, Den- 
 tistry, ]Mi(l\vifery, Therapeutics, etc. By J. F. 13. Flagg, M.D., 
 Surgeon Dentist, etc. Philadelphia, 1851." 
 
 *' A Practical Treatise on Dental Jledicin'e: being a compendium 
 of Medical Science as connected with the study of Dental Surgery. 
 By Tiios. E. Bond, A.M., M.D., etc. Philadelphia, 1851." " The 
 work of Professor Bond opens a new era in the history of dental 
 surgery. Pointing out, as it does, the pathological relationship 
 between diseased teeth and other parts of the body, it demonstrates, 
 in the fullest and most conclusive manner, the importance and ab- 
 solute necessity of a thorough knowledge of anatomy, jiJii/siologi/, 
 pathology and therapeutics, to the dentist." f 
 
 "The Physioloc/ical Effects of Sulphuric Uther, and its suj)eriority 
 to Chloroform." By Wm. T.'g. Morton, M.D. Xew York, 1851." 
 
 "A Text Book of Anatomy and Guide in Dissections, for the use 
 of students of ^Medicine and Dental Surgery. By W. R. Handy, 
 M.D., etc. Philadelphia, 1853." " Dr. Handy not only studies 
 every individual part in all the relations of its elements, but he also 
 dwells particularly upon flie relations, anatomical and physiological, 
 of the part with neighboring organs and with the entire frame. 
 Thus, a clear, connected, and natural system of teaching is arrived 
 at, instead of the eminently artificial method commonly pursued. 
 He begins with what he calls the (dphabet of anatomy, that is, the 
 primary tissues of the body. Having studied these, he commences 
 with the mouth, and follows the physiological course of the food in 
 his demonstration. The extremities, not having any direct relation 
 to these functions, are described by themselves. We are satisfied that 
 a student will learn more that is valuable from this method, than 
 from any other with which we are acquainted." ]{; 
 
 " Chemistry and Metallurgy as applied to tJic Study and I'ractice of 
 Dental Surgery. By A. Snowden Piggot, M.D., etc. Philadelphia, 
 1853." "The work is divided into four books. The first is an 
 outline of organic chemistry. It contains an account, first, of the 
 ultimate, and then of the proximate elements of the body; taking 
 uj) first the protein conq)()unds, then the organic acids and bases in 
 
 * American Journul of Dentiil Science, 2(1 Series, vo'. i. p. 388. 
 
 t Ibid., p. 387. 
 
 X IbiJ., vol. iv. p. 163. 
 
 I
 
 DEXTAL LITERATURE. 225 
 
 rco:iilar order. Booh second contains an account of diireftion, first 
 in the stomach, and then in the intestines. It includes, of course, the 
 chemistry of the gastric juice, the bile, the pancreatic fluid, the intes- 
 tinal juice, the fseces and vomited matters. Book third contains the 
 chemistry of the mouth. This includes the chemistry of saliva, 
 healthy and )uorl)id ; the chemistry of the teeth, of mucus, and of 
 salivary calculus, as far as known. Boo/: fourth treats of the chem- 
 istry and metallur(::y of metals and the earths used in the maiuifac- 
 ture of porcelain teeth. It contains, first, an account of the various 
 methods of applyint:; heat, the construction of furnaces, crucibles, 
 lutes, measurement of heat, and full tables of fuel, showing the econ- 
 omy of the different varieties. Secondly, the metals, — bestowing 
 particular attention on gold and silver. Very fall tables of coins of 
 these two metals are given, so that the mechanical dentist can be per- 
 fectly sure of the exact composition of his alloy. Thirdly, the earths 
 and alkalies, the structure of porcelain, the method of preparing the 
 materials and the mode of making and coloring artificial teeth."* 
 
 "A Treat i.sc on the Use of Adhesive Gold Foil. By Robert Arthur, 
 M.D., D.D.S. Philadelphia, 1857." "It not only gives the result 
 of the experience of the autlior, but also explicit directions for the 
 pre])aration and use of the gold. In the use of adhesive foil, an 
 entirely different system of manipulation from that employed in 
 filling teeth with ordinary foil is required, and as there are many 
 cases in which a better operation can be made with gold of this de- 
 scription than with common foil, the present treatise cannot prove 
 otherwise than very serviceable to the profession."! 
 
 "A Practical Treatise on Operative Dentistry. By J. Taft, Pro- 
 fessor of Operative Dentistry in the Ohio College of Dental. Sur- 
 gery. Philadelphia, 1859." In the course of a very thorough review 
 of this work,;}: Dr. J. H. McQnillen makes the following remarks : 
 " It was with no little satisfaction that we noticed recently the an- 
 nonncemcnt that Professor Taft was engaged ui)on th„' work that at 
 present occii[)ies our attention. Remembering his long ex})erience as 
 a practitioner, the advantage he enjoyed as public teacher in this de- 
 partment, and as contributor to and editor of one of our journals, we 
 felt assured that a work coming from such a source could not l)ut 
 meet all the requirements of the novice and the inexperienced prac- 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. iv. p. 1G6. 
 
 f Ibid., vol. vii. p. 698. 
 
 ;|: Dental Cosmos, vol. i. p. 194. 
 
 16
 
 22<) HISTORY OF AMERIC^AN DENTISTRY. 
 
 titioner in this departinciit. If, upon a careful perusal of the work, 
 candor coinj)cls the confession that our expectations have not been 
 entirely realized, we feel no hesitation in acknowledging that, on the 
 whole, it is a valuable r^sinne of the practice that prevails with the 
 profession in this country." 
 
 "J. Practical Treatise on Mechanicnl Dentistry. By Joseph Rich- 
 ardson, D.D.S., M.D., etc. Philadelphia, 1800." "In the arrange- 
 ment of the work the author has proceeded in an orderly and 
 systematic manner, and his descriptions of the diiferent articles em- 
 ployed in the dental laboratory and the various methods of manipu- 
 lation in the construction of artificial dentures are given in a clear and 
 comprehensive manner. Some of the plans advocated by the author 
 are different from what we should advise, but we will not pretend to 
 say that his course may not be the best. Embracing, as the work 
 does, all the prominent points connected with mechanical dentistry, 
 .... we gladly recommend it as a useful and valuable treatise, 
 particularly to those (students) for whom it was particularly pre- 
 pared." * 
 
 '^Dental Anomalies, and their influence upon the production of 
 diseases of the Maxillary Bones. By Am. Forget, M.D., C.L.D., 
 etc. Philadelphia, I860."* " It consists of two chapters. The first 
 treats of 'Anomalies of Nutrition and Development.' Cases are 
 given, the first of which is very minute in all its parts; the history 
 of the disease, the condition of the patient, the diagnosis of the dis- 
 ease, the operation, the method of its performance, with remarhs on the 
 same, the consequences of the operation, the final residts of the opera- 
 tion, with refiections. Other cases are also given, which, taken to- 
 gether and closely examined, afford a large amount of information. 
 Chapter second treats of anomalies of positions of the teeth, and their 
 pathological consequences. This part is also illustrated with cases of 
 much interest."! 
 
 " Dentition and its Deranrfcments. By A. Jacobi, M.D. New York, 
 1862." 
 
 "^ Manual on Extracting Teeth. By Abraham Robertson, 
 D.D.S., M.D. Philadelphia, 1863." ** This work, ' founded on tiie 
 anatomy of the ])arts involved in the operation ; the kinds, and proper 
 construction of the instruments to be used ; the accidents liable to 
 occur from the operation, and the proper remedies to retrieve such 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. ii. p. 281. 
 
 f Dentnl Register of the West, vol. xiv. p. Gl.
 
 DENTAL LITERATUEE. 227 
 
 accidents,' is the only monograph of any note npon the subject. . . . 
 Though we would differ in some respects from the autiior, we regard 
 it as a very excellent work." * 
 
 ^^Instructions in the 31(1 nipalat ion of Hard Rubber or Vuhanite 
 for Dental Furjioscs. By E. Wildman, ]\I.D., D.D.S. Philadelphia, 
 1865." 
 
 ^' Some Saggestiona Concniiiij the Nature and Treatment of Decay 
 of the Teeth. By Robert Arthur, M.D., D.D.S. Baltimore, 1807." 
 
 " Odontalgia; commonly called Tooth-ache, — Its Causes, Prevention, 
 and Cure. By S. Parsons Shaw. Philadelphia, 1868." 
 
 " Dental Materia Medica. Compiled by James W. White, M.D. 
 Philadelphia, 1868." " It fills a long-felt void in dental literature. 
 .... The entire book gives evidence of special care in its prepara- 
 tion ; and the information derived from it can be generally, and per- 
 haps univereally relied on."t 
 
 " Register Papers; A Colkction of Chemical Essays in Reference to 
 Dental Surgery. By Geo. Watt, M.D., D.D.S., etc. Philadelphia, 
 1868." *' As the title of tiiis work indicates, it consists of a series of 
 essays prepared for and originally publisiied in the Dental Register 
 of the West, flaking as the majority of the papers do direct and 
 practical application of chemistry to the needs of the dental ])racti- 
 tioner, they cannot but ])rove of advantage to the profession. . . , 
 Among them, and without detracting from the merit of others, atten- 
 tion may be directed in particular to * The Action of Topical Reme- 
 dies' as an ably-written article, imparting valuable information in a 
 direction of such importance, that this essay alone should be suflicient 
 to secure an extensive demand for the book on the part of the mem- 
 bers of the profession."! 
 
 " A Treatise on the Diseases and Surgery of the Mouth, Jaws, and 
 Associate Farts. By Jas. E. Garretson, M.D., D.D.S., etc., etc. 
 Philadelphia, 1869." In concluding an extended review of the 
 above work,^^ Dr. ^McQuillen says, "In the limited space granted 
 for a review, it is impossible to do more than mention the subjects 
 treated, and state that the author, taking advantage of the recorded 
 experience of eminent surgeons, combined with his own persoual ex- 
 perience in this direction, presents not only the general principles to 
 govern the practitioner in the performance of the ne<'essary opera- 
 tions, but also a large number of cases which have been under Ills 
 
 * Dental RegUter of the West, vol. xxii. p. 309. t Ibid., j.. 308. 
 
 X Dental Cosmos, vol. x. p. 38. i Ibid., vol. xi. p. 048.
 
 228 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 own care and tliat of otlier surgeons. A diversity of opinion may 
 exist on the part of dental practitioners relative to extending their 
 field of practice by engaging in the performance of surgical opera- 
 tions. There can, however, be but one opinion relative to the im- 
 portance and necessity of the dentist being thoroughly informed on 
 such subjects. No work has been prepared heretofore to meet their 
 needs; and this one is so well done that it is warmly commended 
 to the dental student and practitioner as a useful text-book to the 
 former and an invaluable work of reference to the latter." 
 
 This work, even before its completion,* was adopted as a text-book 
 by several of the dental colleges. 
 
 " Treatment awl Prevention of Decay of the Teeth. A practical and 
 Popular Treatise. By Robert Arthur, M.D., D.D.S. Philadelphia, 
 1871." "The diiFerence between the methods in general favor and 
 those which the author commends, is radical, and if adopted will 
 revolutionize the treatment of proximal surfaces of the teeth. , . . 
 In the preface the author claims as an inevitable conclusion that the 
 methods at present relied upon for the prevention or arrest of decay 
 of the teeth are either inadequate or imperfectly employed. . . . 
 In the third chapter the 'treatment of decay' is considered. Plug- 
 ging with gold or with any other material, it is contended, is not 
 the only or the best method of arresting caries, though generally so 
 considered. . . . Arguing from the fact that close contact of the 
 teeth leads to caries of the proximate surfaces, and that teeth stand- 
 ing separate from each other are not, as a general rule, attacked, the 
 inference is drawn that a like exception can be secured by artificial 
 separation. This, then, is the method of treating caries, which the 
 author proceeds to explain in detail."! 
 
 ^^ Htudies in the Facial licgion. By Harrison Allen, ^I.D., etc. 
 Philadelphia, 1874." "The volunje is unique, because of the effort 
 to embrace in small compass a consideration of the anatomy, l)hysi- 
 ology, and pathology of the facial region with the localization of dis- 
 eased action, thus grouping together facts which otherwise would 
 have to l)e sought for throughout many volumes."^; 
 
 With the above is concluded the list of works connected with the 
 dental specialty which have been either written by American dentists 
 or i»ublished originally in this country. Up to the year 1840 there 
 have been included what are generally known as " popular treatises," 
 
 * See Acknowlfdgmcnt, page 7 <>f the work. 
 
 t Dental Cosmos, vol. xiii. p. 591. X Ibid., vol. xvii. p. 20.
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 229 
 
 but none since that date; the reason is, that the works of that char- 
 acter published before that time approached much more nearly, in 
 kind and practical value, to those then considered j)rofessional works, 
 than have the later po[)ular essays assimilated to the later strictly pro- 
 fessional publications; the former class of works having been, during 
 later years, simply advertisements, in sco})e and effect if not in de- 
 sign ; whereas those of times long past were often very superior, in 
 character and scientific value, — witness L. S. Family's " Practical 
 Guide" (1819), Josiah F. Flagg's "Family Dentist" (1822), and 
 Shearjiishub Spooner's "Guide to Sound Teeth" (1836). 
 
 PERIODICALS. 
 
 " The American Journal of Dental Science." This, the first dental 
 periodical in this or in any country, was issued on the first of June, 
 1839. "The circular of the j)ublishing committee, E, Family, E. 
 Baker, and Solyman Brown, sent it forth with many apparent mis- 
 givings as to the success of the experiment, and appealed in strong 
 terms to the more intelligent members of the profession, to come for- 
 ward to its support. . . . The journal was to consist of forty-eight 
 pages, twenty-four of which were to be devoted to the republication 
 of standard works on dental theory and practice. It was to be issued 
 monthly. The need of such a publication was evinced by the prompt- 
 ness with which this effort was encouraged. In the fourth number 
 a list of subscribers, embracing the most eminent names in the jiro- 
 fession, was published, showing that there were at that time one 
 hundred and seventy-four subscribers taking five hundred and eleven 
 copies. This may seem a small luimber, but when it is recollected 
 that this was vears ai>;o, when the number of intellijrent readiny; 
 dental surgeons was very small, it must be regarded as evidence of a 
 remarkably general interest in the undertaking. During the iirst 
 year of its publication the Journal was conducted under the editorial 
 charge of E. Family of Xew York, and C A. Harris of Baltimore, 
 in which (latter) city it was printed. It was issued with some irregu- 
 larity, at the subscription jirice of three dollars per annum. At the 
 close of the year it came into the possession of the American Society 
 of Dental Surgeons, which at that time was organized. The title 
 was then chantred to that of the ' American Journal and I^ibrarv of 
 Dental Science.' It was now issued in quarterly numbers, and the 
 subscription price was increased to five dollars. It was placed by 
 the Society in the charge of C. A. Harris of Baltimore, and Solyman
 
 2;^0 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Brown of New York. The editors were to be assisted in their labors 
 by twenty collaborators, whose duty it was to furnish matter for the 
 work and to aid its circulation. From that period until August, 
 1850, the Journal continued to be issued under the auspices of the 
 Society, under the charge of several editors, api)ointed yearly. At 
 the annual meeting, in that year, it was transferred to Dr. C. A. 
 Harris, of Baltimore, the Society relinquishing all control of the 
 Journal, which is now a private enterprise."* 
 
 During the period of republication of standard works in this peri- 
 odical, the following were issued, given in the order of their appear- 
 ance : 
 
 The Natural History of the Hurnan Teeth, etc. By John Hunter, 
 F.R.S., etc. With notes by Eleazer Parmly. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Teeth. By John Hunter, 
 F.R.S., etc. 
 
 Dentalogia : A Poem on the Diseases of the Teeth and their Proper 
 Remedies. By Solyman Brown, A.]\I. With notes by Eleazer Parmly, 
 Dentist. 
 
 A Treatise on First Dentition and the frequently Serious Disorders 
 which depend upon it. By M. Bauraes. Translated from the French 
 by Thomas E. Bond, Jr., M.D. 
 
 Principles of Dental Surgery, etc. By Leonard Koecker, M.D., etc. 
 
 Researches on the Development, Structure, and Diesases of the Teeth. 
 By Alexander Xasmyth, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc. 
 
 A Treatise on the Diseases of the Mouth. By J. B. Gariot, M.D, 
 Translated from the French by J. B. Savier, D.D.S. With notes by 
 the Editors of the American Journal of Dental Science. 
 
 A Treatise on the Disoi'ders and Deformities of the Teeth and Gums, 
 etc. By Thomas Berdniore, M.C.S,, etc. 
 
 A Treatise on the Anatomy and. Physiology of the Teeth, etc. By 
 David Wemyss Jobson, M.R.C.S.E., etc. 
 
 A Xeic Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Dental Surgery. By 
 J. Lefoulon, Surgeon-Dentist. Translated from the French by 
 Thomas E. Bond, Jr., M.D., A.M. 
 
 Anatomy of the Dental System, Human and Comjjarative. By Ph. 
 Fr, Blandin. Translated from the French by Robert Arthur, D.D.S. 
 
 A Treatise on Second Deidition, etc. By C. F. Delabarre, M.D., etc. 
 Translated from the French by (anonymous, but supposed to be) Dr. 
 Chapin A. Harris. 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 52.
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 231 
 
 A Critical Inquiry iido a few Facts connected with the Teeth. By 
 George Waite, Esq., Surgeon-Dentist, etc. 
 
 Complete Elements of the Science and Art of the Dentist. By AT. 
 Desirabode, assisted by his sons, etc. Translated from the French 
 by (anonymous, but supposed to be) Dr. Harris. 
 
 An Essai/ on the Structure and Formation of the Teeth in Man and 
 Various Animals. By Robert Bhdce, M.!). Revised and corrected. 
 With notes by C. O. Cone, D.D.S. 
 
 The Youth's Dentist, etc. By J. R. Duval, Dentist, etc. Trans- 
 lated from the French by J. Atkinson, Surgeon-Dentist, M.R.C.S.E., 
 etc. 
 
 A Treatise on the Diseases and Surgical Operations of the 3Iouth 
 and Parts Adjacent, etc. By M. Jourdain, Dentist, etc. Translated 
 from the French, by (anonymous, but supposed to have been) P. H. 
 Austen, M,D. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Dental Medicine, etc. By Thomas E. Bond, 
 A.M., M.D., etc.* 
 
 The method of publication adopted for this journal is somewhat 
 singular, and productive of inconvenience in the matter of reference. 
 The first ten volumes constitute the "first series," the second ten vol- 
 umes the "second series," and the remainder, so far as issued, make 
 a "third series," each scries being numbered in volumes from one 
 onward, as though a separate publication. The Journal is still in 
 active existence, being now edited by F. J. S. Gorgas, M.D., of Bal- 
 timore. 
 
 Stockton's Dent(d Intelligencer was the second dental periodical in 
 existence. It was commenced about November, 1844, being j)ub- 
 lished and edited by S. W. Stockton & Co., of a dental depot in 
 Philadelphia, and also in I^ondon, England, where Mr. James Rob- 
 inson, Surgeon-Dentist to the Metropolitan Plospital, was its editor. 
 It was issued in pamphlet form, in monthly numbers, but how long 
 it continued to be published has not been determined. We are in 
 possession of a copy dated October, 1847 ; and Dr. Arthur, in 1851, 
 stated t that the Intelligencer was not then in existence; therefore it 
 is evident that its publication was discontinued between those dates. 
 
 * Dr. Arthur, in his essay on the History of Dental Literature (American 
 Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 48), gives a list of tlie republica- 
 tions of the Journal, wliich is both incomplete and incorrect. The above enumera- 
 tion is believed to be correct, being taken from the library of the late Dr. A. 
 WeStcott, who was one of the editors of the Journal. 
 
 ■)■ American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 68.
 
 232 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DP^XTISTRY. 
 
 Tlie New York Dental Recorder was first issued in September, 
 
 1846, in monthly numbers, in wliich form it continued until its ces- 
 sation. The first volume was edited by J. S. Ware, M.D. ; the 
 second to the fifth, inclusive, by C. C. Allen, M.D. ; the sixth and 
 seventh by C. C. Allen, M.D., and A. Hill, D.D.S.; the eijrhth by 
 A. Hill, b.D.S.; and the ninth and tenth by C. W. Ballard, D.D.S. 
 The last number of the tenth volume is dated November, 1856, at 
 which time the ]niblication ceased; the publishers, Messrs. Sutton & 
 Raynor, declaring that it had ceased to be pecuniarily self-supporting.* 
 
 The Dental Ber/ister of the West was first issued in October, 1847, 
 under the auspices of the Mississippi Valley Association of Dental 
 Surgeons, with James Taylor, M.D., and B. B. Brown, M.D., as 
 editors. It continued under the control of that Association until 
 1852. Its issues were quarterly to 1859. In 1858 it was owned by 
 J. Taft, D.D.S. , and in 1859 it became the property of John T. 
 Toland, of the Cincinnati Dental De])ot, and owner of the Dental 
 Reporter, which latter journal was discontinued upon Mr. Toland's 
 accession to the proj)rietorship of the Regkter. He did not hold 
 it long, however, and it became the property of Dr. Tai't, by whom 
 it was transferred, in 1873, to Messrs. Spencer & Moore, now Spen- 
 cer, Crocker & Co. Since 1859 it has been issued monthly. From 
 1856 until 1872 it wa.s edited by J. Taft, D.D.S., and Geo. Watt, 
 M.D. It has since been under the sole editorial charge of Dr. Taft. 
 
 The Dental Neics Letter was, like the Register, begun October, 
 
 1847, being published by Messrs. Jones, Whitest Co., in Philadelphia, 
 as a quarterly jiamphlet of sixteen pages, edited impersonally. The 
 second volume, by Jones, White & McCurdy, was increased to twenty- 
 four pages per number. The fourth volume had thirty-two pages, 
 and the numbers of the fifth volume M'ere increased to sixty-four 
 pages, which size was retained during its further existence. 
 
 The seventh volume was the first to emerge from the impersonal 
 form of editorship. Its conductors were J. D. White, D.D.S., M.D., 
 and J. R. McCurdy, D.D.S. These names were continued until 
 1859, when the journal ceased to exist as the News Letter and 
 apjieared as 
 
 Tlie Dental Cosinox, under the ownership of Messrs. Jones & 
 White, and editorship of J. D. White, D.D.S., M.D., J. H. McQuil- 
 len, D.D.S., and George J. Ziegler, M.D. The new journal was 
 
 * Dental Register of the West, vol. x. p. 484.
 
 I 
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 233 
 
 also issued monthly. In 18G1, Dr. 8. S. White became sole pro- 
 prietor. In 1865, Dr. J. D. White ceased his editorship, Drs. 
 McQuilleii and Zie^ler continuing. In 1872, James W. White, 
 M.D., D.D.S., assumed the editorial charge, in which position he 
 still remains. 
 
 This journal has probably a wider circulation than any other 
 dental periodical has ever attained. It is, indeed, sufficiently well 
 known to render further reference to it quite unnecessary. 
 
 The Dental Times and Advertiser was begun in 1851, in Baltimore, 
 as a quarterly, under the editorship of Alfred A. Blandy, M.D., 
 D.D.S. Particulars as to its further existence have not been obtained. 
 
 Tlic Dental Expositor was started in New York, as a semi-annual 
 quarto, by Solyman Brown, A.M., INI.D. The design was unique. 
 The first number contained "the editor's well-known didactic poem, 
 'Dentalogia,' in five cantos, as originally ^jublished by Dr. E. Family 
 for private distribution among his friends."* The second number 
 contained " Dental Hygeia," another poem, also by Dr. Brown. The 
 third commenced the republication of Dr. Brown's treatise on "Me- 
 chanictd Dentistry," which originally appeared as a series of articles 
 contributed to the American Journal of Dental Seieiice.'f 
 
 It is believed that but three numbers were issued; at least, no 
 information as to any others has been received. 
 
 Brown's Dental Advertiser was issued in Cincinnati, in 1854, as a 
 quarterly. It was owned and edited by J. M. Brown, also the pro- 
 prietor of a dental depot. Further particulars in its regard have 
 not been obtained. 
 
 The Dented Monitor was a quarterly issued in Xew York City in 
 1854, by J. G. Ambler, M.D., D.D.S,, and intended for the general 
 reader more than for tiie professional one. 
 
 The Dental Obtni-ator was begun in New Orleans, May, 1855, pub- 
 lished quarterly, and edited by John S. Clarke, D.D.S. It did not 
 enjoy a long existence. 
 
 The Foreep was the title (as ])rinted) of a monthly publication 
 issued in Xew York City in 1855, by the Xew York Teeth Manu- 
 facturing Company. How long it existed is not known. 
 
 TJie American Dental Review was begun at St. Louis about 1857-8, 
 and published quarterly by the editor and proprietor. Dr. .V. M. Leslie. 
 
 * Dental Reu:ister of the West, vol. v. p. 252. 
 
 t First Series, vol. ii. pp. 161, 231, 260; vol. iii. pp. 81, 189, 233.
 
 234 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 The Dental Reporter was first issued in Cincinnati in April, 1858, 
 as a quarterly, l)y John T. Toland. It was discontinued in 1859, as 
 before noted, in consequence of Mr. Toland becoming the owner of 
 the Dental Register of the West. 
 
 The New York Dental Journal and RepoHer was issued in Xew 
 York City, July, 1858, under the editorship of Drs. Geo. H, Ferine 
 and Frank H. Norton. In 1860, the name of the publication was 
 changed to The New York Dental Journal, and Dr. Ferine became 
 disconnected with it, W. B. Roberts assuming the i)roprietorship, and 
 Frank H. Norton continuing in the editorial chair. The manner of 
 publication of this journal, or the date of its cessation, has not been 
 obtained. It was in existence in 1864. 
 
 The Cincinnati Dental Lamp was begun in that city in November, 
 
 1858, with Dr. J. M. Brown as editor and proprietor. The time of 
 its demise has not been obtiiiend. 
 
 The Dental Enterprise was a monthly journal, first issued about 
 
 1859, in Baltimore, by Henry Snowden. It is not now in existence. 
 
 The Southern Dental Examiner was started in Atlanta, Ga., in May, 
 
 1860, and issued monthly under the editorship of Dr. J. F. H. 
 Brown. It is believed to have been discontinued within a short 
 time thereafter. 
 
 The Vulcanite was first j>ublished in jMay, 1860, in New York 
 City, and regularly a})peared for some time, as a quarterly. It was 
 published by the American Hard Rubber Company, and devoted to 
 the interests of the dental branch of that business, under the editor- 
 ship of B. W. Franklin. 
 
 Tlie Dental Quarterly was begun March, 1862, in Fhiladelphia, 
 and published as a quarterly by Johnson & Lund of that city, the 
 editors being Dr. Ambler Tees and F. N. Johnson. 
 
 The People's Dental Journal was issued in Chicago, January, 1863, 
 and edited at first l)y W. W. All])ort, D.D.S., and S. T. Creighton, 
 and subsequently by Dr. AUport, A. Hill, D.D.S., and J. Richard- 
 son, D.D.S. Its periods of issue have not been obtained. 
 
 The Dental Times was begun, July, 1863, in Fhiladelphia, as a 
 quarterly, edited and published by the Faculty of the Fennsylvania 
 College of Dental Surgery. It continued to be issued, certainly 
 until 1873, and how long thereafter is not known to us. It is not 
 now in existence. 
 
 TJie Dental Circular and Examiner was the title of a quarterly
 
 DENTAL LITERATURE. 235 
 
 publication in Albany, New York, commenced January 1st, 1865, 
 and edited and published by B. Wood, M.D., in the interests of his 
 plastic filling material. It is long since out of existence. 
 
 The Missouri Dental Journal was first issued in January, 1869, 
 in St. Louis. The first editors were Homer Judd, M.D., D.D.S., 
 Henry S. Ciiase, M.D., D.D.S., and W. H. Eames, D.D.S. The 
 present editor is Dr. Henry S. Chase. It is published monthly. 
 
 The Dental Advertiser was begun in May, 1869, in Bufi'alo, New 
 York, by the Buffalo Dental Manufacturing Company. It is still 
 issued quarterly. 
 
 The Dental 3Iirror was the title of a small pamphlet published 
 monthly in St. Louis, beginning January, 1872, by the St. Louis 
 Dental Society. It was probably (if we may judge from the char- 
 acter of its contents) intended for distribution to the patients of the 
 Society's members. * 
 
 The Pennsylvania Journal of Dental Science was begun January, 
 1874, in Lancaster, Pa., by Samuel Welchens, D.D.S., by whom it is 
 still edited. It appears monthly. 
 
 John.sto)i's Dental Miscellany was begun in New York City, Janu- 
 ary, 1874, and issued monthly from Johnston Brothers' dental depot, 
 by whom it continues to be published. 
 
 The Dental Science and Quarterly Art Journal was the name of a 
 periodical started in New York City, February, 1875, under the 
 editorship of A. P. Merrill. It was intended for the general reader. 
 It is believed to have been discontinued.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The history of the progress of dental education in this country 
 may be divided into four epochs: 1. The methods in vogue from 
 1780 to 1840. 2. The causes leading to the establishment of dental 
 schools, and the contemporary opinions thereon. 3. The results of 
 such establishment. 4. The present movement toward a higher 
 standard of qualificationsfof the dental practitioner than has yet 
 been held. 
 
 In treating of the subject, the al)ove progression will be regarded ; 
 though the exactness of the noted divisions will not be attempted, 
 and no original interpretation of them will be made. It is thought 
 that more of interest and value will attach to a retrospective state- 
 ment of the ideas of prominent dentists, as published from time to 
 time, than to any presentation of original views on the matter. Ac- 
 cordingly, this chapter will be mainly a comjiilation from profes- 
 sional literature, arranged, generally, chronologically, and with only 
 such individual comment as will be necessary to make a connected 
 narrative. 
 
 The earlier existence of the dental specialty in this country pre- 
 sents an aspect almost exactly similar to that of the beginning of 
 any science. The necessity for skilled attention to oral diseases was, 
 of course, apparent; and hence arose the demand for it, — which, from 
 the very nature of the case, it was impossible at once to supply ; 
 since a science, the rudiments of which are unknown, cannot com- 
 mand even primary teachers, much less final proficients, in its prac- 
 tical aj)plications. Thus it came that the great majority of early 
 dentists were entirely empiric ; and hence, also, the secrecy regarding 
 processes, and the professional conservatism dis])layed during the first 
 decades of the existence of American dentistry. Dr. E. Townseud, 
 in an address delivered before the Society of the Alumni of the 
 Baltimore College of Dental Surgery,* (1850) said as follows : 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. x. p. 180. 
 236
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 237 
 
 " The science of Dental Surgery, properly so called, is scarcely 
 older than the oldest man in this assembly, and in this country it is 
 almost as young as the youngest of its mature practitioners. Its ori- 
 gin, moreover, is not only a very recent, but it is also a very humble 
 one. . . . Twenty years ago dentistry was jiracticed as a secret art; 
 its disciples evinced great exclusiveness, and carefully hid from each 
 other the methods by which they attained, or thought they attained, 
 any individual su])eriority. The profession was not then a fraternity; 
 it had not the character of a liberal art ; it had all the meairrcness of 
 a selfish individualism ; its spirit was narrow and exclusive, and 
 full of arrogance and pretence, and, while it thus encouraged all that 
 is illiberal in rivalry, it hindered whatever is useful and noble in 
 generous emulation. But this was not an essential or intrinsic 
 meanness of the profession, it was the fault of its ignorance and 
 inexperience; in a word, a fault insepara^^le from its infancy. The 
 earlier history of every branch of the healing art confesses similar 
 blemishes, and all alike justly rest their present claims upon their 
 present character." 
 
 From about 1785 to about 1830, the method of dental practice 
 was largely — and at first almost entirely — itinerant. Permanent 
 locations were effected only in the larger seaboard cities, as Boston, 
 New York, Philadelj)hia, and Baltimore. The following is an ex- 
 tract from a letter of Dr. E. Parmly to Dr. J. Brockway, Sr. :* " I 
 met (1817) with no jierson who even called himself 'dentist' from 
 Philadelphia to New Orleans, and I practiced in the principal towns 
 going west between the two places." Dr. J. Brockway, himself, 
 practiced about 1822 in Newbury, Vermont; and records the factf 
 that he was then *' the only dentist known from Canada to Albany, 
 and from the Rocky to the White jNIountains." The very word 
 " dentist" was not known to many. Dr. Blakesly relates an inci- 
 dent in point, occurring as late as 1834. He went into the country, 
 from Utica, X. Y., to attend the daughter of a deaf old farmer, and 
 was auuised to hear, through a thin wall, the anuounctement of his 
 advent to the farmer, who insisted upon understanding (lentist to be 
 tempest, and finally desired to know what a dentist was. J; 
 
 It is thus apparent that dental instruction of a good character was 
 not easy to be obtained. Only those permanently located were in a 
 position to give it, and then only at considerable expense of time, 
 
 * Lecture before the Third District Dental Society of New York, 1869, by 
 Dr. BrocI<\vay, p"ge 5. 
 
 t Loc. cit., p. 6. t Manuscript of Dr. S. B. Pulnier.
 
 238 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 labor, and money. The class of practitioners at all capable of giving 
 instruction "was necessarily very small. Men engaged in a lucrative 
 practice, operating during the day, and doing goldsmiths' work at 
 night, could not devote much time to the instruction of pupils. Be- 
 sides, the advantage of a certificate of pupilship from one of the 
 highly reputed dentists was so great, that very large fees were ))aid 
 for such tuition, imperfect as it was. Five hundred dollars was 
 commonly asked for the office fee of a student, and of course, very 
 few could avail themselves of such dearly-purchased privileges."* 
 
 " Mr. Parmly, being desirous that his ])eculiar treatment of the 
 teeth, his operations and general views of the subject, should become 
 as widely diffused as possible, for the common benefit of society, un- 
 dertakes to qualify gentlemen of liberal education for practice, as 
 dentists, on the following terms : For practice in London, $1000. 
 In any other city of Great Britain or America, $700. For foreign 
 practice, $500." f 
 
 The last quotation must not be regarded as savoring of quackery, 
 at least so far as its advertising character is concerned. The dental 
 ethics of the day did not exclude advertising as unj)rofessional. This 
 method of obtaining celebrity was resorted to by the very best men 
 in dentistry, without fear of professional censure. It is even recorded 
 of one dentist,! ^^ a matter worthy of note, that he did not advertise 
 himself. 
 
 The character of the dental profession, the methods of obtaining 
 education in the specialty, and its general progress up to 1835, are 
 well shown in an essay by Dr. C W. Ballard, of New York, from 
 which the following extracts are made :§ 
 
 "Owing to the absence of American dental literature, and the 
 scarcity and expense of that published in Europe, it became a matter 
 of necessity that those who, at this time, studied in the United States, 
 should be in many of the more scientific points relating to the pro- 
 fession, most sadly deficient. This was a difficulty in the way of 
 dental education, which could be overcome only by rendering dental 
 works more plenty, a thing more easily talked about than accom- 
 plished, as is evident from the fact that though the evil was known 
 
 * Amovican Journal of Dentiil Science, 2d Series, vol. ii. p. 08. 
 
 t Let'tures on the Natural History of the Teeth, by L. S. Parmly, London, 
 1820, p. 99. 
 
 X Dr. John Randall, of Boston. See Harris's Dictionary of Dental Science, 
 edition of 1849, p. 038. 
 
 § Auierican .Journal of Dental Science, vo\ ii. p. 59.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 239 
 
 and felt, it was some years before tlie remedy was commenced, and 
 many more had elapsed before it could be said to be fairly under 
 weigh. During this time the number of dentists practicing in dif- 
 ferent parts of the country was fast increasing; by the year 1825, 
 they numbered a little over two hundred ; (*) — of these .... the 
 majority had commenced practic-ing without any claim upon the 
 public beyond that of having purchased a few secrets from sucli as 
 possessed them, and were willing to sell, depending u]K)n these secrets, 
 and their own ingenuity and boldness, to help them into practice and 
 out of difficulties. 
 
 "As late as the year 1830, the means of obtaining information upon 
 such subjects as related to dental surgery, were extremely limited. 
 It is true books were beginning to be published, but they were mostly 
 small, popular works, and generally added more to the reputation of 
 the authors than to the available literature of the profession. They 
 were, however, productive of much good, by drawing the attention 
 of the public to the importance of preserving the teeth. 
 
 *'In all of our large cities were to be found some few men who, 
 having possessed themselves of what might be called the theory of 
 dental science, had put it in practice, and by much energy, persever- 
 ance, and skill, were enabled to add greatly to the information which 
 had been imparted to the-n by their instructors. These men became 
 teachers in their turn, but like those who had trodden the ground be- 
 fore them, their time and skill were needed and demanded by their 
 patients, and the number of students to whom they could give proper 
 attention was by far too small to supply the demand for dentists, and 
 a host of pretenders rushed in to supply the deficiency. Dental sur- 
 gery may with truth be said to have been at this time at its lowest ebb. 
 
 "The various methods iji vogue, at this time, of obtaining a knowl- 
 edge of the profession, or of founding claims upon the ])ublic as 
 dental surgeons, may, together with the dentists thus constituted, be 
 set down in three distinct classes. 
 
 " Class ^rs< consisted of those whose ignorance was their only excuse 
 for the injuries they inflicted upon their patients, and ultimately their 
 profession, as also of those who, having ])urchased or traded for a 
 
 *In 1830 there were, in Cincinnati, only four dentists. In 1848 this nuniher 
 had inoreiised to forty-two. In tlio lnttiT year, in Boston, there were seventy 
 dentists. " Lowell, Worcester, Springfield and miuiy other large towns (in Mas- 
 sacliusetts, in 1848) have each from Ave to ten practicing dentists." New York 
 Dental Recorder, vol. ii. p. 234. See Table of Dental Census, for 1850, 'GO, and 
 '70," at the end of this chajiter.
 
 240 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 seoret or two, depended upon hold-faced and unblushing im|)udence 
 for their success. . . . Such men could only stand high in their 
 own estimation by dragging the profession down to their level. . . . 
 Dentists, to this day, suffer to some extent from the odium brought 
 upon their calling by the acts of these men. Dentists of this class 
 knew little and cared less about the duties devolving upon them, and 
 yet they were always ready to receive pupils and instruct them in 
 the secrets and mysteries of dental science, provided they were well 
 paid for it. The fees exacted in these cases varied from five dollars 
 to one thousand. . . . The length of time occupied by these in- 
 itiatory proceedings depended very much upoii the ability of the stu- 
 dent and the ignorance of the teacher. It was generally conceded 
 by these dentists, that the shorter the time wasted in this manner the 
 better for all parties. 
 
 "The second class may be considered as consisting of those dentists 
 who, having obtained as great a knowledge of the principles and 
 practice of dental surgery as their time, means, or opportunities 
 would allow, came at once to the conclusion that so long as they did 
 the best they knew^ how for their ])atients, and comported themselves 
 in other respects as became good (iitizens, they had done their whole 
 duty. . . . \\'itli these may be included those who commenced prac- 
 tice with little or no education, and were compelled, in order to com- 
 pete with those around them, to add, by every means in their power, 
 to the knowledge and exj)erience.that their j)ractice was daily giving 
 them. ^Many of these men eventually became, to a certain extent, 
 good practitioners; but of the best of them it would be difficult to 
 say whether the good or the evil which they had done in their day 
 ])reponderated. Dentists of the second class were much better ac- 
 cpiainted with their professional duties than those first described ; and 
 very many of them excelled in that branch of the practice known as 
 mechanical dentistry; and, in justice to them, it must be borne in 
 mind that, at the time of which we are writing, me(;hanical dentistry 
 was considered, by a majority of the profession, to be by far the most 
 important part of dental practice. . . . 
 
 "Dentists of the third class, although numerically less than either 
 of the other classes, had,*is a result of their course of practice and 
 deportment generally, acquired far more rej)utation and influence. 
 .... These few men seemed, from the outset, to have been im- 
 pressed .with the belief that the resources of the science were by no 
 means developed — that dental surgery held a position far beneath 
 that to which it was entitled — .... and that, as all these evils
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 241 
 
 onukl and should be remedied, it was tlieir duty to devote a portion 
 of their time and energies to the work.* Unquestionably, the first 
 step they could take was to improve themselves; to become thor- 
 oughly acquainted witli dental surgery as it was then practiced in this 
 country and in Europe; to carefully sift tiie good from the bad; to 
 give truths a juore prominent position, and to expunge all errors. 
 This required years to accomplish. . . . The next thing to be 
 done, was to make the })rofession acquainted with the results of their 
 labors. Consequently, dental literature of an improved character 
 began to make its appearance. 
 
 " This change at once advanced the profession. Many of the dealers 
 in secrets lost immediately a most important part of their traffic; 
 they soon had very few secrets to sell, and a still smaller number of 
 purchasers. Consecpicntly they were obliged either to give up wholly 
 the practice of dentistry, or to confine their attention to it to a degree 
 such as nothing short of a prospect of losing their means of support 
 could ever have compelled them. This was a great gain of itself; 
 but much more was to be done. The few had presented to the pro- 
 fession their many facts; but a vast amount of valuable information 
 was still treasured up by those who, from their ingenuity or expe- 
 rience, had become possessed of it. Every practitioner of standing 
 had some theory or fact proper to add to the general fund." 
 
 This graphic narrative of Dr. Ballard's brings the subject up to 
 the time of the first great change in dentistry, — the revolution in 
 the comparative importance of the two great branches, operative and 
 mechanical. Hitherto the latter had held much the more advanced 
 position. Inventive genius and mechanical ingenuity had far out- 
 stripped theory, — so far, that they were compelled to pause until 
 their slower compeer should afford them a base for further excursions. • 
 Thus dentists had time (and occ;ision) to review the past, from which 
 to gather new facts for the future; and the most prominent ways to 
 improvement appeared in two directions :— one, a more liberal and 
 thorough interchange of opinion and experience,— the other, an 
 advanced ground for the -theory of practice. 
 
 The first of these appears to have been met, for the time, by the 
 establishment of the American Journal of Dental Science, in 1839. 
 Though somewhat late, this journal appeared before men eager to 
 receive and impart, through its pages, that which they could give or 
 
 * Dr. Ballard gives the relative proportions of tln-se three clii~ses as, otic-half 
 for the first, three-eighths for the second, and one-eighth for the third. 
 
 17
 
 242 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 were desirous of obtaining. Books, too, began to be more eirou- 
 lated and read tlian formerly. These, though mostly ])opular trea- 
 tises, as I)r. Italian! remarks, were entitled to considerably more 
 credit as i)rofessional educators than he gives them. They svere 
 written much more nearly up to the standard of the best professional 
 practice and theories of the day, tiian are works of tiie same class at 
 present ; and were, it is safe to say, read quite as much by dentists 
 as by that public for which they were professedly intended. 
 
 Tlie second desideratum was almost immediately met and filled, 
 by that (to many) new idea of prevention of disease which was des- 
 tined so completely to revolutionize the dental theory and practice. 
 It was not new, however, to all. As far back as 1800, Hudson and 
 Gardette had strenuously advocated it ; and had been joined very 
 soon by many of those whose names are now historic almost entirely 
 from their connection with the subject. 
 
 These considerations awakened to active vitality energies which 
 had long lain dormant. Nothing so prompts to effort as apprecia- 
 tion. Men like Hayden, Harris, Spooner, and others could now 
 work with bright hopes of success, to elevate the profession ; and 
 work they did. 
 
 The great needs lay, again, in two directions: facilities for teach- 
 ing the truths already evolved, and associated effort. Dentistrj' 
 was expanding too rapidly to depend longer on the isolated and 
 private tuition of its disciples. On this subject Dr. C. A. Harris 
 said,* "We should furnish the necessary facilities for those who 
 may design pi'acticing the art, to qualify themselves properly for its 
 duties. Dentistry should be as much a matter of public instruction 
 as medicine or surgery; and to me it has been a matter of much 
 surprise, that the efforts of the better informed of the profession 
 have not been dire(;ted to the establishment of an institution for this 
 I)urpose. An institution of this kind would not only redound t<> 
 the credit of the whole profession, but it would be instrumental of 
 much general good. Its influence could not be otherwise than salu- 
 tary, as it would have a tendency to driv«e from the ranks of the 
 profession ignorant pretenders, and substitute in their places men 
 that would be qualified to practice with credit to themselves, and to 
 the benefit of their patients. ]\Ien of genius and education would 
 be more frequently induced to enter it, for then none except com- 
 petent persons would be recognized as its members. That a college 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. i. p. 57.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 243 
 
 for tlie education of parsons for the profession might be gotten up, 
 and that it would be well sustained, I think is more than probable, 
 for if a school of this kind was in operation, it would be expected of 
 dental practitioners that they should be educated in it, or, at least, 
 those who should sui)sequently enter the profession. The same object 
 might be accomplished by the establishing of professorships of den- 
 tistry in the medical schools. All the branches necessary to a dental 
 education might be taught ; and should the profession not be dis- 
 posed to establish a school for their own exclusive benefit, it is to be 
 hoped the importance of the subject may be soon so felt as to induce 
 the medical institutions of the country to take it up, and furnish the 
 necessary facilities for the obtaining of as thorough an education in 
 this as in their own immediate profession." 
 
 And again, in his opening address to the first class of the Balti- 
 more Dental College,* '' Of the qualifications necessary to be pos- 
 sessed by a dental practitioner, and the time required for their 
 acquisition, few seem to be aware. On this subject an erroneous 
 opinion seems [)retty generally to prevail. A little mechanical tact, 
 or dexterity, is thought by some to be all that is requisite to a prac- 
 titioner of dental surgery, and that this could be obtained in, at 
 most, a few weeks. The prevalence of this belief has given counte- 
 nance to the assumption of the profession by individuals totally 
 disqualified to take upon themselves the exercise of its complicated 
 and difficult duties. But it is to be hoped that the day is not remote 
 when it will be required of those to whom this department of sur- 
 gery shall be entrusted, to be educated men, and well instructed in 
 its theoretical and practical principles. 
 
 " Elevate the standard of the qualifications of the dental surgeon 
 to a level with those of the medical practitioner, and the results of 
 his practice will always be beneficial, which at present are frequently 
 the reverse. Require of the practitioner of dental surgery to be 
 educated in the collateral sciences of anatomy and j)hysiology, sur- 
 gery, pathology, and therapeutics, and the sphere of his usefulness 
 and his respectability will be increased. Require of him to be thus 
 qualified, and he will be able to contribute to the advancement and 
 dignity of his calling, and by a zealous devotion to it he will soon 
 arrive at an excellence to which heretofore but few, comparatively, 
 have attained, and enjoy the high gratification of knowing that lu' 
 is a benefactor of his fellows." 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Serit-s, vol. i. p. 190.
 
 '244 HISTOKY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 Under the spur of such ideas as tliese was instituted the Baltimore 
 Colletie of Dental Surgery. Regarded at first as only an experiment, 
 great anxiety Mas felt by its jirojeetors lest, through any false position 
 taken, they should endanger its success. But so confident were they 
 of the correctness of their own views of the necessities of dental edu- 
 cation that they took ground so advanced as not only to be beyond the 
 experience of fifty years, but also to cause many fears among others 
 as to the permanency of the institution. "Conscious that its claims 
 to respectability and usefulness will depend upon the manner in which 
 they shall discharge their duties, it will be their constant endeavor 
 to impart not only correct but thorough tlieoretical and practical 
 information ; persuaded that without this it is impossible for any 
 to practice the art with credit to themselves or benefit to their employ- 
 ers, they are resolved to admit none to the honors of the institution 
 except such as possess it. In short, they are determined that no 
 reproach shall rest upon them for fixing a standard of qualification 
 that shall not at once be respectable, and entitle those coming up to 
 it to the confiden^e of an enlightened community."* 
 
 The establishment of a dental school provided, in a measure, and 
 in principle, for the future of the profession ; but other agents were 
 needed for its immediate relief from the crowds of errors which be- 
 sieged it. Associated effort, as has been seen, was the measure pro- 
 posed for this purpose; and the organization of the American Society 
 of Dental Surgeons, and, shortly afterward, of other associations, 
 proved eminently successful in this direction. 
 
 These great changes — for the better — in dentistry, occurring in 
 such rapid succession, and at once compelling such radical improve- 
 ment as they did, are remarkable. It is believed that in the history 
 of no other profession can such a great single stride forward be 
 evidenced. So thoroughly were the projectors of these revolutionary 
 agents satisfied with their success, that they, as it were, breathed the 
 sigh of gratified anii)ition, and, strange to say, fell back into a supine 
 position. The work of further advance seems to have been not for 
 them. Newer, and hitherto quiet, agents, filled the van of progress. 
 It is true that the originators of the successful enterprises were, at 
 the moment of their triumph, already old men, and becoming fast 
 unfitted for energetic effort. 
 
 And now began to appear a list of names before publicly unknown, 
 some of whom carried the ideas evolved by their seniors to an extent 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 1st Series, vol. i. p. 209.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 245 
 
 beyond any the latter had held. But a few years after the establish- 
 ment of dental schools, — even while those institutions were yet in 
 their nonage, — it was held that the system of a separate degree for 
 dental practitioners was radically wrong. The Rev. B. P. Aydelott, 
 President of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio College of Dentistry, 
 at its opening in 1845, made use of the following remarks: "We 
 believe that the rightful position of tlic dentist is not generally un- 
 derstood, and, consequently, his character not duly appreciated by 
 the public. Even his fellow-laborers do not, in this respect, always 
 do him justice. His must be regarded as one branch of the healing 
 art. He is therefore a medical practitioner. This is exactly his 
 position ; to this rank, and nothing less, is he most rightfully entitled. 
 .... Permit us here, briefly, to point out one good consequence 
 which will be likely to result to the science and practice of dentistry, 
 when every dentist regards liimself, and is regarded by the public, 
 as a member of the medical profession. He must in this case see 
 more clearly the propriety and importance of goiug through a full 
 course of medical study. ... In this way only can he discern and 
 duly appreciate the multitudinous and powerful, and often subtle, 
 influences, as cause and etfect between the diseases with which he has 
 to do, and those affecting the whole or other parts of the system. 
 .... When dentists generally are thus qualified, they cannot fail 
 to assume their rightful rank, as professional meu, before the 
 public."* 
 
 Some went even further, and denounced the deutal college as 
 founded on erroneous theory, and ineffectual in practice. Said Dr. 
 John Trenor, in 1851,t " Under the plea of remedying all these 
 evils, what are termed dental colleges have been recently brought 
 into existence. Conscious of the wants in this branch of the medical 
 profession, and of the obvious inefficiency of a large number of those 
 who appear in the capacity of its practitioners, and a belief taken, if 
 not altogether for granted, certainly without sufficient investigation, 
 that these institutions must necessarily remedy the deficiencies so 
 generally felt and justly complained of, some of the members of the 
 medical profession have accorded to them a degree of countenance 
 and approbation to which it can be easily shown tiiat they are by no 
 means entitled. They come before the public with such confident 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Soienee, 1st Series, val. vi. p. 187. 
 f Kemurks and Kecommendutions on the Professional Education of Dentists. 
 Pamphlet, New York.
 
 246 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DEXTISTKY. 
 
 promises and plausible ])retensions, and, as at present constituted, are 
 so decidedly inefficient, that they are a greater drawback to improve- 
 ment than if they had never existed. They profess to remedy an 
 evil which they most effectually and glaringly magnify. They hold 
 out the idea of giving a complete and finished course of instruction 
 on dentistry, while full two-lhirds of what should be taught, and 
 that the most important, too, viz., all the instruction which every 
 medical school inculcates in medicine and surgery, it does not enter 
 into their arrangements, nor do tiiey possess the ability, with any de- 
 gree of usefulness or benefit, to perform." 
 
 Such sweeping denunciation as this, from its very nature, was 
 susceptible of instant and easy refutation ; for whatever errors were 
 existent in the plan of the dental college or had crept into its man- 
 agement, they were certainly not of so gross a nature as to merit such 
 charges. But it was not so easy to refute other arguments advanced 
 in opposition to the system, or to stop the growth of a similar feeling 
 which was beginning to be apparent, — the desire for recognition, as 
 professional equals, from the members of the ])arent branch, general 
 medicine. However incorrect in princi])le this desire may have 
 been, it still actuated many members of the dental calling. They 
 began to devise means of affiliating, or in some manner connecting, 
 the two branches ; forgetting that the surest and speediest way of 
 effecting their purpose was to educate themselves to a level, scien- 
 tifically, with the others. 
 
 But the clearer minds in the profession saw the error, and avoided 
 it by advocating a higher grade of scientific education than the 
 dental colleges were manifestly evolving. The retrogression of these 
 institutions from the expressed aspirations and intentions of their 
 founders, was in no manner more clearly shown than by the increasing 
 importance which began to be attached to the more mechanical oper- 
 ations and manipulations over the practical application of the great 
 idea of Hudson, — that of the prevention of disease rather than its 
 cure. Long before, in 1841, Dr. Hayden had said that ''mechani- 
 cal and ojK'rative dentistry" was " not, in strictness, the indispensable 
 requisite qualification of a dental surgeon," while acknowledging 
 that " it constitutes an essential part of the profession, as it has 
 hitherto been, and as it is at present generally practiced." Further, 
 in response to the question, " What rank ought we to, or shall we, 
 assume?" he answered, "Although not hitherto recognized as being 
 entitled to a niche in the temple of Esculapius, we assume the title 
 and claim the rights and privileges of being the studious, diligent.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 247 
 
 and successful cultivators of at least a branch of that important, 
 noble, and only divinely-sanctioned science that was ever pursued 
 and cultivated by man, — the science of medicine."* 
 
 Forming a significant conuuent on these strongly presented and 
 elevating claims, it was averred, in 1851, by Dr. Harris, that " there 
 is a general tendency evinced by dental students to devote extra time 
 to the practical dej)artments at the expense of the regular lectures, 
 and that it has required the stringent laws of the institution, and 
 effort on the part of the faculty, to counteract this tendency."'!" And 
 again, " The infirmary and mechanical rooms are so attractive, that 
 it requires all the talent of our colleagues, and the stringent regula- 
 tions of the school, to obtain sufficient consideration for the medical 
 branches. The habit of dentists, such as dentists have been, and 
 for the most part yet are, is to undervalue collateral scientific ac- 
 quirements and make dentistry, as far as possible, a mechanical art."| 
 Dr. James Taylor, also, writes, " I have found a greater disposition 
 (on the part of the students) to obtain merely mechanical knowledge 
 than I had hoped to see. . . . The first session we had over twenty 
 students ; since then, classes have ranged from eight to fifteen. The 
 first session students were not obliged to take all the tickets, subsequently 
 we have allowed none bid full-course studeids, and hence those seek- 
 ing only mecJiunlcal knowledge were shut out. Our object has been 
 more to advance the interests of the profession than to obtain large 
 classes."§ 
 
 This tendency was strongly evidenced, in the schools as above 
 stated, and in the growing ranks of tiie graduates, by the attention 
 given to acquiring manipulative ability, and the multiplying of appa- 
 ratuses and instrumental devices to this end; for it is certain that 
 the wonderful increase in number and variety of character of such 
 appliances is solely the result of an extraordinary demand for them. 
 
 Although not so strongly marked twenty-five years ago as now, 
 the character of the rising practice was still easy to be deteriuined, 
 and propositions for averting what seemed an evil to many of tJic 
 profession were everywhere presented. In 1842, Dr. Eleazor Parndy 
 had spoken, in a jneeting of the American Society of Dental Sur- 
 geons,|| as follows: "It is now more than twenty years since I felt 
 the urgent necessity of making the surgical and mechanical branches 
 
 * American Jovirnal of Dental Science, 1st Scries, vol. ii. p. 1. 
 t Ibid., 2d Series, vol ii. p. 71. X Ibid., vol. i. p. 560. 
 
 2 Ibid., vol. ii. p. 71. || Ibid., 1st Series, vol. iii. p. 8.
 
 248 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DJINTISTRY. 
 
 of tlie )>rofessi()n distinct. I regard them as being just as different 
 in practice as tlie task of the skillful surgeon in amputating a limb, 
 from that of the artist who, in the exercise of his mechanical inge- 
 luiity, contrives joints and springs, which, together with other ad- 
 mirable ajipliances, constitute an artificial one. Besides, I have never 
 known, with a single exception, any one individual to excel greatly 
 in both these departments of our art. It is here, as in Europe, the 
 practice of most of our best educated dental surgeons to employ 
 mechanics to do their artificial work, who never see the patients, 
 — a practice which has never been found to answer in all cases the 
 valuable purposes contemplated. . . . Therefore, while on the one 
 hand I would persuade our well-educated men to confine their prac- 
 tice chiefly to operations on the living teeth, for the good of the pro- 
 fession and for the benefit of suffering humanity, I would as earnestly 
 dissuade the mechanical dentists from all attempts at operations in 
 the surgical department." 
 
 Although these ideas do not give j^rominence to the higher ground 
 of prevention of disease which afterward took much stronger hold 
 on the professional mind than it then had, and while Dr. Parmly 
 evidently looked upon tooth-filling as the summum bonum of dentistry 
 and not as being susceptible of classification as a mechanical oper- 
 ation, yet the extract is important as showing that even at that early 
 day there was recognized an incongruity between the title of "dental 
 surgeon" and the amount of strictly mechanical work which that 
 "surgeon" was called upon to perform. 
 
 But as the problem of separation of these branches was one not 
 easily — and perhaps even impossible — to be solved, it was never to 
 any great extent advocated, and, though occasionally revived by 
 individuals in after-years, w^as generally looked upon as entirelv 
 impracticable. It may be well, however, to remember that in all 
 large cities, or places having the requisite facilities, the question 
 was long ago virtually settled, as Dr. Parmly indicates, by the em- 
 ployment of specialists for most of what is known as " artificial 
 work." 
 
 The main burden of the swelling cry was, that dentists were being 
 fully educated as mechanics and tooth-fillers, but not so in the more 
 scientific and theoretical part of the science of healing. Principally 
 on this account was denied to them a formal recognition of educa- 
 tional, scientific, and ])rofessional equality by the older branch of 
 general medicine. The New York Academy of Medicine, in 1848, 
 refused to admit dental practitioners to membership, stating grounds
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 249 
 
 purely technical as reasons.* And although, in reviewing this de- 
 cision, a dentist stated that " No man can practice dental surgery 
 upon scientific principles without practicing medicine every day of 
 his life," and added that " its principles (those of dentistry) can only 
 be learned by the study of the principles of medicine and surgery, "t 
 and while such ideas were beginning to be largely held in the younger 
 profession, — yet the doctors held to their formerly expressed opinions 
 on the subject. 
 
 The most formidable of the schemes oflPered to counteract the 
 claimed downward tendency of dental colleges was elaborated by, 
 and found its most strenuous advocate in, Dr. E. B. Gardette, of 
 Philadelphia, himself a professor in one of the colleges. The fol- 
 lowing is the text of his proposition, as reprinted from the American 
 Journal of Medical Science :% 
 
 " On the Importance of Establishing a Lectureship on Dental Surgery 
 in Medical Colleges. 
 
 "The undersigned, a practicing dentist of Philadelphia, begs leave 
 res[)ectfullv to call the attention of the trustees and medical faculties 
 of the medical schools of the United States to the propriety and 
 advantages of establishing an adjunct professorship to the chair of 
 surgery, in which the specialty of dental surgery may be taught to 
 the medical student seeking knowledge in your institutions. 
 
 "In making this suggestion, he indulges the confident belief that 
 the existence of such a chair would be no less useful to those who 
 may be compelled to practice some branch of dental surgery, as part 
 of their duties in general surgery, than to the smaller number who 
 may determine to embrace that specialty as their profession. 
 
 "The undersigned would offer for your consideration some reflec- 
 tions that seem to render this proposal consistent, not only with the 
 wf.nts of the student of medicine and the public, but with the duty 
 and the interests of the medical schools which may act upon this re- 
 quest in such form as seems most proper to their own judgment. 
 
 "It will scarcely be assumed by any trustee, and still less by any 
 member of a medical faculty, that the profession of the dentist or its 
 duties are less important to maid<ind than any other of the specialties 
 of surgery, whetlier the oculist, the aurist, or the lithotomist; and 
 therefore it is needless to consider such a question open lor debate, 
 
 * New York Dental Recorder, vol. ii. p. 236. t Ibid. 
 
 X Taken from the American Journal of Medical Science, April, 1851,— in the 
 American Journal of Di-ntal Science, 2d Series, vol. i. p. 395.
 
 250 HISTORY OF !\MERICAX DENTISTRY. 
 
 or requiring arguments in a country, especially, where the services of 
 good dentists have been so widely and universally needed. It being 
 granted, then, that the science itself is of equal importance with the 
 other departments of surgery, it is an undeniable truth that, whilst 
 all other specialties are taught and included in the professors! lips of 
 medical schools generally, the principles and practice of dental sur- 
 gery have received no attention, or certainly none that would permit 
 the graduate of medicine to feel that he was qualified for the simplest 
 duty of the dentist. 
 
 "Such a state of things was perhaps an unavoidable evil when men 
 could not be found who were competent to teach the principles of our 
 science, and when there was need of a comparatively small number 
 of dentists, and hence no such aid was then called for from the medi- 
 cal colleges; but at this time there would seem to be required about 
 twenty-five hundred dentists, more or less, throughout the United 
 States, which is sufficiently proved by the fact that about that num- 
 ber are believed to be engaged in the practice of the profession, after 
 some fashion or other — good, bad, and indifferent; and to supjvly an 
 increasing demand for Avell-educated dental surgeons, as well as to 
 raise the standard of that profession, would appear to be a matter of 
 common interest. 
 
 " It would seem an act of inexplicable unkindness to have thus 
 singled out the profession of dentist from among the specialties of 
 surgery, and forced it into an attitude of independent self-protection; 
 but a gentleman who fulfills the duties of both medical practitioner 
 and dentist with such distinguished abilities as to bean honor to both 
 professions,* has traced truthfully the origin of the neglect of which 
 the dentist complains. The writer quotes from a valedictory address 
 to the graduating class of the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, 
 March, 1850, when speaking of the early periods of the existence of 
 a medical faculty : 
 
 " 'They condemned, witi)out stint, a calling they knew not how to 
 practice, and a practice they knew not how to imj)rove. Such of the 
 faculty as were learned in their profession were found always compe- 
 tent and fully prepared to be oculists, aurists, or lithotomists, or to 
 devote themselves to any other branch of the profession which their 
 interest, inclination, or talents might determine, except that of dental 
 surgery. Tiiis branch seemed to require something more than medi- 
 cal knowledge; it required great mechanical skill — an education of 
 
 * Dr. S. p. HuUihen.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 251 
 
 the hand as well as of the head — a kind of education they had not 
 received, and knew not where to acquire, and yet affected to despise. 
 The necessities of the community cried aloud to them for help — a 
 help which they could not bestow\ This drov^e many sufferers to 
 seek dental aid out of the medical |)rofession, and to obtain that help 
 which mechanical genius alone could supply. At this. the profession 
 seemed mortified and chagrined, and loudly mocked at those who 
 dared to supply their delinrjuencies, and united as one man in de- 
 riding the uneducated dental mechanic. They first created the neces- 
 sity for an empiric, and then croaked forth their withering contempt 
 on the creature their own ignorance had made.' 
 
 "Thus has dental surgery been left to struggle through endless im- 
 pediments and difficulties, instead of being regarded as a link, how^- 
 ever humble, in the great chain of medical science, which should 
 with patriarciial strength and harmony foster and embrace every 
 branch of the healing art. 
 
 "It is now believed that, among the number of medical students 
 who attend each of the schools, there are many who would gladly 
 devote themselves to the specialty of dental surgery, and it is from 
 these, and at the early age at which they, generally devote themselves 
 to medical studies, that good dentists could be formed ; they should 
 still be required to earn and receive a diploma with the title of M.D., 
 as a guarantee of fitness to practice, and a claim to confidence as 
 dentist. Even among the number that annually graduate, either to 
 practice medicine generally, or linjiting their attendance to their own 
 families and dependents at the South, a correct knowledge of the 
 theory and practice of dental surgery, such as might be derived from 
 a course of lectures, would be highly valuable. And it is believed 
 there would not only be a direct increase of good dentists, but a de- 
 sirable addition to the number of those who should be competent to 
 determine what constitutes a good dentist. 
 
 "The establishment of separate schools for each specialty in medical 
 science (and why should there not be for the oculist, or aurist, as well 
 as the dentist?) would ajtpear to be the dismembering of a great family, 
 thereby lessening its infiuence for good, a.s well its that power which 
 is justly derived from an esprit du corps subsisting in every branch of 
 an elevated and honorable profession. In this expression of opinion 
 as to the ultimate tendency of dental colleges, the undersigned is actu- 
 ated by no unkind or invidious feelings, but, on the contrary, he gives 
 them due credit for the efforts they have made and are making to 
 improve the profession ; and to the Baltimore College of Dental Sur-
 
 252 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 gen' he is personally grateful for acts of courtesy and kindness toward 
 himself, and to the meniorv of his father. 
 
 "The educated dentists in the various parts of the United States are 
 abundantly numerous, it is believed, to fulfill such duties as might be 
 assigned them in each of our medical colleges. The students who 
 now attend the dentid schools would, in this event, be added to the 
 number of matriculants in the medical classes of the country, and the 
 need of separate institutions would cease. 
 
 "Frequent occiision for consultations between the physician, the 
 surgeon, and the dentist, has been felt by almost every practitioner of 
 medicine, as a necessary consequence of the connection and sympathy 
 reciprocally existing between the teeth and many serious disturbances 
 of the general health : such sympathies would naturally seem to sug- 
 gest the mutual dependence between the ])hysician, the surgeon, and 
 the dentist, and should be a good reason for some similarity and sym- 
 pathy in their modes of education. The benefits from such a state of 
 things as the mind can readily anticipate would not rest here ; medi- 
 cal men would sometimes, no doubt, receive important aid from the 
 dentist, in tracing to their true origin many diseases of the head and 
 face that now baffle their skill. 
 
 " Whatever action your medical faculty or board of trustees may see 
 fit to take in reference to these suggestions, and the object they are 
 designed to promote, the undersigned may at least respectfully urge 
 that they would seem to demand fair and kindly consideration, as 
 involving matters of deep concern to the community, for whose safety 
 and advantage all medical learning is sought, and medical colleges 
 instituted and fostered. — E. B. Gardette" 
 
 In reviewing the above, Dr. Chapin A. Harris * advanced, as the 
 principal argument in opposition, the impracticability of the scheme ; 
 saying, in substance, that there was not room for the addition of 
 another chair to the already crowded faculties of medical colleges, 
 without cutting off from the amount of instruction possible from them. 
 He also claimed that the proposition was made at an " unfortunate 
 time," — the dental school having been years in attaining its present 
 position of })ermanence ; all the labor thus spent it Avas contemplated 
 by Dr. Gardette to throw away, and the separate dental institutions 
 to be abolished. He also contended that, " according to Dr. Gardette's 
 scheme, all the medical students must be thoroughly instructed in 
 dentistry. In the first place, they will not submit to any such thing ; 
 
 * American Journal of Dental Science, 2d Series, vol. i. p. 397.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 253 
 
 in the next place, no adjunrt professor could so instruct them, if they 
 would. The course of medical studies in the college is no'v so ex- 
 tended, that, with all possible diligence, students cannot find time to 
 get through with it in the four months' session, and general clamor is 
 demanding an extension of the time. How will they find time for 
 theoretical, and mechanical, and operative dentistry?" 
 
 On the whole, Dr. Harris exhibited much more acrimony in his 
 treatment of Dr. Gardette's suggestion than was at all usual for him. 
 Also, he assumed what was evidently not intendeil, — that Dr. Gar- 
 dette had given a plan to be followed, instead of, as was the case, a 
 suggestion to be elaborated. 
 
 Dr. Townsend, also, in the following number of the American 
 Journal of Dental Science, combated Dr. Gardette's proposition on 
 grounds generally similar to those advanced by Dr. Harris. 
 
 Dr. C. C. A Hen * supported Dr. Gardette, saying, among other 
 things, " The degree of D.D.S., if conferred with that care which 
 should always be exercised, not to give it to unworthy candidates, 
 must always be an honorable one ; but we doubt if it would be prima 
 facie evidence of as high a degree of merit as that of INI. D. . . . We 
 should be glad to see the profession of medicine a unity, and all its 
 specialties under the broad seal of M.D., and we can see no good 
 reason why this cannot and should not be the case." 
 
 Dr. B. Wood, of Nashville, advocated a scheme somewhat differing 
 in detail, though not in principle, from Dr. Gardette's. His articles, 
 as published in the periodicals of the day, are too long for entire 
 insertion here ; but as they contain the germ of a movement now put 
 in practice in connection with three of our universities, they will be 
 quoted at some length : 
 
 " It is not the design of this communication to take sides in the 
 question [of education] referred to, much less to assume a hostile atti- 
 tude in regard to either of the systems of dental education, the claims 
 of which have been held up to consideration. Unquestionably each 
 is good so far as it goes. If all our medical colleges were supplied 
 with lectureships of dental surgery, and, at tiie same time, there were 
 a dozen special schools of dentistry prospering throughout the country, 
 there would certainly be little cause to mourn about it ! Neverthe- 
 less, viewing lectureshii)s as proj^osed, and deiital colleges as now 
 organized, in the light of complete systems of dental instruction, either 
 must be regarded, we think, as measurably defective. If medical 
 
 * New York Dental Rocorder, vol. v. p. 242.
 
 254 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 schools, including the branch of dental surgery in their curriculum, 
 are to be the means of creating practical dentists, there slionld be 
 additional means for this purj)Ose, such at least as dental laboratories 
 attached to such schools and provided with demonstrators of operative 
 and mechanical dentistry ; these should be attended by the dental 
 students even to the omission of some of the less important medical 
 branches; or the deficiency should be supplied by requiring a com- 
 mensurate course of efficient private instruction. . , . 
 
 "Impressed with the force of objections to our dental colleges, on 
 the score of incompleteness in the department relating to general 
 medicine, I took the liberty, upon a former occasion, to suggest 
 the propriety of extending the term and range ol' their instruction so 
 as to inchide a course of lectures in a regular medical school. The 
 spirit in which the suggestion was noticed in a quarter which might 
 be naturally expected to reflect the sentiment of faculties of dental 
 colleges, seemed to indicate that to press the subject further would be 
 not only unavailing, but obnoxious to those having control of these 
 institutions. . . . Tliis proj)osition is offered upon the belief that 
 dental surgery is, and of right ought to b^, a department of general 
 medicine; that a knowledge of the latter is the true basis of correct 
 practice in the former; that dental practitioners should be medical 
 men, created from and belonging to the regular profession ; that the 
 student in this specialty must be in reality (though not of necessity 
 nominally) a doctor of general medicine before he can be truly a 
 doctor of dental surgery; and that a course of collegiate dental edu- 
 cation should be such as vbiiuiUy io entitle him to the honor of both. 
 
 "Dental surgery is generally conceded to be a medical science. It 
 is so styled and treated of by the most eminent in our profession. 
 .... This position .... has, moreover, been too strongly forti- 
 fied by physiological and j)athologicxd facts and indiciitions to admit 
 of question. . . . This jK)sition being assumed, it leads to another, 
 namely : — That a knowlalge of medicine is necessary in the prac- 
 tice of dental surgery, as well as in any other specialty. This po- 
 sition also admits of ample confirmation. . . . No one will deny 
 that in the practice of surgery, shorn of the Slental,' a knowl- 
 edge of medicine Ls indispensable. It is a settled conviction with 
 medical men that 'no one can ever lay just claim even to the 
 title of surgeon, far less hope for eminence or success, unless he be 
 equally qualilied to assume both the appellation and the employ- 
 ment of the ])hysician.' And if dentid surgery is entitled to or is 
 ever to aasume the rank we claim for it, a like qualification is no
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 255 
 
 less indispensable on the part of its practitioners. Such is indeed 
 the prevailing belief of the best informed dentists of the day, what- 
 ever system of education they have chosen to advocate. . . . 
 
 "With these views respecting the qualification required in dental 
 snrgery, the question arises, do dental colleges, as now organized, 
 aiford an adequate preparation for its practice ? Is their range of 
 medical instruction sufficient for the creation of scientific and reliable 
 pra(!titioners in this specialty? The title and tenor of this paper 
 assume the negative. Admitting them to be good as far as they 
 go, and as efficiently conducted as may be, yet their requirements 
 would seem to be, of necessity, inadequate to the great end in 
 view. . . . 
 
 "The course of instruction in dental colleges being admitted to be 
 inadequate to the wants of our profession, we come at once to in- 
 quire what are the means for its extension and improvement? .... 
 The oidy way to make any substantial improvement is to extend 
 the term of instruction. ... If a full and thorough training in 
 operative and mechanical dentistry could be had under competent 
 prece[)tors, so as to allow the whole time of the colleges for the elu- 
 cidation of theoretical principles, there would be less urgency for 
 this ; but since such tuition is not generally accessible, or, if it were, 
 is not required by these institutions, three collegiate courses were 
 certainly none too much to insist upon. Moreover, tliis would not 
 be more than equivalent to the customary term of study in medicine, 
 which, in the United States, is uniformly three years ; in Europe it 
 is at least one or two years longer, while at the same time the pre- 
 liminary requirements are higher, the branches of study more diver- 
 sified, and the collegiate sessions longer. . . . The extension of the 
 term of dental study, so as to occupy tliree years and include three 
 collegiate courses, could l)e done either by prolonging the term in 
 dental colleges, or requiring a j)reliminary course in medicine. In 
 favor of the latter there is this prominent reason, that it would 
 afford a greater amount of medical information, and at the same 
 time allow dental schools room for doing better justice to dentistry. 
 .... The imj)ortance of taking a general survey of the cardinal 
 medical branches, before the mind is directed to special details, is a 
 consideration of moment. It appears that there is an undue tend- 
 ency on the part of the students to neglect the medical and theo- 
 retical branches taught in dental colleges, .... which fact of itself 
 sufHciently indicates the propriety of teaching such branches in a 
 preliminary course, where the attention would not be divided. . . .
 
 256 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 If dentists are required to become well grounded in medicine, at the 
 regular colleges, a union between the two professions is at once 
 effected. The dismembered parts of a common science are con- 
 nected bv a natural link, lending mutual support to each other, and 
 giving unity and strength to the whole. . . . 
 
 "Jt has been recommended by the American Medical Association 
 to examine first-course students, and give them certifi(!ates of pro- 
 ficiencv, etc. Such certificate (which could be regarded as an honor 
 equal to that of Bachelor of Medicine, formerly granted), and a full 
 course in a dental school, being prerequisite to graduation in the 
 latter, would give a title to the degree of D.D.S., beyond dispute, 
 which being thus made more honorable would be more sought after. 
 .... It is vain to attempt to conceal or shuffle over the great and 
 valid objection to these institutions, arising from the inadequacy of 
 their ransre of instruction considered as a warrant for a doctorate, an 
 objection which has ever been felt, and which must eventuate in 
 their overthrow unless means be adopted for its removal." * 
 
 The first college to adopt other of the progressive ideas in vogue 
 than an increase in the number of chairs, was the Philadelphia, which 
 went into oi)eratiou in November, 1852, one of its requisites for 
 graduation being that the student '* must have studied un<ler a pri- 
 vate preceptor at least two years, including his course of instruction 
 in the college."! This, as has been seen, in some sort partially 
 accomplished the idea of Dr. Wood. All the colleges gradually 
 increased the number of their chairs, in obedience to the growing 
 demand for higher scientific acquirements in dentistry. 
 
 But they made no radical step in the direction of a change. As 
 formerly, they turned out good manipulators but poor scientists. At 
 a meeting in New York City, September Gth, 1859, for the purpose 
 of forming a State Dental Association, a paper was read from Dr. A. 
 Westcott, of which the following is a condensation, forming still 
 another plan for dental education : 
 
 " My position loas, and Ik, that a certain number of years' practice 
 as a dental surgeon should render one eligible, not necessarily to 
 a degree, but simply to an examiiuiiion. ... I believe that every 
 dentid college should make practitioners, who are in good moral 
 
 standing, and have practiced years, eligible to an examination; 
 
 and if, in fad, they are found worthy the degree of doctor of dental 
 
 * Americfin Journal of Di-ntal .Science, 2(1 Series, vol. iii. pp. 28 and 180. 
 t Ibid., p. 34, note. •
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 257 
 
 surgery, it should be awarded tliem."* This plan, intended for 
 practitioners of dentistry who were without degrees, was adopted by 
 and is now in force under the New York State Dental Society, which 
 body gives the degree of M.D.S. (Master of Dental Surgery). 
 
 In 1864, the American Dental Association passed the following 
 resolution : " Whereas, In the opinion of the American Dental Asso- 
 ciation, no less than two years of pupilage in the office of a compe- 
 tent dentist, and attendance upon two full courses of lectures in a 
 dental college, is necessary to qualify a student to practice dentistry 
 properly; therefore jRc.so/rec/, That practitioners of dentistry be re- 
 quested not to take students for a less term than two years, and 
 under no consideration unless they agree to attend lectures and 
 graduate from a dental college before they enter upon the practice 
 of their profession ; and that the people should demand of all those 
 who hereafter enter upon the practice of dentistry that they shall 
 hold a diploma from a dental college, as the first requisite to public 
 confidence and patronage. "f The same resolution was also passed 
 by the American Dental Convention, at Detroit, in that year.J 
 
 In 1865, Dr. J. Smith Dodge, Jr., of New York, published a 
 paper § in which he advocated, as a basis for the then forming New 
 York College of Dentistry, the substitution of the instruction given 
 by the medical schools for the establishment of chairs on medical 
 branches in the dental school. Said he, " Let the trustees of the 
 proposed dental college select, without prejudice or favor, the 
 best of the medical schools, and approach its faculty with this 
 proposal : We desire to appoint the gentlemen who hold your 
 professorships of anatomy, physiology, and chemistry to the same 
 chairs in our college; they will instruct and examine our students, 
 and sign our diplomas. We do not, however, wish them to repeat 
 their customary lectures and demonstrations at our rooms, but desire 
 that students matriculated with us may purchase the tickets of these 
 professors and their demonstrators, and attend their instruction at 
 your college, precisely as if they had matriculated with you. And 
 we offer to reciprocate these privileges with regard to our special 
 branches. . . . One word regarding tiie course of study. It has 
 certainly been too lax. No man can be made a good dentist by at- 
 tendins: two short courses of lectures. Let us imitate frankly the 
 policy of the medical schools, and require certificates of three years' 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. i. p. 133. f Ibid., vol. vi. p. 91. 
 
 J Ibid., p. 112. ^ Ibid., vol. vii. p. 180. 
 
 18
 
 258 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 practical study, including two courses of lectures, and let there be no 
 abatement for medical graduates, except that the lectures they at- 
 tended in the common branches, while studying medicine, may count 
 in place of the corresponding lectures in the dental course. This will 
 exclude some hasty aspirants for the sheepskin, but it will mature 
 those who undertake it, and at once place the New York school at 
 the head of dental instruction, for all institutions of learning are 
 universally judged by the severity of their requirements." 
 
 Dr. J. H. McQuillen, in 1867, wrote as follows:* 
 
 " That a general knowledge of sciences may be acquired by per- 
 sons of studious habits outside of colleges, with the aid of books, 
 is, beyond a question of doubt, true. Persons of studious habits, 
 however, are rather in the minority than in the majority, not only 
 in the world at large, but also in the dental profession. A general 
 knowledge of anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and the principles 
 and practice of medicine and surgery, ... is not sufficient for 
 the practitioner of dentistry, for it is quite as indispensable that 
 he should be as thoroughly acquainted Avith these sciences as the 
 medical man." 
 
 In a communication read before the Association of the Colleg-es of 
 Dentistry, in 18G6,t Dr. James E. Garretson made the following 
 remarks : " The conviction is forced upon us ... . that, for the 
 support of the doctorate assumed by the dentist, the greatest change 
 must be effected in the matters of his education and duties, for his 
 present scientific attainments and sphere of duties are too restricted; 
 the proofs being — 
 
 " 1st. That graduates of dental colleges manifest to the world their 
 inability to treat any disease outside of those associated with a few 
 simple semi-vital organs, which diseases require for treatment much 
 more the skill of a mechanician than that which the world recognizes 
 as a doctor's. 
 
 " 2d. That their attainments are undei'stood by the community to 
 be not of the same general character as those of other regular special- 
 ists, proven by the Tact that, while all other specialists are understood 
 as being proper doctors, and so received and consulted, the dentist 
 is not." '• 
 
 The principal cause for the last proposition of Dr. Garretson 
 might be easily shown to be, not so much the want of scientific at- 
 tainments (though this was, and is, sufficiently well marked), as the 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. viii. p. ol3. f Ibid., p. 186.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 259 
 
 fact of their bearing the new and strange degree of D.D.S., a title 
 not generally undci'stood, and one which its possessors certainly did 
 little, in the public view at least, to render scientifically honored, 
 valued, or known. Although the dental colleges have given to the 
 profession between two and three thousand regular graduates, it is 
 certain that there are extremely few of these (who have not also 
 secured the degree of M.D.) of whom it may be said that they are 
 among our scientific dentists. It is a fact patent to every observant 
 person, and well known to all thinking dentists, that the very great 
 majority of the scientifically best men in the profession are graduates 
 in general medicine. There are some, indeed, of high professional 
 attainments, who bear no degree or title ; but these very evidently 
 belong to that class of studious persons who, as Dr. McQuillen quite 
 too moderately observed, "are rather in the minority than in the 
 majority." 
 
 The present Philadelphia College, upon its organization in 1863, 
 proposed to establish a higher grade of instruction, and to turn out 
 better qualified graduates, than had before been attempted. In the 
 words of Dr. Garretson, " This enlarged sphere consists in the con- 
 version of the present specialty into that of oral surgery. To this 
 end, the student entering this school has ofiTered to him every advan- 
 tage in the way of the stu<ly of general surgery that is presented in 
 any university or college in the country. Dissections, clinical ob- 
 servations, attendance on didactic and demonstrative discourses, are 
 necessary to his obtaining the highest honors of the school, or of re- 
 ceiving its endorsement as an oral surgeon, such general study being 
 accepted as absolutely necessary to the position assumed. Qualified, 
 by such a course to meet the emcrgcncie>^ of general surgical practice, 
 and as fully qualified according to his ability as he could elsewhere 
 become, his studies continue wnth a more and more direct applica- 
 tion to oral diseases, beginning with the teeth and ending with the 
 complexities of the subject." * 
 
 These changes, strictly adhered to, doubtless increased the value 
 of the school in question, and even had the effect to bring up the 
 other schools to their level in these respects ; and to-day such insti- 
 tutions (witTi few exceptions) are nearly on a par with one another 
 as to the character of their curriculums, all claiming equally high 
 grounds. But it is a significant fact that, in spite of these changes 
 for the better, they have not raised the status of the D.D.8. in either 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. viii. p. 187.
 
 260 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 tlie public or the professional view. This cannot be better proved 
 than by exiiibiting more recent opinions on the subject. 
 
 Dr. George T. Barker, himself, as he states, an earnest advocate 
 for dental colleges, wrote as follows in 1873:* "If asked what in 
 my judgment would best advance the interests of dental education, 
 I would answer, reorganize and consolidate the existing dental col- 
 leges, establishing as their successors two or three national dental 
 colleges, with faculties selected from the best dental teachers in the 
 land, so situated that they would be convenient to large sections of 
 country, and not liable to react upon each other, with uniform fees 
 for attendance and graduation, and such endowment that the greater 
 portion of the time of the teachers could be devoted to the prepara- 
 tion and deliver}' of carefully-prepared lectures. In thjs way the 
 best interests of the student and practitioner would be subserved ; 
 positions would not be held for honor merely, as is noAV the case. 
 . . . Another point worthy of thought is the necessity for a pre- 
 paratory course for dental students which will fit them more per- 
 fectly for entrance as students into dental colleges. ... By attend- 
 ance for a session at such a preparator}' school, the student would be 
 better fitted to appropriate the material subsequently offered in col- 
 leges. ... In conversation with graduates and students for the past 
 fifteen years, I have found numbers who are aware of and recognize 
 the short-comings of dental education and dental colleges, and the 
 conviction has been generally expressed that the curriculum of study 
 should be made more practical, more comprehensive and extended, 
 and more in accordance with modern ideas and improvements." 
 
 "Admitting all that has been charged (against dental colleges), it 
 is simply an abuse, which in no wise touches the principles or im- 
 pairs the system upon which these institutions were founded ; and 
 we may rest assured that whatever errors or imperfections may now 
 exist will be speedily corrected by a wholesome professional senti- 
 ment which no school can resist and live. Our colleges imi^t meet 
 the demands of the age, or go down and be succeeded by others in 
 harmony with the times, and measuring up to all the duties and re- 
 sponsibilities of advanced and advancing science." — Dr. W. W. H. 
 ThacMon, 1874.t • 
 
 " Great imjierfection exists in the education of dental students, 
 or, at least, much more might be done than is accomplished by 
 the course now generally pursued. This is true not only of private 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. xv. p. 25. f Ibid., vol. xvi. p. 271.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 261 
 
 or office instruction, but of that given in the schools. ... It 
 is hardly necessary to refer to the present status of dental educa- 
 tion. It is quite apparent to any close observer that it is very 
 defective ; its imperfections are shown upon every hand." — Dr. J. 
 Taft, 1874.* 
 
 " The colleges are the levelers of the standard of the profession. 
 If they will declare for a studentship of three years, the profession 
 will at once acquiesce in the decree, and in no case are they excusable 
 for granting honorary degrees, except where eminence has been 
 attained by long years of toil and study." — Report to the Michigan 
 State Dental Society, 1875.t 
 
 "On close inspection into the workings of dental colleges, it will 
 be perceived that, although they have in no wise deteriorated in the 
 quality or retrograded in modes of teaching, yet the charge of ineffi- 
 ciency made against them is not entirely groundless, for they hav^e 
 been remiss, if in nothing else, in failing to elevate the standard 
 of professional education proportionately w^ith the wider scope and 
 greater range which dentistry as a specialty of medicine has taken in 
 the domain of science. ... A serious defect in the teachings of 
 dental colleges, one which has given the most cause for dissatisfac- 
 tion, arises from the common usage they practice of graduating stu- 
 dents on attending only two sessions; which is tantamount to making 
 dentists of them in eight months of actual methodical studies ; for it 
 is a well-known fact that during the interim between the lecture 
 seasons little if any progress is made by them, in consequence of the 
 unsystematic and desultory manner in which they pursue their stud- 
 ies. . . . The adoption of reformatory measures for improving, 
 and keeping up the standard of, dental education, is no less a duty 
 which dental colleges owe the profession, than it is a matter of self- 
 preservation. For, at the rate they are now manufacturing an infe- 
 rior grade of dentists, with many exceptions, be it said, the profession 
 at no distant day is destined to become overrun^ — Report on Dental 
 Education to the Amencan Dental Association, 1874.;J; 
 
 Within a few years no less than three of our universities have so 
 far been impressed with the importance of the subject of dental edu- 
 cation as to Constitute, in connection with their medical departments, 
 dental schools. These are, in the order of their appearance, Har- 
 
 * Dental Register of the West, vol. xxviii. p. 377. 
 
 f Ibid., vol. xxix. p. 181. 
 
 X Transactions of the American Dental Association for 1874, p. 153.
 
 '162 HISTORY OF AMERICAX DENTISTRY. 
 
 vartl, and the Micliigan and California Universities. The last of 
 these is not yet in working order. 
 
 Tiie Harvard Dental School ranks, probably, highest of any in the 
 country, alike in the standard of qualifications necessary to gradua- 
 tion, the extent and value of the curriculum, and the general profes- 
 sional estimation. This school has, very lately, taken a still higher 
 standpoint for the education of its students, as embodied in its most 
 recent circular, Avhich will be found in the chapter on "Dental Col- 
 leges." 
 
 The very general and wide-spread demand for higher scientific 
 culture among dental practitioners has already been indicated by the 
 previous quotations relating to dental, colleges, and will be further 
 shown, as to the general question, as follows : 
 
 " The community is learning to appreciate the advantages of 
 special training, and naturally seeks advice from those who have de- 
 voted themselves to the study of the particular derangements from 
 which it is suffering; and, if we read aright the signs of the times, 
 it is also being rapidly educated into an appreciation of the necessity 
 of a scientific basis for medical practice of whatever character. It 
 will demand, ere long, that he who aspires in any way to the title or 
 the avocation of a doctor shall base his claims on a broad and com- 
 prehensive medical culture, — not only the minute and accurate obser- 
 vation of one organ or one class of diseases, but the knowledge and 
 application of principles. 
 
 "To apply these facts to the practice of dentistry compels the con- 
 clusion that the choice must be made by its practitioners whether 
 they will occupy the position of mechanics or artisans, or qualify 
 themselves to be medical specialists. To refuse to see that great 
 changes are at hand, as concerns the standing and practice of the 
 dental profession, is simj)ly to shut one's eyes. Of no one thing are 
 we more fully assured than that the dentistry of to-day must either 
 advance or give place; to attemi)t to confine it to its present limits is 
 to seek to control that progress which is itself evolution. . . . The 
 establishment of a lectureship on oral surgery in the University of 
 Pennsylvania, the recognition by Harvard University of the pro- 
 priety of associating teachers of dentistry with its faculties, the 
 quick sale of the entire edition of a volume devoted to the consider- 
 ation of diseases of the teeth and parts topographically associated, 
 — these and other facts of like import are the signs of the times. 
 . . . Let those now entering the ranks of dentistry take warning. 
 No mechanical skill, however scientific; no artistic culture, how-
 
 I 
 
 DENTAL EDUCATIOX. 2G-J 
 
 ever perfect, will in the near future rank for anything more than 
 their stamp. Conniiendable, honorable, remunerative they may be, 
 but tiiey will not ]on<^ command recognition as entitling their pos- 
 sessor to a place in the ranks of a learned profession." — Dr. J. W. 
 White.'' 
 
 "The branch of dental surgery is certainly a legitimate specialty 
 of medicine. It should assume its true functions in the healing: art, 
 and its relation to the medical profession in general. Its practical 
 processes should be controlled by the principles of medical science. 
 Granting this, the basic elements of dental practice will be found in 
 a thorough study of the whole physical organism. 
 
 "A satisfactory acquaintance with these ground truths should here- 
 after be required of every student of dental science, as the first step 
 to bring our specialty into its normal relations to the general system 
 from which it is a legitimate offshoot. The time has gone by when 
 mere mechanical skill, with a few general ideas, picked up in desul- 
 tory miscellaneous reading, can be regarded as a preparation for the 
 serious and delicate responsibilities of the dental practitioner. He 
 is a member of a learned profession, to whom the community look 
 up with increasing respect in proportion as those (jualities develop. 
 Knowledge, which is power in every other branch of human activity, 
 is no less such in that branch of the healing art which takes cogni- 
 zance of one of the most important functions of the human economy. 
 . . . The requirements of practice are daily calling for a more ad- 
 vanced and scientific intelligence, and they who minister to these 
 demands must have laid up in their mental organization the natural 
 and acquired abilities to grapple with the ever increasing responsi- 
 bilities."— D/-. G. W. Keehj."^ 
 
 " It is true that many shining lights in the dental profession did not 
 enjoy the preliminary education which is now felt to be an essential 
 to the highest professional excellence. By virtue of untiring elfort 
 and great natural ability, they have achieved eminence and success 
 in spite of these deficiencies. Such are the men who, enlightened by 
 experience, would have the future members of the profession enter 
 upon its duties unburdened and untrammeled, and thoroughly fur- 
 nished with all mental requisites for their work. Such are the men 
 who are earnestly laboring for the advancement of dental science. 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. xiv. p. 608. 
 
 t Report on "Dental Education," American Dental Association, Transactions 
 of 1874, p. 159.
 
 264 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 The assumption of its responsibilities at the present day, without far 
 better preparation than tlie okier practitioners enjoyed, argues a faikire 
 to comprehend these obligations, or a criminal indifference to them. 
 
 " The requirements of dental practice are constantly enlarging, and 
 can be met only by a deeper and more intelligent study of funda- 
 mental principles, and a more perfect adaptation of them in practice. 
 The truths of the profoundest science must be embodied in the most 
 intelligent and elaborate processes of art. Hence, dental surgery, like 
 every other profession, demands equal facility in abstract investiga- 
 tion and in concrete adaptation. 
 
 "These seemingly diverse tendencies (the ideal and practical) must 
 be brought into harmonious combination if we would bring into tke 
 profession minds capable of achieving its highest beneficent results. 
 In the discussions of a dental society these two tendencies of mind 
 will find special admirers, each of whom, if not careful to control 
 their previous impressions, will be apt to depreciate the characteristics 
 which least impress their minds. . . . Some are disposed to lay too 
 much stress on profound scientific indoctrination, supposing that the 
 practical elements of professional character will develop themselves, 
 or, at least, require much less effort at culture ; others overvalue prac- 
 tical skill at tke expense of fundamental knowledge of principles. 
 Botk of tliese extreme tendencies are to be corrected, and a system of 
 professional education inaugurated which shall harmonize them in 
 the highest results. Such are the views of the leading minds of the 
 profession." 
 
 The various questions before the profession are well enumerated, as 
 follows, in the report from which the above is extracted : 
 
 " How shall dental education be conducted to secure the essential 
 points previously enumerated ? How shall minds unfit for its re- 
 ception be prevented from engaging in its preparation ? How shall 
 dental surgery be relieved from the dead weight which embarrasses 
 it in common with other learned professions ? Shall civil authority 
 be called upon to prescribe professional qualifications, and to repel by 
 penal enactments the intrusion of unworthy practitioners, or shall the 
 profession resolutely refuse fellowskip with any but the worthy and 
 well (qualified? What tests of ability, talent, and character shall be 
 prescribed ? AVhat literary and scientific culture shall be demanded 
 as a preliminary to professional training? Again, dental surgery 
 being but a specialty of medicine, how shall the fundamental indoc- 
 trination in anatomy, physiology, pathology, chemistry, and all other 
 branches of a thorough medical education be secured? Shall the
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 266 
 
 e 
 
 regular medical colleges recognize the specialty and adapt their tuition 
 to its requirements ? Or shall the dental college call to its aid the 
 medical professor, and thus supply the lack of basic professional cul- 
 ture?"— X>r. G. W. Keely* 
 
 The above questions have each received much attention from the 
 general profession; and, among others, that relating to the prelimi- 
 nary qualifications of students has attracted sufficient notice to de- 
 serve special treatment here. The following are to this point: 
 
 " We should always bear in mind that in the proper selection 
 of our students lies the power of the elevation of our profession. 
 Thev should have a good Eng-lish education, at least. Thev should 
 be persons of a fair degree of natural ability and mechanical skill. 
 Then let them understand that they have entered upon no short-cut, 
 easy way to a livelihood, merely, but that they should avail them- 
 selves of the best facilities for instruction." — Dr. A. W. Freeman.'\ 
 
 " Whereas, The present interests of the dental profession require a 
 more liberal education on the part of those who shall henceforth 
 enter its ranks; and ichereas, It is notorious that the instruction im- 
 parted to students by private preceptors is sadly inadequate even to 
 prepare them to enter upon a course of lectures in a dental college ; 
 therefore 
 
 "Resolved, That we, as members of the American Dental Conven- 
 tion, do enter our most solemn protest against the loose method so 
 common among preceptors, of merely allowing students to remain in 
 the laboratory to pick up what little knowledge they may. 
 
 "Resolved, That it is the belief of this Society that no person 
 should be admitted as a student of dentistry who is not fully quali- 
 fied mentally, morally, and physically, nor for a less term than three 
 years, and that a thorough course of instruction should be enforced, 
 and a sufficient amount of time devoted by the preceptor to thor- 
 oughly prepare his pu})il to enter upon a course of lectures in a 
 dental college, with a sure foundation already laid, upon which may 
 be built a professional character which shall make him an ornament 
 to the profession, and a credit as well to his preceptor as to his Alma 
 Mater." — American Dental Convention, 1S68.| 
 
 " Resolved, That it is the sense of this Association that no dental 
 
 * Report on "Dental Education," American Dental Association, Transactions 
 of 1875, p. 135. 
 
 f Missouri Dental Journal, vol. vii. p. 351. 
 X Dental Cosmos, vol. x. p. 413.
 
 266 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 student should be graduated from any dental college without at least 
 three yeai-s' instruction, including private pupilage and college in- 
 struction ; the latter should in no case embrace less than two full 
 reaular courses." — American Dental Association* 
 
 " Resolved, That this Association recommends to all local societies 
 the adoption of rules prohibiting their members from taking stu- 
 dents for a less period tiian three years, or for such time as will com- 
 plete a three years' pupilage." — American Dental Association. -\ 
 
 *' Perhaps there has been no greater obstacle to the still more rapid 
 advance of our specialty, or in the failure of its appreciative recog- 
 nition, than the too prevalent opinion that it is a trade, easily 
 acquired by young men of even ordinary capacity in a short space 
 of time. Nor can this impression be eradicated from the minds of 
 the people until we, who are devoted to its interest, siiall enforce 
 strict regulations governing dental pupilage." — Dr. C. A. Kitchcn.X 
 
 Another phase of the more recent discussions on dental education, 
 as indicated by the last three questions of Dr. Keely, is, the claims 
 of dentistry on medicine. This matter had been discussed during 
 many years, in a desultory manner, but has of late become promi- 
 nent to a degree before unknown. Its importance is very generally 
 admitted, because in the solution of it evidently lies the future of, 
 at least, American dentistry ; and is easily proved by the fact that 
 those highest in the profession are most actively engaged in its dis- 
 cussion. Its exhibition will be attempted by a series of extracts 
 which shall present the main points advanced and in issue. 
 
 In an editorial in the Dental Cosmos,^ Dr. J. W. White happily 
 illustrates the relative positions of dentistry and medicine. The fol- 
 lowing are extracts sufficient to show his position : 
 
 "A correspondent, renewing his subscription to the Dental Cosmos, 
 writes, 'Try and let us have more dentistry and less medicine.' 
 ' Do you ever read the Dental Cosmos f said one physician to an- 
 other, in the hearing of the writer, a few days since. ' No,' was the 
 reply ; ' it takes all my spare time to keep posted in medicine.' In 
 both these remarks is evinced the false conception — shared, unfor- 
 tunately, 1)V large numbers in both professions — that there is a di- 
 viding line so separating dentistry from medicine that the practitioner 
 of either division may afford to ignore all that belongs to the circle 
 of the other. The mistake of both alike is in the assumption that an 
 
 * Tr!vn.«nctions, 1875, p. 14. t Ibid. 
 
 \ TrMnsactioiis Illinois Stute Dental Society, 1874, p. 28. 
 2 Vol. XV. p. 78.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 267 
 
 arbitrary division in a chain of physiological and pathological action 
 is possible. 
 
 "A recent writer has truthfully remarked, in substance, that in no 
 department of medical science has there existed such a hiatus as 
 yawns between the professions of general medicine and surgery and 
 that of dentistry, — a missing span in the bridge of practice. A 
 patient, trusting a complex oral disease to the average dentist, fails 
 because of the absence of surgical knowledge and skill ; a})proach- 
 ing from the side of medicine, he fails by reason of a corresponding 
 deficiency, as common and as unjustifiable, in the general medical 
 practitioner. . . . The community, rapidly attaining the ability to 
 recognize and the readiness to question, will soon be dissatisfied with 
 a practitioner, general or special, who manifests ignorance of this 
 physiological and pathological circle, and the surgical and therapeutic 
 indications. 
 
 '* It does not follow that a better comprehension of these relations 
 and their significance by the physician will necessitate operative 
 skill, any more than a like appreciation by the dentist will relieve 
 him of the necessity for the highest manipulative ability, or compel 
 him to general practice; but the dentist should be competent and 
 (|uick to diagnose systemic causes of local lesions, and the physician 
 to diagnose the local causes of systemic inharmony ; and the profes- 
 sions will respect each the other as they recognize that, standing on 
 a common platform, and with common honors, they divide into 
 specialties but for the common good, and that greater skill may be 
 acquired by limiting the field of special practice." 
 
 In support of Dr. White's statement, as far, at least, as regards the 
 position of medical men, the following is quoted from an editorial in 
 the Philadelphia Medical 77mes (1875) which bore reference to a then 
 recent meeting of the New York Odontological Society. Said the 
 Times, " Let editors write as they may, conventions debate, discuss 
 or pass resolutions as they please, one thing is certain : that D.D.S. is 
 the badge of a partial culture, and that the medical profession never 
 will stultify itself by recognizing as coequal or as a part of itself a 
 profession to the highest positions in whose ranks such a degree is 
 the only necessity for entrance. It may do very well for gentlemen 
 who place only their .medical degrees on their door-plates before the 
 world to affirm in convention that they prize the D.D.S. above the 
 M.D., but in doing so they only make themselves singular ; they do 
 not affect or reflect the general public opinion. Those gentlemen 
 who look upon dentistry as belonging to medicine should weigh well
 
 268 HISTORY OF AMERICAN DENTISTRY. 
 
 tlie words of Dr. Garretson. On belialf of the medical profession, 
 we freely admit that many, it may be all, of the dentists who took 
 part in the debate at the Odontologieal Society, far exceed, in point 
 of general, literary, scientific, and even in special medical culture, 
 many of our physicians. But that does not affect the question. The 
 medical j)rofession is perfectly willing to admit dentists to its frater- 
 nity so soon as they become doctors of medicine, but never whilst 
 they are merely doctors of dentistry. Really, the physicians are, in 
 great part, indifferent in this matter ; but just so soon as the univer- 
 sal law of the medical profession — that the specialist shall first be a 
 general practitioner, and shall have no special degree — is complied 
 with, the medical profession will at once assimilate this great new 
 body." 
 
 The remarks of Dr. Garretson above referred to were, partly, as 
 follows : " Most decidedly am I, for one, in favor of the abolishment 
 of the degree of D.D.S. One degree in medicine is enough ; the 
 greater covers the lesser, and includes it. A doctor in medicine pos- 
 sesses a title quite extensive enough in its signification to embrace 
 any specialty that he may elect to practice ; besides, it affords the 
 only possible bond of brotherhood with the members of the profes- 
 sion at large. We may be specialists, but we can never be esteemed 
 as doctors, in the desirable fullness of the term, until we replace the 
 D.D.S. with the M.D. ... I, then, and those who think with me 
 urge a new departure for our specialty ; a departure which shall be 
 general ; a departure which shall distinguish our status in the future, 
 and which shall make us worthy children of the common Alma 
 Mater Medicinse."* 
 
 "The question is not what dentistry has been, but what oral sur- 
 gery should be; not what are the qualifications of those now prac- 
 ticing it, but what is its legitimate province, and what the requirements 
 for its intelligent practice. We see no force in the assumption that 
 because the great bulk of the profession have heretofore spent their 
 lives in a monotonous round of purely mechanical labor, therefore 
 they must continue to do so in the future. We claim that the citcle 
 of jihysiological and pathological sympathies existing between the 
 mouth and every portion of the economy demands, first, a general 
 medical education, and then special training, tliat the liighest results 
 in treatment may be secured. And as each vear witnesses a more 
 thorough educational training, so will the field inevitably widen, 
 
 * Transactions of the New York Odontologieal Society for 1874, p. 132.
 
 DENTAL EDUCATION. 269 
 
 until the function of the dentist will be merged into a practice of 
 which that of to-day is but a feeble indication. . . . As to the 
 necessity for special schools for any department of medicine, that 
 is a question open for discussion ; but a complete medical education 
 having been obtained as a foundation, on this basis the study and 
 practice of any specialty are entitled to the respect and confidence not 
 only of the community, but of all who base their claim to recognition 
 on a like scientific preparation." — Dr. J. W. White * 
 
 " We have seen that the dentist is a special physician and surgeon, 
 and we are therefore forced to the necessary conclusion that he who 
 is not possessed of the education and skill requisite to make him 
 a dental physician and surgeon is not a dentist, and should not be 
 recognized as such by the public. What, then, should be the educa- 
 tion of the coming dentist ? Evidently, in general terms, such as to 
 prepare him to practice medicine and surgery as a dental specialty. 
 His education should be as thorough and complete as that of the 
 general physician and surgeon. He need not, necessarily, be able to 
 prescribe or operate for the cure of diseases outside of his specialty; 
 but, as the general principles and the fundamental sciences that 
 underlie and form the superstructure of the science and art of heal- 
 ing are the same in all departments of cure, they should be equally 
 well understood by all curists." — 3Iichigan State Dental Society. -\ 
 
 " Dentistry is a specialty of medicine, and should be taught as such. 
 That it is a specialty of medicine is, we believe, the highest claim 
 that has ever been made for it. If this claim is founded upon truth, 
 what is the legitimate inference as to how a knowledge of it should 
 be acquired ? Surely that it should be taught and learned in connec- 
 tion with a medical college, as are other specialties of medicine. Men 
 should be qualified for the practice of dentistry, as is the surgeon, 
 purist, or oculist, upon the broad basis of a general knowledge of 
 medicine." — Dr. W. H. Morgan. % 
 
 "If we desire to be recognized as specialists of the medical profes- 
 sion, we should first make ourselves such. If we desire to occupy 
 exactly the same position that other medical men occupy, we should 
 educate ourselves as other medical men are educated ; and it appears 
 to me the best wav to do this is in a medical college. The medical 
 
 * Dental Cosmos, vol. xv. p. 642. 
 f Dental Register of the West, vol. xxv. p. 239. 
 
 X Transactions of the American Dental Association for 1873, p. 160, Report on 
 Dental Education.
 
 270 HISTORY OF AMERICAX DENTISTRY. 
 
 profession appropriate as teachers all of the best material, aiul if we 
 desire to have the benefit of those teachings, so far as the medical 
 part of a dental education is concerned, we must get it where the best 
 teachers are employed," — Dr. Judd.* 
 
 In conclusion may be aptly requoted, as a correct exjiression of the 
 present feeling in the best minds of the profession of to-day, that 
 saying of Dr. Horace H. Hayden's, which, though enunciated over 
 thirty years ago, still retains all its original force of truth and earnest- 
 ness of high purpose: — "We assume the title and claim the rights 
 and privileges of being the studious, diligent, and successful cultiva- 
 tors of at IciLst a branch of that important, noble, and only divinely 
 sanctioned science that was ever pursued and cultivated by man, — 
 the science of medicine." 
 
 * Transactions of the American Dental Association for 1874, p. 184. 
 
 1 
 
 i
 
 TABLE OF DENTAL CENST'S. 
 
 271 
 
 TABLE OF DENTAL CENSUS FOR 1850, 1860, AND 1870, ARRANGED 
 
 BY STATES. 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE UNITED STATES CENSUS REPORTS. 
 
 NUMBER OF DENTISTS IN 
 
 STATES AND TERKTTOBIF..S. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia , 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Mi.>;.euuri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Khcde Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont , 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia , 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 Territories 
 
 Total. 
 
 71 
 5 
 20 
 55 
 12 
 4 
 79 
 56 
 67 
 10 
 
 62 
 62 
 65 
 81 
 267 
 32 
 
 51 
 39 
 
 44 
 61 
 
 563 
 34 
 
 251 
 
 566 
 32 
 53 
 34 
 13 
 45 
 
 140 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 2923 
 
 Graduates of Dental Colleges since last census. 
 Total to date 
 
 145 
 
 32 
 
 121 
 
 155 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 160 
 
 190 
 
 154 
 
 76 
 
 14 
 
 138 
 
 89 
 
 107 
 
 114 
 
 421 
 
 131 
 
 20 
 
 103 
 
 140 
 
 87 
 130 
 964 
 
 83 
 407 
 
 13 
 806 
 
 43 
 
 84 
 116 
 
 65 
 
 73 
 196 
 
 119 
 48 
 21 
 
 5606 
 
 1870. 
 
 114 
 39 
 
 189 
 
 158 
 24 
 20 
 
 167 
 
 5:.o 
 
 342 
 225 
 
 72 
 190 
 
 99 
 139 
 179 
 485 
 259 
 
 43 
 113 
 271 
 
 14 
 9 
 
 77 
 
 216 
 
 1346 
 
 95 
 601 
 
 29 
 924 
 
 55 
 
 59 
 133 
 102 
 
 88 
 198 
 
 27 
 142 
 *... 
 
 76 
 
 7839 
 
 893 
 8732 
 
 * Included in Territories.
 
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